,a ,,complete ,,history ,,of ,,music ,,for ,,schools1 ,,clubs1 ,,and ,,private ,,reading ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,baltzell ,contributions by ,h4 ,a4 ,,clarke1 ,mus4 ,doc42 ,,arthur ,,elson1 ,,clarence ,g4 ,,hamilton1 ,a4,m41 ,,edward ,,burlingame ,,hill1 ,a4,b41 ,,arthur ,l4 ,,judson1 ,,frederic ,s4 ,,law1 ,,and ,,preston ,,ware ,,orem1 ,mus4 ,bac4 ,with ,portraits1 ,reproductions of ,instruments and ,musical ,examples ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,,theodore ,,presser #aijh ,copyright1 #aije1 by ,,theo4 ,,presser4 ,,british ,,copyright ,,secured4 ,,preface4 ,the plan of arrangement used in this book has in view a combination of the recitation and lecture systems1 and affords an opportunity for teachers to apply the best principles of both4 ,the paragraph headings should be thoroughly fixed in mind and close attention should be given to the words in heavy type and ,italics that occur in the body of a paragraph2 together they form a convenient outline for the lesson4 ,the questions at the end of each lesson are to be used to test the pupils' mastery of the lesson material2 all available works of reference should be consulted for fuller information than the limited space of one book will admit of1 each member of the class preparing one or more abstracts to be read before the class4 ,the review outlines and suggestions are to be used in the same way1 special attention being given to written answers such as would be required in an examination4 ,with a view of furnishing the reader a considerable amount of material on the growth of music as an art1 biographical sketches have been made short1 especially since so many excellent works of that description are available at a small price4 ,emphasis has been laid on the work of the men who developed music1 on the influences which shaped their careers and the permanent value of their contributions to music4 ,a clear knowledge of how music reached its present state is not to be had by studying books1 biographical and critical2 the works of the composers must be examined1 played and sung1 compared1 analyzed as to methods of construction 7,form7 and expression 7,melody1 ,harmony and ,rhythm71 so that the student may appreciate the change from simple1 elementary processes to the free1 polyphonic style found in the complex modern piano and orchestral scores4 ,reference is made to representative compositions by classical and modern composers1 which are part of the average teaching repertoire4 ,the works of the earlier composers are not1 however1 readily accessible1 although good examples of the style of the #afth and #agth centuries are in the cheap editions of ,peters1 ,litolff1 ,augener1 ,breitkopf and ,hrtel1 and ,ricordi4 ,the plan of this book provides for two lessons a week for thirty weeks4 ,this will occupy a school year and allow time for quizzes1 reviews and examinations4 ,if more time is available1 the work may be divided into four1 five or six terms and stress laid on the study of representative compositions1 the preparation of short papers on the suggested topics1 adding1 as a feature to interest friends and music lovers generally1 public programs including music4 ,musical clubs will find in this book material for several years' programs1 special attention having been given to the lessons on modern composers and their music1 the suggestions as to class-work applying with equal force to the study classes of clubs4 ,the individual reader should follow out the suggested historical and biographical parallels which help so strongly to fix in the mind the periods in which composers lived4 ,lessons ,,iii to ,,vi were prepared by ,dr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,clarke1 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania2 ,lessons ,,viii to ,,xiv by ,mr4 ,arthur ,l4 ,judson1 of ,denison ,university2 ,lessons ,,xv and ,,xvi by ,mr4 ,preston ,ware ,orem1 ,mus4 ,bac41 of ,philadelphia2 ,lessons ,,xvii to ,,xix1 ,,xxi to ,,xxiii1 ,,xxxvii to ,,xl by ,mr4 ,frederic ,s4 ,law1 of ,philadelphia2 ,lessons ,,xxv to ,,xxxiii by ,mr4 ,clarence ,g4 ,hamilton1 ,a4 ,m41 of ,wellesley ,college2 ,lessons ,,xli to ,,xlviii by ,mr4 ,edward ,burlingame ,hill1 ,a4 ,b41 of ,boston2 ,lessons ,l to ,,lvi by ,mr4 ,arthur ,elson1 of ,boston4 ,w4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,november #a1 #aije4 ,,september #a1 #aijf4 ,,contents4 ,,preface v ,,introduction #ag ,,lesson ,i4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,chinese1 ,,japanese ,,and ,,hindoos #bd ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,babylonians1 ,,egyptians ,,and ,,hebrews #ce ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,greeks3 ,,scales #df ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,greeks 7,,concluded7 #ed ,,lesson ,v4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,system #fa ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,,notation #gj ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,,music ,,outside ,,the ,,church #gg ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,polyphonic ,,development ,,and ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,polyphonic ,,era #hh ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,,the ,,paris ,,school #ii ,,lesson ,x4 ,,the ,,gallo-,,belgic ,,school #ajg ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,,the ,,english ,,school #aae ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands #abc ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,italian ,,school #aca ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,,palestrina ,,and ,,his ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,school4 ,,the ,,madrigal #aci ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,,musical ,,instruments #adg ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,organ1 ,,organ ,,playing ,,and ,,organ ,,music #aef ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,opera #aga ,,lesson ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,oratorio4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,opera #agi ,,lesson ,,xix4 ,,alessandro ,,scarlatti ,,and ,,the ,,neapolitan ,,school #ahg ,,lesson ,,xx4 ,,singing ,,and ,,singers #aie ,,lesson ,,xxi4 ,,opera ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,england #bjc ,,lesson ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,opera ,,in ,,germany4 ,,handel ,,and ,,gluck #baa ,,lesson ,,xxiii4 ,,mozart ,,to ,,rossini #bai ,,lesson ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,oratorio #bbf ,,lesson ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,pianoforte #bcf ,,lesson ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,early ,,italian ,,clavier ,,composers #bdf ,,lesson ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,early ,,english ,,and ,,french ,,clavier ,,schools #bee ,,lesson ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,german ,,polyphonic ,,clavier ,,schools #bfc ,,lesson ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,german ,,sonata ,,composers ,,to ,,haydn #bgd ,,lesson ,,xxx4 ,,franz ,,joseph ,,haydn #bhc ,,lesson ,,xxxi4 ,,wolfgang ,,amadeus ,,mozart #bia ,,lesson ,,xxxii4 ,,ludwig ,,van ,,beethoven #bii ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4 ,,beethoven ,,and ,,the ,,sonata #cjg ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,violin ,,and ,,its ,,makers #cae ,,lesson ,,xxxv4 ,,violin ,,playing ,,and ,,violin ,,music #cbb ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,orchestra ,,and ,,absolute ,,music #ccd ,,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,romantic ,,opera4 ,,weber1 ,,spohr1 ,,marschner #cde ,,lesson ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,french ,,school ,,of ,,the #ai,,th ,,century #cec ,,lesson ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,italian ,,school ,,of ,,the #ai,,th ,,century #cfa ,,lesson ,,xl4 ,,richard ,,wagner',s ,,music ,,dramas4 ,,other ,,schools #cfi ,,lesson ,,xli4 ,,piano ,,playing ,,and ,,composition3 ,,clementi ,,to ,,field #chj ,,lesson ,,xlii4 ,,franz ,,peter ,,schubert #cia ,,lesson ,,xliii4 ,,weber4 ,,mendelssohn #cig ,,lesson ,,xliv4 ,,robert ,,schumann #djg ,,lesson ,,xlv4 ,,frederic ,,chopin #dag ,,lesson ,,xlvi4 ,,franz ,,liszt #dbe ,,lesson ,,xlvii4 ,,pianists ,,and ,,teachers ,,since ,,liszt4 ,i #dcf ,,lesson ,,xlviii4 ,,pianists ,,and ,,teachers ,,since ,,liszt4 ,,ii #ddf ,,lesson ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,art ,,song4 ,,oratorio ,,after ,,mendelssohn #ded ,,lesson ,l4 ,,the ,,symphonic ,,poem ,,in ,,germany #dfc ,,lesson ,,li4 ,,german ,,opera ,,since ,,wagner #dgb ,,lesson ,,lii4 ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,schools ,,in ,,france #dha ,,lesson ,,liii4 ,,musical ,,regeneration ,,in ,,italy #dia ,,lesson ,,liv4 ,,england ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands #dii ,,lesson ,,lv4 ,,national ,,schools3 ,,bohemia ,,and ,,scandinavia #ejg ,,lesson ,,lvi4 ,,the ,,russian ,,school #eae ,,lesson ,,lvii4 ,,music ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #ebe ,,lesson ,,lviii4 ,,american ,,composers3 ,,works ,,in ,,large ,,instrumental ,,forms #ece ,,lesson ,,lix4 ,,american ,,composers3 ,,vocal ,,forms2 ,,piano ,,and ,,organ4--,,musical ,,literature #edc ,,lesson ,,lx4 ,,musical ,,education #eeb ,,index #efa ,,introduction4 ,purpose of the ,study of the ,history of ,music4--,the purpose of the study of the history of music is to trace the development of the many phases which make up modern music which we cannot but regard as a great social force1 an intellectual1 an uplifting force4 ,if we consider it from the material side1 it is one of magnitude2 we need but think of the money invested in buildings1 opera houses1 schools1 concert halls1 publishing plants1 factories1 the sums spent on musical instruments1 instruction1 concerts1 opera1 etc41 to recognize the commercial side4 ,when we think of the great army of persons whose livelihood is conditioned upon musical work1 upon the great audiences that support musical enterprises1 we recognize the magnitude of music in a social sense1 and that it offers a large field for study4 ,these conditions1 interesting as they are1 represent only phases of musical work1 not ,music itself1 and serve to show the place which ,music occupies in the life of today4 ,our investigation is1 then1 a consideration of the origin and development of ,music1 and the means by which it took shape4 ,the ,place of ,intellect in ,music4--,when we think of ,music we have in mind an organization of musical sounds into something definite1 something by design1 not by chance1 the product of the working of the human mind with musical sounds and their effects upon the human sensibilities4 ,so long as man accepted the various phenomena of musical sounds as isolated facts1 there could be no art4 ,but when he began to use them to minister to his pleasure and to study them and their effects1 he began to form an art of music4 ,the story of music is the record of a series of attempts on the part of man to make artistic use of the material which the ear accepts as capable of affording pleasure and as useful in expressing the innermost feelings4 ,the raw material of music consists of the sounds considered musical1 the human voice1 various musical instruments and the use of this material in such ways as to affect the human sensibilities2 that is1 to make an impression upon the hearer which shall coincide with that of the original maker of the music who gives to his feelings expression in music4 ,we find in music1 as in other branches1 that man tries to reduce phenomena to order and to definite form4 ,the mass of musical material is vague1 incoherent1 disorganized4 ,man seeks to devise ways to use it intelligibly1 and to promote esthetic pleasure4 ,if musical sounds are to be combined simultaneously or successively1 this combination should be in accordance with design1 not haphazard1 just as the builder of the house or the temple puts together his material according to a regular plan4 ,those who have been leaders in the ,art of ,music have labored in two ways3 to extend the limits of expression in music1 and to find the means to contain that expression4 ,at one period stress is laid on making music expressive1 at another on the medium for conveying expression to others1 the latter being comprehended in the term ,form4 ,in connection with this statement1 the student will do well to remember that every period of great intellectual activity1 social or political1 reacted upon music and the other arts2 to illustrate1 we need but refer to the formal1 even artificial character of the music of the period preceding the ,french ,revolution and the freedom and vigor imparted by the spirit of ,romanticism which followed in the wake of that great political movement1 a difference strikingly illustrated in the music of ,haydn and ,beethoven1 ,clementi and ,schumann4 ,there is also a constant action and reaction of the various racial streams of power such as the ,aryan on the ,semitic1 ,east upon the ,west1 ,latin upon the ,teuton1 ,folk-music upon the ,scholastic4 ,the ,principles in ,music4--,the leading principles in music are3 ,rhythm1 ,melody1 ,harmony1 ,color or ,tone ,quality1 and in the execution of works of music1 ,dynamic ,contrast1 an essential factor in ,expression4 ,for ages after the birth of ,music1 ,rhythm and ,melody were the only real elements1 ,rhythm being first recognized4 ,the potency of ,rhythm1 strong and irresistible in the early days of the race and with primitive man1 is still acknowledged4 ,music that lacks a clearly-defined rhythm does not move the masses4 ,witness martial music1 the dance airs and the 8popular song40 ,all primitive languages were characterized by concise1 figurative and picturesque qualities2 they easily changed from the ordinary into the lofty and the impassioned4 ,intonation and changing inflection had much to do with meaning1 as is the case with the ,chinese language of today4 ,historians ascribe the origin of ,melody to this principle of vocal expression4 ,for years prior to the ,christian ,era1 and long after1 ,rhythm and ,melody were the only accepted elements of ,music1 and the art remained in a low grade of development4 ,it was not until ,harmony appeared1 clear and unmistakable1 that ,music was able to claim a position equal to that accorded to the sister-arts1 ,poetry1 ,painting1 ,sculpture and ,architecture4 ,these principles1 ,rhythm1 ,melody and ,harmony1 became1 when couched in the forms of expression adopted by the great masters1 what we call ,modern ,music1 and the story is one of a development from extreme simplicity to the complexity illustrated in modern orchestral scores4 ,means of ,expression4--,one more phase must be mentioned here1 the means used to present to others the thoughts or feelings of the composer1 that is1 the human voice and its artistic use1 instruments of various kinds1 their primitive forms and gradual development1 their use singly and in combination with other instruments4 ,this phase is peculiarly associated with modern music2 for it was not until the art had freed itself from the fetters imposed by vocal music1 that absolute music1 availing itself of perfected instruments1 came into its own4 ,from that time development was unprecedentedly rapid4 ,what is to be ,brought ,forward4--,the history of ,music is1 then1 a recital of facts bearing upon the development of modern music and we shall lay stress on such facts as show a permanent impress and a solid contribution to progress in one or more of the lines marked out3 ,form1 ,expression1 ,melody1 ,rhythm1 ,harmony and ,instrumental ,color4 ,in the study of a composer1 the facts essential to the history of music are critical rather than biographical2 not a life chronicle so much as a clear statement of what he specially contributed to forward the art4 ,to gain an educational value1 the facts of the history of music are to be studied so as to glean from them their significance1 and an understanding of the causes and conditions which made them possible2 then we go on to discern the consequences to which they in turn gave rise4 ,no man works for himself and out of himself4 ,he builds upon what others have done1 and he builds for others4 ,the student should discern the lesson in the past1 and receive guidance for the future4 ,what ,we ,learn from ,archology4--,the history of an art such as ,music must give the historical data in connection with the development of art and artists1 free of all questionable and false features1 and give as trustworthy1 as accurate a picture of the various stages as possible4 ,if we go backward in our research we reach a point at which ordinary records fail4 ,if we make an inquiry into the beginnings of music we must have recourse to the findings and interpretations of ,archology4 ,the results are by no means satisfactory4 ,in all the digging in the ruins of the once great cities of ,egypt1 and ,western ,asia1 and of ,greece and ,etruria as well1 with perhaps one exception1 no music has been brought to light1 and but a few instruments1 and these can scarcely be considered perfect4 ,however1 the pictorial representations on tombs1 monuments1 temples and houses give valuable aid1 enabling scholars to reconstruct the story of music among the older civilizations4 ,we must not forget1 however1 that conjecture plays a more or less prominent part in all the translations of the old hieroglyphic and cuneiform writings4 ,we have no direct knowledge of the scales used or how the instruments were played together1 what was the nature of the science and system in use4 ,what we have is mere inference from the nature of the instruments and the representations of musicians playing their instruments1 together with fragments from contemporary or later writings4 ,what ,we ,learn from ,ethnology4--,another source open to students of the beginnings of music is the material gathered by ,ethnology4 ,those who place stress on this means of research lay down the proposition that the primitive people of the world of today occupy a mental and social stage similar to that of the primitive races from which the civilized folk of today have sprung4 ,therefore1 they study the music1 the rude chants1 the dances1 the instruments1 etc41 of various primitive tribes1 and then by comparison try to indicate the various stages through which music came to have the art germ1 from which the great product we know has developed4 ,some ,theories4--,we can give in this lesson only a few of the theories offered by those who have discussed the matter of the origin of music3 ,the ,dance1 ,poetry and ,music form a group which cannot readily be separated2 they are not independent of each other1 but most intimately connected4 ,this view fails to take account of the fact that ,music which is1 externally1 so closely connected with the ,dance and with ,poetry1 is1 in its essence1 absolutely distinct4 ,schopenhauer1 the philosopher from whom ,richard ,wagner drew inspiration1 holds this view very strongly4 ,he says3 8,music is quite independent of the visible world1 is absolutely ignorant of it1 and could exist in a certain way if there were no world2 which cannot be said of the other arts40 ,the other arts are essentially imitative and representative2 they are based upon ,nature4 ,some writers1 the ,frenchman ,dubos and the ,english philosopher ,herbert ,spencer among them1 claim that ,music does represent ,nature4 ,they say that as the painter imitates the forms and colors he sees in nature1 so the musician follows the various modulations of the voice1 finding there the basic conceptions of ,rhythm1 ,melody and ,color4 ,singing1 which ,spencer considers the original music1 is the emphasizing and intensifying of the properties of speech4 ,gurney says1 per contra1 that 8,music creates audible forms1 successions and combinations of tones which have no prototype in ,nature and do not exist outside of ,music40 ,those who believe that ,music is a separate entity therefore seek to trace it to a completely independent beginning4#a ,darwin offered another theory as to the way in which man arrived at ,music4 ,his idea is that the faculty of producing musical tones and rhythm was first acquired by our animal ancestors as a means of attracting the opposite sex1 the faculty being developed and improved by the process of selection4 ,the ,conception of ,fixed ,scales4--,the question is sometimes raised3 ,how did man reach the conception of fixed scales8 ,here again opinions differ4 ,some consider that the extreme notes were fixed by the average compass of the human voice in impassioned speech1 the interval being variously divided4 ,others claim that along with the vocal phase of music there was an instrumental side1 and that the mechanical conditions in connection with instruments had bearing in the matter of organizing sounds into a scale2 the rude1 primitive trumpet of wood or bark1 still found among forest tribes in ,south ,america and ,africa1 gives a series of harmonic notes4 ,whistles or flutes made in prehistoric times with a series of several tones1 examples of combinations of little pipes1 such as those known by the name of 8,pan's ,pipes10 also bear on this question4 ,yet the facts are few and we are compelled to satisfy ourselves with mere conjecture4 ,,references4 ,tylor4--,anthropology4 ,rowbotham4--,history of ,music4 ,smith4--,the ,world's ,earliest ,music4 ,grosse4--,the ,beginnings of ,art4 ,raymond4--,the ,genesis of ,art4 ,helmholtz4--,the ,sensations of ,tone4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 ,bosanquet4--,history of ,aesthetic4 ,knight4--,philosophy of the ,beautiful1 ,part ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,why do we consider music a force in civilization8 ,what do we mean by ,expression in music8 ,the teacher will cite periods when 8,expression0 was the chief aim1 when ,form was4 ,cite periods when intense political and intellectual upheaval reacted on music4 ,give examples of the leading principles of ,music4 ,what kind of facts are of importance to the history of ,music8 ,what is the value of ,archology to the history of music8 ,why is ,ethnology valuable to the history of music8 ,give several theories as to the origin of music4 ,is the scale used by us the scale of all nations8 ,in preparing for recitation1 students should get an outline of each lesson by the use of the paragraph headings and then work out the lesson by the use of the questions that follow4 ,if the reference books suggested are available1 additional reading should be done4 ,a good plan is for the teacher to assign one or two paragraphs to a pupil and have the latter bring in such other information of interest as can be secured4 ,some questions may be grouped and pupils directed to prepare a short essay to be read before the class4 ,in regard to dates1 the suggestion is that pupils take turns1 lesson by lesson1 in presenting a plan by which to memorize them4 ,when the period is one that can be related to some well-known event in general history1 as the life of ,charlemagne1 the ,norman ,conquest of ,england1 the ,crusades1 the ,wars of the ,roses1 discovery of ,america1 invention of printing1 etc41 it is well to do so2 or make a well-known musician a contemporary of some artist1 statesman1 king1 scientist1 man of letters1 etc4 ,the teacher should be prepared in this manner for each lesson4 ,events before the ,christian ,era may be related to some event or character in ,biblical history4 ,,lesson ,i4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,chinese1 ,,japanese ,,and ,,hindoos4 ,sources of ,our ,knowledge4--,when we study the music of the early period of the human race1 we find no records such as we are storing today in our libraries4 ,we must depend upon the discoveries of archologists in the buried cities of early civilizations4 ,of contemporaneous books1 properly speaking1 tablets of music explaining the construction and methods of playing the musical instruments then in use we have few2 if they exist they are in dead languages to which scholars are but slowly finding the key4 ,it is true that some instruments have been found1 but we can have no certainty that they are in perfect condition4 ,the principal sources of the information we possess have been the paintings1 decorations and sculptures on monuments and on the walls of buildings and tombs that have been unearthed4 ,early languages were largely pictorial1 and records kept in this manner furnish us representations of the religious1 martial1 and social life of the early races4 ,countries with a ,musical ,past4--,the lands that offer the greatest field for the study of the music of the past are ,chaldea or ,babylonia and ,egypt4 ,some of the old ,greek cities1 as well as cities in the western part of ,asia ,minor and ,palestine1 have been the subject of explorations4 ,still another country abounding in interest to the student of the music of the past is ,china1 living1 yet dead6 ,what a contrast to ,chaldea and ,egypt6 ,the civilization of the latter is dead2 ,china1 the older1 is still living4 ,these races had a common home1 yet the former1 having developed a high civilization and fulfilled its mission1 disappeared from the face of the earth1 while ,china1 having also reached a high state of culture1 has remained stagnant1 all energies toward a higher level being arrested4 ,the ,common ,home of the ,race4--,scientists place the cradle of the human race in the high plateau of ,asia1 extending from ,persia eastward through ,thibet and including part of ,manchuria4 ,the yellow race1 according to some ethnologists1 is the more akin to the primitive race2 the other two1 the white and the black1 being derived from it by emigration1 change of climate and mode of living4 ,van ,aalst1 the leading writer on ,chinese ,music1 says that 8the first invaders of ,china were a band of immigrants fighting their way among the aborigines and supposed to have come from the country south of the ,caspian ,sea40 ,it is outside the province of this work to detail the arguments that serve to show the connection of the ,chinese with the other races mentioned4 ,berosus1 the old ,babylonian historian1 writes3 8,there was originally in the land of ,babylon a multitude of men of foreign race who had settled in ,chaldea40 ,these men are known in history by the name of ,akkads or ,akkadians1 8from the northern mountains10 ,sumerians1 from the 8southern mountains02 that is1 the highland ranges lying to the north and east of the ,euphrates ,valley4 ,there were two main types among these tribes3 a yellow1 black-haired people1 and a red type4 ,the records show that migrations from this central home came about by reason of famines1 plagues or floods4 ,when did the black-haired1 yellow people swarm off8 ,when did the 8red0 people1 from which ,egyptian tradition claimed ancestry1 go away8 ,probably the ,chinese were the first to leave the central home1 taking with them the elements of a considerable civilization1 which also formed the basis of the later ,chaldean1 ,babylonian1 ,assyrian and ,egyptian cultures1 and through various channels1 of the ,etrurian and ,greek4 ,high ,place of ,music ,among the ,chinese4--,the science of music had a high place in ,chinese philosophy2 the sages alone comprehend the canons1 and the mandarins in music are considered superior to those in mathematics4 ,some most interesting dates are given1 showing how early the ,chinese had developed a science of music4 ,we are told that in #bbgg ,b4 ,c41 there were twenty-two writers on the dance and music1 twenty-three on ancient music1 twenty-four on playing the ,kin and the ,che1 and twenty-five on construction of scales4 ,these facts imply many years of previous development before the time when works treating of the science of music would be prepared4 ,confucius1 the chief ,chinese philosopher1 wrote about ancient music in #eea ,b4 ,c4 ,unfortunately1 ancient records and books were almost entirely destroyed1 #bdf ,b4 ,c41 by order of the ,emperor then on the throne2 he excepted from this destruction only works on medicine1 agriculture and divination4 ,a comparison of recorded dates shows that the ,chinese were writing learned works on the science of music when the ,pharaohs were building the pyramids4 ,sonorous ,bodies4--,the ,chinese have always shown a fondness for instituting likenesses between things in heaven and earth1 and things intellectual and material4 ,according to their theory1 there are eight sound-giving bodies3 ,stone1 ,metal1 ,silk1 ,bamboo1 ,wood1 ,skin1 ,gourd and ,clay4 ,the ,sheng4--,one of the most important musical instruments in use among the ,chinese1 one that is indispensable to their temple ritual1 is the ,sheng4 ,this instrument is the representative of the gourd principle2 originally the bowl was formed from a portion of a gourd or a calabash1 the top being covered by a circular piece of wood with holes around the margin in which the pipes1 seventeen in number1 are fixed2 in the side of the gourd is placed a mouthpiece or tube covered with ivory1 through which the player draws his breath4 ,each pipe is fitted with a small free reed of copper4 ,a small hole is made in each pipe just above the bowl1 which prevents a pipe from speaking when the air is drawn in by the player1 unless the hole is closed by a finger4 ,the instrument is placed to the mouth with the pipes slanting toward the right shoulder4 ,the notes sounded by the pipes of the ,sheng as they are arranged are3 ,music giving the following scale or series of sounds3 ,music four of the seventeen pipes are mutes1 placed there doubtless for purposes of symmetry4 ,illustration3 ,,kin4 ,,se ,,or ,,che4 ,,sheng4 ,the ,kin4--,the principle of the sound of silk is exemplified in the ,kin or ,ch'in1 the strings1 8made of twisted silk1 being stretched over a wooden frame40 ,this instrument was the favorite of ,confucius1 the great law-giver1 and in his time was of great antiquity4 ,the number of strings was five1 to agree with the five elements2 the upper part was rounded1 to represent the heavens2 the bottom was flat1 to represent the ground4 ,the number of strings was later increased to seven1 which is the favored form1 tuned to ,g1 ,a1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,g1 ,a1 a pentatonic scale4 ,the ,se4--,another stringed instrument is the ,s1 7also written ,che71 which had originally fifty strings4 ,as now used1 it has only twenty-five strings4 ,four kinds are in use1 differing in size and in number of strings2 it is customary that they should give the sound of two notes simultaneously1 generally octaves4 ,some of these1 used by the most skilful performers1 have only thirteen or fourteen strings4 ,the strings are plucked by two small ivory picks4 ,flutes4--,the sound of bamboo is exemplified in certain instruments of the flute family4 ,the bamboo plant is used by the ,chinese in very many ways2 it is natural that they should use it for making musical instruments4 ,there are two types of pipes or flutes3 those blown at the end1 as a whistle1 and those blown across a hole near one end1 as is our modern flute2 the ,chinese flutes are of the latter class4 ,they varied in size and in the number of holes1 from three to six1 the little finger of each hand not being used4 ,a popular flute1 called the ,ti-,tzu1 has1 in addition to the six finger holes1 one for blowing and one covered with a thin membrane1 to vary the sound4 ,another kind1 very ancient1 and much in use1 according to ,chinese writers during the period #bbje-aabb ,b4 ,c41 may be called1 shortly1 the ,tche4 ,it has six finger holes1 three near each end1 and is pierced with another hole at the middle1 across which the player blows4 ,the scale is said to consist of six semitones1 beginning with ,f1 fifth line treble clef4 ,the peculiar construction of this flute presents some acoustical problems4 ,illustration3 ,,tche4 ,other sonorous bodies are1 metal from which the ,chinese make gongs1 bells and trumpets--they seem to have known the principle of the slide1 as in the trombone1 but never developed it2 stone1 certain varieties1 in the shape of the letter ,l1 pierced with a hole at the angle1 suspended in a frame and struck by a hammer2 skin1 from which drums were made2 clay1 from which instruments were made in shape resembling the ocarina1 familiar to us4 ,chinese ,scales4--,the vocal and the instrumental music have different scales1 the former diatonic--with two notes of the seven omitted1 forming a pentatonic 7five-tone scale71 the letters of which1 since ,f is a favorite tonic1 may be represented by ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,c1 ,d4 ,the instrumental scales are chromatic in character4 ,when the voice is accompanied by instruments1 the vocal scale is used4 ,singing is in unison1 modified by fourths1 occasionally4 ,the singing tone is a sort of nasal sing-song1 the favorite method a nasal falsetto1 the mouth being nearly closed4 ,music ,this represents the concluding strophes of the ,hymn to ,confucius4 ,the time is very slow2 each measure represents a line of four syllables2 between the lines one of the instruments gives a sort of interlude4 ,so much space has been taken with ,chinese music because the conservatism of that race has preserved instruments and music that date back to the early history of our race4 ,illustration3 ,,koto4 ,japanese ,music4--,in the ,japanese system we find a pentatonic scale and a semitonal division of the octave4 ,japanese music does not proceed in semitones1 the chromatic scale being demanded by the custom of transposing a melody from one starting point to another1 not more than fourteen sounds for a melody4 ,a favorite ,japanese instrument is of the clarinet type2 it is called the ,hichi-riki2 in length it varies from a little less than nine inches to a little more4 ,the scale as set forth by the ,institute of ,tokio is from ,g1 second line1 treble staff to the ,a above1 ,f1 fifth line1 being sharped4 ,this instrument is played by drawing in the breath4 ,the ,japanese have an instrument called the ,sho1 similar to the ,chinese ,sheng4 ,the national instrument is the ,koto1 which has thirteen strings1 tuned thus3 the first1 middle ,c sharp1 the second1 ,f sharp a fifth lower2 subsequent strings ascend in order1 ,g sharp1 ,a1 ,c sharp1 ,d1 ,f sharp1 ,g sharp1 ,a1 ,c sharp1 ,d1 ,f sharp1 ,g sharp2 between the fourth and fifth sounds is a third1 which interval1 in practice1 was filled by pressing the string behind the bridge1 thus increasing the tension2 each string can be raised a semitone or even a tone by increasing the pressure4 ,by this means additional notes can be secured1 giving a scale identical with the ,greek ,dorian or ecclesiastical ,aeolian4 ,much of the popular ,japanese music is written without the extra notes1 and the series of tones can be characterized as a pentatonic scale based on the natural minor4 ,thus3 ,music ,the ,hindoos4--,among the ,asiatic races that still retain national1 although not a separate political existence1 and have a musical system peculiar to themselves1 the ,hindoos are prominent4 ,the ,hindoos belong to the ,aryan race1 7from which we also sprang71 and had their home originally in ,central ,asia1 probably north of the ,hindoo ,koosh range4 ,when they swarmed off from the old home they made their way down through the mountains along the river valleys to the great fertile plains of ,india1 and conquering the aboriginal races1 developed the system of caste1 which has had so great an influence on their religion1 literature1 science and art4 ,the old ,hindoo literature shows clearly the high regard in which the art of song was held4 ,celebrated minstrels were maintained in the royal courts whose duty it was to chant songs in praise of their patrons4 ,music1 or song1 was just as indispensable in the religious ceremonies4 ,one of the holy books makes the statement that 8,indra rejects the offering made without music40 ,in time the singer became a member of the priestly caste4 ,illustration3 ,,vina4 ,,ravanastron4 ,the ,vina4--,from antiquity to the present time among the ,hindoos pure instrumental music held almost equal place with song or accompanied vocal music4 ,the ,hindoo instruments belong to the percussion types1 trumpets and trombones1 nose flute1 and especially to the stringed class4 ,it is noteworthy that the simpler kinds1 in which each string gives but one tone1 do not exist1 whereas there are many varieties of those which have fingerboards4 ,the oldest and most important is the ,vina1 which consists of a wooden pipe about four feet long attached to two gourds or resonators4 ,the seven metal strings are stretched over nineteen bridges or frets1 becoming gradually higher1 and touch only the last and highest one4 ,the other eighteen serve to fix the pitch of the tone desired1 as in our guitar or mandolin1 the strings being set in vibration by being plucked with a metal thimble or ring like that used by zither players4 ,another ,hindoo instrument1 considered by some as the prototype of stringed instruments played with a bow1 is the ,ravanastron4 ,hindoo ,musical ,philosophy4--,hindoo myths ascribe a divine origin to music4 ,a close connection was established between the scale and their religious ideas4 ,each single tone was under the protection of a nymph1 and the first syllables of the names of these nymphs1 according to ,clement1 the ,french historian1 were given to the tones1 thus3 ,sa1 ,ri1 ,ga1 ,ma1 ,pa1 ,da1 ,ni1 seven in all1 differing in that respect from the pentatonic form usually found among the early races4 ,in their endeavor to satisfy the melody of speech1 the inflections of the voice in speaking1 the ,hindoos divided the interval of the octave into small parts1 and transposed the scale freely up and down2 so it is easily conceivable that their complete system recognized #ifj scales1 their sacred writings speaking of #af1jjj4 ,in practice they contented themselves with #cf1 some writers say #gb4 ,the following is given as the scale3 ,music ,the principal feature of ,hindoo music is the melody and rhythm1 the latter being very complicated4 ,of harmony in our sense of the word there is no sign4 ,in accompanying the voice the ,hindoos used only the pure fifth1 which they considered a perfect consonance1 the fourth1 an imperfect consonance1 and the octave4 ,high ,esteem of ,music ,among the ,hindoos4--,music had a high place among the ,hindoos1 all festivities made use of it1 and the private and social life demanded it4 ,it was used freely in the ,hindoo drama1 the latter calling for the dance1 spoken and sung dialogue and instrumental music and songs4 ,the main reason why ,hindoo music did not develop in the past centuries doubtless lies in the fact that1 as in ,egypt1 the ruling power was vested in the priesthood1 which controlled all the arts and sciences4 ,music was so interwoven with their religious rites and observances1 and so hedged around with irrevocable and sacred laws that the slightest alteration was considered a sacrilege4 ,in closing this section it may be added that investigators refer the gipsies1 particularly those of ,hungary1 who are noted for their musical temperament1 to ,hindoo origin1 probably the pariah caste4 ,their music1 with its wild1 free rhythm and elaborate melodic embellishment1 has a marked resemblance to the music of the ,hindoos4 ,,references4 ,smith4--,the ,world's ,earliest ,music4 ,anderson4--,the ,story of ,extinct ,civilizations4 ,rice4--,what is ,music8 ,piggott4--,music and ,musical ,instruments of ,japan4 ,day4--,musical ,instruments of the ,deccan4 ,,questions4 ,what is the source of our information as to the beginnings of music8 ,what countries are being explored by archologists8 ,where was the cradle of the human race8 ,which branch was probably the first to 8swarm off08 ,how ancient are some ,chinese records concerning music8 ,what are the sound-giving bodies according to ,chinese theories8 ,give an example of each kind4 ,describe the ,sheng1 ,kin1 ,che and ,tche4 ,what kind of scale is used in ,chinese vocal music8 ,what is the ,japanese national instrument8 ,what kinds of instruments did the ,hindoos have8 ,their favorite instrument8 ,describe the latter4 ,tell about the ,hindoo scale4 ,why did music among the ,hindoos fail to develop8 ,,lesson ,,ii4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,babylonians1 ,,egyptians ,,and ,,hebrews4 ,history a ,record of ,change4--,history is a record of changing conditions4 ,nations rise into prominence and fall again2 cities are built to be torn down by conquerors2 even the face of the earth has changed since the days when the scions of the ,aryan race began to leave their home in ,central ,asia4 ,arms of the sea have shrunk to rivers1 rivers to shallow streams1 the desert sands have encroached on the once fertile valleys1 and choked the springs and brooks of the meadows4 ,geologists tell us that the great valleys were made by the alluvial deposit washed down from the hills and mountains by the streams4 ,the ,chinese followed the course of the great rivers that made toward the eastern seas1 the ,hindoos toward the southern ocean1 and still another 8swarm0 followed the great rivers ,euphrates and ,tigris1 which came from the mountains of ,western ,asia4 ,the great valley lying between the desert and the mountains1 a scene of waste and ruin as far back as the time of ancient ,greece and ,rome1 was once a most important centre of population and wealth1 the home for centuries of races that had reached a high degree of culture in the arts and sciences1 and the seat of what may be considered the oldest of extinct civilizations4 ,the valley was wonderfully fertile1 was brought to a high degree of cultivation and supported an enormous population4 ,as an instance of the physical changes that have taken place in this region1 it may be mentioned that about #djjj ,b4 ,c41 the ,tigris and the ,euphrates entered the sea by different mouths1 instead of joining as now and in the days of ,abraham1 the patriarch1 who came from this region1 and the town identified by modern scholars as 8,ur of the ,chaldees10 which is now #aej miles up the ,euphrates1 was an important seaport4 ,the ,chaldeans4--,when the ,aryans came down into this valley they found already established there a people whose records are now being unearthed1 called ,akkads1 belonging to the ,mongolian family1 who had reached a high degree of cultivation in art and science4 ,the records found show that music was an important branch of study2 at a very early date the harp1 pipe and cymbals are mentioned1 and we infer that the people were fond of singing1 since many sacred hymns have been recorded in tablets4 ,this race1 joined to others1 founded the ,chaldean kingdom1 the capital being ,babylon4 ,in the #abth century ,b4 ,c41 a king of ,assyria1 in the northern part of the ,tigris valley1 conquered ,babylon and thus gained the ascendancy4 ,the ,practice of ,music ,among the ,babylonians4--,in the great ruins now being excavated1 tablets of clay have been found which give a vivid idea of the social and religious esteem in which music was held by the ,babylonians4 ,one of these tablets1 said to date back more than three thousand years ,b4 ,c41 contains a representation of musicians4 ,one strikes with a hammer upon a metal plate1 another carries a reed pipe1 a third plays upon a harp of eleven strings1 while two others beat time or give the accent by clapping their hands4 ,especially rich in sculpture is the palace of ,sennacherib4 ,one of the relief decorations shows a festival procession in honor of the returning conqueror4 ,in front walk five men1 three with harps1 a fourth with a kind of lyre1 whose strings were struck with a plectrum2 the fifth bears a double flute4 ,two of the harpers and the lyre player dance4 ,then follow six women1 of whom four carry harps1 one blows a double flute1 while the last beats a sort of drum4 ,following the instrumentalists come six women and six children singing1 who indicate the rhythm by clapping their hands4 ,from the fact that in these sculptures a few soldiers indicate an army1 we infer that the ,babylonians made use of large bodies of players and singers in their great ceremonies4 ,these tablets indicate that the ,babylonians made much use of trumpets to give signals to the armies and when great masses of the people were gathered together4 ,that musicians were highly esteemed we judge from the fact that on one occasion ,sennacherib spared the lives of musicians among his captives1 all others being put to death4 ,since the ,chaldeans1 especially1 were famous as astronomers and mathematicians1 it is thought that they1 like the ,egyptian sages1 had knowledge of the mathematical relations of the various intervals4 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,harp 7,,sambuca74 ,,santir4 ,chaldean ,instruments4--,two instruments seem to be especially noticeable3 the ,symphonia and ,sambuca4 ,the former was carried to ,palestine by the ,hebrews1 at the end of their captivity1 and1 according to their accounts1 seems to have been a sort of bagpipe1 an instrument particularly suited to a pastoral people like the early ,chaldeans4 ,as to the ,sambuca we have no authentic knowledge2 it seems1 however1 to have been an instrument of the zither type1 held horizontally and played with a plectrum4#b ,a stringed instrument1 struck with a hammer1 called the ,santir is credited to the ,assyrians4 ,egyptian ,music4--,when the great ,alexandrian ,library of #die1jjj works of ,persian1 ,chaldean1 ,hebrew1 ,egyptian1 ,greek and ,roman literature was partly destroyed during ,julius ,csar's battles with the native ,egyptians1 in #dg ,b4 ,c41 and finally1 ,a4 ,d4 #cia1 by ,christian fanatics1 history suffered an irreparable loss4 ,treasures of learning in all branches1 the records of early civilizations perished1 never to be replaced4 ,today we are dependent upon the discoveries of explorers in the ruins of the great ,egyptian cities1 temples1 tombs and pyramids4 ,the ,egyptians believed that articles of necessity to the living being were necessary to the individual in a future existence4 ,if certain things could not1 in reality1 be placed in the tomb1 a pictorial representation would have almost equal value in the invisible world4 ,in ,egyptian tombs pipes or 8flutes0 have been found1 and in one instance1 in the tomb of a musician1 the bronze cymbals he played when alive4 ,in the various tombs and ruins that have been examined by explorers1 pictorial representations of practically every phase of ,egyptian life have been found4 ,the sources for our knowledge1 almost wholly inferential1 are1 then1 the various pictorial and sculptured representations of the ,egyptian musical instruments and the manner in which they were used1 and a few fragments of their sacred books1 which were forty-two in number1 two being devoted to music1 although but one fragment has been found4 ,it must be noted1 further1 that the ,egyptian ,government1 although nominally a monarchy1 limited1 not absolute1 was in reality theocratic4 ,the priestly caste had final power1 and the rules and regulations drawn up by them prescribed the minutest detail of life1 crushing all possibility of independent thought and freedom of action1 a condition fatal to high artistic development4 ,place of ,music in ,egyptian ,life4--,to show the place of music in ,egyptian life1 the following from ,ambros' history will serve admirably3 8,from these decorations on the walls of tombs we perceive that the ,egyptians made great use of music4 ,we find harps of many sizes and shapes1 small and easily portable1 to others beyond the height of a man1 crude and of the utmost simplicity1 to others elaborate and extremely rich in decoration4 ,we note an almost endless variety of lyres1 guitars and mandolins that is1 similar in type to the instruments we know by these names1 single and double flutes1 played by hands of numerous musicians1 together with male and female singers4 ,music was used to accompany the dance1 the funeral cortge1#c the banquet and other social functions4 ,inscriptions show that there were musicians of high social position at the court40 ,egyptian ,instruments4--,the records show a development of music from a crude simplicity in early days to a brilliant and complex system alongside of the changes in other arts and the sciences1 some of the discoveries going as far back as #afbe ,b4 ,c4 ,we give illustrations of several forms of the ,egyptian harps4 ,the number of strings varied from three or four to twenty-one4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,rowbotham1 the ,english historian of music1 says that 8taking ,b below the bass staff as the lowest note of the ,egyptian scale1 7since it likely followed the ,assyrian in this respect7 the compass of the great harp would extend to ,e1 first line1 treble staff4 ,the small harps of various sizes had a compass from ,d1 third line1 bass staff1 to ,d or ,e above the treble staff4 ,another series of stringed instruments1 known under the general name1 lyres1 had the same compass as the small harps2 the lutes had a low ,g1 7bass7 string1 and the highest note was ,c or ,d on the treble staff2 various forms of the flutes had about the same compass2 pipes1 which may be represented by the flageolet of today had a compass of about one octave upward from ,e1 fourth space1 treble clef4 ,other instruments were of the percussion character1 tambourines1 drums1 cymbals1 etc4 ,although the ,egyptians used their instruments in combination1 there is reason to believe their practice was the alternation of groups1 only occasionally using all simultaneously1 to secure fulness and power of tone40 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,harp4 ,,small ,,harp4 ,,great ,,harp4 ,philosophy and ,practice of ,egyptian ,music4--,the consensus of opinion is that ,egyptian music was melodic in character1 the instruments or voices playing or singing in different octaves1 rejecting other intervals4 ,as the ,greeks seem to have drawn from the ,egyptians much of their practice in music1 it is reasonable to suppose that they would have used harmony if the ,egyptians had been accustomed to make use of it4 ,as to the ,egyptian theory of music we have no information4 ,since1 however1 ,pythagoras1 the ,greek philosopher1 was a student of the ,egyptian school for priests1 we infer that his teachings were founded on the science he acquired there2 hence it is probable that the ,egyptians were familiar with a seven-fold division of the octave and the mathematical relations of the fourth and fifth1 as well as other intervals of the scale4 ,of the old ,egyptian hymns we have no remains unless it be1 as some assert1 that fragments still exist among the ,coptic ,christians4 ,illustration3 ,,transverse ,,flute4 ,,double ,,flute4 ,the ,hebrews4--,what a wonderful history is that of the ,hebrews6 ,it has seen nation after nation rise to power and go down4 ,it has been enslaved1 seemingly beyond all possibility of recovering a national existence1 yet regained place4 ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,persia1 ,rome1 held the ,hebrews1 yet the latter are still with us1 as a distinct race1 while their conquerors have but pages of history4 ,a glance at the history of the race will show that they touched the sources of early civilization4 ,abraham was a resident1 according to the ,bible story1 of ,ur in the land of the ,chaldees1 where a considerable civilization had been attained4 ,from here he went to ,canaan1 thence to ,egypt1 and back again to the country east of the ,red ,sea4 ,when his descendants went to ,egypt they must have carried with them ,syrian music and instruments1 doubtless preserving a trace of ,chaldean influence4 ,it was during the four centuries' sojourn in ,egypt that the ,hebrews1 though for a time enslaved1 gained the proportions of a nation4 ,as their duties placed them in close relations to their masters1 they gained considerable of the ,egyptian science1 literature1 customs1 etc4 ,at that time1 musicians were slaves1 and tradition says that ,miriam1 the sister of ,moses1 was a slave dancing-girl and singer4 ,we know that ,moses was instructed in the learning of the ,egyptian priesthood1 and in that capacity officiated in some of the functions of the temple services4 ,such facts as these go far to justify the idea that the ,hebrews gained their fundamental notions of music and musical instruments during their long sojourn in ,egypt4 ,some writers claim that the songs of the ,hebrews were adapted to ,egyptian chants4 ,the pastoral life led by the descendants of ,abraham1 the period of slavery which the ,hebrews suffered in ,egypt1 and the subsequent migratory life in the wilderness were not adapted to develop a people's song4 ,the life in ,palestine for many years was a strenuous one2 and then came another period of slavery among the ,assyrians1 by which the ,hebrew ideas were again modified4 ,a ,religious ,people4--,the ,hebrews were an intensely religious people1 the code delivered to them by ,moses fixing the status of music up to the time of the pleasure-loving ,solomon4 ,their music1 in distinction from that of the nations around them1 was not sensuous but a true musica sacra1 in this respect more a matter of religion than of art4 ,during the reign of ,david1 the ,levites were organized as the singers for the ,temple services4 ,music and poetry were the chief subjects of instruction4 ,david himself composed many of the tunes to which his ,psalms were sung4 ,hebrew ,poetry and ,its ,relation to ,their ,music4--,the key to the music of the ,hebrews is their poetry4 ,they grew to numbers under the most adverse circumstances1 and developed a temperament indifferent to environment and elevated to high spiritual aspiration1 making them an intensely religious people1 whose life was little softened by artistic practice4 ,the effect of the injunction against the making of 8graven images10 as given them in the code of ,moses1 was to cut them off from the exercise of the esthetic faculty in sculpture or painting2 their unsettled mode of life prevented outlet in architecture4 ,so they poured out the whole strength of their passionate1 powerful natures in poetry and song4 ,the most striking characteristic of the ,hebrew poetry is the parallelism of the phrases1 each sentence or complete thought being made up of two similar or contrasted thoughts1 and the accompanying music must have had the same character4 ,the following from the ,psalms shows this feature3 8,lord1 hear my voice3 let thine ears be attentive to the voice of my supplication40 8,i will not give sleep to my eyes1 or slumber to mine eyelids40 ,when the great choirs of men singers were organized for the ,temple services1 this parallelism brought about the division into two bodies1 who sang alternately1 a practice in use today in certain churches with ritualistic services1 and known as antiphonal singing4 ,hebrew ,music4--,it is unfortunate that we have no reason to believe that the hymns in use in the ,jewish synagogues today are sung to the tunes of thousands of years ago1 even if modified4 ,in the various countries of ,europe1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,russia1 the airs are quite different1 suggesting that tradition has failed to deliver anything that can traced to the days of the poet-king of ,israel4 ,some authorities find in the ,gregorian chants traces of ,hebrew melodies which came down from the early ,christians of ,jewish birth and training4 ,clement of ,alexandria says that their songs were earnest and dignified2 there must have been some special character in them as shown by the command of the ,babylonians1 8,sing us the songs of ,zion40 ,the principal relation that the ,hebrews have to the history of music arises from the enduring impress the works of the ,psalmist and other portions of the ,scriptures have made upon the music of the ,christian ,church4 ,hebrew ,instruments4--,the ,hebrews borrowed their instruments from other nations1 principally from the ,egyptians1 the one most favored being a form of the harp1 small enough to be portable1 used to give effect to the chanting of the prophets4 8,to prophesy meant to sing10 and it is quite likely that ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah and the other inspired poets uttered their thoughts in verse and song1 both being extemporized4 ,the student should bear in mind that the various musical instruments mentioned in the ,bible must be understood as types4 ,the harp of ,david was not the same as our harp1 the organ was not like our great church instruments1 viols1 sackbuts1 cornets1 pipes1 psalteries1 etc41 are names given by the translators to the ,hebrew terms used in the ,bible4 ,they used words with which they were familiar1 and which they thought corresponded in type to the instruments used by the ,hebrews4 ,,references4 ,rowbotham4--,history of ,music4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,engel4--,musical ,instruments4 ,smith4--,the ,world's ,earliest ,music4 ,anderson4--,the ,story of ,extinct ,civilizations4 ,maspro4--,ancient ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,dickinson4--,music in the ,history of the ,western ,church4 ,,questions4 ,what great river valley was the home of the ,chaldeans8 ,what do we know of music among the ,akkads8 ,what evidence have we to show that the ,assyrians held music in high esteem8 ,what instruments did they use8 ,how do we learn of the ideas of the ,egyptians in regard to music8 ,who controlled the knowledge of music and other sciences and arts8 ,was this beneficial to music8 ,what instruments did the ,egyptians use8 ,what was the character of ,egyptian music8 ,what was the origin of the ,hebrew race8 ,what influences did they come under in ,egypt8 ,what difference was there between the music of the ,hebrews and that of the nations around them8 ,why did they express themselves in poetry and music8 ,what was a leading characteristic of their poetry8 ,have any ancient ,hebrew melodies been preserved8 ,what musical instruments did the ,hebrews have8 ,what was the origin of these instruments8 ,,lesson ,,iii4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,greeks3 ,,scales4 ,when we think of ,greece1 it is ,athens1 the centre of ,greek art and culture1 that comes to mind4 ,an ancient city1 ,athens1 as history teaches us4 ,the record is that it was founded by ,cecrops1 who brought a colony from ,egypt1 in #aeef ,b4 ,c41 a period when ,egypt was a centre of power1 wealth1 education and science4 ,therefore we infer that these colonists brought with them to ,greece the ordinary1 popular music and instruments to which they had become accustomed in their home4 ,but there was an older ,greece2 for late discoveries show that there were five cities1 each built upon the ruins of an older city1 the first one going back to #bejj ,b4 ,c4 ,these earlier inhabitants1 themselves an offshoot of the great ,aryan race1 were absorbed by the colonists4 ,music and ,myth in ,greece4--,the beginnings of music in ,greece are mingled with myths3 ,pan1 ,apollo1 ,mercury1 ,athene and others appear as the patrons and exemplars of the musical art4 ,aside from the names of the mythical gods and goddesses1 there are names of human beings that stand out with clearness4 ,these early musicians were singers or bards who chanted the songs composed in honor of chiefs and tribal heroes4 ,such were ,hyagnis1 #aejf ,b4 ,c41 ,marsyas1 his son1 and ,olympus the elder1 ,orpheus1 ,musus 7#adbf ,b4 ,c471 chief of the ,eleusinian mysteries1 ,linus1 ,amphion1 ,thaletes1 whose songs were favorites of ,pythagoras2 the greatest of these bards was the blind ,homer1 to whom the date #ijj ,b4 ,c4 is assigned4 8,by the ,greeks1 music as an art was considered an aid in regulating by rule the inflections of the voice1 to mark the places of emphasis1 and to define the pauses in the recitation of their epic poetry2 and the rhythm of their songs followed strictly laws that had been laid down2 innovation was reprehended1 and even prohibited40#d ,early ,greek ,musicians and ,writers4--,the earliest musician's name met with in the annals of music is that of ,terpander 7#fgf ,b4 ,c71 who is said to have increased the number of strings on the lyre from four to seven4 ,next in order was ,pythagoras 7#ehe-eje ,b4 ,c471 who added an eighth string to the lyre4 ,he was called the discoverer of the ,tetrachord1 which is still known by this name1 the inventor or discoverer of the ,octave ,scale1 also the discoverer of the ratios of the consonances2 but there is no doubt that he learned all these things during his sojourn in ,egypt4 ,he is also credited with the invention of the ,canon or ,monochord with movable bridges1 a contrivance still in use for investigating the ratios of intervals4 ,unfortunately none of the writings--if any ever existed--of ,pythagoras have come down to us4 ,our knowledge of his theories is second-hand1 gathered from the writings of his disciples4 ,pythagoras seems to have studied sound more in the manner of the acoustician than of the musician2 hence his followers1 or rather those who called themselves by his name1 were more concerned with the ratios of sounds than with their musical effects4 ,among the great philosophers who treated on music1 ,aristotle 7#chd ,b4 ,c47 holds an important place4 ,we find his theories expressed in one of his works called 8,problems40 ,a pupil of his--,aristoxenus 7#cej-cbj ,b4 ,c471 has left the most valuable treatise on music1 of any of the ancients1 the oldest musical work known at the present time2 it is1 unfortunately1 not complete4 ,aristoxenus was a practical1 in addition to being a theoretical musician2 he thought that the ear was the final court of appeal in matters musical4 ,hence the musical world was divided into two factions3 the ,pythagoreans1 who held that music was purely a matter for arithmetical investigation1 and the ,aristoxenians1 who claimed that the chief end of music was to be listened to4 ,this dispute lasted for many centuries4 ,boethius1 the ,roman philosopher1 in his writings takes sides with the ,pythagoreans and pours contempt on the mere musician4 ,the successors of the ,pythagoreans are even yet not extinct1 as every now and again some wiseacre turns up with a scheme to secure just intonation1 at the price of losing all that music has gained under our present system4 ,plato 7#dcj ,b4 ,c471 the greatest of philosophers1 has much to say about music2 but these sayings are largely incomprehensible to modern understandings4 ,euclid 7#cbc ,b4 ,c471 the great mathematician1 treated largely of music4#e ,aristides ,quintilianus was another author of great weight4 ,plutarch1 in his ,symposia1 has one devoted to music1 but unfortunately the meaning of these authors is often so obscure that it cannot now be discovered4 ,alexandria1 in ,egypt1 came into prominence in music when the great library was founded there by ,alexander the ,great1 in #ccb ,b4 ,c4 ,eratosthenes 7#bgf-aif ,b4 ,c471 the librarian1 figures in the mathematics of music4 ,when we reach the ,christian ,era1 we meet with two more writers1 ,didymus 7,a4 ,d4 #fj71 who introduced the 8minor0#f tone into the scale1 and ,claudius ,ptolemy 7,a4 ,d4 #acj74 ,the ,music of ,ancient ,greece the ,foundation of ,modern ,european ,music4--,although the history of ,european music properly begins with the music of ,ancient ,greece1 we are still very ignorant of the subject1 owing to the fact that there is not in existence a note of music anterior to the ,christian ,era4 ,but lately1 in the ancient treasure house at ,delphi1 a hymn was found inscribed in marble on the inner wall4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 an authority in matters pertaining to ,greek literature1 says3 8,the time is given by the metre1 a long syllable and three short1 variously placed1 or two long and a short between them1 in every case #e-h in a measure4444 ,as regards the accompaniment or harmonizing of the air1 there is none extant4 ,as to the melody although there is rhythm and even a recurrence of phrases to mark the close of the period1 nothing worthy of being called melody in any modern sense is to be found40 ,the inscription dates from the third century before ,christ1 is a hymn to ,apollo and the ,muses1 and consists of phrases equal to eighty measures in our modern reckoning4 ,the blank spaces in the measure were filled in by an instrument1 probably the cithara4 ,our knowledge is confined to the treatises of mathematicians and musicians1 previously mentioned1 and these works are often so obscure that there is much uncertainty as to their meaning4 ,besides1 these writings are scattered over a period of about #hjj years2 that is1 from #ehe ,b4 ,c41 the date of ,pythagoras1 to #acj ,a4 ,d41 the date of ,claudius ,ptolemy4 ,numberless changes took place in the art in the course of this long period2 hence the attempt to elucidate a homogeneous system by comparing these writings is about as hopeless as would be the attempt to deduce the modern system of music from the collocation of the works of ,guido and ,hucbald of the #ajth century with those of ,richter and ,prout in the #aith4 ,illustration3 ,music ,,hymn ,,to ,,apollo ,,and ,,the ,,muses4 ,we owe much to the labors of these bygone writers2 in fact1 the ,greek system of music is the foundation upon which the modern system is the superstructure4 ,no attempt will be made here to settle the many disputed points that have puzzled the learned for ten or more centuries1 but a clear and concise account of all that is necessary to an understanding of the place of this system in the historical development of music will be given4 ,formation of the ,greek ,scale4--,the ,greek ,scale was founded on a tetrachord or succession of four sounds1 arranged as follows3 ,e 7half tone7 ,f 7whole tone7 ,g 7whole tone7 ,a ,it is commonly believed that these letters written on the bass staff1 thus3 ,music represent the exact pitch1 as near as may be1 of this tetrachord4 ,in early times the lyre was tuned to these four sounds1 and was called the ,tetrachordon2 that is1 four strings4 ,this gracefully shaped instrument has remained to this day the symbol of music4 ,this limited scale was extended by adding another tetrachord1 which began with the last note of the first tetrachord1 thus3 ,a--,b ,c ,d ,e--,f ,g ,a making a scale of seven sounds1 called the scale of ,conjunct or ,joined ,tetrachords2 also from its seven strings1 the ,heptachord scale4 ,the next step was to take in the limit of the octave4 ,the first way adopted was to raise the highest string a whole tone1 thus making it the octave of the lowest2 the sixth string was also raised a whole tone to make it a whole tone below the seventh4 ,the result was a scale of seven sounds with one degree omitted1 thus3 ,a--,b 7,c7 ,d ,e ,e--,f ,g ,a ,the next form was3 ,e--,f ,g ,a ,b 7,c7 ,d ,e ,it will be seen that in this scale the second tetrachord begins a whole tone above the first1 instead of beginning with the final of the first4 ,it is therefore called the scale of ,disjunct or ,separated ,tetrachords4 ,the missing sound 7,c7 is here added and the octave scale is complete4 ,when the lyre had seven strings1 the middle string1 that is1 the fourth1 counting from either end1 was called ,mese1 which means 8middle02 but this word soon gained a secondary meaning which1 in time1 became the most important1 viz43 ,keynote4 ,the ,lesser ,perfect ,system4--,there was in use at the same time a scale called the ,lesser ,perfect ,system1 which was made from the conjunct seven-note scale by adding another conjunct tetrachord below1 thus3 ,a--,b ,c ,d ,e--,f ,g ,a 7,a7 ,b--,c ,d ,e ,then ,a was added below the first tetrachord to make an octave with the note ,mese4 ,this ,a was the lowest sound admitted in the ,greek ,system4 ,it was the ,romans who gave to this series of sounds the first seven letters of the alphabet1 which they still retain4 ,this octave 7,a to ,a7 is also the origin of our natural minor scale4 ,this ,lesser ,system was the scale used in the ,temple rites4 ,it continued to be used for this purpose long after the system about to be described was invented4 ,the ,greater ,perfect ,system4--,this was made from the disjunct octave by adding a conjunct tetrachord below and one above1 thus3 ,e--,f ,g ,a ,e--,f ,g ,a ,b--,c ,d ,e 7,a7 ,b--,c ,d ,e ,the ,a below was also added1 thus making a scale two octaves in extent4 ,in later times the disjunct tetrachord1 ,b--,c--,d--,e1 was added at the top4 ,this ,e was the highest note admitted in the ,greek ,system2 consequently1 their music never exceeded the limits of two octaves and a fifth1 and the sounds included in these systems were as follows3 ,music3 ,greater ,perfect ,system without ,b ,added ,note ,lesser ,perfect ,system without ,b ,peculiar interest attaches to this series of sounds1 because in the ,middle ,ages they were supposed to be the only sounds admitted by the ,greeks4 ,this accounts for the fact that ,b was the first note that it was considered right to use in two forms4 ,the ,greek ,scales4--,the ,greeks did not by any means confine themselves to these sounds1 but changed the pitch of the starting note just as we do with our scales2 in other words1 both of these systems might be transposed4 ,therefore they not only had all the sounds at command that we have1 but as their scales were 7theoretically1 at least7 tuned acoustically true1 they had a great many more4 ,but their scales were all diatonic 7the scales they called ,chromatic and ,enharmonic will be explained later71 they were all like our natural minor4 ,when they said 8,dorian ,scale0 they meant just what we mean when we say scale of ,d minor2 ,phrygian ,scale meant ,e minor2 ,lydian ,scale1 ,f-sharp minor2 ,mixo-,lydian1 ,g minor4 ,in addition to these four scales there were three that began a fourth below1 one a fourth below the ,dorian1 called the ,hypo-,dorian1 ,a minor2 a fourth below the ,phrygian1 called the ,hypo-,phrygian1 ,b minor2 and a fourth below the ,lydian1 called ,hypo-,lydian1 ,c-sharp minor2 these were the standard scales of ,greek music4 ,these names1 ,dorian1 etc41 were retained in the ,ecclesiastical ,system1 but the mistake was made of supposing that the ,greeks used only the fixed sounds given by the untransposed ,greater ,system4 ,hence the ,church ,dorian has ,b natural1 not ,b-flat2 the ,church ,phrygian1 ,f natural1 not ,f sharp2 and the ,church ,lydian begins on ,f natural1 instead of on ,f sharp4 ,hence1 no two church scales are alike in the positions of the halftones4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,name some of the myths connected with music among the ,greeks4 ,consult a work on mythology4 ,name the musicians and philosophers connected with ,greek music2 arrange them in chronological order1 with dates4 ,state the successive points of development4 ,why do we consider that the history of music as we know it today begins with ,greek music8 ,have we music that belongs to the ,greek period8 ,on what was the ,greek ,scale founded8 ,how was this extended8 ,what name did this form receive8 ,in what respect did the ,disjunct form differ from the ,conjunct8 ,what was the ,mese8 ,what was the ,lesser ,perfect ,system8 ,what was the ,greater ,perfect ,system8 ,what was the highest note used by the ,greeks8 ,what was the lowest8 ,were these systems transposable8 ,what is the meaning of the prefix 8,hypo08 ,,lesson ,,iv4 ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,greeks 7,concluded74 ,the ,greek ,octave ,system4--,so far1 everything is clear enough2 but the next step is not quite so sure4 ,the ,greeks spoke of the ,dorian ,octave1 the ,phrygian ,octave1 and so on2 and the word ,octave1 used in this way1 has been thought to be synonymous with ,scale1 which is doubtful1 for the following reasons3 ,the standard instrument of the ,greeks was the octave lyre4 ,the lowest and highest strings were tuned respectively ,a1 fifth line bass staff1 and ,a1 second space1 treble4 ,music3 ,dorian ,octave4 ,signature ,b ,phrygian ,octave4 ,signature ,f ,lydian ,octave4 ,signature ,f1 ,c and ,g sharps4 ,mizo-,lydian ,octave4 ,signature ,b and ,e flats4 ,hypo-,dorian ,octave4 ,hypo-,phrygian ,octave4 ,signature ,f and ,c sharps4 ,hypo-,lydian ,octave4 ,signature ,f1 ,c1 ,g ,d sharps4 ,these were fixed sounds1 but the tuning of the remaining six strings might be changed at will2 therefore1 a series of sounds belonging to any one of these scales could be made2 and it will be seen1 on examining the following table1 that all the seven scales may be represented without changing the extreme notes1 ,a to ,a4 ,suppose we make the ,b flat4 ,now ,b-flat is the characteristic note of the ,dorian ,scale1 in our term1 its signature4 ,therefore this octave would be called the ,dorian ,octave1 not ,dorian ,scale4 ,we speak of a scale as beginning and ending on its keynote2 if it does not1 we call it a scale passage in such and such a key4 ,the notes marked are the keynotes 7,mese74 ,it will be seen at once that the positions of the halftones differ in each of these octaves4 ,one cannot help feeling a slight suspicion that some confusion between scale and octave had a great deal to do with the growth of the ,ecclesiastical ,scales4 ,one of the latest of the ancient writers on music1 ,claudius ,ptolemy 7about #acj ,a4 ,d471 proposed that all these octaves should be transposed a fourth lower2 this made the ,dorian ,octave ,e to ,e 7all naturals74 ,one result of this change is that many authorities at the present time call this the ,dorian ,scale1 whereas it is evident that it is simply the ,dorian ,octave1 as given above1 transposed a fourth lower4 ,other scales were added from time to time1 called ,hyper-,dorian1 ,hyper-,phrygian1 etc41 a fourth above the standard scales2 but it is very uncertain whether they were in practical use2 they were probably purely matters of theory4 ,characteristics ,attributed to the ,different ,greek ,scales4--,the ,greeks attributed many fanciful characteristics to the various modes or scales1 much as some modern musicians1 ,berlioz1 for example1 do to the different keys4 ,but all seem to have agreed as to the ,dorian4 ,this was considered the true ,greek mode1 and was called severe1 firm and manly1 suitable for martial songs4 ,the ,lydian mode was esteemed to be effeminate1 suited to love songs1 possibly because the ,lydian ,octave corresponds with the scale of ,a major1 and a major scale was not relished by the ,greeks1 any more than it was by the early ecclesiastical musicians4 ,a more probable explanation of this attribution of different characters to the different scales is1 that it was customary to use certain modes for songs on certain subjects1 and the character of the poetry was transferred to the music4 ,the ,greek ,chromatic ,scale differed altogether from what we call a chromatic scale4 ,it was made by lowering the pitch of the fourth and seventh strings above the keynote a halftone4 ,supposing the octave lyre to be tuned to the ,hypo-,dorian ,mode or ,scale1 it would begin and end on the ,keynote 7,mese71 thus3 ,music ,now1 by lowering ,d and ,g we get the following scale3 ,music ,this is the scale that was called ,chromatic4 ,it is said to have been at one time the most popular of all the scales1 a statement we can easily credit1 since it contains in itself the two world-wide five-note or ,pentatonic ,scales1 commonly known as the ,scotch or ,irish ,scales1 the most widely distributed of all scales in ,europe1 ,asia and ,america4 ,music3 ,major pentatonic scale ,minor pentatonic scale ,the ,greek ,enharmonic ,scale4--,the scale called ,enharmonic was made thus3 ,the fourth and seventh strings were lowered a whole tone2 that is1 to the pitch of the second and sixth1 the second and sixth were lowered a quartertone1 thus3 ,music ,c-flat is supposed to be halfway between ,b and ,c2 ,f-flat halfway between ,e and ,f4 ,our modern system does not provide for the notation of quartertones4 ,illustration3 ,,lyre4 ,,cithara4 ,,lydian ,,magadis4 ,greek ,instruments4--,the standard instrument of the ,greeks was the ,lyre4 ,it bore many names1 as ,lyre1 ,tetrachordon1 ,chelys1 ,phorminx1 ,cithara1 etc4 ,there may have been slight differences in the size and the number of the strings1 but great uncertainty prevails on this point4 ,under the name of ,flute 7,aulos7 they seem to have included both ,flutes proper and instruments of the hautboy or clarinet family4 ,these instruments bore a bewildering number of names1 the exact meaning of which is lost4 ,judging from the pictorial representations that remain1 the ,greek instruments were inferior both in variety and extent to those of the ,egyptians4 ,they seem to have made little use of the ,harp1 of which instrument the ,egyptians had a great variety4 ,the ,greeks seem to have used instruments chiefly1 if not solely1 to accompany the voice2 and they appear never to have combined large numbers of instruments for any purpose4 ,even in their tragedies1 which were performed in immense theatres open to the sky1 the ,chorus was limited to fifteen men1 accompanied by two flutes4 ,when accompanying the voice with the lyre they may have occasionally struck the fourth1 fifth or octave of the vocal melody2 but1 in general1 they played the voice part4 ,their most highly developed instrument was a variety of lyre1 the strings of which passed over a bridge placed one-third of the strings' length from the lower end of the lyre1 thus causing the lower part of the string to sound the octave of the upper part4 ,the shorter part of the string was played with a plectrum in the right hand1 the longer part by the fingers of the left hand4 ,this instrument was called ,magadis--from ,magas1 a bridge4 ,the term ,magadize was eventually used to signify playing or singing in octaves1 and was synonymous with ,antiphony4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,flute4 ,,joined ,,flute4 ,,phorbeia4 ,greek ,musical ,notation4--,our knowledge of ,greek musical notation is very defective1 being derived from only four or five specimens of ancient music1 and a few small fragments4 ,they appear to have used a separate notation for each mode1 and these four hymns are apparently all in the same mode1 but authorities differ as to the mode4 ,they used the letters of their alphabet1 both capital and small1 written in various positions1 sometimes upright1 sometimes lying on one side4 ,the notation for the lyre differed from that used for the voice4 ,the letters representing the vocal part were written above the words1 those representing the instrumental part1 below the words4 ,these letters represented the pitch of the sounds1 but not their duration4 ,the duration was regulated by the meter of the poetry4 ,instead of a portion of one of these hymns1 the first three lines of our ,national ,hymn are given as a sample of this notation3 ,r ,r ,r ,r ,r ,r ,my country 'tis of thee1 ,sweet land of liberty1 ,of thee ,i sing4 ,these letters have been interpreted as indicating the following sounds1 the transposed ,hypo-,lydian ,scale in its old form2 that is1 the ,lesser ,perfect ,system with ,g sharp as its keynote4 ,music ,greek ,view of ,harmony4--,the question has been much debated as to whether or not the ,greeks practiced harmony4 ,it seems hardly possible with such a defective notation2 but the best argument against it is1 that there is not a word in any of the extant treatises as to combinations and successions of these combinations1 and it is impossible that any art of harmony should have existed unless some rules for its employment should have been evolved4 ,greek ,terms in ,music4--,the modern terminology of music is largely indebted to the ,greek system1 although many of the words have entirely changed their significance4 ,the word ,music itself1 to the ,greek1 meant the whole circle of the sciences1 especially ,astronomy and ,mathematics4 ,melody meant the rising and falling of the voice in either speaking or singing4 ,harmonia meant rather what we call ,melody than our ,harmony4 ,this latter1 namely1 the sounding together of different sounds1 was called ,symphony4 ,antiphony originally meant singing in octaves1 that is1 men with women or boys4 ,chromatic and ,enharmonic have already been explained4 ,diapason1 now applied chiefly to organ stops1 originally meant the octave2 that is1 8through all40 ,diatonic has nearly retained its original meaning4 ,tone1 ,semitone and ,tetrachord have retained their meaning1 with the exception that in the modern tetrachord the halftone is at the other end4 ,,references4 ,monro4--,the ,modes of ,ancient ,greek ,music4 ,rowbotham4--,history of ,music4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what was the ,greek use of the term ,octave2 8,dorian ,octave10 for example8 ,what change did ,claudius ,ptolemy suggest8 ,what confusion resulted8 ,what is the meaning of the prefix 8,hyper08 ,explain the ,greek ,chromatic ,scale4 ,explain the ,greek ,enharmonic ,scale4 ,what was the standard ,greek musical instrument8 ,what names were given to modifications of it8 ,what instruments were comprehended under the term ,aulos8 ,how were the instruments used in accompanying the voice8 ,what is meant by 8magadizing08 ,give an account of ,greek musical notation4 ,did the ,greeks use 8,harmony0 as we understand that term8 ,name some musical terms that come from the ,greek4 ,berlioz gives the characters of different keys in his book on ,instrumentation4 8,auld ,lang ,syne0 is a pentatonic melody1 scale of ,f1 with fourth and seventh omitted4 ,any series of five notes on the black keys of the piano will make a pentatonic scale1 major character4 ,the language of music was determined by scholars1 hence the use of so many terms with ,greek and ,latin roots4 ,,lesson ,v4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,system4 ,rome the ,new ,centre4--,the ,power that rules in the affairs of men seems to have made provision for the elevation of the whole race by diffusing at intervals of centuries1 the treasures of art1 science and thought accumulated by a nation of unusual power and energy4 ,egypt dominated the northern part of ,africa1 the shores of the ,mediterranean and the western slopes of ,asia ,minor1 and in course of time yielded to the advance of the ,greeks1 but leaving behind1 as a legacy1 much that has had enduring value4 ,what had once been centred in one nation1 under the control of one caste1 the priests1 was spread through much of the known world4 ,greece1 in turn1 shaped the destinies of expanding civilization4 ,in the ,greek social life free art played a great part2 wherever the ,greeks went as merchants and colonists1 they carried with them the principles of ,greek art1 including music4 ,greek musicians were accounted stars of the first magnitude in ,egypt1 in the ,greek colonies of ,italy1 and later in ,rome1 which1 after the fall of ,greece as a political factor1 became the political1 social and artistic centre of the world2 through her conquests and subsequent colonizing diffusing throughout a larger world than ,egypt and ,greece knew1 an increased wealth of thought and action which greatly influenced later generations4 ,rome ,dependent ,upon ,greece4--,the ,romans did not show a native instinct for art4 ,their national qualities were essentially warlike1 and were developed by years of struggle for existence4 ,a people whose organized life was political and martial1 and for so long found expression first in defence1 later in conquest1 would not develop a true art life4 ,as they grew stronger they built up their collections by pillage and by purchase2 they were taught music1 oratory1 architecture1 sculpture by ,greeks who sought the capital of the world4 ,roman nobles imitated ,greek customs1 learned the ,greek language and literature1 cultivated music according to ,greek methods1 used ,greek instruments1 such as the cithara1 lyre and flute1 sang ,greek songs and formed companies of singers and players to furnish entertainment at their feasts and at the public spectacles4 ,the ,roman drama was modified by ,greek principles1 and ,greek actors replaced ,roman artists2 the pantomime was borrowed from ,egypt4 ,music was a favorite distraction in the high ranks of ,roman society1 and men known to history were skilful players or singers--,sylla1 ,flaccus1 ,calpurnius ,piso1 ,titus1 ,caligula1 ,hadrian1 and1 best known of all1 ,nero4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,horn4 ,,syrinx4 ,growth of ,christianity4--,while the ,roman ,empire1 in its turn1 had served the purpose of the ,ruling ,power in the affairs of men1 in secret a new force was gaining strength1 one that was soon to drive pagan arts and pleasures from open cultivation4 ,in the ,catacombs1 in remote sections of the great city1 pursued1 hunted like beasts1 martyrized1 the ,christians clung to their faith with its simple rites of worship1 in which the singing of songs was a marked feature4 ,whence these songs came is by no means certain1 the prevailing opinion being that they were of ,greek origin1 modified by ,hebrew influence4#g ,in the course of years songs were introduced in the ,christian service with no other warrant than that of tradition4 ,during the years of persecution no systematic cultivation of music was possible4 ,later1 when ,constantine accepted the ,cross1 #cbe ,a4 ,d41 and ,christianity had triumphed over ,paganism1 the abuses became such that the ecclesiastical authorities set themselves to the task of reform and of establishing a system of song for the use of the ,church4 ,music3 ,tonus ,peregrinus as a chant ,origin of the ,church ,scales4--,it is absolutely unknown when or by whom the system of scales1 known as the ,church ,scales1 was invented4 ,the latest writer on the ,greek ,system was ,claudius ,ptolemy 7about #acj ,a4 ,d474 ,in #ccj1 ,pope ,sylvester established a school for training church singers1 but we have no information as to the system he employed4 ,the name of ,ambrose1 ,bishop of ,milan 7#ccc-cig71 has for centuries been associated with what are called the ,authentic ,scales1 but there is no valid evidence whatever that he had anything to do with their adoption4 ,the name of ,pope ,gregory 7#edj-fjd7 has also been associated with another set of scales called ,plagal1 with as little authority as in the previous case4 ,there does not appear to have existed any system of notation in the time of ,ambrose or ,gregory4 ,the ,greek notation by letters was forgotten1 and the very insufficient system of notation by ,neumes had not been invented4 ,the only writer of any authority after ,ptolemy was ,boethius1 and he did more to confuse the subject of music than to explain it4 ,foundation of the ,church ,scales4--,but if we know nothing of the inventor of the ,church ,scales1 or of the way in which they grew into their final form1 we are1 nevertheless1 perfectly well informed of the fully-developed system which1 it must be remarked1 grew out of a misunderstanding of the ,greek ,scales4 ,the ,church ,scales were founded on the ,greater ,perfect ,system of the ,greeks1 with this restriction1 namely1 that it was not transposable2 whereas1 we have seen that the various ,greek modes were transpositions of either the ,lesser or ,greater ,systems4 ,music ,this is the series of sounds from which the ,church ,scales were made4 ,none of them might be altered by sharp or flat1 except the ,b in the second octave 7and this was a later addition which was probably owing to a remembrance of the ,lesser ,perfect ,system in which the ,b was flat47 ,the ,greek names were retained for the ,church ,scales1 but as not one of the notes was inflected1 it follows that the halftones occur in different places in every scale4 ,the scales to which these names were given were called ,authentic1 those with the prefix ,hypo were called ,plagal4 ,in the table on the next page1 the ,greek and ,church ,scales1 also the ,greek octaves are given side by side4 ,confusion ,between the ,systems4--,we may gather from this table how the confusion between ,dorian and ,phrygian has arisen4 ,the ,phrygian ,octave is identical with the ,church ,dorian1 and the ,dorian ,octave with the ,church ,phrygian4 ,a proof that the ,church ,scales originated in the way indicated may be found in the fact that the ,church and ,greek ,hypo-,dorian ,scales are identical1 this being the only ,greek ,scale without a sharp or flat4 ,the ,church ,hypo-,lydian was also called the ,ionian ,scale2 its arrangement of tones and semitones is the same as that of the modern major scale4 ,it was not considered appropriate for church music1 being looked upon as soft1 effeminate and lascivious1 by both ,greeks and medival churchmen4 ,music3 ,,greek ,,octaves ,,church ,,scales ,,greek ,,scales ,at the pitch as transposed by ,ptolemy ,phrygian ,octave ,dorian ,dorian ,dorian ,octave ,phrygian ,phrygian ,hypo-,lydian ,octave ,lydian ,lydian ,hypo-,phrygian ,octave ,mixo-,lydian ,mixo-,lydian ,hypo-,dorian ,octave ,hypo-,dorian ,hypo-,dorian ,mixo-,lydian ,octave ,hypo-,phrygian ,hypo-,phrygian ,lydian ,octave ,hypo-,lydian ,hypo-,lydian ,phrygian ,octave ,hypo-,mixo-,lydian ,eight ,modes in ,use4--,the ,church ,scales were numbered from one to eight2 the ,authentic ,scales were given the odd1 and the ,plagal ,scales the even numbers1 thus3 #a4 ,dorian #b4 ,hypo-,dorian related scales4 #c4 ,phrygian #d4 ,hypo-,phrygian related scales4 #e4 ,lydian #f4 ,hypo-,lydian related scales4 #g4 ,mixo-,lydian #h4 ,hypo-,mixo-,lydian related scales4 ,a melody in an ,authentic ,scale had to end on its ,keynote1 but a melody in a ,plagal ,scale ended on the ,keynote of its related ,authentic ,scale4 ,observe that the ,dorian and ,hypo-,mixo-,lydian ,scales are identical2 but while the former had to end on the ,keynote1 ,d1 the latter ended on ,g1 which is the fourth of its scale1 and ,keynote of its related ,authentic ,scale4 ,traces of these ,authentic and ,plagal ,scales may be found in many old folk-songs4 ,thus1 the melody of the 8,last ,rose of ,summer0 begins on the ,keynote1 rises in the course of the melody to the octave1 but ends by falling to the ,keynote2 it is therefore ,authentic4 ,on the other hand1 the melody of 8,robin ,adair0 begins on the fourth below the ,keynote1 rises to its octave1 but ends on the fourth above its initial note and is ,plagal2 thus3 ,music3 ,range ,range ,initial ,final ,initial ,final ,,last ,,rose ,,of ,,summer4 ,,robin ,,adair4 ,the term ,hyper 7above7 was sometimes applied to the ,authentic ,scales4 ,in the ,greek ,system the ,hyper ,scales were the same distance above the standard scales that the ,hypo ,scales were below4 ,although twelve modes were theoretically admitted in church music1 it was for the most part confined to the eight modes given above4 ,the ,dominant4--,in addition to the keynote there was another note in every scale of almost equal importance1 called the ,dominant4 ,this name has been retained in the modern system1 but with a total change of meaning4 ,in the ,church ,scales it meant the ,reciting ,note1 that is1 the note on which the principal part of the words was chanted4 ,in all the ,authentic ,scales but the ,phrygian1 the fifth of the scale is the ,dominant2 in the ,phrygian the sixth is the ,dominant1 because the ,b was a changeable note1 that is1 might be natural or flat4 ,the ,dominants of the ,plagal ,scales are a third below the ,dominants of the related ,authentic ,scales1 except in the ,hypo-,mixo-,lydian1 in which the ,dominant is a second below that of its related ,authentic ,scale4 ,therefore the ,dominant is the sixth of all the ,hypo ,scales1 but the ,hypo-,phrygian and ,hypo-,mixo-,lydian1 in which it is the seventh4 ,hucbald's ,scale4--,two attempts were made in the #ajth century to construct new scales1 first by ,hucbald1 who founded his series of sounds on a tetrachord1 in which the halftone was between the second and third1 thus3 ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,his object seems to have been to obtain a series in which a succession of perfect fourths and fifths might be secured1 for which purpose he made use of the following series of sounds3 ,music ,in the first tetrachord ,b was flat1 in the third natural2 in the fourth1 ,f was sharp4 ,as to the use made of this scale1 little or nothing is known4 ,guido's ,scale4--,the other attempt1 usually attributed to ,guido1 a contemporary of ,hucbald1 resulted in the ,hexachord ,scale 7six-note scale74 ,this scale was formed by adding a whole tone above and below the ,hucbald tetrachord1 thus3 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,to complete the series of ,hexachord ,scales1 another sound was added1 namely3 the ,g below the ,a on which the ,greek scales and their derivatives1 the ,church scales1 began4 ,the first seven letters of the ,roman alphabet were used to name the sounds already in use1 hence to indicate this sound the ,greek letter1 ,gamma1 was adopted4 ,at the same time the syllables ut--re--mi--fa--sol--la were used to name the sounds of every hexachord 7precisely as the movable ,do is used now72 hence this lowest sound was called ,gamma-ut1 corrupted into ,gamut4 ,the sounds in the series were indicated by placing after the letter the syllables that indicated its position in all the hexachords in which it was found1 thus3 ,g ,a ,b--,c ,d ,e ,c ,d ,e--,f ,g ,a #a4 ,gamma--ut4 #b4 ,a--re4 #c4 ,b--mi4 #d4 ,c--,fa--ut1 because ,c is fa in the first1 and ut in the second hexachord4 ,consequently1 to a medival musician1 ,c--fa--ut meant what we would call ,c1 second space bass clef4 ,the following table gives all the ,hexachord ,scales with the names of the sounds4 ,it is of interest because this system of nomenclature persisted long after the one which gave rise to it was obsolete4 ,e la ,d la sol ,super ,c sol fa ,acute ,b mi ,b fa ,a la mi re ,g sol re ut ,f fa ut ,e la mi ,acute ,d la sol re ,octave ,c sol fa ut ,b mi ,b fa ,a la mi re ,g sol re ut ,f fa ut ,e la mi ,grave ,d sol re ,octave ,c fa ut ,b mi ,a re ut ,the ,hexachords in which the ,b was flat were called ,soft 7,mollis72 those in which ,b was natural1 ,hard 7,dura72 the term mollis has been retained in the ,french word ,bemol1 a flat1 and in the ,german name for a minor key1 ,moll4 ,the word dura 7hard7 is also retained in the ,german as a name for the major key ,dur4 ,when the letters were used as a means of notation1 the sound ,b-flat was indicated by the old form of the letter b1 which has been retained as the sign for a flat4 ,this was called ,b rotundum 7round ,b72 when ,b natural was wanted1 a stroke was put on the right side of the 1 called ,b quadratum 7squared ,b71 the sign to this day for a natural4 ,,reference4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what city became the centre of life after ,athens and ,greece fell8 ,what new influence was shaping in the ,roman ,empire8 ,when did music receive official attention and reform8 ,what names are associated with the early history of ,church ,music8 ,on which ,greek system were the ,church ,scales founded8 ,what difference exists between the ,greek and the ,church ,scales as to the positions of the halftones8 ,what is meant by ,authentic and ,plagal8 ,what were the rules in regard to a melody in the ,authentic forms8 ,what ,plagal8 ,give an example of each4 ,what is meant by ,dominant8 ,was the position of the ,dominant the same in each scale8 ,name some variations4 ,what attempts were made to construct new scales8 ,what is meant by 8,gamut08 ,what is meant by ,c--fa--ut8 ,what names were given to the different forms of the ,hexachord8 ,what are the modern meanings of the terms8 ,what is the origin of the flat and natural signs8 ,note the points of similarity and difference in the three scale forms on page #fe in this lesson4 ,as an exercise take well-known airs to see if they are ,authentic or ,plagal4 ,in the 8,taming of the ,shrew10 by ,shakespeare1 is a passage in which reference is made to the names of the notes as found in this lesson4 ,read this passage in class4 ,,lesson ,,vi4 ,,notation4 ,system of ,notation by ,letters4--,the earliest system of ,notation1 attributed to ,boethius1 the ,roman philosopher1 seems to have been the placing of letters over the syllables1 thus3 ,c ,c ,d ,b ,c ,d ,my country 'tis of thee4 ,music3 ,boethius' ,notation ,during the period of history dominated by ,pope ,gregory the ,great1 a change was made in this system by which capital letters1 small letters and double letters were used1 an improvement1 since only the first seven letters of the alphabet were employed1 thus3 ,music ,this system seems to have been used chiefly for theoretic demonstration4 ,these two methods indicated the pitch sufficiently1 but not the duration of the sounds4 ,neumes4--,the next attempt was somewhat of a retrogression instead of an improvement4 ,signs called ,neumes were placed over the words4 ,these signs consisted of points1 lines1 accents1 hooks1 curves1 angles and a number of other characters placed more or less exactly over the syllables to which they were intended to be sung1 in such manner as to show1 relatively1 by the distance above the text1 how much the voice was to rise or fall4 ,they did not indicate absolute pitch or duration4 ,the number of characters in use1 according to manuscripts still preserved1 varied from seven to forty4 ,in later forms they appear in the notation used for the old ,plain ,song melodies 7,gregorian7 which were recalled into general use by ,pope ,pius ,x1 in #aijd4 ,music3 ,neumes4 ,lettres4 fh f gd fff efgfd d g g hg hi h kk hg ef ,notation du treizime sicle4 ,notation moderne4 ,neumes4 ,lettres4 gfg ef hi g g fd f de de c d gh efg f d c dd4 ,notation du treizime sicle4 ,notation moderne4 ,parallel ,lines4--,another plan was to use a variable number of lines1 writing the syllables in the spaces1 thus3 ,illustration ,this clumsy contrivance indicated relative pitch well enough1 but not the key--or the duration4 ,the next step was to use lines--which varied in number--upon or between which the ,neumes1 which gradually changed to square notes1 were written4 ,the pitch was indicated by using a red line for ,f1 and a yellow or green line for ,c4 ,a further improvement was1 to put the letters ,f or ,c and later ,g on one of the lines at the beginning2 the modern clefs are simply modifications of these letters4 ,characters to ,indicate ,duration4--,the honor of suggesting characters to indicate duration is usually attributed to ,franco of ,cologne1 an ecclesiastic who lived in the latter part of the #abth century2 but as in the case of ,gregory and ,guido1 we must believe that his name simply stands as representative of a period4 ,a system is rarely the work of one man1 rather a development from the labor of many4 ,franco's treatise on the subject marked an epoch4 ,up to the end of the #acth century the notes in use were the ,longa1 ,brevis1 and ,semibrevis1 as well as the ,duplex ,longa1 or ,maxima4 ,the smaller values1 the ,minima1 and the ,semiminima first occur about #acjj4 ,about the middle of the #aeth century white notes were introduced in place of certain of the black1 the latter color being reserved only for the smaller note values4 ,the signs underwent some change at this time4 ,maxima1 ,longa1 ,brevis1 ,semibrevis 7our whole note71 ,minima 7half note71 ,semiminima 7quarter71 ,fusa 7eighth71 ,semifusa 7sixteenth74 ,illustration3 ,longa ,brevis ,semibrevis ,duplex ,longa or ,maxima ,minima ,semiminima ,illustration3 ,maxima ,longa ,brevis ,semibrevis ,minima ,semiminima ,fusa ,semifusa ,the ,beginnings of ,harmony4--,our information as to the beginning of ,harmony is very vague and uncertain4 ,as early as the ,saxon times in ,england some rude kind of part singing1 without written rules apparently1 seems to have existed4 ,the first intimations we have of any scientific attempts are ,faburden or ,falsoborden and ,diaphony or ,organum4 ,faburden consisted of singing a melody while another voice sang a drone accompaniment below it2 thus3 ,music ,diaphony or ,organum consisted of a succession of fourths or fifths and octaves1 thus3 ,music3 ,two ,parts ,three ,parts ,it has been denied by some authorities that such a barbarous manner of singing ever existed2 but two considerations have been lost sight of1 in making this denial3 ,first1 the fourth1 fifth and octave were esteemed the only consonances4 ,secondly1 the undisputed fact that as late as the time of ,chaucer1 if not later1 what was called 8discanting quatible0 or 8quinable0 existed2 this discanting was done as follows3 ,the performer while singing a melody accompanied himself on the lute1 playing the same melody a fourth or fifth above4 ,it can hardly be doubted that a style of performance that was esteemed in the #aeth1 was perfectly satisfactory to the ears of the #ajth century4 ,discant4--,another early attempt at harmonic effect was the singing of an extemporaneous part or parts with the melody1 called ,discanting4 ,in course of time the ,discant or ,organum gradually crystallized into rules1 and other intervals were accepted4 ,strangely enough1 dissonances seem to have been admitted with great freedom1 and thirds and especially sixths1 were avoided4 ,the only dissonance that was not allowed was the minor second4 ,the ,new ,organum4--,in the #aath century1 a method of combining sounds1 called the ,new ,organum1 was developed4 ,this kind of ,organum admitted thirds and sixths4 ,the following example will sufficiently illustrate this3 ,music ,measured ,music4--,the next step in advance1 and one that proved very important and far-reaching in its results on the development of music1 was the invention of a notation that indicated1 although not very conveniently1 the relative duration of sounds4 ,thus it became possible to express two or more parts in a permanent form4 ,the plan of this first attempt at a notation by means of which relative duration of notes might be expressed was very complicated4 ,music written with these signs was called ,measured ,music 7,cantus ,mensurabilis74 ,the ,record of ,early ,harmony4--,there are references to the manner of using voices in combination in the writings of several men associated with the ,christian ,church in its early days4 ,censorinus1 who lived in the #c;d century1 makes mention of a practice of using a melody in octaves accompanied by the fifth to the lower note of the octave1 which is also the fourth to the upper4 ,cassiodorus1 in the #fth century1 mentions various ways of accompanying the chant with consecutive fourths and fifths4 ,in a work called 8,sentences ,about ,music10 written by ,bishop ,isidore of ,seville1 who lived in the #gth century1 we read that 8harmony is a modulation of the voice1 the concordance of many sounds and their agreement40 ,in the #ith century we meet with the names of several writers3 ,remi d',auxerre who defines harmony as 8a consonance of voices1 and their union in one group02 ,jean ,scot ,erigene who recognized that the succession of chords composed of octaves1 fifths and fourths is a rational one2 ,odo or ,otger1 a churchman of the south of ,france1 whose work was the first to mark an epoch in the development of the art of music4 ,also another monk1 the ,fleming ,hucbald1 who lived in the #ajth century4 ,they defined consonance and dissonance1 and appear to have been the first to give rules for the construction of ,diaphony4 ,hucbald says in his 8,musica ,enchiriadis03 8,certain dissimilar sounds sung together make an agreeable effect1 and this mingling of voices is sweet to the ear40 ,their immediate successor1 ,guido1 has been credited1 unjustly1 with being the inventor of nearly every improvement in the art up to his time4 ,the old organum closed with his4 ,the earliest writer who treats of the new organum is ,john ,cotton1 in the #aath century4 ,he was the first to promulgate the rule that contrary motion is always to be preferred to similar or oblique4 ,he says3 8,at least two singers are required in diaphony formed from different sounds4 ,while one voice sings a melody1 the other surrounds it with different tones1 and at the end of the phrases the two voices unite at the unison or octave40 ,the fullest development of the new organum was attained in the works of ,guy de ,chalis1 about the close of the #abth century4 ,he gives examples in which we find intervals of the eleventh and twelfth1 a demonstration of the existence of a system differing from the ,gregorian1 which does not exceed the octave4 ,in the same epoch1 ,denis ,lewts1 of ,lige1 a ,carthusian monk1 gives rules to fix the use of accidental signs1 a flat to lower ,b1 a sharp to raise ,f4 ,he speaks of these as if they had been in use for a long time1 and indicated that the idea was to avoid the occurrence of the diminished fifth or the augmented fourth1 known in harmony as the tritone4 ,this process is called ,musica ,ficta1 and formed a part of the instruction of singers4 ,the examples cited by ,lewts conform to this theory1 and show that although in the songs1 motets and other compositions of the period the sharps and flats are not found1 it is because musicians knew the principles and made the application for themselves4 ,instruction in those days was chiefly oral1 a method which placed a premium on a retentive memory4 ,by the time that the #acth century was reached1 musical forms and melodies were widely spread1 and as we look back to the #ith century it is possible to note the gradual development4 ,harmony always existed1 in a limited sense2 but it did not take on a scientific development until the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is to the musicians of this latter period1 from the #acth to the #aeth centuries1 that we must give the honor of having taken the germ of a science of harmony and of having brought it forward to mature development4 ,,reference4 ,williams4--,the ,story of ,notation4 ,,questions4 ,explain the earliest system of notation used for the ,church scales4 ,what was the next improvement8 ,state the defects4 ,what was the system of ,notation by ,neumes8 ,did they indicate absolute or relative pitch8 ,give the successive steps making use of lines4 ,what was the origin of our ,clef signs8 ,who is credited with introducing signs to indicate ,duration8 ,name the signs adopted4 ,compare them to the notes now in use4 ,explain ,faburden2 ,diaphony2 ,organum2 ,discant2 ,measured ,music4 ,who were the early writers on the subject of music8 ,,lesson ,,vii4 ,,music ,,outside ,,the ,,church4 ,up to this1 our study of music in the ,christian ,era has traced the development of the art as fostered by the ,christian ,church1 and mainly among the people of ,southern ,europe1 in whom there was a strong admixture of the ,latin blood and spirit4 ,before going farther on this line we will look into the record of music among the races of ,northern ,europe4 ,music of the ,gauls4--,roman writers give us some account of the character of the music of the ,gauls1 which differed much from the ,greco-,latin songs4 ,roman historians make mention of the songs of the ,gallic bards1 who were poets and musicians as well1 composing both religious hymns and songs in honor of their heroes4 ,according to ,diodorus of ,sicily1 the ,gauls practiced the musical art long before the ,christian ,era1 having regular schools for the instruction of the younger bards4 ,the instrument used in accompanying their songs was a sort of lyre1 judging from representations on some gold medals made in the time of ,julius ,csar4 ,charlemagne ordered a collection of the early ,gallic songs to be made1 but the work has not survived4 ,the ,celtic ,bards4--,the ,breton bards made use of an instrument the name of which is variously spelled ,crouth1 ,crowd1 ,chrotta1 ,crwth1 played with a bow1 with an opening in the upper part through which the performer placed the left hand in order to press the strings1 the number of which varied from three to six4 ,the crouth of the ,welsh bards differed in some respects from those that were made use of by the ,breton bards4 ,with them1 however1 a form of the harp became the national instrument4 ,the early history of ,celtic music in ,wales in particular1 is mingled with myth4 ,we have only the names of bards1 ,fingal1 ,fergus and ,ossian1 no authentic music4 ,what is of importance to us is the secular organization of the bards4 ,one class included poets1 historians and those skilled in the science of heraldry2 another class comprehended musical bards1 harp players bearing the title of doctors of music1 players of the six stringed crouth and singers1 who must have been skilled men1 since nine years' study was exacted of them4 ,illustration3 ,,breton ,,crouth4 ,,lyre 7#i,,th ,,cent74 ,illustration3 ,,irish ,,harp4 ,,english ,,harp4 ,ireland4--,the traditionary bard of ,ireland is ,fergus1 whose songs were of war and heroes4 ,when ,st4 ,patrick introduced ,christianity into ,ireland in the #eth century1 learning and skill in the arts of poetry and music grew to be cultivated as extensively as in more favored lands4 ,in the #ajth century1 the famous musician was the ,king ,o',brien ,boru1 whose harp is still shown in the ,dublin ,museum4 ,this has twenty-eight strings1 and the sounding board1 in which there are four holes1 is very large at the base4 ,after ,ireland was conquered by the ,english its culture declined1 owing to continuous wars and internal strife4 ,scotland4--,the music of the ,scotch1 like the other ,celtic races just mentioned1 is characteristic4 ,their harp was similar in form to the ,irish2 their favorite instrument was the bagpipe4 ,king ,james ,i is credited with having done much to stimulate an interest in music among his subjects4 ,having been a captive in ,england for a period of eighteen years1 he had acquired great skill in music1 which was the solace of his weary hours4 ,according to a contemporary historian1 the king played a great many of the instruments in use in his day3 the bagpipe1 psaltery1 organ1 harp1 lute1 flute and dulcimer4 ,the music of ,scotland makes great use of the pentatonic scales1 and it is likely that the original form of many of the old ,scottish folk-melodies was pentatonic4 ,a characteristic feature of ,scottish music is the so-called 8,scotch snap10 illustrated in the short notes in the familiar air 8,comin' ,thro' the ,rye10 and in the following dance tune3 ,music3 ,,strathspey ,an instrument of so marked characteristics as those displayed by the bagpipe will naturally develop a characteristic style of music4 ,the pipers gave extraordinary study to the mastery of their instrument and noted players acquired wonderful skill4#h ,england4--,until the time of the conquest of ,england by ,william of ,normandy 7#ajff71 music among the ,anglo-,saxons was practiced by the scalds or bards1 minstrels 7also called gleemen71 and the monks in the monasteries4 ,poetry and music were much encouraged by some of the kings and ,alfred the ,great 7#hdi-ija7 was widely famed for his skill in playing the harp and as a singer4 ,in the manuscripts belonging to these early days in ,england we read of such instruments as the psaltery1 the rota1 little harps of eleven strings1 viols1 called fiddles1 citharas1 cornets1 trumpets1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,scandinavian ,,ludr4 ,scandinavia4--,the ,runic style of writing1--which has numerous analogies to the neumes1--used by the northern people1 presents many difficulties in the matter of translation1 so that we have little chance to form an opinion as to the early music of the ,scandinavian races4 ,they have their national poems1 a presentation of their myths in the ,edda1 and the deeds of their great heroes in the ,sagas1 songs which inspired both poets and musicians1 an office most generally found united in one person1 called a scald1 7equivalent to the ,saxon bard74 ,the sagas were sung or chanted by the scalds to the accompaniment of a small harp4 ,in #afci and again in #agcd1 in the duchy of ,schleswig1 horns of pure gold were found which had been used in the worship of ,odin1 covered with ,runic inscriptions1 which have not yet been satisfactorily deciphered4 ,other instruments belonging to this period that have been discovered and preserved in museums are bronze horns somewhat curious in shape1 called ldr4 ,these instruments have been tested by experienced horn players and give forth a fine1 resonant tone4 ,up to the present nothing has been discovered to indicate that the northern races had a system of musical notation2 melodies were undoubtedly transmitted by oral communication4 ,finland4--,the people of ,finland are intensely musical and have many beautiful folk-songs4 ,their national epic is called the 8,kalevala10 and gives the history of the hero1 ,wainmonien1 god of music1 who by the exercise of his art1 became the master of the universe1 analogous to the ,greek myth of ,orpheus4 ,the ,finnish bards used an instrument called ,kantle or ,harpu1 a sort of psaltery with five strings forming the first five notes of the minor scale1 ,g fourth space1 bass staff1 to ,d above4 ,progress in ,southern ,europe4--,as may be gathered from the hasty survey of music among the nations in the west and north of ,europe1 they did not contribute to its growth during the centuries under consideration4 ,it was in the south of ,europe that the forces were forming1 and not in the ,church as heretofore1 but outside1 among the people4 ,we cannot say who composed the songs of the people1 so different in character from the songs of the ,church2 they seemed to spring up spontaneously and were passed from one to another orally4 ,the music of the ,church lacked measure or rhythm1 as we may say1 while the music of the people1 closely associated with dancing1 was rhythmic4 ,in fact1 the scholarly musicians of that period condemned the music of the people because of its marked rhythmic character4 ,on account of the crudeness of the early instruments1 often the lack of them and of competent players1 the people were accustomed to sing to their dancing1 a custom still followed in certain places4 ,the next step was an easy one1 that of making new verses to familiar airs4 ,another factor in spreading music among the people appears in the traveling minstrels4 ,without a fixed residence1 owing allegiance to no lord1 by law1 in many cases1 out of the pale of society1 these free sons of art1 who began to come into prominence in the #aath century1 roved from place to place1 resting for the night in castle1 monastery1 inn or wayside camp4 ,in return for the hospitality freely given1 they sang the songs they learned from each other and in the various lands they visited4 ,their accomplishments in the music line were varied4 ,one1 ,robert le ,mains1 said3 8,i can play the lute1 the violin1 the pipe1 the bagpipe1 the syrinx1 the harp1 the gigue1 the gittern1 the symphony1 the psaltery1 the organistrum1 the regals1 the tabor and the rote4 ,i can sing a song well and make tales and fables40 ,trouvres4--,another influence was also at work1 one that was greatly to affect music1 raising it from the level of common entertainment to an art patronized by the highest social circles4 ,the ,crusades left a permanent influence upon the people of ,europe and upon the institution of ,chivalry1 the knightly singers 7trouvres7 vying with each other in verse and song1 as well as in arms4 ,education took a higher place and schools became more numerous 7#abth and #acth centuries71 and music was given recognition2 this was the case not only in schools connected with monasteries1 but also in the newly established universities1 such as that at ,paris4 ,secular music also had schools1 so to speak1 for1 during ,lent1 when all gay songs were forbidden1 the trouvres and minstrels would stop at some convenient point and teach their songs to all who would learn2 hither the great lords would send the minstrels in their pay to renew their repertoires and learn the songs that were most favored by the polite world4 ,it was not possible that much advance could be made in musical education1 from a scientific side1 for there was no general system of convenient notation4 ,airs were taught by playing them over1 the singer with the ready ear having the advantage4 ,still the efforts and studies made in the monasteries and schools were not fruitless1 although the systems evolved were very complicated1 making the reading of music a difficult matter4 ,the ,music of the ,period4--,it is a fortunate thing for the investigator of the history of music that1 at the present time1 a number of collections of the airs of the #abth and #acth centuries are still in existence2 for example1 in the ,national ,library1 ,paris1 which possesses a number of magnificent manuscripts1 containing songs noted down by the ,french trouvres2 also in the ,library of the ,medical ,school of ,montpelier there is a collection of nearly four hundred songs1 secular and religious1 for two1 three or four voices4 ,the melodic ideas of this period1 as indicated by these manuscripts1 were vague and the rhythms uncertain4 ,yet this music1 barbarous as it appears to us1 was not the product of chance1 as we may think2 it had its rules1 just like the music of today1 the art of composing being called ,discant1 referred to in ,lesson ,,vi4 ,sometimes these singers of the #abth and #acth centuries tried to invent original airs1 very frequently they would take several familiar airs1 two1 three or four and combine them in what seems to us a crude way1 yet in a manner that was pleasing to the hearers of their time4 ,the style of the songs in use varied greatly1 in spite of the poverty of musical resources4 ,in general1 a song for one voice was used only in setting the ,chansons des ,gestes1 ,romances1 ,pastourelles1 ,serventois1 ,lais and ,jeux ,partis4 ,the discant style was used in ,motets1 ,rondeaux1 ,conduits2 according as these latter compositions were for two1 three1 four or five voices1 they were called duplum1 triplum1 quadruplum1 and quintuplum4 ,troubadours4--,the cradle of the ,french troubadours was in ,provence1 the south of ,france4 ,they usually belonged to the nobility1 and1 instead of performing their own pieces1 had them performed by the jongleurs1 only occasionally consenting to sing for some company of high-born nobles and ladies4 ,we mention a few of those who were counted among the troubadours3 ,richard the ,lion-,hearted1 of ,england1 ,count ,william of ,poitiers1 ,rambout1 ,count of ,orange1 ,pierre d',auvergne1 ,pierre ,ramon de ,toulouse1 ,pierre ,vidal1 ,pons de ,capdueil1 poet1 singer and violinist1 ,aimeric de ,pequilain1 ,blagobres1 a virtuoso on all instruments1 ,blondel de ,nesle1 the ,chatelain de ,coucy1 ,thibault1 ,king of ,navarre4 ,clement1 the ,french historian1 gives a list of #bh trouvres of the #acth century1 less prominent socially than those already mentioned4 ,the most celebrated of them and the most important from the historian's standpoint is ,adam de ,la ,hale or ,halle1 born #abdj4 ,he wrote many pieces1 of which we have thirty-three songs1 some rondeaux1 six motets1 some ,jeux ,partis1 among the latter being a work which is regarded as a sort of comic opera1 sometimes called the 8first opera03 8,robin and ,marion02 it consists of dialogue and airs4 ,music3 ,,air ,,from ,,robin ,,and ,,marion4 ,illustration3 ,,instruments ,,of ,,the ,,minnesingers4 ,minnesingers4--,while the trouvres and troubadours were singing in ,provence and in ,france1 an analogous association was forming in ,germany1 to which the name ,minnesingers 7,minne1 old ,german1 8love07 was given4 ,a list of names belonging to the #acth century includes #afb men1 among whom are several occupying thrones4 ,names that have interest for us are ,klingsor1 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach 7author of a poem on 8,parcival071 ,gottfried of ,strassburg 7author of a poem 8,tristan and ,isolde071 ,walter von der ,vogelweide1 the ,chevalier ,tannhaeuser and ,heinrich ,meissen1 called ,frauenlob4 ,richard ,wagner has introduced some of these men in his operas4 ,the versification of the ,minnesingers has been much admired by critics2 it was filled with art as well as beauty4 ,their love themes differed from those of the ,provenal singers in that while the poetry of the latter declared love as a gallant sentiment1 the ,germans gave it a loftier tone by mingling it with the ,madonna sentiment4 ,folk-,song4--,while the ,german nobles were employing themselves in the service of art1 the people were not idle4 ,they had their tunes and their verses4 ,the ,locheimer ,liederbuch 7#adeb71 contains a number of songs1 some of which are undoubtedly very old2 they are melodious1 varied in rhythm and full of nave simplicity4 ,some of them are arranged in the popular three-voice style1 and show correct part leading1 the inclination being toward our major and minor modes instead of the ,church ,modes4 ,illustration3 ,,hans ,,sachs4 ,mastersingers4--,the most noted musical organization among the people was that of the ,mastersingers 7celebrated in ,richard ,wagner's opera72 ,nuremberg1 ,mayence1 ,strassburg and ,frankfort were their centres4 ,the members were organized into a ,guild1 just as was the case in trade affairs2 they had a charter from the ,emperor ,charles ,,iv4 ,their poetry and music were not elevated1 for the members of the ,guild were not of a standing and an education to give them real skill in the fine arts4 ,the records of the ,mastersingers show that the members were principally tradesmen1 such as farriers1 armorers1 locksmiths1 tailors1 cobblers2 yet there were some members who could lay claims to culture and higher standing1 as engravers1 physicians and a few gentlemen of leisure4 ,the most conspicuous of them all was ,hans ,sachs1 the cobbler-poet of ,nuremberg4 ,their works were marked by monotonous melody1 7for the pitch is but little varied7 and a heavy1 clumsy rhythm4 ,to make up for the lack of real artistic idea they were pedantic to an extreme2 composition was hedged about by a multitude of rules1 to which composers must give exact obedience4 ,these rules were given in a code called ,tablatura4 ,they held contests in which the members vied in producing works exemplifying the principles of the organization4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what country in ,europe was inhabited by the ,gauls8 ,where did the ,celts live8 ,what countries did the ,scandinavians inhabit8 ,give an account of their music4 ,describe the work of minstrels1 jongleurs1 trouvres1 troubadours4 ,where did the ,minnesingers live8 ,tell about the ,mastersingers4 ,give the names of minstrels or other singers famous in history4 ,what was the condition of the artisan classes and guilds in the larger ,german cities at this time8 ,if possible1 get the stories of the operas1 8,tannhuser0 and the 8,mastersingers of ,nuremberg0 and read them privately or in the class4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,review ,,of ,,previous ,,lessons4 ,give an idea of the process by which music becomes an art and what the principles of music are4 ,what sciences are drawn upon1 and how1 in the study of the beginnings of music8 ,what countries offer interest to the student of musical beginnings8 ,how are these races related8 ,give a summary of music among the ,chinese4 ,the ,japanese4 ,the ,hindoos4 ,give a summary of music among the ,chaldeans4 ,the ,egyptians4 ,the ,hebrews4 ,what points in common did these races show8 ,give an account of the writers on music among the ,greeks1 and their works4 ,describe the ,scale of ,conjunct ,tetrachords4 ,disjunct ,tetrachords4 ,the ,lesser ,perfect ,system4 ,the ,greater ,perfect ,system4 ,give the names of the various ,greek ,scales4 ,give a summary of the ,greek ,octave ,system4 ,describe the ,chromatic and ,enharmonic ,scales4 ,describe the ,greek musical instruments2 notation4 ,tell the story of music among the ,romans4 ,how did the ,church ,scales originate8 ,state the differences between the ,greek and the ,church ,scales4 ,what is the function of the ,dominant in the ,church ,scales8 ,describe the ,hexachord ,scales and the names of the sounds4 ,describe early systems of notation in music4 ,describe early attempts at ,harmony4 ,what was ,discant8 ,give a summary of the statements of the early writers on the subject of ,harmony4 ,give an account of music among the ,gauls and ,celts1 the ,saxons1 ,scandinavians1 etc4 ,tell about the great song movement outside the church1 minstrels1 etc42 the ,minnesingers2 the ,mastersingers4 ,each of these questions or several together may be made the subject of a written paper1 giving a summary4 ,students should be encouraged to make critical examination of a subject1 to institute comparisons showing progress1 and the steps that mark that progress1 wherein one man has drawn from a predecessor1 wherein new things have been done4 ,,lesson ,,viii4 ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,polyphonic ,,development ,,and ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,polyphonic ,,era4 ,in the ,introduction attention was called to the fact that the labors of musicians to develop an art of music varied between the effort to make artistic use of the material of music1 that is1 to give it definite form1 and to make it express the feelings of mankind2 the first is in the line of construction1 the second1 content4 ,the period we now take up was concerned most deeply1 in its earlier stages1 as we shall see1 with finding adequate and logical principles of construction by which a musical composition of more or less length could be made from a simple musical idea and in which more than one voice could be used4 ,this period should be studied with the greatest thoroughness1 and all possible examples of music of the composers representative of the period should be examined that one may gather a clear idea of the beginnings of composition and the development that shows from one generation to the next4 ,these first gropings after the principles are matters of extreme interest to the musician when he compares the results in the music of the twentieth century4 ,the ,polyphonic and ,monophonic ,styles4--,students frequently express surprise that the complicated polyphonic or contrapuntal system1 which began to take shape in the #aath century1 should appear first1 historically4 ,the pupil in composition begins his studies with the harmonic or monophonic style and is afterwards inducted into the polyphonic style4 ,why did the musical art develop along polyphonic and not on the simpler lines8 ,it is intended that this lesson and those that follow shall show some of the influences that caused the line of development to move in a polyphonic and not in a monophonic direction4 ,one thought is important to note4 ,the elements of the simple1 monophonic style were present in the music of the early centuries1 in the people's song1 principally2 since1 however1 it was the ,church that determined the direction of artistic composition1 the simple1 natural principles of melody-making yielded precedence to a more highly organized1 intellectual process4 ,before taking up the consideration of these matters it is well to get an understanding of the terms ,monophony and ,polyphony4 ,there are two methods of giving harmonic support to a melody3 by adding an accompaniment of chords1 in simple or elaborated form1 or by dividing the notes of the chords among three or more voices1 which notes are sung or played simultaneously with the melody 7an example is furnished by any simple air with accompaniment or a hymn-tune in four parts1 in which the 8air0 or melody is in the soprano72 this is ,monophony1 7monos--,greek for 8one10 phone--8sound072 a second method is to add to the given melody other melodies1 each independent in its movement up and down and in the duration of its successive sounds so far as concerns the movement and duration of the sounds in the given melody4 ,this is ,polyphony 7polus1 ,greek for 8many074 ,relation of ,polyphonic to ,modern ,music4--,the exact relation of the ,polyphonic ,era to modern music has rarely been correctly estimated4 ,writers on this phase of the development of music are apt to lose themselves in wonder on noting the scientific growth of the art1 and to express their great surprise that so peculiar an evolution should occur4 ,this view of the question is totally inadequate4 ,in order truly to estimate the value and influence of the period1 it is necessary to inquire into the properties of the materials of musical construction which were developed1 and the value of those materials as a foundation for the modern structure of music1 apparently so different from the early forms1 but yet so intimately related to these forms4 ,polyphonic music presents to the student so complex a form as to require the aid of material imagery in order to help the mind to a proper conception of it4 ,perhaps no more misleading idea has been advanced than that which makes use of the ,gothic cathedral as an illustration of polyphonic form4 ,it is true that in its multiplicity and yet inter-relation of details the cathedral expresses one of the dominant ideas of polyphonic music2 but here the likeness fails4 ,a nicer perception of the subject may be gained by comparing polyphonic music to the foundation of a ,gothic cathedral1 strong and massive in construction1 of utmost need to the permanence of the building1 but entirely lost sight of in a general view of the whole structure2 the importance of the comparison being the likeness of the complex and highly-developed superstructure to monophonic or modern music1 seemingly so independent of what lies beneath1 but in reality1 dependent upon1 and intimately connected with the established basis4 ,only in this way can we apprehend the real value of the polyphonic foundation to our superstructure of modern music2 but for that foundation our modern music must have remained in its infancy for centuries to come4 ,no freedom of artistic expression can be gained until absolute command of the material to be used has been obtained1 and the principles thoroughly assimilated by the artist4 ,polyphony and ,monophony ,contrasted4--,in the concrete1 polyphonic music may be represented by a series of lines representing separate and distinct melodies2 though a principal melody is always used1 it is not supported by chords of harmonic structure but by other melodies1 or transpositions of the same melody1 so used as to contrast with and support each other4 ,polyphonic music was essentially melodic1 and1 as has been very aptly stated1 is to be thought of horizontally4 ,monophonic music might best be represented by one horizontal line supported at intervals by short1 perpendicular lines4 ,in this case the horizontal line represents the only distinct melody1 and the perpendicular lines the subordinate or harmonic support or accompaniment4 ,the following example illustrates the process of using the same melody to furnish the principal idea and also the accompanying support1 the latter being at the same time simply a transposition of the original melody4 ,music3 ,lento #ast ,voice #b;d ,voice #c;d ,voice ,polyphonic ,style4 ,bach ,fugue4 ,subject 7or melody7 enters in measure one2 again1 transposed to the fourth below in measure three1 and one octave below in measure ten4 ,enough is cited to show the horizontal structure of polyphonic music4 ,to present the idea more clearly and for the sake of contrast1 a melody with accompaniment is shown in the next illustration1 giving a single melody with the subordinate chord accompaniment1 the chords in whole notes indicating the harmonic structure or basis4 ,music ,beethoven1 ,op4 #bd1 ,monophonic ,style4 ,sonata for ,violin and ,piano4 ,melody enters in measure one with subordinate accompaniment4 ,search for ,structural ,principles4--,while this question of the relation of polyphonic music to modern music may not apply to the first step in the development of the polyphonic style1 yet it furnishes a preface to a discussion of the earliest stages of polyphonic evolution4 ,the period preceding the year #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 was truly a period of fundamental research into the underlying principles of melodic and harmonic structure2 but so crude and hesitating was the use of what was found that it is certain that polyphonic material was entirely misused until the birth of 8measured music0 dispelled this darkness by the enlightening influence of ,proportion and ,form4 ,so many forms of musical growth1 such as came in later years1 were impossible without the mensural proportion1 that is1 music written so as to indicate duration1 that this initial period gathered but a chaotic mass of musical material which was left undigested and unassimilated until the epoch of the ,paris school4 ,beginning of ,polyphony in ,greek ,magadizing4--,the music of the ,middle ,ages has great interest for the historian and the student4 ,it stands between our music and the music of the ancients2 it drove its roots deep into the ancient time and extended its branches far into the contemporaneous epoch4 ,it is the struggle between the two elements1 the changes foreshadowed and apparent that give such interest to the history of music in the ,middle ,ages4 ,polyphonic music was long in growing4 ,to understand clearly1 one must examine it from its very beginning in ,greek magadizing1 referred to in ,lesson ,v4 ,music for many centuries was1 in all its most important phases1 entirely vocal4 ,the ancients1 probably because of the crude forms of their instruments1 valued the human voice as the most suitable means of expressing the feelings through music1 thus causing the peculiar phenomenon of the extremely late development of dissonances4 ,while instruments can easily perform even the harshest of the dissonances1 it is almost impossible for untrained voices to sing other than the more simple consonances4 ,for this reason1 the dependence on the voice as practically the only medium for the expression of musical ideas forced the cultivators of music to use the simple consonances of the octave1 fourth and fifth4 ,in its earliest stages music was entirely melodic and was limited to the use of one distinct melody1 so that1 no matter how many were singing1 but one melody was employed4 ,soon arose the problem of accommodating the voices of boys and men to the same melody4 ,it was manifestly impossible to have men and boys sing in unison1 because of the difference in the compass of their voices2 so the ,greeks hit upon the plan of causing them to sing in octaves1 a plan which science sanctioned1 for had not ,pythagoras proven that the octave1 after the unison1 was the most perfect consonance8 ,this the ,greeks called ,magadizing4 ,why the ,greeks1 knowing as they did the other consonances1 did not magadize in the fourth and fifth cannot be explained2 the only argument that can be advanced is1 that their melodies were so limited in range that the voice of any man1 whether tenor or bass1 could without difficulty reach the highest or lowest tones of a melody in unison4 ,while magadizing among the ,greeks cannot be counted as a great advance toward the realm of polyphony and harmony1 yet it was the first important step in the evolution1 and as such1 is important4 ,so far1 the voices singing simultaneously1 though at a different pitch1 and moving together in similar time values1 followed monophonic methods4 ,organum the ,next ,step4--,further development did not take place until the destruction of ,greek civilization had occurred and a sufficient lapse of time had allowed the ,christian ,church to establish itself3 in a religious sense1 in the hearts of the people1 and in a permanent sense1 by building churches and monasteries4 ,in these monasteries we find the next great advance in magadizing1 though now under the name of ,diaphony or ,organum4 ,the musical learning of the time was painfully inadequate for the uses to which it was put4 ,there remained in existence only a few of the ,greek scientific scales1 and those woefully distorted in form2 no simple notation or musical literature2 and in all probability1 only a tradition in regard to the melodic construction and magadizing4 ,perhaps this was just as well1 however1 for the problem confronting these monks differed greatly from that solved by the ,greeks4 ,in the monasteries only men's voices were used1 and these without special regard to the compass4 ,the problem was this3 ,given a melody to sing1 using men's voices of every range1 from high tenor to low bass1 without using independent parts4 ,the difficulties were two in number3 they had no conception of independent parts1 and their melodies were of greater range than those of the ,greeks1 thus forbidding the practice of singing entirely in the octave or unison4 ,the solution was reached in the following way1 as indicated in the preceding lesson3 ,if the octave1 unison1 fourth and fifth were consonances1 why not sing in the fourth and fifth as well as in the unison and octave8 ,they had as yet no idea of singing two distinct melodies at the same time1 but thought only of singing the same melody in the most consonant or agreeable manner4 ,the result was music which sounded like the following example2 while it was crude and harsh1 it gave every monk opportunity to sing simultaneously the same melody1 no matter what the range of his voice3 ,music ,about the close of the ninth century1 as we learned in ,lesson ,,vi1 at the time of ,otger or ,odo1 an abbot of ,provence1 in ,france1 organizing had so developed as to be written for as many as four parts1 using1 however1 only the perfect consonances1 as the next example will show4 ,in reality there are but two parts1 as the two lower voices double the upper4 ,music ,secular ,organum4--,the most remarkable advance is shown in a form called ,secular ,organum1 probably because of some relation to the ,folk-song and the common people4 ,this form showed the use not only of perfect consonances but of the imperfect consonance of the third2 and1 wonderful to relate1 of a second1 though only in a passing sense4 ,that such a discord should be used is a remarkable commentary on the inherent sense of harmony which seemed to exist naturally1 even at that early day4 ,this form may have had its germ in the drone bass supplied by the bagpipe1 which figured in the music of the people4 ,music ,example of ,secular ,organum showing use of third and second4 ,the ,workers4--,two men1 as was shown in the preceding lesson1 were instrumental in remarkably furthering this growth of music4 ,hucbald1 of ,st4 ,amand1 in ,flanders1 was born in #hdj ,a4 ,d4 and died in #icj4 ,he was a friend of ,otger of ,provence1 and it is through the latter that some of ,hucbald's work is preserved4 ,hucbald probably never wrote in organum of more than two parts1 though mention is made of an organum credited to him and having in addition to the two voices1 a third singing a pedal-point1 or a bass on one single tone4 ,his principal work is a manuscript on organum1 a work of great reference value4 ,guido of ,arezzo1 born #iij1 died #ajej1 is of even more importance4 ,unlike ,hucbald and ,otger1 he seems to have been more than a secluded monk1 for he visited ,rome and was a well-known figure in the church4 ,he was a most active teacher1 and while his chief work was in developing notation1 he nevertheless contributed important material in the form of organum1 writing in as many as four parts1 though in respect to the use of the less perfect consonances he was very little freer than ,hucbald4 ,a short example1 extracted from an #aath century three-part composition1 is given here as a specimen of the combinations and successions that were tolerated by the ears of the ,middle ,ages1 and to show the tendency toward greater freedom in the direction of the motion of the parts1 pointing toward those principles which later formed the science of ,counterpoint4 ,music3 ,,tenor 7sounds lower octave7 ,,tenor 7sounds lower octave7 ,,bass ,several interesting points may be seen in this barbarous composition3 ,first1 the imitation by the second tenor of the phrase given by the first tenor4 ,this is evidently intentional1 as this phrase occurs three times in the course of the composition and is imitated in the same way every time4 ,this same phrase occurs near the end of the bass part 7which is the theme or ,cantus7 and it may have been chosen for this very reason for use in the ,discant parts4 ,secondly1 the initial and final chords1 viz43 root1 fifth and octave--are familiar to all students of ,strict ,counterpoint4 ,writers as late as ,cherubini call this combination the best for beginning and ending ,three ,part ,counterpoint4 ,development ,determined by the ,church4--,the ,church and its beliefs were responsible for this singular yet not illogical development4 ,considering the peculiar monastic conditions1 the evolution could not be expected to occur along lines which it would have taken had it been developed among the people and under the influence of the ,folk-song4 ,the learning of these monks was largely in church lore1 and this1 with a desire for a peculiar church music1 led to the discarding of the natural and vivacious melodies and rhythms of the people1 for the scientific and ascetic music and discipline of monastic religion4 ,the one great advantage of this period to modern music was the constant association with the principal intervals of the scale2 an association which may be partially responsible for our modern ,tonic and ,dominant harmonies4 ,on the whole1 this period represents the marking out of the lines of musical development for the eight centuries following1 though the men responsible for this beginning could hardly have known or appreciated the impetus which was to be given polyphonic music by the invention of their simple devices to accommodate voices of different compass and to secure concerted singing4 ,,references4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on ,harmony1 ,schools of ,composition1 and ,organum4 ,hope4--,medival ,music4 ,williams4--,music of the ,ancient ,greeks4 ,hymn to ,apollo4 7,note small compass of the melody47 ,rowbotham4--,history of ,music4 ,chapter on 8,music in the ,monasteries40 ,dickinson4--,history of ,music in the ,western ,church4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what is meant by ,monophony8 ,polyphony8 ,make an analogy between ,polyphonic music and ,architecture4 ,contrast ,polyphony and ,monophony by the use of lines4 ,what was the nature of the researches in music before #ajjj ,a4 ,d48 ,how did the ,greek magadizing influence musical development8 ,what is ,organum8 ,secular ,organum8 ,who were the prominent musicians of this period8 ,how did the ,church influence musical development8 ,the teacher or one of the pupils may give a summary of the ,gothic style of architecture4 ,another pupil may give the most noted historical events coinciding with this period2 also historical characters4 ,scholarship was cherished principally in the ,church and in the monasteries1 hence the predominance of ,churchmen in the early history of music4 ,hucbald lived during the time of ,alfred the ,great2 ,guido died #af years before the battle of ,hastings 7#ajff74 ,a useful device in fixing the details of a lesson is for the teacher to arrange that the pupils shall question him1 the questions to be of such a nature as to show that they know the lesson thoroughly4 ,,lesson ,,ix4 ,,the ,,paris ,,school4 ,influence of ,art on ,music4--,all of the fine arts1 with the exception of ,music had1 by the year #aajj1 reached a fairly high stage of development due1 no doubt1 to the fact that they are to a great extent composed of concrete materials4 ,music1 owing to its lack of the concrete and the inability of men literally to place their hands upon its material1 had lagged behind1 so that in #aajj we find only a small amount of material1 and that in a most chaotic condition4 ,this material was1 however1 sufficient to produce definite musical forms if united into a homogeneous whole2 such a state1 however1 could be produced only as the result of some great influence which would galvanize the component parts into action4 ,fortunately1 there was just such an influence1 one which had passed through an evolution similar to that needed in music1 though because of its more concrete form and its necessity to man1 this evolution had occurred at a proportionately earlier date4 ,this influence was an art form1 a phase of architecture known as the ,gothic4 ,gothic architecture was a form built up by the unifying of the principal styles of architecture into one uniform whole1 and composed of a multiplicity of details1 but of such evident relation to each other as to make a distinct art form4 ,this form was first used in ,paris about the year #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 ,music was1 approximately1 in the same condition as ,architecture before the birth of the ,gothic principle1 and needed a stimulus1 a comrade art undergoing much the same evolution1 to start it on its path of polyphonic development4 ,in the year #aajj musical chaos became united into one uniform art by means of ,measured ,music or ,proportion1 thus allowing the systematizing of the mass of then existing material1 and the construction of definite art forms4 ,since ,architecture had undergone just such a change one century before1 it is more than probable that the effect of this change was the starting of a similar one in ,music1 though the result was not to show until one hundred years after its occurrence in the kindred art4 ,paris the ,centre of ,europe4--,it was natural that these two great changes should take place in ,paris1 at that time the centre of wealth and learning for all ,europe4 ,paris1 in addition to its many other advantages1 had long possessed a great university which had produced many scholars and theologians4 ,the influence of the ,church in all art was then paramount1 for all art was employed in the service of the ,church2 ,architecture gave to the ,church its ,gothic cathedrals2 ,painting and ,frescoing its marvelous interior decorations2 while ,music made possible the richer forms of the service or liturgy4 ,in that sense the ,church1 in its centre of theological study1 would undoubtedly react on the practice of music and produce more beautiful forms for the service4 ,in this period it is worthy of note that all the famous musicians1 as before1 were monks1 or men employed in the ,church1 and the reason for this condition is plain3 there was no art of music outside of the ,church4 ,measured ,music4--,just as the use of many voices produced singing in parts1 so did it produce ,measured ,music4 ,to make it possible to use more than two parts at the same time it was necessary to have some definite agreement as to the value of the notes1 in order to have certain uniform times for beginning1 ending and performing the different portions of a composition agreeably2 and so ,measured ,music was born4 ,it may be said here that the different metrical divisions were not shown by means of bar lines as we now use them1 but by different groupings of the notes1 the time value of each depending on its relative position to the others4 ,perhaps of all forms produced by this system1 the ,organum ,purum was the earliest and most peculiar4 ,it consisted of a ,cantus ,firmus set to words1 and metrical in form2 a second voice freely extemporized a higher part1 evidently the only rule being that the two finish together4 ,at a late date1 strict ,discant sometimes alternated with the old ,organum1 making it much less free in character4 ,the ,important ,forms4--,in reality1 the important forms produced were entirely in strict metrical divisions4 ,of these1 the most important were the so-called strict ,organum1 the ,conductus1 the ,roundel and the ,motet4 ,of the strict ,organum very little is known1 excepting that it was a strictly metrical form1 differing1 in that sense only1 from the ,organum ,purum2 it had also words for all parts and not only for the ,cantus ,firmus1 as had the older forms4 ,the ,conductus1 from the ,latin conducere1 to conduct1 was important1 and was a secular form having as its basis a popular melody or a newly invented one1 secular words and much freer intervals than church compositions4 ,each part was expected to be melodious2 and it varied from two to four in the number of voices used4 ,it was sung during a march1 a funeral cortge or procession4 ,music ,conductus for three voices showing that each part is a distinct melody4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,roundel1 from an historical view-point1 was the most important form1 for in it much use was made of ,imitation4 ,it can best be explained in the words of ,walter ,odington1 a theorist of the time3 8,let a melody1 with or without a text1 in one of the regular modes of rhythm1 and as beautiful as possible1 be devised1 and let each voice sing this in turn4 ,and at the same time let other melodies be devised to accompany it in the second and 7if there be three voices7 in the third voice2 let them proceed in consonances1 and so that when one voice ascends another descends1 and let the third not follow too closely the movement of either of the others1 except perhaps for the sake of greater beauty4 ,and let all of these melodies be sung by each voice in turn40 ,while the use of ,imitation is important in that it recognizes the repetition of a set phrase as an aid to ,unity1 its importance is detracted from1 at least at this period1 because it was not used in any of the other forms then in vogue4 ,music ,roundel for three voices showing ,imitation4 ,there are six distinct melodic phrases1 and by numbering these wherever they appear1 the ,imitation can readily be observed4 ,imitation a ,means of ,securing ,unity4--,an art form must submit to the laws of the human mind1 which demand that a work of art shall show three principles3 ,unity1 ,variety or ,contrast and ,proportion or ,symmetry4 ,the problem set before the old composers was to produce musical works which should exhibit obedience to the canons of art as determined in the sister arts which had already reached great perfection4 ,unity in a musical work means that it is a development of one central thought1 in elaborate works1 of several leading ideas4 ,the germ of a musical composition is in the ,theme4 ,the composer's problem is to elaborate a piece of some length from this ,theme1 in that way to secure ,unity of idea4 ,if he were limited to writing in one part1 he would be compelled to repeat the ,theme a number of times1 either on the same or on a different degree4 ,when he must write for three or more voices the problem becomes more complicated4 ,let us imagine a composer of the #abth-century at his work4 ,he has a theme to use1 like the one in the example at the end of the preceding paragraph1 which he is to use in three parts4 ,from the composers of the preceding centuries he received the principle of transposing the theme a fourth or fifth or octave higher or lower1 thus singing the same melody simultaneously at different pitches2 but this he rejects as crude2 he has passed that stage and wishes to use a newer1 more advanced method4 ,obviously his recourse will be to let each of the other two voices sing the opening theme successively at the same pitch4 ,to stop with this change would result only in three successive repetitions of the opening theme2 so he makes the second and third voices sing the phrases used by the first voice after the first theme has been given1 which serve as an accompaniment to the second and third entries of the first theme2 thus all the voices sing the various phrases1 at different times and in different successions1 as shown by the numbering of the phrases4 ,in later times the principal phrases were sung successively and transposed at the same time4 ,this principle of ,imitation is the very foundation of the later complicated polyphonic system4 ,the ,motet4--,in the form of the ,motet we note many peculiarities4 ,each voice had different words1 though the ,tenor or foundation of the composition used but one single word throughout2 also1 the ,tenor was composed of a certain metrical and melodic figure closely adhered to and built up out of some popular song4 ,the words and the form were sacred in that they were used in worship4 ,the ,men of the ,time4--,there are many men who wrote in these forms but it is only necessary to examine those of importance4 ,franco of ,cologne 7#aaej-abbj71 7dates disputed71 an organist1 was probably the pioneer in the adoption of ,measured ,music4 ,he first advocated the use of triple meter and classified the dissonances of major and minor thirds and sixths4 ,he used his influence against the use of consecutive fourths and fifths1 and for the use of contrary motion4 ,the result is in many ways shown in the following example3 ,music ,leonin 7about #aadj7 and ,perotin 7his pupil7 were organists at ,notre ,dame in ,paris4 ,the former was noteworthy in the reform of notation1 while the latter is known principally for his use of crude ,imitation1 and a tendency not to use consecutive fourths and fifths1 though he never entirely succeeded in eradicating them4 ,franco of ,paris 7#aaej------71 often confused with his namesake of ,cologne1 was a theoretician1 improved notation1 and wrote a treatise on ,mensural ,music4 ,jean de ,garlande 7#aagj-abe--7 not only wrote a very valuable treatise on ,mensural ,music1 but was also a composer of note2 his writings contained specimens of ,double ,counterpoint1 though probably used without the intention of producing them4 ,jerome de ,moravie 7#abfj7 wrote a scholarly treatise on ,discant1 and such was his ability that he illustrated it with his own compositions1 making it one of the most valuable reference works in existence4 ,it is worthy of mention that all of these men were churchmen in the sense that their work was all done in1 or with the approval of1 the ,church1 and was therefore influenced by the peculiar beliefs and customs then obtaining in that institution4 ,this point must ever be kept in mind1 for any prolonged contact with ,folk-music must have changed the entire development of the art2 therefore we must regard the ,church as the dominant influence of early music4 ,summary4--,the work of this period can hardly be over-estimated4 ,first we see the influence of the ,gothic in architecture1 producing a corresponding unity in music2 a unity which was concomitant with ,measured or ,mensural ,music4 ,we next see the attempt to combine metrical with unmetrical forms in the ,organum ,purum1 and the final result in the strict form of ,organum4 ,then we note the freedom shown in the ,conductus1 ,roundel and ,motet1 as well as freedom in the use of more pleasing intervals1 with the tendency to eradicate consecutive fourths and fifths2 the use of contrary motion instead of parallel1 and the consequent melodic freedom of the voices1 and finally the use of ,imitation1 though perhaps unintentionally1 except in the ,roundel4 ,this period then marks the acquisition not only of new intervals1 new forms1 new styles of melodic writing1 imitation1 measured music and simple counterpoint of note against note1 but also forms the foundation for a rapid development by bequeathing to the ,gallo-,belgic ,school a wealth of material1 bound up with rules and only half-suspected as to its value1 it is true1 but broad and firm enough to sustain a mighty structure of true ,polyphonic ,music4 ,,references4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 ,article on ,schools of ,composition1 section relating to early ,french music4 ,hope4--,medival ,music4 ,technical ,explanation of ,mensural ,music4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i1 pages #gd-chh4 ,technical explanation of measured music4 ,luebke4--,history of ,art1 for an account of ,byzantine1 ,romanesque and ,gothic ,architecture4 ,guizot4--,history of ,france1 for an account of ,paris in #aajj1 with a statement of manners and customs4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,how did art influence music8 ,what made ,paris the centre of ,europe8 ,what was ,measured ,music8 ,what forms of music were developed in this period8 ,explain them4 ,why is ,imitation a logical process toward securing ,unity in musical construction8 ,who are leading composers of this period8 ,what are the successive steps of development as shown in this period8 ,the historical period corresponding with this lesson extends from the death of ,william ,rufus1 son of ,william the ,conqueror1 to the death of ,richard the ,lion-,hearted1 and includes the ,crusade in which that hero was the principal figure4 ,it will be remembered that ,richard was a great patron of minstrelsy4 ,,lesson ,x4 ,,the ,,gallo-,,belgic ,,school4 ,a ,new ,art ,centre4--,the development of any art1 and more especially ,music1 requires the dominance of wealth1 learning and general civilizing forces1 to form an epoch-marking school4 ,paris for a time satisfactorily filled these conditions1 and then gave place to a school1 stronger and better equipped3 that of the ,netherlands4 ,there were several reasons for this change in the centre of musical activity4 ,so long as ,paris was dominant in wealth and civilization1 and so long as she maintained her supremacy in the intellectual fields of the ,church and university1 so long did she retain the centre of culture2 but when her wealth became such as to produce degeneracy in the taste for pure art1 and love of show rather than real worth became predominant1 then her native pupils began to lose their intellectual strength1 and the pupils from foreign countries began to furnish the real culture4 ,the establishment of the ,papal ,see at ,avignon in the south of ,france doubtless contributed to the supremacy of ,france in music and the liberal arts4 ,when the ,see was restored to ,rome1 in #acgg1 ,paris and her school of music were relegated to the background4 ,from this period on it was but a matter of time for these pupils to carry the centre of musical culture from ,paris to a place possessing a foundation for musical growth1 and a greater number of strong minded scholars1 and where political conditions were favorable4 ,the ,netherlands surpassed ,paris in all of these important particulars1 though not at the time when the ,paris ,school ceased to be of importance4 ,there was a school of transition which filled the space left between the important work of ,paris and the supremacy of the ,netherlands2 that school was the ,gallo-,belgic1 located northeast from ,paris on the borderline between ,france and ,belgium1 ,tournay being the centre4 ,the school at ,paris was occupied in acquiring material for use2 the school of the ,netherlands developed polyphonic music emotionally2 the step from acquisition to arrangement of material was necessary before emotional development could occur1 and that was the work of the ,gallo-,belgic ,school4 ,this school was located in the country of ,hucbald and ,odo1 who had built up there1 a little while before1 a system of music which was the foundation of the polyphonic style1 and which had prepared the people for a culture of greater value and importance4 ,thus we see that musical development followed the line of greatest preparation1 and utilized the preparatory work furnished by these two men4 ,and finally1 it was a direct step toward the ,netherlands which were even then beginning the struggle in which they were victorious1 for supremacy in commerce1 art1 and music4 ,contribution of the ,paris ,school4--,when the ,paris school ceased to be of utmost importance to the world of music it had bequeathed to the later schools ,measured ,music1 and its forms of ,organum1 ,motet1 ,conductus and ,roundel1 and the use of certain not unpleasing intervals1 though occasional consecutive fourths1 fifths1 and octaves appeared4 ,it was1 then1 the business of the ,gallo-,belgic school to refine these intervals1 develop measured music1 and so improve and develop these old primary forms1 eliminating some and evolving others1 as to give the school of the ,netherlands1 one century later1 forms pleasing in intervals and of sufficient unity and design to afford opportunity for the infusion of the emotional4 ,in the matter of intervals much was done to develop and use the old ones1 excepting the consecutive fourths and fifths which were abolished never to appear again1 and many new1 or previously unused intervals1 were made use of4 ,in the matter of forms1 we hear no more of the crude ,organum and ,conductus1 but a little about the ,motet1 and nothing at all in regard to the ,roundel1 as such4 ,it is1 however1 due entirely to this last form that polyphonic music developed2 though we hear no more of the ,roundel1 we do hear much in regard to the ,canon1 and the ,canon was but a highly developed species of the ,roundel4 ,imitation and the ,canon4--,the use of ,imitation1 as we have seen1 gradually became more and more important4 ,the old monks1 in the very beginning1 imitated melody in the fourth and fifth2 at the time of the ,paris school these melodies were combined with new ones making ,imitation with more than one melody1 though the melody underwent no real organic development4 ,now we see in the inception of the ,canon a development of real ,imitation of only one melody1 but given ,variety by use of the devices of ,inversion1 ,augmentation1 ,diminution1 etc4 ,and not only did this occur in the ,canon1 but we find it also in the other forms1 in a freer style1 adding materially to the ,unity4 ,imitation is the foundation principle of polyphonic music1 and this principle was present in the crude efforts of the old monks1 in the more intelligent efforts of the ,paris school1 and now for the first time1 receives1 in the ,gallo-,belgic school1 a partial recognition of its real value1 and a commensurate use4 ,music ,naumann1 ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #cae1 extract from a chanson by ,dufay4 ,figure #a shows the principal melody1 figure #b shows the same at the fifth below4 ,the entire chanson is quoted in ,naumann with the various imitations fairly well marked2 the student should refer to it4 ,the ,value of ,imitation4--,we must understand1 however1 that mere ,imitation is in itself not a remarkable phenomenon4 ,we imitate1 more or less unconsciously1 in all arts1 and even in our daily habits2 but this would be of no lasting importance did we not take that imitation as a foundation for future development1 as did the composers of this school4 ,and in these polyphonic schools the imitation was unintentional1 as a definite aid to the structure of a musical idea1 until it was seen that the imitation must be confined to one definite idea or melody4 ,it was then that the original treatment of melodic development began1 and the various devices for developing a melody1 without changing its organic structure1 inaugurated4 ,this marked the beginning of a school of musical art1 a school of definite1 and not chance evolution2 or in other words1 arrangement and development of the earlier acquired ideas4 ,a ,technical ,principle4--,a little consideration will show how the principle of ,imitation was developed4 ,the first step was to imitate a melody at a lower or higher pitch and sing the two or more versions simultaneously2 the next step was to bring in the second and other imitating voices successively1 at the same or different pitch2 thus making the imitation more prominent4 ,so long as composers confined their efforts to using fixed melodies1 they could not go far4 ,when they began to adapt well-known melodies and later to invent their own it became possible to make a lengthy work1 this leading to a composition in which each of the accompanying voices imitated the first2 sometimes only two voices used imitation1 the other having a somewhat free part4 ,a next step was to vary the imitation1 by changing the motion of the imitating part2 if the melody moved up1 the imitating part moved downward and vice versa2 sometimes the movement was reversed1 the imitation beginning with the last note of the phrase and proceeding to the first2 sometimes it was made in notes of smaller value 7diminution71 sometimes in larger 7augmentation74 ,these and other devices were experimented with and worked out by the ,gallo-,belgic composers4 ,one readily sees that this is intellectual work1 that it puts a premium on cleverness and lays expression aside4 ,yet the technic of an art must first be acquired and the composers of this period were doing this in working out a system of technic in composition with ,imitation as the foundation4 ,music ,illustration from ,naumann1 8,history of ,music10 page #cba1 ,vol4 ,i1 showing at #a and #b the principal melody and its imitation1 and at #c1 imitation and inversion4 ,the student should examine the entire example in ,naumann4 ,the ,work of the ,gallo-,belgic ,school4--,we note that many of the new ideas came into being at this time1 all of them1 however1 tending toward the arranging of material or the preparing of it for the emotional style4 ,the ,canon1 and the principle of ,imitation1 developed a set of strict rules which tended to produce more adequate command of material and assisted in shaping the ,fugue2 though we1 in our own day1 regard these rules as positively detrimental to the real expression of emotion1 yet they were necessary adjuncts to the real command of technic4 ,with ,imitation came ,counterpoint of a more highly developed form2 an inevitable step toward the fugal style of the later polyphonic periods4 ,and lastly came a use of ,folk-music melodies and the ,leading ,tone1 important because they foreshadow the abandonment of the old ,church ,modes1 and the adoption of the ,natural ,scale4 ,this marks the important point in the ,gallo-,belgic school2 for with the introduction of the ,natural ,scale there came increasing tendency for emotional expression1 which could never have occurred had the ,church ,modes retained their former position in music4 ,the idea of this preparation of material for emotional development cannot be emphasized too strongly4 ,upon the ,gallo-,belgic school rested the burden of preparing this material for the later schools1 so that these could demonstrate to the world that while polyphonic music could not be surpassed as a means of expressing certain impersonal1 almost religious emotions1 it could not express to the fullest1 the intimate1 personal1 emotional ideas of the romantic composers4 ,the ,men4--,the men of this period are more important than any that have yet been mentioned1 and for that reason require more detailed study4 ,h4 de ,zeelandia 7#ac---acgj71 a native of ,flanders1 was a teacher and composer1 and author of a theoretical treatise with musical examples1 8,de ,musica02 with him the use of consecutive fourths1 fifths and octaves almost disappears1 though it remained for a later composer to abolish these entirely4 ,guillaume ,dufay 7#acee-adce7 was the one to whom this reform must be finally accredited4 ,he used in place of the old church form of ,cantus ,firmus1 the popular melodies of the people with their tendency toward the ,natural ,scale and the use of the ,leading ,tone and its decisive tonality2 it may be said that these melodies were not used in their entirety1 or even in their original form1 the rhythm and meter oftentimes being altered so that the airs were hardly recognizable1 though the essential parts were there4 ,it is ,dufay who is responsible for the first intelligent use of ,imitation as a basis for the ,canon4 ,gilles 7gidius7 ,binchois 7#adjj-adfe7 was a noted composer and1 with ,dufay1 a joint founder of the ,gallo-,belgic school4 ,he is said to have been a soldier before he entered the ,church1 and must have been of a light-hearted disposition1 as he was called 8the father of joyousness40 ,he was the teacher of ,okeghem1 ,firmin ,caron and of ,busnois4 ,antoine de ,busnois 7#addj-adha7 was the last famous master of this school before it was merged into the school of the ,netherlands4 ,in his works one can note a further progress in smoothness of style and examples of well managed imitation4 ,the character of the latter is so scholarly and so clearly not a matter of improvisation that we must consider him a man given to study and reflection1 just the kind of character to give scientific study to the principle of ,imitation4 ,the ,importance of this ,school4--,this school occupied only a short period of time 7#acfj-adfj71 as compared to some of the other schools2 but in that time much was done4 ,the material taken from the ,paris school was great and capable of being developed1 though it was encumbered by unusual intervals and a prejudice against the more euphonious ones1 and by a number of obsolete forms2 so obsolete1 in fact1 that with perhaps one exception1 the ,motet1 none lasted until the time of ,bach4 ,but the use of ,imitation and ,measured ,music was sufficient for the men of the ,gallo-,belgic school1 and with this as a foundation1 and the constantly-increasing tendency to use the ,folk-music and the ,natural ,scale1 they succeeded in so arranging their material that the men of the ,netherlands had but to infuse emotion to make it produce great music4 ,dufay and his contemporaries had done this much3 to create organically well-ordered tone combinations agreeable both in melodic and harmonic relations4 ,both artists and public found pleasure in the many transitions1 the free use of suspensions1 the altered tones and chords borrowed from other scales1 in the ensemble of these methods which did not give rise in reality to chord-relations as we understand them1 yet suggested something of the kind1 and particularly were they pleased with the use of the variety-giving changing notes4 ,because the ,gallo-,belgic school did not invent new forms1 or develop old forms to a high degree of perfection1 is no reason why it should not be given a high rank among polyphonic schools1 for the process of refining and transition is often more difficult than that of inventing4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 ,look up biographical references of the men mentioned in this lesson1 also the explanation of ,imitation and ,canon4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,why did ,paris lose her position as the centre of culture in art8 ,what did the ,paris school contribute8 ,in what way was ,imitation to be valuable to musical composition8 ,what new methods of ,imitation now appear8 ,what are the important points in the work of the ,gallo-,belgic school8 ,who were the prominent musicians in this school8 ,what advance is marked over the work of the ,paris school8 ,the teacher should place on the board an outline of the leading countries of ,europe1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany and the ,netherlands1 showing the cities concerned in the development of music up to the time of ,bach and ,handel4 ,the reader can appreciate that the condition of ,france and ,paris was not favorable to the growth of art at this period1 which was one of wars between ,england and ,france in the territories of the latter4 ,in #acdf1 ,edward ,,iii of ,england won the battle of ,crcy2 the struggle was continued for the next hundred years at intervals1 when the appearance of ,joan of ,arc 7#adab-adca7 assisted the ,french4 ,monasteries were left unmolested1 hence the monks near the ,belgian border were able to work in comparative peace and quiet4 ,,lesson ,,xi4 ,,the ,,english ,,school4 ,the ,english ,polyphonic ,school is at once the least important and the most peculiar of all the schools of the ,polyphonic ,period4 ,it is usually ignored by the writers on early music1 not because there was no musical culture1 but because there was not continuous and original development4 ,english writers on this phase of musical development are too apt1 through a pardonable pride of nationality1 to exaggerate the value of ,british music1 and in consulting such authorities1 one should be careful to examine thoroughly all proofs of a dominant national school and discard such statements as are not perfectly authenticated4 ,it is hardly the ,englishman's fault that he has had no definite culture which he may call genuinely ,english1 for native composers have had more encouragement in ,england than usually falls to the lot of a creative musician4 ,indeed1 ,england has always been a patron of the best in music1 native or foreign1 and no one nation has1 as a whole1 been more generous in appreciation2 her treatment of ,beethoven on his death-bed is a notable example of disinterested generosity4 ,but in real1 original1 creative art ,england has had no great past2 and especially is this true of the ,polyphonic ,period4 ,a ,warlike ,people4--,this is almost entirely due to her geographical position2 there are many other reasons but they are almost all dependent on this one1 and so must be treated in a subordinate sense4 ,in her early days1 ,england's position served as a protection and kept intact her wealth of native ,folk-music2 but with the advent of the ,romans and the spread of the knowledge of her natural wealth1 came invasion after invasion4 ,since the first invasion1 ,england has never been at peace2 she has either been busily engaged in repelling the enemy from her own shores1 or aiding in a conquest of some less fortunate foe4 ,these wars and conquests not only served to cultivate a militant and restless spirit1 but also produced a race of fighters from natural inclination4 ,look at the warlike ,angles and ,saxons1 note the mixture of ,romans1 ,normans1 ,dutch and ,huguenots1 all at the zenith of their fighting powers1 and then cease to wonder that ,england's greatness has been in the power to fight1 to govern1 to make conquests1 rather than to cultivate art4 ,england1 when she reached the stage of conquering rather than defending1 began to give1 more than to acquire1 and never reached the acquisitive stage until the present time with ,elgar and the lesser lights of the new school1 unless we except ,shakespeare and his contemporaries in the realm of literature4 ,england's cathedrals are but the results of ,european cathedral building and the unity of ,government and ,church2 had the ,church and ,state always been separate1 it is safe to say that ,england would have waited much longer for her cathedrals4 ,the ,kindred ,arts4--,literature was the only exception2 and it is not necessary to seek for a further reason than the fact that ,literature1 as an art1 always developed before ,music4 ,art1 in painting1 was in the early days borrowed from other countries1 and not until modern times did ,england acquire a national school of ,painting2 a noteworthy fact1 for like ,literature1 such an art almost always precedes a national culture of ,music4 ,but these examples of the evolution of the kindred arts of ,literature and ,painting are encouraging rather than discouraging1 for1 having attained a high standard in these1 ,england may now hope to develop a national culture of ,music4 ,in ,music much the same conditions obtained as in ,literature and ,painting4 ,with the exception of one or two isolated composers1 and these trained in foreign schools1 ,england always borrowed her music2 note for example1 ,handel1 ,buononcini1 ,mendelssohn1 to quote just a few noteworthy foreign composers4 ,each race as it conquered ,england brought its own music4 ,st4 ,augustine sang a ,gregorian chant as he entered ,canterbury2 the ,normans and the ,dutch had their own music2 and ,italian and ,german music long held the boards in ,england4 ,thus little time was spent in developing a native music1 because the frequent wars and political troubles directed the strength into other channels than those of art2 the proximity of a higher culture in ,europe1 and the tendencies of ,england's foreign rulers1 enabled them to import and subsist on foreign music when they should have been developing a native style4 ,and finally1 the isolation of ,england in the early days1 later became an actual help to the acquirement of an alien style1 because of the absolute necessity for students to live abroad to acquire musical learning4 ,native ,musical ,life4--,there was a certain amount of native musical life1 but this did not tend to produce music along the conventional lines4 ,of ,folk-music there was much1 and the development1 as a general rule1 was aided rather than retarded by the conquests1 though the combination of ,folk-music of different nationalities does not usually tend to aid its unified evolution4 ,the only real example of noteworthy writing1 in the early polyphonic school1 is the canon 8,sumer is icumen in10 dated #abbh1 and attributed to an early ,english writer4 ,there is no proof excepting the fact that the manuscript is in ,english1 that the canon is of ,english origin2 neither is there proof to the contrary4 ,single instances1 however1 do not prove the existence of an original school2 and especially is this the case when that school1 in its writings1 far surpasses any other school of that period of which we know4 ,in spite of the fact of the ,english text1 and that this canon may be but one of many surviving the destruction of the ,english monasteries1 impartial historians believe most strongly that the canon is of ,french origin1 reset to ,english words and carried to ,england by a student of the ,paris school4 ,the ,paris school was at its height at this time1 and was the only school of such writing in the world2 and while we have no other example of that school equal to this canon1 yet it is easier to believe it to be ,french than ,english1 for ,england had no such school at all4 ,she had musicians 7like ,odington71 but they were all pupils of the ,paris school2 and even had this work been produced in ,england1 it would be safer to credit it to the ,paris school1 for the man who wrote it would1 almost of necessity1 have studied there4 ,the only other way of accounting for it is to presume the date to be too early4 ,it is but fair to say that while this canon may owe its origin to the principles of the ,gallo-,belgic school1 it stands alone as an article of historical interest to the musician4 ,nowhere on the ,continent has a work of equal importance of so early a date been brought to view4 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,chappell1 the ,english antiquarian1 brought to light several other productions of early ,english composers1 including a hymn in ,english1 scored for two voices1 and another in ,latin1 for three voices4 ,the manuscript has been definitely attributed to the middle of the #acth century4 ,there can be little doubt that when so many monasteries1 with their treasures of learning1 were suppressed and their inmates scattered1 in the time of ,henry ,,viii1 owing to the national change from the ,romish faith1 many valuable manuscripts that would today have the utmost interest to the musical historian were destroyed4 ,music3 ,,old ,,english ,,canon 8,,sumer ,,is ,,icumen ,,in40 ,music ,whether this is purely ,english or not matters little1 for it is a fine specimen and exemplifies ,walter ,odington's rule for the construction of a ,roundel1 cited in a former lesson4 ,this is more than a mere roundel1 having not only a little ,inversion and much ,imitation1 managed in a most ingenious manner1 but also the whole canon is founded on a ground bass in two parts1 themselves in canonic form4 ,this bass consists of the regulation metrical form as seen at ,a and the following two measures1 has one measure forming a connecting passage1 thus bringing in the portion marked ,b which is the same as ,a only a fifth higher2 the whole forms a remarkable evidence of an early conception of the relation of the ,tonic and ,dominant1 hardly to be believed4 ,this metrical form is introduced1 slightly changed and inverted1 in the upper voices at ,a and ,b4 ,the first voice states in all five melodies and the other voices follow at intervals of #d1 #h1 and #ab measures2 in ending voice number two omits part of theme ,v1 voice number three all of it and voice number four all of ,v and the imitation of the metrical bass4 ,outside this one example1 ,england produced little but moderately good polyphonic music in the form of motets and madrigals1 and in the time of ,gibbons and ,purcell1 sonatas and operas4 ,there were also anthems1 the old plain chant and much ,folk-music1 but nothing that can be considered as important4 ,the ,folk-music is all that can claim originality1 and that ranks favorably with the best examples of other nations and is1 indeed1 in advance of that of other nations considered more musical4 ,the ,men of the ,time4--,while ,english music was not1 at this period1 very important1 there were many composers whose names at least should be familiar4 ,after the passing of the bards and minstrels1 the monks controlled the composing of music until the dissolution of the monasteries1 when it passed into the hands of the schoolmen of ,cambridge and ,oxford1 where it remains today1 though there are1 at present1 signs of an important awakening1 presaging the passing of musical power from the hands of the conservative doctors of ,oxford and ,cambridge1 to the present generation of younger and more talented writers4 ,walter ,odington 7#aahj-abej7 was a pupil of the ,paris school and a theorist of note1 writing on the ,mensural ,system as exploited in the ,french school4 ,robert ,de,handlo 7#acbf7 was another theoretician who wrote on the same subject4 ,john ,dunstable 7#adjj-adeh7 was contemporaneous with the men of the ,gallo-,belgic school and did the same for ,english music in reforming it as the latter did for the foreign school4 ,in recent years examples of his writings have been unearthed in the cathedral libraries of ,trent and ,bologna1 as well as elsewhere1 making it clear that in his lifetime he was regarded as one of the foremost composers of ,europe4 ,the theorist1 ,tinctoris1 of the ,netherlands school1 considered in the next lesson1 speaks of the 8source and origin of the new art ,counterpoint being among the ,english1 the foremost of whom is ,john ,dunstable40 ,a contemporary who was also well-known in ,italy was ,john ,hothby1 who wrote several treatises on music4 ,there were other musicians of prominence prior to the ,reformation under ,henry ,,viii1 but we know little about them save their names4 ,john ,merbecke 7#aeae-aehe7 adapted the ,gregorian chant to the ,english prayer book1 which was published in #aeej4 ,christopher ,tye 7#aeae-aehj7 was a teacher and wrote much church music2 so also was ,thomas ,tallis 7#aeae-aehe71 one of the most learned composers of his time1 who set the choral portions in the service to music4 ,he is noted for a celebrated canon in forty parts and for a hymn-tune1 known as 8,tallis0 or 8,evening ,hymn10 which contains a canon between the soprano and tenor parts4 ,william ,byrd 7#aech-afbc7 was another noted composer of this school1 being also famous as a writer of instrumental music4 ,queen ,elizabeth granted to ,tallis and ,byrd the exclusive right to print music and to rule music paper4 ,orlando ,gibbons 7#aehc-afbe7 wrote motets and madrigals and is known as a writer of both polyphonic and monophonic music4 ,henry ,purcell 7#afeh-afie7 was the greatest composer of the ,english ,polyphonic school1 writing operas in the ,english and ,italian style1 songs1 sonatas1 motets and anthems4 ,he seems to have been in many respects a very able writer and musician1 but died too young to make any decided impression on his times4 ,summary4--,from this it will be seen that while ,england had a musical people composed of a mixture of the most musical peoples of ,europe1 yet because of geographical position1 political disturbances1 religious troubles and wars1 she was never able to produce a great and commanding school4 ,she did not lack force1 but it was directed into other1 and for the time being1 more important channels4 ,almost everything of an artistic nature was borrowed1 or was a transplanted culture2 and while the art of music never lacked men to cultivate it1 yet these men were not of the calibre of the men employed in the other works of the nation1 so that so far as the ,polyphonic period is concerned1 ,england is not important1 and but for such men as ,dunstable and ,purcell and the canon 8,sumer ,is ,icumen ,in10 ,england might be completely ignored in respect to her influence on polyphonic development4 ,,references4 ,crowest4--,the ,story of ,british ,music4 ,the entire book4 ,davey4--,history of ,english ,music1 ,chapters ,i to ,v inclusive4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 ,article on ,schools of ,composition1 relating to ,england4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,questions4 ,why did ,music have so uncertain a growth in ,england8 ,what is the earliest ,english composition of value8 ,what were the causes for the loss of early ,english music manuscripts8 ,what principles are shown in this old ,canon8 ,who were the leading composers in ,england in the period considered in this lesson8 ,,lesson ,,xii4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,the ,dominance of the ,netherlands4--,the most important asset of a nation is its commercial activity1 for upon that depends its art life4 ,the fine arts are to an extent luxuries1 and until a nation has1 by commercial activity1 acquired wealth1 they cannot be earnestly cultivated1 for all arts require from the artist his entire time and life1 and until there is money and inclination enough among the people to support an artist in his commercially non-productive state1 there can be no art2 hence we see a shifting of art centres in the ,middle ,ages1 just as the commercial centres changed4 ,the ,netherlands were preminently fitted to carry on great commercial pursuits by virtue of their geographical situation and long combat and association with the sea4 ,possessing the natural outlet to a great part of ,europe1 it was reasonable that the ,netherlands should play an important part in the ,hanseatic ,league1 and that her fleets should trade on every sea and her coffers be enriched by barter in the produce of every clime4 ,it was a golden age for the ,lowlands1 from #acej to #afbe1 for their trade made them one of the wealthiest and most important nations in the world4 ,their situation between the trading countries of the ,south and the ,north made them1 as it were1 the commercial exchange of ,europe4 ,the consequent wealth could not lie dormant1 therefore much of it was used in building notable architectural structures1 encouraging ,painting1 and developing the then infant art of ,music4 ,it is unnecessary to mention the famous structures which were the result of this period1 and it is but necessary to name ,hubert ,van ,eyck1 ,rubens1 ,van ,dyck1 to understand the prominence given to the art of ,painting by the acquisition of this enormous wealth4 ,and it is largely due to this commercial activity that the school of the ,netherlands attained such an undying fame4 ,one other influence1 and that dependent on commercial activity1 produced great results4 ,art is not sectional1 it is universal2 and great art works are produced not by local influences but by association1 or contact1 with the world4 ,for this reason1 the intercourse with the entire world generated by the great commercial activity of the times produced the first great world ,school of ,music4 ,intercourse developed emotion and produced broader and less localized view-points of life3 it brought into close association the art life of different nations and infused a unity of emotion wherever it occurred4 ,in short1 ,music1 by being brought into contact with the ideas of the world instead of a local association1 took on a universal form and feeling never before felt and never to be relinquished4 ,for this reason1 ,music unconsciously advanced from ,paris to the ,netherlands1 toward the greater sphere of influence1 stopping for only a short period with the ,gallo-,belgic school1 where it was prepared technically for its new growth as a world form4 ,the ,gallo-,belgic and the ,netherlands ,schools ,compared4--,the ,gallo-,belgic school1 in the control of churchmen1 was isolated from any influence tending to develop a broad emotional scheme4 ,and it is doubtful whether it could have caused any change in musical evolution1 for the technical forms were not ready4 ,and so the ,gallo-,belgic school1 in its retirement from the great world activities1 confined itself to attaining the power to manipulate notes1 for the sake of mere technical effects1 leaving emotional development entirely out of consideration4 ,with such a school1 while its work was important1 no real art feeling could be gained2 and so the school of the ,netherlands marks the departure into a new romantic school governed1 to a great extent1 by the emotional4 ,the ,netherlands1 because of their more comprehensive view of the musical activities of the past and their constant intercourse1 commercially and artistically1 with all nations1 acquired a more human sense of the beauty of music1 and ceased to manipulate musical material for technical ends1 producing instead of cold1 lifeless forms1 music pulsing with vigor1 life and emotion4 ,with this primary change of view-point came a direct growth of form1 the ,canon being perfected and immediately giving birth to the ,fugue2 the ,madrigal and ,canzona and many other lesser forms sprang into being1 all capable of emotional development1 and almost immediately producing great results4 ,for the first time music was free from consecutive fourths1 fifths and octaves because composers created from the standpoint of emotional beauty and not that of technical utility4 ,the result was a musical technic capable of development1 and refined beyond need of further reformation4 ,the ,organ and its ,influence4--,the organ was the third great reformative power in this epoch4 ,all music was vocal and no other conception could be had1 for effective instruments and instrumental music were not yet in existence4 ,the organ1 because its tones were suited to accompanying the human voice and because its tone color was closely identical with that of the voice1 was readily adapted to the vocal forms then in use4 ,this gave a greater resource1 for what was often technically impossible with the human voice became easy with the organ4 ,the mechanical improvement of this instrument immediately gave greater freedom and range of technic1 and it proved so well suited to polyphonic development that it aided the evolution more than any other one agency4 ,the use of the organ must not be accounted as the beginning of instrumental music1 for the organ used only adapted voice-forms1 such as the ,canon1 ,fugue1 ,madrigal1 etc42 for this reason it is to be doubted if it aided in emotional development except by making technical resources much less restricted4 ,in this sense1 then1 the technic of this school was freed from most of its former rules1 and ,music1 previously cramped by narrow vocal restrictions1 passed into the comparative freedom of the polyphonic style of the organ4 ,the ,men of this ,school are hardly to be separated from the men of the ,gallo-,belgic school4 ,the work passes from one school to the next with little or no perceptible pause1 and the first men of the later school are pupils or disciples of the last men of the ,gallo-,belgic period4 ,another noteworthy fact is1 that so great was the musical growth1 of this school and the skill and learning of its followers that the composers of the ,netherlands expatriated themselves and settled in all parts of ,europe1 founding famous schools in ,paris1 ,madrid1 ,naples1 ,venice1 ,munich and ,rome2 the celebrated ,italian school is really an offshoot of that of the ,netherlands4 ,it is this overflow which marks this school as the greatest of the early polyphonic schools and shows why and how it acquired its emotional supremacy4 ,jean de ,okeghem 7#adcj-aeab71 pupil of ,binchois1 was the first prominent worker4 ,it is difficult to class him as a composer of the ,belgian or ,netherlands school1 for he has the earmarks of both4 ,he lived during the supremacy of the ,netherlands1 but worked with the material of the ,belgians4 ,he developed the ,canon to its highest technical point and took the first step toward the originating of the ,fugue4 ,to him is due the credit of introducing the use of retrograde1 inverted1 diminished and augmented imitation in the ,canon4 ,much of his work was done in ,france4 ,the tendency of his teaching was toward artificiality1 as he delighted in puzzle canons and other exhibitions of ingenuity4 ,antonius ,brumel 7#adfj-aebj71 a pupil of ,okeghem1 is noteworthy because of a foreshadowing of the use of chords in real harmonic progressions4 ,music3 #hve lower ,part of a motet by ,brumel1 ,naumann1 ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #ccc1 used to illustrate the idea of the harmonic feeling of some of the polyphonic writers4 ,the rest of the composition is strictly in the polyphonic style4 ,jakob ,hobrecht 7#adcj-aejf7 was the first real ,dutch composer1 and is noted1 in his use of technical forms1 for their emotional beauty rather than mechanical excellence4 ,music ,part of a composition by ,hobrecht1 cited by ,naumann1 8,history of ,music10 ,vol4 ,i1 page #cca4 ,excerpt shows how strictly even this fragment is written and yet how musical it is4 ,at #a is shown a figure in the bass repeated in imitation a step higher at #b4 ,at ,a is shown a melody imitated at ,b in augmentation and with altered rhythm4 ,the student should refer to ,naumann4 ,this is truly a remarkable work for that period1 and shows that even then composers were beginning to observe the emotional power of chord relationship4 ,johann ,tinctor 7#addf-aeaa71 a disciple of ,okeghem1 worked in ,rome and ,naples1 and will be considered with the ,italian school4 ,josquin de ,pres 7#adej-aeba71 also a disciple of ,okeghem1 worked in ,rome and ,paris1 and must also be considered as one of the ,italian school4 ,it may be here mentioned that he was one of the first to use music as a vehicle for expressing human emotions rather than technical power4 ,he summed up in himself all the harmonic science of the #aeth century4 ,he was renowned through all ,europe as a composer1 and if his music seems to us somewhat dry and pedantic there is abundant testimony to the deep impression it made upon his contemporaries1 which is a test of its power to excite and to express emotion4 ,compared with the works of his predecessors and even the majority of his contemporaries1 ,josquin's writings show freedom from the bonds of the old scholasticism1 greater simplicity and esthetic beauty4 ,among those of his works that have come to us is a ,miserere for five voices1 and an ,ave ,maria that cannot be considered other than lovely music4 ,nicholas ,gombert 7#adie-aegj71 a pupil of ,josquin de ,pres1 had a natural1 tuneful and flowing style similar to that afterwards shown by ,palestrina4 ,his work was done in ,madrid1 and to him ,spain and ,portugal owe all they have of the ancient polyphonic music4 ,jacob ,arkadelt 7#adib-aegj7 and ,claude ,goudimel 7#aeaj-aegb7 worked in ,rome1 ,adrian ,willaert 7#adhj-aefb7 and ,cyprian de ,rore 7#aeaf-aefe7 in ,venice1 and will be considered with the ,italian school4 ,orlando di ,lasso 7#aebj-aeid7 worked some in ,italy1 but mostly in ,munich1 where his influence was great4 ,his style was broad1 flowing and especially emotional1 and as a writer of the ,netherlands school his name stands as one of the very highest4 ,j4 ,p4 ,sweelinck 7#aefb-afba7 is the last1 and while of the ,netherlands1 studied in ,venice1 but did his work at home4 ,he was a great organist and the last great master of the school1 and had the honor of being the link between it and the ,german school1 serving as an example for ,sebastian ,bach4 ,his works have recently been published in ,germany4 ,of all these men it may be said that they developed music steadily toward the goal of emotional freedom4 ,summary4--,the great work of this school was to make technic subservient to thought4 ,in all preceding schools1 the material and the forms were so new and the methods of handling them so crude1 that technic always dominated thought4 ,and it was naturally so1 for expression cannot come until the power to master the material has been attained2 it was by this power that the ,netherlands developed emotional music4 ,but the student invariably objects and says he does not see any emotion in the polyphonic music of this period6 ,the student must place himself in the position of these old masters1 supported by the church and constantly imbibing the religious atmosphere of the institution they served1 until they unconsciously expressed1 in their music1 the grandeur and power of their religion rather than the intimate personal feeling of modern musicians2 and then the student will understand what is meant by polyphonic emotion4 ,we must always remember that polyphonic emotion is not monophonic emotion1 and that its tremendous technic and complexity of device were but the means of expressing its peculiar form of emotion1 which to understand1 one must study diligently1 and then approach with a reverent feeling4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article on ,schools of ,composition1 relating to the ,netherlands4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,smith4--,music2 ,how it ,came to be ,what it ,is4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,,iv and ,v4 ,langhans4--,history of ,music4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,why did the ,netherlands become the musical centre8 ,how did geographical situation favor the ,netherlands in the struggle for commercial supremacy8 ,what circumstances gave their art a general rather than sectional character8 ,compare the ,gallo-,belgic and the ,netherlands schools4 ,how did the ,organ aid in development8 ,who are the most famous members of this school of composition8 ,what are the special characteristics of each8 ,what is a ,miserere8 ,what is an ,ave ,maria8 ,what was the ,hanseatic ,league8 ,what was the contribution of the ,netherlands school8 ,consult a general history for the events which made the ,netherlands so important at this time4 ,in selecting a historical epoch to accompany the period of the ,netherlands school and its successor1 the ,italian school1 the central figure that will be most familiar is ,christopher ,columbus1 whose life and work covered the early period1 the close of the old polyphonic school dating with ,palestrina's death in #aeid1 #ajj years after the discovery of ,america4 ,this hundred years represents the flowering time of polyphony as an art4 ,,lesson ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,italian ,,school4 ,italy the ,new ,centre4--,music developed in the ,netherlands because of commercial supremacy and the consequent world association4 ,we shall now see it pass to ,italy1 but because of a very different reason4 ,from the earliest ,christian days ,italy was the centre of religious influence2 it is only necessary to examine history to observe the ramifications of that power in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 the ,netherlands and other countries4 ,this influence1 often more political than religious in character1 gave to the ,italian ,church 7then the ,italian ,state71 a predominance of authority1 which was a great power in religious and secular thought4 ,this influence spread to music for various reasons4 ,we must remember that the school at ,paris was controlled by the ,church1 that the ,gallo-,belgic school owed its foundation to the same cause1 and that the men of all three schools were employed as organists by the ,church4 ,it is true that in ,italy the ,church had not the broadening influence of commercial intercourse1 but was more than compensated for that lack by what we may call artistic intercourse4 ,the ,church was the one stable institution in these times of war in which painters could find a refuge for their works1 and from which patronage flowed in a steady stream to the ever-needy artists4 ,thus was caused and maintained the artistic atmosphere necessary to the cultivation of ,music4 ,as an art1 the ,church was the only support of artistic music4 ,when ,music originated it needed an institution to protect and foster it and safeguard its growth1 and this it found in the ,church2 it repaid this protection by evolving a style eminently suited to the needs of the ,church1 but absolutely useless for the expression of secular and natural emotion4 ,to this patronage of its peculiar art is due the importation into ,italy of the best in music wherever found1 to aid in these services4 ,and so we find singers from the ,netherlands engaged for the ,church in ,italy4 ,this1 and the fame of ,italy as the home of superior singers1 undoubtedly led the majority of those numerous ,netherlandish masters to seek their homes abroad1 and preferably in ,italy4 ,the fact that all music was vocal in style and that the ,church was the only institution capable of supporting such a style1 cannot be too strongly stated2 for upon that depended not only the evolution of ,music1 but also the very life of the ,polyphonic emotional style4 ,emotion in ,polyphony4--,this style is worthy of examination4 ,as a preface we must remember that we have to deal with the ,church and human voices only1 for instruments had not been perfected sufficiently for church use1 excepting the organ1 and that we must consider a voice because of its peculiar tonal qualities and the adaptation of vocal forms and styles to its use4 ,this vocal style had developed gradually1 through a long course of reforms1 until it reached its perfection in the later polyphonic schools1 and expressed the peculiar emotion suited for the services4 ,lack of rhythm was a pointed characteristic2 for1 in the first place1 it had been discarded as profane1 and in the next place1 a long course of treatment in the management of voices to avoid anything like concerted and accentuated dissonances had produced a peculiar flowing movement which1 however smooth it might be1 certainly possessed no rhythmic force4 ,then1 too1 the old scale forms caused anything written in their idioms to sound grave1 severe and dignified1 if not harsh4 ,the transition to the modern major and minor in the ,monophonic school of #afjj and the immediate cultivation of music by the people may be taken as an example of the musical qualities of the two modes4 ,all of these causes tended to produce a suitable form of music and an emotional expression peculiarly suited to the ,roman services4 ,in this style there was little storm and stress1 little of the personal appeal to ,god2 on the other hand1 it was grave1 severe and immovable1 or in a better sense1 impersonal in its expression4 ,music of the polyphonic period1 even until the time of ,sebastian ,bach1 in whose works it is well exemplified1 does not show us the appeal to ,god from the heart of the active ,christian worker1 but rather the appeal to a vast impersonal and majestic ,god far removed from the needs and supplications of the mere individual4 ,it was this kind of emotion that developed in the ,italian ,polyphonic schools4 ,the human and more expressive emotion of the schools of the ,netherlands was transmitted1 in the schools of the ,italian1 into the high1 contemplative moods of religious expression2 and it was well that it should be so1 for polyphonic music could never have expressed the emotion of a ,beethoven2 and it was not only best that it should express its own peculiar style of emotion1 but inevitable that it should do so4 ,illustration3 ,,orlando ,,di ,,lasso4 ,schools ,outside ,italy4--,the overflow from the ,netherlands concentrated its efforts on certain points or school centres4 ,in ,italy1 these were ,naples1 ,venice and ,rome4 ,there were others throughout ,europe1 such as ,madrid1 ,paris and ,munich1 which we must consider first because of their relation to ,italy4 ,nicholas ,gombert 7#adie-aegj7 influenced the polyphonic development in ,madrid1 but so isolated was the work that nothing great resulted4 ,okeghem 7#adcj-aeab7 worked longer in ,paris than other masters1 though several lived there for short intervals1 such as ,arkadelt and ,goudimel4 ,orlando di ,lasso 7#aebj-aeid7 did almost all his work in ,munich and established the most important school outside of ,italy4 ,he was a most prolific writer and can be compared in ability and style to ,palestrina4 ,his style was broad and bold and contained much of that serious and earnest character now attributed to his ,teutonic associations4 ,he wrote in all known forms and was well nigh universal in his knowledge of form1 technic and expression4 ,his facility in the art of writing was very great and was fully equalled by his love for work4 ,although his work has somewhat less perfection than that of his great contemporary1 ,palestrina1 it has astonishing power of expression4 ,it shows the force of his genius that he was able to make his works in the strict contrapuntal forms full of real feeling4 ,he was a man of interesting personal character4 ,the most famous of his works is his setting of seven 8,penitential ,psalms10 containing a number of most curious effects for unaccompanied voices1 with much that is singularly characteristic and beautiful1 and showing well the character of his genius4 ,we give part of a composition by di ,lasso showing his broad style and the increasing use of what sounds suspiciously like our modern chord progressions4 ,the lack of rhythmic effect and the holding over of notes past the accented beat is shown in this exercise4 ,the whole example1 with words1 may be found in ,naumann1 ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #chg4 ,music ,the ,italian ,school4--,but it is with the ,italian schools that we are most concerned4 ,the school at ,naples had as its principal master ,johannes ,tinctoris 7#addf-aeaa7 a ,fleming by birth1 a doctor of laws and a mathematician1 one of those peculiar combinations seldom noticed after the ,paris school1 and almost sure to mark the theoretician4 ,his work was principally theoretical and his treatises are of great value4 ,adrian ,willaert 7#adhj-aefb71 born at ,bruges1 was a pupil of ,jean ,mouton1 at ,paris4 ,after visiting ,rome and ,ferrara1 he settled in ,venice and1 as organist of ,st4 ,mark's1 founded an important school4 ,he introduced the use of large double choruses which caused him to write harmonically rather than polyphonically4 ,this influence caused him to relegate the imitative polyphonic part writing to smaller forms 7motets1 etc47 and to write plain chord progressions in his larger works2 and before long he began to observe and to use the relationship between the ,tonic and the ,dominant4 ,this tendency and the invention of the ,madrigal furnished the basis for a new instrumental school at a later date4 ,his best-known pupil1 ,cipriano di ,rore 7#aeaf-aefe71 was short-lived1 and worked in both ,venice and ,parma4 ,he made some investigation into the use of chromatics1 thus showing the growing tendency to abandon the ,church modes for the natural scales4 ,following these ,dutch masters came the two ,gabrieli's1 who were native ,italians4 ,andrea ,gabrieli 7#aeaj-aehf7 was a great organist and wrote in the style of ,willaert1 his famous master4 ,giovanni ,gabrieli 7#aeeg-afac7 was a pupil of his uncle ,andrea1 and carried the latter's methods further toward perfection4 ,he also wrote for instruments in conjunction with voices1 abandoning to a certain extent the a capella style1 and opening that epoch of instrumental music foreshadowed by ,willaert in his madrigals4 ,rome was the centre of church government1 of church art and also of church music1 and as such1 had the largest and greatest of ,italian music schools4 ,jacob ,arkadelt 7#adib-aegj71 a ,netherlander1 lived nineteen years in ,rome and did most of his work there2 he wrote both secular and sacred compositions in the strict polyphonic style1 and in that of ,willaert4 ,claude ,goudimel 7#aeaj-aegb71 though a prominent master in ,paris1 worked much in ,rome and was the teacher of ,palestrina4 ,he set to music in four parts metrical versions of the ,psalms1 published in #aefe4 ,in him is to be observed that clearness of expression and beauty of melodic flow with which ,palestrina attained such a high point of expression4 ,palestrina4--,it remained for his pupil ,palestrina1 7,giovanni ,pierlugi ,sante1 #aead-aeid7 an ,italian1 to reach the highest point of emotional expression and technical freedom2 we must1 however1 rank ,orlando di ,lasso with him4 ,he carried to the highest fruition the teachings of the ,netherlands1 tempered by the romantic and melodic tendency of the ,italian nature4 ,his writings were so free technically that they have been called simple in form2 this they are1 but the simplicity is the simplicity of genius4 ,his style is melodic1 and has a clearness never attained by any writer before his time1 and yet his music is written in the most severe forms4 ,he founded a school of music in ,rome which1 however1 never produced any great masters1 for it was the time when the reformation of ,opera began and carried the development of music into other channels4 ,music3 ,,sop4 ,,alto ,,tenor ,,bass ,the end of a composition by ,palestrina1 showing the melody in the upper voice instead of the tenor1 as was usually the case in polyphonic compositions1 and the use of our modern ,minor mode4 ,this composition1 at least this last part of it taken alone1 might be by a modern writer1 so familiar do its progressions sound2 indeed1 the melody of the first two measures is strikingly similar to a progression used by ,beethoven in one of his string quartets4 ,the entire example with words may be seen in ,naumann1 ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #eaj4 ,summary4--,the ,polyphonic ,era has many important characteristics and results which make it worth while to sum it up4 ,its development is largely the history of the development of vocal music to its highest point1 and the consequent failure of it to provide accurate expression for human needs4 ,it marks the development of scales1 intervals1 forms1 instruments and emotion4 ,in scales we find the trend to be always toward the natural2 in intervals1 toward freedom1 using only the ear as a criterion2 in instruments we note the development of the organ1 but the lack of others which would have changed music entirely2 in emotion1 we note the evolution from crudeness to the highest and most polished forms of impersonal expression4 ,the lack of the ,polyphonic school was not in the intrinsic value of the music1 nor in any lack of the desire to express emotion2 the failure to provide a suitable means of musical expression was due to the idea of church relation to ,god rather than to the personal individualistic relations established by ,luther4 ,after the ,reformation music takes up this new idea and immediately a secular music1 vocal and instrumental1 begins to develop1 culminating in an emotional school of a totally different and truer style than the ,polyphonic4 ,polyphonic music expressed the old monkish ideas of religion perfectly1 but monophonic music expresses the emotion of the people1 a universal emotion4 ,polyphonic music must always be appreciated for its value1 but it must be examined for its fundamental principles and reasons for being1 before it can be understood4 ,then we may know its value as a foundation for our modern music4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article on ,schools of ,composition1 section relating to ,italy4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,langhans4--,history of ,music4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,why did the centre of music shift to ,italy8 ,what kind of emotion is present in the polyphonic style of music8 ,what composers were prominent outside of ,italy8 ,name the prominent composers of the ,italian school4 ,sum up the ,polyphonic ,era4 ,consult a history of art and give an account of the great painters1 sculptors1 architects and their greatest works during the century preceding the development of the ,italian school4 ,,lesson ,,xiv4 ,,palestrina ,,and ,,his ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,school4 ,,the ,,madrigal4 ,illustration3 ,,palestrina4 ,a ,church ,composer4--,but one master of the ,italian ,polyphonic schools is worthy of lengthy notice1 more because of his influence on the music of the ,church than his contribution to the new instrumental school then only in its infancy4 ,palestrina1 while acquainted with ,galilei1 the reformer of ,opera1 and ,neri1 the originator of ,oratorio1 and with many of the men identified with the new style of vocal and instrumental music1 gave his entire life to the composing of ,church music1 though in his poverty-stricken condition musical work under wealthy patronage must have often appealed to him4 ,at any rate1 the farthest he ever strayed from the ,church was in the composing of many madrigals1 in which he excelled2 it is almost certain that in these he unintentionally influenced the development of instrumental music4 ,for the present1 however1 a consideration of his life and influence on ,church music is more important4 ,but for him1 ,church music would have lacked for at least a century that simple and individual note so often struck by himself and ,bach4 ,palestrina1 by the enormous number of his masses and by the fertility of his invention1 placed the music of the ,latin ,church on so high a plane that no composers1 at least until the time of ,bach1 even approached him1 much less equalled him4 ,giovanni ,pierluigi ,sante1 known as ,palestrina1 after his birthplace1 was born in #aead at ,palestrina1 a small town southeast of ,rome4 ,his parents were peasants and the boy received but the ordinary education of his class4 ,while very young he seems to have become a choir-boy at ,rome1 though it is recorded that his voice was anything but pleasing4 ,upon this supposition rests the statement that he was1 for a short time1 a pupil of ,arkadelt2 this is unimportant because eventually 7#aedj7 he became a pupil of ,goudimel1 whose influence far overshadowed that of any former teacher4 ,in #aedh he married and four sons were the result of the union1 three1 however1 dying at an early age and the fourth proving1 in after-life1 a worthless fellow4 ,in #aeea he succeeded ,arkadelt as choir-master of ,st4 ,peter's2 later the dedication of three masses to ,pope ,julian ,,iii won him a position as singer in the ,papal ,choir4 ,owing to the jealousy of the other singers he finally lost his position1 but received an appointment at the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,maggiore where he stayed for ten years4 ,naumann says that in #aefe he received the appointment of master of the ,sistine ,chapel1 but never occupied the position because of the opposition among the choir4 ,grove1 however1 says that in #aefe he was made composer to the ,pontifical ,choir and did not become master until #aehe1 holding the position from that time on4 ,in #aega he was again connected with ,st4 ,peter's2 this also marks his acquaintance with ,neri1 for whom he wrote some music1 and the founding of a music school1 though it cannot have amounted to much since most authorities give no particulars in regard to it4 ,indeed1 it is certain that he cannot have had much influence in that line1 for his pupils1 outside of his own family1 did not amount to more than a scant half-dozen4 ,in #aegf he was given the task of revising the ,gradual and ,antiphonary of the ,latin ,church but1 with the assistance of a pupil1 finished only a little more than one-half of the work4 ,he died in #aeid and was buried in the ,vatican4 ,his life is marked by the usual jealousies and quarrels of musicians1 though ,palestrina himself seems to have been nobleminded and more than reasonably free from all such faults4 ,he was in poor circumstances during his life1 and his only living son was a bitter disappointment4 ,altogether1 as we examine his life we are impressed by many things2 first1 his apparent failure from a worldly point of view2 secondly1 the enormous amount of composing which he did2 and1 finally1 his devotion to the ,church and her music1 and because of it1 his glorious success as a musician1 and his undying fame4 ,reform of ,church ,music4--,the year marking the climax of his life was #aefe4 ,the ,council of ,trent1 by a unanimous vote1 decided to prohibit the use of music in the ,church unless some means could be devised to make it more devotional and suited to its purpose4 ,naumann says that it was the desire of the ,council of ,trent to simplify the music so that the people might take part in the services2 but ,grove claims that it was because of the use of secular music in the composition of the masses4 ,it seems that it was customary1 for part of the singers at least1 to sing in services not only the melodies of the popular songs1 but also the words1 thus producing confusion and defeating the very purpose of the music4 ,in all probability1 both of these reasons had something to do with the edict4 ,it is plain that the fundamental principle at stake was the lack of the personal devotional note 7which caused this action by the ,council of ,trent71 and it was the supplying of this want that made ,palestrina the saviour of music in the ,church4 ,a committee of ,cardinals was appointed to see if proper music for the service could be found4 ,they commissioned ,palestrina to write a mass and submit it for trial4 ,when the trial came1 at the home of ,cardinal ,vitellozzi1 ,palestrina submitted three masses1 the last of which was the best2 this he afterwards called the 8,missa ,pap ,marcelli40 ,palestrina's ,style4--,in these masses ,palestrina had succeeded so well in subordinating technic to expression1 and in eliminating all extraneous matter1 that he was hailed as the greatest musician of the ,church1 and honors were showered upon him4 ,from this it would be supposed that ,palestrina had shown an entire change in style1 yet this was not the case4 ,goudimel1 his master1 shows traces of the so-called ,palestrina style1 and ,palestrina himself was gradually growing into that simplicity which marked the music of his later days4 ,this simplicity was not only simplicity of emotion but also simplicity of technic2 only a man with a most consummate skill could have written such great music with such little use of showy technic4 ,palestrina wrote in all of the polyphonic forms1 complex and simple1 but he reached his highest point in his most simple works2 and those works were written for his ,church4 ,secular ,art ,song4--,the secular life of the #aeth and #afth centuries1 as well as the ,church1 had an art music1 which1 like the other music of the period was vocal1 not solos with accompaniments1 but choral1 consisting of three or more parts2 this we may call a species of vocal chamber music4 ,we can trace the development of this form of musical composition to an application of the principle of ,discant to secular or ,folk-melodies4 ,the minstrels1 as mentioned in a previous lesson1 were accustomed to improvise accompanying parts to a familiar song--a favorite custom was that of adding two parts--for the entertainment of their hearers4 ,this process was not a haphazard one1 but followed fixed rules4 ,the absence of a simple system of notation1 however1 prevented the accumulation of musical records4 ,and when minstrelsy ceased to exist as a calling1 only the memory of the crude attempts of the minstrels remained4 ,but the principle was not lost4 ,fortunately for the good of the art1 the trained musicians of the ,church took it up1 and1 calling to their aid the resources of their art as used in the music of the ,church1 applied them all to secular melodies1 the songs of the people4 ,the ,predecessors of the ,madrigal4--,several of the forms of secular music found in ,italy1 the ,frottole 7song of the mass or crowd71 and the ,vilanelle 7village or peasant songs71 were used in a crude way by the musicians of the people as airs to which to add accompanying parts4 ,both ,germans and ,english made similar use of their folk melodies4 ,but since the text was usually of a humorous1 or a witty character1 the accompanying melodies or 8counterpoints0 were simple in style4 ,the work of the trained composers along this line resulted in the ,madrigal1 which shows a union of the musical spirit of the people with the finest poetic art2 the melodies had the style of the popular music1 but they were used with technical skill4 ,the ,madrigal4--,the text of the madrigal was erotic in character1 representing the emotions of a heart filled with noble1 often hopeless love4 ,the ,italian poets ,tasso and ,petrarch were masters in this style of writing4 ,the name ,madrigal was first applied to this kind of lyric1 and afterward became identified with the music itself4 ,there is disagreement as to the origin of the name1 the common explanation being that it comes from the word mandra1 a sheepfold1 mandriale1 shepherd1 in allusion to the frequent pastoral character of the text4 ,the ,madrigal undoubtedly owes its origin to the composers of the ,flemish school4 ,the musicians of the ,netherlands1 in the middle of the #aeth century1 had a polyphonic song1 elaborate in construction1 in the old ,church modes1 modeled doubtless on the plan of the ,motet1 but using the melody of some popular song as a ,cantus ,firmus4 ,when the centre of musical power was transferred to ,italy1 the madrigal principle came into new hands1 those of the composers of the ,venetian school1 who gave it the character which made it so popular4 ,the ,italian ,school4--,the first great composer in this style was ,adrian ,willaert4 ,after him came ,arkadelt1 who published several books of madrigals4 ,the most famous composer of madrigals was ,luca ,marenzio 7#aefj-aeii71 called by his contemporaries 8the sweetest swan of ,italy10 whose works attained extraordinary vogue4 ,they are extremely melodious4 ,a composer who made considerable use of the chromatic element was ,gesualdo1 ,prince of ,venusia 7#aefj-afad74 ,other ,italian composers of madrigals are ,festa1 ,palestrina1 ,anerio1 ,waelrant1 ,orlando di ,lasso1 ,cipriano di ,rore1 ,vecchi and ,gastoldi1 the latter being credited with the introduction of the 8,fa1 la40 ,the ,english ,school4--,the ,madrigal never displaced the ,folk-song in ,germany or the ,chanson in ,france1 but it found a home in ,england1 in which country a number of composers were developed whose best work is considered to be superior to that of their ,italian predecessors4 ,the period of fifty years1 beginning with #aehh1 when the first collection of madrigals was published in ,london1 is called the ,madrigalian ,era4 ,the composers of prominence are3 ,william ,byrd1 ,thomas ,morley1 ,thomas ,weelkes1 ,john ,dowland1 ,john ,wilbye1 ,orlando ,gibbons and ,richard ,edwardes4 ,so great was the interest in this class of music that it was considered a necessary part of the education of a gentleman that he should be able to sing1 when requested1 a part in a madrigal1 as we learn from a work or music study published by ,thomas ,morley in #aeig4 ,characteristics of the ,madrigal4--,the best means of securing an understanding of the ,madrigal style is to study good examples1 and1 if possible1 to hear them sung by a good choral organization4 ,they are written in three1 four1 five and six parts1 the five part being the one most favored4 ,the principle of construction is polyphonic1 imitation being freely used1 cross accents being frequent on account of the syncopated style1 each part being conceived as melody1 not as the result of the movement of successive chords4 ,influence of the ,madrigal4--,the great number of madrigals written by so many composers may be taken as an indication of the growth of musical sensibility4 ,the creative side developed4 ,the composer was no longer contented with taking a melody or some theme ready made1 and elaborating it or accompanying it2 he invented his own themes1 thus opening the way to the idea that each text should have a theme to suit its special character1 a principle which rules in modern music4 ,since the themes thus took on greater significance1 it became important that accompanying parts should not obscure them by over-elaboration2 hence the counterpoint used became clearer and simpler1 and therefore more artistic4 ,another fact of great significance is that frequently the madrigals were played by viols1 instead of being sung by voices4 ,composers marked the pieces as 8,apt for viols or voices40 ,it was also customary to sing one part and play the others on instruments1 the design being to cause the melody to stand out more clearly2 this aided in developing a feeling for the solo with instrumental accompaniment1 a fact of great significance in preparing the way for the opera4 ,petrucci4--,music owes a great debt to ,ottaviano ,petrucci1 who is credited with devising a method for printing music from movable type4 ,he was born in #adff1 died in #aebc or shortly after that date4 ,before he began his great work all music was written out by hand1 a fact which necessarily interfered with its circulation2 the works of the great writers were jealously guarded and students had small chance to profit by the work of experienced composers4 ,petrucci and his successors changed this4 ,in #aeja1 he printed a collection of ninety-six pieces in three and four parts by ,isaac1 ,josquin1 ,hobrecht1 ,okeghem and others2 in #aejd1 a collection of eighty-three motets for four1 five and six voices4 ,by the time the composers of the ,venetian ,madrigal school appeared on the scene1 printing processes had been improved and spread more widely2 thus their works could be circulated freely and made popular4 ,we who know the tremendous power of the printing press can appreciate the new force in the development of music inaugurated by ,petrucci in the early part of the #afth century4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on ,palestrina and the ,madrigal4 ,dickinson4--,music in the ,history of the ,western ,church4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,v4 ,barrett4--,english ,glee and ,madrigal ,writers4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,who was the most important of the earlier composers for the ,church8 ,give a sketch of his life4 ,what did he do for the music of the ,church8 ,what peculiarities marked his style8 ,give a brief rsum of the ,council of ,trent4 7,consult a general history or church history47 ,what attempts at part music did the ,minstrels make8 ,who took up this work later8 ,what is the origin of the word ,madrigal8 ,name some composers of ,madrigals in ,italy4 ,in what other country did the ,madrigal take hold8 ,name some of the composers in that country who cultivated the ,madrigal style4 ,name some characteristics of the ,madrigal4 ,what influence did the ,madrigal exert8 ,who invented printing music from movable types8 ,if the members of the class cannot sing a madrigal or there is no choral society at hand that sings them1 a string quartet can play the parts1 or any combination of instruments that can represent the necessary four1 five or six parts2 two or four players at two pianos can give some idea4 ,novello ,co4 publish in cheap octavo form many of the finest madrigals by the ,italian and ,english composers4 ,the members of the class should sing or follow the playing of each part of at least one madrigal and note its essentially melodic character4 ,this class of compositions will also give an idea of the character of the old ,church motet and the methods used in the masses4 ,,lesson ,,xv4 ,,musical ,,instruments4 ,classification of ,instruments4--,the means for the production of musical sound are few in number1 and of such universality and antiquity that we cannot say when1 how1 or by whom they were invented4 ,modern skill has not added one new means1 but has simply improved the contrivances by which musical sound is produced4 ,we can1 however1 trace the evolution and growth of the various instruments with considerable accuracy1 and to this end it is of the utmost importance to have a clear understanding of the principles upon which musical instruments are constructed1 in order to avoid bewilderment among the endless variety that have been and are yet made4 ,all instruments may be divided into three general classes3 ,percussion ,instruments1 ,wind ,instruments1 ,stringed ,instruments4 ,the ,percussion ,instruments are the instruments of rhythm4 ,in this class are included all instruments used for this purpose4 ,it is universally admitted that rhythm is the very basis of music1 without which it is vague and meaningless4 ,possibly the physical fact that lies behind rhythm is the tendency of all repeated muscular action to become regular2 witness the blows of the hammer on the anvil1 or the carpenter driving in a nail4 ,the psychologic reason is that when the will has set a certain muscular action in motion1 it leaves the carrying out of the command to some subordinate function1 so long as it is continuous2 but if the continuity is to be interrupted1 the will must again exert itself2 hence1 drumbeating and rattle shaking must of necessity be rhythmic4 ,nearly all savages have dances of various kinds4 ,varieties of drum rhythms arise from the almost universal custom of accompanying dances with drums and rattles4 ,varieties of ,percussion ,instruments4--,percussion instruments are almost endless in variety4 ,the most primitive example is that of a hollow log beaten with a war-club by some prehistoric savage4 ,the next step leads to the hollow gourd or other hollow body1 across the open end of which is stretched the dried membrane of some wild animal4 ,from these descend all the long line of drums of all sorts1 ending with the modern orchestral kettle-drums 7tympani7 which1 by means of a mechanism for changing the tension of their parchment heads1 may be tuned in various keys4 ,percussion instruments of metal are of very ancient origin4 ,in this category are included cymbals of various sizes and shapes1 gongs of all sorts1 and later1 bells and triangles4 ,comparatively few of the percussion instruments emit sounds of any definite pitch4 ,they were and are to a great extent noise-producing1 used for the purpose of marking rhythms4 ,wind ,instruments3 ,vibrating ,column of ,air in a ,tube4--,the next step in advance of noise-producing instruments is the discovery of means for the production of musical sound1 which differs from noise in the possession of definite pitch4 ,this leads to a consideration of the wind instruments that produce sound by means of a vibrating column of air enclosed in a tube4 ,this is an important class and has several subdivisions1 as will be seen4 ,the simplest form of the wind instrument is the plain tube1 producing a single sound when blown across the top4 ,a series of such tubes fastened together side by side constitutes the ,syrinx or ,pan's pipe1 an instrument known over all the world from the remotest ages4 ,this is thought to be the instrument mentioned in ,genesis with the ,hebrew name ,ugab--translated organ1 in the verse3 8,jubal was the father of all such as handle the harp or the organ40 ,it is generally believed by scholars that the ,pandean ,pipe or ,syrinx is the oldest of musical instruments2 but long before a sufficient advance had been made to bind together several reeds giving different sounds1 the discovery was made that sound might be produced in this way4 ,some prehistoric man found it out1 perhaps by blowing across the top of a hollow bone4 ,a whistle of this kind1 of prehistoric make1 bored from one of the bones of a reindeer's foot1 was found in a bone cave in ,france4 ,it may have been used as a signal1 and we may imagine that it may have guided a troop of palolithic hunters in the chase of the mammoth or rhinoceros1 when these animals still roamed over the plains of ,europe4 ,a ,tube ,pierced with ,holes4--,the next advance was the discovery that one tube could be made to give several sounds by piercing holes in it4 ,the effect of piercing is equivalent to shortening the tube2 thus the ,flute came into existence4 ,there are three forms of the flute2 the simplest is the old ,japanese flute1 blown at the end and pierced with a few holes4 ,next1 the endless variety of flutes blown at a hole in the side1 hence called the cross flute1 or ,flauto ,traverso1 in ,german1 ,querflte4 ,a perfect series of these flutes may be made4 ,from the piece of bamboo with three or four holes1 up to the exquisite workmanship and musical possibilities of the orchestral ,boehm flute1 all these flutes are identical in principle4 ,the third kind of flute is blown at the end and is furnished with a diaphragm1 which directs the air in a thin stream against the edge of the opening4 ,flutes of this kind were once used under the names of flageolet and recorder4 ,their chief interest lies in the fact that they have served as the model for the flue pipes of the organ1 from the ponderous thirty-two foot ,diapason to the half-inch extreme of the ,mixture4 ,the ,tube with a ,reed4--,the next subdivision is3 ,the tube in conjunction with a tongue or slip of cane1 called a reed4 ,reed instruments are further divided into single and double reed instruments4 ,the double reed instrument is of great antiquity and widely known4 ,this is the instrument generally meant by the term 8flute0 in the ancient ,greek authors4 ,it is known in ,china and ,thibet1 and in its modern form as ,hautboy 7oboe71 ,english ,horn or ,bassoon1 is an important member of the modern orchestra4 ,the beating or single reed is so-called because it is made a little larger than the orifice over which it is fixed1 and therefore beats against this orifice at every vibration1 closing it and causing the air to be emitted in puffs4 ,this form of reed instrument is also widely distributed4 ,by the ,greeks it was called the ,berecynthian pipe2 in modern ,egypt ,arghool1 in early ,england the ,shawm1 which is a corruption of an older ,french name--,chalumeau4 ,under the name ,clarinet it is another important member of the orchestra4 ,the beating reed also furnishes the model after which the reed stops of the organ are constructed4 ,the ,tube with the ,lips of the ,player4--,the last subdivision is the tube in conjunction with the lip of the performer1 the lips assuming the rle of the reed4 ,countless varieties of trumpets have been used from time immemorial1 made at first from that natural tube that has given them their generic name1 the 8horn0 of the ox or goat or antelope4 ,the forms of the horn are endless1 but from the conch shell of the ,japanese or the ram's horn ,shofar of the ,hebrews to the perfectly tuned and mechanically perfect instruments of our bands and orchestras the series is complete1 and the acoustic principle in all respects identical4 ,stringed ,instruments ,played by ,plucking4--,the stringed instruments are those which depend for their sound upon the vibration of stretched strings4 ,this class of instruments is of very ancient origin4 ,as in the case of the wind instruments1 the discovery of the principle of the vibration of a stretched string was probably accidental4 ,the twanging of a bow-string suggests a possible clue1 or the membranes of animals used for any purpose in which tension is required4 ,earliest among stringed instruments are the various forms of ,harp or ,lyre1 in which each string gives a single sound1 and is put in motion by being plucked by the finger or struck by a rod or flat strip of wood1 ivory1 etc41 called a plectrum4 ,in the next class are included those instruments that are furnished with a neck or fingerboard1 with or without frets4 ,in this class the strings are comparatively few in number1 as many sounds may be obtained from each string by altering its length by the pressure of the fingers on the neck4 ,these instruments are also played either with the fingers or the plectrum2 to this class belong the ,guitar1 ,lute1 ,mandolin1 etc4 ,the ,lute ,family4--,for many years1 until displaced by instruments of the violin family1 the ,lute occupied the foremost position among instruments4 ,it was a favorite instrument in the ,east1 whence it reached ,spain and lower ,italy4 ,during the #adth century1 it spread over all ,europe1 retaining its popularity from the #aeth to the #agth centuries4 ,in shape it was similar to the mandolin of the present day4 ,it had1 however1 a far greater number of strings4 ,five pairs of these and a single melody string lay over the keyboard1 while the bass strings 7finally five in number and used only as open strings7 lay at the side4 ,more elaborate forms of the lute1 owing to improvements in the arrangement of the bass strings1 were the ,theorbo and the ,archilute4 ,for the various forms of the lute the ordinary measured notation was not used1 but special letters or figures were given to indicate1 not the pitch of the sound1 but the proper fret on the fingerboard of the instrument to be used by the player4 ,this method of notation was called ,tablature2 it differed somewhat in the various countries4 ,until displaced by the violin1 the lute was in use as an orchestral instrument4 ,in addition1 transcriptions of all sorts of vocal and instrumental pieces were made for the lute1 for home use1 much in the same manner as they are at the present day made for the pianoforte4 ,stringed ,instruments ,played with a ,bow4--,the next and most important class resembles the last in being furnished with a neck or fingerboard1 but with strings put in vibration by a bow1 the familiar ,violin family4 ,a ,german writer on the stringed instruments played with a bow gives the following as the successive steps in the evolution of the violin3 ,rebec1 ,tromba ,marina1 ,hurdy ,gurdy1 ,fidel 7,fidula71 ,chrotta1 ,viole1 and ,violin4 ,the early history of instruments is shrouded in darkness1 which existed up to the #afth century4 ,before that time1 although writers on music made reference to the instruments in use1 they did not give detailed descriptions4 ,virdung1 who published a work in #aeaa2 ,agricola1 in #aebh2 and ,gerle1 in #aedf1 were among the first writers4 ,yet much confusion has arisen from the fact that these writers used different terms for the same instruments1 a difficulty that confronts the student of musical history who consults ,german1 ,french1 or ,italian works4 #a4 ,the ,rebec was of ,oriental origin and consisted of a wooden frame1 which formed the side walls1 the top and the bottom being spanned with skin1 like a drum4 ,the instrument had only two strings1 and was used in accompanying singing4 ,later the number of strings was increased to three4 ,in the #hth or #ith century an instrument called the ,lyra 7,lyre7 was in use4 ,its shape shows a change toward the pear-shaped body and narrow neck of the lute4 ,illustration3 ,,rebec4 ,,lyre 7,,according ,,to ,,gerbert74 ,,bass ,,viol4 #b4 ,the ,tromba ,marina 7,eng41 literally1 8,marine ,trumpet071 which the ,germans call ,trumscheit1 had a long1 sonorous body1 over which a strong string1 like that of the 'cello ,d1 was stretched4 ,this string1 when sounded with the bow1 gave forth a harsh1 somewhat nasal tone1 similar to that of the #h-;foot wooden organ reed-pipe4 ,but the proper way to play it was by lightly touching the string with the finger1 as in making harmonics on the violin4 ,this gave a series of tones1 according to the pitch of the open string1 the same as the so-called overtones4 ,if the string were tuned to low ,c1 the sounds were middle ,c1 then in succession ,e1 ,g1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,this instrument was a favorite with choirs of nuns to accompany their singing4 ,another name given to this instrument from its single string is ,monochord4 #c4 ,the ,hurdy ,gurdy1 also called ,vielle1 ,radleier 78wheel lyre071 ,bettlerleier 78mendicants' lyre071 ,organistrum and ,chiffonie1 was a great favorite in the period from the #ajth to the #abth century4 ,this peculiar instrument consisted of a resonant body1 over which four strings were stretched4 ,it has analogies to bowed and keyed instruments4 ,its shape was somewhat like that of the lute or the viola d'amore or guitar4 ,two of the strings were tuned in unison1 were stopped by an arrangement of keys1 directed by the player's left hand shortening the string1 thus making it possible to play melodies of a limited compass4 ,the other two strings were usually tuned as ,tonic and ,dominant1 thus giving a drone like the bagpipe4 ,the strings are set in vibration by a wooden wheel1 which1 being well rosined1 has the function of a violin bow2 this wheel is turned by a handle at the tail end of the instrument1 the player using his right hand for the purpose4 #d4 ,the ,chrotta 7,welsh ,crwth--8crooth07 is one of the oldest of string instruments played with a bow4 ,the original home was possibly ,india1 but in its ,european use it was limited to ,england1 and especially to ,wales4 ,it was a favorite instrument of the ,welsh bards4 ,the oldest form had three strings4 ,in its later form it was mounted with six strings1 four stretched over the fingerboard and played with the bow1 and two lying at the side of the fingerboard1 and pinched with the thumb of the left hand4 #e4 ,fidula 7,fidel1 ,fiddle71 equivalent to 8viol10 is the comprehensive term for the string instruments of the #hth to the #adth century4 ,its resonant body was arched and pear-shaped4 ,the ,french flattened it more and called it ,gigue1 the ,italians ,giga1 the ,germans ,geige1 the latter term still being used4 ,two varieties were in use--the small and the large4 ,the former had three strings tuned in fifths1 the latter four to six1 usually tuned in fourths and one third4 ,the 8large0 species was made in four sizes for ,discant 7soprano71 ,alto1 ,tenor1 and ,bass4 ,the 8large0 instrument had no bridge such as the violin of today has1 and in its rounded form was difficult to play4 ,later it was cut out at the sides1 thus approaching the shape of our violin4 #f4 ,the ,viol1 which first appears in the #aeth century1 had a resonant body which came almost to a point back of the neck1 and the upper part of the body of the instrument was smaller than the lower2 the fingerboard had frets like our guitar2 the edges were higher1 the f holes were sickle-shaped1 the top was flat1 and the number of strings was six4 ,viols were divided into two groups--those held with the arm 7like our violin71 those played between the knees 7like our 'cello74 ,they were named the soprano or discant viol 7violetta71 the alto and tenor viols1 and the bass viol 7gamba74 ,the contra-bass or double bass has the viol form in certain respects4 ,from the viol family comes our violin through a diminution and beautifying of the form1 through lessening the number of strings and doing away with the frets4 ,,references4 ,lavignac4--,music and ,musicians4 ,section on ,instruments4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on the various instruments4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what are the general classes into which musical instruments are grouped8 ,name the percussion instruments4 ,name the principles of classification for wind instruments4 ,give examples of each class4 ,what is a reed8 ,how many kinds are in use8 ,what methods of producing sound are used in playing stringed instruments8 ,give examples of each class4 ,give a description of the lute4 ,name the steps in the evolution of the violin4 ,the catalogues of the instruments contained in the ,metropolitan ,museum 7,crosby-,brown ,collection71 ,new ,york ,city1 will be found very useful for reference4 ,this collection is one of the most complete in the world1 and is arranged so as to show the development of instruments of the various types4 ,they can be secured at slight expense by addressing the ,museum4 ,,lesson ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,organ1 ,,organ ,,playing ,,and ,,organ ,,music4 ,in the book of ,genesis it is written3 8,jubal1 he was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ40 ,it is not to be understood that the word organ in this passage meant an instrument anything like that heard in our churches at the present day4 ,in fact1 as ,st4 ,augustine tells us1 there was a time when all musical instruments were called organs4 ,the ,germ of the ,organ4--,the invention of the organ is veiled in deepest darkness4 ,its development from its earliest forms to its present state has occupied a period of almost two thousand years4 ,doubtless1 the first idea of a wind instrument was suggested by the breeze blowing across the open ends of broken reeds1 the discovery naturally following that reeds of different lengths gave forth sounds of varying pitch4 ,in course of time1 reeds or pipes1 differing in length1 began to be joined together1 conveniently arranged so as to produce a succession of musical sounds1 the players blowing them with the mouth4 ,these instruments were called ,pan's ,pipes1 the ,syrinx of the ancient ,greeks4 ,the ,first ,stage of ,development4--,as the number of pipes was increased1 the moving of the head back and forth in order to blow them became difficult4 ,the pipes were then placed in a sort of box or wind chest1 a tube being added through which the player could blow1 the pipes not intended to sound being closed by the fingers4 ,furthermore1 as the pipes were increased in number and in size1 it became necessary to employ various mechanical accessories to furnish adequate wind supply1 and to open and close the pipes at will1 the breath and fingers of the player proving insufficient4 ,a device was invented in the form of a slide1 rule or tongue of wood1 which was placed beneath the aperture of the pipe1 and perforated so as to shut off or admit wind to the pipe as it was drawn back or forth4 ,the earliest form of bellows might be suggested by the leathern bag of the bagpipe4 ,in this the wind pressure was unsteady and the tone necessarily disconnected4 ,illustration3 ,,pan',s ,,pipes 7,,syrinx74 ,,early ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,organ4 ,the ,hydraulic ,organ4--,the first attempts to secure regular or steady wind pressure were made by ,ctesibus1 who lived at ,alexandria1 about #ahj ,b4 ,c4 ,to him is ascribed the invention of the so-called 8,hydraulic ,organ40 ,this term seems somewhat of a misnomer1 since the water was used merely to give the necessary pressure to the bellows1 and to regulate the wind supply4 ,this method was never developed1 since the device did not seem applicable to instruments of any considerable size4 ,the trend was rather toward a wind supply from a bellows operated on the same principle as that of the blacksmith's4 ,in the ,hydraulic ,organ the water was thus applied3 ,an inverted air receiver1 into which the wind was forced by a bellows1 was immersed in a tank of water1 the pressure of the water around and above the receiver forcing the air through an aperture at the top into the pipes1 the pressure being regulated by the volume of water in the tank4 ,the hydraulic organ continued more or less in use up to the early part of the #adth century4 ,the ,earliest ,organs4--,the organ developed little as to size or mechanical improvements during the first ten centuries of the ,christian ,era1 and it is difficult to trace the progressive stages in point of time1 place or mechanical invention4 ,the first organ known to the people of ,western ,europe was a present from the ,byzantine emperor1 ,constantine1 to ,pepin the ,short1 ,major-,domo of the ,frankish ,kingdom1 in #gdb4 ,it had brass pipes and the 8keys0 were struck by hands and feet4 ,eastern organs also came into ,france in the time of ,charlemagne1 son of ,pepin4 ,the first organ used in ,germany was made in #hab1 modelled after the one just mentioned4 ,in #hhj1 the ,pope ordered an organ and an organ builder from ,germany1 which seems to indicate that the art had found support there at an early date4 ,although not considered absolutely indispensable1 the organ from that time on seems to have been generally adopted for use in churches4 ,its many imperfections gave ground for criticism1 yet today it is considered1 par excellence1 the ecclesiastical instrument4 ,increase in the ,size of ,organs4--,the organ builders of these early days were mostly monks1 ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii 7#ajjc7 being eminent1 under the name of ,gerbert1 prior to his election to the papacy4 ,they built small organs called 8,portative10 and large organs called 8,positive40 ,the old hydraulic organ1 owing to its excessive weight1 was called 8,positive0 to distinguish it from the 8,portative0 or portable organ1 and these terms have been perpetuated to the present time4 ,an organ built for the ,cathedral at ,winchester1 ,england1 had ten keys1 four hundred pipes and twenty-six bellows1 which were operated by seventy men1 8in the sweat of their brows40 ,since forty pipes were attached to a single key1 it may be readily understood why its tone was compared to thunder4 ,the keys were very large1 having a deep fall1 and required the whole force of the hand to press down a single one4 ,mechanical ,improvements4--,the pipes in the early organs were made of copper1 lead1 tin1 silver1 glass1 ivory and various woods1 but experiments finally showed tin or wood to be best suited for the purpose4 ,the earliest organs had about twelve pipes1 and the larger instruments three octaves1 but without the chromatic intervals4 ,the pipes were arranged according to the sequence of tones in the old ,church modes1 the octave containing but three semitones3 between ,e-,f1 ,a-,b flat and ,b-,c4 ,the chromatic tones were added gradually1 the breadth of the keys being correspondingly reduced as the increased number of keys occupied the same space as before4 ,heretofore1 the wind had usually been forced from the bellows by the weight of men standing upon them1 but in the #ajth century use began to be made of a lever1 the bellows presumably being weighted4 ,the ,keyboard is ,adopted4--,in the #aath century1 the keyboard appeared1 supplanting the levers and slides1 previously in use4 ,the first organ containing this marked improvement was made for the ,cathedral at ,magdeburg1 ,germany4 ,it had sixteen keys4 ,in #acej1 a monk at ,thorn built an organ with twenty-two keys1 and in #acfa an organ was built for the ,cathedral at ,halberstadt with fourteen diatonic and eight chromatic tones in a compass extending from ,b1 second line1 bass staff1 to ,a1 second space1 treble4 ,this organ had three keyboards1 now termed manuals4 ,the ,pedals4--,the invention of pedals is variously ascribed to ,albert ,van ,os 7about #aabj71 to ,van ,valbeke1 of ,brabant1 and to a ,german named ,bernhard 7#adgj71 an organist of ,venice4 ,the latter probably improved1 but did not invent the pedals4 ,the pedals at first did not exceed the compass of an octave1 and were used only for sustaining prolonged tones4 ,they were fastened to the broad manual keys by stout cords1 thus enabling the performer to draw down the desired key with the foot4 ,about the year #adah the pedals began to be attached to independent pedal-pipes1 thus imparting to the organ a certain dignity and sonority1 still a chief characteristic of the instrument4 ,after #adge1 all important organs were built with pedal keyboard4 ,the ,introduction of ,stops4--,up to the #adth century1 the different registers 7set of pipes with uniform tone quality7 could not be sounded separately1 that is to say3 all the pipes belonging to any one key sounded when that key was depressed4 ,at the close of the #adth century it was found possible to add valves to the pipes in such a manner as to cause the wind to pass through or be cut off from any series of pipes at will4 ,the opening and closing was managed through a spring4 ,the next improvement was to introduce a slide to open or close the passage of wind into the pipes4 ,with these improvements it became possible for builders to set themselves to the improvement of the various 8stops0 or registers4 ,improvements in ,stops4--,in the #aeth century1 pipes of sixteen and thirty-two feet in length began to be used1 necessitating a greatly enlarged bellows4 ,pipes were closed at the top1 thereby lowering the pitch an octave4 ,they were given smaller diameters1 producing a softer tone quality4 ,the shapes of the pipes were varied1 giving additional variety in tone quality4 ,thus began the broad classifications of 8,open0 and 8,stopped0 pipes in all their varieties4 ,the 8,reeds0 7pipes containing a vibrator or tongue to set the column of air in motion7 were familiar to the earliest performers1 but were not introduced into the organ until as late as the #adth century4 ,further improvements were made in the bellows at the beginning of the #afth century4 ,st4 ,mary's1 ,lbeck4--,in #aefa1 a three-manual organ was in use in ,st4 ,mary's1 ,lbeck1 ,germany4 ,to this organ all the important improvements were successively added at various intervals until it had1 at the beginning of the #ahth century1 in the three manuals1 respectively1 thirteen1 fourteen and fifteen stops1 and in the pedal1 fifteen stops4 ,it was to hear the famous ,buxtehude play upon this organ that ,sebastian ,bach walked fifty miles in #agje4 ,design of ,improvements4--,great improvements have been made in organ building since the time of ,bach1 all designed to give the player greater resources1 and increased facility in the handling and control of the resources1 which in the present day are simply enormous4 ,the ,organ in the ,american ,colonies4--,although the first organs heard in ,america were probably introduced by the ,spaniards1 of these there are no authentic records4 ,according to reliable historic data1 the famous old 8,brattle0 organ was 8the first organ that ever pealed to the glory of ,god in this country40 ,it was imported from ,london1 in #agac1 by ,mr4 ,thomas ,brattle1 who bequeathed it to the ,brattle ,street ,church1 ,boston1 directing that the parish 8procure a sober person that can play skilfully thereon with a loud noise40 ,this organ became the property of ,king's ,chapel1 ,boston1 and was used until #agef4 ,no ,art in ,early ,organ ,playing4--,the organs of the early ,christian period were of such a character that playing1 in the sense in which we now understand the word1 was out of the question4 ,for some time the span of the hand possible to players did not exceed the distance of a fifth4 ,if an octave was to be struck1 a second player was necessary4 ,only with the narrowing of the keys did artistic playing become possible4 ,in fact1 organ playing has invariably reflected the style and development of contemporary musical art4 ,early ,organists4--,the credit of being 8father of organists0 is given to ,francesco ,landino1 of ,florence 7#acbe-acij71 and after him to ,bernhard1 mentioned as the inventor of the organ pedals4 ,the oldest organ compositions are some works by ,konrad ,paumann 7#adaj-adgc71 who was born blind1 yet1 like many others since1 became a thoroughly trained musician in spite of his affliction4 ,he also played other instruments and was a fine contrapuntist4 ,another of the early organists is ,benedictus ,ducis 7or ,hertoghs71 born at ,bruges1 about #adhj4 ,he was a pupil of ,josquin des ,pres4 ,from ,ducis1 representing the second ,flemish school1 as founded by ,okeghem1 there is a chain almost of master and pupil1 between the early masters of organ playing and polyphonic writing and ,bach1 who in these arts became the master of all4 ,paumann's pieces show the style of composing for the instrument that was considered appropriate4 ,they are essentially transcribed1 but elaborated1 vocal works4 ,the compositions of the next organists of fame1 ,willaert1 of ,venice 7#adij-aefb71 and ,cyprian di ,rore 7#aeaf-aefe71 pupil of the former1 have distinct names4 ,ricercari1 ,intonationi1 ,contrapunti1 ,toccati1 ,praeambula1 and ,canzoni1 but the character remains the same1 vocal pieces1 elaborated and freely embellished with runs and other passage work4 ,later the term ,ricercari came to mean a sort of fantasia in fugal form1 often on a popular air2 ,toccata became a free fantasia with brilliantly figurated passages1 and a ,praeambulo a prelude to a larger piece4 ,other famous organists of this period were ,bernhard ,schmidt 7#aebj-871 ,german2 ,claudio ,merulo 7#aecb-afjd71 organist at ,venice1 and his successors1 the two ,gabrieli's4 ,frescobaldi and ,his ,successors4--,the greatest of all the organists of the earlier days1 to whom the title of 8,father of true organ playing0 has been given1 was ,girolamo ,frescobaldi1 born in #aehc at ,ferrara1 in ,italy1 educated in ,flanders1 and from #afjh to his death in #afdd organist at ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome4 ,his fame was so great that the spacious cathedral was often filled when he gave an organ recital4 ,his compositions1 many of which have been preserved1 have a very decided contrapuntal character1 whence some have called him the inventor of the organ fugue4 ,two prominent ,german organists1 whose compositions were studied by ,bach1 were ,caspar ,kerl 7#afbg-afic71 and ,jacob ,froberger 7------#affg71 both of whom lived in ,vienna4 ,the most eminent organist of the #agth century was ,johann ,peter ,sweelinck 7#aefb-afba71 pupil of ,zarlino1 the famous ,italian theorist1 and of ,andreas ,gabrieli1 organist of ,venice4 ,sweelinck occupied the position of organist at the ,cathedral in ,amsterdam1 and gave much attention to the development of the fugal style of composition4 ,his compositions are of the highest importance historically1 since they exhibit the first known examples of the independent use of the pedals in a real fugal part4 ,he was the most eminent organist of his time 7being called the organist maker71 and was the teacher of the following noted players3 ,jacob ,praetorius 7died at ,hamburg in #afea72 ,heinrich ,scheidemann 7#aeif-affc71 also located at ,hamburg2 ,jan ,adams ,reinken 7#afbc-agbb71 from #affc organist and successor to ,scheidemann at the ,catherine ,church1 ,hamburg 7,bach came to ,hamburg several times to hear ,reinken play and to learn his style72 ,samuel ,scheidt 7#aehg-afed71 organist at ,halle4 ,some of their compositions are accessible4 ,illustration3 ,,johann ,,peter ,,sweelinck4 ,other famous organists of this period were ,johann ,pachelbel 7#afec-agjf71 located at ,nuremberg 7,bach studied his works as a lad72 ,dietrich ,buxtehude 7#afcg-agjg71 organist at ,lbeck for thirty-nine years4 ,one of the most important names of this period of development is that of ,johann ,joseph ,fux 7#affj-agda74 ,his 8,gradus ad ,parnassum10 published in #agbe1 a treatise on counterpoint based on the practice of the great masters1 played an important part in the training of ,haydn1 ,mozart and ,beethoven4 ,english ,organists4--,in the history of ,english organ playing1 the first great name to engage our attention is that of ,thomas ,tallys1 born about #aebj4 ,he is called the 8,father of ,english church music40 ,he served under ,henry ,,viii1 ,edward ,,vi1 ,queen ,mary and ,queen ,elizabeth1 as organist of the ,chapel ,royal4 ,english organists of distinction contemporary with and succeeding ,tallys were ,john ,merbecke1 ,richard ,farrant1 ,william ,byrd1 ,john ,bull1 ,thomas ,morley1 ,orlando ,gibbons 7a contemporary of ,frescobaldi71 ,matthew ,lock1 ,john ,blow and ,henry ,purcell4 ,the last mentioned1 born in #afeh1 became organist of ,westminster ,abbey in #afhj4 ,the name of ,purcell is one of the strongest in the history of ,english music4 ,it was his ambition to found a distinctive school of ,english composition4 ,although not successful in this1 he made a lasting impression on ,english church music and produced many charming secular works4 ,it is on record that he stood high in the estimation of his ,european contemporaries4 ,culmination in ,bach and ,handel4--,the ,polyphonic ,period culminated in ,bach and ,handel1 both born in #afhe4 ,these two1 who never met1 and who worked upon dissimilar lines1 were the most famous organists of their day1 in addition to their greatness in composition4 ,the ,organ and ,polyphonic ,music4--,bach must be regarded as the source of modern organ composition and playing4 ,in him polyphonic composition attained its highest perfection and the organ stands as the centre of the ,polyphonic school4 ,the development of the ,opera and its influence towards a freer style in vocal and instrumental composition and the tendency of instrumental music to develop along harmonic lines had the effect of relegating polyphonic music to the ,church with the organ as its chief vehicle4 ,it is only of comparatively recent years that the organ has become a concert instrument4 ,bach's treatment of the instrument serves as a model for the composers of all time and the study of his works is indispensable to the development of technical command of the organ and the cultivation of the true organ style4 ,handel's permanent contribution to organ literature consists of sets of ,concertos4 ,these concertos1 a number of which are still played and admired1 excited the enthusiasm of ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 who gives a glowing account of them in his history4 ,bach was appointed ,cantor at the ,st4 ,thomas ,schule1 ,leipzig1 in #agbc1 and it was here that much of his greatest work was accomplished4 ,in addition to his duties at the school1 he directed the music in the ,churches of ,st4 ,thomas and ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,as to the relative superiority of ,bach and ,handel as organists1 contemporary opinion seems to have differed widely4 ,each undoubtedly had a style of his own as shown in his published compositions4 ,each excelled in improvisation4 ,the ,chorale in ,protestant ,organ ,music4--,in addition to his incomparable preludes and fugues1 toccatas1 fantasias and pieces in the larger forms1 ,bach made the polyphonic treatment of the chorale an art peculiarly his own4 ,in fact1 the ,german style of organ playing may be said to have developed from the chorale and from the music of the ,reformation4 ,this furnished a fresher and very different source of inspiration from the ,gregorian chant which had been handled so effectively by ,frescobaldi and his ,italian successors4 ,marchand4--,one of the most renowned of early ,french organists was ,louis ,marchand 7#afga-agcb74 ,in #agag1 while living under banishment in ,dresden1 he was to have entered into a trial of skill with ,bach1 but lost courage and departed on the morning of the appointed day4 ,a certain triviality has at times characterized the ,french school of organ music1 undoubtedly a reflection of the prevailing style and taste in other branches of musical composition4 ,of later years1 however1 a more serious and exalted style has developed4 ,the ,german ,school4--,to return to the ,german organists4 ,a name familiar to all students of the organ is that of ,rinck4 ,johann ,c4 ,h4 ,rinck 7#aggj-ahdf7 was a pupil of ,kittel1 who in turn was a pupil of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach4 ,rinck's reputation is based largely on his 8,practical ,organ ,school10 a work still in use4 ,another name of importance is that of ,johann ,gottlob ,schneider 7#aghi-ahfd74 ,he has had the reputation of being one of the greatest ,german organists since the time of ,bach4 ,of the great composers since ,bach1 ,mendelssohn stands conspicuous as an organist and composer of organ music4 ,haydn1 ,mozart and ,beethoven1 although occasionally using the organ in their scores1 did not compose for the instrument4 ,mendelssohn developed a decided fondness for the organ1 which he played admirably4 ,his six sonatas and three preludes and fugues are masterpieces4 ,among the representative ,german organists and composers should be mentioned3 ,adolph ,hesse 7#ahji-ahfc71 author of the 8,practical ,organist0 and a prolific composer2 ,karl ,august ,haupt 7#ahaj-ahia71 a celebrated teacher1 numbering among his many pupils from all countries such prominent ,american organists as ,eugene ,thayer1 ,clarence ,eddy and ,j4 ,k4 ,paine2 ,carl ,ludwig ,thiele 7#ahaf-ahdh7 composer of some of the most difficult known works for the organ2 ,gustav ,merkel 7#ahbg-ahhe71 a prolific composer1 whose sonatas are numbered among the standard works for the instrument2 ,j4 ,g4 ,rheinberger 7#ahcg-aija71 one of the finest organists and best teachers of his time and a composer of great ability1 whose twenty sonatas form a permanent addition to the best organ literature4 ,a number of ,american organists were among his pupils4 ,the ,french ,school4--,prominent among organists of the ,french school in the #aith century may be mentioned3 ,l4 ,j4 ,a4 ,lefbure-,wly 7#ahag-ahfi7 and ,antoine ,eduard ,batiste 7#ahbj-ahgf74 ,the works of both these organists are still widely played and have won much popularity4 ,wely has been called the 8,auber of the organ40 ,his works display fertility of melodic invention and a piquancy of harmonic treatment1 but are entirely lacking in the polyphonic element4 ,much the same may be said of ,batiste1 who was a fine player and teacher1 and who equalled ,wely in tunefulness but not in musicianship4 ,nicholas ,jacques ,lemmens 7#ahbc-ha71 a great player 7especially of ,bach7 and author of the celebrated 8,ecole d',orgue0 may be said to have laid the foundation of the modern ,french school4 ,conspicuous among his successors have been3 ,camille ,saint-,sans 7#ahce-----71 a most versatile musician and a noted organist2 ,thodore ,dubois 7#ahcg-----71 ,thodore ,salome 7#ahcd-----7 and ,felix ,alexandre ,guilmant 7#ahcg-----74 ,guilmant1 one of the most noted organists and composers of the present day1 was a favorite pupil of ,lemmens4 ,he has been one of the most prolific composers since the time of ,bach1 is a master of all the resources of the modern organ1 and has a fertility of invention and a fluent command of contrapuntal resources4 ,another eminent ,french organist is ,c4 ,m4 ,widor 7#ahde-----71 also a composer of distinction4 ,a powerful influence was exerted on modern organ music1 as well as general composition1 by the eminent organist and composer1 ,csar ,franck1 who was1 for a number of years1 in charge of the organ class at the ,paris ,conservatoire4 ,the ,italian ,school4--,among recent ,italian organists ,filippo ,capocci 7#ahdj-----7 and ,enrico ,bossi 7#ahfa-----7 are worthy of mention4 ,both are splendid organists and prolific composers4 ,they are leaders in the revival of good organ playing in ,italy1 where a determined effort is being made to restore the art to its former supremacy4 ,the ,english ,school4--,england has furnished a long line of #aith century organists of ability1 prominent among whom are3 ,sir ,john ,goss 7#ahjj-ahhj71 ,henry ,smart 7#ahac-ahgi71 ,e4 ,j4 ,hopkins 7#ahah-aija71 ,s4 ,s4 ,wesley 7#ahaj-ahgf71 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,spark 7#ahbe-ahig74 ,foremost among ,english organists stands the name of ,wm4 ,t4 ,best 7#ahbf-ahig74 ,he was one of the most famous concert organists of his time1 but is best known to organ students by his 8,arrangements from the ,scores of the ,great ,masters10 in which he demonstrated that the organ is in itself capable of reproducing certain orchestral effects without transcending its proper functions or descending to trickery4 8,the ,organ10 by ,sir ,john ,stainer 7#ahdj-aija71 is one of the most widely used elementary works for instruction in organ playing4 ,dr4 ,stainer was the successor of ,sir ,john ,goss1 at ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 and was appointed ,professor of ,music at ,oxford ,university in #ahhi4 ,frederic ,archer 7#ahch-aija7 has been considered one of the greatest of organ players4 ,after a successful career in ,england1 he came to ,america in #ahhj4 ,he did much towards popularizing and elevating the art of organ playing in this country4 ,prominent among contemporary ,english organists stands ,edwin ,h4 ,lemare 7#ahfe-----71 who succeeded ,frederic ,archer as organist of ,carnegie ,hall1 ,pittsburg1 in #aijb4 ,he is a skilful virtuoso1 a composer of originality1 and a leading representative of the modern ,english school4 ,modern ,organ ,music4--,organ playing and composition have kept pace with the mechanical and artistic evolution of the instrument1 and the lines between the various schools are becoming less closely drawn4 ,the tendency of builders to imitate orchestral tone and effects has had influence on composers and players alike4 ,this tendency is less noticeable in the works of the ,german school1 where a modified polyphony still flourishes1 based on the principle of the classic treatment of the chorale and growing out of the music of the ,lutheran ,church4 ,the organ compositions of the modern ,french school are characterized by grace1 refinement and originality1 coupled with a certain dignity and elegance4 ,they combine free harmonic treatment and modern polyphony1 together with certain ornate characteristics1 growing out of the elaborate ceremonial music of the ,latin ,church1 and bringing into play all the resources of tone color and expressive treatment of the modern instrument4 ,much the same may be said of the modern ,english school1 which nevertheless still shows traces of the early ,english style1 based on the dignity and purity of cathedral use and tradition4 ,the orchestral tendency1 both in composition for the organ and in the transcription of orchestral works for the instrument1 shows itself more or less in all schools1 and the organ1 in addition to its position in the church1 is becoming more and more a concert instrument4 ,the compositions of the ,american organists reflect1 in a measure1 the characteristics of the schools in which they have been trained1 and in particular show traces of the styles of the masters with whom they have chiefly studied4#i ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 ,articles on the ,organ1 and ,organists mentioned in this lesson4 ,williams4--,story of the ,organ4 ,lahee4--,the ,organ and its ,masters4 ,matthews4--,handbook of the ,organ4 ,pirro4--,j4 ,s4 ,bach3 ,the ,organist and ,his ,works4 ,audsley1 ,g4 ,a4--,the ,art of ,organ ,building1 #b vols4 ,,questions4 ,in what early instrument is the germ of the organ found8 ,describe its gradual development4 ,describe the general character of the early organs4 ,describe the various mechanical improvements4 ,when and by whom were pedals introduced8 ,mention some of the early organists4 ,in whom did the ,polyphonic ,period culminate8 ,who is the source of modern organ composition and playing8 ,mention some ,german organists since the time of ,bach4 ,mention some prominent ,french and ,english organists of the #aith century4 ,describe the modern tendencies in organ composition4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,review ,,of ,,lessons ,,viii ,,to ,,xvi4 ,get a clear idea of the period1 which includes the years between #aajj and the death of ,palestrina in #aeid1 almost #ejj years4 ,the lesson on the organ and organ playing belongs to this period1 chronologically1 in part only4 ,the difference between the monophonic and polyphonic styles must be clearly appreciated in order to get a clear grasp of the two fundamental styles in music4 ,illustrations from the masters are to be placed in contrast4 ,polyphony developed from melodic principles1 the simultaneous sounding of several melodies4 ,monophony depends upon a harmonic basis4 ,indicate the steps in the growth of ,polyphony4 ,how did the ,church contribute8 ,what political and other conditions made ,paris the centre of ,europe in the #abth century8 ,what is the force of ,imitation as a principle to secure ,unity in musical composition8 ,how was it used by the composers of the ,paris school8 ,what advances in the use of ,imitation did the men of the ,gallo-,belgic school make8 ,indicate certain historical events and name prominent personages of the periods included in this section4 ,why did the early ,english school exercise so little influence on music8 ,what noted musical composition is credited to the ,english school8 ,what kind of work is it8 ,what historical periods coincide with the ,english school as described in this section8 ,compare the ,gallo-,belgic and the ,netherlands schools4 ,what did the former contribute to the latter8 ,what is the musical value of the principle of the ,canon8 ,why did the musical centre shift respectively from ,paris to ,belgium1 to the ,netherlands and then to ,italy8 ,make a list of the composers of the different schools of this period and trace the connection between them4 ,give a sketch of ,palestrina and show his contribution to church music4 ,describe the madrigal4 ,compare a madrigal with a modern part-song and note the difference in style4 ,give the classification of musical instruments4 ,examples in each class4 ,give a sketch of the development of the viol4 ,what is the germ of the principle of the organ8 ,what is the necessity for the use of a bellows8 ,what are the successive steps in improving the organ8 ,mention the important players in chronological order4 ,classify them in the proper schools4 ,compare the ,german1 ,french and ,english schools4 ,,lesson ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,opera4 ,the ,renaissance4--,the ,opera1 in its inception1 was literary rather than musical in nature4 ,it was a result of what is known as the ,renaissance1 so-called because its most prominent manifestation in ,italy was a revival of the learning of the ancients4 ,this phase of the movement was initiated by ,petrarch 7#acjd-acgj71 who devoted his life to the study of the classical past of ,italy4 ,the ,latin classics had never been entirely lost1 but those of the ,greeks had become practically extinct during the dark ages which followed the conquest of the ,roman ,empire by the barbarians of the ,north1 in the #eth century4 ,the arts had been kept alive only through the fostering care of the ,church1 and all had taken on a conventionally ecclesiastical character4 ,education had declined2 it was practically confined to churchmen--even kings and rulers could barely sign their names1 while the people at large were sunk in gross ignorance4 ,the revival of ,latin literature through the influence of ,petrarch led to an interest in the ,greek classics which soon became the engrossing study of the learned4 ,diligent search was made for lost and forgotten manuscripts2 academies of learning were founded2 lectures were given on ,greek philosophy4 ,in the enthusiasm thus created it was even thought that not only the arts and literature of the ancient world might be restored1 but its governmental1 social and political structure as well4 ,scope of the ,renaissance4--,the ,renaissance1 however1 was not merely literary in nature4 ,it was in reality the awakening of man from the spiritual and intellectual slumber which had bound him for nearly a thousand years4 ,long before it was defined it had been perceptible in many ways4 ,first1 materially1 in a spirit of exploration1 of adventure and enterprise4 ,traders and travelers startled ,europe with glowing accounts of the far ,east2 missionaries took long and dangerous voyages in the hope of converting its heathen inhabitants4 ,an eager desire for increased commercial facilities with these favored countries by means of a westward passage brought about the discovery of ,america1 with which modern history may be said to have opened4 ,with this extension of the world's boundaries1 the mind of man began to expand as well4 ,as he looked forward with eager anticipation to the future1 he studied the past with an eye newly alive to the treasures of its buried culture4 ,instead of his former acquiescence in being one of a dull1 inert mass1 serving without question those in authority over him1 he began to feel and to assert his own individuality1 to resist the crushing weight of feudalism which had hitherto oppressed him4 ,freedom of intellect1 of conscience1 of science1 of art1 was in the air4 ,the effect of this transition from medievalism toward modern liberty of thought and action varied with different nationalities4 ,in northern nations it took the direction of rebellion against prevailing religious and political conditions1 for example1 in ,germany and ,england4 ,italy1 however1 remained steadfast in religion and government2 the revolt was against traditions in matters of art and literature4 ,roman law and ,greek philosophy were exhumed2 the classics were zealously studied for standards of taste and culture4 ,music of the ,ancients4--,notwithstanding this research1 no trace was found of the music actually in use among the ancients4 ,from the evanescent nature of the art and the total lack of examples1 the elaborate descriptions of its complicated system of scales and modes given by ,greek philosophers failed to yield a trustworthy clue to its real character4 ,it was known1 however1 that the drama1 owing to the enormous proportions of the amphitheatre in which it was performed1 was musically declaimed1 and that the voices of the actors and chorus were sustained by lyres and flutes4 ,thus1 in the ,greek tragedy we find the principal features of the modern opera--scenery1 dramatic action1 solo and choral singing1 the orchestra4 ,it was also known that in the music of the ,greeks the word was the governing principle2 that there was no independent instrumental music--nor was there elsewhere for many centuries afterward4 ,the tone was regarded only as a means of heightening the effect of the poetry2 the succession of long and short syllables dictated both rhythm and melody4 ,of harmony in the modern sense of the term1 there was none2 instruments and voices alike were in unison4 ,music ,chiefly ,choral4--,in the #afth century1 ,florence was the centre of the enthusiasm for ,greek culture4 ,she and her sister-cities in the north of ,italy were the arbiters in matters of taste1 of learning and erudition4 ,there1 toward the end of the century1 a small group of scholars and musicians1 known as the ,camerata 7,chamber71 meeting at the house of ,count ,bardi1 discussed the possibility of reproducing the musical declamation of ,greek tragedy4 ,the time was ripe for such an experiment4 ,the polyphonic school had reached its climax in the intricate works of di ,lasso 7#aebj-aeid7 and ,palestrina 7#aead-aeid74 ,though admirably suited to the ,church1 the contrapuntal style of these great composers was manifestly unfit for dramatic purposes2 it could voice the aspirations of a body of worshipers swayed by a common belief1 but could not express individual feeling4 ,no voice was more important than another1 all progressed according to canonic law1 their complex intertwining practically destroying the essentially secular elements of accent and rhythm4 ,it was1 in short1 the embodiment in music of the medievalism which had so long controlled ,church and ,state4 ,thus far the spirit of emancipation which had produced such great results in the other arts and in politics elsewhere had touched music but lightly4 ,attempts had been made to break the restraints of contrapuntalism1 but there was a total ignorance as to what steps would prove most effective in reaching that end1 and nothing definite had been accomplished4 ,aside from the ,folk-song1 which was ignored by musicians save only as it served as ,cantus ,firmus for their counterpoint1 there was no music for the solo voice2 it was conceived solely from a choral standpoint4 ,the ,recitative4--,their dissatisfaction with the school of music then in vogue and the impossibility of adapting it to their purpose led to various experiments by this band of enthusiasts to discover the principles upon which the ,greeks had founded the musical declamation employed in their tragedies4 ,they argued that it must have followed as closely as possible the inflections of the voice in speaking2 therefore they made this their study4 ,thus originated the ,recitative1 the distinguishing feature of the lyric drama1 which1 though using the definite pitches of the musical scale1 reproduces in its progressions and cadences the characteristic but intensified effect of an oratorical delivery of the text4 ,it was the exact contrary of the music of the age in which the word counted for almost nothing1 the art of combining independent voices and of playing them off one against the other for everything4 ,the ,cantata4--,the first result of their efforts was the ,cantata 7from cantare1 to sing71 meaning a composition for the voice in contradistinction to the ,sonata 7from sonare1 to sound71 which was applied to one for instruments4 ,the ,cantata had but little in common with what is now understood by the term4 ,it was a recitation on musical intervals for a single voice accompanied by but one instrument4 ,anything like a formal melody was carefully avoided1 and the accompaniment1 generally played on the lute1 was of the most unpretending character4 ,the first of these cantatas was composed by ,vincenzo ,galilei1 the father of the celebrated astronomer1 on the tragic fate of ,count ,ugolino1 as related by ,dante in the ,inferno4 ,this1 therefore1 was the first art-song ever composed4 ,unfortunately1 it has been lost2 but contemporary accounts tell of the profound impression it created4 ,other cantatas were written and sung by ,giulio ,caccini 7#aeej-afah71 a skilled and an admirable lutist as well1 and all awakened the utmost enthusiasm among the little company4 ,these works were known as ,nuove ,musiche 7new music7 and such as have survived are1 in general1 painfully thin and crude to modern ears4 ,when compared with the rich polyphony of the prevailing ,church style they seem at the first blush to indicate retrogression4 ,progress1 however1 seldom advances in a direct line2 it generally moves by spirals which at times apparently retreat only to mount the higher at the succeeding curve4 ,these dull recitatives bore the germ of emancipation from the scholastic laws which had heretofore prevented music from expressing individual emotion2 they typify the spirit of the ,renaissance and are the foundation of the art as we now know it4 ,the ,first ,opera4--,another of the number1 ,jacopo ,peri 7#aefa-afcc71 also a musician1 took the next step by composing music of the same style to a drama1 the ,dafne 7,daphne7 of the poet ,rinuccini1 who was the life and soul of this attempt to revive the lost declamation of the ,greeks4 ,this was performed privately in #aeie at the ,corsi ,palace1 and produced so strong an impression that it was repeated a number of times at the ,carnival seasons of the succeeding years4 ,in #afjj1 ,peri was invited to compose a similar work for the marriage festivities of ,henry ,,iv of ,france and ,maria di ,medici4 ,this was ,euridice1 also written by ,rinuccini1 which bears the distinction of being the first opera to receive public performance1 and thus introducing the new art-form to the world at large4 ,the score of ,dafne has been lost1 but that of ,euridice still exists4 ,it was then known as a music drama 7melo dramma or dramma per la musica72 the term opera 7abbreviation for opera in musica1 that is1 musical work7 did not come into use until the middle of the century4 ,the orchestra1 which was played behind the scenes1 consisted of a harpsichord1 two lutes and a bass-viol4 ,in addition1 three lutes played a short ritornello 7interlude7 in one scene4 ,with this exception1 the instruments were used merely to support the voice2 the tonality was almost exclusively minor1 and the harmony of the simplest4 ,it is thought that ,peri sang the part of ,orpheus and that ,francesca ,caccini1 daughter of the composer and one of the most gifted singers of the day1 sang ,euridice4 ,music3 ,radoppia e fiamm'e lumi al memorabil giorno1 ,febo ch'il carro d'or rivolgi intorno4 ,,part ,,of ,,an ,,air ,,by ,,caccini4 ,caccini claimed the new style as his invention1 and it is certain that parts of ,euridice were composed by him1 though ,peri's name alone appears on the title page of the published work4 ,emulating the success of his colleague1 the former soon set the same drama to music4 ,characteristics of the ,early ,opera4--,the two settings are so similar that one might almost be taken for the other4 ,both display the same characteristics4 ,of dramatic feeling or characterization as understood at the present day there is no sign2 development of musical thought1 none whatever2 a dreary waste of recitatives is but slightly relieved by the occasional flourishes 7giri e gruppi1 that is1 runs and turns7 allowed the singers by the taste of the times4 ,the choruses1 however1 which are introduced freely1 serve to vary the monotony somewhat4 ,they exhibit a singular mingling of the old and new styles1 natural under the circumstances4 ,the voices sing either in a recitative-like unison1 or begin in fugato1 and later move in simple harmonic progression4 ,their distaste for the contrapuntal style led these reformers to reject it so far as they could4 ,its appearance at all is due to the fact that no other mode of writing for a number of voices had as yet been devised--a strictly harmonic treatment had not been thought of4 ,since1 then1 they were at a loss as to the management of choral masses1 they were obliged to have recourse in part to old methods4 ,another name associated with the ,florentine school deserving mention is that of ,marco da ,gagliano1 a priest who soon took the lead in the new movement4 ,his first opera was ,dafne 7#afjg71 composed to ,rinuccini's drama which had already served ,peri2 it was a common practice in those days for composers to use the same text4 ,as a scholar and musician1 ,gagliano was superior to his predecessors4 ,he shows a greater warmth of feeling and a tendency toward melody which they considered as a lowering of their ideals4 ,the ,florentine ,school4--,one particular characteristic of the ,florentine school was a sedulous avoidance of anything like extended melody or definite form4 ,to the composers of this school1 music was not an end in itself2 it was subordinate to the distinct1 impassioned declamation of the poet's verses4 ,they held that any independent development of musical thought was a weakness2 that it tended to distract the attention of the hearer from the drama1 and to interfere with its logical continuity4 ,the predominant influence was that of the scholar1 not of the musician4 ,this was to be expected from the character of the little coterie interested in the new art-form4 ,the majority were wealthy amateurs1 zealous students of the classics and aflame with the desire for the actual revival of the ,greek tragedy4 ,peri and ,caccini were the only musicians and they were strongly averse to the contrapuntal music of the day4 ,its persistently ecclesiastical effect debarred it from expressing the personal feeling which was the object of their research4 ,in the effort to escape its ban1 they unwittingly emancipated their art from the control of the ,church1 and made it accessible to mankind in general4 ,this1 therefore1 is the great service of the ,florentine reformers3 the establishment of a purely secular school of music susceptible of indefinite development4 ,making allowance for the vast difference in means due to the practical creation of independent instrumental music since the #agth century1 their practice was precisely the same as that of the modern composer who writes a music drama and uses the same term to define his work4 ,when ,dafne and ,euridice first saw the light1 however1 there was neither knowledge nor experience to point the way2 it was found only after a slow and laborious process of experimentation1 involving the acceptance of much that was rejected after having served its turn4 ,though ,peri and ,caccini with their confrres did not succeed in the end they had in view1 they accomplished far more by originating the ,opera1 the point of departure for the whole modern art of music4 ,,references4 ,symonds4--,the ,renaissance in ,italy4 ,apthorp4--,opera ,past and ,present4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 ,articles on subjects mentioned in this and following lessons4 ,streatfeild4--,the ,opera4 ,these general works serve for other lessons on the opera4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what was the ,renaissance8 ,what was the effect of this idea on music8 ,what was the origin of ,recitative8 ,what was understood by ,nuove ,musiche8 ,who wrote the first opera8 ,what term was applied to this kind of musical work8 ,give a description of the early opera4 ,give an account of the ,florentine school and their fundamental ideas4 ,since the beginning of the ,opera is practically the beginning of a century1 the #agth1 it should not be a difficult matter to keep this date in mind4 ,it therefore antedates the settlement at ,jamestown1 ,va41 by a few years1 making the beginning of ,american history under ,english auspices and the ,opera coincide4 ,,lesson ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,oratorio4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,opera4 ,the ,first ,oratorio4--,the novelty of the new style1 which was called the stilo rappresentativo 7representative style71 the vigor and freedom it gave to an impressive delivery of the text1 aroused universal attention4 ,among the composers who essayed it was ,emilio del ,cavaliere 7#aeej-aeii74 ,by applying it to a sacred subject1 he originated the ,oratorio4 ,roman by birth1 he had passed part of his life in ,florence1 and though not a member of the ,camerata1 was familiar with its aims and practice4 ,the germ both of the ,opera and ,oratorio is to be found in the ,miracle ,plays or so-called ,mysteries of the ,middle ,ages4 ,these were dramatic representations of ,bible scenes or religious allegories by means of which a populace unable to read was taught the great truths of sacred history4 ,cavaliere's oratorio1 ,la ,rappresentazione di ,anima e di ,corpo 7,the ,representation of ,soul and ,body71 was given in #afjj in ,rome1 at the ,oratory of the ,church of ,santa ,maria in ,vallicella--hence its name4 ,music3 ,,passage ,,from ,,cavaliere',s ,,oratorio4 ,its ,characteristics4--,save for the nature of the subject1 there was no apparent difference between it and an opera4 ,the allegorical characters taking part appeared in costume and in action4 ,the score even gives directions by which it may be concluded with a dance if so desired4 ,by this1 however1 dignified and stately movements are understood1 in nowise resembling the rapid dance of modern times4 ,the composer in his instructions for performance1 which are unusually full and complete1 lays great stress upon an expressive delivery of the text1 and the swelling and diminishing of the tones by the singers4 ,in vigor and characterization it far surpasses ,peri's and ,caccini's operas4 ,cavaliere's death1 which occurred ten months before the production of his work1 and the great popularity of the ,opera1 put a stop to the immediate development of the ,oratorio2 that was reserved for ,carissimi a generation later4 ,monteverde4--,the task of taking the opera from the experimental stage and of placing it on the artistic foundation which it now occupies was accomplished by ,claudio ,monteverde 7#aefh-afdc71 a man of extraordinary genius and originality4 ,a harmonist of surpassing force and boldness1 he had always rebelled against the restraints of the contrapuntal school1 though1 unlike ,peri and ,caccini1 he was skilled in its intricacies4 ,he was viol player in the band of the ,duke of ,mantua1 and had composed masses and madrigals1 many of which were severely criticised by the pedants of the day4 ,he joined definite issue with them in his freedom of treating dissonances1 the distinguishing feature of modern harmony4 ,heretofore1 sevenths1 ninths1 augmented fourths and the like had never been heard without preparation4 ,monteverde1 however1 introduced them without regard to this restriction1 little heeding the anathemas heaped upon his head by those who considered his infractions of established rules unpardonable4 ,his ardent1 restless temperament1 seeking novel modes of expression1 often led to wild and extravagant combinations which even today appear harsh and forced4 ,at that time they must have seemed wilful attempts at outraging the ear and the sense of harmonic propriety4 ,these innovations1 however1 are the cornerstone of modern harmony2 of this as well as of the opera1 ,monteverde is the real founder4 ,what are defects in his church music are excellences in his operas4 ,the discords which disturb the serenity of a religious atmosphere are admirably fitted to produce dramatic effects and powerful climaxes4 ,monteverde belonged to the stage as his great contemporary1 ,palestrina1 belonged to the church4 ,position of ,music in the #agth ,century4--,the interest which the success of the ,florentine composers would have for a man thus gifted can be readily imagined4 ,yet he was obliged to wait a number of years for an opportunity to emulate their achievements4 ,music then was the especial pastime of the great2 it was part of the state with which they surrounded themselves4 ,almost all titled and wealthy families had their own bands of musicians and choirs of singers4 ,these assisted in their private chapels and lent additional eclat to seasons of festivity4 ,concerts and operas were given only at court or in the palaces of noblemen2 public halls for any kind of musical occasion were unknown4 ,a musician or composer could make his way only by attaching himself to a noble house or by securing a patron in court circles4 ,dafne and ,euridice were made possible through the interest and protection of ,count ,bardi and ,count ,corsi4 ,the opera was also attended with great expense4 ,the taste of the times demanded an enormous outlay for mounting--costumes1 scenery1 decorations2 only the extremely wealthy could afford it1 and they reserved it for occasions of especial importance4 ,music3 ,,ariadne',s ,,lament4 ,monteverde's ,first ,opera4--,in #afjg1 the marriage of ,margaret of ,savoy to ,francesco ,gonzaga1 son of the ,duke of ,mantua1 opened the way for ,monteverde's first opera1 ,arianna 7,ariadne71 which was received with the utmost enthusiasm4 ,unfortunately1 but a fragment of it remains1 ,ariadne's lament after her desertion by ,theseus1 the most celebrated opera air ever written4 ,in its unprepared discords of the harshest nature1 in the poignant expression of grief and despair so at variance with the placid art of the day1 this shows how1 by a single stroke1 ,monteverde cut loose from all the traditions of the past4 ,in its less than a score of measures it also anticipates principles of artistic structure which were not formulated for nearly a century later and which hold good to the present day4 ,it is said that it brought tears to every eye4 ,music3 ,,ritornello ,,by ,,monteverde4 ,his ,second ,opera4--,the following year he produced his second opera1 ,orfeo 7,orpheus71 so called to distinguish it from ,peri's ,euridice on the same subject4 ,though most of ,monteverde's works have been lost1 the score of ,orfeo has been preserved4 ,it shows a surprising advance over the simplicity of the ,florentine operas4 ,first of all1 in the great expansion of the orchestra4 ,this numbers thirty-seven instruments which throughout are combined in groups and as a whole with an art prefiguring certain effects of orchestration supposed to be purely modern4 ,like harmony1 instrumentation dates from ,monteverde4 ,instead of the customary vocal prologue1 it begins with a ,toccata 7instrumental prelude74 ,the composer's keen dramatic instinct is shown by the masterly way in which he avoids the monotony of his predecessors2 the recitatives are varied by the introduction of ritornelli1 and each act ends with a chorus and a stately passage for the orchestra4 ,five years later1 the most famous composer of the day1 he left ,mantua for ,venice1 where until his death he was director of music at ,st4 ,mark's4 ,monteverde's ,characteristics4--,monteverde's greatest service to the opera lay in enlarging the sphere of the orchestra1 and in the initiation of a thoroughly instrumental style adapted to the character of each instrument4 ,he increased the number of players and released the orchestra from the subordinate position of being a mere support for the voice by employing it to heighten the dramatic situation4 ,he originated many previously unknown effects1 among them the pizzicato and the tremolo of the violins in precisely the same form as used at present4 ,the latter so astounded the players that at first they refused to attempt it1 saying that it was impossible4 ,he endowed the ,recitative with far greater freedom and depth of expression2 under his hand it lost much of the dryness of the ,florentine school4 ,his manner of writing for the voice was declamatory rather than melodious2 what traces of definite melody occur in his works are generally confined to the instruments1 in which he curiously anticipates the practice of latter-day dramatic composers4 ,popularization of the ,opera4--,until #afcg the opera was restricted to royalty and the nobility4 ,in that year the first public opera house was opened in ,venice1 and such was the popularity of the new amusement that before the end of the century there were no fewer than eleven in that city alone1 then with a population of about #adj1jjj4 ,it spread through ,italy with almost like rapidity1 bearing in its wake an unparalleled development of the art of song4 ,change of ,character4--,with its introduction to the people1 it was manifestly impossible for the opera to retain its original character4 ,so long as it was confined to the cultivated1 the classical ideals of its founders met with intelligent appreciation1 but when confronted with audiences drawn from the masses desirous only of being amused1 a change was inevitable4 ,mythological and classical subjects were gradually discarded in favor of those involving intrigue and disguise2 comic personages were introduced to enliven the scene4 ,as the dramatic action was thus brought nearer the comprehension of the unlearned1 so the music departed from the oratorical standards of the early school1 and showed a frank tendency toward melody and regularity of form4 ,what was lost in elevation of theme1 however1 was made up by the human interest imparted to the play and the consequent endeavor of the composer to express1 by his music1 the varying vicissitudes of life4 ,thus it gained in warmth of feeling and flexibility in means of expression1 while the evolution of rhythmic melody and definite musical structure laid the foundation of the art as we now have it4 ,the ,venetian ,school4--,venice naturally became the centre of an important development of the opera4 ,of the numerous composers forming the ,venetian school1 ,francesco ,cavalli 7#afjj-afgf7 and ,marco ,cesti 7#afbj-affi7 are second only in importance to ,monteverde4 ,the first was ,monteverde's pupil1 and had much of his broad dramatic style modified by the influences of which we have just spoken4 ,cesti came to ,venice from ,rome1 where he had been the pupil of ,carissimi1 and brought with him the smoothness and melodic flow of his master1 albeit lacking in essential power4 ,other names of a later date are ,giovanni ,legrenzi 7#afbe-afij71 especially noted for spirit and vivacity1 and ,antonio ,lotti 7#affg-agdj71 his pupil1 known by one or two charming airs which still survive4 ,carissimi and the ,oratorio4--,giovanni ,carissimi 7#afjd-afgd71 though he never wrote for the stage1 was the strongest musical influence of his day4 ,he was an ardent admirer of the new school1 and adapted it in the form of oratorios and cantatas to the ,church4 ,in such works the necessity for form as regards definite tonality1 distinct rhythm and melodic sequence is naturally much greater than in the ,opera where music is used to illustrate the dramatic situation1 and is furthermore elucidated by the action of the play4 ,when the ear alone is obliged to pass judgment there must be evidence of design in these particulars1 else the effect is confused and bewildering4 ,carissimi's musical instinct grasped this truth4 ,his oratorios and cantatas show a logical arrangement of choruses and ensembles1 recitatives and arias combined with a unity of effect and a clearness of characterization heretofore unknown4 ,the choruses in particular are strongly rhythmic and far more dramatic than those which were commonly heard on the stage4 ,music3 ,,from 8,,jephtha0 ,,by ,,carissimi4 ,secularization of ,church ,music4--,this introduction of the new style into the ,church marked the passing of the old school and strongly affected methods of dramatic composition4 ,the public had never been in sympathy with the austere standards of the ,florentine school and welcomed the appearance of intelligible melody and the spirited rhythms to which ,carissimi gave the first direct impulse4 ,not only this2 he fixed the form that the music of the ,church was to bear for a century to come4 ,this secularization of church music had its good and bad sides2 good by reason of the greater freedom and variety of expression thus gained2 bad because of the bold and mechanical imitation of ,carissimi's purely formal details by his successors1 which in the end led to a tiresome monotony of style4 ,characteristics of the ,venetian ,school4--,thus was taken the first step toward the complete reversal of the conditions under which the early ,opera had arisen4 ,instead of the music's being subordinate to the drama1 the drama was soon to serve merely as an excuse for the music2 the opera was destined to sink to the level of a concert sung in costume2 the dramatic action reduced to a minimum4 ,the ,venetian school marks the turning-point in this direction4 ,the high ideals of ,monteverde and his predecessors were gradually thrust into the background2 the singer began to assume precedence over the actor2 truth of expression yielded to the fascinations of time and tune1 which even the musically uncultivated could enjoy without bothering their heads as to real dramatic fitness4 ,closely connected with these tendencies was the establishment of a school of singing which1 if we may believe contemporary accounts1 surpassed in technical facility and brilliancy any vocal art heard either before or since that time4 ,the result was that singers finally regarded the opera only as a field for the display of their dazzling accomplishments and in this they were willingly supported by a public eager to be entertained and amused4 ,,references4 ,apthorp4--,the ,opera1 ,past and ,present4 ,elson4--,the ,history of ,opera4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article on ,opera4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,who wrote the first oratorio8 ,in what respects did an opera and an oratorio differ8 ,give an account of ,monteverde and his innovations in ,opera4 ,what was the state of music in the #agth century8 ,describe ,monteverde's first opera4 ,describe ,monteverde's second opera4 ,what was understood by the terms ,toccata1 ,ritornello8 ,what were ,monteverde's contributions to the ,opera8 ,what change took place in the character of the ,opera in the latter half of the #agth century8 ,who were the prominent members of the ,venetian school8 ,give an account of ,carissimi and his work4 ,give a characterization of the ,venetian school4 ,a short account of the ,mysteries or ,miracle ,plays of the ,middle ,ages may be assigned to a pupil as special work4 ,the ,passion ,play1 still given today at ,oberammergau1 ,germany1 is a relic of the old-time religious plays4 ,,lesson ,,xix4 ,,alessandro ,,scarlatti ,,and ,,the ,,neapolitan ,,school4 ,the ,neapolitan ,school4--,what in the ,venetian school had been a reaction in favor of form and melody became the established practice of the ,neapolitan school4 ,political disturbances had hindered the spread of the ,opera in southern ,italy1 particularly in ,naples1 but at the end of the #agth century it assumed the position formerly occupied by ,florence and ,venice4 ,before this1 however1 a strong influence had been exerted by certain composers in ,rome1 of whom ,carissimi was first in importance4 ,had it not been for the disapproval of the ,church1 a definite ,roman school might have arisen4 ,such a school would doubtless have been advantageous to the artistic growth of the ,opera1 since the public taste at ,rome in matters of art was more serious in nature than at ,naples4 ,in #afig1 public performances of opera were forbidden by the ecclesiastical authorities1 and thus the seat of further development was transferred to ,naples through the removal thither from ,rome of ,alessandro ,scarlatti 7#afei-agbe71 the founder of the ,neapolitan school4 ,as a lad1 he had been a pupil of ,carissimi and also probably of ,legrenzi1 whose influence is clearly seen in his early works4 ,alessandro ,scarlatti4--,scarlatti invested his operas with a melodic charm and a symmetrical form which thus far had appeared only sporadically4 ,fascinated by the freedom of the new style1 the early composers had neglected the severe study which had been indispensable to mastery in the ,contrapuntal ,school1 and had in the main relied on natural gifts4 ,following the ideal of ,peri and his associates1 their operas were largely a succession of recitatives which in the end grew monotonous and wearisome2 of form1 of structure1 of purely musical effect they bore but slight traces4 ,scarlatti saw that the time had come for a change in style--one that should combine the musical interest of the old with the dramatic spirit of the new4 ,the foremost musician of his time1 he perceived the weakness of the exclusively declamatory opera--its lack of variety and want of appeal to the public in general4 ,illustration3 ,,alessandro ,,scarlatti4 ,his ,characteristics4--,he was not a reformer4 ,he lacked the strong and rugged dramatic fibre of his predecessor1 ,monteverde4 ,scholarship2 an inexhaustible fund of melody1 pure1 polished1 refined2 a gift of characterization--general1 not particular1 and always subordinate to a keen sense of beauty--are his distinguishing characteristics4 ,he fell in with the taste of the day and devoted his gifts to the production of works which should satisfy the musician and please the public4 ,the solidity of his early schooling had made him a master of counterpoint1 and this he applied in the construction of logically worked-out accompaniments1 fuller1 richer and more expressive than had been attempted by his less learned contemporaries4 ,in nobility of conception and skill in solving contrapuntal problems he often shows that he is not unworthy the name of the 8,italian ,bach10 as he is sometimes called4 ,like ,bach1 also1 he was one of the most prolific composers of all times4 ,he left one hundred and fifteen operas1 sixty-six of which are still extant1 more than two hundred masses1 besides many miscellaneous works for church and concert1 both vocal and instrumental4 ,his ,services to the ,opera4--,to the simple recitative 7recitativo secco71 invented by ,peri1 he added the important form known as the recitativo stromentato 7accompanied recitative74 ,this was not strictly original with ,scarlatti1 since it had been introduced by ,purcell in his ,dido and ,eneas ten years before the ,italian had first used it in his opera ,rosaura 7#afij74 ,there is no probability1 however1 that ,scarlatti was acquainted with the ,englishman's works2 it is a not uncommon matter for two minds to arrive independently at the same result4 ,in the accompanied recitative1 the voice1 instead of being supported by detached 7secco7 chords on the harpsichord1 sometimes with the addition of a single stringed instrument1 as in the simple recitative1 was accompanied by the entire orchestra1 which had grown to proportions undreamed-of in ,peri's day4 ,vastly developed by the growth of orchestral resources1 it is the distinguishing feature of the modern music drama4 ,as a rule1 however1 it was but little used in ,scarlatti's operas or in those of his contemporaries4 ,interest in the drama1 as such1 was fast sinking to a negligible quantity2 audiences assembled to hear their favorite singers1 not to follow the course of a more or less involved dramatic action4 ,the simple recitative was1 therefore1 more frequently employed in order to hurry through the necessary details of the play and reach the moment when the singer could delight by his art in the aria4 ,music3 ,,air ,,from ,,scarlatti',s ,,opera 8,,turno ,,aricino04 ,the ,aria4--,scarlatti was not the inventor of the aria or air for the single voice in the meaning of the term as applied to a certain fixed form4 ,other composers had used it before him in its essential principles1 but he was the first to formulate it into a persistent type1 which it retained for nearly a century1 despite its undramatic character4 ,the ,scarlatti aria consisted of three parts3 two contrasting sections1 concluding with a ,da ,capo or repetition of the first1 expressed by the formula ,a ,b ,a4 ,the principle of ,repetition as an element of form is now a commonplace1 but at the time it was a novelty1 and the emphasis given to it by the aria fascinated the public and made it the principal feature of the opera4 ,more than anything else1 it led to its degeneration4 ,singers found in the aria a means of displaying their technical skill2 it became the canvas on which they embroidered the most astonishing tours de force4 ,the art of acting almost disappeared from the operatic stage2 the poise of body and voice required for such vocal efforts banished all but a few conventional gestures4 ,the ,overture4--,scarlatti's powers were by no means confined to writing for the voice2 the instrumental portions of his works give evidence of equal mastery1 though the popular taste for singing allowed him but little scope for extension in this direction4 ,his overtures in particular show a great advance over the simple preludes of the early ,italian operas4 ,he perfected what is known as the ,italian ,overture in contradistinction to the earlier form invented by ,lully1 and called the ,french ,overture4 ,it consisted of three movements1 the first and last quick1 the middle movement slow4 ,in its arrangement1 this was the direct precursor of the modern symphony4 ,at first the two terms were interchangeable2 an overture when played before an opera was called a ,sinfonia1 and curiously enough1 when played independently as a concert number it was frequently called an overture4 ,some of the early symphonies were even printed with one title outside and the other inside4 ,the ,typical ,italian ,opera4--,thus at the beginning of the #ahth century we find the ,opera on an overwhelmingly musical basis instead of the oratorical foundation which it had in its inception4 ,scarlatti fixed its form for a century4 ,he left it consisting principally of recitatives and arias1 each opera containing from fifty to sixty of the latter4 ,aside from these there was but little formal music--only an occasional march or dance besides the overture4 ,the simple recitative was used for ordinary dialogue2 hence it was peculiarly applicable to the ,opera ,buffa 7comic opera74 ,the accompanied recitative was reserved for situations of dramatic importance1 and the aria served to express individual emotion4 ,the chorus was employed but sparingly1 generally appearing only at the end of the act to give greater eclat to the finale4 ,the dance1 which in the early ,opera had played a part of some importance1 was finally banished entirely from the scene1 though not from the stage4 ,it was given between the acts as an intermezzo 7interlude71 and thus developed into the formal ballet4 ,spectacular features1 too1 assumed great prominence4 ,the ,intermezzo4--,the ,intermezzo has a close connection with the opera4 ,it arose from the custom of introducing something between the acts of a play or opera to entertain the audience during the necessary period of waiting4 ,at first1 songs or madrigals were sung1 then by degrees the entertainment took on a dramatic form1 until at last a drama was given totally independent of the principal play4 ,singularly enough1 the acts of the two plays were performed alternately1 neither having any connection with the other4 ,the ,intermezzo was always of a gayer1 lighter character2 thus when the incongruity of the practice became apparent1 it naturally evolved into the ,opera ,buffa4 ,this was brought about by the success of the most celebrated comic opera ever written1 ,la ,serva ,padrona 7,the ,maid as ,mistress71 by ,giovanni ,pergolesi 7#agaj-agcf74 ,this was originally produced 7#agcd7 as an ,intermezzo between the acts of another play1 and afterward made a triumphant progress through all the opera houses in ,europe as an independent work4 ,the ,opera ,buffa4--,though for the sake of contrast1 comic characters had been introduced into the opera during the early ,venetian period1 the ,opera ,buffa did not reach its full development until the following century4 ,owing to the absence of certain conventions which had grown around the ,opera ,seria 7serious opera7 it became a more characteristic mode of expression than the latter4 ,its melodies were fresher1 its dramatic action was less restrained and truer to life1 while it performed a valuable service by doing away with the strange mingling of comic and serious styles which had previously disfigured many otherwise impressive works4 ,to it we owe the concerted ,finale which is such a feature of modern grand opera4 ,it is attributed to ,niccolo ,logroscino 7#agjj-agfc71 who instead of the customary conclusion of an act by a simple duet1 trio1 or quartet1 brought all the ,dramatis ,person on the stage to take part in a characteristic ensemble4 ,greatly developed by later composers1 such finales were for a long time confined to ,opera ,buffa1 until ,paisiello finally introduced them into serious opera4 ,prominent ,composers of the ,neapolitan ,school4--,it is hardly possible to mention more than a few of the numerous composers belonging to the ,neapolitan school4 ,besides ,pergolesi1 the most important works of this school were composed by ,niccolo ,porpora 7#afhe-agfg71 ,niccolo ,jommelli 7#agad-aggd71 ,niccolo ,piccini 7#agbh-ahjj71 ,giovanni ,paisiello 7#agda-ahaf7 and ,domenico ,cimarosa 7#agdi-ahja74 ,most of these were equally at home in the ,opera ,seria and the ,opera ,buffa1 but their works in the latter style have proved the more enduring4 ,porpora is more noteworthy for the singers he formed than for his forty-six operas1 all of which have sunk into oblivion4 ,he was the greatest of the many masters of singing who through their pupils made the ,opera of the #ahth century the field of display for the most remarkable singers the world has ever heard4 ,jommelli was one of the most gifted composers of his day4 ,he spent fifteen years in ,germany as capellmeister to the ,duke of ,wurtemburg1 but the influence of this long residence in a country where musical ideals were of a more austere type than in ,italy1 though it added dignity and solidity to his art1 was fatal to his popularity when he returned to his native land2 his countrymen found his operas heavy in style and deficient in melody4 ,piccini was the composer of the most popular ,opera ,buffa of the century1 ,cecchina1 but is now remembered principally by the bitter feud which arose in ,paris in #aghg between his admirers and those of ,gluck4 ,paisiello's most celebrated work was ,il ,barbiere di ,siviglia 7,the ,barber of ,seville71 which held the stage for thirty years until the success of ,rossini's masterpiece on the same subject forced it into retirement4 ,cimarosa's ,il ,matrimonio ,segreto 7,the ,secret ,marriage7 was an equal favorite2 one of its numbers1 the trio for women's voices1 ,ti ,faccio un ,inchino 7,i make thee a reverence71 sometimes appears on modern programs4 ,influence of the ,neapolitan ,school4--,notwithstanding the formalism of the ,neapolitan school1 which led to a regrettable neglect of the dramatic signification of the ,opera by an over-emphasis of its musical element1 it was of no small importance in the development of music in general4 ,by fixing the principles of form and melody at a time when both were vague and undetermined1 ,scarlatti laid the foundation of the great classical period1 beginning with ,haydn and ,mozart and ending with ,beethoven4 ,this was his contribution to absolute music1 which cannot exist without form1 though its influence was disastrous to purity of form in the branch of the art which he particularly cultivated4 ,,references4 ,dent4--,alessandro ,scarlatti3 ,his ,life and ,works4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,which ,italian city now became the centre of operatic development8 ,who was the founder of this new school8 ,tell about his style and training4 ,what did he contribute to the development of the ,opera8 ,describe the ,aria4 ,describe the ,overture4 ,describe a typical ,italian ,opera4 ,describe the ,intermezzo4 ,describe the ,opera ,buffa4 ,who were the prominent composers of the ,neapolitan school8 ,what was the influence of this school8 ,the period of ,scarlatti's work extends approximately from the ,english ,revolution of #afhh1 which drove ,james ,,ii from the throne1 to the end of the reign of ,george ,i4 ,in ,american ,colonial history this period is one of gathering strength in the various provinces on the ,atlantic ,coast4 ,,lesson ,,xx4 ,,singing ,,and ,,singers4 ,early ,methods of ,singing4--,as has been noted by the reader1 music1 up to this time1 developed principally along vocal lines4 ,we have no details as to the character of the training of singers among the ,chaldeans1 ,egyptians and ,greeks except such as indicate that their idea of singing was a sort of musical declamation4 ,such seems also to have been the idea of the nations in the north of ,europe4 ,we have seen that the ,welsh bards were required to undergo a very thorough and exacting course of study1 but the practical side of singing and the rules laid down for the training of the young minstrels is not a part of our knowledge4 ,the songs of the early ,church1 sung by masses of worshipers1 were of necessity simple in every way1 requiring no art4 ,it was not until the use of ,discant became popular1 and the ,polyphonic school began to use florid writing that we can infer that there must have been some methods of training vocalists for artistic work4 ,although we have little or no details as to the course of training which the early singers received1 we are justified in assuming that they must have possessed skill in execution of no mean order4 ,it must not be forgotten that practically all the composers of the early ,polyphonic school were singers1 able to execute their own works4 ,hence1 studies in singing must have gone hand in hand with composition4 ,the voice parts of the masses1 motets and madrigals of the composers of the #acth to the #afth centuries have absolute independence of progression1 syncopations1 embellishments1 etc41 to such an extent that it taxes the musicianship of the chorus singer of the present day to sing them2 they are not only exacting in intonation1 rhythm and other musical matters but also in mechanical points1 such as flexibility and freedom of voice and thorough breath control4 ,influence of the ,opera on ,singing4--,when the ,opera was established1 after the declamatory style offered by the first composers had proven unsuccessful in holding the public1 the florid style of the old discanters was revived and modified1 which1 as the ,opera developed1 gave a great impetus to a systematic and thorough study of singing4 ,the new style of melody introduced by the opera composers of the #agth century demanded purity of voice1 wide range1 flexibility1 expressive shading and a marvelous breath control1 as well as great physical endurance4 ,singers were expected to execute the most intricate passages1 abounding in diatonic and chromatic scales1 arpeggios1 turns1 gruppettos1 trills1 etc41 of the most elaborate nature1 passages such as are considered purely instrumental today4 ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 the composer1 and himself a singer1 is credited with having had much to do with the great development in the art of singing4 ,he trained a number of singers and pupils1 and thus founded the 8old ,italian0 school of singing4 ,it was natural that the art side of singing should thus develop in ,italy for several reasons1 notably1 because ,italy had a great number of highly-trained composers1 the character of the language is such as to lend itself to the requirements of artistic singing1 broad full vowels1 soft consonants1 absence of final consonants1 etc41 and the enthusiastic1 essentially lyric temperament of the race4 ,the ,training of a #agth ,century ,singer4--,we are given an idea of the course of training which singers of the #agth century were obliged to observe in a work ,historia ,musica1 published by ,g4 ,a4 ,a4 ,buontempi1 in #afie4 ,this contains an account of the regulations of a school for singers in ,rome1 directed by ,virgilio ,mazzocchi1 in which ,buontempi was a pupil3 ,the pupils were obliged to devote one hour each day to the singing of difficult passages with the idea of acquiring experience2 one hour to the practice of the trill1 one to passages in agility1 one to literary studies1 one to vocalises and to various other technical exercises under the direction of a teacher and before a mirror to acquire the certainty that the singer did not make a faulty movement of the face1 the forehead1 the eyes or the mouth4 ,this was the morning's work4 ,in the afternoon1 a half-hour was given to theory study1 the same amount to writing counterpoint on plain-song melodies1 then to learning and applying the rules of composition 7writing on an erasable sheet72 then followed a half-hour of study of a literary nature1 and the rest of the day was given to practice on the clavichord1 to the composition of a psalm1 motet1 canzonetta1 or any other kind of piece according to the pupil's choice4 ,such were the common exercises of those days when the pupils were kept on duty at the school4 ,on other days1 they would go outside the ,angelica ,gate to sing against the famous echo that was found there1 listening to the response in order to criticise their work4 ,other duties were to sing in nearly all the musical solemnities of the various churches1 to study attentively the style of the great singers of the day1 to make a report of their observations to their master1 who1 the better to impress the result of their studies upon the minds of his pupils1 added remarks and advice as he deemed necessary4 ,under such discipline it is not astonishing that the ,italian singers attained a high degree of excellence1 and became not only distinguished singers but skilful composers as well4 ,that the reader may gather an idea of the character of passages executed by these singers an example is given on the previous page4 ,music3 ,,air for ,,bass ,,from ,a 8,,miserere0 ,,by ,,dentice1 ,,end ,,of #af,,th ,,century4 ,growth of the ,florid ,style4--,as the art of singing developed1 the singers increased their capricious embellishments4 ,with the idea of securing brilliancy as well as the hope of winning success for their works1 composers yielded to the exactions of singers and the depraved taste of the dilettanti4 ,this explains the seemingly endless vocalizing and those passages of pure agility which crowd the scores of the best ,italian masters of the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,before giving some account of the famous singers of the old ,italian school it will be interesting to have a few notes upon a work on vocal music which bears upon the matter of execution4 ,a ,work on ,singing4--,in #agbe1 ,pier ,francesco ,tosi1 a renowned singer 7born about #afej1 died #agcj71 published a work1 translated into ,english1 and published in #agdb under the title 8,observations on the ,florid ,song1 or ,sentiments of the ,ancient and ,modern ,singers10 which contains some interesting and valuable statements for the student of the history of the art of singing4 ,the most minute principles are set forth with much grace and spirit1 in all cases showing enthusiasm on the part of the author for his art and a high sense of the dignity of the profession of singing4 ,when the discussion is in regard to certain kinds of passages in which the singer was accustomed to improvise ornaments1 ,tosi demands the union of five qualities3 intelligence1 invention1 meter 7rhythm71 mechanism 7technic7 and taste2 and in addition1 other qualities which he calls 8secondary and auxiliary graces03 the appoggiatura1 the trill1 the portamento di voce1 phrasing4 ,this work by ,tosi and one by ,marcello entitled ,le ,theatre la ,mode throw much light on the execution of the vocal music of the #ahth century4 ,seventeenth ,century ,singers4--,baldassare ,ferri 7#afaj-afhj7 was one of the most renowned of the male sopranos of the old school4 ,his voice had the greatest agility and facility1 perfect intonation1 a brilliant shake or trill and his breath supply seemed to be inexhaustible4 ,in regard to his intonation1 it is said that he was able to ascend and descend in one breath a two-octave scale with a continuous trill without accompaniment with such perfection of intonation that when he finished he had not varied a shade from the pitch of his starting-note4 ,he was in high favor in the courts of ,poland1 ,germany1 ,sweden and ,england4 ,a medal was struck in his honor4 ,antonio ,bernacchi 7#afij-agef7 was a pupil of ,pistocchi 7#afei-agbj71 the most celebrated teacher in ,italy at this time1 whose principles are represented in ,tosi's book4 ,he commenced his career early and appeared in opera in ,italy1 later in ,england and ,germany4 ,after some years of experience with the public taste he altered his style1 making great use of the florid style1 a veritable embroidery of roulades1 an innovation that was so successful as to be immediately followed by other singers in spite of the protests of the older school of singers4 ,it is related that when ,pistocchi heard his former pupil1 he said3 8,ah6 woe is me6 ,i taught thee to sing and now thou wilt play60 ,he sang in ,handel's opera company in ,london1 #agbi-cj4 ,he then returned to ,italy to take up the career of a teacher and brought out a number of fine singers4 ,francesco ,bernardi ,senesino 7#afhj-agej7 was a great favorite in ,england1 where he sang in ,handel's operas4 ,his voice was exceptionally fine in quality1 clear1 penetrating and flexible1 his technic remarkable2 his style was marked by purity1 simplicity and expressiveness1 and his delivery of recitative was famous over all ,europe4 ,the name of ,niccolo ,porpora was mentioned in connection with the opera as a celebrated singing master as well as composer4 ,no singers before or since have sung like his pupils1 notably ,caffarelli and ,farinelli4 ,gaetano ,majorano ,caffarelli 7#agjc-aghc7--the reader will note that many of the old school of musicians lived to a ripe old age--was the son of a ,neapolitan peasant1 who tried to repress the boy's evident musical inclinations4 ,cafaro1 director of the ,chapel ,royal1 at ,naples1 chanced to hear him sing and succeeded in getting charge of him and gave him his elementary instruction1 which was followed by instruction from ,porpora1 who was then living in ,naples4 ,porpora was a most exacting teacher1 requiring implicit obedience and unceasing practice4 ,the story is told that ,porpora kept ,caffarelli for five or six years to the unvaried study of a single page of exercises despite the pupil's most strenuous objections4 ,at the end of the time1 when ,caffarelli declared he would submit no longer1 the old teacher said3 8,go1 my son4 ,i have nothing more to teach you4 ,you are the greatest singer in ,europe40 ,when he first appeared in opera he sang female parts1 for which his beautiful face was well-suited4 ,some years later he took men's parts4 ,he gained great popularity in the leading cities of ,europe and amassed an enormous fortune4 ,he excelled in slow and pathetic airs1 yet he was most admirable in the bravura style1 and his technic in the trill and chromatic scales was unapproached by any other singer of his time4 ,he was fond of introducing chromatic passages in quick movements4 ,farinelli 7#agje-aghb71 whose real name was ,carlo ,broschi1 was a pupil of ,porpora4 ,he made his first public appearance in ,rome when he was seventeen years old4 ,it was on this occasion that he sang the famous aria with trumpet obligato1 written by his master1 a piece which became so associated with him as to be demanded at all his concerts4 ,in this piece1 trumpet and voice vie with each other in holding and swelling a note of extraordinary length and volume2 when the trumpeter had exhausted his breath ,farinelli kept on with increased power and ended with a great vocal display4 ,this aria called for wonderful vocal technic owing to the novelty and difficulty of the trills and variations introduced4 ,in #agbg1 he engaged in a musical duel with ,bernacchi1 previously referred to1 in which he was conquered4 ,as a result of this he placed himself under ,bernacchi's instruction1 and thus perfected his wonderful talent4 ,in #agca1 at the suggestion of the ,emperor ,charles ,,vi1 he modified his style and devoted study to the mastery of pathos and simplicity4 ,during his public career he won the greatest possible success in the ,european capitals and passed the last years of his life in wealth4 ,mancini1 a fellow-pupil of ,farinelli and later a famous singing master1 says of ,farinelli's voice3 8,it was so perfect1 so powerful1 so sonorous and so rich in its extent1 both in the high and the low parts of the register1 that its equal has never been heard in our time4444 ,the art of taking and keeping the breath so softly and easily that no one could perceive it began and ended with him4 ,the qualities in which he excelled were the evenness of his voice1 the art of swelling its sound1 the portamento1 the union of the registers1 a surprising agility1 a graceful and pathetic style and a shake as admirable as it was rare40 ,a few other singers of this class may be mentioned3 ,giacchino ,conti1 called ,gizziello 7#agad-agfa71 ,giovanni ,carestini 7#agje-ageh87 a contralto1 ,giuseppe ,boschi1 the most celebrated basso of the #ahth century1 one of ,handel's singers1 and ,girolamo ,crescentini 7#agff-ahdf74 ,so much space has been given to these singers because their work laid the principles for vocal training that have ever since been the foundation upon which the great masters and singers of later times have built their art2 to these principles has been given the name of the old ,italian ,school of ,singing4 ,ill-effect of ,virtuosity4--,the student who goes fully into the subject of the relation of singers to the opera will find that the great development of virtuosity among singers exerted an ill-effect and called forth a very pronounced reform in which ,gluck was the leader4 ,singers were capable of such great vocal display1 and the public showed so much enthusiasm for the brilliant feats of vocalism1 and so great was the rivalry between singers and their partisans that composers vied with each other in their efforts to introduce the most difficult and florid passages possible4 ,the text of an aria had no real value and became merely a vehicle upon which to place the dazzling vocalization of the singer4 ,dramatic truth was ruthlessly sacrificed4 ,a singer1 supposed to be in the very throes of death1 would give a virtuosic display that would tax the lung power of a man in the most perfect physical condition4 ,gluck's reform consisted in requiring that the arias should express the emotions suited to the situation1 thus calling for expressive singing1 not mere vocal display4 ,the history of the opera and singing since then shows periods of change toward one idea or the other until the principles of ,richard ,wagner as to dramatic truth were generally accepted4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on the singers mentioned in this lesson4 ,,questions4 ,what circumstances show that the church singers of the #acth to #afth centuries must have had considerable skill in singing8 ,what was the influence of the opera on singing8 ,what was the course of training required of young singers in the #agth century8 ,what important work on singing dates from the early part of the #ahth century8 ,give some of its principles4 ,describe the celebrated singers of this period and their work4 ,what was the influence of vocal virtuosity on music8 ,,lesson ,,xxi4 ,,opera ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,england4 ,spread of ,italian ,opera4--,the fame of ,italian opera soon spread to other countries4 ,princes and kings1 eager to hear the new style of music1 held out golden inducements to ,italian composers and singers to come to their courts2 it was generally thought that none but an ,italian could compose an opera or sing an aria4 ,the consequence was that in almost all countries during the #ahth century the prevailing musical influence was ,italian2 native composers and singers were obliged to study ,italian models if they wished to attain to popular favor4 ,in ,france1 however1 this influence was only sufficient to modify without obscuring the features of an essentially national school4 ,independence in matters of art has always been a marked characteristic of the ,french2 they have led rather than followed4 ,the most distinguished names in the history of ,french opera have been those of foreign birth1 but whatever their nationalities1 all give evidence of the effect exerted upon them by the definite form1 the clearness of dramatic intention demanded by the canons of ,french taste4 ,origin of ,french ,opera4--,as the ,italian opera was derived from the classical tragedy1 so the ,french opera had its origin in the ,ballet1 the favorite form of amusement in ,france4 ,the ,french ,ballet of the #agth century was by no means confined to the dance2 it was a heterogeneous mingling of dances and dialogues1 songs and choruses1 corresponding to the ,english ,masque4 ,like the early operas in ,italy1 their spectacular features were on a large and expensive scale1 which confined them to occasions of especial festivity at court or among the nobility4 ,the taste for dancing had much to do with the direction taken by the opera in ,france2 it is still characteristic of the ,french school1 as is shown by the prominent place given to the ballet in the ,grand ,opera4 ,lully4--,the founder of the ,french school1 ,jean ,baptiste ,lully 7#afcc-afhg71 was ,italian by birth1 but at the age of thirteen he was taken from his native city1 ,florence1 to ,france1 as a page in the service of the ,chevalier de ,guise4 ,his musical gifts soon won him a place in the royal band and finally the post of court composer4 ,he first wrote ballets in which the ,king 7,louis ,,xiv7 himself danced1 and later turned his attention to the opera4 ,italian ,opera in ,france4--,italian opera had already been heard in ,france4 ,through ,cardinal ,mazarin1 an opera company from ,venice had visited ,paris in #afde1 and two years later ,peri's ,euridice had been given also by a ,venetian troupe2 but these and later performances had aroused no attempts at imitation by ,french composers4 ,they contented themselves with writing ballets which were performed as intermezzos between the acts of ,italian operas in order to bring them nearer the ,french standards of taste4 ,the superior vocal ability of the ,italians was acknowledged1 but the lack of rhythmic form in their music made an unfavorable impression4 ,the king was passionately fond of dancing2 he and his courtiers frequently took part in the ballets produced at court1 hence the interest lay in the drama as illustrated by the dance rather than by song4 ,beginning of ,french ,opera4--,the first ,french opera to receive public performance was ,pomone 7,pomona71 in #afga1 by ,robert ,cambert 7#afbh-afgg71 who had previously written several others which had been performed only in private4 ,it awakened much more interest than the ,italian operas which thus far had been heard in ,paris1 and incited ,lully to the composition of his first opera1 ,les ,ftes de l',amour et ,bacchus 7,the ,feasts of ,love and ,bacchus71 which was produced the following year4 ,from that time until his death he composed fifteen operas1 which determined the form of ,french opera for practically a century4 ,characteristics of ,lully's ,operas4--,lully's operas1 like those of the ,florentine school1 were on the whole declamatory in style1 and like them their subjects were generally taken from classical mythology4 ,they are destitute of the sustained melody which appeared somewhat later in the ,neapolitan school2 but the recitatives are so skilfully varied in rhythm and show such intimate knowledge of the genius of the ,french language that in dramatic effect they are far superior to those of the earlier school4 ,to the overture1 the ballet1 the chorus1 he assigned music of a different type1 rhythmic and formal in nature1 thus relieving the monotony of an exclusively declamatory style4 ,a master of stagecraft1 his operas abounded in cunningly-devised spectacles and original scenic effects which excited wonder and held the attention4 ,in short1 so far as the means of the times allowed1 we find in the ,lully operas the well-considered balance between the musical and dramatic elements still characteristic of the ,french school4 ,the ,french ,overture4--,one of ,lully's greatest services was the elaboration of the ,overture into a larger and more dignified form4 ,the ,italians had never paid much attention to the overture4 ,at first it appeared only as a brief instrumental prelude1 sometimes but a few measures in length4 ,the introduction to ,monteverde's ,orfeo1 for example1 consists of only nine measures which the composer directs to be played over three times to serve as overture4 ,later it was somewhat extended in length and provided with some regularity of design1 but the ,overture as a fixed form dates from ,lully4 ,it began with an impressive slow movement1 followed by an ,allegro in fugue style4 ,sometimes this was all2 but it generally concluded with another slow movement1 often one of the stately1 dignified dance tunes of the day1 and often merely a repetition of the ,introduction4 ,this form was known as the ,french ,overture1 and was soon adopted by composers of all nationalities4 ,about the middle of the #ahth century it was supplanted by the ,italian ,overture1 perfected by ,scarlatti1 and described in ,lesson ,,xix4 ,the ,prologue4--,the overture was commonly followed by a ,prologue4 ,this had nothing to do with the action of the drama2 it introduced mythological and allegorical characters who danced and sang1 often paying the most fulsome adulation to the king1 who was compared to the most celebrated heroes of mythology and antiquity4 ,after the prologue1 either the overture was repeated1 or another and a shorter one was played4 ,this pseudo-classical type of opera naturally flourished in the artificial atmosphere of the court on which it was dependent for favor4 ,it lasted until the time of ,gluck1 when the influences which led to the great uprising of the people in the latter part of the #ahth century swept it away with other traditions and conventions4 ,rameau4--,until we come to ,jean ,philippe ,rameau 7#afhc-agfd71 none of ,lully's successors succeeded in definitely extending the limits he had fixed4 ,rameau had won the name of the first theoretician of the day1 and was a man of fifty when his first opera1 ,hippolyte et ,aricie1 was produced4 ,even he made no essential change in the scheme established by ,lully beyond greatly enlarging the sphere of the orchestra1 originating novel rhythms and bolder harmonies4 ,this was1 however1 a long step in advance1 since it saved the opera from sinking to the level of a dull1 mechanical imitation of ,lully's methods1 into which contemporary composers had fallen4 ,the ,english ,school4--,italian music1 in the form of the ,madrigal1 had been popular in ,england since the time of its introduction in #aeih1 by ,thomas ,morley 7#aeeg-afjd74 ,native composers immediately took it into favor1 a favor it has never lost2 madrigals are still composed and sung in ,england1 though elsewhere the form has been dead for nearly two centuries4 ,the declamatory opera of the early ,italian school1 however1 never took root4 ,it was1 as we have seen1 primarily a drama in which music played a secondary part1 and as such it was far too crude and lacking in human interest to appeal to a public accustomed to the plays of ,shakespeare and his contemporaries1 and whose taste in music1 moreover1 was rather for melody than for recitative4 ,then1 during the ,protectorate1 the ,puritanical spirit which led to the destruction of church organs and for a time forbade all theatrical performances proved an insuperable obstacle to any development of dramatic music4 ,the ,first ,english ,operas4--,in #afef1 ,sir ,william ,davenant1 the playwright and theatrical manager1 evaded this prohibition by introducing music into his plays and calling them operas4 ,much of this music1 which was in the form of incidental songs1 choruses and instrumental interludes1 was written by ,henry ,lawes 7#aeie-affb7 and ,matthew ,lock 7----d4 #afgg74 ,the latter is well known for his music to 8,macbeth10 which up to within a few years was not infrequently heard in performances of the tragedy4 ,these so-called operas had little or no effect on the development of a native school4 ,they are principally noteworthy in being the first ,english operas and the first theatrical performances in ,england in which women appeared on the stage4 ,previously the parts of women had been played by boys4 ,influence of the ,french ,school4--,at the ,restoration in #affj1 ,charles ,,ii found the prevailing style of music in ,england but little to his taste4 ,fond of the gay measures and lively dances of the ,french opera1 in #affd he sent ,pelham ,humfrey 7#afdg-afgd71 the most talented of the boys forming the choir in the ,chapel ,royal1 to ,paris to study with ,lully4 ,three years later he returned1 and became the teacher of ,england's greatest composer4 ,henry ,purcell4--,this was ,henry ,purcell 7#afeh-afie71 one of a family of musicians of whom he stands first4 ,as a child he is said to have composed anthems while a chorister in the ,chapel ,royal1 and at the age of twenty-two he composed his first opera1 ,dido and ,eneas1 a most remarkable work for a youth of his years4 ,it is the only one of his dramatic works in which there is no spoken dialogue1 its place being supplied by recitative1 and therefore1 strictly speaking1 it was his only opera4 ,he can never have seen an opera of this type2 his acquaintance with the new style must have been largely based on what ,humfrey had told him of such performances in ,paris1 though it is possible that he had the opportunity of studying ,lully's scores4 ,in its union of dramatic feeling and characterization with depth of musical resource1 ,dido and ,eneas was far in advance of anything that had yet appeared in ,france or ,italy4 ,though it shows the influence of the ,french school1 the sturdy ,english character which distinguishes all of ,purcell's music is plainly apparent4 ,illustration3 ,,henry ,,purcell4 ,purcell's ,dramatic ,works4--,it was followed by a large number of works for the stage1 but these were in the main merely incidental music for dramas2 among them ,shakespeare's 8,tempest10 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 7known as ,the ,fairy ,queen71 ,dryden's 8,king ,arthur10 the last being the most important and extended in form4 ,unfortunately1 many of them have been lost2 but enough remain to show that in ,purcell's early death ,england lost the most original musical genius she ever possessed4 ,he founded a distinctly national school which1 for the lack of a successor of equal gifts1 was destined to succumb to foreign influences4 ,their ,characteristics4--,his melodies bear the freshness and spontaneity of the ,english ,folk-song at a period when music was generally cultivated1 before civil wars and religious bigotry had crushed the art spirit which1 during the #afth century1 had made the ,english people the leaders in musical progress4 ,his recitatives show a vigor and an intuitive perception of dramatic effect unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries on the ,continent4 ,he was an accomplished contrapuntist and applied his knowledge of counterpoint with admirable results to sacred music1 yet never allowed it to become obtrusive in his dramatic works4 ,in these clear1 expressive melody and vigorous declamation were the distinguishing features2 his learning served only to secure a natural flow of the one and an appropriate setting for the other4 ,the ,masque4--,the precursor of the ,english opera was the ,masque4 ,like the ,french ,ballet1 this was a dramatic entertainment consisting of dialogues1 dances1 songs1 and choruses4 ,the subject was allegorical or mythical in nature and the mounting of the most elaborate description4 ,the leading poets and dramatists of the day wrote many masques4 ,the most famous was ,milton's 8,masque of ,comus10 the music by ,lawes1 which was performed at ,ludlow ,castle in #afcd4 ,the music in these masques was at first designed merely to give variety to what was in the main a pleasure to the eye1 but ,purcell relieved it of this subordinate character by investing it with a weight and authority which made it an integral factor in the dramatic expression4 ,typical ,english ,opera4--,he thus fixed the form of the ,english opera as a play with songs1 choruses1 ensembles1 etc41 connected by spoken dialogue instead of recitatives4 ,the music1 therefore1 instead of carrying on the action1 is confined to the more quiet situations of the drama1 such as are naturally adapted to lyrical expression4 ,the inflexibility of this form has doubtless had much to do with the lack of development in the ,english ,school of ,opera compared with the remarkable growth of other schools which have abandoned the union of the spoken with the sung word in the serious opera4 ,the ,ballad ,opera4--,the only characteristic creation of the ,english school is the ,ballad ,opera4 ,this had its origin in 8,the ,beggar's ,opera10 produced in #agbh4 ,slight in texture1 it was simply a play with songs set to the most popular ballad tunes of the day4 ,its extraordinary success in the face of the financial failure of ,italian opera left no doubt as to the real taste of the ,english people1 and was decisive as to the direction taken by later composers1 such as ,sir ,henry ,bishop 7#aghf-ahee71 ,michael ,balfe 7#ahjh-ahgj71 ,arthur ,sullivan 7#ahdb-aija74 ,,references4 ,davy4--,history of ,english ,music4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what circumstances attended the spread of the ,italian ,opera8 ,which ,european country was the next to take up ,opera8 ,who was the founder of this new school8 ,what efforts had been made prior to his appearance8 ,describe ,lully's opera form4 ,describe the ,french ,overture4 ,describe the ,prologue4 ,who was ,lully's successor8 ,what prevented the spread of the principles of the early ,italian ,opera in ,england8 ,give names of men connected with the early history of ,opera in ,england4 ,give an account of ,purcell and his works4 ,what was the ,masque8 ,describe the typical ,english ,opera4 ,the ,ballad ,opera4 ,the pupil will note that the development of ,french ,opera took place in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv1 and that it was after the restoration of ,charles ,,ii in ,england that opera began there1 ,purcell's work ending with the close of the #agth century4 ,,lesson ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,opera ,,in ,,germany4 ,,handel ,,and ,,gluck4 ,opera in ,germany4--,the introduction of the opera into ,germany dates from #afbg4 ,in that year a ,german translation of ,rinuccini's ,dafne1 which1 it will be remembered1 was the text of ,peri's first opera1 was set to music by ,heinrich ,schuetz 7#aehe-afgb7 and performed on the occasion of the wedding of the ,landgraf of ,hesse4 ,schtz1 who also composed the first ,german oratorio1 ,die ,auferstehung ,christi 7,the ,resurrection of ,christ71 had been sent by the ,landgraf to study in ,italy in #afji1 only two years after the production of ,monteverde's ,orfeo4 ,the score of his ,dafne has been lost1 but it was doubtless in accordance with the principles of the ,florentine school4 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war and its lamentable consequences prevented any immediate development of the new form4 ,occasional productions of ,italian opera were given in several ,german cities1 but it was not until the establishment of the ,hamburg opera late in the century that the new musical movement gained a permanent footing in ,germany4 ,even then its popularization proceeded but slowly4 ,illustration3 ,,heinrich ,,schuetz4 ,german ,composers ,barred4--,it is true that not long after the beginning of the #ahth century1 great interest was manifested in ,italian opera at a number of courts1 ,berlin and ,dresden in particular1 but this had no influence in the formation of a national school4 ,its effect indeed was the exact contrary4 ,singers and composers were brought from ,italy2 among the cultivated classes opera in ,german was considered a barbarism1 so that native musicians met with little or no encouragement in this field4 ,they were obliged to write their operas to an ,italian text if they wished a hearing for them2 the ,church alone was freely open to ,german composers4 ,the ,church1 too1 was the only place where the people could hear music2 public concerts were unknown and1 save at ,hamburg1 the opera could be heard only by invitation to those who had entre to court circles4 ,this led to the remarkable activity in the production of sacred music which is such a feature of that period4 ,this also1 as shown by the early history of the ,hamburg opera1 was more in consonance with ,german character than the light1 ephemeral operas which ruled the ,italian stage4 ,characteristics of the ,early ,german ,opera4--,the ,hamburg opera house was opened in #afgh with a ,biblical ,singspiel 7literally song-play7 of an allegorical nature1 ,adam und ,eva2 oder der erschaffene1 gefallene und wieder aufgerichtete ,mensch 7,adam and ,eve2 or the ,created1 ,fallen and ,redeemed ,man7 by ,johann ,theile 7#afdf-agbd7 a noted organist of the day and a pupil of ,schtz4 ,this was the first performance of a ,german opera on a public stage4 ,the ,singspiel corresponds to the ,english ballad opera in being a series of songs1 ensembles1 etc41 mainly of a simple nature1 connected by spoken dialogue4 ,the curious taste of the time is shown by the choice of subject2 the work itself was a survival of the ,miracle ,plays and ,mysteries of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it begins with the creation of the earth1 which is formed out of chaos by characters representing the four elements2 the ,almighty descends by means of a flying machine and calls man into being2 ,lucifer succeeds in his temptation of ,eve to the great joy of demons who sing an exulting chorus1 etc4 ,as the ,italians took the subjects for their early operas from classical mythology1 so the ,germans took theirs from ,bible history4 ,adam and ,eve was followed by a series of similar ,singspiele3 ,michal and ,david1 ,the ,maccabean ,mother1 ,esther1 ,cain and ,abel1 and many others4 ,change of ,character4--,in time1 however1 these gave way to operas in the ,italian style4 ,the chief agent in this change was ,reinhard ,keiser 7#afgd-agci7 who1 as composer and manager1 brought the ,hamburg opera to its highest point4 ,associated with him was ,johannes ,mattheson 7#afha-agfd71 a man of many and varied gifts as singer1 composer1 conductor1 scholar and diplomat1 now chiefly remembered by his close relations with ,george ,frederic ,handel 7#afhe-agei74 ,the latter at the age of eighteen came from his native city1 ,halle1 to ,hamburg1 then the musical centre of ,germany1 to continue his studies4 ,mattheson recognized the youth's genius and opened the way for the performance of his first opera1 ,almira4 ,handel and the ,hamburg ,opera4--,this1 with ,nero1 was given in #agje with such success that ,keiser1 jealous of the young composer1 set them both to music himself and banished his rival's works from the stage4 ,handel thereupon withdrew and the year following went to ,italy1 where he spent several years4 ,his connection with the ,hamburg opera was too slight for him to have exercised any influence upon it2 then1 too1 he had not yet reached artistic independence himself1 and it is doubtful whether he would have made any change in the direction it was taking toward conventionalized ,italian opera4 ,at that time the ,hamburg opera was rapidly losing its national character2 the style mainly cultivated was that of the ,neapolitan school2 a tasteless mingling of languages was even allowed in one and the same opera--the recitatives were often sung in ,german and the arias in ,italian4 ,this decadence continued1 with a consequent loss of popular favor1 until in #agch opera in ,german was given up entirely1 and ,italian opera reigned triumphant in ,germany4 ,the ,conventionalized ,italian ,opera4--,handel1 on his return from ,italy1 finally found his way to ,england1 where he made his home for the rest of his life4 ,the series of operas he produced there form the climax of the type originated by ,scarlatti1 which by this time flourished on all stages to the exclusion of all others1 save in ,france1 where the ideals of ,lully and his school still prevailed4 ,its chief aim was to afford singers an opportunity to display their accomplishments4 ,to this end the composer directed his attention principally to the production of arias which should correspond to this demand4 ,exquisitely beautiful as these often were1 their preponderance completely obscured the dramatic significance of the opera1 and led the singers to entertain grossly exaggerated ideas of their importance4 ,they dictated to composers1 refused to sing what in their opinion failed to suit their voices1 and in many ways kept the opera from rising above the low artistic level to which it had fallen4 ,to please them1 a highly artificial scheme of arrangement was adopted to which the drama was totally subservient4 ,only six characters were allowed1 three men and three women2 the arias were strictly classified according to style and assigned to the singers in a certain fixed order2 no ensemble beyond a duet was permitted1 and the chorus sang only in the closing finale4 ,no matter what the dramatic exigencies might be1 adherence to these formul was rigidly exacted4 ,handel's ,operas4--,though ,handel infused a vigor of spirit and a wealth of characteristic melody into this form of opera1 he made no definite attempt to escape its restrictions4 ,many of his most beautiful creations are buried in operas which are dead beyond possibility of resurrection on account of his acquiescence in the sentiment of his times4 ,that this is not due to lack of innate power is shown by his oratorios4 ,illustration3 ,,christoph ,,willibald ,,gluck4 ,gluck and ,his ,reform of the ,opera4--,this so-called concert opera reigned with almost undisputed sway until the influence of ,christoph ,willibald ,gluck 7#agad-aghg7 wrought a momentous change4 ,persuaded of the low estate to which the opera had been reduced1 ,gluck stood for a return to first principles2 he advocated a ruthless sacrifice of the conventionalities which through the vanity of singers and the love of sensation on the part of the public had grown up around the opera and the placing of it upon its original foundation of the drama4 ,he was a man of mature years when in #agfb he put his theories into practice by the production of ,orfeo in ,vienna4 ,he had composed many operas in the prevailing ,italian style1 but his judgment1 formed by extensive study and travel1 convinced him of the essential weakness of that school3 its concentration upon the purely musical element4 ,this he saw made of the opera a puppet-show for the display of vocal art which1 great as it was from a technical point of view1 was mechanical and meretricious in character4 ,he was not alone in his condemnation2 critics and thinkers such as ,addison and ,steele in ,england1 ,diderot in ,france1 ,marcello and ,algarotti in ,italy had employed the varied resources of wit1 satire and reason to expose the follies and inconsistencies of the opera4 ,from the nature of the case1 however1 they could work no change2 most of them were literary men who could criticise but not create4 ,gluck's ,travels and their ,influence4--,gluck had traveled much4 ,there was hardly an art-centre in ,europe from ,copenhagen to ,naples which he had not visited for the purpose of bringing out his works4 ,in ,england1 he had heard ,handel's oratorios1 which profoundly impressed him2 in ,paris1 he had made acquaintance with ,rameau's operas4 ,both of these masters exercised a strong influence over his change of style2 the former by his powerful handling of the chorus which had been practically banished from the ,italian stage1 the latter by his consistent adherence to dramatic truth of expression4 ,he was in addition a zealous student of art and literature in all their phases2 he brought to his problem not only the ear of the musician but the intellect of the scholar4 8,orfeo40--,in ,orfeo1 ,gluck took the same stand which ,peri had taken in his opera on the same myth a century and a half before3 the illustration of the drama through music which should give it a poignancy of expression denied to the spoken word4 ,the later composer had the immense advantage of musical resources undreamed-of at the time of the ,florentine opera1 but both stand upon the same artistic platform4 ,it was a daring task that ,gluck had attempted4 ,orpheus1 robbed by death of ,euridice1 seeks to regain her by forcing entrance to the place of departed spirits4 ,on his descent to the nether world he is confronted by a band of demons who bar his way1 but finally melted to tears by the pathos of his song1 they allow him to pass4 ,the composer must make this appeal adequate to the effect2 anything less would result in an anti-climax totally disastrous to dramatic illusion4 ,gluck passed this test triumphantly4 ,even today this scene remains one of the most powerful known to the operatic stage4 ,orfeo1 in its strength and simplicity1 was so opposed to the taste of the day that its victory was by no means unquestioned1 but it soon won universal recognition and with its successor1 ,alceste 7#agfg71 is the oldest opera heard at the present day4 ,gluck in ,paris4--,alceste was followed by ,paride ed ,elena 7,paris and ,helen71 but the severity of the new style aroused such a storm of hostile criticism that the discouraged composer turned to ,paris with his ,iphigenie en ,aulide 7,iphigenia in ,aulis7 to a ,french text after ,racine's tragedy4 ,marie ,antoinette1 then the wife of the ,dauphin1 had been his pupil in ,vienna1 and through her influence the opera was produced1 though not without arousing one of the most bitter wars in musical annals4 ,twelve years before1 ,italian ,opera ,buffa had gained a footing in ,paris4 ,its lightness1 melodic grace1 and witty dramatic situations captivated many who immediately attacked the prevailing type of ,french opera1 of which ,rameau was the head1 as heavy and unmusical4 ,this opinion was strenuously combated by others who upheld native art4 ,thus there were two strongly-opposed parties1 one defending the ,italian1 the other the ,french school of opera4 ,after ,rameau's death1 the ,italian party was in the ascendency1 but on ,gluck's arrival with a ,french opera he was taken as the representative of the national school4 ,piccini1 the most popular ,italian composer of the day1 was pitted against him1 but it needed only the production of ,gluck's ,iphigenie en ,tauride 7,iphigenia in ,tauris7 to crush his rival's claims4 ,this was his last great work4 ,he retired to ,vienna1 which was his home until his death4 ,influence of ,gluck4--,the influence exerted by ,gluck was far-reaching and permanent4 ,the reform he initiated did not create a school--it did far more2 it profoundly affected all schools4 ,with no immediate followers among the composers of his time he stood alone1 as he stands today1 one of the most commanding figures in musical history4 ,his ,orfeo marks the beginning of a new era by rescuing a great and important form of art from a decadence which had robbed it of legitimate power and effect4 ,the opera more than any other form of music is dependent upon popular favor for existence4 ,it is therefore peculiarly susceptible to influences which tend to lower artistic standards4 ,gluck1 however1 made it impossible that it should ever again sink to the level of the mass of crudities and puerilities from which he lifted it4 ,,reference4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,give an account of the introduction of opera into ,germany4 ,why did ,german composers develop slowly8 ,describe the early ,german opera forms4 ,who was the chief agent in a change8 ,give an account of ,handel's work in connection with ,german opera4 ,what had been the influence of singers8 ,what were the influences to cause ,gluck to set about opera reform8 ,give an account of 8,orfeo40 ,why did ,gluck go to ,paris and what success did he have there8 ,what was the influence of ,gluck upon the future of the opera8 ,it will be noted that the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany interfered with the development of the ,opera4 ,frederick the ,great's grandfather and father laid the foundations of the ,prussian kingdom4 ,in ,france1 ,gluck's works carry us up to the period of social and political agitation preceding the ,french ,revolution4 ,in ,england1 the ,house of ,hanover is becoming more firmly established on the throne2 in ,america1 the period is that of the struggles between the ,french and ,english colonists4 ,,lesson ,,xxiii4 ,,mozart ,,to ,,rossini4 ,the ,opera after ,gluck4--,after ,gluck the first great name is that of ,wolfgang ,amadeus ,mozart 7#agef-agia74 ,haydn had indeed written a number of operas1 but they were1 in the main1 light in character and exercised no influence whatever on the development of the form4 ,at the age of twelve1 ,mozart had composed two operas1 but the first to receive public performance was ,mitridate1 ,re di ,ponto 7,mithridates1 ,king of ,pontus71 which was produced at ,milan two years later under his own direction4 ,this was followed by others1 but these early works do not call for any extended mention4 ,though they abound in melody and show a maturity remarkable in so young a composer1 they were frankly written to please the taste of the time and do not in any essentials depart from the accepted ,italian style then in favor1 as fixed by ,scarlatti and his contemporaries4 ,gluck and ,mozart ,compared4--,it was not until ,idomeneo1 ,re di ,creta 7,idomeneus1 ,king of ,crete7 was brought out during the ,carnival season of #agha1 that he demonstrated fully the gifts which made him the first dramatic composer of his time4 ,in this he shows a great advance over the conventional opera of the period and an approach to the ideals of ,gluck1 though neither in ,idomeneo nor in any of his later operas did he attempt to embody these ideals in the uncompromising form chosen by the older master4 ,though contemporaries1 no two composers could well be more unlike in character1 temperament and methods than ,gluck and ,mozart4 ,the one1 a man of years1 ripened through travel and study1 conditioned his music according to the requirements of the drama2 the other1 a youth of no great intellectual endowments aside from his art1 but aflame with the fire of genius1 felt the drama in terms of music4 ,thus they approached the task from opposite sides4 ,not that ,gluck was without feeling or ,mozart without intellect2 it was simply a case of the dramatist and the musician solving the problem each in his own way4 ,at the same time it was impossible that ,gluck's theories should be entirely without influence on ,mozart4 ,even a genius must learn from his environment1 and ,gluck's position1 though sharply disputed by the ,italian school to which ,mozart belonged1 could not be ignored by the younger man4 ,then1 too1 ,mozart had been in ,paris during the height of the ,gluck-,piccini controversy1 and it is known that he had made a close study of ,alceste1 to which ,gluck1 in the form of a dedication to the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 had given a preface containing a clear exposition of his principles of dramatic composition4 ,it is hard to say1 however1 what direction ,mozart's dramatic course might have taken had his life not been cut so pitilessly short and if his outward circumstances had been less constrained4 ,he was obliged to adapt himself to ,italian influences which at that time were all powerful4 ,the ,singspiel4--,as already mentioned1 the first attempts at ,german opera took the form of the ,singspiel1 but it gradually died out during the invasion of ,italian opera in ,germany4 ,its revival and development to a higher standard was due to ,johann ,adam ,hiller 7#agbh-ahjd71 who received his first impulse through an ,english ballad opera of a farcical nature1 8,the ,devil to ,pay40 ,this was translated into ,german and given 7#agdc7 at ,berlin with the original ,english melodies taken from popular ballads4 ,hiller set this translation to music and followed it with many others which soon acquired great vogue2 one or two1 for example1 ,der ,dorfbarbier 7,the ,village ,barber71 are still heard in ,germany4 ,hiller1 though one of the most learned musicians of the day1 the founder of the celebrated ,gewandhaus ,concerts in ,leipzig and editor of the first musical periodical ever published1 adopted a simple1 natural ,folk-style in these operettas1 as they were also called4 ,goethe was particularly interested in this revival of a national form of opera2 it stimulated him to the writing of the ballads which in turn acted so powerfully in developing the ,german song under the hands of ,loewe1 ,schubert1 ,schumann and others4 ,mozart's ,first ,german ,opera4--,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 wishing to establish the ,singspiel in ,vienna1 commissioned ,mozart to write a ,german opera of a similar style4 ,this resulted in ,die ,entfhrung aus dem ,serail 7,the ,elopement from the ,seraglio71 and the composer's hopes of founding a national school of opera were high4 ,unfortunately1 he was doomed to disappointment4 ,though ,die ,entfhrung was received with enthusiasm1 popular favor was averse to opera in any other tongue than ,italian2 the ,german theatre was open only a few years and with the exception of ,die ,zauberflte1 his future operas were composed to ,italian texts4 ,his ,later ,operas4--,le ,nozze di ,figaro 7,the ,marriage of ,figaro--#aghf71 ,don ,giovanni 7,don ,juan--#aghh71 ,die ,zauberflte 7,the ,magic ,flute--#agia7 rank as ,mozart's greatest operas4 ,considered as music alone1 the last reaches a height which gives an idea of what he might have done in nationalizing the opera if he had been spared a score of years longer2 but its confused1 irrational plot stands in the way of its popularization4 ,the same objection holds good of ,cos fan ,tutte 7,women are ,all ,alike--#agij71 which contains some of his most exquisite music4 ,characteristics of ,mozart's ,operas4--,mozart's conception of the opera is that of the musician1 not of the dramatist4 ,this is plain from the indifferent texts he willingly accepted1 yet so universal was his genius that he fused the two elements into a complete and consistent whole4 ,such a union of clearly-cut characterization and musical beauty is unknown in the opera4 ,he made his characters eternal types by means of music so apposite to their individuality that it seems in each case to spring from inward necessity1 yet which as music has never been surpassed for intrinsic grace and charm4 ,italian melody in its best estate on a foundation of ,german depth and solidity is its distinguishing characteristic4 ,this characterization is confined1 however1 to details and personages2 of the development of the drama as a whole he apparently had but little idea4 ,this1 however1 was not called for by the taste of the times2 the opera was not considered from a dramatic standpoint1 save by ,gluck and the composers of the ,french school2 the libretto furnished a series of situations suitable for musical illustration1 not a consistent and logical dramatic action4 ,their ,significance to ,german ,art4--,mozart marks the highest point reached by the opera of the #ahth century2 he also marks the passing of ,italian supremacy in ,germany4 ,the ,germans were already masters of the other great forms1 the ,oratorio and the ,symphony2 ,gluck and ,mozart captured the ,opera also for ,germany1 though it was not for several decades after ,mozart's death that ,german opera rose from its discredited position at the close of the century4 ,beethoven's ,fidelio4--,a mighty impulse was given to the development of a national school by the production of ,fidelio 7#ahje71 ,beethoven's only opera4 ,his two great predecessors had been obliged for the most part to write their operas to ,french and ,italian texts4 ,beethoven 7#aggj-ahbg71 however1 showed his independence and sturdy national character by choosing a subject totally alien to the frivolous intrigues which at that time ruled the ,viennese stage--a story of heroic1 wifely devotion--and composed it to ,german words and in the ,german style2 that is1 with dialogue instead of recitative4 ,essentially symphonic in character1 ,fidelio shows the same disregard of vocal limitations which characterizes the ,ninth ,symphony and the ,mass in ,d4 ,difficult for the singers1 it was still more difficult for the public4 ,in subject and treatment it was above their heads2 they turned it the cold shoulder and it soon disappeared from the boards4 ,an appreciation of its greatness was reserved for a later day4 ,italian ,composers in ,france and ,germany4--,the popularity of ,italian opera outside of ,italy led to the expatriation of many ,italian composers who exercised a powerful influence in ,france and ,germany4 ,among these ,antonio ,salieri 7#agej-ahbe7 deserves mention for his career in ,vienna1 where he was the successful rival of ,mozart in court favor and later the teacher of ,beethoven4 ,more important was ,luigi ,cherubini 7#agfj-ahdb71 who found his way to ,paris just before the ,revolution4 ,a master of the severe contrapuntal school1 which was then passing away1 ,beethoven considered him the first composer of the day for the stage and studied his works zealously4 ,cherubini was present at the first performance of ,fidelio1 which shows strong traces of the influence exerted upon ,beethoven by ,les ,deux ,journes 7,the ,two ,days1 known in ,germany and ,england as ,the ,water ,carrier71 ,cherubini's greatest opera4 ,the two were on intimate terms during the stay of the latter in ,vienna for the purpose of bringing out several of his operas4 ,there was much in common between them2 the ,italian had the solidity1 dignity and nobility of treatment generally associated with the ,german character4 ,beethoven's choice of a subject for his opera was doubtless influenced by ,les ,deux ,journes2 the themes of both are much the same1 involving devotion and self-sacrifice of the highest order4 ,spontini and ,rossini4--,another ,italian composer who went first to ,france and afterward to ,germany was ,gasparo ,spontini 7#aggd-ahea71 who with ,la ,vestale 7,the ,vestal7 enlarged the sphere of the opera in ,paris4 ,spectacular and pompous in character1 sonorous and powerful in instrumentation1 it pointed directly to the type of grand opera originated by ,meyerbeer nearly a generation later4 ,in #ahbj1 he was summoned to ,berlin1 where he remained as court composer and conductor for twenty-two years1 a period coincident with the most significant development of the ,german school of opera4 ,spontini was the last of the many ,italians who had for a century and a half borne almost uninterrupted sway in ,germany4 ,the most brilliant and gifted of all these wandering sons of ,italy was ,gioacchino ,rossini 7#agib-ahfh74 ,as rich in melody as ,mozart1 though of a less refined type1 he owed more to nature than to study4 ,his first successful opera1 ,tancredi 7#ahac71 set all ,italy agog with the freshness and vivacity of its airs1 and it was not long before he was the most popular composer in ,europe4 ,gifted with prodigious facility--in one period of eight years he wrote twenty operas--his operas ruled all stages and fixed the standard by which all others were judged4 ,illustration3 ,,gioacchino ,,rossini4 ,characteristics of ,rossini's ,operas4--,they are1 on the whole1 a reversion to the conventionalized opera of ,handel's time in being written for the singer to exhibit his art and not to express the significance of the drama2 this notwithstanding their undoubted charm1 the many piquant and original touches in rhythm and harmony1 the occasional suggestive instrumentation4 ,an intensely florid style is used not only in the buffa school where it can readily be justified1 but in operas of a tragic nature where it is manifestly out of place4 ,in ,semiramide1 for instance1 a story of battle1 murder and sudden death is told in the same rippling rhythms and highly ornamented melodies that illustrate the intrigues of his ,barbiere di ,siviglia 7,barber of ,seville71 where they are eminently appropriate4 ,his ,change of ,style4--,this is true1 however1 only of his works composed for the ,italian stage4 ,his ,guillaume ,tell 7,william ,tell71 produced in #ahbi1 five years after his arrival in ,paris1 showed the influence of his new environment by an almost startling change of style4 ,elevated and dramatic in treatment1 shorn of redundant ornament as befits the character of the subject--taken from ,schiller's play of the same name--it remains his greatest achievement2 at least in serious opera4 ,it was also his last work for the stage4 ,it is not known by what strange caprice he practically closed his career as composer at the age of thirty-nine4 ,,reference4 ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,name the most prominent successor of ,gluck in opera4 ,compare the two4 ,describe the ,singspiel4 ,name some of ,mozart's operas4 ,mention their characteristics and influence4 ,give an account of ,beethoven's work in ,opera4 ,tell about ,salieri1 ,cherubini1 ,spontini1 ,rossini4 ,give the characteristics of ,rossini's operas4 ,what change in his style is evident in 8,william ,tell08 ,we now approach the period preceding the ,american and the ,french ,revolutions which so greatly affected the masses of ,europe1 an influence extended by the wars of ,napoleon4 ,music shows traces of the powerful forces at work1 losing the former artificiality and becoming more and more1 in the hands of ,beethoven1 an expression of dramatic and personal feeling4 ,,lesson ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,oratorio4 ,oratorio in ,italy after ,carissimi4--,after the beginning made by ,carissimi1 the next work of importance in ,oratorio is that of ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 who established the ,aria form as explained in the study of the ,opera4 ,the composers of the ,italian school of the last part of the #agth and the early part of the #ahth century used practically the same methods in ,opera and ,oratorio1 the difference being mainly in the character of the text1 and in the earnestness or religious feeling of the composer4 ,scarlatti is also signalized by his improvements in the ,recitative1 which resulted in several forms made use of by his successors1 ,recitativo ,secco and ,accompanied ,recitative4 ,he wrote ten oratorios4 ,contemporaries whose work should be mentioned are ,antonio ,caldara 7#afgh-agfc7 and ,leonardo ,leo 7#afid-agdf71 a pupil of ,scarlatti1 who wrote nearly a hundred works for the church1 the chief one being the oratorio1 ,santa ,elena al ,calvario and a ,miserere for a double choir4 ,he was strong in his writing for chorus1 making splendid use of the fugal style4 ,another contemporary of the first rank was ,alessandro ,stradella 7#afde-afha71 whose oratorio1 ,san ,giovanni ,battista 7,st4 ,john the ,baptist7 is a most beautiful work4 ,it contains a free treatment of the accompanying instruments1 the arias are clear and well-designed1 the chorus writing for five parts is effective as well as ingenious1 and the work as a whole shows considerable power of dramatic expression1 forming a sort of transition between ,scarlatti and ,handel4 ,stradella is said to have been a pupil of ,carissimi4 ,oratorio in ,germany4--,in ,oratorio as in ,opera1 the style spread to other countries1 there1 in the case of the ,oratorio1 ultimately to find a more congenial home2 for the ,oratorio1 in ,italy after the time of ,stradella1 seemed to lose hold on composers and public4 ,the latter did not grasp the fact that the ,oratorio had within it one element1 the chorus1 to give to it a definite individuality4 ,they submitted to the public's preference for solo singing and made up their oratorios largely of conventional arias--thus inviting comparison with the ,opera1 and reserved their writing in choral form for their works for the ,church service1 such as psalms1 magnificats1 masses and motets4 ,in ,germany1 the attitude of the people toward religious music1 doubtless owing to the ,reformation as well as to the serious nature of the people1 was much more favorable than in ,italy4 ,this temperament is shown by the fact that when ,german composers cast about for themes for their oratorios they seemed to choose the story of the ,passion4 ,the oldest example of the ,german ,oratorio is 8,the ,resurrection of ,christ10 written by ,heinrich ,schuetz 7#aehe-afgb71 a pupil of ,giovanni ,gabrieli1 which was produced at ,dresden in #afbc4 ,the narrative portions were committed almost entirely to the chorus4 ,we mention also a setting of the ,passion1 by ,johann ,sebastiani1 published in #afgb1 which contains interspersed chorales1 sung as arias by one voice with violin accompaniment1 and by ,reinhard ,keiser 7#afgd-agci74 ,use of the ,chorale4--,a step in advance was taken when ,german composers began to use the chorale of the ,german ,protestant ,church as the subject for contrapuntal elaboration1 a tendency shown in the work of ,sebastiani referred to in the preceding paragraph4 ,the ,chorale had absorbed into itself the spirit of the ,volkslied1 and its use supplied the medium for the public to enter fully into the spirit of the oratorio4 ,two composers who developed the 8,passion ,music0 idea to its height1 ,karl ,heinrich ,graun 7#agja-agei7 and ,johann ,sebastian ,bach1 made the ,chorale an integral part of their works4 ,the greatest work in oratorio form written by ,graun was called ,der ,tod ,jesu 7,the ,death of ,jesus71 which was first produced in the ,cathedral at ,berlin in #agee4 ,this work consists of recitatives1 airs and choruses1 the fugal treatment of the latter being admirable in point of clearness of design and breadth of form4 ,graun used in this oratorio six chorales4 ,der ,tod ,jesu1 owing to a bequest1 is still given in ,berlin4 ,bach4--,the greatest of all the settings of the ,passion are those by ,johann ,sebastian ,bach 7#afhe-agej74 ,the first work in this style by ,bach was the one according to 8,st4 ,john10 in #agbc1 first performed on ,good ,friday1 #agbd1 at ,leipzig4 ,this work1 fine as it is1 must yield to the second setting1 according to 8,st4 ,matthew10 first produced on ,good ,friday1 #agbi1 afterward revised and given again in #agdj4 ,a few notes on the 8,passion according to ,st4 ,matthew0 will serve for both works4 ,the characters introduced are ,jesus1 ,judas1 ,peter1 ,pilate1 the ,apostles and the ,people4 ,certain reflections on the narrative are interpreted by a chorus4 ,the text which furnishes the narrative is assigned to the principal tenor4 ,fifteen chorales of the ,lutheran ,church are introduced1 and in the singing of these the general congregation was expected to join4 ,the choruses contain powerful and dramatic vocal effects1 and though not strictly fugal are intricate in their part-writing4 ,a double chorus is used1 each chorus having a separate orchestra and organ accompaniment4 ,the performance of this work 7,st4 ,matthew ,passion7 was restricted to ,leipzig in the #ahth century1 and was discontinued altogether in the #aith until ,mendelssohn revived it in #ahbi4 ,it is given very frequently at the present day during the ,lenten season1 in part or in full4 ,the 8,christmas ,oratorio0 7#agcd7 is really a series of cantatas for each of the first days of the ,christmas week1 and contains no new ideas so far as form is concerned4 ,stabat ,mater4--,in connection with the 8,passion0 reference should be made to the ,latin hymn1 8,stabat ,mater10 which has been made the subject of treatment in oratorio form1 by ,palestrina1 ,giovanni ,battista ,pergolesi 7#agaj-agcf7 for soprano and contralto accompanied by strings and organ1 ,emanuele d',astorga 7#afha-agcf7 for four voices with instrumental accompaniment1 the more modern work1 in large form1 by ,gioacchino ,rossini 7#agib-ahfh71 most beautiful as music if partaking too much1 as critics say1 of the sensuous1 and the magnificent setting of ,antonin ,dvok 7#ahda-aijd74 ,this work has been placed1 by musicians and the public1 in the category of the world's masterpieces of choral writing4 ,george ,friedrich ,handel 7#afhe-agei74--,we now come to ,bach's contemporary1 the greatest name in the history of the ,oratorio1 to the composer who brought to his work a musical learning equal to that of ,bach1 ,german earnestness and mastery of contrapuntal science1 tempered by knowledge of and experience in ,italian vocal methods1 producing simple1 clear melody supported by rich1 firm harmonies1 a complete mastery of the orchestra of the day1 a clear understanding of the value of the chorus in working out dramatic effects2 and this combination was offered a congenial field for labor in ,england1 one of the great ,protestant countries of ,europe1 with a deep reverence for religion and for the narratives of the ,bible and the truths and lessons they enforce4 ,this latter point is strikingly present in the texts of ,handel's oratorios2 the symbolic meaning of the narrative is clearly indicated and made the central thought of the work1 producing a remarkable effect of ,unity4 ,as a writer has said3 8,handel preaches through the voices of his chorus40 ,the orchestra for which ,handel wrote was smaller than the full orchestra to which we are accustomed today4 ,the proportion of string players to the whole number of players was smaller1 but on the other side1 more than two oboes and bassoons were used2 flutes were most frequently used as solo instruments or to double the part of the oboes2 the clarinet ,handel never used1 doubtless because of its imperfections1 which were not remedied until later2 the brass instruments used were trumpets with kettle drums for their natural bass1 horns and the three trombones1 alto1 tenor and bass2 other instruments of a soft-voiced quality1 like the harp1 viola da gamba1 were occasionally used for obligato accompaniments4 ,the organ was always used1 the part being written according to the figured bass system1 and the harpsichord was used by the conductor4 ,the reader who is able to analyze one of ,handel's oratorio scores will be surprised to note the superb effects he makes with comparatively small resources4 ,compared with the polyphonic writing of his predecessors and his great contemporary1 ,bach1 his fugues seem light and simple1 but that very thing gives them their admirable clearness and purity2 compared with later works1 his diatonic progressions and harmonies based on common chords seem colorless1 especially so in contrast with the kaleidoscopic chromatic figures and strongly dissonant harmonies of the newer school2 yet in this point is the strength of ,handel's works with the public2 simplicity is valued more highly than complexity1 naturalness rather than the indications of science4 ,handel wrote seventeen works that can be classed as oratorios4 ,the first of these was 8,esther10 in #agbj1 revised and brought out anew in #agcb4 ,in #agcc 8,deborah10 perhaps best-known for a powerful double chorus1 was offered to the public2 8,athaliah0 in the same year4 ,in #agci came 8,saul0 and 8,israel in ,egypt10 the former best-known today for its famous 8,dead ,march10 the latter for the music descriptive of the plagues4 ,in #agda1 he wrote his greatest oratorio 8,the ,messiah10 which was first performed publicly1 ,april #ac1 #agdb1 in ,dublin4 ,in this we find a certain reflective character which recalls the ,passion music of the ,german school4 ,the only other oratorio which is still given in anything like entirety is 8,judas ,maccabus0 7#agdg72 other works from which certain portions are still in use are 8,samson0 7#agdc71 8,solomon0 7#agdi71 8,theodora0 7#agej71 a work which ,handel considered his best1 and 8,jephtha0 7#ageb74 ,great as was ,handel's fame in ,england1 the character of his works and the forms he used made little or no impression upon ,german and ,italian composers4 ,johann ,adolph ,hasse 7#afii-aghc71 ,niccolo ,porpora 7#afhf-agfg71 ,antonio ,sacchini 7#agcd-aghf71 ,giovanni ,paisiello 7#agda-ahaf71 ,niccolo ,jommelli 7#agad-aggd7 and ,pietro ,guglielmi 7#agbg-ahjd7 wrote in the ,italian style1 and their works are1 properly speaking1 concert oratorios1 scarcely distinguishable from the opera save by the text4 ,franz ,joseph ,haydn4--,the next name of importance is that of ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji71 who wrote 8,the ,creation0 and 8,the ,seasons0 toward the end of a long life1 after his work as a composer had given him a command of musical resources excelled only by ,beethoven1 who did not equal him in skill in writing effectively and suitably for voices4 ,it was in #agih that 8,the ,creation0 was first given in ,vienna4 ,the score abounds in effective writing for the solo voices1 in the florid style and in the conventional aria form1 and in brilliant choruses which1 however1 cannot compare in dignity and breadth with those of ,handel4 ,the orchestral accompaniments are much more elaborate than those used by ,handel1 as can naturally be expected from a composer who had given his greatest efforts to the development of instrumental music4 8,the ,seasons0 was first performed in ,vienna in #ahja4 ,it proved as successful as 8,the ,creation40 ,haydn's simple1 genial nature is apparent in this beautiful work1 really too light to bear the name of oratorio1 which has such close association with works of a deep1 religious character4 ,mozart and ,beethoven4--,as the orchestra developed under the masters of tone and dramatic effects1 ,mozart1 ,gluck and ,beethoven1 so the works in oratorio form took on a different texture4 ,in the earlier periods1 the accompaniments were subordinate1 the interest was centred in the voices4 ,but as composers realized the possibilities of the constantly-improving orchestra and the opportunities for effective combinations of voices and instruments1 the tendency became more and more marked to elaborate the instrumental parts and to create an ensemble more complicated and gorgeous1 based upon the orchestra and its tone-color scheme rather than on pure vocal effects4 ,mozart's 8,requiem0 7#agia71 written just before the composer's death1 brings into use the most powerful dramatic resources of orchestra and voices to portray the spirit of the 8mass for the dead40 ,in oratorio1 as in opera1 ,beethoven wrote but one work1 8,the ,mount of ,olives0 7#ahjc74 ,the style is florid and operatic1 somewhat in the style of the ,italian composers2 the resources of the orchestra are drawn upon more extensively than marked the methods of ,haydn4 ,the chorus is freely used1 the 8,hallelujah0 being the strongest movement4 ,the choral movements in the ,ninth ,symphony suggest what ,beethoven might have done had he set himself to writing an oratorio in greater submission to the capacity of the human voice4 ,spohr4--,from now on1 oratorio composition is associated with the masters of instrumental music1 the orchestra is drawn upon for its richest and most powerful resources to work out the emotional and dramatic qualities of the texts2 it is now no longer a mere accompanying instrument2 it is in the highest degree essential to the effects designed by the composer4 ,ludwig ,spohr 7#aghd-ahei71 a great violinist1 wrote his first oratorio1 8,das ,jngste ,gericht0 7,the ,last ,judgment71 when he was but twenty-eight years old4 ,a later work produced in #ahbf1 goes by the ,english name 8,the ,last ,judgment10 although that is not the literal translation of the ,german title ,die ,letzten ,dinge4 ,in this work we find the romantic idea clearly in evidence4 ,the composer's style had been developed and individualized by his long experience as player and conductor2 he was a master of the resources of instrumentation1 conversant both as composer and conductor with the limitations of voices--he wrote a number of operas--so that he was prepared for the creation of a work which has a character of its own4 ,a striking feature of this oratorio is the frequent use of chromatic progressions1 which is indeed a characteristic of ,spohr's writing4 ,mendelssohn4--,the next great composer in ,oratorio was a ,german2 like him also his works had their greatest reception in ,england1 ,felix ,mendelssohn ,bartholdy 7#ahji-ahdg74 ,his first work1 8,st4 ,paul10 was given at ,dsseldorf in #ahcf4 ,his greatest oratorio1 one that ranks with ,handel's 8,messiah0 in public favor1 is 8,elijah10 which was written for the ,birmingham1 ,england1 ,festival4 ,it was first produced in #ahdf4 ,as a diligent and enthusiastic student of ,bach1 it seems natural that ,mendelssohn should have adopted the great master's methods4 ,in style 8,st4 ,paul0 and 8,elijah0 show leanings toward ,bach and the ,german oratorio rather than toward ,handel4 ,mendelssohn1 who produced ,bach's 8,passion according to ,st4 ,matthew0 in ,berlin1 in #ahbg1 was thoroughly familiar with the plan of the ,german oratorio1 a mingling of narrative1 dramatic and meditative or reflective elements1 and especially the ,chorale to represent the ,church1 the chorus being1 properly speaking1 a part of the dramatis person1 representing masses of people who share in the action1 while the congregation represents the reflective element4 ,he uses a fugal style quite freely in his choruses1 but a strict fugue1 in the style of ,handel1 is rare1 as the composer's feeling for emotional effects demands a freer style2 the accompaniments are elaborate1 partaking of the dramatic element and drawing upon the fullest resources of the orchestra4 ,mendelssohn had started the composition of another oratorio1 8,christus10 on the lines of the 8,passion0 music of ,bach1 but died before the work was completed4 ,his 8,hymn of ,praise0 7#ahdj71 a large choral work that is occasionally sung1 well represents ,mendelssohn's skill in combining vocal and orchestral effect4 ,riemann calls it a symphony-cantata1 ,parry says it 8combines the qualities of a symphony and of an oratorio40 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on ,oratorio and on composers named in this lesson4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapters ,,vii and ,,xiii4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,give the names of the ,italian composers who followed ,carissimi in the ,oratorio4 ,what contributed to make ,germany a congenial field for ,oratorio8 ,who are the early composers of the 8,passion0 music8 ,give an account of ,bach's work in ,oratorio4 ,give the names of the leading composers of the 8,stabat ,mater40 ,describe ,handel's orchestra4 ,mention ,handel's most important works in ,oratorio form4 ,give an account of ,haydn's work in ,oratorio4 ,what works did ,mozart and ,beethoven write in ,oratorio form8 ,describe ,spohr's work in ,oratorio4 ,where did ,mendelssohn's work become most popular8 ,give an account of his compositions in ,oratorio form4 ,the class should1 if the works are at hand1 read through the text of ,bach's1 ,handel's1 ,haydn's1 ,spohr's and ,mendelssohn's oratorios1 all or as many as can be secured4 ,each pupil may be asked to write an account of one work4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,review ,,of ,,lessons ,,xvii ,,to ,,xxiv4 ,the teacher or a pupil should study the subject of the ,renaissance in a history of literature and also of art1 and then present to the class an abstract of the study1 to show the spirit of the movement and its influence on art1 especially music4 ,use the paragraph heads in each chapter with the important sentences in the paragraphs to make an outline of each lesson4 ,this is a great help in fixing the lessons in the mind in preparing for examination4 ,sum up ,monteverde and his work1 his relations to predecessors and successors4 ,why did the centre shift from ,florence to ,venice8 ,give a sketch of ,scarlatti1 his life and contributions to music4 ,if time will permit1 some pupil should prepare a short account of such composers as ,pergolesi1 ,porpora1 ,piccini and ,paisiello4 ,give a summary of the development of the art of ,singing4 ,a pupil should consult ,grove's 8,dictionary0 and make a paper on the great singers of the olden times1 their personality2 also interesting anecdotes4 ,compare the ,italian ,opera with the form developed by ,lully and ,rameau4 ,in what respects did the ,english ,opera differ from the ,italian and ,french form8 ,state the characteristics of the ,german ,opera4 ,handel's work in ,opera1 especially in ,england1 will make an interesting study for a short paper to be read before the class by some member of it4 ,gluck's career is full of interest and incident and his growth is clearly a matter of experience4 ,a pupil can1 to advantage1 study his life in some biography or in ,grove's ,dictionary and present an abstract to the class4 ,in what respects did ,mozart's and ,beethoven's operas show differences from the conventional ,italian form8 ,a study of ,rossini's life and works is full of interest1 on account of his strong personality and striking characteristics4 ,what is 8,passion ,music08 ,why is it specially suited to the ,german ,protestant ,church8 ,compare ,handel's1 ,haydn's1 ,spohr's and ,mendelssohn's work in ,oratorio4 ,excellent results will be obtained by having pupils prepare charts which are filled up from lesson to lesson4 ,take a large sheet of paper1 divide it into columns1 each column into quarter sections1 each column representing a century1 each section1 twenty-five years4 ,add dates of birth and death of the great musicians1 marking each name ,i1 ,f1 ,g1 to show nationality 7,italian1 ,french1 ,german1 etc474 ,another chart should show the various national schools1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 etc41 by centuries and quarter centuries2 another the development of such phases as opera1 oratorio1 singing1 sonata1 etc4 ,a very valuable chart is one showing contemporaries1 in musical and general history1 also parallel events1 for example1 the musicians who lived in a certain century1 famous kings1 statesmen1 explorers1 poets1 scientists1 discoveries 7such as ,america1 printing1 etc471 famous battles1 events in ,biblical and ,american history1 and other political events of the same century4 ,credit should be given in class standing for these charts4 ,,lesson ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,pianoforte4 ,while the violin1 on account of the simplicity of its construction1 arrived early at a stage of perfection1 the complicated mechanism of the pianoforte required many generations and many scores of more or less successful experiments to attain anything like a corresponding plane4 ,indeed1 such experiments are still constantly in progress2 so that the pianoforte of the future may conceivably realize possibilities as far ahead of the present piano as that is ahead of its predecessors4 ,the first attempts at piano manufacture1 however1 had little in common with our modern pianos1 save the principle of the combination of the keyboard with strings2 since in construction and resulting tone few points of similarity exist4 ,clavier a ,substitute for the ,organ4--,we are probably indebted to the extensive use of the organ for the earliest combinations of keys and strings4 ,as the demand arose for a more conveniently-keyed instrument than the large church organs1 for practice or private houses1 small portable organs were invented2 yet even these did not satisfy the want entirely1 owing to the difficulties in their wind supply1 which required an assistant as blower4 ,thus the organ keyboard came to be applied1 as early as the #aath century1 to already existing stringed instruments which were adapted to the purpose4 ,two ,classes4--,there were two classes of these1 each made on the principle of the zither3 namely1 by stretching strings over a flat surface or box1 generally across bridges1 this box serving as a resonator1 to reinforce the weak tone of the strings4 ,one such instrument1 in which the strings were struck by little wooden hammers1 was called the ,dulcimer2 another1 in which the strings were sounded by plucking with the fingers or by a quill1 was called the ,psaltery2 and from these two were developed the earliest instruments of the piano class1 called by the general name of 8,claviers10 from ,clavis1 a key4 ,the dulcimer type resulted in the ,clavichord2 the psaltery type in the ,harpsichord1 and1 although many other names were given to varieties of these instruments1 all may be placed in one of the two classes of which they are the chief representatives4 ,illustration3 ,,cymbalum ,,or ,,dulcimer4 ,illustration3 ,,psaltery4 ,this instrument also came in square and other forms2 strings varied from #f to #ch4 ,principle of the ,clavichord4--,the first of the ,clavichord instruments had the name of ,monochord1 or one-stringed instrument--a name of great antiquity1 first given by the ,grecian ,pythagoras to an instrument of one string used by him in determining the relations of tones4 ,similar experiments were made in the ,middle ,ages1 in which the various tones resulting from the vibrations of parts of a string were studied by means of movable bridges2 facility was gained by increasing the number of strings to four or five1 tuned in unison4 ,next1 keys were applied to these in place of the bridges1 which keys struck the strings at various definite points by means of upright pins or tangents1 as they were called1 producing varying pitches1 according to the length of the part of the string allowed to sound1 the remaining segment being silenced by a piece of cloth4 ,thus several tangents struck the same string at different points1 producing different degrees of pitch4 ,at first1 when only the scales corresponding to the white keys were employed1 four or five strings sufficed to sound the necessary tones1 not over twenty-two in number4 ,later1 however1 when chromatic notes were adopted1 the number of strings and keys was increased1 so that1 by the beginning of the #afth century1 the keyboard had a range of three or four full octaves4 ,from this time on1 this instrument1 now generally known as the ,clavichord1 won a popularity which extended to the beginning of the #aith century1 when the ,pianoforte gradually displaced it4 ,a familiar instrument in ,england and ,germany1 it was especially cultivated by musicians of note in the latter country1 even the renowned ,bach preferring it to all other forms of its class4 ,the ,clavichord4--,in shape1 the ,clavichord was an oblong box1 the strings of brass extending lengthwise4 ,the fact that one string served for several keys made it impossible to sound certain intervals together2 yet the device of giving a separate string to each key seems not to have come in till about the year #agbe1 and even then not to have been generally adopted4 ,without legs1 the ,clavichord was supported on a table when in use4 ,its tone was exceedingly weak and tremulous1 audible only within the distance of a few feet2 yet the fact that this tone could be given different degrees of intensity1 and could be varied to some extent even while sounding1 by a peculiar pressure on the keys 7bebung71 imbued its tone with a sympathetic quality which helps to account for the tenacity with which musicians clung to it1 notwithstanding all its imperfections4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clavichord4 ,principle of the ,harpsichord4--,instruments of the ,harpsichord class were especially numerous in ,italy1 ,france and ,england4 ,they differed from the ,clavichord chiefly in the method of setting the string in vibration4 ,this was done by plucking the string with a quill set in a jack at the end of the key1 the action so arranged that1 after the key was released1 the jack fell back to its place1 while a damper came against the string1 preventing its further vibration4 ,since these strings could not be used as bridges1 like the tangents of the ,clavichord1 it was necessary from the first that each key should have a separate string4 ,moreover1 as these strings were thus made of varying lengths and thicknesses1 the ,harpsichords were more often made in a triangular shape1 or one like our modern grand pianos1 than in the rectangular ,clavichord shape4 ,the chief defect1 and the one which makers tried in vain to remedy1 lay in the fact that the plucking of the strings1 while producing greater brilliancy1 admitted of no variation in its degrees of loudness or softness4 ,virginal and ,spinet4--,several small instruments of this kind preceded its full development1 differing mainly in shape and choice of materials4 ,in ,england these received the name of ,virginal2 in ,france1 that of ,spinet4 ,both of these were introduced into polite society1 chiefly as small house instruments of limited compass1 varied sizes1 and frequently with elaborate decoration4 ,the difference between them was principally one of shape1 the ,virginal taking the oblong form of the ,clavichord1 while the ,spinet was more often triangular4 ,they appeared both with and without supports2 and in some cases the strings were placed in a vertical position1 as in our upright pianofortes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,virginal ,,or ,,spinet4 ,the ,harpsichord4--,the ,harpsichord proper was simply a larger form of the ,spinet and ,virginal1 and was made in the form of the grand pianoforte4 ,on account of its added brilliancy of tone1 it was admirably adapted for use in the orchestra1 in which it became the conductor's instrument in connection with the opera4 ,in ,italy1 the terms ,clavicembalo and ,gravicembalo were given to it1 while in ,germany it was called ,flgel1 or wing1 from its wing-shaped cover4 ,as it became popular as a concert instrument1 many inventions were added to increase the brilliancy and variety of its tone3 an extra keyboard was placed above the first1 as in the organ1 and three or four strings were given each note1 which could be used to reinforce the single-string tone1 by means of the second keyboard4 ,moreover1 various kinds of quills were invented1 giving different tone qualities2 and such effects were controlled by stops or pedals4 ,these experiments were especially numerous in the #ahth century1 in which the rapid growth of musical resources demanded constantly more tonal possibilities4 ,large manufacturers1 such as the ,ruckers family of ,antwerp1 and ,tabel in ,england1 vied with each other in producing novel devices1 such as the imitation of other instruments1 the tuning of an extra string for each note an octave above its normal pitch1 and the addition of a keyboard connected with an organ4 ,attempts to produce a sustained tone resulted in the ,piano-,violin1 in which a revolving rosined wheel was pressed by the key against the string1 to continue the tone2 but all such were abandoned finally as unsuccessful4 ,illustration3 ,,two-,,manual ,,harpsichord4 ,invention of the ,pianoforte4--,to this exceptional activity in keyed instruments1 and the final failure to produce a singing tone capable of variation in the ,harpsichord1 we owe the invention of the ,pianoforte4 ,in #agaa1 ,bartolomeo ,cristofori1 a noted harpsichord maker of ,tuscany1 exhibited several 8forte-pianos0 in which the action was so constructed that the keys1 when depressed1 threw little leather-headed hammers1 affixed to a bar above them1 against the strings1 thus making it possible to modulate the strength of tone by the degree of force with which the keys were struck4 ,when the key was released1 a damper came against the string from beneath1 stopping further vibration4 ,early ,makers4--,although this invention did not at first attract widespread attention1 it undoubtedly formed the basis of the others which quickly followed it1 and really asserted the principle afterwards adopted for the piano action4 ,in #agaf1 ,marius1 a ,french manufacturer1 submitted four models for piano actions1 which1 however1 were never developed4 ,also1 ,schroeter1 a ,german1 constructed two models of piano actions1 in #agag1 in one of which the hammers struck on top of the strings2 but neither of these was put to practical use4 ,finally1 ,gottfried ,silbermann1 of ,saxony1 distinguished as an organ and harpsichord maker1 made two pianofortes1 the action of which was evidently based on that of ,cristofori1 and which he exhibited to ,j4 ,s4 ,bach4 ,while praising them in many respects1 ,bach criticised them as too weak in the upper notes1 and too hard to play4 ,silbermann was exceedingly painstaking as a workman1 having the reputation of breaking to pieces with an axe even a finished product which showed any imperfection4 ,he therefore set to work to remedy these defects1 and1 in #agcg1 produced several pianofortes which won ,bach's unqualified approval4 ,superiority of the ,piano4--,the ,pianoforte was now placed upon a firm basis2 and although many years elapsed before its resources were developed sufficiently to cause its universal adoption by musicians1 the final victory over its predecessors was complete4 ,and this victory was natural1 since the ,pianoforte was found capable of combining the best qualities of the ,clavichord and the ,harpsichord1 with the addition of a tone capacity infinitely superior to either4 ,improvements4--,the story of succeeding piano manufacture and the manifold inventions and improvements relative to it is one of infinite details4 ,among these we notice that while ,silbermann pianos were in 8grand0 form1 ,frederici of ,gera 7died #aggi7 constructed them in oblong or 8square0 shape2 that the pianos of ,spaeth 7died #agif7 and of ,j4 ,andreas ,stein 7died #agib71 whose pianos were adopted for use by ,mozart1 showed considerable advancement4 ,the ,stein family became allied with ,andreas ,streicher1 an inventive genius1 and founded a manufactory in ,vienna which has maintained a high standard to the present time4 ,the action invented by them1 known as the ,viennese action1 differs from that of ,cristofori in having the hammers annexed to the keys themselves1 instead of on a bar above them2 thus giving a light touch and tone4 ,in ,england1 the principle of the ,cristofori action was developed by the renowned house of ,broadwood1 their action becoming known as the ,english action2 while in ,france1 ,sebastian ,erhard1 or ,erard1 a ,strasburg inventor1 founded the ,erard action1 which has a double hammer movement1 allowing the hammers to fall either entirely1 or only partially into place after the key is struck1 at the will of the performer4 ,the 8cottage0 action1 introduced by ,william ,southwell1 about #ahjj1 was the beginning of the 8upright0 form1 which has now entirely superseded that of the square piano4 ,thus1 by continued experiments1 the piano has gained in compass1 brilliancy1 sustaining power and strength of construction1 to meet the constantly-increasing demands placed upon it1 until the modern piano seems to possess unlimited resources1 and until the unending supply of instruments of all grades from hundreds of factories is sufficient to place one of these 8household orchestras0 within the reach of rich and poor alike4 ,equal ,temperament4--,an early difficulty in the case of keyed instruments was the matter of tuning1 caused by the fact that it was found scientifically impossible to tune all the intervals of the scale at the same time to the true pitch2 that is1 the pitch demanded by the natural overtones of the fundamental note of the scale4 ,at the outset1 for instance1 it was found that if the fifths were tuned true1 the octaves would be a trifle sharp2 and1 conversely1 if the octaves were true1 the fifths would be a trifle flat4 ,in the case of stringed instruments1 where the tone was made by the performer1 it could be so modified as not to conflict seriously2 but with keyed instruments this was impossible4 ,thus1 many systems of tuning or 8temperaments0 were tried1 such as having two keys for two notes nearly in unison1 like ,f-sharp and ,g-flat1 most of these resulting in the possibility of playing in a few nearly related keys1 to the exclusion of the others4 ,finally1 through the influence of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach 7#afhe-agej7 and the ,frenchman ,rameau 7#afhc-agfd71 the simple expedient was definitely adopted of tuning the octaves true1 and dividing each octave into twelve equal parts1 thus uniting such notes as ,f-sharp and ,g-flat in one tone slightly out of tune with either1 but not enough seriously to offend the ear4 ,this1 called 8equal temperament10 was a great gain to music1 since it not only removed a radical defect in keyed instruments1 but also opened the door to that free interchange of keys which has done so much toward enriching the coloring and scope of succeeding compositions4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on the ,clavichord1 ,virginal1 ,spinet1 ,harpsichord1 ,pianoforte4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,weitzmann4--,history of the ,pianoforte4 ,brinsmead4--,history of the ,pianoforte4 ,rimbault4--,the ,pianoforte3 ,its ,origin1 ,progress and ,construction4 ,spillane4--,history of the ,american ,pianoforte4 ,,questions4 ,what principle did the first attempts at piano-making recognize8 ,to what circumstance are we indebted for the attempt to make an instrument of the ,clavier type8 ,what are the two classes of stringed instruments with keyboard as known in the #aath century8 ,state the steps in the development of the ,clavichord principle4 ,describe the ,clavichord4 ,describe the ,harpsichord principle4 ,describe the ,virginal and ,spinet4 ,describe the ,harpsichord4 ,who was the inventor of the ,pianoforte8 ,when did he exhibit the first instrument8 ,who were the early makers8 ,what points of superiority did the ,piano have over the ,clavichord and the ,harpsichord8 ,what successive improvements were made by various makers8 ,what is meant by ,equal ,temperament8 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,early ,,italian ,,clavier ,,composers4 ,early ,instrumental ,music4--,the history of pianoforte composition and playing really begins with that of the preceding keyed instruments with strings1 to all of which the convenient name of 8,claviers0 will be given4 ,as these early instruments were at first merely substitutes for the organ1 which in turn was used simply to reduplicate voice parts1 the music first played on them was in no wise different from the vocal and organ music of the day4 ,when1 moreover1 music written for the organ had some features distinct from purely vocal music1 it was frequently inscribed to be played on the organ or clavier1 without discrimination4 ,influence of the ,renaissance4--,as most of the patterns of musical form have proceeded from ,italy1 so it was there1 in ,venice1 that instrumental music seems to have emerged from its union with vocal music1 and to have assumed the elements of a style of its own4 ,this was directly the result of the general awakening of thought after the ,dark ,ages1 known as the ,renaissance1 which1 leading to independent investigation in the domains of science and art1 brought in the once unheard-of inventions and the discovery of new worlds1 and in the other a freedom of treatment fitted to express the new ideas surging throughout the civilized world4 ,thus1 in the first part of the #afth century1 while ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo were voicing these thoughts in their immortal creations1 in ,venice1 a school of musicians was turning its attention toward instrumental music1 and striving to produce in music a richness of color1 just as the great ,venetian painters1 like ,titian and ,giorgione1 were producing similar effects upon canvas4 ,teachers and students were congregating there1 enthusiastic over the new ideas in music2 and the focal point of all this activity was the ,church of ,st4 ,mark's1 whose magnificent double organ furnished an incentive to genius4 ,the ,first ,sonata4--,among these musicians were a number of apostles of the ,netherlands school1 of whom ,adrian ,willaert 7#adhj-aefb7 was especially honored and beloved4 ,he and his successors1 as organists at ,st4 ,mark's1 wrote compositions for organ or clavier1 which they taught to young ladies in the convents4 ,such compositions were made the more possible by the fact that into the old ,church ,modes1 formed by using only the tones represented by the white keys of our piano1 8chromatic0 or colored tones came to be inserted2 so that1 in the course of the #afth century1 the modern scales1 with their characteristic keynotes1 or tonalities1 came to vie with the old modes1 and ultimately nearly to displace them1 thus giving a chance for a variety and grouping of harmonies necessary in the elaboration of instrumental music4 ,the name ,sonata1 or 8sound0 piece1 was at first given indiscriminately to such instrumental works1 in distinction from the ,cantata1 or vocal work4 ,willaert and ,his ,pupils4--,willaert was especially successful as a teacher1 and thus left a number of accomplished pupils to carry on his labors4 ,of these1 ,girolamo ,parabosco 7#aeic-afji7 was noted for his free fantasias1 and his improvisations of sonatas on the harpsichord2 while ,claudio ,merulo of ,correggio 7#aecc-afjd7 wrote a number of toccatas1 in which the old church chorale style was relieved by contrasting passages consisting of brilliant runs4 ,the ,toccata1 or touch piece1 had1 as its characteristics1 such quick running passages1 probably first suggested by the light tone and action of the ,clavier4 ,while these runs had at first very little relevancy to one another1 they were much delighted in by these early pioneers1 who sported with them as a child plays with a new toy4 ,the ,gabrieli's4--,two other organists of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,andreas ,gabrieli 7#aeaj-aehf71 and his nephew and pupil1 ,giovanni ,gabrieli 7#aeeg-afac71 added to the resources of instrumental music4 ,the first of these1 a pupil of ,willaert1 himself became a famous teacher2 and both contributed many canzone and sonatas to organ and clavier literature4 ,in all these the subjects were distinct1 and1 in the canzone especially1 the many quick passages and changing rhythms were used in a manner that contributed to unity4 ,the ,harpsichord in ,opera4--,a new factor now appeared in ,florence1 destined greatly to further the cause of clavier music3 namely1 the ,opera4 ,taking the position of the conductor's instrument1 the harpsichord became the most useful member of the orchestra1 and was employed constantly to fill in vague harmonies1 and to strike chords as a support to the musical declamation of the singers4 ,such chords were not generally written out1 but were suggested by their bass note1 over which figures were written to show their positions4 ,to this shorthand system the name of ,thorough-bass was given4 ,in this way the value of chord combinations came to be recognized1 and the relationships of such chords studied entirely apart from the voice writing2 so the idea of a single melody1 supported by occasional chords1 was transplanted from the ,opera1 and the modern harmonic style of music came into being4 ,dance ,tunes4--,but1 in this new style1 the old basis for ,unity in the composition1 furnished by the imitation of one part by another1 had to be abandoned1 since only one melodic part existed at a time2 hence a new basis had to be found in the manner in which harmonies succeeded each other4 ,in determining such chord relationships1 composers were obliged to look elsewhere than to the old ,church music2 and so turned their attention to the forms of ,dance ,tunes which had already been in use for a long time among the people in their ,folk-songs1 and in the performances of the wandering minstrels4 ,most of these dance tunes were formed in a very simple two-part design of harmony1 consisting in a transition from the initial key to a contrasting key1 for the first part1 and a return from the contrasting key to the first key1 in the second part4 ,origin of the ,suite4--,a book of such dances1 based1 however1 on the clumsy church modes1 was published in #aeea4 ,later1 however1 such dances came to be written in the new harmonic style2 and by putting together a set of dances all in the same key but differing in rhythm and mode of expression1 a larger form of composition was devised1 combining ,variety with ,unity4 ,to this form the name of ,suite was given4 ,illustration3 ,,girolamo ,,frescobaldi4 ,frescobaldi4--,another element tending to give ,unity to the composition was developed when composers learned to work out a single subject1 or melodic phrase representing a definite musical idea1 by introducing it a number of times in the course of the composition1 sometimes with slight variation1 but always recognizable and used in such a way as to bind the various parts the more closely together by their similarity of conception4 ,several organists at ,rome wrote music which possessed such unity of idea4 ,one of these was ,girolamo ,frescobaldi 7#aehc-afdd71 a man who was a close student of the best ,italian music of his time1 and who had1 moreover1 been brought into contact with ,netherlands ideas through travel in ,belgium4 ,on his first appearance as organist of ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome1 in #afae1 so great fame had preceded him that over #cj1jjj people are said to have attended the performance4 ,his skill on the clavier was no less than that on the organ2 and for both of these instruments he wrote ,ricercari1 ,canzone and ,capricci1 which showed considerable unity of subject1 together with fluency in the treatment of chromatic progressions1 and a wealth of invention1 which displayed itself in novel themes and unusual harmonies2 his compositions are well worth study4 ,pasquini4--,in the second half of the #agth century1 ,bernardo ,pasquini 7#afcg-agaj71 a pupil of the opera composer ,cesti1 carried on the work at ,rome4 ,in his toccati he shows great freedom in departing from the strict vocal style1 and his clavier works have features1 like the sustained trill1 which distinguish them decidedly from organ works4 ,method of ,playing the ,clavier4--,the method of playing the clavier used by these old masters was peculiar4 ,in a work on the subject published by ,di ,ruta1 about the year #afjj1 the rules given include holding the fingers out flat on the keys1 and scarcely using the thumb at all1 allowing it to hang below the level of the keyboard4 ,the scales were played each with two fingers1 according to fixed rules2 so that smoothness combined with rapidity seems to have been made impossible4 ,the ,sonata and ,overture4--,starting with the harmonic form of the old dance tunes1 composers now began to elaborate this to a form capable of expressing more serious ideas1 by giving more definiteness to the musical subject treated1 and by introducing material derived from the old vocal forms4 ,corelli1 the violinist 7#afec-agac71 and the violinists of his school1 restricted the name ,sonata to combinations of such movements1 in distinction from the lighter forms of the ,suite2 and the celebrated opera composer1 ,alessandro ,scarlatti 7#afei-agbe71 applied similar methods to the composition of his operatic overtures1 writing them in three parts3 first1 a moderately fast movement1 which was followed by a slow movement1 the whole closing with a movement in quick tempo4 ,domenico ,scarlatti4--,clavier music lagged somewhat behind violin music1 owing to the greater perfection of the violin as an instrument1 and also to the popularity of the lute1 which was much affected in fashionable circles4 ,finally1 however1 a man appeared who possessed the genius to develop the peculiar resources of the harpsichord to a remarkable extent4 ,this was ,domenico ,scarlatti1 the son and pupil of ,alessandro ,scarlatti4 ,the latter was himself a skilful clavier player and composer2 but his son attained a proficiency so far eclipsing that of any of his predecessors as to place him entirely without the pale of comparison with any of them4 ,domenico ,scarlatti1 who was born at ,naples in #afhc1 two years before ,handel and ,bach1 first attracted attention when about twenty-one years old1 as an opera composer2 but achieved his greatest successes as a virtuoso on the harpsichord1 winning a world-wide reputation for his wonderful playing1 which was a revelation of what could be done with this hitherto undeveloped instrument4 ,in one of ,handel's ,italian journeys a contest of skill was instituted between these two musical giants2 and the result was a drawn battle so far as the harpsichord was concerned1 although ,handel triumphed at the organ4 ,scarlatti traveled about somewhat1 spending most of his later life in the position of court music master at ,madrid4 ,he finally returned to his birthplace1 where he died in #ageg4 ,scarlatti's ,use of ,form4--,in the matter of form1 ,scarlatti developed still further the work of his predecessors1 applying to the harpsichord the principles asserted by ,corelli and his school4 ,his ,sonatas were written in one movement only1 and have very definite subjects1 which are carried out along recognized lines4 ,his ,capriccii--short pieces written in a rhythmic and delicately staccato style--are some of his best works1 and undoubtedly paved the way for the ,scherzi1 written by ,beethoven and ,mendelssohn4 ,his compositions are short1 but concise and definite4 ,scarlatti's ,style of ,playing4--,but his chief addition to musical material lies in the new style of playing which he invented4 ,novel effects1 like crossing the hands1 long leaps1 broken chords in contrary motion1 rapidly repeated notes1 and runs in thirds and sixths--effects which were in many cases far ahead of his time1 since they were not used by succeeding composers until a much later period--were employed by him with the utmost fluency1 so that he has been aptly called the father of modern pianoforte technic4 ,music3 ,,examples ,,of ,,scarlatti',s ,,style4 ,durante4--,the ,neapolitan school boasted several other worthy clavier composers1 who contributed in various ways to the composition of the ,sonata4 ,one of these was ,francesco ,durante 7#afhd-agee71 who wrote sonatas in two movements of different character but in the same key4 ,the first1 called a ,studio1 was written as a free fugue with running passages2 the second1 or ,divertimento1 was more animated and less scholastic4 ,domenico ,alberti 7#agjg-agdj7 composed sonatas similar in general form1 but of less artistic worth1 consisting as they did simply of a single-voiced melody1 supported by an harmonic accompaniment having no independence of style4 ,much of this was in the form of broken chords1 a mannerism which was afterwards used to excess1 and became dubbed the 8,alberti bass40 ,this accompaniment form doubtless suited the clavichord and harpsichord1 but is not so well adapted to the more sonorous modern piano4 ,it is still used by composers for very simple accompaniments4 ,music ,pier ,domenico ,paradies 7#agaj-agib7 deserves special mention as the writer of elegant and well-balanced clavier music4 ,he first won success as a composer of operas1 which were given in ,italy1 and afterwards in ,london1 where he finally settled as clavier teacher4 ,his sonatas have two movements1 like ,durante's1 and contain brilliant allegros1 besides attractive melodies4 ,his two-part rapid contrapuntal work is excellent1 both for musical merit and for technical study4 ,summary4--,we have seen1 then1 that in the #afth century1 in ,italy1 instrumental music began to break from its union with vocal music2 that the ,opera brought the harpsichord especially into notice in the #agth century1 on account of its availability for accompaniments1 and that finally1 in the #ahth century1 the ,neapolitan composers developed for it a style which took advantage of its peculiar resources1 and applied them to the enrichment of the harmonic forms which were coming into vogue4 ,,references4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,j4 ,s4 ,shedlock4--,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,henderson4--,how ,music ,developed4 ,henderson4--,preludes and ,studies4 ,,musical ,,illustrations4 ,weitzmann's ,history1 pages #bia-cac4 ,rimbault1 8,the ,pianoforte10 pages #beg1 #cjf1 #caj4 ,litolff edition1 ,no4 #cig1 second volume of 8,music by ,old ,masters40 ,augener edition1 ,no4 #hbih1 ,old ,italian ,compositions4 ,the ,breitkopf ,edition1 ,nos4 #aaa1 #aab1 #daa1 have reference to music for the clavier1 written during the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,biblioteca d',oro1 ,ricordi1 contains examples of the compositions of the leading composers of the #agth to #aith centuries4 ,,questions4 ,what influence did the ,renaissance have on early instrumental music8 ,give an account of the 8sonatas0 written by ,willaert4 ,what other kinds of composition were written during this period8 ,what were the contributions of the ,gabrieli's8 ,how did the ,opera influence harpsichord music8 ,what principles were used in making dance tunes8 ,what was the origin of the ,suite8 ,how did these early composers attempt to give ,unity to a composition8 ,tell about the work of ,frescobaldi and ,pasquini4 ,what peculiarities of fingering were used by the early players8 ,what distinction did ,corelli and his successors make between the ,sonata and the ,suite8 ,describe the career of ,domenico ,scarlatti4 ,what forms did he use in his compositions8 ,what characteristics did he show in his playing8 ,tell about the work of ,durante1 ,alberti and ,paradies4 ,give the successive stages of development from the #afth to the #ahth century4 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,early ,,english ,,and ,,french ,,clavier ,,schools4 ,english ,schools to ,henry ,,viii4--,popular music1 both vocal and instrumental1 was an early ,english institution4 ,the many ,folk-songs which have come down from a very early period bear witness to the ,english love of conviviality4 ,dance tunes1 sometimes based on these ,folk-songs1 were played on the instruments of the minstrels1 which1 as early as #adhd1 included the clavichord2 and the fact that such instruments were cultivated by people of higher rank is shown by the record that ,james ,,iv of ,scotland and his queen purchased clavichords to play upon1 in #aejc1 while the queen of ,henry ,,vii of ,england bought a clavichord for her private use in #aejb4 ,the virginal is spoken of in the reign of ,henry ,,vii2 ,henry ,,viii 7reigned #aeji-aedg71 who was an accomplished musician1 played upon both these instruments1 and also wrote music for them4 ,to ,queen ,elizabeth's ,time4--,edward ,,vi 7r4 #aedg-aeec7 had three duly appointed virginal players among his court musicians2 and after ,elizabeth 7r4 #aeeh-afjc7 ascended the throne1 the virginal increased in popularity2 indeed1 its name was formerly thought to have been derived from her as the virgin queen2 although the fact that the instrument was spoken of as the virginal before her reign makes its derivation from its popularity among young ladies the more probable4 ,queen ,elizabeth1 as well as her sister ,mary1 received instruction in virginal playing during her early youth1 and became an accomplished performer2 and instances are shown of the former's great pride in this accomplishment4 ,in the course of her illustrious reign1 when all the arts flourished to a remarkable degree1 and when great wits and litterateurs vied with each other in the genius of their productions1 the art of music received its share of attention also4 ,the fact that musical degrees were early given at the great universities1 ,oxford and ,cambridge1 tended to raise the standard of musical knowledge1 and to produce a number of composers who were especially gifted in the more serious ,church forms of writing4 ,many such1 connected with the ,royal ,chapel and the court1 wrote excellent anthems and secular part-songs2 and now1 attracted by the popularity of the instrument1 they began to give a more worthy setting to the folk and dance tunes played on the clavier4 ,dance ,tunes4--,a clavier composition is extant1 dated #aeee1 by ,william ,blitheman1 an ,english church composer1 consisting of a chorale-like melody in whole notes1 accompanied first by a flowing eighth-note figure1 and next by triplet quarter notes1 with a third voice added later4 ,such a serious style prefigured the variations upon dance tunes1 which were especially cultivated by ,william ,byrd 7#aech-afbc74 ,in such variations the melody was first harmonized in simple fashion1 and was afterwards played several times in the same part1 with slight changes1 while the accompanying parts were varied in rhythm and style1 becoming generally quicker in tempo4 ,to modern ears the result is monotonous1 as the same key and time signature is maintained throughout2 but the variety in presentation must have been grateful after the simplicity of the dance tunes4 ,the ,virginal ,book4--,other popular forms were the ,fancie1 in which several melodic subjects were imitated in the various voices2 and the ,pavane1 a dance in common time1 whose theme was repeated in the following ,galliarde1 a dance in triple time4 ,these and other forms are used in a curious collection of clavier pieces now preserved at ,cambridge1 and known as ,queen ,elizabeth's ,virginal ,book4 ,this collection1 consisting of four hundred and eighteen manuscript pages1 written on a six-lined staff1 contains seventy compositions by ,byrd1 besides others by most of the composers of the ,elizabethan era1 like ,tallis1 ,dr4 ,bull1 ,giles1 ,farnaby and many others4 ,leading ,elizabethan ,composers4--,byrd was a pupil of ,thomas ,tallis 7d4 #aehe71 the renowned church composer1 and together they were made organists of ,queen ,elizabeth's ,chapel1 in #aege1 receiving also the sole right to print music4 ,another musician who deserves special mention is ,dr4 ,john ,bull 7#aefc-afbh71 who won world-wide fame as organist and clavier player1 finally becoming organist at ,antwerp ,cathedral1 which post he held until his death4 ,his clavier compositions show great technical fluency4 ,orlando ,gibbons 7#aehc-afbe71 a ,doctor of ,music at ,oxford1 and organist at ,westminster ,abbey1 wrote excellently in the prevailing style4 ,shakespeare testifies to the popularity of clavier playing at this time in one of his sonnets1 where he speaks of the keys as 8,o'er whom thy fingers walk with gentle gait40 ,although these early ,english composers wrote with musical solidity1 their compositions can scarcely be said to have added much to the development of the instrumental style1 or to clavier technic2 and1 in fact1 they amounted to little more than a side issue in music1 withdrawn from the general advancement1 and valuable chiefly as curiosities4 ,the melodies were apt to be wearisome1 through monotonous repetitions1 the rhythms to lack variety1 and the modulations to appear chiefly in the form of unsuccessful attempts4 ,the ,parthenia4--,during the first half of the #agth century the virginal retained its popularity1 although political turmoils prevented much positive advancement in music4 ,the 8,parthenia10 a volume containing the first printed collection of virginal music1 appeared in #afaa1 composed of twenty-one pieces by ,byrd1 ,bull and ,gibbons2 and a similar volume followed1 with compositions for virginal and bass viol1 by ,robert ,hole4 ,purcell4--,in the reign of ,charles ,,ii 7#affj-afhe7 music again came to the fore1 and was ably promoted by ,henry ,purcell1 who was born in the year when ,cromwell died1 #afeh1 and died in #afie4 ,purcell is a shining figure in ,english musical history1 through his ability as an opera composer1 in which capacity he produced bright and pithy works1 thoroughly ,english in spirit1 and healthy in tone4 ,he published a volume of twelve clavier sonatas in #afhc1 with parts also for two violins and a bass viol1 founded on the model of the ,italian violin sonatas1 each having an ,adagio1 a ,canzona1 a slow movement and an ,air4 ,later he published other sonatas1 besides suites and separate pieces for the clavier4 ,upon the advent of ,handel1 however1 the ,english composers became1 for the most part1 mere imitators of his style1 which had so caught the national ear as to well-nigh eclipse all other kinds of music4 ,the early ,english school1 therefore1 can be said to have had its last exponent in the person of ,purcell4 ,rise of the ,french ,school4--,in ,france a school of clavier compositions developed during the brilliant reign of ,louis ,,xiv 7#afdc-agae71 which did much toward imparting elegance and polish1 besides characteristic rhythms and technical figures1 to clavier music4 ,the head of this school and the personal teacher of many succeeding clavier composers and players was ,andre ,champion de ,chambonnires 7d4 #afgj71 who became court clavier player to the king4 ,he is said to have been master of a full tone on the harpsichord attained by none other than himself2 he also published two books of clavier compositions1 written in the pure harmonic style1 and showing the tendency toward brilliant embellishments which became a characteristic of his successors4 ,of his pupils1 ,jean ,henry d',anglebert 7d4 #afia71 was clavier player at court1 and published in #afhi a book containing clavier arrangements of airs and dances from the operas of ,lully1 with rules for their execution4 ,the ,couperin ,family4--,two1 at least1 of the famous musical family of ,couperin also came under the instruction of ,champion4 ,these were ,louis ,couperin 7#afcj-affe71 and ,franois ,couperin 7#afca-agja71 who1 with their brother ,charles ,couperin 7#afch-affi71 and his son ,franois ,couperin1 called 8le ,grand0 7#affh-agcc71 were all at various times organists of the church of ,st4 ,gervais1 at ,paris4 ,the ,couperins may be considered as classic composers for the clavier1 as their style1 though having an harmonic basis1 was mostly in the line of instrumental voice writing4 ,the first-named published three suites of dances for clavier2 and the second was eminently popular as a teacher4 ,franois ,couperin4--,franois ,couperin1 8le ,grand10 deserves special attention1 and has been called the first great composer distinctively for the clavier4 ,he was a pupil of the organist ,thomelin1 and rose quickly to so commanding a position as player of the organ and clavier that1 in #agja1 he was appointed court clavier player and organist at the ,royal ,chapel4 ,he was very accurate as a composer2 and in the four books of clavier pieces which he published successively1 he gave minute directions for interpreting the wealth of ornamentation with which his melodies are surrounded4 ,most of these pieces are written in two voices1 with the upper melody most prominent2 and they reflect the artificial show and glitter of the ,french court in their endless turns and embellishments4 ,yet for this very reason they have amplified the resources of clavier compositions1 preparing the way for composers like ,scarlatti1 ,bach and ,handel4 ,many of them show the ,french taste toward attaching definite meaning to music1 by their fanciful titles1 like 8,la tendre ,nanette10 8,la ,flatteuse0--a custom followed by others of this school4 ,couperin wrote also a treatise on clavier touch1 and was one of the first to make use of the thumb in playing4 ,louis ,marchand 7#affi-agcb7 was a brilliant though dissipated figure in clavier playing4 ,becoming organist at the court of ,versailles1 he lost the post through his reckless habits1 and1 going to ,dresden1 he was somewhat subdued in his conceit by the evident superiority of ,bach4 ,on his return to ,paris1 he became exceedingly popular as a teacher1 although his extravagant style of living brought him finally to poverty4 ,his pupil1 ,louis ,claude ,daquin 7#afid-aggb71 received through him an appointment as organist at the church of ,st4 ,paul1 in preference to ,rameau1 of whose superiority ,marchand became jealous4 ,daquin published a number of rather superficial clavier pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,jean-,,phillippe ,,rameau4 ,jean-,phillippe ,rameau1 the last and greatest light of this school1 has even greater fame as an opera composer4 ,he was born at ,dijon in #afhc1 and displayed so great musical talent when a mere child that1 although his parents had intended him for another profession1 he was finally sent to ,italy to study music4 ,after spending some time there1 he joined the orchestra of an opera troupe1 traveling about ,france and gaining an insight into dramatic composition4 ,upon going to ,paris he studied with ,marchand1 who recognized and feared his talent1 and who finally was the means of his leaving ,paris4 ,later1 however1 he obtained an organ position outside of ,paris1 and soon attracted attention not only by his playing1 but also by the publication1 in #agbf1 of a treatise on ,harmony4 ,in this he reduced the study of chords to a scientific foundation1 and won his title of the name of creator of the modern science of ,harmony4 ,returning to ,paris1 he now secured an organ position there1 and set to work upon the series of dramatic productions which made him the foremost opera composer of his day1 superior even to the popular ,lully4 ,in #agcg1 he published another theoretical work1 in which the principles of ,equal ,temperament1 which ,j4 ,s4 ,bach had adopted fifteen years before1 were so clearly stated as to make their establishment permanent for future composers4 ,rameau's theories were the subject of much controversy in his day2 but many distinguished contemporaries1 like ,rousseau and ,voltaire1 were his warm partisans4 ,he died in #agfd4 ,rameau's ,clavier ,works4--,his numerous clavier compositions show great advance in freedom of expression1 and are written mostly in three parts1 with an occasional succession of full chords4 ,many of these have descriptive titles1 such as 8,la ,poule10 in which the cackling of a hen is cleverly imitated4 ,others are in the form of dance suites4 ,the order of ,prelude1 ,allemande1 ,courante1 ,sarabande1 ,gigue was made the basis of these suites as well as those of ,couperin1 although this order admitted of considerable variation2 and no other principle of ,unity appears in them1 with the exception of a common key4 ,end of the ,early ,french ,school4--,the growing importance of the ,german school now came to be felt in ,france so strongly that the ,french school came to lose its individuality4 ,we therefore turn our attention to the important developments in instrumental music which were effected in ,germany4 ,,references4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,rimbault4--,the ,pianoforte4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,henderson4--,preludes and ,studies4 ,naylor4--,an ,elizabethan ,virginal ,book4 ,,musical ,,illustrations4 ,weitzmann's ,history1 pages #cad-cbi4 ,rimbault4--8,the ,pianoforte10 pages #bcg1 #bdj1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bec1 #bfb-bhc1 #caf4 ,litolff ,ed41 ,no4 #cig1 #bnd vol4 of 8,music by ,old ,masters40 ,augener ,ed41 ,nos4 #hcjj1 #hbii4 ,breitkopf ,ed41 as for ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,tell about early ,english instrumental music4 ,tell about music in ,queen ,elizabeth's time4 ,describe the ,variation form used by ,byrd4 ,what was the ,virginal ,book8 ,what was the style of the ,elizabethan composers8 ,what was the 8,parthenia08 ,give an account of ,purcell and his work4 ,who was the founder of the ,french school8 ,what family figures prominently in the ,french school8 ,who was the greatest member of this family8 ,tell about his work4 ,tell about ,marchand and ,daquin4 ,what great theorist is prominent in ,french clavier music8 ,tell about his work4 ,note that the ,english school was at its height in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,purcell1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 being the greatest light of the school4 ,the strength of the ,french school was during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,german ,,polyphonic ,,clavier ,,school4 ,german ,mastery of ,polyphonic ,music4--,the ,italians1 with their quick perception of structural beauty1 have been the pioneers in the invention and use of most art forms4 ,so it happened1 in the history of instrumental music1 that they were the ones to invent and give to other nations the vehicle of expression1 while it remained for their pupils1 notably1 in this case1 the composers of ,germany1 to fill these forms out with the expression of real and deep feeling4 ,the ,german tendency toward serious and philosophical thought found the intricacies of polyphonic music1 or the simultaneous flow of independent melodies1 admirably adapted to their need of expression2 and when this style of voice writing was applied to instrumental compositions1 ,german musicians found a branch of art in which they were admirably qualified to excel4 ,so1 from being mere pupils of the ,italians1 they advanced to the production of works of much more distinguished character and deeper1 richer content than was possible to mere beauty of form and melody4 ,hasler4--,in the second half of the #afth century1 the clavier was popular in ,germany1 disputing the place of the lute as a social instrument1 although organ and clavier compositions were identical1 as in ,italy4 ,there is a record of the publication of two books of pieces for organ and 8instrument0--by which is meant the clavier--in #aege-gg1 in which there were dance tunes with accompanying chords4 ,hans ,leo ,hasler 7#aefd-afab71 a pupil of ,a4 ,gabrieli1 and fellow-student with ,g4 ,gabrieli1 was especially prominent as organ and clavier player and composer during this epoch1 publishing a number of such dances written for the organ or the clavier4 ,froberger4--,the devastating ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afah-dh7 put an end to artistic ambition during its progress4 ,however1 art quickly recovered at its close1 and a number of worthy musicians appeared4 ,an interesting figure among them1 and a man who has been called the first ,german clavier virtuoso1 was ,johann ,jacob ,froberger 7#afje-affg74 ,showing great promise as a boy1 he was brought to the notice of the ,austrian ,kaiser1 ,ferdinand ,,iii1 who sent him to ,rome1 where he studied with ,frescobaldi for three years4 ,after this we hear of him as a successful performer at ,paris1 and1 on his return to ,vienna1 as court organist1 in which position he won widespread fame4 ,a remarkable story is told of a perilous journey to ,england1 where he arrived penniless1 and of his subsequent recognition and his cordial reception by ,charles ,,ii1 who was delighted with his improvisation upon the harpsichord4 ,afterwards returning to ,vienna1 he resigned his post there1 through some disagreement1 and lived afterwards in retirement4 ,in a number of ,caprices1 ,toccatas and the like1 written in the contrapuntal style1 he definitely adopted the five-lined staff1 and introduced many embellishments1 after the ,french fashion4 ,he possessed much charming melodic invention1 and1 in his ,toccatas employed a treatment of his subject in definite sections1 which afterwards appeared in the fugue form4 ,froberger anticipates the program style of music1 as he is said to have improvised descriptions of events1 like that of the ,count von ,thurn's crossing of the ,rhine1 which he depicted in twenty-six pieces4 ,johann ,kaspar ,kerl 7#afbe-ij71 also sent by ,ferdinand ,,iii to ,rome1 studied there with ,carissimi1 the oratorio writer1 becoming accomplished as an extemporizer4 ,he occupied a number of organ positions in ,vienna and ,munich1 also teaching the clavier1 and wrote compositions which show a tendency toward the modern scale systems4 ,johann ,pachelbel 7#afec-agjf71 celebrated as organ and clavier player1 wrote pleasing works for the clavier1 in which he tried to follow out the characteristics of the instrument4 ,many of these were in the form of variations4 ,georg ,muffat 7d4 #agjd7 showed in his compositions a tendency toward ,french ornamentation1 and his son ,gottlieb 7#afhc-aggj71 a pupil of the contrapuntist ,j4 ,j4 ,fux1 was organist to the ,kaiser ,charles ,,vi1 in ,vienna1 and clavier teacher to the ,imperial family4 ,his clavier compositions were in the form of ,versettes and ,toccatas4 ,eighteenth ,century ,clavier ,composers4--,the ,thirty ,years' ,war exercised a demoralizing influence upon music trades1 and many excellent musicians were unable to have their compositions published in consequence4 ,the result is1 that comparatively few specimens of the works of the composers mentioned have come down to us in available form4 ,approaching the #ahth century1 we now come to a group of composers who represent the most brilliant epoch of early clavier work4 ,their productions1 while retaining the dignity and complexity of the contrapuntal school1 yet use its material with a freedom of modulation and of dissonant chords sufficient to express genuine emotional ideas through their medium4 ,reinken and ,buxtehude4--,the ,hamburg organist ,johann ,adam ,reinken 7#afbc-agbb71 a native of ,holland1 wrote a number of clavier compositions1 publishing in #agjd1 pieces for two violins and harpsichord4 ,dietrich ,buxtehude 7#afcg-agjg71 organist at ,st4 ,mary's ,church1 ,lbeck1 from #affh1 excelled in free style of writing for clavier4 ,the latter gave a series of ,sunday evening concerts at his church which gained renown through all the surrounding country2 and ,j4 ,s4 ,bach himself is said to have walked to these concerts1 a distance of fifty miles4 ,instrumental ,polyphonic ,forms4--,these men have been mentioned largely because their work made possible the results which ,bach afterwards attained from an elaboration of what they had already accomplished4 ,it was among such eminent ,german organists that the instrumental ,fugue1 the highest instrumental type of polyphonic music1 took definite shape1 consisting of an ,exposition1 in which the ,subject1 ,answer and ,countersubject were announced by the various voices2 and a subsequent ,development1 in which1 according to certain laws more or less strict1 the material presented was carried through a variety of phases and brought finally to a triumphant close4 ,of other forms1 like the ,toccata and ,canzona1 the tendency came to be toward more freedom of treatment on the one hand1 and an increasing definiteness and consistency on the other4 ,handel's ,early ,life4--,a composer must now be mentioned whose work lay chiefly in other fields than the clavier1 but who nevertheless drew much of his inspiration from the strings of the harpsichord4 ,this was ,george ,frederick ,handel 7#afhe-agei71 who was born at ,halle1 and whose musical genius asserted itself so strenuously that1 although his father was strongly opposed1 he learned the harpsichord as a mere child1 and became so proficient a performer that the reigning ,duke of ,saxe-,weissenfels1 hearing him play1 insisted on his receiving a thorough musical education4 ,so he was placed under ,zachau1 a competent organist and musician1 at his native place1 with whom he studied diligently4 ,after his father's death he went to ,hamburg1 entering the orchestra of the ,opera house and rising to the post of harpsichordist4 ,launching out as an opera composer1 he began to acquire a reputation1 and in #agjf went to ,italy1 meeting many distinguished musicians there1 among them ,domenico ,scarlatti1 with whom he had a contest as to ability as clavichordist and organist1 and winning fresh laurels4 ,handel in ,england4--,in #agjg1 he became music director to the ,elector of ,hanover1 but quickly left the post for ,england1 where1 with the exception of short intervals1 he passed the remainder of his life1 becoming a naturalized ,english subject4 ,it was no wonder that he was so warmly attached to his adopted country1 since he became the popular idol1 even winning over the king1 ,george ,i1 formerly ,elector of ,hanover1 who1 on his accession to the throne1 was at first angry with ,handel for his desertion of the post in his service at ,hanover4 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,friedrich ,,handel4 ,handel's ,operas and ,oratorios4--,handel was of an irascible disposition1 and1 living in the artificial atmosphere of ,london1 among wits and satirists like ,dr4 ,johnson1 ,addison and ,pope1 he was constantly embroiled with the cabals of his rivals1 and the fickleness of the public4 ,he produced a great number of operas1 most of them successful2 but as theatrical manager he met with severe losses1 and finally gave up opera writing in despair1 and turned to the composition of oratorios4 ,the result was that in this form he has left his most enduring and elevated compositions2 for while his operas were sometimes written down to the popular taste for empty ,italian melody1 the lofty themes of his oratorios inspired him to his grandest and most sincere style1 which1 moreover1 was rendered the more dramatic and intelligible by his knowledge of the requirements of his audiences4 ,handel's ,clavier ,works4--,handel was an expert performer on the harpsichord1 for which he wrote two sets of ,suites1 besides a number of single pieces4 ,the ,suites1 of which the first set is by far the better1 are written mostly in the dance forms1 but with the interpolation of more serious forms1 such as ,airs1 ,variations and ,fugues4 ,the contrapuntal style is here most prominent1 although with harmonic basis1 and with a laxity in the strictness of the voice writing1 caused by the occasional use of extra notes to complete chords4 ,some of the variations are worked up to effective climaxes1 and have running passages and broken chords1 in which the resources of the clavier are cleverly drawn upon4 ,handel's ,last ,years4--,handel became blind in #ageb1 but continued to take part in the performances of his works till the year of his death4 ,choleric as was his temperament1 the known generosity of his nature and his devotion to the ideals of his art made him the idol of the ,english people4 ,he was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,mattheson4--,a close associate of ,handel1 when he was in the ,hamburg orchestra1 was ,johann ,mattheson 7#afha-agfd71 famed for his literary writings on musical subjects no less than for his musical ability4 ,he wrote suites1 a sonata and fugues in two parts1 for clavier1 which were of excellent workmanship4 ,bach's ,early ,life4--,but all other names in the domain of polyphonic instrumental music pale before that of ,johann ,sebastian ,bach1 the culmination of the school of voice writing1 and the musician who put the stamp of greatness on all former styles1 while at the same time acting as guide to future fields of composition4 ,born at ,eisenach in #afhe1 as a scion of a family the members of which had been musical leaders for generations1 he seems to have embodied in himself the sum of the genius of his forefathers4 ,the story of his life is a prosaic one1 as he filled it with unflagging industry1 carrying out his unswerving ideals of his art1 caring little for mere popularity1 and rearing a large family of sons and daughters1 some of whom proved worthy to continue his work4 ,as a boy1 he lost both parents at the age of ten1 and was taught clavier playing by his elder brother1 ,johann ,christian1 who took him in charge4 ,he seized with avidity every opportunity to study his beloved music1 copying hundreds of pages of manuscript1 listening to every musical performance possible1 drinking in and assimilating the ideas thus gained1 to reproduce them later on1 stamped with his genius4 ,later ,life4--,at his brother's death he went to ,lneburg as choir boy1 where he became acquainted with ,reinken's work4 ,at eighteen he was violinist in the court band at ,weimar1 shortly afterward becoming organist at a church at ,arnstadt4 ,his next position was as court organist at ,weimar1 in #agjh1 where many of his most important organ compositions were written4 ,this post he left in #agag for that of court chapel-master at ,anhalt-,kthen1 where he remained six years1 after which he went to ,leipzig1 as ,cantor of the ,thomasschule1 staying there till his death1 in #agej4 ,incidents of ,bach's ,career4--,bach's life was not altogether a happy one1 as he was much annoyed at the persecutions of his rivals2 and1 like ,handel1 he was afflicted with blindness in his last years4 ,never considering the element of mere popularity in his work1 his greatness was little appreciated in his lifetime2 and it was fifty years after his death before it began to receive recognition4 ,a pleasant incident of his declining years was his cordial reception by ,frederick the ,great at his court1 in #agdg1 where ,bach's son was in favor as harpsichord player1 and where ,bach was shown a number of excellent new ,silbermann pianofortes4 ,it is a curious circumstance that he and ,handel1 although born in the same year1 were destined never to meet4 ,the ,well-,tempered ,clavichord4--,it has been stated that ,bach adopted the principle of ,equal ,temperament for clavier tuning4 ,in support of this he wrote twenty-four preludes and fugues1 one in each major and minor key1 requiring1 therefore1 equal temperament for their performance2 and later added a second similar volume4 ,the whole forty-eight make up the monumental work called the 8,well-,tempered ,clavichord02 and this work1 written originally for the clavichord1 has remained the bulwark of piano playing to the present day4 ,its fugues1 written with consummate mastery of the technic of instrumental polyphony1 are not only models of skill in voice writing1 but also are made the vehicles of genuine moods and emotions2 while each preceding prelude gives the keynote of expression to its following fugue1 although written in a much freer style1 frequently closely allied with the works of the purely harmonic school4 ,illustration3 ,,johann ,,sebastian ,,bach4 ,bach's ,other ,clavier ,works4--,bach wrote also sonatas and concertos1 the latter for one1 two or three claviers1 sometimes with string accompaniment4 ,these works1 although comprising several movements1 do not otherwise coincide with the harmonic sonata form1 since their style is more polyphonic1 and since they are occupied mainly with the development of a single subject4 ,his suites1 of which he wrote two sets1 called respectively ,english and ,french1 are no less important1 since in them the dance forms are invested with a seriousness and an artistic finish hitherto unattained4 ,of other clavier works1 his famous 8,chromatic ,fantasie0 has a wealth of harmonic combinations1 fiery runs and arpeggios1 and dramatic recitative which give it a worthy place in the ,romantic school developed much later1 and of whose style it was the forerunner4 ,his 8,inventions10 studies written originally for his children1 in two or three parts1 are an excellent introduction to the study of his larger works4 ,reforms in ,fingering4--,another gift of ,bach's to coming generations was his thorough revision of clavier playing4 ,raising the hand above the keys from its former flat position1 he brought the thumb into use1 and by inventing the scale fingering1 afterwards universally adopted1 he opened the way to the style of brilliant and smoothly running passages which was afterwards so highly developed4 ,thus ,bach1 while putting the final touch to the old forms1 gave an impetus to the harmonic style1 which was then in its infancy1 and of which we shall now trace the course4 ,,references4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,bach and ,handel4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,henderson4--,preludes and ,studies4 ,spitta4--,life of ,bach4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,williams4--,bach 7,master ,musicians ,series74 ,,musical ,,illustrations4 ,weitzmann's ,history1 pages #ccj1 #ccf4 ,rimbault4--,the ,pianoforte1 pages #bii1 #ccb1 #cdj4 ,litolff ed41 ,no4 #cif1 #ast volume of ,music by ,old ,masters4 ,augener ed41 ,no4 #hbig4 ,breitkopf ,ed41 as before4 ,works of ,handel and ,bach1 published in all the cheap editions4 ,,questions4 ,compare the ,italian and the ,german tendencies4 ,give an account of ,hasler4 ,tell about ,froberger4 ,in what styles did he write8 ,tell about ,kerl1 ,pachelbel and the ,muffats4 ,what advances do we find in the works of the composers of the early part of the #ahth century8 ,what forms now begin to take definite shape8 ,give a sketch of ,handel's early life4 ,give a sketch of ,handel's work in ,england4 ,state the characteristics of ,handel's clavier works4 ,what affliction befell him during the last years of his life8 ,what associate of ,handel's was famous as writer and composer8 ,tell about ,bach's early life4 ,tell about ,bach's later life4 ,what great king invited ,bach to visit his court8 ,describe the 8,well-,tempered ,clavichord40 ,mention other clavier works by ,bach4 ,what improvements in technic did ,bach introduce8 ,,lesson ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,german ,,sonata ,,composers1 ,,to ,,haydn4 ,formation of ,harmonic ,design4--,side by side with the ultimate development of polyphonic music in its perfected instrumental form1 the forms of the new harmonic style were being worked out1 by long processes of development4 ,finally1 just as the ,fugue came to be adopted as the highest form of the old school1 so the ,sonata was chosen as the most dignified exponent of the new art4 ,but1 while the old school arrived at a high state of perfection at the hands of ,handel and ,bach1 the necessity for inventing and experimenting with the possibilities of the new forms made the first attempts in this direction seem childish and crude beside ,bach's work2 so that it was several generations after him before the harmonic style was brought to the stage at which it could be made to express ideas of equal magnitude1 and do it successfully4 ,development of the ,sonata4--,the original plan associated with the ,sonata was that of combining several movements in such a way as to appeal1 in the completed product1 to all kinds of emotion1 intellectual1 spiritual and physical4 ,in the hands of its founders1 the ,italian violinists1 the exposition of this thought had been mainly contrapuntal4 ,we have seen how ,domenico ,scarlatti arrived at a style in which a single part1 supported by an accompaniment1 was applied to the clavier1 in a manner which brought out its striking characteristics2 and we have now to trace the progress of this style in ,germany1 up to the point where the various contributions of different composers could be united into a systematic and fixed form1 sufficient for the free expression of the highest musical inspiration1 and adapted to all the varied demands of instrumental music4 ,essential ,elements of a ,sonata4--,certain points seem to have been generally agreed upon as necessary components of the ,sonata4 ,the first was its union of several movements1 from two up to five1 or occasionally even more4 ,the second was that the first movement should display the most ingenuity and elaboration4 ,this movement thus came to receive the most attention1 and showed a process of evolution from the simple dance form consisting of a modulation from a principal key to a contrasting key and back again1 to a highly organised and conventional art-form--a form1 moreover1 of such a capacity that it could be used as the mould for the principal movement of a wide range of compositions1 from a short pianoforte sonata to a grand symphony4 ,changes in the ,old ,dance ,form4--,in this evolution1 the first half of the dance form was made to consist of a ,subject1 either thematic or melodic1 clearly defining the key1 and then a modulating passage1 generally freer in its runs and arpeggios1 leading up to the point of contrast2 and the first section was then repeated4 ,the greatest changes took place in the second half4 ,at first1 this consisted in the repeat of the ,principal ,theme in the contrasting key1 and a return to the first key through modulations similar to those in the first section2 later1 however1 since this design gave little opportunity for a display of the composer's originality1 the enunciation of the ,subject in the contrasting key was followed by a free passage1 which gave ample scope to the composer's fancy2 after which the subject again appeared in the principal key1 with a concluding passage in the same key4 ,establishment of the ,cyclic ,form4--,the form as a whole was now practically divided into three sections1 and a better balance was given to this division by the omission of the second appearance of the ,subject in the contrasting key1 and the substitution of other material1 either relevant or contrasting4 ,the movement now assumed a cyclic form--a statement1 leading to a point of contrast1 a free fantasia1 and finally the statement1 leading to a close4 ,this was practically the course of development of what has been named the ,sonata ,form1 up to the time of ,haydn4 ,we are now prepared to consider the especial contributions of composers to this form4 ,first ,printed ,clavier ,sonata4--,the first printed clavier sonata seems to have been published by ,johann ,kuhnau 7#affj8-agbb74 ,this was in the key of ,b-flat1 and was the last of several pieces in the same volume4 ,in the preface1 the author gives a semi-apology for its introduction1 saying that he sees no reason why sonatas should not be written for the clavier as well as for any other instrument4 ,this sonata begins with an ,allegro1 followed by a fugal movement2 and in the following ,adagio movement1 the tendency to put the slow movement into a contrasting key is illustrated1 as this is in ,d-flat major4 ,after another ,allegro1 there is a ,da ,capo to the first part4 ,other ,sonatas by ,kuhnau4--,it was difficult for the early sonata writers to break away entirely from the old polyphonic style2 and when a part appeared in the nature of a ,free ,fantasia1 they generally had recourse to fugal work1 having no precedent in harmonic music to fall back upon4 ,thus1 in his seven sonatas published in #afif1 entitled 8,fresh ,fruits for the ,clavier10 which show more individuality in melodic invention1 ,kuhnau uses the fugal style whenever the harmonic forms fail him4 ,these sonatas show a prevalence of ornaments1 which1 he says1 are 8sugar to sweeten the fruits40 ,a remarkable collection of clavier pieces are his six ,bible sonatas1 in which the form is entirely outside of the development traced above1 since the various movements of each sonata simply follow the lines of a ,bible story1 like that of the 8,combat between ,david and ,goliath10 which they illustrate4 ,as samples of program music1 they proceed in the steps of ,pachelbel1 and others on record4 ,kuhnau studied law1 and was from #afhb organist at ,st4 ,thomas' ,church1 at ,leipzig1 where he preceded ,j4 ,s4 ,bach4 ,frederick the ,great's ,influence4--,a great impetus was given to ,german clavier music by the interest with which1 like all other forms of instrumental music1 it was viewed by ,frederick the ,great of ,prussia 7r4 #agdj-hf74 ,this warlike but thoroughly ,teutonic monarch gathered at his court a brilliant coterie of instrumentalists1 delighting to perform with them on his favorite instrument1 the flute4 ,although this musical inspiration was disturbed by the wars in which he engaged1 and especially by the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-fc71 the growth of clavier music was nevertheless steady4 ,musical ,journals4--,a number of musical journals which appeared from #agfj on1 contributed also to this enthusiasm1 in giving clavier composers a medium for bringing their works before the public1 and also in giving them the chance to profit by one another's experiments4 ,many writers thus came to the fore1 who aided materially in the elaboration of harmonic music material4 ,other ,early ,composers4--,of these1 ,gottfried ,heinrich ,stoelzel 7#afij-agdi71 chapel-master at ,saxe-,gotha1 wrote an 8enharmonic0 clavier sonata in three parts1 a ,largo in ,c minor1 in #d_/d time2 a short fugue2 and a #c_/h movement1 in harmonic form1 in which experiments in modulation were tried4 ,his successor at ,saxe-,gotha was ,georg ,benda 7#agba-ie71 who published a number of clavier pieces and sonatas1 besides two concertos for clavier and string quartet1 all of which show a desire for genuine expression in the harmonic form4 ,the first four-hand sonatas seem to have been published by ,charles ,heinrich ,mller1 of ,halberstadt1 in #aghc1 and another appeared in #aghd1 by ,ernst ,wilhelm ,wolf 7#agce-ib71 court chapel-master in ,saxe-,weimar1 the writer of numerous other clavier sonatas and concertos showing great purity and originality of style4 ,at the court of ,frederick the ,great1 at ,berlin1 ,christoph ,nichelmann 7#agag-fb71 a pupil of ,bach1 and ,carl ,fasch 7#agcf-ahjj7 were successively second harpsichordists4 ,both wrote sonatas1 those of the former in two movements1 while those of the latter had generally three1 of a brilliant and attractive style4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,marpurg 7#agah-ie71 the distinguished ,berlin theoretician1 was more successful in contrapuntal work than in his sonatas1 written in freer style4 ,georg ,christoph ,wagenseil 7#agae-gg71 pupil of ,j4 ,j4 ,fux1 court music teacher and celebrated clavier virtuoso1 wrote sonatas for clavier and violin and a number for clavier alone4 ,wilhelm ,friedemann ,bach4--,perhaps the most striking developments1 however1 were at the hands of the sons of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach1 who were all1 having come under his direct instruction1 of refined musical judgment1 while some of them possessed marks of his genius4 ,of these1 ,wilhelm ,friedemann ,bach 7#agaj-hd71 the eldest1 called the ,bach of ,halle1 from his long residence there1 studied at the ,university of ,leipzig1 distinguishing himself in mathematics2 was organist at ,dresden and ,halle successively1 and finally came to ,frederick the ,great's court1 at ,berlin1 through the influence of his brother ,carl4 ,although he possessed great gifts as a player and composer1 his dissipated habits brought him to disgrace1 and he died in poverty4 ,he wrote many clavier compositions1 showing a bold use of harmonies1 and including sonatas which have decidedly instrumental themes and development4 ,a large number of his father's manuscripts known to have been in his possession have been irretrievably lost4 ,johann ,christian ,bach1 the ,london ,bach1 youngest of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach's sons1 was born at ,leipzig in #agce1 and died at ,london in #aghb4 ,he studied with his brother1 ,carl1 after his father's death1 and1 afterwards going to ,italy1 became organist at the ,milan ,cathedral4 ,gaining great favor in this capacity1 he was appointed concert-director at ,london in #agei1 and there he became a popular favorite1 producing several operas and receiving the appointment of music master to the royal family4 ,his ,italian experiences influenced his sonata writing1 as his subjects are in the style of the popular1 though somewhat trivial ,italian melody4 ,yet he introduced some striking improvements1 notably that of employing a second contrasting subject1 instead of a mere modulating or closing passage1 at the end of the first and third sections of the sonata form4 ,his graceful and melodious works were fashionable in ,london society4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,,bach4 ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach4--,the third and greatest of ,bach's sons was ,carl ,philip ,emanuel ,bach1 the ,berlin ,bach4 ,inheriting his father's love of genuine and forceful expression1 he had no less lofty ideals of his art1 though recognizing his inferiority in talent4 ,also1 perceiving that the harmonic school was in the line of progression1 he devoted himself to it1 thus producing purely harmonic works1 which were only limited by the lack of resources thus far discovered4 ,he was born at ,weimar1 in #agad1 and1 though a student of law and philosophy at ,leipzig1 he finally decided to give rein to his natural bent toward the musical profession4 ,conducting and composing for a musical society at ,frankfort1 he was appointed first clavier player at the court of ,frederick the ,great1 at ,berlin1 where he stayed from #agdj to #agfg1 in high favor on account of his sterling musicianship1 and enjoying the society of many distinguished musicians of the day4 ,in #agfg1 he became musical director of the principal church in ,hamburg1 where he remained till his death1 in #aghh4 ,a vigorous worker throughout his life1 he left a large number of compositions1 including two hundred and ten clavier pieces and fifty-two concertos for clavier and orchestra1 besides much chamber music1 eighteen symphonies1 oratorios and cantatas4 ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach's ,sonatas4--,his most enduring and important work was in connection with the pianoforte sonata1 since under his hands it began to assume definite shape4 ,in the six sets of sonatas published1 the number of movements is generally fixed at three1 of which the third is frequently in the harmonic form of the ,rondo1 which consists in the recurrence of a principal theme1 with modulatory episodes between its appearances4 ,hence the order of movements1 which1 in the earlier writers1 took all sorts of forms from fugue to dance form1 becomes ,allegro1 ,adagio1 ,rondo4 ,bach's themes are also made very characteristic1 founded upon some easily-recognized instrumental figure4 ,in the development portion of the sonata form he does not resort to the polyphonic style1 but uses phrases or sections from the first part in new combinations and keys4 ,sometimes1 also1 the direction is given in the repeat of the first section1 to introduce variations of the text at will4 ,his ,theoretical ,works4--,bach published at ,berlin1 in #agec1 an essay on 8,the ,true ,method of ,playing the ,clavier10 in which he gives a definite exposition of his father's reforms in playing1 treating the position of the hand1 embellishments and artistic rendering1 which he says should touch the hearts of the hearers4 ,a second part1 published in #agfb1 discusses the science of accompaniment and improvisation4 ,adoption of the ,piano4--,the clavichord1 notwithstanding its feeble tone1 remained his favorite instrument on account of its powers of expression1 in which he delighted4 ,his brother1 ,johann ,christian1 was one of the first definitely to adopt the new pianoforte4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mthel published in #agga what were probably the first compositions mentioning the pianoforte for their performance1 a duet for two pianofortes or harpsichords2 after the time of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach1 clavier compositions were written in general distinctively for the pianoforte and not for the clavier4 ,,references4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,shedlock4--,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article 8,sonata40 ,parry's 8,evolution of the ,art of ,music10 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,henderson4--,how ,music ,developed1 ,chapter ,x4 ,,musical ,,illustrations4 ,weitzmann1 pages #cch1 #cdj1 #cdb-cee4 ,rimbault4--8,the ,pianoforte10 pages #ceg-cfh4 ,edition ,litollf1 ,augener1 ,breitkopf1 as for ,chapter ,,iv4 ,works of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach1 in ,peters' edition4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what forms of composition were being worked out while the polyphonic style was reaching a culmination8 ,what style had been most prominent in the early sonata8 ,what points had been agreed upon as necessary in the construction of the sonata8 ,what changes were made from the simple dance form8 ,in what part of the sonata did the greatest change occur8 ,what was the course of development in sonata form up to ,haydn8 ,tell about ,kuhnau and his work4 ,tell about other early composers4 ,tell about ,wilhelm ,friedemann ,bach4 ,tell about ,johann ,christoph ,bach4 ,tell about ,carl ,philip ,emanuel ,bach4 ,tell about ,carl ,philip ,emanuel ,bach's contribution to the development of the sonata4 ,what other works did ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach write8 ,a comparison of the dates from ,kuhnau's published work in ,sonatas to that of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach1 the immediate predecessor and model for ,haydn1 shows that the form took definite shape in the course of about fifty years4 ,illustration3 ,,franz ,,joseph ,,haydn4 ,,lesson ,,xxx4 ,,franz ,,joseph ,,haydn4 ,the ,three ,great ,sonata ,writers4--,in the year of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach's death1 #aghh1 three men had already entered the arena as champions of that ,sonata ,form to which he contributed so much4 ,haydn was then fifty-six1 ,mozart thirty-two and ,beethoven eighteen years of age4 ,all three added to the glory of ,vienna by making it their dwelling-place in their later years2 and the three formed a triumvirate which not only gave to the ,sonata a permanent and complete form1 but also brought this form into absolute subservience to the expression of every variety of emotional thought4 ,haydn's ,childhood4--,franz ,joseph ,haydn1 a native of ,rohrau1 in lower ,austria1 was born on ,march #ca1 #agcb1 the second of a family of twelve children4 ,his father1 an humble wheelwright1 was accustomed to bring his family together in the evenings and holidays1 as was the ,german custom1 to unite in song2 and the true ear and feeling for rhythm of little 8,sepperl10 as ,joseph was called1 was quickly noticeable4 ,so a cousin of his father1 who was a schoolmaster at ,hainburg1 was allowed to take the boy home with him1 placing him in the school choir1 and directing his studies1 which included singing1 and the playing of the violin and other instruments4 ,st4 ,stephen's ,choir1 ,vienna4--,george ,reutter1 precentor of ,st4 ,stephen's ,cathedral1 at ,vienna1 paid a visit to the school and was attracted by the child's 8sweet1 weak voice10 as he expressed it1 and offered him a position in his choir4 ,as this was considered a rare opportunity1 he was allowed to go1 and at the age of eight we find him installed in the choir school at ,vienna1 attending the daily service and choir practice1 besides the regular school studies4 ,but ,reutter seems to have lost his personal interest in the lad1 neglecting him in various ways1 doing nothing with his work in musical theory1 and finally dropping all his tuition4 ,haydn was fond of mischief2 and when his voice began to break and his brother ,michael became soloist in his place1 his cruel master took the pretext of some trifling prank to turn him adrift1 penniless1 into the street4 ,hardships in ,vienna4--,at the age of seventeen1 therefore1 he wandered the streets all of one rainy ,november night1 with no friend to whom to turn4 ,finally1 in the morning1 he met an acquaintance formerly at the school1 ,spangler1 a tenor singer1 himself nearly as poor as ,haydn4 ,nevertheless1 he took the outcast home to his garret1 where he was eking out an existence with his family2 and thus temporarily provided for1 ,haydn set about finding work to do4 ,small jobs1 like playing in bands1 or at weddings and baptisms1 and singing in choirs1 he eagerly sought2 his spare moments he occupied in writing music for serenades or garden-parties4 ,while undergoing these hardships1 however1 he was becoming familiar with the music dear to the people's heart1 and also with the varied effects of instrumental combinations4 ,studies and ,new ,friends4--,in #agej1 he rented a garret in a house in ,vienna1 and1 having secured a dilapidated spinet1 set himself diligently to work to study all available musical compositions1 notably those of the new sonata order1 and especially the sonatas of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach4 ,theoretical works1 also1 like the 8,gradus ad ,parnassum0 of ,j4 ,j4 ,fux1 and ,mattheson's work on conducting1 were eagerly devoured by the youthful enthusiast4 ,by a piece of good fortune1 ,metastasio1 the popular opera librettist1 roomed in the same house1 and learning of the talent hidden away in the garret1 sought ,haydn out1 gave him ,italian lessons1 and ultimately started him on the road to success by recommending him as clavier teacher to a ,spanish lady1 to whose daughter he gave lessons4 ,connection with ,porpora4--,her singing master was the renowned opera composer1 ,porpora1 who recognized ,haydn's talent as accompanist1 and proceeded to make him useful to himself1 giving him instruction in composition in return for his services1 which were frequently of even a menial nature4 ,accompanying ,porpora on his journeys1 he met musicians like ,wagenseil and ,gluck2 and at the age of twenty had written many compositions1 including a mass in ,f1 an opera and many works of the sonata order1 founded on the style of ,c4 ,p4 ,e4 ,bach4 ,better ,times4--,better times now opened before ,haydn4 ,gaining influential friends1 he won1 through them1 the post of music director and composer to ,count ,morzin1 a position which he held only a short time1 since the ,count gave up his musical establishment soon4 ,but he was immediately engaged by the wealthy and cultivated ,prince ,paul ,esterhazy1 who had been charmed at hearing a symphony of ,haydn's1 as assistant director of music at his estate at ,eisenstadt4 ,the same year ,haydn made an unhappy marriage with the daughter of ,keller1 a wigmaker1 which he had cause to regret for the remainder of his life4 ,orchestras in ,germany4--,to understand ,haydn's work with the ,esterhazy family1 it will be necessary to review the state of music in ,germany at this time4 ,when the orchestral overtures of the ,italian operas had become used as concert pieces1 a great stimulus was given to this kind of music4 ,concertos1 string quartets1 trios1 and1 most important of all1 symphonies1 came to be written in great numbers2 and throughout ,germany a mania for orchestral music arose4 ,wealthy families vied with each other in the size and prestige of their musical establishments1 which included instrumentalists and vocalists2 and the smaller gentry even pressed their domestic servants into the service1 inducing them to study instruments1 and to perform string quartets and the like on occasions4 ,inasmuch as a great part of the music written for these was not published1 and exchange of music in manuscript between different establishments was attended with some difficulty1 it was necessary that the music director should have the ability to write his own music1 as well as to direct it4 ,haydn's ,work at ,esterhazy4--,a rare opportunity therefore opened to ,haydn1 with his exceptional gifts as a composer1 when he was placed at the head of an establishment like that of the ,esterhazys'1 which was perhaps the most brilliant and competent in ,europe4 ,he remained in active service with this family for thirty-three years1 during which ,prince ,nicolas ,esterhazy succeeded his brother ,paul1 upon the death of the latter1 in #agfb4 ,nicolas1 called the 8,great10 on account of his love of magnificence and his lavish style of living1 built a sumptuous summer palace near ,sttor1 in ,bohemia2 and here he spent most of his time1 with his troup of retainers1 entertaining royalty1 in a style comparable with that of ,versailles4 ,werner1 his head director1 who had never appreciated ,haydn's gifts on account of his old-school principles1 died in #agff1 and ,haydn1 who had made a firm friend of ,prince ,nicolas1 was given his place4 ,the orchestra and singers were now entirely under his command2 the former was increased from the original number of sixteen to thirty1 all capable performers2 so that his life was spent in a round of rehearsals1 dramatic performances and concerts for the numerous entertainments constantly in progress4 ,two well-equipped theatres1 one for operas and dramas1 and the other for marionette plays1 gave him an opportunity for adequate performances2 he thus had an exceptional chance to study the effects in his numerous quartets1 trios1 symphonies and operas1 at first hand4 ,journeys to ,vienna4--,on several occasions1 ,prince ,nicolas took his entire troupe of musicians to ,vienna1 where ,haydn conducted the performances1 meeting also the distinguished musicians of the day4 ,it was on one of these journeys1 in #aghe1 that he met ,mozart1 whose genius he was quick to appreciate1 and who1 from being his pupil1 finally gave to ,haydn the added inspiration of his own brilliant thoughts4 ,haydn's reputation had now spread abroad1 and his compositions were eagerly looked for throughout the musical world4 ,haydn in ,london4--,on ,prince ,nicolas' death1 in #agij1 ,prince ,anton1 his brother1 succeeded1 who1 however1 dismissed the orchestra1 providing for ,haydn by a liberal pension4 ,haydn's time was now his own2 and he decided to settle in ,vienna2 but an ,english impresario and publisher named ,salomon now offered him such exceptional inducements to come to ,london that he accepted the offer4 ,he was received with great honor1 being granted the degree of ,doctor of ,music from ,oxford ,university4 ,he also conducted twelve grand symphonies1 especially written for this visit1 which were1 moreover1 some of his finest productions4 ,on a second visit1 in #agid-e1 he excited even greater enthusiasm2 and he returned to ,vienna supplied with money sufficient to insure an old age free from pecuniary want4 ,some of his latest works were the ,austrian ,national ,hymn1 and his oratorios of 8,the ,creation0 and 8,the ,seasons10 which immediately attained a popularity that has even yet hardly diminished4 ,honors4--,haydn1 in his old age1 was showered with honors both at home and abroad2 a culminating point was reached when1 on his seventy-sixth birthday1 at a performance of 8,the ,creation10 his friends1 including many representatives of royalty1 united to do him honor4 ,his genial1 child-like disposition won him the sobriquet of 8,papa ,haydn02 and this brightness and simplicity of thought he so transmitted to his compositions that they carry his atmosphere of sunshine wherever they are performed4 ,he died in ,vienna1 soon after its capture by the ,french1 in the ,napoleonic wars1 ,may #ca1 #ahji4 ,importance of ,his ,work4--,haydn has been called the father of the ,symphony and the ,string ,quartet4 ,in neither case is this strictly true1 since he had predecessors in both fields2 but his work was none the less important1 since he collected the scattered threads of their attempts1 and wound them into a concise and definite art form1 stamped with the hallmarks of his own genius4 ,the seal of artistic completeness which he placed on the form of the ,sonata was his greatest achievement2 and1 written in this form1 his symphonies and quartets were simply an enlargement of his clavier works1 the symphonies having an added ,minuet movement between the second and last movements of the clavier form of sonata1 thus extending the piece to larger proportions4 ,sonata-,form as ,fixed by ,haydn4--,in these clavier sonatas1 ,haydn fixed the form which had been the subject of so many experiments1 once and for all4 ,the number of movements with him is almost invariably three1 of which the first1 at least1 is in the sonata-form4 ,this consists of a first section1 the ,exposition1 in which the first subject1 a distinct melody having the ,teutonic individuality1 is stated1 defining the principal key2 and a second subject1 more lengthy and diverse in character1 brings on a close in the contrasting key4 ,in the second section1 or ,development1 phrases or motives from the first section are cleverly intertwined in modulating keys1 with running scales or arpeggios as connecting links4 ,these1 however1 lead naturally into the first subject1 in its original key1 which opens the third section1 or ,reprise4 ,this section is practically like the first1 save that the second subject and the close are transferred into the principal key1 in which the movement ends4 ,the ,second ,movement4--,the second1 or slow movement1 is cast sometimes in the same form1 abbreviated1 and sometimes in a simpler form4 ,the lack of sustaining power in ,haydn's pianoforte1 and his attempt to atone for this by trills and ornaments1 make this less successful than the other movements2 a result which is also caused by the fact that intensity and depth of emotion had not yet been developed in the harmonic school of music4 ,in key1 this movement was contrasted with the first1 sometimes quite sharply1 as in one of the sonatas in ,e-flat1 in which the slow movement is in ,e major4 ,third ,movement4--,the lively third movement is frequently in the lighter form of the ,rondo1 or it may be a set of ,variations1 or a ,minuet4 ,this movement1 though sprightly1 is apt to be somewhat thin in its harmonies1 and trivial in development4 ,nevertheless1 these last two movements show an expansion of the forms of the older writers1 and a definiteness of character which insured their future development4 ,definiteness and ,unity4--,this element of absolute definiteness is the most striking feature of ,haydn's work--definiteness none the less in the general form than in each individual component4 ,each part of each section ends with a cadence1 giving it absolute finality1 and making the whole a combination of small entities1 which1 though distinct1 are yet relevant and nicely balanced4 ,humor and ,freshness4--,another quality which he introduced was that of humor1 which is prominent not only in the general tone of geniality1 but in little unexpected twists of harmony1 melody or rhythm1 which give an irresistibly comic effect4 ,especially is this true in his symphonies1 where the various tone colors are used for such results4 ,especial mention should also be made of his ,masses1 in which tunefulness of melody and sprightly rhythms combine to give an enduring popularity4 ,altogether1 ,haydn's work is redolent of the spring of musical activity1 where the novelty of each harmonic effect is employed with an outburst of joy1 and where one travels1 as it were1 through a sunny garden1 filled with the flowers of musical thoughts4 ,,references4 ,shedlock4--,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 chapter on ,haydn4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article 8,haydn40 ,various lives of ,haydn4 ,haydn appears as one of the characters in ,george ,sand's musical novel 8,consuelo40 ,for musical illustrations1 see especially ,haydn's pianoforte sonatas1 in ,edition ,peters1 ,no4 #gac1 a1 b1 c and d1 or in other cheap editions4 ,,questions4 ,who are the three great sonata writers8 ,tell about ,haydn's childhood4 ,tell about ,haydn's life in ,vienna4 ,give an account of ,haydn as a student4 ,what great singing master did he meet8 ,what patrons did ,haydn gain8 ,what was the value to the musical art of the patronage of the great nobles and princes8 ,describe ,haydn's duties and opportunities in ,prince ,esterhazy's service4 ,what great composer did ,haydn meet in ,vienna in #aghe8 ,when ,haydn's service ceased1 to what city did he go8 ,what works did he bring out there8 ,what was the importance of his work to the ,sonata and the ,symphony8 ,describe the first movement-form as fixed by ,haydn4 ,describe the second movement as fixed by ,haydn4 ,describe the third movement as fixed by ,haydn4 ,name certain qualities characteristic of ,haydn's music4 ,what great ,american was born in the same year as ,haydn8 ,name men and women of prominence who were contemporaries of ,haydn4 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4 ,,wolfgang ,,amadeus ,,mozart4 ,while ,haydn's genius was shining steadily as a fixed star1 ,mozart flashed across the musical heaven1 meteorlike1 throwing a flood of light over the music world4 ,the knowledge which others spent years in acquiring seemed his by birthright2 and thus1 although the years of his life were few1 the period of his artistic activity was proportionately long4 ,mozart's ,early ,musical ,training4--,wolfgang ,amadeus ,mozart was born at ,salzburg1 ,january #bg1 #agef4 ,his father1 himself of some reputation as a composer and as the author of the first ,german violin method1 was quick to perceive the child's sensitiveness toward music2 and began instruction in clavier playing when ,wolfgang was but four years old1 teaching also his daughter1 ,maria ,anna1 five years older4 ,wolfgang was an exceedingly delicate and receptive child2 and at the age of six he had not only acquired remarkable proficiency on the instrument1 but had composed a number of little pieces1 and a clavier sonata4 ,first ,concert ,tours4--,realizing the remarkable talent of his children1 ,mozart1 the father1 in #agfb1 ventured on a concert trip with them to ,munich1 and later to ,vienna1 where their playing became the sensation of the hour1 and where they were received by the ,emperor1 ,franz ,josef ,i1 at his palace4 ,having been presented with a small violin1 ,mozart acquired facility in its technic with extraordinary quickness1 as also was the case when he attempted the use of organ pedals4 ,the brilliant ,french court was then the ,mecca of artists2 and in #agfc1 the children were taken to ,paris1 where their successes were redoubled1 and where they gave two brilliant concerts1 after having played before the royal family at ,versailles4 ,at ,paris1 moreover1 the opus #a and opus #b of the little ,mozart were published1 each comprising two sonatas for harpsichord1 with accompaniment of violin or flute4 ,england4--,proceeding now to ,england1 the children won fresh laurels1 remaining there fifteen months2 during which time ,wolfgang excited the admiration of the king1 ,george ,,iii1 by his sight-reading of works by ,handel1 ,bach and others4 ,he also wrote other sonatas1 and his first symphonies4 ,returning to ,salzburg1 after a three years' absence1 ,mozart applied himself to serious study1 composing his first oratorio and opera1 which latter was not performed in public1 and also appearing as conductor at a concert in which his 8,solemn ,mass0 was performed4 ,honors in ,italy4--,renewed triumphs awaited him in ,italy1 where his father took him in #agfi1 and where his genius was immediately recognized in the leading cities4 ,at ,rome he was honored by the ,order of the ,golden ,spur1 conferred by the ,pope2 and in ,bologna was admitted to membership in the exclusive ,philharmonic ,academy1 passing with ease an examination which would have appalled many mature musicians2 in ,milan his opera 8,mitridate0 was received enthusiastically1 and given twenty consecutive performances1 under his own direction4 ,journey to ,paris4--,returning to ,salzburg1 ,mozart took up the post previously given him of music director to the ,archbishop2 but his emolument1 at first wholly wanting1 was insignificant1 and the ,archbishop1 having little appreciation of his abilities1 proved a thankless taskmaster4 ,during this time he made several journeys to ,milan1 producing new dramatic works there2 and in #aggg1 as his ,salzburg position had become intolerable1 he resolved to give it up1 and to repair to ,paris4 ,starting on this journey with his mother1 he stopped at ,munich1 and then at ,augsburg1 where he became interested in the ,stein pianofortes1 henceforth adopting them for his concert work4 ,at ,mannheim he heard the famous orchestra1 of which ,stamitz was the founder1 whose command of instrumental brilliancy and color made so powerful an impression upon him that he transmitted it to his succeeding orchestral compositions4 ,illustration3 ,,wolfgang ,,amadeus ,,mozart4 8,idomeneo0 and 8,il ,seraglio40--,at ,paris1 he found society divided into two warring operatic factions1 led by ,gluck and ,piccini1 and averse to anything else in music4 ,saddened also by the death of his mother1 he returned to ,salzburg1 and resumed his former post with the ,archbishop4 ,receiving an order to write an opera for the ,carnival at ,munich1 he produced his 8,idomeneo0 there in #agha4 ,shortly after1 he was compelled1 through ill-treatment1 to break finally with the ,archbishop1 and he resolved to settle in ,vienna4 ,in the same year1 #aghb1 in which he produced there his opera1 8,entfhrung aus dem ,serail10 composed by command of the ,emperor1 he married ,constance ,weber4 ,financial ,troubles4--,his life from this time was a constant struggle against poverty2 for notwithstanding his wonderful genius1 he received only scant recognition from his patron1 the ,emperor1 although loyal to him to the end4 ,his existence was eked out chiefly by the sale of his compositions1 which publishers purchased at a low price1 by giving lessons and by playing at concerts2 while the jealousy of rivals furnished a constant source of annoyance4 8,figaro10 8,don ,giovanni0 and ,symphonies4--,his comic opera1 8,the ,marriage of ,figaro10 produced in ,vienna in #aghf1 came near failing through these enemies1 but was an unqualified success in ,prague1 where1 in the following year1 his masterpiece1 8,don ,giovanni10 was produced4 ,on a concert tour in #aghf he was offered an excellent post in the service of ,king ,frederic ,wilhelm ,,ii1 of ,prussia1 which he refused1 through loyalty to his ,emperor--a devotion which received no reward save an order to write another opera4 ,in the same year1 #aghi1 his three most important symphonies were completed--the 8,jupiter10 in ,c1 and those in ,g minor and ,e-flat major4 ,other ,operas--,death4--,his succeeding operas were 8,cos fan ,tutte10 performed at ,vienna in #agij2 8,the ,clemency of ,titus10 given at ,prague in #agia1 for the coronation festivities of ,king ,leopold ,,ii of ,bohemia1 and 8,the ,magic ,flute10 produced at ,vienna in #agia1 which1 through its ,german subject and style1 was a signal success1 especially in his own country4 ,discouragements and hard work now told upon him2 and in the midst of his labors upon a grand ,requiem1 he was stricken down1 and died ,december #e1 #agia4 ,relations with ,haydn4--,no one admired ,mozart's genius more than ,haydn2 and a proof of the latter's freedom from the petty jealousies of lesser men is found in the fact that1 while he was at first ,mozart's teacher1 he was afterward glad to adopt many of the innovations which were the result of ,mozart's genius4 ,the labors of the two men admirably supplemented each other2 for ,mozart assimilated and blended what ,haydn had definitely stated1 adorning the rugged outlines with the graceful draperies which his skill as a performer and his artistic nature dictated4 ,italian ,influences4--,thus1 while ,mozart adopted the form of the ,sonata practically as enunciated by ,haydn1 he was able to impart new elements to it1 drawn from his own experience and individuality4 ,his ,italian journeys1 for instance1 had brought him into close touch with the highly-adorned ,italian opera style1 then everywhere popular2 and this he introduced into his instrumental themes1 making them at once singing and graceful in tone4 ,in the ,sonata ,form1 he made the second theme more definite1 contrasting it with the first1 and frequently casting it in the form of an ,italian style of melody1 in distinction from a more terse and thematic principal subject4 ,mozart as ,piano ,virtuoso4--,as a virtuoso1 ,mozart immensely developed the resources of the piano4 ,after the ,bachs1 ,j4 ,s4 and his son ,c4 ,p4 ,e41 had established a rational scale fingering1 and it was found possible to introduce passages at once quickly running and smooth upon the clavier1 such scale passages became very frequent in the compositions of the time1 and they were1 moreover1 well adapted to the light ,viennese action found in the ,stein pianos1 which ,mozart used4 ,hence we find scale-runs as the cornerstone of his virtuosity1 constantly employed in florid and transitional passages4 ,classic ,finish4--,but ,mozart's compositions were not simply an advance in brilliancy1 since his slow movements and themes are full of much genuine sentiment1 and give opportunity for that expressive song-style which he emphasized so strongly4 ,moreover1 his feeling for artistic finish caused him1 by rounding off every detail1 to avoid abruptness1 replacing them by little delicate turns of musical expression and graceful embellishments1 which give an atmosphere of classic repose and finish to the whole4 ,variations4--,embellishments of this kind are introduced invariably with such naturalness and fitness as to make them seem perfectly adapted to the subject in hand1 and growing unconsciously out of it4 ,so ,mozart throws a network of embroidery about his themes at their recurrence which shows their beauties to ever greater advantage4 ,the ability to do this makes him a specially felicitous composer in the ,variation form1 in which some of his most attractive movements and salon pieces are written4 ,piano with ,other ,instruments4--,his sense of fitness is shown also in the vivid contrasts which occur1 especially in his ,fantasias1 in which brilliant passages are relieved by bits of exquisite melody1 in artistic proportion4 ,all these qualities are manifested in his pianoforte concertos1 which1 while replete with flights of virtuosity1 yet always subordinate1 cause him to bring this into equal prominence with the piano1 so that the one ably seconds the other in the attempt to produce a well-rounded and thoroughly genuine musical effect4 ,the same qualities are exhibited in his sonatas for violin and piano1 and in his piano trios4 ,especial ,characteristics4--,mozart considered three elements necessary for the true interpretation of piano music1 namely1 an expressive legato touch1 moderation in the rate of speed of performance1 and strictness in adhering to the time adopted4 ,with an unfeeling touch or a breakneck velocity he had no patience1 and so had no sympathy with many noted pianists of his day1 and notably ,clementi4 ,it has been said that ,mozart1 almost from his infancy1 thought in music as others do in words2 and this thought in music was regulated by a sense of artistic combination and proportion which permeated all his works4 ,as samples of virtuosity his piano works have long been surpassed by the astonishing developments since his time1 and particularly by the added resources of the instrument itself2 but as samples of pure and unaffected music their worth can never be diminished4 ,,references4 ,shedlock4--,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,jahn4--,life of ,mozart4 ,articles in ,grove's ,dictionary on subjects treated4 ,,musical ,,illustrations4 ,works of ,mozart1 especially the ,sonatas4 ,,questions4 ,give a sketch of ,mozart's childhood4 ,give an account of ,mozart's first concert tour4 ,tell about the first trip to ,italy4 ,what drawbacks did he suffer from his connection with the ,archbishop of ,salzburg8 ,where did he come into contact with the piano8 ,with a first-class orchestra8 ,why was his life full of financial trouble8 ,summarize his work in opera4 ,what additions did ,mozart make to the form of the sonata as developed by ,haydn8 ,give an account of ,mozart's work as a virtuoso4 ,what qualities besides brilliancy are shown in his works8 ,in what form are some of his most delightful pieces written8 ,tell about ,mozart's compositions for orchestra4 ,what three elements did ,mozart consider necessary for the interpretation of piano music8 ,illustration3 ,,ludwig ,,van ,,beethoven4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4 ,,ludwig ,,van ,,beethoven4 ,formalism of ,haydn and ,mozart4--,it has been seen that the forms of harmonic music1 growing out of numerous and sometimes crude experiments1 were brought to a high state of perfection through the genius of ,haydn and ,mozart2 and that they left a definite structure1 nicely balanced1 capable of expressing definite thoughts in a unified form1 and at the same time of allowing free rein to the composer's fancy4 ,of their instrumental works1 the definition of the musician-philosopher ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau 7d4 #aggh71 that 8music is the art of combining sounds in a manner agreeable to the ear10 gave a fitting characterization2 for while a tinge of melancholy is occasionally perceptible1 and there are passages of some dramatic intensity1 nevertheless such elements are introduced mainly to give a pleasing contrast from the even flow of polished and idealized sound4 ,their ,gift to ,beethoven4--,in other words1 neither ,haydn nor ,mozart ever sacrifices his sense of artistic finish to the expression of the heights and depths of human emotion4 ,putting the seal of genius upon instrumental forms1 they transmitted these forms to another more colossal mind1 which should make use of them1 to be sure1 but should absolutely subordinate them to the expression of the burning thoughts and passions of a great individuality2 a mind which1 like that of ,shakespeare1 was able to look fearlessly upon universal truths1 and to bring these to the light1 in this instance through the medium of tone4 ,while their predecessors1 by unwearying attempts1 made possible this determination of a capable art form1 so ,haydn and ,mozart1 in their turn1 paved the way for the fuller expression which ,beethoven gave to music1 and which would otherwise not have been possible1 since the vehicle for his thoughts would have been wanting4 ,thus the opportunity had arrived for broadening the definition which ,rousseau gave1 and announcing the fact that music is the art of the expression of every emotion1 whether pleasurable or painful1 through the medium of highly organized sound4 ,beethoven's ,early ,life4--,ludwig van ,beethoven1 the last and greatest of this triumvirate of sonata writers1 was a native of ,bonn-on-the-,rhine1 where he was born ,december #af1 #aggj4 ,his parents were lowly people1 his father a tenor singer in the ,elector of ,cologne's chapel1 and his mother a cook2 and1 moreover1 ,beethoven's early life was an unhappy one1 through his father's irascible disposition and tendency toward dissipation4 ,beethoven1 of an acutely sensitive nature1 inherited his father's quick temper and annoyances at trifles1 so that all through his troubled life he was constantly in a state of irritation against something or someone4 ,like ,mozart1 he showed early and unmistakable signs of a musical susceptibility2 unlike him1 however1 the unfolding of his genius was ultimately slow1 since he attained to his greatest powers much later in life than his phenomenal predecessor4 ,his early instruction was begun with his father2 but soon he was placed in the care of several local musicians3 ,pfeiffer1 music director and oboist2 ,van der ,eeden1 the court organist2 and especially the successor to the latter1 ,neefe 7#agdh-agih71 a man of reputation as organist and composer for the pianoforte4 ,as a result1 ,beethoven played the violin well at eight1 and at twelve had mastered the works of ,handel and the 8,well-,tempered ,clavichord0 of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach4 ,this intimate study of the best works of the old polyphonic school was of great advantage later in solidifying his gifts as a musician4 ,first ,compositions4--,in #aghb1 were published his first attempts at composition--a set of variations1 and three sonatas2 and these1 together with his remarkable extempore playing1 began to attract the attention of persons of influence4 ,he was appointed organist at ,bonn1 and at sixteen was sent by the ,elector ,max ,franz1 brother of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii1 to ,vienna1 where he received praise from ,mozart1 who predicted a brilliant future for him4 ,the ,breuning ,family4--,in #aghg1 his mother died2 and this loss1 together with his father's intemperate habits1 made his home extremely unpleasant4 ,fortunately for ,beethoven1 however1 the enthusiasm for music which was rife in ,germany at this time among people of culture and position was the cause of attracting to his side many true friends1 who1 appreciating his sterling qualities1 were able to pardon his rough exterior and manners4 ,thus he was received as teacher and friend into the home of the cultivated von ,breuning family1 under whose refining influence he came into touch with the masterpieces of ,english and ,german literature4 ,here he first met his staunch friend1 ,count ,waldstein2 and here he had leisure for long walks amid the rural retreats which he heartily loved1 and for meditation upon those musical ideas which he was accustomed to jot down in rough sketches1 and which should later be translated into his immortal creations4 ,in ,vienna4--,haydn1 passing through ,bonn1 warmly praised a cantata of ,beethoven's2 and the ,elector1 moved by such marks of approbation1 sent him again to ,vienna1 in #agib1 for serious study4 ,here he was instructed by ,haydn till the latter's departure for ,england1 in #agid1 when he went to ,albrechtsberger1 the celebrated contrapuntist1 and others2 but these exponents of an earlier school looked somewhat askance at the bold innovations which ,beethoven introduced into recognized principles1 and failed to understand the irrepressible genius which prompted them4 ,nothing daunted1 he launched zealously into composition1 supported by a growing circle of admirers to which the ,elector's patronage had introduced him2 and soon became a favorite at the private soires of the nobility1 where1 on account of his eccentric manners1 he was known as an 8original10 but where his wonderful extemporizing was received with ecstasy4 ,successes as a ,pianist4--,beethoven's first public performance in ,vienna occurred in #agie1 when he performed his pianoforte concerto in ,c major at a concert4 ,during a journey soon after1 he played before ,king ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,ii1 at ,berlin1 who distinguished him with marks of favor1 and to whom ,beethoven dedicated two sonatas written for pianoforte with 'cello4 ,here also he met the conductor1 ,friedrich ,himmel 7#agfe-ahad71 a pianist and composer of high rank4 ,we hear next of his trial of pianistic skill with ,steibelt1 a popular virtuoso1 in which ,beethoven won an overwhelming victory4 ,with ,wlfl1 another distinguished rival1 his relations were those of mutual esteem1 and the two masters delighted to extemporize dashing capriccios on two pianofortes4 ,first ,period4--,the thirteen years1 from #agij to #ahjc1 are usually considered to embrace his first period of activity as a composer1 comprising his works to opus #ej4 ,his opus #a1 three trios for piano1 violin and 'cello1 appeared in #agie1 and soon after three piano sonatas1 opus #b1 dedicated to ,haydn1 were published4 ,among the other noteworthy works of this period were his first two symphonies1 in ,c and ,d1 three piano concertos1 the piano sonatas including opus #bg1 the ,kreutzer sonata for piano and violin1 and his famous ,septet for strings and wind instruments4 ,in general1 these compositions follow closely the lines laid down by ,haydn and ,mozart1 although there is1 notably in the piano sonatas1 a gradual tendency toward freedom of expression1 and the assertion of individuality4 ,troubles now began to gather about him4 ,about #ahjj his hearing became defective1 and the malady grew steadily from bad to worse1 so that by #ahaf he was obliged to use an ear-trumpet1 and by #ahbb he was stone-deaf4 ,to add to his discomforts1 his brothers ,karl and ,johann treated him shamefully1 and a son of the former1 to whom he was left guardian at the father's death1 and upon whom he lavished a father's care1 turned out a scapegrace1 repaying his affection with the basest ingratitude4 ,weighed down by these misfortunes1 ,beethoven became irritable and morbid1 distrusting his most faithful friends1 and constantly imagining plots against himself4 ,his utter ignorance of worldly matters1 too1 brought him into financial troubles1 and involved his domestic affairs in a state of continual confusion4 ,second ,period4--,yet1 as if to prove man's ability to rise superior to every affliction1 during this very time he was writing compositions which1 for joyous freshness and spiritual elevation1 have been scarcely1 if ever1 equalled4 ,during his second period1 extending to #ahae1 and including his compositions to about opus #ij1 he adopted a freedom of expression entirely untrammelled by formal limitations1 enlarging and vivifying the ,sonata ,form1 and varying it to suit his changing moods4 ,the joy of living1 with its intensity of passion and depths of emotion1 is reflected in these works1 which assert a character strong in its struggle against adverse fate1 confidently looking toward the goal of ultimate good4 ,compositions of this ,period4--,his most popular symphonies were written during this period1 which embraces those from the third to the eighth1 inclusive4 ,the 8,eroica10 number three1 was originally written in homage to ,napoleon1 whom ,beethoven honored as the guide of the ,french nation toward that assertion of independence and individuality which he dearly loved2 but when the news arrived that ,napoleon was declared ,dictator1 in #ahjd1 he tore up the dedicatory page in a fit of anger4 ,another of his greatest compositions was his opera of 8,fidelio10 upon which ,beethoven spent an amazing amount of time and pains1 whose overture he rewrote twice4 ,produced in ,vienna1 in #ahje1 soon after the occupation of the city by the ,french1 it was received coldly2 and only after several revisions did it score a success at all in keeping with its grand and inspiring conception4 ,several orchestral overtures2 his violin concerto2 an oratorio2 a mass in ,c2 some of his best chamber music1 including the celebrated ,rasumovsky string quartets2 and his piano concertos in ,g and ,e-flat1 were other fruits of about this time4 ,of fourteen piano sonatas1 we find several which have continued in unbroken popularity1 notably the two in opus #bg1 the 8,pastorale10 opus #bh1 the 8,waldstein10 opus #ec1 and the 8,appassionata40 ,latter ,years of ,his ,life4--,the latter part of ,beethoven's life1 after #ahae1 was spent in ,vienna1 in a state of despondency from his troubles which his general recognition as the foremost musician of his day could scarcely alleviate4 ,his many friends placed him1 by their efforts1 in comfortable pecuniary circumstances2 yet he constantly imagined himself struggling with poverty4 ,sensitive to his affliction1 he made himself exceedingly inaccessible1 and passed his days in unceasing labor upon those works which eclipsed1 in profundity and individuality1 all of his former compositions1 and which were an index to the conflicting struggles in his mind4 ,stone-deaf1 he yet revelled in a spiritual world of tone1 hearing his greatest compositions only in the realms of his imagination4 ,an attack of pneumonia in #ahbf left effects which proved lasting1 and which caused his death on ,march #bf1 #ahbg4 ,in his last illness he was surrounded by his circle of unfailing friends1 among whom the modest ,schubert was admitted2 and a proof of his hold upon his countrymen is shown in the fact that #bj1jjj persons are said to have attended his funeral4 ,last ,great ,works4--,the greatest fruit of these later years was his last symphony1 the ,ninth1 or 8,choral10 in which1 for the first time1 he introduced voices as an aid to the instrumental climax4 ,the free vent which he gave to his radical tendencies in this symphony1 its unheard-of boldness of harmonic progressions1 and its defiance of all conventional rules1 aroused a storm of protest from his critics which was only lulled after succeeding generations had placed the stamp of unmistakable approval upon the work1 and had recognized it as a monument of genius4 ,near to this in importance stands his 8,solemn ,mass0 in ,d1 a work imbued with all the religious fervor of his declining years4 ,sonatas of ,third ,period4--,other notable achievements1 in the line of chamber music1 mark this period2 and the last five piano sonatas1 extending from opus #aja to opus #aaa1 exhibit the same undaunted freedom that is found in the ,ninth symphony4 ,enormous in their demands upon the pianist1 they are food for none but virtuosi2 but analyzed1 they show a compendium of all known musical resources1 from the choral fugue to the most daring flights of harmonic expression4 ,beethoven's ,dual ,personality4--,beethoven furnishes an example of a personality whose dual nature is remarkably apparent4 ,often unkempt1 and rude in his outward bearing1 he seemed at times absolutely oblivious to his surroundings and to chafe at his bodily limitations2 yet his apparent rudeness toward his friends was as often humbly atoned for by his confession of his haste in judging them4 ,his independence of spirit could brook no submission to authority other than his own conscience2 and that conscience prompted him to stand firm in support of the genuine1 the pure and the ideal2 firm1 thus1 in its abhorrence of artificiality and deceit4 ,in his ignorance of worldly wiles he was on a par with a little child2 finding his true sphere when buried in the lofty problems of his art1 giving to the world the fruits of his innermost spirit1 which were ever animated by nobility and truth of expression4 ,beethoven ,stood ,alone4--,detesting the fetters of teaching work1 he left few pupils4 ,among these ,ferdinand ,ries 7#aghd-ahch7 enjoyed an intimate association with him1 and afterwards became prominent as piano virtuoso and composer4 ,with the great men of his day he affiliated but little4 ,goethe 7#agdi-ahcb7 he met but once1 on one of his journeys2 but the meeting had no further results4 ,like other great minds1 his original ideas had to make their way amid a shower of abuse from more conventional contemporaries1 who lauded as his equal or superior others whose works have long since passed into oblivion2 but1 fortunate in finding staunch defenders1 he made steady progress against his enemies1 until his position in the music world became unique and unassailable4 ,,questions4 ,what did ,haydn and ,mozart give to ,beethoven8 ,give a sketch of ,beethoven's early life4 ,what works did he particularly study8 ,what were his first compositions8 ,what intimate friends did he make in early life8 ,what city did he select as his home8 ,what years embrace his first period8 ,what are the leading works of this period8 ,what affliction developed in #ahjj8 ,what years compose the second period8 ,what changes came into his style8 ,name the leading works of the second period4 ,tell about ,beethoven's later life1 from #ahae on4 ,what are the leading works of this last period8 ,describe the personality of ,beethoven4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4 ,,beethoven ,,and ,,the ,,sonata4 ,bach and ,beethoven ,contrasted4--,we now consider the exact nature of the work which ,beethoven did1 in distinction from that of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,it has been said that ,bach gave the ,old ,testament in music1 while ,beethoven gave the ,new2 that is1 that ,bach consummated the old polyphonic school1 while ,beethoven did an equal work for the new harmonic school4 ,yet this is only a half truth2 for ,bach1 besides perfecting former styles1 gave glimpses of modern chromatic modulation and free expression2 while ,beethoven1 a student of the old masters1 employed polyphonic forms as well as harmonic1 making all work together to translate his thought1 and so moulding them into a means of portraying every emotion as to open the door forever to the untrammelled presentment of thought1 through the medium of music4 ,beethoven's ,gradual ,development4--,but ,beethoven did not arrive at this result in an instant4 ,it is true that1 even in his early works1 a distinction of style is shown which removes them from a mere imitation1 but1 as has been shown1 he began practically at the point where ,haydn and ,mozart left off1 with compositions which can hardly be placed on a higher level than theirs2 and1 in the course of a life full of strenuous experiences1 he gradually unfolded the resources which he had received from his predecessors1 until he made them adequate to give vent to the mighty ideas which welled from his soul4 ,thus we find in his works a period in which form is rigidly observed2 and we pass thence through an era of expansion1 during which form becomes more elastic1 through the added requirements placed upon it1 until the thought and emotion become so paramount that the formal lines have entirely disappeared1 and are only to be traced by careful analysis4 ,beethoven and the ,orchestra4--,as the great exponent of instrumental music1 ,beethoven found the orchestra his best and fullest vehicle of expression4 ,so his massive mind1 grasping with ease the effects of manifold combinations of instruments1 was able to mould his thoughts into terms of tone color in which each instrument should be employed to bring out the exact shade of feeling required4 ,so the orchestra becomes with him a great individual instrument1 responding to the slightest change of mood4 ,use of the ,piano4--,but as a preparation for such orchestral work1 ,beethoven realized the value of the pianoforte4 ,attaining a marvelous degree of virtuosity in the use of the keyboard at an early age1 he later found this of the greatest advantage in working out his ideas1 and1 further1 in actually trying their effects upon auditors4 ,thus we find in his first pianoforte sonatas effects which appeared much later in the greater elaboration of his symphonies2 thus also is shown the necessary imperfection of any division of his works into distinct periods1 since his pianoforte style was so greatly in advance of his orchestral4 ,improvement in the ,piano4--,in this connection1 it is important to note that ,beethoven's resources were greatly increased by the improvements which had been made in piano manufacture4 ,the demand for instruments1 created by the growing popularity of the pianoforte1 stimulated manufacturers to redoubled energy in perfecting them2 and1 conversely1 the added resources thus developed were an instigation to composers to test their abilities in the invention of new effects4 ,thus ,beethoven was placed in command of a piano of much greater power than ,mozart's2 and the work of technicians1 like ,clementi1 for whom he had great respect1 was already hinting at new and marvelous possibilities4 ,added ,sonority and ,sustaining ,power4--,this strength of construction resulted in greater sonority4 ,hence we find full chord progressions and rich floods of tone in ,beethoven's works1 in place of the dainty harmonic accompaniment of former writers4 ,moreover1 the increase in sustaining force1 enhanced by the use of the pedal1 made possible a sustained legato tone for singing passages1 which had formerly to be merely hinted at through shakes and other embellishments4 ,a consequent tone variety made it possible to emphasize a single voice in this way1 while the accompanying harmonies could be kept well in the background4 ,again1 this range of tone proved an incentive for long crescendos1 from the softest suspicion of sound to an overwhelming tonal climax4 ,increased ,compass4--,the added range which the keyboard developed also enhanced such effects1 by the chance for brilliancy in the treble1 and for profundity in the bass2 moreover1 ,beethoven was quick to make use of the variety of effects caused by playing in the different registers2 sometimes suggesting in this way the contrast in the orchestra between different groups of instruments1 such as the strings and woodwind4 ,structure of ,beethoven's ,sonatas4--,with such resources at his command1 ,beethoven was able to give a fuller scope to the ,sonata than was formerly possible1 filling out each movement1 and perfecting it for the expression of an integral part of the general idea1 and finally placing it in its proper relationship to the whole4 ,the ,sonata ,form1 as settled by ,haydn1 was made the point of departure1 serving almost invariably as the basis of the first movement1 and frequently1 in shortened form1 for the second1 generally slow1 movement4 ,for the third movement1 ,beethoven at first employed the ,minuet1 following the custom in the symphonies of ,haydn and ,mozart2 but later this was generally omitted in the pianoforte sonatas1 while in the symphonies its time was quickened into that of the dainty1 sparkling ,scherzo4 ,for the finale1 the ,rondo form was most frequent2 though1 in order to give a fuller compass to the thought1 a combination of the ,rondo and ,sonata forms was invented by ,beethoven1 and used even in his first sonatas4 ,the ,rondo form also appeared occasionally in the slow movement4 ,add that other forms1 notably that of the ,variation1 sometimes supplanted one or the other of these1 and we have the structure generally followed by ,beethoven4 ,unity of ,conception4--,all these movements were associated in an organic unity of conception which made one grow out of another with perfect naturalness4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 as in opus #bg1 a continuity of performance was indicated2 always1 however1 the feeling of dependence of one movement upon another is present2 so that the criticism made upon ,haydn's symphonies1 that a movement of one could be interchanged with a similar movement of any other without perceptible difference1 could never be made with regard to ,beethoven's works4 ,key ,relationship4--,in key relationship1 ,beethoven struck out from stereotyped paths1 frequently using contrasting keys related to the third of the initial chord2 thus a movement or passage in ,c major might be followed by any key related to ,e1 the third of the chord of ,c1 such as ,e or ,a major or minor4 ,the original key was most widely departed from in the slow movement1 where the beauty of contrast was exceptionally noticeable4 ,number of ,movements4--,the number of movements which he adopted was at first four1 but this afterwards varied considerably1 two or three movements prevailing2 while in the fantasie-sonatas1 and especially in the last five sonatas1 an indefinite number of movements1 some of them very short1 appeared4 ,he explained this discrepancy on the ground that he adapted the number of movements to his thought2 and when he felt that he had given complete expression to this1 the sonata was brought to a close4 ,development of ,first ,movement ,form4--,of ,beethoven's first movements1 it may be said that no one has ever spoken with the perfect freedom and naturalness which he displays4 ,each part of the movement he strengthened and developed2 the first section announced two themes1 contrasting1 but still closely identified2 sometimes with a slow introduction to usher them in2 the ,development was given a contrapuntal treatment1 solidified by rich harmonies2 the third section was varied by rhythmic or tonal devices1 tending to broaden its effect2 and1 finally1 the ,coda was sometimes developed to the length of a fourth section1 in which reminiscences of material used previously were worked up to a fitting climax4 ,devices for ,giving ,unity4--,but the most evident characteristic which ,beethoven put into this form was that of ,unity1 or ,continuity of idea4 ,this he accomplished by several means4 ,of these1 the first was by separating the most striking parts of his subjects into short1 definite phrases or motives1 and by introducing these in every variety of manner throughout the movement1 sometimes in a sequence on different degrees of the scale1 sometimes by imitation in different voices1 again by varying the length of the component notes1 and finally by dropping off portions1 while the portions remaining keep the idea still before the auditor4 ,or1 some casual phrase1 in an unimportant section1 will strike his fancy and he will develop it with a wealth of imagery astonishing in its inventiveness4#aj ,continuity of ,various ,parts4--,this constant presentment of a thematic idea also serves to bind passages closely together which1 in the sonatas of ,haydn and ,mozart1 were separated by definite pauses4 ,indeed1 ,beethoven sedulously avoids a complete cadence1 seeking1 by leading the listener eagerly on from one connecting phrase to another1 to retain the interest and make it mount up higher and higher1 as the effects grow in intensity4 ,so phrases are made to overlap one another1 with their boundaries practically eliminated4 ,it has been said that ,beethoven tore down the fences which ,haydn and ,mozart had erected between the various parts of the ,sonata ,form2 and this is proven by the fact that1 in the ,beethoven sonatas1 authorities frequently differ as to where one part ends and another begins1 so close and continuous is the bond between them4 ,dramatic ,effects in ,climaxes4--,this close connection is made a ready element toward the dramatic expression which finds vent in the climaxes1 made from culminating tonal effects1 where the thematic phrase mounts up step by step1 higher and higher1 growing breathless by shortened rhythm1 until the hearer is brought to the summit of dramatic intensity2 and here thunderous arpeggios1 mingled together by the use of the pedal1 hold him spellbound with their sonorous waves of sound4 ,the supreme passion which ,beethoven does not wholly conceal even in his quieter moods appears frequently in strange1 agitated rhythms and startling accents thrown upon unexpected notes or in unexpected places4 ,he also used many more marks of expression than his predecessors4 ,freedom in ,modulations4--,the boldness of his modulations has already been mentioned2 and these appear with the most freedom in the development sections1 where tonalities pile upon one another1 until the auditor is apparently inextricably involved in a maze of harmonies2 from which1 naturally as the awakening from a dream1 he finds himself transported back to the original key1 in which the first theme is taking its course4 ,beethoven's sense of proportion1 however1 sees to it that this intricacy of keys is well prepared by the definite tonality of his original subjects1 and by the final complete restatement of the original key4 ,his harmonies frequently shocked his contemporaries by their violations of conventional rules2 but they have long since been justified by succeeding musicians1 who have departed from them to much bolder flights4 ,program ,music4--,it has been said that ,beethoven furnishes examples of the program style--that is1 the depicting of definite ideas through music4 ,we have already found a tendency of this sort among the early ,french clavier composers--,rameau1 the ,couperins and others of their school2 also in some of the ,german writers1 like ,pachelbel and ,kuhnau4 ,viewed in relation to these early composers1 ,beethoven's work seems to have little in common1 since his nearest approach to program music was in attaching to some of his works certain moods1 inspired by events or scenes4 ,thus he gives the name 8,pathtique0 to the sonata1 opus #ac1 8,appassionata0 to opus #eg1 8,les ,adieux0 to opus #ha2 while we have the 8,pastoral0 symphony1 depicting the mood inspired by country scenes1 and the 8,eroica10 showing the mood arising from the contemplation of a hero's career4 ,pianoforte ,concertos4--,the same characteristics which are noted in his pianoforte sonatas appeared1 developed still further1 in his larger works1 such as his symphonies and piano concertos4 ,the latter1 five in number1 display the resources of the virtuosity of ,beethoven's day1 and yet keep this always subordinated to the inspired musical sentiment1 with which the orchestra nobly accords4 ,the last two of these1 belonging to the maturity of his genius1 amply display the powers of genuine expression4 ,variations4--,of numerous other piano compositions1 the sets of ,variations are prominent4 ,he was fond of taking some short and simply constructed musical thought1 sometimes from some song or opera1 and treating it in every variety of manner that his fertile genius could suggest4 ,such compositions1 while generally playful in mood1 have the finish which ,beethoven never failed to give to his work4 ,beethoven's ,accuracy in ,writing4--,it is this seriousness toward his art which most fully accentuates the real underlying drift of his nature4 ,in the midst of his untidy mnage1 when confusion of material goods reigned about him1 ,beethoven nevertheless treated each work which flowed from his pen with the most careful and critical revision1 never allowing it to go out until he had absolutely fixed each note in its proper place4 ,where his art was involved1 his usually irritable nature acquired a fund of patience2 so that sometimes whole scores were rewritten1 until he arrived at accurate expression2 and1 when that point was reached1 his fiat was irrevocable4 ,it is thus a satisfaction to note that he has not left us the erratic wanderings of an eccentric mind2 but the completed and matured product of a genius1 speaking with authority and precision4 ,,references4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,pianoforte ,playing4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,shedlock4--,the ,pianoforte ,sonata1 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,naumann4--,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,schindler4--,life of ,beethoven4 ,other lives of ,beethoven1 especially that in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,for musical illustrations1 consult the works of ,beethoven1 especially the ,pianoforte sonatas1 published complete in all the cheap editions4 ,,questions4 ,contrast ,bach and ,beethoven4 ,characterize ,beethoven's three periods4 ,what was the greatest means of expression in ,beethoven8 ,what was the value of his work for the piano in relation to the orchestra8 ,what was the effect of the improvements in the piano of ,beethoven's time over that of ,mozart8 ,give a statement of the ,sonata as constructed by ,beethoven4 ,what changes did he introduce3 ,key relationship8 ,number of movements8 ,what qualities are found in his first movement form8 ,how does he secure great unity and continuity of idea8 ,how does he secure dramatic expression8 ,where does he introduce bold modulations8 ,with what effect8 ,what use did ,beethoven make of the program idea8 ,tell about his ,concertos4 ,his ,variations4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,violin ,,and ,,its ,,makers4 ,change from the ,viol to the ,violin4--,the reader who has studied the principles of construction and playing of the old string instruments1 as explained in ,lesson ,,xv1 or examined them in museums1 will not have failed to note that they were complicated and limited in technic4 ,the members of this family were large and cumbersome1 troublesome to handle and not particularly graceful or pleasing to the eye2 the position in which the player was forced to hold them was difficult to maintain and not conducive to a rapid1 facile technic4 ,now1 the direction of a perfected art is always toward simplicity2 the various members of the viol family were to yield place to a new instrument1 a modification of the original type1 and one that possessed some striking and valuable advantages over the viol4 ,another element that aided in the change from the viol was the efforts of composers to produce a distinctive instrumental music1 a style which demanded an instrument with a higher range than the viols1 corresponding to the highest female voice4 ,still another element to be considered was the stir in intellectual1 social1 political and commercial life which was evident everywhere1 the product of the ,renaissance4 ,music was influenced by this spirit2 composers were seeking new forms in which to express their thoughts and were calling for new and better media for presenting them to others4 ,as composers gained in breadth and power of conception1 instruments were improved even beyond their demands2 the increase in resources stimulated1 in turn1 the composers4 ,at this period music was on the threshold of a splendid activity in instrumental lines1 the reign of the old choral music and the contrapuntal composer was being challenged1 and the way prepared for ,haydn1 ,mozart and ,beethoven4 ,beginning of the ,violin4--,with regard to the violin1 as in other beginnings1 there is disagreement2 the strongest claims are set forth for ,france and ,italy1 with ,german historians by no means lax in attributing the first instruments to one of their own countrymen4 ,we give the following facts which seem to divide the honors3 ,in the scores of ,italian works of the #afth century1 a part may be found for what is called the piccolo violino alla francese 7little ,french viol71 a fact which would argue that an instrument of this kind1 perhaps most commonly used in ,france1 had been known for some time4 ,the oldest known instrument of the violin type is one which bears the date #addi1 and is signed ,jean ,kerlin1 a ,breton luthier 7lute maker1 a term applied also to violin makers71 whose name is also given as ,kerlino1 living in ,brescia1 ,italy1 in the middle of the #aeth century4 ,about the same time there lived in ,bologna1 ,padua and ,venice1 members of a celebrated lute-making family1 named ,duiffoprugcar1 ,italian equivalent for the ,german name1 ,tieffenbrucker1 for the family came from the ,italian ,tyrol4 ,the most celebrated member of this family was ,gasparo ,duiffoprugcar 7,casper ,tieffenbrucker71 who was born about #adfi1 lived in ,bologna until #aeae1 when he went to ,paris4 ,later he removed to ,lyons1 where he spent the rest of his life4 ,six instruments having violin characteristics 7high1 not sloping shoulders1 deeper curves in the waist and better-defined f holes7 are attributed to him1 bearing dates of #aeaj1 #aeaa1 #aeae and #aeag4 ,early ,italian ,makers4--,the next name is that of ,gasparo di ,salo1 founder of the ,brescian school of violin-making1 who was born at a little village called ,salo1 on ,lake ,garda2 hence his name4 ,his model varied1 sometimes it was high1 at other times flat2 as his instruments produced a full1 sonorous tone1 the model was revived in later years by ,joseph ,guarnerius4 ,his tenors and double-basses are considered his finest work1 his violins being a trifle small4 ,the favorite double bass of ,dragonetti1 the famous contrabassist1 was by di ,salo2 ,ole ,bull frequently played on a di ,salo violin in his concerts4 ,the greatest successor of di ,salo was his pupil1 ,giovanni ,paolo ,maggini 7#aeij-afdj71 whose violins are highly prized4 ,they are characterized by a brown varnish and a double purfling4 ,the ,cremona ,school4--,with the public the name ,cremona is indissolubly connected with violin-making4 ,in the #afth century this city was a famous art centre1 rivaling ,bologna in music and painting4 ,the first great maker and founder of the ,cremona school was ,andrea 7,andrew7 ,amati1 born about #aebj and died #aegg or #aehj4aa ,he used mostly a small pattern1 top and back high1 the varnish amber in color4 ,a number of his instruments furnished for the ,chapel ,royal of ,charles ,,ix were known to have been in ,versailles prior to the ,french ,revolution4 ,the ,amati style was continued by ,andrea's two sons1 ,antonio 7,anthony7 and ,hieronymus 7,geronimo or ,jerome7 ,amati4 ,the former is said to have lived #aeej-afch1 the latter #aeea-afce4 ,they worked conjointly1 although the latter made some experiments with a larger model than the usual ,amati4 ,nicolo ,amati4--,the greatest of the ,amati family and the one whose instruments are still highly prized was ,nicolo 7,nicolaus7 ,amati 7#aeif-afhd71 the son of ,geronimo4 ,he forms one of the great triumvirate of violin-making1 ,amati1 ,guarnerius and ,stradivarius4 ,at first he followed the small form adopted by his father and his uncle1 although he improved on the workmanship4 ,but about #afbe1 no doubt as the result of an experiment1 he began to use a slightly larger pattern which is known to connoisseurs as the 8,grand ,amati40 ,these instruments represent his best work and command a high price4 ,the ,amati tone is sweet1 mellow yet somewhat delicate1 although remarkable in purity2 the instruments are unsuited to orchestral work1 although admirable in chamber music1 particularly of the old style4 ,the varnish is yellowish or amber colored4 ,joseph ,guarnerius4--,in our study of the piano we noted how the small1 weak tone of the clavichord and harpsichord gave way before the fuller toned1 sonorous pianoforte1 which1 with its greater possibilities1 came into use at a time when composers were seeking for means to give increased breadth and power to the reproduction of their music4 ,it would have been unfortunate for instrumental music if the small though sweet tone of the ,amati violin had been accepted as the ideal4 ,we could not have had the surging tumult of ,beethoven's 8,eroica0 symphony1 the great dramatic pictures of ,wagner with the ,amati to lay on the colors4 ,more tone1 more sonorousness1 more virile singing was needed4 ,one of the men to place in the hands of executants the instrument to work out the conceptions of the great composers was ,giuseppe ,guarneri or1 as he is generally called1 ,joseph ,guarnerius del ,gesu4 ,he was born at ,cremona1 #afhc1 and belonged to a family of lute and violin makers4 ,he has been credited with having been a pupil of ,stradivari1 yet his instruments show no trace of that maker's influence4 ,he seems to have been impressed with the tone-producing qualities of the di ,salo violins1 for his best instruments have something of their bold1 vigorous style4 ,he was an experimenter1 ever seeking1 it would seem1 for the means of producing big1 sonorous tone1 and changed his model frequently1 for which reason his instruments vary much in value4 ,his work was not so highly favored by connoisseurs until ,paganini showed the value of a ,guarnerius from the standpoint of tone4 ,his best instruments are now greatly admired and1 because so few in good condition are known1 command a high price4 ,the date of ,guarnerius' death is not known4 ,others of the ,guarnerius family who lived and worked at ,cremona were ,andreas ,guarnerius1 uncle to ,giuseppe1 his son also called ,joseph and known as 8filius ,andre0 7,son of ,andreas7 to distinguish him from his cousin1 ,joseph del ,gesu1 another son ,peter1 8of ,cremona10 and a son of ,joseph filius ,andre1 known as ,peter of ,venice4 ,antonius ,stradivarius4--,the greatest of violin-makers who united in his instruments the brilliant and powerful tone of di ,salo and the ,brescian school and the purity and finish of the ,amati was ,antonius ,stradivarius 7,antonio ,stradivari is the ,italian form71 born in #afdd1 one year after the death of ,monteverde1 and died in #agcg1 five years after the birth of ,haydn1 a period of nearly a century in which a most significant development took place in music4 ,he was apprenticed to ,nicolo ,amati1 and the instruments of his early years are faithful copies of that master's work2 but as he grew in years and experience he improved on the ,amati model1 every change tending to produce a more powerful and resonant tone4 ,the differences that strike the eye most strongly are the larger proportions1 the flatter arch of the top1 and the shape of the sound holes4 ,in his earlier instruments he used a yellowish varnish2 after #afhd1 one of a reddish tint4 ,stradivarius also fixed the form and adjustment of the bridge4 ,he left two sons1 ,francesco and ,omoboni1 who finished some of their father's instruments after his death4 ,they both died five or six years later4 ,pupils of ,stradivarius who made excellent instruments were ,carlo ,bergonzi 7#agab-agej71 ,lorenzo ,guadagnini 7#afie-agdj7 and his son ,johannes ,baptista ,guadagnini 7#agej-aghe7 and ,alessandro ,gagliano4 ,other ,makers4--,germany's contribution to violin-making dates from ,jakob ,stainer1 of ,absam in ,tyrol 7#afba-afhc74 ,tradition has it that he learned his art at ,cremona2 if so1 his work shows no influence of the ,amati2 his model is different1 somewhat broader and shorter1 the arch of the belly is greater1 and the sound holes are set differently2 the varnish varies from a brown to an amber color2 the tone is sweet and quick to respond1 but lacks intensity4 ,a follower of ,stainer was gidius ,klotz 7#afec-agdc71 many of whose instruments were sold as of ,stainer's make4 ,france contributed no makers of great renown4 ,the names of importance are ,nicholas ,lupot 7#ageh-ahbd71 a follower of ,stradivarius1 and ,j4 ,b4 ,vuillaume 7#agii-ahge74 ,in ,england the most distinguished names are ,richard ,duke and ,benjamin ,banks 7#agbg-agie74 ,the ,violin ,bow4--,a few words must be said in regard to the bow1 the means for producing tone from the violin strings4 ,in its earliest form it was simply a bow with a stretched string4 ,hair came into use1 to replace the string1 about the #acth century1 and the bow lost its original shape1 becoming straight for nearly its entire length1 curving downward at the point4 ,corelli used a bow of this shape4 ,tartini's bow had the same shape1 but was made longer4 ,at the end of the #ahth century1 ,franois ,tourte 7#agdg-ahce71 a ,paris bow-maker1 lengthened the bow still more1 and bent it slightly inward1 giving it the form familiar to us today4 ,viotti was the first great player to use this style of bow1 and is credited with a share in perfecting it4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that upon ,tourte's improvements to the bow rests the whole fabric of modern violin-playing1 with its wonderful variety of execution and consequent nuances in expression4 ,the ,viola and the ,violoncello4--,two other instruments of the violin type are in use1 the ,viola1 the tenor violin1 and the ,violoncello1 the bass violin2 both these instruments shared in the development of the violin1 and were made by the great makers1 ,amati1 ,guarnerius and ,stradivarius4 ,the ,contra-bass1 the bass-viol1 as it is often called1 while it is used to furnish the bass to the string orchestra1 is a member of the viol family1 having the special characteristics1 sloping shoulders and flat back4 ,instruments were made on the violin pattern1 but given up as less satisfactory than the viol type4 ,the impetus given to instrumental composition by the perfecting of the instruments of the string group stimulated makers to work for improvement in those belonging to the family of wind instruments1 flutes1 oboes1 clarinets1 horns1 harps1 etc41 thus offering the means to reproduce for hearers the great conceptions of the tone-masters4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article on the violin4 ,stoeving4--,story of the ,violin4 ,hart4--,the ,violin4 ,its ,famous ,makers and their ,imitators4 ,heron-,allen4 ,violin-,making as it ,was and ,is4 ,haweis4--,old ,violins4 ,,questions4 ,why did the ,viol type yield to the ,violin8 ,who is credited with being the originator of the ,violin type8 ,give the names of the early ,italian makers4 ,what noted family of violin makers started the fame of ,cremona8 ,what was the model used by the ,amati family8 ,what improvements did ,joseph ,guarnerius make8 ,what was ,stradivarius' contribution8 ,who was the greatest ,german maker8 ,name ,french and ,english makers4 ,compare the great makers of violins and their work4 ,the author suggests that a violin1 viola1 'cello and double bass and the respective bows be exhibited to the class and examined1 the descriptions as given in the reference works to be compared with the instruments4 ,the catalogue of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,city1 contains some fine illustrations for the use of students1 as well as descriptions4 ,a copy of this should be in every teacher's library4 ,it can be secured for a small amount by addressing the ,museum as above4 ,,lesson ,,xxxv4 ,,violin ,,playing ,,and ,,violin ,,music4 ,reciprocal ,influences of ,instruments and ,composition4--,the development of the violin1 of violin playing and violin music1 in a certain sense shows reciprocal influences1 and went hand in hand4 ,this was the more certain because the composers who wrote for the instrument were also players1 in almost every instance the virtuosi of their times4 ,during the polyphonic period1 composers were singers or organists2 during the period when the violin dominated instrumental composition1 composers in that form were usually violinists4 ,in the next period1 when the pianoforte was coming to the front1 the representative composers were clavier composers4 ,and since then with but few exceptions the great composers have also been pianists4 ,earliest ,violin ,compositions4--,in the music of the viol period no demands were made upon the instrumental player except that he should double the voice part1 which was simple1 viewed from the standpoint of modern violin playing4 ,even later when music was written for quartets of viols the parts were vocal in character and did not exceed voices in range4 ,the earliest known solo composition was published in #afbj1 by ,marini4 ,it demands but little from the executant4 ,the next work of importance was in #afbg1 when ,carlo ,farina1 an ,italian living at ,dresden1 published a collection of pieces which show quite an advance technically1 including variety of bowing1 double stopping and chords4 ,the names applied to violin compositions were3 ,sonate1 ,canzone and ,sinfonia1 the principle of the first named being an alternation of slow and quick movements4 ,about #afej the term ,sonata comes into general use1 and a further distinction is made between ,sonata da ,chiesa 7church sonata7 and ,sonata da ,camera 7chamber sonata71 the former consisting of three or four movements varying in tempo1 the latter being really a suite of dances1 with slow and quick movements in alternation4 ,the ,church1 always ready to make use of the fine arts1 soon discovered the capabilities of the violin and its music1 and adopted it as one of its musical forces1 not merely for assisting in accompaniments but for independent performances4 ,as a result of this patronage1 the violin sonata1 the only form of serious composition for the instrument1 took on the severer character of the church sonata1 giving an impulse toward the establishment of sonata form4 ,composers of the #agth ,century4--,among those who prepared the way for the great ones to follow was ,giovanni ,battista ,vitali 7#afdd-afib71 who shows in his chamber sonatas the tendency to adopt the form of the church sonata4 ,his name is best known in violin literature by a ,chaconne with variations1 which makes no inconsiderable demands on the technic of a player1 and must have marked him out as a conspicuous player in his own time4 ,this is a worthy forerunner of ,bach's great work in a similar form4 ,in ,germany the significant name is ,heinrich ,biber 7#afdd-agjd71 who had a highly developed technic for that period1 for his works carry the player up to the sixth position and introduce difficult double stopping and arpeggios4 ,the next name to be noticed is ,giuseppe ,torelli 7#affj-agjh71 who lived many years in ,bologna as leader of a church orchestra4 ,he is credited with having been the first to apply the principles of construction as shown in the church sonata to concerted music1 which later developed into the ,concerto4 ,illustration3 ,,arcangelo ,,corelli4 ,corelli4--,in any great movement one man seems to sum up the best of the work of his predecessors4 ,the name associated with putting violin music and playing on a firm foundation is that of ,arcangelo ,corelli 7#afec-agac71 eminent both as composer and player4 ,he was a contemporary of ,guarnerius and ,stradivarius1 who brought the instrument to perfection4 ,of ,corelli's early life little is known4 ,he traveled in ,france and was also in ,munich for some years4 ,in #afha he returned to ,italy1 making his home at ,rome4 ,as a teacher1 he acquired great fame and pupils came to him from all parts of ,europe4 ,the most eminent violinists who were under his instruction were ,geminiani1 ,locatelli1 ,somis1 ,baptiste1 and ,castrucci4 ,corelli did not invent new forms of composition or of technic--in the latter respect he did not equal certain of his contemporaries--he was a reformer rather than an innovator4 ,he had1 however1 a keen sense for effects that were specially suited to the instrument1 and his conservatism put the art of playing the violin on a solid basis upon which others were able to add newer and more difficult technic4 ,his works included forty-eight three-part sonatas for various combinations1 twelve two-part sonatas for violin and cembalo1 nine for two violins and cembalo1 and six concertos for two violins and 'cello with a quartet accompaniment4 ,the violin being so preminently a singing1 a melody instrument1 it is singular that ,corelli and his contemporaries did not grasp the principle of using clearly defined melodic themes4 ,this fact shows that the influence of the church sonata and its rejection of a formal tune as unsuited to serious art was still strong4 ,therefore1 while ,corelli's works do not show themes such as are characteristic of the next period of the sonata1 his construction is logical and his handling of his form-material is concise and clear4 ,the student of ,form in music will find the germs of sonata-form in ,corelli's works4 ,corelli's ,pupils4--,among ,corelli's pupils must be mentioned ,francesco ,geminiani 7#afhj-agfb71 who spent part of his life in ,england4 ,he published the first work of a pedagogic character1 a 8,method for ,violin ,playing10 in ,london1 in #agdj4 ,he also recommended holding the violin on the left side instead of on the right1 as was customary in his time4 ,pietro ,locatelli 7#afic-agfd7 greatly influenced the development of violin technic4 ,giovanni ,battista ,somis 7#afgf-agfc7 lived at ,turin1 was the teacher of ,pugnani1 the instructor of ,viotti4 ,antonio ,vivaldi 7#afge-agdc7 devoted himself to virtuosity and influenced the ,concerto from this point4 ,he was fertile and ingenious in making new combinations and devising new effects4 ,j4 ,s4 ,bach arranged his works1 sixteen for the clavier1 four for the organ1 and one as a concerto for four claviers and a quartet of stringed instruments4 ,still another name is to be mentioned1 that of ,francesco ,maria ,veracini 7#afhe-agej71 who greatly influenced ,tartini by his playing4 ,he was a player full of temperament1 which made his playing powerfully expressive4 ,his sonatas are bold in harmonic and melodic treatment1 and well constructed4 ,their technical difficulty is considerable4 7,his lifetime coincides with ,bach47 ,illustration3 ,,giuseppe ,,tartini4 ,giuseppe ,tartini 7#afib-aggj7 is one of the commanding figures of musical history4 ,he was intended for the profession of law by his parents but1 fortunately for music1 did not fall in with the plan4 ,a hasty marriage with the niece of an archbishop brought him into trouble1 and he fled to a monastery1 where he spent two years1 devoting the greater part of his time to musical studies4 ,at the end of this time he was allowed to rejoin his wife1 and went to ,venice1 where he learned to know ,veracini1 with whom he studied to correct the faults he had acquired through pursuing his studies undirected4 ,again he went into retirement and gave himself up to the study of violin technic4 ,among other things he made some improvements in the bow1 increasing the range of effects4 ,his contemporaries ascribe to him 8a fine tone1 unlimited command of fingerboard and bow1 perfect intonation in double stops1 a most brilliant trill and double trill as well1 which he could execute equally well with all fingers40 ,his celebrated composition 8,il ,trillo del ,diavolo0 78,the ,devil's ,trill07 shows his skill in embellishments4 ,a technical work 8,arte dell' ,arco0 78,the ,art of ,bowing07 gives a clear idea of his method in that branch of the violinist's art4 ,in his compositions he shows advance on ,corelli and ,vivaldi1 for his melody is broader1 his phrases more developed and clearer1 his harmonies richer and better contrasted1 with many passages of a strongly emotional character4 ,he wrote a great number of pieces1 sonatas and concertos4 ,in addition to his work as player and composer1 ,tartini devoted himself to teaching4 ,his school at ,padua was the ,mecca of violinists from all ,europe4 ,in those days there were no instruction books2 ,tartini's pupils looked to him for everything1 and his character as a teacher can be learned in a letter addressed by him to a pupil4#ab ,tartini's contribution to music also includes work of a theoretical character4 ,he discovered the so-called combinational sound1 by which is meant the sounding of a third sound when two tones are sounded together4#ac ,he published a treatise on the subject4 ,two pupils of ,tartini's who deserve mention are ,pietro ,nardini 7#agbb-agic7 and ,gaetano ,pugnani 7#agbf-ahjc71 who was also a pupil of ,somis1 thus uniting in himself the teachings of the two great masters1 ,tartini and ,corelli1 which he transmitted to later generations through his great pupil1 ,viotti4 ,with ,tartini the violin sonata of the old type lost its place1 being succeeded by the sonata for the piano which was being developed by composers1 giving rise to a form that was later to be the basis of a new sonata for violin and piano in which each instrument filled an equal place4 ,in the earlier days the tone of the clavichord and harpsichord1 weak and thin1 was not suited save for accompanying the full-toned brilliantly effective violin2 but after ,tartini's time the instrument gained in power and sonorousness and formed a worthy helpmeet for the violin4 ,illustration3 ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,viotti4 ,violin playing in ,france was largely influenced by ,italian players4 ,lully1 the opera composer1 was a violinist1 but the ,italian school had not developed when1 as a lad1 he left his native country4 ,the ,corelli principles were carried to ,france by ,leclair 7#afhg-agfd71 who received his training from ,somis1 a pupil of ,corelli4 ,his treatment of the bow showed the lightness and agility that later became distinctive of the ,french school4 ,pierre ,gavinis 7#agbf-ahjj7 lent strength to the establishment of an independent ,french school of playing4 ,he is best known today by a set of difficult studies4 ,giovanni ,battista ,viotti 7#agec-ahbd71 an ,italian by birth1 greatly influenced violin playing in his day4 ,as a lad of seventeen he traveled through ,europe with ,pugnani1 his teacher1 winning great success4 ,later he located in ,paris1 teaching and composing1 giving regularly private performances at which he brought out his concertos4 ,his themes have a marked singing character1 and all his writing is eminently suited to the instrument4 ,in his concertos he used the elaborated sonata-form as developed by ,haydn1 ,mozart and ,beethoven1 and in his accompaniments draws fully on the resources of the orchestra4 ,his works include a fine set of duets for two violins4 ,his most eminent pupils were ,pierre ,rode 7#aggd-ahcj7 and ,pierre ,marie ,franois de ,sales ,baillot 7#agga-ahdb7 who with ,rodolphe ,kreutzer 7#agff-ahca7 were teachers in the ,paris ,conservatoire1 for which they prepared the famous 8,mthode de ,violin40 ,rode and ,kreutzer are famous in violin literature for their studies for advanced players4 ,beethoven dedicated his great sonata for piano and violin1 ,op4 #dg1 to ,kreutzer1 for which reason it is known by the latter's name4 ,in connection with the educational writers just mentioned1 ,federigo ,fiorillo1 born #agec1 in ,germany1 of ,italian parents1 is to be noted4 ,his thirty-six etudes or caprices rank with the works of ,rode and ,kreutzer4 ,antonio ,lolli 7#agcj-ahjb7 was a virtuoso and nothing else4 ,his execution was marvelous1 and he was1 in many respects1 a forerunner of ,paganini4 ,violin playing in ,germany had its source and inspiration in the concert tours made in that country by the great ,italian virtuosi1 a number of whom lived for periods of some length at the courts of ,berlin1 ,dresden1 ,mannheim and other capitals1 where they trained pupils for the various ducal orchestras4 ,the orchestra at ,mannheim was the most famous for its work and sent out a number of fine players and musicians4 ,space does not permit the mention of these men4 ,the first great name in the violin world of ,germany is ,ludwig ,spohr 7#aghd-ahei71 who was also one of the great composers of his time1 his activity leading him into the domain of the oratorio and opera as well as orchestra and instrumental music4 7,his principal teacher was ,franz ,eck 7#aggd-ahjd71 who belonged to the ,mannheim school47 ,later he had opportunity to hear ,rode1 by whose playing he was much impressed4 ,he spent some years in concertizing1 and in #ahbb located at ,cassel as the director of the orchestra there4 ,here he taught many noted pupils1 the best known being ,ferdinand ,david4 ,while ,spohr was a great player and a great teacher1 he influenced modern violin playing more by his compositions4 ,some of his concertos still figure in the violinist's repertoire and his duos and concertantes for two violins and for violin and viola are unsurpassed by any compositions in that style4 ,in #ahca1 he published his 8,violin ,school10 which was a standard work for many years4 ,the direct successor of ,spohr was ,ferdinand ,david 7#ahaj-ahgc71 a great player and a great teacher who was associated with ,mendelssohn in the founding of the famous ,leipzig ,conservatorium4 ,from this institution ,david's pupils went over all ,europe into positions of responsibility and reputation4 ,his greatest pupil was ,august ,wilhelmj 7b4 #ahde74 ,after ,david's death supremacy in the field of violin playing gradually fell away from ,leipzig and centred in ,berlin around ,joseph ,joachim1 the ,nestor of the present-day#ad violin world4 ,illustration3 ,,ludwig ,,spohr4 ,the ,vienna ,school4--,the southern ,germans had certain characteristics wherein they differed from their northern kin2 they were in closer touch with ,italy and were also influenced by their ,hungarian neighbors4 ,in ,beethoven's time considerable attention was given by ,viennese violinists to chamber-music4 ,four names are prominent3 ,karl ,dittersdorf 7#agci-agii71 ,anton ,wranitzky 7#agef-ahjh71 ,joseph ,mayseder 7#aghi-ahfc7 and ,joseph ,bhm 7#agie-ahgf71 the latter being the teacher of a number of famous violinists1 ,hellmesberger1 ,dont1 ,remenyi1 ,ernst and ,joseph ,joachim 7b4 #ahca71 the latter1 representing the solid1 classical style of his teacher1 joined to a mastery of the technic of his instrument that enabled him to win and maintain the highest rank as virtuoso1 quartet player and composer for his instrument4 ,up to the time of his death1 ,august #ae1 #aijg1 he was director of the ,royal ,high ,school of ,music in ,berlin4 ,he was the teacher of hundreds of players1 including many celebrated artists of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,,joachim4 ,illustration3 ,,nicolo ,,paganini4 ,paganini4--,the most unique1 most startling figure in music belongs to the violin1 a law unto himself in his playing1 one for whom the violin seemed to have been perfected long years before by ,guarnerius and ,stradivarius and one who seemed to have been made for the violin1 the hero of fictions innumerable1 to whom was attributed in his day all manner of occult power4 ,this mysterious king of the violin was ,nicolo ,paganini1 born in ,genoa1 ,february #ah1 #aghb1 died ,may #bg1 #ahdj4 ,never strong in body1 in his early youth he gave himself up to dissipation to such an extent that he undermined his constitution1 and passed through the world as a spectre rather than as a man4 ,paganini was self-developed1 he belonged to no school and he founded none1 yet so great was his command of the technic of the violin and the bow1 that no other player so profoundly influenced contemporaries and successors on the matter of virtuosity4 ,he taught but one pupil1 ,camille ,sivori 7#ahae-ahid74 ,paganini greatly influenced the younger ,french violinists of his day1 among whom may be mentioned ,alard and ,dancla4 ,after these men come ,charles de ,briot 7#ahjb-ahgj71 who represents the ,belgian ,school1 his pupil ,henri ,vieuxtemps 7#ahbj-ahha7 and third generation in the line of pupilage1 ,eugen ,ysaye 7b4 #aheh74 ,others who belong to the ,belgian ,school are ,massart 7teacher of ,wieniawski1 ,kreisler and others71 ,lonard 7teacher of ,csar ,thomson1 ,marsick1 ,musin1 ,marteau1 etc474 ,at the present time the centre of interest in the violin world has shifted to ,prague1 where ,ottokar evk has sent out young violinists of the ,slav race who display the most astonishing technical mastery4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on ,violin ,playing1 ,sonata1 ,concerto1 and players mentioned in this lesson4 ,stoeving4--,story of the ,violin4 ,ehrlich4--,celebrated ,violinists4 ,hart4--,the ,violin and its ,music4 ,,questions4 ,what was the form of early violin music8 ,what difference was there in sonatas8 ,what were ,corelli's contributions to music8 ,what were ,tartini's contributions to music8 ,trace the connection between the ,french and ,italian schools4 ,trace the connection between the ,german and the ,italian schools4 ,trace the connection between the ,vienna and the ,italian schools4 ,what composers contributed most largely to the educational side of violin music8 ,prepare a short sketch of ,paganini4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,orchestra ,,and ,,absolute ,,music4 ,the ,orchestra as a ,means of ,expression4--,the most perfect means for expression in music is presented by the orchestra1 which1 in its complete form as shown today1 is the result of a long development in many directions4 ,to give us this magnificent mass-instrument required a sifting of the various instruments and the choice of those that offered the best possibilities1 a perfecting of these instruments1 a shaping of systems of playing them1 of technic that should draw out all possible effects1 and an understanding1 on the part of composers1 of the nature and demands of absolute music and how best to shape their conceptions in accordance with these demands4 ,the orchestra and its music1 therefore1 represents the extreme height of man's work in music1 for even when choral forces are joined to the orchestra1 the instrumental idea dominates1 as1 for example1 in the ,ninth ,symphony of ,beethoven1 in which the chorus is simply a vocal band added to the other groups4 ,the orchestra is a great means for musical expression because it offers to the composer the maximum of resources4 ,in modern days1 when the esthetic principle of ,unity in ,variety receives the most elastic interpretation due to the demand for the greatest possible contrasts in tone-color1 power and in nuances1 all1 however1 intended to exhibit and illumine the themes invented by the composer in their various transformations1 in these days the orchestra is truly the most complete art-means known4 ,groups in the ,orchestra4--,the orchestra is composed of groups of instruments allied by similarity of construction4 ,the usual classification is into three main groups1 strings1 7bowed instruments71 wind and percussion instruments4 ,in the former are included the violins1 viola1 violoncello and double or contra-bass2 wind instruments subordinate into wood wind and brass1 the former include instruments of the flute1 oboe1 bassoon and clarinet families1 the latter horns1 trumpets1 trombones1 tuba or other bass instruments2 the percussion includes kettle drums1 other drums1 triangles1 cymbals1 etc42 the harp1 while a stringed instrument1 is not included in that class4 ,these instruments offer a great variety of effects1 singly and in many possible combinations1 in the peculiar effects possible by variety in playing1 which in bowed instruments is considerable1 and particularly by contrast with each other4 ,while the orchestra today is in a highly developed condition1 composers are seeking to extend the limits of their art by the use of more elaborate and subtle forms2 so that we cannot in any wise predict the course and limits of absolute music with the almost unlimited resources at its disposal in the modern orchestra4 ,purpose in ,combination4--,when we consider the orchestra as a combination of instruments we must bear in mind that this combination is the result of a definite purpose to produce music independent of restrictions such as were shown to have existed in the days of the domination of the ,church4 ,the composers of the early polyphonic period and up to the #agth century bent their efforts to the composition of choral music which was sung for many years without instrumental support4 ,when later the organ1 and still later1 viols and other instruments were drafted into the service of church music1 the accompaniments were not independent of the voice1 but merely doubled the various parts4 ,composers thought in terms of voices and their limitations1 not in the greater range and endurance of instruments4 ,then1 too1 the instruments were crude and their tone lacked distinctiveness as well as the comparative sweetness and purity of the vocal music of that day4 ,combinations of instruments existed in the ,middle ,ages1 but not according to a system1 and were due to the executants who assembled them rather than to the demand for them in the works of composers4 ,it was in the attempts at light dramatic music that preceded the establishment of the opera that instruments were grouped together1 showing a great weakness1 from our point of view1 in stringed instruments played with the bow1 and a corresponding preponderance of brass4 ,influence of the ,opera4--,the first composers of opera and oratorio gave instrumental support to the singers1 although it was very meager4 ,yet the opera gave the help of that great principle of invention1 necessity1 and composers began to experiment with various combinations of instruments to secure a more adequate accompaniment for the voice as well as to heighten the effects demanded by the drama4 ,monteverde1 an independent thinker and innovator1 marked out lines in which efforts should be made by successors4 ,he studied the characteristic effects of the various groups and made use of them as he felt them4 ,his orchestra for 8,orfeo0 7#afjh7 was made up of two harpsichords1 ten tenor viols1 two bass viols1 two 8little ,french violins10 one double harp1 two organs of wood1 one regal1 two viole de gamba1 two large guitars1 two cornets1 two trombones1 three trumpets with mutes1 one octave flute1 one clarion4 ,the most significant item is found in the 8little ,french violins10 which presages the appearance of the instrument which was1 a century later1 to be recognized as the backbone of the orchestra4 ,among the distinctive instrumental effects which ,monteverde introduced was the tremolo for bowed string instruments as well as the pizzicato4 ,in looking over the instruments of ,monteverde's orchestra we will note but one wood wind1 the flute4 ,this shows that composers1 doubtless through the military use of brass and drums1 had accepted the latter as means for special effects4 ,instruments of the wood wind type were still too crude to be admitted4 ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 who did so much for the opera from the side of form and content1 also contributed to the development of orchestral music4 ,he evidently perceived the importance of having a nucleus around which to build his harmonies1 a group of instruments which should furnish a firm support and which could blend the various tone qualities4 ,with the intuition of genius he selected the string tone for this purpose1 and in this he was greatly aided by the fact that the ,amati family1 and their successors1 ,guarnerius and ,stradivarius1 had already perfected the violin1 although the great players were yet to come4 ,scarlatti wrote in four parts for the string instruments1 the treble part to the first violin1 the alto to the second1 the tenor part to the viola1 which previously had often played in unison with the double bass1 while the bass part was taken by 'cellos and basses4 ,he also added oboes and bassoons to the strings and brass4 ,lully in ,france used an orchestra similar to that adopted by ,scarlatti4 ,the kettle-drums now come into use4 ,the works of ,corelli and his violinist successors1 which showed the possibility of writing for strings1 undoubtedly influenced orchestral writing4 ,bach and ,handel4--,we now come to the period of ,bach and ,handel1 each distinct in methods1 the latter the more immediately influential in the development of the orchestra1 the former's principles of writing in the polyphonic style not being taken up until after years by ,wagner and more recently by the extreme modern composers with their free polyphony4 ,in a ,bach score each instrument had an independent part to sing1 and was treated from a musical standpoint1 whereas the tendency of other composers was to seek figures and passages which should be characteristic of the instrument1 the standpoint of effect4 ,this particularly applies to the wind instruments4 ,handel's idea seemed to be the building up of great mass effects1 his style partook of the harmonic rather than the polyphonic4 ,he used all the important instruments found in the modern orchestra except the clarinet1 although the proportion of the wind instruments to the strings is greater1 due to the relatively inferior power of these instruments in ,handel's time4 ,haydn and ,mozart4--,from ,handel we pass to the first of his three great successors1 ,haydn1 who has been called the 8father of the symphony10 who determined1 in fact1 the course of orchestral development4 ,and we should not overlook the fact before-mentioned1 namely1 that the professional violinists1 most of whom were also directors of orchestras in the pay of great princes1 were testing the capacities and resources of the instruments used4 ,in the period which ,haydn represents1 the proportions of the instruments in the orchestra were definitely fixed and the size of the string band became relatively greater1 the 'cello coming in to greater prominence in its use as a melody instrument4 ,haydn's last symphony1 written in #agie1 calls for two flutes1 two oboes1 two clarinets1 two bassoons1 two kettle drums1 and the usual string band4 ,this was the combination which ,haydn selected as the most useful and effective1 as the result of his experience as a conductor for many years4 ,it was to ,mozart that the introduction of the clarinet into the orchestra is due1 for ,haydn did not employ this instrument in his earlier works4 ,the clarinet began to take an effective form about the end of the #agth century1 yet it was not until the #aith century that it received the improvements that now make it one of the most useful instruments in the orchestra1 with a wonderfully facile technic and correct intonation4 ,the greatest of these changes was the application1 to the clarinet1 of the system of keys and fingering invented by ,theobald ,boehm 7#agid-ahha7 for the flute4 ,in addition to showing the value of the clarinet as an instrument1 ,mozart pointed the way to some uses of the trombone4 ,his ,e-flat ,symphony is scored for one flute1 two clarinets1 two bassoons1 two horns1 two trumpets1 tympani and strings2 in the score of the 8,jupiter0 symphony1 the clarinet does not appear4 ,beethoven established the orchestra as 8the composer's instrument40 ,he added but little to the instruments used but he took the resources established by his predecessors and demonstrated what could be done with them4 ,every group of instruments was used with more detail and to produce characteristic effects both separately and in combination4 ,in his first and second symphonies he uses the same orchestra3 two flutes1 two oboes1 two clarinets1 two bassoons1 two horns1 two trumpets1 tympani and strings2 in the 8,eroica10 a third horn part is added2 the fourth has the same orchestra as the first two1 except that one flute is dropped2 the fifth calls for piccolo1 two flutes1 two oboes1 two clarinets1 two bassoons1 contra-bassoon1 two horns1 two trumpets1 three trombones1 tympani and strings2 in the sixth he uses the same orchestra as in the fifth1 except that he drops the contra-bassoon and one trombone2 in the seventh and eighth the orchestra is the same as in his first and second symphonies4 ,in the ninth 7,choral ,symphony7 he calls for a larger orchestra3 piccolo1 two flutes1 two oboes1 two clarinets1 two bassoons1 contra-bassoon1 four horns1 two trumpets1 three trombones1 tympani1 triangle1 cymbals1 bass drum and strings4 ,it will be noted that ,beethoven does not use the harp4 ,it was not until #ahbj1 seven years before ,beethoven's death1 that ,erard invented the double-action harp1 an effective and a playable instrument4 ,berlioz1 ,wagner and ,richard ,strauss4--,the composer who first made an exhaustive study of orchestral instruments1 their distinctive qualities1 separately and in combinations1 was ,berlioz1 who gave to the world his knowledge in his 8,treatise on ,instrumentation10 published in #ahdd4 ,berlioz gave to every one of his works a more or less distinctive quality by varying the composition of his orchestra instead of using the conventional combinations4 ,he made frequent use of the harp1 bass clarinet1 ,english horn1 bass tuba1 besides other less frequently used instruments4 ,he very much enlarged the scope of orchestral music by the new effects he devised4 ,richard ,wagner1 in his great music dramas1 makes use of many new means of dramatic musical effects1 introducing new instruments1 enlarging the various families1 dividing the strings into eight parts1 increasing the number of brass instruments1 giving to his scores a richness of power and a sonorous quality unknown before his time4 ,richard ,strauss is1 today1 the greatest master of the technic of orchestral writing4 ,his tone-poems make greater demands on the resources of the instruments and contain effects beyond those of ,wagner4 ,illustration3 ,,hector ,,berlioz4 ,hector ,berlioz 7#ahjc-ahfi7 was the son of a ,french physician1 who designed him for his own profession4 ,but the lad's bent for music was so strong that when sent to ,paris to prepare for a medical degree1 he spent most of his time in going to the opera and in studying the scores of the masters4 ,much against the will of his parents1 he determined to give up medicine and entered the ,conservatoire4 ,his early musical training had been far from thorough and his career was at first not successful4 ,this added to his father's displeasure1 and he finally withdrew all support from his son1 who1 rather than abandon his art1 struggled with the most crushing poverty until a violent illness brought on by privation reconciled his parents to his choice of a profession4 ,after several unsuccessful attempts1 he gained the great ,roman ,prize1 which entitled him to a period of study in ,italy and ,germany at the cost of the ,state1 but throughout his life he battled at home with adverse and discouraging conditions1 artistic and domestic4 ,until after his death his works never received the recognition gladly paid them in foreign countries1 where he made frequent tours for the purpose of producing them4 ,his demand for exceptional means of performance1 based upon their large scope and previously unheard-of effects1 was ridiculed in ,france1 where they were also considered dissonant and bombastic2 he encountered jealousy and intrigue at every turn and bore them1 too1 in no patient spirit4 ,his ,important ,works4--,as a winner of the ,roman ,prize1 however1 he had a claim on the ,state4 ,thus his great 8,te ,deum10 written for three choruses1 soli1 and orchestra1 was one of several commissions from the ,government and was composed for the opening of the ,exposition of #ahee4 ,another similar colossal work is his 8,requiem10 with its four small orchestras of brass stationed at the corners of the principal orchestra4 ,these cross and re-cross with thrilling effect1 simulating the blowing of the last trump4 ,his most popular and widely-known work1 8,the ,damnation of ,faust10 a dramatic cantata now frequently heard in this country and in ,europe1 failed to awaken the slightest interest at its first performance in #ahdf and involved the composer heavily in debt4 ,his enthusiasm for ,shakespeare led to the composition of what some consider his most important work1 8,romeo and ,juliet10 a symphony for orchestra1 solo voices and chorus4 ,berlioz' genius was essentially instrumental and symphonic in character2 hence1 though he composed a number of operas1 none was successful4 ,indeed1 the failure of 8,les ,troyens0 7,the ,trojans71 the subject of which was taken from the 8neid0 and which he intended to be his masterpiece1 was his death-blow4 ,his ,genius as an ,orchestral ,composer4--,berlioz was the founder of the modern school of orchestration1 as well as the pioneer in the art of expressing a definite program in terms of absolute music4 ,like his great contemporary1 ,wagner1 he was no executant2 he played but little and1 curiously enough1 only such insignificant instruments as the flute1 flageolet1 and guitar4 ,the orchestra was his instrument and no one has ever had a more unerring instinct for its capabilities either as a whole or in its component parts4 ,in the origination of weird1 unearthly effects he had been anticipated by ,weber1 whom he greatly admired2 but he went beyond him in devising bold and daring combinations1 which he justified by the end in view1 though it cannot be said that a refined taste always finds this end in itself justifiable4 ,for example1 in the last movement of his 8,fantastic ,symphony10 he pictures an execution by the guillotine4 ,a company of witches and demons dance around the headless body and perform a burlesque requiem--the whole supposed to be a nightmare suffered by an artist under the influence of opium4 ,color rather than outline1 thrilling and novel effects of sonority1 rhythmical variety and animation1 intensity of expression and dramatic climax are the principal characteristics of ,berlioz' music4 ,yet delicacy and charm are by no means lacking in his works4 ,irregular in proportion and unequal in inspiration as they frequently are1 they undoubtedly entitle him to the distinction of being the greatest composer that ,france has yet produced4 ,the ,music of the ,orchestra includes ,symphonies1 ,overtures1 ,symphonic ,poems1 ,tone-,poems and ,suites and the ,concerto for a solo instrument with orchestral support4 ,the symphony is an elaborated sonata1 and the first movement is usually constructed on the principles recognized under the term ,sonata-form2 the same principles are used in the ,overture1 which consists of but a single movement4 ,liszt1 in his efforts in the program music style1 devised the ,symphonic ,poem1 which aims to present a series of emotional pictures in the ,symphonic style1 but with the various movements continuous4 ,he advocated deriving all themes from a common source1 transforming them rhythmically as needed to work out his conception4 ,his successors in this style of music still use the thematic methods devised by the writers in the true symphonic style1 but are free in their methods of construction and elaboration4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on the ,orchestra and the various instruments used1 the ,sonata1 ,symphony1 ,overture1 ,suite1 etc41 and ,sonata-,form4 ,henderson4--,the ,orchestra and ,orchestral ,music4 ,,questions4 ,why is the orchestra the greatest means for musical expression8 ,classify the instruments used in the orchestra4 ,what difference is there in the combination of instruments in the modern orchestra and in the first attempts8 ,how did the opera influence the development of the orchestra and orchestral music8 ,contrast ,bach and ,handel4 ,whose methods are used today to the greater extent8 ,what did ,haydn and ,mozart contribute8 ,what did ,beethoven contribute8 ,contrast the orchestra used by the composers mentioned4 ,give an account of the work of ,berlioz in the orchestral field4 ,give an account of the great writers of modern times4 ,what form is the basis of writing for the orchestra8 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,review ,,of ,,lessons ,,xvii ,,to ,,xxiv4 ,independent research on the part of pupils is essential to real mastery of a subject4 ,the following topics can be used as subjects for short essays to be prepared by pupils4 ,the material will be found in this book and in the reference works mentioned in connection with the various lessons4 ,,lesson ,,xxv4--#a4 ,the ,pianoforte in ,america4 #b4 ,pianoforte ,makers in the #aith ,century4 #c4 ,points of difference between the early ,claviers and the ,modern ,piano4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi4--#a4 ,comparison between the ,early ,venetian schools of ,painting and ,music4 #b4 ,the composers of the ,early ,venetian school4 #c4 ,the composers of the ,later ,venetian school4 #d4 ,the development of the ,science of ,thorough-,bass4 ,,lesson ,,xxvii4--#a4 ,queen ,elizabeth as a ,patron of ,art4 #b4 ,characteristics of the ,early ,french ,clavier school4 #c4 ,influence of the ,early ,english and ,french ,clavier schools on subsequent ,writings4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii4--#a4 ,german character as reflected in early music4 #b4 ,comparison of ,bach and ,handel's ,clavier ,works4 #c4 ,influence exerted by the ,well-,tempered ,clavichord4 ,,lesson ,,xxix4--#a4 ,comparison between the ,polyphonic and ,harmonic styles4 #b4 ,musical influence of ,j4 ,s4 ,bach's ,children4 #c4 ,the ,first ,sonatas compared with ,modern ,music4 ,,lesson ,,xxx4--#a4 ,german appreciation of music in ,haydn's time4 #b4 ,haydn as a man4 #c4 ,haydn's connection with ,mozart4 ,,lesson ,,xxxi4--#a4 ,mozart's character4 #b4 ,mozart's struggles with poverty4 #c4 ,mozart's contributions to form4 #d4 ,the ,viennese school of this period4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii4--#a4 ,beethoven's character as shown in his letters4 #b4 ,beethoven's peculiarities4 #c4 ,beethoven and his contemporaries4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii4--#a4 ,beethoven's manner of composing4 #b4 ,beethoven's love of nature4 #c4 ,effect of ,beethoven upon succeeding composers4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiv4--#a4 ,the points of superiority of the ,violin over the ,viol4 #b4 ,the three great makers of violins4 #c4 ,why the violin is called the ,king of ,instruments4 ,,lesson ,,xxxv4--#a4 ,the character of early violin music4 #b4 ,the development of violin playing and composition4 #c4 ,arrange the great players in their respective schools4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi4--#a4 ,classify the instruments of the orchestra4 #b4 ,give a sketch of the development of the orchestra1 instruments added1 etc4 #c4 ,contrast ,beethoven's work with that of his predecessors and successors4 #d4 ,what is the form of a ,symphony8 ,in what respects does the form used by modern composers differ from that of the classical symphony8 ,,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,romantic ,,opera4 ,,weber1 ,,spohr1 ,,marschner4 ,the ,romantic ,movement4--,the revolutionary spirit which arose in ,europe toward the end of the #ahth century had its counterpart in a similar intellectual and artistic reaction1 commonly known as the ,romantic ,movement4 ,in ,literature1 this movement was led by ,france2 in ,music1 by ,germany4 ,briefly described1 it consisted in casting aside the classical traditions which the ,renaissance had imposed upon art in general and in a substitution of themes and a treatment more in consonance with the atmosphere of freedom which had inspired such momentous social and political changes4 ,its ,effect on ,music4--,the musician also felt the influence of the general unrest4 ,in seeking new modes of expression1 he rose to a consciousness of independence both as man and artist2 he refused longer to occupy the position of an upper servant which had been decreed him by court and nobility4 ,mozart marked the passing of the old order of things by his indignant rejection of the humiliating conditions of service under the haughty ,archbishop of ,salzburg1 only remembered by later generations through his connection with the musician he treated so contemptuously4 ,heretofore music had been the privileged entertainment of the great and wealthy4 ,like other privileges1 it was to pass into the possession of the people1 hitherto shut out from its enjoyment save in the ,church4 ,it was to draw inspiration from a rich store of ,folk-lore and poetry heretofore disregarded by the scholar and the musician1 but soon to be recognized as a national heritage of high import2 it was to create new forms instead of being dependent on time-worn formul which were repressing growth and development4 ,the ,romantic ,opera4--,the ,romantic ,movement had the effect of finally banishing from the stage the characters of classical mythology1 the heroes and personages of antiquity who had been thought alone worthy of representation by the poets and savants who had thus far prepared the texts for operas4 ,in the romantic opera their places were taken by figures of legend or chivalry1 elves and spirits of earth or air2 the action paid no regard to the unities of time and place2 it was brisk and animated and the supernatural played an important part in it4 ,the music1 instead of being governed by the restraints of definite forms1 adapted itself to the varying exigencies of the drama2 the sharp division between the recitative and the aria was softened by the introduction of the ,scena1 a peculiarly effective mingling of the features of both2 the overture became an integral part of the whole by the use of themes associated with leading dramatic situations4 ,the orchestra not only supplied an harmonic and a rhythmically interesting accompaniment but its power of independent expression was enormously enlarged2 it became1 so to speak1 one of the ,dramatis ,person and vied with the singers in indicating psychological and dramatic crises4 ,this was largely due to the development of a new phase of instrumentation1 perhaps the most striking detail of the ,romantic school--that of novel and original combinations of instruments to produce varying and expressive shades of tone color4 ,heretofore the orchestra had been considered in the main in its more obvious divisions2 sonority and beauty of tone had been the chief aim of the classical composers4 ,carl ,maria von ,weber 7#aghf-ahbf7 was the first to utilize the individual timbres of orchestral instruments to secure effects of a weird1 unearthly character4 ,illustration3 ,,carl ,,maria ,,von ,,weber4 ,weber and the ,romantic ,opera4--,in his ,der ,freischtz 7,the ,freeshooter7 we first find the union of all these characteristics4 ,hence ,weber is rightfully considered the founder of the romantic opera2 but it would be a mistake to assume that he was the originator of all its features4 ,these had been long in the air4 ,in ,haydn1 the works of ,mozart and ,beethoven1 in the ballads of ,loewe1 the songs of ,schubert1 unmistakable romantic traits can often be found1 but they are embodied in established forms4 ,weber1 however1 brought together the qualities now associated with the term romantic in music1 and in applying them to the drama freed them from the restrictions of a fixed musical structure4 ,influence of 8,der ,freischtz40--,the effect of ,der ,freischtz on its production in ,berlin in #ahba was instantaneous4 ,the story of the hunter's recourse to unholy arts in order to win success in the chase1 of his rescue from ,satanic power and the final triumph of good over evil2 the music1 fresh1 vivid1 essentially national in color1 appealed to the people to whom the legend was well known4 ,it meant the birth of ,german opera1 ,german alike in drama and music2 it gave the final blow to the supremacy of foreign influences in ,germany4 ,this success at first1 however1 was confined almost entirely to the people4 ,critics and musicians generally could not reconcile themselves to its mingling of styles2 the supernatural element seemed to them exaggerated1 the introduction of the ,folk-song wanting in dignity4 ,only the greatest of them all1 ,beethoven1 deaf and cynical as he was1 realized the signification of ,der ,freischtz as the beginning of a new era for ,german art4 ,he said to ,rochlitz3 8,weber should now write operas--one after the other without hesitation40 ,euryanthe4--,weber's next opera was ,euryanthe1 produced in #ahbc in ,vienna4 ,in this he was hampered by a text of more than doubtful merit and lacking the national element which had been so strong a factor in ,der ,freischtz4 ,the story is laid in the medieval chivalric epoch and strongly resembles ,shakespeare's ,cymbeline4 ,he also ventured upon an innovation which was not in favor with the ,german public3 he set it to music throughout1 the place of the dialogue customary in ,german opera being taken by accompanied recitative4 ,euryanthe and ,spohr's ,jessonda1 which appeared several months before the former1 were the first ,german operas in this style since ,schtz's ,dafne4 ,this and its confused plot kept ,euryanthe from the popular success achieved by ,der ,freischtz1 yet it contains some of ,weber's most thrilling inspirations1 and is the direct prototype of the modern music drama4 ,oberon4--,in ,oberon 7#ahbf71 composed for ,london to an ,english text1 ,weber returned to his former manner1 though somewhat against his will4 ,he found the ,english opera much the same as in ,purcell's time1 practically a play with music as an incidental feature rather than as an integral part of the drama4 ,he intended casting ,oberon into a larger mould1 reducing the dialogue and adding to the music1 but this was prevented by his premature death in ,london two months after its production4 ,recitative and ,dialogue4--,the chilling effect of alternating speech and song has already been spoken of in connection with the ,english opera4 ,at that time1 both ,english and ,german taste was against the use of recitative in the narrative parts of an opera4 ,the recitativo secco1 which it will be remembered is a recitative supported only by chords on the harpsichord or piano1 sometimes accompanied with a single stringed instrument1 has never met with favor outside of ,italy1 where its intonations nearly approach the half-singing inflections of ,italian speech4 ,the exclusive use of accompanied recitative--that is1 the recitative accompanied by the full orchestra1 however1 delays the action and moreover appears weighty and overwrought unless applied to subjects of an elevated or heroic character4 ,in ,germany and ,england the desire to understand clearly the dramatic movement led to the retention of dialogue in all operas4 ,in ,france a distinction was made between operas with dialogue and operas with recitative only4 ,the first is called ,opra ,comique1 originally an offshoot from the ,italian ,opera ,buffa1 in which the recitativo secco was replaced by dialogue4 ,later the term assumed a technical meaning by which it was applied to all operas containing spoken dialogue whether their subjects were comic or tragic1 in contradistinction to what is known as ,grand ,opra1 in which the accompanied recitative is used exclusively4 ,the ,melodrama4--,the so-called melodrama is a compromise between the dialogue and the recitative4 ,in this the performer recites in the speaking voice while the orchestra supplies an accompaniment which seeks to intensify the dramatic situation4 ,this device originated in ,germany and has found the most favor from ,german composers4 ,it was first employed by ,georg ,benda 7#agba-agie7 in a recitation1 ,ariadne in ,naxos 7#agdd71 which created much interest4 ,two of the most striking instances of the melodrama are to be found in the grave-digging scene in ,fidelio and in the incantation scene in ,der ,freischtz4 ,but however effective its occasional use may be1 the ear suffers from the inevitable dissonance between the fixed pitches of the musical scale and the natural inflections of the speaking voice4 ,this is now so generally recognized that it has been practically ignored by modern composers in their works for the stage4 ,spohr and the ,romantic ,opera4--,ludwig ,spohr 7#aghd-ahei71 ,germany's greatest violinist and a composer of eminence in many fields1 wrote a number of operas4 ,of these1 ,faust and ,jessonda stand first in showing a vein of genuine romanticism1 albeit they lack the ,folk-element which brought ,weber's music so close to the hearts of the people4 ,full of beauty as they undoubtedly are1 like all of ,spohr's music they are weakened by the constant recurrence of certain mannerisms1 such as chromatic progressions of a persistent type1 enharmonic modulations1 the over-frequent use of diminished intervals4 ,spohr exercised a strong influence in favor of the new direction on account of his high position as the most esteemed composer and performer of the day4 ,his significance in the romantic movement consists in his being1 as it were1 an intermediary between the late classical period represented by ,beethoven and the modern music drama4 ,he knew ,beethoven in ,vienna1 and in his latter days1 when director of the opera in ,cassel1 did his utmost to introduce ,wagner's early operas to the ,german public4 ,marschner1 ,weber's ,successor4--,weber's legitimate successor in the romantic opera was ,heinrich ,marschner 7#agie-ahfa74 ,he had been associated with ,weber as assistant conductor at the opera in ,dresden1 and a strong friendship existed between them4 ,weber's influence1 however1 was wide and far-reaching2 it extended beyond the opera4 ,marschner's sphere was practically confined to the stage1 which he enriched with a series of strongly characterized works mainly of a gloomy1 uncanny nature4 ,he shows but little of the genial art with which ,weber avails himself of the supernatural merely as a background for the doing and striving of his characters1 and thus never compromises the human interest they have for us4 ,marschner makes it the salient characteristic of his strongest works4 ,in these his principal ,dramatis ,person are demons and evil spirits who tempt and torment the innocent and loving4 ,his first romantic opera was ,der ,vampyr 7#ahbe7 composed to a text prepared from ,byron's poem1 8,lord ,ruthven10 which is founded upon a ,scotch legend4 ,notwithstanding the repulsive nature of the subject1 its powerful treatment brought it immediate success in ,germany and a little later in ,england4 ,it was followed by ,der ,templar und die ,jdin 7,the ,templar and the ,jewess71 a version of ,scott's 8,ivanhoe40 ,this1 however1 met with less success than ,der ,vampyr or its successor1 ,hans ,heiling1 ,marschner's masterpiece4 ,the ,spieloper4--,the ,romantic school had a strong influence in the development of a form known as the ,spieloper 7literally play-opera71 which occupies a place between the works we have been considering and the ,singspiel4 ,as thoroughly ,german as the latter1 it shows more finish and greater elaboration of musical effect4 ,though essentially romantic in the freedom of its scope and choice of means1 its real sphere is neither the heroic nor the mystic2 it concerns itself rather with the lighter aspects of life1 those which require no exalted powers of imagination or wide culture to appreciate--humor1 good cheer1 the merriment and mirth of the people in holiday mood4 ,albert ,lortzing 7#ahjc-ahea7 is accepted as the creator of this type1 of which his most popular opera1 ,zar und ,zimmermann 7,czar and the ,carpenter71 is the best known example4 ,influence of the ,romantic ,opera4--,the value of the application of all the resources of music to the unfettered delineation of feeling and emotion in all their phases inaugurated by the romantic opera can hardly be over-estimated4 ,from the opera it has won its way into absolute music1 creating new and original forms4 ,the change it has wrought in the progress and development of the art in general is only second to the revolution occasioned by the birth of the opera itself1 three centuries ago4 ,the impulse of the romantic movement in music is far from being exhausted at the present day4 ,on the contrary1 it seems to have gathered strength and if it has reached its culmination1 as some would have us believe1 the signs are not yet apparent to an unprejudiced observer4 ,,questions4 ,what was the ,romantic ,movement8 ,its effect on music8 ,tell about the ,romantic ,opera4 ,who was the founder of the ,romantic ,opera8 ,give an account of ,weber's operas4 ,contrast the use of ,recitative and ,dialogue in opera4 ,what is the ,melodrama8 ,give an account of ,spohr and his work4 ,give an account of ,marschner and his work4 ,what is the ,spieloper8 ,what was the influence of the ,romantic ,opera8 ,,lesson ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,french ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,xixth ,,century4 ,french ,schools of ,opra4--,as already explained1 ,french opera is divided into two styles1 known as ,opra ,comique and ,grand ,opra1 according to the use of dialogue or recitative4 ,not that this is the only difference4 ,the ,grand ,opra is naturally adapted to subjects of a large or heroic scope2 the ,opra ,comique1 like the ,spieloper in ,germany1 to lighter episodes of a romantic or humorous nature4 ,as will be seen1 however1 it not infrequently happens that the latter form is adopted for serious subjects1 owing to the fact that it is generally easier for a composer to find acceptance at the ,opra ,comique than at the ,grand ,opra4 ,the youthful composer or the one who has not yet acquired a name for himself is expected to win his spurs in the former before attempting to enter the latter4 ,hence1 even if his work is somber or tragic in character he often finds it advisable to cast it into the lighter form for the sake of having it produced4 ,the ,opra ,comique4--,the ,opra ,comique had its origin in the introduction of the ,opra ,buffa in ,paris by an ,italian company about the middle of the #ahth century1 which led to the ,gluck-,piccini controversy4 ,pergolesi's ,la ,serva ,padrona in particular awakened great admiration and brought about the creation of a similar type of ,french opera4 ,it was at first hardly more than an elaboration of the already existing vaudeville1 or play with songs4 ,franois ,philidor 7#agbf-agie7 and ,andre ,grtry 7#agda-ahac7 were its founders4 ,grace and simplicity1 scrupulous adaptation of the music to the clearness of diction always demanded by ,french taste were its distinguishing characteristics4 ,its ,development4--tienne ,mhul 7#agfc-ahag71 a pupil of ,gluck1 gave it a larger musical development and a greater depth of dramatic feeling4 ,his ,joseph 7#ahjg71 founded on ,biblical history1 is a classic of this school4 ,its dignity1 its severe and noble style won less cordial recognition in ,france than in ,germany2 a generation later it was to exercise a decisive influence on the future creator of the music drama4 ,it was through a performance of ,joseph that ,richard ,wagner1 then director of the opera in ,riga1 first felt inspired to battle against the empty conventionalities of the operatic stage4 ,mhul's enlargement of the ,opra ,comique was carried on by ,cherubini1 who through the ill-will of ,napoleon found the doors of the ,acadmie de ,musique1 the technical title of the ,grand ,opra1 closed against him4 ,even his greatest tragic opera1 ,mede 7,medea71 was produced 7#agig7 as an opra comique without recitative and ballet1 the latter being also reserved exclusively for ,grand ,opra4 ,thus it often happened that there was little1 in many cases no intrinsic difference between the music of the two schools4 ,the ,typical ,opra ,comique4--,there was1 on the other hand1 a development of a type more closely corresponding to the original scheme of the ,opra ,comique4 ,strongly influenced by the romantic tendencies of the day1 its romanticism by no means resembles that of the ,german school as represented by ,weber and his followers4 ,this1 in its appeal to the deeper emotions by the idealization of nature and recourse to the supernatural1 is thoroughly alien to the ,gallic temperament1 and had no appreciable effect on ,french composers4 ,gaiety and humor1 freshness of invention1 lightness of touch1 elegance and finish characterize the true ,opra ,comique4 ,its pathos never sinks below a certain sentiment which is skilfully used rather for the sake of contrast than from any persistent attempt at awakening the more somber feelings4 ,the singer and the actor both meet with consideration2 the former by sparkling melodies1 expressive and grateful to sing1 not over-burdened with the technical difficulties in which the ,italian school abounds2 the latter by a drama furnishing piquant situations1 seasoned with wit and interesting in itself as a play4 ,boieldieu1 its ,founder4--,as ,mhul gave the impulse to the graver1 more dignified style1 so ,franois ,boieldieu 7#agge-ahcd7 laid the foundation of the typical ,opra ,comique1 the most original and essentially national ,french operatic form4 ,his ,jean de ,paris 7,john of ,paris7 and ,la ,dame ,blanche 7,the ,white ,lady7 placed him at the head of this school4 ,the latter in particular1 based on a curious combination of situations taken from two of ,scott's novels1 8,the ,monastery0 and 8,guy ,mannering10 has been sung the world over and still remains an unsurpassed example of the ,opra ,comique in its best estate4 ,auber4--,the most prolific composer in this style was ,daniel ,auber 7#aghb-ahga74 ,though he began as an amateur and after years spent in other pursuits1 he outlived all his early contemporaries and became its most widely known representative4 ,with one exception1 to be noticed later1 his works reveal the salient characteristics of the school--freshness and melodic charm1 finesse of rhythm and instrumentation1 delicacy and refinement rather than power and depth4 ,his most popular opera1 ,fra ,diavolo 7#ahcj71 has been sung on all stages and in almost all languages4 ,others less known but equally meritorious are ,le ,maon 7,the ,mason and the ,locksmith71 ,le ,domino ,noir 7,the ,black ,domino7 and ,les ,diamants de la ,couronne 7,the ,crown ,diamonds47 ,hrold and ,adam4--,louis ,hrold 7#agia-ahcc71 as a pupil of ,mhul1 inclines to a more serious style4 ,his ,zampa contains strongly romantic features which made it more successful in ,germany than the melodious ,le ,pr aux ,clercs 7,the ,clerks' ,meadow--a noted duelling ground in ,paris during the #agth century71 though in ,france this vies with ,la ,dame ,blanche in the distinction of being the most popular ,opra ,comique in the repertory4 ,though less significant than any of the foregoing1 ,adolphe ,adam 7#ahjc-ahef71 the composer of ,le ,postillon de ,longjumeau 7,the ,postilion of ,longjumeau71 deserves mention for the grace and fluency of his melodies1 albeit they show a decline in character and style which prefigures the decadent school of the ,opra ,bouffe 7burlesque opera74 ,opra ,bouffe4--,the attentive observer can hardly fail to perceive that the opera as appealing to the people at large more than any other form of music is peculiarly susceptible to social and political influences4 ,the ,opra ,bouffe being a degenerate offshoot from the ,opra ,comique1 it is no mere accident that the period of its most extended popularity coincided with the extravagance and folly of the ,second ,empire4 ,as a distinct type it is due to ,jacques ,offenbach 7#ahai-ahhj71 a ,german by birth1 who took advantage of the taste of the time by turning his attention to the parody of the classical and mythological subjects which had furnished material for the early operas4 ,frivolous and mocking in text1 sprightly and vivacious in melody and rhythm1 his operettas possess undoubted piquancy and an effervescent style which for a time intoxicated the public4 ,their vogue was happily broken by a series of light operas of much more worth4 ,of these1 ,les ,cloches de ,corneville1 known to ,americans as 8,the ,chimes of ,normandy10 by ,robert ,planquette 7#ahdj-aijc7 is the best example4 ,the ,influence of the ,opra ,comique4--,the ,opra ,comique1 as founded by ,boieldieu and continued by ,auber and ,hrold1 bears a distinctively national character to a much greater degree than the more cosmopolitan ,grand ,opra4 ,unlike this1 its development was entirely due to native composers who gave it the thoroughly ,gallic impress of spirit1 vivacity1 and truth to nature which carried it triumphantly through all the theatres of ,europe4 ,thus it served to counteract in part the reactionary tendency of ,italian opera4 ,in ,paris1 as elsewhere1 during the first quarter of the #aith century ,italian influences were very powerful2 ,rossini's works and those of his imitators had the undesirable effect of reviving in a modernized form the conventionalized opera of the #ahth century1 the chief object of which was the display of the singer4 ,the ,opra ,comique1 though limited to the lighter phases of the drama1 performed a service of no small value in upholding a standard of legitimate musical expression at a time when the allurements of florid song were obscuring the dramatic ideals which ,gluck had established at the cost of so much labor and effort4 ,grand ,opra4--,about the same time1 important changes were impending in ,grand ,opra1 though these were more in the nature of a development from the type founded by ,lully and afterward enlarged by ,rameau1 ,gluck and ,spontini than a revolution such as ,weber and his followers had effected in ,germany4 ,they were1 however1 the outcome of the same romantic influences modified by the characteristic ,french adherence to established form4 ,a grand opera according to tradition must have five acts1 consisting of arias1 ensembles1 choruses1 etc41 connected by recitatives1 with a ballet in one or two of the middle acts1 generally the second and fourth4 ,its ,change of ,style4--,auber's ,la ,muette de ,portici 7,the ,dumb ,girl of ,portici--known also as ,masaniello71 produced at the ,acadmie de ,musique in #ahbh1 formed the point of departure for the new style4 ,though it held to the traditional form of ,grand ,opra1 it was in spirit1 theme and treatment a startling change from the ordinarily genial works of this composer1 characterized as it was by a force and fire1 a vigor and decision which he had never shown before and was never to show again4 ,it marks the beginning of the modern historical opera1 the complete abandonment of classical and ancient history as the only appropriate material for ,grand ,opra4 ,the people were brought upon the stage not as slaves or as meekly acquiescing in the will of those in authority1 but as insurrectionists demanding rights of which they had been defrauded4 ,the story of the ,neapolitan fisherman leading his comrades into rebellion against their tyrannical rulers had a powerful effect in the agitated state of political affairs which culminated in the revolutions of #ahcj4 ,it is significant that a performance of ,la ,muette de ,portici immediately preceded the riots in ,brussels1 which in that year resulted in the expulsion of the ,dutch from ,belgium4 ,rossini's ,william ,tell1 which followed in #ahbi1 manifested precisely the same tendencies1 musically as well as dramatically4 ,both were destined to be cast into the shade by the works of a third composer who gave the ,french grand opera a style which practically dictated conditions on all stages for half a century and is still not without influence4 ,illustration3 ,,giacomo ,,meyerbeer4 ,meyerbeer4--,this composer was ,giacomo ,meyerbeer 7#agia-ahfd71 ,german by birth and early education1 ,italian by training in more mature years1 and finally ,french by adoption4 ,a juvenile pianist of great promise1 he studied with ,clementi2 he went through a severe course of fugue and counterpoint with ,zelter1 the teacher of ,mendelssohn2 in composition he was a fellow-student with ,weber under the famous ,abb ,vogler4 ,in ,vienna he knew ,beethoven and was advised by ,salieri to study in ,italy1 where he wrote a number of ,italian operas after the style of ,rossini4 ,in #ahbf1 he went to ,paris1 the ,mecca of all opera composers1 with the design of making himself familiar with the conditions of ,grand ,opra4 ,his ,first ,grand ,opera4--,the result of his studies was ,robert le ,diable 7,robert the ,devil7 produced in #ahca4 ,this created a veritable sensation4 ,nothing of so comprehensive a style had been seen or heard before4 ,meyerbeer's cosmopolitan education1 his receptive rather than original mind1 enabled him to combine the outward characteristics at least of the three schools--,french1 ,german1 ,italian--as no one had ever attempted4 ,the story of the arch-enemy of mankind seeking to ensnare a son by an earthly mother into sharing his lost condition1 the struggle between the powers of good and evil for the mastery of the tempted soul gave full scope to such an amalgamation of styles4 ,the ballet and spectacular effects of ,lully1 the supernaturalism of ,weber1 the roulades of ,rossini were all brought together with an art that dazzled and intoxicated an admiring public4 ,his ,other ,grand ,operas4--,five years later ,robert was followed by ,les ,huguenots 7,the ,huguenots71 which achieved a still greater success1 and is the one opera of ,meyerbeer which continues to hold its own against the encroachments of time4 ,in one or two episodes of ,le ,prophte 7,the ,prophet71 which was produced in #ahdi1 the composer reached the highest level of his creative activity1 notwithstanding the manifest artificiality of his scheme4 ,his last work1 ,l',africaine 7,the ,african71 was brought out the year after his death and like the others owed its success to a skilful mingling of all the elements1 musical1 spectacular1 and dramatic1 which go to make up this type of opera4 ,his ,l'toile du ,nord 7,star of the ,north7 and ,le ,pardon de ,plormel 7better known as ,dinorah7 were composed for the ,opra ,comique4 ,influence of ,meyerbeer4--,meyerbeer so held the public in his grip that other composers of ,grand ,opra gained but slight attention during his lifetime4 ,only ,jacques ,halvy 7#agii-ahfb7 was able to meet him on equal terms in this field with ,la ,juive 7,the ,jewess71 in which he shows the earnest spirit of his master ,cherubini4 ,though ,meyerbeer's watchword was success at any cost and his aim to assure it by the accumulation of cunningly devised sensations rather than through the innate power of his music1 his works had a powerful and1 on the whole1 a beneficial influence on the course of modern dramatic music4 ,they placed living1 palpitating beings on the stage instead of the cold abstractions of mythology and antiquity2 the singer was forced to impersonate as well as to sing4 ,his insistence on all means of expression--vocal1 instrumental1 and scenic--though often exaggerated and fatal to purity of style1 led to an extension of technical ability in all these directions1 and prepared the way for a master of greater power and higher aims4 ,it must not be overlooked that ,richard ,wagner frankly modeled his ,rienzi 7#ahdb7 after ,les ,huguenots1 and that ,meyerbeer in ,le ,prophte shows plainly the influence of this work by his ,german contemporary4 ,,questions4 ,what two styles are found in ,french opera8 ,tell about the origin of ,opra ,comique4 ,tell about the development of ,opra ,comique4 ,describe the typical opra comique4 ,mention the prominent composers in this form and their work4 ,describe ,opra ,bouffe4 ,what composers were prominent in this form8 ,what was the influence of the ,opra ,comique8 ,what was the established form of ,grand ,opra8 ,who contributed to a change of style8 ,what were the changes8 ,give an account of ,meyerbeer and his work in ,opera4 ,what was his influence8 ,,lesson ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,italian ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,xixth ,,century4 ,later ,italian ,school4--,while ,meyerbeer was dominating the ,french stage and through it exerting a powerful influence on serious opera in all countries1 the ,italian school was recovering in part from the impulse given it by ,rossini4 ,the highly ornamented style which he brought into vogue was modified in the works of several composers who also gave more consideration to truth of expression4 ,with these1 melody still reigned supreme1 but it was shorn of the excessive ornamentation which overloaded ,rossini's music2 in character and rhythm it was also more generally in accord with sentiment and situation4 ,the florid element was by no means suppressed2 it had been an integral factor in ,italian music for two centuries and was too strongly entrenched in public favor to be banished so completely as it had been in the ,german romantic opera1 but it was kept in subordination and in the main not allowed to dictate the melodic idea4 ,this was a step in advance for the ,italian school of that period1 which through the fluent warblings of ,rossini and his imitators1 had approached dangerously near the ,scarlatti-,handel type of the previous century4 ,donizetti4--,this reaction in the direction of greater simplicity and sincerity was led by ,gaetano ,donizetti 7#agig-ahdh74 ,at first a follower of ,rossini1 he only attained success after the latter had ceased composing and he himself had acquired a style of his own4 ,donizetti was not without innate force1 but his great melodic facility led him to rely upon melody rather than upon musical development or dramatic characterization4 ,hence his tragic operas1 though often admirable in detail1 lack the sustained strength demanded by their subjects4 ,of these1 ,lucia 7founded upon ,scott's 8,bride of ,lammermoor07 achieved the greatest popularity1 while in ,la ,favorita 7composed for the ,grand ,opra7 he shows more dramatic power than in any of his more than three-score operas4 ,in many of his lighter works he is particularly happy2 for example1 in ,don ,pasquale1 which compares favorably with ,rossini's ,il ,barbiere1 and in ,l',elisire d',amore 7,the ,elixir of ,love74 ,la ,fille du ,rgiment 7,the ,daughter of the ,regiment--written for the ,opra ,comique7 has made the tour of the world4 ,bellini4--,his younger contemporary1 ,vincenzo ,bellini 7#ahja-ahce71 on the contrary1 displays no capacity for humor nor is he much better fitted to cope with the somber or the heroic4 ,essentially a lyrical temperament1 neither broad nor deep but endowed with exquisite sensibility within certain limits1 his sphere is the emotional1 the tender and the elegiac4 ,for this reason his charming opera1 ,la ,sonnambula 7,the ,somnambulist71 on account of its idyllic subject1 is a more representative work than ,norma or ,i ,puritani 7,the ,puritans71 though both enjoyed high popularity until within recent years4 ,much of ,bellini's vogue was due to the admirable singing of a number of ,italian artists who were identified with his works--,pasta1 ,grisi1 sopranos2 ,mario1 tenor2 ,tamburini1 baritone2 ,lablache1 basso1 not to forget ,jenny ,lind1 who was at her best in his operas4 ,with their passing and the establishment of the modern school of dramatic composition1 in which the voice is only one of many factors instead of being the chief element of expression1 they have gradually dropped from the repertory4 ,verdi4--,a far more significant personality than either ,donizetti or ,bellini is ,giuseppe ,verdi 7#ahac-aija74 ,not merely a melodist but a dramatist as well1 his long life gave him the opportunity of profiting by the many influences which brought about the mighty musical development of the last hundred years4 ,the fact that he did so without compromising his artistic or national individuality shows the inherent genius which gives to him the distinction of being the great ,italian composer of the century4 ,strong and sturdy from the first1 his early works1 if somewhat coarse in fiber1 seemed doubly powerful in contrast with those of his contemporaries1 which were distinguished by sweetness and melody rather than by depth or vigor4 ,from ,ernani to ,rigoletto1 from the much sung ,trovatore to ,don ,carlos1 to mention only a few of his thirty operas1 ,verdi shows a steady growth in largeness of style and command of means which culminated in ,ada1 written for the ,khedive of ,egypt to celebrate the opening of the ,suez canal in #ahga4 ,illustration3 ,,giuseppe ,,verdi4 ,ada4--,ada is the full fruition of the ,romantic movement beyond the ,alps1 manifested1 however1 in a style and manner thoroughly ,italian4 ,unmistakably influenced by the uncompromising stand taken in ,germany by ,wagner1 ,verdi here shows the definite adoption of a new standard1 yet by methods which make no decided break with what he had hitherto accomplished4 ,in form1 ,ada is closely allied to the ,meyerbeer type of ,grand ,opra through its succession of dramatic and spectacular features1 but these develop naturally in the course of the action and are combined with a sincerity and unity of effect lacking in the more artificial creations of the ,german composer4 ,the florid style is strictly avoided2 without the continuous flow of the music drama1 the different movements1 recitatives1 arias1 ensembles1 etc41 are yet more closely connected and are sustained by a richer1 more fluent orchestration than he had hitherto given to his operas1 the local color called for by the ,egyptian theme receiving adequate consideration4 ,significance of ,ada4--,ada marks the beginning of the new ,italian school1 one more in sympathy with the original conception of the opera as a drama1 while retaining the characteristic ,italian grace and charm of vocal treatment4 ,this school was still further enlarged and developed by ,verdi1 but this extension belongs to a later period and will be considered in its logical connection4 ,wagner and the ,music ,drama4--,it is to ,richard ,wagner 7#ahac-ahhc7 that we owe the renaissance in modern form of the primitive ideal of the opera as embodied in the works of ,peri and ,caccini4 ,simple and formless as these now appear1 they contain the germ of all that he has accomplished1 apart from the question of means1 even to the very name of music drama4 ,this he revived because1 in his opinion1 the term opera had acquired a preponderantly musical signification which made it inappropriate for his later works in view of their dramatic character4 ,an exception to the general rule of precocity among musicians1 it was not until his sixteenth year that he resolved to devote himself to music4 ,like ,weber1 whom as a child he saw frequently and regarded with the utmost reverence1 his early associations were with the theatre and the drama1 a fact of no small significance in the careers of both4 ,der ,freischtz was his favorite opera1 a liking which bore abundant fruit in later years4 ,illustration3 ,,wagner ,,in #ahec4 ,his ,early ,operas4--,the future master of the music drama1 however1 began by composing operas--operas1 moreover1 in which he shows originality in one feature only--that of writing their texts himself1 and this remained his invariable practice4 ,in other respects they gave no hint of the startling individuality he was to unfold so unexpectedly in his ,flying ,dutchman4 ,his first opera was ,die ,feen 7,the ,fairies74 ,it was based on a fairy tale of but slight worth1 and the music was strongly reminiscent of ,weber and ,marschner4 ,as the work of a youth of twenty1 without reputation or influence1 it is hardly surprising that he found no manager willing to produce it4 ,he was somewhat more fortunate with his second opera1 ,das ,liebesverbot 7,the ,love ,veto71 an adaptation of ,shakespeare's 8,measure for ,measure40 ,this was performed once1 in #ahcf1 at ,magdeburg1 where he was director of the opera1 and had thus come under the influence of the ,french and ,italian composers then popular in ,germany4 ,the music is such a palpable imitation of ,adam1 ,auber1 ,donizetti1 and ,bellini that it has never been given since4 ,die ,feen was never produced during his lifetime1 but a few years after his death received a number of representations in ,munich4 ,his ,sojourn in ,paris4--,in #ahci1 he determined to go to ,paris4 ,many foreign composers had succeeded in entering the ,grand ,opra1 among them ,meyerbeer1 then in the full flush of the renown he had gained with ,les ,huguenots4 ,what one ,german had done1 another might attempt4 ,accordingly1 with the utmost faith in his star and amid manifold discouragements1 ,wagner made his way to the ,french capital1 where he hoped through the influence of ,meyerbeer to secure the acceptance of his ,rienzi at the ,grand ,opra4 ,he had prepared it from ,bulwer's novel of the same name with the express intention of utilizing it as a framework for the large spectacular style demanded by the ,acadmie de ,musique4 ,his sojourn in ,paris brought him nothing but disappointment4 ,neither ,rienzi nor ,der ,fliegende ,hollnder 7,the ,flying ,dutchman71 which he wrote during his stay of two and a half years1 was successful in winning a hearing1 while he lived the greater part of the time in the most painfully straitened circumstances4 ,rienzi4--,before long1 he realized the hopelessness of his endeavor and sent ,rienzi to ,dresden1 where it was accepted and after a long delay performed in #ahdb4 ,the result was a triumphant success and led to the speedy production of ,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,this1 however1 by no means made a similar impression4 ,rienzi was an opera of the type made familiar by ,meyerbeer1 in which effect was secured by the heaping together of every device known to stagecraft4 ,the ballet1 the march of the ,messengers of ,peace1 the final catastrophe of the burning of ,rome1 had as much to do with its enthusiastic reception as the music1 which was noisy1 showy and brilliant1 as befitted a work of such calibre4 ,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,change of ,style4--,the ,flying ,dutchman1 however1 showed ,wagner in an entirely different light4 ,with it1 instead of receiving his inspiration from without1 as had been the case with the preceding operas1 it came from within4 ,on his way to ,paris he had made a stormy voyage of several weeks from a port on the ,baltic to ,london4 ,he was familiar with the myth of the ,flying ,dutchman1 and found that the sailors on board his ship believed it implicitly4 ,this in connection with ,heine's version of the legend1 which represents the unhappy mariner as doomed to perpetual wandering on stormy seas until he finds a woman faithful unto death1 made a strong impression on him1 and while in ,paris he wrote the poem and composed the music within seven weeks after finishing ,rienzi4 ,a more sudden metamorphosis of style is unknown in the history of music4 ,the earlier work was an opera pure and simple1 in the ordinary acceptation of the term1 characterized by pomp1 brilliancy1 sonority4 ,its successor was conceived as a drama in which music served to emphasize the action and to intensify the emotional situations2 instead of being master1 it was servant2 external effects were disregarded save only as they were in harmony with this conception4 ,not that the composer entirely achieved this ideal2 ,the ,flying ,dutchman displays not a few lapses into operatic conventionalities1 but as a whole it was a startling and radical change which puzzled and displeased the public4 ,they had looked for something in the style of ,rienzi and could make nothing of a work so contrary to the popular idea of what an opera should be4 ,accordingly1 after a few performances1 it was dropped from the repertory4 ,tannhuser4--,nothing daunted by the lack of favor shown his change of style1 ,wagner carried it to a still greater extent in his next opera1 ,tannhuser 7#ahde71 founded on a medieval legend4 ,the dramatic motive of this is much the same as that of ,the ,flying ,dutchman1 one of which ,wagner was particularly fond--the power of love to redeem and save from the consequences of sin and error4 ,tannhuser brought about his head the full storm of hostile criticism which with ,the ,flying ,dutchman had only begun to lower4 ,he was reproached for its difficulty1 for its lack of pleasing melodies1 for the audacious harmonies which many critics considered inexcusable dissonances4 ,singers objected to the broad declamation it required2 they complained that it would eventually ruin their voices4 ,lohengrin4--,this almost general dissatisfaction1 however1 led to no concessions by the composer in his next opera1 ,lohengrin1 which marked a further advance in the unpopular direction taken by its predecessors1 but it interfered with its performance4 ,though he was conductor of the ,opra at ,dresden1 he could not secure permission to produce it4 ,baffled and discouraged in his artistic schemes1 a radical in politics1 he joined the insurrectionists during the revolution of #ahdi4 ,the failure of the rebellion necessitated a hasty flight from ,germany4 ,he took refuge in ,switzerland and remained in exile until a proclamation of amnesty in #ahfa allowed him to return4 ,in the meantime he had sent the score of ,lohengrin to ,liszt1 then conductor of the opera at ,weimar1 and there it was brought out in #ahej4 ,lohengrin proved the turning-point in his fortunes4 ,the romance of the subject1 its dramatic treatment and undeniable beauty gradually reconciled the public to the novelty of its style4 ,before ,wagner was relieved from his sentence of banishment it had become one of the most popular operas in ,germany--he once ruefully remarked that he would soon be the only ,german who had not heard it4 ,,questions4 ,who led in the changes in ,italian ,opera after ,rossini8 ,give an account of ,donizetti and his work4 ,give an account of ,bellini and his work4 ,give an account of ,verdi and his earlier works4 ,what is the significance of ,ada in the history of ,opera8 ,tell about the changes that ,wagner was to make4 ,give an account of his early operas4 ,why did he go to ,paris8 ,describe ,rienzi1 ,the ,flying ,dutchman1 ,tannhuser1 ,lohengrin4 ,,lesson ,,xl4 ,,richard ,,wagner',s ,,music ,,dramas4 ,,other ,,schools4 ,wagner's ,theory of the ,music ,drama4--,lohengrin1 like ,the ,flying ,dutchman1 was transitional in character and led into ,wagner's third manner4 ,it was his last opera2 all his later works were known as music dramas4 ,in these he pursued unhesitatingly the logical conclusions of the theories which he expounded at great length in his controversial writings1 though he was far from being always consistent with himself4 ,thus he reasoned that since in the spoken drama but one speaker is heard at a time1 the same practice should prevail in the music drama1 which would naturally do away with all concerted music1 choruses1 etc4 ,this rule he observed in ,the ,ring of the ,nibelungen1 but he wisely abandoned it in his later works4 ,in ,die ,meistersinger he also failed to follow his theory that mythical and legendary subjects were the only suitable material for the music drama4 ,briefly stated1 his ultimate conclusion was as follows3 that the art-work of the future1 as he called it1 should consist of a synthesis of all the arts4 ,music1 poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 architecture1 he asserted1 had exhausted all that was possible to them as separate arts2 a higher plane could be reached hereafter only by a combination which should gain unity by subordination to a single principle4 ,this principle he found in poetry4 ,beethoven1 he argued1 had felt the insufficiency of music alone to express his deepest inspiration1 and for that reason had incorporated in his last and greatest symphony a choral movement to the words of ,schiller's 8,ode to ,joy40 ,in the music drama1 therefore1 the scene painter replaces the artist and the architect1 the actor by plastic poses the sculptor1 while the musician must allow his music no form but that dictated by the poet in his verses4 ,he ascribed the thrilling effect of the ,greek drama to such a union of the arts and this it was his aim to revive through his own works4 ,the ,leading ,motive4--,the part assigned by the ,greek dramatists to the chorus who expounded and commented on the events of the play was in his scheme transferred to the orchestra4 ,this he did by means of the ,leitmotiv 7leading motive74 ,a leitmotiv is a characteristic theme or harmonic progression associated with each of the ,dramatis ,person and which appears with such modification of mode1 rhythm1 or any of its component parts as the dramatic situation demands4 ,it is not confined to personages alone2 in ,the ,ring of the ,nibelung1 for instance1 the stolen gold1 the ring formed from it1 the sword which plays such an important part in ,die ,walkre and in ,siegfried all have their corresponding motives4 ,it is through these motives that ,wagner is able to give his orchestra an all but articulate speech and to weld the music drama into an organic whole4 ,by their transformation and development he succeeds in indicating psychological states and changes as well as material conditions and objects4 ,reminiscent themes of a somewhat similar nature had been used as far back as ,mozart and had been employed more freely by composers of the ,romantic school1 notably by ,weber in ,der ,freischtz and ,euryanthe1 but they were undeveloped and elementary in character4 ,berlioz in his ,fantastic ,symphony was the first to conceive a typical theme and to alter it in logical accordance with the progression of his program1 but he did not adopt the practice in his operas4 ,illustration3 ,,wilhelm ,,richard ,,wagner4 ,the ,unending ,melody4--,beginning with ,lohengrin1 ,wagner abandoned fixed forms and substituted what he called unending melody1 a practically continuous flow of tone divided alike between voices and instruments4 ,for the most part he assigned the singer a declamation as far removed from the set aria on the one hand as it was from dry recitative of the early ,italian opera on the other4 ,yet like the latter it was conditioned by principles of speech4 ,like the early composers1 also1 his subjects with but two exceptions were mythical or legendary4 ,this1 because the supernatural and the unreal correspond more closely with the ideal element introduced by the use of song for speech than material drawn from everyday experience or from the exact chronicles of history4 ,the ,ring of the ,nibelung4--,in the old ,teutonic folk-epic1 the ,nibelungen ,lied 7,lay of the ,nibelung71 ,wagner found the inspiration for his next and most extended work4 ,this is the great tetralogy1 ,der ,ring des ,nibelung 7,the ,ring of the ,nibelung71 composed of four dramas designed for continuous representation3 ,das ,rheingold 7,the ,rhine ,gold71 ,die ,walkre 7,the ,valkyrie71 ,siegfried1 ,die ,gtterdmmerung 7,the ,twilight of the ,gods74 ,it was begun and partially finished during his stay in ,switzerland1 but his discouragement over what he felt to be the hopeless task of ever securing its performance led him to abandon it and to set to work on another drama which he decided should be lighter in character and less difficult to execute1 in order the more readily to find acceptance4 ,tristan and ,isolde4--,the result of this resolution was ,tristan und ,isolde1 but far from being a return to his earlier style1 as he had planned1 it was and probably still is the most intricate operatic score in existence4 ,it was accepted by the ,opera in ,vienna1 but after fifty-seven rehearsals the singers declared themselves unable to learn it and it was given up as impossible of execution4 ,three years after his return to ,germany an unlooked-for change took place in his fortunes4 ,the young king of ,bavaria1 ,ludwig ,,ii1 who had just ascended the throne1 had been an ardent admirer of ,wagner since as a boy of fifteen he had heard ,lohengrin4 ,hardly had he taken his seat before he summoned the discouraged composer to ,munich and assured him support and protection4 ,tristan und ,isolde was soon brought out 7#ahfe71 and ,wagner busied himself with the composition of ,die ,meistersinger von ,nrnberg 7,the ,master ,singers of ,nuremberg71 produced in #ahfh4 ,die ,meistersinger4--,this is his only comic work1 full of hitherto unsuspected humor and geniality4 ,the story of the young poet endeavoring to gain admission to the jealously-guarded ranks of the master singers who1 notwithstanding the beauty of his song1 reject him because he has violated their hide-bound rules has a distinctly autobiographic value4 ,wagner had endured too much from similar pedants to be lenient with the picture he drew of their prototypes in medieval ,nuremberg4 ,as strikingly diatonic in style as ,tristan und ,isolde is chromatic1 these two works are the strongest illustrations of his versatility4 ,bayreuth and the ,festival ,theatre4--,wagner had long cherished the plan of a festival theatre for the performance of his ,ring of the ,nibelung4 ,jealousy of his favor with the king led to various intrigues which prevented the building of such a theatre in ,munich4 ,the quiet town of ,bayreuth1 therefore1 as being a central point1 was chosen1 and there in #ahgf the ,festspielhaus was opened with the first complete performance of the ,tetralogy4 ,it made a profound impression1 but the expense of the undertaking was so great that it resulted in a heavy loss and the theatre was closed for a number of years4 ,in #ahhb1 however1 it reopened with ,parsifal and since then its triumphant career has been part of musical history4 ,parsifal4--,until #aijc1 when it was given in this country1 ,parsifal was heard only in ,bayreuth4 ,its semi-sacred character1 its mingling of religious mysticism and sorcery1 its unrivaled stage effects1 its overwhelming power of climax1 the consummate art of its thematic construction have made it the most discussed of ,wagner's works4 ,what place it may eventually hold in respect to the others can be decided only by time4 ,as it is1 it stands alone2 a second ,parsifal is hardly conceivable4 ,influence of ,wagner4--,unlike ,weber1 ,wagner did not create a school--he belonged to the school which ,weber founded4 ,like ,gluck1 his influence permeated all schools but to a much greater extent2 none has succeeded in escaping it4 ,thus far in ,germany it has been felt more in the development of program music1 the symphonic poem1 etc41 than in the music drama itself4 ,many have attempted to follow directly in his steps1 among them ,august ,bungert 7#ahdf------7 with a cycle of music dramas1 ,die ,homerische ,welt 7,the ,world of ,homer71 founded upon the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 and ,richard ,strauss 7#ahfd------7 with his ,guntram1 ,feuersnoth 7,fire ,famine7 and ,salome1 but none has yet shown the power to bend the bow of ,achilles4 ,engelbert ,humperdinck 7#ahed------7 is the only one of ,wagner's successors to develop a new phase of the music drama4 ,this he did by applying it to the fairy tale in his ,hnsel und ,gretel 7#ahic71 which soon found its way to all stages1 the first ,german opera to have such a success since the death of ,wagner4 ,wagner in ,france4--,in ,france1 ,wagner acted at first not so much directly as indirectly1 and more in his connection with the ,romantic school of ,weber than through his individual style as revealed in the music drama4 ,the characteristic conservatism of the ,french school was shown in holding to forms which had been fixed for generations1 but little by little these were filled with the new romantic spirit4 ,this comes to the fore in ,charles ,gounod 7#ahah-ahic71 whose ,faust 7#ahei7 has exercised a strong and lasting influence on the lyric drama in ,france4 ,though set forms are not abandoned1 they are closely joined by a melodious declamation which approaches the song-speech of ,wagner2 the orchestration1 too1 is unmistakably romantic in treatment4 ,georges ,bizet 7#ahch-ahge7 in ,carmen 7#ahge71 an opra comique notwithstanding its tragic denouement1 produced a work of great individuality1 which shows even more plainly the influence of modern romanticism4 ,had the composer's career not been cut short by his untimely death1 it is possible that the ,french school would have maintained a more commanding position4 ,for ,paris no longer holds her former preminence as operatic centre2 she has been distanced by ,bayreuth4 ,of late years the works that have had the most pronounced success in the ,french capital have been ,wagner's music dramas4 ,a little more than a generation ago1 in the palmy days of ,auber and ,meyerbeer1 a success at the ,grand ,opra or the ,opra ,comique had an international import and meant a speedy transference to foreign stages4 ,now the interest is largely local2 but few of the modern ,french operas are heard outside of ,france4 ,the influence of ,wagner is evident in a new ,french school1 consisting in the main of young composers whose works manifest strongly transitional features4 ,at present this school is in its storm and stress period2 it is yet too early to forecast its ultimate effect4 ,wagner in ,italy4--,italy proved more responsive to ,wagner's influence than ,france4 ,the performance of ,lohengrin 7#ahfh71 in ,bologna1 created much enthusiasm among the young musicians of northern ,italy1 but it was the septuagenarian ,verdi who inaugurated the era of the music drama by his ,otello 7#ahhg7 and ,falstaff 7#ahic74 ,strictly speaking1 he had been anticipated by ,arrigo ,boto 7#ahdb------71 who1 thrown under ,wagner's influence in ,germany1 had followed his example in being the poet and composer alike of ,mefistofele 7#ahfh71 a version of the ,faust legend4 ,but this was ,boto's only opera1 and though he gave the initial impulse to the movement1 it was ,verdi who carried it to a triumphant issue4 ,verdi's ,latest ,style4--,ada had been a grand opera with strong musico-dramatic tendencies4 ,in ,otello and ,falstaff1 ,verdi made a definite entrance into the music drama4 ,the latter in particular1 founded on ,shakespeare's 8,merry ,wives of ,windsor10 is an astonishing tour de force for a man of four-score years4 ,full of the sparkle and freshness of youth1 yet in every measure revealing the ripeness of matured genius1 it is one of an immortal trio of lyric comedies of which the others are ,mozart's ,figaro and ,wagner's ,meistersinger4 ,the set and traditional forms of the opera here disappear entirely2 the music is conditioned by the text and its dramatic requirements2 the orchestra supports the voices in a full1 melodious1 and comprehensive flow1 but never overpowers them4 ,hardly anything can be detached from its context without losing significance and interest2 and this1 by the way1 is one of the most distinctive peculiarities of the music drama and more than anything else points the radical difference between it and the opera4 ,yet though this change of manner is undoubtedly due to ,wagner1 ,verdi is in no sense an imitator4 ,the style remains his own and is essentially ,italian in character--that is1 it is based upon vocal rather than instrumental capabilities4 ,the ,new ,italian ,school4--,the latest development of the music drama in ,italy has been in the direction of so-called naturalism4 ,this consists in the choice of brutal phases of life for illustration1 told in short1 concise forms which concentrate and hasten the dramatic action4 ,a greater contrast to the inordinately long and heroic operas of ,meyerbeer and ,wagner can hardly be imagined2 it is more than probable1 indeed1 that the reaction against the excessive length of the music drama led to the great and sudden vogue of this school4 ,the first impulse to naturalism was given by ,pietro ,mascagni 7#ahfc------7 in his two-act opera1 ,cavalleria ,rusticana 7,rustic ,chivalry71 in #ahij4 ,this is a tale of love1 jealousy1 and revenge told in music admirably adapted to the vivid1 crude representation of elemental passions4 ,two years later followed ,i ,pagliacci 7,the ,clowns7 by ,ruggiero ,leoncavallo 7#aheh------71 a work of precisely the same character4 ,though many others have essayed the same style1 these two thus far remain the most representative of their class4 ,their popularity has been approached only by ,giacomo ,puccini 7#aheh------7 in ,la ,bohme 7,the ,bohemians71 produced in #ahif4 ,four years later his ,tosca appeared and did much to strengthen the impression given by its predecessor--that in ,puccini ,italy possesses her most promising dramatic composer4 ,schools ,compared4--,thus at the beginning of the #bjth century we find the principles of the music drama as enunciated by ,wagner influencing all the three great schools of dramatic composition4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that these schools1 though thus approaching in artistic ideals1 still retain the characteristics which distinguished them from the very beginning3 the ,italian1 melody and beauty of tone2 the ,french1 clearness of form and logical dramatic development2 the ,german1 elevation of subject and harmonic richness4 ,younger ,schools4--,younger schools having a strongly national character exist in ,russia and ,bohemia1 but as yet they possess only local signification and have produced no practical effect outside of their respective countries4 ,michael ,glinka 7#ahjc-aheg7 with his patriotic opera1 ,life for the ,czar1 founded the ,russian opera in #ahcf4 ,the ,bohemian opera is of more recent origin and is associated principally with the names of ,friedrich ,smetana 7#ahbd-ahhd7 and ,antonin ,dvok 7#ahda-aijd74 ,resum4--,from its dual nature1 the opera is necessarily a compromise4 ,composed of two elements1 the musical and the dramatic1 it is peculiarly susceptible to disintegration2 its history is a record of almost continuous veering from one to the other of these two phases4 ,we have seen how the immense proportions of the ancient amphitheatres led to the musical declamation on which the opera is founded1 from the fact that the tones of the singing voice are far more reaching than those of the voice in speaking4 ,the ,florentine experimenters1 in seeking to restore this declamation1 soon discovered the capabilities for emotional expression latent in the varying timbres and vastly extended range of the former4 ,as for its musical possibilities1 these were entirely beyond their ken4 ,the steps taken in that direction they regarded with disfavor as indicating a deviation from the oratorical standards which were their sole aim4 ,after ,carissimi and ,scarlatti had developed the elements of symmetrical form and melody1 music emerged from this dependent condition and dictated to the drama1 which sank to an almost negligible factor4 ,the reaction led by ,gluck served to restore the balance for a time1 but through ,rossini and his followers the pendulum again swung in the other direction4 ,the ,romantic movement then brought the drama again to the fore2 the spirit of the age was behind it and all schools felt its influence1 though each manifested it in characteristic fashion4 ,influence of the ,opera on ,music in ,general4--,these alternations have had a powerful effect on the development of music in general1 an effect both technical and expressive in nature4 ,from the harpsichord and the few viols used at first merely to support the voice and to give it pitch1 the orchestra expanded into a large body of instruments capable in itself of dramatic utterance4 ,from the tiny ritornello of eight measures played by three flutes in ,peri's ,euridice1 there has grown an independent instrumental art of vast significance4 ,the opera also created a school of singing which though often unworthily used for purposes of purely personal display is the basis of the vocal art of today4 ,in short1 it is not too much to say that the little band of scholars and musicians who met three centuries ago with the aim of reviving a lost art practically originated a new one4 ,,references4 ,finck4--,wagner and ,his ,works4 ,modern ,composers and ,their ,works4 ,,questions4 ,give an account of ,wagner's theory of the ,music ,drama4 ,what is meant by the term ,leading ,motive8 ,unending melody8 ,what works compose the ,ring series8 ,tell about 8,tristan und ,isolde10 8,die ,meistersinger40 ,in what city was a theatre built for ,wagner's dramas8 ,describe 8,parsifal40 ,what composers has ,wagner influenced8 ,what was his influence on ,french composers and the names of those most prominent2 their works8 ,what was his influence upon the ,young ,italian school8 ,who are the prominent members of that school8 ,what changes did ,verdi show in his latest works8 ,what are the characteristics of the various schools8 ,give a rsum of the development of opera4 ,what has been the influence of opera upon music8 ,,review ,,suggestions1 ,,lessons ,,xxxvii ,,to ,,xl4 ,what was the effect of the ,romantic movement on the ,opera8 ,write a sketch of ,weber and his work in ,opera4 ,what differences are there between ,opra ,comique and ,grand ,opra8 ,compare the works of ,spohr and ,marschner with those of ,weber4 ,describe the typical ,opra ,comique and name some notable work in this style4 ,what changes took place in ,grand ,opra through the influence of ,auber and ,meyerbeer8 ,state the differences between the ,german1 ,french and ,italian opera styles4 ,write a sketch of ,verdi and his works4 ,give an account of ,wagner and the works of his first period4 ,his second period4 ,what was ,wagner's theory of the music drama8 ,explain the two essential principles he used4 ,describe ,wagner's later works3 8,ring0 series1 8,tristan und ,isolde10 8,die ,meistersinger10 8,parsifal40 7,each one may be made the subject of an essay47 ,how did ,wagner influence opera in ,italy and in ,france8 ,give a sketch of the later schools of opera4 ,,lesson ,,xli4 ,,piano ,,playing ,,and ,,composition3 ,,clementi ,,to ,,field4 ,during the period after ,mozart to the beginning of the ,romantic movement1 one name alone attains the first rank--that of ,beethoven4 ,at the same time there are several epoch-making pianists1 whose compositions display talent rather than genius1 but who have each rendered indisputable service in accomplishing the transition from the classic to the romantic composers4 ,the landmarks1 so to speak1 of this period are ,clementi1 ,cramer1 ,hummel1 ,czerny1 ,moscheles and ,field4 ,muzio ,clementi 7#ageb-ahcb7 was born at ,rome4 ,his father was quick to perceive his son's gift for music1 and strove to develop it by the best teaching available4 ,while he was still a lad1 an ,englishman1 ,bedford or ,beckford1 took young ,clementi with him to ,england where he lived with his benefactor until #aggj1 perfecting himself in piano playing and composition4 ,at his first appearances in ,london he created a furore1 and from #aggg-aghj he conducted at the piano in the ,italian opera there4 ,in #agha1 he began his travels as a virtuoso4 ,at ,vienna he made the acquaintance of ,josef ,haydn1 and also had a sort of musical combat with ,mozart4 ,each read at sight1 played his own compositions and improvised4 ,opinion was divided as to the outcome4 ,clementi displayed more virtuosity1 while ,mozart charmed by his singing-tone1 finished phrasing and expressive style4 ,for the following twenty years1 ,clementi lived in ,london4 ,he became interested in a piano manufactory and when the firm failed1 he established another1 which is still carried on4 ,in #ahjb1 ,clementi went on a concert-tour with two favorite pupils1 ,j4 ,b4 ,cramer and ,john ,field4 ,they visited ,paris1 ,vienna and even ,st4 ,petersburg1 arousing great enthusiasm everywhere4 ,in #ahaj1 he settled in ,london permanently1 devoting himself to composition and business4 ,in #ahag1 he published his ,gradus ad ,parnassum1 a series of one hundred studies treating every branch of technic and every problem of piano playing then known4 ,illustration3 ,,muzio ,,clementi4 ,clementi as ,composer and ,pianist4--,in addition to his early works1 ,clementi composed symphonies1 more than one hundred sonatas for piano1 preludes1 toccatas1 canons and other piano music and finally the ,gradus4 ,as ,clementi was a true ,italian by temperament1 and ,german in his education1 the sonatas show the influence of ,domenico ,scarlatti1 as well as of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,they are technically in advance of their day1 though inclined to dryness musically4 ,however1 ,beethoven admired them1 and is said to have preferred them to those of ,mozart4 ,clementi's monumental work1 the studies1 treats every difficulty and style of piano playing so very comprehensively that it is still indispensable to the student4 ,in his youth ,clementi was a bravura-player1 pure and simple4 8,strong in runs of thirds1 but without a pennyworth of feeling0 was ,mozart's verdict4 ,but later1 when ,clementi had become acquainted with the larger tone of the ,english pianos1 he cultivated expressive playing4 ,at his best1 his brilliancy and facility were dazzling1 and he invariably carried all before him4 ,considering the fundamental value of his studies1 and his preminent abilities as a pianist1 it is just to give him the title of 8,the ,father of ,piano ,playing40 ,johann ,baptist ,cramer 7#agga-aheh7 was born at ,mannheim1 ,germany4 ,when he was but a year old his father moved to ,london4 ,as a boy he studied the violin and the piano1 as well as the theory of music1 but soon showed the greater aptitude for the piano4 ,later he became a pupil of ,clementi4 ,handel1 ,bach1 ,scarlatti1 ,haydn and ,mozart were the objects of his attention1 thus establishing a taste for the classics4 ,in #aghh1 ,cramer began a series of tours on the ,continent1 living at ,london in the intervals4 ,in #ahbh1 he founded the music publishing firm of ,j4 ,b4 ,cramer ,co4 ,he lived in ,paris from #ahcb to #ahde1 but returned to ,london1 where he remained until his death4 ,cramer as ,composer and ,pianist4--,of ,cramer's numerous compositions1 such as seven concertos and one hundred and five sonatas for the piano1 besides variations1 rondos1 fantasias1 etc41 a quartet and quintet1 little is worth survival4 ,his representative work is a series of seventy-six studies1 ,op4 #ej1 to which he afterwards added4 ,these studies long enjoyed a reputation second only to those of ,clementi4 ,they do not aim primarily at virtuosity1 but towards the cultivation of musical style2 at the same time they exhibit novelty of technical invention1 and demand a decided proficiency4 ,thus they tend to supplement the studies of ,clementi which are chiefly concerned with technic4 ,as a performer1 ,cramer was greatly admired for his perfect legato1 distinctness of phrasing and quiet singing tone4 ,beethoven is said to have preferred him to all other pianists of his time4 ,while ,cramer does not present a technical advance over ,clementi1 he undoubtedly did much for the cultivation of the more strictly musical qualities and thus stands for a definite progress4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,cramer4 ,j4 ,n4 ,,hummel4 ,johann ,nepomuk ,hummel 7#aggh-ahcg7 was born at ,presburg1 ,hungary4 ,his father1 who had been instructor in music at a military school in ,wartburg1 moved to ,vienna in #aghf to become director at the theatre of ,schikaneder1 7the author of the libretto of ,mozart's opera 8,the ,magic ,flute074 ,mozart soon took so deep an interest in young ,hummel that he took him to live with him and taught him for two years4 ,from #aghh to #agie1 ,hummel traveled as a virtuoso4 ,on returning to ,vienna he studied composition with ,albrechtsberger1 and received advice from ,salieri and ,haydn4 ,from #ahjd to #ahaa he was music-director under ,prince ,esterhazy1 ,haydn's patron4 ,in #ahaf1 he became conductor at ,stuttgart1 and in #ahai he occupied a similar position at ,weimar4 ,from here he went to ,russia1 where he made a successful concert-tour1 playing at ,warsaw1 where the youthful ,chopin heard him4 ,from #ahbe to #ahcc he traveled on concert-tours1 returning to ,weimar1 where he passed the remainder of his life4 ,hummel as ,composer and ,pianist4--,hummel's compositions include operas1 ballets1 masses and other church music1 a quintet1 trios1 rondos1 studies and other music for the piano1 but he is best known for the piano concertos in ,a-flat1 ,a minor and ,b minor1 the sonatas in ,f-sharp minor and ,d major1 the ,septet1 ,op4 #gd1 and a voluminous instruction-book for the piano1 chiefly remarkable for its pedantry and absence of practicality4 ,as a pupil of ,mozart1 he followed his teacher's form and style1 without exhibiting marked creative genius4 ,his technic is noticeable chiefly for its superficial glitter of brilliant passages1 which constitute a certain development in themselves4 ,his compositions were in great vogue at one time1 and he was once even regarded as the equal of ,beethoven4 ,as a pianist1 ,hummel was unusual4 ,his style was distinguished by precision1 clearness1 and command of brilliant effect4 ,his influence as a concert pianist was very great1 and in this direction his extension of the province of the virtuoso is considerable4 ,he undoubtedly affected ,chopin's piano style for a time and for this reason alone should claim our attention4 ,carl ,czerny 7#agia-aheg7 was born at ,vienna4 ,his father1 an excellent musician1 taught his son piano playing at an early age4 ,beethoven became interested in him1 and gave him lessons4 ,he also learned much from ,hummel and ,clementi4 ,czerny soon became in great demand as a teacher4 ,he made concert-tours to ,leipzig1 ,paris1 ,london and ,lombardy4 ,for the most part he lived quietly in ,vienna1 teaching and composing4 ,in #ahej1 his health gave way from overwork4 ,his most celebrated pupils were ,franz ,liszt and ,theodore ,leschetizky4 ,czerny's ,compositions4--,czerny was an indefatigable and over-fluent composer who weakened his powers by over-productivity4 ,hence1 of more than a thousand works1 his masses1 requiems1 symphonies1 overtures1 chamber-music1 etc41 are obsolete1 but his educational works are destined to live4 ,of many valuable sets of studies1 the most used are those for ,velocity1 ,op4 #bii1 and ,finger ,training1 ,op4 #gdj4 ,musically1 they are of slight importance1 but they are invaluable to this day in acquiring facility4 ,czerny had an immense knowledge of the higher mechanism of piano playing1 and a keen perception of practical methods4 ,his fame as a pianist was overshadowed by his ceaseless work as teacher and composer4 ,illustration3 ,,carl ,,czerny4 ,ignaz ,moscheles 7#agid-ahgj71 described as 8the foremost pianist after ,hummel and before ,chopin10 was born at ,prague4 ,he studied the piano with ,dionys ,weber1 director of the ,prague ,conservatory1 and at fourteen played a concerto of his own in public4 ,after the death of his father1 he went to ,vienna to make his way as a teacher1 and to continue his studies in composition4 ,he soon became in great demand as a pianist and teacher1 and for ten years lived the life of a traveling virtuoso4 ,in #ahbd1 he gave lessons to ,mendelssohn1 then a boy of fifteen1 at ,berlin4 ,soon after his marriage at ,hamburg1 in #ahbf1 he went to ,london1 where he remained with some interruptions for nearly twenty years of activity as pianist1 teacher and conductor4 ,in #ahde1 he took the post of teacher of the piano at the ,leipzig ,conservatory1 founded by ,mendelssohn4 ,illustration3 ,,ignaz ,,moscheles4 ,moscheles as ,composer and ,pianist4--,as a composer1 ,moscheles was divided between his classical training and his unmistakably romantic instincts4 ,hence1 a long list of variations1 fantasias1 rondos1 written to please publishers1 in accordance with the fashion of the time1 have not survived1 but his best works1 the concerto in ,g minor1 the 8,pathetic0 concerto1 the sonata1 ,op4 #di1 his duet for two pianos1 8,hommage ,handel0 and especially the studies1 ,op4 #gj and #ie1 combine a respect for classic form with the growing ,romantic movement4 ,the studies may be regarded as the legitimate successors to those of ,cramer1 and paved the way for the more romantic etudes of ,chopin4 ,moscheles was a solidly trained pianist of great brilliancy4 ,he had many characteristics of the classical school2 he used the pedals sparingly1 he played octaves with a stiff wrist1 his phrasing was precise and his accents were sharply marked2 but in the brilliant style he had no rivals4 ,he was famous for his improvisations2 his cadenzas to concertos and his extempore treatments of well-known themes were marked by spontaneity1 brilliance and exquisite feeling4 ,john ,field 7#aghb-ahcg71 one of the last connecting links between the ,classical and ,romantic schools1 was born at ,dublin4 ,early in life1 he was taken to ,london and apprenticed to ,clementi1 who gave him lessons1 and employed him to show off his pianos4 ,in #ahjb1 he went on a concert-tour with ,clementi to ,paris1 ,germany and ,russia4 ,field lived for many years as pianist and teacher at ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow4 ,after returning to ,england1 he made a long tour through ,belgium1 ,switzerland1 and finally1 ,italy1 where his health gave way4 ,shortly after he returned to ,moscow1 where he died4 ,field as ,composer and ,pianist4--,field's compositions in classical forms include seven concertos1 four sonatas1 rondos1 variations1 etc4 ,they are forgotten now1 although ,chopin had a partiality for his concerto in ,a-flat and gave it to his pupils2 but his lyric pieces for piano1 entitled nocturnes1 are still played4 ,they are the forerunners of the type so extended and developed by ,chopin4 ,he is thus one of the first of the romanticists in spite of his classical training4 ,in #ahjb1 ,field astonished the ,parisians by his masterly playing of ,bach and ,handel1 but his individuality later took a more romantic turn4 ,his tone was tender and melancholy1 and his phrases gently expressive4 ,shortly before his death1 though broken in health1 he created a stir in ,vienna by his interpretations of his own nocturnes4 ,in some respects his playing was akin to ,chopin's highly individual style4 ,to sum up1 it will be seen that ,clementi was the originator of a system of technic that has served as the foundation of modern piano playing2 ,cramer was the conserver of classic style and purity of standard2 ,hummel1 as a brilliant pianist1 had a decided influence on the piano playing of his time1 but as a composer attempted to pass superficial brilliance for the true coin of musical substance2 ,czerny1 one of the greatest educators in the history of piano playing1 has had an immense influence through his invaluable educational works1 and as the teacher of ,franz ,liszt1 the epitome of modern piano playing1 and also of ,theodore ,leschetizky1 possibly the foremost teacher of the present day2 ,moscheles1 the classic pianist1 gave decided impetus to the cause of romanticism by his best compositions2 ,field1 though the pupil of ,clementi1 prepared the way through his own individuality for the greatest piano composer of the ,romantic period1 ,chopin1 and thus became an important factor in the transition from the ,classic to the ,romantic period4 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 articles on ,pianoforte ,playing and players mentioned in this lesson4 ,weitzmann4--,history of ,piano ,playing4 ,bie4--,the ,piano4 ,fillmore4--,pianoforte ,music4 ,,questions4 ,what composers form the transition from the ,classic to the ,romantic school8 ,give a summary of this transition period4 ,give a sketch of ,clementi4 ,what was ,clementi's greatest work8 ,what were his contributions to piano playing8 ,give a sketch of ,cramer4 ,what work is most representative of ,cramer as a composer8 ,mention his contributions to piano playing4 ,give an account of ,hummel's life4 ,what classic pianist was a pupil of ,mozart8 ,what was his influence on piano playing8 ,give a sketch of ,czerny's career4 ,who were ,czerny's most famous pupils8 ,what influence did he exert on piano playing8 ,give a sketch of ,moscheles' life4 ,what composer was the intimate friend of ,moscheles8 ,what is the value of his educational works8 ,give a sketch of ,field's career and his influence on piano playing4 ,what form did ,field originate8 ,illustration3 ,,franz ,,peter ,,schubert4 ,,lesson ,,xlii4 ,,franz ,,peter ,,schubert4 ,the rise of the ,romantic school involves a greater freedom in form1 a fuller play of poetry and imagination1 a general artistic evolution and independence in comparison with the formality of the ,classic period4 ,the struggle to establish these principles was long and obstinate1 but the outcome was as inevitable as the victory won by ,beethoven's sonata and symphonic forms over the more primitive types of ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,the first departures from the classic attitude were made by ,schubert1 whose influence has been permanent in the development of romanticism4 ,schubert's ,early ,life 7#agig-ahaf74--;,franz ,peter ,schubert was born in a suburb of ,vienna1 ,january #ca1 #agig4 ,at an early age he had lessons on the violin from his father1 who was a school teacher1 and on the piano1 from his elder brother4 ,he so quickly outstripped both teachers that he was sent to ,michael ,holzer1 choir-master of the parish1 who taught him piano1 organ1 violin1 singing and theory4 ,in later years1 ,holzer disclaimed the value of his instruction1 saying3 8,if ,i ever wished to teach him anything new1 ,i found he had already mastered it40 ,after singing in the parish choir1 he passed an examination for admission to the ,imperial ,convict or school for the ,royal choristers4 ,the training included general education as well as music2 there was also an orchestra among the boys in which ,schubert played the violin and sometimes conducted4 ,there were privations connected with life at the ,convict1 the practice rooms were insufferably cold1 and the food insufficient4 ,in #ahaj1 ,schubert began to compose1 dating his pieces carefully1 and the only check to his inspiration was the lack of music-paper1 which he was too poor to buy4 ,a generous friend made up the deficiency4 ,in #ahac1 he left the ,convict1 although his general education was by no means complete1 since he had neglected his studies on account of his increasing passion for composition4 ,after leaving the ,convict1 ,schubert taught elementary classes at his father's school1 but the drudgery became insupportable4 ,an ardent friend and admirer1 ,franz von ,schober1 realizing that ,schubert's creative powers were greatly hampered by the conditions of his life1 gave him a home4 ,already he had composed some of his most famous songs1 including 8,the ,erl-,king40 ,later ,years 7#ahaf-ahbh74--;,from #ahaf on1 ,schubert appears to have lived in ,schober's apartments1 except for two years shared with the poet ,mayerhofer1 and a period spent with a friend1 ,schwind4 ,it is a mystery how ,schubert managed to live1 for he taught little1 and his few publications could have brought him at best only small sums at irregular intervals4 ,he had already failed to secure a position in a ,government school of music1 but in #ahah he passed the summer as music teacher to the household of ,count ,johann ,esterhazy1 in ,zelescz1 ,hungary4 ,the record of his life hereafter is one of incessant composition1 with few interruptions or facts of interest4 ,in #ahbc1 he showed ,weber his eighth work for the stage3 8,alfonso and ,estrella40 ,the only advice he received was that 8first operas1 like first puppies1 should be drowned40 ,the summer of #ahbd was spent again with the ,esterhazys and many characteristic compositions1 such as the quartet in ,a minor1 the 8,hungarian ,divertissement10 the piano sonata in ,b-flat1 etc41 date from this time4 ,in #ahbf1 ,schubert failed to obtain either of two positions1 which would have placed him above need1 the second because1 like ,beethoven1 he refused to alter a trial aria to suit the voice of a capricious singer4 ,schubert was taken to see ,beethoven during his last illness1 in #ahbg4 ,in #ahbh1 he went to live with his brother ,ferdinand in a new and damp house4 ,his health1 which had been troublesome before1 now gave way1 and he died of typhoid fever1 ,november #bh1 #ahbh1 in his thirty-second year4 ,personal ,traits and ,habits of ,work4--,schubert was short of stature1 thickset and rather heavy in features4 ,his face in repose was rather devoid of expression1 but when interested in anything1 his eyes glowed with enthusiasm and his whole appearance changed4 ,his disposition was even and good-tempered1 he was simple and trusting by nature1 and could rarely be induced to put himself forward4 ,although receiving many favors from friends1 his generosity often led him to give to others when he could ill spare it4 ,he began composing early in the morning and worked uninterruptedly for several hours2 he walked much in the afternoon or paid visits to friends1 spending his evenings with congenial spirits at various taverns4 ,composing was the mainspring of his existence1 and he often wrote down his ideas while in the midst of conversation with others4 ,thus he wrote his immortal 8,serenade0 on the back of a bill-of-fare at a tavern2 a piece for four-hands while waiting at a hospital for a friend1 8and dinner missed in consequence02 a movement of a string quartet was begun about midnight and finished in the early morning4 ,although he set many poems by ,goethe1 ,schiller and ,heine1 his inspiration was quite as effectively aroused by second-rate poems of his friends ,mayerhofer1 von ,schober1 or the artless poems of ,mller4 ,schubert was shy and reserved in what might be called 8good society02 he preferred the company of congenial friends in an humbler social station4 ,he seems to have cared little for literature1 and his love of poetry was limited to its availability as texts for songs4 ,in early life he played the violin and the viola in a family string quartet4 ,schubert was no virtuoso on the piano1 but he played exquisite accompaniments1 and he read well at sight in spite of defective eyesight4 ,his performance was marked by earnestness and attention to the inner sentiment of the music rather than by the superficial polish of the mere pianist4 ,it was said that no one could forget the effect of ,schubert's songs as performed by himself and his friend ,vogl2 the two seemed absolutely united1 the ideal condition for the rendering of vocal works4 ,schubert's ,compositions4--,schubert completed more than eleven hundred pieces in about eighteen years4 ,such fertility is unique in the history of composition1 and is scarcely equalled even by ,mozart1 whose activity extended over nearly thirty years4 ,schubert's powers of spontaneous invention have never been approached2 he composed generally without making sketches2 he seldom revised1 for his ideas came faster than he could write them down4 ,it is impossible to enumerate all ,schubert's works1 but the following comprise the most important3 ,nine symphonies1 eleven works for the stage1 six masses1 over seventy part-songs1 choruses1 etc41 for various combinations1 twenty-four sonatas for piano1 fantasies1 overtures1 variations1 marches and dances for piano duet1 impromptus1 moments musicals1 fantasies1 variations and over two hundred dances for piano solo1 two trios for piano and strings1 a quintet for strings and piano1 a string quintet and several string trios1 twenty-four string quartets1 besides about six hundred songs with piano accompaniment and occasionally with obligatos for other instruments4 ,it is obvious that such fertility is not consistent with evenness of quality2 we must pick and choose to find the real ,schubert4 ,however1 the symphonies in ,c and ,b minor 78,unfinished071 the string quartets in ,d minor and ,g major1 several sonatas for piano1 the impromptus1 moments musicals1 the fantasy in ,c for piano1 the ,hungarian ,divertissement1 several marches and other compositions for four hands1 many charming two-hand waltzes1 and1 finally1 such song-cycles as the 8,miller-,songs10 the 8,winter ,journey10 those called 8,swan-,songs0 by the publishers1 as well as about thirty separate songs 8,the ,erl-,king10 8,the ,wanderer10 8,to ,sylvia10 8,the ,omnipotent10 8,the ,young ,nun10 the 8,serenade10 8,hark6 ,hark6 the ,lark10 8,sei mir ,gegrsst10 8,du bist die ,ruh10 8,ave ,maria10 8,litany10 and others1 are the works of ,schubert which will live4 ,schubert at his best entrances us by his wonderful flow of melody1 his spontaneity1 his symmetrical form1 which1 however1 is sometimes diffuse4 ,his chief qualities lie in the simple expressiveness of his music1 a direct appeal to sincerity of emotion1 and to the sense of the poetic4 ,he began by imitating the form and style of ,mozart and ,beethoven2 but from his eighteenth year onward he developed an individuality entirely apart4 ,despite the virtues of his instrumental music1 his great achievement was the creation of the ,german song1 in which department he stands unrivalled in the inexhaustibility of his melody1 the variety of mood which they display1 the subtlety and harmonic beauty of his accompaniments1 as well as art in creating vocal effects4 ,schubert's ,influence on ,music4--,in abundance of resource1 poetic feeling and true imagination1 ,schubert has brought new forces into music4 ,his influence on romantic composers was widespread and deep4 ,schumann was a thorough admirer of ,schubert4 ,schumann's songs could hardly have come into existence but for those of ,schubert1 and the latter's short pieces for piano were undoubtedly as potent an inspiration for his piano works4 ,brahms1 too1 had a real reverence for ,schubert1 that is plainly exhibited in his works4 ,despite the differences of their artistic individuality1 there are traces of ,schubert in the former's songs as well as in some of his short piano pieces4 ,liszt's partiality to ,schubert was untiring in its zeal4 ,he played his piano music1 transcribed the 8,hungarian ,divertissement10 arranged some of the marches for two hands and for orchestra2 he made a version of the fantasy in ,c for piano and orchestra1 which is still popular2 and1 finally 7perhaps his greatest service to ,schubert7 he transcribed no less than fifty-seven of his songs for piano4 ,in this form he created an interest in ,schubert where the original versions were unknown1 and did much to spread their renown4 ,in spite of all shortcomings1 ,schubert's genius was so remarkable1 and his immediate effect upon the ,romantic movement so apparent and his legacy to the musical world so imperishable that it is difficult not to agree with ,sir ,george ,grove when he wrote3 8,there has never been one like him and there never will be another40 ,,references4 ,grove4--,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 article on ,schubert4 ,frost4--,life of ,schubert4 ,von ,hellborn4--,life of ,franz ,schubert4 ,dvok4--,franz ,schubert4 7,century ,library of ,music47 ,,questions4 ,from what rank in life did ,schubert come8 ,give the leading incidents in his life4 ,what kind of man was he physically1 mentally and socially8 ,how did ,schubert compose8 ,in what forms of composition did ,schubert work8 ,what form of composition did he especially enrich8 ,which of his productions have the greatest vogue today8 ,what influence did ,schubert exert on music8 ,who did much to spread a knowledge of his works8 ,name some composers who have felt his force4 ,,lesson ,,xliii4 ,,weber4 ,,mendelssohn4 ,schubert's operas had no appreciable effect on the ,romantic composers1 for the simple reason that they were never heard on account of the absurdities of their librettos and the weakness of their stage situations4 ,at about the same period1 a slightly older composer was beginning a series of works destined to place ,german ,opera on a firm basis1 to exercise a decided influence on ,wagner1 besides contributing not a little to the development of piano technic4 ,carl ,maria ,friedrich ,ernst von ,weber was born at ,eutin1 ,december #ah1 #aghf4 ,his father1 a restless man of many talents1 was a theatrical manager during ,weber's early years1 when constant traveling was the rule1 and music lessons the exception4 ,his irregular early instruction under several teachers1 of whom ,michael ,haydn was the most eminent1 was supplemented by two years of solid study under the gifted and eccentric ,abb ,vogler4 ,from #ahjd to #ahjf1 ,weber was music-director at the ,breslau theatre1 and soon made a name for himself as composer and pianist as well as conductor4 ,after this he remained under the protection of the ,duke of ,wurtemburg1 earning a living by giving lessons1 and acting as secretary to the ,duke's brother4 ,during this period he composed an opera 8,silvana10 overtures1 a cantata1 piano music1 etc4 ,three years of wandering1 chiefly on concert tours1 ensued after his banishment from ,wurtemburg on account of unjustly suspected complicity in an intrigue for a position at court4 ,to these years belong a comic opera1 8,abu ,hassan10 the piano concertos in ,c and ,e-flat1 three concertos for clarinet1 the piano sonata in ,c1 etc4 ,in #ahad and #ahae1 he composed the choruses1 8,lyre and ,sword10 and a cantata1 8,battle and ,victory10 both the outcome of political events1 and widely popular from their patriotic character4 ,in #ahaf1 he became music-director of the ,german opera at ,dresden4 ,he revived interest in ,german opera1 stimulated public support and in the following years began the composition of 8,der ,freischtz10 an opera thoroughly ,german in its character and the keystone of ,weber's fame4 ,it was not finished until #ahbj1 for in the meantime he wrote much of his best piano music1 songs and incidental music for a gipsy play 8,preciosa40 ,just after the completion of his popular ,concert-piece for piano and orchestra1 8,der ,freischtz0 was given for the first time at ,berlin1 ,june #ah1 #ahba1 and the result was one of the greatest triumphs ever bestowed on a ,german composer4 ,it was soon given in all the principal theatres in ,germany1 including ,dresden1 and also in ,vienna4 ,in #ahbc1 ,weber's most ambitious opera1 8,euryanthe10 was given in ,vienna and proved almost a failure4 ,weber's health1 which had not been satisfactory for some years1 showed signs of being undermined4 8,euryanthe0 was performed with greater success during #ahbd and #ahbe1 at ,dresden1 ,leipzig and ,berlin1 where ,weber was almost too ill to conduct4 ,in spite of his ill-health he agreed to write an opera for the ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 in ,london1 beginning the music to 8,oberon0 early in #ahbe and finishing the last number in the spring of #ahbf4 ,the performances were more than satisfactory1 and ,weber was received everywhere with enthusiasm4 ,his strength was now entirely overtaxed1 and he hoped to return to his family1 but he died suddenly from consumption1 on ,june #d1 #ahbf4 ,weber's personality was pleasing2 of excellent birth1 his experience of the world through his positions as opera-director and his frequent concert-tours1 made him an agreeable companion and a favorite in society4 ,he was cultivated1 well read in philosophy and science2 he possessed considerable literary and critical ability4 ,in consequence of his intellectual and social gifts1 he was a new type of musician1 who did much to improve the social status of the composer4 ,he was a remarkable pianist1 with an immense command of technic1 original in style and eloquent in expression2 also a forceful conductor4 ,weber the ,composer4--,weber is1 first of all1 the composer of the three operas1 8,der ,freischtz10 8,euryanthe0 and 8,oberon10 which are discussed in ,lesson ,,xxxvii4 ,the overtures to his operas are his best orchestral works2 his symphonies and chamber-music are unimportant4 ,however1 his three concertos for clarinet and orchestra are classics in the literature of that instrument4 ,weber's songs are interesting for the sidelight they throw on the development of the ,folk-song tendency1 but in this line he was entirely overshadowed by ,schubert and ,schumann4 ,however1 ,weber's piano music is exceedingly important4 ,the concertos for piano are seldom heard1 but the 8,concert-piece0 is still amply worth study4 ,the piano sonatas 7especially those in ,c and ,a-flat7 show great technical inventiveness1 melodic charm and original effects1 but they are less happy in point of form4 ,next to the sonatas in interest comes the delightful ,op4 #fe1 8,invitation to the ,dance10 so well-known in ,berlioz' orchestral version4 ,in addition are the 8,momento ,capriccioso10 ,op4 #ab1 the ,rondo in ,e-flat1 ,op4 #fb1 the 8,polacca ,brillante10 ,op4 #gb1 the ,polonaise1 ,op4 #ba4 ,weber did much to develop the technic of the left hand2 his piano compositions are thoroughly pianistic and rank high in the music of the ,romantic period4 ,weber's ,influence4--,weber's position in the evolution of the ,romantic school is extremely important4 ,in ,opera his exploration of the imaginative field in so many directions not only opened a new vein in dramatic music1 but its influence was felt in every branch of composition4 ,thus several of ,schumann's choral works1 ,mendelssohn's 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 music1 the 8,walpurgis ,night0 cantata1 the concert overtures1 and pieces for piano and orchestra are direct musical descendants of ,weber4 ,mendelssohn's ,concerto in ,g minor1 the 8,serenade0 and 8,allegro ,giojoso10 his scherzos and 8,songs ,without ,words0 are the direct outcome of ,weber's example4 ,in general1 the technical style of ,weber's piano music was thoroughly absorbed by both ,mendelssohn and1 to some extent1 ,liszt1 who edited ,weber's sonatas and solo pieces with tempting additions2 he transcribed for piano the overtures 8,jubilee10 8,freischtz0 and 8,oberon10 and arranged the 8,polacca ,brillante10 ,op4 #gb1 for piano and orchestra4 ,liszt was very fond of ,weber's music1 his piano style was sympathetic to him1 his interpretation of the ,concert-piece1 ,op4 #gi1 never failed to produce an overwhelming effect4 ,finally1 ,weber's influence on ,wagner must be mentioned4 ,wagner greatly admired ,weber's dramatic insight1 his picturesqueness1 and especially the poetry and novel color of his orchestral style4 ,,mendelssohn4 ,the influence which ,mendelssohn exercised during two-thirds of the #aith century among the more conservative ,german musicians and in ,england was nothing short of extraordinary4 ,he undoubtedly gave great impetus to the study of the classic masters1 especially ,bach1 and his romantic tendencies were so balanced and controlled as to gain a speedy recognition for his music4 ,today1 ,mendelssohn the classicist is less admired1 and his music will live chiefly for its romantic qualities4 ,mendelssohn's ,life4--,jakob ,ludwig ,felix ,mendelssohn-,bartholdy#ae was born at ,hamburg1 ,february #c1 #ahji4 ,his father1 a prosperous banker1 moved to ,berlin in #ahaa4 ,his first lessons in music were given him by his mother1 but he soon began to study the piano with ,ludwig ,berger1 a pupil of ,clementi1 and composition with ,zelter4 ,in #ahbj1 he began to compose systematically4 ,in #ahba1 he made the acquaintance of ,weber1 and his enthusiasm for the romantic composer lasted all his life4 ,in #ahbd1 he formed a life-long friendship with ,moscheles1 who gave him piano lessons4 ,already he was remarkable for his improvisations and for playing from scores4 ,in #ahbe1 a trip to ,paris brought him into contact with the celebrated musicians there4 ,in this year he composed his octet for strings1 in which his individuality first asserted itself strongly4 ,in the following summer he wrote the overture to 8,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 a precocious evidence of originality4 ,in #ahbg1 he made the first draft of his overture 8,a ,calm ,sea and a ,prosperous ,voyage10 a further step into the realm of imagination4 ,in #ahbi1 he organized the first performance of ,bach's 8,st4 ,matthew ,passion0 music since the composer's death4 ,in this year a visit to ,england1 where some of his compositions were performed1 was followed by a trip to ,scotland1 the ,hebrides and ,wales1 of which his impressions are recorded in the 8,hebrides0 overture1 the 8,scotch0 symphony and other works of later years4 ,he traveled much during the following years4 ,in #ahcc1 after another visit to ,england1 where his recently composed 8,italian0 symphony was played1 he conducted a musical festival at ,dsseldorf1 the first of many similar engagements4 ,during the next few years he was constantly employed in conducting1 playing and composing1 especially his oratorio 8,st4 ,paul40 ,in #ahcg1 he married ,miss ,ccile ,jeanrenaud4 ,from this time dates his second piano concerto in ,d minor1 in which are to be seen traces of ,thalberg's piano style4 ,during the next few years ,mendelssohn lived at ,leipzig4 ,in #ahdc1 he established a conservatory at ,leipzig1 long the most celebrated in ,europe4 ,schumann1 and later ,moscheles1 were among the teachers as well as ,mendelssohn himself4 ,in #ahdf1 ,mendelssohn's oratorio 8,elijah0 was given a triumphant first performance at ,birmingham under the composer's direction4 ,in #ahdg1 he made his tenth visit to ,england for performances of 8,elijah10 of his completed 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 music 7composed in #ahde71 the 8,scotch0 symphony and other works4 ,the death of his sister1 ,fanny1 following soon after those of his parents1 was so great a shock to him that he went to ,switzerland for a rest4 ,he returned improved in health1 but could not consider commissions for new works from ,england1 ,frankfort and ,cologne4 ,he was considering a trip to ,vienna to hear ,jenny ,lind sing in 8,elijah0 when he was taken suddenly ill and died1 ,november #d1 #ahdg4 ,personal ,traits4--,mendelssohn is described as having an unusually animated1 winning personality4 ,he was immensely fond of society1 which he could enjoy without detriment to his work4 ,his letters describe in detail his innumerable professional engagements1 his round of social festivities and his journeys with equal fidelity4 ,mendelssohn was fond of out-of-door life1 walking1 riding and swimming2 he also greatly enjoyed dancing4 ,one of his favorite relaxations was to sketch from nature or paint in water-colors4 ,mendelssohn was a remarkable pianist1 of an unaffected type1 not a virtuoso1 yet his interpretations were full of vigor1 charm and a thoroughly musical spirit4 ,his improvisations were remarkable for their spontaneous invention1 brilliance and science displayed1 and his cadenzas to ,beethoven's #dth concerto and ,mozart's1 in ,d minor1 were striking examples of his skill4 ,mendelssohn was also a remarkable organist1 if ,english testimony is to be credited4 ,at all events1 he did much to further the knowledge of ,bach's organ works4 ,mendelssohn's incessant activity undoubtedly hastened his death2 the amount that he compressed into his short life was incredible4 ,compositions4--,the works most representative of ,mendelssohn are the 8,scotch0 and 8,italian0 symphonies1 the overtures 8,a ,calm ,sea and a ,prosperous ,voyage10 8,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 8,the ,hebrides10 8,melusina10 8,ruy ,blas02 the concertos and two smaller pieces for piano and orchestra2 the concerto for violin2 the octet for strings2 two quintets and seven quartets2 three quartets for piano and strings2 two trios2 two sonatas for piano and 'cello2 for the piano1 six preludes and fugues2 three sonatas2 the 8,serious ,variations02 six books of 8,songs ,without ,words02 many smaller pieces1 including the 8,capriccio10 ,op4 #h2 the 8,rondo ,capriccioso10 ,op4 #ad2 the ,caprices1 ,op4 #cc2 the ,scherzo ,capriccio and others2 sonatas1 preludes and fugues for organ2 the oratorios 8,st4 ,paul10 and 8,elijah02 music to 8,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 to the dramas 8,athalie10 8,antigone0 and 8dipus02 the cantata 8,walpurgis ,night40 ,he also wrote a great deal of church music1 psalms1 hymns1 motets1 and cantatas for various occasions1 including the 8,lobgesang10 a symphony-cantata2 many part-songs1 duets and songs for single voice with piano accompaniment4 ,illustration3 ,,felix ,,mendelssohn-,,bartholdy4 ,mendelssohn's ,tendencies4--,although he wrote almost exclusively in the conventional forms1 ,mendelssohn cannot be regarded as a continuator of the classics4 ,in form1 thematic development1 counterpoint1 part-writing1 etc41 he imitated the letter of classic example closely1 but could not attain the inner spirit4 ,to some extent he followed ,bach1 ,handel1 ,mozart and ,beethoven1 but the chief source of his individuality is the romanticism of ,weber4 ,his piano style is adapted from that of ,weber with some extensions of his own4 ,showered with praise as he was during his lifetime1 as the possessor of all the classic virtues1 we now admire him chiefly for his romanticism1 timid and fastidious though it appears by comparison with the genuine innovations of ,berlioz1 ,liszt and ,wagner4 ,in the light of the sturdy qualities of ,brahms1 his classicism seems superficial4 ,his style was too polished to admit of real vigor4 ,nevertheless1 ,mendelssohn of the two symphonies1 the 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 8,melusina0 and 8,hebrides0 overture1 the violin concerto1 the piano concerto in ,g minor1 the sonata for piano and 'cello in ,d1 the scherzo of the octet1 the 8,serious ,variations10 the ,scherzo ,capriccio and some half a dozen of the 8,songs ,without ,words0 shows us a delicate and charming individuality with the refinement and decided perceptions of the poet1 who regarded the world with the eyes of a romanticist recording many impressions of picturesqueness and grace1 if seldom of strength4 ,mendelssohn's ,influence as an ,artist4--,for a time1 ,mendelssohn's influence was unbounded4 ,his symphonies and overtures were considered worthy successors to those of ,beethoven2 his chamber-music was equally valued2 his oratorios were regarded as on a level with those of ,handel2 his piano music1 especially the 8,songs ,without ,words10 were in universal vogue4 ,his orchestral style contained many novel features1 it is true1 but his chamber-music was not written in the genuine manner and is far inferior to that of the later master1 ,brahms4 ,his oratorios contain some notable choruses and airs1 but on the whole are only faint imitations of the real oratorio style4 ,still they sufficed to form the foundation of an ,english school of composition in this form4 ,his piano music contains much that is trivial1 but at its best undoubtedly did something to prepare the way for the deeper romanticism of ,schumann1 ,chopin and ,liszt4 ,his songs also have far less variety of mood and lyric inspiration than those of ,schubert and ,schumann1 but they too acted as prophets of the more vital creations to follow4 ,that this reverence for ,mendelssohn was no mere infatuation of the moment but a sober respect can best be judged from the diversity in nationality and temperament of those who came under his influence3 ,gade1 the ,norwegian2 ,sterndale ,bennett1 the ,english composer and pianist2 ,hiller and ,reinecke among the ,germans1 and ,rubinstein from ,russia4 ,these names constitute but a small proportion of ,mendelssohn's disciples1 his personality dominated musical ,england in every branch of composition for many years2 and ,english composers are only just beginning to throw off the yoke of adherence to the traditional oratorio form as exhibited in 8,st4 ,paul0 and 8,elijah40 ,schumann admired ,mendelssohn without reserve and without a suggestion of jealousy1 although the tide of popular favor neglected him for his more easily understood contemporary4 ,today1 criticism has swung possibly too far in the opposite direction1 and ,mendelssohn suffers from depreciation4 ,,references4 ,grove's and ,riemann's ,dictionaries4--,articles on ,weber and ,mendelssohn4 ,benedict4--,carl ,maria von ,weber4 ,rockstro4--,life of ,mendelssohn4 ,lampadius4--,life of ,mendelssohn4 ,reinecke4--,mendelssohn 7,century ,library of ,music71 ,mendelssohn's ,letters4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,mention the significant events in ,weber's life4 ,describe ,weber the man4 ,sketch the work of ,weber as a composer4 ,show the influence of ,weber upon music4 ,name some of ,weber's best-known piano works4 ,what composers were greatly influenced by ,weber8 ,give an account of ,mendelssohn's boyhood1 manhood4 ,what educational work in music did ,mendelssohn originate8 ,in what lines of musical work did ,mendelssohn excel8 ,name representative compositions of ,mendelssohn4 ,what composers did ,mendelssohn follow8 ,what influence did ,mendelssohn exert on music8 ,for students who wish to study ,weber's characteristics1 the ,momento ,capriccioso1 ,op4 #ab1 the 8,invitation to the ,dance10 ,op4 #fe1 the piano sonatas in ,c and ,a-flat are the most representative1 while the overtures to 8,der ,freischtz10 8,euryanthe0 and 8,oberon0 show his style as a dramatic composer4 ,the following suggestions may aid the student in his study of ,mendelssohn's works3 ,the 8,italian0 and 8,scotch0 symphonies1 the 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 8,hebrides0 and 8,melusina0 overtures1 the ,nocturne and ,scherzo from the 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 music1 the violin concerto1 the concerto in ,g minor and the ,capriccio ,brillante for piano and orchestra1 the pieces for piano1 ,op4 #g1 ,nos4 #c and #g1 the ,rondo ,capriccioso1 ,op4 #ad1 the ,caprice1 ,op4 #af1 ,no4 #b1 the ,prelude and ,fugue1 ,op4 #ce1 ,no4 #a1 the ,serious ,variations1 ,op4 #ed1 the ,scherzo ,capriccio without opus number1 and the following 8,songs ,without ,words10 ,op4 #ai1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #f2 ,op4 #ch1 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #e2 ,op4 #fb1 ,nos4 #c1 #f2 ,op4 #fg1 ,no4 #d1 and ,op4 #ajb1 ,no4 #c4 ,liszt has made an exceedingly effective transcription of ,mendelssohn's song 8,on the ,wings of ,song10 which is a popular concert number today4 ,,lesson ,,xliv4 ,,robert ,,schumann4 ,the ,romantic ,movement before ,schumann4--,schubert gave a decided impetus to the ,romantic movement through his spontaneous melody and deep fund of imagination4 ,he infused poetry into the classic forms1 his piano works in the small forms showed the way to future achievement in these lines1 but especially he founded ,german song1 which had scarcely been hinted at by ,mozart and ,beethoven4 ,although ,weber extended the province of piano technic1 and exhibited further possibilities of romantic feeling in combination with the rondo and sonata forms1 his chief work was the realization of ,german opera1 elsewhere described4 ,but still another ,german was destined to contribute richly to romantic piano literature1 to prove no mean successor to ,schubert in the province of song1 and to add further proofs of his genius in chamber-music1 choral works and the symphony4 ,schumann's ,early life4--,robert ,alexander ,schumann was born at ,zwickau1 in ,saxony1 ,june #h1 #ahaj4 ,his father was a bookseller with some attainments as an author4 ,schumann's gift for music asserted itself early4 ,he had piano lessons from a local organist at the age of six1 and began to compose soon after4 ,a taste for improvisation also developed4 ,for several years his literary interests were as pronounced as those for music4 ,he read assiduously1 and was especially devoted to poetry4 ,his general education was continued at the ,zwickau ,academy1 where he studied until #ahbh4 ,in #ahbg1 he came under the joint influence of the writings of ,jean ,paul 7,richter7 the poet and novelist1 and of ,schubert's music1 both of which played an important part in his mental and artistic growth4 ,in #ahbh1 he entered the ,university of ,leipzig with the intention of studying law4 ,he kept up his music1 however1 and not only became enthusiastic over the clavier works of ,bach1 but took piano lessons of ,friedrich ,wieck1 a celebrated teacher in ,leipzig4 ,in #ahbi1 ,schumann went to ,heidelberg4 ,here he continued his law studies in a desultory fashion1 but worked with the greatest persistence at piano playing4 ,in #ahcj1 he resolved to study law with more seriousness1 but it was intensely repugnant to him1 and after some reflection1 he determined1 with ,wieck's advice1 to adopt music as a profession4 ,accordingly1 he returned to ,leipzig to study the piano with ,wieck1 but having the misfortune to injure a finger in his zeal for speedy perfection1 he was obliged to forego the career of a virtuoso1 perhaps to the great gain of music4 ,schumann's ,professional ,career4--,he now devoted his attention to thorough study of composition with ,heinrich ,dorn4 ,in #ahcd1 ,schumann founded the 8,new ,journal of ,music0 in the interests of a higher critical standard1 and the furtherance of worthy compositions4 ,during ten years of editorship1 ,schumann found abundant outlet for his literary interests1 and his paper exerted a considerable force on public opinion4 ,two of his greatest piano works1 the ,carnival1 ,op4 #i1 and the ,symphonic ,studies1 ,op4 #ac1 belong to the year #ahcd4 ,during the years #ahcf and #ahcg1 he had some intimacy with ,mendelssohn4 ,from #ahcf-ci date most of ,schumann's important works for the piano4 ,in #ahdj1 ,schumann married ,wieck's daughter1 ,clara1 the celebrated pianist1 after several years' struggle to gain her father's consent4 ,schumann's marriage was the turning-point in his artistic career1 and his wife's sympathy was a great stimulus to his creative activity4 ,in the year following his marriage1 ,schumann turned to song-composing1 producing more than one hundred songs in this period4 ,in #ahda1 he gave himself up wholly to orchestral composition1 writing his symphony in ,b-flat1 the first draft of his ,d minor symphony1 a third work1 afterwards published as ,overture1 ,scherzo and ,finale1 as well as the first movement of his piano concerto4 ,in #ahdb1 he confined himself almost exclusively to chamber-music1 composing three string quartets1 the masterly quintet1 ,op4 #dd1 the quartet1 ,op4 #dg1 for piano and strings1 and a trio4 ,to #ahde belong the 8,variations0 for two pianos1 and a large choral work1 8,paradise and the ,peri40 ,in #ahdd1 ,schumann began the music to ,goethe's 8,faust10 but ill-health interrupted him for more than a year4 ,however1 in #ahde he completed the piano concerto1 wrote several works for pedal piano1 and in #ahdf finished his second symphony4 ,in #ahdg1 he began his opera 8,genoveva10 which was not given until #ahej4 ,late in #ahej he went to ,dsseldorf to take a position as director4 ,while here he composed his third symphony4 ,in the following years he wrote several overtures1 works for solo instruments and orchestra1 the overture and incidental music to ,byron's 8,manfred10 8,the ,pilgrimage of the ,rose0 and many other choral works1 including a ,mass and a ,requiem4 ,early in #ahed1 symptoms of a mental disorder1 which had been increasing of late years1 culminated in an attempt at suicide4 ,he passed the remaining years of his life in an asylum near ,bonn1 where he died ,july #bi1 #ahef4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,,schumann4 ,schumann's ,personality4--,by reason of his two-fold activity as critic and composer1 ,schumann was a new force in music4 ,highly cultivated in literature1 philosophy and poetry1 he possessed a keen and discerning critical taste1 and a literary style that was picturesque and eloquent4 ,schumann was shy and reserved by nature1 he talked little but observed and reflected abundantly4 ,he was never fond of society1 and as years went by he lived more and more like a hermit1 absorbed in composition and family life4 ,for ten years1 however1 he was in touch with the public by reason of his editorship of the 8,new ,journal10 and by his championship therein of all that was good and progressive in the music of the day1 did much for the encouragement of true art4 ,his articles on ,schubert1 ,mendelssohn1 ,gade1 ,chopin1 ,berlioz1 ,liszt1 ,brahms and others formed a new epoch in musical criticism1 and helped the cause of ,romanticism immeasurably4 ,no estimate of ,schumann's character is complete without taking into account these distinct tendencies as critic and composer4 ,his collected writings give a graphic illustration of his views on music1 and form a supplement to his personality as expressed in his music4 ,schumann's ,compositions4--,schumann's most representative works include four symphonies and the 8,overture1 ,scherzo and ,finale10 the overtures 8,genoveva0 and 8,manfred02 three string quartets1 a piano quintet1 a piano quartet1 three piano trios and two sonatas for piano and violin2 the music to 8,faust0 and 8,manfred02 8,paradise and the ,peri10 8,the ,pilgrimage of the ,rose0 and other works for solos1 chorus and orchestra2 more than two hundred songs2 the piano concerto and two smaller works for piano and orchestra1 besides a monumental series of works for piano alone4 ,in addition there are duets1 part-songs1 choruses1 pieces for piano duet1 a concert piece for four horns and orchestra1 a concerto for 'cello and orchestra1 a fantasy for violin and orchestra1 besides short pieces for oboe1 viola1 clarinet and 'cello with piano accompaniment1 the opera 8,genoveva10 the overtures 8,the ,bride of ,messina10 8,julius ,csar0 and 8,herman and ,dorothea10 the ,mass1 ,op4 #adg1 and the ,requiem1 ,op4 #adh4 ,it will be seen that ,schumann wrote much in the sonata or symphonic form1 yet his command of it was far from complete4 ,in this respect and in instrumentation1 ,schumann was inferior to his romantic contemporary1 ,mendelssohn4 ,on the other hand1 he was far more original and his music has a much greater depth of sentiment1 a higher sense of beauty and a noble human breadth that forms one of the highest points in the development of romanticism4 ,what he lacked in technical attainment1 he more than made up in beauty of themes1 vigor and spontaneity of treatment1 and thorough-going romanticism in moods4 ,it is difficult to say which is his best symphony1 they all have merits of their own2 of the overtures1 that to 8,genoveva0 7almost the only surviving portion of the opera7 and 8,manfred0 are examples of ,schumann's ardent romanticism at its best4 ,the string-quartets are not always in quartet style and their structure is sometimes open to criticism1 but they are individual and contain much that is beautiful4 ,the piano-quartet is a genial work of great spontaneity that took ,europe by storm4 ,it was immediately hailed as the greatest work since ,beethoven1 although its position might now be assailed by the piano quintets by ,brahms and ,csar ,franck4 ,the piano quartet1 as well as the quintet1 is a pioneer in this form of chamber-music1 but has not the same flow of melody as the former4 ,the trios and sonatas for violin and piano1 although not on a level with the other chamber-music1 have nevertheless striking qualities to commend them4 ,schumann's choral music is decidedly unequal1 but the 8,paradise and the ,peri10 and portions of the 8,faust0 and 8,manfred0 music display the same breadth of human emotion so characteristic of his best music4 ,in the field of song1 ,schumann is a worthy successor to ,schubert4 ,schumann's songs have not the inexhaustible melody of ,schubert's1 but they are richer harmonically1 the accompaniments more individual1 and the character of the poems more subtly brought out4 ,schumann's ,contribution to the ,short ,piece4--,perhaps ,schumann's most conspicuous service to music lies in his development of the short piece4 ,in this direction he has cultivated a branch of expression1 with an originality1 a freedom and a richness that have no parallel in the ,romantic movement except in ,chopin4 ,mendelssohn undoubtedly did something for the short piece1 but his 8,songs ,without ,words0 are limited to a few types1 while ,schumann made the short form serve every variety of expression4 ,he undoubtedly owed much to the examples of ,schubert with his waltzes and other dances1 the impromptus and moments musicals1 but in richness of resource and spontaneity of expression he went much beyond the older master4 ,his piano style is highly distinctive2 it does not offer much that is new in finger technic1 but in polyphonic treatment of melodies1 in striking rhythms and harmonic effects and in original use of the pedal it is remarkable4 ,both in the sets of small pieces1 such as the 8,papillons10 ,op4 #b1 the 8,davidsbund ,dances10 ,op4 #f1 the 8,carnival10 ,op4 #i1 or the ,flower pieces1 ,op4 #ai1 and in the ,novellettes1 ,op4 #ba1 the ,fantasie pieces1 ,op4 #ab1 the ,symphonic ,studies1 ,op4 #ae1 the ,toccata1 ,op4 #g1 and the great ,fantasy1 ,op4 #ag1 ,schumann displays a wealth of imaginative poetry that makes him one of the greatest romanticists in piano music4 ,his piano works from ,op4 #b to ,op4 #bh are matchless1 although the sonatas1 ,op4 #aa and #bb1 suffer from lack of coherence4 ,the variations for two pianos1 ,op4 #df1 and the concerto1 ,op4 #ed1 are models of their type4 ,the 8,album for the ,young10 ,op4 #fh1 the 8,forest ,scenes10 ,op4 #hb1 the 8,varied ,leaves10 ,op4 #ii1 and the 8,album ,leaves10 ,op4 #abd1 are all admirable1 and contain a great variety of short pieces1 many of which were composed early in his career4 ,schumann's songs and piano pieces are the best examples of his contribution to romanticism4 ,schubert and ,jean ,paul ,richter 7the romantic novelist and poet7 were the earliest influences in ,schumann's studies1 nevertheless he admired ,beethoven greatly1 and shut himself up with his quartets as a preparation for his own chamber-music4 ,as a student in ,leipzig1 he was devoted to ,bach's clavier works1 and later in life he renewed his enthusiasm for ,bach while writing the works for pedal piano and the piano fugues4 ,fugal form and romantic sentiment do not go well together1 however1 and ,schumann's compositions in this form are not his greatest4 ,schumann's influence is strongest upon composers of songs and short piano pieces4 ,it would be difficult to name even the most representative1 but the most signal example is ,brahms1 whose songs and piano pieces could hardly exist but for ,schumann4 ,in many of the modern ,russian composers we find distinct traces of ,schumann1 as well as among the ,frenchmen ,gabriel ,faur and ,vincent d',indy1 the ,german ,adolf ,jensen1 the ,italian ,sgambati1 and many others4 ,compositions ,suggested for ,study4--,the symphonies1 overtures1 the chamber-music and the larger choral works are all characteristic of ,schumann at his best1 but for more detailed study of his piano music and songs the following are suggested4 ,of the piano works1 the 8,papillons10 ,op4 #b2 the 8,paganini ,caprice10 ,op4 #c1 ,no4 #b2 the 8,davidsbund0 dances1 ,op4 #f1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #ah2 the 8,toccata10 ,op4 #g2 the 8,carnival10 ,op4 #i2 the ,sonata1 ,op4 #aa1 especially the 8,aria0 and 8,scherzo02 the 8,fantasy ,pieces10 ,op4 #ab1 entire except the 8,fable02 the 8,symphonic ,studies10 ,op4 #ac2 the 8,scenes from ,childhood10 ,op4 #ae1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i and #ac2 the 8,kreisleriana10 ,op4 #af1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e and #h2 the 8,arabesque10 ,op4 #ah2 the 8,flower ,pieces10 ,op4 #ai2 the 8,humoreskes10 ,op4 #bj2 the 8,novellettes10 ,op4 #ba1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g and #h2 the ,sonata1 ,op4 #bb2 the 8,night ,piece10 ,op4 #bc1 ,no4 #d2 the 8,carnival ,prank10 ,op4 #bf1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c and #d2 the 8,romance10 ,op4 #bh1 ,no4 #b2 the ,variations for two pianos1 ,op4 #df2 the ,concerto1 ,op4 #ed2 the 8,album for the ,young10 ,op4 #fh2 8,the ,happy ,farmer10 8,may1 ,lovely ,may10 8,first ,loss10 8,small ,romance10 8,remembrance10 ,november #d1 #ahdg 7the date of ,mendelssohn's death72 8,canonic ,song10 8,theme10 two pieces without name1 8,northern ,song02 ,op4 #gf1 ,nos4 #a1 #c and #d2 8,forest ,scenes10 ,op4 #hb2 8,entrance10 8,lovely ,flower10 8,inn10 8,bird as ,prophet10 8,hunting ,song10 8,elves02 ,op4 #ii1 ,album ,leaf1 and ,novellette2 8,album ,leaves10 ,op4 #abd1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #aj1 #ac1 #ae and #ag4 ,of the songs3 8,dedication10 8,the ,nut ,tree10 8,the ,lotus ,flower10 8,highland ,cradle ,song10 8,two ,venetian ,songs10 8,thou ,art like a ,flower10 and 8,conclusion10 8,the ,boy with the ,magic ,horn10 8,to the ,sunshine10 8,forest ,dialogue10 8,moonlight10 8,spring ,night10 8,woman's ,love and ,life10 8,spring ,journey10 8,in the ,wondrous ,month of ,may10 8,from ,my ,tears10 8,the ,roses1 the ,lily10 8,when ,i ,look into ,thine ,eyes10 8,i ,grudge it ,not10 8,the ,two ,grenadiers10 8,folk-,song40 ,,references4 ,grove's and ,riemann's ,dictionaries4--,article on ,schumann4 ,grieg4--,robert ,schumann 7,century ,library of ,music74 ,hadow4--,studies in ,modern ,music4 7,chapter on ,schumann47 ,maitland4--,schumann4 ,wasielewski4--,life of ,schumann4 ,finck4--,chopin and ,other ,essays4 7,chapter on ,schumann47 ,,questions4 ,who represented the ,romantic movement prior to ,schumann8 ,give the important events in ,schumann's early life4 ,give the important events in ,schumann's professional career4 ,give an account of ,schumann as a man and as a critic4 ,how did ,schumann help in musical progress8 ,what composers influenced him in his development8 ,in what forms did ,schumann write8 ,name representative works in the different forms4 ,what contribution did ,schumann make to the development of the short piano piece8 ,what composers did ,schumann influence8 ,illustration3 ,,frederic ,,chopin4 ,,lesson ,,xlv4 ,,frederic ,,chopin4 ,schumann and ,chopin4--,among ,schumann's many able reviews of new music1 showing the keenest critical insight1 none exhibit a more just appreciation of an original talent than his article on some variations by a young composer who was destined to exert so deep and widespread an influence on piano style and piano composition4 ,chopin's romanticism1 somewhat affected at first by both ,hummel and ,field1 is one of the most individual developments of the entire period4 ,chopin's ,early life4--,frederic ,chopin was born at ,zelazowa-,wola1 near ,warsaw1 in ,poland1 on ,march #a1 #ahji4 ,his father1 who had served in various positions as a teacher1 finally established a boarding-school in ,warsaw4 ,chopin showed great sensitiveness towards music at an early age4 ,his first lessons on the piano were given him by a ,polish teacher of some celebrity1 ,adalbert ,zwyny4 ,he soon became famous as a pianist1 and from the age of nine1 played constantly at the houses of the nobility1 and was eagerly received by them4 ,in #ahbd1 he entered the ,warsaw ,lyceum in order to pursue his general studies4 ,about the same time he began lessons in composition with ,elsner1 who had a high reputation as a teacher4 ,he had already composed pieces for the piano on his own account1 and continued with such success that as early as #ahbe his ,op4 #a1 a ,rondo1 was published4 ,in #ahbg1 he left the ,lyceum1 and gave thereafter all his time to playing and composing4 ,soon after1 he made great strides in composition1 and many of his studies and smaller pieces1 as well as his two concertos1 belong to this period1 or were begun then4 ,early in #ahbi1 ,hummel played in ,warsaw1 and the influence of his piano style is evident in the works of ,chopin for some time to come4 ,later in this year1 ,chopin went to ,vienna1 where he gave two concerts1 winning instant recognition both as pianist and composer4 ,after his return to ,warsaw he continued to compose much4 ,chopin's ,manhood4--,a second visit to ,vienna occurred toward the end of #ahcj4 ,he gave concerts1 came into contact with many musicians1 and even found time to compose2 but being dissatisfied with conditions in ,vienna1 determined to go to ,paris4 ,early in #ahca1 after giving concerts on the way1 he arrived at ,paris1 which was henceforth to be his home4 ,here he was soon thrown with many of the leading musicians1 his playing caused an immediate sensation1 and as at ,warsaw1 he was welcomed in the most exclusive society4 ,in #ahcb1 he began to acquire fame as a piano teacher1 especially of pupils from the aristocracy4 ,from #ahcc to #ahce1 his compositions began to appear1 and gained him much approval as a composer4 ,in #ahce1 he went to ,leipzig1 where he saw ,wieck and his daughter1 afterwards ,clara ,schumann1 ,mendelssohn and ,schumann4 ,in #ahcg1 he met ,madame ,george ,sand1 the famous writer1 whose influence on his life was so great4 ,during this year the first sinister symptoms of ill-health made their appearance4 ,with the idea of benefiting his health1 ,chopin passed the winter of #ahch-ci on the island of ,majorca1 with ,madame ,sand and her two children4 ,the climate had a bad effect upon him2 he could compose but little1 and the condition of his lungs obliged a return to ,france4 ,he was so ill as to be obliged to spend several months at ,marseilles1 recuperating4 ,after a summer at ,nohant1 ,mme4 ,sand's country home1 he was again at ,paris in the fall of #ahci4 ,from #ahdj to #ahdh1 he lived in ,paris1 with occasional visits to ,nohant in the summer1 teaching as much as his health would allow1 passing much time in the most aristocratic society4 ,he seldom played in public1 and would only play for pupils1 or when persuaded by devoted friends to display his extraordinary gifts as a pianist4 ,during these years1 however1 his health grew more and more precarious4 ,the ,last ,years of ,chopin4--,in #ahdg1 the intimacy of ,chopin and ,madame ,sand came to an end1 for various causes1 but largely because of a character caricatured from ,chopin in one of ,madame ,sand's novels1 and because she was tired of taking care of him4 ,ill as he was1 he went to ,england1 after a farewell concert in ,paris1 arriving in the spring of #ahdh4 ,he gave two concerts in ,london with some success1 besides playing at friends' houses4 ,he went to ,scotland at the instance of a pupil1 ,miss ,stirling1 gave concerts at ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 besides one in the interval at ,manchester4 ,during this entire tour he suffered greatly from ill-health and exhaustion1 and after one more appearance in ,london1 he returned to ,paris1 exceedingly ill1 in ,january1 #ahdi4 ,he was not able to teach and was obliged to depend upon the generosity of friends2 among them his pupil1 ,miss ,stirling4 ,after several months of hopeless struggle to regain his health1 he died of consumption on ,october #ag1 #ahdi1 surrounded by devoted friends4 ,chopin's ,personality4--,chopin was extremely refined and delicate by nature4 ,he was fastidious about the color and fit of his clothes1 the furnishing and arrangement of his rooms1 and other details of everyday life4 ,he was always extremely fond of society and moved in the highest circles4 ,as a rule1 he was averse to seeing much of musicians1 in spite of his friendship with ,liszt1 ,hiller1 ,berlioz and ,schumann4 ,as a young man he was fond of dancing1 acting and practical jokes2 though sensitive1 he was well and strong1 and able to endure rough stage-journeys4 ,he was a capital mimic all his life1 and a witty companion who pleased by his gentle irony or sarcasm4 ,he was extremely reserved in spite of his sociability1 his intimate friends 7either ,polish or favorite pupils7 even quarrelled as to which knew him best4 ,he was genuinely confidential only in his music4 ,chopin was exceedingly patriotic2 he was always ready to appear in concert in behalf of ,polish refugees1 he corresponded untiringly with his ,polish friends1 and gave many proofs of his devotion to ,poland1 which he never forgot in spite of years of absence4 ,chopin as ,pianist4--,chopin was a pianist of extraordinary distinction1 in spite of the preminence of ,liszt4 ,his technic1 founded in the school of ,clementi and ,cramer1 with great attention to ,bach1 was influenced to some extent by ,hummel and ,field1 but later became highly original1 and expressive of great individuality4 ,although he possessed great brilliancy1 the most prominent trait in his playing was its all-pervading and inexhaustible fund of poetry4 ,it had nothing harsh1 unmelodious or ungraceful4 ,his sense of rhythm was unusually piquant1 and one of its features was the skilful use of tempo rubato1 a slight variance from strict time without disturbing it fundamentally4 ,in later life1 ,chopin became disinclined to appear in public1 his performances were limited to the drawing-rooms of aristocratic friends1 where he would play or improvise for hours4 ,he was never a robust pianist at his strongest1 and the transparent delicacy of his playing during his last years was almost incredible4 ,chopin's ,compositions4--,chopin's music constitutes the true revelation of himself4 ,his life1 not full of action1 was1 however1 rich in emotion and sentiment of great variety and subtlety4 ,its mainsprings were his patriotic love of ,poland and everything connected with it1 and the poetic impressionability of his temperament1 which were all transferred to his music4 ,although ,chopin composed a number of works in which he uses the orchestra1 some chamber-music1 and a set of ,polish songs1 he was first and last a composer for the piano4 ,in addition to the works referred to1 he wrote three sonatas1 four ballades1 four scherzos1 ten polonaises1 fourteen waltzes1 twenty-eight studies1 fifty-five mazurkas1 twenty-five preludes1 seventeen nocturnes1 three impromptus and a fantasie-impromptu1 three rondos1 besides a superb fantasy1 a concert allegro1 a barcarolle1 a berceuse1 a tarantelle1 a bolero1 a rondo for two pianos1 and a few trifles4 ,of his two concertos1 the second published 7although the first composed7 is the finer4 ,it is riper and more poetic1 the slow movement reaches a high point of lyric style1 and the treatment of form throughout the concerto is less awkward4 ,chopin is not at home in the sonata form1 the concertos are interesting in spite of1 rather than on account of1 their treatment of form4 ,the piano sonatas1 ,op4 #ce and #eh1 have faults of structure1 and occasional incoherence1 but they are so full of poetry1 romantic melody and dramatic mood that one almost overlooks their technical shortcomings4 ,chopin ,most ,successful in ,free ,forms4--,the most representative works of ,chopin are those in which he adopts no conventional form1 but follows his own instinct entirely4 ,thus1 in his ballades1 scherzos1 and especially in the fantasy1 ,op4 #di1 one finds freedom of invention and variety of treatment combined with logical development and real coherence4 ,the ballads are dramatic poems in which sentiment and virtuosity are happily united4 ,the scherzos are original conceptions quite distinct from the accepted type2 they have bold outlines1 variety of mood and demand virtuosity in their performance4 ,the fantasy is instructive in its logical structure1 there is no sign of the constraint of the sonatas1 and its contents are both dramatic on a large scale and lyric by contrast4 ,the impromptus are shorter pieces of a lyric nature1 although the element of virtuosity is not lacking4 ,the nocturnes are lyric pieces of simple form but intimate style4 ,their general plan was at first copied from ,field1 but the imitator went so far ahead of his model as almost to eclipse it4 ,some of them portray idyllic moods1 others are sentimental or even dramatic in their outlines4 ,the studies1 ,op4 #aj and #be1 epitomize in a remarkable way ,chopin's technical innovations1 and piano style4 ,they are brilliant1 poetic and highly dramatic by turns1 and in their contents are the most musical studies composed up to their time4 ,national ,spirit in ,chopin's ,music4--,chopin1 the patriot1 was devoted to the dances and ,folk-melodies of his own country4 ,he was thoroughly national as a composer2 hence in some respects his mazurkas and polonaises are the most characteristic of his compositions4 ,the mazurkas with their vital rhythms and novel harmonies1 contain much poetry of mood and variety of expression within small limits4 ,the polonaise1 as treated by ,chopin1 was less a dance form1 and more an independent form with characteristic rhythms4 ,the polonaises1 ,op4 #dd and #ec1 are virtually patriotic poems4 ,the preludes are sketches of varying size2 some are genuine lyrics2 some frankly technical in their object2 others have a distinct touch of the dramatic4 ,some of the waltzes suggest the salon1 but in others ,chopin has individualized the type until it has risen above its origin4 ,among the single pieces1 the ,concert ,allegro is large in dimensions1 very interesting technically and musically4 ,the ,barcarolle1 in nocturne-form on a larger scale1 is almost heroic in its outlines1 and a superb example of his mature style4 ,another piece equally deserving of distinction is the ,berceuse1 an ingenious series of variations on a persistent bass4 ,the ,tarantelle and ,bolero are merely fascinating salon pieces4 ,of the youthful works with orchestra1 the variations on a theme from ,mozart's 8,don ,juan0 are more interesting from the novelty of their piano styles than as variations2 the ,fantasie on ,polish themes attracts attention chiefly on account of its ,folk-song character1 while the 8,krakowiak0 rondo is remarkable for its spirited national-dance rhythms4 ,the orchestral accompaniments to these pieces are not significant2 in fact1 ,chopin's use of the orchestra was his weakest point4 ,the ,polish songs are unequal1 and at best add little to his fame4 ,liszt1 however1 has transcribed six1 of which two are frequently heard in concert1 while ,sgambati has arranged one4 ,originality and ,freshness of ,invention4--,the most extraordinary trait of ,chopin as a composer is that1 in spite of the limitations imposed by repeating the same form over and over again1 he is almost inexhaustible in variety of expression4 ,as the poet of lyric mood he accomplished almost as much as ,schumann for the development of the short piece1 while in his longer pieces of dramatic mood and large contours he has shown that the sonata-form is not the only structure by which to convey heroic sentiment4 ,his was the most subtle originality1 the most personal style which stamped itself indelibly on nearly every composition4 ,he immeasurably broadened the technical treatment of the piano1 not only as a virtuoso1 but in the direction of variety of expression1 delicate accentuation and exquisite tone4 ,among romantic composers he has done more for the advancement of piano style than anyone except ,liszt4 ,in spite of the latter's gigantic achievement1 the value of ,chopin's contribution is still unimpaired4 ,from the point of view of expression1 ,chopin is more individual even than ,schumann1 but the honors as the most important composer for the piano during the ,romantic period must be divided between them4 ,chopin's influence has been immense not only on the composers and pianists of ,france and ,germany but also markedly among living composers in ,russia4 ,chopin is the preminent poet of the piano4 ,representative ,compositions4--,the following list for the student contains the works and pieces most thoroughly characteristic of his genius3 ,the sonatas1 ,op4 #ce and #ch2 the scherzos1 ,op4 #bj1 #ca and #ci2 the ballades1 ,op4 #bc1 #ch1 #dg and #eb2 the polonaises1 ,op4 #bb1 #bf1 #dj1 #dd and #ec2 the waltzes1 ,op4 #ah1 ,op4 #cd1 ,nos4 #a and #b2 ,op4 #db1 ,op4 #fd1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and ,op4 #fi1 ,no4 #a2 the studies1 ,op4 #aj1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #aj and #ab2 ,op4 #be1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #i1 #aa and #ab2 the mazurkas1 ,op4 #f1 ,nos4 #a1 #b2 ,op4 #g1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c2 ,op4 #ag1 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d2 ,op4 #bd1 ,nos4 #a1 #c1 #d2 ,op4 #cj1 ,nos4 #b1 #d2 ,op4 #cc1 ,nos4 #a1 #c1 #d2 ,op4 #da1 ,nos4 #a1 #b2 ,op4 #ef1 ,no4 #b2 ,op4 #ei1 ,nos4 #b and #c2 ,op4 #fc1 ,no4 #c2 ,op4 #fh1 ,no4 #b2 the nocturnes1 ,op4 #i1 ,op4 #ae1 ,nos1 #b1 #c2 ,op4 #bg1 ,op4 #cg1 ,op4 #dh1 ,no4 #a2 ,op4 #ee1 ,op4 #fb1 ,no4 #a2 the preludes1 ,op4 #bh1 ,nos4 #a1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #bc and #bd2 the prelude1 ,op4 #de2 the impromptus1 ,op4 #bi1 ,op4 #ce1 ,op4 #ea1 and the ,fantasie-,impromptu1 ,op4 #ff2 the ,fantasy1 ,op4 #di2 the ,tarantelle1 ,op4 #dc2 the ,berceuse1 ,op4 #eg2 the ,barcarolle1 ,op4 #fj1 and the ,concert ,allegro1 ,op4 #df4 ,,references4 ,grove's and ,riemann's ,dictionaries4--,article on ,chopin4 ,finck4--,chopin and ,other ,musical ,essays4 ,hadow4-- ,studies in ,modern ,music4 7,chapter on ,chopin47 ,huneker4--,chopin3 ,the ,man and ,his ,music4 ,niecks4--,frederic ,chopin4 ,,questions4 ,give an account of ,chopin's early life4 ,name the important events in his manhood and later life4 ,what were the striking traits of ,chopin as a man8 ,what were ,chopin's qualities as a pianist8 ,in what forms did ,chopin compose8 ,in what form was ,chopin most successful8 ,in which of his compositions is the national spirit strongly evident8 ,what characteristics do we note in ,chopin as a composer8 ,name some representative compositions4 ,what composer influenced ,chopin's piano style in his early life8 ,what celebrated musicians were friends of ,chopin8 ,,lesson ,,xlvi4 ,,franz ,,liszt4 ,the piano music of ,chopin and ,schumann reached the highest level attained during the ,romantic period1 in subtle originality of style and deep human sentiment1 respectively4 ,notwithstanding their preminence in these particulars1 a master was destined to come who summed up the entire development of piano technic in his achievements1 the greatest virtuoso of the century1 to whose influence all piano playing since has been obliged to acknowledge its indebtedness4 ,in addition1 his services in breaking away from symphonic tradition1 in achieving propaganda for various composers of epoch-making works1 including ,wagner1 in giving up himself as teacher without remuneration1 are equally significant4 ,liszt's ,early ,life4--,franz ,liszt was born ,october #bb1 #ahaa1 at ,raiding1 ,hungary4 ,his mother was of ,austrian birth2 his father1 a ,hungarian1 occupying an official position on the estates of ,prince ,esterhazy1 was devoted to music4 ,liszt was a somewhat delicate child of acute sensibilities1 especially in the direction of music4 ,at the age of six he received piano lessons from his father4 ,the intensity of his interest in music and his phenomenal progress soon showed the uncommon extent of his gifts4 ,at the age of nine1 he gave his first concert before an audience composed largely of ,hungarian nobility4 ,his performance was so extraordinary that some of those present agreed to give ,liszt a pension for six years to insure his proper education4 ,accordingly1 father and son went to ,vienna1 where the boy studied the piano with ,carl ,czerny and composition with ,salieri4 ,czerny put ,liszt through so thorough a course of discipline that at eleven years of age ,liszt was known for his playing from scores1 and reading the most difficult compositions at sight4 ,in #ahbc1 he gave two successful concerts2 ,beethoven was present at the second1 and publicly kissed the boy in token of his approval4 ,liszt's father now took him to ,paris to study at the ,conservatory1 but the director1 ,cherubini1 refused to allow him to enter because he was a foreigner4 ,liszt studied composition1 however1 with ,paer and afterwards with ,reicha4 ,in the meantime1 letters of introduction from ,liszt's ,hungarian patrons soon sufficed to make him known throughout the most aristocratic circles1 where he created an absolute furore4 ,a public concert produced the same results on a larger scale4 ,later1 ,liszt made two visits to ,england2 he was received at the ,court of ,george ,,iv1 played in private1 and gave concerts4 ,on returning to ,paris1 he completed an opera1 which was performed in ,paris4 ,this opera and other compositions of this period have entirely disappeared4 ,tours through ,france and a third visit to ,england followed4 ,in #ahbg1 ,liszt's father died1 and his mother came to ,paris to live2 he supported her by giving lessons1 and was soon in great demand as a teacher4 ,an unfortunate love-affair caused him to consider entering the church4 ,he lost interest in music1 fell ill1 and was supposed to be dead4 ,liszt gradually recovered1 however4 ,he now underwent a remarkable series of formative influences2 he read widely1 formed the acquaintance of many celebrated personages1 including ,chateaubriand1 ,lamartine1 ,victor ,hugo and ,george ,sand1 became interested in the principles of ,st4 ,simonians1 a somewhat socialistic sect1 dallied with free-thinking and revolutionary tendencies1 formed a friendship with the ,abb ,lamennais1 and became intimate with ,berlioz and ,chopin4 ,illustration3 ,,franz ,,liszt4 ,period of ,preparation4--,of far deeper result was the appearance of ,paganini in ,paris during #ahca4 ,liszt bent all his energies towards devising a transcendent piano technic to reproduce ,paganini's caprices on the piano4 ,it was at this time that he laid the foundations of his gigantic achievements in piano technic1 not merely in the interest of virtuosity1 but for extending the limits of expression4 ,he was also much affected by ,chopin's poetic individuality4 ,in #ahcd1 ,liszt entered into an intimacy with the ,comtesse d',agoult1 which lasted for several years4 ,three children were born of this union1 of whom two survived4 ,one daughter married ,m4 ,ollivier1 a ,french statesman1 the other became successively ,mme4 von ,blow and ,mme4 ,wagner4 ,during this period ,liszt composed much for piano1 made many transcriptions1 and began his literary activity on musical subjects4 ,he gave concerts1 chiefly for charity4 ,in #ahcg1 he made a trip to ,paris to contest the supremacy of the piano with ,thalberg4 ,among his compositions of this period may be mentioned the etudes1 the ,rossini transcriptions1 many arrangements of ,schubert's songs1 the piano scores of several ,beethoven symphonies1 besides opera-fantasies1 original pieces for piano1 etc4 ,professional ,activity4--,in #ahch1 ,liszt created an extraordinary sensation by his concerts in ,vienna1 and from #ahci to #ahdg lived the life of a traveling virtuoso1 giving an unparalleled series of recitals throughout the length and breadth of ,europe1 which were a series of triumphs such as no artist had ever before experienced4 ,in #ahcb1 he was made court music-director at ,weimar1 his duties only requiring his presence for three months in the year4 ,in #ahdg1 ,liszt met the ,princess von ,sayn-,wittgenstein1 who exercised a remarkable influence over him4 ,she persuaded him to give up his career as a virtuoso1 and turn to composition4 ,from #ahdh to #ahfa ,liszt passed the most significant period of his life at ,weimar4 ,from his position as conductor he was of inestimable service to the cause of romantic music through his performance of operas and orchestral works by ,wagner1 ,berlioz1 ,schumann1 ,raff1 ,cornelius and others4 ,he was equally active with his pen in deference to the new artistic principles4 ,to this epoch belong ,liszt's most important orchestral works1 the concertos and other compositions for piano and orchestra1 many transcriptions and editions of the classics4 ,later ,life4--,in #ahei1 opposition to ,liszt's progressiveness became so pronounced that he resigned4 ,he did not leave ,weimar1 however1 until #ahfa4 ,the rest of his life was somewhat irregularly divided between ,rome1 ,weimar and ,budapest4 ,during the first few years at ,rome he composed chiefly church music and oratorios2 in #ahfe1 he took minor orders in the ,church of ,rome4 ,from #ahfi on1 persuaded by the ,duke and ,duchess of ,saxe-,weimar1 he passed portions of every year at ,weimar in a beautiful house especially furnished for him by the ,duke4 ,pupils flocked to him1 he held a sort of musical court1 and was treated with the respect due to royalty4 ,his later years were full of activity1 and generous sympathy to all that was worthy1 and he was the constant object of homage and affection4 ,in #ahhf1 ,liszt became overtaxed by a series of trips to hear his own works performed1 including a reception in his honor at ,london4 ,he also made exceptional effort to attend a performance of 8,tristan and ,isolde0 at ,bayreuth4 ,a cold was speedily followed by pneumonia1 from which he died on ,july #ca1 #ahhf4 ,liszt's ,personality and ,character4--,liszt's character was remarkable for its conspicuous virtues and almost equally prominent faults4 ,his was a large1 noble nature1 with deep humanitarian traits4 ,his life was one long service to his art1 accompanied in his later years by devotion to the church4 ,though not highly educated1 except in experience of men and the world1 he had an extremely keen mind1 omnivorous in its tastes1 and his interests were wide and penetrating4 ,perhaps his salient characteristics were generosity and unselfishness4 ,often during his career as a virtuoso he gave freely of the proceeds of his concerts to charity4 ,after the close of his concert-tours he taught for years without remuneration4 ,his help to younger artists was incalculable in its extent4 ,as conductor at ,weimar his motto was to help living composers first1 and by his energy he did valiant work in helping ,wagner's cause4 ,largely endowed with wit1 a fund of irony and charm of manner1 men and women alike almost literally fell at his feet1 and it is all the more admirable that in spite of the homage so unsparingly lavished upon him1 he did not swerve from his artistic purposes4 ,the strain of mysticism so marked in his youth1 became later so pronounced that he felt compelled to give it expression by entering the church4 ,liszt as a ,pianist4--,liszt was the most phenomenal pianist in the history of music4 ,other pianists have surpassed him in single qualities1 but no one has united in so stupendous fashion as much as he4 ,beginning with a strictly classical education1 ,liszt evolved a new technic which completely summed up the difficulties of piano playing4 ,in velocity1 wide stretches1 double-notes1 octaves1 and a whole system in itself of interlocking passages1 he all but attained the impossible4 ,he carried independence of fingers1 especially in fugue playing1 to a pitch hitherto unequalled4 ,his performance of brilliant music represented the last word in bravura2 in the classics his interpretation was1 as ,wagner says3 8not reproduction1 but production10 so vivid and glowing was it4 ,his so-called 8orchestral style0 in its bold color and rich pedal effects was as distinct from the piano playing before him as the modern orchestra was from that of ,mozart and ,haydn4 ,as he assimilated everything in the field of piano playing before him1 so has everything since him been forced to take his method into account4 ,liszt's ,compositions4--,among ,liszt's chief compositions are the 8,faust0 and 8,dante0 symphonies1 with choral epilogues2 twelve symphonic poems1 a form which he invented1 and which is epoch-making in the development of music2 many shorter orchestral works2 two concertos1 the ,hungarian fantasy1 the 8,dance of ,death0 for piano and orchestra1 besides several compositions for the same combination on themes of other composers2 the oratorios 8,st4 ,elizabeth0 and 8,christus10 a ,solemn ,mass1 the ,hungarian ,coronation ,mass1 several other masses1 twelve sacred hymns for chorus1 five psalms1 and many other pieces of church music1 choruses for men's voices1 several compositions for solos1 chorus and orchestra for various festival occasions2 fifty-five songs for voice with piano accompaniment2 three collections containing twenty-five pieces for piano1 entitled 8,years of ,pilgrimage10 a collection of the piano pieces named 8,poetic and ,religious ,harmonies10 twelve 8,etudes of ,transcendent ,technic10 three concert studies1 a sonata1 two ballades1 two 8,legends10 a concert solo1 afterwards arranged as a 8,pathetic0 concerto1 a ,valse ,impromptu1 two polonaises1 six ,consolations1 a ,spanish ,rhapsody1 and nineteen ,hungarian ,rhapsodies are the best known of the piano music4 ,there are five ballades for declamation with piano accompaniment4 ,for organ1 there is a fantasy and fugue on a choral from ,meyerbeer's 8,prophet10 a fugue on ,b4 ,a4 ,c4 ,h41 and variations on a theme from a ,bach cantata4 ,liszt's ,arrangements4--,of almost equal importance with ,liszt's original compositions are his matchless transcriptions4 ,instead of a trivial and literal process of transcribing1 he penetrated the intimate spirit of the piece1 and translated it into his own piano idiom1 often adding considerably but always with supreme artistic effect4 ,what is lost in fidelity of transfer is more than gained in added charm1 new harmonic significance and a subtle enhancing of individuality4 ,liszt started the evolution of his epoch-making technic while experimenting with his arrangement of ,paganini's caprices1 and of ,berlioz' 8,fantastic ,symphony40 ,he made easy arrangements from operas of ,rossini1 ,mercadante and ,donizetti4 ,then he turned to setting ,schubert's matchless songs for the piano1 arranging in all fifty-seven2 he continued by making piano scores of ,beethoven's symphonies1 of ,rossini's overture to 8,william ,tell10 and to ,weber's overtures 8,jubilee10 8,freischtz0 and 8,oberon40 ,he also made many transcriptions from ,wagner's operas1 including 8,the ,flying ,dutchman10 8,tannhuser10 8,lohengrin10 8,die ,meistersinger10 8,tristan and ,isolde0 and 8,parsifal10 besides a fantasy on themes from 8,rienzi10 and an arrangement of the 8,walhalla0 motive from 8,the ,ring of the ,nibelungs40 ,liszt's arrangements of six preludes and fugues as well as the fantasy and fugue in ,g minor by ,bach are not only remarkable for the extent to which they reproduce organ-effect1 but as pioneers in the transfer of organ pieces to the piano1 in which ,liszt has been followed by ,tausig1 d',albert and ,busoni4 ,in addition he transcribed fourteen songs by ,schumann1 thirteen by ,franz1 eight by ,mendelssohn1 seven by ,beethoven1 six by ,chopin and two by ,weber1 besides an arrangement from ,mendelssohn's music to 8,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream10 and 8piano scores0 of the septets by ,beethoven and ,hummel4 ,liszt arranged ,weber's 8,polacca ,brillante10 ,op4 #gb1 and ,schubert's ,fantasy1 ,op4 #ae1 for piano and orchestra4 ,there are also many transcriptions of pieces by ,palestrina1 ,di ,lasso1 ,arcadelt1 ,mozart1 ,glinka1 ,dargomischky1 ,saint-,sans1 ,verdi1 ,raff1 ,gounod1 ,rubinstein1 ,tchaikovsky1 ,csar ,cui and others4 ,liszt scored the accompaniment of several ,schubert songs for orchestra1 he also orchestrated several of the ,schubert four-hand marches4 ,he also arranged many of his own songs1 orchestral and choral works for piano and for organ4 ,his transcriptions as a whole are monumental not only on account of their artistic merit1 but because they served an educational purpose in spreading the works of little known composers4 ,in this way ,liszt cultivated the public taste for ,schubert's songs1 and brought ,wagner within the reach of the average concert-goer4 ,liszt as ,writer4--,as a critic1 ,liszt must stand as a pioneer although in a different direction from ,schumann4 ,liszt's early essay on the position of the artist is extremely significant2 his criticisms during the ,weimar period1 especially his analyses of ,wagner's operas were of great value2 his 8,life of ,chopin10 while untrustworthy in detail and somewhat overdrawn1 is nevertheless graphic2 8,the ,gipsies and ,their ,music0 is picturesque if not entirely accurate4 ,liszt's letters contain glimpses of his high qualities as well as vital presentations of his musical views4 ,the correspondence between ,wagner and ,liszt gives conclusive evidence of the latter's unselfishness in ,wagner's behalf4 ,liszt's ,position and ,influence as a ,composer4--,liszt's rank as a composer was undoubtedly overshadowed by his fame as a pianist and teacher1 and by his facility as an arranger4 ,for many years neither critics nor public would acknowledge his creative gifts4 ,whatever our opinion of the symphonies1 the symphonic poems and the concertos1 there is no doubt that ,liszt rendered an inestimable service to the development of music in breaking away from the sonata form1 and in demonstrating that form and substance can go hand-in-hand without detriment to organic unity and coherence4 ,his forms are novel1 his orchestration highly effective in spite of the achievements of ,berlioz and ,wagner in this direction4 ,liszt's church music and his oratorios are worthy efforts towards a reform of ecclesiastic music4 ,his songs are truly spontaneous lyrics1 which are not appreciated at their true value4 ,in spite of ,liszt's unquestioned attainments as a composer1 there is a suggestion of skilful assimilation in his individuality rather than of unique and unquestioned personality4 ,nevertheless his influence has been vast4 ,in his old age he encouraged ,borodin and ,glazounoff1 he conducted works by ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 he made his pupils play ,balakireff's 8,islamey40 ,in turn1 the 8new-,russian0 school owes much to him4 ,tchaikovsky could hardly have written his symphonic poems without ,liszt's pioneer work to show the way4 ,saint-,sans admits a similar influence4 ,in fact1 the entire development of the symphonic poem is directly due to ,liszt2 it is so considerable in extent that the details cannot be examined here1 but while both ,wagner and ,berlioz contributed much to the growth of orchestral style and individuality of expression1 the originality of the symphonic poem form belongs entirely to ,liszt4 ,thus ,liszt's share in the evolution of ultra-modern orchestral music1 as well as in the development of piano playing1 is very important1 and the greatest living composer1 ,richard ,strauss1 although also influenced by both ,berlioz and ,wagner1 frankly avows himself to be a disciple of ,liszt4 ,,references4 ,grove's and ,riemann's ,dictionaries4--,article on ,liszt4 ,newman4--,a ,study of ,liszt4 7,century ,library of ,music47 ,ramann4--,franz ,liszt as ,artist and ,man4 ,saint-,sans4--,franz ,liszt4 7,century ,magazine1 ,feb41 #ahjc47 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,what was the nature and extent of ,liszt's early musical education8 ,what was the effect of his wide travels and meeting with notable persons on his character8 ,what set him to perfecting his technic8 ,name the most important events in his career4 ,what educational work was the feature of his later years8 ,sketch ,liszt's personality and character4 ,give an account of ,liszt's contribution to piano technic4 ,in what styles and forms of composition did ,liszt write8 ,what works did he transcribe for the piano8 ,what literary work did he do8 ,what composers did he influence8 ,what song composer was brought into greater prominence by ,liszt8 ,whose symphonies did he arrange for the piano8 ,what opera composer did he assist greatly8 ,what important form did ,liszt originate8 ,what has been ,liszt's share in the development of the 8modern school08 ,the student who wishes to examine ,liszt's works for himself1 should study the symphonies and symphonic poems in ,liszt's own arrangement for two pianos4 ,they require1 however1 a technic beyond the average player4 ,the same difficulty applies to his piano music1 but the following may serve as guides to ,liszt's style3 ,the 8,lake of ,wallenstadt10 and 8,eclogue10 ,nos4 #b and #g1 in the ,swiss 8,years of ,pilgrimage02 the 8,gondoliera0 and 8,tarantelle0 from 8,venice and ,naples10 the 8,valse ,impromptu10 8,ave ,maria10 8,waldesrauschen0 and 8,gnomenreigen10 the pieces for ,lebert and ,stark's ,piano ,school1 the ,concert ,studies in ,f minor and ,d-flat1 the ,love ,dreams1 the ,consolations1 ,nos4 #a1 #b and #d2 the ,legends1 the 8,benediction of ,god in the ,solitude0 and 8,love ,song0 from 8,poetic and ,religious ,harmonies10 and the ,fantasie on 8,rigoletto40 ,for the more advanced player may be suggested the ,etudes1 ,nos4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa and #ab2 the ,mephisto ,waltz1 the ,second ,ballad1 8,au ,bord d'une ,source0 from the ,swiss 8,years of ,pilgrimage10 the ,second ,polonaise1 the 8,funerailles0 from 8,poetic and ,religious ,harmonies10 the ,sonata1 the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies1 ,nos4 #b1 #d1 #f1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 and the ,spanish ,rhapsody2 the two concertos in ,e-flat and ,a1 the ,hungarian ,fantasy1 and the concert piece 8,the ,dance of ,death10 the ,fantasy on 8,don ,juan40 ,among the transcriptions1 the ,schubert songs1 8,hark6 ,hark6 the ,lark10 8,du bist die ,ruh10 8,frhlingsglaube10 8,the ,wanderer10 8,by the ,sea10 8,meeresstille10 8,barcarolle10 8,trockne ,blumen10 8,wohin10 8,ungeduld10 8,erl-,king02 the ,mendelssohn song1 8,on ,wings of ,song02 the ,schumann songs1 8,dedication10 8,to the ,sunshine10 and 8,spring ,night02 the ,weber 8,slumber ,song0 may be suggested4 ,of the ,wagner arrangements1 8,the ,evening ,star01 from ,tannhuser1 the 8,spinning ,song10 from 8,the ,flying ,dutchman10 and 8,isolde's ,love ,death10 are the most characteristic4 ,the ,paganini ,studies1 ,nos4 #b1 #c and #e2 the waltz from ,gounod's 8,faust10 the ,tarantelle after ,auber1 and the ,overture to 8,tannhuser0 are among the best4 ,of the songs1 8,mignon's ,lied0 and 8,ueber allen ,gipfeln10 8,comment disaient-ils10 8,angiolin dal biondo crin10 8,es muss ein wunderbares sein10 8,die drei ,zigeuner10 and 8,der du von dem ,himmel bist0 and 8,die ,lorelei0 are the best4 ,,lesson ,,xlvii4 ,,pianists ,,and ,,teachers ,,since ,,liszt4 ,i4 ,introduction4--,the achievements of ,liszt in developing piano technic1 in enlarging the scope of piano playing through his masterly transcriptions1 in variety and intensity of interpretation1 have brought results that are enormous in extent and far-reaching in their developments to the generations that have succeeded him4 ,when ,liszt was in the height of his career as a virtuoso1 few could master the difficulties which his epoch-making works presented4 ,gradually the secrets of his technic were revealed to the ambitious few2 now they are almost common property4 ,the great concert pianists of today possess a technic that would have been unique forty years ago4 ,the repertory which all pianists worthy the name play from memory 7a practice which ,liszt initiated7 is exceedingly extensive1 while the endurance which they display and the facility with which they reproduce the masterpieces of piano literature is stupendous4 ,,pupils ,,of ,,liszt4 ,liszt was undoubtedly the greatest revealer of the secrets of piano playing in the #aith century1 and his pupils and those who have assimilated his teachings occupy a large part of the pianistic activity of today4 ,among the first of ,liszt's pupils to become famous were ,tausig and von ,blow4 ,carl ,tausig1 born in #ahda1 died in #ahga1 was trained by his father1 and later studied with ,liszt1 under whose guidance he achieved a phenomenal accuracy of technic1 and a commanding power of interpretation4 ,his short life was spent mainly in concert tours4 ,he established a school of music in ,berlin for advanced piano playing4 ,his untimely death cut short a brilliant career4 ,his edition of ,clementi's ,gradus and a collection of finger exercises are invaluable to teachers and to students4 ,hans von ,blow1 born in #ahcj1 died #ahid1 was intended for the law1 although he studied the piano as a boy under ,friedrich ,wieck4 ,in #ahej1 he became so absorbed in ,wagner's music that he abandoned all idea of the law4 ,he studied the piano with ,liszt at ,weimar1 and soon acquired a remarkable technic4 ,he was never a pianist of the virtuoso type2 his strength lay in striving to reproduce the intention of the composer as faithfully as possible4 ,his interpretations of ,beethoven were especially famous1 although he was progressive in his tastes4 ,in #ahgf1 he made a tour in the ,united ,states1 where he did much to advance the cause of new music4 ,as early as #ahfe he conducted performances of ,wagner's operas1 and later his association with orchestras at ,meiningen and of the ,berlin ,philharmonic ,society placed his reputation as a conductor in the front rank4 ,he was extremely energetic in ,wagner's behalf and did much to bring his works to a public hearing4 ,his editions of ,cramer's studies and ,beethoven's sonatas are of great value4 ,among ,liszt's later pupils1 one of the foremost is ,eugen ,d',albert1 born in #ahfd4 ,he received his early training in ,england1 but in #ahha1 as a prize scholar1 he studied with ,liszt at ,weimar4 ,after brilliant concert tours through ,europe1 he came to ,america1 in #ahhi1 with ,sarasate1 where his ability was at once recognized4 ,he has since largely renounced the career of virtuoso for that of composer1 although he made a visit to the ,united ,states in #aije1 giving a number of recitals4 ,moritz ,rosenthal1 possibly the most fully equipped virtuoso technically now before the public1 was born in #ahfb4 ,at first a pupil of ,mikuli1 a disciple of ,chopin1 and later of ,joseffy1 he came ultimately to ,liszt1 with whom he studied for ten years4 ,after numerous ,european tours he came to the ,united ,states in #ahhh1 where he dazzled his audiences by his unusual command of technic4 ,he reappeared in ,america in #ahif-ig1 and has since made triumphal progress through ,europe4 ,as an interpreter he is less successful than as a virtuoso4 ,he is court pianist of ,roumania4 ,he has published a collection of technical exercises with ,ludwig ,schytt4 ,bernhard ,stavenhagen1 born in #ahfb1 is another noted ,liszt pupil4 ,he acted as ,liszt's secretary during his later years1 and at the same time received lessons4 ,in #ahij1 he became court pianist at ,weimar4 ,in #ahid-ie1 he visited ,america4 ,since then he has acted as conductor at ,dresden and ,munich4 ,emil ,sauer1 another phenomenal pupil of ,liszt1 was born in #ahfb4 ,at first a pupil of ,nicholas ,rubinstein1 he studied with ,liszt from #ahhd until the latter's death4 ,he possesses an extraordinary technic1 and is almost unrivalled for the extreme brilliancy of his effects4 ,he has received many decorations from various courts of ,europe4 ,in #ahig-ih1 he visited the ,united ,states1 where he made a sensation4 ,since #aija1 he has been at the head of the piano department in the ,vienna ,conservatory1 giving his attention to pupils in the artist department4 ,among other talented pupils of ,liszt may be mentioned ,alfred ,reisenauer1 ,arthur ,friedheim and ,richard ,burmeister1 all of whom have been heard in this country4 ,the foregoing account does not begin to enumerate all1 merely the celebrated pupils of ,liszt4 ,others will be referred to in the course of this and the next lesson4 ,belgian ,pianists4--,in piano playing1 the ,brussels ,conservatory is far below the level of the ,paris ,conservatory1 although the director ,gevart has a world-wide reputation for his text-book on orchestration1 and the symphony concerts at the conservatory1 led by him1 have a high place in orchestral standards4 ,nevertheless1 in the piano department two names deserve mention3 ,brassin and ,dupont4 ,louis ,brassin 7#ahdj-ahhd7 studied at the ,leipzig ,conservatory under ,moscheles1 where he remained five years1 winning numerous prizes4 ,in #ahff1 he became first piano teacher at the ,stern ,conservatory in ,berlin4 ,later he joined the ,brussels ,conservatory1 as professor of piano playing1 where he taught from #ahfi-ahgh4 ,in #ahgi1 he accepted a position at the ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory1 where he remained until his death1 in #ahhd4 ,brassin was not only known as a fine pianist and teacher1 but also by his transcriptions from 8,the ,ring of the ,nibelung40 ,he also composed piano pieces and even two operettas4 ,auguste ,dupont 7#ahbh-ahij7 studied at the ,lige ,conservatory4 ,after several years of wandering life1 he became professor of piano at the ,brussels ,conservatory1 a position which he held until his death1 in #ahij4 ,he is known also as a composer of graceful piano pieces1 a concerto and a concert-piece1 in all of which the influence of ,schumann is seen4 ,johannes ,brahms 7#ahcc-ahig71 famed both as composer and pianist1 was the son of an orchestral musician in ,hamburg1 whose circumstances were of the humblest4 ,as a child he developed remarkable ability as a pianist1 but his first lessons in composition awakened an enthusiasm that absorbed his entire being4 ,he was comparatively unknown when at the age of twenty ,schumann brought him into public notice by hailing him as the successor of ,beethoven4 ,unlike most composers1 ,brahms was mature from the very beginning4 ,his early works bear no trace of the uncertainty and imitation generally associated with youth1 and it was this remarkable maturity that interested ,schumann and gave point to his predictions for the future of the young musician4 ,unaffected by the pomp and glow of the ultra-romantic tendency initiated by ,berlioz and culminating at present in the works of ,richard ,strauss1 he remained true to the great classical school which rests on ,bach and ,palestrina4 ,unlike the modern impressionistic school1 his art is based on essentially musical ideas and their contrapuntal treatment2 it is architectural rather than pictorial4 ,in such a scheme1 color is subordinate to thematic interest1 hence his instrumentation often appears heavy and austere to those who look for the brilliancy and tone painting of ,liszt or ,wagner4 ,his music in general is founded on ,bach and ,beethoven4 ,illustration3 ,,johannes ,,brahms4 ,his works for the piano are large and orchestral in style1 and demand a technic of their own1 which was at first considered unsuited to the nature of the instrument4 ,von ,blow remarks that while in ,bach we hear the organ1 in ,beethoven the orchestra1 in ,brahms we hear both organ and orchestra4 ,notwithstanding their dignity and nobility of conception1 they won their way but slowly to favor4 ,their newness of style and difficulty of execution estranged both public and musicians4 ,though ,brahms' four symphonies have become reasonably familiar1 his piano works have not even yet achieved widespread popularity4 ,they comprise two concertos1 three sonatas1 many variations1 and a host of smaller pieces--ballades1 scherzos1 intermezzos1 capriccios1 etc4 ,brahms never wrote for the stage but was active in all other departments of music4 ,his greatest choral work is the 8,german ,requiem10 composed in memory of his mother1 to texts selected by himself from the ,scriptures and sung in ,german1 instead of in ,latin1 hence its name4 ,he drew no little inspiration from the ,folk-song1 which he uses not only in the form of harmonies and rhythms distinctly based on ,folk melodies1 but in literal quotations serving as themes in several of his instrumental compositions4 ,this contact with the people through their songs gives particular freshness and vigor to much of ,brahms' music1 as well as a sturdy ,teutonic character that stamps it as distinctively national in spirit4 ,it is perhaps too soon to deliver an authoritative judgment as to the ultimate rank that ,brahms will take among the great composers of the past4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that he is one of the commanding figures of the last century and that he has enriched the world with a mass of noble music1 all of which deserves to be known for its elevation and consummate mastery of detail4 ,,russian ,,pianists4 ,of a somewhat independent development from ,liszt1 although much influenced by his personality and his method1 was ,anton ,rubinstein1 born in #ahbi1 died in #ahid4 ,he studied the piano at ,moscow with ,villoing1 who gave him so thorough a training that he had no other teacher4 ,from #ahdj1 after concerts in ,paris1 he had universal recognition as a pianist4 ,further ,european tours increased his fame4 ,he lived successively in ,berlin and ,vienna1 and later returned to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in #ahgb-gc1 he made a remarkable tour through ,america1 arousing an enthusiasm only equalled in later years by ,paderewski4 ,although he passed most of his life in constant activity as a composer1 he directed the ,russian ,symphony ,concerts in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,as early as #ahfb he founded the ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory1 which has had a prominent place in ,russian music4 ,he was a complete master of the piano1 his technic was gigantic1 although his vitality of interpretation was so intense that details paled before it4 ,his historical recitals covering the entire literature of the piano were his most conspicuous achievements as a pianist4 ,he may be regarded as second only to ,liszt1 and in some respects he even surpassed him4 ,he was disappointed at not being accorded high rank as a composer1 as well as a pianist4 ,his brother1 ,nicholas ,rubinstein1 born in #ahce1 died in #ahha1 although not so distinguished a pianist1 and a composer of slight account1 exerted almost as strong an influence on ,russian music4 ,a pupil of ,kullak1 he founded the ,russian ,musical ,society at ,moscow1 in #ahei1 and in #ahfd the ,moscow ,conservatory1 which has been exceedingly active in ,russian musical affairs4 ,he directed the ,moscow ,conservatory until his death2 he was an intimate adviser of ,tchaikovsky1 while his worth as a teacher may be guessed from the prominence of his pupils1 ,karl ,klindworth1 ,emil ,sauer and ,alexander ,siloti1 possibly the foremost ,russian pianist today4 ,mili ,balakireff1 born in #ahcf1 has been a considerable force in ,russian music1 besides being a capable pianist4 ,after studying physics and mathematics at the ,university of ,kazan1 he turned to music4 ,in #ahfb1 he founded a ,free ,school of ,music in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,among his associates were ,csar ,cui1 ,nicholas ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 ,alexander ,borodine and others4 ,he has done much to aid the ,neo-,russian school of composition4 ,his piano music is effective and highly colored1 especially his fantasy on ,georgian themes1 8,islamey40 ,alexander ,siloti1 undoubtedly the most widely-known of ,russian pianists1 born at ,charcow1 #ahfc1 was a pupil in piano playing of ,nicholas ,rubinstein1 at the ,moscow ,conservatory4 ,from #ahhc-ahhf1 he studied with ,liszt4 ,his technic is enormous2 while not intensely magnetic1 his intellectual grasp of music is remarkable4 ,he made an ,american tour in #ahih1 when he introduced much ,russian piano music that was new4 ,although ,siloti has taught at the ,moscow ,conservatory1 he has lived of late years at ,leipzig and ,paris4 ,among other ,russian pianists are ,vassili ,sapellnikoff1 born #ahfh1 a pupil of ,kessler1 ,louis ,brassin1 ,sophie ,menter2 ,vassili ,safonoff1 a pupil of ,leschetizky and ,zaremba in ,st4 ,petersburg1 since #ahhg director of the ,moscow ,conservatory1 and more lately a conductor2 ,sergei ,rachmaninoff1 born #ahgc1 a pupil of ,siloti1 not only a brilliant pianist but also a composer of originality2 ,alexander ,scriabine1 born #ahgb1 a pupil of ,safonoff1 who has made successful ,european tours1 and like ,rachmaninoff1 has composed much for his instrument4 ,two ,german pianists1 ,henselt and ,klindworth1 were so associated with ,russian music as to warrant their mention here4 ,adolph ,henselt1 born #ahad1 died #ahhi1 at one time a pupil of ,hummel1 was for the most part self-taught4 ,he passed most of his life in ,st4 ,petersburg1 giving lessons and playing frequently in public4 ,he also had an official position as music inspector4 ,as a pianist1 ,henselt was exceedingly eminent1 and may be ranked next to ,rubinstein and von ,blow1 although in later years nervousness prevented his playing in public4 ,his etudes are distinct additions to the technical resources of the piano1 his arrangements of ,cramer etudes with second piano accompaniment are praiseworthy4 ,karl ,klindworth1 born #ahcj1 was a pupil of ,nicholas ,rubinstein and later1 of ,liszt4 ,after living in ,london1 he became professor of piano playing at the ,moscow ,conservatory1 from #ahfh-ahhd4 ,later he settled in ,berlin1 became conductor of the ,philharmonic ,society1 and opened a conservatory with von ,blow1 which was merged with that of ,scharwenka in #ahic4 ,klindworth's edition of ,chopin is in some respects the best4 ,he has also edited ,beethoven's sonatas1 and he prepared the piano score of the entire 8,ring of the ,nibelung40 ,,french ,,pianists4 ,in presenting the famous ,french pianists1 ,charles ,henri ,valentine ,alkan1 born #ahac1 died #ahhh1 must not be forgotten4 ,a brilliant pianist1 he claims our attention chiefly on account of his etudes1 introducing novel and extremely difficult problems of technic4 ,musically his studies cannot be compared with those of ,chopin or ,liszt1 but they merit attention1 particularly in the modern editions4 ,although ,camille ,saint-,sans is known chiefly as a composer1 he was1 during his early years1 a remarkable pianist4 ,his contributions to piano literature1 five concertos1 etudes and smaller pieces1 are all valuable4 ,a group of ,paris ,conservatory professors constitute the most distinguishing teaching talent in ,france today4 ,further than that1 ,paris is one of the great centres of piano playing in ,europe4 ,its teachers follow their own traditions1 yet have assimilated from ,liszt4 ,the oldest of these is ,georges ,mathias 7b4 #ahbf71 pupil of ,chopin1 ,kalkbrenner and the ,paris ,conservatory1 who has been professor of piano playing since #ahfb4 ,e4 ,delaborde1 a pupil of ,alkan1 ,moscheles and ,liszt1 has taught at the ,paris ,conservatory since #ahgc4 ,one of the most successful teachers now living is ,louis ,dimer1 born #ahdc1 a pupil of ,marmontel4 ,winning the first piano prize at the age of thirteen1 he succeeded his former teacher in #ahhh4 ,dimer has turned out many first prizes2 he has an impeccable technic2 he has done much to foster interest in the harpsichord1 the oboe d'amore and other obsolete instruments4 ,he has published valuable collections of old ,french harpsichord music1 besides original works4 ,a ,conservatory teacher well-known in ,america is ,raoul ,pugno1 born #aheb4 ,a pupil of the ,paris ,conservatory1 he obtained first prizes in piano playing1 organ and harmony4 ,he came to ,america in #ahig-ih with ,ysaye and others1 and again in #aijb4 ,he has taught at the ,paris ,conservatory since #ahig4 ,he has a superb technic1 and is versatile as an interpreter4 ,he has also composed much4 ,a teacher of unusual insight into technic is ,isidor ,philipp1 born #ahfc1 a pupil of ,mathias1 ,saint-,sans and others4 ,he possesses a flawlessly accurate technic1 and has appeared frequently in public1 although he devotes the greater part of his energy to teaching4 ,he has published many valuable sets of exercises1 collections of difficult passages1 some transcriptions and original pieces4 ,he has been professor at the ,conservatory since #aijd4 ,louis ,breitner1 a pupil of the ,milan ,conservatory1 ,anton ,rubinstein and ,liszt1 has lived for many years at ,paris as pianist and teacher4 ,he also has visited ,america4 ,among the younger ,french pianists are ,leon ,delafosse1 ,edouard ,risler1 an eclectic pianist1 a pupil of ,dimer1 ,d',albert and ,stavenhagen4 ,,references ,,for ,,lessons ,,xlvii ,,and ,,xlviii4 ,fay4--,music ,study in ,germany4 ,walker4--,my ,musical ,memories4 ,lahee4--,pianists of the ,past and ,present4 ,grove's ,dictionary4--,article on ,pianoforte ,players4 ,finck4--,paderewski and ,his ,art4 ,leschetizky4--,autobiography4 ,mason4--,memories of a ,musical ,life4 ,lenz4--,the ,great ,virtuosos of our ,time4 ,,questions4 ,who were the earliest of ,liszt's pupils8 ,name some later pupils of ,liszt4 ,who are the leading exponents of the ,belgian school8 ,whose principles did ,brahms follow8 ,what are the characteristics of his works8 ,what was ,anton ,rubinstein's chief characteristic as a pianist8 ,whom did ,nicholas ,rubinstein assist greatly8 ,by what piano piece is ,balakireff best known8 ,what ,russian pianist has visited ,america8 ,name two young ,russian composer pianists4 ,give some account of ,henselt4 ,who made the piano score of ,wagner's 8,ring of the ,nibelung08 ,name some successful teachers of the piano at the ,paris ,conservatory4 ,which one has twice visited ,america8 ,which has published many valuable sets of exercises8 ,,lesson ,,xlviii4 ,,pianists ,,and ,,teachers ,,since ,,liszt4 ,,ii4 ,one of the greatest living teachers in authority and breadth of influence is ,theodor ,leschetizky1 born in #ahca4 ,a pupil of ,czerny1 he began to teach at the age of fifteen1 having played in public since #ahdb4 ,he became a teacher in the ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory1 where he taught for many years4 ,soon after #ahhj he settled in ,vienna1 where he has lived ever since4 ,since the success of his pupil ,paderewski1 ,leschetizky has been the most sought-after teacher in the world4 ,he has been obliged to have assistants to prepare pupils for him4 ,students have come to ,vienna from all parts of the world4 ,a brilliant pianist1 he has written piano music and even an opera1 but his merit as a teacher is due to the foundation given him by ,czerny1 who acquired his traditions from ,beethoven1 to the keenness of his ability to prescribe for the individual needs of the pupil and the simplicity and directness of his 8method40 ,his pupils have met with great success1 although he has not yet produced a second ,paderewski4 ,ignaz ,paderewski1 probably the greatest pianist since ,liszt1 although like him excelled in some respects by others1 was born in #ahei4 ,a pupil of the ,warsaw ,conservatory1 he also studied at ,berlin4 ,he taught piano at the ,warsaw ,conservatory from #ahgh-hc1 and also at ,strassburg4 ,later he went to ,leschetizky for a thorough course of study4 ,after his dbut at ,vienna1 in #ahhg1 he conquered by degrees ,paris and ,london4 ,his first visit to ,america was in #ahia1 when he carried all before him4 ,since then he has visited the ,united ,states three times1 he has traveled over all ,europe1 and has visited ,australia with overwhelming success1 financial and artistic4 ,his most noticeable qualities are a magnetic personality1 a virtuoso technic1 the color and piquant rhythm of his playing1 and the poetry and deep human intensity of his interpretations4 ,he has written several sets of pieces for the piano1 a concerto1 and a fantasy with orchestra1 and an opera4 ,his generous gift of the endowment of triennial prizes to ,american composers is an admirable instance of his warm-heartedness4 ,josef ,slavinski1 born #ahfe1 who studied with ,stroeble1 ,anton ,rubinstein and finally ,leschetizky1 is a pianist of great ability who came to the ,united ,states in #ahgc1 and again in #aija4 ,other ,leschetizky pupils are ,ossip ,gabrilowitsch1 born #ahgh1 also a pupil of ,anton ,rubinstein and the ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory1 who came to ,america in #aijj and #aijb2 ,mark ,hambourg1 born in #ahgi1 who first studied with his father1 and after a tour of the ,united ,states in #aijj1 has had brilliant successes in ,europe and ,england2 ,martinus ,sieveking1 born #ahfg1 a pupil of ,rntgen at ,leipzig1 who visited ,america in #ahie and again in #ahif-ig and afterwards went to ,vienna4 ,there are many other brilliant pupils of ,leschetizky1 but the foregoing are some of the best known4 ,paderewski has not taught1 as a rule1 since his great triumphs as a virtuoso1 but he has made exceptions4 ,sigismond ,stojowski1 born #ahgj1 was a pupil of the ,paris ,conservatory1 where he won first prizes in piano playing and composition4 ,later he studied with ,paderewski1 and lived as pianist1 teacher and composer in ,paris4 ,in #aije1 he accepted the position of head of the piano department at the ,institute of ,musical ,art1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,antoinette ,szumowska-,adamowska was born in #ahfh4 ,she studied at ,warsaw1 and later1 for several years1 with ,paderewski4 ,she has made successful appearances in ,europe and ,america4 ,later she accepted a position at the ,new ,england ,conservatory1 in ,boston1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,another pianist of great ability who has profited by ,paderewski's suggestions is ,harold ,bauer1 born in #ahgc4 ,a student of the violin1 as well as of the piano1 he did not consider making a career as a piano virtuoso until encouraged by ,paderewski4 ,in #ahib1 he studied with ,paderewski1 although he is largely self-taught1 for his individuality and musical style show slight effects of ,paderewski's influence4 ,bauer's technic is superb1 although he is not a virtuoso pure and simple4 ,his interpretations are healthy and vigorous1 and especially faithful to the composers' intentions4 ,his repertory is enormous4 ,he has made several extremely successful tours to the ,united ,states4 ,he has traveled also widely in ,europe as well as to ,south ,america4 ,bauer is one of the most eminent of living artists4 ,among ,norwegians1 ,edvard ,grieg1 born #ahdc1 is a remarkable interpreter of his own individual works4 ,christian ,sinding and ,wilhelm ,stenhammar also deserve mention4 ,the ,italians have not produced many remarkable pianists1 nevertheless1 several are well known4 ,chief among them is ,giovanni ,sgambati1 born #ahdc1 a pupil of ,liszt4 ,sgambati has composed charming music for the piano1 as well as chamber-music1 a concerto and symphony4 ,he is director of the ,academy of ,st4 ,cecilia1 at ,rome4 ,giuseppe ,buonamici1 born #ahdf1 a pupil of the ,munich ,conservatory and of von ,blow1 has done much to promote music in ,florence4 ,he has been connected with several musical societies in that city1 and has been active as a teacher4 ,his editions of ,beethoven's sonatas1 of ,bertini's etudes1 and a treatise on scale playing are of great value to the student4 ,the most prominent ,italian pianist1 who has lived a cosmopolitan life1 is ,feruccio ,busoni1 born in #ahff4 ,early in life he became a member1 as a pianist1 of the ,bologna ,philharmonic ,academy1 after a severe test4 ,in #ahhh1 he accepted a position at the ,helsingfors ,conservatory4 ,in #ahij1 he won the ,rubinstein prize as composer and pianist4 ,subsequently he taught the piano in the ,moscow ,conservatory1 and later he was connected with the ,new ,england ,conservatory at ,boston4 ,since then he has lived in ,europe as a pianist and conductor of ultra-modern music4 ,busoni has one of the most formidable technics of any pianist living4 ,he has edited ,bach's 8,well-,tempered ,clavichord10 with many helpful technical suggestions1 also the smaller preludes and inventions2 he has made masterly transcriptions of ,bach's organ works for the piano1 of a fantasy for organ by ,liszt1 the same composer's 8,mephisto ,waltz10 etc4 ,he re-visited ,america in #aijd4 ,stephen ,heller1 born #ahad1 died #ahhh1 was much influenced by ,chopin4 ,he was a talented pianist1 who will be remembered chiefly by his studies1 and a few other pieces1 which have decided educational value4 ,among other living pianists who escape classification for one reason or another are ,moritz ,moszkowski1 born #ahed1 a pupil of the ,dresden1 ,kullak and ,stern ,conservatories2 while a successful pianist and teacher1 he is known chiefly for his fluent and graceful piano music1 although he has composed works in larger forms4 ,franz ,rummel1 born #ahec1 died #aija1 a pupil of ,brassin and the ,brussels ,conservatory1 toured ,europe and visited ,america several times2 he taught at the ,stern ,conservatory in ,berlin2 ,rafael ,joseffy1 born #ahec1 went to the ,leipzig ,conservatory1 he then studied with ,carl ,tausig and later with ,liszt2 of late years he has taught at the ,national ,conservatory at ,new ,york4 ,his concert appearances have invariably been successful1 although he has devoted himself largely to teaching4 ,a pianist of especial distinction is ,vladimir de ,pachmann1 born in #ahdh1 a pupil of the ,vienna ,conservatory2 in spite of a brilliant dbut he retired for many years' study2 on reappearing he gave concerts over all ,europe1 and has made several visits to ,america2 his chief triumphs have been as the inimitable interpreter of ,chopin2 ,leopold ,godowsky1 born #ahgj1 appeared as a prodigy at the age of nine2 he studied at the ,hochschule in ,berlin1 made ,european tours1 and studied with ,saint-,sans from #ahhg to #ahij2 he taught at conservatories in ,philadelphia and ,chicago2 in #aijb1 he returned to ,europe1 where he has given concerts constantly with phenomenal success4 ,a composer of piano pieces1 he has devised many extraordinary versions of ,chopin's studies4 ,among ,english pianists1 ,frederic ,lamond1 a pupil of the ,raff ,conservatory1 of von ,blow and ,liszt1 and ,leonard ,borwick1 a pupil of ,mme4 ,schumann1 are the best known1 although there are many pianists of rising reputation4 ,two young pianists deserving of especial recognition are ,ernst von ,dohnanyi and ,josef ,hofmann4 ,dohnanyi1 born #ahgg1 is a pupil of ,kessler and ,d',albert4 ,in #ahih1 he won a double success as pianist and composer with a piano concerto4 ,in #aijj1 he made a brilliant tour in ,america4 ,since then he has devoted himself largely to composition4 ,josef ,hofmann was a pupil of his father1 and later1 of ,anton ,rubinstein4 ,he played the piano when six years old2 in public at the age of nine4 ,in the following year he gave fifty-two concerts in the ,united ,states4 ,after retiring for study under ,rubinstein1 he reappeared a mature artist4 ,he has since visited ,america several times4 ,hofmann has an unusual technic2 his individuality is not striking1 but he is an artist of conspicuous merit4 ,,american ,,pianists4 ,the rapid progress of music in ,america renders it impossible to do justice to piano playing in this country4 ,however1 the pioneer work of ,william ,mason1 a pupil of ,moscheles1 ,dreyschock and ,liszt1 active as pianist and teacher1 the author of 8,touch and ,technic0 and other technical treatises2 of ,b4 ,j4 ,lang1 a pupil of his father1 ,f4 ,c4 ,hill1 ,salter and ,alfred ,jaell1 an active pianist1 teacher1 and conductor1 of ,w4 ,s4 ,b4 ,mathews1 ,otto ,dresel1 ,ernst ,perabo1 and others1 was of great importance4 ,later ,carl ,baermann1 a ,liszt pupil1 ,carl ,faelten1 ,william ,sherwood1 also a ,liszt pupil1 ,carl ,stasny1 ,arthur ,whiting1 ,edward ,mac,dowell and many others have continued the work so ably begun4 ,edward ,mac,dowell is easily the most noted ,american composer-pianist4 ,his technical equipment1 personality1 and interpretative gifts justly entitle him to this distinction4 ,a pupil of ,mme4 ,carreo1 ,marmontel and ,carl ,heymann1 he has had thorough training4 ,his pianistic career has been limited by his efforts as a composer1 and by his work as ,professor of ,music at ,columbia1 which position he resigned in #aijd1 as well as his activity as a teacher4 ,his studies1 concertos and smaller pieces show great individuality of technical style1 besides being among the most valuable contributions to piano literature since ,liszt4 ,mac,dowell has appeared with leading orchestras in this country2 he has given many recitals1 including a tour of the ,united ,states in #aijd4 ,,women ,,pianists4 ,of the many distinguished women pianists since ,liszt1 the most eminent was ,mme4 ,clara ,schumann1 a pupil of her father1 ,friedrich ,wieck4 ,she played in public from the age of thirteen1 winning instant recognition4 ,her marriage to ,schumann diminished her public activity1 but after his death in #ahef1 she resumed her career4 ,she taught at the ,hoch ,conservatory at ,frankfort1 besides playing in public in ,europe and ,england4 ,among other famous women pianists were ,madame ,clauss-,szavardy1 ,mme4 ,arabella ,goddard ,davidson1 and ,mme4 ,sophie ,menter4 ,mme4 ,teresa ,carreo1 a pupil of ,l4 ,m4 ,gottschalk and ,g4 ,mathias1 has had a remarkable career as concert-pianist4 ,mme4 ,essipoff1 a pupil of ,wielhorski and ,leschetizky1 taught for many years at the ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory1 after brilliant concert tours4 ,miss ,fanny ,davies1 a pupil of ,reinecke and ,mme4 ,schumann1 ,mme4 ,roger-,miclos and ,mlle4 ,clotilde ,kleeberg1 pupils of the ,paris ,conservatory1 are all pianists of distinction4 ,in this country ,miss ,adele aus der ,ohe1 a pupil of ,kullak and ,liszt1 ,mme4 ,bloomfield-,zeisler1 a pupil of von ,wolfssohn and ,leschetizky1 and ,mme4 ,helen ,hopekirk1 a pupil of the ,leipzig ,conservatory and of ,leschetizky1 now a teacher at the ,new ,england ,conservatory1 and ,mme4 ,szumowska-,adamowska1 before mentioned as a pupil of ,paderewski1 are all pianists of great ability4 ,in conclusion1 it may be stated that while ,liszt's pupils have done much to carry on the traditions which he originated1 much has also been accomplished for the advancement of pianistic art by ,leschetizky and his pupils1 a remarkable group of teachers at the ,paris ,conservatory1 and by such independent pianists as de ,pachmann1 ,busoni1 ,siloti1 ,godowsky1 ,bauer and ,hofmann1 while many able conservatories and private teachers in ,america are enabling the ,american pianist to compete favorably with ,europe4 ,,questions4 ,who is the best-known piano teacher of today8 ,name some of his famous pupils4 ,which one instituted prizes for ,american composers8 ,name some pianists who have profited by ,paderewski's advice4 ,which one has made successful tours of ,america8 ,name the most famous ,italian pianists4 ,which one has made masterly transcriptions of ,bach and ,liszt8 ,what pianist has made a specialty of ,chopin8 ,what young pianist has made an especially brilliant impression in ,america8 ,name the pioneer pianists of ,america4 ,who is the most famous of ,american composer pianists8 ,name some talented women pianists4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,a ,,review ,,of ,,lessons ,,xli ,,to ,,xlviii4 ,this period is of great interest to the student1 as the greater part of the piano literature in use today is the work of composers belonging to the ,romantic and ,post-,classical schools4 ,it must not be forgotten that in studying the history of music the object is to learn to know the music of the best composers1 not merely certain facts and dates in the lives of these composers4 ,the works cited in the lessons give a wide latitude in the matter of choice and a clear idea of the contribution of the different composers4 ,,lesson ,,xli4--#a4 ,take a composition by each of the composers mentioned and show its distinctive qualities4 #b4 ,show the deeper1 fuller1 more poetic character of the compositions of ,field as compared with ,clementi4 ,,lesson ,,xlii4--#a4 ,give a sketch of ,schubert the man4 #b4 ,name the special qualities of ,schubert's music4 ,why does he belong to the ,romantic school8 ,,lesson ,,xliii4--#a4 ,what is the nature of ,weber's contribution to music8 #b4 ,what are the special qualities of ,mendelssohn's works8 ,,lesson ,,xliv4--#a4 ,compare ,schumann's work in the short pieces and in the large forms4 ,in which was he the more successful8 #b4 ,give an analysis of some of his short pieces4 ,,lesson ,,xlv4--#a4 ,in what forms did ,chopin do his best work8 ,mention some pieces as illustrations4 #b4 ,in what ways did he show national spirit8 ,mention pieces4 ,,lesson ,,xlvi4--#a4 ,give a sketch of the important factors in the making of ,liszt the pianist4 #b4 ,what influence did he exert on music8 ,,lesson ,,xlvii4--#a4 ,compare ,rubinstein and ,liszt4 #b4 ,what influence did ,brahms exert on music8 ,,lesson ,,xlviii4--#a4 ,make a list of the various pianists and classify them as to nationality and school4 ,,lesson ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,art-,,song4 ,,oratorio ,,after ,,mendelssohn4 ,development of the ,art-,song ,idea4--,a most significant phase of musical activity is that centred around the art-song for solo voice4 ,in the period before the opera1 choral singing was the principal medium for vocal music4 ,with the ,opera came a style of composition from which was developed the principle of the ,aria1 the latter dominating both ,opera and ,oratorio for many years1 as the form for an art-song for a solo voice4 ,in this form1 as we have seen1 the production of vocal effects1 the making of attractive melody1 and the opportunity for virtuosic display were sought first of all4 ,it was not until the beginning of the #aith century1 when ,schubert's peculiar genius asserted itself1 that we meet what can be truly called the art-song1 a form of composition without the artificiality of the operatic aria and with higher musicianly and artistic qualities than those that mark the people's song4 ,several tendencies contributed to bring this about4 ,gluck's theories and practice led both composers and people to pay closer attention to the text and to its delivery4 ,the development of instrumental music1 particularly the principles of thematic treatment1 led composers to the inventing of new melodic and rhythmic figures that should serve as the basis of accompaniments of higher artistic quality than those founded on some variation of the ,alberti bass figure4 ,piano technic had greatly improved1 and so had the instrument4 ,and it may also be said that the verse of this period was better suited for a dramatic musical setting than the formal1 often stilted and artificial lyrics of earlier days1 with their shepherds and shepherdesses and constant reference to pastoral and classical life4 ,italian1 ,french and ,english ,forms4--,a study of musical conditions in ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany and ,england shows a different style of the solo song in each country1 each having some distinctive feature that maintains today1 and one that may be said to characterize the song-idea of that people4 ,the ,italians were so taken with the opera and in the course of its development it so fully embodied the national love for sweet1 graceful melody that a species of art-song apart from the opera had little or no chance to shape itself4 ,the ,french ,chanson has never yielded place to the methods which distinguish the modern art-song4 ,the ,french language has certain qualities which seem to call for a treatment that centres the attention in the voice part rather than on the song as a whole1 according to the ,german idea4 ,yet ,french composers have produced and still make most beautiful and charming songs which unmistakably embody the national characteristics1 clearness1 polish and an effective singing melody4 ,the old ,english ,ballads are pieces of narrative verse2 but the term has been used so freely and for almost every kind of verse that it is not possible to give it a precise definition4 ,thomas ,morley1 in a work on music1 which he published in #aeig1 mentions 8songs which1 being sung to a dittie may likewise be danced02 in #afcf1 in a book called 8,the ,principles of ,musicke10 the author1 ,butler1 refers to 8the infinite multitude of ,ballads set to sundry pleasant and delightful tunes by cunning and witty composers1 with country dances fitted to them40 ,the principles of musical construction and the character of the text are such that we do not find in the ,english ballad the true germ of the art-song4 ,the ,german 8,lied01 a poem intended for singing1 as it came from the hands of the great poets1 such as ,goethe and ,heine1 seems to have afforded to composers the inspiration to the making of a style of song that should have the value of a musical setting in full consonance with the character of the text4 ,as instrumental music developed1 the ,volkslied1 the people's song1 the natural medium for expression1 gradually disappeared4 ,yet composers made use of it as a medium1 such masters as ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven and ,weber giving attention to it1 although the demand for a simple1 clear melody1 due to the dominance of the ,italian opera1 and for an accompaniment that was always much subordinated1 prevented the art-song 7,kunstlied7 from taking a high place4 ,since then the accompaniment has been given more and more prominence1 less attention being paid to pure melody and more to the value of harmony and rhythm as the means for characteristic color and expression4 ,melody1 which is made up of a succession of phrases1 cannot furnish a sequence of sharp effects so readily as can well contrasted chords2 hence the old idea of tune changed as harmony became better understood4 ,the methods of song composers vary1 and a classification is made by ,german writers3 ,a song that has simple form and tune akin to that of the ,folk-song is called 8,volksthmlich02 one that has the same tune to the different stanzas is called strophic2 one that is carefully worked out1 the music illustrating every shade of meaning and emotion is called 8,durchcomponirt02 a narrative song is called a 8,ballad0 or 8,ballade40 ,the great masters in song composition are ,schubert1 ,schumann1 ,franz and ,brahms4 ,schubert as a ,song ,writer4--,a consideration of ,schubert's education and his general make-up shows clearly why he should seek outlet for self-expression in song rather than in the large instrumental forms4 ,we find that he was not systematically educated in musical science1 like ,mozart1 ,beethoven or ,weber1 and that he was by nature very spontaneous and amenable to external influences4 ,such a composer is particularly open to the effect of a poem and will turn to the small song form rather than to the elaborate instrumental forms4 ,many of ,schubert's songs were written on the spur of the moment in response to an impulse from reading a chance bit of verse4 ,the first reading of the poem usually gave the complete idea1 both tune and accompaniment2 whether it should have the simple folk-song character1 a more declamatory style1 strophic or the more elaborate form1 depended upon the character of the text4 ,it is fortunate for music that he was brought into contact with some of the finest lyrics in the field of poetry1 such as called forth his highest powers in melody1 harmony1 rhythm1 modulation1 declamation and recitative1 for he aimed to the very fullest extent possible to heighten the thought of the text by the emotional power of music4 ,it is a phase of ,schubert's genius that some of his finest songs were written before he had reached his majority4 ,schumann and ,his ,songs4--,schumann brought to song writing a different type of mind from that of ,schubert1 more poetic1 more gloomy1 more emotional1 a fine literary training1 a faculty for expression in word as well as in tone1 a fund of new forms of expression in instrumental music1 particularly the piano1 so that we find in his songs certain elements that indicate development toward a more highly organized structure4 ,schumann was highly intellectual1 hence we find in his songs a close union of voice and instrumental parts in working out the fundamental conception of the poet's meaning2 and so deeply does he carry out this plan that the accompanist must enter most thoroughly into the singer's part1 and vice versa1 that the full effect be brought out2 as compared with the songs of ,schubert and ,mendelssohn we can say that the latter are the 8verses set to tunes1 while ,schumann's songs are poems in music40 ,the piano part of a ,schumann song contains the atmosphere of the poem1 is an attempt to heighten the meaning by suggesting thoughts and feelings which the words1 spoken or sung1 cannot express2 sometimes it is an entirely independent composition1 and carries out to a final close the thought left unfinished by the voice1 thus avoiding the conventional ending1 by the singer1 on the tonic chord4 ,schumann's effort was to express his own reading of the poet's lines by the musical means that seemed to him best suited to the purpose4 ,to this end he refused to allow himself to be bound by conventional treatment1 either of voice or instrument4 ,robert ,franz 7#ahae-ahib7 combined in his songs the romanticism and general methods of ,schumann1 with a polyphonic treatment inspired by his deep study of ,bach4 ,he wrote to various styles of verse1 hymns1 love-songs1 lyrics of the field1 the forest1 the hunter1 the soldier1 and though his songs lack the tender1 passionate1 melodious quality of ,schubert's and the deep poetic feeling of ,schumann's1 they are nevertheless models of perfect1 even elaborate workmanship in which the composer follows with great faithfulness the mood of the poet2 ,schumann1 on the contrary1 seems to project his own interpretation of the poem into his music1 while ,schubert seems to grasp the emotion at its highest moment and the song pours out as the spontaneous expression of the singer4 ,three ,modern ,writers4--,of modern writers1 those who contributed most to the development of the art-song are ,wagner1 ,brahms and ,richard ,strauss1 the first-named by his style and treatment of the voice and the instrumental part rather than by his songs1 which are few in number4 ,brahms wrote nearly two hundred songs1 varying in character and quality1 and using a highly-developed accompaniment1 often intricate in its construction1 complicated in rhythm and restless in harmonic support1 employing all the resources which his mastery of chromatic harmony placed at his disposal4 ,he frequently wrote in the style of the ,folk-song1 making use of its simple melodic quality1 enriching it1 however1 by his great skill in elaboration in the accompaniment4 ,brahms' songs are great favorites on concert programs4 ,richard ,strauss 7b4 #ahfd7 is the leading composer of today1 and has used in his songs the principles that distinguish his large works4 ,these songs are very difficult1 both for voice and accompaniment1 and are full of tonal coloring1 for ,strauss has adapted to the miniature form of the song the means of harmonic and rhythmic effects which he uses so powerfully in his orchestral scores4 ,when well sung and well played1 the hearer cannot but be absorbed by the wealth of musical effects of the highest emotional and picturesque quality displayed in ,richard ,strauss' songs4 ,in a full study of songs and song writers1 many more names would be mentioned2 those selected for consideration in this lesson represent those who have contributed most significantly to the development of the modern art-song4 ,oratorio ,composers after ,mendelssohn4--,the later history of the ,oratorio requires some consideration at this point4 ,after ,mendelssohn1 many of the leading composers of ,europe turned their attention to this form of composition1 influenced1 in many instances1 by the splendid opportunities for production offered by the strong choral organizations and festival associations of ,germany and ,england1 as well as by the great advances made in orchestral playing1 which gave to composers resources far beyond those at the hand of ,mendelssohn and his predecessors4 ,we may mention1 among the ,germans1 ,schumann1 whose 8,paradise and the ,peri0 was produced in #ahdc2 ,liszt1 who was much attracted to sacred subjects1 wrote two oratorios1 8,the ,legend of ,st4 ,elizabeth0 and 8,christus02 ,rubinstein1 who used his great skill in tone painting with orchestral masses in 8,paradise ,lost0 and in his sacred opera 8,the ,tower of ,babel02 ,brahms1 whose 8,german ,requiem0 is a standard work to be done well only by thoroughly disciplined vocal and instrumental forces2 and ,dvok1 who has shown great power in his 8,stabat ,mater40 ,among the ,french writers most prominent in this form of composition are ,berlioz1 whose 8,requiem0 is a colossal work in which he drew upon all the resources of the orchestra to heighten the powerful1 dramatic character of the text2 ,gounod1 who wrote his remarkable works1 8,the ,redemption0 and 8,mors et ,vita0 for ,english production2 ,saint-,sans1 whose 8,nol10 a ,christmas work1 is oratorio in style and construction1 although small in dimensions2 and ,csar ,franck1 the most modern of all1 whose 8,beatitudes0 has been made the subject of much discussion4 ,english composers1 following the lead of ,handel and ,mendelssohn1 have given great attention to this form4 ,bennett1 the friend of ,mendelssohn1 produced a beautiful work1 8,the ,woman of ,samaria02 ,costa1 an ,italian by birth1 spent a great part of his professional life in ,england2 hence his oratorio1 8,eli10 may be classed with ,english works2 ,sullivan wrote two oratorios1 8,the ,prodigal ,son0 and 8,the ,light of the ,world02 ,macfarren's 8,st4 ,john the ,baptist0 and ,mackenzie's 8,rose of ,sharon0 can be classed among oratorios4 ,the most eminent in this form at the present day is ,elgar1 8,the ,dream of ,gerontius0 and 8,the ,apostles40 ,young ,italy has lately shown interest in this form1 the most noteworthy being the ,abb ,perosi1 who is under the patronage of the ,pope4 ,in the ,united ,states the leading representatives are ,j4 ,k4 ,paine1 of ,harvard ,university1 with the oratorio 8,st4 ,peter10 ,dudley ,buck1 8,golden ,legend10 and ,h4 ,w4 ,parker1 8,hora ,novissima40 ,the ,cantata4--,more popular even than the ,oratorio with choral societies is the ,cantata1 both sacred and secular1 and the great increase in strong choral organizations1 particularly in ,england1 ,germany1 ,france and the ,united ,states1 has resulted in the production of a number of splendid works which show dramatic power and the highest skill in handling voices and instruments4 ,these works contain opportunities for the use of the finest quality of melody1 variety of rhythm1 solid harmonic or the more fluent polyphonic style1 richness of harmonic coloring and every accessory in the way of tone painting by the orchestra1 which such masters as ,berlioz and ,wagner pointed out4 ,the important works are too many to be mentioned here2 only the composers' names can be given4 ,in ,germany1 ,brahms1 ,bruch1 ,dvok1 ,gade1 ,goetz1 ,hiller1 ,hofmann1 ,rheinberger2 in ,france1 ,berlioz and ,massenet2 in ,england1 ,bennett1 ,corder1 ,cowen1 ,macfarren1 ,mackenzie1 ,smart1 ,sullivan1 ,coleridge-,taylor among the younger men2 in the ,united ,states1 ,buck1 ,foote1 ,chadwick1 ,gilchrist1 ,paine1 ,h4 ,w4 ,parker1 and ,carl ,busch4 ,,references4 ,finck4--,songs and ,song ,writers4 ,grove's and ,riemann's ,dictionaries4--,articles on composers mentioned1 on ,song1 ,lied1 ,volkslied1 ,chanson1 ,oratorio and ,cantata4 ,parry4--,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,upton4--,standard ,oratorios4 ,standard ,cantatas4 ,,questions4 ,compare the ,aria and the ,song4 ,mention the characteristics of the ,italian1 ,french and ,english people's songs4 ,what are the characteristics of the ,german ,lied8 ,give a sketch of ,schubert as a song writer4 ,give a sketch of ,schumann as a song writer4 ,compare the two4 ,give a sketch of ,franz as a song writer4 ,compare him with ,schubert and ,schumann4 ,who are eminent among modern song writers8 ,mention the special characteristics of each4 ,name the leading composers of ,oratorio after ,mendelssohn1 and their works4 ,what is the difference between an oratorio and a cantata8 ,what composers have done successful work in this line8 ,songs of the leading composers1 classic and modern1 should be studied4 ,the lessons on ,schubert1 ,schumann1 ,liszt1 etc41 mention notable songs4 ,analyze an oratorio by one of the composers mentioned in this lesson1 also one or more cantatas4 ,illustration3 ,,felix ,,weingartner4 ,,gustav ,,mahler4 ,,richard ,,strauss4 ,,siegmund ,,hausegger4 ,,lesson ,l4 ,,the ,,symphonic ,,poem ,,in ,,germany4 ,wagner's ,influence4--,the genius of ,wagner produced and applied to ,opera a far richer and more complicated orchestration than had existed before his day4 ,since then1 in many periods and in many countries1 composers have tried to adopt his style1 and apply it to the symphonic as well as to the operatic stage4 ,in the field of purely orchestral music1 ,liszt and ,berlioz had already formulated a free style1 and their symphonic poems1 departing from the set form of the symphony1 have also served as models for later composers4 ,almost the only recent exponent of the strict form was ,johannes ,brahms1 for ,anton ,bruckner1 working on similar lines1 did not achieve great success with the public4 ,richard ,strauss4--,for many years it was thought that ,wagner's orchestration would remain unrivalled in the field of music4 ,but ,richard ,strauss 7born at ,munich1 ,germany1 #ahfd7 has made a further advance in this respect1 and handles the full modern orchestra with the utmost skill4 ,son of a court horn-player1 his musical genius showed itself in his earliest years1 and his studies with the court capellmeister1 ,f4 ,w4 ,meyer1 resulted in the publication of several works4 ,at first he followed ,brahms and the stricter school1 and his ,f-minor symphony is a worthy production in that form4 ,a meeting with von ,blow led to his appointment as assistant-conductor at ,meiningen4 ,to show his ability1 ,strauss had to conduct1 without rehearsal1 his ,serenade1 ,op4 #g1 for thirteen wind instruments2 and the excellence of this work brought him the desired position4 ,it was at this time that he met ,alexander ,ritter1 a man of broad intellect and radical ideas4 ,under the new influence1 ,strauss renounced his classical style1 and began to compose the tone-pictures and symphonic poems that have made his name so important4 ,as he is the chief modern representative of the new school1 his works merit detailed examination4 ,his ,early ,symphonic ,poems4--,after an ,italian trip in #ahhf1 ,strauss gave his impressions of that country in the form of the symphonic fantasie 8,aus ,italien10 his first work in the free style of subjective emotion-painting4 ,it is in four movements1 each a complete tone-picture4 ,the first1 8,on the ,campagna10 gives a vivid impression of spacious solitude1 with a hint of the pageants and battles once witnessed by this great ,roman field4 ,the second movement1 8,amid ,rome's ,ruins10 aims also to give 8fantastic pictures of vanished splendor1 feelings of sadness in the midst of the sunlit present40 ,the third movement1 8,on the ,shores of ,sorrento10 resembles the symphonic scherzo1 while the finale gives an animated picture of 8,neapolitan ,folk-,life10 introducing the air of 8,funiculi0 and other popular ,italian tunes4 ,after four years of conducting at the ,munich court theatre1 ,strauss settled in ,weimar1 where he produced three more important works4 ,the first of these1 8,macbeth10 showed that he had abandoned the old form in favor of the symphonic poem1 in which the different movements are fused into one large whole1 free in form4 ,the picture of ,macbeth1 ambitious and cruel in spite of his timidity1 is ably developed1 but the portrayal of ,lady ,macbeth brings a still stronger climax of magnificent orchestral power4 8,don ,juan10 the second of the three1 is founded on ,lenau's poem4 ,the hero is not a ruffian adventurer1 as in ,da ,ponte's libretto1 but is depicted as an arch pessimist1 hunting through the world for perfection in pleasure1 but never finding it4 ,there are restless and uncertain melodies at the opening1 to illustrate the hero's unsatisfied longing4 ,a knightly theme follows1 typical of ,don ,juan himself4 ,then come various episodes1 full of attractive enthusiasm1 but always ending with the same vague unrest4 ,a wild carnival1 followed by sudden silence and the cutting theme of a trumpet1 announce the hero's end4 8,tod und ,verklrung0 7,death and ,transfiguration7 is a work of great power and beauty4 ,it depicts an exhausted sufferer1 asleep in the quiet sick-room1 dreaming of the beauty of his lost youth4 ,then follows a more discordant episode1 which may well picture a fierce contest with the powers of disease1 ending in defeated exhaustion4 ,a third portion brings renewed memories of the morning of life2 passages of joyous enthusiasm and noble aspiration suggest the high hope of youth and the glorious achievement of manhood2 but again comes the struggle with the powers of ,fate1 ending in despair and death4 ,the fourth part is an apotheosis1 representing the triumph of man's upward striving over death4 ,this section contains some of the most impressive orchestral beauties in the range of ,strauss' works4 ,program ,music4--,in the older symphonic form1 it was not necessary for the composer to suggest a title for his work4 ,many have done so--,beethoven in his 8,pastoral ,symphony10 ,mendelssohn in the 8,scotch10 for example2 but the exquisite beauty of ,schubert1 or the romantic charm of ,schumann will impress the hearer without the use of extraneous suggestions4 ,in the modern school of program music1 founded by ,liszt1 the composer gives the audience a more or less detailed account of the subject that inspired him1 and tries to paint in tones the events or moods suggested by the title4 ,much1 therefore1 depends on the choice of the subject4 ,if it is well-known1 and gives definite suggestions of certain moods which can find expression in the orchestra1 then it may receive legitimate treatment by being set to music4 ,but if the subject is not one that lends itself to broad emotional treatment1 or if the composer aims to picture definite events or objects1 he is departing from the true function of his art4 ,music deals with expression of emotion1 and should not attempt something that belongs rather to other arts1 such as ,literature or ,painting4 ,many persons think that ,strauss has gone too far in this direction1 especially in his later works4 ,his ,later ,symphonic ,poems4--,in 8,till ,eulenspiegel10 the hero is a medival rogue1 whose adventures are found in an old ,german tale4 ,he is a wandering mechanic1 who does anything but tend to business4 ,he is always indulging in madcap pranks1 in which he manages to escape from his well-merited punishment4 ,in the composition1 ,strauss has given free rein to his fancy1 and portrayed1 with rare orchestral skill1 the fantastic jokes1 the sly humor1 and the rollicking disposition of the graceless rogue4 ,the work is in rondo form1 with definite themes to typify the hero4 ,these themes form the basis of the music1 and are varied and developed with infinite skill and remarkable orchestral irony4 8,also ,sprach ,zarathustra0 7,thus ,spake ,zarathustra7 is based on ,nietzsche's mystic philosophy4 ,zarathustra1 or ,zoroaster1 alms to teach the doctrine of the 8,over-,man10 by which man is to become a sort of demigod who rises above good and evil into realms of joy4 ,a picture of the 8,hinterweltlern10 or dwellers in the ,rear-,world of common humanity1 portrays their yearnings1 their joys1 and passions1 while their sorrows find voice in a tender 8,grave-,song40 ,science and its futility are represented by a fugue replete with chromatics4 ,a passage entitled1 8,the ,convalescent10 shows the defeat of the spirit of sorrow and evil1 and the triumph of joy4 ,then follows the wild1 chaotic1 but strangely-effective 8,dance-,song10 the exultation of the 8,over-,man40 ,yet his triumph is not lasting1 for at the close1 after a sudden stroke of the bell1 comes the weird 8,song of the ,night-,wanderer10 and the piece ends mystically in two different keys1 as if representing eternal doubt4 ,strange as this work may seem1 its effect is one of vast sublimity1 and ,nietzsche's wild philosophy is translated into orchestral effects of remarkable grandeur4 ,with 8,don ,quixote0 ,strauss enters the more definite field of program music1 and aims to picture events4 ,it is cast in the variation form1 but is much more free in style than that title would imply4 ,there is a theme for the ,don1 clear at first1 but becoming obscure and illogical1 to show that he loses his sanity4 ,he is represented by a solo 'cello1 while his faithful squire ,sancho1 strange to say1 appears mostly in viola passages4 ,each variation treats of one adventure4 ,the windmills are attacked1 with disastrous results4 ,the flock of sheep are heard1 bleating in full chorus until put to flight4 ,the bands of pilgrims are dispersed as robbers4 ,the blindfold ride through the air on the wooden horse is made realistic by the use of the theatrical wind-machine4 ,other adventures follow1 and at the end the knightly theme recurs in a clarified form1 to show ,don ,quixote's return to reason and death4 ,it will readily be seen that this work is more experimental than the earlier ones4 8,ein ,heldenleben0 represents the fight of ,strauss with his adverse critics4 ,there are six well-marked sections4 ,first comes the hero himself1 portrayed by definite themes that are woven into a strong climax4 ,then his enemies are depicted1 with remarkable irony1 by a medley of crackling1 snarling figures for woodwind4 ,the hero's helpmate is represented by a solo violin1 and in this section an instrumental love-duet is introduced4 ,then follows a picture of the hero's battlefield1 ending in a song of victory4 ,the hero's works of peace are then described1 and the meaning of the composition is made clear by the introduction of themes from the earlier works of ,strauss4 ,the final section shows the hero's departure from an ungrateful world4 ,this piece is grandly planned1 but like other orchestral works of ,strauss1 its themes are not melodic and lack musical charm4 ,the 8,sinfonia ,domestica0 pictures a day in the composer's family life4 ,here1 again1 the subject is one that the hearer cannot understand without an arbitrary explanation4 ,strauss has given no complete analysis1 but has deigned to explain that the three themes in the early part represent father1 mother and child1 that the picture begins in the afternoon and lasts until the next morning1 and that the final fugue represents the education of the child4 ,the unmelodic style of ,strauss is little suited to such a subject1 and the effect is such as to make the work seem puzzling1 at first1 if not actually ridiculous4 ,his ,other ,works4--,of the two early operas by ,strauss1 8,guntram0 and 8,feuersnoth10 neither has had real success2 nor does his third production1 8,salome10 seem important4 ,guntram is a fighter for love1 a member of a mystic fraternity4 ,he rescues ,freihild from the tyranny of ,duke ,robert1 who loves her1 and in the struggle he kills ,robert4 ,freihild falls in love with him1 but he must renounce her1 as he knows that he killed ,robert out of rivalry in love1 an unworthy motive4 8,feuersnoth10 lighter in style1 is based on the old legend of a scornful maiden1 whose pride meets punishment4 ,all fire in the town goes out1 and no light can be rekindled1 save by a touch of her body2 so that she finds herself exposed to the multitude4 ,in this work1 as in 8,heldenleben10 ,strauss has introduced veiled attacks on his critics4 ,the music to both operas shows the usual richness of coloring and orchestral intricacy1 but their themes lack the direct power of the guiding motives in ,wagner's works4 ,the ,songs of ,strauss are many in number1 and include some with orchestral accompaniment4 ,they show a modulatory style1 combined with a rare melodic beauty that seems strange in a composer who indulges in so much orchestral ugliness4 ,some of these songs1 such as 8,traum durch die ,dmmerung0 or 8,allerseelen10 are gems of purest water4 ,the songs are often involved in style1 but always possess unity and directness of effect4 ,their beauty shows that the discords in the composer's orchestral works are intentional1 and not due to lack of melodic invention4 ,yet it would seem as if his great mastery of instrumental coloring could have been employed as effectively in scoring beautiful themes1 instead of the commonplace passages so often found in his larger works4 ,hausegger4--,siegmund von ,hausegger 7,graz1 ,austria1 #ahgb7 is another master of the modern orchestra4 ,his father was a musician of broad experience and sound learning1 so that it is not strange that his son's gifts developed quickly4 ,after his regular studies at the gymnasium and the university1 ,siegmund took up music in earnest1 under his father and ,degener4 ,his youthful works were now augmented by a piano quartet1 a fantasia1 the orchestral ballad 8,odinsmeeresritt10 the one-act drama 8,helfried10 and the opera 8,zinnober10 based on a tale of ,hofmann4 ,these were followed by a number of songs and choruses1 but ,hausegger's real greatness was first revealed by the 8,dyonisiac ,fantasie10 a symphonic poem for full orchestra4 ,this was followed by a still greater work1 8,barbarossa10 while in #aijd1 at the ,frankfort festival1 came 8,wieland der ,schmied40 8,barbarossa0 is in three movements4 ,the first shows the happiness of the people gradually fading into sorrow and pain1 until the ,barbarossa theme at last is heard2 for tradition says that the great emperor is not dead1 but sleeps in the mountain ,kyffhuser1 waiting to arise when the need of his people is too great to be borne4 ,the second movement is a weird1 ghostly picture of the enchanted mountain and the sleeping emperor2 while the last depicts his awakening1 his coming forth at the head of his knights1 their victory1 and the rejoicing of the people4 ,wieland is the wonderful smith whose swords cut off a head so cleanly that it remains in place4 ,the first movement shows his vision of the beautiful maid ,schwanhilde1 appearing from celestial regions2 but when he would claim her1 she retreats1 terrified4 ,a second part shows his sorrow and despair4 ,in the third movement hope again triumphs1 and he forges for himself a pair of wings4 ,in the last movement the united lovers leave the dull world behind1 and take their flight to regions of eternal sunlight4 ,other ,orchestral ,composers4--,gustav ,mahler 7,kalisht1 ,bohemia1 #ahfj7 gained his musical experience as a director in some of the lesser theatres1 and is largely self-taught4 ,besides two operas and a number of beautiful songs1 he has composed five symphonies4 ,he has tried to enlarge the symphonic form without departing from it4 ,his symphonies all aim to express some definite thought1 such as pessimism finding its cure in simple faith1 love of nature leading to a high idea of ,pantheism1 or doubt clearing in the joys of immortality4 ,the movements are arranged in contrasting groups1 and voices are introduced1 at first solo1 and then often in a final chorus of triumph4 ,mahler's works are planned on a grand scale1 but his music is often unclear and restless in effect4 ,paul ,felix ,weingartner 7,zara1 ,dalmatia1 #ahfc7 is another musician who served his apprenticeship in the smaller theatres1 and became one of the world's great conductors4 ,he is known by his two symphonic poems1 8,king ,lear0 and 8,the ,elysian ,fields10 as well as by two symphonies in strict form1 and by several chamber works4 ,his opera 8,genesius0 and his classical trilogy 8,orestes0 are other successful works4 ,jean ,louis ,nicod 7,jerczik1 ,posen1 #ahec7 is somewhat older than the modern tone-poets1 and if less important is still noteworthy as an exponent of the program tendency4 ,his two greatest works are the 8,symphonic ,variations10 ,op4 #bg1 and 8,das ,meer10 for male chorus1 soloists1 orchestra1 and organ4 ,the latter is not a cantata1 but rather a great suite1 in which vocal movements are balanced against orchestral numbers4 ,among younger men1 ,hugo ,kaun is familiar to ,americans because of his long sojourn in ,milwaukee4 ,his symphonic poems based on ,longfellow's 8,hiawatha0 show much fluency and taste4 ,switzerland now has its set of young composers1 with ,hans ,huber as their leader in the orchestral field4 ,the ,present ,situation4--,the rich harmonies and free modulations of ,wagner1 combined with the setting aside of symphonic form by ,liszt1 have caused the more recent composers of ,germany to give up almost wholly the writing of symphonies4 ,the free style of tone-picturing has been widely adopted1 in consequence of the example of ,strauss4 ,he has gone so far that some of his works seem merely colossal experiments in this direction1 and it is not improbable that a revulsion from such extreme musical impressionism will take place some time in the future4 ,,references ,,for ,,lessons ,l ,,to ,,lvi4 ,baker4--,biographical ,dictionary of ,musicians4 ,elson4--,modern ,composers of ,europe4 ,hale1 ,philip1 ,editor4--,famous ,composers and ,their ,works1 new series4 ,huneker1 ,james4--,mezzotints in ,modern ,music4 ,weingartner1 ,paul ,felix4--,the ,symphony ,since ,beethoven4 ,,questions4 ,what was the influence of ,wagner's style on symphonic music8 ,what was the nature of ,richard ,strauss' training and the direction of his early compositions8 ,describe his early symphonic poems4 ,what is program music8 ,describe ,richard ,strauss' later symphonic poems4 ,in what other styles of composition has he written8 ,give a sketch of ,hausegger4 ,give an account of the work of ,gustav ,mahler4 ,give an account of the work of ,felix ,weingartner4 ,give an account of the work of other ,german writers of symphonic poems4 ,,lesson ,,li4 ,,german ,,opera ,,since ,,wagner4 ,goldmark4--,among those opera composers who are not direct imitators of ,wagner1 ,carl ,goldmark 7,keszthely1 ,hungary1 #ahcj7 is the most noted4 ,son of a cantor in a synagogue1 he showed decided musical taste while still a child1 and at twelve played the violin in public4 ,after a few conservatory lessons at ,vienna1 he was forced to make his own way1 and live on the small salary obtained in theatre orchestras4 ,he taught himself piano and singing1 and was soon able to teach others also4 ,he trained himself by reading the scores of the great master-works4 ,in purely orchestral composition1 his first success came with the 8,sakuntala0 overture1 inspired by the story of the ,oriental nymph of that name1 who is wooed1 forgotten1 and found again by the ,indian king1 ,dushianta4 ,later overtures are 8,penthesilea10 8,spring10 8,prometheus ,bound10 and 8,italy40 ,goldmark wrote two symphonies1 the first 78,rustic ,wedding07 resembling a suite of tone-pictures1 while the second is in stricter form4 ,he has also published a violin concerto1 some chamber works1 and vocal pieces4 ,his music is marked by richness of harmony and warmth of instrumental coloring4 ,goldmark's ,operas4--,his first opera was the 8,queen of ,sheba10 dealing with the infatuation of ,assad for that queen1 at the court of ,king ,solomon4 ,its scenes of splendid festivity and dramatic power1 and its delightful music1 won it an immense success1 and ,goldmark was nicknamed 8,court ,composer to the ,queen of ,sheba40 8,merlin10 his next work1 is based on that wizard's love for ,viviane1 in the days of ,king ,arthur4 ,it contains much noble music1 but the libretto is weak and confused4 8,heimchen am ,herd0 is an example of the style of ,folk-opera introduced by ,humperdinck4 ,it is a setting of ,dickens' 8,cricket on the ,hearth10 and its music shows a most delightful freshness and charm4 8,die ,kriegsgefangene0 treats the story of ,achilles and ,briseis with much expressive power1 while 8,gtz von ,berlichingen0 is a setting of ,goethe's novel of that title4 8,der ,fremdling0 7,the ,stranger7 is a manuscript work4 ,illustration3 ,,engelbert ,,humperdinck4 ,humperdinck4--,engelbert ,humperdinck 7,bonn1 ,germany1 #ahed7 won a remarkable success with his ,folk-opera 8,hnsel and ,gretel10 a work which has almost founded a new school in ,germany4 ,humperdinck studied architecture at first1 but at ,hiller's advice took up music4 8,hnsel and ,gretel0 is the story of two poor children who are left in the woods by their stepmother4 ,they find a gingerbread house1 inhabited by a witch who wishes to eat them2 but ,gretel pushes her into her own oven1 and frees all the children previously under her spells4 ,the greatness of this work1 like that of ,weber's operas1 in their day1 lies in its union of the popular ,folk-song style with the richness of modern orchestration4 ,the music is fresh and tuneful1 with an appealing sincerity that carries it directly to the heart4 ,at a period when other composers seemed able to produce nothing but weak imitations of ,wagner's operas1 this work won universal recognition4 ,humperdinck has produced several other fairy operas1 such as 8,dornrschen10 8,die ,knigskinder10 8,saint-,cyr10 and 8,die ,sieben ,geislein10 but none of them has gained any lasting success4 ,kienzl4--,another composer of originality is ,wilhelm ,kienzl 7,waizen-,kirchen1 ,austria1 #aheg74 ,he studied at ,graz1 ,prague1 ,leipzig1 and1 finally1 with ,liszt1 at ,weimar4 ,he1 too1 served as conductor in small theatres4 ,his first opera1 8,urvasi10 is based on an ,east ,indian subject4 ,its music is brilliant1 but lacking in dramatic effect4 8,heilmar der ,narr0 deals with the magic healing qualities of a seventh son1 who forfeits his power if rewarded2 he cures his sweetheart1 but loses his gift because he wins her1 whereupon she sacrifices herself to bring back his skill4 ,kienzl's greatest work is 8,der ,evangelimann10 treating of a true story of two brothers in a small ,austrian hamlet4 ,both love the same girl1 ,martha1 but she prefers ,mathias4 ,johannes1 out of jealousy1 sets fire to a house where the lovers are meeting1 and denounces ,mathias as the incendiary4 ,martha tries in vain to save him1 and he is imprisoned for twenty years4 ,at the end of this term1 ,johannes1 who has been prosperous and respected1 is confronted on his death-bed by ,mathias1 who forgives him4 ,this opera has been given in many countries1 and translated into several languages4 ,its music shows much dramatic force1 and goes far to redeem those scenes in the libretto that are lacking in action4 ,a fourth opera by ,kienzl is the tragi-comedy 8,don ,quixote40 ,schillings4--,among the composers who have modelled their works on those of ,wagner is ,max ,schillings 7,dren1 ,germany1 #ahfh74 ,he studied law at first1 like ,schumann1 but soon turned to music1 and became one of ,wagner's active assistants at ,bayreuth4 ,his 8,ingwelde0 is one of the many ,viking operas that have followed in the lead of 8,tristan and ,isolde10 and aimed at effects of dramatic power4 ,ingwelde is forced by a careless oath to follow ,klause1 enemy of her husband1 ,gest4 ,bran1 ,klause's brother1 loves her also1 and kills ,klause4 ,she returns to ,gest1 but ,bran follows and kills him too1 after which the pair die together4 8,der ,pfeifertag10 a later work1 is evidently inspired by 8,die ,meistersinger40 ,it is a confused account of various adventures on 8,pipers' ,day10 a medival festival4 ,the chief episodes are the reduction of an excessive toll paid by the pipers1 the pretended death of one of that ,guild1 who thus obtains a eulogy from a rival1 and the union of two pairs of lovers4 ,the music1 though worthy1 can hardly stand comparison with that of the great work upon which the opera was modelled4 ,cyrill ,kistler 7,augsburg1 ,germany1 #ahdh7 was at one time thought to be ,wagner's real successor1 but nearly all his works are now laid aside4 ,they show an evident striving after musical grandeur1 but are not wholly successful in attaining that effect4 ,kistler studied with ,lachner and others at ,munich1 but became a ,wagner enthusiast in spite of their formal training4 ,in his first opera1 8,kunihild10 the heroine is wooed by one of three brothers1 who is successful in the magic ride necessary to win her4 ,but there has been a feud between the houses1 and another brother1 to prevent the marriage1 kills the bridegroom4 ,a comic opera1 8,eulenspiegel10 preceded by ten years the symphonic poem of ,strauss4 8,baldurs ,tod0 is based on the beautiful ,norse ,saga of the ,sun-,god4 8,im ,honigmond0 is a smaller work1 in romantic style4 ,a more important production in the same vein is 8,rslein im ,hag10 which bids fair to be successful4 8,der ,vogt von ,mhlstein0 is a work of still more recent date4 ,august ,bungert 7,mhlheim1 ,germany1 #ahdf7 studied at ,cologne and ,paris1 taking up composition at ,berlin under the renowned ,fr4 ,kiel4 ,he has produced a light opera1 8,die ,studenten von ,salamanca10 a 8,tasso0 overture1 and the symphonic poem 8,auf der ,wartburg40 ,but his life-work has been the composition of a ,hexalogy1 or set of six operas1 on ,homeric subjects4 ,the first two1 8,achilles0 and 8,klytemnestra10 are from the ,iliad1 while the ,odyssey furnishes the material for 8,kirke10 8,nausikaa10 8,odysseus ,heimkehr10 and 8,odysseus ,tod40 ,the abiding beauty of the old ,greek poems has been faithfully preserved in the librettos1 and the music has reflected1 to some degree1 the noble dignity of these epics4 ,the first three works of the ,odyssey cycle have been given1 and have produced an excellent impression on the critics4 ,illustration3 ,,siegfried ,,wagner4 ,siegfried ,wagner 7,triebschen1 ,switzerland1 #ahfi71 son of the immortal ,richard1 has an undoubted right to carry on the family traditions4 ,he studied with ,kniese and ,humperdinck1 and became a very energetic conductor4 ,his first opera1 8,der ,brenhuter10 is the story of a medival soldier who sells himself to the devil1 but is redeemed by finding a sweetheart who will remain true during three years of absence4 8,herzog ,wildfang10 the next work1 treats of a fiery duke who is made unpopular and supplanted by his crafty adviser1 ,mathias ,blank4 ,mathias is afterward caught in trying to win the beautiful ,osterlind by trickery1 and his dishonesty in office is also exposed2 whereupon the rightful duke comes to his own again1 and ,osterlind marries her real lover4 8,der ,kobold10 a third work1 treats of the legend that the souls of murdered children wander about as kobolds until released by the sacrifice of the last of their race4 8,bruder ,lustig10 the fourth opera1 is based on an ,austrian subject4 ,d',albert4--,in ,eugen d',albert 7,glasgow1 ,scotland1 #ahfd71 we find a man of real musical gifts4 ,he studied under such men as ,stainer and ,prout in ,england1 but he claims that his true musical education began only in later days1 under ,richter and ,liszt4 ,he has won international fame as a pianist1 and has shown real musicianship in his purely orchestral works4 ,these include two concertos for piano1 one for violoncello1 the 8,esther0 and 8,hyperion0 overtures1 and a worthy symphony2 all showing harmonic beauty and richness of color1 without any inflation or exaggerated effects4 ,his first opera1 8,the ,ruby10 tells of a princess imprisoned in the form of that magic gem1 but released by a poor young man who wins her4 8,ghismonda0 deals with the love of a princess for a young man of low degree1 but noble character4 ,on being surprised with the princess1 he dies rather than reveal her love for him1 but she proclaims his chivalry to the world4 8,gernot0 is an elfin opera1 with much delicate music4 8,die ,abreise0 shows the reconciliation of a married couple who have begun to drift apart1 and the departure of the over-amorous cavalier who tried to widen the breach for his own purposes4 8,kain0 is a weirdly effective one-act drama1 of the realistic school4 8,der ,improvisator0 has for its libretto a rather weak arrangement of ,hugo's 8,angelo1 ,tyrant of ,padua10 while 8,tiefland0 is founded on a ,spanish tale1 in which true love triumphs over the schemes of a wicked ,alcalde4 ,hugo ,wolf 7,vienna1 ,austria1 #ahfj--,vienna1 #aijb7 had a constant struggle with poverty1 and enjoyed but a short period of fame before yielding to insanity and death4 ,his opera1 8,der ,corregidor10 is a delightful work1 in comic vein1 and the humorous scenes on the stage are treated with remarkable animation and skill in the orchestra4 ,the ,corregidor is a ,spanish magistrate1 who is too much smitten with ,frasquita1 the beautiful wife of the miller1 ,tio ,lucas4 ,the pair play him many tricks1 and the opera ends with his discomfiture before his own consort4 ,wolf's fame is much increased by the rare power and beauty of his many songs4 ,especially worthy of note are the 8,feuerreiter10 8,gebet10 8,gesang ,weylas10 and the 8,italienisches ,liederbuch40 ,his symphonic poem1 8,penthesilea10 is another important work4 ,his style is sometimes bizarre and involved1 but his themes are always effective and significant4 ,other ,composers4--,max ,bruch 7,cologne1 ,germany1 #ahch7 studied under ,hiller1 ,reinecke1 and ,breuning4 ,his chief opera1 8,hermione10 is not important1 but he has won lasting fame by the breadth and nobility of his epic cantatas1 such as 8,frithjof10 8,odysseus10 8,arminius10 and others4 ,his concertos and serenade for violin are favorite works with soloists4 ,ludwig ,thuille1 a friend of ,strauss1 is given high praise by musicians1 and his new opera 8,gugeline0 has been well received4 ,heinrich ,zollner has won a popular success by his setting of ,hauptmann's delicate play1 8,the ,sunken ,bell40 ,hans ,pfitzner has produced an excellent work in his romantic forest-opera1 8,die ,rose vom ,liebesgarten40 ,leo ,blech's 8,alpenknig und ,menschenfeind0 has received numerous performances1 while ,e4 ,klose's fairy opera1 8,ilsebill10 is a worthy example of its school4 ,opera in ,germany4--,since ,wagner's time1 there has been no striking development in ,german opera1 and his works still remain by far the most important in that field4 ,none can rival him in the power1 variety1 and expressive qualities of his music4 ,strauss surpasses him in intricacy and novelty of instrumental effects1 but ,wagner himself first cleared the path in which ,strauss was to follow4 ,the greatest successes of ,goldmark are those of twenty and thirty years ago4 ,humperdinck's one chief work is frankly popular in style1 and its attractiveness cannot fairly be compared with the grandeur of the music-dramas1 even though it should found a school of its own4 ,bungert's works1 though well received1 have not been given many performances1 while many of those who have tried to imitate ,wagner have echoed merely his outward mannerisms1 and not the inward greatness of his works4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that a world-genius like that of ,wagner does not appear in every country or every century1 and that his importance prevents his successors from gaining their full meed of appreciation4 ,,references4 ,maitland1 ,j4 ,a4 ,fuller4--,masters of ,german ,music4 ,elson1 ,arthur4--,modern ,composers of ,europe4 ,,questions4 ,give a sketch of ,carl ,goldmark and his works4 ,in what style of opera has ,humperdinck been most successful8 ,give an account of ,kienzl and his most important works4 ,whose works seem to have furnished models for ,max ,schillings' operas8 ,give an account of the works of ,kistler4 ,what is the great work of ,august ,bungert8 ,give the stories of ,siegfried ,wagner's operas4 ,give an account of ,eugen d',albert and his works4 ,give an account of ,hugo ,wolf's works4 ,what other composers have done important work in this field8 ,summarize the work of the leading composers mentioned in this lesson4 ,illustration3 ,,vincent ,d',,indy4 ,c,,sar ,,franck4 ,,camille ,,saint-,,sa,,ns4 ,,jules ,,massenet4 ,,lesson ,,lii4 ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,schools ,,in ,,france4 ,saint-,sans4--,the end of the #aith century in ,france has been marked by a decided contrast between the old and the new1 ,saint-,sans and ,massenet writing in the older style1 while the pupils of ,franck have striven after novelty in effect4 ,charles-,camille ,saint-,sans 7,paris1 ,france1 #ahce7 witnessed the rise and fall of ,meyerbeer1 and the triumphs of ,gounod1 and was himself famous before the influence of ,wagner reached ,france4 ,his style is marked by great diversity1 and displays equal skill in many different veins2 but his music always shows the utmost facility of expression1 a mastery of the technic of composing1 and a remarkable ease and fluency4 ,his has been a true musical development1 founded on rational lines4 ,he was always a warm admirer of ,bach1 ,beethoven1 and the ,classical school1 and while he appreciated ,liszt1 ,wagner and other modern masters1 he did not abandon the old ideas of form and melody4 ,his works show the most exquisite symmetry of detail1 like that of a finely-carved monument enriched by delicate tracery4 ,his ,works4--,saint-,sans studied at the ,conservatoire1 under ,stamaty1 ,halvy1 and ,benoist4 ,though he failed in trying for the ,prix de ,rome1 he produced a worthy symphony when only sixteen4 ,in opera1 his first success was the ,biblical 8,samson and ,dalila10 a work of expressive power and vivid coloring4 8,le ,timbre d',argent0 and 8,la ,princesse ,jaune0 are of earlier date4 8,le ,deluge10 is an operatic cantata4 8,etienne-,marcel0 won some success in ,paris1 while 8,henry ,,viii0 is a skilful blending of old and new styles4 8,proserpine0 and 8,ascanio0 followed1 while 8,phryne0 is a dainty example of opra comique4 8,parysatis10 8,djanire10 and 8,les ,barbares0 introduce grandiose effects for open-air performances4 8,helne0 is a shorter work1 again on a ,grecian subject4 ,the composer's versatility and smoothness of style prevent him from obtaining the highest dramatic intensity1 but his music is always excellent4 ,in the orchestral field1 he has produced four later symphonies1 five piano concertos 7that in ,g minor being the favorite71 and two suites4 ,his symphonic poems include 8,le ,rouet d',omphale10 a delicious orchestral spinning-song2 8,phaeton0 and 8,la ,jeunesse d',hercule10 also on mythical subjects2 and the weird 8,danse ,macabre40 ,his violin concerto in ,b minor is a great favorite4 ,massenet4--,jules ,emile ,frederic ,massenet 7,montreaux1 ,france1 #ahdb7 is another ,conservatoire pupil4 ,rejected at first by ,bazin1 as lacking talent1 he worked steadily onward1 and from a player in small cafs became one of the foremost figures in ,french music4 ,his first great triumph came with 8,marie ,madeleine0 and 8,eve10 which are not strictly oratorios1 but are more properly called sacred dramas4 8,la ,vierge0 and 8,la ,terre ,promise0 are of later date4 ,these works treat their subjects with modern spirit and passion1 instead of the more classic oratorio style4 ,massenet is hardly the equal of ,saint-,sans in orchestral work1 but his 8,phedre0 overture and his suites of tone-pictures are remarkably attractive4 ,in opera1 he won his spurs with 8,le ,roi de ,lahore10 a spectacular ,oriental subject4 8,herodiade0 is a sacred work1 while 8,manon0 is a graceful setting of ,prevost's novel of that name4 8,le ,cid0 is not so strong a work1 for ,massenet's style is sentimental and passionate rather than heroic4 8,esclairmonde10 with a romantic and legendary plot1 displays remarkable beauty and richness of effect4 8,werther10 based on ,goethe's novel1 is another success4 8,le ,mage10 an ,oriental subject1 and 8,thais10 with an ,egyptian plot1 were comparative failures4 8,la ,navarraise10 with its love amid battles1 is an echo of ,italian realism4 ,massenet's tender feeling and vivid emotion show at their best in his later works for the stage--8,le ,portrait de ,manon10 a delightful love-idyl1 8,cendrillon10 a fairy opera1 8,griselidis10 an old legend of wifely constancy1 and 8,le ,jongleur de ,notre-,dame40 ,the last is a touching story of a despised minstrel who wins favor with the ,holy ,virgin by his earnest desire to do something in her name1 even if it be only to amuse her with his juggling tricks4 ,french ,opera4--,among other ,french composers for the stage1 ,meyerbeer1 ,gounod and ,bizet belong to a previous generation4 ,delibes won some notice with 8,le ,roi l'a ,dit0 and 8,sylvia10 but his best work is 8,lakm10 another example of rich ,oriental warmth and color4 ,ambroise ,thomas is known chiefly as the composer of 8,mignon10 a remarkably graceful setting of a libretto from ,goethe's 8,wilhelm ,meister40 8,le ,songe d'un ,nuit d't10 an earlier work1 has also met with deserved success1 but 8,hamlet0 is a ridiculous perversion of ,shakespeare1 and 8,franoise de ,rimini0 failed to attain real tragic grandeur4 ,guiraud is known by his comic opera 8,piccolino02 ,poise set many of ,molire's plays2 ,lalo's only notable work is 8,le ,roi d',ys02 ,godard's dainty 8,vivandire0 is frankly light in style2 while ,salvayre's ambitious 8,dame de ,monsoreau0 is not a great success4 ,reyer's 8,erostrate0 and 8,la ,statue0 were praised in their day1 but he is better known by two later works--8,sigurd10 on the subject of 8,die ,gtterdmmerung10 and 8,salammb10 a setting of ,flaubert's story of ,carthage4 ,franck and ,his ,influence4--,the new ,french school is almost wholly due to the work of one man1 ,csar ,auguste ,franck 7,lige1 ,belgium1 #ahbb--,paris1 #ahij74 ,he settled in ,paris1 and studied at the ,conservatoire4 ,modest and retiring by nature1 8le bon pre ,franck10 as he was called1 divided his time between teaching1 composing1 and playing the organ of the ,ste4 ,clotilde ,church4 ,his simple faith and earnest work recall the spirit of the old medival artists1 who devoted their lives and their music to the glory of the ,lord4 ,franck's works show a mastery and power that his pupils are scarcely able to equal1 and his compositions have fairly won the esteem that was denied to them during the composer's lifetime4 ,among them are the great ,d minor ,symphony1 the oratorios 8,ruth10 8,rebecca10 and 8,the ,redemption10 the opera 8,hulda10 and the symphonic poems 8,psyche0 7with voices71 8,les ,djinns10 8,les ,eolides10 and 8,le ,chasseur ,maudit40 ,but ,franck's most notable work is 8,les ,beatitudes10 an eight-part oratorio treating the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,franck's style is radically different from that of ,saint-,sans or ,massenet4 ,it is harmonic rather than melodic1 and extremely modulatory in effect4 ,his progressions remind the hearer of ,wagner2 but they do not always possess the broad simplicity that underlies ,wagner's most intricate passages4 ,franck's pupils have often fallen into the error of imitating his weakest points1 and have brought about a style of harmonic vagueness that seems meaningless to many modern critics4 ,d',indy4--,vincent d',indy 7,paris1 ,france1 #aheb7 is the greatest of ,franck's pupils1 and the leader of the modern ,french school4 ,as conductor1 he has been an ardent champion of new and little-known works4 ,his own compositions include many forms1 and have all attracted attention4 ,his first great work to reach the public was the 8,piccolomini0 overture1 a part of his orchestral trilogy based on ,schiller's 8,wallenstein40 ,two important vocal compositions are 8,la ,chevauche du ,cid10 for baritone1 chorus1 and orchestra1 and 8,le ,chant de la ,cloche10 a dramatic legend that won the prize given by the city of ,paris4 ,in the orchestral field1 8,antony and ,cleopatra0 is an early work1 as is also the 8,jean ,hunyadi0 symphony4 ,of d',indy's two later symphonies1 the first1 based on a mountain air1 contains many passages of sweetness and purity1 while the second is more involved and modulatory in style4 ,his earliest symphonic poem1 8,la ,fort ,enchante0 is a delicate tone-picture based on a ballad of ,uhland2 8,saugefleurie0 is founded on a story by de ,bonnires2 while 8,istar0 is inspired by parts of the old ,assyrian epic 8,idzubar40 ,d',indy's music is hardly popular in style1 for its themes are not definitely melodic2 but his skill in weaving them into an orchestral tissue is admired by all musicians4 ,in opera1 8,les ,burgraves0 and the lighter 8,attendez-,moi ,sous l',orme0 are youthful works1 while 8,fervaal0 is a music-drama 7action musicale7 on a ,druidic subject1 and 8,l',etranger0 is symbolic in style4 ,he has written some important works in musical literature and theory4 ,charpentier4--,gustave ,charpentier 7,dieuze1 ,france1 #ahfj7 was a ,conservatoire pupil4 ,the ,prix de ,rome took him to ,italy1 and his life there resulted in the pleasing orchestral suite 8,impressions d',italie40 ,this consists of five tone-pictures1 entitled1 8,serenade10 8,at the ,fountain10 8,on ,muleback10 8,on the ,summits10 and 8,naples40 ,on his return he lived among the working-people of ,montmartre1 and their life is reflected in his later works4 8,la ,vie du ,pote0 is a symphony-drama1 giving episodes in the life of an unsuccessful genius4 ,in the beginning1 all is aspiration and enthusiasm4 ,then doubt follows4 ,at first the poet is consoled by the serene beauty of the summer night1 but his fears gain the upper hand4 ,then comes a picture of impotent raging and vain anger against fate1 after which the poet tries to blot out his sorrows in the cheap gayety of the city4 8,la ,couronnement de la ,muse0 is a pantomime1 written with the idea that a working girl in each town or city should annually be chosen and crowned amid festivities4 ,the composer's greatest work1 however1 is the opera 8,louise40 ,this tells the story of a poor working girl1 whose parents forbid her to marry the somewhat wayward ,julien4 ,at the latter's persuasion1 she finally flies with him4 ,her parents try to reclaim her1 but again she is drawn away1 and her father is left shaking his fist at the terrible city that entices young girls from their homes4 ,the music of 8,louise0 is full of power and realism1 and even the street cries of ,paris are echoed in its measures4 ,bruneau4--,operatic realism has found a more prolific1 if less successful1 champion in ,alfred ,bruneau 7,paris1 ,france1 #aheg71 another ,conservatoire pupil4 ,he has confined himself to librettos drawn from the novels of ,zola4 8,le ,rve10 an early work1 is a psychological study of love1 in the person of the dreamy ,angelique1 who dies from excess of happiness when her wedding is completed4 8,l',attaque du ,moulin0 is a spirited story of the ,franco-,prussian war1 set in a more melodic and popular style4 8,messidor0 is again symbolic in style1 the theme being a contrast between greed for gold and the simple pleasure of honest toil4 8,l',ouragan0 deals with the tempests of human passion and jealousy1 as well as the hurricanes of nature4 8,l',enfant ,roi10 and the music to 8,la ,faute de l',abb ,mouret10 are more recent works4 ,bruneau is sincere and earnest in his efforts at realism1 but his music is often heavy and uninspired4 ,he has produced works in other fields1 among them being a great 8,requiem10 a 8,heroic ,overture10 and the symphonic poem 8,penthesile10 for voice and orchestra4 ,his three books on ,french composers1 and his many criticisms1 have made him known in the domain of musical literature4 ,debussy4--,the new school of ,french music finds its most radical expression in the compositions of ,achille ,claude ,debussy 7,paris1 ,france1 #ahfb74 ,a musician of great gifts1 he chooses to imbue his music with a studied vagueness of effect1 and wanders through a maze of changing keys and harmonies4 ,many persons find the result wholly incomprehensible at first1 but on repeated hearing his works show a weird1 elusive beauty that is worshipped by his adherents as the acme of musical expression4 ,he1 too1 was a ,conservatoire student1 and won the ,prix de ,rome with the cantata 8,l',enfant ,prodigue40 ,two lyric scenes1 8,la ,demoiselle lue10 and 8,chimne10 first drew attention to the young artist4 ,then came the orchestral prelude to ,mallarm's 8,l',aprs-,midi d'un ,faune10 a delicately-woven rhapsody1 with much beauty and much weirdness in its harmonies4 ,the ,nocturnes1 entitled1 8,nuages0 and 8,ftes10 are described by ,de ,brville as possessing the ethereal charm of a perfume that pervades the air1 but defies analysis4 ,a string quartet is in stricter form1 but the 8,proses ,lyriques10 on subjects of ,beaudelaire1 also the 8,chansons de ,bilitis0 and 8,les ,estampes0 for piano1 again show the free style4 ,debussy's most ambitious work is 8,pelleas et ,mlisande10 an opera based on ,maeterlinck's play of that name4 ,the poet's words offer the same shadowy suggestions that the composer gives in music1 and the harmonic effects of vague mystery are entirely in place here4 ,chausson4--,ernest ,chausson 7,paris1 ,france1 #ahee--,limay1 #ahii7 proved himself a composer of real greatness1 and was still in the prime of life when he met with a fatal bicycle accident1 in #ahii4 ,trained for law1 he turned to music from choice1 as ,schumann did before him4 ,a pupil of ,massenet and ,franck1 he combined the direct expression of the former with the harmonic style of the latter1 and produced works of a most attractive orchestral coloring4 ,among his compositions are a worthy symphony1 the beautiful symphonic poem 8,viviane10 the orchestral pictures 8,solitude dans les ,bois0 and 8,soir de ,fte10 a 8,pome0 for violin and orchestra1 some chamber-music1 and many pleasing songs and choruses4 ,his one great opera was 8,le ,roi ,arthus40 ,his works are full of tenderness and charm1 yet not lacking in vigor and breadth2 they have the modern harmonic richness and orchestral color1 and are growing steadily in favor4 ,other ,composers4--,alexis ,emanuel ,chabrier1 wholly self-taught in music1 produced the brilliant orchestral rhapsody 8,espaa10 an attractive 8,suite ,pastorale10 a lively 8,marche ,joyeuse10 and some effective cantatas4 ,in opera1 his 8,le ,roi ,malgr ,lui0 is an excellent example in lighter vein1 but his greatest work is 8,gwendoline10 on a ,viking subject4 ,of all the ,frenchmen1 he was the one best fitted to attempt the bold1 virile style required by the libretto4 ,the most prominent orchestral writer of the younger generation is ,paul ,dukas1 whose 8,apprenti ,sorcier0 treats a humorous subject with rare skill4 ,thodore ,dubois1 for many years head of the ,conservatoire1 is best known by his oratorios1 such as 8,paradise ,lost10 and his 8,frithjof0 overture4 ,gabriel ,faur1 the organist1 who succeeded ,dubois as director of the ,conservatoire in #aije1 has produced a symphony1 two string quartets1 and a number of songs whose intricacy cannot obscure their exquisite grace4 ,other organist-composers are ,charles ,marie ,widor1 who wrote the opera 8,matre ,ambros0 and the ballet 8,la ,korrigane10 and ,alexandre ,guilmant1 known by his great organ symphony and sonatas4 ,bourgault-,ducoudray has written many cantatas1 and made a valuable collection of ,breton ,folk-songs4 ,piern1 ,coquard1 ,erlanger and ,hue won their fame in opera1 while ,duparc gained notice with his symphonic poem 8,lenore40 ,ropartz and de ,brville rank with the best of ,franck's pupils1 while among women-composers1 ,augusta ,holms won renown by her mastery of broad orchestral effects1 and ,ccile ,chaminade is known by her dainty songs and piano pieces4 ,the ,new ,french ,school4--,when ,wagner showed the harmonic resources of the modern orchestra1 he led the way for a host of imitators1 who have often done more harm than good4 ,such operas as 8,fervaal0 and 8,gwendoline10 in large measure the result of 8,tristan10 are proper applications of this style4 ,but the idea of finding new harmonic effects has exerted its influence on orchestral writers also1 and some modern composers1 especially in ,france1 have devoted all their energy to this1 and have apparently sacrificed all thoughts of musical beauty4 ,the ,french have even invented the term 8crbral10 which describes a composer who puts no emotion or feeling into his music1 but works it out wholly from the brain4 ,thus many of the modern compositions must be regarded as great orchestral experiments1 and the composer who combines this instrumental technic with real feeling and directness of utterance is the one who will meet with the greatest success4 ,,references4 ,hervey1 ,arthur4--,masters of ,french ,music4 ,hervey1 ,arthur4--,music in the #aith ,century3 ,france4 ,elson1 ,a4--,modern ,composers of ,europe4 ,,questions4 ,which ,french composers represent the older style2 which the new8 ,give a sketch of the works of ,saint-,sans4 ,give a sketch of the works of ,massenet4 ,name other important opera composers in ,france4 ,who was the leader of the new ,french school8 ,give an account of his works4 ,name some of his pupils4 ,who is the leading representative of this school today 7#aije78 ,give an account of his works4 ,which is the most important work of ,charpentier8 ,in what lines of musical work did ,bruneau labor8 ,name some of his works4 ,who is the most extreme representative of the new ,french school8 ,what are the distinguishing characteristics of ,chausson's works8 ,name other important ,french composers4 ,what is the character of some of the works of the advanced school of composition8 ,illustration3 ,,pietro ,,mascagni4 ,,giacomo ,,puccini4 ,g4 ,,sgambati4 ,,abb ,,perosi4 ,,enrico ,,bossi4 ,,lesson ,,liii4 ,,musical ,,regeneration ,,in ,,italy4 ,musical ,decadence4--,when a nation clings to its own musical ideas1 and persistently disregards the growth and progress of other nations1 it usually enters upon a period of decay4 ,this is what took place in ,italy during the #aith century1 and the country that produced ,palestrina and the ,scarlattis seemed for a time to understand nothing but the trivial operatic melodies of ,rossini's successors4 ,in #ahej1 there were scarcely any concert halls in the country1 and even the churches were content with operatic airs set to sacred words4 ,soon after this1 ,pinelli tried to give an orchestral concert1 with sixty musicians2 and the box-office receipts left only fourteen francs with which to pay them4 ,sgambati produced a ,beethoven symphony1 but had to do it at his own expense4 ,as late as #ahgi1 ,saint-,sans1 who gave an organ recital at ,milan1 found the organ scarcely fit for an artist to play upon4 ,in opera1 it was only the broad judgment of ,verdi that was able to look beyond the borders of his native land1 and his 8,ada10 as well as ,boto's 8,mefistofele10 was the beginning of a new order of things4 ,mascagni4--,in #ahij1 the publisher ,sonzogno offered a prize for the best one-act opera submitted to him1 and this prize was awarded to ,pietro ,mascagni 7,leghorn1 ,italy1 #ahfc71 then an unimportant musical leader at ,cerignola4 ,mascagni was the son of a baker1 who wished him to study law1 and locked him up because he practiced the piano in secret4 ,the boy was rescued by his uncle1 and under the protection of ,count ,florestan pursued his studies at the ,milan ,conservatory4 ,the opera that brought him such fame1 which has since become world-wide1 was 8,cavalleria ,rusticana10 or 8,rustic ,chivalry10 based on a tale by ,verga4 ,the scene is a village square1 before a church4 ,the heroine1 ,santuzza1 is forsaken by ,turiddu1 who carries on an intrigue with ,lola1 wife of the carter ,alfio4 ,santuzza1 in despair1 denounces him to ,alfio1 who challenges and kills him4 ,the music is hardly of the highest standard2 but it is popular and vigorous in style1 and intensely powerful4 ,the work is scarcely comparable to the music-dramas1 yet every number is animated by the spirit of the words1 and it is therefore dramatically true4 ,among the many favorite selections from its score are the 8,siciliana0 of ,turiddu 7sung as part of the overture1 before the curtain rises71 the broad and noble 8,regina ,coeli10 ,lola's serenely confident aria1 8,my ,king of ,roses10 and the jolly 8,brindisi10 or drinking chorus1 to say nothing of the saccharine 8,intermezzo40 ,the power and vividness of 8,rustic ,chivalry0 made it an epoch-making work2 but ,mascagni's later operas have not met with the same success4 ,they include 8,l',amico ,fritz10 8,william ,ratcliff10 8,silvano10 8,iris10 8,le ,maschere10 and the one-act 8,amica40 ,leoncavallo4--,the success of 8,rustic ,chivalry0 aroused ,ruggiero ,leoncavallo 7,naples1 ,italy1 #aheh7 to try his hand in the same school4 ,his early opera 8,chatterton0 was practically a failure1 while his ambitious 8,medici0 trilogy 78,i ,medici10 8,savonarola10 and 8,cesare ,borgia07 met with no better reception4 ,in 8,i ,pagliacci10 however1 he produced a work of the new school1 that has taken its place beside ,mascagni's opera as an example of the new realism4 ,the 8,pagliacci0 are strolling players4 ,canio1 the leader1 is aroused to madness by learning of the proposed elopement of his wife1 ,nedda1 but she will not betray her lover's name4 ,they enact for the villagers a mimic tragedy of love and jealousy1 but ,canio makes it real by actually stabbing the faithless ,nedda4 ,her lover then leaps from the audience to save her1 only to meet a similar death at ,canio's hands4 ,the music to this play is of a higher standard than ,mascagni's1 though less directly popular in style4 8,trilby0 and 8,zaza0 are later works of little importance1 while 8,roland of ,berlin10 composed by order for a libretto by the ,emperor of ,germany1 aroused only passing interest4 ,puccini4--,when the great ,verdi retired from active life as a composer1 he named as his probable successor1 ,giacomo ,puccini 7,lucca1 ,italy1 #aheh74 ,descended from a musical family1 ,puccini could devote himself to his art without parental opposition1 and he completed his studies under ,ponchielli1 at the ,milan ,conservatory4 ,his 8,le ,villi0 was really the origin of the modern one-act plays4 8,edgar0 resembles 8,carmen0 somewhat1 but has a weak libretto1 and music that is not always effective4 8,manon ,lescaut0 is rather a succession of detached scenes than a single whole1 but at times it displays a mastery of dramatic contrast far beyond ,massenet4 8,la ,bohme0 is a delightfully sympathetic setting of ,murger's well-known novel1 and its scenes of rollicking defiance to poverty and hunger remind one of the composer's early struggles4 ,the note of haunting sweetness that pervades the score marks ,puccini as a man of rare musical gifts4 ,in 8,tosca10 the heroine of that name loves the artist1 ,mario1 who aids a political refugee1 at the risk of his own life4 ,the governor1 ,scarpia1 who captures him1 loves ,tosca also1 and tortures him to make her yield to his desires4 ,to save ,mario1 she consents1 but stabs ,scarpia at the last moment4 ,but ,scarpia's treachery survives him1 for the pretended execution1 which was to let ,mario escape1 turns out to be real1 and ,tosca takes her own life in despair4 ,the music shows a ripe mastery of dramatic power4 ,the climax of the first act1 merging into the church service1 and the tragic power of the second1 well contrasted with the strains of a festival cantata that float in through the window1 are scenes that win unqualified praise from all critics4 8,madame ,butterfly10 on a ,japanese subject1 lacked the necessary delicacy1 but the two preceding works have made ,puccini the foremost man in ,italian opera today4 ,the ,realistic ,school4--,many composers of the 8,verismo0 school adopt a realism that deals only with the more brutal side of life1 and their plots1 though strong1 are not always pleasing4 ,giordano's 8,andrea ,chenier0 and 8,fedora0 show musical worth1 but ,spinelli's 8,a ,basso ,porto10 ,coronaro's 8,festa a ,marina10 and ,tasca's 8,a ,santa ,lucia0 picture some of the coarsest phases of existence4 ,yet this defect may be condoned when we consider that the movement has infused new life and power into ,italian music4 ,among those composers who have stood somewhat aloof from the new school1 ,franchetti is the most noteworthy4 ,his operas include 8,cristoforo ,colombo10 8,germania10 and the later 8,figlia di ,jorio10 and he has written symphonies that place him among the best of the later ,italian composers4 ,perosi4--,the revival in sacred music has been brought about wholly by one man1 ,don ,lorenzo ,perosi 7,tortona1 ,italy1 #ahgb74 ,he studied faithfully1 in spite of sickness--first at ,milan1 then under the learned ,fr4 ,haberl at ,ratisbon4 ,he became a conductor at ,imola1 and afterwards at ,venice1 where he led his forces with decided vigor4 ,soon after this1 he began to compose the oratorios that have made him so famous4 ,his sacred trilogy1 8,the ,passion of ,christ10 included the 8,last ,supper10 the 8,sermon on the ,mount10 and the 8,death of the ,redeemer40 ,it made a sensation that reverberated through all ,italy1 and caused his appointment in the following year as honorary master of the ,papal ,choir4 ,he has been untiring as a composer1 producing no less than fifteen masses and nearly a dozen oratorios4 ,among the latter are 8,the ,transfiguration10 8,the ,annunciation10 8,the ,raising of ,lazarus10 8,the ,birth of the ,redeemer10 and the two-part 8,moses40 ,he writes with enthusiasm1 and sees the actual picture before him while he works4 ,his music does not possess the calm dignity shown by ,palestrina1 but its semi-popular style is well adapted to his hearers1 and may lead the way to something better4 ,sgambati4--,the leading position among ,italy's new symphonic composers belongs to ,giovanni ,sgambati 7,rome1 ,italy1 #ahdc74 ,like many musicians1 he was at first destined for a lawyer's career1 but began his musical studies in time to become known as a boy-prodigy4 ,he settled in ,rome1 and soon grew famous as a pianist4 ,he played ,beethoven1 ,schumann and ,chopin1 and did much to introduce their works into ,italy4 ,he planned a trip to ,germany1 but when ,liszt came to ,rome he remained there to study under that great master4 ,at this time his earlier compositions1 mostly chamber works1 brought him into notice in a new field4 ,these quartets and quintets were followed by a festival overture1 a piano concerto1 and three symphonies in succession4 ,his compositions are somewhat lacking in spontaneity1 but they display great learning1 and undeniable skill4 ,his works show the influence of ,liszt and ,berlioz1 mingled with the stricter style of the old ,italian contrapuntal writers4 ,other ,orchestral ,composers4--,with ,sgambati1 ,martucci also deserves mention in the instrumental field4 ,he became identified with the artistic life of ,naples1 where he fought a similar fight for the cause of good music4 ,among several others1 ,del ,valle de ,paz is noted for his valuable educational work in ,florence1 no less than for his compositions4 ,busoni1 so well known as a pianist1 has also tried his hand at orchestral writing in the most extreme modern vein4 ,eugenio di ,pirani is another composer who has identified himself with the ,german instrumental school4 ,the literary champion of the new order of things has been ,luigi ,torchi1 whose work in the magazines deserves the highest praise4 ,bossi4--,the most prominent figure among the younger devotees of the ,german style is ,marco ,enrico ,bossi 7,salo1 ,italy1 #ahfa74 ,he studied organ at first1 and for ten years held the post of organist in the ,como ,cathedral4 ,four years of teaching at ,naples were followed by similar work in ,venice1 where he gained deserved prominence4 ,his compositions show great originality1 and include many different forms4 ,an early overture was given at the ,crystal ,palace1 in ,london1 which he visited during a piano tour4 ,the one-act opera 8,paquita0 was followed by 8,l',angelo della ,notte0 and 8,il ,veggento10 also a large work for the ,milan ,exposition of #aije4 ,he has composed many masses1 and the oratorio 8,christus40 ,a more recent triumph is 8,paradise ,lost10 with ,milton's words--a work suggested by ,mme4 ,rubinstein4 ,his organ concerto won a decided success at the ,chicago ,fair1 and his symphonic poem1 8,il ,cieco10 has been well received4 ,he aims to blend the old polyphonic style with the rich instrumentation of modern ,germany4 ,buongiorno4--,among the adherents of ,german standards1 ,buongiorno 7,bonito1 ,italy1 #ahfd7 is one who has devoted himself to opera4 ,studying at the ,naples ,conservatory1 he became leader of an operetta troupe1 for which he wrote many popular works4 ,his first great opera was 8,das ,mdchenherz0 7,il ,cuor delle ,fanciulle71 which treats with admirable delicacy the love-story of ,alba and ,marino4 ,she grows to be court singer1 and defeats an older rival1 but ambition makes her careless of love4 ,marino becomes a priest1 and only when ,alba is old and forsaken does his consolation show her what she has missed4 ,the music displays much emotional beauty1 and the 8play within the play10 at the ducal court1 allows the composer to imitate ,bach1 ,handel1 and other old masters with exquisite humor4 8,michelangelo and ,rolla0 is a one-act play1 again uniting a subject of real poetic worth with beautiful music4 ,these two operas are far removed from the crudities of the 8,verismo0 school4 ,wolf-,ferrari4--,a composer who may fitly follow ,german ideals is ,ermanno ,wolf-,ferrari1 son of a ,german father and an ,italian mother4 ,his 8,cenerentola0 7,cinderella7 has a rather tedious first act1 but the second act shows all the appealing beauty and sympathetic feeling that mark the new romanticism4 8,le ,donne ,curiose0 is an excellent example of sparkling comedy1 and has won much success in ,germany4 ,it treats of the misadventures of some women1 who try to investigate a mysterious club formed by their husbands4 ,a work in a different vein is the composer's 8,vita ,nuova10 a fresh and inspired setting of sonnets and other selections from ,dante's great work4 ,music in ,italy4--,it is difficult for one nation to adopt the musical expression of another1 but this is practically what ,italy has done4 ,verdi first gave up the trivial melodies so dear to the ,italian populace1 and adopted a worthier style4 ,like ,boto1 he denied being influenced by ,wagner1 but his works show that he felt the force of the ,german master's orchestral power4 ,the realistic school of opera has brought into ,italian music a vividness and power that are not surpassed by any other nation1 while a still later generation has striven to cast off the crudities of this school and produce works of real orchestral value4 ,italy has already done much1 and the progress of the last few decades seems to predict a bright future for her music4 ,music in ,spain4--,during the last half-century1 ,spain1 too1 has developed some native composers4 ,one of the best is ,isaac ,albeniz1 whose 8,pepita ,ximenes0 is a delightful comedy of love and intrigue4 ,his ,zarzuelas also have met with success4 ,felipe ,pedrell1 well known in ,european journalism1 has written an ambitious trilogy on subjects illustrating the national motto1 8,patria1 ,fides1 ,amor40 ,larrocha1 ,vives1 ,de ,lara1 and ,antonio ,noguerra are also worthy of mention4 ,the ,zarzuela is the peculiar ,spanish form of light opera1 resembling the ,italian opera buffa1 but possessing more brilliance and delicacy4 ,,references4 ,streatfeild1 ,r4 ,a4--,masters of ,italian ,music4 ,elson1 ,arthur4--,modern ,composers of ,europe4 ,,questions4 ,what circumstances contributed to ,italy's musical decadence8 ,give an account of 8,cavalleria ,rusticana0 and how it came to be written4 ,what composer was influenced by the success of ,mascagni8 ,describe his works4 ,who wrote 8,la ,bohme08 ,tell about his education and his works4 ,what composers are prominent in the 8,realistic0 school in ,italy8 ,give an account of the work of ,perosi in ,oratorio4 ,give an account of the works of ,sgambati and other composers for the orchestra4 ,what composers follow ,german methods8 ,describe their works4 ,tell something about music in ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,parry4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,mackenzie4 ,,edward ,,elgar4 ,s4 ,,coleridge-,,taylor4 ,,granville ,,bantock4 ,,lesson ,,liv4 ,,england ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,music in ,england4--,in the ,middle ,ages1 the much-used art of ,counterpoint was developed by the people of ,england and the ,netherlands4 ,in the ,elizabethan age1 the music of ,england was scarcely less important than her literature4 ,under ,charles ,,ii1 she could boast of ,henry ,purcell1 one of the few great names in music4 ,but in the #aith century her musical glory had faded1 and sentimental songs and popular ballad-operas seemed all that she could produce4 ,her musical leaders went bravely to work1 importing such composers as ,mendelssohn and ,wagner1 and building up great music schools4 ,there was1 however1 no high standard of taste in the country1 so the task proceeded slowly4 ,a race that is gifted with real love of music1 and possesses worthy ,folk-songs1 can easily develop great composers2 but ,england1 like the ,united ,states1 is too commercial for the best results4 ,dvok once said of the ,english people3 8,they do not love music2 they respect it40 ,stanford4--,for some years1 a group of five men were the advance guard of ,england's development4 ,while none of them showed any remarkable inspiration1 their work was learned and thorough1 and prepared the way for men of more originality4 ,the foremost of them was ,charles ,villiers ,stanford 7,dublin1 ,ireland1 #aheb74 ,after studying under ,reinecke and ,kiel1 he became organist and conductor at ,cambridge ,university4 ,his works include five symphonies 7among them the 8,irish071 two overtures1 an 8,irish ,rhapsody10 a piano concerto1 two oratorios1 and several cantatas2 but he is best known by his operas4 ,of these1 8,shamus ,o',brien0 is most popular1 because of its subject1 while 8,much ,ado about ,nothing0 shows much grace and elegance4 8,the ,canterbury ,pilgrims0 aims to picture old ,england1 as the 8,meistersinger0 did old ,germany4 ,stanford's work is always carefully planned1 but not deeply inspired4 ,parry4--,charles ,hubert ,hastings ,parry 7,bournemouth1 ,england1 #ahdh7 fills a similar position at ,oxford ,university4 ,he has composed four symphonies1 and two overtures1 the 8,tragic0 and 8,guillem de ,cabestanh10 but his most important work has been in the field of oratorio4 ,his sacred works include 8,judith10 8,de ,profundis10 8,job10 and 8,king ,saul10 also a great ,magnificat and ,te ,deum4 ,these1 too1 show excess of erudition1 and are somewhat academic in character2 but in all his choral work1 ,parry displays a breadth and power that deserve high praise4 ,his incidental music to the 8,frogs0 and the 8,birds0 of ,aristophanes is also worthy of mention4 ,his contributions to musical literature are very important4 ,other ,musical ,leaders4--,alexander ,campbell ,mackenzie 7,edinburgh1 ,scotland1 #ahdg7 became teacher and conductor in his native city1 afterwards joining the ,university forces4 ,his 8,colomba10 an early opera1 displays much real dramatic worth2 more1 in fact1 than his later productions4 ,among his other works are two oratorios1 8,the ,rose of ,sharon0 and 8,bethlehem10 while his entr'actes for 8,manfred0 and his powerful 8,coriolanus0 music also deserve notice4 ,frederic ,hymen ,cowen 7,kingston1 ,jamaica1 #aheb7 studied with ,reinecke1 ,moscheles1 and ,kiel1 and conducted in many cities1 including ,melbourne1 ,australia4 ,he has written two oratorios1 8,ruth0 and 8,the ,deluge10 four operas1 including 8,pauline0 and 8,harold10 and several cantatas1 of which 8,the ,sleeping ,beauty0 and 8,the ,water ,lily0 are delightfully poetic4 ,but his six symphonies are his most valuable works1 the 8,scandinavian10 8,idyllic10 and 8,welsh0 ranking in the order named4 ,arthur ,goring ,thomas 7,eastbourne1 ,england1 #ahej--,london1 #ahib7 devoted himself to the lighter style of romantic music1 in which his opera 8,esmeralda0 and his posthumous cantata 8,the ,swan and the ,skylark0 met with the most success4 ,with these five should be classed ,sir ,j4 ,frederick ,bridge1 often called in jest 8,the ,westminster ,bridge0 because of his post as organist in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,his works include many cantatas1 oratorios1 and lesser sacred pieces4 ,his teaching has been made delightful by his inimitable humor1 which often appears in his compositions also4 ,other men of this school are ,walter ,cecil ,macfarren1 ,sir ,walter ,parratt1 and ,charles ,harford ,lloyd1 while the excellent work of ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan in light opera must not be forgotten4 ,elgar4--,in ,edward ,william ,elgar 7,broadheath1 ,england1 #aheg7 we find a man who is possessed of real originality1 and takes rank with the world's great composers4 ,this is all the more remarkable when we consider that he is almost wholly self-taught4 ,son of an organist1 he soon grew familiar with the instrument1 and gained further musical experience by playing in a theatre orchestra at ,worcester4 ,too poor to go to ,germany1 he lived by teaching violin at first4 ,he went through various books on harmony and orchestration1 gaining much from ,mozart's 8,thorough-,bass ,school10 and ,parry's articles in ,grove's dictionary4 ,he ruled a score for the same number of bars and instruments as in ,mozart's ,g-minor symphony1 and wrote a work in this form--an exercise which he considers of the utmost value4 ,when he obtained a new orchestral work1 he would go into the fields to study it4 ,his ,works4--,elgar first won attention by his cantata 8,the ,black ,knight10 given at a ,worcester festival4 ,its success caused him to continue with 8,the ,light of ,life0 and 8,king ,olaf10 the latter displaying much direct power and orchestral mastery4 ,his 8,variations10 which won a ,london triumph1 possess great intrinsic worth2 but each one is intended to portray some friend of the composer's1 and the work thus has an added meaning for his acquaintances4 8,the ,dream of ,gerontius10 a setting of ,cardinal ,newman's sacred poem1 met with remarkable favor4 ,it is not altogether unified in effect1 but contains many passages of compelling beauty and sublimity4 ,it has been heard in many countries1 and one ,german writer considers it the greatest sacred work of the last century1 except the 8,requiem0 of ,brahms4 8,the ,apostles10 a later oratorio1 is the first part of a proposed trilogy4 ,it displays similar excellence1 but at times is too mystic and psychological in effect4 ,other works by ,elgar are three overtures3 the attractive 8,froissart10 the broadly-popular 8,cockaigne0 7typical of ,london71 and the more recent 8,in the ,south40 ,the music to 8,diarmid and ,grania0 is also worth mention1 while the five songs1 entitled1 8,sea ,pictures10 show remarkable breadth and nobility4 ,coleridge-,taylor4--,england boasts the first great negro composer in ,samuel ,coleridge-,taylor 7,london1 ,england1 #ahge74 ,son of an educated ,african father and a white mother1 he began violin lessons at six4 ,at a more mature age1 he studied piano with ,ashton and composition with ,stanford4 ,his early works included a number of anthems1 some chamber-music1 and a symphony in ,a-minor4 ,for his beloved violin he wrote the passionate 8,southern ,love-,songs0 and 8,african ,romances10 also the 8,hiawatha0 sketches4 ,in #ahih1 he became world-famous by his cantata 8,hiawatha's ,wedding-,feast10 which he followed with 8,the ,death of ,minnehaha0 and 8,hiawatha's ,departure40 ,these display a strength and profusion of passion that sway all hearers1 and the glowing richness of the instrumentation forms an appropriate frame for ,longfellow's picture4 ,later vocal works are 8,the ,atonement0 and 8,the ,blind ,girl of ,castel-,cuill40 ,his other compositions include an orchestral ballade with violin1 an ,idyll1 a ,solemn ,prelude1 the music to 8,herod10 and four waltzes4 ,all show breadth of treatment1 and effects of real beauty attained by simple means4 ,bantock4--,some younger composers have headed a movement for greater originality1 under the lead of ,granville ,bantock 7,london1 ,england1 #ahfh74 ,his one-act operas 8,caedmar0 and 8,the ,pearl of ,iran0 show much warmth of color1 and his musical ideas are always worthy of the great literary conceptions in which he delights4 ,his two overtures1 8,eugene ,aram0 and 8,saul10 the suite of 8,russian ,scenes10 and the more recent rhapsody1 8,the ,time ,spirit10 are the work of a truly musical nature4 ,his greatest effort1 however1 is a set of twenty-four symphonic poems1 illustrating ,southey's 8,curse of ,kehama40 ,other ,composers4--,in the new movement are ,william ,wallace1 ,erskine ,allon1 ,reginald ,steggall1 ,stanley ,hawley1 and ,arthur ,hinton4 ,clarence ,lucas and ,cyril ,scott are two other young men of prominence4 ,edward ,german is a composer of remarkable gifts1 for he attains effects of the utmost grace and musical beauty by the simplest diatonic themes4 ,his 8,rival ,poets0 and 8,merrie ,england0 are worthy examples of light opera1 while the 8,english ,fantasia10 the symphonic poem 8,hamlet10 the suite 8,the ,seasons10 and the 8,welsh ,rhapsody0 are all works of pleasing freshness and originality4 ,german has also made a name in the special field of incidental music1 his settings including 8,romeo and ,juliet10 8,as ,you ,like ,it10 8,much ,ado about ,nothing10 8,the ,tempest10 and several other plays4 ,in a period when many composers are losing themselves in the intricacies of the modern orchestral style1 the clear simplicity of ,german's compositions is an example of the utmost value4 ,the ,belgian ,school3 ,benoit4--,the new school of ,belgium1 fostered by the ,brussels ,conservatory1 owes its origin chiefly to ,peter ,benoit 7,harelbeke1 ,flanders1 #ahcd--;,antwerp1 #aija71 who broadened its influence by his teaching at the ,flemish ,school of ,music1 in ,antwerp4 ,his early opera1 8,het ,dorp in t' ,gebergte0 7,the ,village in the ,mountains71 showed delightful local color4 ,a second opera1 a mass1 a concerto1 and a choral symphony increased his fame1 but he is identified chiefly with the cantata4 ,his great works in this field include 8,oorlog0 7,war71 8,lucifer10 8,de ,schelde10 8,de ,rhyn10 the ,rubens cantata1 and 8,promethe40 ,they are modern in effect1 and show breadth of conception and real inspiration1 united with ripe technical mastery4 ,they have been described as great decorative pictures in tone1 suggesting vistas of grand palaces1 armies in battle array1 rich fields of grain1 mystic visions of the spirit world1 or gorgeous triumphal marches4 ,gilson4--,paul ,gilson 7,brussels1 ,belgium1 #ahfe7 has written for orchestra a ,dramatic ,overture1 a ,festival ,overture1 a ,canadian and an ,irish ,fantasy1 half a dozen suites1 the 8,bucolics0 of ,virgil1 and other lesser works4 ,but his best-known composition is the set of symphonic sketches entitled1 8,la ,mer40 ,this illustrates a poem of ,levis1 frequently read before the performance4 ,the different movements depict sunrise at sea1 and the many-colored splendors of dawn2 the rollicking songs and lively dances of the seaman2 a love-duet and parting between a sailor and his sweetheart2 and a fatal tempest1 in which the themes of the sailors' choruses are introduced in mocking irony as the ship goes down4 ,through it all runs a vein of poetic fancy1 well suggesting the beauty and mystery of the sea4 ,the oratorio 8,francesca da ,rimini0 is another strong work1 the best of ,gilson's productions in that form4 ,lekeu4--,guillaume ,lekeu 7,verviers1 ,belgium1 #ahgj-ahid7 was a composer whose early death cut short a career of great promise4 ,his chief studies were pursued in ,paris1 where he came under the elevating influence of ,franck4 ,the subtle delicacy of his harmonic effects is a result of this teaching1 and ,lekeu seems like a member of the ,french school who strayed across the border by mistake4 ,his early cantata 8,andromde10 and his ,fantasie on popular ,angevin airs1 gained him some notice4 ,his works include two ,symphonic ,studies1 an attractive 8,poeme0 for violin and orchestra1 and an exquisite ,adagio for violin1 'cello1 and strings4 ,his greatest vocal composition is the 8,chant ,lyrique10 for chorus and orchestra1 but he has produced many songs of lofty melodic style4 ,his music is marked by great originality and fertility of invention1 but tinged with a spirit of melancholy and gloom4 ,other ,composers4--,edgar ,tinel 7,sinaai1 ,flanders1 #ahed7 is another pupil of the ,brussels ,conservatory1 where he studied with ,ftis4 ,his great work is the three-part oratorio 8,franciscus10 treating the story of ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi4 ,other works are 8,sainte ,godelieve0 and the music to 8,polyeucte40 ,jan ,blockx 7,antwerp1 ,belgium1 #ahea7 is the most popular opera composer of his country4 ,his greatest success is the 8,herbergprinses0 7,princess of the ,inn71 a work with a strong dramatic plot and music of remarkable freshness and vigor4 8,thyl ,uylenspiegel10 in ,blockx's opera of that name1 is no longer the graceless rogue of the old ,german story1 but a popular hero who rescues ,maestricht from the ,spaniards4 ,other operas of this composer are 8,the ,bride of the ,sea10 and 8,matre ,martin10 an earlier work4 ,other composers prominent in the new movement are ,keurvels1 ,wambach1 ,mortelmans1 ,vleeshouwer1 and ,mathieu4 ,the first place among the women is occupied by ,juliette ,folville1 the young violinist1 who has written the opera 8,attala10 a march1 parts of a symphony1 and many smaller works4 ,music in ,holland4--,richard ,hol was for many years the ,nestor of the ,dutch composers4 ,his fame was assured by the patriotic hymn1 8,comme je t'aime1 ,o mon pays10 and his long career of activity was of great service to the cause of music in ,holland4 ,he was a prolific composer1 and an excellent critic and journalist4 ,julius ,roentgen1 who studied under ,reinecke and ,lachner1 was better known as pianist than as composer1 but produced an excellent concerto1 also 8,das ,gebet10 for chorus and orchestra1 and other works4 ,the best of the younger men are ,bernard ,zweers and ,alphonse ,diepenbrock1 while others deserving mention are ,van t',kruys1 ,gottfried ,mann1 ,dirk ,schaefer1 and the ,brandt-,buys brothers4 ,among the women-composers1 ,catherine van ,rennes and ,hendrika van ,tussen-,broek have done excellently in small forms1 while ,cornelia van ,oosterzee attempts ambitious orchestral work1 and ,cora ,dopper has entered the field of opera4 ,amsterdam has become a great musical centre1 and ,holland1 no less than ,belgium1 is reaping the result of the widespread educational movement4 ,,references4 ,maitland1 ,j4 ,a4 ,fuller4--,music in the #aith ,century2 ,england4 ,willeby1 ,charles4--,masters of ,english ,music4 ,,questions4 ,what obstacles have hindered the ,english in developing composition8 ,tell about the work of ,stanford4 ,tell about the work of ,parry4 ,name other important ,english composers4 ,give an account of ,elgar and his works4 ,what characteristics are strong in the works of ,coleridge-,taylor8 ,name other prominent composers of the new ,english school4 ,give an account of the work of ,benoit1 of ,gilson1 ,lekeu1 and other ,belgian composers4 ,who composed the most popular ,belgian opera8 ,tell about other works by this composer4 ,name some leading composers of ,holland4 ,,lesson ,,lv4 ,,national ,,schools3 ,,bohemia ,,and ,,scandinavia4 ,the ,influence of ,folk-,music4--,some races are endowed with a better musical taste than others4 ,among these favored peoples the ,folk-song1 the music that appeals directly to the popular heart1 needs only the touch of a gifted composer to fashion it into a great national school4 ,in the case of ,england and ,belgium1 we have seen that even the most thorough musical education cannot wholly atone for a lack of real public taste in music4 ,scotland1 possessing a wealth of beautiful ,folk-songs1 has not yet given birth to a composer who can employ its style in larger forms4 ,but in ,bohemia and the countries of ,northern ,europe1 the ,folk-music has not only been worthy in itself1 but has been properly developed and amplified by gifted composers4 ,smetana4--,frantiek kroup 7#ahja-ahfb7 composed many popular ,bohemian ,volkslieder1 and wrote the first national opera1 but the real founder of the ,bohemian school was ,bedich1 or ,frederick1 ,smetana 7,leito mischl1 ,bohemia1 #ahbd--,prague1 #ahhd74 ,parental opposition could not prevent his studying music1 and we find him at ,prague1 under ,proksh1 and1 later on1 taking lessons of ,schumann4 ,that master recommended a course with ,mendelssohn1 but as the pupil was too poor1 he changed his advice and suggested a study of ,bach4 ,smetana became an ardent admirer of ,liszt1 at whose house his own career was decided4 ,hearing ,herbeck remark1 while there1 that the ,czechs were merely reproductive1 he made a solemn resolution to devote his life to the building up of a national school of music in ,bohemia4 ,his ,works4--,while conductor at ,gothenburg1 ,sweden1 he produced three worthy symphonic poems3 8,richard ,,iii10 8,wallenstein's ,camp10 and 8,hakon ,jarl40 ,on his return1 he wrote 8,the ,brandenburgers in ,bohemia10 the first of the eight operas that have made him so famous in his native land4 ,this was ,wagnerian in style1 and at once the critics assailed him fiercely for trying to bring ,bohemia under the musical domination of ,germany4 ,to show that he could write in a more popular vein1 ,smetana produced a second opera1 8,prodan ,nevsta10 7,the ,bartered ,bride71 which proved a marvel of musical grace and delicacy1 and was enough in itself to establish the reputation of any composer4 8,dalibor0 is a dramatic work in serious vein1 while 8,libue0 is based on a national subject4 8,the ,two ,widows0 and 8,the ,kiss0 are light operas of marked success1 the latter being often cited as a perfect model for this style4 8,the ,secret0 is in the same vein1 while 8,the ,devil's ,wall0 is again on a national legend4 ,other notable works are the string quartet 8,aus ,meinem ,leben10 and the 8,carnival of ,prague02 but ,smetana's greatest orchestral work is the set of six symphonic poems entitled 8,ma ,vlast0 7,my ,fatherland74 ,these depict 8,vyehrad10 a historic fortress2 8,vltava10 the river ,moldau2 8,sarka10 a mythical ,amazon2 8,bohemia's ,groves and ,meadows10 8,tabor10 the ,hussite camp2 and 8,blanik10 the magic mountain where the warriors sleep4 ,smetana's music shows an inspiration and depth of feeling that make him rank with the world's great composers1 and his struggles against poverty and disease form a story of the utmost pathos4 ,dvok4--,the greatest of ,smetana's pupils was ,antonin ,dvok 7,mhlhausen1 ,bohemia1 #ahda--,prague1 #aijd74 ,son of a butcher1 he persuaded the village schoolmaster to give him lessons4 ,he began composition at ,zlonitz1 and soon sent home a polka to surprise his family2 and as he had written it without considering the transposing instruments1 thus causing three different keys to sound together1 the resulting discords certainly accomplished that purpose4 ,after further study at ,prague1 he was able to gain a ,government pension1 and to interest such men as ,hanslick and ,brahms4 ,he spent his time in 8hard study1 occasional composition1 much revision1 a great deal of thinking1 and little eating40 ,being asked what teacher helped him most1 he replied3 8,i studied with ,god1 the birds1 the trees1 the rivers1 myself40 ,illustration3 ,,antonin ,,dvo,k4 ,,christian ,,sinding4 ,,edvard ,,grieg4 ,,friedrich ,,smetana4 ,his ,works4--,dvok's many operas1 including 8,wanda10 8,dimitri10 8,armida10 and others1 have been surpassed in importance by his orchestral works4 ,his 8,stabat ,mater0 and the cantata 8,the ,spectre's ,bride0 are important vocal compositions4 ,his overtures include such well-known examples as the 8,husitzk10 8,mein ,heim10 8,othello10 8,in der ,natur10 and the 8,carneval40 ,other instrumental works are the famous 8,slavic ,dances10 the ,slavonic ,rhapsodies1 the 8,scherzo ,capriccioso10 three ,ballades1 and a 8,hero ,song40 ,before coming to ,new ,york1 in #ahib1 he had written four great symphonies2 but the fifth1 8,aus der ,neuen ,welt10 is of the greatest interest to ,americans1 since ,dvok here adopted the plantation style in his themes1 to show what could be done in building up an ,american school of music4 ,he was eminently successful in handling his material1 and he produced a greater and more truly national work than any resident composer has yet done4 ,in general1 ,dvok's style is more cosmopolitan than that of ,smetana1 and his faculty of melodic invention makes his works attractive4 ,he enriched the symphony by two ,bohemian dance-movements--the ,dumka1 and the ,furiant4 ,other ,bohemians4--,zdnek ,fibich1 though little known outside of his own country1 was another famous opera-composer4 ,he devoted some efforts to melodrama also1 8,hippodamia0 being his chief work in this field4 ,he published two symphonies and several symphonic poems1 the latter showing the influence of ,liszt4 ,reznck1 who has recently identified himself with the musical life of ,germany1 has produced five operas1 of which the sparkling comedy 8,bonna ,diana0 and the later 8,till ,eulenspiegel0 are the best4 ,josef ,suk1 son-in-law of ,dvok1 has composed some attractive instrumental music1 while ,npravnk1 of an earlier generation1 won operatic successes in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,hungary1 too1 has a national school of opera1 founded by ,franz ,erkel4 ,this school is carried on by such men as ,alexander ,erkel1 the ,doppler brothers1 ,mihalovitch1 ,zichy1 and ,hubay1 while ,dohnanyi is better known as pianist than as composer4 ,poland is represented by ,paderewski1 while ,soltys has won renown in symphony1 and ,stalkowsky in opera4 ,norwegian ,music4--,norway is preminently a land of song4 ,its sombre fiords1 dark forests1 and smiling meadows have at all times inspired a school of ,folk-music whose plaintive sweetness exerts the utmost charm on the musical auditor4 ,in ,edvard ,hagerup ,grieg 7,bergen1 #ahdc-aijg7 we find a composer of wonderful melodic gifts and expressive power1 who has preserved admirably the flavor of the local ,folk-songs and dances4 ,grieg owed much to the wise training of his mother1 a woman of rare gifts4 ,at ,ole ,bull's advice1 he took a course at ,leipzig1 after which he studied further with ,gade1 at ,copenhagen4 ,there he met ,rikard ,noordraak1 who first aroused his enthusiasm for the songs and legends of his native land4 ,grieg's ,works4--,grieg's genius was essentially lyric and melodic1 but this in no way detracts from the greatness of his orchestral works4 ,the 8,autumn0 overture is clear and beautiful1 with the simplicity of strength1 not of weakness4 ,the 8,norwegian ,dances0 mark the beginning of the national style that is carried out in the melodrama 8,bergliot10 the two 8,peer ,gynt0 suites1 and 8,sigurd ,jorsalfer40 ,the piano concerto1 somewhat in the style of ,schumann1 is one of ,grieg's best works1 and shows the utmost perfection of melodic and harmonic architecture4 ,the 8,elegiac ,melodies10 the 8,norwegian ,themes10 and the 8,holberg ,suite10 all for strings1 are further examples of his rich fulness of romantic utterance4 ,his choral and chamber works show the same sympathetic treatment1 while his piano works and songs include some of the most exquisite gems in the entire musical repertoire4 ,his works show endless melodic invention1 great power of expression1 and a warmth of tender sentiment that seems never to lose its charm4 ,christian ,sinding 7,kongsberg1 ,norway1 #ahef7 studied at ,leipzig also1 and won a royal scholarship that took him to ,munich and ,berlin4 ,he belongs to an artistic family1 for one brother1 ,otto1 is a painter1 and another1 ,stefan1 a sculptor4 ,sinding's music is melodic in character1 and distinctively ,norwegian in style1 but less so than that of ,grieg4 ,his orchestral works include an excellent symphony1 brought out under ,weingartner and later by ,thomas2 an attractive concerto for piano1 and two for violin2 a 8,rondo ,infinito02 and the interesting suite1 8,episodes ,chevaleresques40 ,his chamber-music1 violin sonatas1 piano solos1 and songs are made of the most attractive material4 ,other ,norwegians4--,johann ,severin ,svendsen1 though prominent in ,danish music1 is really ,norwegian by birth4 ,son of a military bandmaster1 he soon obtained a position similar to his father's4 ,but he longed for higher things1 and after a tour as violin virtuoso1 he studied at ,leipzig1 under ,reinecke4 ,he traveled much1 meeting in ,paris an ,american woman whom he afterwards married in her own country4 ,after some experience in ,christiania1 he became court conductor in ,copenhagen1 where he owns the baton used by von ,weber and inscribed with that composer's name4 ,his orchestral works include two symphonies1 four ,norwegian ,rhapsodies1 the legend 8,zorahayde10 and the 8,carnival at ,paris10 but they are too conventional to take foremost rank4 ,a prominent composer among the younger ,norwegians is ,ole ,olsen1 of ,hammerfest1 whose symphonic poem 8,asgardsreien0 is but one of his many successes4 ,gerhard ,schjelderup is one of the modern radicals1 and shows all the complexity and dissonance of ,strauss4 ,agathe ,backer-,grohndahl is the leader of the ,norwegian women-composers4 ,music in ,denmark4--,in ,denmark1 the fame of ,gade obscured that of other composers1 and such a man as ,j4 ,p4 ,e4 ,hartmann could gain scarcely more than local reputation4 ,the most important name in recent years is that of ,august ,enna1 who won a popular operatic triumph in #ahib with 8,die ,hexe40 ,he was almost wholly self-taught1 for poverty prevented him from taking lessons1 sometimes even from buying music paper4 8,cleopatra0 is a later work1 while 8,the ,little ,match-,girl0 was the beginning of a series of fairy operas4 ,enna handles his orchestra with boldness and skill1 and displays vocal fluency and thematic excellence4 ,eduard ,lassen gained more renown by his melodious songs than by his operas or orchestral works4 ,otto ,malling is known for his piano pieces1 while ,victor ,bendix has attempted the symphonic poem4 ,ludwig ,schytt1 a friend of ,liszt1 has made ,berlin his home1 and is identified with light opera as well as piano music4 ,music in ,sweden4--,the national opera of ,sweden was brought into being by ,ivar ,hallstrom1 soon after the middle of the #aith century4 ,since then1 a new school has arisen1 showing the influence of ,liszt1 ,wagner1 ,schumann1 and at times1 ,berlioz1 with the plaintive sweetness of the native ,folk-music pervading it all4 ,anders ,hallen1 the first of the new romanticists1 has written four operas 7of which 8,hexfallen0 is the best71 several symphonic poems and ,swedish ,rhapsodies1 a number of ambitious cantatas1 and some beautiful ,swedish and ,german songs4 ,he unites the charm of his native music with strength of passion and richness of instrumentation4 ,emil ,sjgren shows a harmonic feeling worthy of ,grieg1 but his boldness in modulation often produces bizarre effects4 ,he excels in the smaller forms1 such as his 8,spanish ,songs10 8,tannhuser ,lieder10 and several piano cycles4 ,wilhelm ,stenhammar1 pupil of these two1 shows much enthusiasm and spirit in his music1 but his operas are now laid aside4 ,wilhelm ,peterson-,berger is the best of the new opera-composers1 his music-drama 8,ran0 being a recent success4 ,hugo ,alfven has attempted the symphony1 with fair success4 ,tor ,aulin1 a famous violinist1 has produced concertos and other works for his instrument1 while ,erik ,akerberg has devoted his energy to choral works4 ,elfrida ,andree is the most prominent of the ,swedish women-composers4 ,music in ,finland4--,the national epic of ,finland is the ,kalevala1 a work of real poetic beauty4 ,there is also a collection of shorter lyrics1 called the ,kanteletar4 ,these have furnished inspiration for a large number of modern composers1 of whom the most important is ,jean ,sibelius4 ,he studied with ,becker in ,berlin and ,goldmark in ,vienna4 ,on his return to ,helsingfors1 the capital1 he became the leader of the new ,finnish school4 ,his two symphonies are worthy if not absolutely great1 but his symphonic poems1 and the suite 8,king ,christian ,,iv10 show real musical beauty4 ,he has been active in the smaller forms also1 and holds the ,government pension for musical excellence4 ,armas ,jarnefelt is another good orchestral composer1 while ,ernest ,mielck1 who died at twenty-two1 showed a lyric beauty not unworthy of ,schubert4 ,richard ,faltin is one of the older song-composers4 ,martin ,wegelius1 died #aijf1 did valuable work as director of the ,musical ,institute1 while ,robert ,kajanus became prominent as the founder and leader of the ,helsingfors ,philharmonic ,orchestra4 ,both are excellent composers1 the former working chiefly in vocal forms1 the latter in the orchestral field4 ,,questions4 ,who founded the ,bohemian school of composers8 ,who was his greatest pupil8 ,name the most important works of these two composers4 ,what contribution did ,dvok make to the symphony8 ,who is the leading ,norwegian composer8 ,name some of his best-known works4 ,compare ,grieg and ,sinding4 ,what composers of ,danish birth have won appreciation8 ,name the leading ,swedish composers4 ,who is the most important ,finnish composer8 ,,lesson ,,lvi4 ,,the ,,russian ,,school4 ,folk-,music in ,russia4--,the ,slav nature differs greatly from that of the races of ,western ,europe1 and this difference appears also in the ,slavonic music4 ,for a proper understanding of the ,russian ,folk-songs1 the student should be familiar with the country and its history1 its vast steppes1 its lonely summers and dreary winters1 and the patient poverty of its long-suffering peasants4 ,it is rich in legendary lore1 and the poetry of ,pushkin and ,gogol has wrought the wild beauty of these tales into permanent form4 ,the popular melodies trace their origin back to pagan times1 and show infinite variety4 ,there are epic chants1 songs of weddings and funerals1 and weirdly beautiful cradle-songs1 ,their delicate1 capricious rhythm1 and their strangeness of harmony and cadence1 possess the utmost attraction4 ,at times the songs are strong and savage1 at times tranquil and majestic1 or brisk and graceful2 but usually they are tinged with the profound melancholy of an oppressed race4 ,the church music1 too1 with its old modes and deep-voiced choirs1 flourishes in unusual purity4 ,the ,rise of ,russian ,music4--,in the middle of the #ahth century1 the ,imperial ,court began to import foreign composers1 and ,st4 ,petersburg was enabled to hear and see such men as ,paisiello1 ,cimarosa1 and ,boieldieu4 ,works in the native language soon followed1 and the ,venetian ,cavos became so identified with ,russian music that he might almost have passed for a native4 ,the first ,russian composer1 however1 was ,glinka1 whose 8,life for the ,czar0 7#ahcf7 was received with profound enthusiasm by the entire nation4 ,other composers followed1 the best of whom were ,dargomishky and ,seroff4 ,the former died only recently1 and his later works show the ,wagnerian influence4 ,instrumental music flourished also4 ,the rich melodic beauty of ,rubinstein charmed all ,europe1 and only the passionate power of ,tchaikovsky placed it in the background4 ,but now even he1 the greatest of the ,russians1 is not considered truly national by his countrymen1 who think him too ,german in style4 ,balakireff4--,of the five men who strove to make ,russian music distinctively national1 ,mily ,alexejevitch ,balakireff 7,nijni-,novgorod1 ,russia1 #ahcf7 was not the greatest1 but may justly be called the founder of the movement4 ,after his university studies1 he came under the influence of ,alexander ,oulibicheff1 a retired diplomat who devoted himself to music4 ,the young man soon settled in ,st4 ,petersburg1 where he met ,cui1 and began with him the work of developing the new school4 ,balakireff has been active as pianist1 teacher1 and concert leader4 ,the musical principles adopted by him and his four associates called for the use of ,russian ,folk-music in just the way that ,dvok employed the plantation style in his 8,new ,world0 symphony4 ,this idea is at least as old as the days of ,weber1 whose 8,freischtz10 written in the popular vein1 made such an overwhelming triumph in ,germany4 ,with the wealth of beautiful ,folk-songs in ,russia1 it has been possible to produce an immense amount of interesting music1 with which the ,western world is as yet by no means fully acquainted4 ,balakireff himself was not prolific as a composer1 but his works1 though few in number1 show real value4 ,they include a symphony1 three overtures 7,russian1 ,czech1 and ,spanish71 incidental music to 8,king ,lear10 the symphonic poem 8,russia10 and a second one1 8,tamara10 based on the legend of a beautiful ,caucasian princess who entertained the passing cavalier for a night1 while in the morning the river ,tarek bore away his corpse4 ,another ,oriental subject is the difficult piano fantasie 8,islamey40 ,his lesser works include mazurkas1 some four-hand pieces1 and a score of remarkable songs1 masterly in their perfection of detail4 ,illustration3 ,,anton ,,arensky4 ,c,,sar ,,cui4 ,,alexander ,,glazounov4 ,,mily ,,balakireff4 ,,nicholas ,,rimsky-,,korsakoff4 ,,sergei ,,rachmaninoff4 ,csar ,antonovitch ,cui 7,vilna1 ,russia1 #ahce7 has been the literary champion of the new school4 ,son of a ,french soldier1 ,cui studied engineering1 and became professor of fortification4 ,in his writings we may see that the new ,russians seem unwilling to admit the greatness of ,wagner1 but they have none the less adopted nearly all his dramatic theories4 ,like him1 they revolted against the inanities of the old ,italian opera1 which was merely a singing-concert4 ,they admitted that after ,beethoven and ,schumann1 the symphony could say little of new import1 but reform was needed in opera2 the plot should be worthy1 and the music not only good in itself1 but appropriate to the sentiment4 ,yet ,russian opera has not followed ,wagner1 but has proceeded along its own lines2 and ,cui even writes3 8,i would like to preserve my compatriots from the dangerous influence of ,wagner's decadence4 ,whoever loves his music1 ceases to appreciate real music2 whoever admires his operas1 holds ,glinka as a writer of vaudevilles4 ,the desire to find something deep where nothing exists can have only dangerous consequences40 ,these strictures are not unlike certain early ,german criticisms of ,wagner1 now happily forgotten4 ,cui's own operas include 8,the ,prisoner of the ,caucasus10 8,william ,ratcliff10 8,angelo10 8,le ,filibustier10 and 8,the ,saracen10 but none has won any real success4 ,his music is good1 but even his own countrymen admit that it lacks novelty or individuality4 8,angelo0 is the composer's favorite4 ,he1 too1 has done much in the smaller forms4 ,moussorgsky4--,the strangest figure in the group of five was1 by all odds1 ,modest ,petrovitch ,moussorgsky 7,karevo1 ,russia1 #ahci--,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahha74 ,like ,cui1 he received a military training1 and became an officer1 but his restiveness soon caused his resignation1 and two later attempts at ,government work were again failures4 ,his fondness for drink1 and his many excesses1 soon marked him as a ,bohemian whose dominating passions and savage independence could brook no restraint4 ,the same qualities are shown in his music4 ,he was a poet by nature1 expressing in great thoughts the passion and misery of humanity1 but never taking the trouble to master the technic of his art4 ,thus his two operas1 8,boris ,godunoff0 and 8,chovanstchina10 did not meet with favor until smoothed and polished by his more learned friends4 ,the same is true of his 8,night on ,calvary0 and 8,intermezzo0 for orchestra4 ,his 8,defeat of ,sennacherib0 is one of many 8,hebraic ,choruses10 while the 8,tableaux d'une ,exposition0 are among the best of his piano pieces4 ,his songs include settings of ,goethe and ,heine1 as well as the ,russian poets4 ,alexander ,porphyrievitch ,borodin 7,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia1 #ahcd-ahhg7 could claim kinship with the old princes of ,imeretia1 the former ,caucasian kingdom whose rulers boasted of their descent from ,king ,david4 ,he studied medicine and surgery1 and wrote several important works on chemistry4 ,he was active in the cause of higher education for women1 and founded a medical school for them4 ,in music he owed his development chiefly to ,balakireff1 though he composed at an early age1 almost by instinct4 ,the success of his first symphony encouraged him to write two others1 as well as an orchestral scherzo4 ,his two string quartets are full of originality1 and his choral and piano music shows the same quality4 ,he is best known in ,america by the 8,steppenskizze10 a tone-picture of the vast ,russian plains traversed by ,oriental caravans4 ,his greatest work1 however1 is the opera 8,prince ,igor10 on an old ,russian war-legend treated by ,pushkin4 ,borodin is a master of sombre effects1 and his dissonances are at times almost too striking2 but there is real musical worth1 also1 in his compositions4 ,rimsky-,korsakoff4--,the best of the renowned group of five is decidedly ,nicolai ,andreievitch ,rimsky-,korsakoff 7,tikhvin1 ,russia1 #ahdd74 ,he1 too1 adopted a vocation other than music1 graduating from a ,government school and afterwards attaining the rank of admiral4 ,his chief musical work has been in opera1 and his dozen productions in this form are nearly all widely popular in his native land4 8,the ,czar's ,betrothed0 is the best known1 but the 8,may ,night10 8,the ,snow ,maiden10 and 8,sadko0 are not far behind it in favor4 8,mozart and ,salieri0 is a one-act version of a poem by ,pushkin1 based on the suspicion that ,mozart was really poisoned by his ,italian rival4 ,in the orchestral field1 8,antar10 8,scheherezade10 and 8,sadko0 are three symphonic poems that show remarkable mastery of expression4 ,other orchestral works are an overture on popular melodies1 another on church themes1 a 8,serb ,fantasie10 a 8,spanish ,caprice10 and a 8,fairy ,legend40 ,he has written a noble and dignified concerto1 dedicated to ,liszt1 and the usual number of lesser works4 ,he shows the greatest skill in handling instrumental color1 an art for which the ,russians are noted4 ,his music is descriptive1 dramatic4 ,his inspiration never flags1 and his treatment of the thematic material is always interesting and skilful4 ,his music may perhaps be criticised as lacking unity1 but its breadth and originality are undoubted4 ,glazounoff4--,among men of a later generation1 ,alexander ,constantinovitch ,glazounoff 7,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia1 #ahfe7 is the most prominent1 and the only one who may dispute with ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 his former teacher1 the position of greatest of the living ,russian composers4 ,son of a rich bookseller1 he was able to devote all his energies to music1 and produced at eighteen a symphony that won the congratulations of ,liszt4 ,since then he has composed works as beautiful as they are numerous4 ,his early creations show a tendency to fantastic and imaginative subjects4 ,the haunting beauty of the forest1 the inspiring charm of spring1 the compelling magic of the sea1 the gorgeousness of the ,orient1 the majesty of the historic ,kremlin1 all find an echo in his great orchestral rhapsodies4 ,his seven symphonies are marvels of harmonic richness and melodic beauty4 ,his 8,triumphal ,march0 for the ,chicago ,exposition1 and a 8,coronation ,cantata0 for the ,czar1 were both written to order4 ,his early overtures are based on sacred themes1 but the 8,carnival0 and the 8,ouverture ,solennelle0 are again in the style of vivid coloring to which he has accustomed his hearers4 ,his eighty or more published compositions include ballades1 marches1 suites1 mazurkas1 and other numbers for orchestra1 to say nothing of chamber works1 songs1 cantatas1 and two piano sonatas4 ,for a time1 he renounced his early style1 and wrote serious works in classical ,german vein1 but he returned to it with a number of ballets1 or pantomimes with real plot and full orchestral accompaniment4 ,anton ,stepanovitch ,arensky 7,nijni-,novgorod1 ,russia1 #ahfa-aijf7 is another of a younger generation1 and like ,glazounoff1 did not limit himself to the style of ,russian ,folk-music1 but aims to be more cosmopolitan4 ,educated at ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,arensky soon became known by a symphony and a piano concerto1 and was called to ,moscow as professor of counterpoint4 ,in that city he increased his reputation by a grand opera1 8,a ,dream on the ,volga40 8,raphael10 a one-act work1 was followed by the ballet1 8,a ,night in ,egypt10 but ,arensky's greatest opera is 8,nal and ,damajanti10 on an ,east ,indian subject4 ,his other works include a second symphony1 a fantasie with piano1 a violin concerto1 and a 8,memorial ,march40 ,he displays real strength of feeling1 and he shows the influence of ,schumann and ,tchaikovsky1 especially in his piano music4 ,other ,composers4--,taneieff1 one of those who held apart from the national movement1 has written a symphony1 some string quartets1 and numerous choruses1 but is best known by his 8,oresteia10 an orchestral trilogy based on the tragedies of ,aeschylus4 ,this is a work of dignity and power1 but at times lacking in inspiration4 ,rachmaninoff1 a pupil of ,arensky1 is one of the younger men who won fame as a pianist and piano composer before attempting larger works4 ,his more ambitious compositions include two concertos1 a symphony1 a symphonic poem1 and the cantata 8,spring10 also two operas 8,the ,bohemians0 and 8,the ,avaricious ,knight40 ,another piano composer is ,stcherbatcheff1 a pupil of ,liszt1 who displays excessive boldness in his effects1 though his 8,fairy ,scenes0 are charming in style1 and his 8,fantasies ,etudes0 show the influence of ,schumann4 ,liadoff is another composer of piano works1 such as the 8,arabesques0 and the 8,birioulki40 ,scriabine is one of the more recent piano writers who has won his spurs in the symphonic field also4 ,pachulski1 too1 has become known by his piano compositions4 ,wihtol has done much valuable work in collecting the ,lett ,folk-melodies4 ,solovieff has attempted opera1 though not with any remarkable success4 ,ippolitoff-,ivanoff1 active in the musical life of ,moscow1 has produced operas1 suites1 and the set of lyric scenes1 entitled 8,asia40 ,michael ,ivanoff is another opera composer1 whose 8,sabawa0 has met with some favor4 ,among many others worthy of mention1 ,sokoloff has written chamber-works1 ,alpheraki is noted for his songs1 ,antipoff and ,blumenfeld have produced excellent piano music1 while ,rebikoff1 known for the same reason1 has won new laurels with his so-called mimodrame1 8,genius and ,death40 ,tchaikovsky4--,although the new ,russian school does not recognize ,peter ,iljitsch ,tchaikovsky as an exponent of national musical ideas and although he represents a blending of ,teutonic and ,slavonic methods1 yet his music partakes of the latter1 rather than of the former temperament1 and he is therefore included among the ,russian composers in this lesson4 ,he was born ,may #g1 #ahdj2 at ten he went to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,he was intended for the legal profession and was appointed to a place in the ,ministry of ,justice when only nineteen years old4 ,shortly after1 he entered the harmony classes at the ,conservatory1 resigned his ,government position1 and entered the musical profession4 ,in #ahff he became professor of harmony at the ,moscow ,conservatory2 in #ahfg1 brought out his first symphony and his first opera4 ,in #ahgg he resigned his post at the ,conservatory and gave himself up to composition4 ,in #ahia he visited the ,united ,states4 ,he died1 ,october #ab1 #ahic1 in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,his compositions include eight operas1 six symphonies1 eight overtures and fantasias for orchestra1 seven works for special occasions1 eight orchestral suites1 three string quartets1 a trio and sextet1 three concertos and two other pieces for piano and orchestra1 three works for violin and orchestra1 and two for 'cello and orchestra1 a large number of piano pieces and vocal works4 ,an ,english critic sums up ,tchaikovsky's orchestral works thus3 ,good points1 beauty of melody1 brilliancy of workmanship1 beauty of color2 weak points1 undue pursuit of the morbid1 extravagance of idea1 noisiness of orchestration4 ,conclusion4--,at the beginning of the #bjth century1 the chief characteristic of music seems to be a development of national schools4 ,as already explained1 in those countries that have worthy ,folk-music1 composers find the material ready for them to fashion4 ,such has been the case in ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,bohemia1 as well as in ,russia4 ,countries that have not this advantage1 such as ,england1 the ,netherlands1 or ,america1 atone for it in part by study and education2 but this seldom produces great musical geniuses4 ,italy1 where the common people cared for nothing but the lighter style of tune1 has had to build anew1 upon foreign foundations4 ,france is making a brave struggle after novelty1 but seems to lack the needed inspiration2 while ,germany1 for the moment1 seems content with mastering the modern orchestra4 ,the ,russian school is today the most spontaneous1 the least artificial2 and it cannot fail to grow in appreciation during the next few years4 ,,references4 ,habets4--,borodin and ,liszt4 ,newmarch4--,life of ,tchaikovsky4 ,lee4--,tchaikovski1 ,music of the ,masters ,series4 ,,questions4 ,what is the character of the ,slavonic ,folk-music8 ,who was the first ,russian composer of prominence8 ,give a sketch of the work of the composers1 ,balakireff1 ,moussorgsky1 ,cui1 ,borodin1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff and ,glazounoff4 ,what composition and by whom is it considered one of the most difficult pieces written for the piano8 ,what composer's influence is shown in the works of ,arensky8 ,name other prominent ,russian composers4 ,illustration3 ,,theodore ,,thomas4 ,,lowell ,,mason4 ,,stephen ,c4 ,,foster4 ,,lesson ,,lvii4 ,,music ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,cavaliers and the ,puritans4--,the ,english settlers who came to this country and located at ,jamestown1 and their successors1 brought with them from their home the songs they sang there--gay songs1 cavalier songs1 love-ditties and the countryside tunes2 but they left them at this1 making no attempt to adapt them to their new surroundings4 ,indeed1 it was as much a matter of fashion to be able to play or to sing some new ballad just brought from ,london as it was to have the latest fashion in dress4 ,the ,cavaliers were not the people to give a distinctive tone to music in their adopted home4 ,the stern1 severe1 religious atmosphere of the ,new ,england ,colonies did more for the beginnings of ,american music1 although the first efforts were unpromising enough1 since the ,puritans discountenanced all music except that of ,psalm tunes1 which were probably sung in unison1 since at that time there could be little question of singing in parts4 ,owing probably to a scarcity of hymn-books1 it was customary to read the hymn line by line1 and to sing in alternation with the reading1 a custom observed in some sections of the ,united ,states even in the latter part of the #aith century4 ,it was inevitable that the more progressive among the clergy and the people should demand better singing of the ,psalms2 and from this came the first singing schools1 the beginning of musical education in the ,colonies4 ,a singing school is noted in ,boston in #agag4 ,as this movement spread1 choirs were organized1 since those who had gained some skill in singing and in reading from notes would naturally draw together1 at first informally1 later in regular organizations4 ,this occurred as early as the middle of the #ahth century4 ,hymn-,tune ,composers4--,the prominence given to the singing of ,psalms and hymns is doubtless due to the fact that the first composers developed in the ,colonies confined their efforts to the production of hymn-tunes4 ,the first to gain prominence was ,william ,billings1 born in ,boston in #agdf1 died there1 #ahjj4 ,he was a tanner by trade and was1 of course1 self-taught4 ,his efforts at harmonizing were rather crude1 as is to be expected1 since he had but few models in composition4 ,he introduced a somewhat florid style1 although without training in counterpoint4 ,yet the critic can see in the work of the early composers such as ,billings1 a rough vigor and a striving for a more distinctive melodic and rhythmic character than is to be found in the tunes brought over from ,england1 showing traces of the forces already at work to differentiate the ,american character from the ,english4 ,billings' first collection of tunes was published in #aggj4 ,other composers of this period were ,oliver ,holden1 who wrote the widely-sung 8,coronation10 ,andrew ,law1 ,jacob ,kimball1 ,daniel ,read and ,timothy ,swan4 ,the two other important cities1 ,philadelphia and ,new ,york1 had some musical activity during the ,colonial period4 ,in #agda1 ,benjamin ,franklin published a collection of hymns1 performances were given of operas1 and concerts for charitable purposes were organized1 yet nothing in the way of native composition developed4 ,early ,musical ,organizations4--,a musical atmosphere is essential to musical development and progress1 and a musical atmosphere comes only from organized effort in musical work4 ,the first efforts in this direction were vocal1 following the same line of development as that we observed in the history of music as a whole1 namely3 first1 vocal and choral music2 secondly1 instrumental and particularly orchestral4 ,the earliest important society of this kind was the ,stoughton 7,mass47 ,musical ,society1 which grew out of a singing class formed in that town1 by ,billings1 in #aggd4 ,this organization still exists4 ,the most famous and most significant body for musical development was the ,handel and ,haydn ,society1 still in existence1 which was organized in ,boston1 in #ahae1 with a chorus of nearly one hundred voices4 ,boston had at this time some well-trained musicians1 and others came there from ,europe in later years1 making it the centre of ,american musical life for years4 ,lowell ,mason4--,in #ahbf1 a young man from the ,south1 but born in ,massachusetts1 came to ,boston to begin a musical career1 which formed a link between the early singing school stage and the work of the present day4 ,this was ,lowell ,mason1 who was born in #agib1 but spent his younger days in ,savannah1 ,ga41 where he studied music as an amateur4 ,as the fruit of his efforts in composition1 he published a collection of church music which was endorsed by the ,handel and ,haydn ,society1 and proved very successful1 encouraging him1 some years later1 to take up music as a profession4 ,he was essentially a man of the people among whom he lived and by nature an efficient teacher1 to which he added a skill and training that ensured him the respect of those who came under his instruction4 ,he traveled over ,new ,england and parts of ,new ,york ,state1 holding musical conventions1 and teaching the principles of music to hundreds of singers and teachers from far and near4 ,his work thus closely touched the people1 and in a day when music was not taught in the public schools1 contributed greatly to spread a love for and a knowledge of vocal music4 ,he died ,august #aa1 #ahgb4 ,musical ,instruments4--,when instrumental music began to receive a share of public attention1 a great step was taken toward development of music in the ,united ,states4 ,in cities like ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia and some ,southern homes1 instruments of the spinet and virginal type could be found in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,the flute was a gentleman's instrument in those days1 following the ,english custom4 ,the violin also received some attention4 7,thomas ,jefferson was very fond of this instrument47 ,naturally1 the first instruments were brought from ,england1 yet the record shows that ,john ,harris1 of ,boston1 who had learned the trade in ,england1 offered for sale spinets of his own make1 in #agfi4 ,some church organs were built several years earlier4 ,the harpsichord and piano followed in due course of time1 as we can gather from advertisements and concert programs4 ,there is controversy as to the making of the first pianos in the ,united ,states4 ,both ,philadelphia and ,boston seem to have had makers in a small way before the beginning of the #aith century4 ,the pioneer in this industry was ,jonas ,chickering1 who served his apprenticeship in ,boston and started in business on his own account1 in #ahbc4 ,the growth of interest in music arising from the organization of choral societies and the labors of ,lowell ,mason1 and the musicians of foreign birth who came to this country created a demand for music outside of that for the voice1 organ and piano1 for many of these musicians had been players in orchestras in ,europe4 ,early ,orchestras4--,the first permanent body of orchestral players1 the ,philharmonic ,society1 was formed in ,boston4 ,the chief promoter was a ,german1 named ,graupner1 who came to the city named1 in #agih4 ,he gathered round him a few professionals and some amateurs1 so that the nucleus of an orchestra existed before the ,handel and ,haydn ,society was formed4 ,graupner also kept a music store and printed music4 ,a large orchestra was established in #ahdj1 which remained active for nearly a decade4 ,new ,york had an organization of instrumentalists which was started about the same time as ,graupner's society in ,boston1 but its real work in this line did not occur until #ahdb1 when the ,philharmonic ,society was founded1 with a strength of from fifty to sixty players4 ,this society still exists4 ,the strongest musical force in ,philadelphia was the ,musical ,fund ,society1 which came into existence in #ahbj1 one object of which was to spread musical knowledge in the city4 ,it built a hall1 which still stands1 and gave both vocal and instrumental concerts4 ,beethoven's first symphony was given there1 as early as #ahba4 ,permanent ,orchestral ,organizations4--,the credit for raising the standard of orchestral work and of spreading a popular appreciation of the classics in absolute music belongs to ,theodore ,thomas1 born in ,germany1 in #ahce1 whose family came to this country in #ahde4 ,he became a proficient violinist while still a boy4 ,his first efforts in the line of the higher music were in the domain of chamber-music2 in these concerts he was associated with ,dr4 ,william ,mason and others4 ,in #ahfd1 he began his work in the orchestral field1 in ,new ,york1 visiting other cities with his men and spreading a knowledge of the works of the masters4 ,mr4 ,thomas conducted a series of concerts in ,philadelphia1 but finished his labors in ,chicago1 as the conductor of the ,chicago ,orchestra1 which was established for him4 ,he died in #aije4 ,following the increased interest in orchestral music in ,new ,york ,city1 due to the work of ,thomas1 the ,boston musical public called for a higher standard and a more skilled set of players than the successors of the old ,philharmonic ,orchestra1 the ,germania and the ,harvard ,musical ,association1 which had kept up the work in a creditable manner4 ,the outgrowth of this sentiment was the establishment of the celebrated ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 which gave its first concerts in the fall of #ahha1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,georg ,henschel4 ,the financial needs of the organization were guaranteed by ,mr4 ,henry ,l4 ,higginson4 ,mr4 ,henschel was succeeded1 in #ahhd1 by ,wilhelm ,gericke1 who was followed five years later by ,arthur ,nikisch2 in #ahic1 ,mr4 ,emil ,paur was made director1 to be succeeded in #ahih by ,wilhelm ,gericke1 who is still 7#aije7 at the head of the organization4 ,the work of the orchestras mentioned stimulated music lovers in other cities and at the present time1 worthy rivals of the older bodies exist in ,philadelphia1 ,mr4 ,fritz ,scheel1 director1 the ,new ,york ,symphony ,orchestra1 ,mr4 ,walter ,damrosch1 director1 and the ,pittsburgh ,orchestra1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,emil ,paur4 ,baltimore has a good orchestra in connection with the ,peabody ,conservatory1 ,cincinnati has a permanent body with a guarantee fund1 under the conductorship of ,mr4 ,frank ,van der ,stucken4 ,the orchestras mentioned give concerts in other cities1 so that their work has more than a local significance4 ,other cities in which efforts are being made to develop orchestral music are ,new ,haven1 ,buffalo1 ,washington1 ,cleveland1 ,atlanta1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,kansas ,city1 ,san ,francisco1 ,los ,angeles and ,denver4 ,other ,organized ,bodies4--,other means for promoting musical progress in the ,united ,states were the societies in different parts of the country1 which provided concerts1 aided musical education1 kept up public interest1 the great ,german singing societies1 music festival associations1 lecture courses1 etc4 ,a prominent example of this kind was the ,musical ,fund ,society of ,philadelphia which1 among its other activities1 opened a music school that remained in existence for six years4 ,the ,harvard ,musical ,association1 an organization of alumni who labored particularly for the advancement of music1 formed the nucleus of a musical library and conducted orchestral concerts at its own expense or guarantee4 ,in later years ,pittsburgh had an active society to promote musical appreciation and the example is being followed by other cities4 ,the greatest growth in this line1 that of the formation of music festival associations and the development of the idea1 was doubtless stimulated by the great festivals held in ,boston in #ahfi and #ahgb4 ,of these1 the most important is the one held in ,cincinnati1 for a number of years under the direction of ,theodore ,thomas2 after his death1 under ,mr4 ,van der ,stucken4 ,it is impossible to give here a list of such organizations2 they are growing in numbers over all the country and form a hopeful sign of an increasing and healthy interest in music4 ,in addition to the work of these societies must be mentioned the series of chamber-music concerts given by quartet organizations in all the important cities1 a kind of music which demands a higher class of musical culture than any other and which is1 therefore1 a good index of the musical appreciation of a community4 ,the great public libraries have collections of musical literature1 as well as the printed works of the great masters4 ,notable among these is the ,brown ,collection1 in the ,boston ,public ,library2 the ,newberry ,library of ,chicago has a very fine collection of musical literature1 including many rare works1 and the new public library in ,new ,york ,city will also have works of great value to musicians4 ,the ,crosby-,brown ,collection of musical instruments in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,city1 is one of the most valuable in the world2 another collection of note is that which belongs to the ,university of ,michigan4 ,folk-,music4--,in a study of conditions connected with the development of music in the ,united ,states1 we will not find the wealth of material in the direction of ,folk-music that ,european countries possess4 ,the ,american people being a composite one cannot have a true ,folk-music as yet4 ,there are but two types of music that can be classed in this category1 the music of the ,indians and that of the negro in his plantation life4 ,the characteristics of both have been used by ,american composers in large works 7,edward ,mac ,dowell3 8,indian ,suite10 for the orchestra2 ,frederic ,burton1 in a choral work71 yet the ,indian race forms no part of the dominant ,caucasian people of the ,united ,states and can hardly have any claims to being considered ,american ,folk-song4 ,among the negroes of the ,south1 during the time of slavery1 a type of song developed that possesses distinctive qualities1 and is thoroughly pervaded with the emotional quality which characterizes the ,folk-song of the musical races of ,europe4 ,it is not the song of the ,african in his native land1 but the product of his new environment4 ,particularly is this the case with regard to the songs in which the religious element is the leading one4 ,many of them have the spontaneous character of the old minstrel poets1 the leader improvising the verses1 the chorus joining in the refrain4 ,several composers have used material based on negro musical idioms1 notably ,antonin ,dvok1 in his 8,from the ,new ,world0 symphony and ,g4 ,w4 ,chadwick1 in the scherzo of one of his symphonies1 but the most famous examples of the ,folk-song of the plantation type are found in the works of ,stephen ,c4 ,foster 7#ahbf-ahfd71 the one most widely-known being 8,the ,old ,folks at ,home0 or 8,suwanee ,river10 incomparable in its sweet melancholy and tender pathos1 yet of extreme simplicity in harmonic basis and diatonic progressions4 ,the ,opera4--,the development of the opera in the ,united ,states is a story of change from the simple style of the ,english ballad opera to the elaborate music dramas of ,richard ,wagner1 in the ,north1 with ,new ,york ,city as the leading centre1 while ,new ,orleans1 in the ,south1 with its large ,french population1 furnishes a home for the ,french and ,italian school of opera4 ,the 8,beggar's ,opera10 by ,gay1 which had won extraordinary popularity in ,england1 was given in ,new ,york1 in #agej1 and as early as #agia ,new ,orleans had a company of ,french singers4 ,philadelphia also had performances before the end of the #ahth century4 ,it was not until after the wars with ,england1 when the country was growing and becoming prosperous1 that foreign managers and singers considered it an inviting field4 ,the first company of real artistic worth was brought here in #ahbe1 headed by ,manuel ,garcia1 which included his daughter1 afterward ,mme4 ,malibran4 ,in #ahcb1 the poet ,da ,ponte1 librettist of ,mozart's opera 8,don ,giovanni10 who was a resident of ,new ,york ,city1 brought another strong company of singers to the ,united ,states4 ,from that time on1 for a number of years1 opera was furnished by visiting companies of foreign singers1 who gave performances in the leading cities of the country1 ,new ,orleans being the first to establish a permanent opera season with a resident company4 ,it was in #ahei that ,adelina ,patti made her first appearance1 in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in #ahgh1 ,mapleson1 the impresario1 commenced the 8all star0 system that developed a taste for opera by giving the ,american public the chance to hear the best singers in the world1 and set a standard which has made the people dissatisfied with a company well-balanced but lacking in great singers4 ,more real work is done to develop a community by hearing a number of performances well done than one or two in a sensational style4 ,in #ahhc1 the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house1 in ,new ,york ,city1 was opened with a 8star0 company1 managed by ,henry ,e4 ,abbey4 ,german opera 7,wagner music dramas7 gained a foothold in this country through the efforts of ,dr4 ,leopold ,damrosch1 who directed the first artistic performance of ,wagner's ,tannhuser1 in #ahhd1 in the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house2 from this time1 operas of the three great schools were given here1 ,italian1 ,french and ,german4 ,the following year1 ,anton ,seidl was called to the conductorship and his labors put the performances of ,wagner's operas on a plane equal to any in the world2 the company had seasons in the other leading ,american cities4 ,after ,seidl's death1 in #ahih1 the performances continued along the same lines and with the same high artistic quality1 the greatest singers being engaged4 ,in #aijc1 on ,christmas ,eve1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,h4 ,conried1 the first ,american representation 7and the first outside of ,bayreuth7 of 8,parsifal0 was given4 ,in assigning credit for work of an educational character in opera1 mention must be made of certain traveling companies1 such as the 8,ideals0 and 8,bostonians0 who gave highly artistic performances of the standard operas1 and of the companies under the direction of ,mr4 ,henry ,w4 ,savage1 who gave grand opera in ,english during the first decade of the present century4 ,,references4 ,mathews4--,hundred ,years of ,music in ,america4 ,elson4--,american ,music4 ,elson4--,our ,national ,music and its ,sources4 ,ritter4--,music in ,america4 ,brooks4--,olden ,time ,music4 ,perkins and ,dwight4--,handel and ,haydn ,society of ,boston4 ,,questions ,,and ,,suggestions4 ,who contributed the greater influence to ,american music1 the ,cavaliers or the ,puritans8 ,what was the influence of the latter8 ,who were the early hymn-tune composers8 ,name some tune by the more prominent4 7,if any are available1 play them over or have them sung for the class47 ,which of the three leading ,american cities of the #ahth century was the most advanced musically8 ,what were the first societies to organize8 ,who was a great factor in musical education in the early part of the #aith century8 ,what was the state of instrumental music in the ,colonial period and in the years following8 ,where was the first orchestra formed8 ,what other cities had organized bodies of orchestral players8 ,give an account of the work of ,theodore ,thomas4 ,tell about the other great orchestras of the ,united ,states4 ,what other organizations have aided in musical progress in the ,united ,states8 ,what are the sources of ,folk-,music in the ,united ,states8 ,what use have composers made of this material8 ,give a sketch of the ,opera in the ,united ,states4 ,we advise that a somewhat detailed study of music in the ,united ,states be made1 following the outline of this lesson1 by the use of the reference works mentioned above4 ,if there is time for this extra work1 we advise that two lessons be made of this chapter and that pupils be assigned the duty of collecting additional material on the subject of the separate paragraphs4 ,the work will be divided in this way and each pupil will have a personal interest4 ,old hymn-tune collections should be examined to find examples of the tunes used by our forefathers4 ,music representative of the various periods will be found in the books mentioned or indicated in other sources2 both vocal and instrumental music should be performed at the recitations4 ,,lesson ,,lviii4 ,,american ,,composers3 ,,works ,,in ,,large ,,instrumental ,,forms4 ,american ,music ,still ,young4--,musical composition in the ,united ,states is still too young in comparison with the work of ,european composers to have made marked impress on history4 ,american composers owe their training largely to ,european teachers1 the models upon which they have based their work come from ,european art1 and the principles of construction were developed by the ,european masters4 ,hence the disposition to view ,american composition as still in a state of pupilage4 ,yet the record shows a number of men who have done worthy work1 many of them winning far more than a local reputation1 and not a few enjoying international fame4 ,and this work1 especially such as is cast in the large forms1 for orchestra1 chamber-music or chorus with orchestra1 is the product of the years since the close of the ,civil ,war1 a very short period1 indeed1 when compared with the story of composition in most of the ,european countries4 ,it speaks volumes for the native capacity and sturdy industry of ,american composers that they have1 in less than a half-century1 won a high place in the use of the materials of musical composition and that they have so readily assimilated the work and teachings of ,european masters4 ,paine4--,the earliest composer in large instrumental forms was ,john ,k4 ,paine1 born1 ,portland1 ,me41 #ahcd1 died #aijf4 ,in #aheh1 he went to ,germany to study and gave particular attention to the organ4 ,he quickly gained rank as the chief ,american organist1 on his return to the ,united ,states1 several years later4 ,in #ahfb1 he became connected with ,harvard ,university as an instructor in music1 a full professorship being created in #ahge4 ,his first important works were choral1 with orchestral accompaniment4 ,his first symphony was brought out in #ahgf1 his second1 called 8,spring10 in #ahhj4 ,other large works for orchestra are a symphonic fantasy based on ,shakespeare's 8,tempest10 a symphonic poem 8,an ,island ,fantasy10 the inspiration of which came from several paintings of marine scenes1 and an overture to ,shakespeare's 8,as ,you ,like ,it40 ,prof4 ,paine's large choral works are3 a ,mass in ,d1 an oratorio 8,st4 ,peter10 music to 8dipus ,tyrannus10 8,phbus1 ,arise10 8,nativity10 drawn from ,milton1 8,song of ,promise10 hymns for the ,centennial and ,columbus ,exhibitions1 music to ,aristophanes' 8,birds10 an opera 8,azara10 besides organ compositions1 chamber-music1 songs and part-songs4 ,gilchrist4--,a composer whose training was entirely ,american is ,william ,w4 ,gilchrist1 born in ,jersey ,city1 in #ahdf1 a resident of ,philadelphia for many years1 where his professional activity has included important work as teacher of singing1 and chorus conducting4 ,his musical education was received mainly from ,dr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,clarke1 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,his compositions include a symphony1 a suite for orchestra and a great deal of chamber-music4 ,he has written a number of works for chorus with orchestra1 his most notable being a setting of the ,forty-sixth ,psalm1 to which was awarded a #ajjj prize1 offered by the ,cincinnati ,festival ,association4 ,his other compositions include choral works in smaller forms1 with string or other accompaniment suited to chamber-music1 part-songs1 church music1 and a number of fine songs4 ,he is especially happy in writing for women's voices4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,w4 ,,gilcrist4 ,j4 ,k4 ,,paine4 ,,horatio ,,parker4 ,,arthur ,,foote4 ,,edward ,,macdowell4 ,,mrs4 ,h4 ,h4 ,a4 ,,beach4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,chadwick4 ,chadwick4--,a composer who has won appreciation in ,europe is ,george ,w4 ,chadwick1 born in ,lowell1 ,mass41 in #ahed4 ,his studies were carried on in the ,new ,england ,conservatory1 at ,boston1 which institution he entered in #ahgb4 ,five years later he went to ,leipzig to study1 giving special attention to composition4 ,in #ahgi1 he went to ,dresden to study with ,rheinberger4 ,in #ahhj1 he returned to the ,united ,states and settled in ,boston4 ,his professional activities included work as organist1 conductor1 and teacher at the ,new ,england ,conservatory4 ,in #ahig1 he was called to the directorship of the ,conservatory4 ,his compositions are written in all the various forms1 his reputation as a composer of high rank being based upon his large orchestral works1 which include three symphonies1 four overtures1 chamber-music1 a comic opera1 a sacred opera1 8,judith10 two cantatas1 popular with choral societies1 8,phnix ,expirans0 and the 8,lily ,nymph10 a ballad for chorus and orchestra1 8,lovely ,rosabelle10 part-songs1 church music1 and a number of songs of high merit4 ,mac,dowell4--,an ,american composer in thorough accord with the modern musical tendencies in composition is ,edward ,alexander ,mac,dowell1 born in ,new ,york1 in #ahfa4 ,his most famous teacher was ,mme4 ,teresa ,carreo1 the celebrated pianist4 ,he became a pupil of the ,paris ,conservatoire1 in #ahgf1 and after three years under ,french masters and influences1 went to ,germany1 where he studied under ,ehlert1 ,heymann and ,raff1 the latter giving him a thorough grounding in the technic of composition4 ,his musical education1 therefore1 included both ,french and ,german ideas4 ,he remained in ,germany as pianist1 composer and teacher until #ahhh1 when he returned to the ,united ,states and settled in ,boston4 ,in #ahif1 he accepted the position of professor of music in ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city1 which he held until #aijd1 when he resigned to devote himself to composition exclusively4 ,mac,dowell was trained to a thorough understanding of form1 yet his works show that he regards only the spirit of form1 that he is its master and not its servant4 ,he has plenty of force1 vigor and originality of melody and rhythm and is resourceful in his command of modern harmony4 ,critics of high authority have unhesitatingly awarded him the highest rank among ,american-born composers4 ,his compositions include works in the large forms1 two concertos1 two suites1 four poems for orchestra1 four piano sonatas of striking romantic content1 a number of smaller works for the piano1 studies1 songs and part-songs1 principally for male voices4 ,horatio ,parker4--,it is significant of the advance in music over other sections of the ,united ,states that ,new ,england should have been the birthplace of a number of composers of reputation4 ,besides ,paine and ,chadwick1 two others have achieved eminence in the large forms3 ,horatio ,parker and ,arthur ,foote4 ,mr4 ,parker was born near ,boston1 in #ahfc2 his father was an architect1 his mother a woman of fine literary and musical culture4 ,his first lessons in music1 piano and organ1 were received from his mother1 and such was his interest that he made attempts at composition4 ,at sixteen1 he was appointed to a position as organist and was thus launched into musical life4 ,he kept up his studies with ,boston teachers1 in composition with ,chadwick1 and afterwards with ,rheinberger1 in ,germany1 in which country he remained until #ahhe4 ,his first appointment was director of music at ,garden ,city ,cathedral ,schools1 ,long ,island1 afterwards filling organ positions in ,new ,york ,city1 the most notable one being at the ,church of the ,holy ,trinity4 ,he also taught in the ,national ,conservatory4 ,in #ahic1 he went to ,boston as organist and director of music at ,trinity ,church1 and in #ahid1 to ,yale ,university1 as professor of music4 ,in addition to the work in composition and history of music1 ,mr4 ,parker conducts a series of orchestral concerts given by an orchestra supported by the ,university4 ,mr4 ,parker's compositions in large form include a symphony1 several overtures1 a concerto for organ and orchestra1 chamber-music1 cantatas for chorus and orchestra1 and in smaller forms1 piano and organ pieces1 songs and many part-songs4 ,his cantata 8,hora ,novissima0 is one of the best works in this style produced by an ,american composer1 and has been given in ,england with success4 ,the legend of 8,st4 ,christopher0 furnished material for a work of a secular character that has been taken up by some important choral organizations4 ,arthur ,foote was born at ,salem1 ,mass41 in #ahed4 ,his musical education was wholly acquired in ,boston1 his leading teachers having been ,stephen ,a4 ,emery and ,b4 ,j4 ,lang4 ,mr4 ,foote is also a graduate of ,harvard ,university4 ,his home is in ,boston1 where his professional work is that of an organist1 and teacher of piano and composition4 ,his most important work in large form is a suite for orchestra1 ,op4 #cf2 in addition to this he has written successfully in the domain of chamber-music1 works for string orchestra1 a quartet1 a quintet1 a trio and a sonata for piano and violin2 he has also written excellent works for chorus with orchestra1 8,wreck of the ,hesperus10 piano and organ pieces1 a number of fine songs and part-songs4 ,he is perhaps at his best in writing for male voices1 notable works being 8,the ,skeleton in ,armor0 and 8,farewell to ,hiawatha40 ,hadley4--,a younger composer than those mentioned1 whose work in the large forms has received commendation1 is ,henry ,k4 ,hadley1 born at ,somerville1 ,mass41 in #ahga4 ,his father was a member of the musical profession1 and first taught his son1 who later went to ,boston to study with ,emery1 ,chadwick and ,allen 7violin74 ,in #ahid1 he went to ,vienna to study and wrote several works for orchestra while there4 ,in #ahif1 he returned to the ,united ,states and taught in ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 at ,garden ,city4 ,he has written several symphonies1 suites1 an overture1 a cantata and a number of songs2 two comic operas are also among his works4 ,he has won the ,paderewski ,prize for composition4 ,frank van der ,stucken1 born in ,fredericksburg1 ,texas1 in #aheh1 of ,belgian descent1 was educated abroad1 mainly under ,benoit1 at ,antwerp1 and entered professional life in ,europe1 yet he is classed with ,american composers1 for he has spent a great part of his active musical life in this country4 ,it was in #ahhd1 that he came to ,new ,york ,city as conductor of a large ,german singing society1 at the same time giving much attention to conducting orchestral works1 in which branch he had had considerable experience in ,europe4 ,in #ahie1 he went to ,cincinnati as conductor of the ,symphony ,orchestra of that city and two years later1 was dean of the ,college of ,music1 from the active management of which he retired in #aijc4 ,although he has written a number of orchestral pieces1 his most important work1 modern in form and scored for the full modern orchestra is 8,william ,ratcliffe10 a symphonic prologue1 which has a very dramatic program4 ,he has also written songs that are in the extreme style of the most advanced composition4 ,mrs4 ,beach4--,few women have won any success in composition in the large musical forms4 ,a most notable exception is ,mrs4 ,h4 ,h4 ,a4 ,beach 7,amy ,marcy ,cheney71 who was born at ,henniker1 ,n4 ,h41 in #ahfg4 ,she showed marked inclination for music while still a child and was given regular instruction when only six years old4 ,soon after this her parents moved to ,boston and she continued her musical education there under ,ernst ,perabo and ,carl ,baermann4 ,her studies in composition were largely made without teachers1 guided principally by the most thorough and extensive study of the scores of the masters4 ,she was married in #ahhe to a prominent ,boston physician4 ,mrs4 ,beach's most important works are her 8,gaelic0 symphony1 a mass for chorus with organ and small orchestra1 a sonata for violin and piano and a piano concerto4 ,in addition to this she has written a number of piano pieces and songs4 ,loeffler4--,an account of music in the ,united ,states would not be complete without reference to the work of ,mr4 ,charles ,m4 ,loeffler1 one of the most important figures in modern musical composition4 ,although he was born in ,europe 7#ahfa7 and educated there1 he has spent his adult life in this country1 having been for many years a violinist in the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra4 ,his best-known work is the 8,death of ,tintagiles10 founded upon ,maeterlinck4 ,rollinat and ,verlaine have also furnished inspiration to him4 ,a concerted work for violin and orchestra shows his skill both as composer and violinist4 ,of late years1 ,mr4 ,loeffler has turned his attention to song composition4 ,other ,composers4--,in a concise account of the work of ,american composers1 short mention only can be given to a number of men who have worked earnestly in composition1 a field in which appreciation seems to be granted freely to the foreigner but grudgingly to the compatriot4 ,conditions are not favorable to development along the lines of public performance of works in large forms1 orchestras are under the control of foreign conductors1 most of the players are foreigners1 and the concert-going public gives but scant attention to works by an ,american4 ,therefore much credit is due to those who have worked quietly and with but little hope of hearing their works1 doing their best to produce music in accord with the best canons of the art4 ,such men are ,frederick ,grant ,gleason1 born at ,middletown1 ,conn41 #ahdh 7died in ,chicago1 #aijc71 studied at home and abroad2 ,adolph ,m4 ,foerster1 born in ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 #ahed1 who was educated in ,germany1 and is now a resident of his native city2 ,ernest ,r4 ,kroeger1 born at ,st4 ,louis1 #ahfb1 educated at home1 and still a resident of the city of his birth2 ,henry ,schoenefeld1 born at ,milwaukee1 #aheg1 educated at home and abroad2 ,henry ,holden ,huss1 born in ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahfb1 studied in ,new ,york and at ,munich1 under ,rheinberger1 now a resident of ,new ,york ,city2 ,arthur ,b4 ,whiting1 born in ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahfa1 educated in ,boston and by ,rheinberger1 at ,munich1 a resident of ,boston2 ,louis ,a4 ,coerne1 professor of music at ,smith ,college1 who was educated in ,boston and ,munich 7,rheinberger72 and ,harry ,rowe ,shelley1 of ,new ,york ,city1 who was born at ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 #aheh1 studied there and in ,new ,york 7,buck and ,dvok74 ,these composers have by no means confined their work to compositions for orchestra1 chamber-music1 cantatas1 etc41 but have also written useful piano and organ pieces1 and in a number of cases1 songs that have become extremely popular4 ,,lesson ,,lix4 ,,american ,,composers3 ,,vocal ,,forms2 ,,piano ,,and ,,organ4--,,musical ,,literature4 ,cantata ,composers4--,a number of ,american composers have turned their attention to composition in opera and cantata forms4 ,some of the composers already mentioned have written works of this character4 ,the first of ,american composers to work in the field of the cantata was ,j4 ,c4 ,d4 ,parker1 born in ,boston1 in #ahbh1 a graduate of ,harvard1 and a teacher with many years of splendid work to his credit4 ,his musical education was received at ,leipzig4 ,in #ahed1 he located in ,boston and took up a varied career as organist1 conductor1 and teacher of piano and harmony1 at the ,new ,england ,conservatory4 ,his large works include a cantata1 8,redemption ,hymn10 a secular cantata1 8,the ,blind ,king10 and two works in oratorio form 8,st4 ,john0 and 8,the ,life of ,man10 the latter showing him at his strongest4 ,dudley ,buck1 organist1 composer and teacher1 is also one of the veterans of ,american music4 ,he was born at ,hartford1 ,conn41 in #ahci1 attended ,trinity ,college several years1 began his musical instruction at sixteen years of age1 went to ,germany several years later1 giving his attention principally to the organ and composition4 ,in #ahfb1 he returned to the ,united ,states1 worked professionally in ,hartford1 ,chicago1 and ,boston2 in #ahgd1 he went to ,new ,york1 later to one of the leading churches of ,brooklyn1 which position he retained until #aije4 ,his choral works in large form are 8,don ,munio10 8,the ,voyage of ,columbus10 8,the ,golden ,legend10 and the 8,light of ,asia10 his largest and most important work1 which has been given in ,england4 ,he has written many works for church use1 much organ music1 songs and concerted vocal music1 especially for male voices4 ,opera4--,in opera we note the work of ,paine 78,azara072 ,chadwick 78,judith10 a sacred opera72 ,walter ,damrosch1 composer and conductor1 born in ,germany1 in #ahfb1 but a resident of the ,united ,states in childhood1 and hence identified with music in this country1 who has written a work of serious character to a libretto founded on ,hawthorne's 8,scarlet ,letter02 ,reginald de ,koven1 born at ,middletown1 ,conn41 in #ahei1 with a list of several successful light operas to his credit1 as well as many songs which have had wide appreciation2 ,edgar ,stillman ,kelley1 born at ,sparta1 ,wisconsin1 in #aheg1 educated in ,chicago and ,germany1 a resident of ,san ,francisco for a number of years1 where he brought out several notable works of a popular character for the stage as well as the orchestra1 employing in the latter ,chinese musical idioms with success in a humorous direction4 ,a composer whose work in light opera has had much success is ,victor ,herbert1 born in ,dublin1 ,ireland4 ,his professional career has been largely spent in this country1 his work as conductor of the ,pittsburgh ,symphony ,orchestra being notable4 ,song ,composition4--,in the field of song composition1 ,american composers have done very good work4 ,the ,american seems to turn naturally to song and few of the most prominent of the native composers have neglected this field1 as will have been noticed in previous paragraphs4 ,among those who have won high reputation in this line we note ,george ,l4 ,osgood1 of ,boston1 born in #ahdd1 composer1 singer and teacher2 ,frank ,lynes1 of ,boston1 born in #aheh1 who has also written good concerted vocal music and piano pieces2 ,clayton ,johns1 born in ,delaware1 in #aheg1 but a resident of ,boston during the greater part of his professional career1 with a long list of part-songs and some piano pieces to his credit2 and ,ethelbert ,nevin1 born near ,pittsburgh1 in #ahfb1 educated in the ,united ,states and in ,europe1 whose songs have a truly poetic character joined to music of a high order2 a number of his piano pieces have also been most favorably received4 ,he died in #aija4 ,illustration3 ,,wm4 ,,mason4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,gottschalk4 ,,dudley ,,buck4 ,h4 ,m4 ,,dunham4 ,j4 ,c4 ,d4 ,,parker4 ,b4 ,j4 ,,lang4 ,,wallace ,,goodrich4 ,piano ,composition4--,the dean of ,american teachers of the piano and of composers for that instrument is ,william ,mason1 born in ,boston1 in #ahbi1 a son of ,lowell ,mason1 who studied at home and abroad and spent two years with ,liszt at ,weimar4 ,it was in #ahed that he came back to the ,united ,states and located in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in addition to his works for the piano1 some of which have been widely played1 he is the author of an important technical work1 which stamps him as an educator of originality and strength4 ,a composer who is generally classed as ,american1 although his ancestry1 education and environment incline strongly to the ,french1 is ,louis ,moreau ,gottschalk1 born in ,new ,orleans1 in #ahbi4 ,he early showed marked inclination for music and was sent to ,paris to study4 ,his first reputation was won as pianist4 ,he traveled over ,europe1 the ,united ,states and parts of ,south ,america1 giving concerts1 in which he gave the principal place to his own compositions4 ,he died in ,brazil1 in #ahfi4 ,in later years1 ,american composers for the piano have not done such distinctive work as the two writers just mentioned1 yet the names of ,charles ,dennee 7#ahfc71 ,wilson ,g4 ,smith 7#ahee71 ,james ,h4 ,rogers 7#aheg71 and ,william ,h4 ,sherwood 7#ahed71 composer1 pianist and teacher1 whose work in the educational field is most important2 ,edward ,baxter ,perry 7#ahee71 who has splendidly triumphed over the infirmity of blindness1 and through his unique lecture recitals has been a strong factor in musical progress in the ,united ,states2 and several men of foreign birth who have identified themselves with ,american musical education3 ,rafael ,joseffy1 in ,new ,york ,city1 ,carl ,baermann and ,carl ,faelten in ,boston1 ,constantin von ,sternberg in ,philadelphia1 and ,emil ,liebling in ,chicago4 ,two other names should be mentioned here1 ,henry ,schradieck1 of ,new ,york1 whose influence as a violinist and teacher has been great1 and ,f4 ,l4 ,ritter1 who occupied the chair of music in ,vassar ,college1 a pioneer in college musical work4 ,organ ,composition4--,nearly all of the best-known ,american composers have been organists1 yet certain men have made that line of musical work peculiarly their own4 ,such men are ,b4 ,j4 ,lang 7#ahcg71 of ,boston1 organist1 conductor and teacher2 ,george ,e4 ,whiting 7#ahdb71 who in addition to his high rank as an organist and teacher1 has written most acceptably for his instrument1 and also for the orchestra and in the large choral forms2 ,george ,w4 ,warren 7#ahbh71 and ,s4 ,p4 ,warren 7#ahda71 whose sphere of activity is identified with ,new ,york ,city2 ,e4 ,m4 ,bowman 7#ahdh71 organist1 conductor1 pianist and teacher2 ,samuel ,b4 ,whitney 7#ahdb71 organist1 noted for his work in training boy choirs1 also his musical compositions for the ,episcopal ,church service2 ,clarence ,eddy 7#ahea71 organ virtuoso with an international reputation2 ,henry ,m4 ,dunham 7#ahec71 who has written well for his instrument and has had an active and useful career as a teacher4 ,among the younger men of prominence as ,american organists who have put themselves abreast with modern progress1 and have studied all schools1 may be mentioned ,everett ,e4 ,truette1 ,wallace ,goodrich1 ,wm4 ,c4 ,carl1 ,gerrit ,smith1 ,charles ,galloway1 ,j4 ,fred ,wolle1 who organized the ,bach ,festival at ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 ,h4 ,j4 ,stewart1 a representative ,california organist4 ,musical ,criticism4--,when indicating the various agencies for the shaping of musical appreciation in the ,united ,states1 special mention must be made of a group of writers whose contributions to musical magazines1 to the daily press in the large music centres1 as well as their work in permanent form have influenced the taste of the ,american public to a degree not paralleled in any other country4 ,these writers have enjoyed unusual opportunities and have used them well4 ,the leading newspapers of the ,united ,states give much space to reports of musical events and have called to their aid writers of keen insight into musical matters1 thorough equipment on the score of musical knowledge1 and gifted with much skill in expression as well as mastery of literary style4 ,the ,older ,critics4--,the first of these critics to claim our attention is ,john ,s4 ,dwight1 born in ,boston1 in #ahac1 a graduate of ,harvard1 and a student of theology as well4 ,gifted with a sound taste in art matters1 his reviews of musical works1 concerts1 etc41 were very useful and helpful and much appreciated by the best circles of the city1 for his associations were with the most famous literary and scientific men of his day4 ,in #aheb1 he established a musical paper1 ,journal of ,music1 which lasted nearly thirty years4 ,he died in #ahic4 ,another of the older writers is ,george ,p4 ,upton1 born in ,boston1 in #ahcd1 a graduate of ,brown ,university1 who entered journalism at twenty-one1 as a member of the staff of the ,chicago ,journal2 after some years of service with that paper1 he went to the ,tribune1 with which he has ever since been associated4 ,mr4 ,upton's critical work covers the period of the growth of ,chicago1 which has been phenomenal in art as well as in commercial directions1 and has been a most valuable factor in musical upbuilding4 ,in recent years his pen was a great aid to ,theodore ,thomas in his efforts to establish the ,chicago ,symphony ,orchestra4 ,his works in permanent form are 8,woman in ,music10 a series of books descriptive of the principal oratorios1 operas1 cantatas1 and symphonies1 translations from the ,german of ,nohl's biographies of musicians1 and a 8,life of ,theodore ,thomas40 ,coincident with ,mr4 ,upton's work in the ,west is that of ,w4 ,s4 ,b4 ,mathews1 born in ,london1 ,n4 ,h41 in #ahcg4 ,he was educated in ,boston2 after some years of musical work in the ,south1 he located in ,chicago1 as organist1 teacher1 writer on musical matters4 ,his reviews on local musical affairs appeared in several of the leading dailies1 he was a contributor to ,dwight's ,journal1 and to all the musical papers that have come into the field since4 ,perhaps no contemporary writer on education in music has influenced1 and so strongly1 as many teachers and students of music as ,mr4 ,mathews4 ,he has written a 8,popular ,history of ,music10 8,hundred ,years of ,music in ,america10 8,how to ,understand ,music10 8,primer of ,musical ,forms10 and several works on the great composers1 with critical studies of their works4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,mathews4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,upton4 ,l4 ,c4 ,,elson4 ,h4 ,e4 ,,krehbiel4 ,,philip ,,hale4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,apthorp4 ,,james ,,huneker4 ,boston ,writers4--,the three leading ,boston writers of recent years are ,louis ,c4 ,elson1 ,wm4 ,f4 ,apthorp and ,philip ,hale4 ,louis ,c4 ,elson was born in ,boston1 in #ahdh4 ,he was educated for the musical profession1 at home and at ,leipzig4 ,in #ahhj1 he became connected with the ,new ,england ,conservatory1 and at the present time is head of the theory department of that institution4 ,his journalistic activity covers a period of about thirty years and his writings have appeared in ,boston and ,new ,york papers1 as well as in the leading musical journals4 ,his works in book form are ten in number1 the most valuable to the student of history being a large volume on the 8,history of ,american ,music40 ,the other works are critical1 technical1 and biographical4 ,wm4 ,f4 ,apthorp was born in ,boston1 in #ahdh1 graduated at ,harvard1 and began his critical work in music in #ahgb1 being connected with several ,boston papers4 ,mr4 ,apthorp's published works are few in number1 8,musicians and ,music ,lovers0 and 8,the ,opera1 ,past and ,present40 ,in addition to this he supplied program material for the ,boston ,symphony ,concerts for a number of years1 educational as well as descriptive and critical4 ,philip ,hale was born at ,norwich1 ,vt41 in #ahed1 graduated from ,yale and was admitted to the ,bar in ,new ,york in #ahhj4 ,his interest in music and musical work proved too strong for him and he went abroad to ,germany and ,france to study4 ,in #ahhi1 he located in ,boston and began work as musical critic on the staff of several of the papers4 ,for a number of years he was ,boston correspondent for the ,musical ,courier of ,new ,york4 ,two other men whose work in musical literature has been significant are ,alexander ,w4 ,thayer1 born at ,natick1 ,mass41 in #ahag1 who wrote the standard biography of ,beethoven1 and ,thomas ,tapper1 of ,boston1 who has written a number of valuable educational works in music4 ,new ,york ,critics4--,new ,york ,city has four men of the first rank as writers on music1 not only for critical acumen and technical knowledge1 but also for literary style4 ,henry ,t4 ,finck was born in ,missouri1 in #ahed1 graduated from ,harvard ,university1 and studied at ,german universities for three years4 ,when he returned to the ,united ,states he joined the editorial staff of the ,evening ,post and the ,nation1 which places he still holds4 ,his works in musical literature are 8,wagner and ,his ,works10 8,paderewski and ,his ,art10 8,songs and ,song ,writers10 and 8,chopin and ,other ,essays40 ,henry ,e4 ,krehbiel was born at ,ann ,arbor1 ,mich41 in #ahed4 ,his first newspaper experience was in ,cincinnati2 later he went to ,new ,york to the ,tribune1 which place he still holds4 ,his contributions to musical literature are 8,studies in the ,wagnerian ,drama10 8,how to ,listen to ,music10 and 8,music and ,manners in the ,classical ,period10 besides contributions to the leading musical papers and general magazines4 ,william ,j4 ,henderson was born at ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 in #ahee1 graduated from ,princeton ,university1 afterward entering journalism in ,new ,york ,city1 being connected with the ,times1 and later with the ,sun4 ,his books are distinctly educational in tone3 8,the ,story of ,music10 8,how ,music ,developed10 8,what is ,good ,music10 8,the ,orchestra and ,orchestral ,music10 8,richard ,wagner3 ,his ,life and ,dramas10 and 8,the ,art of the ,singer40 ,a writer on music who has made a fine reputation in literary and dramatic criticism as well is ,james ,huneker1 a native of ,philadelphia1 whose active work has been done in ,new ,york ,city4 ,his books of interest to the musician are a 8,life of ,chopin10 8,mezzotints in ,modern ,music10 8,melomaniacs10 8,overtones10 8,iconoclasts0 and 8,visionaries40 ,other ,writers in this field whose work deserves mention are ,edward ,dickinson1 of ,oberlin1 ,o41 with two works1 8,history of ,music in the ,western ,church0 and 8,the ,study of the ,history of ,music02 ,philip ,goepp1 of ,philadelphia1 8,symphonies and their ,meanings02 ,daniel ,gregory ,mason1 of ,boston1 8,from ,grieg to ,brahms02 ,lawrence ,gilman1 of ,new ,york1 8,phases of ,modern ,music02 ,professor ,hugh ,a4 ,clarke1 of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 8,music and the ,comrade ,arts10 8,highways and ,by-ways of ,music10 and several excellent theoretical works2 ,o4 ,b4 ,boise1 ,peabody ,conservatory of ,baltimore1 with a work of a historical and critical nature1 8,music and ,its ,masters10 and some theoretical works2 ,rupert ,hughes1 8,contemporary ,american ,composers4 ,,lesson ,,lx4 ,,musical ,,education4 ,early ,musical ,education4--,the training of students in music has been the special care of the greatest men connected with the art1 a subject close to the heart of men of rank and of means1 and the object of ,governmental and municipal subvention4 ,in most of the countries and many of the larger cities of ,europe1 ,art is considered a legitimate object for public aid and fostering1 and music receives a fair share of funds set aside for that purpose4 ,in the period before the ,christian ,era1 musical education was carried on to prepare singers and players either for the religious service1 and in the hands of the priests1 or for entertainment and by slaves4 ,pope ,sylvester founded a school for singers1 at ,rome1 in the #dth century1 and the ,church all through its history has laid stress on means for training executants for its musical services4 ,guido of ,arezzo1 credited with a number of reforms in the teaching of vocal music1 is said to have had a school for training singers to read musical notation4 ,like him1 many of his successors in prominence were in charge of classes of pupils1 yet this method by no means accords with our ideas of systematic1 logical education in music4 ,it was largely the personal power and eminence of the master that attracted and retained pupils4 ,musical ,education in ,italy4--,the first examples of the founding of schools of music or conservatories take us to ,italy4 ,the noted theorist ,tinctor or ,tinctoris started a school at ,naples1 in #adif1 but this did not last very long4 ,in the early part of the #afth century1 several institutions were founded by private contribution for the purpose of affording homes and instruction to orphaned children4 ,ecclesiastical music was at first the special object of these schools4 ,the pupils sang in choirs1 various religious offices1 processions1 etc4 ,there were four of these institutions3 ,santa ,maria di ,loreto1 founded in #aece1 which had on its roster such eminent musicians as ,alessandro ,scarlatti1 ,durante1 ,porpora1 ,sacchini and ,guglielmi2 ,san ,onofrio1 founded in #aegf1 some famous pupils being ,gizzi1 ,jommelli1 ,piccini and ,paisiello2 ,de ,poveri di ,ges ,cristo1 established in #aehi1 numbering among its pupils1 ,greco1 ,vinci1 and ,pergolesi2 ,della ,piet de' ,turchini1 started in #aehd1 having among its pupils1 ,leo1 ,cafara1 and ,feo4 ,in #agig1 the first two named were united1 the third was changed into a seminary for priests in #agdd1 and in #ahjh1 the last was closed1 and a school of music was established to take the place of the remaining institutions4 ,this school1 which received the title ,reale ,collegio di ,musica1 still exists4 ,venice rivaled ,naples in devotion to music1 and early took measures to give musical instruction to the wards of charitable institutions4 ,these schools were not named ,conservatorio1 as at ,naples1 but ,ospedale 7hospital71 since they were a part of the foundation for institutions to receive the poor and infirm1 their work as conservatories developing gradually4 ,such masters as ,lotti1 ,galuppi1 ,scarlatti1 ,cimarosa presided over the four schools best known4 ,when the ,republic fell1 these institutions collapsed in the financial crisis that followed4 ,the principal music school in ,venice at the present time is the ,liceo ,benedetto ,marcello1 which is subsidized by the city4 ,an ,italian conservatory of ancient date is the one at ,palermo1 which was established in #afae4 ,at the present time it is a ,state institution4 ,the ,academy of ,st4 ,cecilia1 at ,rome1 dates its original foundation to a society of musicians formed in #aeff1 a charter being granted by ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii1 in #aehd4 ,the ,academy possesses the largest and most important musical library in ,italy4 ,milan had a school of music as early as #adhc4 ,the celebrated theoretician1 ,gafurio1 was the first great teacher4 ,it was not permanent1 however1 and though there were schools for singers there from time to time1 it was not until #ahjg that the municipality established a regular school of music4 ,the first school of music at ,bologna was established in #adhb1 but it did not become permanent4 ,in later years1 musical affairs were in the hands of academies for the promotion of arts and sciences4 ,in #ahfd1 a school was opened on modern lines4 ,genoa has a school which was founded in #ahbi2 it is subsidized by the city4 ,the school at ,florence was opened in #ahfb1 and is richly endowed4 ,a school was heavily endowed by ,rossini and located at ,pesaro1 his birthplace4 ,the ,paris ,conservatoire4--,to ,france belongs the honor of following closely in the footsteps of the ,italian authorities4 ,in #aghd1 a ,royal ,school of ,singing was opened in ,paris1 under the direction of ,gossec1 the composer2 in #agic it was enlarged in scope and was called the ,national ,institute of ,music2 in #agie the name was changed to the ,conservatoire de ,musique1 which it still bears4 ,in #ahjj the organization was further modified by ,bonaparte4 ,the institution receives an annual subvention from the ,government4 ,this school is justly considered as one of the greatest in existence and has been the centre of musical training for practically all the prominent ,french musicians4 ,a great incentive is the celebrated ,prix de ,rome 7,roman ,prize71 which enables the winner to spend three years in study in ,italy and ,germany4 ,the library is one of the most important in ,france1 and dates from the foundation of the school4 ,the ,museum1 which has one of the finest collections in ,europe1 was established in #ahfd4 ,affiliated schools have been established in the principal ,french cities1 such as3 ,marseilles1 ,toulouse1 ,nantes1 ,dijon1 ,lyons and ,rouen4 ,musical ,education in ,germany4--,among the ,german conservatories1 that at ,prague is the oldest4 ,it was founded in #ahaa4 ,besides music1 the course of study provides for instruction in general branches4 ,the violin department of this school is one of its strongest features4 ,the conservatory at ,vienna was opened in #ahag1 under the direction of ,salieri1 as a vocal school2 other branches were added and by #ahba the foundation was that of a true conservatory4 ,the course of study is comprehensive and the school has graduated a number of eminent musicians4 ,it is under the patronage of the ,society of the ,friends of ,music4 ,probably the ,german conservatory best known to ,american readers is that founded at ,leipzig1 in #ahdc1 by ,mendelssohn1 and of which he was the first director4 ,the fund used in starting the school was one of #bj1jjj thalers bequeathed by a ,government official 8for the purposes of art and science40 ,such masters as ,schumann1 ,moscheles1 ,ferdinand ,david1 ,plaidy1 ,richter and ,reinecke were members of the faculty at different periods in the history of the school4 ,this conservatory has had a larger number of ,american pupils than any other ,german institution4 ,the oldest conservatory in ,berlin was a private institution4 ,the most important school is the ,royal ,high ,school for ,music1 which is a branch of the ,royal ,academy of ,arts1 and is under the patronage of the ,prussian ,government4 ,this school has three sections1 the one for church music was opened in #ahbb1 for musical composition in #ahcc1 that for executive art in #ahfi4 ,the violin school1 under the direction of ,joseph ,joachim1 attracts pupils from all parts of the world4 ,cologne has a conservatory which is aided financially by the municipality4 ,this school was established in #ahej1 ,ferdinand ,hiller being the first director4 ,the ,royal ,conservatory at ,dresden was organized in #ahef1 and has paid considerable attention to its department for opera4 ,munich has a school which receives ,state aid4 ,it was founded in #ahfg4 ,rheinberger1 who was teacher of composition here1 drew a number of ,americans to the school4 ,other schools receiving ,state or municipal subventions are those at ,wuerzburg1 ,weimar1 ,frankfort and ,wiesbaden4 ,other ,european ,music ,schools4--,the other ,european countries have also promoted the organization of schools for teaching music4 ,the strongest schools in ,switzerland are those at ,zurich1 ,geneva1 ,basle and ,berne4 ,in ,belgium are several fine schools3 at ,brussels1 founded in #ahac1 which is now a ,government institution1 at ,lige 7#ahbg71 at ,ghent 7#ahcc71 and at ,antwerp1 the latter founded in #ahfg1 by the noted ,belgian composer1 ,peter ,benoit4 ,these four schools receive ,state aid4 ,holland has three conservatories in her three large cities1 ,amsterdam1 ,rotterdam and ,the ,hague4 ,scandinavian musical education is cared for by the conservatories at ,copenhagen1 ,christiania and ,stockholm1 the last being under ,government patronage4 ,spain has conservatories at ,madrid1 ,saragossa and ,valencia1 and ,portugal1 one at ,lisbon4 ,greece sustains a school at ,athens4 ,st4 ,petersburg ,conservatory4--,a conservatory of great importance is that founded at ,st4 ,petersburg through the exertions of the famous composer1 ,anton ,rubinstein4 ,in #ahei1 he organized the ,russian ,musical ,society1 the first object of which was to give amateurs an opportunity to practice orchestral playing4 ,changes in the policy of the ,society were gradually introduced1 branches were founded in several other cities1 among them ,moscow1 and serious efforts were inaugurated to organize a music school in the ,capital4 ,the first instruction was given gratuitously1 money was raised in private circles and a floor was rented in a private house in #ahfb for the use of the school4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander ,,ii gave to the school an annuity of #ejjj rubles and a building which was the property of the ,crown4 ,in #ahff the name was officially designated as ,conservatory1 and from that time on several members of the ,royal family became patrons of the school1 socially as well as financially4 ,rubinstein was the first director4 ,the building at present occupied by the school was formerly the ,grand ,theatre and is very completely furnished for the purposes of the ,conservatory1 having two concert halls1 museums1 library1 class rooms1 chapel1 etc4 ,among the graduates of the institution are ,tchaikovsky1 ,glazounoff1 ,balakireff1 ,arensky1 ,liadow1 ,gabrilowitsch1 ,sapellnikoff and ,felix ,blumenfeld4 ,musical ,education in ,england is well cared for1 principally by the strong schools in ,london1 of which there are four that call for particular notice4 ,the ,royal ,academy of ,music is the oldest2 it was founded in #ahbb4 ,this institution has had royal patronage from the beginning4 ,the ,british public has generously replied with subscriptions to appeals made for funds at different periods in the history of the school1 the ,government grant being revoked on several occasions4 ,at the present time the revenues are a ,government grant1 subscriptions1 donations1 and students' fees4 ,such eminent musicians as ,dr4 ,crotch1 ,sterndale ,bennett and ,sir ,george ,macfarren have filled the position of principal of the school4 ,sir ,a4 ,c4 ,mackensie is the present head4 ,a strong rival to the ,royal ,academy is the ,royal ,college of ,music1 which is the outgrowth of the ,national ,training ,school for ,music1 founded by the ,society of ,arts in #ahgf1 ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan1 first principal4 ,it was in #ahhc that the institution passed into the hands of the newly-organized ,royal ,college of ,music4 ,the funds of the college come from fees1 subscriptions and endowments4 ,sir ,george ,grove was director for a number of years and was succeeded by ,sir ,c4 ,h4 ,hubert ,parry1 the eminent composer and theorist4 ,trinity ,college is the outgrowth of the activity of a musical society formed to promote church music and singing4 ,in #ahha it was incorporated under the name it now bears and the scope of its instruction extended4 ,the ,guildhall ,school of ,music is under the patronage of the authorities of the ,city of ,london4 ,this institution was founded in #ahhj1 and has a very large attendance4 ,the present director is ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,cummings4 ,the leading ,english universities1 ,cambridge1 ,oxford1 ,london1 ,durham1 and that at ,edinburgh and ,dublin have courses in the theory of music1 leading to degrees4 ,musical ,education in the ,united ,states3 ,boston4--,the ,united ,states has no schools of music under ,governmental or municipal direction1 and none which receive subventions1 and but one1 established in #aije1 in ,new ,york ,city1 which is endowed4 ,the spread of musical education has been due to the energies and in many cases the sacrifices of musicians and music lovers in the larger cities4 ,in ,lesson ,,lvii reference was made to societies in the three large ,american cities1 ,boston1 ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 to further musical education4 ,the oldest true music school in the ,united ,states is the ,new ,england ,conservatory of ,music1 in ,boston1 founded by ,dr4 ,tourje1 in #ahfg4 ,a notable feature was the dormitory for female students4 ,eminent instructors were engaged1 both foreigners and ,americans1 and the school quickly established a reputation as the leading institution for musical education4 ,dr4 ,tourje was succeeded in the directorship by ,mr4 ,carl ,faelten1 who resigned after several years of service and was followed in the office by ,mr4 ,george ,w4 ,chadwick1 the present director1 in #ahig4 ,in #aijb a new building was erected largely through the benefactions of several public-spirited citizens of ,boston4 ,among the teachers who exerted a strong influence on ,american pupils may be mentioned ,stephen ,a4 ,emery1 ,a4 ,d4 ,turner1 ,lyman ,w4 ,wheeler1 ,carlyle ,petersilea1 ,otto ,bendix and ,george ,e4 ,whiting4 ,a school in ,boston1 with special strength in the violin department1 was the ,boston ,conservatory1 founded by ,julius ,eichberg4 ,the ,west4--,in #ahgh1 several music-loving citizens of ,cincinnati established the ,cincinnati ,college of ,music1 with ,theodore ,thomas as the first director4 ,after him came various members of the faculty1 and in #ahig1 ,mr4 ,frank ,van der ,stucken accepted the post of dean of the faculty4 ,in connection with the ,cincinnati ,symphony ,orchestra and the ,festival ,association1 the ,college of ,music has been a powerful factor in the musical life of the city4 ,as an educational force it has done much for music in the ,west and the ,southwest1 and its pupils have carried into all sections of the tributary ,states sound musical precepts4 ,chicago has1 at the present day1 several schools1 organized and conducted by private enterprise1 which are doing splendid work and have made the city the musical centre of the ,west4 ,musicians of the highest rank have been brought to the ,united ,states by several of these conservatories1 to the benefit of musical art in ,chicago and the ,western ,states4 ,oberlin ,conservatory of ,music1 a department of ,oberlin ,college1 may be taken as a type of the ,american idea of musical work in an institution of learning4 ,the school has a strong faculty and a large number of pupils1 whose work receives credit for graduation in the college courses2 the students in music have all the privileges of those entered in the regular colleges4 ,oberlin has been a great factor for musical progress in the ,middle ,west4 ,the ,east4--,new ,york ,city has two schools that deserve mention3 the ,national ,conservatory of ,music1 founded by ,mrs4 ,jeannette ,thurber1 a school which has offered as teachers to the ,american pupils such musicians as ,rafael ,joseffy and ,antonin ,dvok2 the ,institute of ,musical ,art1 opened in #aije1 with ,frank ,damrosch as director1 with a faculty of high repute1 both ,europeans and ,americans4 ,this school started with an endowment of #ejj1jjj given by ,mr4 ,james ,loeb1 a ,new ,york banker4 ,a school of music managed on conservative lines has existed for a number of years in ,baltimore1 in connection with the ,peabody ,institute1 which was endowed by the banker1 ,george ,peabody4 ,at the present time nearly every city of importance in the ,united ,states contains one or more conservatories1 managed on a strictly business basis1 and furnishing to the people of their communities thorough instruction at reasonable cost4 ,in the ,colleges4--,the important ,american institutions for higher education1 both for men and for women1 have recognized the claim of music to a place in the curriculum1 and have provision for instructions in the theory1 history and esthetics of music1 many also having facilities for instructions in the practical side of music4 ,harvard1 ,yale1 ,columbia1 ,pennsylvania1 ,michigan1 ,california and ,northwestern ,universities have established professorships of music1 and have called eminent musicians to the posts4 ,the work done in hundreds of schools of less reputation is a great factor in spreading musical culture throughout the country4 ,,index4 ,adam1 #cee ,aeolian1 #cj ,akkadians1 #be1 #cf ,albeniz1 #dig ,alberti1 #beb ,alkan1 #ddc ,amati 7,amhtee71 #cag ,ambrose1 #fc ,american ,indian ,music1 #eca ,american ,music1 #ebe ,anglebert d'1 #beh ,antiphony1 #ei ,apollo1 ,hymn to1 #dh1 #di ,apthorp1 #eej ,archology1 #bj ,archer1 #afh ,archilute1 #aea ,arensky1 #eba ,arghool1 #aej ,aria1 #aij ,aristotle1 #dg ,aristoxenus1 #dg ,arkadelt1 #abh1 #acf1 #adj1 #adc ,astorga1 #bbi ,auber 7,o-bare71 #cee1 #ceg ,authentic1 #fd1 #ff ,babylonian ,music1 #bd1 #cf ,bach 7,bakh71 ,c4 ,p4 ,e41 #bgi ,bach1 ,j4 ,c41 #bgh ,bach1 ,j4 ,s41 #abh1 #afd1 #bbh1 #bdd1 #bfi1 #ccg1 #dci ,bach1 ,w4 ,f41 #bgh ,baillot 7,ba-yo71 #cbh ,balakireff 7,balakereff71 #ddb1 #eag ,balfe 7,bolf71 #baj ,ballad1 #dee ,ballad ,opera1 #baj ,ballet 7,ballay71 #bjc ,bantock1 #ejb ,bards1 #gg ,bassoon1 #adi ,batiste 7,bateest71 #aff ,bauer 7,bower71 #ddg ,beach1 #eda ,beethoven 7,baytoven71 #ah1 #bb1 #bca1 #bii1 #cjg1 #cch1 #dci ,bellini 7,bellenee71 #cfb ,benda1 #bgg1 #cej ,bennett1 ,w4 ,s41 #dje1 #dei ,benoit 7,benwah71 #ejc ,bergonzi 7,bergontsee71 #cai ,briot1 de 7,bareeoh71 #ccb ,berlin1 #eee ,berlioz 7,bareleoh71 #cci1 #dcc1 #dei1 #dfc ,bernhard1 #aei ,bernacchi 7,bernkkee71 #aii ,best1 #afg ,biber1 7,beeber71 #cbc ,billings1 #ebf ,binchois 7,banshwah71 #aab ,bizet 7,beezeh71 #cgd ,blockx 7,block71 #eje ,blow1 #afd ,blumenfeld1 #ebb ,boethius1 #dh1 #gj ,bhm1 ,j4 7,bame71 #cca ,bhm1 ,t41 #cch ,boieldieu 7,bwah-el-dyu71 #cee ,boise 7,boyce71 #eea ,boto 7,boto71 #cge ,bologna1 #eed ,borodin1 #eai ,boschi 7,boskee71 #bja ,bossi 7,bossee71 #afg1 #die ,brahms1 #dci1 #deh1 #dei1 #dfc ,brassin 7,brahssan1 nasal n71 #dch ,breitner 7,britener71 #dde ,bridge1 #eja ,broadwood1 #bdc ,bruch 7,brookh71 #dgh ,brumel 7,broomel71 #abf ,bruneau 7,bruno71 #dhe ,brussels1 #eee ,buck1 #dfj1 #edc ,bull1 ,j41 #afd1 #beg ,blow 7,beelow71 von1 #dcg ,bungert 7,bongert71 #cgd1 #dgf ,buonamici 7,bonamechee71 #ddh ,buongiorno 7,bonzhrno71 #dif ,busnois 7,binwah71 #aab ,busoni1 #ddh ,buxtehude 7,bookstehodeh71 #afc1 #bfe ,byrd 7,bird71 #aba1 #add1 #afd1 #bef ,caccini 7,cachenee71 #age1 #agg ,caffarelli1 #aii ,caldara 7,caldhra71 #bbf ,cambert 7,cambare71 #bjd ,canon1 #aji1 #aaa1 #abf ,cantata1 #agd ,capocci 7,capchee71 #afg ,carestini 7,carestenee71 #bja ,carissimi1 #ahd1 #bbf ,carreo 7,carainyo71 #dea ,cassi odorus1 #gd ,cavalire 7,cavaliire71 #agi ,cavalli 7,cavllee71 #ahd ,celts1 #gg ,censorinus 7,censoreenus71 #gd ,cesti 7,chestee71 #ahd ,chabrier 7,chahbrieh71 #dhg ,chadwick1 #ecf1 #edd ,chaldans1 #bd1 #cf1 #cg ,chambonnires 7,shambonniair71 #beh ,chaminade 7,shaminahd71 #dhh ,chanson 7,shanson1 nasal n71 #add1 #dee ,charlemagne 7,charlmanye71 #gg ,charpentier 7,sharpahntieh71 #dhe ,chausson 7,showson1 nasal n71 #dhg ,che1 #bf1 #bh ,chelys 7,kellis71 #ef ,cherubini 7,karoobenee71 #bbc ,chinese ,music1 #be-bi ,chopin 7,showpan1 nasal n71 #chg1 #dag1 #dbe ,chorale1 #afe1 #bbg ,chorus1 ,greek1 #eg ,chromatic ,scale1 ,greek1 #ee ,church ,scales1 #fd ,cimarosa 7,chimaroza71 #aic ,cincinnati ,college of ,music1 #eeh ,cithara 7,ktara71 #ef ,clarinet1 #aej1 #cch ,clarke1 #eea ,claudius ,ptolemy1 #dh1 #fc ,clavicembalo 7,clavichemblo71 #bdj ,clavichord1 #bcg ,clementi1 #ah1 #chj ,coleridge-,taylor1 #ejb ,cologne1 #eee ,concerto 7,conchairto71 #cbc ,conductus1 #hc1 #aja ,confucius1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi ,contra ,bass1 #cba ,corelli1 #bej1 #cbc ,cotton1 ,john1 #ge ,council of ,trent1 #ada ,counterpoint1 #aaa ,couperin 7,kooperan1 nasal n71 #beh ,cowen1 #ejj ,cramer 7,krahmer71 #chb ,crescentini 7,creschentenee71 #bja ,cristofori 7,cristofree71 #bda ,crouth 7,crooth71 #gg1 #aec ,cui 7,koee71 #eah ,czerny 7,chairny71 #chd1 #dbe ,d',albert 7,dolbare71 #dcg1 #dgg ,damrosch1 ,w41 #ebi1 #edd ,dance ,tunes1 #bdh ,daquin 7,dahkan1 nasal n71 #bei ,david 7,dahvid71 #ccj ,debussy 7modified u1 similar to ,german 71 #dhf ,de,handlo1 #aba ,dekoven1 #edd ,delaborde1 #ddd ,delibes1 7,deleeb71 #dhc ,diapason1 #ei ,diaphony1 #gc1 #ic ,dickinson1 #eea ,didymus1 #dh ,dimer 7,diaimeh71 #ddd ,di ,ruta 7,di ,roota71 #bej ,di ,salo 7,di ,sahlo71 #caf ,discant1 #gc1 #ajd ,dominant1 #ff ,donizetti1 #cfa ,dont 7,don1 nasal n71 #cca ,dorian1 #cj1 #eb1 #ed1 #fd ,dowland1 #add ,drama1 #agb ,dresden1 #eee ,dubois 7,doobwah71 #afg1 #dhg ,ducis1 #afa ,dufay1 #aab ,dulcimer1 #bcg ,dunstable1 #aba ,dupont 7,doopon1 nasal n71 #dci ,durante 7,doorhntay71 #beb ,dvok 7,dvorzhak71 #cgg1 #dei1 #ejh ,dwight1 #edg ,ecclesiastical ,scales1 #eb1 #fd ,eck1 #cbi ,eddy1 #edg ,edwardes1 #add ,egyptian ,music1 #ch-da ,elgar1 #dfj1 #eja ,elson1 #eej ,english ,music1 #hj1 #aae ,english ,opera1 #bjg ,english ,opera1 typical1 #bji ,enharmonic ,scale1 ,greek1 #ef ,enna1 #eab ,equal ,temperament1 #bdc ,erard 7,airar71 #bdc ,erkel 7,airkle71 #eaj ,ernst1 7,airnst71 #cca ,essipoff1 #dea ,ethnology1 #ba ,euclid1 #dh ,faburden1 #gc ,farinelli1 #bjj ,fasch 7,fahsh71 #bgg ,faur 7,foray71 #dac1 #dhg ,ferri1 #aii ,fibich 7,feebikh71 #eaj ,fidelio 7,fidaylo71 #bbb ,fidula1 #aec ,field1 #chg1 #dba ,finck1 #eea ,finland1 #ha ,fiorillo 7,feeorillo71 #cbi ,florence1 #agc1 #eed ,florentine ,school1 #agg ,flute1 #bh1 #ch1 #ef1 #adi1 #cch ,folk-,song1 #he1 #if1 #aaa1 #ejg1 #eaf1 #eca ,foote1 #eci ,form1 #ah ,franchetti 7,frankettee71 #did ,franck1 #afg1 #dei1 #dhc ,franco of ,cologne1 #gb1 #ajd ,franco of ,paris1 #ajd ,franz 7,frahnts71 #deg ,french ,opera1 #bjc ,frescobaldi 7,frescobahldee71 #afb1 #bdi ,froberger 7,frobairger71 #afb1 #bfd ,fugue 7,fewg71 #aaa1 #abf1 #bfe ,fux 7,fooks71 #afc ,gabrieli1 ,a41 #acf1 #afb1 #bdg ,gabrieli1 ,g41 #acf1 #afb1 #bdh ,gabrilowitsch 7,gabrlovitch71 #ddg ,gade 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,wm41 #dej1 #edf ,masque1 #bjc1 #bji ,massenet 7,massenay71 #dhb ,mastersingers1 #he ,mathews1 #edh ,mathias 7,matiah71 #ddd ,mattheson 7,matteson71 #bac1 #bfh ,measured ,music1 #gd1 #ajj ,mhul 7,mahul71 #ced ,melodrama1 #cej ,melody1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #ei ,mendelssohn1 #aff1 #bcb1 #djj ,merbecke1 #aba1 #afd ,merkel 7,mairkel71 #aff ,merulo 7,marolo71 #afb1 #bdg ,mese 7,mayseh71 #ea ,meyerbeer1 #ceh ,milan1 #eec ,minnesingers1 #hd ,minstrels1 #ha ,miracle ,plays1 #agi1 #bac ,mixo-,lydian1 #eb ,monochord1 #dg1 #bcg ,monophony1 #hh ,monteverde 7,montevairday71 #ahj1 #ahh1 #ccf ,morley1 #add1 #afd ,moscheles 7,mschehless71 #chc1 #dja ,moszkowski 7,moskoffskee71 #ddi ,motet1 #hc1 #aja1 #ajc ,moussorgsky1 #eah ,mozart 7,motsart71 #bai1 #bca1 #bia1 #bii1 #cjg1 #caa1 #ccg ,muffat1 #bfe ,munich1 #eee ,musica ,ficta1 #ge ,music ,drama1 #age ,mysteries1 #agi1 #bac ,naples1 #eeb ,nardini 7,nardenee71 #cbg ,neapolitan ,school of ,opera1 #ahg ,negro ,music1 #eca ,neri 7,nhree71 #adj ,netherlands1 #ajg1 #abc ,neumes 7,nooms71 #gj ,nevin1 #edd ,new ,england ,conservatory of ,music1 #eeg ,nicord 7,nikhday71 #dgj ,nocturne1 #chg1 #dba ,notation 7,greek71 #eh1 #gj ,oberlin1 #eeh ,oboe1 #adi1 #ccg ,octave ,system 7,greek71 #ed ,odington1 #aja1 #aah1 #aba ,odo 7,otger71 #gd1 #id ,offenbach1 #cef ,okeghem1 #abf1 #acd1 #ade ,opera1 #age1 #aif1 #ccf ,opera ,buffa 7,booffa71 #aia1 #cdi1 #cef ,opra ,comique 7,comeek71 #cdi1 #cec ,oratorio1 #agi1 #bbf ,orchestra1 #cjh1 #ccd ,organ1 #abe1 #aef1 #bcf ,organ ,pedals1 #aei ,organum1 #gc1 #ic1 #aja ,organum 7,secular71 #id ,orpheus1 #df ,overture1 #aia1 #bje1 #cdb ,pachelbel 7,pakhelbel71 #afc ,pachmann 7,pakhmann71 de1 #ddi ,paderewski 7,padreffski71 #ddf1 #eaa ,paganini 7,paganenee71 #cca1 #dbf ,paine1 #dfj1 #ece ,paisiello 7,paheesillo71 #aic1 #bcj ,palermo1 #eec ,palestrina 7,palacetreena71 #acf1 #aci1 #agc ,pan's ,pipes1 #bb1 #adh1 #aef ,parabosco1 #bdg ,paradies 7,paradees71 #bec ,parallelism in ,hebrew ,poetry1 #dc ,paris ,conservatoire 7,conservatwar71 #eed ,paris ,school1 #ii ,parker1 ,h41 #dfj1 #eci ,parker1 ,j4 ,c4 ,d41 #edc ,parry1 #ejj ,parthenia1 #beg ,pasquini 7,paskwenee71 #bej ,passion ,music1 #bbg1 #bcc ,paumann 7,powman71 #afa ,pedals 7,organ71 #aei ,pentatonic1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #ef1 #fj1 #gj ,pergolesi1 7,pergolazy71 #aib1 #bbh ,peri 7,perry71 #age1 #agg ,perosi 7,perozy71 #dfj1 #did ,perotin 7,perotan1 nasal n71 #ajd ,perry1 #edf ,petrucci 7,petrochee71 #ade ,philipp1 #ddd ,phorminx1 #ef ,phrygian1 #eb1 #ed1 #fd ,pianoforte1 #bda1 #bie1 #cjh ,piano ,playing1 #bie1 #dbj1 #dcj ,piccini 7,pichenee71 #aic ,pizzicato 7,pitsiccto71 #ahc ,plagal1 #fd1 #ff ,plato1 #dh ,planquette 7,planket1 nasal n71 #cef ,polyphony1 #hh1 #abi1 #acb1 #afd1 #ccg ,porpora1 #aic1 #bcj1 #bhe ,prtorius1 #afc ,prague1 #eed ,program ,music1 #cab1 #dfe ,psalms1 #db1 #dc ,psaltery1 #bcg ,puccini 7,poochenee71 #cgf1 #dic ,pugnani 7,punyhnee71 #cbg ,pugno 7,poonyo71 #ddd ,purcell1 #aba1 #afd1 #bjg1 #beh ,pythagoras1 #da1 #dg ,rachmaninoff 7,rakhmanenoff71 #ddc1 #eba ,rameau 7,rahmo71 #bjf1 #bdd1 #bfj ,ravanastron1 #cb ,rebec1 #aea1 #aeb ,recitative 7,resitatev7 #agd1 #ahi ,reed1 #adi ,reformation1 ,the1 #ach ,reinecke 7,rynekeh71 #dje ,reinken 7,rhineken71 #afc1 #bfe ,remenyi1 #cca ,renaissance 7,renasahns1 nasal n71 #aga1 #bdf ,reyer 7,ryer71 #dhc ,rheinberger 7,rhineberger71 #aff ,rhythm1 #ah1 #ai ,ries 7,reese71 #cje ,rimsky-,korskoff 7,rimsky-,krsakoff71 #eai ,rinck1 #afe ,rinuccini 7,rinoocheenee71 #age1 #agg ,risler1 #dde ,rode1 #cbh ,roentgen 7,rentghen71 #eje ,roman ,music1 #fb ,romantic ,movement1 #cde1 #djd1 #djg1 #dbc1 #dci ,rome1 #eec ,rondeau 7,rondo71 #hc ,rore 7,roara71 #abh1 #acf1 #add1 #afb ,rosenthal 7,rosentall71 #dcg ,rossini 7,rossenee71 #bbd1 #bbi ,roundel1 #aja ,rubinstein1 ,a41 #dje1 #dda1 #dei ,rummel 7,roomel71 #ddi ,russian ,music1 #dda ,sacchini 7,sakenee71 #bcj ,sachs 7,sakhs71 #hf ,safonoff 7,safnoff71 #ddc ,saint ,petersburg ,conservatory1 #eef ,saint-,sans 7,san-,sahnz1 nasal n71 #afg1 #ddd1 #dei1 #dha ,salieri 7,solyairee71 #bbc ,sambuca1 #cg ,santir1 #ch ,sapellnikoff 7,sapllnikoff71 #ddb ,sauer 7,sour71 #dch ,scales1 #bb1 #bi ,scandinavian ,music1 #hj ,scarlatti1 ,a41 #ahg1 #aif1 #bbf1 #bej1 #ccf ,scarlatti1 ,d41 #bea1 #bff ,scheidemann 7,shydemann71 #afc ,scheidt 7,shite71 #afc ,schillings1 #dge ,schmidt1 ,b41 #afb ,schneider1 #aff ,schopenhauer 7,shopenhower71 #ba ,schrter 7,shrayter71 #bdb ,schubert1 #cia1 #def ,schumann1 ,clara1 #dea ,schumann1 ,r41 #ah1 #cie1 #dja1 #djg1 #dag1 #dbe1 #dci1 #deg ,schtz 7,sheets71 #baa1 #bbg ,schytt 7,skittay71 #eac ,scottish ,music1 #gi ,scriabine 7,skrehbeen71 #ddc1 #ebb ,se1 #bh ,seidl 7,sidle71 #ecc ,senesino 7,seneseeno71 #aii ,sevcik 7,shevchik71 #ccc ,sgambati 7,sgambhtee71 #ddh1 #did ,shawm1 #aej ,shelley1 #edb ,sheng1 #bf ,sherwood1 #dej ,sho1 #bi ,shofar1 #aej ,sibelius 7,seebailius71 #eac ,sieveking 7,seevehking71 #ddg ,silbermann1 #bdb ,siloti1 #ddb ,sinding1 #ddh1 #eaa ,sinfonia1 #aia1 #cbb ,singing1 #aie ,singspiel 7,singspeel71 #bab1 #bbj ,sjgren 7,shagren71 #eac ,slavinski1 #ddg ,smart1 #afg ,smetana1 #cgg1 #ejg ,somis 7,somee71 #cbe ,sonata1 #bdg1 #bgd1 #bhh1 #bie1 #cjc1 #cji1 #cbb1 #daa ,song1 #cie1 #ded1 #dfh ,spark1 #afg ,spieloper 7,speeloper71 #cea ,spinet1 #bci ,spohr 7,spoar71 #bcb1 #cbi1 #cej ,spontini 7,spontenee71 #bbc ,stabat ,mater 7,stahbat ,mahter71 #bbh ,stainer1 ,jakob 7,styner1 ,yahkob71 #cai ,stainer1 ,john 7,stayner71 #afg ,stanford1 #dig ,stavenhagen 7,stahvenhahgen71 #dch ,stcherbatcheff1 #eba ,stein1 7,stine71 #bdc ,sternberg1 von1 #edf ,stojowski 7,stoyoffski71 #ddg ,stradella1 #bbf ,stradivarius1 #cai ,strauss 7,strous71 ,r41 #cci1 #cgd1 #dcc1 #deh1 #dfc ,streicher 7,strikher71 #bdc ,stringed ,instruments1 #adg1 #aej ,suite1 #bdi ,sullivan1 #baj1 #dfj ,sumer is ,icumen in1 #aag ,sumerians1 #be ,svendsen1 #eab ,sweelinck 7,swalink71 #abh1 #afb ,sylvester1 ,pope1 #fc ,symphonia1 #cg ,symphonic ,poem1 #cdb1 #dcc ,symphony1 #ei1 #cdb1 #daa ,syrinx1 #fb1 #adh1 #aef ,szumowska-,adamowska1 #ddg ,tablatura1 #hf1 #aea ,tallis1 #aba1 #afd1 #beg ,taneiff 7,tanaeff71 #eba ,tangent1 #bch ,tartini 7,tartenee71 #cbe ,tausig 7,tousig71 #dcf ,tchaikovsky 7,chikoffsky71 #ebb ,tche1 #bh ,terpander1 #dg ,tetrachord1 #dg1 #ej ,tetrachordon1 #ef ,thayer1 #eej ,theile 7,tyleh71 #bab ,theorbo1 #aea ,thiele 7,teeleh71 #aff ,thomas 7,toamah71 ,a41 #dhc ,thomas1 ,t41 #ebh ,tieffenbrucker 7,teefenbrooker71 #caf ,tinctoris1 #abg1 #ace ,tinel1 #ejd ,ti-,tzu1 #bh ,tonus ,peregrinus1 #fc ,torelli1 #cbc ,tosi 7,tozy71 #aih ,tourte 7,toort71 #cbj ,tremolo1 #ahc ,trent1 ,council of1 #ada ,tritone1 #ge ,tromba ,marina 7,marena71 #aea1 #aeb ,troubadours1 #hc ,trouvres 7,troovair71 #hb ,trumpet1 #aej ,tye1 #aba ,ugab 7,oogabh71 #adh ,unity1 #ajb1 #aji ,upton1 #edh ,van der ,stucken1 #edj ,venetian ,school1 #ahd ,venice1 #eec ,veracini 7,vairachenee71 #cbe ,verdi 7,vairdee71 #cfa1 #cge ,vienna1 #eed ,vieuxtemps 7,vyutom1 nasal71 #ccb ,vina 7,veena71 #ca1 #cb ,viol1 #ade1 #aea1 #aed1 #cae ,violin1 #cae1 #cbj ,violin ,bow1 #cai ,violin ,playing1 #cbb ,violoncello 7,veeolonchllo71 #cbj ,viotti 7,veetti71 #cbh ,virginal1 #bci ,virginal ,book1 #bef ,vitali 7,vethlee71 #cbc ,vivaldi 7,veevhldee71 #cbe ,vuillaume 7,vweleyome71 #cai ,waelrant 7,walerant71 #add ,wagenseil 7,vahgensile71 #bgh ,wagner 7,vahgner71 ,r41 #cci1 #cfj1 #cfd1 #deh ,wagner's 7,r47 ,theory1 #cfi1 #dcc ,wagner1 ,s41 #dgf ,weber 7,vaber71 #cdf1 #cig ,weelkes1 #add ,weingartner 7,vinegartner71 #dgj ,well-,tempered ,clavichord1 #bga1 #cjj ,wesley1 #afg ,widor 7,weedo71 #afg1 #dhg ,wieck 7,veek71 #djh ,wilbye1 #add ,wilhelmj 7,vilhelmyeh71 #ccj ,willaert1 #abh1 #ace1 #adc1 #afb1 #bdg ,wind ,instruments1 #adg1 #adh ,wolf1 ,h41 #dgh ,wolf-,ferrari 7,ferrhree71 #dif ,ysaye 7,esyeh71 #ccb ,zeelandia 7,zalahndia71 #aab ,zeisler 7,ziseler71 #dea ,,footnotes3 #a ,in his work 8,the ,power of ,sound0 ,gurney has taken up in detail ,herbert ,spencer's theory of the origin of music4 #b ,stainer1 in 8,music of the ,bible10 inclines to believe that the ,sambuca was a large harp of the kind used in ,egypt4 #c ,maspro1 the ,egyptologist1 says that after the tomb has been sealed1 the family and guests return to the house of the deceased1 to a banquet1 after which the 8last link which holds the dead to the family is broken4 ,the sacred harpist plays a prelude1 then1 standing before a statue of the deceased1 chants the dirge first sung long ago at the funeral of the ,pharaoh ,antouf3 #8,the world is but perpetual movement and change4444 ,not all the lamentations in the world will restore happiness to the man who is in the sepulchre2 make then a good-day and do not be idle in enjoying thyself4'0 #d ,smith4 #e ,this treatise is now attributed to ,cleonidas1 writing about #abj ,a4 ,d4 #f ,by this is meant that all intervals of the major second1 so-called1 are not equally large and cannot be1 if a correct division of fourths and fifths be desired4 ,didymus made the interval from ,c to ,d smaller than the other seconds of the scale2 ,ptolemy put the 8minor0 tone between ,d and ,e1 where it is now placed4 #g ,some investigators claim that some of these melodies were part of the ,temple service at ,jerusalem1 making the specific statement that the melody used in some liturgical services1 and known as the ,tonus ,peregrinus1 is based on a ,temple chant4 #h ,a fine account of their methods is found in ,robert ,louis ,stevenson's novel 8,kidnapped40 #i ,mention of prominent ,american organists and teachers is made in ,lesson ,,lix4 #aj ,see especially ,op4 #ad1 ,no4 #b1 first movement4 #aa ,grove's ,dictionary says #afaa4 #ab ,see ,wasielewski3 ,die ,violine und ,ihre ,meister4 #ac ,this third sound will correspond to the difference of the vibration numbers of the other two4 #ad #aijg4 #ae ,his mother's name1 ,bartholdy1 was added to distinguish this branch from other ,mendelssohn families4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,old or antiquated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered4