,,pleasant ,,ways ,,in ,,science4 ,,works ,,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,light ,,science ,,for ,,leisure ,,hours3 ,familiar ,essays on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,orbs ,,around ,,us3 ,a ,series of ,essays on the ,moon and ,planets1 ,meteors and ,comets4 ,with ,charts and ,diagrams4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,other ,,worlds ,,than ,,ours3 ,the ,plurality of ,worlds ,studied under the ,light of ,recent ,scientific ,researches4 ,with #ad ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,other ,,suns ,,than ,,ours3 ,a ,series of ,essays on ,suns--,old1 ,young1 and ,dead4 ,with other ,science ,gleanings4 ,two ,essays on ,whist1 and ,correspondence with ,sir ,john ,herschel4 ,with #i ,star ,maps and ,diagrams4 ,cr4 #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,moon3 ,her ,motions1 ,aspects1 ,scenery1 and ,physical ,condition4 ,with ,plates1 ,charts1 ,woodcuts1 c4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,universe ,,of ,,stars3 ,presenting ,researches into and ,new ,views respecting the ,constitution of the ,heavens4 ,with #bb ,charts and #bb ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,larger ,,star ,,atlas for the ,library1 in #ab ,circular ,maps1 with ,introduction and #b ,index ,pages4 ,folio1 #aes42 or ,maps only1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,new ,,star ,,atlas for the ,library1 the ,school1 and the ,observatory1 in #ab ,circular ,maps4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,half-,,hours ,,with ,,the ,,stars3 ,a ,plain and ,easy ,guide to the ,knowledge of the ,constellations4 ,showing in #ab ,maps the position of the principal ,star ,groups night after night throughout the ,year4 ,with ,introduction and a separate ,explanation of each ,map4 ,true for every ,year4 #dto1 #cs4 net4 ,,half-,,hours ,,with ,,the ,,telescope3 ,a ,popular ,guide to the ,use of the ,telescope as a means of ,amusement and ,instruction4 ,with #g ,plates4 ,fcp4 #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,stars ,,in ,,their ,,seasons3 ,an ,easy ,guide to a ,knowledge of the ,star ,groups1 in #ab ,large ,maps4 ,imperial #hvo1 #es4 ,,the ,,southern ,,skies3 ,a ,plain and ,easy ,guide to the ,constellations of the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,showing in #ab ,maps the position of the principal ,star ,groups night after night throughout the ,year4 ,with an ,introduction and a separate ,explanation of each ,map4 ,true for every ,year4 #dto1 #es4 ,,star ,,primer3 ,showing the ,starry ,sky ,week by ,week1 in #bd ,hourly ,maps4 ,crown #dto1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,rough ,,ways ,,made ,,smooth3 ,familiar ,essays on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,our ,,place ,,among ,,infinities3 ,a ,series of ,essays contrasting our ,little ,abode in ,space and ,time with the ,infinities around us4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,expanse ,,of ,,heaven3 ,essays on the ,wonders of the ,firmament4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,great ,,pyramid3 ,,observatory1 ,,tomb1 ,,and ,,temple4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,in ,,science4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,myths ,,and ,,marvels ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,nature ,,studies4 ,by ,,grant ,,allen1 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,foster1 ,e4 ,,clodd1 and ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,leisure ,,readings4 ,by ,e4 ,,clodd1 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,foster1 ,a4 ,c4 ,,ranyard1 and ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,strength3 ,how to ,get ,strong and ,keep ,strong4 ,with ,chapters on ,rowing and ,swimming1 ,fat1 ,age1 and the ,waist4 ,with #i ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 ,,chance ,,and ,,luck3 ,a ,discussion of the ,laws of ,luck1 ,coincidences1 ,wagers1 ,lotteries1 and the ,fallacies of ,gambling1 c4 ,crown #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,how ,,to ,,play ,,whist3 ,with the ,laws and ,etiquette of ,whist4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs4 net4 ,,home ,,whist3 ,an ,easy ,guide to ,correct ,play4 #afmo1 #as4 ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,co4 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,in ,,science ,,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor ,,author ,,of 8,,rough ,,ways ,,made ,,smooth10 8,,the ,,expanse ,,of ,,heaven10 8,,our ,,place ,,among ,,infinities10 8,,myths ,,and ,,marvels ,,of ,,astronomy10 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,impression ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,bombay #aije ,,contents4 ,,page ,,oxygen ,,in ,,the ,,sun #a ,,sun-,,spot1 ,,storm1 ,,and ,,famine #bh ,,new ,,ways ,,of ,,measuring ,,the ,,sun',s ,,distance #ef ,,drifting ,,light ,,waves #gg ,,the ,,new ,,star ,,which ,,faded ,,into ,,star-,,mist #ajf ,,star-,,grouping1 ,,star-,,drift1 ,,and ,,star-,,mist #acf ,,mallet',s ,,theory ,,of ,,volcanoes #aea ,,towards ,,the ,,north ,,pole #aef ,a ,,mighty ,,sea-,,wave #agh ,,strange ,,sea ,,creatures #aii ,,on ,,some ,,marvels ,,in ,,telegraphy #bcb ,,the ,,phonograph1 ,,or ,,voice-,,recorder #bgd ,,the ,,gorilla ,,and ,,other ,,apes #bif ,,the ,,use ,,and ,,abuse ,,of ,,food #ccj ,,ozone #cdg ,,dew #ceg ,,the ,,levelling ,,power ,,of ,,rain #cfg ,,ancient ,,babylonian ,,astrogony #chh ,,preface4 ,it is very necessary that all who desire to become really proficient in any department of science should follow the beaten track1 toiling more or less painfully over the difficult parts of the high road which is their only trustworthy approach to the learning they desire to attain4 ,but there are many who wish to learn about scientific discoveries without this special labour1 for which some have1 perhaps1 little taste1 while many have scant leisure4 ,my purpose in the present work1 as in my 8,light ,science for ,leisure ,hours10 the 8,myths and ,marvels of ,astronomy10 the 8,borderland of ,science10 and 8,science ,byways10 has been to provide paths of easy access to the knowledge of some of the more interesting discoveries1 researches1 or inquiries of the science of the day4 ,i wish it to be distinctly understood that my purpose is to interest rather than to instruct1 in the strict sense of the word4 ,but ,i may add that it seems to me even more necessary to be cautious1 and accurate in such a work as the present than in advanced treatises4 ,for in a scientific work the reasoning which accompanies the statements of fact affords the means of testing and sometimes of correcting such statements4 ,in a work like the present1 where explanation and description take the place of reasoning1 there is no such check4 ,for this reason ,i have been very careful in the accounts which ,i have given of the subjects here dealt with4 ,i have been particularly careful not to present1 as established truths1 such views as are at present only matters of opinion4 ,the essays in the present volume are taken chiefly from the ,contemporary ,review1 the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 the ,cornhill ,magazine1 ,belgravia1 and ,chambers' ,journal4 ,the sixth1 however1 presents the substance 7and official report7 of a lecture which ,i delivered at the ,royal ,institution in ,may1 #ahgj4 ,it was then that ,i first publicly enunciated the views respecting the stellar universe which ,i afterwards more fully stated in my 8,universe of ,stars40 ,the same views have also been submitted to the ,paris ,academy of ,science1 as the results of his own investigations1 by ,m4 ,flammarion1 in words which read almost like translations of passages in the above-mentioned essay4 ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,in ,,science4 ,,oxygen ,,in ,,the ,,sun4 ,the most promising result of solar research since ,kirchhoff in #ahei interpreted the dark lines of the sun's spectrum has recently been announced from ,america4 ,interesting in itself1 the discovery just made is doubly interesting in what it seems to promise in the future4 ,just as ,kirchhoff's great discovery1 that a certain double dark line in the solar spectrum is due to the vapour of sodium in the sun's atmosphere1 was but the first of a long series of results which the spectroscopic analysis of the sun was to reveal1 so the discovery just announced that a certain important gas--the oxygen present in our air and the chief chemical constituent of water--shows its presence in the sun by bright lines instead of dark1 will in all probability turn out to be but the firstfruits of a new method of examining the solar spectrum4 ,as its author1 ,dr4 ,henry ,draper1 of ,new ,york1 remarks1 further investigation in the direction he has pursued will lead to the discovery of other elements in the sun1 but it was not 8proper to conceal1 for the sake of personal advantage1 the principle on which such researches are to be conducted40 ,it may well happen1 though ,i anticipate otherwise1 that by thus at once describing his method of observation1 ,dr4 ,draper may enable others to add to the list of known solar elements some which yet remain to be detected2 but if ,dr4 ,draper should thus have added but one element to that list1 he will ever be regarded as the physicist to whose acumen the method was due by which all were detected1 and to whom1 therefore1 the chief credit of their discovery must certainly be attributed4 ,i propose briefly to consider the circumstances which preceded the great discovery which it is now my pleasing duty to describe1 in order that the reader may the more readily follow the remarks by which ,i shall endeavour to indicate some of the results which seem to follow from the discovery1 as well as the line along which1 in my opinion1 the new method may most hopefully be followed4 ,it is generally known that what is called the spectroscopic method of analyzing the sun's substance had its origin in ,kirchhoff's interpretation of the dark lines in the solar spectrum4 ,until #ahei these dark lines had not been supposed to have any special significance1 or rather it had not been supposed that their significance1 whatever it might be1 could be interpreted4 ,a physicist of some eminence spoke of these phenomena in #aheh in a tone which ought by the way seldom to be adopted by the man of science4 8,the phenomena defy1 as we have seen10 he said1 8all attempts hitherto to reduce them within empirical laws1 and no complete explanation or theory of them is possible4 ,all that theory can be expected to do is this--it may explain how dark lines of any sort may arise within the spectrum40 ,kirchhoff1 in #ahei1 showed not only how dark lines of any sort may appear1 but how and why they do appear1 and precisely what they mean4 ,he found that the dark lines of the solar spectrum are due to the vapours of various elements in the sun's atmosphere1 and that the nature of such elements may be determined from the observed position of the dark lines4 ,thus when iron is raised by the passage of the electric spark to so intense a degree of heat that it is vaporized1 the light of the glowing vapour of iron is found to give a multitude of bright lines along the whole length of the spectrum--that is1 some red1 some orange1 some yellow1 and so on4 ,in the solar spectrum corresponding dark lines are found along the whole length of the spectrum--that is1 some in the red1 some in the orange1 yellow1 etc41 and precisely in those parts of these various spectral regions which the bright lines of glowing iron would occupy4 ,multitudes of other dark lines exist of course in the solar spectrum4 ,but those corresponding to the bright lines of glowing iron are unquestionably there4 ,they are by no means lost in the multitude1 as might be expected2 but1 owing to the peculiarity of their arrangement1 strength1 etc41 they are perfectly recognizable as the iron lines reversed1 that is1 dark instead of bright4 ,kirchhoff's researches showed how this is to be interpreted4 ,it means that the vapour of iron exists in the atmosphere of the sun1 glowing necessarily with an intensely bright light2 but1 being cooler 7however intensely hot7 than the general mass of the sun within1 the iron vapour absorbs more light than it emits1 and the result is that the iron lines1 instead of appearing bright1 as they would if the iron vapour alone were shining1 appear relatively dark on the bright rainbow-tinted background of the solar spectrum4 ,thus was it shown that in the atmosphere of the sun there is the glowing vapour of the familiar metal1 iron2 and in like manner other metals1 and one element 7hydrogen7 which is not ordinarily regarded as a metal1 were shown to be present in the sun's atmosphere4 ,in saying that they are present in the sun's atmosphere1 ,i am1 in point of fact1 saying that they are present in the sun2 for the solar atmosphere is1 in fact1 the outer part of the sun himself1 since a very large part1 if not by far the greater part1 of the sun's mass must be vaporous4 ,but no other elements1 except the metals iron1 sodium1 barium1 calcium1 magnesium1 aluminium1 manganese1 chromium1 cobalt1 nickel1 zinc1 copper1 and titanium1 and the element hydrogen1 were shown to be present in the sun1 by this method of observing directly the solar dark lines4 ,in passing1 ,i may note that there are reasons for regarding hydrogen as a metallic element1 strange though the idea may seem to those who regard hardness1 brightness1 malleability1 ductility1 plasticity1 and the like1 as the characteristic properties of metals1 and necessarily fail to comprehend how a gas far rarer1 under the same conditions1 than the air we breathe1 and which cannot possibly be malleable1 ductile1 or the like1 can conceivably be regarded as a metal4 ,but there is in reality no necessary connection between any one of the above properties and the metallic nature2 many of the fifty-five metals are wanting in all of these properties2 nor is there any reason why1 as we have in mercury a metal which at ordinary temperatures is a liquid1 so we might have in hydrogen a metal which1 at all obtainable temperatures1 and under all obtainable conditions of pressure1 is gaseous4 ,it was shown by the late ,professor ,graham 7aided in his researches most effectively by ,dr4 ,chandler ,roberts7 that hydrogen will enter into such combination with the metal palladium that it may be regarded as forming1 for the time1 with the palladium1 an alloy2 and as alloys can only be regarded as compounds of two or more metals1 the inference is that hydrogen is in reality a metallic element4 ,fourteen only of the elements known to us1 or less than a quarter of the total number1 were thus found to be present in the sun's constitution2 and of these all were metals1 if we regard hydrogen as metallic4 ,neither gold nor silver shows any trace of its presence1 nor can any sign be seen of platinum1 lead1 and mercury4 ,but1 most remarkable of all1 and most perplexing1 was the absence of all trace of oxygen and nitrogen1 two gases which could not be supposed wanting in the substance of the great ruling centre of the planetary system4 ,it might well be believed1 indeed1 that none of the five metals just named are absent from the sun1 and indeed that every one of the forty metals not recognized by the spectroscopic method nevertheless exists in the sun4 ,for according to the nebular hypothesis of the origin of our solar system1 the sun might be expected to contain all the elements which exist in our earth4 ,some of these elements might indeed escape discovery1 because existing only in small quantities2 and others 7as platinum1 gold1 and lead1 for example71 because but a small portion of their vaporous substance rose above the level of that glowing surface which is called the photosphere4 ,but that oxygen1 which constitutes so large a portion of the solid1 liquid1 and vaporous mass of our earth1 should not exist in enormous quantities1 and its presence be very readily discernable1 seemed amazing indeed4 ,nitrogen1 also1 might well be expected to be recognizable in the sun4 ,carbon1 again1 is so important a constituent of the earth1 that we should expect to discover clear traces of its existence in the sun4 ,in less degree1 similar considerations apply to sulphur1 boron1 silicon1 and the other non-metallic elements4 ,it was not supposed1 however1 by any one at all competent to form an opinion on the subject1 that oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbon are absent from the sun4 ,it was perceived that an element might exist in enormous quantities in the substance of the sun1 and yet fail to give any evidence of its presence1 or only give such evidence as might readily escape recognition4 ,if we remember how the dark lines are really caused1 we shall perceive that this is so4 ,a glowing vapour in the atmosphere of the sun absorbs rays of the same colour as it emits4 ,if then1 it is cooler than the glowing mass of the sun which it enwraps1 and if1 notwithstanding the heat received from this mass1 it remains cooler1 then it suffers none of those rays to pass earthwards4#a ,it emits rays of the same kind 7that is1 of the same colour7 itself1 but1 being cooler1 the rays thus coming from it are feebler2 or1 to speak more correctly1 the ethereal waves thus originated are feebler than those of the same order which would have travelled earthwards from the sun but for the interposed screen of vapour4 ,hence the corresponding parts of the solar spectrum are less brilliant1 and contrasted with the rainbow-tinted streak of light1 on which they lie as on a background1 they appear dark4 ,in order1 then1 that any element may be detected by its dark lines1 it is necessary that it should lie as a vaporous screen between the more intensely heated mass of the sun and the eye of the observer on earth4 ,it must then form an enclosing envelope cooler than the sun within it4 ,or rather1 some part of the vapour must be thus situated4 ,for enormous masses of the vapour might be within the photospheric surface of the sun at a much higher temperature1 which yet1 being enclosed in the cooler vaporous shell of the same substance1 would not be able to send its light rays earthwards4 ,one may compare the state of things1 so far as that particular element is concerned1 to what is presented in the case of a metallic globe cooled on the outside but intensely hot within4 ,the cool outside of such a globe is what determines the light and heat received from it1 so long as the more heated mass within has not yet 7by conduction7 warmed the exterior shell4 ,so in the case of a vapour permeating the entire mass1 perhaps1 of the sun1 and at as high a temperature as the sun everywhere except on the outside3 it is the temperature of the outermost part of such a vaporous mass which determines the intensity of the rays received from it--or in other words1 determines whether the corresponding parts of the spectrum shall be darker or not than the rest of the spectrum4 ,if the vapour does not rise above the photosphere of the sun in sufficient quantity to exercise a recognizable absorptive effect1 its presence in the sun will not be indicated by any dark lines4 ,i dwell here on the question of quantity1 which is sometimes overlooked in considering the spectroscopic evidence of the sun's condition1 but is in reality a very important factor in determining the nature of the evidence relating to each element in the solar mass4 ,in some cases1 the quantity of a material necessary to give unmistakable spectroscopic evidence is singularly small2 insomuch that new elements1 as thallium1 csium1 rubidium1 and gallium1 have been actually first recognized by their spectral lines when existing in such minute quantities in the substances examined as to give no other trace whatever of their existence4 ,but it would be altogether a mistake to suppose that some element existing in exceedingly small quantities1 or1 more correctly1 existing in the form of an exceedingly rare vapour in the sun's atmosphere1 would be detected by means of its dark lines1 or by any other method depending on the study of the solar spectrum4 ,when we place a small portion of some substance in the space between the carbon points of an electric lamp1 and volatilize that substance in the voltaic arc1 we obtain a spectrum including all the bright lines of the various elements contained in the substance2 and if some element is contained in it in exceedingly small quantity1 we may yet perceive its distinctive bright lines among the others 7many of them far brighter7 belonging to the elements present in greater quantities4 ,but if we have 7for example7 a great mass of molten iron1 the rainbow-tinted spectrum of whose light we examine from a great distance1 and if a small quantity of sodium1 or other substance which vaporizes at moderate temperatures1 be cast into the molten iron so that the vapour of the added element presently rises above the glowing surface of the iron1 no trace of the presence of this vapour would be shown in the spectrum observed from a distance4 ,the part of the spectrum where the dark lines of sodium usually appear would1 undoubtedly1 be less brilliant than before1 in the same sense that the sun may be said to be less brilliant when the air is in the least degree moist than when it is perfectly dry2 but the loss of brilliancy is as utterly imperceptible in the one case as it is in the other4 ,in like manner1 a vapour might exist in the atmosphere of the sun 7above the photosphere1 that is71 of whose presence not a trace would be afforded in the spectroscope1 for the simple reason that the absorptive action of the vapour1 though exerted to reduce the brightness of particular solar rays or tints1 would not affect those rays sufficiently for the spectroscopist to recognize any diminution of their lustre4 ,there is another consideration1 which1 so far as ,i know1 has not hitherto received much attention1 but should certainly be taken into account in the attempt to interpret the real meaning of the solar spectrum4 ,some of the metals which are vaporized by the sun's heat below the photosphere may become liquid or even solid at or near the level of the photosphere4 ,even though the heat at the level of the photosphere may be such that1 under ordinary conditions of pressure and so forth1 such metals would be vaporous1 the enormous pressure which must exist not far below the level of the photosphere may make the heat necessary for complete vaporization far greater than the actual heat at that level4 ,in that case the vapour will in part condense into liquid globules1 or1 if the heat is considerably less than is necessary to keep the substance in the form of vapour1 then it may in part be solidified1 the tiny globules of liquid metal becoming tiny crystals of solid metal4 ,we see both conditions fulfilled within the limits of our own air in the case of the vapour of water4 ,low down the water is present in the air 7ordinarily7 in the form of pure vapour2 at a higher level the vapour is condensed by cold into liquid drops forming visible clouds 7cumulus clouds71 and yet higher1 where the cold is still greater1 the minute water-drops turn into ice-crystals1 forming those light fleecy clouds called cirrus clouds by the meteorologist4 ,now true clouds of either sort may exist in the solar atmosphere even above that photospheric level which forms the boundary of the sun we see4 ,it may be said that the spectroscope1 applied to examine matter outside the photosphere1 has given evidence only of vaporous cloud masses4 ,the ruddy prominences which tower tens of thousands of miles above the surface of the sun1 and the sierra 7or as it is sometimes unclassically called1 the chromosphere7 which covers usually the whole of the photosphere to a depth of about eight thousand miles1 show only1 under spectroscopic scrutiny1 the bright lines indicating gaseity4 ,but though this is perfectly true1 it is also true that we have not here a particle of evidence to show that clouds of liquid particles1 and of tiny crystals1 may not float over the sun's surface1 or even that the ruddy clouds shown by the spectroscope to shine with light indicative of gaseity may not also contain liquid and crystalline particles4 ,for in point of fact1 the very principle on which our recognition of the bright lines depends involves the inference that matter whose light would not be resolved into bright lines would not be recognizable at all4 ,the bright lines are seen1 because by means of a spectroscope we can throw them far apart1 without reducing their lustre1 while the background of rainbow-tinted spectrum has its various portions similarly thrown further apart and correspondingly weakened4 ,one may compare the process 7the comparison1 ,i believe1 has not hitherto been employed7 to the dilution of a dense liquid in which solid masses have been floating3 the more we increase the quantity of the liquid in diluting it with water1 the more transparent it becomes1 but the solid masses in it are not changed1 so that we only have to dilute the liquid sufficiently to see these masses4 ,but if there were in the interstices of the solid masses particles of some substance which dissolved in the water1 we should not recognize the presence of this substance by any increase in its visibility2 for the very same process which thinned the liquid would thin this soluble substance in the same degree4 ,in like manner1 by dispersing and correspondingly weakening the sun's light more and more1 we can recognize the light of the gaseous matter in the prominences1 for this is not weakened2 but if the prominences also contain matter in the solid or liquid form 7that is1 drops or crystals71 the spectroscopic method will not indicate the presence of such matter1 for the spectrum of matter of this sort will be weakened by dispersion in precisely the same degree that the solar spectrum itself is weakened4 ,it is easy to see how the evidence of the presence of any element which behaved in this way would be weakened1 if we consider what would happen in the case of our own earth1 according as the air were simply moist but without clouds1 or loaded with cumulus masses but without cirrus clouds1 or loaded with cirrus clouds4 ,for although there is not in the case of the earth a central glowing mass like the sun's1 on whose rainbow-tinted spectrum the dark lines caused by the absorptive action of our atmosphere could be seen by the inhabitant of some distant planet studying the earth from without1 yet the sun's light reflected from the surface of the earth plays in reality a similar part4 ,it does not give a simple rainbow-tinted spectrum2 for1 being sunlight1 it shows all the dark lines of the solar spectrum3 but the addition of new dark lines to these1 in consequence of the absorptive action of the earth's atmosphere1 could very readily be determined4 ,in fact1 we do thus recognize in the spectra of ,mars1 ,venus1 and other planets1 the presence of aqueous vapour in their atmosphere1 despite the fact that our own air1 containing also aqueous vapour1 naturally renders so much the more difficult the detection of that vapour in the atmosphere of remote planets necessarily seen through our own air4 ,now1 a distant observer examining the light of our own earth on a day when1 though the air was moist1 there were no clouds1 would have ample evidence of the presence of the vapour of water2 for the light which he examined would have gone twice through our earth's atmosphere1 from its outermost thinnest parts to the densest layers close to the surface1 then back again through the entire thickness of the air4 ,but if the air were heavily laden with cumulus clouds 7without any cirrus clouds at a higher layer71 although we should know that there was abundant moisture in the air1 and indeed much more moisture then there had been when there had been no clouds1 our imagined observer would either perceive no traces at all of this moisture1 or he would perceive traces so much fainter than when the air was clear that he would be apt to infer that the air was either quite dry1 or at least very much drier than it had been in that case4 ,for the light which he would receive from the earth would not in this case have passed through the entire depth of moisture-laden air twice1 but twice only through that portion of the air which lay above the clouds1 at whose surface the sun's light would be reflected4 ,the whole of the moisture-laden layer of the air would be snugly concealed under the cloud-layer1 and would exercise no absorptive action whatever on the light which the remote observer would examine4 ,if from the upper surface of the layer of cumulus clouds aqueous vapour rose still higher1 and were converted in the cold upper regions of the atmosphere into clouds of ice-crystals1 the distant observer would have still less chance of recognizing the presence of moisture in our atmosphere4 ,for the layer of air between the cumulus clouds and the cirrus clouds would be unable to exert any absorptive action on the light which reached the observer4 ,all such light would come to him after reflection from the layer of cirrus clouds4 ,he would be apt to infer that there was no moisture at all in the air of our planet1 at the very time when in fact there was so much moisture that not one layer only1 but two layers of clouds enveloped the earth1 the innermost layer consisting of particles of liquid water1 the outermost of particles of frozen water4 ,using the words ice1 water1 and steam1 to represent the solid1 liquid1 and vaporous states of water1 we may fairly say that ice and water1 by hiding steam1 would persuade the remote observer that there was no water at all on the earth--at least if he trusted solely to the spectroscopic evidence then obtained4#b ,we might in like manner fail to obtain any spectroscopic evidence of the presence of particular elements in the sun1 because they do not exist in sufficient quantity in the vaporous form in those outer layers which the spectroscope can alone deal with4 ,in passing1 ,i must note a circumstance in which some of those who have dealt with this special part of the spectroscopic evidence have erred4 ,it is true in one sense that some elements may be of such a nature that their vapours cannot rise so high in the solar atmosphere as those of other elements4 ,but it must not be supposed that the denser vapours seek a lower level1 the lighter vapours rising higher4 ,according to the known laws of gaseous diffusion1 a gas or vapour diffuses itself throughout a space occupied by another gas or several other gases1 in the same way as though the space were not occupied at all4 ,if we introduce into a vessel full of common air a quantity of carbonic acid gas 7,i follow the older and more familiar nomenclature71 this gas1 although of much higher specific gravity than either oxygen or nitrogen1 does not take its place at the bottom of the vessel1 but so diffuses itself that the air of the upper part of the vessel contains exactly the same quantity of carbonic acid gas as the air of the lower part4 ,similarly1 if hydrogen is introduced1 it does not seek the upper part of the vessel1 but diffuses itself uniformly throughout the vessel4 ,if we enclose the carbonic acid gas in a light silken covering1 and the hydrogen in another 7at the same pressure as the air in the vessel7 one little balloon will sink and the other will rise2 but this is simply because diffusion is prevented4 ,it may be asked how this agrees with what ,i have said above1 that some elements may not exist in sufficient quantity or in suitable condition above the sun's photospheric level to give any spectroscope evidence of their nature4 ,as to quantity1 indeed1 the answer is obvious3 if there is only a small quantity of any given element in the entire mass of the sun1 only a very small quantity can under any circumstances exist outside the photosphere4 ,as regards condition1 it must be remembered that the vessel of my illustrative case was supposed to contain air at a given temperature and pressure throughout4 ,if the vessel was so large that in different parts of it the temperature and pressure were different1 the diffusion would1 indeed1 still be perfect1 because at all ordinary temperatures and pressures hydrogen and carbonic acid gas remain gaseous4 ,but if the vapour introduced is of such a nature that at moderate temperatures and pressures it condenses1 wholly or in part1 or liquefies1 the diffusion will not take place with the same uniformity4 ,we need not go further for illustration than to the case of our own atmosphere as it actually exists4 ,the vapour of water spreads uniformly through each layer of the atmosphere which is at such a temperature and pressure as to permit of such diffusion2 but where the temperature is too low for complete diffusion 7at the actual pressure7 the aqueous vapour is condensed into visible cloud1 diffusion being checked at this point as at an impassable boundary4 ,in the case of the sun1 as in the case of our own earth1 it is not the density of an element when in a vaporous form which limits its diffusion1 but the value of the temperature at which its vapour at given pressure condenses into liquid particles4 ,it is in this way only that any separation can be effected between the various elements which exist in the sun's substance4 ,a separation of this sort is unquestionably competent to modify the spectroscopic evidence respecting different elements4 ,but it would be a mistake to suppose that any such separation could occur as has been imagined by some--a separation causing in remote times the planets supposed to have been thrown off by the sun to be rarest on the outskirts of the solar system and densest close to the sun4 ,the small densities of the outer family of planets1 as compared with the densities of the so-called terrestrial planets1 must certainly be otherwise explained4 ,but undoubtedly the chief circumstance likely to operate in veiling the existence of important constituents of the solar mass must be that which has so long prevented spectroscopists from detecting the presence of oxygen in the sun4 ,an element may exist in such a condition1 either over particular parts of the photosphere1 or over the entire surface of the sun1 that instead of causing dark lines in the solar spectrum it may produce bright lines4 ,such lines may be conspicuous1 or they may be so little brighter than the background of the spectrum as to be scarcely perceptible or quite imperceptible4 ,in passing1 ,i would notice that this interpretation of the want of all spectroscopic evidence of the presence of oxygen1 carbon1 and other elements in the sun1 is not an ex post facto explanation4 ,as will presently appear1 it is now absolutely certain that oxygen1 though really existing1 and doubtless1 in enormous quantities1 in the sun1 has been concealed from recognition in this way4 ,but that this might be so was perceived long ago4 ,i myself1 in the first edition of my treatise on 8,the ,sun10 pointed out1 in #ahgj1 with special reference to nitrogen and oxygen1 that an element 8may be in a condition enabling it to radiate as much light as it absorbs1 or else very little more or very little less2 so that it either obliterates all signs of its existence1 or else gives lines so little brighter or darker than the surrounding parts of the spectrum that we can detect no trace of its existence40 ,i had still earlier given a similar explanation of the absence of all spectroscopic evidence of hydrogen in the case of the bright star ,betelgeux4#c ,let us more closely consider the significance of what we learn from the spectral evidence respecting the gas hydrogen4 ,we know that when the total light of the sun is dealt with1 the presence of hydrogen is constantly indicated by dark lines4 ,in other words1 regarding the sun as a whole1 hydrogen constantly reduces the emission of rays of those special tints which correspond to the light of this element4 ,when we examine the light of other suns than ours1 we find that in many cases1 probably in by far the greater number of cases1 hydrogen acts a similar part4 ,but not in every case4 ,in the spectra of some stars1 notably in those of ,betelgeux and ,alpha ,herculis1 the lines of hydrogen are not visible at all2 while in yet others1 as ,gamma ,cassiopei1 the middle star of the five which form the straggling ,w of this constellation1 the lines of hydrogen show bright upon the relatively dark background of the spectrum4 ,when we examine closely the sun himself1 we find that although his light as a whole gives a spectrum in which the lines of hydrogen appear dark1 the light of particular parts of his surface1 if separately examined1 occasionally shows the hydrogen lines bright as in the spectrum of ,gamma ,cassiopei1 while sometimes the light of particular parts gives1 like the light of ,betelgeux1 no spectroscopic evidence whatever of the presence of hydrogen4 ,manifestly1 if the whole surface of the sun were in the condition of the portions which give bright hydrogen lines1 the spectrum of the sun would resemble that of ,gamma ,cassiopei2 while if the whole surface were in the condition of those parts which show no lines of hydrogen1 the spectrum of the sun would resemble that of ,betelgeux4 ,now if there were any reason for supposing that the parts of the sun which give no lines of hydrogen are those from which the hydrogen has been temporarily removed in some way1 we might reasonably infer that in the stars whose spectra show no hydrogen lines there is no hydrogen4 ,but the fact that the hydrogen lines are sometimes seen bright renders this supposition untenable4 ,for we cannot suppose that the lines of hydrogen change from dark to bright or from bright to dark 7both which changes certainly take place7 without passing through a stage in which they are neither bright nor dark2 in other words1 we are compelled to assume that there is an intermediate condition in which the hydrogen lines1 though really existent1 are invisible because they are of precisely the same lustre as the adjacent parts of the spectrum4 ,hence the evanescence of the hydrogen lines affords no reason for supposing that hydrogen has become even reduced in quantity where the lines are not seen4 ,and therefore it follows that the invisibility of the hydrogen lines in the spectrum of ,betelgeux is no proof that hydrogen does not exist in that star in quantities resembling those in which it is present in the sun4 ,and this1 being demonstrated in the case of one gas1 must be regarded as at least probable in the case of other gases4 ,wherefore the absence of the lines of oxygen from the spectrum of any star affords no sufficient reason for believing that oxygen is not present in that star1 or that it may not be as plentifully present as hydrogen1 or even far more plentifully present4 ,there are other considerations which have to be taken into account1 as well in dealing with the difficulty arising from the absence of the lines of particular elements from the solar spectrum as in weighing the extremely important discovery which has just been effected by ,dr4 ,h4 ,draper4 ,i would specially call attention now to a point which ,i thus presented seven years ago3--8,the great difficulty of interpreting the results of the spectroscopic analysis of the sun arises from the circumstance that we have no means of learning whence that part of the light comes which gives the continuous spectrum4 ,when we recognize certain dark lines1 we know certainly that the corresponding element exists in the gaseous form at a lower temperature than the substance which gives the continuous spectrum4 ,but as regards that continuous spectrum itself we can form no such exact opinion40 ,it might1 for instance1 have its origin in glowing liquid or solid matter2 but it might also be compounded of many spectra1 each containing a large number of bands1 the bands of one spectrum filling up the spaces which would be left dark between the bands of another spectrum1 and so on until the entire range from the extreme visible red to the extreme visible violet were occupied by what appeared as a continuous rainbow-tinted streak4 8,we have1 in fact1 in the sun10 as ,i pointed out1 8a vast agglomeration of elements1 subject to two giant influences1 producing in some sort opposing effects--viz41 a temperature far surpassing any we can form any conception of1 and a pressure 7throughout nearly the whole of the sun's globe7 which is perhaps even more disproportionate to the phenomena of our experience4 ,each known element would be vaporized by the solar temperature at known pressures2 each 7there can be little question7 would be solidified by the vast pressures1 did these arise at known temperatures4 ,now whether1 under these circumstances1 the laws of gaseous diffusion prevail where the elements are gaseous in the solar globe2 whether1 where liquid matter exists it is in general bounded in a definite manner from the neighbouring gaseous matter2 whether any elements at all are solid1 and if so under what conditions their solidity is maintained and the limits of the solid matter defined--all these are questions which must be answered before we can form a satisfactory idea of the solar constitution2 yet they are questions which we have at present no means of answering40 ,again1 we require to know whether any process resembling combustion can under any circumstances take place in the sun's globe4 ,if we could assume that some general resemblance exists between the processes at work upon the sun and those we are acquainted with1 we might imagine that the various elements ordinarily exist in the sun's globe in the gaseous form 7chiefly7 to certain levels1 to others chiefly in the liquid form1 and to yet others chiefly in the solid form4 ,but even then that part of each element which is gaseous may exist in two forms1 having widely different spectra 7in reality in five1 but ,i consider only the extreme forms74 ,the light of one part is capable of giving characteristic spectra of lines or bands 7which will be different according to pressure and may appear either dark or bright72 that of the other is capable of giving a spectrum nearly or quite continuous4 ,it will be seen that ,dr4 ,h4 ,draper's discovery supplies an answer to one of the questions1 or rather to one of the sets of questions1 thus indicated4 ,i give his discovery as far as possible in his own words4 8,oxygen discloses itself10 he says1 8by bright lines or bands in the solar spectrum1 and does not give dark absorption-lines like the metals4 ,we must therefore change our theory of the solar spectrum1 and no longer regard it merely as a continuous spectrum with certain rays absorbed by a layer of ignited metallic vapours1 but as having also bright lines and bands superposed on the background of continuous spectrum4 ,such a conception not only opens the way to the discovery of others of the non-metals1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 selenium1 chlorine1 bromine1 iodine1 fluorine1 carbon1 etc41 but also may account for some of the so-called dark lines1 by regarding them as intervals between bright lines4 ,it must be distinctly understood that in speaking of the solar spectrum here1 ,i do not mean the spectrum of any limited area upon the disc or margin of the sun1 but the spectrum of light from the whole disc40 ,in support of the important statement here advanced1 ,dr4 ,draper submits a photograph of part of the solar spectrum with a comparison spectrum of air1 and also with some of the lines of iron and aluminium4 ,the photograph itself1 a copy of which1 kindly sent to me by ,dr4 ,draper1 lies before me as ,i write1 fully bears out ,dr4 ,draper's statement4 ,it is absolutely free from handwork or retouching1 except that reference letters have been added in the negative4 ,it shows the part of the solar spectrum between the well-known ,fraunhofer lines ,g and ,h1 of which ,g 7an iron line7 lies in the indigo1 and ,h 7a line of hydrogen7 in the violet1 so that the portion photographed belongs to that region of the spectrum whose chemical or actinic energy is strongest4 ,adjacent to this lies the photograph of the air lines1 showing nine or ten well-defined oxygen lines or groups of lines1 and two nitrogen bands4 ,the exact agreement of the two spectra in position is indicated by the coincidence of bright lines of iron and aluminium included in the air spectrum with the dark lines of the same elements in the solar spectrum4 8,no close observation10 as ,dr4 ,draper truly remarks1 8is needed to demonstrate to even the most casual observer0 7of this photograph7 8that the oxygen lines are found in the sun as bright lines40 ,there is in particular one quadruple group of oxygen lines in the air spectrum1 the coincidence of which with a group of bright lines in the solar spectrum is unmistakable4 8,this oxygen group alone is almost sufficient10 says ,dr4 ,draper1 8to prove the presence of oxygen in the sun1 for not only does each of the four components have a representative in the solar group1 but the relative strength and the general aspect of the lines in each case is similar4#d ,i shall not attempt at this time10 he proceeds1 8to give a complete list of the oxygen lines1 444 and it will be noticed that some lines in the air spectrum which have bright anologues in the sun are not marked with the symbol of oxygen4 ,this is because there has not yet been an opportunity to make the necessary detailed comparisons4 ,in order to be certain that a line belongs to oxygen1 ,i have compared1 under various pressures1 the spectra of air1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 carbonic acid1 carburetted hydrogen1 hydrogen1 and cyanogen4 8,as to the spectrum of nitrogen and the existence of this element in the sun there is not yet certainty4 ,nevertheless1 even by comparing the diffused nitrogen lines of this particular photograph1 in which nitrogen has been sacrificed to get the best effect for oxygen1 the character of the evidence appears4 ,there is a triple band somewhat diffused in the photograph belonging to nitrogen1 which has its appropriate representative in the solar spectrum1 and another band of nitrogen is similarly represented40 ,dr4 ,draper states that 8in another photograph a heavy nitrogen line which in the present one lies opposite an insufficiently exposed part of the solar spectrum1 corresponds to a comparison band in the sun40 ,but one of the most remarkable points in ,dr4 ,draper's paper is what he tells us respecting the visibility of these lines in the spectrum itself4 ,they fall1 as ,i have mentioned1 in a part of the spectrum where the actinic energy is great but the luminosity small2 in fact1 while this part of the spectrum is the very strongest for photography1 it is close to the region of the visible spectrum1 8,where the last gleamings of refracted light ,die in the fainting violet away40 ,it is therefore to be expected that those1 if any1 of the bright lines of oxygen1 will be least favourably shown for direct vision1 and most favourably for what might almost be called photographic vision1 where we see what photography records for us4 ,yet ,dr4 ,draper states that these bright lines of oxygen can be readily seen4 8,the bright lines of oxygen in the spectrum of the solar disc have not been hitherto perceived1 probably from the fact that in eye-observation bright lines on a less bright background do not make the impression on the mind that dark lines do4 ,when attention is called to their presence they are readily enough seen1 even without the aid of a reference spectrum4 ,the photograph1 however1 brings them into greater prominence40 ,as the lines of oxygen are not confined to the indigo and violet1 we may fairly hope that the bright lines in other parts of the spectrum of oxygen may be detected in the spectrum of the sun1 now that spectroscopists know that bright lines and not dark lines are to be looked for4 ,dr4 ,draper remarks that from purely theoretic considerations derived from terrestrial chemistry1 and the nebular hypothesis1 the presence of oxygen in the sun might have been strongly suspected2 for this element is currently stated to form eight-ninths of the water of the globe1 one-third of the crust of the earth1 and one-fifth of the air1 and should therefore probably be a large constituent of every member of the solar system4 ,on the other hand1 the discovery of oxygen1 and probably other non-metals1 in the sun gives increased strength to the nebular hypothesis1 because to many persons the absence of this important group has presented a considerable difficulty4 ,i have already remarked on the circumstance that we cannot1 according to the known laws of gaseous diffusion1 accept the reasoning of those who have endeavoured to explain the small density of the outer planets by the supposition that the lighter gases were left behind by the great contracting nebulous mass1 out of which1 on the nebular hypothesis1 the solar system is supposed to have been formed4 ,it is important to notice1 now1 that if on the one hand we find in the community of structure between the sun and our earth1 as confirmed by the discovery of oxygen and nitrogen in the sun1 evidence favouring the theory according to which all the members of that system were formed out of what was originally a single mass1 we do not find evidence against the theory 7as those who have advanced the explanation above referred to may be disposed to imagine7 in the recognition in the sun's mass of enormous quantities of one of these elements which1 according to their view1 ought to be found chiefly in the outer members of the solar system4 ,if those who believe in the nebular hypothesis 7generally1 that is1 for many of the details of the hypothesis as advanced by ,laplace are entirely untenable in the present position of physical science7 had accepted the attempted explanation of the supposed absence of the non-metallic elements in the sun1 they would now find themselves in a somewhat awkward position4 ,they would1 in fact1 be almost bound logically to reject the nebular hypothesis1 seeing that one of the asserted results of the formation of our system1 according to that hypothesis1 would have been disproved4 ,but so far as ,i know no supporter of the nebular hypothesis possessing sufficient knowledge of astronomical facts and physical laws to render his opinion of any weight1 has ever given in his adhesion to the unsatisfactory explanation referred to4 ,the view which ,i have long entertained respecting the growth of the solar system--viz41 that it had its origin1 not in contraction only or chiefly1 but in combined processes of contraction and accretion--seems to me to be very strongly confirmed by ,dr4 ,draper's discovery4 ,this would not be the place for a full discussion of the reasons on which this opinion is based4 ,but ,i may remark that ,i believe no one who applies the laws of physics1 as at present known1 to the theory of the simple contraction of a great nebulous mass formerly extending far beyond the orbit of ,neptune1 till1 when planet after planet had been thrown off1 the sun was left in his present form and condition in the centre1 will fail to perceive enormous difficulties in the hypothesis1 or to recognize in ,dr4 ,draper's discovery a difficulty added to those affecting the hypothesis so presented4 ,has it ever occurred1 ,i often wonder1 to those who glibly quote the nebular theory as originally propounded1 to inquire how far some of the processes suggested by ,laplace are in accordance with the now known laws of physics8 ,to begin with1 the original nebulous mass extending to a distance exceeding the earth's distance from the sun more than thirty times 7this being only the distance of ,neptune71 if we assign to it a degree of compression making its axial diameter half its equatorial diameter1 would have had a volume exceeding the sun's 7roughly7 about #abj1jjj1jjj1jjj times1 and in this degree its mean density would have been less than the sun's4 ,this would correspond to a density equal 7roughly7 to about one-#djj1jjjth part of the density of hydrogen gas at atmospheric pressure4 ,to suppose that a great mass of matter1 having this exceedingly small mean density1 and extending to a distance of three or four thousand millions of miles from its centre1 could under any circumstances rotate as a whole1 or behave in other respects after the fashion attributed to the gaseous embryon of the solar system in ordinary descriptions of the nebular hypothesis1 is altogether inconsistent with correct ideas of physical and dynamical laws4 ,it is absolutely a necessity of any nebular hypothesis of the solar system1 that from the very beginning a central nucleus and subordinate nuclei should form in it1 and grow according to the results of the motions 7at first to all intents and purposes independent7 of its various parts4 ,granting this state of things1 we arrive1 by considering the combined effects of accretion and contraction1 at a process of development according fully as well as that ordinarily described with the general relations described by ,laplace1 and accounting also 7in a general way7 for certain peculiarities which are in no degree explained by the ordinary theory4 ,amongst these may specially be noted the arrangement and distribution of the masses within the solar system1 and the fact that so far as spectroscopic evidence enables us to judge1 a general similarity of structure exists throughout the whole of the system4 ,inquiring as to the significance of his discovery1 ,dr4 ,draper remarks that it seems rather difficult 8at first sight to believe that an ignited#e gas in the solar atmosphere should not be indicated by dark lines in the solar spectrum1 and should appear not to act under the law1 #8a gas when ignited absorbs rays of the same refrangibility as those it emits4' ,but1 in fact1 the substances hitherto investigated in the sun are really metallic vapours1 hydrogen probably coming under that rule4 ,the non-metals obviously may behave differently4 ,it is easy to speculate on the causes of such behaviour2 and it may be suggested that the reason of the non-appearance of a dark line may be that the intensity of the light from a great thickness of ignited oxygen overpowers the effect of the photosphere1 just as1 if a person were to look at a candle-flame through a yard thickness of sodium vapour1 he would only see bright sodium lines1 and no dark absorption40 ,the reasoning here is not altogether satisfactory 7or else is not quite correctly expressed74 ,in the first place1 the difficulty dealt with has no real existence4 ,the law that a gas when glowing absorbs rays of the same refrangibility as it emits1 does not imply that a gas between a source of light and the observer will show its presence by spectroscopic dark lines4 ,a gas so placed does receive from the source of light rays corresponding to those which it emits itself1 if it is cooler than the source of light2 and it absorbs them1 being in fact heated by means of them1 though the gain of temperature may be dissipated as fast as received2 but if the gas is hotter1 it emits more of those rays than it absorbs1 and will make its presence known by its bright lines4 ,this is not a matter of speculation1 but of experiment4 ,on the other hand1 the experiment suggested by ,dr4 ,draper would not have the effect he supposes1 if it were correctly made4 ,doubtless1 if the light from a considerable area of dully glowing sodium vapour were received by the spectroscope at the same time as the light of a candle-flame seen through the sodium vapour1 the light of the sodium vapour overcoming that of the candle-flame would indicate its presence by bright lines2 but if light were received only from that portion of the sodium vapour which lay between the eye and the candle-flame1 then ,i apprehend that the dark lines of sodium would not only be seen1 but would be conspicuous by their darkness4 ,it is in no cavilling spirit that ,i indicate what appears to me erroneous in a portion of ,dr4 ,draper's reasoning on his great discovery4 ,the entire significance of the discovery depends on the meaning attached to it1 and therefore it is most desirable to ascertain what this meaning really is4 ,there can be no doubt1 ,i think1 that we are to look for the true interpretation of the brightness of the oxygen lines in the higher temperature of the oxygen1 not in the great depth of oxygen above the photospheric level4 ,the oxygen which produces these bright lines need not necessarily be above the photosphere at all4 7,in fact1 ,i may remark here that ,dr4 ,draper1 in a communication addressed to myself1 mentions that he has found no traces at present of oxygen above the photosphere1 though ,i had not this circumstance in my thoughts in reasoning down to the conclusion that the part of the oxygen effective in showing these bright lines lies probably below the visible photosphere47 ,of course1 if the photosphere were really composed of glowing solid and liquid matter1 or of masses of gas so compressed and so intensely heated as to give a continuous spectrum1 no gas existing below the photosphere could send its light through1 nor could its presence1 therefore1 be indicated in any spectroscopic manner4 ,but the investigations which have been made into the structure of the photosphere as revealed by the telescope1 and in particular the observations made by ,professor ,langley1 of the ,alleghany ,observatory1 show that we have not in the photosphere a definite bounding envelope of the sun1 but receive light from many different depths below that spherical surface1 #dbe1jjj miles from the sun's centre1 which we call the photospheric level4 ,we receive more light from the centre of the solar disc1 ,i feel satisfied1 not solely because the absorptive layer through which we there see the sun is shallower1 but partly1 and perhaps chiefly1 because we there receive light from some of the interior and more intensely heated parts of the sun4#f ,should this prove to be the case1 it may be found possible to do what heretofore astronomers have supposed to be impossible--to ascertain in some degree how far and in what way the constitution of the sun varies below the photosphere1 which1 so far as ordinary telescopic observation is concerned1 seems to present a limit below which researches cannot be pursued4 ,i hope we shall soon obtain news from ,dr4 ,huggins's ,observatory that the oxygen lines have been photographed1 and possibly the bright lines of other elements recognized in the solar spectrum4 ,mr4 ,lockyer also1 we may hope1 will exercise that observing skill which enabled him early to recognize the presence of bright hydrogen lines in the spectrum of portions of the sun's surface1 to examine that spectrum for other bright lines4 ,i do not remember any time within the last twenty years when the prospects of fresh solar discoveries seemed more hopeful than they do at present4 ,the interest which has of late years been drawn to the subject has had the effect of enlisting fresh recruits in the work of observation1 and many of these may before long be heard of as among those who have employed ,dr4 ,draper's method successfully4 ,but ,i would specially call attention to the interest which attaches to ,dr4 ,draper's discovery and to the researches likely to follow from it1 in connection with a branch of research which is becoming more and more closely connected year by year with solar investigations--,i mean stellar spectroscopy4 ,we have seen the stars divided into orders according to their constitution4 ,we recognize evidence tending to show that these various orders depend in part upon age--not absolute but relative age4 ,there are among the suns which people space some younger by far than our sun1 others far older1 and some in a late stage of stellar decrepitude4 ,whether as yet spectroscopists have perfectly succeeded in classifying these stellar orders in such sort that the connection between a star's spectrum and the star's age can be at once determined1 may be doubtful4 ,but certainly there are reasons for hoping that before long this will be done4 ,amongst the stars1 and 7strange to say7 among celestial objects which are not stars1 there are suns in every conceivable stage of development1 from embryon masses not as yet justly to be regarded as suns1 to masses which have ceased to fulfil the duties of suns4 ,among the more pressing duties of spectroscopic analysis at the present time is the proper classification of these various orders of stars4 ,whensoever that task shall have been accomplished1 strong light1 ,i venture to predict1 will be thrown on our sun's present condition1 as well as on his past history1 and on that future fate upon which depends the future of our earth4 ,,sun-,,spot1 ,,storm1 ,,and ,,famine4 ,during the last five or six years a section of the scientific world has been exercised with the question how far the condition of the sun's surface with regard to spots affects our earth's condition as to weather1 and therefore as to those circumstances which are more or less dependent on weather4 ,unfortunately1 the question thus raised has not presented itself alone1 but in company with another not so strictly scientific1 in fact1 regarded by most men of science as closely related to personal considerations--the question1 namely1 whether certain indicated persons should or should not be commissioned to undertake the inquiry into the scientific problem4 ,but the scientific question itself ought not to be less interesting to us because it has been associated1 correctly or not1 with the wants and wishes of those who advocate the endowment of science4 ,i propose here to consider the subject in its scientific aspect only1 and apart from any bias suggested by the appeals which have been addressed to the administrators of the public funds4 ,it is hardly necessary to point out1 in the first place1 that all the phenomena of weather are directly referable to the sun as their governing cause4 ,his rays poured upon our air cause the more important atmospheric currents directly4 ,indirectly they cause modifications of these currents1 because where they fall on water or on moist surfaces they raise aqueous vapour into the air1 which1 when it returns to the liquid form as cloud1 gives up to the surrounding air the heat which had originally vaporized the water4 ,in these ways1 directly or indirectly1 various degrees of pressure and temperature are brought about in the atmospheric envelope of the earth1 and1 speaking generally1 all air currents1 from the gentlest zephyr to the fiercest tornado1 are the movements by which the equilibrium of the air is restored4 ,like other movements tending to restore equilibrium1 the atmospheric motions are oscillatory4 ,precisely as when a spring has been bent one way1 it flies not back only1 but beyond the mean position1 till it is almost equally bent the other way1 so the current of air which rushes in towards a place of unduly diminished pressure does more than restore the mean pressure1 so that presently a return current carries off the excess of air thus carried in4 ,we may say1 indeed1 that the mean pressure at any place scarcely ever exists1 and when it exists for a time the resulting calm is of short duration4 ,just as the usual condition of the sea surface is one of disturbance1 greater or less1 so the usual condition of the air at every spot on the earth's surface is one of motion not of quiescence4 ,every movement of the air1 thus almost constantly perturbed1 is due directly or indirectly to the sun4 ,so also every drop of rain or snow1 every particle of liquid or of frozen water in mist or in cloud1 owes its birth to the sun4 ,the questions addressed of old to ,job1 8,hath the rain a father8 or who hath begotten the drops of dew8 out of whose womb came the ice8 and the hoary frost of heaven1 who hath gendered it80 have been answered by modern science1 and to every question the answer is1 ,the ,sun4 ,he is parent of the snow and hail1 as he is of the moist warm rains of summer1 of the ice which crowns the everlasting hills1 and of the mist which rises from the valleys beneath his morning rays4 ,since1 then1 the snow that clothes the earth in winter as with a garment1 and the clouds that in due season drop fatness on the earth1 are alike gendered by the sun2 since every movement in our air1 from the health-bringing breeze to the most destructive hurricane1 owns him as its parent2 we must at the outset admit1 that if there is any body external to the earth whose varying aspect or condition can inform us beforehand of changes which the weather is to undergo1 the sun is that body4 ,that for countless ages the moon should have been regarded as the great weather-breeder1 shows only how prone men are to recognize in apparent changes the true cause of real changes1 and how slight the evidence is on which they will base laws of association which have no real foundation in fact4 ,every one can see when the moon is full1 or horned1 or gibbous1 or half-full2 when her horns are directed upwards1 or downwards1 or sideways4 ,and as the weather is always changing1 even as the moon is always changing1 it must needs happen that from time to time changes of weather so closely follow changes of the moon as to suggest that the two orders of change stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect4 ,thus rough rules 7such as those which ,aratus has handed down to us7 came to be formed1 and as 7to use ,bacon's expression7 men mark when such rules hit1 and never mark when they miss1 a system of weather lore gradually comes into being1 which1 while in one sense based on facts1 has not in reality a particle of true evidence in its favour--every single fact noted for each relation having been contradicted by several unnoted facts opposed to the relation4 ,there could be no more instructive illustration of men's habits in such matters than the system of lunar weather wisdom in vogue to this day among seamen1 though long since utterly disproved by science4 ,but let it be remarked in passing1 that in leaving the moon1 which has no direct influence1 and scarcely any indirect influence1 on the weather1 for the sun1 which is all-powerful1 we have not got rid of the mental habits which led men so far astray in former times4 ,we shall have to be specially careful lest it lead us astray yet once more1 perhaps all the more readily because of the confidence with which we feel that1 at the outset anyway1 we are on the right road4 ,i suppose there must have been a time when men were not altogether certain whether the varying apparent path of the sun1 as he travels from east to west every day1 has any special effect on the weather4 ,it seems so natural to us to recognize in the sun's greater mid-day elevation and longer continuance above the horizon in summer1 the cause of the greater warmth which then commonly prevails1 that we find it difficult to believe that men could ever have been in doubt on this subject4 ,yet it is probable that a long time passed after the position of the sun as ruler of the day had been noticed1 before his power as ruler of the seasons was recognized4 ,i cannot at this moment recall any passage in the ,bible1 for example1 in which direct reference is made to the sun's special influence in bringing about the seasons1 or any passage in very ancient writings referring definitely to the fact that the weather changes with the changing position of the sun in the skies 7as distinguished from the star-sphere71 and with the changing length of the day4 8,while the earth remaineth10 we are told in ,genesis1 8seed-time and harvest1 and cold and heat1 and summer and winter1 and day and night1 shall not cease20 but there is no reference to the sun's aspect as determining summer and winter4 ,we find no mention of any of the celestial signs of the seasons anywhere in the ,bible1 ,i think1 but such signs as are mentioned in the parable of the fig tree--8,when his branch is yet tender1 and putteth forth leaves1 ye know that summer is nigh40 ,whether this indicates or not that the terrestrial1 rather than the celestial signs of the progress of the year were chiefly noted by men in those times1 it is tolerably certain that in the beginning a long interval must have elapsed between the recognition of the seasons themselves1 and the recognition of their origin in the changes of the sun's apparent motions4 ,when this discovery was effected1 men made the most important and1 ,i think1 the most satisfactory step towards the determination of cyclic associations between solar and terrestrial phenomena4 ,it is for that reason that ,i refer specially to the point4 ,in reality1 it does not appertain to my subject1 for seasons and sun-spots are not associated4 ,but it admirably illustrates the value of cyclic relations4 ,men might have gone on for centuries1 we may conceive1 noting the recurrence of seed-time and harvest-time1 summer and winter1 recognizing the periodical returns of heat and cold1 and 7in some regions7 of dry seasons and wet seasons1 of calm and storm1 and so forth1 without perceiving that the sun runs through his changes of diurnal motion in the same cyclic period4 ,we can imagine that some few who might notice the connection between the two orders of celestial phenomena would be anxious to spread their faith in the association among their less observant brethren4 ,they might maintain that observatories for watching the motions of the sun would demonstrate either that their belief was just or that it was not so1 would in fact dispose finally of the question4 ,it is giving the most advantageous possible position to those who now advocate the erection of solar observatories for determining what connection1 if any1 may exist between sun-spots and terrestrial phenomena1 thus to compare them to observers who had noted a relation which unquestionably exists4 ,but it is worthy of notice that if those whom ,i have imagined thus urging the erection of an observatory for solving the question whether the sun rules the seasons1 and to some degree regulates the recurrence of dry or rainy1 and of calm or stormy weather1 had promised results of material value from their observations1 they would have promised more than they could possibly have performed4 ,even in this most favourable case1 where the sun is1 beyond all question1 the efficient ruling body1 where the nature of the cyclic change is most exactly determinable1 and where even the way in which the sun acts can be exactly ascertained1 no direct benefit accrues from the knowledge4 ,the exact determination of the sun's apparent motions has its value1 and this value is great1 but it is most certainly not derived from any power of predicting the recurrence of those phenomena which nevertheless depend directly on the sun's action4 ,the farmer who in any given year knows from the almanac the exact duration of daylight1 and the exact mid-day elevation of the sun for every day in the year1 is not one whit better able to protect his crops or his herds against storm or flood than the tiller of the soil or the tender of flocks a hundred thousand years or so ago1 who knew only when seed-time and summer and harvest-time and winter were at hand or in progress4 ,the evidence thus afforded is by no means promising1 then1 so far as the prediction of special storms1 or floods1 or droughts is concerned4 ,it would seem that if past experience can afford any evidence in such matters1 men may expect to recognize cycles of weather change long before they recognize corresponding solar cycles 7presuming always that such cycles exist71 and that they may expect to find the recognition of such association utterly barren1 so far as the possibility of predicting definite weather changes is concerned4 ,it would seem that there is no likelihood of anything better than what ,sir ,j4 ,herschel said might be hoped for hereafter4 8,a lucky hit may be made2 nay1 some rude approach to the perception of a #8cycle of seasons' may possibly be obtainable4 ,but no person in his senses would alter his plans of conduct for six months in advance in the most trifling particular on the faith of any special prediction of a warm or a cold1 a wet or a dry1 a calm or a stormy1 summer or winter0--far less of a great storm or flood announced for any special day4 ,but let us see what the cycle association between solar spots and terrestrial weather actually is1 or rather of what nature it promises to be1 for as yet the true nature of the association has not been made out4 ,it has been found that in a period of about eleven years the sun's surface is affected by what may be described as a wave of sun-spots4 ,there is a short time--a year or so--during which scarce any spots are seen2 they become more and more numerous during the next four or five years1 until they attain a maximum of frequency and size2 after this they wane in number and dimensions1 until at length1 about eleven years from the time when he had before been freest from spots1 he attains again a similar condition4 ,after this the spots begin to return1 gradually attain to a maximum1 then gradually diminish1 until after eleven more years have elapsed few or none are seen4 ,it must not be supposed that the sun is always free from spots at the time of minimum spot frequency1 or that he always shows many and large spots at the time of maximum spot frequency4 ,occasionally several very large spots1 and sometimes singularly large spots1 have been seen in the very heart of the minimum spot season1 and again there have been occasions when scarcely any spots have been seen for several days in the very heart of the maximum spot season4 ,but1 taking the average of each year1 the progression of the spots in number and frequency from minimum to maximum1 and their decline from maximum to minimum1 are quite unmistakeable4 ,now there are some terrestrial phenomena which we might expect to respond in greater or less degree to the sun's changes of condition with respect to spots4 ,we cannot doubt that the emission both of light and of heat is affected by the presence of spots4 ,it is not altogether clear in what way the emission is affected4 ,we cannot at once assume that because the spots are dark the quantity of sunlight must be less when the spots are numerous2 for it may well be that the rest of the sun's surface may at such times be notably brighter than usual1 and the total emission of light may be greater on the whole instead of less4 ,similarly of the emission of heat4 ,it is certain that when there are many spots the surface of the sun is far less uniform in brightness than at other times4 ,the increase of brightness all round the spots is obvious to the eye when the sun's image1 duly enlarged1 is received upon a screen in a darkened room4 ,whether the total emission of light is increased or diminished has not yet been put to the test4 ,professor ,langley1 of the ,alleghany ,observatory1 near ,pittsburg1 ,u4,s41 has carefully measured the diminution of the sun's emission of light and heat on the assumption that the portion of the surface not marked by spots remains unchanged in lustre4 ,but until the total emission of light and heat at the times of maximum and minimum has been measured1 without any assumption of the kind1 we cannot decide the question4 ,more satisfactory would seem to be the measurements which have been made by ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth1 at ,edinburgh1 and later by the ,astronomer ,royal at ,greenwich1 into the underground temperature of the earth4 ,by examining the temperature deep down below the surface1 all local and temporary causes of change are eliminated1 and causes external to the earth can alone be regarded as effective in producing systematic changes4 8,the effect is very slight10 ,i wrote a few years ago1 8indeed barely recognizable4 ,i have before me as ,i write ,professor ,smyth's sheet of the quarterly temperatures from #ahcg to #ahfi at depths of #c1 #f1 #ab1 and #bd ,french feet4 ,of course the most remarkable feature1 even at the depth of #bd feet1 is the alternate rise and fall with the seasons4 ,but it is seen that1 while the range of rise and fall remains very nearly constant1 the crests and troughs of the waves lie at varying levels40 ,after describing in the essay above referred to1 which appears in my 8,science ,byways10 the actual configuration of the curves of temperature both for seasons and for years1 and the chart in which the sun-spot waves and the temperature waves are brought into comparison1 ,i was obliged to admit that the alleged association between the sun-spot period and the changes of underground temperature did not seem to me very clearly made out4 ,it appears1 however1 there is a slight increase of temperature at the time when the sun-spots are least numerous4 ,that the earth's magnetism is affected by the sun's condition with respect to spots1 seems to have been more clearly made out1 though it must be noted that the ,astronomer ,royal considers the ,greenwich magnetic observations inconsistent with this theory4 ,it seems to have been rendered at least extremely probable that the daily oscillation of the magnetic needle is greater when spots are numerous than when there are few spots or none4 ,magnetic storms are also more numerous at the time of maximum spot-frequency1 and auroras are then more common4 7,the reader will not fall into the mistake of supposing that magnetic storms have the remotest resemblance to hurricanes1 or rainstorms1 or hailstorms1 or even to thunderstorms1 though the thunderstorm is an electrical phenomenon4 ,what is meant by a magnetic storm is simply such a condition of the earth's frame that the magnetic currents traversing it are unusually strong47 ,thus far1 however1 we have merely considered relations which we might fairly expect to find affected by the sun's condition as to spots4 ,a slight change in his total brightness and in the total amount of heat emitted by him may naturally be looked for under circumstances which visibly affect the emission of light1 and presumably affect the emission of heat also1 from portions of his surface4 ,nor can we wonder if terrestrial magnetism1 which is directly dependent on the sun's emission of heat1 should be affected by the existence of spots upon his surface4 ,it is otherwise with the effects which have recently been associated with the sun's condition4 ,it may or may not prove actually to be the case that wind and rain vary in quantity as the sun-spots vary in number 7at least when we take in both cases the average for a year1 or for two or three years71 but it cannot be said that any such relation was antecedently to be expected4 ,when we consider what the sun actually does for our earth1 it seems unlikely that special effects such as these should depend on relatively minute peculiarities of the sun's surface4 ,there is our earth1 with her oceans and continents1 turning around swiftly on her axis1 and exposed to his rays as a whole4 ,or1 inverting the way of viewing matters1 there is the sun riding high in the heavens of any region of the earth1 pouring down his rays upon that region4 ,we can understand how in the one case that rotating orb of the earth may receive rather more or rather less heat from the sun when he is spotted than when he is not1 or how in the other way of viewing matters1 that orb of the sun may give to any region rather more or rather less heat according as his surface is more or less spotted4 ,but that in special regions of that rotating earth storms should be more or less frequent or rainfall heavier or lighter1 as the sun's condition changes through the exceedingly small range of variation due to the formation of spots1 seems antecedently altogether unlikely2 and equally unlikely the idea that peculiarities affecting limited regions of the sun's surface should affect appreciably the general condition of the earth4 ,if a somewhat homely comparison may be permitted1 we can well understand how a piece of meat roasting before a fire may receive a greater or less supply of heat on the whole as the fire undergoes slight local changes 7very slight indeed they must be1 that the illustration may be accurate72 but it would be extremely surprising if1 in consequence of such slight changes in the fire1 the roasting of particular portions of the joint were markedly accelerated or delayed1 or affected in any other special manner4 ,but of course all such considerations as to antecedent probabilities must give way before the actual evidence of observed facts4 ,utterly inconsistent with all that is yet known of the sun's physical action1 as it may seem1 on priori grounds1 to suppose that spots1 currents1 or other local disturbances of the sun's surface could produce any but general effects on the earth as a whole1 yet if we shall find that particular effects are produced in special regions of the earth's surface in cycles unmistakably synchronizing with the solar-spot-cycle1 we must accept the fact1 whether we can explain it or not4 ,only let it be remembered at the outset that the earth is a large place1 and the variations of wind and calm1 rain and drought1 are many and various in different regions4 ,whatever place we select for examining the rainfall1 for example1 we are likely to find1 in running over the records of the last thirty years or so1 some seemingly oscillatory changes2 in the records of the winds1 again1 we are likely to find other seemingly oscillatory changes2 if none of these records provide anything which seems in any way to correspond with the solar spot-cycle1 we may perchance find some such cycle in the relative rainfall of particular months1 or in the varying wetness or dryness of particular winds1 and so forth4 ,or1 if we utterly fail to find any such relation in one place we may find it in another1 or not improbably in half-a-dozen places among the hundreds which are available for the search4 ,if we are content with imperfect correspondence between some meteorological process or another and the solar-spot cycle1 we shall be exceedingly unfortunate indeed if we fail to find a score of illustrative instances4 ,and if we only record these1 without noticing any of the cases where we fail to find any association whatever--in other words1 as ,bacon puts it1 if 8we note when we hit and never note when we miss10 we shall be able to make what will seem a very strong case indeed4 ,but this is not exactly the scientific method in such cases4 ,by following such a course1 indeed1 we might prove almost anything4 ,if we take1 for instance1 a pack of cards1 and regard the cards in order as corresponding to the years #ahbe to #ahgg1 and note their colours as dealt once1 we shall find it very difficult to show that there is any connection whatever between the colours of the cards corresponding to particular years and the number of spots on the sun's face4 ,but if we repeat the process a thousand times1 we shall find certain instances among the number1 in which red suits correspond to all the years when there are many spots on the sun1 and black suits to all the years when there are few spots on the sun4 ,if now we were to publish all such deals1 without mentioning anything at all about the others which showed no such association1 we should go far to convince a certain section of the public that the condition of the sun as to spots might hereafter be foretold by the cards2 whence1 if the public were already satisfied that the condition of the sun specially affects the weather of particular places1 it would follow that the future weather of these places might also be foretold by the cards4 ,i mention this matter at the outset1 because many who are anxious to find some such cycle of seasons as ,sir ,john ,herschel thought might be discovered1 have somewhat overlooked the fact that we must not hunt down such a cycle per fas et nefas4 8,surely in meteorology as in astronomy10 ,mr4 ,lockyer writes1 for instance1 8the thing to hunt down is a cycle1 and if that is not to be found in the temperate zone1 then go to the frigid zones or the torrid zone to look for it2 and if found1 then above all things and in whatever manner1 lay hold of1 study1 and read it1 and see what it means40 ,there can be no doubt that this is the way to find a cycle1 or at least to find what looks like a cycle1 but the worth of a cycle found in this way will be very questionable4#g ,i would not have it understood1 however1 that ,i consider all the cycles now to be referred to as unreal1 or even that the supposed connection between them and the solar cycle has no existence4 ,i only note that there are thousands1 if not tens of thousands1 of relations among which cycles may be looked for1 and that there are perhaps twenty or thirty cases in which some sort of cyclic association between certain meteorological relations and the period of the solar spots presents itself4 ,according to the recognized laws of probability1 some at least amongst these cases must be regarded as accidental4 ,some1 however1 may still remain which are not accidental4 ,among the earliest published instances may be mentioned ,mr4 ,baxendell's recognition of the fact that during a certain series of years1 about thirty1 ,i think1 the amount of rainfall at ,oxford was greater under west and south-west winds than under south and south-east winds when sun-spots were most numerous1 whereas the reverse held in years when there were no spots or few4 ,examining the meteorological records of ,st4 ,petersburg1 he found that a contrary state of things prevailed there4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,main1 ,director of the ,radcliffe ,observatory at ,oxford1 found that westerly winds were slightly more common 7as compared with other winds7 when sun-spots were numerous than when they were few4 ,mr4 ,meldrum1 of ,mauritius1 has made a series of statistical inquiries into the records of cyclones which have traversed the ,indian ,ocean between the equator and #cd degrees south latitude1 in each year from #ahef to #ahgg1 noting the total distances traversed by each1 the sums of their radii and areas1 their duration in days1 the sums of their total areas1 and their relative areas4 ,his researches1 be it marked in passing1 are of extreme interest and value1 whether the suggested connection between sun-spots and cyclones 7in the region specified7 be eventually found to be a real one or not4 ,the following are his results1 as described in ,nature by a writer who manifestly favours very strongly the doctrine that an intimate association exists between solar maculation 7or spottiness7 and terrestrial meteorological phenomena3-- 8,the period embraces two complete1 or all but complete1 sun-spot periods1 the former beginning with #ahef and ending in #ahfg1 and the latter extending from #ahfg to about the present time #ahgg4 ,the broad result is that the number of cyclones1 the length and duration of their courses1 and the extent of the earth's surface covered by them all1 reach the maximum in each sun-spot period during the years of maximum maculation1 and fall to the minimum during the years of minimum maculation4 ,the peculiar value of these results lies in the fact that the portion of the earth's surface over which this investigation extends1 is1 from its geographical position and what may be termed its meteorological homogeneity1 singularly well fitted to bring out prominently any connection that may exist between the condition of the sun's surface and atmospheric phenomena40 ,the writer proceeds to describe an instance in which ,mr4 ,meldrum predicted future meteorological phenomena1 though without specifying the exact extent to which ,mr4 ,meldrum's anticipations were fulfilled or the reverse4 8,a drought commenced in ,mauritius early in ,november10 he says1 8and ,mr4 ,meldrum ventured 7on ,december #ba7 to express publicly his opinion that probably the drought would not break up till towards the end of ,january1 and that it might last till the middle of ,february1 adding that up to these dates the rainfall of the island would probably not exceed #ej per cent4 of the mean fall4 ,this opinion was an inference grounded on past observations1 which show that former droughts have lasted from about three to three and a half months1 and that these droughts have occurred in the years of minimum sun-spots1 or1 at all events1 in years when the spots were far below the average1 such as #ahdb1 #ahdc1 #ahee1 #ahef1 #ahfd1 #ahff1 and #ahfg1 and that now we are near the minimum epoch of sun-spots4 ,it was further stated that the probability of rains being brought earlier by a cyclone was but slight1 seeing that the season for cyclones is not till ,february or ,march1 and that no cyclone whatever visited ,mauritius during #ahec-ef and #ahfd-fg1 the years of minimum sun-spots4 ,from the immense practical importance of this application of the connection between sun-spots and weather to the prediction of the character of the weather of the ensuing season1 we shall look forward with the liveliest interest to a detailed statement of the weather which actually occurred in that part of the ,indian ,ocean from ,november to ,march last #ahgf40 ,it was natural that the great ,indian famine1 occurring at a time when sun-spots were nearly at a minimum1 should by some be directly associated with a deficiency of sun-spots4 ,in this country1 indeed1 we have had little reason1 during the last two or three years of few sun-spots1 to consider that drought is one of the special consequences to be attributed to deficient solar maculation4 ,but in ,india it may be different1 or at least it may be different in ,madras1 for it has been satisfactorily proved that in some parts of ,india the rainfall increases in inverse1 not in direct proportion1 to the extent of solar maculation4 ,dr4 ,hunter has shown to the satisfaction of many that at ,madras there is 8a cycle of rainfall corresponding with the period of solar maculation40 ,but ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,archibald1 who is also thoroughly satisfied that the sun-spots affect the weather1 remarks that ,dr4 ,hunter has been somewhat hasty in arguing that the same conditions apply throughout the whole of ,southern ,india4 8,this hasty generalization from the results of one station situated in a vast continent1 the rainfall of which varies completely1 both in amount and the season in which it falls1 according to locality1 has been strongly contested by ,mr4 ,blanford1 the ,government ,meteorologist1 who1 in making a careful comparison of the rainfalls of seven stations1 three of which 7,madras1 ,bangalore1 and ,mysore7 are in ,southern ,india1 the others being ,bombay1 ,najpore1 ,jubbulpore1 and ,calcutta1 finds that1 with the exception of ,najpore in ,central ,india1 which shows some slight approach to the same cyclical variation which is so distinctly marked in the ,madras registers1 the rest of the stations form complete exceptions to the rule adduced for ,madras1 in many of them the hypothetical order of relation being reversed4 ,mr4 ,blanford1 however1 shows that1 underlying the above irregularities1 a certain cyclical variation exists on the average at all the stations1 the amount1 nevertheless1 being so insignificant 7not more than #i per cent4 of the total falls7 that it could not be considered of sufficient magnitude to become a direct factor in the production of famine4 ,it thus appears that the cycle of rainfall which is considered to be the most important element in causing periodic famines has only been proved satisfactorily for the town of ,madras4 ,it may perhaps hold for the ,carnatic and ,northern ,siccars1 the country immediately surrounding ,madras1 though perhaps1 owing to the want of rainfall registers in these districts1 evidence with regard to this part is still wanting40 ,on this ,mr4 ,archibald proceeds to remark that1 though ,dr4 ,hunter has been only partially successful1 the value of his able pamphlet is not diminished in any way1 8an indirect effect of which has been to stimulate meteorological inquiry and research in the same direction throughout ,india4 ,the meteorology of this country 7,india71 from its peculiar and tropical position1 is in such complete unison with any changes that may arise from oscillations in the amount of solar radiation1 and their effects upon the velocity and direction of the vapour-bearing winds1 that a careful study of it cannot fail to discover meteorological periodicities in close connection with corresponding periods of solar disturbance40 ,so1 indeed1 it would seem4 ,the hope that famines may be abated1 or1 at least1 some of their most grievous consequences forestalled by means of solar observatories1 does not appear very clearly made out4 ,rather it would seem that the proper thing to do is to investigate the meteorological records of different ,indian regions1 and consider the resulting evidence of cyclic changes without any special reference to sun-spots2 for if sun-spots may cause drought in one place1 heavy rainfall in another1 winds here and calms there1 it seems conceivable that the effects of sun-spots may differ at different times1 as they manifestly do in different places4 ,let us turn1 however1 from famines to shipwrecks4 ,perhaps1 if we admit that cyclones are more numerous1 and blow more fiercely1 and range more widely1 even though it be over one large oceanic region only1 in the sun-spot seasons than at other times1 we may be assured1 without further research1 that shipwrecks will1 on the whole1 be more numerous near the time of sun-spot maxima than near the time of sun-spot minima4 ,the idea that this may be so was vaguely shadowed forth in a poem of many stanzas1 called 8,the ,meteorology of the ,future3 a ,vision10 which appeared in ,nature for ,july #e1 #ahgg4 ,i do not profess to understand precisely what the object of this poem may have been---,i mean1 whether it is intended to support or not the theory that sun-spots influence the weather4 ,several stanzas are very humorous1 but the object of the humour is not manifest4 ,the part referred to above is as follows3--,poor ,jack lies at the bottom of the sea in #ahha1 and is asked in a spiritual way various questions as to the cause of his thus coming to grief4 ,this he attributed to the rottenness of the ship in which he sailed1 to the jobbery of the inspector1 to the failure of the system of weather telegraphing1 and so forth4 ,but1 says the questioner1 there was one 8,in fame to none will yield1 ,he led the band who reaped renown ,on ,india's famine field4 8,was he the man to see thee die8 ,thou wilt not tax him--come8 ,the dead man groaned--#8,i met my death ,through a sun-spot maximum4'0 ,the first definite enunciation1 however1 of a relation between sun-spots and shipwrecks appeared in ,september1 #ahgf4 ,mr4 ,henry ,jeula1 in the ,times for ,september #ai1 stated that ,dr4 ,hunter's researches into the ,madras rainfall had led him to throw together the scanty materials available relating to losses posted on ,lloyd's loss book1 to ascertain if any coincidences existed between the varying number of such losses and ,dr4 ,hunter's results4 8,for10 he proceeds1 8since the cycle of rainfall at ,madras coincides1 ,i am informed1 with the periodicity of the cyclones in the adjoining ,bay of ,bengal0 7a relation which is more than doubtful7 8as worked out by the ,government ,astronomer at ,mauritius0 7whose researches1 however1 as we have seen1 related to a region remote from the ,bay of ,bengal71 8some coincidence between maritime casualties1 rainfalls1 and sun-spots appeared at least possible40 ,in passing1 ,i may note that if any such relation were established1 it would be only an extension of the significance of the cycle of cyclones1 and could have no independent value4 ,it would certainly follow1 if the cycle of cyclones is made out1 that shipwrecks being more numerous1 merchants would suffer1 and we should have the influence of the solar spots asserting itself in the ,gazette4 ,from the cyclic derangement of monetary and mercantile matters1 again1 other relations also cyclic in character would arise4 ,but as all these may be inferred from the cycle of cyclones once this is established1 we could scarcely find in their occurrence fresh evidence of the necessity of that much begged-for solar observatory4 ,the last great monetary panic in this country1 by the way1 occurred in #ahff1 at a time of minimum solar maculation4 ,have we here a decisive proof that the sun rules the money market1 the bank rate of discount rising to a maximum as the sun-spots sink to a minimum1 and vice vers8 ,the idea is strengthened by the fact that the ,american panic in #ahgc occurred when spots were very numerous1 and its effects have steadily subsided as the spots have diminished in number2 for this shows that the sun rules the money market in ,america on a principle diametrically opposed to that on which he 7manifestly7 rules the money market in ,england1 precisely as the spots cause drought in ,calcutta and plenteous rainfall at ,madras1 wet south-westers and dry south-westers at ,oxford1 and wet south-easters and dry south-easters at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,surely it would be unreasonable to refuse to recognize the weight of evidence which thus tells on both sides at once4 ,to return1 however1 to the sun's influence upon shipwrecks4 ,mr4 ,jeula was 8only able to obtain data for two complete cycles of eleven years1 namely1 from #ahee to #ahgf inclusive1 while the period investigated by ,dr4 ,hunter extended from #ahac to #ahgf1 and his observations related to ,madras and its neighbourhood only1 while the losses posted at ,lloyd's occurred to vessels of various countries1 and happened in different parts of the world4 ,it was necessary to bring these losses to some common basis of comparison1 and the only available one was the number of #8,british registered vessels of the ,united ,kingdom and ,channel ,islands'--manifestly an arbitrary one4 ,i consequently cast out the percentage of losses posted each year upon the number of registered vessels for the same year1 and also the percentage of losses posted in each of the eleven years of the two cycles upon the total posted in each complete cycle1 thus obtaining two bases of comparison independent of each other40 ,the results may be thus presented3-- ,taking the four years of each cycle when sun-spots were least in number1 ,mr4 ,jeula found the mean percentage of losses in registered vessels of the ,united ,kingdom and ,channel ,islands to be #aaac1 and the mean percentage of losses in the total posted in the entire cycle of eleven years to be #hfd4 ,in the four years when sun-spots were intermediate in number1 that is in two years following the minimum and in two years preceding the minimum1 the respective percentages were #aaia and #iba4 ,lastly1 in the three years when sun-spots were most numerous1 these percentages were1 respectively1 #abdi and #iec4 ,that the reader may more clearly understand what is meant here by percentages1 ,i explain that while the numbers #aaac1 #aaia and #abdi simply indicate the average number of wrecks 7per hundred of all the ships registered7 which occurred in the several years of the eleven-years cycle1 the other numbers1 #hfd1 #aiba1 and #iec1 indicate the average number of wrecks 7per hundred of wrecks recorded7 during eleven successive years1 which occurred in the several years of the cycle4 ,the latter numbers seem more directly to the purpose2 and as the two sets agree pretty closely1 we may limit our attention to them4 ,now ,i would in the first place point out that it would have been well if the actual number or percentage had been indicated for each year of the cycle1 instead of for periods of four years1 four years1 and three years4 ,two eleven-year cycles give in any case but meagre evidence1 and it would have been well if the evidence had been given as fully as possible4 ,if we had a hundred eleven-yearly cycles1 and took the averages of wrecks for the four years of minimum solar maculation1 the four intermediate years1 and the three years of maximum maculation1 we might rely with considerable confidence on the result1 because accidental peculiarities one way or the other could be eliminated4 ,but in two cycles only1 such peculiarities may entirely mask any cyclic relation really existing1 and appear to indicate a relation which has no real existence4 ,if the percentages had been given for each year1 the effect of such peculiarities would doubtless still remain1 and the final result would not be more trustworthy than before2 but we should have a chance of deciding whether such peculiarities really exist or not1 and also of determining what their nature may be4 ,as an instance in point1 let me cite a case where1 having only the results of a single cycle1 we can so arrange them as to appear to indicate a cyclic association between sun-spots and rainfall1 while1 when we give them year by year1 such an association is discredited1 to say the least4 ,the total rainfall at ,port ,louis1 between the years #ahee and #ahfh inclusive1 is as follows3-- ,in ,rainfall4 ,condition of ,sun4 #ahee #dbffe inches ,sun-spot minimum4 #ahef #dfbcj #aheg #dcdde #aheh #ceejf #ahei #efhge #ahfj #deaff ,sun-spot maximum4 #ahfa #fhgcc #ahfb #bhcig #ahfc #ccdbj #ahfd #bdadg #ahfe #ddgcj #ahff #bjega ,sun-spot minimum4 #ahfg #ceigj #ahfh #fdahj ,illustration ,i think no one1 looking at these numbers as they stand1 can recognize any evidence of a cyclic tendency4 ,if we represent the rainfall by ordinates we get the accompanying figure1 which shows the rainfall for eighteen years1 and again ,i think it may be said that a very lively imagination is required to recognize anything resembling that wave-like undulation which the fundamental law of statistics requires where a cycle is to be made out from a single oscillation4 ,certainly the agreement between the broken curve of rainfall and the sun-spot curve indicated by the waved dotted line is not glaringly obvious4 ,but when we strike an average for the rainfall1 in the way adopted by ,mr4 ,jeula for shipwrecks1 how pleasantly is the theory of sun-spot influence illustrated by the ,port ,louis rainfall6 ,here is the result1 as quoted by the high-priest of the new order of diviners1 from the papers by ,mr4 ,meldrum3-- ,three minimum years--total rainfall #acccdj ,three maximum years--total rainfall #agjggd ,three minimum years--total rainfall #abjgba ,nothing could be more satisfactory1 but nothing1 ,i venture to assert1 more thoroughly inconsistent with the true method of statistical research4 ,may it not be that1 underlying the broad results presented by ,mr4 ,jeula1 there are similar irregularities8 ,when we consider that the loss of ships depends1 not only on a cause so irregularly variable 7to all seeming7 as wind-storms1 but also on other matters liable to constant change1 as the variations in the state of trade1 the occurrence of wars and rumours of wars1 special events1 such as international exhibitions1 and so forth1 we perceive that an even wider range of survey is required to remove the effects of accidental peculiarities in their case1 than in the case of rainfall1 cyclones1 or the like4 ,i cannot but think1 for instance1 that the total number of ships lost in divers ways during the ,american war1 and especially in its earlier years 7corresponding with two of the three maximum years of sun-spots7 may have been greater1 not merely absolutely but relatively1 than in other years4 ,i think it conceivable1 again1 that during the depression following the great commercial panic of #ahff 7occurring at a time of minimum solar maculation1 as already noticed7 the loss of ships may have been to some degree reduced1 relatively as well as absolutely4 ,we know that when trade is unusually active many ships have sailed1 and perhaps may still be allowed to sail 7despite ,mr4 ,plimsoll's endeavours71 which should have been broken up2 whereas in times of trade depression the ships actually afloat are likely to be1 on the average1 of a better class4 ,so also1 when1 for some special reason1 passenger traffic at sea is abnormally increased4 ,i merely mention these as illustrative cases of causes not 7probably7 dependent on sun-spots1 which may 7not improbably7 have affected the results examined by ,mr4 ,jeula4 ,i think it possible that those results1 if presented for each year1 would have indicated the operation of such causes1 naturally masked when sets of four years1 four years1 and three years are taken instead of single years4 ,i imagine that considerations such as these will have to be taken into account and disposed of before it will be unhesitatingly admitted that sun-spots have any great effect in increasing the number of shipwrecks4 ,the advocates of the doctrine of sun-spot influence--or1 perhaps it would be more correct to say1 the advocates of the endowment of sun-spot research--think differently on these and other points4 ,each one of the somewhat doubtful relations discussed above is constantly referred to by them as a demonstrated fact1 and a demonstrative proof of the theory they advocate4 ,for instance1 ,mr4 ,lockyer1 in referring to ,meldrum's statistical researches into the frequency of cyclones1 does not hesitate to assert that according to these researches 8the whole question of cyclones is merely a question of solar activity1 and that if we wrote down in one column the number of cyclones in any given year1 and in another column the number of sun-spots in any given year1 there will be a strict relation between them--many sun-spots1 many hurricanes2 few sun-spots1 few hurricanes40 444 ,and again1 8,mr4 ,meldrum has since found0 7not merely 8has since found reason to believe10 but definitely1 8has since found07 8that what is true of the storms which devastate the ,indian ,ocean is true of the storms which devastate the ,west ,indies2 and on referring to the storms of the ,indian ,ocean1 ,mr4 ,meldrum points out that at those years where we have been quietly mapping the sun-spot maxima1 the harbours were filled with wrecks1 and vessels coming in disabled from every part of the ,indian ,ocean40 ,again1 ,mr4 ,balfour ,stewart accepts ,mr4 ,jeula's statistics confidently as demonstrating that there are most shipwrecks during periods of maximum solar activity4 ,nor are the advocates of the new method of prediction at all doubtful as to the value of these relations in affording the basis of a system of prediction4 ,they do not tell us precisely how we are to profit by the fact1 if fact it is1 that cyclones and shipwrecks mark the time of maximum solar maculation1 and droughts and famine the time of minimum4 8,if we can manage to get at these things10 says ,mr4 ,lockyer1 8the power of prediction1 that power which would be the most useful one in meteorology1 if we could only get at it1 would be within our grasp40 ,and ,mr4 ,balfour ,stewart1 in a letter to the ,times1 says1 8,if we are on the track of a discovery which will in time enable us to foretell the cycle of droughts1 public opinion should demand that the investigation be prosecuted with redoubled vigour and under better conditions4 ,if forewarned be forearmed1 then such research will ultimately conduce to the saving of life both at times of maximum and minimum sun-spot frequency40 ,if these hopes are really justified by the facts of the case1 it would be well that the matter should be as quickly as possible put to the test4 ,no one would be so heartless1 ,i think1 as to reject1 through an excess of scientific caution1 a scheme which might issue in the saving of many lives from famine or from shipwreck4 ,and on the other hand1 no one1 ,i think1 would believe so ill of his fellow-men as to suppose for one moment that advantage could be taken of the sympathies which have been aroused by the ,indian famine1 or which may from time to time be excited by the record of great disasters by sea and land1 to advocate bottomless schemes merely for purposes of personal advancement4 ,we must now1 perforce1 believe that those who advocate the erection of new observatories and laboratories for studying the physics of the sun1 have the most thorough faith in the scheme which they proffer to save our ,indian population from famine and our seamen from shipwreck4 ,but they1 on the other hand1 should now also believe that those who have described the scheme as entirely hopeless1 do really so regard it4 ,if we exonerate them from the charge of responding to an appeal for food by offering spectroscopes1 they in turn should exonerate us from the charge of denying spectroscopes to the starving millions of ,india though knowing well that the spectroscopic track leads straight to safety4 ,i must acknowledge ,i cannot for my own part see even that small modicum of hope in the course suggested which would suffice to justify its being followed4 ,in my opinion1 one ounce of rice would be worth more 7simply because it would be worth something7 than ten thousand tons of spectroscopes4 ,for what1 in the first place1 has been shown as to the connection between meteorological phenomena and sun-spots8 ,supposing we grant1 and it is granting a great deal1 that all the cycles referred to have been made out4 ,they one and all affect averages only4 ,the most marked among them can so little be trusted in detail that while the maximum of sun-spots agrees in the main with an excess or defect of rain or wind1 or of special rains with special winds1 or the like1 the actual year of maximum may present the exact reverse4 ,of what use can it be to know1 for instance1 that the three years of least solar maculation will probably give a rainfall less than that for the preceding or following three years1 if the middle year of the three1 when the spots are most numerous of all1 may haply show plenteous rainfall8 ,or it may be the first of the three1 or the last1 which is thus well supplied1 while a defect in the other two1 or in one of the others1 brings the total triennial rainfall below the average4 ,what provision could possibly be made under such circumstances to meet a contingency which may occur in any one of three years8 or1 at least1 what provision could be made which would prove nearly so effective as an arrangement which could readily be made for keeping sufficient ,government stores at suitable stations 7that is1 never allowing such stores to fall at the critical season in each year below a certain minimum71 and sending early telegraphic information of unfavourable weather8 ,does any one suppose that the solar rice-grains are better worth watching for such a purpose than the terrestrial rice-grains1 or that it is not well within the resources of modern science and modern means of communication and transport1 to make sufficient preparation each year for a calamity always possible in ,india8 ,and be it noticed that if1 on the one hand1 believers in solar safety from famine may urge that1 in thus objecting to their scheme1 ,i am opposing what might1 in some year of great famine and small sun-spots1 save the lives of a greater number than would be saved by any system of terrestrial watchfulness1 ,i would point out1 on the other1 that the solar scheme1 if it means anything at all1 means special watchfulness at the minimum sun-spot season1 and general confidence 7so far as famine is concerned7 at the season of maximum solar maculation2 and that while as yet nothing has been really proved about the connection between sun-spots and famine1 such confidence might prove to be a very dangerous mistake4 ,supposing even it were not only proved that sun-spots exert such and such effects1 but that this knowledge can avail to help us to measures of special precaution1 how is the study of the sun going to advance our knowledge8 ,in passing1 let it be remarked that already an enormous number of workers are engaged in studying the sun in every part of the world4 ,the sun is watched on every fine day1 in every quarter of the earth1 with the telescope1 analyzed with the spectroscope1 his prominences counted and measured1 his surface photographed1 and so forth4 ,what more ought to be or could be done8 ,but that is not the main point4 ,if more could be done1 what could be added to our knowledge which would avail in the way of prediction8 8,at present10 says ,mr4 ,balfour ,stewart1 8the problem has not been pursued on a sufficiently large scale or in a sufficient number of places4 ,if the attack is to be continued1 the skirmishers should give way to heavy guns1 and these should be brought to bear without delay now that the point of attack is known40 ,in other words1 now that we know1 according to the advocates of these views1 that meteorological phenomena follow roughly the great solar-spot period1 we should prosecute the attack in this direction1 in order to find out--what8 ,minor periods1 perhaps1 with which meteorological phenomena may still more roughly synchronize4 ,other such periods are already known with which meteorological phenomena have never yet been associated4 ,new details of the sun's surface8 ,no one has yet pretended that any of the details already known1 except the spots1 affect terrestrial weather1 and the idea that peculiarities so minute as hitherto to have escaped detection can do so1 is as absurd1 on the face of it1 as the supposition that minute details in the structure of a burning coal1 such details as could only be detected by close scrutiny1 can affect the general quality and effects of the heat transmitted by the coal1 as part of a large fire1 to the further side of a large room4 ,lastly1 ,i would urge this general argument against a theory which seems to me to have even less to recommend it to acceptance than the faith in astrology4#h ,if it requires1 as we are so strongly assured1 the most costly observations1 the employment of the heaviest guns 7and 8great guns0 are generally expensive71 twenty or thirty years of time1 and the closest scrutiny and research1 to prove that sun-spots affect terrestrial relations in a definite manner1 effects so extremely difficult to demonstrate cannot possibly be important enough to be worth predicting4 ,,new ,,ways ,,of ,,measuring ,,the ,,sun',s ,,distance4 ,it is strange that the problem of determining the sun's distance1 which for many ages was regarded as altogether insoluble1 and which even during later years had seemed fairly solvable in but one or two ways1 should be found1 on closer investigation1 to admit of many methods of solution4 ,if astronomers should only be as fortunate hereafter in dealing with the problem of determining the distances of the stars1 as they have been with the question of the sun's distance1 we may hope for knowledge respecting the structure of the universe such as even the ,herschels despaired of our ever gaining4 ,yet this problem of determining star-distances does not seem more intractable1 now1 than the problem of measuring the sun's distance appeared only two centuries ago4 ,if we rightly view the many methods devised for dealing with the easier task1 we must admit that the more difficult--which1 by the way1 is in reality infinitely the more interesting--cannot be regarded as so utterly hopeless as1 with our present methods and appliances1 it appears to be4 ,true1 we know only the distances of two or three stars1 approximately1 and have means of forming a vague opinion about the distances of only a dozen others1 or thereabouts1 while at distances now immeasurable lie six thousand stars visible to the eye1 and twenty millions within range of the telescope4 ,yet1 in ,galileo's time1 men might have argued similarly against all hope of measuring the proportions of the solar system4 8,we know only10 they might have urged1 8the distance of the moon1 our immediate neighbour1--beyond her1 at distances so great that hers1 so far as we can judge1 is by comparison almost as nothing1 lie the ,sun and ,mercury1 ,venus and ,mars2 further away yet lie ,jupiter and ,saturn1 and possibly other planets1 not visible to the naked eye1 but within range of that wonderful instrument1 the telescope1 which our ,galileo and others are using so successfully4 ,what hope can there be1 when the exact measurement of the moon's distance has so fully taxed our powers of celestial measurement1 that we can ever obtain exact information respecting the distances of the sun and planets8 ,by what method is a problem so stupendous to be attacked80 ,yet1 within a few years of that time1 ,kepler had formed already a rough estimate of the distance of the sun2 in #afci1 young ,horrocks pointed to a method which has since been successfully applied4 ,before the end of the seventeenth century ,cassini and ,flamsteed had approached the solution of the problem more nearly1 while ,hailey had definitely formulated the method which bears his name4 ,long before the end of the eighteenth century it was certainly known that the sun's distance lies between #he millions of miles and #ih millions 7,kepler1 ,cassini1 and ,flamsteed had been unable to indicate any superior limit74 ,and lastly1 in our own time1 half a score of methods1 each subdivisible into several forms1 have been applied to the solution of this fundamental problem of observational astronomy4 ,i propose now to sketch some new and very promising methods1 which have been applied already with a degree of success arguing well for the prospects of future applications of the methods under more favourable conditions4 ,in the first place1 let us very briefly consider the methods which had been before employed1 in order that the proper position of the new methods may be more clearly recognized4 ,the plan obviously suggested at the outset for the solution of the problem was simply to deal with it as a problem of surveying4 ,it was in such a manner that the moon's distance had been found1 and the only difficulty in applying the method to the sun or to any planet consisted in the delicacy of the observations required4 ,the earth being the only surveying-ground available to astronomers in dealing with this problem 7in dealing with the problem of the stars' distances they have a very much wider field of operations71 it was necessary that a base-line should be measured on this globe of ours1--large enough compared with our small selves1 but utterly insignificant compared with the dimensions of the solar system4 ,the diameter of the earth being less than #hjjj miles1 the longest line which the observers could take for base scarcely exceeded #fjjj miles2 since observations of the same celestial object at opposite ends of a diameter necessarily imply that the object is in the horizon of both the observing stations 7for precisely the same reason that two cords stretched from the ends of any diameter of a ball to a distant point touch the ball at those ends74 ,but the sun's distance being some #ib millions of miles1 a base of #fjjj miles amounts to less than the #ae1jjjth part of the distance to be measured4 ,conceive a surveyor endeavouring to determine the distance of a steeple or rock #ae1jjj feet1 or nearly three miles1 from him1 with a base-line one foot in length1 and you can conceive the task of astronomers who should attempt to apply the direct surveying method to determine the sun's distance1--at least1 you have one of their difficulties strikingly illustrated1 though a number of others remain which the illustration does not indicate4 ,for1 after all1 a base one foot in length1 though far too short1 is a convenient one in many respects3 the observer can pass from one end to the other without trouble--he looks at the distant object under almost exactly the same conditions from each end1 and so forth4 ,a base #fjjj miles long for determining the sun's distance is too short in precisely the same degree1 but it is assuredly not so convenient a base for the observer4 ,a giant #cf1jjj miles high would find it as convenient as a surveyor six feet high would find a one foot base-line2 but astronomers1 as a rule1 are less than #cf1jjj miles in height4 ,accordingly the same observer cannot work at both ends of the base-line1 and they have to send out expeditions to occupy each station4 ,all the circumstances of temperature1 atmosphere1 personal observing qualities1 etc41 are unlike at the two ends of the base-line4 ,the task of measuring the sun's distance directly is1 in fact1 at present beyond the power of observational astronomy1 wonderfully though its methods have developed in accuracy4 ,we all know how1 by observations of ,venus in transit1 the difficulty has been so far reduced that trustworthy results have been obtained4 ,such observations belong to the surveying method1 only ,venus's distance is made the object of measurement instead of the sun's4 ,the sun serves simply as a sort of dial-plate1 ,venus's position while in transit across this celestial dial-plate being more easily measured than when she is at large upon the sky4 ,the devices by which ,halley and ,delisle severally caused time to be the relation observed1 instead of position1 do not affect the general principle of the transit method4 ,it remains dependent on the determination of position4 ,precisely as by the change of the position of the hands of a clock on the face we measure time1 so by the transit method1 as ,halley and ,delisle respectively suggested its use1 we determine ,venus's position on the sun's face1 by observing the difference of the time she takes in crossing1 or the difference of the time at which she begins to cross1 or passes off1 his face4 ,besides the advantage of having a dial-face like the sun's on which thus to determine positions1 the transit method deals with ,venus when at her nearest1 or about #be million miles from us1 instead of the sun at his greater distance of from #ij to #ic millions of miles4 ,yet we do not get the entire advantage of this relative proximity of ,venus4 ,for the dial-face--the sun1 that is--changes its position too--in less degree than ,venus changes hers1 but still so much as largely to reduce her seeming displacement4 ,the sun being further away as #ib to #be1 is less displaced as #be to #ib4 ,venus's displacement is thus diminished by #be_/ibnds of its full amount1 leaving only #fg_/ibnds4 ,practically1 then1 the advantage of observing ,venus1 so far as distance is concerned1 is the same as though1 instead of being at a distance of only #be million miles1 her distance were greater as #ib to #fg1 giving as her effective distance when in transit some #cd1cjj1jjj miles4 ,all the methods of observing ,venus in transit are affected in this respect4 ,astronomers were not content during the recent transit to use ,halley's and ,delisle's two time methods 7which may be conveniently called the duration method and the epoch method71 but endeavoured to determine the position of ,venus on the sun's face directly1 both by observation and by photography4 ,the heliometer was the instrument specially used for the former purpose2 and as1 in one of the new methods to be presently described1 this is the most effective of all available instruments1 a few words as to its construction will not be out of place4 ,the heliometer1 then1 is a telescope whose object-glass 7that is1 the large glass at the end towards the object observed7 is divided into two halves along a diameter4 ,when these two halves are exactly together--that is1 in the position they had before the glass was divided--of course they show any object to which they may be directed precisely as they would have done before the glass was cut4 ,but if1 without separating the straight edges of the two semicircular glasses1 one be made to slide along the other1 the images formed by the two no longer coincide4#i ,thus1 if we are looking at the sun we see two overlapping discs1 and by continuing to turn the screw or other mechanism which carries our half-circular glass past the other1 the disc-images of the sun may be brought entirely clear of each other4 ,then we have two suns in the same field of view1 seemingly in contact1 or nearly so4 ,now1 if we have some means of determining how far the movable half-glass has been carried past the other to bring the two discs into apparently exact contact1 we have1 in point of fact1 a measure of the sun's apparent diameter4 ,we can improve this estimate by carrying back the movable glass till the images coincide again1 then further back till they separate the other way and finally are brought into contact on that side4 ,the entire range1 from contact on one side to contact on the other side1 gives twice the entire angular span of the sun's diameter2 and the half of this is more likely to be the true measure of the diameter1 than the range from coincident images to contact either way1 simply because instrumental errors are likely to be more evenly distributed over the double motion than over the movement on either side of the central position4 ,the heliometer derived its name--which signifies sun-measurer--from this particular application of the instrument4 ,it is easily seen how the heliometer was made available in determining the position of ,venus at any instant during transit4 ,the observer could note what displacement of the two half-glasses was necessary to bring the black disc of ,venus on one image of the sun to the edge of the other image1 first touching on the inside and then on the outside4 ,then1 reversing the motion1 he could carry her disc to the opposite edge of the other image of the sun1 first touching on the inside and then on the outside4 ,lord ,lindsay's private expedition--one of the most munificent and also one of the most laborious contributions to astronomy ever made--was the only ,english expedition which employed the heliometer1 none of our public observatories possessing such an instrument1 and official astronomers being unwilling to ask ,government to provide instruments so costly4 ,the ,germans1 however1 and the ,russians employed the heliometer very effectively4 ,next in order of proximity1 for the employment of the direct surveying method1 is the planet ,mars when he comes into opposition 7or on the same line as the earth and sun7 in the order ,sun,earth,mars1 at a favourable part of his considerably eccentric orbit4 ,his distance then may be as small as #cd millions of miles2 and we have in his case to make no reduction for the displacement of the background on which his place is to be determined4 ,that background is the star sphere1 his place being measured from that of stars near which his apparent path on the heavens carries him2 and the stars are so remote that the displacement due to a distance of six or seven thousand miles between two observers on the earth is to all intents and purposes nothing4 ,the entire span of the earth's orbit round the sun1 though amounting to #ahd millions of miles1 is a mere point as seen from all save ten or twelve stars2 how utterly evanescent1 then1 the span of the earth's globe--less than the #bc1jjjth part of her orbital range6 ,thus the entire displacement of ,mars due to the distance separating the terrestrial observers comes into effect4 ,so that1 in comparing the observation of ,mars in a favourable opposition with that of ,venus in transit1 we may fairly say that1 so far as surveying considerations are concerned1 the two planets are equally well suited for the astronomer's purpose4 ,venus's less distance of #be millions of miles is effectively increased to #cd millions by the displacement of the solar background on which we see her when in transit2 while ,mars's distance of about #cd millions of miles remains effectively the same when we measure his displacement from neighbouring fixed stars4 ,but in many respects ,mars is superior to ,venus for the purpose of determining the sun's distance4 ,venus can only be observed at her nearest when in transit1 and transit lasts but a few hours4 ,mars can be observed night after night for a fortnight or so1 during which his distance still remains near enough to the least or opposition distance4 ,again1 ,venus being observed on the sun1 all the disturbing influences due to the sun's heat are at work in rendering the observation difficult4 ,the air between us and the sun at such a time is disturbed by undulations due in no small degree to the sun's action4 ,it is true that we have not1 in the case of ,mars1 any means of substituting time measures or time determinations for measures of position1 as we have in ,venus's case1 both with ,halley's and ,delisle's methods4 ,but to say the truth1 the advantage of substituting these time observations has not proved so great as was expected4 ,venus's unfortunate deformity of figure when crossing the sun's edge renders the determination of the exact moments of her entry on the sun's face and of her departure from it by no means so trustworthy as astronomers could wish4 ,on the whole1 ,mars would probably have the advantage even without that point in his favour which has now to be indicated4 ,two methods of observing ,mars for determining the sun's distance are available1 both of which1 as they can be employed in applying one of the new methods1 may conveniently be described at this point4 ,an observer far to the north of the earth's equator sees ,mars at midnight1 when the planet is in opposition1 displaced somewhat to the south of his true position--that is1 of the position he would have as supposed to be seen from the centre of the earth4 ,on the other hand1 an observer far to the south of the equator sees ,mars displaced somewhat to the north of his true position4 ,the difference may be compared to different views of a distant steeple 7projected1 let us suppose1 against a much more remote hill71 from the uppermost and lowermost windows of a house corresponding to the northerly and southerly stations on the earth1 and from a window on the middle story corresponding to a view of ,mars from the earth's centre4 ,by ascertaining the displacement of the two views of ,mars obtained from a station far to the north and another station far to the south1 the astronomer can infer the distance of the planet1 and thence the dimensions of the solar system4 ,the displacement is determinable by noticing ,mars's position with respect to stars which chance to be close to him4 ,for this purpose the heliometer is specially suitable1 because1 having first a view of ,mars and some companion stars as they actually are placed1 the observer can1 by suitably displacing the movable half-glass1 bring the star into apparent contact with the planet1 first on one side of its disc1 and then on the other side--the mean of the two resulting measures giving1 of course1 the distance between the star and the centre of the disc4 ,this method requires that there shall be two observers1 one at a northern station1 as ,greenwich1 or ,paris1 or ,washington1 the other at a southern station1 as ,cape ,town1 ,cordoba1 or ,melbourne4 ,the base-line is practically a north-and-south line2 for though the two stations may not lie in the same1 or nearly the same1 longitude1 the displacement determined is in reality that due to their difference of latitude only1 a correction being made for their difference of longitude4 ,the other method depends1 not on displacement of two observers north and south1 or difference of latitude1 but on displacement east and west4 ,moreover1 it does not require that there shall be two observers at stations far apart1 but uses the observations made at one and the same stations at different times4 ,the earth1 by turning on her axis1 carries the observer from the west to the east of an imaginary line joining the earth's centre and the centre of ,mars4 ,when on the west of that line1 or in the early evening1 he sees ,mars displaced towards the east of the planet's true position4 ,after nine or ten hours the observer is carried as far to the east of that line1 and sees ,mars displaced towards the west of his true position4 ,of course ,mars has moved in the interval4 ,he is1 in fact1 in the midst of his retrograde career4 ,but the astronomer knows perfectly well how to take that motion into account4 ,thus1 by observing the two displacements1 or the total displacement of ,mars from east to west on account of the earth's rotation1 one and the same observer can1 in the course of a single favourable night1 determine the sun's distance4 ,and in passing1 it may be remarked that this is the only general method of which so much can be said4 ,by some of the others an astronomer can1 indeed1 estimate the sun's distance without leaving his observatory--at least1 theoretically he can do so4 ,but many years of observation would be required before he would have materials for achieving this result4 ,on the other hand1 one good pair of observations of ,mars1 in the evening and in the morning1 from a station near the equator1 would give a very fair measure of the sun's distance4 ,the reason why the station should be near the equator will be manifest1 if we consider that at the poles there would be no displacement due to rotation2 at the equator the observer would be carried round a circle some twenty-five thousand miles in circumference2 and the nearer his place to the equator the larger the circle in which he would be carried1 and 7cteris paribus7 the greater the evening and morning displacement of the planet4 ,both these methods have been successfully applied to the problem of determining the sun's distance1 and both have recently been applied afresh under circumstances affording exceptionally good prospects of success1 though as yet the results are not known4 ,it is1 however1 when we leave the direct surveying method to which both the observations of ,venus in transit and ,mars in opposition belong 7in all their varieties71 that the most remarkable1 and1 one may say1 unexpected methods of determining the sun's distance present themselves4 ,were not my subject a wide one1 ,i would willingly descant at length on the marvellous ingenuity with which astronomers have availed themselves of every point of vantage whence they might measure the solar system4 ,but1 as matters actually stand1 ,i must be content to sketch these other methods very roughly1 only indicating their characteristic features4 ,one of them is in some sense related to the method by actual survey1 only it takes advantage1 not of the earth's dimensions1 but of the dimensions of her orbit round the common centre of gravity of herself and the moon4 ,this orbit has a diameter of about six thousand miles2 and as the earth travels round it1 speeding swiftly onwards all the time in her path round the sun1 the effect is the same as though the sun1 in his apparent circuit round the earth1 were constantly circling once in a lunar month around a small subordinate orbit of precisely the same size and shape as that small orbit in which the earth circuits round the moon's centre of gravity4 ,he appears then sometimes displaced about #cjjj miles on one side1 sometimes about #cjjj miles on the other side of the place which he would have if our earth were not thus perturbed by the moon4 ,but astronomers can note each day where he is1 and thus learn by how much he seems displaced from his mean position4 ,knowing that his greatest displacement corresponds to so many miles exactly1 and noting what it seems to be1 they learn1 in fact1 how large a span of so many miles 7about #cjjj7 looks at the sun's distance4 ,thus they learn the sun's distance precisely as a rifleman learns the distance of a line of soldiers when he has ascertained their apparent size--for only at a certain distance can an object of known size have a certain apparent size4 ,the moon comes in1 in another way1 to determine the sun's distance for us4 ,we know how far away she is from the earth1 and how much1 therefore1 she approaches the sun when new1 and recedes from him when full4 ,calling this distance1 roughly1 a #cijth part of the sun's1 her distance from him when new1 her mean distance1 and her distance from him when full1 are as the numbers #chi1 #cij1 #cia4 ,now1 these numbers do not quite form a continued proportion1 though they do so very nearly 7for #chi is to #cij as #cij to #cia-a_/djj74 ,if they were in exact proportion1 the sun's disturbing influence on the moon when she is at her nearest would be exactly equal to his disturbing influence on the moon when at her furthest from him--or generally1 the moon would be exactly as much disturbed 7on the average7 in that half of her path which lies nearer to the sun as in that half which lies further from him4 ,as matters are1 there is a slight difference4 ,astronomers can measure this difference2 and measuring it1 they can ascertain what the actual numbers are for which ,i have roughly given the numbers #chi1 #cij1 and #cia2 in other words1 they can ascertain in what degree the sun's distance exceeds the moon's4 ,this is equivalent to determining the sun's distance1 since the moon's is already known4 ,another way of measuring the sun's distance has been 8favoured0 by ,jupiter and his family of satellites4 ,few would have thought1 when ,rmer first explained the delay which occurs in the eclipse of these moons while ,jupiter is further from us than his mean distance1 that that explanation would lead up to a determination of the sun's distance4 ,but so it happened4 ,rmer showed that the delay is not in the recurrence of the eclipses1 but in the arrival of the news of these events4 ,from the observed time required by light to traverse the extra distance when ,jupiter is nearly at his furthest from us1 the time in which light crosses the distance separating us from the sun is deduced2 whence1 if that distance has been rightly determined1 the velocity of light can be inferred4 ,if this velocity is directly measured in any way1 and found not to be what had been deduced from the adopted measure of the sun's distance1 the inference is that the sun's distance has been incorrectly determined4 ,or1 to put the matter in another way1 we know exactly how many minutes and seconds light takes in travelling to us from the sun2 if1 therefore1 we can find out how fast light travels we know how far away the sun is4 ,but who could hope to measure a velocity approaching #bjj1jjj miles in a second8 ,at a first view the task seems hopeless4 ,wheatstone1 however1 showed how it might be accomplished1 measuring by his method the yet greater velocity of freely conducted electricity4 ,foucault and ,fizeau measured the velocity of light2 and recently ,cornu has made more exact measurements4 ,knowing1 then1 how many miles light travels in a second1 and in how many seconds it comes to us from the sun1 we know the sun's distance4 ,the first of the methods which ,i here describe as new methods must next be considered4 ,it is one which ,leverrier regards as the method of the future4 ,in fact1 so highly does he esteem it1 that1 on its account1 he may almost be said to have refused to sanction in any way the ,french expeditions for observing the transit of ,venus in #ahgd4 ,the members of the sun's family perturb each other's motions in a degree corresponding with their relative mass1 compared with each other and with the sun4 ,now1 it can be shown 7the proof would be unsuitable to these pages1#aj but ,i have given it in my treatise on 8,the ,sun07 that no change in our estimate of the sun's distance affects our estimate of his mean density as compared with the earth's4 ,his substance has a mean density equal to one-fourth of the earth's1 whether he be #ij millions or #ie millions of miles from us1 or indeed whether he were ten millions or a million million miles from us 7supposing for a moment our measures did not indicate his real distance more closely74 ,we should still deduce from calculation the same unvarying estimate of his mean density4 ,it follows that the nearer any estimate of his distance places him1 and therefore the smaller it makes his estimated volume1 the smaller also it makes his estimated mass1 and in precisely the same degree4 ,the same is true of the planets also4 ,we determine ,jupiter's mass1 for example 7at least1 this is the simplest way71 by noting how he swerves his moons at their respective 7estimated7 distances4 ,if we diminish our estimate of their distances1 we diminish at the same time our estimate of ,jupiter's attractive power1 and in such degree1 it may be shown 7see note71 as precisely to correspond with our changed estimate of his size1 leaving our estimate of his mean density unaltered4 ,and the same is true for all methods of determining ,jupiter's mass4 ,suppose1 then1 that1 adopting a certain estimate of the scale of the solar system1 we find that the resulting estimate of the masses of the planets and of the sun1 as compared with the earth's mass1 from their observed attractive influences on bodies circling around them or passing near them1 accords with their estimated perturbing action as compared with the earth's1--then we should infer that our estimate of the sun's distance or of the scale of the solar system was correct4 ,but suppose it appeared1 on the contrary1 that the earth took a larger or a smaller part in perturbing the planetary system than1 according to our estimate of her relative mass1 she should do1--then we should infer that the masses of the other members of the system had been overrated or underrated2 or1 in other words1 that the scale of the solar system had been overrated or underrated respectively4 ,thus we should be able to introduce a correction into our estimate of the sun's distance4 ,such is the principle of the method by which ,leverrier showed that in the astronomy of the future the scale of the solar system may be very exactly determined4 ,of course1 the problem is a most delicate one4 ,the earth plays1 in truth1 but a small part in perturbing the planetary system1 and her influence can only be distinguished satisfactorily 7at present1 at any rate7 in the case of the nearer members of the solar family4 ,yet the method is one which1 unlike others1 will have an accumulative accuracy1 the discrepancies which are to test the result growing larger as time proceeds4 ,the method has already been to some extent successful4 ,it was1 in fact1 by observing that the motions of ,mercury are not such as can be satisfactorily explained by the perturbations of the earth and ,venus according to the estimate of relative masses deducible from the lately discarded value of the sun's distance1 that ,leverrier first set astronomers on the track of the error affecting that value4 ,he was certainly justified in entertaining a strong hope that hereafter this method will be exceedingly effective4 ,we come next to a method which promises to be more quickly if not more effectively available4 ,venus and ,mars approach the orbit of our earth more closely than any other planets1 ,venus being our nearest neighbour on the one side1 and ,mars on the other4 ,looking beyond ,venus1 we find only ,mercury 7and the mythical ,vulcan71 and ,mercury can give no useful information respecting the sun's distance4 ,he could scarcely do so even if we could measure his position among the stars when he is at his nearest1 as we can that of ,mars2 but as he can only then be fairly seen when he transits the sun's face1 and as the sun is nearly as much displaced as ,mercury by change in the observer's station1 the difference between the two displacements is utterly insufficient for accurate measurement4 ,but1 when we look beyond the orbit of ,mars1 we find certain bodies which are well worth considering in connection with the problem of determining the sun's distance4 ,i refer to the asteroids1 the ring of small planets travelling between the paths of ,mars and ,jupiter1 but nearer 7on the whole#aa7 to the path of ,mars than to that of ,jupiter4 ,the asteroids present several important advantages over even ,mars and ,venus4 ,of course1 none of the asteroids approach so near to the earth as ,mars at his nearest4 ,his least distance from the sun being about #abg million miles1 and the earth's mean distance about #ib millions1 with a range of about a million and a half on either side1 owing to the eccentricity of her orbit1 it follows that he may be as near as some #ce million miles 7rather less in reality7 from the earth when the sun1 earth1 and ,mars are nearly in a straight line and in that order4 ,the least distance of any asteroid from the sun amounts to about #afg million miles1 so that their least distance from the earth cannot at any time be less than about #gc1ejj1jjj miles1 even if the earth's greatest distance from the sun corresponded with the least distance of one of these closely approaching asteroids4 ,this1 by the way1 is not very far from being the case with the asteroid ,ariadne1 which comes within about #afi million miles of the sun at her nearest1 her place of nearest approach being almost exactly in the same direction from the sun as the earth's place of greatest recession1 reached about the end of ,june4 ,so that1 whenever it so chances that ,ariadne comes into opposition in ,june1 or that the sun1 earth1 and ,ariadne are thus placed-- ,sun,earth,ariadne1 ,ariadne will be but about #ge1ejj1jjj miles from the earth4 ,probably no asteroid will ever be discovered which approaches the earth much more nearly than this2 and this approach1 be it noticed1 is not one which can occur in the case of ,ariadne except at very long intervals4 ,but though we may consider #hj millions of miles as a fair average distance at which a few of the most closely approaching asteroids may be observed1 and though this distance seems very great by comparison with ,mars's occasional opposition distance of #ce million miles1 yet there are two points in which asteroids have the advantage over ,mars4 ,first1 they are many1 and several among them can be observed under favourable circumstances2 and in the multitude of observations there is safety4 ,in the second place1 which is the great and characteristic good quality of this method of determining the sun's distance1 they do not present a disc1 like the planet ,mars1 but a small star-like point4 ,when we consider the qualities of the heliometric method of measuring the apparent distance between celestial objects1 the advantage of points of light over discs will be obvious4 ,if we are measuring the apparent distance between ,mars and a star1 we must1 by shifting the movable object-glass1 bring the star's image into apparent contact with the disc-image of ,mars1 first on one side and then on the other1 taking the mean for the distance between the centres4 ,whereas1 when we determine the distance between a star and an asteroid1 we have to bring two star-like points 7one a star1 the other the asteroid7 into apparent coincidence4 ,we can do this in two ways1 making the result so much the more accurate4 ,for consider what we have in the field of view when the two halves of the object-glass coincide4 ,there is the asteroid and close by there is the star whose distance we seek to determine in order to ascertain the position of the asteroid on the celestial sphere4 ,when the movable half is shifted1 the two images of star and asteroid separate2 and by an adjustment they can be made to separate along the line connecting them4 ,suppose1 then1 we first make the movable image of the asteroid travel away from the fixed image 7meaning by movable and fixed images1 respectively1 those given by the movable and fixed halves of the object-glass71 towards the fixed image of the star--the two points1 like images1 being brought into coincidence1 we have the measure of the distance between star and asteroid4 ,now reverse the movement1 carrying back the movable images of the asteroid and star till they coincide again with their fixed images4 ,this movement gives us a second measure of the distance1 which1 however1 may be regarded as only a reversed repetition of the preceding4 ,but now1 carrying on the reverse motion1 the moving images of star and asteroid separate from their respective fixed images1 the moving image of the star drawing near to the fixed image of the asteroid and eventually coinciding with it4 ,here we have a third measure of the distance1 which is independent of the two former4 ,reversing the motion1 and carrying the moving images to coincidence with the fixed images1 we have a fourth measure1 which is simply the third reversed4 ,these four measures will give a far more satisfactory determination of the true apparent distance between the star and the asteroid than can1 under any circumstances1 be obtained in the case of ,mars and a star4 ,of course1 a much more exact determination is required to give satisfactory measures of the asteroid's real distance from the earth in miles1 for a much smaller error would vitiate the estimate of the asteroid's distance than would vitiate to the same degree the estimate of ,mars's distance3 for the apparent displacements of the asteroid as seen either from ,northern and ,southern stations1 or from stations east and west of the meridian1 are very much less than in the case of ,mars1 owing to his great proximity4 ,but1 on the whole1 there are reasons for believing that the advantage derived from the nearness of ,mars is almost entirely counterbalanced by the advantage derived from the neatness of the asteroid's image4 ,and the number of asteroids1 with the consequent power of repeating such measurements many times for each occasion on which ,mars has been thus observed1 seem to make the asteroids--so long regarded as very unimportant members of the solar system--the bodies from which1 after all1 we shall gain our best estimate of the sun's distance2 that is1 of the scale of the solar system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the above pages were written1 the results deduced from the observations made by the ,british expeditions for observing the transit of ,december #i1 #ahgd1 have been announced by the ,astronomer ,royal4 ,it should be premised that they are not the results deducible from the entire series of ,british observations1 for many of them can only be used effectively in combination with observations made by other nations4 ,for instance1 the ,british observations of the duration of the transit as seen from ,southern stations are only useful when compared with observations of the duration of the transit as seen from ,northern stations1 and no ,british observations of this kind were taken at ,northern stations1 or could be taken at any of the ,british ,northern stations except one1 where chief reliance was placed on photographic methods4 ,the only ,british results as yet 8worked up0 are those which are of themselves sufficient1 theoretically1 to indicate the sun's distance1 viz41 those which indicated the epochs of the commencement of transit as seen from ,northern and ,southern stations1 and those which indicated the epochs of the end of transit as seen from such stations4 ,the ,northern and ,southern epochs of commencement compared together suffice of themselves to indicate the sun's distance2 so also do the epochs of the end of transit suffice of themselves for that purpose4 ,such observations belong to the ,delislean method1 which was the subject of so much controversy for two or three years before the transit took place4 ,originally it had been supposed that only observations by that method were available1 and the ,british plans were formed upon that assumption4 ,when it was shown that this assumption was altogether erroneous1 there was scarcely time to modify the ,british plans so that of themselves they might provide for the other or ,halleyan method4 ,but the ,southern stations which were suitable for that method were strengthened2 and as other nations1 especially ,america and ,russia1 occupied large numbers of ,northern stations1 the ,halleyan method was1 in point of fact1 effectually provided for--a fortunate circumstance1 as will presently be seen4 ,the ,british operations1 then1 thus far dealt with1 were based on ,delisle's method2 and as they were carried out with great zeal and completeness1 we may consider that the result affords an excellent test of the qualities of this method1 and may supply a satisfactory answer to the questions which were under discussion in #ahgb-gd4 ,sir ,george ,airy1 indeed1 considers that the zeal and completeness with which the ,british operations were carried out suffice to set the result obtained from them above all others4 ,but this opinion is based rather on personal than on strictly scientific grounds4 ,it appears to me that the questions to be primarily decided are whether the results are in satisfactory agreement 7i7 inter se and 7ii7 with the general tenor of former researches4 ,in other words1 while the ,astronomer ,royal considers that the method and the manner of its application must be considered so satisfactory that the results are to be accepted unquestionably1 it appears to me that the results must be carefully questioned 7as it were7 to see whether the method1 and the observations by it1 are satisfactory4 ,in the first place1 the result obtained from ,northern and ,southern observations of the commencement ought to agree closely with the result obtained from ,northern and ,southern observations of the end of transit4 ,unfortunately1 they differ rather widely4 ,the sun's distance by the former observations comes out about one million miles greater than the distance determined by the latter observations4 ,this should be decisive1 one would suppose4 ,but it is not all4 ,the mean of the entire series of observations by ,delisle's method comes out nearly one million miles greater than the mean deduced by ,professor ,newcomb from many entire series of observations by six different methods1 all of which may fairly be regarded as equal in value to ,delisle's1 while three are regarded by most astronomers as unquestionably superior to it4 ,newcomb considers the probable limits of error in his evaluation from so many combined series of observations to be about #ajj1jjj miles4 ,sir ,g4 ,airy will allow no wider limits of error for the result of the one series his observers have obtained than #bjj1jjj miles4 ,thus the greatest value admitted by ,newcomb falls short of the least value admitted by ,sir ,g4 ,airy1 by nearly #gjj1jjj miles4 ,the obvious significance of this result should be1 one would suppose1 that ,delisle's method is not quite so effective as ,sir ,g4 ,airy supposed2 and the wide discordance between the several results1 of which the result thus deduced is the mean1 should prove this1 one would imagine1 beyond all possibility of question4 ,the ,astronomer ,royal thinks differently1 however4 ,in his opinion1 the wide difference between his result and the mean of all the most valued results by other astronomers1 indicates the superiority of ,delisle's method1 not its inadequacy to the purpose for which it has been employed4 ,time will shortly decide which of these views is correct2 but1 for my own part1 ,i do not hesitate to express my own conviction that the sun's distance lies very near the limits indicated by ,newcomb1 and therefore is several hundred thousand miles less than the minimum distance allowed by the recently announced results4 ,,drifting ,,light-,,waves4 ,the method of measuring the motion of very swiftly travelling bodies by noting changes in the light-waves which reach us from them--one of the most remarkable methods of observation ever yet devised by man--has recently been placed upon its trial1 so to speak2 with results exceedingly satisfactory to the students of science who had accepted the facts established by it4 ,the method will not be unfamiliar to many of my readers4 ,the principle involved was first noted by ,m4 ,doppler1 but not in a form which promised any useful results4 ,the method actually applied appears to have occurred simultaneously to several persons1 as well theorists as observers4 ,thus ,secchi claimed in ,march1 #ahfh1 to have applied it though unsuccessfully2 ,huggins in ,april1 #ahfh1 described his successful use of the method4 ,i myself1 wholly unaware that either of these observers was endeavouring to measure celestial motions by its means1 described the method1 in words which ,i shall presently quote1 in the number of ,fraser's ,magazine for ,january1 #ahfh1 two months before the earliest enunciation of its nature by the physicists just named4 ,it will be well briefly to describe the principle of this interesting method1 before considering the attack to which it has been recently subjected1 and its triumphant acquittal from defects charged against it4 ,this brief description will not only be useful to those readers who chance not to be acquainted with the method1 but may serve to remove objections which suggest themselves1 ,i notice1 to many who have had the principle of the method imperfectly explained to them4 ,light travels from every self-luminous body in waves which sweep through the ether of space at the rate of #ahe1jjj miles per second4 ,the whole of that region of space over which astronomers have extended their survey1 and doubtless a region many millions of millions of times more extended1 may be compared to a wave-tossed sea1 only that instead of a wave-tossed surface1 there is wave-tossed space4 ,at every point1 through every point1 along every line1 athwart every line1 myriads of light-waves are at all times rushing with the inconceivable velocity just mentioned4 ,it is from such waves that we have learned all we know about the universe outside our own earth4 ,they bring to our shores news from other worlds1 though the news is not always easy to decipher4 ,now1 seeing that we are thus immersed in an ocean1 athwart which infinite series of waves are continually rushing1 and moreover that we ourselves1 and every one of the bodies whence the waves proceed either directly or after reflection1 are travelling with enormous velocity through this ocean1 the idea naturally presents itself that we may learn something about these motions 7as well as about the bodies themselves whence they proceed71 by studying the aspect of the waves which flow in upon us in all directions4 ,suppose a strong swimmer who knew that1 were he at rest1 a certain series of waves would cross him at a particular rate--ten1 for instance1 in a minute--were to notice that when he was swimming directly facing them1 eleven passed him in a minute3 he would be able at once to compare his rate of swimming with the rate of the waves' motion4 ,he would know that while ten waves had passed him on account of the waves' motion1 he had by his own motion caused yet another wave to pass him1 or in other words1 had traversed the distance from one wave-crest to the next ,thus he would know that his rate was one-tenth that of the waves4 ,similarly if1 travelling the same way as the waves1 he found that only nine passed him in a minute1 instead of ten4 ,again1 it is not difficult to see that if an observer were at rest1 and a body in the water1 which by certain motions produced waves1 were approaching or receding from the observer1 the waves would come in faster in the former case1 slower in the latter1 than if the body were at rest4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that some machinery at the bows of a ship raised waves which1 if the ship were at rest1 would travel along at the rate of ten a minute past the observer's station4 ,then clearly1 if the ship approached him1 each successive wave would have a shorter distance to travel1 and so would reach him sooner than it otherwise would have done4 ,suppose1 for instance1 the ship travelled one-tenth as fast as the waves1 and consider ten waves proceeding from her bows--the first would have to travel a certain distance before reaching the observer2 the tenth1 starting a minute later1 instead of having to travel the same distance1 would have to travel this distance diminished by the space over which the ship had passed in one minute 7which the wave itself passes over in the tenth of a minute72 instead1 then1 of reaching the observer one minute after the other1 it would reach him nine-tenths of a minute after the first4 ,thus it would seem to him as though the waves were coming in faster than when the ship was at rest1 in the proportion of ten to nine1 though in reality they would be travelling at the same rate as before1 only arriving in quicker succession1 because of the continual shortening of the distance they had to travel1 on account of the ship's approach4 ,if he knew precisely how fast they would arrive if the ship were at rest1 and determined precisely how fast they did arrive1 he would be able to determine at once the rate of the ship's approach1 at least the proportion between her rate and the rate of the waves' motion4 ,similarly if1 owing to the ship's recession1 the apparent rate of the waves' motion were reduced1 it is obvious that the actual change in the wave motion would not be a difference of rate2 but1 in the case of the approaching ship1 the breadth from crest to crest would be reduced1 while in the case of a receding ship the distance from crest to crest would be increased4 ,if the above explanation should still seem to require closer attention than the general reader may be disposed to give1 the following1 suggested by a friend of mine--a very skilful mathematician--will be found still simpler3 ,suppose a stream to flow quite uniformly1 and that at one place on its banks an observer is stationed1 while at another higher up a person throws corks into the water at regular intervals1 say ten corks per minute2 then these will float down and pass the other observer1 wherever he may be1 at the rate of ten per minute1 if the cork-thrower is at rest4 ,but if he saunters either up-stream or down-stream1 the corks will no longer float past the other at the exact rate of ten per minute4 ,if the thrower is sauntering down-stream1 then1 between throwing any cork and the next1 he has walked a certain way down1 and the tenth cork1 instead of having to travel the same distance as the first before reaching the observer1 has a shorter distance to travel1 and so reaches that observer sooner4 ,or in fact1 which some may find easier to see1 this cork will be nearer to the first cork than it would have been if the thrower had remained still4 ,the corks will lie at equal distances from each other1 but these equal distances will be less than they would have been if the observer had been at rest4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the cork-thrower saunters up-stream1 the corks will be somewhat further apart than if he had remained at rest4 ,and supposing the observer to know beforehand that the corks would be thrown in at the rate of ten a minute1 he would know1 if they passed him at a greater rate than ten a minute 7or1 in other words1 at a less distance from each other than the stream traversed in the tenth of a minute71 that the cork-thrower was travelling down-stream or approaching him2 whereas1 if fewer than ten a minute passed him1 he would know that the cork-thrower was travelling away from him1 or up-stream4 ,but also1 if the cork-thrower were at rest1 and the observer moved up-stream--that is1 towards him--the corks would pass him at a greater rate than ten a minute2 whereas1 if the observer were travelling down-stream1 or from the thrower1 they would pass him at a slower rate4 ,if both were moving1 it is easily seen that if their movement brought them nearer together1 the number of corks passing the observer per minute would be increased1 whereas if their movements set them further apart1 the number passing him per minute would be diminished4 ,these illustrations1 derived from the motions of water1 suffice in reality for our purpose4 ,the waves which are emitted by luminous bodies in space travel onwards like the water-waves or the corks of the preceding illustrations4 ,if the body which emits them is rapidly approaching us1 the waves are set closer together or narrowed2 whereas1 if the body is receding1 they are thrown further apart or broadened4 ,and if we can in any way recognize such narrowing or broadening of the light-waves1 we know just as certainly that the source of light is approaching us or receding from us 7as the case may be7 as our observer in the second illustration would know from the distance between the corks whether his friend1 the cork-thrower1 was drawing near to him or travelling away from him4 ,but it may be convenient to give another illustration1 drawn from waves1 which1 like those of light1 are not themselves discernible by our senses--,i refer to those aerial waves of compression and rarefaction which produce what we call sound4 ,these waves are not only in this respect better suited than water-waves to illustrate our subject1 but also because they travel in all directions through aerial space1 not merely along a surface4 ,the waves which produce a certain note1 that is1 which excite in our minds1 through the auditory nerve1 the impression corresponding to a certain tone1 have a definite length4 ,so long as the observer1 and a source of sound vibrating in one particular period1 remain both in the same place1 the note is unchanged in tone1 though it may grow louder or fainter according as the vibrations increase or diminish in amplitude4 ,but if the source of sound is approaching the hearer1 the waves are thrown closer together and the sound is rendered more acute 7the longer waves giving the deeper sound72 and1 on the other hand1 if the source of sound is receding from the hearer1 the waves are thrown further apart and the sound is rendered graver4 ,the rationale of these changes is precisely the same as that of the changes described in the preceding illustrations4 ,it might1 perhaps1 appear that in so saying we were dismissing the illustration from sound1 at least as an independent one1 because we are explaining the illustration by preceding illustrations4 ,but in reality1 while there is absolutely nothing new to be said respecting the increase and diminution of distances 7as between the waves and corks of the preceding illustration71 the illustration from sound has the immense advantage of admitting readily of experimental tests4 ,it is necessary only that the rate of approach or recession should bear an appreciable proportion to the rate at which sound travels4 ,for waves are shortened or lengthened by approach or recession by an amount which bears to the entire length of the wave the same proportion which the rate of approach or recession bears to the rate of the wave's advance4 ,now it is not very difficult to obtain rates of approach or recession fairly comparable with the velocity of sound--about #cfd yards per second4 ,an express train at full speed travels1 let us say1 about #ahjj yards per minute1 or #cj yards per second4 ,such a velocity would suffice to reduce all the sound-waves proceeding from a bell or whistle upon the engine1 by about one-twelfth part1 for an observer at rest on a station platform approached by the engine4 ,on the contrary1 after the engine had passed him1 the sound-waves proceeding from the same bell or whistle would be lengthened by one-twelfth4 ,the difference between the two tones would be almost exactly three semitones4 ,if the hearer1 instead of being on a platform1 were in a train carried past the other at the same rate1 the difference between the tone of the bell in approaching and its tone in receding would be about three tones4 ,it would not be at all difficult so to arrange matters1 that while two bells were sounding the same note--,mi1 let us say--one bell on one engine the other on the other1 a traveller by one should hear his own engine's bell1 the bell of the approaching engine1 and the bell of the same engine receding1 as the three notes--,do--,mi--,sol1 whose wave-lengths are as the numbers #ae1 #ab1 and #aj4 ,we have here differences very easily to be recognized even by those who are not musicians4 ,every one who travels much by train must have noticed how the tone of a whistle changes as the engine sounding it travels past4 ,the change is not quite sharp1 but very rapid1 because the other engine does not approach with a certain velocity up to a definite moment and then recede with the same velocity4 ,it could only do this by rushing through the hearer1 which would render the experiment theoretically more exact but practically unsatisfactory4 ,as it rushes past instead of through him1 there is a brief time during which the rate of approach is rapidly being reduced to nothing1 followed by a similarly brief time during which the rate of recession gradually increases from nothing up to the actual rate of the engines' velocities added together4#ab ,the change of tone may be thus illustrated3-- ,illustration ,a ,b representing the sound of the approaching whistle1 ,b ,c representing the rapid degradation of sound as the engine rushes close past the hearer1 and ,c ,d representing the sound of the receding whistle4 ,when a bell is sounded on the engine1 as in ,america1 the effect is better recognized1 as ,i had repeated occasion to notice during my travels in that country4 ,probably this is because the tone of a bell is in any case much more clearly recognized than the tone of a railway whistle4 ,the change of tone as a clanging bell is carried swiftly past 7by the combined motions of both trains7 is not at all of such a nature as to require close attention for its detection4 ,however1 the apparent variation of sound produced by rapid approach or recession has been tested by exact experiments4 ,on a railway uniting ,utrecht and ,maarsen 8were placed10 the late ,professor ,nichol wrote1 8at intervals of something upwards of a thousand yards1 three groups of musicians1 who remained motionless during the requisite period4 ,another musician on the railway sounded at intervals one uniform note2 and its effects on the ears of the stationary musicians have been fully published4 ,from these1 certainly--from the recorded changes between grave and the more acute1 and vice vers1--confirming1 even numerically1 what the relative velocities might have enabled one to predict1 it appears justifiable to conclude that the general theory is correct2 and that the note of any sound may be greatly modified1 if not wholly changed1 by the velocity of the individual hearing it10 or1 he should have added1 by the velocity of the source of sound3 perhaps more correct than either1 is the statement that the note may be altered by the approach or recession of the source of sound1 whether that be caused by the motion of the sounding body1 or of the hearer himself1 or of both4 ,it is difficult1 indeed1 to understand how doubt can exist in the mind of any one competent to form an opinion on the matter1 though1 as we shall presently see1 some students of science and one or two mathematicians have raised doubts as to the validity of the reasoning by which it is shown that a change should occur4 ,that the reasoning is sound cannot1 in reality1 be questioned1 and after careful examination of the arguments urged against it by one or two mathematicians1 ,i can form no other opinion than that these arguments amount really but to an expression of inability to understand the matter4 ,this may seem astonishing1 but is explained when we remember that some mathematicians1 by devoting their attention too particularly to special departments1 lose1 to a surprising degree1 the power of dealing with subjects 7even mathematical ones7 outside their department4 ,apart from the soundness of the reasoning1 the facts are unmistakably in accordance with the conclusion to which the reasoning points4 ,yet some few still entertain doubts1 a circumstance which may prove a source of consolation to any who find themselves unable to follow the reasoning on which the effects of approach and recession on wave-lengths depend4 ,let such remember1 however1 that experiment in the case of the aerial waves producing sound1 accords perfectly with theory1 and that the waves which produce light are perfectly analogous 7so far as this particular point is concerned7 with the waves producing sound4 ,ordinary white light1 and many kinds of coloured light1 may be compared with noise--that is1 with a multitude of intermixed sounds4 ,but light of one pure colour may be compared to sound of one determinate note4 ,as the aerial waves producing the effect of one definite tone are all of one length1 so the ethereal waves producing light of one definite colour are all of one length4 ,therefore if we approach or recede from a source of light emitting such waves1 effects will result corresponding with what has been described above for the case of water-waves and sound-waves4 ,if we approach the source of light1 or if it approaches us1 the waves will be shortened2 if we recede from it1 or if it recedes from us1 the waves will be lengthened4 ,but the colour of light depends on its wave-length1 precisely as the tone of sound depends on its wave-length4 ,the waves producing red light are longer than those producing orange light1 these are longer than the waves producing yellow light2 and so the wave-lengths shorten down from yellow to green1 thence to blue1 to indigo1 and finally to violet4 ,thus if a body shining in reality with a pure green colour1 approached the observer with a velocity comparable with that of light1 it would seem blue1 indigo1 or violet1 according to the rate of approach2 whereas if it rapidly receded1 it would seem yellow1 orange1 or red1 according to the rate of recession4 ,unfortunately in one sense1 though very fortunately in many much more important respects1 the rates of motion among the celestial bodies are not comparable with the velocity of light1 but are always so much less as to be almost rest by comparison4 ,the velocity of light is about #ahg1jjj miles per second1 or1 according to the measures of the solar system at present in vogue 7which will shortly have to give place to somewhat larger measures1 the result of observations made upon the recent transit of ,venus71 about #ahe1jjj miles per second4 ,the swiftest celestial motion of which we have ever had direct evidence was that of the comet of the year #ahdc1 which1 at the time of its nearest approach to the sun1 was travelling at the rate of about #cej miles per second4 ,this1 compared with the velocity of light1 is as the motion of a person taking six steps a minute1 each less than half a yard long1 to the rush of the swiftest express train4 ,no body within our solar system can travel faster than this1 the motion of a body falling upon the sun from an infinite distance being only about #cgj miles per second when it reaches his surface4 ,and though swifter motions probably exist among the bodies travelling around more massive suns than ours1 yet of such motions we can never become cognizant4 ,all the motions taking place among the stars themselves would appear to be very much less in amount4 ,the most swiftly moving sun seems to travel but at the rate of about #ej or #fj miles per second4 ,now let us consider how far a motion of #ajj miles per second might be expected to modify the colour of pure green light--selecting green as the middle colour of the spectrum4 ,the waves producing green light are of such a length1 that #dg1jjj of them scarcely equal in length a single inch4 ,draw on paper an inch and divide it carefully into ten equal parts1 or take such parts from a well-divided rule2 divide one of these tenths into ten equal parts1 as nearly as the eye will permit you to judge2 then one of these parts1 or about half the thickness of an average pin1 would contain #dge of the waves of pure green light4 ,the same length would equal the length of #ddj waves of pure yellow light1 and of #eaa waves of pure blue light4 7,the green1 yellow1 and blue1 here spoken of1 are understood to be of the precise colour of the middle of the green1 yellow1 and blue parts of the spectrum47 ,thus the green waves must be increased in the proportion of #dge to #ddj to give yellow light1 or reduced in the proportion of #eaa to #dge to give blue light4 ,for the first purpose1 the velocity of recession must bear to the velocity of light the proportion which #cj bears to #dge1 or must be equal to rather more than one-sixteenth part of the velocity of light--say #aa1fjj miles per second4 ,for the second purpose1 the velocity of approach must bear to the velocity of light the proportion which #cf bears to #dge1 or must be nearly equal to one-thirteenth part of the velocity of light--say #ad1cjj miles per second4 ,but the motions of the stars and other celestial bodies1 and also the motions of matter in the sun1 and so forth1 are very much less than these4 ,except in the case of one or two comets 7and always dismissing from consideration the amazing apparent velocities with which comets' tails seem to be formed71 we may take #ajj miles per second as the extreme limit of velocity with which we have to deal1 in considering the application of our theory to the motions of recession and approach of celestial bodies4 ,thus in the case of recession the greatest possible change of colour in pure green light would be equivalent to the difference between the medium green of the spectrum1 and the colour #a-aafth part of the way from medium green to medium yellow2 and in the case of approach1 the change would correspond to the difference between the medium green and the colour #a-adcrd part of the way from medium green to medium blue4 ,let any one look at a spectrum of fair length1 or even at a correctly tinted painting of the solar spectrum1 and note how utterly unrecognizable to ordinary vision is the difference of tint for even the twentieth part of the distance between medium green and medium yellow on one side or medium blue on the other1 and he will recognize how utterly hopeless it would be to attempt to appreciate the change of colour due to the approach or recession of a luminous body shining with pure green light and moving at the tremendous rate of #ajj miles per second4 ,it would be hopeless1 even though we had the medium green colour and the changed colour1 either towards yellow or towards blue1 placed side by side for comparison--how much more when the changed colour would have to be compared with the observer's recollection of the medium colour1 as seen on some other occasion6 ,but this is the least important of the difficulties affecting the application of this method by noting change of colour1 as ,doppler originally proposed4 ,another difficulty1 which seems somehow to have wholly escaped ,doppler's attention1 renders the colour test altogether unavailable4 ,we do not get pure light from any of the celestial bodies except certain gaseous clouds or nebul4 ,from every sun we get1 as from our own sun1 all the colours of the rainbow4 ,there may be an excess of some colours and a deficiency of others in any star1 so as to give the star a tint1 or even a very decided colour4 ,but even a blood-red star1 or a deep-blue or violet star1 does not shine with pure light1 for the spectroscope shows that the star has other colours than those producing the prevailing tint1 and it is only the great excess of red rays 7all kinds of red1 too7 or of blue rays 7of all kinds71 and so on1 which makes the star appear red1 or blue1 and so on1 to the eye4 ,by far the greater number of stars or suns show all the colours of the rainbow nearly equally distributed1 as in the case of our own sun4 ,now imagine for a moment a white sun1 which had been at rest1 to begin suddenly to approach us so rapidly 7travelling more than #aj1jjj miles per second7 that the red rays became orange1 the orange became yellow1 the yellow green1 the green blue1 the blue indigo1 the indigo violet1 while the violet waves became too short to affect the sense of sight4 ,then1 if that were all1 that sun1 being deprived of the red part of its light1 would shine with a slightly bluish tinge1 owing to the relative superabundance of rays from the violet end of the spectrum4 ,we should be able to recognize such a change1 yet not nearly so distinctly as if that sun had been shining with a pure green light1 and suddenly beginning to approach us at the enormous rate just mentioned1 changed in colour to full blue4 ,though1 if that sun were all the time approaching us at the enormous rate imagined1 we should be quite unable to tell whether its slightly bluish tinge were due to such motion of approach or to some inherent blueness in the light emitted by the star4 ,similarly1 if a white sun suddenly began to recede so rapidly that its violet rays were turned to indigo1 the indigo to blue1 and so on1 the orange rays turning to red1 and the red rays disappearing altogether1 then1 if that were all1 its light would become slightly reddish1 owing to the relative superabundance of light from the red end of the spectrum2 and we might distinguish the change1 yet not so readily as if a sun shining with pure green light began to recede at the same enormous rate1 and so shone with pure yellow light4 ,though1 if that sun were all the time receding at that enormous rate1 we should be quite unable to tell whether its slightly reddish hue were due to such motion of recession or to some inherent redness in its own lustre4 ,but in neither case would that be all4 ,in the former1 the red rays would indeed become orange2 but the rays beyond the red1 which produce no effect upon vision1 would be converted into red rays1 and fill up the part of the spectrum deserted by the rays originally red4 ,in the latter1 the violet rays would indeed become indigo2 but the rays beyond the violet1 ordinarily producing no visible effect1 would be converted into violet rays1 and fill up the part of the spectrum deserted by the rays originally violet4 ,thus1 despite the enormous velocity of approach in one case and of recession in the other1 there would be no change whatever in the colour of the sun in either case4 ,all the colours of the rainbow would still be present in the sun's light1 and it would therefore still be a white sun4 ,doppler's method would thus fail utterly1 even though the stars were travelling hither and thither with motions a hundred times greater than the greatest known stellar motions4 ,this objection to ,doppler's theory1 as originally proposed1 was considered by me in an article on 8,coloured ,suns0 in ,fraser's ,magazine for ,january1 #ahfh4 ,his theory1 indeed1 was originally promulgated not as affording a means of measuring stellar motions1 but as a way of accounting for the colours of double stars4 ,it was thus presented by ,professor ,nichol1 in a chapter of his 8,architecture of the ,heavens10 on this special subject3--8,the rapid motion of light reaches indeed one of those numbers which reason owns1 while imagination ceases to comprehend them2 but it is also true that the swiftness with which certain individuals of the double stars sweep past their perihelias1 or rather their periasters1 is amazing2 and in this matter of colours1 it must be recollected that the question solely regards the difference between the velocities of the waves constituent of colours1 at those different stellar positions4 ,still it is a bold--even a magnificent idea2 and if it can be reconciled with the permanent colours of the multitude of stars surrounding us--stars which too are moving in great orbits with immense velocities--it may be hailed almost as a positive discovery4 ,it must obtain confirmation1 or otherwise1 so soon as we can compare with certainty the observed colorific changes of separate systems with the known fluctuations of their orbital motions40 ,that was written a quarter of a century ago1 when spectroscopic analysis1 as we now know it1 had no existence4 ,accordingly1 while the fatal objection to ,doppler's original theory is overlooked on the one hand1 the means of applying the principle underlying the theory1 in a much more exact manner than ,doppler could have hoped for1 is overlooked on the other4 ,both points are noted in the article above referred to1 in the same paragraph4 8,we may dismiss10 ,i there stated1 8the theory started some years ago by the ,french astronomer1 ,m4 ,doppler40 ,but1 ,i presently added1 8,it is quite clear that the effects of a motion rapid enough to produce such a change0 7i4e4 a change of tint in a pure colour7 8would shift the position of the whole spectrum--and this change would be readily detected by a reference to the spectral lines40 ,this is true1 even to the word 8readily40 ,velocities which would produce an appreciable change of tint would produce 8readily0 detectible changes in the position of the spectral lines2 the velocities actually existing among the star-motions would produce changes in the position of these lines detectible only with extreme difficulty1 or perhaps in the majority of instances not detectible at all4 ,it has been in this way that the spectroscopic method has actually been applied4 ,it is easy to perceive the essential difference between this way of applying the method and that depending on the attempted recognition of changes of colour4 ,a dark line in the spectrum marks in reality the place of a missing tint4 ,the tints next to it on either side are present1 but the tint between them is wanting4 ,they are changed in colour--very slightly1 in fact quite inappreciably--by motions of recession or approach1 or1 in other words1 they are shifted in position along the spectrum1 towards the red end for recession1 towards the violet end for approach2 and of course the dark space between is shifted along with them4 ,one may say that the missing tint is changed4 ,for in reality that is precisely what would happen4 ,if the light of a star at rest gave every tint of the spectrum1 for instance1 except mid-green alone1 and that star approached or receded so swiftly that its motion would change pure green light to pure yellow in one case1 or pure blue in the other1 then the effect on the spectrum of such a star would be to throw the dark line from the middle of the green part of the spectrum to the middle of the yellow part in one case1 or to the middle of the blue part in the other4 ,the dark line would be quite notably shifted in either case4 ,with the actual stellar motions1 though all the lines are more or less shifted1 the displacement is always exceedingly minute1 and it becomes a task of extreme difficulty to recognize1 and still more to measure1 such displacement4 ,when ,i first indicated publicly 7,january1 #ahfh7 the way in which ,doppler's principle could alone be applied1 two physicists1 ,huggins in ,england and ,secchi in ,italy1 were actually endeavouring1 with the excellent spectroscopes in their possession1 to apply this method4 ,in ,march1 #ahfh1 ,secchi gave up the effort as useless1 publicly announcing the plan on which he had proceeded and his failure to obtain any results except negative ones4 ,a month later ,huggins also publicly announced the plan on which he had been working1 but was also able to state that in one case1 that of the bright star ,sirius1 he had succeeded in measuring a motion in the line of sight1 having discovered that ,sirius was receding from the earth at the rate of #dad miles per second4 ,i say was receding1 because a part of the recession at the time of observation was due to the earth's orbital motion around the sun4 ,i had1 at his request1 supplied ,huggins with the formula for calculating the correction due to this cause1 and1 applying it1 he found that ,sirius is receding from the sun at the rate of about #bi miles per second1 or some #icj millions of miles per annum4 ,i am not here specially concerned to consider the actual results of the application of this method since the time of ,huggins's first success2 but the next chapter of the history of the method is one so interesting to myself personally that ,i feel tempted briefly to refer to details4 ,so soon as ,i had heard of ,huggins's success with ,sirius1 and that an instrument was being prepared for him wherewith he might hope to extend the method to other stars1 ,i ventured to make a prediction as to the result which he would obtain whensoever he should apply it to five stars of the seven forming the so-called ,plough4 ,i had found reason to feel assured that these five form a system drifting all together amid stellar space4 ,satisfied for my own part as to the validity of the evidence1 ,i submitted it to ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 who was struck by its force4 ,the apparent drift of those stars was1 of course1 a thwart drift2 but if they really were drifting in space1 then their motions in the line of sight must of necessity be alike4 ,my prediction1 then1 was that whensoever ,huggins applied to those stars the new method he would find them either all receding at the same rate1 or all approaching at the same rate1 or else that all alike failed to give any evidence at all either of recession or approach4 ,i had indicated the five in the first edition of my 8,other ,worlds0--to wit1 the stars of the ,plough1 omitting the nearest 8pointer0 to the pole and the star marking the third horse 7or the tip of the ,great ,bear's tail74 ,so soon as ,huggins's new telescope and its spectroscopic adjuncts were in working order1 he re-examined ,sirius1 determined the motions of other stars2 and at last on one suitable evening he tested the stars of the ,plough4 ,he began with the nearest pointer1 and found that star swiftly approaching the earth4 ,he turned to the other pointer1 and found it rapidly receding from the earth4 ,being under the impression that my five included both pointers1 he concluded that my prediction had utterly failed1 and so went on with his observations1 altogether unprejudiced in its favour1 to say the least4 ,the next star of the seven he found to be receding at the same rate as the second pointer2 the next at the same rate1 the next1 and the next receding still at the same rate1 and lastly the seventh receding at a different rate4 ,here1 then1 were five stars all receding at a common rate1 and of the other two one receding at a different rate1 the other swiftly approaching4 ,turning next to the work containing my prediction1 ,huggins found that the five stars thus receding at a common rate were the five whose community of motion ,i had indicated two years before4 ,thus the first prediction ever made respecting the motions of the so-called fixed stars was not wanting in success4 ,i would venture to add that the theory of star-drift1 on the strength of which the prediction was made1 was in effect demonstrated by the result4 ,the next application of the new method was one of singular interest4 ,i believe it was ,mr4 ,lockyer who first thought of applying the method to measure the rate of solar hurricanes as well as the velocities of the uprush and downrush of vaporous matter in the atmosphere of the sun4 ,another spectroscopic method had enabled astronomers to watch the rush of glowing matter from the edge of the sun1 by observing the coloured flames and their motions2 but by the new method it was possible to determine whether the flames at the edge were swept by solar cyclones carrying them from or towards the eye of the terrestrial observer1 and also to determine whether glowing vapours over the middle of the visible disc were subject to motion of uprush1 which of course would carry them towards the eye1 or of downrush1 which would carry them from the eye4 ,the result of observations directed to this end was to show that at least during the time when the sun is most spotted1 solar hurricanes of tremendous violence take place1 while the uprushing and downrushing motions of solar matter sometimes attain a velocity of more than #ajj miles per second4 ,it was this success on the part of an ,english spectroscopist which caused that attack on the new method against which it has but recently been successfully defended1 at least in the eyes of those who are satisfied only by experimental tests of the validity of a process4 ,the ,padre ,secchi had failed1 as we have seen1 to recognize motions of recession and approach among the stars by the new method4 ,but he had taken solar observation by spectroscopic methods under his special charge1 and therefore when the new results reached his ears he felt bound to confirm or invalidate them4 ,he believed that the apparent displacement of dark lines in the solar spectrum might be due to the heat of the sun causing changes in the delicate adjustments of the instrument--a cause of error against which precautions are certainly very necessary4 ,he satisfied himself that when sufficient precautions are taken no displacements take place such as ,lockyer1 ,young1 and others claimed to have seen4 ,but he submitted the matter to a further test4 ,as the sun is spinning swiftly on his axis1 his mighty equator1 more than two and a half millions of miles in girth1 circling once round in about twenty-four days1 it is clear that on one side the sun's surface is swiftly moving towards1 and on the other side as swiftly moving from1 the observer4 ,by some amazing miscalculation1 ,secchi made the rate of this motion #bj miles per second1 so that the sum of the two motions in opposite directions would equal #dj miles per second4 ,he considered that he ought to be able by the new method1 if the new method is trustworthy at all1 to recognize this marked difference between the state of the sun's eastern and western edges2 he found on trial that he could not do so2 and accordingly he expressed his opinion that the new method is not trustworthy1 and that the arguments urged in its favour are invalid4 ,the weak point in his reasoning resided in the circumstance that the solar equator is only moving at the rate of about #a miles per second1 so that instead of a difference of #dj miles per second between the two edges1 which should be appreciable1 the actual difference 7that is1 the sum of the two equal motions in opposite directions7 amounts only to #b miles per second1 which certainly ,secchi could not hope to recognize with the spectroscopic power at his disposal4 ,nevertheless1 when the error in his reasoning was pointed out1 though he admitted that error1 he maintained the justice of his conclusion2 just as ,cassini1 having mistakenly reasoned that the degrees of latitude should diminish towards the pole instead of increasing1 and having next mistakenly found1 as he supposed1 that they do diminish1 acknowledged the error of his reasoning1 but insisted on the validity of his observations1--maintaining thenceforth1 as all the world knows1 that the earth is extended instead of flattened at the poles4 ,huggins tried to recognize by the new method the effects of the sun's rotation1 using a much more powerful spectroscope than ,secchi's4 ,the history of the particular spectroscope he employed is in one respect specially interesting to myself1 as the extension of spectroscopic power was of my own devising before ,i had ever used or even seen a powerful spectroscope4 ,the reader is aware that spectroscopes derive their light-sifting power from the prisms forming them4 ,the number of prisms was gradually increased1 from ,newton's single prism to ,fraunhofer's pair1 and to ,kirchhoff's battery of four1 till six were used1 which bent the light round as far as it would go4 ,then the idea occurred of carrying the light to a higher level 7by reflections7 and sending it back through the same battery of prisms1 doubling the dispersion4 ,such a battery1 if of six prisms1 would spread the spectral colours twice as widely apart as six used in the ordinary way1 and would thus have a dispersive power of twelve prisms4 ,it occurred to me that after taking the rays through six prisms1 arranged in a curve like the letter ,c1 an intermediate four-cornered prism of a particular shape 7which ,i determined7 might be made to send the rays into another battery of six prisms1 the entire set forming a double curve like the letter ,s1 the rays being then carried to a higher level and back through the double battery4 ,in this way a dispersive power of nineteen prisms could be secured4 ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,browning1 the eminent optician1 made a double battery of this kind1#ac which was purchased by ,mr4 ,w4 ,spottiswoode1 and by him lent to ,mr4 ,huggins for the express purpose of dealing with the task ,secchi had set spectroscopists4 ,it did not1 however1 afford the required evidence4 ,huggins considered the displacement of dark lines due to the sun's rotation to be recognizable1 but so barely that he could not speak confidently on the point4 ,there for a while the matter rested4 ,vgel made observations confirming ,huggins's results relative to stellar motions2 but ,vgel's instrumental means were not sufficiently powerful to render his results of much weight4 ,but recently two well-directed attacks have been made upon this problem1 one in ,england1 the other in ,america1 and in both cases with success4 ,rather1 perhaps1 seeing that the method had been attacked and was supposed to require defence1 we may say that two well-directed assaults have been made upon the attacking party1 which has been completely routed4 ,arrangements were made not very long ago1 by which the astronomical work of ,greenwich ,observatory1 for a long time directed almost exclusively to time observations1 should include the study of the sun1 stars1 planets1 and so forth4 ,amongst other work which was considered suited to the ,national ,observatory was the application of spectroscopic analysis to determine motions of recession and approach among the celestial bodies4 ,some of these observations1 by the way1 were made1 we are told1 8to test the truth of ,doppler's principle10 though it seems difficult to suppose for an instant that mathematicians so skilful as the chief of the ,observatory and some of his assistants could entertain any doubt on that point4 ,probably it was intended by the words just quoted to imply simply that some of the observations were made for the purpose of illustrating the principle of the method4 ,we are not to suppose that on a point so simple the ,greenwich observers have been in any sort of doubt4 ,at first their results were not very satisfactory4 ,the difficulties which had for a long time foiled ,huggins1 and which ,secchi was never able to master1 rendered the first ,greenwich measures of stellar motions in the line of sight wildly inconsistent1 not only with ,huggins's results1 but with each other4 ,secchi was not slow to note this4 ,he renewed his objections to the new method of observation1 pointing and illustrating them by referring to the discrepancies among the ,greenwich results4 ,but recently a fresh series of results has been published1 showing that the observers at ,greenwich have succeeded in mastering some at least among the difficulties which they had before experienced4 ,the measurements of star-motions showed now a satisfactory agreement with ,huggins's results1 and their range of divergence among themselves was greatly reduced4 ,the chief interest of the new results1 however1 lay in the observations made upon bodies known to be in motion in the line of sight at rates already measured4 ,these observations1 though not wanted as tests of the accuracy of the principle1 were very necessary as tests of the qualities of the instruments used in applying it4 ,it is here and thus that ,secchi's objections alone required to be met1 and here and thus they have been thoroughly disposed of4 ,let us consider what means exist within the solar system for thus testing the new method4 ,the earth travels along in her orbit at the rate of about #ah miles in every second of time4 ,not to enter into niceties which could only properly be dealt with mathematically1 it may be said that with this full velocity she is at times approaching the remoter planets of the system1 and at times receding from them2 so that here at once is a range of difference amounting to about #cg miles per second1 and fairly within the power of the new method of observation4 ,for it matters nothing1 so far as the new method is concerned1 whether the earth is approaching another orb by her motion1 or that orb approaching by its own motion4 ,again1 the plant ,venus travels at the rate of about #ba miles per second1 but as the earth travels only #c miles a second less swiftly1 and the same way round1 only a small portion of ,venus's motion ever appears as a motion of approach towards or recession from the earth4 ,still1 ,venus is sometimes approaching and sometimes receding from the earth1 at a rate of more than #h miles per second4 ,her light is much brighter than that of ,jupiter or ,saturn1 and accordingly this smaller rate of motion would be probably more easily recognized than the greater rate at which the giant planets are sometimes approaching and at other times receding from the earth4 ,at least1 the ,greenwich observers seem to have confined their attention to ,venus1 so far as motions of planets in the line of sight are concerned4 ,the moon1 as a body which keeps always at nearly the same distance from us1 would of course be the last in the world to be selected to give positive evidence in favour of the new method2 but she serves to afford a useful test of the qualities of the instruments employed4 ,if when these were applied to her they gave evidence of motions of recession or approach at the rate of several miles per second1 when we know as a matter of fact that the moon's distance never#ad varies by more than #cj1jjj miles during the lunar month1 her rate of approach or recession thus averaging about one-fiftieth part of a mile per second1 discredit would be thrown on the new method--not1 indeed1 as regards its principle1 which no competent reasoner can for a moment question1 but as regards the possibility of practically applying it with our present instrumental means4 ,observations have been made at ,greenwich1 both on ,venus and on the moon1 by the new method1 with results entirely satisfactory4 ,the method shows that ,venus is receding when she is known to be receding1 and that she is approaching when she is known to be approaching4 ,again1 the method shows no signs of approach or recession in the moon's case4 ,it is thus in satisfactory agreement with the known facts4 ,of course these results are open to the objection that the observers have known beforehand what to expect1 and that expectation often deceives the mind1 especially in cases where the thing to be observed is not at all easy to recognize4 ,it will presently be seen that the new method has been more satisfactorily tested1 in this respect1 in other ways4 ,it may be partly due to the effect of expectation that in the case of ,venus the motions of approach and recession1 tested by the new method1 have always been somewhat too great4 ,a part of the excess may be due to the use of the measure of the sun's distance1 and therefore the measures of the dimensions of the solar system1 in vogue before the recent transit4 ,these measures fall short to some degree of those which result from the observations made in ,december1 #ahgd1 on ,venus in transit1 the sun's distance being estimated at about #ia1djj1jjj miles instead of #ib1jjj1jjj miles1 which would seem to be nearer the real distance4 ,of course all the motions within the solar system would be correspondingly under-estimated4 ,on the other hand1 the new method would give all velocities with absolute correctness if instrumental difficulties could be overcome4 ,the difference between the real velocities of ,venus approaching and receding1 and those calculated according to the present inexact estimate of the sun's distance1 is however much less than the observed discrepancy1 doubtless due to the difficulties involved in the application of this most difficult method4 ,i note the point1 chiefly for the sake of mentioning the circumstance that theoretically the method affords a new means of measuring the dimensions of the solar system4 ,whensoever the practical application of the method has been so far improved that the rate of approach or recession of ,venus1 or ,mercury1 or ,jupiter1 or ,saturn 7any one of these planets71 can be determined on any occasion1 with great nicety1 we can at once infer the sun's distance with corresponding exactness4 ,considering that the method has only been invented ten years 7setting aside ,doppler's first vague ideas respecting it71 and that spectroscopic analysis as a method of exact observation is as yet little more than a quarter of a century old1 we may fairly hope that in the years to come the new method1 already successfully applied to measure motions of recession and approach at the rate of #bj or #cj miles per second1 will be employed successfully in measuring much smaller velocities4 ,then will it give us a new method of measuring the great base-line of astronomical surveying--the distance of our world from the centre of the solar system4 ,that this will one day happen is rendered highly probable1 in my opinion1 by the successes next to be related4 ,besides the motions of the planets around the sun1 there are their motions of rotation1 and the rotation of the sun himself upon his axis4 ,some among these turning motions are sufficiently rapid to be dealt with by the new method4 ,the most rapid rotational motion with which we are acquainted from actual observation is that of the planet ,jupiter4 ,the circuit of his equator amounts to about #bfg1jjj miles1 and he turns once on his axis in a few minutes less than ten hours1 so that his equatorial surface travels at the rate of about #bf1gjj miles an hour1 or nearly #g miles per second4 ,thus between the advancing and retreating sides of the equator there is a difference of motion in the line of sight amounting to nearly #ae miles4 ,but this is not all4 ,jupiter shines by reflecting sunlight4 ,now it is easily seen that where his turning equator meets the waves of light from the sun1 these are shortened1 in the same sense that waves are shortened for a swimmer travelling to meet them1 while these waves1 already shortened in this way1 are further shortened when starting from the same advancing surface of ,jupiter1 on their journey to us after reflection4 ,in this way the shortening of the waves is doubled1 at least when the earth is so placed that ,jupiter lies in the same direction from us as from the sun1 the very time1 in fact1 when ,jupiter is most favourably placed for ordinary observation1 or is at his highest due south1 when the sun is at his lowest below the northern horizon--that is1 at midnight4 ,the lengthening of the waves is similarly doubled at this most favourable time for observation2 and the actual difference between the motion of the two sides of ,jupiter's equator being nearly #ae miles per second1 the effect on the light-waves is equivalent to that due to a difference of nearly #cj miles per second4 ,thus the new method may fairly be expected to indicate ,jupiter's motion of rotation4 ,the ,greenwich observers have succeeded in applying it1 though ,jupiter has not been favourably situated for observation4 ,only on one occasion1 says ,sir ,g4 ,airy1 was the spectrum of ,jupiter 8seen fairly well10 and on that occasion 8measures were obtained which gave a result in remarkable agreement with the calculated value40 ,it may well be hoped that when in the course of a few years ,jupiter returns to that part of his course where he rises high above the horizon1 shining more brightly and through a less perturbed air1 the new method will be still more successfully applied4 ,we may even hope to see it extended to ,saturn1 not merely to confirm the measures already made of ,saturn's rotation1 but to resolve the doubts which exist as to the rotation of ,saturn's ring-system4 ,lastly1 there remains the rotation of the sun1 a movement much more difficult to detect by the new method1 because the actual rate of motion even at the sun's equator amounts only to about #a mile per second4 ,in dealing with this very difficult task1 the hardest which spectroscopists have yet attempted1 the ,greenwich observers have achieved an undoubted success2 but unfortunately for them1 though fortunately for science1 another observatory1 far smaller and of much less celebrity1 has at the critical moment achieved success still more complete4 ,the astronomers at our ,national ,observatory have been able to recognize by the new method the turning motion of the sun upon his axis4 ,and here we have not1 as in the case of ,venus1 to record merely that the observers have seen what they expected to see because of the known motion of the sun4 8,particular care was taken10 says ,airy1 8to avoid any bias from previous knowledge of the direction in which a displacement0 7of the spectral lines7 8was to be expected10 the side of the sun under observation not being known by the observer until after the observation was completed4 ,but ,professor ,young1 at ,dartmouth ,college1 ,hanover1 ,n4,h41 has done much more than merely obtain evidence by the new method that the sun is rotating as we already knew4 ,he has succeeded so perfectly in mastering the instrumental and observational difficulties1 as absolutely to be able to rely on his measurement 7as distinguished from the mere recognition7 of the sun's motion of rotation4 ,the manner in which he has extended the powers of ordinary spectroscopic analysis1 cannot very readily be described in these pages1 simply because the principles on which the extension depends require for their complete description a reference to mathematical considerations of some complexity4 ,let it be simply noted that what is called the diffraction spectrum1 obtained by using a finely lined plate1 results from the dispersive action of such a plate1 or grating as it is technically called1 and this dispersive power can be readily combined with that of a spectroscope of the ordinary kind4 ,now ,dr4 ,rutherfurd1 of ,new ,york1 has succeeded in ruling so many thousand lines on glass within the breadth of a single inch as to produce a grating of high dispersive power4 ,availing himself of this beautiful extension of spectroscopic powers1 ,professor ,young has succeeded in recognizing effects of much smaller motions of recession and approach than had before been observable by the new method4 ,he has thus been able to measure the rotation-rate of the sun's equatorial regions4 ,his result exceeds considerably that inferred from the telescopic observation of the solar spots4 ,for whereas from the motion of the spots a rotation-rate of about #a mile per second has been calculated for the sun's equator1 ,professor ,young obtains from his spectroscopic observations a rate of rather more than #a mile1 or about #cjj yards per second more than the telescopic rate4 ,if ,young had been measuring the motion of the same matter which is observed with the telescope1 there could of course be no doubt that the telescope was right and the spectroscope wrong4 ,we might add a few yards per second for the probably greater distance of the sun resulting from recent transit observations4 ,for of course with an increase in our estimate of the sun's distance there comes an increase in our estimate of the sun's dimensions1 and of the velocity of the rotational motion of his surface4 ,but only about #ab yards per second could be allowed on this account2 the rest would have to be regarded as an error due to the difficulties involved in the spectroscopic method4 ,in reality1 however1 the telescopist and the spectroscopist observe different things in determining by their respective methods the sun's motion of rotation4 ,the former observes the motion of the spots belonging to the sun's visible surface2 the latter observes the motion of the glowing vapours outside that surface1 for it is from these vapours1 not from the surface of the sun1 that the dark lines of the spectrum proceed4 ,now so confident is ,professor ,young of the accuracy of his spectroscopic observations1 that he is prepared to regard the seeming difference of velocity between the atmosphere and surface of the sun as real4 ,he believes that 8the solar atmosphere really sweeps forward over the underlying surface1 in the same way that the equatorial regions outstrip the other parts of the sun's surface40 ,this inference1 important and interesting in itself1 is far more important in what it involves4 ,for if we can accept it1 it follows that the spectroscopic method of measuring the velocity of motions in the line of sight is competent1 under favourable conditions1 to obtain results accurate within a few hundred yards per second1 or #aj or #ab miles per minute4 ,if this shall really prove to be true for the method now1 less than ten years after it was first successfully applied1 what may we not hope from the method in future years8 ,spectroscopic analysis itself is in its infancy1 and this method is but a recent application of spectroscopy4 ,a century or so hence astronomers will smile 7though not disdainfully7 at these feeble efforts1 much as we smile now in contemplating the puny telescopes with which ,galileo and his contemporaries studied the star-depths4 ,and we may well believe that largely as the knowledge gained by telescopists in our own time surpasses that which ,galileo obtained1 so will spectroscopists a few generations hence have gained a far wider and deeper insight into the constitution and movements of the stellar universe than the spectroscopists of our own day dare even hope to attain4 ,i venture confidently to predict that1 in that day1 astronomers will recognize in the universe of stars a variety of structure1 a complexity of arrangement1 an abundance of every form of cosmical vitality1 such as ,i have been led by other considerations to suggest1 not the mere cloven lamina of uniformly scattered stars more or less resembling our sun1 and all in nearly the same stage of cosmical development1 which the books of astronomy not many years since agreed in describing4 ,the history of astronomical progress does not render it probable that the reasoning already advanced1 though in reality demonstrative1 will convince the generality of science students until direct and easily understood observations have shown the real nature of the constitution of that part of the universe over which astronomical survey extends4 ,but the evidence already obtained1 though its thorough analysis may be 8caviare to the general10 suffices to show the real nature of the relations which one day will come within the direct scope of astronomical observation4 ,,the ,,new ,,star ,,which ,,faded ,,into ,,star-,,mist4 ,the appearance of a new star in the constellation of the ,swan in the autumn of #ahgf promises to throw even more light than was expected on some of the most interesting problems with which modern astronomy has to deal4 ,it was justly regarded as a circumstance of extreme interest that so soon after the outburst of the star which formed a new gem in the ,northern ,crown in ,may1 #ahff1 another should have shone forth under seemingly similar conditions4 ,and when1 as time went on1 it appeared that in several respects the new star in the ,swan differed from the new star in the ,crown1 astronomers found fresh interest in studying1 as closely as possible1 the changes presented by the former as it gradually faded from view4 ,but they were not prepared to expect what has actually taken place1 or to recognize so great a difference of character between these two new stars1 that whereas one seemed throughout its visibility to ordinary eyesight1 and even until the present time1 to be justly called a star1 the other should so change as to render it extremely doubtful whether at any time it deserved to be regarded as a star or sun4 ,few astronomical phenomena1 even of those observed during this century 7so fruitful in great astronomical discoveries71 seem better worthy of thorough investigation and study than those presented by the two stars which appeared in the ,crown and in the ,swan1 in #ahff and #ahgf respectively4 ,a new era seems indeed to be beginning for those departments of astronomy which deal with stars and star-cloudlets on the one hand1 and with the evolution of solar systems and stellar systems on the other4 ,let us briefly consider the history of the star of #ahff in the first place1 and then turn our thoughts to the more surprising and probably more instructive history of the star which shone out in ,november1 #ahgf4 ,in the first place1 however1 ,i would desire to make a few remarks on the objections which have been expressed by an observer to whom astronomy is indebted for very useful work1 against the endeavour to interpret the facts ascertained respecting these so-called new stars4 ,m4 ,cornu1 who made some among the earliest spectroscopic observations of the star in ,cygnus1 after describing his results1 proceeded as follows3--8,grand and seductive though the task may be of endeavouring to draw from observed facts inductions respecting the physical state of this new star1 respecting its temperature1 and the chemical reactions of which it may be the scene1 ,i shall abstain from all commentary and all hypothesis on this subject4 ,i think that we do not yet possess the data necessary for arriving at useful conclusions1 or at least at conclusions capable of being tested3 however attractive hypotheses may be1 we must not forget that they are outside the bounds of science1 and that1 far from serving science1 they seriously endanger its progress40 ,this1 as ,i ventured to point out at the time1 is utterly inconsistent with all experience4 ,m4 ,cornu's objection to theorizing when he did not see his way to theorizing justly1 is sound enough2 but his general objection to theorizing is1 with all deference be it said1 sheerly absurd4 ,it will be noticed that ,i say theorizing1 not hypothesis-framing2 for though he speaks of hypotheses1 he in reality is describing theories4 ,the word hypothesis is too frequently used in this incorrect sense--perhaps so frequently that we may almost prefer sanctioning the use to substituting the correct word4 ,but the fact really is1 that many1 even among scientific writers1 when they hear the word hypothesis1 think immediately of ,newton's famous 8hypotheses non fingo10 a dictum relating to real hypotheses1 not to theories4 ,it would1 in fact1 be absurd to suppose that ,newton1 who had advanced1 advocated1 and eventually established1 the noblest scientific theory the world has known1 would ever have expressed an objection to theorizing1 as he is commonly understood to have done by those who interpret his 8hypotheses non fingo0 in the sense which finds favour with ,m4 ,cornu4 ,but apart from this1 ,newton definitely indicates what he means by hypotheses4 8,i frame no hypotheses10 he says1 8for whatever is not deduced from phenomena is to be called an hypothesis40 ,m4 ,cornu1 it will be seen1 rejects the idea of deducing from phenomena what he calls an hypothesis1 but what would not be an hypothesis according to ,newton's definition3 8,malgr tout ce qu'il y aurait de sduisant et de grandiose tirer de ce fait des inductions1 etc41 je m'abstiendrai de tout commentaire et de toute hypothse ce sujet40 ,it is not thus that observed scientific facts are to be made fruitful1 nor thus that the points to which closer attention must be given are to be ascertained4 ,since the preceding paragraph was written1 my attention has been attracted to the words of another observer more experienced than ,m4 ,cornu1 who has not only expressed the same opinion which ,i entertain respecting ,m4 ,cornu's ill-advised remark1 but has illustrated in a very practical way1 and in this very case1 how science gains from commentary and theory upon observed facts4 ,herr ,vgel considers 8that the fear that an hypothesis0 7he1 also1 means a theory here7 8might do harm to science is only justifiable in very rare cases3 in most cases it will further science4 ,in the first place1 it draws the attention of the observer to things which but for the hypothesis might have been neglected4 ,of course if the observer is so strongly influenced that in favour of an hypothesis he sees things which do not exist--and this may happen sometimes--science may for a while be arrested in its progress1 but in that case the observer is far more to blame than the author of the hypothesis4 ,on the other hand1 it is very possible that an observer may1 involuntarily1 arrest the progress of science1 even without originating an hypothesis1 by pronouncing and publishing sentences which have a tendency to diminish the general interest in a question1 and which do not place its high significance in the proper light40 7,this is very neatly put47 ,he is 8almost inclined to think that such an effect might follow from the reading of ,m4 ,cornu's remark1 and that nowhere better than in the present case1 where in short periods colossal changes showed themselves occurring upon a heavenly body1 might the necessary data be obtained for drawing useful conclusions1 and tests be applied to those hypotheses which have been ventured with regard to the condition of heavenly bodies40 ,it was1 as we shall presently see1 in thus collecting data and applying tests1 that ,vgel practically illustrated the justice of his views4 ,the star which shone out in the ,northern ,crown in ,may1 #ahff1 would seem to have grown to its full brightness very quickly4 ,it is not necessary that ,i should here consider the history of the star's discovery2 but ,i think all who have examined that history agree in considering that whereas on the evening of ,may #ab1 #ahff1 a new star was shining in the ,northern ,crown with second-magnitude brightness1 none had been visible in the same spot with brightness above that of a fifth-magnitude star twenty-four hours earlier4 ,on ascertaining1 however1 the place of the new star1 astronomers found that there had been recorded in ,argelander's charts and catalogue a star of between the ninth and tenth magnitude in this spot4 ,the star declined very rapidly in brightness4 ,on ,may #acth it appeared of the third magnitude2 on ,may #afth it had sunk to the fourth magnitude2 on the #agth to the fifth2 on the #aith to the seventh2 and by the end of the month it shone only as a telescopic star of the ninth magnitude4 ,it is now certainly not above the tenth magnitude4 ,examined with the spectroscope1 this star was found to be in an abnormal condition4 ,it gave the rainbow-tinted streak crossed by dark lines1 which is usually given by stars 7with minor variations1 which enable astronomers to classify the stars into several distinct orders74 ,but superposed upon this spectrum1 or perhaps we should rather say shining through this spectrum1 were seen four brilliant lines1 two of which certainly belonged to glowing hydrogen4 ,these lines were so bright as to show that the greater part of the light of the star at the time came from the glowing gas or gases giving these lines4 ,it appeared1 however1 that the rainbow-tinted spectrum on which these lines were seen was considerably brighter than it would otherwise have been1 in consequence of the accession of heat indicated by and probably derived from the glowing hydrogen4 ,unfortunately1 we have not accordant accounts of the changes which the spectrum of this star underwent as the star faded out of view4 ,wolf and ,rayet1 of the ,paris ,observatory1 assert that when there remained scarcely any trace of the continuous spectrum1 the four bright lines were still quite brilliant4 ,but ,huggins affirms that this was not the case in his observations2 he was 8able to see the continuous spectrum when the bright lines could be scarcely distinguished40 ,as the bright lines certainly faded out of view eventually1 we may reasonably assume that the ,french observers were prevented by the brightness of the lines from recognizing the continuous spectrum at that particular stage of the diminution of the star's light when the continuous spectrum had faded considerably but the hydrogen lines little4 ,later1 the continuous spectrum ceased to diminish in brightness1 while the hydrogen lines rapidly faded4 ,thereafter the continuous spectrum could be discerned1 and with greater and greater distinctness as the hydrogen lines faded out4 ,now1 in considering the meaning of the observed changes in the so-called 8new star10 we have two general theories to consider4 ,one of these theories is that to which ,dr4 ,huggins would seem to have inclined1 though he did not definitely adopt it--the theory1 namely1 that in consequence of some internal convulsion enormous quantities of hydrogen and other gases were evolved1 which in combining with some other elements ignited on the surface of the star1 and thus enveloped the whole body suddenly in a sheet of flame4 8,the ignited hydrogen gas in burning produced the light corresponding to the two bright bands in the red and green2 the remaining bright lines were not1 however1 coincident with those of oxygen1 as might have been expected4 ,according to this theory1 the burning hydrogen must have greatly increased the heat of the solid matter of the photosphere and brought it into a state of more intense incandescence and luminosity1 which may explain how the formerly faint star could so suddenly assume such remarkable brilliance2 the liberated hydrogen became exhausted1 the flame gradually abated1 and with the consequent cooling the photosphere became less vivid1 and the star returned to its original condition40 ,according to the other theory1 advanced by ,meyer and ,klein1 the blazing forth of this new star may have been occasioned by the violent precipitation of some great mass1 perhaps a planet1 upon a fixed star1 8by which the momentum of the falling mass would be changed into molecular motion10 and result in the emission of light and heat4 8,it might even be supposed that the new star1 through its rapid motion1 may have come in contact with one of the nebul which traverse in great numbers the realms of space in every direction1 and which from their gaseous condition must possess a high temperature2 such a collision would necessarily set the star in a blaze1 and occasion the most vehement ignition of its hydrogen40 ,if we regard these two theories in their more general aspect1 considering one as the theory that the origin of disturbance was within the star1 and the other as the theory that the origin of disturbance was outside the star1 they seem to include all possible interpretations of the observed phenomena4 ,but1 as actually advanced1 neither seems satisfactory4 ,the sudden pouring forth of hydrogen from the interior1 in quantities sufficient to explain the outburst1 seems altogether improbable4 ,on the other hand1 as ,i have pointed out elsewhere1 there are reasons for rejecting the theory that the cause of the heat which suddenly affected this star was either the downfall of a planet on the star or the collision of the star with a star-cloudlet or nebula1 traversing space in one direction1 while the star rushed onwards in another4 ,a planet could not very well come into final conflict with its sun at one fell swoop4 ,it would gradually draw nearer and nearer1 not by the narrowing of its path1 but by the change of the path's shape4 ,the path would1 in fact1 become more and more eccentric2 until at length1 at its point of nearest approach1 the planet would graze its primary1 exciting an intense heat where it struck1 but escaping actual destruction that time4 ,the planet would make another circuit1 and again graze the sun1 at or near the same part of the planet's path4 ,for several circuits this would continue1 the grazes not becoming more and more effective each time1 but rather less4 ,the interval between them1 however1 would grow continually less and less2 at last the time would come when the planet's path would be reduced to the circular form1 its globe touching the sun's all the way round1 and then the planet would very quickly be reduced to vapour and partly burned up1 its substance being absorbed by its sun4 ,but all successive grazes would be indicated to us by accessions of lustre1 the period between each seeming outburst being only a few months at first1 and gradually becoming less and less 7during a long course of years1 perhaps even of centuries7 until the planet was finally destroyed4 ,nothing of this sort has happened in the case of any so-called new star4 ,as for the rush of a star through a nebulous mass1 that is a theory which would scarcely be entertained by any one acquainted with the enormous distances separating the gaseous star-clouds properly called nebul4 ,there may be small clouds of the same sort scattered much more freely through space2 but we have not a particle of evidence that this is actually the case4 ,all we certainly know about star-cloudlets suggests that the distances separating them from each other are comparable with those which separate star from star1 in which case the idea of a star coming into collision with a star-cloudlet1 and still more the idea of this occurring several times in a century1 is wild in the extreme4 ,but while thus advancing objections1 which seem to me irrefragable1 against the theory that either a planet or a nebula 7still less another small star7 had come into collision with the orb in ,corona which shone out so splendidly for a while1 ,i advanced another view which seemed to me then and seems now to correspond well with phenomena1 and to render the theory of action from without on the whole preferable to the theory of outburst from within4 ,i suggested that1 far more probably1 an enormous flight of large meteoric masses travelling around the star had come into partial collision with it in the same way that the flight of ,november meteors comes into collision with our earth thrice in each century1 and that other meteoric flights may occasionally come into collision with our sun1 producing the disturbances which occasion the sun-spots4 ,as ,i pointed out1 in conceiving this we are imagining nothing new4 ,a meteoric flight capable of producing the suggested effects would differ only in kind from meteoric flights which are known to circle around our own sun4 ,the meteors which produce the ,november displays of falling stars follow in the track of a comet barely visible to the naked eye4 8,may we not reasonably assume that those glorious comets which have not only been visible but conspicuous1 shining even in the day-time1 and brandishing around tails1 which like that of the #8wonder in heaven1 the great dragon1' seemed to #8draw the third part of the stars of heaven1' are followed by much denser flights of much more massive meteors8 ,some of these giant comets have paths which carry them very close to our sun4 ,newton's comet1 with its tail a hundred millions of miles in length1 all but grazed the sun's globe4 ,the comet of #ahdc1 whose tail1 says ,sir ,john ,herschel1 #8stretched half-way across the sky1' must actually have grazed the sun1 though but lightly1 for its nucleus was within #hj1jjj miles of his surface1 and its head was more than #afj1jjj miles in diameter4 ,and these are only two among the few comets whose paths are known4 ,at any time we might be visited by a comet mightier than either1 travelling in an orbit intersecting the sun's surface1 followed by flights of meteoric masses enormous in size and many in number1 which1 falling on the sun's globe with enormous velocity corresponding to their vast orbital range and their near approach to the sun--a velocity of some #cfj miles per second--would1 beyond all doubt1 excite his whole frame1 and especially his surface regions1 to a degree of heat far exceeding what he now emits40 ,this theory corresponds far better also with observed facts than the theory of ,meyer and ,klein1 in other respects than simply in antecedent probability4 ,it can easily be shown that if a planet fell upon a sun in such sort as to become part of his mass1 or if a nebula in a state of intense heat excited the whole frame of a star to a similar degree of heat1 the effects would be of longer duration than the observed accession of heat and light in the case of all the so-called 8new stars40 ,it has been calculated by ,mr4 ,croll 7the well-known mathematician to whom we owe the most complete investigations yet made into the effect of the varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit on the climate of the earth7 that if two suns1 each equal in mass to one-half of our sun1 came into collision with a velocity of #dgf miles per second1 light and heat would be produced which would cover the present rate of the sun's radiation for fifty million years4 ,now although it certainly does not follow from this that such a collision would result in the steady emission of so much light and heat as our sun gives out1 for a period of fifty million years1 but is1 on the contrary1 certain that there would be a far greater emission at first and a far smaller emission afterwards1 yet it manifestly must be admitted that such a collision could not possibly produce so short-lived an effect as we see in the case of every one of the so-called new stars4 ,the diminution in the emission of light and heat from the maximum to one-half the maximum would not occupy fifty millions of years1 or perhaps even five million or five hundred thousand years2 but it would certainly require thousands of years2 whereas we have seen that the new stars in the ,crown and in the ,swan have lost not one-half but ninety-nine hundredths of their maximum lustre in a few months4 ,this has been urged as an objection even to the term star as applied to these suddenly appearing orbs4 ,but the objection is not valid2 because there is no reason whatever for supposing that even our own sun might not be excited by the downfall of meteoric or cometic matter upon it to a sudden and short-lasting intensity of splendour and of heat4 ,mr4 ,lockyer remarks that1 if any star1 properly so called1 were to become a 8a world on fire10 or 8burst into flames10 or1 in less poetical language1 were to be driven either into a condition of incandescence absolutely1 or to have its incandescence increased1 there can be little doubt that thousands or millions of years would be necessary for the reduction of its light to its original intensity4 ,this must1 however1 have been written in forgetfulness of some facts which have been ascertained respecting our sun1 and which indicate pretty clearly that the sun's surface might be roused to a temporary intensity of splendour and heat without any corresponding increase in the internal heat1 or in the activity of the causes1 whatever they may be1 to which the sun's steady emissions of light and heat are due4 ,for instance1 most of my readers are doubtless familiar with the account 7an oft-told tale1 at any rate7 of the sudden increase in the splendour of a small portion of the sun's surface on ,september #a1 #ahei1 observed by two astronomers independently4 ,the appearances described corresponded exactly with what we should expect if two large meteoric masses travelling side by side had rushed1 with a velocity originally amounting to two or three hundred miles per second1 through the portions of the solar atmosphere lying just above1 at1 and just below the visible photosphere4 ,the actual rate of motion was measured at #abj miles per second as the minimum1 but may1 if the direction of motion was considerably inclined to the line of sight1 have amounted to more than #bjj miles per second4 ,the effect was such1 that the parts of the sun thus suddenly excited to an increased emission of light and heat appeared like bright stars upon the background of the glowing photosphere itself4 ,one of the observers1 ,carrington1 supposed for a moment that the dark glass screen used to protect the eye had broken4 ,the increase of splendour was exceedingly limited in area1 and lasted only for a few minutes--fortunately for the inhabitants of earth4 ,as it was1 the whole frame of the earth sympathized with the sun4 ,vivid auroras were seen1 not only in both hemispheres1 but in latitudes where auroras are seldom seen4 ,they were accompanied by unusually great electro-magnetic disturbances4 8,in many places10 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 8the telegraph wires struck work4 ,at ,washington and ,philadelphia1 the electric signalmen received severe electric shocks4 ,at a station in ,norway1 the telegraphic apparatus was set fire to1 and at ,boston1 in ,north ,america1 a flame of fire followed the pen of ,bain's electric telegraph1 which writes down the message upon chemically prepared paper40 ,we see1 then1 that most certainly the sun can be locally excited to increased emission of light and heat1 which nevertheless may last but for a very short time2 and we have good reason for believing that the actual cause of the sudden change in his condition was the downfall of meteoric matter upon a portion of his surface4 ,we may well believe that1 whatever the cause may have been1 it was one which might in the case of other suns1 or even in our sun's own case1 affect a much larger portion of the photosphere4 ,if this happened there would be just such an accession of splendour as we recognize in the case of the new stars4 ,and as the small local accession of brilliancy lasted only a few minutes1 we can well believe that an increase of surface brilliancy affecting a much larger portion of the photosphere1 or even the entire photosphere1 might last but for a few days or weeks4 ,all that can be said in the way of negative evidence1 so far as our own sun is concerned1 is that we have no reason for believing that our sun has1 at any time within many thousands of years1 been excited to emit even for a few hours a much greater amount of light and heat than usual2 so that it has afforded no direct evidence in favour of the belief that other suns may be roused to many times their normal splendour1 and yet very quickly resume that usual lustre4 ,but we know that our sun1 whether because of his situation in space1 or of his position in time 7that is1 the stage of solar development to which he has at present attained71 belongs to the class of stars which shine with steady lustre4 ,he does not vary like ,betelgeux1 for example1 which is not only a sun like him as to general character1 but notably a larger and more massive orb4 ,still less is he like ,mira1 the ,wonderful ,star2 or like that more wonderful variable star1 ,eta ,args1 which at one time shines with a lustre nearly equalling that of the bright ,sirius1 and anon fades away almost into utter invisibility4 ,he is a variable sun1 for we cannot suppose that the waxing and waning of the sun-spot period leaves his lustre1 as a whole1 altogether unaffected4 ,but his variation is so slight that1 with all ordinary methods of photometric measurement by observers stationed on worlds which circle around other suns1 it must be absolutely undiscernible4 ,we do not1 however1 reject ,betelgeux1 or ,mira1 or even ,eta ,args1 from among stars because they vary in lustre4 ,we recognize the fact that1 as in glory1 so in condition and in changes of condition1 one star differeth from another4 ,doubtless there are excellent reasons for rejecting the theory that a massive body like a planet1 or a nebulous mass like those which are found among the star-depths 7the least of which would exceed many times in volume a sphere filling the entire space of the orbit of ,neptune71 fell on some remote sun in the ,northern ,crown4 ,but there are no sufficient reasons for rejecting or even doubting the theory that a comet1 bearing in its train a flight of many millions of meteoric masses1 falling directly upon such a sun1 might cause it to shine with many times its ordinary lustre1 but only for a short time1 a few months or weeks1 or a few days1 or even hours4 ,in the article entitled 8,suns in ,flames10 in my 8,myths and ,marvels of ,astronomy10 before the startling evidence recently obtained from the star in ,cygnus had been thought of1 ,i thus indicated the probable effects of such an event3--8,when the earth has passed through the richer portions 7not the actual nuclei be it remembered7 of meteor systems1 the meteors visible from even a single station have been counted by tens of thousands1 and it has been computed that millions must have fallen upon the whole earth4 ,these were meteors following in the trains of very small comets4 ,if a very large comet followed by no denser a flight of meteors1 but each meteoric mass much larger1 fell directly upon the sun1 it would not be the outskirts but the nucleus of the meteoric train which would impinge upon him4 ,they would number thousands of millions4 ,the velocity of downfall of each mass would be more than #cfj miles per second4 ,and they would continue to pour in upon him for several days in succession1 millions falling every hour4 ,it seems not improbable that under this tremendous and long-continued meteoric hail1 his whole surface would be caused to glow as intensely as that small part whose brilliancy was so surprising in the observation made by ,carrington and ,hodgson4 ,in that case our sun1 seen from some remote star whence ordinarily he is invisible1 would shine out as a new sun for a few days1 while all things living1 on our earth and whatever other members of the solar system are the abodes of life1 would inevitably be destroyed40 ,there are1 indeed1 reasons for believing1 not only1 as ,i have already indicated1 that the outburst in the sun was caused by the downfall of meteoric masses1 but that those masses were following in the train of a known comet1 precisely as the ,november meteors follow in the train of ,tempel's comet 7,,ii41 #ahff74 ,for we know that ,november meteoric displays have been witnessed for five or six years after the passage of ,tempel's comet1 in its thirty-three year orbit1 while the ,august meteoric displays have been witnessed fully one hundred and twenty years after the passage of their comet 7,,ii41 #ahfb74ae ,now only sixteen years before the solar outburst witnessed by ,carrington and ,hodgson1 a magnificent comet had passed even closer to the sun than either ,tempel's comet or the second comet of #ahfb approached the earth's orbit4 ,that was the famous comet of the year #ahdc4 ,many of us remember that wonderful object4 ,i was but a child myself when it appeared1 but ,i can well remember its amazing tail1 which in ,march1 #ahdc1 stretched half-way across the sky4 8,of all the comets on record10 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 8that approached nearest the sun2 indeed1 it was at first supposed that it had actually grazed the sun's surface1 but it proved to have just missed by an interval of not more than #hj1jjj miles--about a third of the distance of the moon from the earth1 which 7in such a matter7 is a very close shave indeed to get clear off40 ,we can well believe that the two meteors which produced the remarkable outburst of #ahei may have been stragglers from the main body following after that glorious comet4 ,i do not insist upon the connection4 ,in fact1 ,i rather incline to the belief that the disturbance in #ahei1 occurring as it did about the time of maximum sun-spot frequency1 was caused by meteors following in the train of some as yet undiscovered comet1 circuiting the sun in about eleven years1 the spots themselves being1 ,i believe1 due in the main to meteoric downfalls4 ,there is greater reason for believing that the great sun-spot which appeared in ,june1 #ahdc1 was caused by the comet which three months before had grazed the sun's surface4 ,as ,professor ,kirkwood1 of ,bloomington1 ,indiana1 justly remarks1 had this comet approached a little nearer1 the resistance of the solar atmosphere would probably have brought the comet's entire mass to the solar surface4 ,even at its actual distance1 it must have produced considerable atmospheric disturbance4 ,but the recent discovery that a number of comets are associated with meteoric matter travelling in nearly the same orbits1 suggests the inquiry whether an enormous meteorite following in the comet's train1 and having a somewhat less perihelion distance1 may not have been precipitated upon the sun1 thus producing the great disturbance observed so shortly after the comet's perihelion passage4 ,let us consider now the evidence obtained from the star in ,cygnus1 noting especially in what points it resembles1 and in what points it differs from1 the evidence afforded by the star in the ,crown4 ,the new star was first seen by ,professor ,schmidt at a quarter to six on the evening of ,november #bd4 ,it was then shining as a star of the third magnitude1 in the constellation of the ,swan1 not very far from the famous but faint star #fa ,cygni--which first of all the stars in the northern heavens had its distance determined by astronomers4 ,the three previous nights had unfortunately been dark2 but ,schmidt is certain that on ,november #bj the star was not visible4 ,at midnight1 ,november #bd1 its light was very yellow1 and it was somewhat brighter than the well-known star ,eta ,pegasi1 which marks the forearm of the ,flying ,horse4 ,schmidt sent news of the discovery to ,leverrier1 at ,paris2 but neither he nor ,leverrier telegraphed the news1 as they should have done1 to ,greenwich1 ,berlin1 or the ,united ,states4 ,many precious opportunities for observing the spectrum of the new-comer at the time of its greatest brilliancy were thus lost4 ,the observers at ,paris did their best to observe the spectrum of the star and the all-important changes in the spectrum4 ,but they had unfavourable weather4 ,it was not till ,december #b that the star was observed at ,paris1 by which time the colour1 which had been very yellow on ,november #bd1 had become 8greenish1 almost blue40 ,the star had also then sunk from the third to far below the fourth magnitude4 ,it is seldom that science has to regret a more important loss of opportunity than this4 ,what we want specially to know is the nature of the spectrum given by this star when its light was yellow2 and this we can now never know4 ,nor are the outbursts of new stars so common that we may quickly expect another similar opportunity1 even if any number of other new stars should present the same series of phenomena as the star in ,cygnus4 ,on ,december #b1 the spectrum1 as observed by ,m4 ,cornu1 consisted almost entirely of bright lines4 ,on ,december #e1 he determined the position of these lines1 though clouds still greatly interfered with his labours4 ,he found three bright lines of hydrogen1 the strong double sodium line in the orange-yellow1 the triple magnesium line in the yellow-green1 and two other lines--one of which seemed to agree exactly in position with a bright line belonging to the solar corona4 ,all these lines were shining upon the rainbow-tinted background of the spectrum1 which was relatively faint4 ,he drew the conclusion that in chemical constitution the atmosphere of the new star was constituted exactly like the solar sierra4 ,herr ,vgel's observations commenced on ,december #e1 and were continued at intervals until ,march #aj1 when the star had sunk to below the eighth magnitude4 ,vgel's earlier observations agreed well with ,cornu's4 ,he remarks1 however1 that ,cornu's opinion as to the exact resemblance of the chemical constitution of the star's atmosphere with that of the sierra is not just1 for both ,cornu and himself noticed one line which did not correspond with any line belonging to the solar sierra2 and this line eventually became the brightest line of the whole spectrum4 ,comparing his own observations with those of ,cornu1 ,vgel points out that they agree perfectly with regard to the presence of the three hydrogen lines1 and that of the brightest line of the air spectrum 7belonging to nitrogen71--which is the principal line of the spectrum of nebul4 ,this is the line which has no analogue in the spectrum of the sierra4 ,we have also observations by ,f4 ,secchi1 at ,rome1 ,mr4 ,copeland1 at ,dunecht1 and ,mr4 ,backhouse1 of ,sunderland1 all agreeing in the main with the observations made by ,vgel and ,cornu4 ,in particular1 ,mr4 ,backhouse observed1 as ,vgel had done1 that whereas in ,december the greenish-blue line of hydrogen1 ,f1 was brighter than the nitrogen line 7also in the green-blue1 but nearer the red end than ,f71 on ,january #f the nitrogen line was the brightest of all the lines in the spectrum of the new star4 ,vgel1 commenting on the results of his observations up to ,march #aj1 makes the following interesting remarks 7,i quote1 with slight verbal alterations1 from a paraphrase in a weekly scientific journal73--8,a stellar spectrum with bright lines is always a highly interesting phenomenon for any one acquainted with stellar spectrum analysis1 and well worthy of deep consideration4 ,although in the chromosphere 7sierra7 of our sun1 near the limb1 we see numerous bright lines1 yet only dark lines appear in the spectrum whenever we produce a small star-like image of the sun1 and examine it through the spectroscope4 ,it is generally believed that the bright lines in some few star-spectra result from gases which break forth from the interior of the luminous body1 the temperature of which is higher than that of the surface of the body--that is1 the phenomenon is the same sometimes observed in the spectra of solar spots1 where incandescent hydrogen rushing out of the hot interior becomes visible above the cooler spots through the hydrogen lines turning bright4 ,but this is not the only possible explanation4 ,we may also suppose that the atmosphere of a star1 consisting of incandescent gases1 as is the case with our own sun1 is on the whole cooler than the nucleus1 but with regard to the latter is extremely large4 ,i cannot well imagine how the phenomenon can last for any long period of time if the former hypothesis be correct4 ,the gas breaking forth from the hot interior of the body will impart a portion of its heat to the surface of the body1 and thus raise the temperature of the latter2 consequently1 the difference of temperature between the incandescent gas and the surface of the body will soon be insufficient to produce bright lines2 and these will disappear from the spectrum4 ,this view applies perfectly to stars which suddenly appear and soon disappear again1 or at least increase considerably in intensity--that is1 it applies perfectly to so-called new stars in the spectra of which bright lines are apparent1 if the hypothesis presently to be mentioned is admitted for their explanation4 ,for a more stable state of things the second hypothesis seems to be far better adapted4 ,stars like ,beta ,lyr1 ,gamma ,cassiopei1 and others1 which show the hydrogen lines and the sierra ,d line bright on a continuous spectrum1 with only slight changes of intensity1 possess1 according to this theory1 atmospheres very large relatively to their own volume--the atmospheres consisting of hydrogen and that unknown element which produces the ,d line4#af ,with regard to the new star1 ,zllner1 long before the progress lately made in stellar physics by means of spectrum analysis1 deduced from ,tycho's observations of the star called after him1 that on the surface of a star1 through the constant emission of heat1 the products of cooling1 which in the case of our sun we call sun-spots1 accumulate3 so that finally the whole surface of the body is covered with a colder stratum1 which gives much less light or none at all4 ,through a sudden and violent tearing up of this stratum1 the interior incandescent materials which it encloses must naturally break forth1 and must in consequence1 according to the extent of their eruption1 cause larger or smaller patches of the dark envelope of the body to become luminous again4 ,to a distant observer such an eruption from the hot and still incandescent interior of a heavenly body must appear as the sudden flashing-up of a new star4 ,that this evolution of light may under certain conditions be an extremely powerful one1 could be explained by the circumstance that all the chemical compounds which1 under the influence of a lower temperature1 had already formed upon the surface1 are again decomposed through the sudden eruption of these hot materials2 and that this decomposition1 as in the case of terrestrial substances1 takes place under evolution of light and heat4 ,thus the bright flashing-up is not only ascribed to the parts of the surface which through the eruption of the incandescent matter have again become luminous1 but also to a simultaneous process of combustion1 which is initiated through the colder compounds coming into contact with the incandescent matter40 ,vgel considers that ,zllner's hypothesis has been confirmed in its essential points by the application of spectrum analysis to the stars4 ,we can recognize from the spectrum different stages in the process of cooling1 and in some of the fainter stars we perceive indeed that chemical compounds have already formed1 and still exist4 ,as to new stars1 again1 says ,vgel1 ,zllner's theory seems in nowise contradicted 8by the spectral observations made on the two new stars of #ahff and #ahgf4 ,the bright continuous spectrum1 and the bright lines only slightly exceeding it at first0 7a description1 however1 applying correctly only to the star of #ahgf71 8could not be well explained if we only suppose a violent eruption from the interior1 which again rendered the surface wholly or partially luminous2 but are easily explained if we suppose that the quantity of light is considerably augmented through a simultaneous process of combustion4 ,if this process is of short duration1 then the continuous spectrum1 as was the case with the new star of #ahgf1 will very quickly decrease in intensity down to a certain limit1 while the bright lines in the spectrum1 which result from the incandescent gases that have emanated in enormous quantities from the interior1 will continue for some time40 ,it thus appears that ,herr ,vgel regarded the observations which had been made on this remarkable star up to ,march #aj as indicating that first there had been an outburst of glowing gaseous matter from the interior1 producing the part of the light which gave the bright lines indicative of gaseity1 and that then there had followed1 as a consequence1 the combustion of a portion of the solid and relatively cool crust1 causing the continuous part of the spectrum4 ,we may compare what had taken place1 on this hypothesis1 with the outburst of intensely hot gases from the interior of a volcanic crater1 and the incandescence of the lips of the crater in consequence of the intense heat of the out-rushing gases4 ,any one viewing such a crater from a distance1 with a spectroscope1 would see the bright lines belonging to the out-rushing gases superposed upon the continuous spectrum due to the crater's burning lips4 ,vgel further supposes that the burning parts of the star soon cooled1 the majority of the remaining light 7or at any rate the part of the remaining light spectroscopically most effective7 being that which came from the glowing gases which had emanated in vast quantities from the star's interior4 8,the observations of the spectrum show1 beyond doubt10 he says1 8that the decrease in the light of the star corresponds with the cooling of its surface4 ,the violet and blue parts decreased more rapidly in intensity than the other parts2 and the absorption-bands which crossed the spectrum have gradually become darker and darker40 ,the reasoning1 however1 if not altogether unsatisfactory1 is by no means so conclusive as ,herr ,vgel appears to think4 ,it is not clear how the incandescent portion of the surface could possibly cool in any great degree while enormous quantities of gas more intensely heated 7by the hypothesis7 remained around the star4 ,the more rapid decrease in the violet and blue parts of the spectrum than in the red and orange is explicable as an effect of absorption1 at least as readily as by the hypothesis that burning solid or liquid matter had cooled4 ,vgel himself could only regard the other bands which crossed the spectrum as absorption-bands4 ,and the absorption of light from the continuous spectrum in these parts 7that is1 not where the bright lines belonging to the gaseous matter lay7 could not possibly result from absorption produced by those gases4 ,if other gases were in question1 gases which1 by cooling with the cooling surface1 had become capable of thus absorbing light from special parts of the spectrum1 how is it that before1 when these gases were presumably intensely heated1 they did not indicate their presence by bright bands8 ,bright bands1 indeed1 were seen1 which eventually faded out of view1 but these bright bands did not occupy the position where1 later on1 absorption-bands appeared4 ,the natural explanation of what had thus far been observed is different from that advanced by ,vgel1 though we must not assume that because it is the natural1 it is necessarily the true explanation4 ,it is this--that the source of that part of the star's light which gave the bright-line spectrum1 or the spectrum indicative of gaseity1 belongs to the normal condition of the star1 and not to gases poured forth1 in consequence of some abnormal state of things1 from the sun's interior4 ,we should infer naturally1 though again ,i say not therefore correctly1 that if a star spectroscope had been directed upon the place occupied by the new star before it began to shine with unusual splendour1 the bright-line spectrum would have been observed4 ,some exceptional cause would then seem to have aroused the entire surface of the star to shine with a more intense brightness1 the matter thus 7presumably7 more intensely heated being such as would give out the combined continuous and bright-line spectrum1 including the bright lines which1 instead of fading out1 shone with at least relatively superior brightness as the star faded from view4 ,the theory that1 on the contrary1 the matter giving these more persistent lines was that whose emission caused the star's increase of lustre1 seems at least not proven1 and ,i would go so far as to say that it accords ill with the evidence4 ,the question1 be it noted1 is simply whether we should regard the kind of light which lasts longest in this star as it fades out of view as more probably belonging to the star's abnormal brightness or to its normal luminosity4 ,it seems to me there can be little doubt that the persistence of this part of the star's light points to the latter rather than to the former view4 ,let it also be noticed that the changes which had been observed thus far were altogether unlike those which had been observed in the case of the star in the ,northern ,crown1 and therefore cannot justly be regarded as pointing to the same explanation4 ,as the star in the ,crown faded from view1 the bright lines indicative of glowing hydrogen died out1 and only the ordinary stellar spectrum remained4 ,in the case of the star in the ,swan1 the part of the spectrum corresponding to stellar light faded gradually from view1 and bright lines only were left1 at least as conspicuous parts of the star's spectrum4 ,so that whereas one orb seemed to have faded into a faint star1 the other seemed fading out into a nebula--not merely passing into such a condition as to shine with light indicative of gaseity1 but actually so changing as to shine with light of the very tints 7or1 more strictly1 of the very wave-lengths7 observed in all the gaseous nebul4 ,the strange eventful history of the new star in ,cygnus did not end here1 however4 ,we may even say1 indeed1 that it has not ended yet4 ,but another chapter can already be written4 ,vgel ceased from observing the star in ,march1 precisely when observation seemed to promise the most interesting results4 ,at most other observatories1 also1 no observations were made for about half a year4 ,at the ,dunecht ,observatory#ag pressure of work relating to ,mars interfered with the prosecution of those observations which had been commenced early in the year4 ,but on ,september #c1 ,lord ,lindsay's #ae-;inch reflector was directed upon the star4 ,a star was still shining where the new star's yellow lustre had been displayed in ,november1 #ahgf2 but now the star shone with a faint blue colour4 ,under spectroscopic examination1 however1 the light from this seeming blue star was found not to be starlight1 properly speaking1 at all4 ,it formed no rainbow-tinted spectrum1 but gave light of only a single colour4 ,the single line now seen was that which at the time of ,vgel's latest observation had become the strongest of the bright lines of the originally complex spectrum of the so-called new star4 ,it is the brightest of the lines given by the gaseous nebul4 ,in fact1 if nothing had been known about this body before the spectroscopic observation of ,september #c was made1 the inference from the spectrum given by the blue star would undoubtedly have been that the object is in reality a small nebula of the planetary sort1 very similar to that one close by the pole of the ecliptic1 which gave ,huggins the first evidence of the gaseity of nebul1 but very much smaller4 ,i would specially direct the reader's attention1 in fact1 to ,huggins's account of his observation of that planetary nebula in the ,dragon4 8,on ,august #ai1 #ahfd10 he says1 8,i directed the telescope armed with the spectrum apparatus to this nebula4 ,at first ,i suspected some derangement of the instrument had taken place1 for no spectrum was seen1 but only0 a single line of light4 8,i then found that the light of this nebula1 unlike any other extra-terrestrial light which had yet been subjected by me to prismatic analysis1 was not composed of light of different refrangibilities1 and therefore could not form a spectrum4 ,a great part of the light from this nebula is monochromatic1 and after passing through the prisms remains concentrated in a bright line40 ,a more careful examination showed that not far from the bright line was a much fainter line2 and beyond this1 again1 a third exceedingly faint line was seen4 ,the brightest of the three lines was a line of nitrogen corresponding in position with the brightest of the lines in the spectrum of our own air4 ,the faintest corresponded in position with a line of hydrogen4 ,the other has not yet been associated with a known line of any element4 ,besides the faint lines1 ,dr4 ,huggins perceived an exceedingly faint continuous spectrum on both sides of the group of bright lines2 he suspected1 however1 that this faint spectrum was not continuous1 but crossed by dark spaces4 ,later observations on other nebul induced him to regard this faint continuous spectrum as due to the solid or liquid matter of the nucleus1 and as quite distinct from the bright lines into which nearly the whole of the light from the nebula is concentrated4 ,the fainter parts of the spectrum of the gaseous nebul1 in fact1 correspond to those parts of the spectrum of the 8new star0 in ,cygnus which last remained visible1 before the light assumed its present monochromatic colour4 ,now let us consider the significance of the evidence afforded by this discovery--not perhaps hoping at once to perceive the full meaning of the discovery1 but endeavouring to advance as far as we safely can in the direction in which it seems to point4 ,we have1 then1 these broad facts3 where no star had been known1 an object has for a while shone with stellar lustre1 in this sense1 that its light gave a rainbow-tinted spectrum not unlike that which is given by a certain order of stars2 this object has gradually parted with its new lustre1 and in so doing the character of its spectrum has slowly altered1 the continuous portion becoming fainter1 and the chief lustre of the bright-line portion shifting from the hydrogen lines to a line which1 there is every reason to believe1 is absolutely identical with the nebula nitrogen line3 and lastly1 the object has ceased to give any perceptible light1 other than that belonging to this nitrogen line4 ,now it cannot1 ,i think1 be doubted that1 accompanying the loss of lustre in this orb1 there has been a corresponding loss of heat4 ,the theory that all the solid and liquid materials of the orb have been vaporized by intense heat1 and that this vaporization has caused the loss of the star's light 7as a lime-light might die out with the consumption of the lime1 though the flame remained as hot as ever71 is opposed by many considerations4 ,it seems sufficient to mention this1 that if a mass of solid matter1 like a dead sun or planet1 were exposed to an intense heat1 first raising it to incandescence1 and eventually altogether vaporizing its materials1 although quite possibly the time of its intensest lustre might precede the completion of the vaporization1 yet certainly so soon as the vaporization was complete1 the spectrum of the newly vaporized mass would show multitudinous bright lines corresponding to the variety of material existing in the body4 ,no known fact of spectroscopic analysis lends countenance to the belief that a solid or liquid mass1 vaporized by intense heat1 would shine thenceforth with monochromatic light4 ,again1 ,i think we are definitely compelled to abandon ,vgel's explanation of the phenomena by ,zllner's theory4 ,the reasons which ,i have urged above are not only strengthened severally by the change which has taken place in the spectrum of the new star since ,vgel observed it1 but an additional argument of overwhelming force has been introduced4 ,if any one of the suns died out1 a crust forming over its surface and this crust being either absolutely dark or only shining with very feeble lustre1 the sun would still in one respect resemble all the suns which are spread over the heavens--it would show no visible disc1 however great the telescopic power used in observing it4 ,if the nearest of all the stars were as large1 or even a hundred times as large1 as ,sirius1 and were observed with a telescope of ten times greater magnifying power than any yet directed to the heavens1 it would appear only as a point of light4 ,if it lost the best part of its lustre1 it would appear only as a dull point of light4 ,now the planetary nebul show discs1 sometimes of considerable breadth4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 to whom and to ,sir ,w4 ,herschel we owe the discovery and observation of nearly all these objects1 remarks that 8the planetary nebul have1 as their name imports1 a near1 in some instances a perfect1 resemblance to planets1 presenting discs round1 or slightly oval1 in some quite sharply terminated1 in others a little hazy or softened at the borders44440 ,among the most remarkable may be specified one near the ,cross1 whose light is about equal to that of a star just visible to the naked eye1 8its diameter about twelve seconds1 its disc circular or very slightly elliptic1 and with a clear1 sharp1 well-defined outline1 having exactly the appearance of a planet1 with the exception of its colour1 which is a fine and full blue1 verging somewhat upon green40 ,but the largest of these planetary nebul1 not far from the southernmost of the two stars called the ,pointers1 has a diameter of #b minutes of arc1 8which1 supposing it placed at a distance from us not greater than that of the nearest known star of our northern heavens1 would imply a linear diameter seven times greater than that of the orbit of ,neptune40 ,the actual volume of this object1 on this assumption1 would exceed our sun's ten million million times4 ,no one supposes that this planetary nebula1 shining with a light indicative of gaseity1 has a mass exceeding our sun's in this enormous degree4 ,it probably has so small a mean density as not greatly to exceed1 or perhaps barely to equal1 our sun in mass4 ,now though the 8new star0 in ,cygnus presented no measurable disc1 and still shines as a mere blue point in the largest telescope1 yet inasmuch as its spectrum associated it with the planetary and gaseous nebul1 which we know to be much larger bodies than the stars1 it must be regarded1 in its present condition1 as a planetary nebula1 though a small one2 and since we cannot for a moment imagine that the monstrous planetary nebul just described are bodies which once were suns1 but whose crust has now become non-luminous1 while around the crust masses of gas shine with a faint luminosity1 so are we precluded from believing that this smaller member of the same family is in that condition4 ,it is conceivable 7and the possibility must be taken into account in any attempt to interpret the phenomena of the new star7 that when shining as a star1 the new orb1 so far as this unusual lustre was concerned1 was of sunlike dimensions4 ,for we cannot tell whether the surface which gave the strong light was less or greater than1 or equal to1 that which is now shining with monochromatic light4 ,very likely1 if we had been placed where we could have seen the full dimensions of the planetary nebula as it at present exists1 we should have found only its nuclear part glowing suddenly with increased lustre1 which1 after very rapidly attaining its maximum1 gradually died out again1 leaving the nebula as it had been before4 ,but that the mass now shining with monochromatic light is1 ,i will not say enormously large1 but of exceedingly small mean density1 so that it is enormously large compared with the dimensions it would have if its entire substance were compressed till it had the same mean density as our own sun1 must be regarded as1 to all intents and purposes1 certain4 ,we certainly have not here1 then1 the case of a sun which has grown old and dead and dark save at the surface1 but within whose interior fire has still remained1 only waiting some disturbing cause to enable it for a while to rush forth4 ,if we could suppose that in such a case there could be such changes as the spectroscope has indicated--that the bright lines of the gaseous outbursting matter would1 during the earlier period of the outburst1 show on a bright continuous background1 due to the glowing lips of the opening through which the matter had rushed1 but later would shine alone1 becoming also fewer in number1 till at last only one was left1--we should find ourselves confronted with the stupendous difficulty that that single remaining line is the bright line of the planetary and other gaseous nebul4 ,any hypothesis accounting for its existence in the spectrum of the faint blue starlike object into which the star in ,cygnus has faded ought to be competent to explain its existence in the spectrum of those nebul4 ,but this hypothesis certainly does not so explain its existence in the nebular spectrum4 ,the nebul cannot be suns which have died out save for the light of gaseous matter surrounding them1 for they are millions1 or rather millions of millions1 of times too large4 ,if1 for instance1 a nebula1 like the one above described as lying near the southernmost ,pointer1 were a mass of this kind1 having the same mean density as the sun1 and lying only at the distance of the nearest of the stars from us1 then not only would it have the utterly monstrous dimensions stated by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 but it would in the most effective way perturb the whole solar system4 ,with a diameter exceeding seven times that of the orbit of ,neptune1 it would have a volume1 and therefore a mass1 exceeding our sun's volume and mass more than eleven millions of millions of times4 ,but its distance on this assumption would be only about two hundred thousand times the sun's1 and its attraction reduced1 as compared with his1 on this account only forty thousand millions of times4 ,so that its attraction on the sun and on the earth would be greater than his attraction on the earth1 in the same degree that eleven millions are greater than forty thousand--or two hundred and seventy-five times4 ,the sun1 despite his enormous distance from such a mass1 would be compelled to fall very quickly into it1 unless he circuited 7with all his family7 around it in about one-sixteenth of a year1 which most certainly he does not do4 ,nor would increasing the distance at which we assume the star to lie have any effect to save the sun from being thus perturbed1 but the reverse4 ,if we double for instance our estimate of the nebula's distance1 we increase eightfold our estimate of its mass1 while we only diminish its attraction on our sun fourfold on account of increased distance2 so that now its attraction on our sun would be one-fourth its former attraction multiplied by eight1 or twice our former estimate4 ,we cannot suppose the nebula to be much nearer than the nearest star4 ,again1 we cannot suppose that the light of these gaseous nebul comes from some bright orb within them of only starlike apparent dimensions1 for in that case we should constantly recognize such starlike nucleus1 which is not the case4 ,moreover1 the bright-line spectrum from one of these nebul comes from the whole nebula1 as is proved by the fact that if the slit of the spectroscope be opened it becomes possible to see three spectroscopic images of the nebula itself1 not merely the three bright lines4 ,so that1 if we assume the so-called star in ,cygnus to be now like other objects giving the same monochromatic spectrum--and this seems the only legitimate assumption--we are compelled to believe that the light now reaching us comes from a nebulous mass1 not from the faintly luminous envelope of a dead sun4 ,yet1 remembering that when at its brightest this orb gave a spectrum resembling in general characteristics that of other stars or suns1 and closely resembling even in details that of stars like ,gamma ,cassiopei1 we are compelled by parity of reasoning to infer that when the so-called new star was so shining1 the greater part of its light came from a sunlike mass4 ,thus1 then1 we are led to the conclusion that in the case of this body we have a nucleus or central mass1 and that around this central mass there is a quantity of gaseous matter1 resembling in constitution that which forms the bulk of the other gaseous nebul4 ,the denser nucleus ordinarily shines with so faint a lustre that the continuous spectrum from its light is too faint to be discerned with the same spectroscopic means by which the bright lines of the gaseous portion are shown2 and the gaseous portion ordinarily shines with so faint a lustre that its bright lines would not be discernible on the continuous background of a stellar spectrum4 ,through some cause unknown--possibly 7as suggested in an article on the earlier history of this same star in my 8,myths and ,marvels of ,astronomy07 the rush of a rich and dense flight of meteors upon the central mass--the nucleus was roused to a degree of heat far surpassing its ordinary temperature4 ,thus for a time it glowed as a sun4 ,at the same time the denser central portions of the nebulous matter were also aroused to intenser heat1 and the bright lines which ordinarily 7and certainly at present7 would not stand out bright against the rainbow-tinted background of a stellar spectrum1 showed brightly upon the continuous spectrum of the new star4 ,then as the rush of meteors upon the nucleus and on the surrounding nebulous matter ceased--if that be the true explanation of the orb's accession of lustre--or as the cause of the increase of brightness1 whatever that cause may have been1 ceased to act1 the central orb slowly returned to its usual temperature1 the nebulous matter also cooling1 the continuous spectrum slowly fading out1 the denser parts of the nebulous matter exercising also a selective absorption 7explaining the bands seen in the spectrum at this stage7 which gradually became a continuous absorption--that is1 affected the entire spectrum4 ,those component gases1 also1 of the nebulous portion which had for a while been excited to sufficient heat to show their bright lines1 cooled until their lines disappeared1 and none remained visible except for a while the three usual nebular lines1 and latterly 7owing to still further cooling7 only the single line corresponding to the monochromatic light of the fainter gaseous nebul4 ,,star-,,grouping1 ,,star-,,drift1 ,,and ,,star-,,mist4 ,a ,lecture delivered at the ,royal ,institution on ,may #f1 #ahgj4 ,nearly a century has passed since the greatest astronomer the world has ever known--the ,newton of observational astronomy1 as he has justly been called by ,arago--conceived the daring thought that he would gauge the celestial depths4 ,and because in his day1 as indeed in our own1 very little was certainly known respecting the distribution of the stars1 he was forced to found his researches upon a guess4 ,he supposed that the stars1 not only those visible to the naked eye1 but all that are seen in the most powerful telescopes1 are suns1 distributed with a certain general uniformity throughout space4 ,it is my purpose to attempt to prove that--as ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel was himself led to suspect during the progress of his researches--this guess was a mistaken one2 that but a small proportion of the stars can be regarded as real suns2 and that in place of the uniformity of distribution conceived by ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel1 the chief characteristic of the sidereal system is infinite variety4 ,in order that the arguments on which these views are based may be clearly apprehended1 it will be necessary to recall the main results of ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel's system of star-grouping4 ,directing one of his #bj-;feet reflectors to different parts of the heavens1 he counted the stars seen in the field of view4 ,assuming that the telescope really reached the limits of the sidereal system1 it is clear that the number of stars seen in any direction affords a means of estimating the relative extension of the system in that direction1 provided always that the stars are really distributed throughout the system with a certain approach to uniformity4 ,where many stars are seen1 there the system has its greatest extension2 where few1 there the limits of the system must be nearest to us4 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel was led by this process of star-grouping to the conclusion that the sidereal system has the figure of a cloven disc4 ,the stars visible to the naked eye lie far within the limits of this disc4 ,stars outside the relatively narrow limits of the sphere including all the visible stars1 are separately invisible4 ,but where the system has its greatest extension these orbs produce collectively the diffused light which forms the ,milky ,way4 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 applying a similar series of researches to the southern heavens1 was led to a very similar conclusion4 ,his view of the sidereal system differs chiefly in this respect from his father's1 that he considered the stars within certain limits of distance from the sun to be spread less richly through space than those whose united lustre produces the milky light of the galaxy4 ,now it is clear that if the supposition on which these views are based is just1 the three following results are to be looked for4 ,in the first place1 the stars visible to the naked eye would be distributed with a certain general uniformity over the celestial sphere2 so that if on the contrary we find certain extensive regions over which such stars are strewn much more richly than over the rest of the heavens1 we must abandon ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel's fundamental hypothesis and all the conclusions which have been based upon it4 ,in the second place1 we ought to find no signs of the aggregation of lucid stars into streams or clustering groups4 ,if we should find such associated groups1 we must abandon the hypothesis of uniform distribution and all the conclusions founded on it4 ,thirdly1 and most obviously of all1 the lucid stars ought not to be associated in a marked manner with the figure of the ,milky ,way4 ,to take an illustrative instance4 ,when we look through a glass window at a distant landscape we do not find that the specks in the substance of the glass seem to follow the outline of valleys1 hills1 trees1 or whatever features the landscape may present4 ,in like manner1 regarding the sphere of the lucid stars as in a sense the window through which we view the ,milky ,way1 we ought not to find these stars1 which are so near to us1 associated with the figure of the ,milky ,way1 whose light comes from distances so enormously exceeding those which separate us from the lucid stars4 ,here again1 then1 if there should appear signs of such association1 we must abandon the theory that the sidereal system is constituted as ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel supposed4 ,it should further be remarked that the three arguments derived from these relations are independent of each other4 ,they are not as three links of a chain1 any one of which being broken the chain is broken4 ,they are as three strands of a triple cord4 ,if one strand holds1 the cord holds4 ,it may be shown that all three are to be trusted4 ,it is not to be expected1 however1 that the stars as actually seen should exhibit these relations1 since far the larger number are but faintly visible2 so that the eye would look in vain for the signs of law among them1 even though law may be there4 ,what is necessary is that maps should be constructed on a uniform and intelligible plan1 and that in these maps the faint stars should be made bright1 and the bright stars brighter4 ,the maps exhibited during this discourse since published as my 8,library ,atlas0 have been devised for this purpose amongst others4 ,there are twelve of them1 but they overlap1 so that in effect each covers a tenth part of the heavens4 ,there is first a north-polar map1 then five maps symmetrically placed around it2 again1 there is a south-polar map1 and five maps symmetrically placed round that map2 and these five so fit in with the first five as to complete the enclosure of the whole sphere4 ,in effect1 every map of the twelve has five maps symmetrically placed around it and overlapping it4 ,since the whole heavens contain but #eicb stars visible to the naked eye1 each of the maps should contain on the average about #eic stars4 ,but instead of this being the case1 some of the maps contain many more than their just proportion of stars1 while in others the number as greatly falls short of the average4 ,one recognizes1 by combining these indications1 the existence of a roughly circular region1 rich in stars1 in the northern heavens1 and of another1 larger and richer1 in the southern hemisphere4 ,to show the influence of these rich regions1 it is only necessary to exhibit the numerical relations presented by the maps4 ,the north-polar map1 in which the largest part of the northern rich region falls1 contains no less than #fic lucid stars1 of which upwards of #djj fall within the half corresponding to the rich region4 ,of the adjacent maps1 two contain upwards of #ejj stars1 while the remaining three contain about #djj each4 ,passing to the southern hemisphere1 we find that the south-polar map1 which falls wholly within a rich region1 contains no less than #aacb stars6 ,one of the adjacent maps contains #hcd stars1 and the four others exhibit numbers ranging from #ebg to #eie4 ,it is wholly impossible not to recognize so unequal a distribution as exhibiting the existence of special laws of stellar aggregation4 ,it is noteworthy1 too1 that the greater ,magellanic cloud falls in the heart of the southern rich region4 ,were there not other signs that this wonderful object is really associated with the sidereal system1 it might be rash to recognize this relation as indicating the existence of a physical connection between the ,nubecula ,major and the southern region rich in stars4 ,astronomers have indeed so long regarded the ,nubecul as belonging neither to the sidereal nor to the nebular systems1 that they are not likely to recognize very readily the existence of any such connection4 ,yet how strangely perverse is the reasoning which has led astronomers so to regard these amazing objects4 ,presented fairly1 that reasoning amounts simply to this3 ,the ,magellanic clouds contain stars and they contain nebul2 therefore they are neither nebular nor stellar4 ,can perversity of reasoning be pushed further8 ,is not the obvious conclusion this1 that since nebul and stars are seen to be intermixed in the ,nubecul1 the nebular and stellar systems form in reality but one complex system8 ,as to the existence of star-streams and clustering aggregations1 we have also evidence of a decisive character4 ,there is a well-marked stream of stars running from near ,capella towards ,monoceros4 ,beyond this lies a long dark rift altogether bare of lucid orbs1 beyond which again lies an extensive range of stars1 covering ,gemini1 ,cancer1 and the southern parts of ,leo4 ,this vast system of stars resembles a gigantic sidereal billow flowing towards the ,milky ,way as towards some mighty shore-line4 ,nor is this description altogether fanciful2 since one of the most marked instances of star-drift presently to be adduced refers to this very region4 ,these associated stars are urging their way towards the galaxy1 and that at a rate which1 though seemingly slow when viewed from beyond so enormous a gap as separates us from this system1 must in reality be estimated by millions of miles in every year4 ,other streams and clustering aggregations there are which need not here be specially described4 ,but it is worth noticing that all the well-marked streams recognized by the ancients seem closely associated with the southern rich region already referred to4 ,this is true of the stars forming the ,river ,eridanus1 the serpent ,hydra1 and the streams from the water-can of ,aquarius4 ,it is also noteworthy that in each instance a portion of the stream lies outside the rich region1 the rest within it2 while all the streams which lie on the same side of the galaxy tend towards the two ,magellanic clouds4 ,most intimate signs of association between lucid stars and the galaxy can be recognized--7i47 in the part extending from ,cygnus to ,aquila2 7ii47 in the part from ,perseus to ,monoceros2 7iii47 over the ship ,argo2 and 7iv47 near ,crux and the feet of ,centaurus4 ,before proceeding to the subject of ,star-drift1 three broad facts may be stated4 ,they are1 ,i believe1 now recognized for the first time1 and seem decisive of the existence of special laws of distribution among the stars3-- ,first1 the rich southern region1 though covering but a sixth part of the heavens1 contains one-third of all the lucid stars1 leaving only two-thirds for the remaining five-sixths of the heavens4 ,secondly1 if the two rich regions and the ,milky ,way be considered as one part of the heavens1 the rest as another1 then the former part is three times as richly strewn with lucid stars as the second4 ,thirdly1 the southern hemisphere contains one thousand more lucid stars than the northern1 a fact which cannot but be regarded as most striking when it is remembered that the total number of stars visible to ordinary eyesight in both hemispheres falls short of #fjjj4 ,two or three years ago1 the idea suggested itself to me that if the proper motions of the stars were examined1 they would be found to convey clear information respecting the existence of variety of structure1 and special laws of distribution within the sidereal system4 ,in the first place1 the mere amount of a star's apparent motion must be regarded as affording a means of estimating the star's distance4 ,the nearer a moving object is1 the faster it will seem to move1 and vice vers4 ,of course in individual instances little reliance can be placed on this indication2 but by taking the average proper motions of a set of stars1 a trustworthy measure may be obtained of their average distance1 as compared with the average distance of another set4 ,for example1 we have in this process the means of settling the question whether the apparent brightness of a star is indeed a test of relative nearness4 ,according to accepted theories the sixth-magnitude stars are ten or twelve times as far off as those of the first magnitude4 ,hence their motions should1 on the average1 be correspondingly small4 ,now1 to make assurance doubly sure1 ,i divided the stars into two sets1 the first including the stars of the #ast1 #bnd1 and #crd1 the second including those of the #dth1 #eth1 and #fth magnitude4 ,according to accepted views1 the average proper motion for the first set should be about five times as great as that for the second4 ,i was prepared to find it about three times as great2 that is1 not so much greater as the accepted theories require1 but still considerably greater4 ,to my surprise1 ,i found that the average proper motion of the brighter orders of stars is barely equal to that of the three lower orders4 ,this proves beyond all possibility of question that by far the greater number of the fainter orders of stars 7,i refer here throughout to lucid stars7 owe their faintness not to vastness of distance1 but to real relative minuteness4 ,to pass over a number of other modes of research1 the actual mapping of the stellar motions1 and the discovery of the peculiarity to which ,i have given the name of star-drift1 remain to be considered4 ,in catalogues it is not easy to recognize any instances of community of motion which may exist among the stars1 owing to the method in which the stars are arranged4 ,what is wanted in this case 7as in many others which yet remain to be dealt with7 is the adoption of a plan by which such relations may be rendered obvious to the eye4 ,the plan ,i adopted was to attach to each star in my maps a small arrow1 indicating the amount and direction of that star's apparent motion in #cf1jjj years 7the time-interval being purposely lengthened1 as otherwise most of the arrows would have been too small to be recognized74 ,when this was done1 several well-marked instances of community of motion could immediately be recognized4 ,it is necessary to premise1 however1 that before the experiment was tried1 there were reasons for feeling very doubtful whether it would succeed4 ,a system of stars might really be drifting athwart the heavens1 and yet the drift might be rendered unrecognizable through the intermixture of more distant or nearer systems having motions of another sort and seen accidentally in the same general direction4 ,this was found to be the case1 indeed1 in several instances4 ,thus the stars in the constellation ,ursa ,major1 and neighbouring stars in ,draco1 exhibit two well-marked directions of drift4 ,the stars 1 1 1 1 and of the ,great ,bear1 besides two companions of the last-named star1 are travelling in one direction1 with equal velocity1 and clearly form one system4 ,the remaining stars in the neighbourhood are travelling in a direction almost exactly the reverse4 ,but even this relation1 thus recognized in a region of diverse motions1 is full of interest4 ,baron ,mdler1 the well-known ,german astronomer1 recognizing the community of motion between ,urs and its companions1 calculated the cyclic revolution of the system to be certainly not less than #gjjj years4 ,but when the complete system of stars showing this motion is considered1 we get a cyclic period so enormous1 that not only the life of man1 but the life of the human race1 the existence of our earth1 nay1 even the existence of the solar system1 must be regarded as a mere day in comparison with that tremendous cycle4 ,then there are other instances of star-drift where1 though two directions of motion are not intermixed1 the drifting nature of the motion is not at once recognized1 because of the various distances at which the associated stars lie from the eye4 ,a case of this kind is to be met with in the stars forming the constellation ,taurus4 ,it was here that ,mdler recognized a community of motion among the stars1 but he did not interpret this as ,i do4 ,he had formed the idea that the whole of the sidereal system must be in motion around some central point2 and for reasons which need not here be considered1 he was led to believe that in whatever direction the centre of motion may lie1 the stars seen in that general direction would exhibit a community of motion4 ,then1 that he might not have to examine the proper motions all over the heavens1 he inquired in what direction 7in all probability7 the centre of motion may be supposed to lie4 ,coming to the conclusion that it must lie towards ,taurus1 he examined the proper motions in that constellation1 and found a community of motion which led him to regard ,alcyone1 the chief star of the ,pleiades1 as the centre around which the sidereal system is moving4 ,had he examined further he would have found more marked instances of community of motion in other parts of the heavens1 a circumstance which would have at once compelled him to abandon his hypothesis of a central sun in the ,pleiades1 or at least to lay no stress on the evidence derivable from the community of motion in ,taurus4 ,perhaps the most remarkable instance of star-drift is that observed in the constellations ,gemini and ,cancer4 ,here the stars seem to set bodily towards the neighbouring part of the ,milky ,way4 ,the general drift in that direction is too marked1 and affects too many stars1 to be regarded as by any possibility referable to accidental coincidence4 ,it is worthy of note that if the community of star-drift should be recognized 7or ,i prefer to say1 when it is recognized71 astronomers will have the means of determining the relative distances of the stars of a drifting system4 ,for differences in the apparent direction and amount of motion can be due but to differences of distance and position1 and the determination of these differences becomes merely a question of perspective4#ah ,before long it is likely that the theory of star-drift will be subjected to a crucial test1 since spectroscopic analysis affords the means of determining the stellar motions of recess or approach4 ,the task is a very difficult one1 but astronomers have full confidence that in the able hands of ,mr4 ,huggins it will be successfully accomplished4 ,i await the result with full confidence that it will confirm my views4 7,see pages #ib-id for the result47 99 99 99 99 99 ,turning to the subject of ,star-mist1 under which head ,i include all orders of nebul1 ,i propose to deal with but a small proportion of the evidence ,i have collected to prove that none of the nebul are external galaxies4 ,that evidence has indeed become exceedingly voluminous4 ,i shall dwell1 therefore1 on three points only4 ,first1 as to the distribution of the nebul3--,they are not spread with any approach to uniformity over the heavens1 but are gathered into streams and clusters4 ,the one great law which characterizes their distribution is an avoidance of the ,milky ,way and its neighbourhood4 ,this peculiarity has1 strangely enough1 been regarded by astronomers as showing that there is no association between the nebul and the sidereal system4 ,they have forgotten that marked contrast is as clear a sign of association as marked resemblance1 and has always been so regarded by logicians4 ,secondly1 there are in the southern heavens two well-marked streams of nebul4 ,each of these streams is associated with an equally well-marked stream of stars4 ,each intermixed stream directs its course towards a ,magellanic ,cloud1 one towards the ,nubecula ,minor1 the other towards the ,nubecula ,major4 ,to these great clusters they flow1 like rivers towards some mighty lake4 ,and within these clusters1 which are doubtless roughly spherical in form1 there are found intermixed in wonderful profusion1 stars1 star-clusters1 and all the orders of nebul4 ,can these coincidences be regarded as accidental8 ,and if not accidental1 is not the lesson they clearly teach us this1 that nebul form but portions of the sidereal system1 associating themselves with stars on terms of equality 7if one may so speak71 even if single stars be not more important objects in the scale of creation than these nebulous masses1 which have been so long regarded as equalling1 if not outvying1 the sidereal system itself in extent8 ,the third point to which ,i wish to invite attention is the way in which in many nebul stars of considerable relative brightness1 and belonging obviously to the sidereal system1 are so associated with nebulous masses as to leave no doubt whatever that these masses really cling around them4 ,the association is in many instances far too marked to be regarded as the effect of accident4 ,among other instances#ai may be cited the nebula round the stars c and c in ,orion4 ,in this object two remarkable nebulous nodules centrally surround two double stars4 ,admitting the association here to be real 7and no other explanation can reasonably be admitted71 we are led to interesting conclusions respecting the whole of that wonderful nebulous region which surrounds the sword of ,orion4 ,we are led to believe that the other nebul in that region are really associated with the fixed stars there2 that it is not a mere coincidence1 for instance1 that the middle star in the belt of ,orion is involved in nebula1 or that the lowest star of the sword is similarly circumstanced4 ,it is a legitimate inference from the evidence that all the nebul in this region belong to one great nebulous group1 which extends its branches to these stars4 ,as a mighty hand1 this nebulous region seems to gather the stars here into close association1 showing us1 in a way there is no misinterpreting1 that these stars form one system4 ,the nebula around the strange variable star1 ,eta ,args1 is another remarkable instance of this sort4 ,more than two years ago ,i ventured to make two predictions about this object4 ,the first was a tolerably safe one4 ,i expressed my belief that the nebula would be found to be gaseous4 ,after ,mr4 ,huggins's discovery that the great ,orion nebula is gaseous1 it was not difficult to see that the ,argo nebula must be so too4 ,at any rate1 this has been established by ,captain ,herschel's spectroscopic researches4 ,the other prediction was more venturesome4 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 whose opinion on such points one would always prefer to share1 had expressed his belief that the nebula lies far out in space beyond the stars seen in the same field of view4 ,i ventured to express the opinion that those stars are involved in the nebula4 ,lately there came news from ,australia that ,mr4 ,le ,sueur1 with the great reflector erected at ,melbourne1 has found that the nebula has changed largely in shape since ,sir ,john ,herschel observed it4 ,mr4 ,le ,sueur accordingly expressed his belief that the nebula lies nearer to us than the fixed stars seen in the same field of view4 ,more lately1 however1 he has found that the star ,eta ,args is shining with the light of burning hydrogen1 and he expresses his belief that the star has consumed the nebulous matter near it4 ,without agreeing with this view1 ,i recognize in it a proof that ,mr4 ,le ,sueur now considers the nebula to be really associated with the stars around it4 ,my belief is that as the star recovers its brilliancy observation will show that the nebula in its immediate neighbourhood becomes brighter 7not fainter through being consumed as fuel74 ,in fact1 ,i am disposed to regard the variations of the nebula as systematic1 and due to orbital motions among its various portions around neighbouring stars4 ,as indicative of other laws of association bearing on the relations ,i have been dealing with1 ,i may mention the circumstance that red stars and variable stars affect the neighbourhood of the ,milky ,way or of well-marked star-streams4 ,the constellation ,orion is singularly rich in objects of this class4 ,it is here that the strange 8variable0 ,betelgeux lies4 ,at present this star shows no sign of variation1 but a few years ago it exhibited remarkable changes4 ,one is invited to believe that the star may have been carried by its proper motion into regions where there is a more uniform distribution of the material whence this orb recruits its fires4 ,it may be that in the consideration of such causes of variation affecting our sun in long past ages a more satisfactory explanation than any yet obtained may be found of the problem geologists find so perplexing--the former existence of a tropical climate in places within the temperate zone1 or even near the ,arctic regions4#bj 99 99 99 99 99 ,it remains that ,i should exhibit the general results to which ,i have been led4 ,it has seemed to many that my views tend largely to diminish our estimate of the extent of the sidereal system4 ,the exact reverse is the case4 ,according to accepted views there lie within the range of our most powerful telescopes millions of millions of suns4 ,according to mine the primary suns within the range of our telescopes must be counted by tens of thousands1 or by hundreds of thousands at the outside4 ,what does this diminution of numbers imply but that the space separating sun from sun is enormously greater than accepted theories would permit8 ,and this increase implies an enormous increase in the estimate we are to form of the vital energies of individual suns4 ,for the vitality of a sun1 if one may be permitted the expression1 is measured not merely by the amount of matter over which it exercises control1 but by the extent of space within which that matter is distributed4 ,take an orb a thousand times vaster than our sun1 and spread over its surface an amount of matter exceeding a thousandfold the combined mass of all the planets of the solar system3--,so far as living force is concerned1 the result is--nil4 ,but distribute that matter throughout a vast space all round the orb3--,that orb becomes at once fit to be the centre of a host of dependent worlds4 ,again1 according to accepted theories1 when the astronomer has succeeded in resolving the milky light of a portion of the galaxy into stars1 he has in that direction1 at any rate1 reached the limits of the sidereal system4 ,according to my views1 what he has really done has been but to analyze a definite aggregation of stars1 a mere corner of that great system4 ,yet once more1 according to accepted views1 thousands and thousands of galaxies1 external to the sidereal system1 can be seen with powerful telescopes4 ,if ,i am right1 the external star-systems lie far beyond the reach of the most powerful telescope man has yet been able to construct1 insomuch that perchance the nearest of the outlying galaxies may lie a million times beyond the range even of the mighty mirror of the great ,rosse telescope4 ,but this is little4 ,wonderful as is the extent of the sidereal system as thus viewed1 even more wonderful is its infinite variety4 ,we know how largely modern discoveries have increased our estimate of the complexity of the planetary system4 ,where the ancients recognized but a few planets1 we now see1 besides the planets1 the families of satellites2 we see the rings of ,saturn1 in which minute satellites must be as the sands on the sea-shore for multitude2 the wonderful zone of asteroids2 myriads on myriads of comets2 millions on millions of meteor-systems1 gathering more and more richly around the sun1 until in his neighbourhood they form the crown of glory which bursts into view when he is totally eclipsed4 ,but wonderful as is the variety seen within the planetary system1 the variety within the sidereal system is infinitely more amazing4 ,besides the single suns1 there are groups and systems and streams of primary suns2 there are whole galaxies of minor orbs2 there are clustering stellar aggregations1 showing every variety of richness1 of figure1 and of distribution2 there are all the various forms of nebul1 resolvable and irresolvable1 circular1 elliptical1 and spiral2 and lastly1 there are irregular masses of luminous gas1 clinging in fantastic convolutions around stars and star-systems4 ,nor is it unsafe to assert that other forms and variety of structure will yet be discovered1 or that hundreds more exist which we may never hope to recognize4 ,but lastly1 even more wonderful than the infinite variety of the sidereal system1 is its amazing vitality4 ,instead of millions of inert masses1 we see the whole heavens instinct with energy--astir with busy life4 ,the great masses of luminous vapour1 though occupying countless millions of cubic miles of space1 are moved by unknown forces like clouds before the summer breeze2 star-mist is condensing into clusters2 star-clusters are forming into suns2 streams and clusters of minor orbs are swayed by unknown attractive energies2 and primary suns singly or in systems are pursuing their stately path through space1 rejoicing as giants to run their course1 extending on all sides the mighty arm of their attraction1 gathering from ever-new regions of space supplies of motive energy1 to be transformed into the various forms of force--light and heat and electricity--and distributed in lavish abundance to the worlds which circle round them4 ,truly may ,i say1 in conclusion1 that whether we regard its vast extent1 its infinite variety1 or the amazing vitality which pervades its every portion1 the sidereal system is1 of all the subjects man can study1 the most imposing and the most stupendous4 ,it is as a book full of mighty problems--of problems which are as yet almost untouched by man1 of problems which it might seem hopeless for him to attempt to solve4 ,but those problems are given to him for solution1 and he will solve them1 whenever he dares attempt to decipher aright the records of that wondrous volume4 ,,mallet',s ,,theory ,,of ,,volcanoes4 ,there are few subjects less satisfactorily treated in scientific treatises than that which ,humboldt calls the ,reaction of the ,earth's ,interior4 ,we find1 not merely in the configuration of the earth's crust1 but in actual and very remarkable phenomena1 evidence of subterranean forces of great activity2 and the problems suggested seem in no sense impracticable3 yet no theory of the earth's volcanic energy has yet gained general acceptance4 ,while the astronomer tells us of the constitution of orbs millions of times further away than our own sun1 the geologist has hitherto been unable to give an account of the forces which agitate the crust of the orb on which we live4 ,the theory put forward respecting volcanic energy1 however1 by the eminent seismologist ,mallet1 promises not merely to take the place of all others1 but to gain a degree of acceptance which has not been accorded to any theory previously enunciated4 ,it is1 in principle1 exceedingly simple1 though many of the details 7into which ,i do not propose to enter7 involve questions of considerable difficulty4 ,let us1 in the first place1 consider briefly the various explanations which had been already advanced4 ,there was first the chemical theory of volcanic energy1 the favourite theory of ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,it is possible to produce on a small scale nearly all the phenomena due to subterranean activity1 by simply bringing together certain substances1 and leaving them to undergo the chemical changes due to their association4 ,as a familiar instance of explosive action thus occasioned1 we need only mention the results experienced when any one unfamiliar with the methods of treating lime endeavours over hastily to 8slake0 or 8slack0 it with water4 ,indeed1 one of the strong points of the chemical theory consisted in the circumstance that volcanoes only occur where water can reach the subterranean regions--or1 as ,mallet expresses it1 that 8without water there is no volcano40 ,but the theory is disposed of by the fact1 now generally admitted1 that the chemical energies of our earth's materials were almost wholly exhausted before the surface was consolidated4 ,another inviting theory is that according to which the earth is regarded as a mere shell of solid matter surrounding a molten nucleus4 ,there is every reason to believe that the whole interior of the earth is in a state of intense heat2 and if the increase of heat with depth 7as shown in our mines7 is supposed to continue uniformly1 we find that at very moderate depths a degree of heat must prevail sufficient to liquefy any known solids under ordinary conditions4 ,but the conditions under which matter exists a few miles only below the surface of the earth are not ordinary4 ,the pressure enormously exceeds any which our physicists can obtain experimentally4 ,the ordinary distinction between solids and liquids cannot exist at that enormous pressure4 ,a mass of cold steel could be as plastic as any of the glutinous liquids1 while the structural change which a solid undergoes in the process of liquefying could not take place under such pressure even at an enormously high temperature4 ,it is now generally admitted that if the earth really has a molten nucleus1 the solid crust must1 nevertheless1 be far too thick to be in any way disturbed by changes affecting the liquid matter beneath4 ,yet another theory has found advocates4 ,the mathematician ,hopkins1 whose analysis of the molten-nucleus theory was mainly effective in showing that theory to be untenable1 suggested that there may be isolated subterranean lakes of fiery matter1 and that these may be the true seat of volcanic energy4 ,but such lakes could not maintain their heat for ages1 if surrounded 7as the theory requires7 by cooler solid matter1 especially as the theory also requires that water should have access to them4 ,it will be observed also that none of the theories just described affords any direct account of those various features of the earth's surface--mountain ranges1 table-lands1 volcanic regions1 and so on--which are undoubtedly due to the action of subterranean forces4 ,the theory advanced by ,mr4 ,mallet is open to none of these objections4 ,it seems1 indeed1 competent to explain all the facts which have hitherto appeared most perplexing4 ,it is recognized by physicists that our earth is gradually parting with its heat4 ,as it cools it contracts4 ,now if this process of contraction took place uniformly1 no subterranean action would result4 ,but if the interior contracts more quickly than the crust1 the latter must in some way or other force its way down to the retreating nucleus4 ,mr4 ,mallet shows that the hotter internal portion must contract faster than the relatively cool crust2 and then he shows that the shrinkage of the crust is competent to occasion all the known phenomena of volcanic action4 ,in the distant ages when the earth was still fashioning1 the shrinkage produced the irregularities of level which we recognize in the elevation of the land and the depression of the ocean-bed4 ,then came the period when as the crust shrank it formed corrugations1 in other words1 when the foldings and elevations of the somewhat thickened crust gave rise to the mountain-ranges of the earth4 ,lastly1 as the globe gradually lost its extremely high temperature1 the continuance of the same process of shrinkage led no longer to the formation of ridges and table-lands1 but to local crushing-down and dislocation4 ,this process is still going on1 and ,mr4 ,mallet not only recognizes here the origin of earthquakes1 and of the changes of level now in progress1 but the true cause of volcanic heat4 ,the modern theory of heat as a form of motion here comes into play4 ,as the solid crust closes in upon the shrinking nucleus1 the work expended in crushing down and dislocating the parts of the crust is transformed into heat1 by which1 at the places where the process goes on with greatest energy1 8the materials of the rock so crushed and of that adjacent to it are heated even to fusion4 ,the access of water to such points determines volcanic eruption40 ,now all this is not mere theorising4 ,mr4 ,mallet does not come before the scientific world with an ingenious speculation1 which may or may not be confirmed by observation and experiment4 ,he has measured and weighed the forces of which he speaks4 ,he is able to tell precisely what proportion of the actual energy which must be developed as the earth contracts is necessary for the production of observed volcanic phenomena4 ,it is probable that nine-tenths of those who have read these lines would be disposed to think that the contraction of the earth must be far too slow to produce effects so stupendous as those which we recognize in the volcano and the earthquake4 ,but ,mr4 ,mallet is able to show1 by calculations which cannot be disputed1 that less than one-fourth of the heat at present annually lost by the earth is sufficient to account for the total annual volcanic action1 according to the best data at present in our possession4 ,as ,i have said1 ,i do not propose to follow out ,mr4 ,mallet's admirable theory into all its details4 ,i content myself with pointing out how excellently it accounts for certain peculiarities of the earth's surface configuration4 ,few that have studied carefully drawn charts of the chief mountain-ranges can have failed to notice that the arrangement of these ranges does not accord with the idea of upheaval through the action of internal forces4 ,but it will be at once recognized that the aspect of the mountain-ranges accords exactly with what would be expected to result from such a process of contraction as ,mr4 ,mallet has indicated4 ,the shrivelled skin of an apple affords no inapt representation of the corrugated surface of our earth1 and according to the new theory1 the shrivelling of such a skin is precisely analogous to the processes at work upon the earth when mountain-ranges were being formed4 ,again1 there are few students of geology who have not found a source of perplexity in the foldings and overlappings of strata in mountainous regions4 ,no forces of upheaval seem competent to produce this arrangement4 ,but by the new theory this feature of the earth's surface is at once explained2 indeed1 no other arrangement could be looked for4 ,it is worthy of notice that ,mr4 ,mallet's theory of ,volcanic energy is completely opposed to ordinary ideas respecting earthquakes and volcanoes4 ,we have been accustomed vaguely to regard these phenomena as due to the eruptive outbursting power of the earth's interior2 we shall now have to consider them as due to the subsidence and shrinkage of the earth's exterior4 ,mountains have not been upheaved1 but valleys have sunk down4 ,and in another respect the new theory tends to modify views which have been generally entertained in recent times4 ,our most eminent geologists have taught that the earth's internal forces may be as active now as in the epochs when the mountain-ranges were formed4 ,but ,mr4 ,mallet's theory tends to show that the volcanic energy of the earth is a declining force4 ,its chief action had already been exerted when mountains began to be formed2 what remains now is but the minutest fraction of the volcanic energy of the mountain-forming era2 and each year1 as the earth parts with more and more of its internal heat1 the sources of her subterranean energy are more and more exhausted4 ,the thought once entertained by astronomers that the earth might explode like a bomb1 her scattered fragments producing a ring of bodies resembling the zone of asteroids1 seems further than ever from probability2 if ever there was any danger of such a catastrophe1 the danger has long since passed away4 ,,towards ,,the ,,north ,,pole4 ,the ,arctic ,expedition which returned to our shores in the autumn of #ahgf may be regarded as having finally decided the question whether the ,north ,pole of the earth is accessible by the route through ,smith's ,sound--a route which may conveniently and properly be called the ,american route4 ,attacks may hereafter be made on the ,polar fastness from other directions2 but it is exceedingly unlikely that this country1 at any rate1 will again attempt to reach the ,pole along the line of attack followed by ,captain ,nares's expedition4 ,i may be forgiven1 perhaps1 for regarding ,arctic voyages made by the seamen of other nations as less likely to be successful than those made by my own countrymen4 ,it is not mere national prejudice which suggests this opinion4 ,it is the simple fact that hitherto the most successful approaches towards both the ,northern and the ,southern ,poles have been made by ,british sailors4 ,nearly a quarter of a century has passed since ,sir ,e4 ,parry made the nearest approach to the ,north ,pole recorded up to that time2 and although1 in the interval between ,parry's expedition and ,nares's1 no expedition had been sent out from our shores with the object of advancing towards the ,pole1 while ,america1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 and ,germany sent out several1 ,parry's attempt still remained unsurpassed and unequalled4 ,at length it has been surpassed1 but it has been by his own countrymen4 ,in like manner1 no nation has yet succeeded in approaching the ,antarctic ,pole so nearly1 within many miles1 as did ,captain ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,ross in #ahdd4 ,considering these circumstances1 and remembering the success which rewarded the efforts of ,great ,britain in the search for the ,north-,west ,passage1 it cannot be regarded as national prejudice to assert that events indicate the seamen of this country as exceptionally fitted to contend successfully against the difficulties and the dangers of ,arctic exploration4 ,should ,england1 then1 give up the attempt to reach the ,north ,pole by way of ,smith's ,sound and its northerly prolongation1 it may fairly be considered unlikely that the ,pole will ever be reached in that direction4 ,it may be well to examine the relative probable chances of success along other routes which have either not been so thoroughly tried1 or have been tried under less favourable conditions4 ,passing over the unfortunate expedition under ,hugh ,willoughby in #aeec1 the first attempt to penetrate within the ,polar domain was made by ,henry ,hudson in #afjg4 ,the route selected was one which many regard 7and ,i believe correctly7 as the one on which there is the best chance of success2 namely1 the route across the sea lying to the west of ,spitzbergen4 ,that ,hudson1 in the clumsy galleons of ,elizabeth's time1 should have penetrated to within eight degrees and a half of the ,pole1 or to a distance only exceeding ,nares's nearest approach by about #acj miles1 proves conclusively1 we think1 that with modern ships1 and especially with the aid of steam1 this route might be followed with much better prospect of success than that which was adopted for ,nares's expedition4 ,if the reader will examine a map of the ,arctic regions he will find that the western shores of ,spitzbergen and the north-eastern shores of ,greenland1 as far as they have been yet explored1 are separated by about #cc degrees of longitude1 equivalent on the #hjth parallel of latitude to about #cce miles4 ,across the whole breadth of this sea ,arctic voyagers have attempted to sail northwards beyond the #hjth parallel1 but no one has yet succeeded in the attempt except on the eastern side of that sea4 ,it was here that ,hudson--fortunately for him--directed his attack2 and he passed a hundred miles to the north of the #hjth parallel1 being impeded and finally stopped by the packed ice around the north-western shores of ,spitzbergen4 ,let us consider the fortunes of other attempts which have been made to approach the ,pole in this direction4 ,in #ahbg ,captain 7afterwards ,sir ,edward7 ,parry1 who had already four times passed beyond the ,arctic ,circle--viz41 in #ahah1 #ahai1 #ahba-bc1 and #ahbd-be--made an attempt to reach the ,north ,pole by way of ,spitzbergen4 ,his plan was to follow ,hudson's route until stopped by ice2 then to leave his ship1 and cross the ice-field with sledges drawn by ,esquimaux dogs1 and1 taking boats along with the party1 to cross whatever open water they might find4 ,in this way he succeeded in reaching latitude #hb #de north1 the highest ever attained until ,nares's expedition succeeded in crossing the #hcrd parallel4 ,parry found that the whole of the ice-field over which his party were laboriously travelling northwards was being carried bodily southwards1 and that at length the distance they were able to travel in a day was equalled by the southerly daily drift of the ice-field1 so that they made no real progress4 ,he gave up further contest1 and returned to his ship the ,hecla4 ,it is important to inquire whether the southerly drift which stopped ,parry was due to northerly winds or to a southerly current2 and if to the latter cause1 whether this current probably affects the whole extent of the sea in which ,parry's ice-field was drifting4 ,we know that his party were exposed1 during the greater part of their advance from ,spitzbergen1 to northerly winds4 ,now the real velocity of these winds must have been greater than their apparent velocity1 because the ice-field was moving southwards4 ,had this not been the case1 or had the ice-field been suddenly stopped1 the wind would have seemed stronger2 precisely as it seems stronger to passengers on board a sailing vessel when1 after being before the wind for a time1 she is brought across the wind4 ,the ice-field was clearly travelling before the wind1 but not nearly so fast as the wind2 and therefore there is good reason for believing that the motion of the ice-field was due to the wind alone4 ,if we suppose this to have been really the case1 then1 as there is no reason for believing that northerly winds prevail uniformly in the ,arctic regions1 we must regard ,parry's defeat as due to mischance4 ,another explorer might have southerly instead of northerly winds1 and so might be assisted instead of impeded in his advance towards the ,pole4 ,had this been ,parry's fortune1 or even if the winds had proved neutral1 he would have approached nearer to the ,pole than ,nares4 ,for ,parry reckoned that he had lost more than a hundred miles by the southerly drift of the ice-field1 by which amount at least he would have advanced further north4 ,but that was not all2 for there can be little doubt that he would have continued his efforts longer but for the ,sisyphan nature of the struggle4 ,it is true he was nearer home when he turned back than he would have been but for the drift1 and one of his reasons for turning back was the consideration of the distance which his men had to travel in returning4 ,but he was chiefly influenced 7so far as the return journey was concerned7 by the danger caused by the movable nature of the ice-field1 which might at any time begin to travel northwards1 or eastwards1 or westwards4 ,if we suppose that not the wind but ,arctic currents carried the ice-field southwards1 we must yet admit the probability--nay1 almost the certainty--that such currents are only local1 and occupy but a part of the breadth of the ,north ,atlantic seas in those high latitudes4 ,the general drift of the ,north ,atlantic surface-water is unquestionably not towards the south but towards the north2 and whatever part we suppose the ,arctic ice to perform in regulating the system of oceanic circulation--whether1 with ,carpenter1 we consider the descent of the cooled water as the great moving cause of the entire system of circulation1 or assign to that motion a less important office 7which seems to me the juster opinion7--we must in any case regard the ,arctic seas as a region of surface indraught4 ,the current flowing from those seas1 which caused 7on the hypothesis we are for the moment adopting7 the southwardly motion of ,parry's ice-field1 must therefore be regarded as in all probability an exceptional phenomenon of those seas4 ,by making the advance from a more eastwardly or more westwardly part of ,spitzbergen1 a northerly current would probably be met with2 or rather1 the motion of the ice-field would indicate the presence of such a current1 for ,i question very much whether open water would anywhere be found north of the #hcrd parallel4 ,in that case1 a party might advance in one longitude and return in another1 selecting for their return the longitude in which 7always according to our present hypothesis that currents caused the drift7 ,parry found that a southerly current underlay his route across the ice4 ,on the whole1 however1 it appears to me more probable that winds1 not currents1 caused the southerly drift of ,parry's ice-field4 ,in #ahfh1 a ,german expedition1 under ,captain ,koldewey1 made the first visit to the seas west of ,spitzbergen in a steamship1 the small but powerful screw steamer ,germania 7#abf tons71 advancing northwards a little beyond the #hast parallel4 ,but this voyage can scarcely be regarded as an attempt to approach the ,pole on that course2 for ,koldewey's instructions were1 8to explore the eastern coast of ,greenland northwards2 and1 if he found success in that direction impossible1 to make for the mysterious ,island of ,gilles on the east of ,spitzbergen40 ,scoresby in #ahjf had made thus far the most northerly voyage in a ship on ,hudson's route1 but in #ahfh a ,swedish expedition attained higher latitudes than had ever or have ever been reached by a ship in that direction4 ,the steamship ,sofia1 strongly built of ,swedish iron1 and originally intended for winter voyages in the ,baltic1 was selected for the voyage4 ,owing to a number of unfortunate delays1 it was not until ,september1 #ahfh1 that the ,sofia reached the most northerly part of her journey1 attaining a point nearly fifteen miles further north than ,hudson had reached4 ,to the north broken ice was still found1 but it was so closely packed that not even a boat could pass through4 ,two months earlier in the season the voyagers might have waited for a change of wind and the breaking up of the ice2 but in the middle of ,september this would have been very dangerous4 ,the temperature was already sixteen degrees below the freezing-point1 and there was every prospect that in a few weeks1 or even days1 the seas over which they had reached their present position would be icebound4 ,they turned back from that advanced position2 but1 with courage worthy of the old ,vikings1 they made another attack a fortnight later4 ,they were foiled again1 as was to be expected1 for by this time the sun was already on the wintry side of the equator4 ,they had1 indeed1 a narrow escape from destruction4 8,an ice-block with which they came into collision opened a large leak in the ship's side1 and when1 after great exertions1 they reached the land1 the water already stood two feet over the cabin floor40#ba ,on the western side of the ,north ,atlantic ,channel--so to term the part lying between ,greenland and ,spitzbergen--the nearest approach towards the ,pole was made by the ,dutch in #afgj1 nearly all the more recent attempts to reach high northern latitudes in this direction having hitherto ended in failure more or less complete4 ,we have already seen that ,captain ,koldewey was charged to explore the eastern coast of ,greenland in the ,germania in #ahfh4 ,in #ahfi the ,germania was again despatched under his command from ,bremerhaven1 in company with the ,hansa1 a sailing vessel4 ,lieutenant ,payer and other ,austrian savants accompanied ,captain ,koldewey4 ,the attack was again made along the eastern shores of ,greenland4 ,as far as the #gdth degree the two vessels kept company2 but at this stage it happened unfortunately that a signal from the ,germania was misinterpreted1 and the ,hansa left her4 ,soon after1 the ,hansa was crushed by masses of drifting ice1 and her crew and passengers took refuge on an immense ice-floe seven miles in circumference4 ,here they built a hut1 which was in its turn crushed4 ,winds and currents carried their icy home about1 and at length broke it up4 ,fortunately they had saved their boats1 and were able to reach ,friedrichsthal1 a missionary station in the south of ,greenland1 whence they were conveyed to ,copenhagen in ,september1 #ahgj4 ,returning to the ,germania1 we find that she had a less unfortunate experience4 ,she entered the labyrinth of sinuous fjords1 separated by lofty promontories1 and girt round by gigantic glaciers1 which characterize the eastern coast of ,greenland to the north of ,scoresby ,sound4 ,in ,august the channels by which she had entered were closed1 and the ,germania was imprisoned4 ,so soon as the ice would bear them1 ,koldewey and his companions made sledging excursions to various points around their ship4 ,but in ,november the darkness of the polar winter settled down upon them1 and these excursions ceased4 ,the polar winter of #ahfi-gj was 8characterized by a series of violent northerly tempests1 one of which continued more than #ajj hours1 with a velocity 7measured by the anemometer7 of no less than sixty miles an hour0--a velocity often surpassed1 indeed1 but which must have caused intense suffering to all who left the shelter of the ship2 for it is to be remembered that the air which thus swept along at the rate of a mile a minute was the bitter air of the ,arctic regions4 ,the thermometer did not1 however1 descend lower than #bf below zero1 or #eh below the freezing-point--a cold often surpassed in parts of the ,united ,states4 ,i have myself experienced a cold of more than #cj below zero1 at ,niagara4 8,with proper precautions as regards shelter and clothing10 proceeds the narrative1 8even extreme cold need not cause great suffering to those who winter in such regions4 ,one of the worst things to be endured is the physical and moral weariness of being cut off from external observations during the long night of some ninety days1 relieved only by the strange ,northern ,lights4 ,the ice accumulates all round with pressure1 and assumes peculiar and fantastic forms1 emitting ever and anon ominous noises4 ,fortunately1 the ,germania lay well sheltered in a harbour opening southwards1 and1 being protected by a rampart of hills on the north1 was able to resist the shock of the elements4 ,the sun appearing once more about the beginning of ,february1 the scientific work of exploration began4444 ,the pioneers of the ,germania advanced as far as the #ggth degree of latitude1 in longitude #ah #ej west from ,greenwich4 ,there was no sign of an open sea towards the ,pole4 ,had it not been for want of provisions1 the party could have prolonged their sledge journey indefinitely4 ,the bank of ice1 without remarkable protuberances1 extends to about two leagues from the shore1 which from this extreme point seems to trend towards the north-west1 where the view was bounded by lofty mountains40 ,as the expedition was only equipped for one winter1 it returned to ,europe in ,september1 #ahgj1 without having crossed the #ghth parallel of north latitude4 ,captain ,koldewey was convinced1 by the results of his exploration1 that there is no continuous channel northwards along the eastern coast of ,greenland4 ,it does not seem to me that his expedition proved this beyond all possibility of question4 ,still1 it seems clear that the eastern side of the ,north ,atlantic is less suited than the western for the attempt to reach the ,north ,pole4 ,the prevailing ocean-currents are southerly on that side1 just as they are northerly on the western side4 ,the cold also is greater1 the lines of equal temperature lying almost exactly in the direction of the channel itself--that is1 nearly north and south--and the cold increasing athwart that direction1 towards the west4 ,the nearer to ,greenland the greater is the cold4#bb ,the next route to be considered in order of time would be the ,american route2 but ,i prefer to leave this to the last1 as the latest results relate to that route4 ,i take next1 therefore1 a route which some regard as the most promising of all--that1 namely1 which passes between ,spitzbergen and the ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,it will be remembered that ,lieutenant ,payer1 of the ,austrian navy1 had accompanied ,captain ,koldewey's first expedition4 ,when driven back from the attempt to advance along the eastern shores of ,greenland1 that commander crossed over to ,spitzbergen1 and tried to find the ,land of ,gilles4 ,he also accompanied ,koldewey's later expedition1 and shared his belief that there is no continuous channel northwards on the western side of the ,north ,atlantic channel4 ,believing still1 however1 with ,dr4 ,petermann1 the geographer1 that there is an open ,polar sea beyond the ice-barrier1 ,payer set out in #ahga1 in company with ,weyprecht1 towards the ,land of ,gilles4 ,they did not find this mysterious land1 but succeeded in passing #aej miles further north1 after rounding the south-eastern shores of ,spitzbergen1 than any ,arctic voyagers who had before penetrated into the region lying between ,spitzbergen and ,novaia ,zemlia4 ,here they found1 beyond the #gfth parallel1 and between #db and #fj east longitude1 an open sea1 and a temperature of between #e and #g above the freezing-point4 ,unfortunately1 they had not enough provisions with them to be able safely to travel further north1 and were thus compelled to return4 ,the season seems to have been an unusually open one2 and it is much to be regretted that the expedition was not better supplied with provisions--a defect which appears to be not uncommon with ,german expeditions4 ,soon after their return1 ,payer and ,weyprecht began to prepare for a new expedition2 and this time their preparations were thorough1 and adapted for a long stay in ,arctic regions4 8,the chief aim of this expedition10 says the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 in an interesting account of recent ,polar researches1 8was to investigate the unknown regions of the ,polar seas to the north of ,siberia1 and to try to reach ,behring's ,straits by this route40 ,it was only if after two winters and three summers they failed to double the extreme promontory of ,asia1 that they were to direct their course towards the ,pole4 ,the voyagers1 numbering twenty-four persons1 left the ,norwegian port of ,tromso1 in the steamer ,tegethoff1 on ,july #ad1 #ahgb4 ,count ,wilczek followed shortly after in a yacht1 which was to convey coals and provisions to an eastern point of the ,arctic ,ocean1 for the benefit of the ,tegethoff4 ,at a point between ,novaia ,zemlia and the mouth of the ,petschora1 the yacht lost sight of the steamer1 and nothing was heard of the latter for twenty-five months4 ,general anxiety was felt for the fate of the expedition1 and various efforts were made by ,austria1 ,england1 and ,russia to obtain news of it4 ,in ,september1 #ahgd1 the voyagers suddenly turned up at another port1 and soon after entered ,vienna amid great enthusiasm4 ,their story was a strange one4 ,it appears that when the ,tegethoff was lost sight of 7,august #ba1 #ahgb71 she had been surrounded by vast masses of ice1 which crushed her hull4 ,for nearly half a year the deadly embrace of the ice continued2 and when at length pressure ceased1 the ship remained fixed in the ice1 several miles from open water4 ,during the whole summer the voyagers tried to release their ship1 but in vain4 ,they had not1 however1 remained motionless all this time4 ,the yacht had lost sight of them at a spot between ,novaia ,zemlia and ,malaia ,zemlia 7in ,north ,russia7 in about #ga north latitude1 and they were imprisoned not far north of this spot4 ,but the ice-field was driven hither and thither by the winds1 until they found themselves1 on the last day of ,august1 #ahgc1 only #f or about seven miles south of the #hjth parallel of latitude4 ,only fourteen miles from them1 on the north1 they saw 8a mass of mountainous land1 with numerous glaciers40 ,they could not reach it until the end of ,october1 however1 and then they had to house themselves in preparation for the long winter night4 ,this land they called ,francis ,joseph ,land4 ,it lies north of ,novaia ,zemlia1 and on the ,polar side of the #hjth parallel of latitude4 ,the winter was stormy and bitterly cold1 the thermometer descending on one occasion to #gb below zero--very nearly as low as during the greatest cold experienced by ,nares's party4 ,in ,february1 #ahgd1 8the sun having reappeared1 ,lieutenant ,payer began to prepare sledge excursions to ascertain the configuration of the land4444 ,in the second excursion the voyagers entered ,austria ,sound1 which bounds ,francis ,joseph ,island on the east and north1 and found themselves1 after emerging from it1 in the midst of a large basin1 surrounded by several large islands4 ,the extreme northern point reached by the expedition was a cape on one of these islands1 which they named ,prince ,rodolph's ,land1 calling the point ,cape ,fligely4 ,it lies a little beyond the #hast parallel4 ,they saw land further north beyond the #hcrd degree of latitude1 and named it ,petermann's ,land4 ,the archipelago thus discovered is comparable in extent to that of which ,spitzbergen is the chief island40 ,the voyagers were compelled now to return1 as the firm ice did not extend further north4 ,they had a long1 difficult1 and dangerous journey southwards--sometimes on open water1 in small boats1 sometimes on ice1 with sledges--impeded part of the time by contrary winds1 and with starvation staring them in the face during the last fortnight of their journey4 ,fortunately1 they reached ,novaia ,zemlia before their provisions quite failed them1 and were thence conveyed to ,wardho by a ,russian trading ship4 ,we have now only to consider the attempts which have been made to approach the ,north ,pole by the ,american route4 ,for1 though ,collinson in #ahej reached high latitudes to the north of ,behring's ,straits1 while ,wrangel and other ,russian voyagers have attempted to travel northwards across the ice which bounds the northern shores of ,siberia1 it can hardly be said that either route has been followed with the definite purpose of reaching the ,north ,pole4 ,i shall presently1 however1 have occasion to consider the probable value of the ,behring's ,straits route1 which about twelve years ago was advocated by the ,frenchman ,lambert4 ,dr4 ,kane's expedition in #ahec-ee was one of those sent out in search of ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,it was fitted out at the expense of the ,united ,states ,government1 and the route selected was that along ,smith's ,sound1 the northerly prolongation of ,baffin's ,bay4 ,kane wintered in #ahec and #ahed in ,van ,reusselaer's ,inlet1 on the western coast of ,greenland1 in latitude #gh #dc north4 ,leaving his ship1 the ,advance1 he made a boat-journey to ,upernavik1 #f further south4 ,he next traced ,kennedy ,channel1 the northerly prolongation of ,smith's ,sound1 reaching latitude #ha #bb north4 ,he named heights visible yet further to the north1 ,parry ,mountains2 and at the time--that is1 twenty-two years ago--the land so named was the highest northerly land yet seen4 ,hayes1 who had accompanied ,kane in this voyage1 succeeded in reaching a still higher latitude in sledges drawn by ,esquimaux dogs4 ,both ,kane and ,hayes agreed in announcing that where the shores of ,greenland trend off eastwards from ,kennedy ,channel1 there is an open sea1 8rolling10 as ,captain ,maury magniloquently says1 8with the swell of a boundless ocean40 ,it was in particular noticed that the tides ebbed and flowed in this sea4 ,on this circumstance ,captain ,maury based his conclusion that there is an open sea to the north of ,greenland4 ,after showing that the tidal wave could not well have travelled along the narrow and icebound straits between ,baffin's ,bay and the region reached by ,kane and ,hayes1 ,maury says3 8,those tides must have been born in that cold sea1 having their cradle about the ,north ,pole40 ,the context shows1 however1 that he really intended to signify that the waves were formed in seas around the ,north ,pole1 and thence reached the place where they were seen2 so that1 as birth usually precedes cradling1 ,maury would more correctly have said that these tides are cradled in that cold sea1 having their birth about the ,north ,pole4 ,the observations of ,kane and ,hayes afford no reason1 however1 for supposing that there is open water around the ,north ,pole4 ,they have been rendered somewhat doubtful1 be it remarked in passing1 by the results of ,captain ,nares's expedition2 and it has been proved beyond all question that there is not an open sea directly communicating with the place where ,kane and ,hayes observed tidal changes4 ,but1 apart from direct evidence of this kind1 two serious errors affect ,maury's reasoning1 as ,i pointed out eleven years since4 ,in the first place1 a tidal wave would be propagated quite freely along an ice-covered sea1 no matter how thick the ice might be1 so long as the sea was not absolutely icebound4 ,even if the latter condition could exist for a time1 the tidal wave would burst the icy fetters that bound the sea1 unless the sea were frozen to the very bottom2 which1 of course1 can never happen with any sea properly so called4 ,it must be remembered that1 even in the coldest winter of the coldest ,polar regions1 ice of only a moderate thickness can form in open sea in a single day2 but the tidal wave does not allow ice to form for a single hour in such sort as to bind the great ice-fields and the shore-ice into one mighty mass4 ,at low tide1 for a very short time1 ice may form in the spaces between the shore-ice and the floating ice1 and again between the various masses of floating ice1 small or large 7up to many square miles in extent72 but as the tidal wave returns it breaks through these bonds as easily as the ,jewish ,hercules burst the withes with which the ,philistines had bound his mighty limbs4 ,it is probable that if solid ice as thick as the thickest which ,nares's party found floating in the ,palocrystic ,sea--ice #bjj feet thick--reached from shore to shore of the ,north ,atlantic channel1 the tidal wave would burst the barrier as easily as a rivulet rising but a few inches bursts the thin coating which has formed over it on the first cold night of autumn4 ,but no such massive barriers have to be broken through1 for the tidal wave never gives the ice an hour's rest ,maury reasons that 8the tidal wave from the ,atlantic can no more pass under the icy barrier to be propagated in the seas beyond1 than the vibrations of a musical string can pass with its notes a fret on which the musician has placed his finger40 ,but the circumstances are totally different4 ,the ice shares the motion of the tidal wave1 which has not to pass under the ice1 but to lift it4 ,this1 of course1 it does quite as readily as though there were no ice1 but only the same weight of water4 ,the mere weight of the ice counts simply for nothing4 ,the tidal wave would rise as easily in the ,british ,channel if a million ,great ,easterns were floating there as if there was not even a cock-boat2 and the weight of ice1 no matter how thick or extensive1 would be similarly ineffective to restrain the great wave which the sun and moon send coursing twice a day athwart our oceans4 ,maury's other mistake was even more important so far as this question of an open sea is concerned4 8,no one10 as ,i wrote in #ahfg1 8who is familiar with the astronomical doctrine of the tides1 can believe for a moment that tides could be generated in a land-locked ocean1 so limited in extent as the ,north ,polar sea 7assuming its existence7 must necessarily be40 ,to raise a tidal wave the sun and moon require not merely an ocean of wide extent to act upon1 but an ocean so placed that there is a great diversity in their pull on various parts of it2 for it is the difference between the pull exerted on various parts1 and not the pull itself1 which creates the tidal wave4 ,now the ,polar sea has not the required extent1 and is not in the proper position1 for this diversity of pull to exist in sufficient degree to produce a tidal wave which could be recognized4 ,it is certain1 in fact1 that1 whether there is open water or not near the ,pole1 the tides observed by ,kane and ,hayes must have come from the ,atlantic1 and most probably by the ,north ,atlantic channel4 ,captain ,hall's expedition in the ,polaris 7really under the command of ,buddington71 in #ahga-gb1 will be probably in the recollection of most of my readers4 ,leaving ,newfoundland on ,june #bi1 #ahga1 it sailed up ,smith's ,sound1 and by the end of ,august had reached the #hjth parallel4 ,thence it proceeded up ,kennedy ,channel1 and penetrated into ,robeson ,channel1 the northerly prolongation of ,kennedy ,channel1 and only #ac miles wide4 ,captain ,hall followed this passage as far as #hb #af north latitude1 reaching his extreme northerly point on ,september #c4 ,from it he saw 8a vast expanse of open sea1 which he called ,lincoln ,sea1 and beyond that another ocean or gulf2 while on the west there appeared1 as far as the eye could reach1 the contours of coast4 ,this region he called ,grant ,land40 ,so far as appears1 there was no reason at that time why the expedition should not have gone still further north1 the season apparently having been exceptionally open4 ,but the naval commander of the expedition1 ,captain ,buddington1 does not seem to have had his heart in the work1 and1 to the disappointment of ,hall1 the ,polaris returned to winter in ,robeson ,channel1 a little beyond the #hast degree4 ,in the same month1 ,september1 #ahga1 ,captain ,hall died1 under circumstances which suggested to many of the crew and officers the suspicion that he had been poisoned4#bc ,in the spring of #ahgj the ,polaris resumed her course homewards4 ,they were greatly impeded by the ice4 ,a party which got separated from those on board were unfortunately unable to regain the ship1 and remained on an ice-field for #bdj days1 suffering fearfully4 ,the ice-field1 like that on which the crew of the ,hansa had to take up their abode1 drifted southwards1 and was gradually diminishing1 when fortunately a passing steamer observed the prisoners 7,april #cj1 #ahgb7 and rescued them4 ,the ,polaris herself was so injured by the ice that her crew had to leave her1 wintering on ,lyttelton ,island4 ,they left this spot in the early summer of #ahgb1 in two boats1 and were eventually picked up by a ,scotch whaler4 ,captain ,nares's expedition followed ,hall's route4 ,i do not propose to enter here into any of the details of the voyage1 with which my readers are no doubt familiar4 ,the general history of the expedition must be sketched1 however1 in order to bring it duly into its place here4 ,the ,alert and ,discovery sailed under ,captains ,nares and ,stephenson1 in ,may1 #ahge4 ,their struggle with the ice did not fairly commence until they were nearing the #gith parallel1 where ,baffin's ,bay merges into ,smith's ,sound4 ,thence1 through ,smith's ,sound1 ,kennedy ,channel1 and ,robeson ,channel1 they had a constant and sometimes almost desperate struggle with the ice1 until they had reached the north end of ,robeson ,channel4 ,here the ,discovery took up her winter quarters1 in north latitude #ha #dd1 a few miles north of ,captain ,hall's wintering-place1 but on the opposite 7or westerly7 side of ,robeson ,channel4 ,the ,alert still struggled northwards1 rounding the north-east point of ,grant ,land1 and there finding1 not1 as was expected1 a continuous coast-line on the west1 but a vast icebound sea4 ,no harbour could be found1 and the ship was secured on the inside of a barrier of grounded ice1 in latitude #hb #ca1 in the most northerly wintering-place ever yet occupied by man4 ,the ice met with on this sea is described as 8of most unusual age and thickness1 resembling in a marked degree1 both in appearance and formation1 low floating icebergs rather than ordinary salt-water ice4 ,whereas ordinary ice is from #b feet to #aj feet in thickness1 that in this ,polar sea has gradually increased in age and thickness until it measures from #hj feet to #abj feet1 floating with its surface at the lower part #ae feet above the water-line4 ,in some places the ice reaches a thickness of from #aej to #bjj feet1 and the general impression among the officers of the expedition seems to have been that the ice of this ,palocrystic ,sea is the accumulation of many years1 if not of centuries2 8that the sea is never free of it and never open2 and that progress to the ,pole through it or over it is impossible with our present resources40 ,the winter which followed was the bitterest ever known by man4 ,for #adb days the sun was not seen2 the mercury was frozen during nearly nine weeks4 ,on one occasion the thermometer showed #ajd below the freezing-point1 and during one terrible fortnight the mean temperature was #ia below freezing6 ,as soon as the sun reappeared sledge-exploration began1 each ship being left with only half-a-dozen men and officers on board4 ,expeditions were sent east and west1 one to explore the northern coast of ,greenland1 the other to explore the coast of ,grant ,land4 ,captain ,stephenson crossed over from the ,discovery's wintering-place to ,polaris ,bay1 and there placed over ,hall's grave a tablet1 prepared in ,england1 bearing the following inscription3 8,sacred to the memory of ,captain ,c4 ,f4 ,hall1 of ,u4,s4 ,polaris1 who sacrificed his life in the advancement of science1 on ,november #h1 #ahga4 ,this tablet has been erected by the ,british ,polar ,expedition of #ahge1 who1 following in his footsteps1 have profited by his experience0--a graceful acknowledgment 7which might1 however1 have been better expressed74 ,the party which travelled westwards traced the shores of ,grant ,land as far as west longitude #hf #cj1 the most northerly cape being in latitude #hc #g1 and longitude #gj #cj west4 ,this cape they named ,cape ,columbia4 ,the coast of ,greenland was explored as far east as longitude #ej #dj 7west71 land being seen as far as #hb #ed north1 longitude #dh #cc west4 ,lastly1 a party under ,commander ,markham and ,lieutenant ,parr pushed northwards4 ,they were absent ten weeks1 but had not travelled so far north in the time as was expected1 having encountered great difficulties4 ,on ,may #ab1 #ahgf1 they reached their most northerly point1 planting the ,british flag in latitude #hc #bj #bf north4 8,owing to the extraordinary nature of the pressed-up ice1 a roadway had to be formed by pickaxes for nearly half the distance travelled1 before any advance could be safely made1 even with light loads2 this rendered it always necessary to drag the sledge-loads forward by instalments1 and therefore to journey over the same road several times4 ,the advance was consequently very slow1 and only averaged about a mile and a quarter daily--much the same rate as was attained by ,sir ,edward ,parry during the summer of #ahbg4 ,the greatest journey made in any one day amounted only to two miles and three quarters4 ,although the distance made good was only #gc miles from the ship1 #bgf miles were travelled over to accomplish it40 ,it is justly remarked1 in the narrative from which ,i have made this extract1 that no body of men could have surpassed in praiseworthy perseverance this gallant party1 whose arduous struggle over the roughest and most monotonous road imaginable1 may fairly be regarded as surpassing all former exploits of the kind4 7,the narrator says that it has 8eclipsed0 all former ones1 which can scarcely be intended to be taken au pied de la lettre47 ,the expedition reached the highest latitude ever yet attained under any conditions1 carried a ship to higher latitudes than any ship had before reached1 and wintered in higher latitudes than had ever before been dwelt in during the darkness of a ,polar winter4 ,they explored the most northerly coast-line yet traversed1 and this both on the east and west of their route northwards4 ,they have ascertained the limits of human habitation upon this earth1 and have even passed beyond the regions which animals occupy1 though nearly to the most northerly limit of the voyage they found signs of the occasional visits of warm-blooded animals4 ,last1 but not least1 they have demonstrated1 as it appears to me 7though possibly ,americans will adopt a different opinion71 that by whatever route the ,pole is to be reached1 it is not by that which ,i have here called the ,american route1 at least with the present means of transit over icebound seas4 ,the country may well be satisfied with such results 7apart altogether from the scientific observations1 which are the best fruits of the expedition71 even though the ,pole has not yet been reached4 ,must we conclude1 however1 that the ,north ,pole is really inaccessible8 ,it appears to me that the annals of ,arctic research justify no such conclusion4 ,the attempt which has just been made1 although supposed at the outset to have been directed along the most promising of all the routes heretofore tried1 turned out to be one of the most difficult and dangerous4 ,had there been land extending northwards 7as ,sherard ,osborn and others opined71 on the western side of the sea into which ,robeson ,channel opens1 a successful advance might have been made along its shore by sledging4 ,m',clintock1 in #ahec1 travelled #abbj miles in #aje days2 ,richards #ajab miles in #ajb days2 ,mecham #abjc miles2 ,richards and ,osborn #ajic miles2 ,hamilton #aaej miles with a dog-sledge and one man4 ,in #ahed ,mecham travelled #aaeg miles in only #gj days2 ,young travelled #aaej miles and ,m',clintock #accj miles4 ,but these journeys were made either over land or over unmoving ice close to a shore-line4 ,over an icebound sea journeys of the kind are quite impracticable4 ,but the conditions1 while not more favourable in respect of the existence of land1 were in other respects altogether less favourable along the ,american route than along any of the others ,i have considered in this brief sketch of the attempts hitherto made to reach the ,pole4 ,the recent expedition wintered as near as possible to the region of maximum winter cold in the western hemisphere1 and pushed their journey northwards athwart the region of maximum summer cold4 ,along the course pursued by ,parry's route the cold is far less intense1 in corresponding latitudes1 than along the ,american route2 and cold is the real enemy which bars the way towards the ,pole4 ,all the difficulties and dangers of the journey either have their origin 7as directly as the ice itself7 in the bitter ,arctic cold1 or are rendered effective and intensified by the cold4 ,the course to be pursued1 therefore1 is that indicated by the temperature4 ,where the ,july isotherms1 or lines of equal summer heat1 run northwards1 a weak place is indicated in the ,arctic barrier2 where they trend southwards1 that barrier is strongest4 ,now there are two longitudes in which the ,july ,arctic isotherms run far northward of their average latitude4 ,one passes through the ,parry ,islands1 and indicates the sea north-east of ,behring's ,straits as a suitable region for attack2 the other passes through ,spitzbergen1 and indicates the course along which ,sir ,e4 ,parry's attack was made4 ,the latter is slightly the more promising line of the two1 so far as temperature is concerned1 the isotherm of #cf ,fahrenheit 7in ,july7 running here as far north as the #ggth parallel1 whereas its highest northerly range in the longitude of the ,parry ,islands is but about #gf4 ,the difference1 however1 is neither great nor altogether certain2 and the fact that ,parry found the ice drifting southwards1 suggests the possibility that that may be the usual course of oceanic currents in that region4 ,north of the ,parry ,islands the drift may be northwardly1 like that which ,payer and ,weyprecht experienced to the north of ,novaia ,zemlia4 ,there is one great attraction for men of science in the route by the ,parry ,islands4 ,the magnetic pole has almost certainly travelled into that region4 ,sir ,j4 ,ross found it1 indeed1 to be near ,boothia ,gulf1 far to the east of the ,parry ,islands1 in #ahcg4 ,but the variations of the needle all over the world since then1 indicate unmistakably that the magnetic poles have been travelling round towards the west1 and at such a rate that the northern magnetic pole has probably nearly reached by this time the longitude of ,behring's ,straits4 ,the determination of the exact present position of the ,pole would be a much more important achievement1 so far as science is concerned1 than a voyage to the pole of rotation4 ,there is one point which suggests itself very forcibly in reading the account of the sledging expedition from the ,alert towards the north4 ,in his official report1 ,captain ,nares says that 8half of each day was spent in dragging the sledges in that painful fashion--face toward the boat--in which the sailors drag a boat from the sea on to the sand20 and again he speaks of the 8toilsome dragging of the sledges over ice-ridges which resembled a stormy sea suddenly frozen40 ,in doing this 8#bgf miles were toiled over in travelling only #gc miles40 ,is it altogether clear that the sledges were worth the trouble8 ,one usually regards a sledge as intended to carry travellers and their provisions1 etc41 over ice and snow1 and as useful when so employed2 but when the travellers have to take along the sledge1 going four times as far and working ten times as hard as if they were without it1 the question suggests itself whether all necessary shelter1 provisions1 and utensils might not have been much more readily conveyed by using a much smaller and lighter sledge1 and by distributing a large part of the luggage among the members of the expedition4 ,the parts of a small hut could1 with a little ingenuity1 be so constructed as to admit of being used as levers1 crowbars1 carrying-poles1 and so forth1 and a large portion of the luggage absolutely necessary for the expedition could be carried by their help2 while a small1 light sledge for the rest could be helped along and occasionally lifted bodily over obstructions by levers and beams forming part of the very material which by the usual arrangement forms part of the load4 ,i am not suggesting1 be it noticed1 that by any devices of this sort a journey over the rough ice of ,arctic regions could be made easy4 ,but it does seem to me that if a party could go back and forth over #bgf miles1 pickaxing a way for a sledge1 and eventually dragging it along over the path thus pioneered for it1 and making only an average of #a mile of real progress per day1 or #gc miles in all1 the same men could with less labour 7though still1 doubtless1 with great toil and trouble7 make six or seven miles a day by reducing their impedimenta to what could be carried directly along with them4 ,whether use might not be made of the lifting power of buoyant gas1 is a question which only experienced aronauts and ,arctic voyagers could answer4 ,i believe that the employment of imprisoned balloon-power for many purposes1 especially in time of war1 has received as yet much less attention than it deserves4 ,of course ,i am aware that in ,arctic regions many difficulties would present themselves2 and the idea of ordinary ballooning over the ,arctic ice-fields may be regarded as altogether wild in the present condition of the science of aronautics4 ,but the use of balloon-power as an auxiliary1 however impracticable at present1 is by no means to be despaired of as science advances4 ,after all1 however1 the advance upon the ,pole itself1 however interesting to the general public1 is far less important to science than other objects which ,arctic travellers have had in view4 ,the inquiry into the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism within the ,arctic regions2 the investigation of oceanic movements there2 of the laws according to which low temperatures are related to latitude and geographical conditions2 the study of aerial phenomena2 of the limits of plant life and animal life2 the examination of the mysterious phenomena of the ,aurora ,borealis--these and many other interesting subjects of investigation have been as yet but incompletely dealt with4 ,in the ,polar regions1 as ,maury well remarked1 8the icebergs are framed and glaciers launched2 there the tides have their cradle1 the whales their nursery2 there the winds complete their circuit1 and the currents of the sea their round1 in the wonderful system of oceanic circulation2 there the ,aurora is lighted up1 and the trembling needle brought to rest2 and there1 too1 in the mazes of that mystic circle1 terrestrial forces of occult power and of vast influence upon the well-being of man are continually at work4 ,it is a circle of mysteries2 and the desire to enter it1 to explore its untrodden wastes and secret chambers1 and to study its physical aspects1 has grown into a longing4 ,noble daring has made ,arctic ice and snow-clad seas classic ground40 ,a ,,mighty ,,sea-,,wave4 ,on ,may #ajth1 #ahgf1 a tremendous wave swept the ,pacific ,ocean from ,peru northwards1 westwards1 and southwards1 travelling at a rate many times greater than that of the swiftest express train4 ,for reasons best known to themselves1 writers in the newspapers have by almost common consent called this phenomenon a tidal-wave4 ,but the tides had nothing to do with it4 ,unquestionably the wave resulted from the upheaval of the bed of the ocean in some part of that angle of the ,pacific ,ocean which is bounded by the shores of ,peru and ,chili4 ,this region has long been celebrated for tremendous submarine and subterranean upheavals4 ,the opinions of geologists and geographers have been divided as to the real origin of the disturbances by which at one time the land1 at another time the sea1 and at yet other times 7oftener1 in fact1 than either of the others7 both land and sea have been shaken as by some mighty imprisoned giant1 struggling1 like ,prometheus1 to cast from his limbs the mountain masses which hold them down4 ,some consider that the seat of the ,vulcanian forces lies deep below that part of the chain of the ,andes which lies at the apex of the angle just mentioned1 and that the direction of their action varies according to the varying conditions under which the imprisoned gases find vent4 ,others consider that there are two if not several seats of subterranean activity4 ,yet others suppose that the real seat of disturbance lies beneath the ocean itself1 a view which seems to find support in several phenomena of recent ,peruvian earthquakes4 ,although we have not full information concerning the great wave which in ,may1 #ahgf1 swept across the ,pacific1 and northwards and southwards along the shores of the two ,americas1 it may be interesting to consider some of the more striking features of this great disturbance of the so-called peaceful ocean1 and to compare them with those which have characterized former disturbances of a similar kind4 ,we may thus1 perhaps1 find some evidence by which an opinion may be formed as to the real seat of subterranean activity in this region4 ,at the outset it may be necessary to explain why ,i have asserted somewhat confidently that the tides have nothing whatever to do with this great oceanic wave4 ,it is of course well known to every reader that the highest or spring tides occur always two or three days after new moon and after full moon1 the lowest 7or rather the tides having least range above and below the mean level7 occurring two or three days after the first and third quarters of the lunar month4 ,the sun and moon combine1 indeed1 to sway the ocean most strongly at full and new1 while they pull contrariwise at the first and third quarters2 but the full effect of their combined effort is only felt a few days later than when it is made1 while the full effect of their opposition to each other1 in diminishing the range of the oceanic oscillation1 is also only felt after two or three days4 ,thus in ,may1 #ahgf1 the tidal wave had its greatest range on or about ,may #af1 new moon occurring at half-past five on the morning of ,may #ac2 and the tidal wave had its least range on or about ,may #h1 the moon passing her third quarter a little after eleven on the morning of ,may #d4 ,accordingly the disturbance which affected the waters of the ,pacific so mightily on ,may #aj1 occurred two days after the lowest or neap tides1 and five days before the highest or spring tides4 ,manifestly that was not a time when a tidal wave of exceptional height could be expected1 or1 indeed1 could possibly occur4 ,such a wave as actually disturbed the ,pacific on that day could not in any case have been produced by tidal action1 even though the winds had assisted to their utmost1 and all the circumstances which help to make high tides had combined--as the greatest proximity of moon to earth1 the conjunction of moon and sun near the celestial equator1 and 7of course7 the exact coincidence of the time of the tidal disturbance with that when the combined pull of the sun and moon is strongest4 ,as1 instead1 the sun was nearly eighteen degrees from the equator1 the moon more than nine1 and as the moon was a full week's motion from the part of her path where she is nearest to the earth1 while1 as we have seen1 only two days had passed from the time of absolutely lowest tides1 it will be seen how utterly unable the tidal-wave must have been on the day of the great disturbance to produce the effects presently to be described4 ,it may seem strange1 in dealing with the case of a wave which apparently had its origin in or near ,peru on ,may #i1 to consider the behaviour of a volcano1 distant #ejjj miles from this region1 a week before the disturbance took place4 ,but although the coincidence may possibly have been accidental1 yet in endeavouring to ascertain the true seat of disturbance we must overlook no evidence1 however seemingly remote1 which may throw light on that point2 and as the sea-wave generated by the disturbance reached very quickly the distant region referred to1 it is by no means unlikely that the subterranean excitement which the disturbance relieved may have manifested its effects beforehand at the same remote volcanic region4 ,be this as it may1 it is certain that on ,may #a the great crater of ,kilauea1 in the island of ,hawaii1 became active1 and on the #dth severe shocks of earthquake were felt at the ,volcano ,house4 ,at three in the afternoon a jet of lava was thrown up to a height of about #ajj feet1 and afterwards some fifty jets came into action4 ,subsequently jets of steam issued along the line formed by a fissure four miles in length down the mountain-side4 ,the disturbance lessened considerably on the #eth1 and an observing party examined the crater4 ,they found that a rounded hill1 #gjj feet in height1 and #adjj feet in diameter1 had been thrown up on the plain which forms the floor of the crater4 ,fire and scoria spouted up in various places4 ,before rejecting utterly the belief that the activity thus exhibited in the ,hawaii volcano had its origin in the same subterrene or submarine region as the ,peruvian earthquake1 we should remember that other regions scarcely less remote have been regarded as forming part of the same ,vulcanian district4 ,the violent earthquakes which occurred at ,new ,madrid1 in ,missouri1 in #ahab1 took place at the same time as the earthquake of ,caraccas1 the ,west ,indian volcanoes being simultaneously active2 and earthquakes had been felt in ,south ,carolina for several months before the destruction of ,caraccas and ,la ,guayra4 ,now we have abundant evidence to show that the ,west ,indian volcanoes are connected with the ,peruvian and ,chilian regions of ,vulcanian energy1 and the ,chilian region is about as far from ,new ,madrid as ,arica in ,peru from the ,sandwich ,isles4 ,it was not1 however1 until about half-past eight on the evening of ,may #i that the ,peruvian earthquake began4 ,a severe shock1 lasting from four to five minutes1 was felt along the entire southern coast1 even reaching ,antofagasta4 ,the shock was so severe that it was impossible1 in many places1 to stand upright4 ,it was succeeded by several others of less intensity4 ,while the land was thus disturbed1 the sea was observed to be gradually receding1 a movement which former experiences have taught the ,peruvians to regard with even more terror than the disturbance of the earth itself4 ,the waters which had thus withdrawn1 as if concentrating their energies to leap more fiercely on their prey1 presently returned in a mighty wave1 which swept past ,callao1 travelling southwards with fearful velocity1 while in its train followed wave after wave1 until no less than eight had taken their part in the work of destruction4 ,at ,mollendo the railway was torn up by the sea for a distance of #cjj feet4 ,a violent hurricane which set in afterwards from the south prevented all vessels from approaching1 and unroofed most of the houses in the town4 ,at ,arica the people were busily engaged in preparing temporary fortifications to repel a threatened assault of the rebel ram ,huiscar1 at the moment when the roar of the earthquake was heard4 ,the shocks here were very numerous1 and caused immense damage in the town1 the people flying to the ,morro for safety4 ,the sea was suddenly perceived to recede from the beach1 and a wave from ten feet to fifteen feet in height rolled in upon the shore1 carrying before it all that it met4 ,eight times was this assault of the ocean repeated4 ,the earthquake had levelled to the ground a portion of the custom-house1 the railway station1 the submarine cable office1 the hotel1 the ,british ,consulate1 the steamship agency1 and many private dwellings4 ,owing to the early hour of the evening1 and the excitement attendant on the proposed attack of the ,huiscar1 every one was out and stirring2 but the only loss of life which was reported was that of three little children who were overtaken by the water4 ,the progress of the wave was only stopped at the foot of the hill on which the church stands1 which point is further inland than that reached in ,august1 #ahfh4 ,four miles of the embankment of the railway were swept away like sand before the wind4 ,locomotives1 cars1 and rails1 were hurled about by the sea like so many playthings1 and left in a tumbled mass of rubbish4 ,the account proceeds to say that the ,united ,states steamer ,waters1 stranded by the bore of #ahfh1 was lifted up bodily by the wave at ,arica1 and floated two miles north of her former position4 ,the reference is no doubt to the double-ender ,watertree1 not stranded by a bore 7a term utterly inapplicable to any kind of sea-wave at ,arica1 where there is no large river71 but carried in by the great wave which followed the earthquake of ,august #ac4 ,the description of the wave at ,arica on that occasion should be compared with that of the wave of ,may1 #ahgf4 ,about twenty minutes after the first earth shock1 the sea was seen to retire1 as if about to leave the shores wholly dry2 but presently its waters returned with tremendous force4 ,a mighty wave1 whose length seemed immeasurable1 was seen advancing like a dark wall upon the unfortunate town1 a large part of which was overwhelmed by it4 ,two ships1 the ,peruvian corvette ,america1 and the ,american double-ender ,watertree1 were carried nearly half a mile to the north of ,arica1 beyond the railroad which runs to ,tacna1 and there left stranded high and dry4 ,as the ,english vice-consul at ,arica estimated the height of this enormous wave at fully fifty feet1 it would not seem that the account of the wave of ,may1 #ahgf1 has been exaggerated1 for a much less height is1 as we have seen1 attributed to it1 though1 as it carried the ,watertree still further inland1 it must have been higher4 ,the small loss of life can be easily understood when we consider that the earthquake was not followed instantly by the sea-wave4 ,warned by the experience of the earthquake of #ahfh1 which most of them must have remembered1 the inhabitants sought safety on the higher grounds until the great wave and its successors had flowed in4 ,we read that the damage done was greater than that caused by the previous calamity1 the new buildings erected since #ahfh being of a more costly and substantial class4 ,merchandise from the custom-house and stores was carried by the water to a point on the beach five miles distant4 ,at ,iquique1 in #ahfh1 the great wave was estimated at fifty feet in height4 ,we are told that it was black with the mud and slime of the sea bottom4 8,those who witnessed its progress from the upper balconies of their houses1 and presently saw its black mass rushing close beneath their feet1 looked on their safety as a miracle4 ,many buildings were1 indeed1 washed away1 and in the low-lying parts of the town there was a terrible loss of life40 ,in ,may1 #ahgf1 the greatest mischief at ,iquique would seem to have been caused by the earthquake1 not by the sea-wave1 though this also was destructive in its own way4 8,iquique10 we are told1 8is in ruins4 ,the movement was experienced there at the same time and with the same force as at ,arica4 ,its duration was exactly four minutes and a third4 ,it proceeded from the south-east1 exactly from the direction of ,ilaga40 ,the houses built of wood and cane tumbled down at the first attacks1 lamps were broken1 and the burning oil spread over and set fire to the ruins4 ,three companies of firemen1 ,german1 ,italian1 and ,peruvian1 were instantly at their posts1 although it was difficult to maintain an upright position1 shock following shock with dreadful rapidity4 ,nearly #djj1jjj quintals of nitrate in the stores at ,iquique and the adjacent ports of ,molle and ,pisagua were destroyed4 ,the ,british barque ,caprera and a ,german barque sank1 and all the coasting craft and small boats in the harbour were broken to pieces and drifted about in every direction4 ,at ,chanavaya1 a small town at the guano-loading dpt known as ,pabellon de ,pica1 only two houses were left standing out of four hundred4 ,here the earthquake shock was specially severe4 ,in some places the earth opened in crevices seventeen yards deep and the whole surface of the ground was changed4 ,at ,punta de ,eobos two vessels were lost1 and fourteen ships more or less damaged1 by the wave4 ,antofagasta1 ,mexillones1 ,tocopilla1 and ,cobigo1 on the ,bolivian coast1 suffered simultaneously from the earthquake and the sea-wave4 ,the sea completely swept the business portion of ,antofagasta during four hours4 ,here a singular phenomenon was noticed4 ,for some time the atmosphere was illuminated with a ruddy glow4 ,it was supposed that this light came from the volcano of ,san ,pedro de ,atacama1 a few leagues inland from ,antofagasta4 ,a somewhat similar phenomenon was noticed at ,tacna during the earthquake of ,august1 #ahfh4 ,about three hours after the earthquake an intensely brilliant light made its appearance above the neighbouring mountains4 ,it lasted fully half an hour1 and was ascribed to the eruption of some as yet unknown volcano4 ,as to the height of the great wave along this part of the shore-line of ,south ,america1 the accounts vary4 ,according to those which are best authenticated1 it would seem as though the wave exceeded considerably in height that which flowed along the ,peruvian1 ,bolivian1 and ,chilian shores in ,august1 #ahfh4 ,at ,huaniles the wave was estimated at sixty feet in height1 at ,mexillones1 where the wave1 as it passed southwards1 ran into ,mexillones ,bay1 it reached a height of sixty-five feet4 ,two-thirds of the town were completely obliterated1 wharves1 railway stations1 distilleries1 etc41 all swallowed up by the sea4 ,the shipping along the ,peruvian and ,bolivian coast suffered terribly4 ,the list of vessels lost or badly injured at ,pabellon de ,pica alone1 reads like the list of a fleet4 ,i have been particular in thus describing the effects produced by the earthquake and sea-wave on the shores of ,south ,america1 in order that the reader may recognize in the disturbance produced there the real origin of the great wave which a few hours later reached the ,sandwich ,isles1 #ejjj miles away4 ,doubt has been entertained respecting the possibility of a wave1 other than the tidal-wave1 being transmitted right across the ,pacific4 ,although in ,august1 #ahfh1 the course of the great wave which swept from some region near ,peru1 not only across the ,pacific1 but in all directions over the entire ocean1 could be clearly traced1 there were some who considered the connection between the oceanic phenomena and the ,peruvian earthquake a mere coincidence4 ,it is on this account perhaps chiefly that the evidence obtained in ,may1 #ahgf1 is most important4 ,it is interesting1 indeed1 as showing how tremendous was the disturbance which the earth's frame must then have undergone4 ,it would have been possible1 however1 had we no other evidence1 for some to have maintained that the wave which came in upon the shores of the ,sandwich ,isles a few hours after the earthquake and sea disturbance in ,south ,america was in reality an entirely independent phenomenon4 ,but when we compare the events which happened in ,may1 #ahgf1 with those of ,august1 #ahfh1 and perceive their exact similarity1 we can no longer reasonably entertain any doubt of the really stupendous fact that the throes of the earth in and near ,peru are of sufficient energy to send oceanic waves right across the ,pacific1--waves1 too1 of such enormous height at starting1 that1 after travelling with necessarily diminishing height the whole way to ,hawaii1 they still rose and fell through thirty-six feet ,the real significance of this amazing oceanic disturbance is exemplified by the wave circles which spread around the spot where a stone has fallen into a smooth lake4 ,we know how1 as the circles widen1 the height of the wave grows less and less1 until1 at no great distance from the centre of disturbance1 the wave can no longer be discerned1 so slight is the slope of its advancing and following faces4 ,how tremendous1 then1 must have been the upheaval of the bed of ocean by which wave-circles were sent across the ,pacific1 retaining1 after travelling #ejjj miles from the centre of disturbance1 the height of a two-storied house6 ,in #ahfh1 indeed1 we know that the wave travelled very much further1 reaching the shores of ,japan1 of ,new ,zealand1 and of ,australia1 even if it did not make its way through the ,east ,indian ,archipelago to the ,indian ,ocean1 as some observations seem to show4 ,although no news has been received which would justify us in believing that the wave of ,may1 #ahgf1 produced corresponding effects at such great distances from the centre of disturbance1 it must be remembered that the dimensions of the wave when it reached the ,sandwich ,isles fell far short of those of the great wave of ,august #ac-ad1 #ahfh4 ,it will be well to make a direct comparison between the waves of ,may1 #ahgf1 and ,august1 #ahfh1 in this respect1 as also with regard to the rate at which they would seem to have traversed the distance between ,peru and ,hawaii4 ,on this last point1 however1 it must be noted that we cannot form an exact opinion until we have ascertained the real region of ,vulcanian disturbance on each occasion4 ,it is possible that a careful comparison of times1 and of the direction in which the wave front advanced upon different shores1 might serve to show where this region lay4 ,i should not be greatly surprised to learn that it was far from the continent of ,south ,america4 ,the great wave reached the ,sandwich ,isles between four and five on the morning of ,may #aj1 corresponding to about five hours later of ,peruvian time4 ,an oscillation only was first observed at ,hilo1 on the east coast of the great southern island of ,hawaii1 the wave itself not reaching the village till about a quarter before five4 ,the greatest difference between the crest and trough of the wave was found to be thirty-six feet here2 but at the opposite side of the island1 in ,kealakekua ,bay 7where ,captain ,cook was killed71 amounted only to thirty feet4 ,in other places the difference was much less1 being in some only three feet1 a circumstance doubtless due to interference1 waves which have reached the same spot along different courses chancing so to arrive that the crest of one corresponded with the trough of the other1 so that the resulting wave was only the difference of the two4 ,we must explain1 however1 in the same way1 the highest waves of thirty-six to forty feet1 which were doubtless due to similar interference1 crest agreeing with crest and trough with trough1 so that the resulting wave was the sum of the two which had been divided1 and had reached the same spot along different courses4 ,it would follow that the higher of the two waves was about twenty-one feet high1 the lower about eighteen feet high2 but as some height would be lost in the encounter with the shore-line1 wherever it lay1 on which the waves divided1 we may fairly assume that in the open ocean1 before reaching the ,sandwich group1 the wave had a height of nearly thirty feet from trough to crest4 ,we read1 in accordance with this explanation1 that 8the regurgitations of the sea were violent and complex1 and continued through the day40 ,the wave1 regarded as a whole1 seems to have reached all the islands at the same time4 ,since this has not been contradicted by later accounts1 we are compelled to conclude that the wave reached the group with its front parallel to the length of the group1 so that it must have come 7arriving as it did from the side towards which ,hilo lies7 from the north-east ,it was1 then1 not the direct wave from ,peru1 but the wave reflected from the shores of ,california1 which produced the most marked effects4 ,we can understand well1 this being so1 that the regurgitations of the sea were complex4 ,any one who has watched the inflow of waves on a beach so lying within an angle of the line that while one set of waves comes straight in from the sea1 another thwart set comes from the shore forming the other side of the angle1 will understand how such waves differ from a set of ordinary rollers4 ,the crests of the two sets form a sort of network1 ever changing as each set rolls on2 and considering any one of the four-cornered meshes of this wave-net1 the observer will notice that while the middle of the raised sides rises little above the surrounding level1 because here the crests of one set cross the troughs of the other1 the corners of each quadrangle are higher than they would be in either set taken separately1 while the middle of the four-cornered space is correspondingly depressed4 ,the reason is that at the corners of the wave-net crests join with crests to raise the water surface1 while in the middle of the net 7not the middle of the sides1 but the middle of the space enclosed by the four sides7 trough joins with trough to depress the water surface4#bd ,we must take into account the circumstance that the wave which reached ,hawaii in ,may1 #ahgf1 was probably reflected from the ,californian coast1 when we endeavour to determine the rate at which the sea disturbance was propagated across the ,atlantic4 ,the direct wave would have come sooner1 and may have escaped notice because arriving in the night-time1 as it would necessarily have done if a wave which travelled to ,california1 and thence1 after reflection1 to the ,sandwich group arrived there at a quarter before five in the morning following the ,peruvian earthquake4 ,we shall be better able to form an opinion on this point after considering what happened in ,august1 #ahfh4 ,the earth-throe on that occasion was felt in ,peru about five minutes past five on the evening of ,august #ac4 ,twelve hours later1 or shortly before midnight1 ,august #ac1 ,sandwich ,island time 7corresponding to #e p4m41 ,august #ad1 ,peruvian time71 the sea round the group of the ,sandwich ,isles rose in a surprising manner1 8insomuch that many thought the islands were sinking1 and would shortly subside altogether beneath the waves4 ,some of the smaller islands were for a time completely submerged4 ,before long1 however1 the sea fell again1 and as it did so the observers found it impossible to resist the impression that the islands were rising bodily out of the water4 ,for no less than three days this strange oscillation of the sea continued to be experienced1 the most remarkable ebbs and floods being noticed at ,honolulu1 on the island of ,woahoo40 ,the distance between ,honolulu and ,arica is about #fcjj statute miles2 so that1 if the wave travelled directly from the shores of ,peru to the ,sandwich ,isles1 it must have advanced at an average rate of about #ebe miles an hour 7about #dej knots an hour74 ,this is nearly half the rate at which the earth's surface near the equator is carried round by the earth's rotation1 or is about the rate at which parts in latitude #fb or #fc degrees north are carried round by rotation2 so that the motion of the great wave in #ahfh was fairly comparable with one of the movements which we are accustomed to regard as cosmical4 ,i shall presently have something more to say on this point4 ,now in ,may1 #ahgf1 as we have seen1 the wave reached ,hawaii at about a quarter to five in the morning1 corresponding to about ten1 ,peruvian time4 ,since1 then1 the earthquake was felt in ,peru at half-past eight on the previous evening1 it follows that the wave1 if it travelled directly from ,peru1 must have taken about #ac hours--or an hour and a half longer1 in travelling from ,peru to the ,sandwich ,isles1 than it took in ,august1 #ahfh4 ,this is unlikely1 because ocean-waves travel nearly at the same rate in the same parts of the ocean1 whatever their dimensions1 so only that they are large4 ,we have1 then1 in the difference of time occupied by the wave in ,may1 #ahgf1 and in ,august1 #ahfh1 in reaching ,hawaii1 some confirmation of the result to which we were led by the arrival of the wave simultaneously at all the islands of the ,sandwich group--the inference1 namely1 that the observed wave had reached these islands after reflection from the ,californian shore-line4 ,as the hour when the direct wave probably reached ,hawaii was about a quarter past three in the morning1 when not only was it night-time but also a time when few would be awake to notice the rise and fall of the sea1 it seems not at all improbable that the direct wave escaped notice1 and that the wave actually observed was the reflected wave from ,california4 ,the direction1 also1 in which the oscillation was first observed corresponds well with this explanation4 ,it is clear that the wave which traversed the ,pacific in ,may1 #ahgf1 was somewhat inferior in size to that of ,august1 #ahfh1 which therefore still deserves to be called 7as ,i then called it7 the greatest sea-wave ever known4 ,the earthquake1 indeed1 which preceded the oceanic disturbance of #ahfh was far more destructive than that of ,may1 #ahgf1 and the waves which came in upon the ,peruvian and ,bolivian shores were larger4 ,nevertheless1 the wave of ,may1 #ahgf1 was not so far inferior to that of ,august1 #ahfh1 but that its course could be traced athwart the entire extent of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,when we consider the characteristic features of the ,peruvian and ,chilian earthquakes1 and especially when we note how wide is the extent of the region over which their action is felt in one way or another1 it can scarcely be doubted that the earth's ,vulcanian energies are at present more actively at work throughout that region than in any other4 ,there is nothing so remarkable1 one may even say so stupendous1 in the history of subterranean disturbance as the alternation of mighty earth-throes by which1 at one time1 the whole of the ,chilian ,andes seem disturbed and anon the whole of the ,peruvian ,andes4 ,in ,chili scarcely a year ever passes without earthquakes1 and the same may be said of ,peru2 but so far as great earthquakes are concerned the activity of the ,peruvian region seems to synchronize with the comparative quiescence of the ,chilian region1 and vice vers4 ,thus1 in #agig1 the terrible earthquake occurred which is known as the earthquake of ,riobamba1 which affected the entire ,peruvian earthquake region4 ,thirty years later a series of tremendous throes shook the whole of ,chili1 permanently elevating its long line of coast to the height of several feet4 ,during the last twelve years the ,peruvian region has in turn been disturbed by great earthquakes4 ,it should be added that between ,chili and ,peru there is a region about five hundred miles in length in which scarcely any volcanic action has been observed4 ,and singularly enough1 8this very portion of the ,andes1 to which one would imagine that the ,peruvians and ,chilians would fly as to a region of safety1 is the part most thinly inhabited2 insomuch that1 as ,von ,buch observes1 it is in some places entirely deserted40 ,one can readily understand that this enormous double region of earthquakes1 whose oscillations on either side of the central region of comparative rest may be compared to the swaying of a mighty see-saw on either side of its point of support1 should be capable of giving birth to throes propelling sea-waves across the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the throe actually experienced at any given place is relatively but an insignificant phenomenon3 it is the disturbance of the entire region over which the throe is felt which must be considered in attempting to estimate the energy of the disturbing cause4 ,the region shaken by the earthquake of #ahfh1 for instance1 was equal to at least a fourth of ,europe1 and probably to fully one-half4 ,from ,quito southwards as far as ,iquique--or along a full third part of the length of the ,south ,american ,andes--the shock produced destructive effects4 ,it was also distinctly felt far to the north of ,quito1 far to the south of ,iquique1 and inland to enormous distances4 ,the disturbing forces which thus shook #a1jjj1jjj square miles of the earth's surface must have been of almost inconceivable energy4 ,if directed entirely to the upheaval of a land region no larger than ,england1 those forces would have sufficed to have destroyed utterly every city1 town1 and village within such a region2 if directed entirely to the upheaval of an oceanic region1 they would have been capable of raising a wave which would have been felt on every shore-line of the whole earth4 ,divided even between the ocean on the one side and a land region larger than ,russia in ,europe on the other1 those ,vulcanian forces shook the whole of the land region1 and sent athwart the largest of our earth's oceans a wave which ran in upon shores #aj1jjj miles from the centre of disturbance with a crest thirty feet high4 ,forces such as these may fairly be regarded as cosmical2 they show unmistakably that the earth has by no means settled down into that condition of repose in which some geologists still believe4 ,we may ask with the late ,sir ,charles ,lyell whether1 after contemplating the tremendous energy thus displayed by the earth1 any geologist will continue to assert that the changes of relative level of land and sea1 so common in former ages of the world1 have now ceased8 and agree with him that if1 in the face of such evidence1 a geologist persists in maintaining this favourite dogma1 it would be vain to hope1 by accumulating proofs of similar convulsions during a series of ages1 to shake the tenacity of his conviction-- 8,si fractus illabatur orbis1 ,impavidum ferient ruin40 ,but there is one aspect in which such mighty sea-waves as1 in #ahfh and again in ,may1 #ahgf1 have swept over the surface of our terrestrial oceans1 remains yet to be considered4 ,the oceans and continents of our earth must be clearly discernible from her nearer neighbours among the planets--from ,venus and ,mercury on the inner side of her path around the sun1 and from ,mars 7though under less favourable conditions7 from the outer side4 ,when we consider1 indeed1 that the lands and seas of ,mars can be clearly discerned with telescopic aid from our earth at a distance of forty millions of miles1 we perceive that our earth1 seen from ,venus at little more than half this distance1 must present a very interesting appearance4 ,enlarged1 owing to greater proximity1 nearly fourfold1 having a diameter nearly twice as great as that of ,mars1 so that at the same distance her disc would seem more than three times as large1 more brightly illuminated by the sun in the proportion of about five to two1 she would shine with a lustre exceeding that of ,mars1 when in full brightness in the midnight sky1 about thirty times2 and all her features would of course be seen with correspondingly increased distinctness4 ,moreover1 the oceans of our earth are so much larger in relative extent than those of ,mars1 covering nearly three-fourths instead of barely one-half of the surface of the world they belong to1 that they would appeal as far more marked and characteristic features than the seas and lakes of ,mars4 ,when the ,pacific ,ocean1 indeed1 occupies centrally the disc of the earth which at the moment is turned towards any planet1 nearly the whole of that disc must appear to be covered by the ocean4 ,under such circumstances the passage of a wide-spreading series of waves over the ,pacific1 at the rate of about #ejj miles an hour1 is a phenomenon which could scarcely fail to be discernible from ,venus or ,mercury1 if either planet chanced to be favourably placed for the observation of the earth--always supposing there were observers in ,mercury or ,venus1 and that these observers were provided with powerful telescopes4 ,it must be remembered that the waves which spread over the ,pacific on ,august #ac-ad1 #ahfh1 and again on ,may #i-aj1 #ahgf1 were not only of enormous range in length 7measured along crest or trough71 but also of enormous breadth 7measured from crest to crest1 or from trough to trough74 ,were it otherwise1 indeed1 the progress of a wave forty or fifty feet high 7at starting1 and thirty-five feet high after travelling #fjjj miles71 at the rate of #ejj miles per hour1 must have proved destructive to ships in the open ocean as well as along the shore-line4 ,suppose1 for instance1 the breadth of the wave from crest to crest one mile1 then1 in passing under a ship at the rate of #ejj miles per hour1 the wave would raise the ship from trough to crest--that is1 through a height of forty feet--in one-thousandth part of an hour 7for the distance from trough to crest is but half the breadth of the wave71 or in less than four seconds1 lowering it again in the same short interval of time1 lifting and lowering it at the same rate several successive times4 ,the velocity with which the ship would travel upwards and downwards would be greatest when she was midway in her ascent and descent1 and would then be equal to about the velocity with which a body strikes the ground after falling from a height of four yards4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that small vessels subjected to such tossing as this would inevitably be swamped4 ,on even the largest ships the effect of such motion would be most unpleasantly obvious4 ,now1 as a matter of fact1 the passage of the great sea-wave in #ahfh was not noticed at all on board ships in open sea4 ,even within sight of the shore of ,peru1 where the oscillation of the sea was most marked1 the motion was such that its effects were referred to the shore4 ,we are told that observers on the deck of a ,united ,states' war steamer distinctly saw the 8peaks of the mountains in the chain of the ,cordilleras wave to and fro like reeds in a storm20 the fact really being that the deck on which they stood was swayed to and fro4 ,this1 too1 was in a part of the sea where the great wave had not attained its open sea form1 but was a rolling wave1 because of the shallowness of the water4 ,in the open sea1 we read that the passage of the great sea-wave was no more noticed than is the passage of the tidal-wave itself4 8,among the hundreds of ships which were sailing upon the ,pacific when its length and breadth were traversed by the great sea-wave1 there was not one in which any unusual motion was perceived40 ,the inference is clear1 that the slope of the advancing and following faces of the great wave was very much less than in the case above imagined2 in other words1 that the breadth of the wave greatly exceeded one mile--amounting1 in fact1 to many miles4 ,where the interval between the passage of successive wave-crests was noted1 we can tell the actual breadth of the wave4 ,thus1 at the ,samoan ,isles1 in #ahfh1 the crests succeeded each other at intervals of sixteen minutes1 corresponding to eight minutes between crest and trough4 ,but we have seen1 that if the waves were one mile in breadth1 the corresponding interval would be only four seconds1 or only one #abjth part of eight minutes3 it follows1 then1 that the breadth of the great wave1 where it reached the ,samoan ,isles in #ahfh1 was about #abj miles4 ,now a wave extending right athwart the ,pacific ,ocean1 and having a cross breadth of more than #abj miles1 would be discernible as a marked feature of the disc of our earth1 seen under the conditions described above1 either from ,mercury or ,venus4 ,it is true that the slope of the wave's advancing and following surfaces would be but slight1 yet the difference of the illumination under the sun's rays would be recognizable4 ,then1 also1 it is to be remembered that there was not merely a single wave1 but a succession of many waves4 ,these travelled also with enormous velocity2 and though at the distance of even the nearest planet1 the apparent motion of the great wave1 swift though it was in reality1 would be so far reduced that it would have to be estimated rather than actually seen1 yet there would be no difficulty in thus perceiving it with the mind's eye4 ,the rate of motion indeed would almost be exactly the same as that of the equatorial part of the surface of ,mars1 in consequence of the planet's rotation2 and this 7as is well known to telescopists71 though not discernible directly1 produces1 even in a few minutes1 changes which a good eye can clearly recognize4 ,we can scarcely doubt then that if our earth were so situated at any time when one of the great waves generated by ,peruvian earthquakes in traversing the ,pacific1 that the hemisphere containing this ocean were turned fully illuminated towards ,venus 7favourably placed for observing her71 the disturbance of the ,pacific could be observed and measured by telescopists on that planet4 ,unfortunately there is little chance that terrestrial observers will ever be able to watch the progress of great waves athwart the oceans of ,mars1 and still less that any disturbance of the frame of ,venus should become discernible to us by its effects4 ,we can scarce even be assured that there are lands and seas on ,venus1 so far as direct observation is concerned1 so unfavourably is she always placed for observation2 and though we see ,mars under much more favourable conditions1 his seas are too small and would seem to be too shallow 7compared with our own7 for great waves to traverse them such as could be discerned from the earth4 ,yet it is well to remember the possibility that changes may at times take place in the nearer planets--the terrestrial planets1 as they are commonly called1 ,mars1 ,venus1 and ,mercury--such as telescopic observation under favourable conditions might detect4 ,telescopists have1 indeed1 described apparent changes1 lasting only for a short time1 in the appearance of one of these planets1 ,mars1 which may fairly be attributed to disturbances affecting its surface in no greater degree than the great ,peruvian earthquakes have affected for a time the surface of our earth4 ,for instance1 the ,american astronomer ,mitchel says that on the night of ,july #ab1 #ahde1 bright polar snows of ,mars exhibited an appearance never noticed at any preceding or succeeding observation4 ,in the very centre of the white surface appeared a dark spot1 which retained its position during several hours3 on the following evening not a trace of the spot could be seen4 ,again the same observer says that on the evening of ,august #cj1 #ahde1 he observed for the first time a small bright spot1 nearly or quite round1 projecting out of the lower side of the polar spot4 8,in the early part of the evening10 he says1 8the small bright spot seemed to be partly buried in the large one4 ,after the lapse of an hour or more my attention was again directed to the planet1 when ,i was astonished to find a manifest change in the position of the small bright spot4 ,it had apparently separated from the large spot1 and the edges alone of the two were now in contact1 whereas when first seen they overlapped by an amount quite equal to one-third of the diameter of the small one4 ,this1 however1 was merely an optical phenomenon1 for on the next evening the spots went through the same apparent changes as the planet went through the corresponding part of its rotation4 ,but it showed the spots to be real ice masses4 ,the strange part of the story is that in the course of a few days the smaller spot1 which must have been a mass of snow and ice as large as ,novaia ,zemlia1 gradually disappeared4 ,probably some great shock had separated an enormous field of ice from the polar snows1 and it had eventually been broken up and its fragments carried away from the ,arctic regions by currents in the ,martian oceans4 ,it appears to me that the study of our own earth1 and of the changes and occasional convulsions which affect its surface1 gives to the observation of such phenomena as ,i have just described a new interest4 ,or rather1 perhaps1 it is not too much to say that the telescopic observations of the planets derive their only real interest from such considerations4 ,i may note in conclusion1 that while on the one hand we cannot doubt that the earth is slowly parting with its internal heat1 and thus losing century by century a portion of its ,vulcanian energy1 such phenomena as the ,peruvian earthquakes show that the loss of energy is taking place so slowly that the diminution during many ages is almost imperceptible4 ,as ,i have elsewhere remarked1 8,when we see that while mountain ranges were being upheaved or valleys depressed to their present position1 race after race and type after type lived out on the earth the long lives which belong to races and to types1 we recognize the great work which the earth's subterranean forces are still engaged upon4 ,even now continents are being slowly depressed or upheaved1 even now mountain ranges are being raised to a different level1 table-lands are being formed1 great valleys are being gradually scooped out2 old shore-lines shift their place1 old soundings vary2 the sea advances in one place and retires in another2 on every side nature's plastic hand is still at work1 modelling and remodelling the earth1 and making it constantly a fit abode for those who dwell upon it40 ,,strange ,,sea ,,creatures4 8,we ought to make up our minds to dismiss as idle prejudices1 or1 at least1 suspend as premature1 any preconceived notion of what might1 or what ought to1 be the order of nature1 and content ourselves with observing1 as a plain matter of fact1 what is40--,sir ,j4 ,,herschel1 8,prelim4 ,disc40 page #gi4 ,the fancies of men have peopled three of the four so-called elements1 earth1 air1 water1 and fire1 with strange forms of life1 and have even found in the salamander an inhabitant for the fourth4 ,on land the centaur and the unicorn1 in the air the dragon and the roc1 in the water tritons and mermaids1 may be named as instances among many of the fabulous creatures which have been not only imagined but believed in by men of old times4 ,although it may be doubted whether men have ever invented any absolutely imaginary forms of life1 yet the possibility of combining known forms into imaginary1 and even impossible1 forms1 must be admitted as an important element in any inquiry into the origin of ideas respecting such creatures as ,i have named4 ,one need only look through an illuminated manuscript of the ,middle ,ages to recognize the readiness with which imaginary creatures can be formed by combining1 or by exaggerating1 the characteristics of known animals4 ,probably the combined knowledge and genius of all the greatest zoologists of our time would not suffice for the invention of an entirely new form of animal which yet should be zoologically possible2 but to combine the qualities of several existent animals in a single one1 or to conceive an animal with some peculiarity abnormally developed1 is within the capacity of persons very little acquainted with zoology1 nay1 is perhaps far easier to such persons than it would be to an ,owen1 a ,huxley1 or a ,darwin4 ,in nearly every case1 however1 the purely imaginary being is to be recognized by the utter impossibility of its actual existence4 ,if it be a winged man1 arms and wings are both provided1 but the pectoral muscles are left unchanged4 ,a winged horse1 in like manner1 is provided with wings1 without any means of working them4 ,a centaur1 as in the noble sculptures of ,phidias1 has the upper part of the trunk of a man superadded1 not to the hind quarters of a horse or other quadruped1 but to the entire trunk of such an animal1 so that the abdomen of the human figure lies between the upper half of the human trunk and the corresponding part of the horse's trunk1 an arrangement anatomically preposterous4 ,without saying that every fabulous animal which was anatomically and zoologically possible1 had a real antitype1 exaggerated though the fabulous form may have been1 we must yet admit that errors so gross marked the conception of all the really imaginary animals of antiquity1 that any fabulous animal found to accord fairly well with zoological possibilities may be regarded1 with extreme probability1 as simply the exaggerated presentation of some really existent animal4 ,the inventors of centaurs1 winged and man-faced bulls1 many-headed dogs1 harpies1 and so forth1 were utterly unable to invent a possible new animal1 save by the merest chance1 the probability of which was so small that it may fairly be disregarded4 ,this view of the so-called fabulous animals of antiquity has been confirmed by the results of modern zoological research4 ,the merman1 zoologically possible 7not in all details1 of course1 but generally71 has found its antitype in the dugong and the manatee2 the roc in the condor1 or perhaps in those extinct species whose bones attest their monstrous proportions2 the unicorn in the rhinoceros2 even the dragon in the pterodactyl of the green-sand2 while the centaur1 the minotaur1 the winged horse1 and so forth1 have become recognized as purely imaginary creatures1 which had their origin simply in the fanciful combination of known forms1 no existent creatures having even suggested these monstrosities4 ,it is not to be wondered at that the sea should have been more prolific in monstrosities and in forms whose real nature has been misunderstood4 ,land animals cannot long escape close observation4 ,even the most powerful and ferocious beasts must succumb in the long run to man1 and in former ages1 when the struggle was still undecided between some race of animals and savage man1 individual specimens of the race must often have been killed1 and the true appearance of the animal determined4 ,powerful winged animals might for a longer time remain comparatively mysterious creatures even to those whom they attacked1 or whose flocks they ravaged4 ,a mighty bird1 or a pterodactylian creature 7a late survivor of a race then fast dying out71 might swoop down on his prey and disappear with it too swiftly to be made the subject of close scrutiny1 still less of exact scientific observation4 ,yet the general characteristics even of such creatures would before long be known4 ,from time to time the strange winged monster would be seen hovering over the places where his prey was to be found4 ,occasionally it would be possible to pierce one of the race with an arrow or a javelin2 and thus1 even in those remote periods when the savage progenitors of the present races of man had to carry on a difficult contest with animals now extinct or greatly reduced in power1 it would become possible to determine accurately the nature of the winged enemy4 ,but with sea creatures1 monstrous1 or otherwise1 the case would be very different4 ,to this day we remain ignorant of much that is hidden beneath the waves of the 8hollow-sounding and mysterious main40 ,of far the greater number of sea creatures1 it may truly be said that we never see any specimens except by accident1 and never obtain the body of any except by very rare accident4 ,those creatures of the deep sea which we are best acquainted with1 are either those which are at once very numerous and very useful as food or in some other way1 or else those which are very rapacious and thus expose themselves1 by their attacks on men1 to counter-attack and capture or destruction4 ,in remote times1 when men were less able to traverse the wide seas1 when1 on the one hand1 attacks from great sea creatures were more apt to be successful1 while1 on the other1 counter-attack was much more dangerous1 still less would be known about the monsters of the deep4 ,seen only for a few moments as he seized his prey1 and then sinking back into the depths1 a sea monster would probably remain a mystery even to those who had witnessed his attack1 while their imperfect account of what they had seen would be modified at each repetition of the story1 until there would remain little by which the creature could be identified1 even if at some subsequent period its true nature were recognized4 ,we can readily understand1 then1 that among the fabulous creatures of antiquity1 even of those which represented actually existent races incorrectly described1 the most remarkable1 and those zoologically the least intelligible1 would be the monsters of the deep sea4 ,we can also understand that even the accounts which originally corresponded best with the truth would have undergone modifications much more noteworthy than those affecting descriptions of land animals or winged creatures--simply because there would be small chance of any errors thus introduced being corrected by the study of freshly discovered specimens4 ,we may1 perhaps1 explain in this way the strange account given by ,berosus of the creature which came up from the ,red ,sea1 having the body of a fish but the front and head of a man4 ,we may well believe that this animal was no other than a dugong1 or halicore 7a word signifying sea-maiden71 a creature inhabiting the ,indian ,ocean to this day1 and which might readily find its way into the ,red ,sea4 ,but the account of the creature has been strangely altered from the original narrative1 if at least the original narrative was correct4 ,for1 according to ,berosus1 the animal had two human feet which projected from each side of the tail2 and1 still stranger1 it had a human voice and human language4 8,this strange monster sojourned among the rude people during the day1 taking no food1 but retiring to the sea again at night1 and continued for some time teaching them the arts of civilized life40 ,a picture of this stranger is said to have been preserved at ,babylon for many centuries4 ,with a probable substratum of truth1 the story in its latest form is as fabulous as ,autolycus's 8ballad of a fish that appeared upon the coast1 on ,wednesday the fourscore of ,april1 forty thousand fathoms above water1 and sang a ballad against the hard hearts of maids40 ,it is singular1 by the way1 how commonly the power of speech1 or at least of producing sounds resembling speech or musical notes1 was attributed to the creature which imagination converted into a man-fish or woman-fish4 ,dugongs and manatees make a kind of lowing noise1 which could scarcely be mistaken under ordinary conditions for the sound of the human voice4 ,yet1 not only is this peculiarity ascribed to the mermaid and siren 7the merman and triton having even the supposed power of blowing on conch-shells71 but in more recent accounts of encounters with creatures presumably of the seal tribe and allied races1 the same feature is to be noticed4 ,the following account1 quoted by ,mr4 ,gosse from a narrative by ,captain ,weddell1 the well-known geographer1 is interesting for this reason amongst others4 ,it also illustrates well the mixture of erroneous details 7the offspring1 doubtless1 of an excited imagination7 with the correct description of a sea creature actually seen3--8,a boat's crew were employed on ,hall's ,island1 when one of the crew1 left to take care of some produce1 saw an animal whose voice was musical4 ,the sailor had lain down1 and at ten o'clock he heard a noise resembling human cries1 and as daylight in these latitudes never disappears at this season0 7the ,antarctic summer71 8he rose and looked around1 but1 on seeing no person1 returned to bed4 ,presently he heard the noise again2 he rose a second time1 but still saw nothing4 ,conceiving1 however1 the possibility of a boat being upset1 and that some of the crew might be clinging to detached rocks1 he walked along the beach a few steps and heard the noise more distinctly but in a musical strain4 ,upon searching around1 he saw an object lying on a rock a dozen yards from the shore1 at which he was somewhat frightened4 ,the face and shoulders appeared of human form and of a reddish colour2 over the shoulders hung long green hair2 the tail resembled that of the seal1 but the extremities of the arms he could not see distinctly4 ,the creature continued to make a musical noise while he gazed about two minutes1 and on perceiving him it disappeared in an instant4 ,immediately1 when the man saw his officer1 he told this wild tale1 and to add weight to his testimony 7being a ,romanist7 he made a cross on the sand1 which he kissed1 as making oath to the truth of his statement4 ,when ,i saw him he told the story in so clear and positive a manner1 making oath to its truth1 that ,i concluded he must really have seen the animal he described1 or that it must have been the effects of a disturbed imagination40 ,in this story all is consistent with the belief that the sailor saw an animal belonging to the seal family 7of a species unknown to him71 except the green hair4 ,but the hour was not very favourable to the discerning of colour1 though daylight had not quite passed away1 and as ,gosse points out1 since golden-yellow fur and black fur are found among ,antarctic seals1 the colours may be intermingled in some individuals1 producing an olive-green tint1 which1 by contrast with the reddish skin1 might be mistaken for a full green4 ,considering that the man had been roused from sleep and was somewhat frightened1 he would not be likely to make very exact observations4 ,it will be noticed that it was only at first that he mistook the sounds made by the creature for human cries2 afterwards he heard only the same noise1 but in a musical strain4 ,now with regard to the musical sounds said to have been uttered by this creature1 and commonly attributed to creatures belonging to families closely allied to the seals1 ,i do not know that any attempt has yet been made to show that these families possess the power of emitting sounds which can properly be described as musical4 ,it is quite possible that the ,romanist sailor's ears were not very nice1 and that any sound softer than a bellow seemed musical to him4 ,still1 the idea suggests itself that possibly seals1 like some other animals1 possess a note not commonly used1 but only as a signal to their mates1 and never uttered when men or other animals are known to be near4 ,it appears to me that this is rendered probable by the circumstance that seals are fond of music4 ,darwin refers to this in his treatise on ,sexual ,selection 7published with his 8,descent of ,man071 and quotes a statement to the effect that the fondness of seals for music 8was well known to the ancients1 and is often taken advantage of by hunters to the present day40 ,the significance of this will be understood from ,darwin's remark immediately following1 that 8with all these animals1 the males of which during the season of courtship incessantly produce musical notes or mere rhythmical sounds1 we must believe that the females are able to appreciate them40 ,the remark about the creature's arms seems strongly to favour the belief that the sailor intended his narrative to be strictly truthful4 ,had he wished to excite the interest of his comrades by a marvellous story1 he certainly would have described the creature as having well-developed human hands4 ,less trustworthy by far seem some of the stories which have been told of animals resembling the mermaid of antiquity4 ,it must always be remembered1 however1 that in all probability we know very few among the species of seals and allied races1 and that some of these species may present1 in certain respects and perhaps at a certain age1 much closer resemblance to the human form than the sea-lion1 seal1 manatee1 or dugong4 ,we cannot1 for instance1 attach much weight to the following story related by ,hudson1 the famous navigator3--8,one of our company1 looking overboard1 saw a mermaid and calling up some of the company to see her1 one more came up1 and by that time she was come close to the ship's side1 looking earnestly on the men4 ,a little after a sea came and overturned her4 ,from the navel upward her back and breasts were like a woman's1 as they say that saw her2 her body as big as one of us2 her skin very white2 and long hair hanging down behind1 of colour black4 ,in her going down they saw her tail1 which was like the tail of a porpoise and speckled like a mackerel40 ,if ,hudson himself had seen and thus described the creature it would have been possible to regard the story with some degree of credence2 but his account of what ,thomas ,hilles and ,robert ,rayner1 men about whose character for veracity we know nothing1 said they saw1 is of little weight4 ,the skin very white1 and long hair hanging down behind1 are especially suspicious features of the narrative2 and were probably introduced to dispose of the idea1 which others of the crew may have advanced1 that the creature was only some kind of seal after all4 ,the female seal 7,phoca ,greenlandica is the pretty name of the animal7 is not1 however1 like the male1 tawny grey1 but dusky white1 or yellowish straw-colour1 with a tawny tint on the back4 ,the young alone could be called 8very white40 ,they are so white in fact as scarcely to be distinguishable when lying on ice and snow1 a circumstance which1 as ,darwin considers1 serves as a protection for these little fellows4 ,the following story1 quoted by ,gosse from ,dr4 ,robert ,hamilton's able 8,history of the ,whales and ,seals10 compares favourably in some respects with the last narrative3--8,it was reported that a fishing-boat off the island of ,yell1 one of the ,shetland group1 had captured a mermaid by its getting entangled in the lines6 ,the statement is1 that the animal is about three feet long1 the upper part of the body resembling the human1 with protuberant mamm like a woman2 the face1 the forehead1 and neck1 were short1 and resembling those of a monkey2 the arms1 which were small1 were kept folded across the breast2 the fingers were distinct1 not webbed2 a few stiff long bristles were on the top of the head1 extending down to the shoulders1 and these it could erect and depress at pleasure1 something like a crest4 ,the inferior part of the body was like a fish4 ,the skin was smooth and of a grey colour4 ,it offered no resistance1 nor attempted to bite1 but uttered a low1 plaintive sound4 ,the crew1 six in number1 took it within their boat2 but superstition getting the better of curiosity1 they carefully disentangled it from the lines and a hook which had accidentally fastened in the body1 and returned it to its native element4 ,it instantly dived1 descending in a perpendicular direction40 8,they had the animal for three hours within the boat2 the body was without scales or hair2 of a silvery grey colour above1 and white below1 like the human skin2 no gills were observed1 nor fins on the back or belly4 ,the tail was like that of the dog-fish2 the mamm were about as large as those of a woman2 the mouth and lips were very distinct1 and resembled the human40 ,this account1 if accepted in all its details1 would certainly indicate that an animal of some species before unknown had been captured4 ,but it is doubtful how much reliance can be placed on the description of the animal4 ,mr4 ,gosse1 commenting upon the case1 says that the fishermen cannot have been affected by fear in such sort that their imagination exaggerated the resemblance of the creature to the human form4 8,for the mermaid10 he says1 8is not an object of terror to the fishermen2 it is rather a welcome guest1 and danger is to be apprehended only from its experiencing bad treatment40 ,but then this creature had not been treated as a specially welcome guest4 ,the crew had captured it2 and probably not without some degree of violence2 for though it offered no resistance it uttered a plaintive cry4 ,and that hook which 8had accidentally fastened in the body0 has a very suspicious look4 ,if the animal could have given its own account of the capture1 probably the hook would not have been found to have fastened in the body altogether by accident4 ,be this as it may1 the fishermen were so far frightened that superstition got the better of curiosity2 so that1 as they were evidently very foolish fellows1 their evidence is scarcely worth much4 ,there are1 however1 only two points in their narrative which do not seem easily reconciled with the belief that they had captured a rather young female of a species closely allied to the common seal--the distinct unwebbed fingers and the small arms folded across the breast4 ,other points in their description suggest marked differences in degree from the usual characteristics of the female seal2 but these two alone seem to differ absolutely in kind4 ,considering all the circumstances of the narrative1 we may perhaps agree with ,mr4 ,gosse to this extent1 that1 combined with other statements1 the story induces a strong suspicion that the northern seas may hold forms of life as yet uncatalogued by science4 ,the stories which have been related about monstrous cuttle-fish have only been fabulous in regard to the dimensions which they have attributed to these creatures4 ,even in this respect it has been shown1 quite recently1 that some of the accounts formerly regarded as fabulous fell even short of the truth4 ,pliny relates1 for instance1 that the body of a monstrous cuttle-fish1 of a kind known on the ,spanish coast1 weighed1 when captured1 #gjj lbs41 the head the same1 the arms being #cj feet in length4 ,the entire weight would probably have amounted to about #bjjj lbs4 ,but we shall presently see that this weight has been largely exceeded by modern specimens4 ,it was1 however1 in the ,middle ,ages that the really fabulous cuttle-fish flourished--the gigantic kraken1 8liker an island than an animal10 according to credulous ,bishop ,pontoppidan1 and able to destroy in its mighty arms the largest galleons and war ships of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,it is natural that animals really monstrous should be magnified by the fears of those who have seen or encountered them1 and still further magnified afterwards by tradition4 ,some specimens of cuttle-fish which have been captured wholly1 or in part1 indicate that this creature sometimes attains such dimensions that but little magnifying would be needed to suggest even the tremendous proportions of the fabulous kraken4 ,in #ahfa1 the ,french war-steamer ,alecton encountered a monstrous cuttle1 on the surface of the sea1 about #abj miles north-east of ,teneriffe4 ,the crew succeeded in slipping a noose round the body1 but unfortunately the rope slipped1 and1 being arrested by the tail fin1 pulled off the tail4 ,this was hauled on board1 and found to weigh over #dj lbs4 ,from a drawing of the animal1 the total length without the arms was estimated at #ej feet1 and the weight at #djjj lbs41 nearly twice the weight of ,pliny's monstrous cuttle-fish1 long regarded as fabulous4 ,in one respect this creature seems to have been imperfect1 the two long arms usually possessed by cuttle-fish of the kind being wanting4 ,probably it had lost these long tentacles in a recent encounter with some sea enemy1 perhaps one of its own species4 ,quite possibly it may have been such recent mutilation which exposed this cuttle-fish to successful attack by the crew of the ,alecton4 ,a cuttle-fish of about the same dimensions was encountered by two fishermen in #ahgc1 in ,conception ,bay1 ,newfoundland4 ,when they attacked it1 the creature threw its long arms across the boat1 but the fishermen with an axe cut off these tentacles1 on which the cephalopod withdrew in some haste4 ,one of the arms was preserved1 after it had lost about #f feet of its length4 ,even thus reduced it measured #ai feet2 and as the fishermen estimate that the arm was struck off about #aj feet from the body1 it follows that the entire length of the limb must have been about #ce feet4 ,they estimated the body at #fj feet in length and #e feet in diameter--a monstrous creature6 ,it was fortunate for these fishermen that they had an axe handy for its obtrusive tentacles1 as with so great a mass and the great propulsive power possessed by all cephalopods1 it might readily have upset their small boat4 ,once in the water1 they would have been at the creature's mercy--a quality which1 by all accounts1 the cuttle-fish does not possess to any remarkable extent4 ,turn we1 however1 from the half fabulous woman-fish1 and the exaggeratedly monstrous cuttle-fish1 to the famous sea-serpent1 held by many to be the most utterly fabulous of all fabled creatures1 while a few1 including some naturalists of distinction1 stoutly maintain that the creature has a real existence1 though whether it be rightly called a sea-serpent or not is a point about which even believers are extremely doubtful4 ,it may be well1 in the first place1 to remark that in weighing the evidence for and against the existence of this creature1 and bearing on the question of its nature 7if its existence be admitted71 we ought not to be influenced by the manifest falsity of a number of stories relating to supposed encounters with this animal4 ,it is probable that1 but for these absurd stories1 the well-authenticated narratives relating to the creature1 whatever it may be1 which has been called the sea-serpent1 would have received much more attention than has heretofore been given to them4 ,it is also possible that some narratives would have been published which have been kept back from the fear lest a truthful 7though possibly mistaken7 account should be classed with the undoubted untruths which have been told respecting the great sea-serpent4 ,it cannot be denied that in the main the inventions and hoaxes about the sea-serpent have come chiefly from ,american sources4 ,it is unfortunately supposed by too many of the less cultured sons of ,america that 7to use ,mr4 ,gosse's expression7 8there is somewhat of wit in gross exaggerations or hoaxing inventions40 ,of course an ,american gentleman--using the word 8in that sense in which every man may be a gentleman10 as ,twemlow hath it--would as soon think of uttering a base coin as a deliberate untruth or foolish hoax4 ,but it is thought clever1 by not a few in ,america who know no better1 to take any one in by an invention4 ,some1 perhaps but a small number1 of the newspapers set a specially bad example in this respect1 giving room in their columns for pretended discoveries in various departments of science1 elaborate accounts of newly discovered animals1 living or extinct1 and other untruths which would be regarded as very disgraceful indeed by ,english editors4 ,such was the famous 8lunar hoax10 published in the ,new ,york ,sun some forty years ago2 such the narrative1 in #ahgc1 of a monstrous fissure which had been discerned in the body of the moon1 and threatened to increase until the moon should be cloven into two unequal parts2 such the fables which have from time to time appeared respecting the sea-serpent4 ,but it would be as unreasonable to reject1 because of these last-named fables1 the narratives which have been related by quiet1 truth-loving folk1 and have borne close and careful scrutiny1 as it would be to reject the evidence given by the spectroscope respecting the existence of iron and other metals in the sun because an absurd story had told how creatures in the moon had been observed to make use of metal utensils or to adorn the roofs of their temples with metallic imitations of wreathed flames4 ,the oldest accounts on record of the appearance of a great sea creature resembling a serpent are those quoted by ,bishop ,pontoppidan1 in his description of the natural history of his native country1 ,norway4 ,amongst these was one confirmed by oath taken before a magistrate by two of the crew of a ship commanded by ,captain de ,ferry1 of the ,norwegian navy4 ,the captain and eight men saw the animal1 near ,molde1 in ,august1 #agdg4 ,they described it as of the general form of a serpent1 stretched on the surface in receding coils 7meaning1 probably1 the shape assumed by the neck of a swan when the head is drawn back74 ,the head1 which resembled that of a horse1 was raised two feet above the water4 ,in ,august1 #ahag1 a large marine animal1 supposed to be a serpent1 was seen near ,cape ,ann1 ,massachusetts4 ,eleven witnesses of good reputation gave evidence on oath before magistrates4 ,one of these magistrates had himself seen the creature1 and corroborated the most important points of the evidence given by the eleven witnesses4 ,the creature had the appearance of a serpent1 dark brown in colour 7some said mottled71 with white under the head and neck4 ,its length was estimated at from #ej to #ajj feet4 ,the head was in shape like a serpent's1 but as large as a horse's4 ,no mane was noticed4 ,five of the witnesses deposed to protuberances on the back2 four said the back was straight2 the other two gave no opinion on this point4 ,the magistrate who had seen the animal considered the appearance of protuberances was due to the bendings of the body while in rapid motion4 ,in #ahdh1 when the captain of the ,british frigate ,ddalus had published an account of a similar animal seen by him and several of his officers and crew1 the ,hon4 ,colonel ,t4 ,h4 ,perkins1 of ,boston1 who had seen the animal on the occasion just mentioned in #ahag1 gave an account 7copied from a letter written in #ahbj7 of what he had witnessed4 ,it is needless to quote those points which correspond with what has been already stated4 ,colonel ,perkins noticed 8an appearance in the front of the head like a single horn1 about nine inches to a foot in length1 shaped like a marlinspike1 which will presently be explained4 ,i left the place10 he proceeds1 8fully satisfied that the reports in circulation1 though differing in details1 were essentially correct40 ,he relates how a person named ,mansfield1 8one of the most respectable inhabitants of the town1 who had been such an unbeliever in the existence of this monster that he had not given himself the trouble to go from his house to the harbour when the report was first made10 saw the animal from a bank overlooking the harbour4 ,mr4 ,mansfield and his wife agreed in estimating the creature's length at #ajj feet4 ,several crews of coasting vessels saw the animal1 in some instances within a few yards4 8,captain ,tappan10 proceeds ,colonel ,perkins1 8a person well known to me1 saw him with his head above water two or three feet1 at times moving with great rapidity1 at others slowly4 ,he also saw what explained the appearance which ,i have described of a horn on the front of the head4 ,this was doubtless what was observed by ,captain ,tappan to be the tongue1 thrown in an upright position from the mouth1 and having the appearance which ,i have given to it4 ,one of the revenue cutters1 whilst in the neighbourhood of ,cape ,ann1 had an excellent view of him at a few yards' distance2 he moved slowly1 and upon the appearance of the vessel sank and was seen no more40 ,fifteen years later1 in ,may #ahcc1 five ,british officers--,captain ,sullivan1 ,lieutenants ,maclachlan and ,malcolm of the ,rifle ,brigade1 ,lieutenant ,lyster of the ,artillery1 and ,mr4 ,snee of the ,ordnance--when cruising in a small yacht off ,margaret's ,bay1 not far from ,halifax1 8saw the head and neck of some denizen of the deep1 precisely like those of a common snake1 in the act of swimming1 the head so elevated and thrown forward by the curve of the neck as to enable us to see the water under and beyond it40 ,they judged its length to exceed #hj feet4 8,there could be no mistake nor delusion1 and we were all perfectly satisfied that we had been favoured with a view of the #8true and veritable sea-serpent1' which had been generally considered to have existed only in the brain of some ,yankee skipper1 and treated as a tale not entitled to belief40 ,dowling1 a man-of-war's man they had along with them1 made the following unscientific but noteworthy comment3 8,well1 ,i've sailed in all parts of the world1 and have seen rum sights too in my time1 but this is the queerest thing ,i ever see40 8,and surely10 adds ,captain ,sullivan1 8,jack ,dowling was right40 ,the description of the animal agrees in all essential respects with previous accounts1 but the head was estimated at about six feet in length--considerably larger1 therefore1 than a horse's head4 ,but unquestionably the account of the sea-serpent which has commanded most attention was that given by the captain1 officers1 and crew of the ,british frigate ,ddalus1 ,captain ,m',quh1 in #ahdh4 ,the ,times published on ,october #i1 #ahdh1 a paragraph stating that the sea-serpent had been seen by the captain and most of the officers and crew of this ship1 on her passage home from the ,east ,indies4 ,the ,admiralty inquired at once into the truth of the statement1 and the following is abridged from ,captain ,m',quh's official reply1 addressed to ,admiral ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,gage4 8,sir1--,in reply to your letter1 requiring information as to the truth of a statement published in the ,times newspaper1 of a sea-serpent of extraordinary dimensions having been seen from the ,ddalus1 ,i have the honour to inform you that at #e p4m41 ,august #f last1 in latitude #bd #dd ,s41 longitude #i #bb ,e41 the weather dark and cloudy1 wind fresh from ,n4,w41 with long ocean swell from ,s4,w41 the ship on the port tack1 heading ,n4,e4 by ,n41 ,mr4 ,sartoris1 midshipman1 reported to ,lieutenant ,e4 ,drummond 7with whom1 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,barrett1 the master1 ,i was walking the quarter-deck7 something very unusual rapidly approaching the ship from before the beam4 ,the object was seen to be an enormous serpent1 with head and shoulders kept about four feet constantly above the surface of the sea1 as nearly as we could judge2 at least #fj feet of the animal was on the surface1 no part of which length was used1 so far as we could see1 in propelling the animal either by vertical or horizontal undulation4 ,it passed quietly1 but so closely under our lee quarter that1 had it been a man of my acquaintance1 ,i should easily have recognized his features with the naked eye4 ,it did not1 while visible1 deviate from its course to the ,s4,w41 which it held on at the pace of from #ab to #ae miles per hour1 as if on some determined purpose4 ,the diameter of the serpent was from #ae to #af inches behind the head1 which was1 without any doubt1 that of a snake4 ,its colour was a dark brown1 with yellowish white about the throat4 ,it did not once1 while within the range of view from our glasses1 sink below the surface4 ,it had no fins1 but something like the mane of a horse1 or rather a bunch of sea-weed1 washed about its back4 ,it was seen by the quarter-master1 the boatswain's mate1 and the man at the wheel1 in addition to myself and the officers above-mentioned4 ,i am having a drawing of the serpent made from a sketch taken immediately after it was seen1 which ,i hope to have ready for my ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty by to-morrow's post4--,peter ,m',quh1 ,captain40 ,the drawing here mentioned was published in the ,illustrated ,london ,news for ,october #bh1 #ahdh1 being there described as made 8under the supervision of ,captain ,m',quh1 and his approval of the authenticity of the details as to position and form40 ,the correspondence and controversy elicited by the statement of ,captain ,m',quh were exceedingly interesting4 ,it is noteworthy1 at the outset1 that few1 perhaps none1 who had read the original statement1 suggested the idea of illusion1 while it need hardly perhaps be said that no one expressed the slightest doubt as to the bona fides of ,captain ,m',quh and his fellow-witnesses4 ,these points deserve attention1 because1 in recent times1 the subject of the sea-serpent has been frequently mentioned in public journals and elsewhere as though no accounts of the creature had ever been given which had been entitled to credence4 ,i proceed to summarise the correspondence which followed ,m',quh's announcement4 ,the full particulars will be found in ,mr4 ,gosse's interesting work1 the 8,romance of ,natural ,history10 where1 however1 as it seems to me1 the full force of the evidence is a little weakened1 for all save naturalists1 by the introduction of particulars not bearing directly on the questions at issue4 ,among the earliest communications was one from ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,m4 ,stirling1 a gentleman who1 during a long residence in ,norway1 had heard repeated accounts of the sea-serpent in ,norwegian seas1 and had himself seen a fish or reptile at a distance of a quarter of a mile1 which1 examined through a telescope1 corresponded in appearance with the sea-serpent as usually described4 ,this communication was chiefly interesting1 however1 as advancing the theory that the supposed sea-serpent is not a serpent at all1 but a long-necked plesiosaurian4 ,this idea had been advanced earlier1 but without his knowledge1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,newman1 the editor of the ,zoologist4 ,let us briefly inquire into the circumstances which suggest the belief4 ,if we consider the usual account of the sea-serpent1 we find one constant feature1 which seems entirely inconsistent with the belief that the creature can be a serpent4 ,the animal has always shown a large portion of its length1 from #bj to #fj feet1 above the surface of the water1 and without any evident signs of undulation1 either vertically or horizontally4 ,now1 apart from all zoological evidence1 our knowledge of physical laws will not permit us to believe that the portion thus visible above the surface was propelled by the undulations of a portion concealed below the surface1 unless this latter portion largely exceeded the former in bulk4 ,a true fish does not swim for any length of time with any but a very small portion of its body above water2 probably large eels never show even a head or fin above water for more than a few seconds when not at rest4 ,cetaceans1 owing to the layers of blubber which float them up1 remain often for a long time with a portion of their bulk out of the water1 and the larger sort often swim long distances with the head and fore-part out of water4 ,but1 even then1 the greater part of the creature's bulk is under water1 and the driving apparatus1 the anterior fins and the mighty tail1 are constantly under water 7when the animal is urging its way horizontally1 be it understood74 ,a sea creature1 in fact1 whatever its nature1 which keeps any considerable volume of its body out of water constantly1 while travelling a long distance1 must of necessity have a much greater volume all the time under water1 and must have its propelling apparatus under water4 ,moreover1 if the propulsion is not effected by fins1 paddles1 a great flat tail1 or these combined1 but by the undulations of the animal's own body1 then the part out of water must of necessity be affected by these undulations1 unless it is very small in volume and length compared with the part under water4 ,i assert both these points as matters depending on physical laws1 and without fear that the best-informed zoologist can adduce any instances to the contrary4 ,it is in fact physically impossible that such instances should exist4 ,it would not be saying too much to assert that if the so-called sea-serpent were really a serpent1 its entire length must be nearer #ajjj than #ajj feet4 ,this1 of course1 is utterly incredible4 ,we are1 therefore1 forced to the belief that the creature is not a serpent4 ,if it were a long-necked reptile1 with a concealed body much bulkier than the neck1 the requirements of floatation would be satisfied2 if to that body there were attached powerful paddles1 the requirements of propulsion would be satisfied4 ,the theory1 then1 suggested1 first by ,mr4 ,newman1 later but independently by ,mr4 ,stirling1 and advocated since by several naturalists of repute1 is simply that the so-called sea-serpent is a modern representative of the long-necked plesiosaurian reptile to which has been given the name of the enaliosaurus4 ,creatures of this kind prevailed in that era when what is called the lias was formed1 a fossiliferous stratum belonging to the secondary or mesozoic rocks4 ,they are not found in the later or tertiary rocks1 and thereon an argument might be deduced against their possible existence in the present1 or post-tertiary1 period2 but1 as will presently be shown1 this argument is far from being conclusive4 ,the enaliosaurian reptiles were 8extraordinary10 says ,lyell1 8for their number1 size1 and structure40 ,like the ichthyosauri1 or fish-lizards1 the enaliosauri 7or serpent-turtles1 as they might almost be called7 were carnivorous1 their skeletons often enclosing the fossilized remains of half-digested fishes4 ,they had extremely long necks1 with heads very small compared with the body4 ,they are supposed to have lived chiefly in narrow seas and estuaries1 and to have breathed air like the modern whales and other aquatic mammals4 ,some of them were of formidable dimensions1 though none of the skeletons yet discovered indicate a length of more than #ce feet4 ,it is not1 however1 at all likely that the few skeletons known indicate the full size attained by these creatures4 ,probably1 indeed1 we have the remains of only a few out of many species1 and some species existing in the mesozoic period may have as largely exceeded those whose skeletons have been found1 as the boa-constrictor exceeds the common ringed snake4 ,it is also altogether probable that in the struggle for existence during which the enaliosaurian reptiles have become almost extinct 7according to the hypothesis we are considering71 none but the largest and strongest had any chance1 in which case the present representatives of the family would largely exceed in bulk their progenitors of the mesozoic period4 ,a writer in the ,times of ,november #b1 #ahdh1 under the signature ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 pointed out how many of the external characters of the creature seen from the ,ddalus corresponded with the belief that it was a long-necked plesiosaurus4 8,geologists10 he said1 8are agreed in the inference that the plesiosauri carried their necks1 which must have resembled the bodies of serpents1 above the water1 while their propulsion was effected by large paddles working beneath1 the short but stout tail acting the part of a rudder4444 ,in the letter and drawing of ,captain ,m',quh 444 we have 444 the short head1 the serpent-like neck1 carried several feet above the water4 ,even the bristly mane in certain parts of the back1 so unlike anything found in serpents1 has its analogue in the iguana1 to which animal the plesiosaurus has been compared by some geologists4 ,but ,i would most of all insist upon the peculiarity of the animal's progression1 which could only have been effected with the evenness and at the rate described by an apparatus of fins or paddles1 not possessed by serpents1 but existing in the highest perfection in the plesiosaurus40 ,at this stage a very eminent naturalist entered the field--,professor ,owen4 ,he dwelt first on a certain characteristic of ,captain ,m',quh's letter which no student of science could fail to notice--the definite statement that the creature was so and so1 where a scientific observer would simply have said that the creature presented such and such characteristics4 8,no sooner was the captain's attention called to the object10 says ,professor ,owen1 8than #8it was discovered to be an enormous serpent1'0 though in reality the true nature of the creature could not be determined even from the observations made during the whole time that it remained visible4 ,taking1 however1 8the more certain characters10 the 8head with a convex1 moderately capacious cranium1 short1 obtuse muzzle1 gape not extending further than to beneath the eye1 which 7the eye7 is rather small1 round1 filling closely the palpebral aperture0 7that is1 the eyelids fit closely#be72 8colour and surface as stated2 nostrils indicated in the drawing by a crescentic mark at the end of the nose or muzzle4 ,all these10 proceeds ,owen1 8are the characters of the head of a warm-blooded mammal1 none of them those of a cold-blooded reptile or fish4 ,body long1 dark brown1 not undulating1 without dorsal or other apparent fins1 #8but something like the mane of a horse1 or rather a bunch of sea-weed1 washed about its back4'0 ,he infers that the creature had hair1 showing only where longest on the back1 and therefore that the animal was not a mammal of the whale species but rather a great seal4 ,he then shows that the sea-elephant1 or ,phoca proboscidea1 which attains the length of from #bj to #cj feet1 was the most probable member of the seal family to be found about #cjj miles from the western shore of the southern end of ,africa1 in latitude #bd #dd4 ,such a creature1 accidentally carried from its natural domain by a floating iceberg1 would have 7after its iceberg had melted7 to urge its way steadily southwards1 as the supposed sea-serpent was doing2 and probably the creature approached the ,ddalus to scan her 8capabilities as a resting-place1 as it paddled its long1 stiff body past the ship40 8,in so doing it would raise a head of the form and colour described and delineated by ,captain ,m',quh0--its head only1 be it remarked1 corresponding with the captain's description4 ,the neck also would be of the right diameter4 ,the thick neck1 passing into an inflexible trunk1 the longer and coarser hair on the upper part of which would give rise to the idea 8explained by the similes above cited0 7of a mane or bunch of sea-weed71 the paddles would be out of sight2 and the long eddy and wake created by the propelling action of the tail would account for the idea of a long serpentine body1 at least for this idea occurring to one 8looking at the strange phenomenon with a sea-serpent in his mind's eye40 8,it is very probable that not one on board the ,ddalus ever before beheld a gigantic seal freely swimming in the open ocean40 ,the excitement produced by the strange spectacle1 and the recollection of 8old ,pontoppidan's sea-serpent with the mane10 would suffice1 ,professor ,owen considered1 to account for the metamorphosis of a sea-elephant into a maned sea-serpent4 ,this was not the whole of ,professor ,owen's argument2 but it may be well to pause here1 to consider the corrections immediately made by ,captain ,m',quh2 it may be noticed1 first1 that ,professor ,owen's argument seems sufficiently to dispose of the belief that the creature really was a sea-serpent1 or any cold-blooded reptile4 ,and this view of the matter has been confirmed by later observations4 ,but few1 ,i imagine1 can readily accept the belief that ,captain ,m',quh and his officers had mistaken a sea-elephant for a creature such as they describe and picture4 ,to begin with1 although it might be probable enough that no one on board the ,ddalus had ever seen a gigantic seal freely swimming in the open ocean--a sight which ,professor ,owen himself had certainly never seen--yet we can hardly suppose they would not have known a sea-elephant under such circumstances4 ,even if they had never seen a sea-elephant at all1 they would surely know what such an animal is like4 ,no one could mistake a sea-elephant for any other living creature1 even though his acquaintance with the animal were limited to museum specimens or pictures in books4 ,the supposition that the entire animal1 that is1 its entire length1 should be mistaken for #cj or #dj feet of the length of a serpentine neck1 seems1 in my judgment1 as startling as the ingenious theory thrown out by some naturalists when they first heard of the giraffe--to the effect that some one of lively imagination had mistaken the entire body of a short-horned antelope for the neck of a much larger animal6 ,captain ,m',quh immediately replied3--8,i assert that neither was it a common seal nor a sea-elephant2 its great length and its totally different physiognomy precluding the possibility of its being a ,phoca of any species4 ,the head was flat1 and not a capacious vaulted cranium2 nor had it a stiff1 inflexible trunk--a conclusion to which ,professor ,owen has jumped1 most certainly not justified by my simple statement1 that #8no portion of the #fj feet seen by us was used in propelling it through the water1 either by vertical or horizontal undulation4'0 ,he explained that the calculation of the creature's length was made before1 not after1 the idea had been entertained that the animal was a serpent1 and that he and his officers were 8too well accustomed to judge of lengths and breadths of objects in the sea to mistake a real substance and an actual living body1 coolly and dispassionately contemplated1 at so short a distance too1 for the #8eddy caused by the action of the deeply immersed fins and tail of a rapidly moving1 gigantic seal raising its head above the water1' as ,professor ,owen imagines1 in quest of its lost iceberg40 ,he next disposed of ,owen's assertion that the idea of clothing the serpent with a mane had been suggested by old ,pontoppidan's story1 simply because he had never seen ,pontoppidan's account or heard of ,pontoppidan's sea-serpent1 until he had told his own tale in ,london4 ,finally1 he added1 8,i deny the existence of excitement1 or the possibility of optical illusion4 ,i adhere to the statement as to form1 colour1 and dimensions1 contained in my report to the ,admiralty40 ,a narrative which appeared in the ,times early in #ahdi must be referred to in this place1 as not being readily explicable by ,professor ,owen's hypothesis4 ,it was written by ,mr4 ,r4 ,davidson1 superintending surgeon1 ,najpore ,subsidiary ,force ,kamptee1 and was to the following effect 7,i abridge it considerably73--,when at a considerable distance south-west of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,mr4 ,davidson1 ,captain ,petrie1 of the ,royal ,saxon1 a steerage passenger1 and the man at the wheel1 saw 8an animal of which no more correct description could be given than that by ,captain ,m',quh4 ,it passed within #ce yards of the ship1 without altering its course in the least2 but as it came right abreast of us it slowly turned its head towards us40 ,about one-third of the upper part of its body was above water1 8in nearly its whole length2 and we could see the water curling up on its breast as it moved along1 but by what means it moved we could not perceive40 ,they saw this creature in its whole length with the exception of a small portion of the tail which was under water2 and by comparing its length with that of the ,royal ,saxon1 #fjj feet1 when exactly alongside in passing1 they calculated it to be in length as well as in other dimensions greater than the animal described by ,captain ,m',quh4 ,in the year #aheb two statements were made1 one by ,captain ,steele1 #ith ,lancers1 the other by one of the officers of the ship ,barham 7,india merchantman71 to the effect that an animal of a serpentine appearance had been seen about #ejj yards from that ship 7in longitude #dj ,e4 and #cg #af ,s41 that is1 east of the south-eastern corner of ,africa74 8,we saw him10 said the former1 8about #af or #bj feet out of the water1 and he spouted a long way from his head0--that is1 ,i suppose1 he spouted to some distance1 not1 as the words really imply1 at a part of his neck far removed from the head4 8,down his back he had a crest like a cock's comb1 and was going very slowly through the water1 but left a wake of about #ej or #fj feet1 as if dragging a long body after him4 ,the captain put the ship off her course to run down to him1 but as we approached him he went down4 ,his colour was green with light spots4 ,he was seen by every one on board40 ,the other witness gives a similar account1 adding that the creature kept moving his head up and down1 and was surrounded by hundreds of birds4 8,we at first thought it was a dead whale4444 ,when we were within #ajj yards he slowly sank into the depths of the sea2 while we were at dinner he was seen again40 ,mr4 ,alfred ,newton1 the well-known naturalist1 guarantees his personal acquaintance with one of the recipients of the letters just quoted from4 ,but such a guarantee is1 of course1 no sufficient guarantee of the authenticity of the narrative4 ,even if the narrative be accepted1 the case seems a very doubtful one4 ,the birds form a suspicious element in the story4 ,why should birds cluster around a living sea creature8 ,it seems to me probable that the sea-weed theory1 presently to be noticed1 gives the best explanation of this case4 ,possibly some great aggregation of sea-weed was there1 in which were entangled divers objects desirable to birds and to fishes4 ,these last may have dragged the mass under water when the ship approached1 being perhaps more or less entangled in it--and it floated up again afterwards4 ,the spouting may have been simply the play of water over the part mistaken for the head4 ,the sea-weed theory of the sea-serpent was broached in ,february1 #ahdi1 and supported by a narrative not unlike the last4 ,when the ,british ship ,brazilian was becalmed almost exactly in the spot where ,m',quh had seen his monster1 ,mr4 ,herriman1 the commander1 perceived something right abeam1 about half a mile to the westward1 8stretched along the water to the length of about #be or #cj feet1 and perceptibly moving from the ship with a steady1 sinuous motion4 ,the head1 which seemed to be lifted several feet above the waters1 had something resembling a mane1 running down to the floating portion1 and within about #f feet of the tail it forked out into a sort of double fin40 ,mr4 ,herriman1 his first mate1 ,mr4 ,long1 and several of the passengers1 after surveying the object for some time1 came to the unanimous conclusion that it must be the sea-serpent seen by ,captain ,m',quh4 8,as the ,brazilian was making no headway1 ,mr4 ,herriman1 determining to bring all doubts to an issue1 had a boat lowered down1 and taking two hands on board1 together with ,mr4 ,boyd1 of ,peterhead1 near ,aberdeen1 one of the passengers1 who acted as steersman under the direction of the captain1 they approached the monster1 ,captain ,herriman standing on the bow of the boat1 armed with a harpoon to commence the onslaught4 ,the combat1 however1 was not attended with the danger which those on board apprehended2 for on coming close to the object it was found to be nothing more than an immense piece of sea-weed1 evidently detached from a coral reef and drifting with the current1 which sets constantly to the westward in this latitude1 and which1 together with the swell left by the subsidence of the gale1 gave it the sinuous1 snake-like motion40 ,a statement was published by ,captain ,harrington in the ,times of ,february1 #aheh1 to the effect that from his ship ,castilian1 then distant ten miles from the north-east end of ,st4 ,helena1 he and his officers had seen a huge marine animal within #bj yards of the ship2 that it disappeared for about half a minute1 and then made its appearance in the same manner again1 showing distinctly its neck and head about #aj or #ab feet out of the water4 8,its head was shaped like a long nun-buoy10 proceeds ,captain ,harrington1 8and ,i suppose the diameter to have been #g or #h feet in the largest part1 with a kind of scroll1 or tuft1 of loose skin encircling it about #b feet from the top2 the water was discoloured for several hundred feet from its head4444 ,from what we saw from the deck1 we conclude that it must have been over #bjj feet long4 ,the boatswain and several of the crew who observed it from the top-gallant forecastle1#bf 7query1 cross-trees87 state that it was more than double the length of the ship1 in which case it must have been #ejj feet4 ,be that as it may1 ,i am convinced that it belonged to the serpent tribe2 it was of a dark colour about the head1 and was covered with several white spots40 ,this immediately called out a statement from ,captain ,f4 ,smith1 of the ship ,pekin1 that on ,december #bh1 not far from the place where the ,ddalus had encountered the supposed sea-serpent1 he had seen1 at a distance of about half a mile1 a creature which was declared by all hands to be the great sea-serpent1 but proved eventually to be a piece of gigantic sea-weed4 8,i have no doubt10 he says1 that the great sea-serpent seen from the ,ddalus 8was a piece of the same weed40 ,it will have been noticed that the sea-weed sea-serpents1 seen by ,captain ,f4 ,smith and by ,captain ,herriman1 were both at a distance of half a mile1 at which distance one can readily understand that a piece of sea-weed might be mistaken for a living creature4 ,this is rather different from the case of the ,ddalus sea-serpent1 which passed so near that had it been a man of the captain's acquaintance he could have recognized that man's features with the naked eye4 ,the case1 too1 of ,captain ,harrington's sea-serpent1 seen within #bj yards of the ,castilian1 can hardly be compared to those cases in which sea-weed1 more than #hjj yards from the ship1 was mistaken for a living animal4 ,an officer of the ,ddalus thus disposed of ,captain ,smith's imputation3--8,the object seen from the ship was beyond all question a living animal1 moving rapidly through the water against a cross sea1 and within five points of a fresh breeze1 with such velocity that the water was surging against its chest as it passed along at a rate probably of ten miles per hour4 ,captain ,m',quh's first impulse was to tack in pursuit1 but he reflected that we could neither lay up for it nor overhaul it in speed4 ,there was nothing to be done1 therefore1 but to observe it as accurately as we could with our glasses as it came up under our lee quarter and passed away to windward1 being at its nearest position not more than #bjj yards from us2 the eye1 the mouth1 the nostril1 the colour1 and the form1 all being most distinctly visible to us4444 ,my impression was that it was rather of a lizard than a serpentine character1 as its movement was steady and uniform1 as if propelled by fins1 not by any undulatory power40 ,but all the evidence heretofore obtained respecting the sea-serpent1 although regarded by many naturalists1 ,gosse1 ,newman1 ,wilson1 and others1 as demonstrating the existence of some as yet unclassified monster of the deep1 seems altogether indecisive by comparison with that which has recently been given by the captain1 mates1 and crew of the ship ,pauline4 ,in this case1 assuredly1 we have not to deal with a mass of sea-weed1 the floating trunk of a tree1 a sea-elephant hastening to his home amid the icebergs1 or with any of the other more or less ingenious explanations of observations previously made4 ,we have either the case of an actual living animal1 monstrous1 fierce1 and carnivorous1 or else the five men who deposed on oath to the stated facts devised the story between them1 and wilfully perjured themselves for no conceivable purpose--that1 too1 not as men have been known to perjure themselves under the belief that none could know of their infamy1 but with the certainty on the part of each that four others 7any one of whom might one day shame him and the rest by confessing7 knew the real facts of the case4 ,the story of the ,pauline sea-serpent ran simply as follows1 as attested at the ,liverpool police-court3--8,we1 the undersigned1 captain1 officers1 and crew of the bark ,pauline1 of ,london1 do solemnly and sincerely declare1 that on ,july #h1 #ahge1 in latitude #e #ac ,s41 longitude #ce ,w41 we observed three large sperm whales1 and one of them was gripped round the body with two turns of what appeared to be a huge serpent4 ,the head and tail appeared to have a length beyond the coils of about #cj feet1 and its girth #h or #i feet4 ,the serpent whirled its victim round and round for about fifteen minutes1 and then suddenly dragged the whale to the bottom1 head first4--,george ,drevat1 master2 ,horatio ,thompson1 chief mate2 ,john ,h4 ,landells1 second mate2 ,william ,lewarn1 steward2 ,owen ,baker1 ,a4,b4 ,again on the #acth ,july a similar serpent was seen about #bjj yards off1 shooting itself along the surface1 head and neck being out of the water several feet4 ,this was seen only by the captain and an ordinary seaman4--,george ,drevat4 ,a few moments afterwards it was seen elevated some #fj feet perpendicularly in the air by the chief officer and two seamen1 whose signatures are affixed4--,horatio ,thompson1 ,owen ,baker1 ,william ,lewarn40 ,the usual length of the cachalot or sperm whale is about #gj feet1 and its girth about #ej feet4 ,if we assign to the unfortunate whale which was captured on this occasion1 a length of only #ej feet1 and a girth of only #ce feet1 we should still have for the entire length of the supposed serpent about #ajj feet4 ,this can hardly exceed the truth1 since the three whales are called large sperm whales4 ,with a length of #ajj feet and a girth of about #i feet1 however1 a serpent would have no chance in an attempt to capture a sperm whale #ej feet long and #ce feet in girth1 for the simple reason that the whale would be a good deal heavier than its opponent4 ,in a contest in open sea1 where one animal seeks to capture another bodily1 weight is all-important4 ,we can hardly suppose the whale could be so compassed by the coils of his enemy as to be rendered powerless2 in fact1 the contest lasted fifteen minutes1 during the whole of which time the so-called serpent was whirling its victim round1 though more massive than itself1 through the water4 ,on the whole1 it seems reasonable to conclude--in fact1 the opinion is almost forced upon us--that besides the serpentine portion of its bulk1 which was revealed to view1 the creature1 thus whirling round a large sperm whale1 had a massive concealed body1 provided with propelling paddles of enormous power4 ,these were at work all the time the struggle went on1 enabling the creature to whirl round its enemy easily1 whereas a serpentine form1 with two-thirds of its length1 at least1 coiled close round another body1 would have had no propulsive power left1 or very little1 in the remaining #cj feet of its length1 including both the head and tail ends beyond the coils4 ,such a creature as an enaliosaurus could no doubt have done what a serpent of twice the supposed length would have attempted in vain--viz41 dragged down into the depths of the sea the mighty bulk of a cachalot whale4 ,when all the evidence is carefully weighed1 we appear led to the conclusion that at least one large marine animal exists which has not as yet been classified among the known species of the present era4 ,it would appear that this animal has certainly a serpentine neck1 and a head small compared with its body1 but large compared with the diameter of the neck4 ,it is probably an air-breather and warm-blooded1 and certainly carnivorous4 ,its propulsive power is great and apparently independent of undulations of its body1 wherefore it presumably has powerful concealed paddles4 ,all these circumstances correspond with the belief that it is a modern representative of the long-neck plesiosaurians of the great secondary or mesozoic era1 a member of that strange family of animals whose figure has been compared to that which would be formed by drawing a serpent through the body of a sea-turtle4 ,against this view sundry objections have been raised1 which must now be briefly considered4 ,in the first place1 ,professor ,owen pointed out that the sea-saurians of the secondary period have been replaced in the tertiary and present seas by the whales and allied races4 ,no whales are found in the secondary strata1 no saurians in the tertiary4 8,it seems to me less probable10 he says1 8that no part of the carcase of such reptiles should have ever been discovered in a recent unfossilized state1 than that men should have been deceived by a cursory view of a partly submerged and rapidly moving animal which might only be strange to themselves4 ,in other words1 ,i regard the negative evidence from the utter absence of any of the recent remains of great sea-serpents1 krakens1 or enaliosauria1 as stronger against their actual existence1 than the positive statements which have hitherto weighed with the public mind in favour of their existence4 ,a larger body of evidence from eye-witnesses might be got together in proof of ghosts than of the sea-serpent40 ,to this it has been replied that genera are now known to exist1 as the ,chimra1 the long-necked river tortoise1 and the iguana1 which are closely related to forms which existed in the secondary era1 while no traces have been found of them in any of the intermediate or tertiary strata4 ,the chimra is a case precisely analogous to the supposed case of the enaliosaurus1 for the chimra is but rarely seen1 like the supposed enaliosaurus1 is found in the same and absent from the same fossiliferous strata4 ,agassiz is quoted in the ,zoologist1 page #bcie1 as saying that it would be in precise conformity with analogy that such an animal as the enaliosaurus should exist in the ,american seas1 as he had found numerous instances in which the fossil forms of the ,old ,world were represented by living types in the ,new4 ,in close conformity with this opinion is a statement made by ,captain the ,hon4 ,george ,hope1 that when in the ,british ship ,fly1 in the ,gulf of ,california1 the sea being perfectly calm and transparent1 he saw at the bottom a large marine animal1 with the head and general figure of an alligator1 but the neck much longer1 and with four large paddles instead of legs4 ,here1 then1 unless this officer was altogether deceived1 which seems quite unlikely under the circumstances1 was a veritable enaliosaurus1 though of a far smaller species1 probably1 than the creature mistaken for a sea-serpent4 ,as for the absence of remains1 ,mr4 ,darwin has pointed out that the fossils we possess are but fragments accidentally preserved by favouring circumstances in an almost total wreck4 ,we have many instances of existent creatures1 even such as would have a far better chance of floating after death1 and so getting stranded where their bones might be found1 which have left no trace of their existence4 ,a whale possessing two dorsal fins was said to have been seen by ,smaltz1 a ,sicilian naturalist2 but the statement was rejected1 until a shoal of these whales were seen by two eminent ,french zoologists1 ,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard4 ,no carcase1 skeleton1 or bone of this whale has ever been discovered4 ,for seventeen hours a ship1 in which ,mr4 ,gosse was travelling to ,jamaica1 was surrounded by a species of whale never before noticed--#cj feet long1 black above and white beneath1 with swimming paws white on the upper surface4 ,here1 he says1 was 8a whale of large size1 occurring in great numbers in the ,north ,atlantic1 which on no other occasion has fallen under scientific observation4 ,the toothless whale of ,havre1 a species actually inhabiting the ,british ,channel1 is only known from a single specimen accidentally stranded on the ,french coast2 and another whale1 also ,british1 is known only from a single specimen cast ashore on the ,elgin roast1 and there seen and described by the naturalist ,sowerby4 ,dr4 ,andrew ,wilson1 in an interesting paper1 in which he maintains that sea-serpent tales are not to be treated with derision1 but are worthy of serious consideration1 8supported as they are by zoological science1 and in the actual details of the case by evidence as trustworthy in many cases as that received in our courts of law10 expresses the opinion that plesiosauri and ichthyosauri have been unnecessarily disinterred to do duty for the sea-serpents4 ,but he offers as an alternative only the ribbon-fish2 and though some of these may attain enormous dimensions1 yet we have seen that some of the accounts of the supposed sea-serpent1 and especially the latest narrative by the captain and crew of the ,pauline1 cannot possibly be explained by any creature so flat and relatively so feeble as the ribbon-fish4 ,on the whole1 it appears to me that a very strong case has been made out for the enaliosaurian1 or serpent-turtle1 theory of the so-called sea-serpent4 ,one of the ribbon-fish mentioned by ,dr4 ,wilson1 which was captured1 and measured more than #fj feet in length1 might however fairly take its place among strange sea creatures4 ,i scarcely know whether to add to the number a monstrous animal like a tadpole1 or even more perhaps like a gigantic skate1 #bjj feet in length1 said to have been seen in the ,malacca ,straits by ,captain ,webster and ,surgeon ,anderson1 of the ship ,nestor4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 this monster1 mistaken in the first instance for a shoal1 but presently found to be travelling along at the rate of about ten knots an hour1 better deserves to be called a strange sea creature even than any of those which have been dealt with in the preceding pages4 ,but the only account ,i have yet seen of ,captain ,webster's statement1 and ,mr4 ,anderson's corroboration1 appeared in an ,american newspaper2 and though the story is exceedingly well authenticated if the newspaper account of the matter is true1 it would not be at all a new feature in ,american journalism if not only the story itself1 but all the alleged circumstances of its narration1 should in the long run prove to be pure invention4 ,,on ,,some ,,marvels ,,in ,,telegraphy4 ,within the last few years ,electric ,telegraphy has received some developments which seem wonderful even by comparison with those other wonders which had before been achieved by this method of communication4 ,in reality1 all the marvels of electric telegraphy are involved1 so to speak1 in the great marvel of electricity itself1 a phenomenon as yet utterly beyond the interpretation of physicists1 though not more so than its fellow marvels1 light and heat4 ,we may1 indeed1 draw a comparison between some of the most wonderful results which have recently been achieved by the study of heat and light and those effected in the application of electricity to telegraphy4 ,it is as startling to those unfamiliar with the characteristics of light1 or rather with certain peculiarities resulting from these characteristics1 to be told that an astronomer can tell whether there is water in the air of ,mars or ,venus1 or iron vapour in the atmosphere of ,aldebaran or ,betelgeux1 as it is to those unfamiliar with the characteristics of electricity1 or with the results obtained in consequence of these characteristics1 to be told that a written message can be copied by telegraph1 a map or diagram reproduced1 or1 most wonderful of all1 a musical air correctly repeated1 or a verbal message made verbally audible4 ,telegraphic marvels such as these bear to the original marvel of mere telegraphic communication1 somewhat the same relation which the marvels of spectroscopic analysis as applied to the celestial orbs bear to that older marvel1 the telescopic scrutiny of those bodies4 ,in each case1 also1 there lies at the back of all these marvels a greater marvel yet--electricity in the one case1 light in the other4 ,i propose in this essay to sketch the principles on which some of the more recent wonders of telegraphic communication depend4 ,i do not intend to describe at any length the actual details or construction of the various instruments employed4 ,precisely as the principles of spectroscopic analysis can be made clear to the general reader without the examination of the peculiarities of spectroscopic instruments1 so can the methods and principles of telegraphic communication be understood without examining instrumental details4 ,in fact1 it may be questioned whether general explanations are not in such cases more useful than more detailed ones1 seeing that these must of necessity be insufficient for a student who requires to know the subject practically in all its details1 while they deter the general reader by technicalities in which he cannot be expected to take any interest4 ,if it be asked1 whether ,i myself1 who undertake to explain the principles of certain methods of telegraphic communication1 have examined practically the actual instrumental working of these methods1 ,i answer frankly that ,i have not done so4 ,as some sort of proof1 however1 that without such practical familiarity with working details the principles of the construction of instruments may be thoroughly understood1 ,i may remind the reader 7see p4 #if7 that the first spectroscopic battery ,i ever looked through--one in which the dispersive power before obtained in such instruments had been practically doubled--was of my own invention1 constructed 7with a slight mechanical modification7 by ,mr4 ,browning1 and applied at once successfully to the study of the sun by ,mr4 ,huggins1 in whose observatory ,i saw through this instrument the solar spectrum extended to a length which1 could it all have been seen at once1 would have equalled many feet4#bg ,on the other hand1 it is possible to have a considerable practical experience of scientific instruments without sound knowledge of the principles of their construction2 insomuch that instances have been known in which men who have effected important discoveries by the use of some scientific instrument1 have afterwards obtained their first clear conception of the principles of its construction from a popular description4 ,it may be well to consider1 though briefly1 some of the methods of communication which were employed before the electric telegraph was invented4 ,some of the methods of electric telegraphy have their antitypes1 so to speak1 in methods of telegraphy used ages before the application of electricity4 ,the earliest employment of telegraphy was probably in signalling the approach of invading armies by beacon fires4 ,the use of this method must have been well known in the time of ,jeremiah1 since he warns the ,benjamites 8to set up a sign of fire in ,beth-haccerem10 because 8evil appeareth out of the north and great destruction40 ,later1 instead of the simple beacon fire1 combinations were used4 ,thus1 by an ,act of the ,scottish ,parliament in #adee1 the blazing of one bale indicated the probable approach of the ,english1 two bales that they were coming indeed1 and four bales blazing beside each other that they were in great force4 ,the smoke of beacon fires served as signals by day1 but not so effectively1 except under very favourable atmospheric conditions4 ,torches held in the hand1 waved1 depressed1 and so forth1 were anciently used in military signalling at night2 while in the day-time boards of various figures in different positions indicated either different messages or different letters1 as might be pre-arranged4 ,hooke communicated to the ,royal ,society in #afhd a paper describing a method of 8communicating one's mind at great distances40 ,the letters were represented by various combinations of straight lines1 which might be agreed upon previously if secrecy were desired1 otherwise the same forms might represent constantly the same letters4 ,with four straight planks any letter of this alphabet could be formed as wanted1 and being then run out on a framework 7resembling a gallows in ,hooke's picture71 could be seen from a distant station4 ,two curved beams1 combined in various ways1 served for arbitrary signals4 ,chappe1 in #agic1 devised an improvement on this in what was called the ,t telegraph4 ,an upright post supported a cross-bar 7the top of the ,t71 at each end of which were the short dependent beams1 making the figure a complete ,roman capital ,t4 ,the horizontal bar as first used could be worked by ropes within the telegraph-house1 so as to be inclined either to right or left4 ,it thus had three positions4 ,each dependent beam could be worked 7also from within the house7 so as to turn upwards1 horizontally1 or downwards 7regarding the top bar of the ,t as horizontal71 thus having also three positions4 ,it is easily seen that1 since each position of one short beam could be combined with each position of the other1 the two together would present three times three arrangements1 or nine in all2 and as these nine could be given with the cross-bar in any one of its three positions1 there were in all twenty-seven possible positions4 ,m4 ,chappe used an alphabet of only sixteen letters1 so that all messages could readily be communicated by this telegraph4 ,for shorter distances1 indeed1 and in all later uses of ,chappe's telegraph1 the short beams could be used in intermediate positions1 by which #bef different signals could be formed4 ,such telegraphs were employed on a line beginning at the ,louvre and proceeding by ,montmartre to ,lisle1 by which communications were conveyed from the ,committee of ,public ,welfare to the armies in the ,low ,countries4 ,telescopes were used at each station4 ,barrre stated1 in an address to the ,convention on ,august #ag1 #agid1 that the news of the recapture of ,lisle had been sent by this line of communication to ,paris in one hour after the ,french troops had entered that city4 ,thus the message was conveyed at the rate of more than #abj miles per hour4 ,various other devices were suggested and employed during the first half of the present century4 ,the semaphores still used in railway signalling illustrate the general form which most of these methods assumed4 ,an upright1 with two arms1 each capable of assuming six distinct positions 7excluding the upright position71 would give forty-eight different signals2 thus each would give six signals alone1 or twelve for the pair1 and each of the six signals of one combined with each of the six signals of the other1 would give thirty-six signals1 making forty-eight in all4 ,this number suffices to express the letters of the alphabet 7twenty-five only are needed71 the ,arabic numerals1 and thirteen arbitrary signals4 ,the progress of improvement in such methods of signalling promised to be rapid1 before the invention of the electric telegraph1 or rather1 before it was shown how the principle of the electric telegraph could be put practically into operation4 ,we have seen that they were capable of transmitting messages with considerable rapidity1 more than twice as fast as we could now send a written message by express train4 ,but they were rough and imperfect4 ,they were all1 also1 exposed to one serious defect4 ,in thick weather they became useless4 ,sometimes1 at the very time when it was most important that messages should be quickly transmitted1 fog interrupted the signalling4 ,sir ,j4 ,barrow relates that during the ,peninsular ,war grave anxiety was occasioned for several hours by the interruption of a message from ,plymouth1 really intended to convey news of a victory4 ,the words transmitted were1 8,wellington defeated20 the message of which these words formed the beginning was3 8,wellington defeated the ,french at10 etc4 ,as ,barrow remarks1 if the message had run1 8,french defeated at10 etc41 the interruption of the message would have been of less consequence4 ,although the employment of electricity as a means of communicating at a distance was suggested before the end of the last century1 in fact1 so far back as #aggd1 the idea has only been worked out during the last forty-two years4 ,it is curious indeed to note that until the middle of the present century the word 8telegraph10 which is now always understood as equivalent to electric telegraph1 unless the contrary is expressed1 was commonly understood to refer to semaphore signalling1#bh unless the word 8electric0 were added4 ,the general principle underlying all systems of telegraphic communication by electricity is very commonly misunderstood4 ,the idea seems to prevail that electricity can be sent out along a wire to any place where some suitable arrangement has been made to receive it4 ,in one sense this is correct4 ,but the fact that the electricity has to make a circuit1 returning to the place from which it is transmitted1 seems not generally understood4 ,yet1 unless this is understood1 the principle1 even the possibility1 of electric communication is not recognized4 ,let us1 at the outset1 clearly understand the nature of electric communication4 ,in a variety of ways1 a certain property called electricity can be excited in all bodies1 but more readily in some than in others4 ,this property presents itself in two forms1 which are called positive and negative electricity1 words which we may conveniently use1 but which must not be regarded as representing any real knowledge of the distinction between these two kinds of electricity4 ,in fact1 let it be remembered throughout1 that we do not in the least know what electricity is2 we only know certain of the phenomena which it produces4 ,any body which has become charged with electricity1 either positive or negative1 will part with its charge to bodies in a neutral condition1 or charged with the opposite electricity 7negative or positive74 ,but the transference is made much more readily to some substances than to others--so slowly1 indeed1 to some1 that in ordinary experiments the transference may be regarded as not taking place at all4 ,substances of the former kind are called good conductors of electricity2 those which receive the transfer of electricity less readily are said to be bad conductors2 and those which scarcely receive it at all are called insulating substances4 ,the reader must not confound the quality ,i am here speaking of with readiness to become charged with electricity4 ,on the contrary1 the bodies which most freely receive and transmit electricity are least readily charged with electricity1 while insulating substances are readily electrified4 ,glass is an insulator1 but if glass is briskly rubbed with silk it becomes charged 7or rather1 the part rubbed becomes charged7 with positive electricity1 formerly called vitreous electricity for this reason2 and again1 if wax or resin1 which are both good insulators1 be rubbed with cloth or flannel1 the part rubbed becomes charged with negative1 formerly called resinous1 electricity4 ,electricity1 then1 positive or negative1 however generated1 passes freely along conducting substances1 but is stopped by an insulating body1 just as light passes through transparent substances1 but is stopped by an opaque body4 ,moreover1 electricity may be made to pass to any distance along conducting bodies suitably insulated4 ,thus1 it might seem that we have here the problem of distant communication solved4 ,in fact1 the first suggestion of the use of electricity in telegraphy was based on this property4 ,when a charge of electricity has been obtained by the use of an ordinary electrical machine1 this charge can be drawn off at a distant point1 if a conducting channel properly insulated connects that point with the bodies 7of whatever nature7 which have been charged with electricity4 ,in #agdg1 ,dr4 ,watson exhibited electrical effects from the discharges of ,leyden jars 7vessels suitably constructed to receive and retain electricity7 at a distance of two miles from the electrical machine4 ,in #aggd1 ,le ,sage proposed that by means of wires the electricity developed by an electrical machine should be transmitted by insulated wires to a point where an electroscope1 or instrument for indicating the presence of electricity1 should1 by its movements1 mark the letters of the alphabet1 one wire being provided for each letter4 ,in #agih ,bthencourt repeated ,watson's experiment1 increasing the distance to twenty-seven miles1 the extremities of his line of communication being at ,madrid and ,aranjuez4 7,guillemin1 by the way1 in his 8,applications of the ,physical ,forces10 passes over ,watson's experiment2 in fact1 throughout his chapters on the electric telegraph1 the steam-engine1 and other subjects1 he seems desirous of conveying as far as possible the impression that all the great advances of modern science had their origin in ,paris and its neighbourhood47 ,from ,watson's time until #ahbc attempts were made in this country and on the ,continent to make the electrical machine serve as the means of telegraphic communication4 ,all the familiar phenomena of the lecture-room have been suggested as signals4 ,the motion of pith balls1 the electric spark1 the perforation of paper by the spark1 the discharge of sparks on a fulminating pane 7a glass sheet on which pieces of tinfoil are suitably arranged1 so that sparks passing from one to another form various figures or devices71 and other phenomena1 were proposed and employed experimentally4 ,but practically these methods were not effectual4 ,the familiar phenomenon of the electric spark explains the cause of failure4 ,the spark indicates the passage of electricity across an insulating medium--dry air--when a good conductor approaches within a certain distance of the charged body4 ,the greater the charge of electricity1 the greater is the distance over which the electricity will thus make its escape4 ,insulation1 then1 for many miles of wire1 and still more for a complete system of communication such as we now have1 was hopeless1 so long as frictional electricity was employed1 or considerable electrical intensity required4 ,we have now to consider how galvanic electricity1 discovered in #agij1 was rendered available for telegraphic communication4 ,in the first place1 let us consider what galvanic or voltaic electricity is4 ,i have said that electricity can be generated in many ways4 ,it may be said1 indeed1 that every change in the condition of a substance1 whether from mechanical causes1 as1 for instance1 a blow1 a series of small blows1 friction1 and so forth1 or from change of temperature1 moisture1 and the like1 or from the action of light1 or from chemical processes1 results in the development of more or less electricity4 ,when a plate of metal is placed in a vessel containing some acid 7diluted7 which acts chemically on the metal1 this action generates negative electricity1 which passes away as it is generated4 ,but if a plate of a different metal1 either not chemically affected by the acid or less affected than the former1 be placed in the dilute acid1 the two plates being only partially immersed and not in contact1 then1 when a wire is carried from one plate to the other1 the excess of positive electricity in the plate least affected by the acid is conveyed to the other1 or1 in effect1 discharged2 the chemical action1 however1 continues1 or rather is markedly increased1 fresh electricity is generated1 and the excess of positive electricity in the plate least affected is constantly discharged4 ,thus1 along the wire connecting the two metals a current of electricity passes from the metal least affected to the metal most affected2 a current of negative electricity passes in a contrary direction in the dilute acid4 ,i have spoken here of currents passing along the wire and in the acid1 and shall have occasion hereafter to speak of the plate of metal least affected as the positive pole1 this plate being regarded1 in this case1 as a source whence a current of positive electricity flows along the wire connection to the other plate1 which is called the negative pole4 ,but ,i must remind the reader that this is only a convenient way of expressing the fact that the wire assumes a certain condition when it connects two such plates1 and is capable of producing certain effects4 ,whether in reality any process is taking place which can be justly compared to the flow of a current one way or the other1 or whether a negative current flows along the circuit one way1 while the positive current flows the other way1 are questions still unanswered4 ,we need not here enter into them1 however4 ,in fact1 very little is known about these points4 ,nor need we consider here the various ways in which many pairs of plates such as ,i have described can be combined in many vessels of dilute acid to strengthen the current4 ,let it simply be noted that such a combination is called a battery2 that when the extreme plates of opposite kinds are connected by a wire1 a current of electricity passes along the wire from the extreme plate of that metal which is least affected1 forming the positive pole1 to the other extreme plate of that metal which is most affected and forms the negative pole4 ,the metals commonly employed are zinc and copper1 the former being the one most affected by the action of the dilute acid1 usually sulphuric acid4 ,but it must here be mentioned that the chemical process1 affecting both metals1 but one chiefly1 would soon render a battery of the kind described useless2 wherefore arrangements are made in various ways for maintaining the efficiency of the dilute acid and of the metallic plates1 especially the copper3 for the action of the acid on the zinc tends1 otherwise1 to form on the copper a deposit of zinc4 ,i need not describe the various arrangements for forming what are called constant batteries1 as ,daniell's1 ,grove's1 ,bunsen's1 and others4 ,let it be understood that1 instead of a current which would rapidly grow weaker and weaker1 these batteries give a steady current for a considerable time4 ,without this1 as will presently be seen1 telegraphic communication would be impossible4 ,we have1 then1 in a galvanic battery a steady source of electricity4 ,this electricity is of low intensity1 incompetent to produce the more striking phenomena of frictional electricity4 ,let us1 however1 consider how it would operate at a distance4 ,the current will pass along any length of conducting substance properly insulated4 ,suppose1 then1 an insulated wire passes from the positive pole of a battery at a station ,a to a station ,b1 and thence back to the negative pole at the station ,a4 ,then the current passes along it1 and this can be indicated at ,b by some action such as electricity of low intensity can produce4 ,if now the continuity of the wire be interrupted close by the positive pole at ,a1 the current ceases and the action is no longer produced4 ,the observer at ,b knows then that the continuity of the wire has been interrupted2 he has been1 in fact1 signalled to that effect4 ,but1 as ,i have said1 the electrical phenomena which can be produced by the current along a wire connecting the positive and negative poles of a galvanic battery are not striking4 ,they do not afford effective signals when the distance traversed is very great and the battery not exceptionally strong4 ,thus1 at first1 galvanic electricity was not more successful in practice than frictional electricity4 ,it was not until the effect of the galvanic current on the magnetic needle had been discovered that electricity became practically available in telegraphy4 ,oersted discovered in #ahbj that a magnetic needle poised horizontally is deflected when the galvanic current passes above it 7parallel to the needle's length7 or below it4 ,if the current passes above it1 the north end of the needle turns towards the east when the current travels from north to south1 but towards the west when the current travels from south to north2 on the other hand1 if the current passes below the needle1 the north end turns towards the west when the current travels from south to north1 and towards the east when the current travels from north to south4 ,the deflection will be greater or less according to the power of the current4 ,it would be very slight indeed in the case of a needle1 however delicately poised1 above or below which passed a wire conveying a galvanic current from a distant station4 ,but the effect can be intensified1 as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,suppose a b c d e f to be a part of the wire from ,a to ,b1 passing above a delicately poised magnetic needle ,n ,s1 along a b and then below the needle along c d1 and then above again along e f and so to the station ,b4 ,let a current traverse the wire in the direction shown by the arrows4 ,then ,n1 the north end of the needle1 is deflected towards the east by the current passing along a b4 ,but it is also deflected to the east by the current passing along c d2 for this produces a deflection the reverse of that which would be produced by a current in the same direction above the needle--that is1 in direction b a1 and therefore the same as that produced by the current along a b4 ,the current along e f also1 of course1 produces a deflection of the end ,n towards the east4 ,all three parts1 then1 a b1 c d1 e f1 conspire to increase the deflection of the end ,n towards the east4 ,if the wire were twisted once again round ,n ,s1 the deflection would be further increased2 and finally1 if the wire be coiled in the way shown in ,fig4 #a1 but with a great number of coils1 the deflection of the north end towards the east1 almost imperceptible without such coils1 will become sufficiently obvious4 ,if the direction of the current be changed1 the end ,n will be correspondingly deflected towards the west4 ,the needle need not be suspended horizontally4 ,if it hang vertically1 that is1 turn freely on a horizontal axis1 and the coil be carried round it as above described1 the deflection of the upper end will be to the right or to the left1 according to the direction of the current4 ,the needle actually seen1 moreover1 is not the one acted upon by the current4 ,this needle is inside the coil2 the needle seen turns on the same axis1 which projects through the coil4 ,if1 then1 the observer at the station ,b have a magnetic needle suitably suspended1 round which the wire from the battery at ,a has been coiled1 he can tell by the movement of the needle whether a current is passing along the wire in one direction or in the other2 while if the needle is at rest he knows that no current is passing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,now suppose that ,p and ,n1 ,fig4 #b1 are the positive and negative poles of a galvanic battery at ,a1 and that a wire passes from ,p to the station ,b1 where it is coiled round a needle suspended vertically at n1 and thence passes to the negative pole ,n4 ,let the wire be interrupted at a b and also at c d4 ,then no current passes along the wire1 and the needle n remains at rest in a vertical position4 ,now suppose the points a b connected by the wire a b1 and at the same moment the points c d connected by the wire c d1 then a current flows along ,p a b to ,b1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 circuiting the coil round the needle n and returning by d c to ,n4 ,the upper end of the needle is deflected to the right while this current continues to flow2 returning to rest when the connection is broken at a b and c d4 ,next1 let c b and a d be simultaneously connected as shown by the cross-lines in ,fig4 #c4 7,it will be understood that a d and b c do not touch each other where they cross47 ,the current will now flow from ,p along a d to ,b1 circuiting round the needle n in a contrary direction to that in which it flowed in the former case1 returning by b c to ,n4 ,the upper end of the needle is deflected then to the left while the current continues to flow along this course4 ,i need not here describe the mechanical devices by which the connection at a b and c d can be instantly changed so that the current may flow either along a b and d c1 as in ,fig4 #b1 circuiting the needle in one direction1 or along a d and b c1 as in ,fig4 #c1 circuiting the needle in the other direction4 ,as ,i said at the outset1 this paper is not intended to deal with details of construction1 only to describe the general principles of telegraphic communication1 and especially those points which have to be explained in order that recent inventions may be understood4 ,the reader will see that nothing can be easier than so to arrange matters that1 by turning a handle1 either 7#a71 a b and c d may be connected1 or1 7#b71 a d and c b1 or1 7#c71 both lines of communication interrupted4 ,the mechanism for effecting this is called a commutator4 ,two points remain1 however1 to be explained3 ,first1 ,a must be a receiving station as well as a transmitting station2 secondly1 the wire connecting ,b with ,n1 in ,figs4 #b and #c1 can be dispensed with1 for it is found that if at ,b the wire is carried down to a large metal plate placed some depth underground1 while the wire at c is carried down to another plate similarly buried underground1 the circuit is completed even better than along such a return wire as is shown in the figures4 ,the earth either acts the part of a return wire1 or else1 by continually carrying off the electricity1 allows the current to flow continuously along the single wire4 ,we may compare the current carried along the complete wire circuit1 to water circulating in a pipe extending continuously from a reservoir to a distance and back again to the reservoir4 ,water sucked up continuously at one end could be carried through the pipe so long as it was continuously returned to the reservoir at the other2 but it could equally be carried through a pipe extending from that reservoir to some place where it could communicate with the open sea--the reservoir itself communicating with the open sea--an arrangement corresponding to that by which the return wire is dispensed with1 and the current from the wire received into the earth4 ,the discovery that the return wire may be dispensed with was made by ,steinheil in #ahcg4 ,the actual arrangement1 then1 is in essentials that represented in ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a and ,b are the two stations2 ,p ,n is the battery at ,a1 ,p ,n the battery at ,b2 ,p ,p are the positive poles1 ,n ,n1 the negative poles4 ,at n is the needle of station ,a1 at n the needle of station ,b4 ,when the handle of the commutator is in its mean position--which is supposed to be the case at station ,b--the points b d are connected with each other1 but neither with a nor c2 no current1 then1 passes from ,b to ,a1 but station ,b is in a condition to receive messages4 7,if b and d were not connected1 of course no messages could be received1 since the current from ,a would be stopped at b--which does not mean that it would pass round n to b1 but that1 the passage being stopped at b1 the current would not flow at all47 ,when 7the commutator at ,b being in its mean position1 or d b connected1 and communication with c and a interrupted7 the handle of the commutator at ,a is turned from its mean position in one direction1 a and b are connected1 as are c and d--as shown in the figure--while the connection between b and d is broken4 ,thus the current passes from ,p by a and b1 round the needle n2 thence to station ,b1 round needle n1 and by b and d1 to the earth plate ,g2 and so along the earth to ,g1 and by d c1 to the negative pole ,n4 ,the upper end of the needle of both stations is deflected to the right by the passage of the current in this direction4 ,when the handle of the commutator at ,a is turned in the other direction1 b and c are connected1 as also a and d2 the current from ,p passes along a d to the ground plate ,g1 thence to ,g1 along d b1 round the needle n1 back by the wire to the station ,a1 where1 after circuiting the needle n in the same direction as the needle n1 it travels by b and c to the negative pole ,n4 ,the upper end of the needle1 at both stations1 is deflected to the left by the passage of the current in this direction4 ,it is easily seen that1 with two wires and one battery1 two needles can be worked at both stations1 either one moving alone1 or the other alone1 or both together2 but for the two to move differently1 two batteries must be used4 ,the systems by which either the movements of a single needle1 or of a pair of needles1 may be made to indicate the various letters of the alphabet1 numerals1 and so on1 need not here be described4 ,they are of course altogether arbitrary1 except only that the more frequent occurrence of certain letters1 as e1 t1 a1 renders it desirable that these should be represented by the simplest symbols 7as by a single deflection to right or left71 while letters which occur seldom may require several deflections4 ,one of the inventions to which the title of this paper relates can now be understood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,in the arrangement described1 when a message is transmitted1 the needle of the sender vibrates synchronously with the needle at the station to which the message is sent4 ,therefore1 till that message is finished1 none can be received at the transmitting station4 ,in what is called duplex telegraphy1 this state of things is altered1 the needle at the sending station being left unaffected by the transmitted current1 so as to be able to receive messages1 and in self-recording systems to record them4 ,this is done by dividing the current from the battery into two parts of equal efficiency1 acting on the needle at the transmitting station in contrary directions1 so that this needle remains unaffected1 and ready to indicate signals from the distant station4 ,the principle of this arrangement is indicated in ,fig4 #e4 ,here a b n represents the main wire of communication with the distant station1 coiled round the needle of the transmitting station in one direction2 the dotted lines indicate a finer short wire1 coiled round the needle in a contrary direction4 ,when a message is transmitted1 the current along the main wire tends to deflect the needle at n in one direction1 while the current along the auxiliary wire tends to deflect it in the other direction4 ,if the thickness and length of the short wire are such as to make these two tendencies equal1 the needle remains at rest1 while a message is transmitted to the distant station along the main wire4 ,in this state of things1 if a current is sent from the distant station along the wire in the direction indicated by the dotted arrow1 this current also circuits the auxiliary wire1 but in the direction indicated by the arrows on the dotted curve1 which is the same direction in which it circuits the main wire4 ,thus the needle is deflected1 and a signal received4 ,when the direction of the chief current at the transmitting station is reversed1 so also is the direction of the artificial current1 so that again the needle is balanced4 ,similarly1 if the direction of the current from the distant station is reversed1 so also is the direction in which this current traverses the auxiliary wire1 so that again both effects conspire to deflect the needle4 ,there is1 however1 another way in which an auxiliary wire may be made to work4 ,it may be so arranged that1 when a message is transmitted1 the divided current flowing equally in opposite directions1 the instrument at the sending station is not affected2 but that when the operator at the distant station sends a current along the main wire1 this neutralizes the current coming towards him1 which current had before balanced the artificial current4 ,the latter1 being no longer counterbalanced1 deflects the needle2 so that1 in point of fact1 by this arrangement1 the signal received at a station is produced by the artificial current at that station1 though of course the real cause of the signal is the transmission of the neutralizing current from the distant station4 ,the great value of duplex telegraphy is manifest4 ,not only can messages be sent simultaneously in both directions along the wire--a circumstance which of itself would double the work which the wire is capable of doing--but all loss of time in arranging about the order of outward and homeward messages is prevented4 ,the saving of time is especially important on long lines1 and in submarine telegraphy4 ,it is also here that the chief difficulties of duplex telegraphy have been encountered4 ,the chief current and the artificial current must exactly balance each other4 ,for this purpose the flow along each must be equal4 ,in passing through the long wire1 the current has to encounter a greater resistance than in traversing the short wire2 to compensate for this difference1 the short wire must be much finer than the long one4 ,the longer the main wire1 the more delicate is the task of effecting an exact balance4 ,but in the case of submarine wires1 another and a much more serious difficulty has to be overcome4 ,a land wire is well insulated4 ,a submarine wire is separated by but a relatively moderate thickness of gutta-percha from water1 an excellent conductor1 communicating directly with the earth1 and is1 moreover1 surrounded by a protecting sheathing of iron wires1 laid spirally round the core1 within which lies the copper conductor4 ,such a cable1 as ,faraday long since showed1 acts precisely as an enormous ,leyden jar2 or rather1 ,faraday showed that such a cable1 without the wire sheathing1 would act when submerged as a ,leyden jar1 the conducting wire acting as the interior metallic coating of such a jar1 the gutta-percha as the glass of the jar 7the insulating medium71 and the water acting as the exterior metallic coating4 ,wheatstone showed further that such a cable1 with a wire sheathing1 would act as a ,leyden jar1 even though not submerged1 the metal sheathing taking the part of the exterior coating of the jar4 ,now1 regarding the cable thus as a condenser1 we see that the transmission of a current along it may in effect be compared with the passage of a fluid along a pipe of considerable capacity1 into which and from which it is conveyed by pipes of small capacity4 ,there will be a retardation of the flow of water corresponding to the time necessary to fill up the large part of the pipe2 the water may indeed begin to flow through as quickly as though there were no enlargement of the bore of the pipe1 but the full flow from the further end will be delayed4 ,just so it is with a current transmitted through a submarine cable4 ,the current travels instantly 7or with the velocity of freest electrical transmission7 along the entire line2 but it does not attain a sufficient intensity to be recognized for some time1 nor its full intensity till a still longer interval has elapsed4 ,the more delicate the means of recognizing its flow1 the more quickly is the signal received4 ,the time intervals in question are not1 indeed1 very great4 ,with ,thomson's mirror galvanometer1 in which the slightest motion of the needle is indicated by a beam of light 7reflected from a small mirror moving with the needle71 the ,atlantic cable conveys its signal from ,valentia to ,newfoundland in about one second1 while with the less sensitive galvanometer before used the time would be rather more than two seconds4 ,now1 in duplex telegraphy the artificial current must be equal to the chief current in intensity all the time2 so that1 since in submarine telegraphy the current rises gradually to its full strength and as gradually subsides1 the artificial current must do the same4 ,reverting to the illustration derived from the flow of water1 if we had a small pipe the rapid flow through which was to carry as much water one way as the slow flow through a large pipe was to carry water the other way1 then if the large pipe had a widening along one part of its long course the short pipe would require to have a similar widening along the corresponding part of its short course4 ,and to make the illustration perfect1 the widenings along the large pipe should be unequal in different parts of the pipe's length2 for the capacity of a submarine cable1 regarded as a condenser1 is different along different parts of its length4 ,what is wanted1 then1 for a satisfactory system of duplex telegraphy in the case of submarine cables1 is an artificial circuit which shall not only correspond as a whole to the long circuit1 but shall reproduce at the corresponding parts of its own length all the varieties of capacity existing along various parts of the length of the submarine cable4 ,several attempts have been made by electricians to accomplish this result4 ,let it be noticed that two points have to be considered3 the intensity of the current's action1 which depends on the resistance it has to overcome in traversing the circuit2 and the velocity of transmission1 depending on the capacity of various parts of the circuit to condense or collect electricity4 ,varley1 ,stearn1 and others have endeavoured by various combinations of condensers with resistance coils to meet these two requisites4 ,but the action of artificial circuits thus arranged was not sufficiently uniform4 ,recently ,mr4 ,j4 ,muirhead1 jun41 has met the difficulty in the following way 7,i follow partially the account given in the ,times of ,february #c1 #ahgg1 which the reader will now have no difficulty in understanding73--,he has formed his second circuit by sheets of paper prepared with paraffin1 and having upon one side a strip of tinfoil1 wound to and fro to represent resistance4 ,through this the artificial current is conducted4 ,on the other side is a sheet of tinfoil to represent the sheathing1#bi and to correspond to the capacity of the wire4 ,each sheet of paper thus prepared may be made to represent precisely a given length of cable1 having enough tinfoil on one side to furnish the resistance1 and on the other to furnish the capacity4 ,a sufficient number of such sheets would exactly represent the cable1 and thus the artificial or non-signalling part of the current would be precisely equivalent to the signalling part1 so far as its action on the needle at the transmitting station was concerned4 8,the new plan was first tried on a working scale10 says the ,times1 8on the line between ,marseilles and ,bona2 but it has since been brought into operation from ,marseilles to ,malta1 from ,suez to ,aden1 and lastly1 from ,aden to ,bombay4 ,on a recent occasion when there was a break-down upon the ,indo-,european line1 the duplex system rendered essential service1 and maintained telegraphic communication which would otherwise have been most seriously interfered with40 ,the invention1 we may well believe1 8cannot fail to be highly profitable to the proprietors of submarine cables10 or to bring about 8before long a material reduction in the cost of messages from places beyond the seas40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next marvel of telegraphy to be described is the transmission of actual facsimiles of writings or drawings4 ,so far as strict sequence of subject-matter is concerned1 ,i ought1 perhaps1 at this point1 to show how duplex telegraphy has been surpassed by a recent invention1 enabling three or four or more messages to be simultaneously transmitted telegraphically4 ,but it will be more convenient to consider this wonderful advance after ,i have described the methods by which facsimiles of handwriting1 etc41 are transmitted4 ,hitherto we have considered the action of the electric current in deflecting a magnetic needle to right or left1 a method of communication leaving no trace of its transmission4 ,we have now to consider a method at once simpler in principle and affording means whereby a permanent record can be left of each message transmitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,if the insulated wire is twisted in the form of a helix or coil round a bar of soft iron1 the bar becomes magnetized while the current is passing4 ,if the bar be bent into the horse-shoe form1 as in ,fig4 #f1 where ,a ,c ,b represents the bar1 a b c d e f the coil of insulated wire1 the bar acts as a magnet while the current is passing along the coil1 but ceases to do so as soon as the current is interrupted4#cj ,if1 then1 we have a telegraphic wire from a distant station in electric connection with the wire a b c1 the part e f descending to an earth-plate1 then1 according as the operator at that distant station transmits or stops the current1 the iron ,a ,c ,b is magnetized or demagnetized4 ,the part ,c is commonly replaced by a flat piece of iron1 as is supposed to be the case with the temporary magnets shown in ,fig4 #g1 where this flat piece is below the coils4 ,so far back as #ahch this property was applied by ,morse in ,america in the recording instrument which bears his name1 and is now 7with slight modifications7 in general use not only in ,america but on the ,continent4 ,the principle of this instrument is exceedingly simple4 ,its essential parts are shown in ,fig4 #g2 ,h is the handle1 ,h b the lever of the manipulator at the station ,a4 ,the manipulator is shown in the position for receiving a message from the station ,b along the wire ,w4 ,the handle ,h of the manipulator at the station ,b is shown depressed1 making connection at a with the wire from the battery ,n ,p4 ,thus a current passes through the handle to c1 along the wire to c and through b to the coil of the temporary magnet ,m1 after circling which it passes to the earth at e and so by ,e to the negative pole ,n4 ,the passage of this current magnetizes ,m1 which draws down the armature m4 ,thus the lever l1 pulled down on this side1 presses upwards the pointed style s against a strip of paper p which is steadily rolled off from the wheel ,w so long as a message is being received4 7,the mechanism for this purpose is not indicated in ,fig4 #g47 ,thus1 so long as the operator at ,b holds down the handle ,h1 the style s marks the moving strip of paper1 the spring r1 under the lever s l1 drawing the style away so soon as the current ceases to flow and the magnet to act4 ,if he simply depresses the handle for an instant1 a dot is marked2 if longer1 a dash2 and by various combinations of dots and dashes all the letters1 numerals1 etc41 are indicated4 ,when the operator at ,b has completed his message1 the handle ,h being raised by the spring under it 7to the position in which ,h is shown71 a message can be received at ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,i have in the figure and description assumed that the current from either station acts directly on the magnet which works the recording style4 ,usually1 in long-distance telegraphy1 the current is too weak for this1 and the magnet on which it acts is used only to complete the circuit of a local battery1 the current from which does the real work of magnetizing ,m at ,a or ,m at ,b1 as the case may be4 ,a local battery thus employed is called a relay4 ,the ,morse instrument will serve to illustrate the principle of the methods by which facsimiles are obtained4 ,the details of construction are altogether different from those of the ,morse instrument2 they also vary greatly in different instruments1 and are too complex to be conveniently described here4 ,but the principle1 which is the essential point1 can be readily understood4 ,in working the ,morse instrument1 the operator at ,b depresses the handle ,h4 ,suppose that this handle is kept depressed by a spring1 and that a long strip of paper passing uniformly between the two points at a prevents contact4 ,then no current can pass4 ,but if there is a hole in this paper1 then when the hole reaches a the two metal points at a meet and the current passes4 ,we have here the principle of the ,bain telegraph4 ,a long strip of paper is punched with round and long holes1 corresponding to the dots and marks of a message by the ,morse alphabet4 ,as it passes between a metal wheel and a spring1 both forming part of the circuit1 it breaks the circuit until a hole allows the spring to touch the wheel1 either for a short or longer time-interval1 during which the current passes to the other station1 where it sets a relay at work4 ,in ,bain's system the message is received on a chemically prepared strip of paper1 moving uniformly at the receiving station1 and connected with the negative pole of the relay battery4 ,when contact is made1 the face of the paper is touched by a steel pointer connected with the positive pole1 and the current which passes from the end of the pointer through the paper to the negative pole produces a blue mark on the chemically prepared paper4#ca ,we see that by ,bain's arrangement a paper is marked with dots and lines1 corresponding to round and elongated holes1 in a ribbon of paper4 ,it is only a step from this to the production of facsimiles of writings or drawings4 ,suppose a sheet of paper so prepared as to be a conductor of electricity1 and that a message is written on the paper with some non-conducting substance for ink4 ,if that sheet were passed between the knobs at a 7the handle ,h being pressed down by a spring71 whilst simultaneously a sheet of ,bain's chemically prepared paper were passed athwart the steel pointer at the receiving station1 there would be traced across the last-named paper a blue line1 which would be broken at parts corresponding to those on the other paper where the non-conducting ink interrupted the current4 ,suppose the process repeated1 each paper being slightly shifted so that the line traced across either would be parallel and very close to the former1 but precisely corresponding as respects the position of its length4 ,then this line1 also1 on the recording paper will be broken at parts corresponding to those in which the line across the transmitting paper meets the writing4 ,if line after line be drawn in this way till the entire breadth of the transmitting paper has been crossed by close parallel lines1 the entire breadth of the receiving paper will be covered by closely marked blue lines except where the writing has broken the contact4 ,thus a negative facsimile of the writing will be found in the manner indicated in ,figs4 #h and #i4cb ,in reality1 in processes of this kind1 the papers 7unlike the ribbons on ,bain's telegraph7 are not carried across in the way ,i have imagined1 but are swept by successive strokes of a movable pointer1 along which the current flows2 but the principle is the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,fig4 #i4 ,it is essential1 in such a process as ,i have described1 first1 that the recording sheet should be carried athwart the pointer which conveys the marking current 7or the pointer carried across the recording sheet7 in precise accordance with the motion of the transmitting sheet athwart the wire or style which conveys the current to the long wire between the stations 7or of this style across the transmitting sheet74 ,the recording sheet and the transmitting sheet must also be shifted between each stroke by an equal amount4 ,the latter point1 is easily secured2 the former is secured by causing the mechanism which gives the transmitting style its successive strokes to make and break circuit1 by which a temporary magnet at the receiving station is magnetized and demagnetized2 by the action of this magnet the recording pointer is caused to start on its motion athwart the receiving sheet1 and moving uniformly it completes its thwart stroke at the same instant as the transmitting style4 ,caselli's pantelegraph admirably effects the transmission of facsimiles4 ,the transmitting style is carried by the motion of a heavy pendulum in an arc of constant range over a cylindrical surface on which the paper containing the message1 writing1 or picture1 is spread4 ,as the swing of the pendulum begins1 a similar pendulum at the receiving station begins its swing2 the same break of circuit which 7by demagnetizing a temporary magnet7 releases one1 releases the other also4 ,the latter swings in an arc of precisely the same range1 and carries a precisely similar style over a similar cylindrical surface on which is placed the prepared receiving paper4 ,in fact1 the same pendulum at either station is used for transmitting and for receiving facsimiles4 ,nay1 not only so1 but each pendulum1 as it swings1 serves in the work both of transmitting and recording facsimiles4 ,as it swings one way1 it travels along a line over each of two messages or drawings1 while the other pendulum in its synchronous swing traces a corresponding line over each of two receiving sheets2 and as it swings the other way1 it traces a line on each of two receiving sheets1 corresponding to the lines along which the transmitting style of the other is passing along two messages or drawings4 ,such1 at least1 is the way in which the instrument works in busy times4 ,it can1 of course1 send a message1 or two messages1 without receiving any4#cc ,in ,caselli's pantelegraph matters are so arranged that instead of a negative facsimile1 like ,fig4 #i1 a true facsimile is obtained in all respects except that the letters and figures are made by closely set dark lines instead of being dark throughout as in the message4 ,the transmitting paper is conducting and the ink non-conducting1 as in ,bakewell's original arrangement2 but instead of the conducting paper completing the circuit for the distant station1 it completes a short home circuit 7so to speak7 along which the current travels without entering on the distant circuit ,when the non-conducting ink breaks the short circuit1 the current travels in the long circuit through the recording pointer at the receiving station2 and a mark is thus made corresponding to the inked part of the transmitting sheet instead of the blank part1 as in the older plan4 ,the following passage from ,guillemin's 8,application of the ,physical ,forces0 indicates the effectiveness of ,caselli's pantelegraph not only as respects the character of the message it conveys1 but as to rapidity of transmission4 7,i alter the measures from the metric to our usual system of notation4#cd7 8,nothing is simpler than the writing of the pantelegraph4 ,the message when written is placed on the surface of the transmitting cylinder4 ,the clerk makes the warning signals1 and then sets the pendulum going4 ,the transmission of the message is accomplished automatically1 without the clerk having any work to do1 and consequently without his being obliged to acquire any special knowledge4 ,since two despatches may be sent at the same time--and since shorthand may be used--the rapidity of transmission may be considerable40 8,the long pendulum of ,caselli's telegraph10 says ,m4 ,quet1 8generally performs about forty oscillations a minute1 and the styles trace forty broken lines1 separated from each other by less than the hundredth part of an inch4 ,in one minute the lines described by the style have ranged over a breadth of more than half an inch1 and in twenty minutes of nearly #aj inches4 ,as we can give the lines a length of #d inches1 it follows that in twenty minutes ,caselli's apparatus furnishes the facsimile of the writing or drawing traced on a metallized plate #d inches broad by #aj inches long4 ,for clearness of reproduction1 the original writing must be very legible and in large characters40 8,since #ahfe the line from ,paris to ,lyons and ,marseilles has been open to the public for the transmission of messages by this truly marvellous system40 ,it will easily be seen that ,caselli's method is capable of many important uses besides the transmission of facsimiles of handwriting4 ,for instance1 by means of it a portrait of some person who is to be identified--whether fraudulent absconder1 or escaped prisoner or lunatic1 or wife who has eloped from her husband1 or husband who has deserted his wife1 or missing child1 and so on--can be sent in a few minutes to a distant city where the missing person is likely to be4 ,all that is necessary is that from a photograph or other portrait an artist employed for the purpose at the transmitting station should1 in bold and heavy lines1 sketch the lineaments of the missing person on one of the prepared sheets1 as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the portrait at the receiving station will appear as in ,fig4 #aa1 and if necessary an artist at this station can darken the lines or in other ways improve the picture without altering the likeness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,but now we must turn to the greatest marvel of all--the transmission of tones1 tunes1 and words by the electric wire4 ,the transmission of the rhythm of an air is of course a very simple matter4 ,i have seen the following passage from 8,lardner's ,museum of ,science and ,art10 #ahei1 quoted as describing an anticipation of the telephone1 though in reality it only shows what every one who has heard a telegraphic indicator at work must have noticed1 that the click of the instrument may be made to keep time with an air4 8,we were in the ,hanover ,street ,office1 when there was a pause in the business operations4 ,mr4 ,m4 ,porter1 of the office at ,boston--the writer being at ,new ,york--asked what tune we would have8 ,we replied1 #8,yankee ,doodle1' and to our surprise he immediately complied with our request4 ,the instrument1 a ,morse one1 commenced drumming the notes of the tune as perfectly and distinctly as a skilful drummer could have made them at the head of a regiment1 and many will be astonished to hear that #8,yankee ,doodle' can travel by lightning4444 ,so perfectly and distinctly were the sounds of the tunes transmitted1 that good instrumental performers could have no difficulty in keeping time with the instruments at this end of the wires4444 ,that a pianist in ,london should execute a fantasia at ,paris1 ,brussels1 ,berlin1 and ,vienna1 at the same moment1 and with the same spirit1 expression1 and precision as if the instruments at these distant places were under his fingers1 is not only within the limits of practicability1 but really presents no other difficulty than may arise from the expense of the performances4 ,from what has just been stated1 it is clear that the time of music has been already transmitted1 and the production of the sounds does not offer any more difficulty than the printing of the letters of a despatch40 ,unfortunately1 ,lardner omitted to describe how this easy task was to be achieved4 ,reuss first in #ahfa showed how a sound can be transmitted4 ,at the sending station1 according to his method1 there is a box1 into which1 through a pipe in the side1 the note to be transmitted is sounded4 ,the box is open at the top1 and across it1 near the top1 is stretched a membrane which vibrates synchronously with the aerial vibrations corresponding to the note4 ,at the middle of the membrane1 on its upper surface1 is a small disc of metal1 connected by a thin strip of copper with the positive pole of the battery at the transmitting station4 ,the disc also1 when the machine is about to be put in use1 lightly touches a point on a metallic arm1 along which 7while this contact continues7 the electric current passes to the wire communicating with the distant station4 ,at that station the wire is carried in a coil round a straight rod of soft iron suspended horizontally in such a way as to be free to vibrate between two sounding-boards4 ,after forming this coil1 the wire which conveys the current passes to the earth-plate and so home4 ,as already explained1 while the current passes1 the rod of iron is magnetized1 but the rod loses its magnetization when the current ceases4 ,now1 when a note is sounded in the box at the transmitting station1 the membrane vibrates1 and at each vibration the metal disc is separated from the point which it lightly touches when at rest4 ,thus contact is broken at regular intervals1 corresponding to the rate of vibration due to the note4 ,suppose1 for instance1 the note ,c is sounded2 then there are #bef complete vibrations in a second1 the electric current is therefore interrupted and renewed1 and the bar of soft iron magnetized and demagnetized1 #bef times in a second4 ,now1 it had been discovered by ,page and ,henry that when a bar of iron is rapidly magnetized and demagnetized1 it is put into vibrations synchronizing with the interruptions of the current1 and therefore emits a note of the same tone as that which has been sounded into the transmitting box4 ,professor ,heisler1 in his 8,lehrbuch der technischen ,physik10 #ahff1 wrote of ,reuss's telephone3 8,the instrument is still in its infancy2 however1 by the use of batteries of proper strength1 it already transmits not only single musical tones1 but even the most intricate melodies1 sung at one end of the line1 to the other1 situated at a great distance1 and makes them perceptible there with all desirable distinctness40 ,dr4 ,van der ,weyde1 of ,new ,york1 states that1 after reading an account of ,reuss's telephone1 he had two such instruments constructed1 and exhibited them at the meeting of the ,polytechnic ,club of the ,american ,institute4 8,the original sounds were produced at the furthest extremity of the large building 7the ,cooper ,institute71 totally out of hearing of the ,association2 and the receiving instrument1 standing on the table in the lecture-room1 produced1 with a peculiar and rather nasal twang1 the different tunes sung into the box at the other end of the line2 not powerfully1 it is true1 but very distinctly and correctly4 ,in the succeeding summer ,i improved the form of the box1 so as to produce a more powerful vibration of the membrane4 ,i also improved the receiving instrument by introducing several iron wires into the coil1 so as to produce a stronger vibration4 ,i submitted these1 with some other improvements1 to the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 and on that occasion 7now seven years ago7 expressed the opinion that the instrument contained the germ of a new method of working the electric telegraph1 and would undoubtedly lead to further improvements in this branch of science40 ,the telephonic successes recently achieved by ,mr4 ,gray were in part anticipated by ,la ,cour1 of ,copenhagen1 whose method may be thus described3 ,at the transmitting station a tuning-fork is set in vibration4 ,at each vibration one of the prongs touches a fine strip of metal completing a circuit4 ,at the receiving station the wire conveying the electric current is coiled round the prongs of another tuning-fork of the same tone1 but without touching them4 ,the intermittent current1 corresponding as it does with the rate of vibration proper to the receiving fork1 sets this fork in vibration2 and in ,la ,cour's instrument the vibrations of the receiving fork were used to complete the circuit of a local battery4 ,his object was not so much the production of tones as the use of the vibrations corresponding to different tones1 to act on different receiving instruments4 ,for only a fork corresponding to the sending fork could be set in vibration by the intermittent current resulting from the latter's vibrations4 ,so that1 if there were several transmitting forks1 each could send its own message at the same time1 each receiving fork responding only to the vibrations of the corresponding transmitting fork4 ,la ,cour proposed1 in fact1 that his instrument should be used in combination with other methods of telegraphic communication4 ,thus1 since the transmitting fork1 whenever put in vibration1 sets the local battery of the receiving station at work1 it can be used to work a ,morse instrument1 or it could work an ordinary ,wheatstone and ,cook instrument1 or it could be used for a pantelegraph4 ,the same wire1 when different forks are used1 could work simultaneously several instruments at the receiving station4 ,one special use indicated by ,la ,cour was the adaptation of his system to the ,caselli pantelegraph1 whereby1 instead of one style1 a comb of styles might be carried over the transmitting and recording plates4 ,it would be necessary1 in all such applications of his method 7though1 strangely enough1 ,la ,cour's description makes no mention of the point71 that the vibrations of the transmitting fork should admit of being instantly stopped or 8damped40 ,mr4 ,gray's system is more directly telephonic1 as aiming rather at the development of sound itself than at the transmission of messages by the vibrations corresponding to sound4 ,a series of tuning-forks are used1 which are set in separate vibration by fingering the notes of a key-board4 ,the vibrations are transmitted to a receiving instrument consisting of a series of reeds1 corresponding in note to the series of transmitting forks1 each reed being enclosed in a sounding-box4 ,these boxes vary in length from two feet to six inches1 and are connected by two wooden bars1 one of which carries an electro-magnet1 round the coils of which pass the currents from the transmitting instrument4 ,when a tuning-fork is set in vibration by the performer at the transmitting key-board1 the electro-magnet is magnetized and demagnetized synchronously with the vibrations of the fork4 ,not only are vibrations thus imparted to the reed of corresponding note1 but these are synchronously strengthened by thuds resulting from the lengthening of the iron when magnetized4 ,so far as its musical capabilities are concerned1 ,gray's telephone can hardly be regarded as fulfilling all the hopes that have been expressed concerning telephonic music4 8,dreaming enthusiasts of a prophetic turn of mind foretold10 we learn1 8that a time would come when future ,pattis would sing on a ,london stage to audiences in ,new ,york1 ,berlin1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,shanghai1 ,san ,francisco1 and ,constantinople all at once40 ,but the account of the first concert given at a distance scarcely realizes these fond expectations4 ,when 8,home1 ,sweet ,home10 played at ,philadelphia1 came floating through the air at the ,steinway ,hall1 ,new ,york1 8the sound was like that of a distant organ1 rather faint1 for a hard storm was in progress1 and there was consequently a great leakage of the electric current1 but quite clear and musical4 ,the lower notes were the best1 the higher being sometimes almost inaudible4 #8,the ,last ,rose of ,summer1' #8,com' gentil1' and other melodies1 followed1 with more or less success4 ,there was no attempt to play chords10 though three or four notes can be sounded together4 ,it must be confessed that the rosy predictions of ,m4 ,strakosch 7the impresario7 8as to the future of this instrument seem rather exalted1 and we are not likely as yet to lay on our music from a central reservoir as we lay on gas and water1 though the experiment was certainly a very curious one40 ,the importance of ,mr4 ,gray's1 as of ,la ,cour's inventions1 depends1 however1 far more on the way in which they increase the message-bearing capacity of telegraphy than on their power of conveying airs to a distance4 ,at the ,philadelphia ,exhibition1 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson heard four messages sounded simultaneously by the ,gray telephone4 ,the ,morse alphabet was used4 ,i have mentioned that in that alphabet various combinations of dots and dashes are used to represent different letters2 it is only necessary to substitute the short and long duration of a note for dots and dashes to have a similar sound alphabet4 ,suppose1 now1 four tuning-forks at the transmitting station1 whose notes are ,do ,illustration1 ,mi1 ,sol1 and ,do ,illustration1 or say ,c1 ,e1 ,g1 and ,c1 then by each of these forks a separate message may be transmitted1 all the messages being carried simultaneously by the same line to separate sounding reeds 7or forks1 if preferred71 and received by different clerks4 ,with a suitable key-board1 a single clerk could send the four messages simultaneously1 striking chords instead of single notes1 though considerable practice would be necessary to transform four verbal messages at once into the proper telephonic music1 and some skill in fingering to give the proper duration to each note4 ,lastly1 we come to the greatest achievement of all1 ,professor ,graham ,bell's vocal telephone4 ,in the autumn of #ahge ,i had the pleasure of hearing from ,professor ,bell in the course of a ride--all too short--from ,boston to ,salem1 ,mass41 an account of his instrument as then devised1 and of his hopes as to future developments4 ,these hopes have since been in great part fulfilled1 but ,i venture to predict that we do not yet know all1 or nearly all1 that the vocal telephone1 in ,bell's hands1 is to achieve4 ,it ought to be mentioned at the outset that ,bell claims to have demonstrated in #ahgc 7a year before ,la ,cour7 the possibility of transmitting several messages simultaneously by means of the ,morse alphabet4 ,bell's original arrangement for vocal telephony was as follows3--,at one station a drumhead of goldbeaters' skin1 about #b inches in diameter1 was placed in front of an electro-magnet4 ,to the middle of the drumhead1 on the side towards the magnet1 was glued a circular piece of clockspring4 ,a similar electro-magnet1 drumhead1 etc41 were placed at the other station4 ,when notes were sung or words spoken before one drumhead1 the vibrations of the goldbeaters' skin carried the small piece of clockspring vibratingly towards and from the electro-magnet1 without producing actual contact4 ,now1 the current which was passing along the coil round the electro-magnet changed in strength with each change of position of this small piece of metal4 ,the more rapid the vibrations1 and the greater their amplitude1 the more rapid and the more intense were the changes in the power of the electric current4 ,thus1 the electro-magnet at the other station underwent changes of power which were synchronous with1 and proportionate to1 those changes of power in the current which were produced by the changes of position of the vibrating piece of clockspring4 ,accordingly1 the piece of clockspring at the receiving station1 and with it the drumhead there1 was caused by the electro-magnet to vibrate with the same rapidity and energy as the piece at the transmitting station4 ,therefore1 as the drumhead at one station varied its vibrations in response to the sounds uttered in its neighbourhood1 so the drumhead at the other station1 varying its vibrations1 emitted similar sounds4 ,later1 the receiving drumhead was made unlike the transmitting one4 ,instead of a membrane carrying a small piece of metal1 a thin and very flexible disc of sheet-iron1 held in position by a screw1 was used4 ,this disc1 set in vibration by the varying action of an electro-magnet1 as in the older arrangement1 uttered articulate sounds corresponding to those which1 setting in motion the membrane at the transmitting station1 caused the changes in the power of the electric current and in the action of the electro-magnet4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahgf ,sir ,w4 ,thomson gave the following account of the performance of this instrument at the ,philadelphia ,exhibition3--8,in the ,canadian department0 7for ,professor ,bell was not at the time an ,american citizen7 8,i heard #8,to be or not to be--there's the rub1' through the electric wire2 but1 scorning monosyllables1 the electric articulation rose to higher flights1 and gave me passages taken at random from the ,new ,york newspapers3--#8,s4 ,s4 ,cox has arrived' 7,i failed to make out the #8,s4 ,s4 ,cox'71 #8the ,city of ,new ,york1' #8,senator ,morton1' #8the ,senate has resolved to print a thousand extra copies1' #8the ,americans in ,london have resolved to celebrate the coming ,fourth of ,july4' ,all this my own ears heard spoken to me with unmistakable distinctness by the thin circular disc armature of just such another little electro-magnet as this which ,i hold in my hand4 ,the words were shouted with a clear and loud voice by my colleague judge1 ,professor ,watson1 at the far end of the line1 holding his mouth close to a stretched membrane1 carrying a piece of soft iron1 which was thus made to perform in the neighbourhood of an electro-magnet1 in circuit with the line1 motions proportional to the sonorific motions of the air4 ,this1 the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph1 is due to a young countryman of our own1 ,mr4 ,graham ,bell1 of ,edinburgh1 and ,montreal1 and ,boston1 now about to become a naturalized citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,who can but admire the hardihood of invention which devised such very slight means to realize the mathematical conception that1 if electricity is to convey all the delicacies of quality which distinguish articulate speech1 the strength of its current must vary continuously1 and as nearly as may be in simple proportion to the velocity of a particle of air engaged in constituting the sound80 ,since these words were spoken by one of the highest authorities in matters telegraphic1 ,professor ,bell has introduced some important modifications in his apparatus4 ,he now employs1 not an electro-magnet1 but a permanent magnet4 ,that is to say1 instead of using at each station such a bar of soft iron as is shown in ,fig4 #f1 which becomes a magnet while the electric current is passing through the coil surrounding it1 he uses at each station a bar of iron permanently magnetized 7or preferably a powerful magnet made of several horse-shoe bars--that is1 a compound magnet71 surrounded similarly by coils of wire4 ,no battery is needed4 ,instead of a current through the coils magnetizing the iron1 the iron already magnetized causes a current to traverse the coils whenever it acts1 or rather whenever its action changes4 ,if an armature were placed across its ends or poles1 at the moment when it drew that armature to the poles by virtue of its magnetic power1 a current would traverse the coils2 but afterwards1 so long as the armature remained there1 there would be no current4 ,if an armature placed near the poles were shifted rapidly in front of the poles1 currents would traverse the coils1 or be induced1 their intensity depending on the strength of the magnet1 the length of the coil1 and the rapidity and range of the motions4 ,in front of the poles of the magnet is a diaphragm of very flexible iron 7or else some other flexible material bearing a small piece of iron on the surface nearest the poles74 ,a mouthpiece to converge the sound upon this diaphragm substantially completes the apparatus at each station4 ,professor ,bell thus describes the operation of the instrument3--8,the motion of steel or iron in front of the poles of a magnet creates a current of electricity in coils surrounding the poles of the magnet1 and the duration of this current of electricity coincides with the duration of the motion of the steel or iron moved or vibrated in the proximity of the magnet4 ,when the human voice causes the diaphragm to vibrate1 electrical undulations are induced in the coils around the magnets precisely similar to the undulations of the air produced by the voice4 ,the coils are connected with the line wire1 and the undulations induced in them travel through the wire1 and1 passing through the coils of another instrument of similar construction at the other end of the line1 are again resolved into air undulations by the diaphragm of this 7other7 instrument40 ,so perfectly are the sound undulations repeated--though the instrument has not yet assumed its final form--that not only has the lightest whisper uttered at one end of a line of #adj miles been distinctly heard at the other1 but the speaker can be distinguished by his voice when he is known to the listener4 ,so far as can be seen1 there is every room to believe that before long ,professor ,bell's grand invention will be perfected to such a degree that words uttered on the ,american side of the ,atlantic will be heard distinctly after traversing #bjjj miles under the ,atlantic1 at the ,european end of the submarine cable--so that ,sir ,w4 ,thomson at ,valentia could tell by the voice whether ,graham ,bell1 or ,cyrus ,field1 or his late colleague ,professor ,watson1 were speaking to him from ,newfoundland4 ,yet a single wave of those which toss in millions on the ,atlantic1 rolling in on the ,irish strand1 would utterly drown the voices thus made audible after passing beneath two thousand miles of ocean4 ,here surely is the greatest of telegraphic achievements4 ,of all the marvels of telegraphy--and they are many--none are equal to1 none seem even comparable with1 this one4 ,strange truly is the history of the progress of research which has culminated in this noble triumph1 wonderful the thought that from the study of the convulsive twitchings of a dead frog by ,galvani1 and of the quivering of delicately poised magnetic needles by ,ampre1 should gradually have arisen through successive developments a system of communication so perfect and so wonderful as telegraphy has already become1 and promising yet greater marvels in the future4 ,the last paragraph had barely been written when news arrived of another form of telephone1 surpassing ,gray's and ,la ,cour's in some respects as a conveyor of musical tones1 but as yet unable to speak like ,bell's4 ,it is the invention of ,mr4 ,edison1 an ,american electrician4 ,he calls it the motograph4 ,he discovered about six years ago the curious property on which the construction of the instrument depends4 ,if a piece of paper moistened with certain chemical solutions is laid upon a metallic plate connected with the positive pole of a galvanic battery1 and a platinum wire connected with the negative pole is dragged over the moistened paper1 the wire slides over the paper like smooth iron over ice--the usual friction disappearing so long as the current is passing from the wire to the plate through the paper4 ,at the receiving station of ,mr4 ,edison's motograph there is a resonating box1 from one face of which extends a spring bearing a platinum point1 which is pressed by the spring upon a tape of chemically prepared paper4 ,this tape is steadily unwound1 drawing by its friction the platinum point1 and with it the face of the resonator1 outwards4 ,this slight strain on the face of the resonator continues so long as no current passes from the platinum point to the metallic drum over which the moistened tape is rolling4 ,but so soon as a current passes1 the friction immediately ceases1 and the face of the resonator resumes its normal position4 ,if then at the transmitting station there is a membrane or a very fine diaphragm 7as in ,reuss's or ,bell's arrangement7 which is set vibrating by a note of any given tone1 the current1 as in those arrangements1 is transmitted and stopped at intervals corresponding to the tone1 and the face of the resonating box is freed and pulled at the same intervals4 ,hence1 it speaks the corresponding tone4 ,the instrument appears to have the advantage over ,gray's in range4 ,in telegraphic communication ,gray's telephone is limited to about one octave4 ,edison's extends from the deepest bass notes to the highest notes of the human voice1 which1 when magnets are employed1 are almost inaudible4 ,but ,edison's motograph has yet to learn to speak4 ,other telegraphic marvels might well find a place here4 ,i might speak of the wonders of submarine telegraphy1 and of the marvellous delicacy of the arrangements by which messages by the ,atlantic ,cable are read1 and not only read1 but made to record themselves4 ,i might dwell1 again1 on the ingenious printing telegraph of ,mr4 ,hughes1 which sets up its own types1 inks them1 and prints them1 or on the still more elaborate plan of the ,chevalier ,bonelli 8for converting the telegraph stations into so many type-setting workshops40 ,but space would altogether fail me to deal properly with these and kindred marvels4 ,there is1 however1 one application of telegraphy1 especially interesting to the astronomer1 about which ,i must say a few words3 ,i mean1 the employment of electricity as a regulator of time4 ,here again it is the principle of the system1 rather than details of construction1 which ,i propose to describe4 ,suppose we have a clock not only of excellent construction1 but under astronomical surveillance1 so that when it is a second or so in error it is set right again by the stars4 ,let the pendulum of this clock beat seconds2 and at each beat let a galvanic current be made and broken4 ,this may be done in many ways--thus the pendulum may at each swing tilt up a very light metallic hammer1 which forms part of the circuit when down2 or the end of the pendulum may be covered with some non-conducting substance which comes at each swing between two metallic springs in very light contact1 separating them and so breaking circuit2 or in many other ways the circuit may be broken4 ,when the circuit is made1 let the current travel along a wire which passes through a number of stations near or remote1 traversing at each the coils of a temporary magnet4 ,then1 at each swing of the pendulum of the regulating clock1 each magnet is magnetized and demagnetized4 ,thus each1 once in a second1 draws to itself1 and then releases its armature1 which is thereupon pulled back by a spring4 ,let the armature1 when drawn to the magnet1 move a lever by which one tooth of a wheel is carried forward4 ,then the wheel is turned at the rate of one tooth per second4 ,this wheel communicates motion to others in the usual way4 ,in fact1 we have at each station a clock driven1 not by a weight or spring and with a pendulum which allows one tooth of an escapement wheel to pass at each swing1 but by the distant regulating clock which turns a driving wheel at the rate of one tooth per second1 that is1 one tooth for each swing of the regulating clock's pendulum4 ,each clock1 then1 keeps perfect time with the regulating clock4 ,in astronomy1 where it is often of the utmost importance to secure perfect synchronism of observation1 or the power of noting the exact difference of time between observations made at distant stations1 not only can the same clock thus keep time for two observers hundreds of miles apart1 but each observer can record by the same arrangement the moment of the occurrence of some phenomenon4 ,for if a tape be unwound automatically1 as in the ,morse instrument1 it is easy so to arrange matters that every second's beat of the pendulum records itself by a dot or short line on the tape1 and that the observer can with a touch make 7or break7 contact at the instant of observation1 and so a mark be made properly placed between two seconds' marks--thus giving the precise time when the observation was made4 ,such applications1 however1 though exceedingly interesting to astronomers1 are not among those in which the general public take chief interest4 ,there was one occasion1 however1 when astronomical time-relations were connected in the most interesting manner with one of the greatest of all the marvels of telegraphy3 ,i mean1 when the ,great ,eastern in mid-ocean was supplied regularly with ,greenwich time1 and this so perfectly 7and therefore with such perfect indication of her place in the ,atlantic71 that when it was calculated from the time-signals that the buoy left in open ocean to mark the place of the cut cable had been reached1 and the captain was coming on deck with several officers to look for it1 the buoy announced its presence by thumping the side of the great ship4 ,,the ,,phonograph1 ,,or ,,voice-,,recorder4 ,in the preceding essay ,i have described the wonderful instrument called the telephone1 which has recently become as widely known in this country as in ,america1 the country of its first development4 ,i propose now briefly to describe another instrument--the phonograph--which1 though not a telegraphic instrument1 is related in some degree to the telephone4 ,in passing1 ,i may remark that some1 who as telegraphic specialists might be expected to know better1 have described the phonograph as a telegraphic invention4 ,a writer in the ,telegraphic ,journal1 for instance1 who had mistaken for mine a paper on the phonograph in one of our daily newspapers1 denounced me 7as the supposed author of that paper7 for speaking of the possibility of crystallizing sound by means of this instrument2 and then went on to speak of the mistake ,i 7that is1 said author7 had made in leaving my own proper subject of study to speak of telegraphic instruments and to expatiate on the powers of electricity4 ,in reality the phonograph has no relation to telegraphy whatever1 and its powers do not in the slightest degree depend on electricity4 ,if the case had been otherwise1 it may be questioned whether the student of astronomy1 or of any other department of science1 should be considered incompetent of necessity to describe a telegraphic instrument1 or to discuss the principles of telegraphic or electrical science4 ,what should unquestionably be left to the specialist1 is the description of the practical effect of details of instrumental construction1 and the like--for only he who is in the habit of using special instruments or classes of instrument can be expected to be competent adequately to discuss such matters4 ,although1 however1 the phonograph is not an instrument depending1 like the telephone1 on the action of electricity 7in some form or other71 yet it is related closely enough to the telephone to make the mistake of the ,telegraphic journalist a natural one4 ,at least1 the mistake would be natural enough for any one but a telegraphic specialist2 the more so that ,mr4 ,edison is a telegraphist1 and that he has effected several important and interesting inventions in telegraphic and electrical science4 ,for instance1 in the previous article1 pp4 #bgj1 #bga1 ,i had occasion to describe at some length the principles of his 8,motograph40 ,i spoke of it as 8another form of telephone1 surpassing ,gray's and ,la ,cour's in some respects as a conveyer of musical tones1 but as yet unable to speak like ,bell's 444 in telegraphic communication40 ,i proceeded3 8,gray's telephone is limited to about one octave4 ,edison's extends from the deepest bass notes to the highest notes of the human voice1 which1 when magnets are employed1 are almost inaudible2 but it has yet to learn to speak40 ,the phonograph is an instrument which has learned to speak1 though it does not speak at a distance like the telephone or the motograph4 ,yet there seems no special reason why it should not combine both qualities--the power of repeating messages at considerable intervals of time after they were originally spoken1 and the power of transmitting them to great distances4 ,i have said that the phonograph is an instrument closely related to the telephone4 ,if we consider this feature of the instrument attentively1 we shall be led to the clearer recognition of the acoustical principles on which its properties depend1 and also of the nature of some of the interesting acoustical problems on which light seems likely to be thrown by means of experiments with this instrument4 ,in the telephone a stretched membrane1 or a diaphragm of very flexible iron1 vibrates when words are uttered in its neighbourhood4 ,when a stretched membrane is used1 with a small piece of iron at the centre1 this small piece of iron1 as swayed by the vibrations of the membrane1 causes electrical undulations to be induced in the coils round the poles of a magnet placed in front of the membrane4 ,these undulations travel along the wire and pass through the coils of another instrument of similar construction at the other end of the wire1 where1 accordingly1 a stretched membrane vibrates precisely as the first had done4 ,the vibrations of this membrane excite atmospheric vibrations identical in character with those which fell upon the first membrane when the words were uttered in its neighbourhood2 and therefore the same words appear to be uttered in the neighbourhood of the second membrane1 however far it may be from the transmitting membrane1 so only that the electrical undulations are effectually transmitted from the sending to the receiving instrument4 ,i have here described what happened in the case of that earlier form of the telephone in which a stretched membrane of some such substance as goldbeater's skin was employed1 at the centre of which only was placed a small piece of iron4 ,for in its bearing on the subject of the phonograph1 this particular form of telephonic diaphragm is more suggestive than the later form in which very flexible iron was employed4 ,we see that the vibrations of a small piece of iron at the centre of a membrane are competent to reproduce all the peculiarities of the atmospheric waves which fall upon the membrane when words are uttered in its neighbourhood4 ,this must be regarded1 ,i conceive1 as a remarkable acoustical discovery4 ,most students of acoustics would have surmised that to reproduce the motions merely of the central parts of a stretched diaphragm would be altogether insufficient for the reproduction of the complicated series of sound-waves corresponding to the utterance of words4 ,i apprehend that if the problem had originally been suggested simply as an acoustical one1 the idea entertained would have been this--that though the motions of a diaphragm receiving vocal sound-waves might be generated artificially in such sort as to produce the same vocal sounds1 yet this could only be done by first determining what particular points of the diaphragm were centres of motion1 so to speak1 and then adopting some mechanical arrangements for giving to small portions of the membrane at these points the necessary oscillating motions4 ,it would not1 ,i think1 have been supposed that motions communicated to the centre of the diaphragm would suffice to make the whole diaphragm vibrate properly in all its different parts4 ,let us briefly consider what was before known about the vibrations of plates1 discs1 and diaphragms1 when particular tones were sounded in their neighbourhood2 and also what was known respecting the requirements for vocal sounds and speech as distinguished from simple tones4 ,i need hardly say that ,i propose only to consider these points in a general1 not in a special1 manner4 ,we must first carefully draw a distinction between the vibrations of a plate or disc which is itself the source of sound1 and those vibrations which are excited in a plate or disc by sound-waves otherwise originated4 ,if a disc or plate of given size be set in vibration by a blow or other impulse it will give forth a special sound1 according to the place where it is struck1 or it will give forth combinations of the several tones which it is capable of emitting4 ,on the other hand1 experiment shows that a diaphragm like that used in the telephone--not only the electric telephone1 but such common telephones as have been sold of late in large quantities in toy shops1 etc4--will respond to any sounds which are properly directed towards it1 not merely reproducing sounds of different tones1 but all the peculiarities which characterize vocal sounds4 ,in the former case1 the size of a disc and the conditions under which it is struck determine the nature of its vibrations1 and the air responds to the vibrations thus excited2 in the latter1 the air is set moving in vibrations of a special kind by the sounds or words uttered1 and the disc or diaphragm responds to these vibrations4 ,nevertheless1 though it is important that this distinction be recognized1 we can still learn1 from the behaviour of discs and plates set in vibration by a blow or other impulse1 the laws according to which the actual motions of the various parts of a vibrating disc or plate take place4 ,we owe to ,chladni the invention of a method for rendering visible the nature of such motions4 ,certain electrical experiments of ,lichtenberg suggested to ,chladni the idea of scattering fine sand over the plate or disc whose motions he wished to examine4 ,if a horizontal plate covered with fine sand is set in vibration1 those parts which move upwards and downwards scatter the sand from their neighbourhood1 while on those points which undergo no change of position the sand will remain4 ,such points are called nodes2 and rows of such points are called nodal lines1 which may be either straight or curved1 according to circumstances4 ,if a square plate of glass is held by a suitable clamp at its centre1 and the middle point of a side is touched while a bow is drawn across the edge near a corner1 the sand is seen to gather in the form of a cross dividing the square into four equal squares--like a cross of ,st ,george4 ,if the finger touches a corner1 and the bow is drawn across the middle of a side1 the sand forms a cross dividing the square along its diagonals--like a cross of ,st ,andrew4 ,touching two points equidistant from two corners1 and drawing the bow along the middle of the opposite edge1 we get the diagonal cross and also certain curved lines of sand systematically placed in each of the four quarters into which the diagonals divide the square4 ,we also have1 in this case1 a far shriller note from the vibrating plate4 ,and so1 by various changes in the position of the points clamped by the finger and of the part of the edge along which the bow is drawn1 we can obtain innumerable varieties of nodal lines and curves along which the sand gathers upon the surface of the vibrating plate4 ,when we take a circular plate of glass1 clamped at the middle1 and touching one part of its edge with the finger1 draw the bow across a point of the edge half a quadrant from the finger1 we see the sand arrange itself along two diameters intersecting at right angles4 ,if the bow is drawn at a point one-third a quadrant from the finger-clamped point1 we get a six-pointed star4 ,if the bow is drawn at a point a fourth of a quadrant from the finger-clamped point1 we get an eight-pointed star4 ,and so we can get the sand to arrange itself into a star of any even number of points2 that is1 we can get a star of four1 six1 eight1 ten1 twelve1 etc41 points1 but not of three1 five1 seven1 etc4 ,in these cases the centre of the plate or disc has been fixed4 ,if1 instead1 the plate or disc be fixed by a clip at the edge1 or clamped elsewhere than at the centre1 we find the sand arranging itself into other forms1 in which the centre may or may not appear2 that is1 the centre may or may not be nodal1 according to circumstances4 ,a curious effect is produced if very fine powder be strewn along with the sand over the plate4 ,for it is found that the dust gathers1 not where the nodes or places of no vibration lie1 but where the motion is greatest4 ,faraday assigns as the cause of this peculiarity the circumstance that 8the light powder is entangled by the little whirlwinds of air produced by the vibrations of the plate2 it cannot escape from the little cyclones1 though the heavier sand particles are readily driven through them2 when1 therefore1 the motion ceases1 the light powder settles down in heaps at the places where the vibration was a maximum40 ,in proof of this theory we have the fact that 8in vacuo no such effect is produced2 all powders light and heavy move to the nodal lines40 7,tyndall on 8,sound407 ,now if we consider the meaning of such results as these1 we shall begin to recognize the perplexing but also instructive character of the evidence derived from the telephone1 and applied to the construction of the phonograph4 ,it appears that when a disc is vibrating under such special conditions as to give forth a particular series of tones 7the so-called fundamental tone of the disc and other tones combined with it which belong to its series of overtones71 the various parts of the disc are vibrating to and fro in a direction square to the face of the disc1 except certain points at which there is no vibration1 these points together forming curves of special forms along the substance of the disc4 ,when1 on the other hand1 tones of various kinds are sounded in the neighbourhood of a disc or of a stretched circular membrane1 we may assume that the different parts of the disc are set in vibration after a manner at least equally complicated4 ,if the tones belong to the series which could be emitted by the diaphragm when struck1 we can understand that the vibrations of the diaphragm would resemble those which would result from a blow struck under special conditions4 ,when other tones are sounded1 it may be assumed that the sound-waves which reach the diaphragm cause it to vibrate as though not the circumference 7only7 but a circle in the substance of the diaphragm--concentric1 of course1 with the circumference1 and corresponding in dimensions with the tone of the sounds--were fixed4 ,if a drum of given size is struck1 we hear a note of particular tone4 ,if we heard1 as the result of a blow on the same drum1 a much higher tone1 we should know that in some way or other the effective dimensions of the drum-skin had been reduced--as for instance1 by a ring firmly pressed against the inside of the skin4 ,so when a diaphragm is responding to tones other than those corresponding to its size1 tension1 etc41 we infer that the sound-waves reaching it cause it to behave1 so far as its effective vibrating portion is concerned1 as though its conformation had altered4 ,when several tones are responded to by such a diaphragm1 we may infer that the vibrations of the diaphragm are remarkably complicated4 ,now the varieties of vibratory motion to which the diaphragm of the telephone has been made to respond have been multitudinous4 ,not only have all orders of sound singly and together been responded to1 but vocal sounds which in many respects differ widely from ordinary tones are repeated1 and the peculiarities of intonation which distinguish one voice from another have been faithfully reproduced4 ,let us consider in what respects vocal sounds1 and especially the sounds employed in speech1 differ from mere combinations of ordinary tones4 ,it has been said1 and with some justice1 that the organ of voice is of the nature of a reed instrument4 ,a reed instrument1 as most persons know1 is one in which musical sounds are produced by the action of a vibrating reed in breaking up a current of air into a series of short puffs4 ,the harmonium1 accordion1 concertina1 etc41 are reed instruments1 the reed for each note being a fine strip of metal vibrating in a slit4 ,the vocal organ of man is at the top of the windpipe1 along which a continuous current of air can be forced by the lungs4 ,certain elastic bands are attached to the head of the windpipe1 almost closing the aperture4 ,these vocal chords are thrown into vibration by the current of air from the lungs2 and as the rate of their vibration is made to vary by varying their tension1 the sound changes in tone4 ,so far1 we have what corresponds to a reed instrument admitting of being altered in pitch so as to emit different notes4 ,the mouth1 however1 affects the character of the sound uttered from the throat4 ,the character of a tone emitted by the throat cannot be altered by any change in the configuration of the mouth2 so that if a single tone were in reality produced by the vocal chords1 the resonance of the mouth would only strengthen that tone more or less according to the figure given to the cavity of the mouth at the will of the singer or speaker4 ,but in reality1 besides the fundamental tone uttered by the vocal chords1 a series of overtones are produced4 ,overtones are tones corresponding to vibration at twice1 three times1 four times1 etc41 the rate of the vibration producing the fundamental tone4 ,now the cavity of the mouth can be so modified in shape as to strengthen either the fundamental tone or any one of these overtones4 ,and according as special tones are strengthened in this way various vocal sounds are produced1 without changing the pitch or intensity of the sound actually uttered4 ,calling the fundamental tone the first tone1 the overtones just mentioned the second1 third1 fourth1 etc41 tones respectively 7after ,tyndall71 we find that the following relations exist between the combinations of these tones and the various vowel sounds3-- ,if the lips are pushed forward so as to make the cavity of the mouth deep and the orifice of the mouth small1 we get the deepest resonance of which the mouth is capable1 the fundamental tone is reinforced1 while the higher tones are as far as possible thrown into the shade4 ,the resulting vowel sound is that of deep ,u 78oo0 in 8hoop074 ,if the mouth is so far opened that the fundamental tone is accompanied by a strong second tone 7the next higher octave to the fundamental tone71 we get the vowel sound ,o 7as in 8hole074 ,the third and fourth tones feebly accompanying the first and second make the sound more perfect1 but are not necessary4 ,if the orifice of the mouth is so widened1 and the volume of the cavity so reduced1 that the fundamental tone is lost1 the second somewhat weakened1 and the third given as the chief tone1 with very weak fourth and fifth tones1 we have the vowel sound ,a4 ,to produce the vowel sound ,e1 the resonant cavity of the mouth must be considerably reduced4 ,the fourth tone is the characteristic of this vowel4 ,yet the second tone also must be given with moderate strength4 ,the first and third tones must be weak1 and the fifth tone should be added with moderate strength4 ,to produce the vowel sound ,a1 as in 8far10 the higher overtones are chiefly used1 the second is wanting altogether1 the third feeble1 the higher tones--especially the fifth and seventh--strong4 ,the vowel sound ,i1 as in 8fine10 it should be added1 is not a simple sound1 but diphthongal4 ,the two sounds whose succession gives the sound we represent 7erroneously7 by a single letter ,i 7long71 are not very different from 8a0 as in 8far10 and 8ee0 7or 8i0 as in 8ravine072 they1 lie1 however1 in reality1 respectively between 8a0 in 8far0 and 8fat10 and 8i0 in 8ravine0 and 8pin40 ,thus the tones and overtones necessary for sounding 8,i0 long1 do not require a separate description1 any more than those necessary for sounding other diphthongs1 as 8oi10 8oe10 and so forth4 ,we see1 then1 that the sound-waves necessary to reproduce accurately the various vowel sounds1 are more complicated than those which would correspond to the fundamental tones simply in which any sound may be uttered4 ,there must not only be in each case certain overtones1 but each overtone must be sounded with its due degree of strength4 ,but this is not all1 even as regards the vowel sounds1 the most readily reproducible peculiarities of ordinary speech4 ,spoken sounds differ from musical sounds properly so called1 in varying in pitch throughout their continuance4 ,so far as tone is concerned1 apart from vowel quality1 the speech note may be imitated by sliding a finger up the finger-board of a violin while the bow is being drawn4 ,a familiar illustration of the varying pitch of a speech note is found in the utterance of ,hamlet's question1 8,pale1 or red80 with intense anxiety of inquiry1 if one may so speak4 8,the speech note on the word #8pale' will consist of an upward movement of the voice1 while that on #8red' will be a downward movement1 and in both words the voice will traverse an interval of pitch so wide as to be conspicuous to ordinary ears2 while the cultivated perception of the musician will detect the voice moving through a less interval of pitch while he is uttering the word #8or' of the same sentence4 ,and he who can record in musical notation the sounds which he hears1 will perceive the musical interval traversed in these vocal movements1 and the place also of these speech notes on the musical staff40 ,variations of this kind1 only not so great in amount1 occur in ordinary speech2 and no telephonic or phonographic instrument could be regarded as perfect1 or even satisfactory1 which did not reproduce them4 ,but the vowel sounds are1 after all1 combinations and modifications of musical tones4 ,it is otherwise with consonantal sounds1 which1 in reality1 result from various ways in which vowel sounds are commenced1 interrupted 7wholly or partially71 and resumed4 ,in one respect this statement requires1 perhaps1 some modification--a point which has not been much noticed by writers on vocal sounds4 ,in the case of liquids1 vowel sounds are not partially interrupted only1 as is commonly stated4 ,they cease entirely as vowel sounds1 though the utterance of a vocal sound is continued when a liquid consonant is uttered4 ,let the reader utter any word in which a liquid occurs1 and he will find that while the liquid itself is sounded the vowel sounds preceding or following the liquid cease entirely4 ,repeating slowly1 for example1 the word 8remain10 dwelling on all the liquids1 we find that while the 8r0 is being sounded the 80 sound cannot be given1 and this sound ceases so soon as the 8m0 is sounded2 similarly the long 8a0 sound can only be uttered when the 8m0 sound ceases1 and cannot be carried on into the sound of the final liquid 8n40 ,the liquids are1 in fact1 improperly called semi-vowels1 since no vowel sound can accompany their utterance4 ,the tone1 however1 with which they are sounded can be modified during their utterance4 ,in sounding labials the emission of air is not stopped completely at any moment4 ,the same is true of the sibilants s1 z1 sh1 zh1 and of the consonants g1 j1 f1 v1 th 7hard and soft74 ,these are called1 on this account1 continuous consonants4 ,the only consonants in pronouncing which the emission of air is for a moment entirely stopped1 are the true mutes1 sometimes called the six explosive consonants1 b1 p1 t1 d1 k1 and g4 ,to reproduce artificially sounds resembling those of the consonants in speech1 we must for a moment interrupt1 wholly for explosive and partially for continuous consonant sounds1 the passage of air through a reed pipe4 ,tyndall thus describes an experiment of this kind in which an imperfect imitation of the sound of the letter 8m0 was obtained--an imitation only requiring1 to render it perfect1 as ,i have myself experimentally verified1 attention to the consideration respecting liquids pointed out in the preceding paragraph4 8,here10 says ,tyndall1 describing the experiment as conducted during a lecture1 8is a free reed fixed in a frame1 but without any pipe associated with it1 mounted on the acoustic bellows4 ,when air is urged through the orifice1 it speaks in this forcible manner4 ,i now fix upon the frame of the reed a pyramidal pipe2 you notice a change in the clang1 and1 by pushing my flat hand over the open end of the pipe1 the similarity between the sounds produced and those of the human voice is unmistakable4 ,holding the palm of my hand over the end of the pipe1 so as to close it altogether1 and then raising my hand twice in quick succession1 the word #8mamma' is heard as plainly as if it were uttered by an infant4 ,for this pyramidal tube ,i now substitute a shorter one1 and with it make the same experiment4 ,the #8mamma' now heard is exactly such as would be uttered by a child with a stopped nose4 ,thus1 by associating with a vibrating reed a suitable pipe1 we can impart to the sound of the reed the qualities of the human voice40 ,the 8m0 obtained in these experiments was1 however1 imperfect4 ,to produce an 8m0 sound such as an adult would utter without a 8stopped nose10 all that is necessary is to make a small opening 7experiment readily determines the proper size and position7 in the side of the pyramidal pipe1 so that1 as in the natural utterance of this liquid1 the emission of air is not altogether interrupted4 ,i witnessed in #ahgd some curious illustrations of the artificial production of vocal sounds1 at the ,stevens ,institute1 ,hoboken1 ,n4,j41 where the ingenious ,professor ,mayer 7who will have1 ,i trust1 a good deal to say about the scientific significance of telephonic and phonographic experiments before long7 has acoustic apparatus1 including several talking-pipes4 ,by suitably moving his hand on the top of some of these pipes1 he could make them speak certain words with tolerable distinctness1 and even utter short sentences4 ,i remember the performance closed with the remarkably distinct utterance1 by one profane pipe1 of the words euphemistically rendered by ,mark ,twain 7in his story of the ,seven ,sleepers1 ,i think71 8,go thou to ,hades60 ,now1 the speaking diaphragm in the telephone1 as in the phonograph1 presently to be described1 must reproduce not only all the varieties of sound-wave corresponding to vowel sounds1 with their intermixtures of the fundamental tone and its overtones and their inflexions or sliding changes of pitch1 but also all the effects produced on the receiving diaphragm by those interruptions1 complete or partial1 of aerial emission which correspond to the pronunciation of the various consonant sounds4 ,it might certainly have seemed hopeless1 from all that had been before known or surmised respecting the effects of aerial vibrations on flexible diaphragms1 to attempt to make a diaphragm speak artificially--in other words1 to make the movements of all parts of it correspond with those of a diaphragm set in vibration by spoken words--by movements affecting only its central part4 ,it is in the recognition of the possibility of this1 or rather in the discovery of the fact that the movements of a minute portion of the middle of a diaphragm regulate the vibratory and other movements of the entire diaphragm1 that the great scientific interest of ,professor ,graham ,bell's researches appears to me to reside4 ,it may be well1 in illustration of the difficulties with which formerly the subject appeared to be surrounded1 to describe the results of experiments which preceded1 though they can scarcely be said to have led up to1 the invention of artificial ways of reproducing speech4 ,i do not now refer to experiments like those of ,kratzenstein of ,st4 ,petersburg1 and ,von ,kempelen of ,vienna1 in #aggi1 and the more successful experiments by ,willis in later years1 but to attempts which have been made to obtain material records of the aerial motions accompanying the utterance of spoken words4 ,the most successful of these attempts was that made by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,barlow4 ,his purpose was 8to construct an instrument which should record the pneumatic actions0 accompanying the utterance of articulated sounds 8by diagrams1 in a manner analogous to that in which the indicator-diagram of a steam-engine records the action of the engine40 ,he perceived that the actual aerial pressures involved being very small and very variable1 and the succession of impulses and changes of pressure being very rapid1 it was necessary that the moving parts should be very light1 and that the movement and marking should be accomplished with as little friction as possible4 ,the instrument he constructed consisted of a small speaking-trumpet about four inches long1 having an ordinary mouthpiece connected to a tube half an inch in diameter1 the thin end of which widened out so as to form an aperture of #b inches diameter4 ,this aperture was covered with a membrane of goldbeater's skin1 or thin gutta-percha4 ,a spring carrying a marker was made to press against the membrane with a slight initial pressure1 to prevent as far as possible the effects of jarring and consequent vibratory action4 ,a light arm of aluminium was connected with the spring1 and held the marker2 and a continuous strip of paper was made to pass under the marker in the manner employed in telegraphy4 ,the marker consisted of a small1 fine sable brush1 placed in a light tube of glass one-tenth of an inch in diameter1 the tube being rounded at the lower end1 and pierced with a hole about one-twentieth of an inch in diameter4 ,through this hole the tip of the brush projected1 and was fed by colour put into the glass tube by which it was held4 ,it should be added that1 to provide for the escape of air passing through the speaking-trumpet1 a small opening was made in the side1 so that the pressure exerted upon the membrane was that due to the excess of air forced into the trumpet over that expelled through the orifice4 ,the strength of the spring which carried the marker was so adjusted to the size of the orifice that1 while the lightest pressures arising under articulation could be recorded1 the greatest pressures should not produce a movement exceeding the width of the paper4 8,it will be seen10 says ,mr4 ,barlow1 8that in this construction of the instrument the sudden application of pressure is as suddenly recorded1 subject only to the modifications occasioned by the inertia1 momentum1 and friction of the parts moved4 ,but the record of the sudden cessation of pressure is further affected by the time required to discharge the air through the escape-orifice4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as these several effects are similar under similar circumstances1 the same diagram should always be obtained from the same pneumatic action when the instrument is in proper adjustment2 and this result is fairly borne out by the experiments40 ,the defect of the instrument consisted in the fact that it recorded changes of pressure only2 and in point of fact it seems to result1 from the experiments made with it1 that it could only indicate the order in which explosive1 continuant1 and liquid consonants succeeded each other in spoken words1 the vowels being all expressed in the same way1 and only one letter--the rough ,r1 or ,r with a burr--being always unmistakably indicated4 ,the explosives were represented by a sudden sharp rise and fall in the recorded curve2 the height of the rise depending on the strength with which the explosive is uttered1 not on the nature of the consonant itself4 ,thus the word 8tick0 is represented by a higher elevation for the 8t0 than for the 8k10 but the word 8kite0 by a higher elevation for the 8k0 than for the 8t40 ,it is noteworthy that there is always a second smaller rise and fall after the first chief one1 in the case of each of the explosives4 ,this shows that the membrane1 having first been forcibly distended by the small aerial explosion accompanying the utterance of such a consonant1 sways back beyond the position where the pressure and the elasticity of the membrane would 7for the moment7 exactly balance1 and then oscillates back again over that position before returning to its undistended condition4 ,sometimes a third small elevation can be recognized1 and when an explosive is followed by a rolling 8r0 several small elevations are seen4 ,the continuous consonants produce elevations less steep and less high2 aspirates and sibilants give rounded hills4 ,but the results vary greatly according to the position of a consonant2 and1 so far as ,i can make out from a careful study of the very interesting diagrams accompanying ,mr4 ,barlow's paper1 it would be quite impossible to define precisely the characteristic records even of each order of consonantal sounds1 far less of each separate sound4 ,we could readily understand that the movement of the central part of the diaphragm in the telephone should give much more characteristic differences for the various sounds than ,barlow's logograph4 ,for if we imagine a small pointer attached to the centre of the face of the receiving diaphragm while words are uttered in its neighbourhood1 the end of that pointer would not only move to and fro in a direction square to the face of the diaphragm1 as was the case with ,barlow's marker1 but it would also sway round its mean position in various small circles or ovals1 varying in size1 shape1 and position1 according to the various sounds uttered4 ,we might expect1 then1 that if in any way a record of the actual motions of the extremity of that small pointer could be obtained1 in such sort that its displacement in directions square to the face of the diaphragm1 as well as its swayings around its mean position1 would be indicated in some pictorial manner1 the study of such records would indicate the exact words spoken near the diaphragm1 and even1 perhaps1 the precise tones in which they were uttered4 ,for ,barlow's logograph1 dealing with one only of the orders of motion 7really triple in character71 gives diagrams in which the general character of the sounds uttered is clearly indicated1 and the supposed records would show much more4 ,but although this might1 from priori considerations1 have been reasonably looked for1 it by no means follows that the actual results of ,bell's telephonic experiments could have been anticipated4 ,that the movement of the central part of the diaphragm should suffice to show that such and such words had been uttered1 is one thing2 but that these movements should of themselves suffice1 if artificially reproduced1 to cause the diaphragm to reproduce these words1 is another and a very different one4 ,i venture to express my conviction that at the beginning of his researches ,professor ,bell can have had very little hope that any such result would be obtained1 notwithstanding some remarkable experiments respecting the transmission of sound which we can now very clearly perceive to point in that direction4 ,when1 however1 he had invented the telephone1 this point was in effect demonstrated2 for in that instrument1 as we have seen1 the movements of the minute piece of metal attached 7at least in the earlier forms of the instrument7 to the centre of the receiving membrane1 suffice1 when precisely copied by the similar central piece of metal in the transmitting membrane1 to cause the words which produced the motions of the receiving or hearing membrane to be uttered 7or seem to be uttered7 by the transmitting or speaking membrane4 ,it was reserved1 however1 for ,edison 7of ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,electrical ,adviser to the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company7 to show how advantage might be taken of this discovery to make a diaphragm speak1 not directly through the action of the movements of a diaphragm affected by spoken words or other sounds1 and therefore either simultaneously with these or in such quick succession after them as corresponds with the transmission of their effects along some line of electrical or other communication1 but by the mechanical reproduction of similar movements at any subsequent time 7within certain limits at present1 but probably hereafter with practically unlimited extension as to time74 ,the following is slightly modified from ,edison's own description of the phonograph3-- ,the instrument is composed of three parts mainly2 namely1 a receiving1 a recording1 and a transmitting apparatus4 ,the receiving apparatus consists of a curved tube1 one end of which is fitted with a mouthpiece4 ,the other end is about two inches in diameter1 and is closed with a disc or diaphragm of exceedingly thin metal1 capable of being thrust slightly outwards or vibrated upon gentle pressure being applied to it from within the tube4 ,to the centre of this diaphragm 7which is vertical7 is fixed a small blunt steel pin1 which shares the vibratory motion of the diaphragm4 ,this arrangement is set on a table1 and can be adjusted suitably with respect to the second part of the instrument--the recorder4 ,this is a brass cylinder1 about four inches in length and four in diameter1 cut with a continuous ,v-groove from one end to the other1 so that in effect it represents a large screw4 ,there are forty of these grooves in the entire length of the cylinder4 ,the cylinder turns steadily1 when the instrument is in operation1 upon a vertical axis1 its face being presented to the steel point of the receiving apparatus4 ,the shaft on which it turns is provided with a screw-thread and works in a screwed bearing1 so that as the shaft is turned 7by a handle7 it not only turns the cylinder1 but steadily carries it upwards4 ,the rate of this vertical motion is such that the cylinder behaves precisely as if its groove worked in a screw-bearing4 ,thus1 if the pointer be set opposite the middle of the uppermost part of the continuous groove at the beginning of this turning motion1 it will traverse the groove continuously to its lowest part1 which it will reach after forty turnings of the handle4 7,more correctly1 perhaps1 we might say that the groove continuously traverses past the pointer47 ,now1 suppose that a piece of some such substance as tinfoil is wrapped round the cylinder4 ,then the pointer1 when at rest1 just touches the tinfoil4 ,but when the diaphragm is vibrating under the action of aerial waves resulting from various sounds1 the pointer vibrates in such a way as to indent the tinfoil--not only to a greater or less depth according to the play of the pointer to and fro in a direction square to the face of the diaphragm1 but also over a range all round its mean position1 corresponding to the play of the end of the pointer around its mean position4 ,the groove allows the pressure of the pointer against the tinfoil free action4 ,if the cylinder had no groove the dead resistance of the tinfoil1 thus backed up by an unyielding surface1 would stop the play of the pointer4 ,under the actual conditions1 the tinfoil is only kept taut enough to receive the impressions1 while yielding sufficiently to let the play of the pointer continue unrestrained4 ,if now a person speaks into the receiving tube1 and the handle of the cylinder be turned1 the vibrations of the pointer are impressed upon the portion of the tinfoil lying over the hollow groove1 and are retained by it4 ,they will be more or less deeply marked according to the quality of the sounds emitted1 and according also1 of course1 to the strength with which the speaker utters the sounds1 and to the nature of the modulations and inflexions of his voice4 ,the result is a message verbally imprinted upon a strip of metal4 ,it differs from the result in the case of ,barlow's logograph1 in being virtually a record in three dimensions instead of one only4 ,the varying depth of the impressions corresponds to the varying height of the curve in ,barlow's diagrams2 but there the resemblance ceases2 for that was the single feature which ,barlow's logographs could present4 ,edison's imprinted words show1 besides varying depth of impression1 a varying range on either side of the mean track of the pointer1 and also--though the eye is not able to detect this effect--there is a varying rate of progression according as the end of the pointer has been swayed towards or from the direction in which1 owing to the motion of the cylinder1 the pointer is virtually travelling4 ,we may say of the record thus obtained that it is sound presented in a visible form4 ,a journalist who has written on the phonograph has spoken of this record as corresponding to the crystallization of sound4 ,and another who1 like the former1 has been 7erroneously1 but that is a detail7 identified with myself1 has said1 in like fanciful vein1 that the story of ,baron ,mnchausen hearing words which had been frozen during severe cold melting into speech again1 so that all the babble of a past day came floating about his ears1 has been realized by ,edison's invention4 ,although such expressions may not be1 and in point of fact are not1 strictly scientific1 ,i am not disposed1 for my own part1 to cavil with them4 ,if they could by any possibility be taken au pied de la lettre 7and1 by the way1 we find quite a new meaning for this expression in the light of what is now known about vowels and consonants71 there would be valid objection to their use4 ,but1 as no one supposes that ,edison's phonograph really crystallizes words or freezes sounds1 it seems hypercritical to denounce such expressions as the critic of the ,telegraphic ,journal has denounced them4 ,to return to ,edison's instrument4 ,having obtained a material record of sounds1 vocal or otherwise1 it remains that a contrivance should be adopted for making this record reproduce the sounds by which it was itself formed4 ,this is effected by a third portion of the apparatus1 the transmitter4 ,this is a conical drum1 or rather a drum shaped like a frustum of a cone1 having its larger end open1 the smaller--which is about two inches in diameter--being covered with paper stretched tight like the parchment of a drumhead4 ,in front of this diaphragm is a light flat steel spring1 held vertically1 and ending in a blunt steel point1 which projects from it and corresponds precisely with that on the diaphragm of the receiver4 ,the spring is connected with the paper diaphragm by a silken thread1 just sufficiently in tension to cause the outer face of the diaphragm to be slightly convex4 ,having removed the receiving apparatus from the cylinder and set the cylinder back to its original position1 the transmitting apparatus is brought up to the cylinder until the steel point just rests1 without pressure1 in the first indentation made in the tinfoil by the point of the receiver4 ,if now the handle is turned at the same speed as when the message was being recorded1 the steel point will follow the line of impression1 and will vibrate in periods corresponding to the impressions which were produced by the point of the receiving apparatus4 ,the paper diaphragm being thus set into vibrations of the requisite kind in number1 depth1 and side-range1 there are produced precisely the same sounds that set the diaphragm of the receiver into vibration originally4 ,thus the words of the speaker are heard issuing from the conical drum in his own voice1 tinged with a slightly metallic or mechanical tone4 ,if the cylinder be more slowly turned when transmitting than it had been when receiving the message1 the voice assumes a base tone2 if more quickly1 the message is given with a more treble voice4 8,in the present machine10 says the account1 8when a long message is to be recorded1 so soon as one strip of tinfoil is filled1 it is removed and replaced by others1 until the communication has been completed4 ,in using the machine for the purpose of correspondence1 the metal strips are removed from the cylinder and sent to the person with whom the speaker desires to correspond1 who must possess a machine similar to that used by the sender4 ,the person receiving the strips places them in turn on the cylinder of his apparatus1 applies the transmitter1 and puts the cylinder in motion1 when he hears his friend's voice speaking to him from the indented metal4 ,and he can repeat the contents of the missive as often as he pleases1 until he has worn the metal through4 ,the sender can make an infinite number of copies of his communication by taking a plaster-of-,paris cast of the original1 and rubbing off impressions from it on a clean sheet of foil40 ,i forbear from dwelling further on the interest and value of this noble invention1 or of considering some of the developments which it will probably receive before long1 for already ,i have occupied more space than ,i had intended4 ,i have no doubt that in these days it will bring its inventor less credit1 and far less material gain1 than would be acquired from the invention of some ingenious contrivance for destroying many lives at a blow1 bursting a hole as large as a church door in the bottom of an ironclad1 or in some other way helping men to carry out those destructive instincts which they inherit from savage and brutal ancestors4 ,but hereafter1 when the representatives of the brutality and savagery of our nature are held in proper disesteem1 and those who have added new enjoyments to life are justly valued1 a high place in the esteem of men will be accorded to him who has answered one-half of the poet's aspiration1 8,oh for the touch of a vanished hand1 ,and the sound of a voice that is still60 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4--,since the present paper was written1 ,m4 ,aurel de ,ratti has made some experiments which he regards as tending to show that there is no mechanical vibration4 ,thus1 8when the cavities above and below the iron disc of an ordinary telephone are filled with wadding1 the instrument will transmit and speak with undiminished clearness4 ,on placing a finger on the iron disc opposite the magnet1 the instrument will transmit and speak distinctly1 only ceasing to act when sufficient pressure is applied to bring plate and magnet into contact4 ,connecting the centre of the disc by means of a short thread with an extremely sensitive membrane1 no sound is given out by the latter when a message is transmitted4 ,bringing the iron cores of the double telephone in contact with the disc1 and pressing with the fingers against the plate on the other side1 a weak current from a ,daniell cell produced a distinct click in the plate1 and on drawing a wire from the cell over a file which formed part of the circuit1 a rattling noise was produced in the instrument40 ,if these experiments had been made before the phonograph was invented1 they would have suggested the impracticability of constructing any instrument which would do what the phonograph actually does1 viz41 cause sounds to be repeated by exciting a merely mechanical vibration of the central part of a thin metallic disc4 ,but as the phonograph proves that this can actually be done1 we must conclude that ,m4 ,aurel de ,ratti's experiments will not bear the interpretation he places upon them4 ,they show1 nevertheless1 that exceedingly minute vibrations of probably a very small portion of the telephonic disc suffice for the distinct transmission of vocal sounds4 ,this might indeed be inferred from the experiments of ,m4 ,demozet1 of ,nantes1 who finds that the vibrations of the transmitting telephone are in amplitude little more than #a-bjjjth those of the receiving telephone4 ,,the ,,gorilla ,,and ,,other ,,apes4 ,about twenty-five centuries ago1 a voyager called ,hanno is said to have sailed from ,carthage1 between the ,pillars of ,hercules--that is1 through the ,straits of ,gibraltar--along the shores of ,africa4 8,passing the ,streams of ,fire10 says the narrator1 8we came to a bay called the ,horn of the ,south4 ,in the recess there was an island1 like the first1 having a lake1 and in this there was another island full of wild men4 ,but much the greater part of them were women1 with hairy bodies1 whom the interpreters called #8,gorillas4' ,pursuing them1 we were not able to take the men2 they all escaped1 being able to climb the precipices2 and defended themselves with pieces of rock4 ,but three women1 who bit and scratched those who led them1 were not willing to follow4 ,however1 having killed them1 we flayed them1 and conveyed the skins to ,carthage2 for we did not sail any further1 as provisions began to fail40#ce ,in the opinion of many naturalists1 the wild men of this story were the anthropoid or manlike apes which are now called gorillas1 rediscovered recently by ,du ,chaillu4 ,the region inhabited by the gorillas is a well-wooded country1 8extending about a thousand miles from the ,gulf of ,guinea southward10 says ,gosse2 8and as the gorilla is not found beyond these limits1 so we may pretty conclusively infer that the extreme point of ,hanno was somewhere in this region40 ,i must confess these inferences seem to me somewhat open to question1 and the account of ,hanno's voyage only interesting in its relation to the gorilla1 as having suggested the name now given to this race of apes4 ,it is not probable that ,hanno sailed much further than ,sierra ,leone2 according to ,rennell1 the island where the 8wild men0 were seen1 was the small island lying close to ,sherbro1 some seventy miles south of ,sierra ,leone4 ,to have reached the gorilla district after doubling ,cape ,verd--which is itself a point considerably south of the most southerly city founded by ,hanno--he would have had to voyage a distance exceeding that of ,cape ,verd from ,carthage4 ,nothing in the account suggests that the portion of the voyage1 after the colonizing was completed1 had so great a range4 ,the behaviour of the 8wild men10 again1 does not correspond with the known habits of the gorilla4 ,the idea suggested is that of a species of anthropoid ape far inferior to the gorilla in strength1 courage1 and ferocity4 ,the next accounts which have been regarded as relating to the gorilla are those given by ,portuguese voyagers4 ,these narratives have been received with considerable doubt1 because in some parts they seem manifestly fabulous4 ,thus the pictures representing apes show also huge flying dragons with a crocodile's head2 and we have no reason for believing that batlike creatures like the pterodactyls of the greensand existed in ,africa or elsewhere so late as the time of the ,portuguese voyages of discovery4 ,purchas1 in his history of ,andrew ,battell1 speaks of 8a kinde of great apes1 if they might so bee termed1 of the height of a man1 but twice as bigge in feature of their limmes1 with strength proportionable1 hairie all over1 otherwise altogether like men and women in their whole bodily shape1 except that their legges had no calves40 ,this description accords well with the peculiarities of gorillas1 and may be regarded as the first genuine account of these animals4 ,battell's contemporaries called the apes so described ,pongoes4 ,it is probable that in selecting the name ,pongo for the young gorilla lately at the ,westminster ,aquarium1 the proprietors of this interesting creature showed a more accurate judgment of the meaning of ,purchas's narrative than ,du ,chaillu showed of ,hanno's account1 in calling the great anthropoid ape of the ,gulf of ,guinea a gorilla4 ,i propose here briefly to sketch the peculiarities of the four apes which approach nearest in form to man--the gorilla1 the chimpanzee1 the orang-outang1 and the gibbon2 and then1 though not dealing generally with the question of our relationship to these non-speaking 7and1 in some respects1 perhaps1 8unspeakable07 animals1 to touch on some points connected with this question1 and to point out some errors which are very commonly entertained on the subject4 ,it may be well1 in the first place1 to point out that the terms 8ape10 8baboon10 and 8monkey0 are no longer used as they were by the older naturalists4 ,formerly the term 8ape0 was limited to tailless simians having no cheek-pouches1 and the same number of teeth as man2 the term 8baboon0 to short-tailed simians with dog-shaped heads2 and the term 8monkey10 unless used generically1 to the long-tailed species4 ,this was the usage suggested by ,ray1 and adopted systematically thirty or forty years ago4 ,but it is no longer followed1 though no uniform classification has been substituted for the old arrangement4 ,thus ,mivart divides the apes into two classes--calling the first the ,simiad1 or ,old ,world apes2 and the second the ,cebid1 or ,new ,world apes4 ,he subdivides the ,simiad into 7#a7 the ,simin1 including the gorilla1 chimpanzee1 orang1 and gibbon2 7#b7 the ,semnopithecin2 and 7#c7 the ,cynopithecin2 neither of which subdivisions will occupy much of our attention here1 save as respects the third subdivision of the ,cynopithecin1 viz41 the ,cynocephali1 which includes the baboons4 ,the other great division1 the ,cebid1 or ,new ,world apes1 are for the most part very unlike the ,old ,world apes4 ,none of them approach the gorilla or orang-outang in size2 most of them are long-tailed2 and the number and arrangement of the teeth is different4 ,the feature1 however1 which most naturalists have selected as the characteristic distinction between the apes of the ,old ,world and of the ,new ,world is the position of the nostrils4 ,the former are called ,catarhine1 a word signifying that the nostrils are directed downwards2 the latter are called ,platyrhine1 or broad-nosed4 ,the nostrils of all the ,old ,world apes are separated by a narrow cartilaginous plate or septum1 whereas the septum of the ,new ,world apes is broad4 ,after the apes come1 according to ,mivart's classification1 the half-apes or lemuroids4 ,i ought1 perhaps1 to have mentioned that ,mivart1 in describing the lemuroids as the second sub-order of a great order of animals1 the ,primates1 speaks of a man as 7zoologically speaking7 belonging to the first sub-order4 ,so that1 in point of fact1 the two sub-orders are the ,anthropoids1 including the ,anthropos 7man7 and the ,lemuroids1 including the lemur4 ,the classification here indicated will serve our present purpose very well4 ,but the reader is reminded that1 as already mentioned1 naturalists do not adopt at present any uniform system of classification4 ,moreover1 the term ,simiad is usually employed--and will be employed here--to represent the entire simian race1 i4e41 both the ,simiad and the ,cebid of ,mivart's classification4 ,and now1 turning to the ,anthropoid apes1 we find ourselves at the outset confronted by the question1 ,which of the four apes1 the gorilla1 the orang-outang1 the chimpanzee1 or the gibbon1 is to be regarded as nearest to man in intelligence8 ,so far as bodily configuration is concerned1 our opinion would vary according to the particular feature which we selected for consideration4 ,but it will probably be admitted that intelligence should be the characteristic by which our opinions should be guided4 ,the gibbon may be dismissed at once1 though1 as will presently appear1 there are some features in which this ape resembles man more closely than either the gorilla1 the orang-outang1 or the chimpanzee4 ,the gorilla must1 ,i fear1 be summarily ejected from the position of honour to which he has been raised by many naturalists4 ,though the gorilla is a much larger animal than the chimpanzee1 his brain barely equals the chimpanzee's in mass4 ,it is also less fully developed in front4 ,in fact ,gratiolet asserts that of all the broad-chested apes1 the gorilla is--so far as brain character is concerned--the lowest and most degraded4 ,he regards the gorilla's brain as only a more advanced form of that of the brutal baboons1 while the orang's brain is the culminating form of the gibbon type1 and the chimpanzee's the culminating form of the macaque type4 ,this does not dispose of the difficulty very satisfactorily1 however1 because it remains to be shown whether the gibbon type and the macaque type are superior as types to the baboon types4 ,but it may suffice to remark that the baboons are all brutal and ferocious1 whereas the gibbons are comparatively gentle animals1 and the macaques docile and even playful4 ,it may be questioned whether brutality and ferocity should be regarded as necessarily removing the gorilla further from man2 because it is certain that the races of man which approach nearest to the anthropoid apes1 with which races the comparison should assuredly be made1 are characterized by these very qualities1 brutality and ferocity4 ,intelligence must be otherwise gauged4 ,probably the average proportion of the brain's weight to that of the entire body1 and the complexity of the structure of the brain1 would afford the best means of deciding the question4 ,but1 unfortunately1 we have very unsatisfactory evidence on these points4 ,the naturalists who have based opinions on such evidence as has been obtained1 seem to overlook the poverty of the evidence4 ,knowing as we do how greatly the human brain varies in size and complexity1 not only in different races1 but in different individuals of the same race1 it appears unsatisfactory in the extreme to regard the average of the brains of each simian species hitherto examined as presenting the true average cerebral capacity for each species4 ,still it seems tolerably clear that the choice as to the race of apes which must be regarded as first in intelligence1 and therefore as on the whole the most manlike1 rests between the orang-outang and the chimpanzee4 8,in the world of science1 as in that of politics10 said ,professor ,rolleston in #ahfb1 8,france and ,england have occasionally differed as to their choice between rival candidates for royalty4 ,if either hereditary claims or personal merits affect at all the right of succession1 beyond a question the gorilla is but a pretender1 and one or other of the two 7other7 candidates the true prince4 ,there is a graceful as well as an ungraceful way of withdrawing from a false position1 and the ,british public will adopt the graceful course by accepting forthwith and henceforth the ,french candidate0--the orang-outang4 ,if this were intended as prophecy1 it has not been fulfilled by the event1 for the gorilla is still regarded by most ,british naturalists as the ape which comes on the whole nearest to man2 but probably1 in saying 8the ,british public will adopt the graceful course0 in accepting the orang-outang as 8the king of the ,simiad10 ,professor ,rolleston meant only that that course would be graceful if adopted4 ,before the discovery of the gorilla1 the chimpanzee was usually regarded as next to man in the scale of the animal creation4 ,it was ,cuvier who first maintained the claim of the orang-outang to this position4 ,cuvier's opinion was based on the greater development of the orang-outang's brain1 and the height of its forehead4 ,but these marks of superiority belong to the orang only when young4 ,the adult orang seems to be inferior1 or at least not superior1 to the chimpanzee as respects cerebral formation1 and in other respects seems less to resemble man4 ,the proportions of his body1 his long arms1 high shoulders1 deformed neck1 and imperfect ears are opposed to its claims to be regarded as manlike4 ,in all these respects1 save one1 the chimpanzee seems to be greatly its superior4 7,the ear of the chimpanzee is large1 and not placed as with us3 that of the gorilla is much more like man's47 ,as to the intelligence exhibited in the conduct of the chimpanzee and orang-outang1 various opinions may be formed according to the various circumstances under which the animals are observed4 ,the following has been quoted in evidence of the superiority of the chimpanzee in this respect3--8,about fifty years ago1 a young chimpanzee and an orang-outang of about the same age were exhibited together at the ,egyptian ,hall4 ,the chimpanzee1 though in a declining state of health1 and rendered peevish and irritable by bodily suffering1 exhibited much superior marks of intelligence to his companion2 he was active1 quick1 and observant of everything that passed around him2 no new visitor entered the apartment in which he was kept1 and no one left it1 without attracting his attention4 ,the orang-outang1 on the contrary1 exhibited a melancholy and a disregard of passing occurrences almost amounting to apathy2 and though in the enjoyment of better health1 was evidently much inferior to his companion in quickness and observation4 ,on one occasion1 when the animals were dining on potatoes and boiled chicken1 and surrounded as usual with a large party of visitors1 the orang-outang allowed her plate to be taken without exhibiting the least apparent concern4 ,not so1 however1 the chimpanzee4 ,we took advantage of an opportunity when his head was turned 7to observe a person coming in7 to secrete his plate also4 ,for a few seconds he looked round to see what had become of it1 but1 not finding it1 began to pout and fret exactly like a spoiled child1 and perceiving a young lady1 who happened to be standing near him1 laughing1 perhaps suspecting her to be the delinquent1 he flew at her in the greatest rage1 and would probably have bitten her had she not got beyond his reach4 ,upon having his plate restored1 he took care to prevent the repetition of the joke by holding it firmly with one hand1 while he fed himself with the other40 ,this story can hardly be regarded as deciding the question in favour of the chimpanzee4 ,many animals1 admittedly far inferior to the lowest order of monkeys in intelligence1 show watchfulness over their food1 and as much ill-temper when deprived of it1 and as much anxiety to recover it1 as this chimpanzee did4 ,a hundred cases in point might readily be cited4#cf ,perhaps the soundest opinion respecting the relative position of the gorilla1 chimpanzee1 and orang-outang with reference to man1 is that which places the gorilla nearest to the lower tribes of man now inhabiting ,africa1 the chimpanzee approximating1 but not so closely1 to higher ,african tribes1 and the orang-outang approximating1 but still less closely1 to ,asiatic tribes4 ,it appears to me that1 whatever weight naturalists may attach to those details in which the gorilla and the chimpanzee are more removed from man than the orang1 no one who takes a general view of these three races of anthropoid apes can hesitate to regard the gorilla as that which1 on the whole1 approaches nearest to man2 but it is to a much lower race of man that the gorilla approximates1 so that the chimpanzee and the orang-outang may fairly be regarded as higher in the scale of animal life4 ,if we consider young specimens of the three animals1 which is1 on the whole1 the safest way of forming an opinion1 we are unmistakably led1 in my judgment1 to such a conclusion4 ,i have seen three or four young chimpanzees1 two young orangs1 and the young gorilla lately exhibited at the ,aquarium 7where he could be directly compared with the chimpanzee71 and ,i cannot hesitate to pronounce ,pongo altogether the most human of the three4 ,a young chimpanzee reminds one rather of an old man than of a child1 and the same may be said of young orangs2 but the young gorilla unmistakably reminds one of the young negro4 ,repeatedly1 while watching ,pongo1 ,i was reminded of the looks and behaviour of young negroes whom ,i had seen in ,america1 though not able in every case to fix definitely on the feature of resemblance which recalled the negro to my mind4 7,the reader is1 doubtless1 familiar with half-remembered traits such as those ,i refer to--traits1 for instance1 such as assure you that a person belongs to some county or district1 though you may be unable to say what feature1 expression1 or gesture suggests the idea47 ,one circumstance may be specially noted1 not only as frequently recurring1 but as illustrating the traits on which the resemblance of the gorilla 7when young1 at any rate7 to the negro depends4 ,a negro turns his eyes where a ,caucasian would turn his head4 ,the peculiarity is probably a relic of savage life2 for the savage1 whether engaged in war or in the chase1 avoids1 as far as possible1 every movement of body or limb4 ,pongo looked in this way4 ,when he thus cast his black eyes sideways at an object ,i found myself reminded irresistibly of the ways of the watchful negro waiters at an ,american hotel4 ,certainly there is little in the movements of the chimpanzee to remind one of any kind of human child4 ,he is impish2 but not the most impish child of any race or tribe ever had ways1 ,i should suppose1 resembling his4 ,the four anthropoid apes1 full grown and in their native wilds1 differ greatly from each other in character4 ,it may be well to consider their various traits1 endeavouring to ascertain how far diversities existing among them may be traced to the conditions under which the four orders subsist4 ,the gorilla occupies a well-wooded country extending along the coast of ,africa from the ,gulf of ,guinea southwards across the equator4 ,when full grown he is equal to a man in height1 but much more powerfully built4 8,of specimens shot by ,du ,chaillu10 says ,rymer ,jones1 8the largest male seems to have been at least six feet two in height2 so that1 making allowance for the shortness of the lower limbs1 the dimensions of a full-grown male may be said to equal those of a man of eight or nine feet high1 and it is only in their length that the lower limbs are disproportionate to the gigantic trunk4 ,in the thickness and solidity of their bones1 and in the strength of their muscles1 these limbs are quite in keeping with the rest of the body4 ,when upright1 the gorilla's arms reach to his knees2 the hind hands are wide1 and of amazing size and power2 the great toe or thumb measures six inches in circumference2 the palms and soles1 and the naked part of the face1 are of an intense black colour1 as is also the breast4 ,the other parts are thickly clothed with hair of an iron grey1 except the head1 on which it is reddish brown1 and the arms1 where it is long and nearly black4 ,the female is wholly tinged with red40 ,du ,chaillu gives the following account of the aspect of the gorilla in his native woods3--8,suddenly1 as we were yet creeping along in a silence which made even a heavy breath seem loud and distinct1 the woods were at once filled with a tremendous barking roar2 then the underbrush swayed rapidly just ahead1 and presently stood before us an immense gorilla4 ,he had gone through the jungle on all-fours2 but when he saw our party he erected himself and looked us boldly in the face4 ,he stood about a dozen yards from us1 and was a sight ,i think ,i shall never forget4 ,nearly six feet high 7he proved four inches shorter71 with immense body1 huge chest1 and great muscular arms1 with fiercely glaring1 large1 deep-grey eyes1 and a hellish expression of face1 which seemed to me some night-mare vision2 thus stood before us the king of the ,african forest4 ,he was not afraid of us2 he stood there and beat his breasts with his large fists till it resounded like an immense bass drum 7which is their mode of bidding defiance71 meantime giving vent to roar after roar40 ,the gorilla is a fruit-eater1 but as fierce as the most carnivorous animals4 ,he is said to show an enraged enmity against men1 probably because he has found them not only hostile to himself1 but successful in securing the fruits which the gorilla loves1 for he shows a similar hatred to the elephant1 which also seeks these fruits4 ,we are told that when the gorilla 8sees the elephant busy with his trunk among the twigs1 he instantly regards this as an infraction of the laws of property1 and1 dropping silently down to the bough1 he suddenly brings his club smartly down on the sensitive finger of the elephant's proboscis1 and drives off the alarmed animal trumpeting shrilly with rage and pain40 ,his enmity to man is more terribly manifested4 8,the young athletic negroes in their ivory-haunts10 says ,gosse1 8well know the prowess of the gorilla4 ,he does not1 like the lion1 sullenly retreat on seeing them1 but swings himself rapidly down to the lower branches1 courting the conflict1 and clutches the nearest of his enemies4 ,the hideous aspect of his visage 7his green eyes flashing with rage7 is heightened by the thick and prominent brows being drawn spasmodically up and down1 with the hair erect1 causing a horrible and fiendish scowl4 ,weapons are torn from their possessor's grasp1 gun-barrels bent and crushed in by the powerful hands and vice-like teeth of the enraged brute4 ,more horrid still1 however1 is the sudden and unexpected fate which is often inflicted by him4 ,two negroes will be walking through one of the woodland paths unsuspicious of evil1 when in an instant one misses his companion1 or turns to see him drawn up in the air with a convulsed choking cry1 and in a few minutes dropped to the ground1 a strangled corpse4 ,the terrified survivor gazes up1 and meets the grin and glare of the fiendish giant1 who1 watching his opportunity1 had suddenly put down his immense hind hand1 caught the wretch by the neck with resistless power1 and dropped him only when he ceased to struggle40 ,the chimpanzee inhabits the region from ,sierra ,leone to the southern confines of ,angola1 possibly as far as ,cape ,negro1 so that his domain includes within it that of the gorilla4 ,he attains almost the same height as the gorilla when full grown1 but is far less powerfully built4 ,in fact1 in general proportions the chimpanzee approaches man more nearly than does any other animal4 ,his body is covered with long black coarse hair1 thickest on the head1 shoulders1 and back1 and rather thin on the breast and belly4 ,the face is dark brown and naked1 as are the ears1 except that long black whiskers adorn the animal's cheeks4 ,the hair on the forearms is directed towards the elbows1 as is the case with all the anthropoid apes1 and with man himself4 ,this hair forms1 where it meets the hair from the upper arm1 a small ruff about the elbow joint4 ,the chimpanzees live in society in the woods1 constructing huts from the branches and foliage of trees to protect themselves against the sun and heavy rains4 ,it is said by some travellers that the chimpanzee walks upright in its native woods1 but this is doubtful2 though certainly the formation of the toes better fits them to stand upright than either the gorilla or the orang4 ,they arm themselves with clubs1 and unite to defend themselves against the attacks of wild beasts1 8compelling10 it is said1 8even the elephant himself to abandon the districts in which they reside40 ,we learn that 8it is dangerous for men to enter their forests1 unless in companies and well armed2 women in particular are often said to be carried away by these animals1 and one negress is reported to have lived among them for the space of three years1 during which time they treated her with uniform kindness1 but always prevented any attempt on her part to escape4 ,when the negroes leave a fire in the woods1 it is said that the chimpanzees will gather round and warm themselves at the blaze1 but they have not sufficient intelligence to keep it alive by fresh supplies of fuel40 ,the orang-outang inhabits ,borneo1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 and other islands of the ,indian coast4 ,he attains a greater height than the gorilla1 but1 though very powerful and active1 would probably not be a match for the gorilla in a single combat4 ,his arms are by comparison as well as actually much longer4 ,whereas the gorilla's reach only to the knees1 the arms of the orang-outang almost reach the ground when the animal is standing upright4 ,the orang does not often assume an upright attitude1 however4 8,it seldom attempts to walk on the hind feet alone1 and when it does the hands are invariably employed for the purpose of steadying its tottering equilibrium1 touching the ground lightly on each side as it proceeds1 and by this means recovering the lost balance of the body40 ,the gorilla uses his hands differently4 ,he can scarcely be said to walk on all-fours1 because he does not place the inside of the hand on the ground1 but walks on the knuckles1 evidently trying to keep the fore part of the body as high as possible4 8,the muzzle is somewhat long1 the mouth ill-shaped1 the lips thin and protuberant2 the ears are very small1 the chin scarcely recognizable1 and the nose only to be recognized by the nostrils4 ,the face1 ears1 and inside of the hands of the orang are naked and of a brick-red colour2 the fore parts are also but thinly covered with hair2 but the head1 shoulders1 back1 and extremities are thickly clothed with long hair of dark wine-red colour1 directed forwards on the crown of the head and upwards towards the elbows on the forearms40 ,the orang-outang changes remarkably in character and appearance as he approaches full growth4 8,though exhibiting in early youth a rotundity of the cranium and a height of forehead altogether peculiar1 and accompanied at the same time with a gentleness of disposition and a gravity of manners which contrast strongly with the petulant and irascible temper of the lower orders of quadrumanous mammals1 the orang-outang in its adult state is even remarkable for the flatness of its retiring forehead1 the great development of the superorbital and occipital crests1 the prominence of its jaws1 the remarkable size of its canine teeth1 and the whole form of the skull1 which from the globular shape of the human head1 as in the young specimen1 assumes all the forms and characters belonging to that of a large carnivorous animal4 ,the extraordinary contrasts thus presented in the form of the skull at different epochs of the same animal's life were long considered as the characters of distinct species2 nor was it till intermediate forms were obtained1 exhibiting in some degree the peculiarities of both extremes1 that they were finally recognized as distinguishing different periods of growth only40 ,unlike the gorilla1 which attacks man with peculiar malignity1 and the chimpanzee1 which when in large troops assails those who approach its retreats1 the orang1 even in its adult state1 seems not to be dangerous unless attacked4 ,even then he does not always show great ferocity4 ,the two following anecdotes illustrate well its character4 ,the first is from the pen of ,dr4 ,abel ,clarke 7fifth volume of the 8,asiatic ,researches072 the other is from ,wallace's interesting work1 8,the ,malay ,archipelago40 ,an orang-outang fully seven feet high was discovered by the company of a merchant ship1 at a place called ,ramboon1 on the north-west coast of ,sumatra1 on a spot where there were few trees and little cultivated ground4 8,it was evident that he had come from a distance1 for his legs were covered with mud up to the knees1 and the natives were unacquainted with him4 ,on the approach of the boat's crew he came down from the tree in which he was discovered1 and made for a clump at some distance2 exhibiting1 as he moved1 the appearance of a tall man-like figure1 covered with shining brown hair1 walking erect1 with a waddling gait1 but sometimes accelerating his motion with his hands1 and occasionally impelling himself forward with the bough of a tree4 ,his motion on the ground was evidently not his natural mode of progression1 for1 even when assisted by his hands and the bough1 it was slow and vacillating2 it was necessary to see him among the trees to estimate his strength and agility4 ,on being driven to a small clump1 he gained by one spring a very lofty branch and bounded from one branch to another with the swiftness of a common monkey1 his progress being as rapid as that of a swift horse4 ,after receiving five balls his exertions relaxed1 and1 reclining exhausted against a branch1 he vomited a quantity of blood4 ,the ammunition of the hunters being by this time exhausted1 they were obliged to fell the tree in order to obtain him2 but what was their surprise to see him1 as the tree was falling1 effect his retreat to another1 with seemingly undiminished vigour6 ,in fact1 they were obliged to cut down all the trees before they could force him to combat his enemies on the ground1 and when finally overpowered by numbers1 and nearly in a dying state1 he seized a spear made of supple wood1 which would have withstood the strength of the stoutest man1 and broke it like a reed4 ,it was stated1 by those who aided in his death1 that the human-like expression of his countenance and his piteous manner of placing his hands over his wounds1 distressed their feelings so as almost to make them question the nature of the act they were committing4 ,he was seven feet high1 with a broad expanded chest and narrow waist4 ,his chin was fringed with a beard that curled neatly on each side1 and formed an ornamental rather than a frightful appendage to his visage4 ,his arms were long even in proportion to his height1 but his legs were much shorter4 ,upon the whole1 he was a wonderful beast to behold1 and there was more about him to excite amazement than fear4 ,his hair was smooth and glossy1 and his whole appearance showed him to be in the full vigour of his youth and strength40 ,on the whole1 the narrative seems to suggest a remark similar to one applied by ,washington ,irving to the followers of ,ojeda and their treatment of the 7so-called7 ,indians of ,south ,america1 8we confess we feel a momentary doubt whether the arbitrary appellation of #8brute' is always applied to the right party40 ,the other story also presents man as at least as brutal as the orang concerned in the event4 8,a few miles down the river10 says ,wallace1 8there is a ,dyak house1 and the inhabitants saw a large orang feeding on the young shoots of a palm by the river-side4 ,on being alarmed he retreated towards the jungle which was close by1 and a number of the men1 armed with spears and choppers1 ran out to intercept him4 ,the man who was in front tried to run his spear through the animal's body2 but the orang seized it in his hands1 and in an instant got hold of the man's arm1 which he seized in his mouth1 making his teeth meet in the flesh above the elbow1 which he tore and lacerated in a dreadful manner4 ,had not the others been close behind1 the man would have been more seriously injured1 if not killed1 as he was quite powerless2 but they soon destroyed the creature with their spears and choppers4 ,the man remained ill for a long time1 and never fully recovered the use of his arm40 ,the term gibbon includes several varieties of tail-less1 long-armed1 catarhine apes4 ,the largest variety1 called the siamang1 need alone be described here4 ,the siamang inhabits ,sumatra4 ,it presents several points of resemblance to the orang-outang1 but is also in several respects strongly distinguished from that animal4 ,the arms are longer even than the orang's1 and the peculiar use which the orang makes of his long arms is more strikingly shown in the progression of the long-armed siamang1 for the body inclining slightly forward1 when the animal is on level ground the long arms are used somewhat like crutches1 and they advance by jerks resembling the hobbling of a lame man whom fear compels to make an extraordinary effort4 ,the skull is small1 and much more depressed than that of the orang or chimpanzee4 ,the face is naked and black1 straggling red hairs marking the eyebrows4 ,the eyes are deeply sunk1 a peculiarity which1 by the way1 seems characteristic of arboreal creatures generally2#cg the nose broad and flat1 with wide-open nostrils2 the cheeks sunk under high cheekbones2 the chin almost rudimentary4 8,the hair over the whole body is thick1 long1 and of a glossy black colour1 much closer on the shoulders1 back1 and limbs than on the belly1 which1 particularly in the females1 is nearly naked4 ,the ears are entirely concealed by the hair of the head2 they are naked1 and1 like all the other naked parts1 of a deep black colour4 ,beneath the chin there is a large1 bare sac1 of a lax and oily appearance1 which is distended with air when the animal cries1 and in that state resembles an enormous goitre4 ,it is similar to that possessed by the orang-outang1 and undoubtedly assists in swelling the volume of the voice1 and producing those astounding cries which1 according to ,duvancelle's account1 may be heard at the distance of several miles40 ,this1 however1 may be doubted1 for ,m4 ,duvancelle himself remarks of the wouwou1 that1 8though deprived of the guttural sac so remarkable in the siamang1 its cry is very nearly the same2 so that it would appear that this organ does not produce the effect of increasing the sound usually attributed to it1 or else that it must be replaced in the wouwou by some analogous formation40 ,the habits of the siamang are interesting1 especially in their bearing on the relationship between the various orders of anthropoid apes and man2 for1 though the gibbon is unquestionably the lowest of the four orders of the anthropoid apes in intelligence1 it possesses some characteristics which bring it nearer to man 7so far as they are concerned7 than any of its congeners4 ,the chief authorities respecting the ways of the siamang are the ,french naturalists ,diard and ,duvancelle1 and the late ,sir ,stamford ,raffles4 ,the siamangs generally assemble in large troops1 8conducted1 it is said1 by a chief1 whom the ,malays believe to be invulnerable1 probably because he is more agile1 powerful1 and difficult to capture than the rest40 8,thus united10 proceeds ,m4 ,duvancelle 7in a letter addressed to ,cuvier71 8the siamangs salute the rising and the setting sun with the most terrific cries0 7like sun-worshippers71 8which may be heard at the distance of many miles1 and which1 when near1 stun when they do not frighten4 ,this is the morning call of the mountain ,malays2 but to the inhabitants of the town1 who are unaccustomed to it1 it is an unsupportable annoyance4 ,by way of compensation1 the siamangs keep a profound silence during the day1 unless when interrupted in their repose or their sleep4 ,they are slow and heavy in their gait1 wanting confidence when they climb and agility when they leap1 so that they may be easily caught when they can be surprised4 ,but nature1 in depriving them of the means of readily escaping danger1 has endowed them with a vigilance which rarely fails them2 and if they hear a noise which is unusual to them1 even at the distance of a mile1 fright seizes them and they immediately take flight4 ,when surprised on the ground1 however1 they may be captured without resistance1 either overwhelmed with fear or conscious of their weakness and the impossibility of escaping4 ,at first1 indeed1 they endeavour to avoid their pursuers by flight1 and it is then that their want of skill in this exercise becomes most apparent40 8,however numerous the troop may be1 if one is wounded it is immediately abandoned by the rest1 unless1 indeed1 it happen to be a young one4 ,then the mother1 who either carries it or follows close behind1 stops1 falls with it1 and1 uttering the most frightful cries1 precipitates herself upon the common enemy with open mouth and arms extended4 ,but it is manifest that these animals are not made for combat2 they neither know how to deal nor to shun a blow4 ,nor is their maternal affection displayed only in moments of danger4 ,the care which the females bestow upon their offspring is so tender and even refined1 that one would be almost tempted to attribute the sentiment to a rational rather than an instinctive process4 ,it is a curious and interesting spectacle1 which a little precaution has sometimes enabled me to witness1 to see these females carry their young to the river1 wash their faces in spite of their outcries1 wipe and dry them1 and altogether bestow upon their cleanliness a time and attention that in many cases the children of our own species might well envy4 ,the ,malays related a fact to me1 which ,i doubted at first1 but which ,i consider to be in a great measure confirmed by my own subsequent observations4 ,it is that the young siamangs1 whilst yet too weak to go alone1 are always carried by individuals of their own sex1 by their fathers if they are males1 and by their mothers if females4 ,i have also been assured that these animals frequently become the prey of the tiger1 from the same species of fascination which serpents are said to exercise over birds1 squirrels1 and other small animals4 ,servitude1 however long1 seems to have no effect in modifying the characteristic defects of this ape--his stupidity1 sluggishness1 and awkwardness4 ,it is true that a few days suffice to make him as gentle and contented as he was before wild and distrustful2 but1 constitutionally timid1 he never acquires the familiarity of other apes1 and even his submission appears to be rather the result of extreme apathy than of any degree of confidence or affection4 ,he is almost equally insensible to good or bad treatment2 gratitude and revenge are equally strange to him40 ,we have next to consider certain points connected with the theory of the relationship between man and the anthropoid apes4 ,it is hardly necessary for me to say1 perhaps1 that in thus dealing with a subject requiring for its independent investigation the life-long study of departments of science which are outside those in which ,i have taken special interest1 ,i am not pretending to advance my opinion as of weight in matters as yet undetermined by zoologists4 ,but it has always seemed to me1 that when those who have made special study of a subject collect and publish the result of their researches1 and a body of evidence is thus made available for the general body scientific1 the facts can be advantageously considered by students of other branches of science1 so only that1 in leaving for a while their own subject1 they do not depart from the true scientific method1 and that they are specially careful to distinguish what has been really ascertained from what is only surmised with a greater or less degree of probability4 ,in the first place1 then1 ,i would call attention to some very common mistakes respecting the ,darwinian theory of the ,descent of ,man4 ,i do not refer here to ordinary misconceptions respecting the theory of natural selection4 ,to say the truth1 those who have not passed beyond this stage of error1--those who still confound the theory of natural selection with the ,lamarckian and other theories 7or rather hypotheses#ch7 of evolution1--are not as yet in a position to deal with our present subject1 and may be left out of consideration4 ,the errors to which ,i refer are in the main included in the following statement4 ,it is supposed by many1 perhaps by most1 that according to ,darwin man is descended from one or other of the races of anthropoid apes2 and that the various orders and sub-orders of apes and monkeys at present existing can be arranged in a series gradually approaching more and more nearly to man1 and indicating the various steps 7or some of them1 for gaps exist in the series7 by which man was developed4 ,nothing can be plainer1 however1 than ,darwin's contradiction of this genealogy for the human races4 ,not only does he not for a moment countenance the belief that the present races of monkeys and apes can be arranged in a series gradually approximating more and more nearly to man1 not only does he reject the belief that man is descended from any present existing anthropoid ape1 but he even denies that the progenitor of man resembled any known ape4 8,we must not fall into the error of supposing10 he says1 8that the early progenitor of the whole simian stock1 including man1 was identical with1 or even closely resembled1 any existing ape or monkey40 ,it appears to me1 though it may seem somewhat bold to express this opinion of the views of a naturalist so deservedly eminent as ,mr4 ,mivart1 that in his interesting little treatise1 8,man and ,apes10--a treatise which may be described as opposed to ,darwin's special views but not generally opposed to the theory of evolution1--he misapprehends ,darwin's position in this respect4 ,for he arrives at the conclusion that if the ,darwinian theory is sound1 then 8low down0 7i4e41 far remote7 8in the scale of ,primates0 7tri-syllabic7 8was an ancestral form so like man that it might well be called an homunculus2 and we have the virtual pre-existence of man's body supposed1 in order to account for the actual first appearance of that body as we know it--a supposition manifestly absurd if put forward as an explanation40#ci ,how1 then1 according to the ,darwinian theory1 is man related to the monkey8 ,the answer to this question is simply that the relationship is the same in kind1 though not the same in degree1 as that by which the most perfect ,caucasian race is related to the lowest race of ,australian1 or ,papuan1 or ,bosjesman savages4 ,no one supposes that one of these races of savages could by any process of evolution1 however long-continued1 be developed into a race resembling the ,caucasian in bodily and mental attributes4 ,nor does any one suppose that the savage progenitor of the ,caucasian races was identical with1 or even closely resembled1 any existing race of savages4 ,yet we recognize in the lowest forms of savage man our blood relations4 ,in other words1 it is generally believed that if our genealogy1 and that of any existing race of savages1 could be traced back through all its reticulations1 we should at length reach a race whose blood we share with that race4 ,it is also generally believed 7though for my own part ,i think the logical consequences of the principle underlying all theories of evolution is in reality opposed to the belief7 that1 by tracing the genealogical reticulations still further back1 we should at length arrive at a single race from which all the present races of man and no other animals have descended4 ,the ,darwinian faith with respect to men and monkeys is precisely analogous4 ,it is believed that the genealogy of every existent race of monkeys1 if traced back1 would lead us to a race whose blood we share with that race of monkeys2 and--which is at once a wider and a more precise proposition--that1 as ,darwin puts it1 8the two main divisions of the ,simiad1 namely1 the catarhine and platyrhine monkeys1 with their sub-groups1 have all proceeded from some one extremely ancient progenitor40 ,this proposition is manifestly wider4 ,i call it also more precise1 because it implies1 and is evidently intended by ,darwin to signify1 that from that extremely ancient progenitor no race outside the two great orders of ,simiad have even partially descended1 though other races share with the ,simiad descent from some still more remote race of progenitors4 ,this latter point1 however1 is not related specially to the common errors respecting the ,darwinian theory which ,i have indicated above1 except in so far as it is a detail of the actual ,darwinian theory4 ,i would1 in passing1 point out that1 like the detail referred to in connection with the relationship of the various races of man1 this one is not logically deducible from the theory of evolution4 ,in fact1 ,i have sometimes thought that the principal difficulties of that theory arise from this unnecessary and not logically sound doctrine4 ,i pointed out1 rather more than three years ago1 in an article 8,on some of our ,blood ,relations10 in a weekly scientific journal1 that the analogy between the descent of races and the descent of individual members of any race1 requires us rather to believe that the remote progenitor of the human race and the ,simiad has had its share--though a less share--in the generation of other races related to these in more or less remote degrees4 ,i may perhaps most conveniently present the considerations on which ,i based this conclusion1 by means of a somewhat familiar illustration3-- ,let us take two persons1 brother and sister 7whom let us call the pair ,a71 as analogues of the human race4 ,then these two have four great-grandparents on the father's side1 and four on the mother's side4 ,all these may be regarded as equally related to the pair ,a4 ,now1 let us suppose that the descendants of the four families of great-grandparents intermarry1 no marriages being in any case made outside these families1 and that the descendants in the same generation as the pair ,a are regarded as corresponding to the entire order of the ,simiad1 the pair ,a representing1 as already agreed1 the race of man1 and all families outside the descendants of the four great-grandparental families corresponding to orders of animals more distantly related than the ,simiad to man4 ,then we have what corresponds 7so far as our illustration is concerned7 to ,darwin's views respecting man and the ,simiad1 and animals lower in the scale of life4 ,the first cousins of the pair ,a may be taken as representing the anthropoid apes2 the second cousins as representing the lemurs or half-apes2 the third cousins as representing the platyrhine or ,american apes4 ,the entire family--including the pair ,a1 representing man--is descended also1 in accordance with the ,darwinian view1 from a single family of progenitors1 no outside families sharing descent1 though all share blood1 with that family4 ,but manifestly1 this is an entirely artificial and improbable arrangement in the case of families4 ,the eight grandparents might be so removed in circumstances from surrounding families--so much superior to them1 let us say--that neither they nor any of their descendants would intermarry with these inferior families3 and thus none of their great-grandchildren would share descent from some other stock contemporary with the great-grandparents2 or--which is the same thing1 but seen in another light--none of the contemporaries of the great-grandchildren would share descent from the eight grandparents4 ,but so complete a separation of the family from surrounding families would be altogether exceptional and unlikely4 ,for1 even assuming the eight families to be originally very markedly distinguished from all surrounding families1 yet families rise and fall1 marry unequally1 and within the range of a few generations a wide disparity of blood and condition appears among the descendants of any group of families4 ,so that1 in point of fact1 the relations assumed to subsist between man1 the ,simiad1 and lower animal forms1 corresponds to an unusual and improbable set of relations among families of several persons4 ,either1 then1 the relations of families must be regarded as not truly analogous to the relations of races1 which no evolutionist would assert1 or else we must adopt a somewhat different view of the relationship between man1 the ,simiad1 and inferior animals4 ,one other illustration may serve not only to make my argument clearer1 but also1 by presenting an actual case1 to enforce the conclusion to which it points4 ,we know that the various races of man are related together more or less closely1 that some are purer than others1 and that one or two claim almost absolute purity4 ,now1 if we take one of these last1 as1 for instance1 the ,jewish race1 and trace the race backwards to its origin1 we find it1 according to tradition1 carried back to twelve families1 the twelve sons of ,jacob and their respective wives4 7,we cannot go further back because the wives of ,jacob's sons must be taken into account1 and they were not descended from ,abraham or ,isaac and their wives only1--in fact1 could not have been47 ,if the descendants of those twelve families had never intermarried with outside families in such sort that the descendants of such mixed families came to be regarded as true ,hebrews1 we should have in the ,hebrews a race corresponding to the ,simiad as regarded by ,darwin1 i4e41 a race entirely descended from one set of families1 and so constituting1 in fact1 a single family4 ,but we know that1 despite the objections entertained by the ,hebrews against the intermixture of their race with other races1 this did not happen4 ,not only did many of those regarded as true ,hebrews share descent from nations outside their own1 but many of those regarded as truly belonging to nations outside the ,jewish race shared descent from the twelve sons of ,jacob4 ,the case corresponding1 then1 to that of the purest of all human races1 and the case therefore most favourable to the view presented by ,darwin 7though very far from essential to the ,darwinian theory71 is simply this1 that1 in the first place1 many animals regarded as truly ,simiad share descent from animals outside that family which ,darwin regards as the ape progenitor of man2 and1 in the second place1 many animals regarded as outside the ,simiad share descent from that ape-like progenitor4 ,this involves the important inference that the ape-like progenitor of man was not so markedly differentiated from other families of animals then existing1 that fertile intercourse was impossible4 ,a little consideration will show that this inference accords well with1 if it might not almost have been directly deduced from1 the ,darwinian doctrine that all orders of mammals were1 in turn1 descended from a still more remote progenitor race4 ,the same considerations may manifestly be applied also to that more remote race1 to the still more remote race from which all the vertebrates have descended1 and so on to the source itself from which all forms of living creatures are supposed to have descended4 ,a difficulty meets us at that remotest end of the chain analogous to the difficulty of understanding how life began at all2 but we should profit little by extending the inquiry to these difficulties1 which remain1 and are likely long to remain1 insuperable4 ,so far1 however1 are the considerations above urged from introducing any new or insuperable objection to the ,darwinian theory1 that1 rightly understood1 they indicate the true answer to an objection which has been urged by ,mivart and others against the belief that man has descended from some ape-like progenitor4 ,mivart shows that no existing ape or monkey approaches man more nearly in all respects than other races1 but that one resembles man more closely in some respects1 another in others1 a third in yet others1 and so forth4 8,the ear lobule of the gorilla makes him our cousin10 he says1 8but his tongue is eloquent in his own dispraise40 ,if the 8bridging convolutions of the orang's brain go to sustain his claim to supremacy1 they also go far to sustain a similar claim on the part of the long-tailed thumbless spider-monkeys4 ,if the obliquely ridged teeth of ,simia and ,troglodytes 7the chimpanzee7 point to community of origin1 how can we deny a similar community of origin1 as thus estimated1 to the howling monkeys and galagos8 ,the liver of the gibbons proclaims them almost human2 that of the gorilla declares him comparatively brutal4 ,the lower ,american apes meet us with what seems the #8front of ,jove himself1' compared with the gigantic but low-browed denizens of tropical ,western ,africa40 ,he concludes that the existence of these wide-spread signs of affinity and the associated signs of divergence1 disprove the theory that the structural characters existing in the human frame have had their origin in the influence of inheritance and 8natural selection40 8,in the words of the illustrious ,dutch naturalists1 ,messrs4 ,schroeder1 ,van der ,kolk and ,vrolik10 he says1 8the lines of affinity existing between different ,primates construct rather a network than a ladder4 ,it is indeed a tangled web1 the meshes of which no naturalist has as yet unravelled by the aid of natural selection4 ,nay1 more1 these complex affinities form such a net for the use of the teleological retiarius as it will be difficult for his ,lucretian antagonist to evade1 even with the countless turns and doublings of ,darwinian evolutions40 ,it appears to me that when we observe the analogy between the relationships of individuals1 families1 and races of man1 and the relationships of the various species of animals1 the difficulty indicated by ,mr4 ,mivart disappears4 ,take1 for instance1 the case of the eight allied families above considered4 ,suppose1 instead of the continual intermarriages before imagined--an exceptional order of events1 be it remembered--that the more usual order of things prevails1 viz41 that alliances take place with other families4 ,for simplicity1 however1 imagine that each married pair has two children1 male and female1 and that each person marries once and only once4 ,then it will be found that the pair ,a have ten families of cousins1 two first-cousin families1 and eight second-cousin families2 these are all the families which share descent from the eight great-grandparents of the pair4 7,to have third-cousin families we should have to go back to the fourth generation47 ,thus there are eleven families in all4 ,now1 in the case first imagined of constant intermarrying1 there would still have been eleven families1 but they would all have descended from eight great-grandparents1 and we should then expect to find among the eleven families various combinations1 so to speak1 of the special characteristics of the eight families from which they had descended4 ,on the other hand1 eleven families1 in no way connected1 have descended from eighty-eight great-grandparents1 and would present a corresponding variety of characteristics4 ,but in the case actually supposed1 in which the eleven families are so related that each one 7for what applies to the pair ,a applies to the others7 has two first-cousin families1 and eight second-cousin families1 it will be found that instead of #hh they have only #ef great-grandparents1 or ancestors1 in the third generation above them4 ,the two families related as first cousins to the pair ,a have1 like these1 eight great-grandparents1 four out of these eight for one family1 being the four grandparents of the father of the pair ,a1 the other four being outsiders2 while four of the eight great-grandparents of the other family of first cousins are the four grandparents of the mother of the pair ,a1 the other four being outsiders4 ,the other eight families each have eight great-grandparents2 two of the families having among their great-grandparents the parents of one of the grandfathers of the pair ,a1 but no other great-grandparent in common with the pair ,a2 other two of the eight families having among their great-grandparents the parents of the other grandfather of the pair ,a2 other two having among their great-grandparents the parents of one of the grandmothers of the pair ,a2 the remaining two families having among their great-grandparents the parents of the other grandmother of the pair ,a2 while in all cases the six remaining great-grandparents of each family are outsiders1 in no way related1 on our assumption1 either to the eight great-grandparents of the pair ,a or to each other1 except as connected in pairs by marriage4 ,now manifestly in such a case1 which1 save for the symmetry introduced to simplify its details1 represents fairly the usual relationships between any family1 its first cousins1 and its second cousins1 we should not expect to find any one of the ten other families resembling the pair ,a more closely in all respects than would any other of the ten4 ,the two first-cousin families would on the whole resemble the pair ,a more nearly than would any of the other eight1 but we should expect to find some features or circumstances in which one or other or all of the second-cousin families would show a closer resemblance to one or other or both of the pair ,a4 ,this is found often1 perhaps generally1 to be the case1 even as respects the ordinary characteristics in which resemblance is looked for1 as complexion1 height1 features1 manner1 disposition1 and so forth4 ,much more would it be recognized1 if such close investigation could be made among the various families as the naturalist can make into the characteristics of men and animals4 ,the fact1 then1 that features of resemblance to man are found1 not all in one order of the ,simiad1 but scattered among the various orders1 is perfectly analogous with the laws of resemblance recognized among the various members of more or less closely related families4 ,the same result follows if we consider the analogy between various different species of animals on the one hand and between various races of the human family on the other4 ,no one thinks of urging against the ordinary theory that men form only a single species1 the objection that none of the other families of the human race can be regarded as the progenitor of the ,caucasian family1 seeing that though the ,mongolian type is nearer in some respects1 the ,ethiopian is nearer in others1 the ,american in others1 the ,malay in yet others4 ,we find in this the perfect analogue of what is recognized in the relationships between families all belonging to one nation1 or even to one small branch of a nation4 ,is it not reasonable1 then1 to find in the corresponding features of scattered resemblance observed among the various branches of the great ,simian family1 not the objection which ,mivart finds against the theory of relationship1 but rather what should be expected if that theory is sound1 and therefore1 pro tanto1 a confirmation of the theory8 ,but now1 in conclusion1 let us briefly consider the great difficulty of the theory that man is descended from some ape-like1 arboreal1 speechless animal1--the difficulty of bridging over the wide gap which confessedly separates the lowest race of savages from the highest existing race of apes4 ,after all that has been done to diminish the difficulty1 it remains a very great one4 ,it is quite true that what is going on at this present time shows how the gap has been widened1 and therefore indicates how it may once have been comparatively small4 ,the more savage races of man are gradually disappearing on the one hand1 the most man-like apes are being destroyed on the other1--so that on both sides of the great gap a widening process is at work4 ,ten thousand years hence the least civilized human race will probably be little inferior to the average ,caucasian races of the present day1 the most civilized being far in advance of the most advanced ,european races of our time4 ,on the other hand1 the gorilla1 the chimpanzee1 the orang-outang1 and the gibbon will probably be extinct or nearly so4 ,true1 the men of those days will probably have very exact records of the characteristics not only of the present savage races of man1 but of the present races of apes4 ,nay1 they will probably know of intermediate races1 long since extinct even now1 whose fossil remains geologists hope to discover before long as they have already discovered the remains of an ape as large as man 7the ,dryopithecus7 which existed in ,europe during the ,miocene period2#dj and more recently the remains of a race of monkeys akin to ,macacus1 which once inhabited ,attica4 ,but although our remote descendants will thus possess means which we do not possess of bridging the gap between the highest races of apes and the lowest races of man1 the gap will nevertheless be wider in their time4 ,and tracing backwards the process1 which1 thus traced forward1 shows a widened gap1 we see that once the gap must have been much narrower than it is4 ,lower races of man than any now known once existed on the earth1 and also races of apes nearer akin to man than any now existing1 even if the present races of apes are not the degraded descendants of races which1 living under more favourable conditions1 were better developed after their kind than the gorilla1 chimpanzee1 orang1 and gibbon of the present time4 ,it may be1 indeed1 that in the consideration last suggested we may find some assistance in dealing with our difficult problem4 ,it is commonly assumed that the man-like apes are the most advanced members of the ,simian family save man alone1 and so far as their present condition is concerned this may be true4 ,but it is not necessarily the case that the anthropoid apes have advanced to their present condition4 ,judging from the appearance of the young of these races1 we may infer with some degree of probability that these apes are the degraded representatives of more intelligent and less savage creatures4 ,whereas the young of man is decidedly more savage in character than the well-nurtured and carefully trained adult1 the young of apes are decidedly less savage than the adult4 ,the same reasoning which leads us to regard the wildness1 the natural cruelty1 the destructiveness1 the love of noise1 and many other little ways of young children1 as reminders of a more or less remote savage ancestry1 should lead us to regard the comparative tameness and quiet of the young gorilla1 for example1 as evidence that in remote times the progenitors of the race were not so wild and fierce as the present race of gorillas4 ,but even when all such considerations1 whether based on the known or the possible1 have been taken into account1 the gap between the lowest savage and the highest ape is not easily bridged4 ,it is easier to see how man may have developed from an arboreal1 unspeaking animal to his present state1 than to ascertain how any part of the development was actually effected2 in other words1 it is easier to suggest a general hypothesis than to establish an even partial theory4 ,that the progenitor of man was arboreal in his habits seems altogether probable4 ,darwin recognizes in the arrangement of the hair on the human forearm the strongest evidence on this point1 so far as the actual body of man is concerned2 the remaining and perhaps stronger evidence being derived from appearances recognized in the unborn child4 ,he1 who usually seems as though he could overlook nothing1 seems to me to have overlooked a peculiarity which is even more strikingly suggestive of original arboreal habits4 ,there is one set of muscles1 and1 so far as ,i know1 one only1 which the infant uses freely1 while the adult scarcely uses them at all4 ,i mean the muscles which separate the toes1 and those1 especially1 which work the big toe4 ,very young children not only move the toes apart1 so that the great toe and the little toe will be inclined to each other 7in the plane of the sole7 nearly ninety degrees1 but also distinctly clutch with the toes4 ,the habit has no relation to the child's actual means of satisfying its wants4 ,i have often thought that the child's manner of clutching with its fingers is indicative of the former arboreal habits of the race1 but it is not difficult to explain the action otherwise4 ,the clutching movement of the toes1 however1 cannot be so explained4 ,the child can neither bring food to its mouth in this way nor save itself from falling2 and as the adult does not use the toes in this way the habit cannot be regarded as the first imperfect effort towards movements subsequently useful4 ,in fact1 the very circumstance that the movement is gradually disused shows that it is useless to the human child in the present condition of the race4 ,in the very young gorilla the clutching motion of the toes is scarcely more marked than it is in a very young child2 only in the gorilla the movement1 being of use1 is continued by the young1 and is developed into that effective clutch with the feet which has been already described4 ,here we have another illustration of that divergency which1 rather than either simple descent or ascent1 characterizes the relationship between man and the anthropoid ape4 ,in the growing gorilla a habit is more and more freely used1 which is more and more completely given up by the child as he progresses towards maturity4 ,probably the arboreal progenitor of man was originally compelled to abandon his arboreal habits by some slow change in the flora of his habitat1 resulting in the diminution and eventual disappearance of trees suited for his movements4 ,he would thus be compelled to adopt1 at first1 some such course as the chimpanzee--making huts of such branches and foliage as he could conveniently use for the purpose4 ,the habit of living in large companies would 7as in the case of the chimpanzee7 become before long necessary1 especially if the race or races thus driven from their former abode in the trees were1 like the gibbons1 unapt when alone both in attack and in defence4 ,one can imagine how the use of vocal signals of various kinds would be of service to the members of these troops1 not only in their excursions1 but during the work of erecting huts or defences against their enemies4 ,if in two generations the silent wild dog acquires1 when brought into the company of domestic dogs1 no less than five distinct barking signals1 we can well believe that a race much superior in intelligence1 and forced by necessity to associate in large bodies1 would--in many hundreds of generations1 perhaps--acquire a great number of vocal symbols4 ,these at first would express various emotions1 as of affection1 fear1 anxiety1 sympathy1 and so forth4 ,other signals would be used to indicate the approach of enemies1 or as battle-cries4 ,i can see no reason why gradually the use of particular vocal signs to indicate various objects1 animate or inanimate1 and various actions1 should not follow after a while4 ,and though the possession and use of many1 even of many hundreds1 of such signs would be very far from even the most imperfect of the languages now employed by savage races1 one can perceive the possibility--which is all that at present we can expect to recognize--that out of such systems of vocal signalling a form of language might arise1 which1 undergoing slow and gradual development1 should1 in the course of many generations1 approach in character the language of the lowest savage races4 ,that from such a beginning language should attain its higher and highest developments is not more wonderful in kind1 though much more wonderful1 perhaps1 in degree1 than that from the first imperfect methods of printing should have arisen the highest known developments of the typographic art4 ,the real difficulty lies in conceiving how mere vocal signalling became developed into what can properly be regarded as spoken language4 ,of the difficulties related to the origin of1 or rather the development of1 man's moral consciousness1 space will not permit me to speak1 even though there were much to be said beyond the admission that these difficulties have not as yet been overcome4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that races of men still exist whose moral consciousness can hardly be regarded as very fully developed4 ,not only so1 but1 through a form of reversion to savage types1 the highest and most cultivated races of man bring forth from time to time 7as our police reports too plainly testify7 beings utterly savage1 brutal1 and even 78which is else07 bestial4 ,nay1 the man is fortunate who has never had occasion to control innate tendencies to evil which are at least strongly significant of the origin of our race4 ,to most minds it must be pleasanter as certainly it seems more reasonable1 to believe that the evil tendencies of our race are manifestations of qualities undergoing gradual extinction1 than to regard them as the consequences of one past offence1 and so to have no reason for trusting in their gradual eradication hereafter4 ,but1 as ,darwin says1 in the true scientific spirit1 8,we are not here concerned with hopes or fears1 only with the truth as far as our reason allows us to discover it4 ,we must acknowledge that man1 with all his noble qualities1 with sympathy which feels for the most debased1 with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature1 with his ,god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system1--with all these exalted powers1 man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin40 ,as it seems to me1 man's moral nature teaches the same lesson with equal1 if not greater1 significance4 ,,the ,,use ,,and ,,abuse ,,of ,,food4 ,francis ,bacon has laid it down as an axiom that experiment is the foundation of all real progress in knowledge4 8,man10 he said1 8as the minister and interpreter of nature1 does and understands as much as his observations on the order of nature permit him1 and neither knows nor is capable of more40#da ,it would seem1 then1 as if there could be no subject on which man should be better informed than on the value of various articles of food1 and the quantity in which each should be used4 ,on most branches of experimental inquiry1 a few men in each age--perhaps but for a few ages in succession--have pursued for a longer or shorter portion of their life1 a system of experiment and observation4 ,but on the subject of food or diet all men in all ages have been practical experimenters1 and not for a few years only1 but during their entire life4 ,one would expect1 then1 that no questions could be more decisively settled than those which relate to the use or the abuse of food4 ,every one ought to know1 it might be supposed1 what kinds of food are good for the health1 in what quantity each should be taken1 what changes of diet tend to correct this or that kind of ill-health1 and how long each change should be continued4 ,unfortunately1 as we know1 this is far from being the case4 ,we all eat many things which are bad for us1 and omit to eat many things which would be good for us4 ,we change our diet1 too often1 without any consideration1 or from false considerations1 of the wants of the body4 ,when we have derived benefit from some change of diet1 we are apt to continue the new diet after the necessity for it has passed away4 ,as to quantity1 also1 we seldom follow well-judged rules4 ,some take less nutriment 7or less of some particular form of nutriment7 than is needed to supply the absolute requirements of the system2 others persistently overload the system1 despite all the warnings which their own experience and that of others should afford of the mischief likely to follow that course4 ,it is only of late years that systematic efforts have been made to throw light on the subject of the proper use of food1 to distinguish between its various forms1 and to analyze the special office of each form4 ,i propose to exhibit1 in a popular manner1 some of the more important practical conclusions to which men of science have been led by their investigations into these questions4 ,the human body has been compared to a lamp in which a flame is burning4 ,in some respects the comparison is a most apt one1 as we shall see presently4 ,but man does more than live2 he works1--with his brain or with his muscles4 ,and therefore the human frame may be more justly compared to a steam-engine than to the flame of a lamp4 ,of mere life1 the latter illustration is sufficiently apt1 but it leaves unillustrated man's capacity for work2 and since food is taken with two principal objects--the maintenance of life and the renewal of material used up in brain work and muscular work--we shall find that the comparison of man to a machine affords a far better illustration of our subject than the more common comparisons of the life of man to a burning flame1 and of food to the fuel which serves to maintain combustion4 ,there is1 however1 one class of food1 and1 perhaps1 on the whole1 the most important1 the operation of which is equally well illustrated by either comparison4 ,the sort of food to which ,i refer may be termed heat-maintaining food4 ,i distinguish it thus from food which serves other ends1 but of course it is not to be understood that any article of diet serves solely the end of maintaining heat4 ,accordingly1 we find that heat-maintaining substance exists in nearly all the ordinary articles of food4 ,of these there are two--sugar and fat--which may be looked on as special 8heat-givers40 ,starch1 also1 which appears in all vegetables1 and thus comes to form a large proportion of our daily food1 is a heat-giver4 ,in fact1 this substance only enters the system in the form of sugar1 the saliva having the power of converting starch 7which is insoluble in water7 into sugar1 and thus rendering it soluble and digestible4 ,starch1 as ,i have said1 appears in all vegetables4 ,but it is found more freely in some than in others4 ,it constitutes nearly the whole substance of arrowroot1 sago1 and tapioca1 and appears more or less freely in potatoes1 rice1 wheat1 barley1 and oats4 ,in the process of vegetation it is converted into sugar2 and thus it happens that vegetable diet--whether presenting starch in its natural form to be converted into sugar by the consumer1 or containing sugar which has resulted from a process of change undergone by starch--is in general heat-maintaining4 ,sugar is used as a convenient means of maintaining the heat-supply2 for in eating sugar we are saved the trouble of converting starch into sugar4 ,a love for sweet things is the instinctive expression of the necessity for heat-maintaining food4 ,we see this liking strongly developed in children1 whose rapid growth is continually drawing upon their heat-supply4 ,so far as adults are concerned1 the taste for sweet food is found to prevail more in temperate than in tropical climes1 as might be expected2 but1 contrary to what we might at first expect1 we do not find any increase in the liking for sweet food in very cold climates4 ,another and a more effective way of securing the required heat-supply prevails in such countries4 ,as starch is converted into sugar1 so by a further process sugar is converted into fat4 ,it is by the conversion of sugar into fat that its heat-supplying power is made available4 ,this conversion takes place in the vegetable as well as in the animal system1 and thus fat appears in a variety of forms--as butter1 suet1 oil1 and so forth4 ,now1 precisely as sugar is a more convenient heat-supplier than starch1 so fat exceeds sugar in its power of maintaining animal heat4 ,it has been calculated that one pound of fat--whether in the form of suet1 butter1 or oil--will go as far towards the maintenance of animal heat as two pounds of sugar1 or as two pounds and a half of starch4 ,thus it happens that in very cold countries there is developed a taste for such articles of food as contain most fat1 or even for pure fat and its analogues--oil1 butter1 tallow1 dripping1 and other forms of grease4 ,i have spoken of starch1 sugar1 and fat as heat-forming articles of food2 but ,i must note their influence in the development of muscles and nerves4 ,without a certain proportion of fat in the food a wasting of the tissues will always take place2 for muscles and nerves cannot form without fat4 ,and conversely1 the best remedy for wasting diseases is to be found in the supply of some easily digestible form of fatty food4 ,well-fatted meat1 and especially meat in which the fat is to be seen distributed through the flesh1 may be taken under such circumstances4 ,butter and salad oil are then also proper articles of food4 ,cream is still better1 and cream cheeses may be used with advantage4 ,it is on account of its heat-supplying and fat-forming qualities that cod-liver oil has taken its place as one of the most valuable remedies for scrofulous and consumptive patients4 ,but it must be noted that the formation of fat is not the object with which heat-supplying food is taken4 ,it is an indication of derangement of the system when heat-giving food is too readily converted into fat4 ,and in so far as this process of conversion takes place beyond what is required for the formation of muscles and nerves1 the body suffers in the loss of its just proportion of heat-supply4 ,of course1 if too large an amount of heat-giving food is taken into the system1 we may expect that the surplus will be deposited in the form of adipose tissue4 ,the deposition of fat in such a case will be far less injurious to the system than an excessive heat-supply would be4 ,but when only a just amount of heat-giving food is taken1 and in place of fulfilling its just office this food is converted into adipose tissue1 it becomes necessary to inquire into the cause of the mischief4 ,technically1 the evil may be described as resulting from the deficient oxygenation of the heat-supplying food4 ,this generally arises from defective circulation1 and may often be cured by a very moderate but systematic increase in the amount of daily exercise1 or by the use of the sponge-bath1 or1 lastly1 by such changes in the dress--and especially in the articles of attire worn next to the skin--as tend to encourage a freer circulation of the blood4 ,the tendency to accumulate fat may sometimes be traced to the use of over-warm coverings at night1 and especially to the use of woollen night-clothes4 ,by attending to considerations of this sort1 more readily and safely than by an undue diminution of the amount of heat-supplying food1 the tendency to obesity may frequently be corrected4 ,in warm weather we should diminish the supply of heat-giving food4 ,in such weather the system does not require the same daily addition to its animal heat1 and the excess is converted into fat4 ,experiments have shown that despite the increased rate at which perspiration proceeds during the summer months1 men uniformly fed throughout the year increase in weight in summer and lose weight in winter4 ,so far as mere existence is concerned1 heat-forming food may be looked upon as the real fuel on which the lamp of life is sustained4 ,but man1 considered as a working being1 cannot exist without energy-forming food4 ,all work1 whether of the brain or of the limbs1 involves the exhaustion of nervous and muscular matter2 and unless the exhausted matter be renewed1 the work must come to an end4 ,the supply of heat-giving food may be compared to the supply of fuel for the fire of a steam-engine4 ,by means of this supply the fire is kept alive2 but if the fire have nothing to work upon1 its energies are wasted or used to the injury of the machine itself4 ,the supply of water1 and its continual use 7in the form of steam7 in the propulsion of the engine1 are the processes corresponding to the continual exhaustion and renewal of the muscles and nerves of the human frame4 ,and the comparison may be carried yet further4 ,we see that in the case of the engine the amount of smoke1 or rather of carbonic acid1 thrown out by the blast-pipe is a measure of the vital energy 7so to speak7 within the engine2 but the amount of work done by the engine is measured rather by the quantity of steam which is thrown out1 because the elastic force of every particle of steam has been exerted in the propulsion of the engine before being thrown out through the blast-pipe4 ,in a manner precisely corresponding to this1 the amount of carbonic acid gas exhaled by a man is a measure of the rate at which mere existence is proceeding2 but the amount of work1 mental or muscular1 which the man achieves1 is measured by the amount of used-up brain-material and muscle-material which is daily thrown off by the body4 ,i shall presently show in what way this amount is estimated4 ,in the composition of the muscles there is a material called fibrine1 and in the composition of the nerves there is a material called albumen4 ,these are the substances#db which are exhausted during mental and bodily labour1 and which have to be renewed if we are to continue working with our head or with our hands4 ,nay more1 life itself involves work2 the heart1 the lungs1 the liver1 each internal organ of the body1 performs its share of work1 just as a certain proportion of the power of a steam-engine is expended in merely moving the machinery which sets it in action4 ,if the waste of material involved in this form of work is not compensated by a continual and sufficient supply of fibrine and albumen the result will be a gradual lowering of all the powers of the system1 until some one or other gives way1--the heart ceases to beat1 or the stomach to digest1 or the liver to secrete bile1--and so death ensues4 ,the fibrine and albumen in the animal frame are derived exclusively from vegetables4 ,for although we seem to derive a portion of the supply from animal food1 yet the fibrine and albumen thus supplied have been derived in the beginning from the vegetable kingdom4 8,it is the peculiar property of the plant10 says ,dr4 ,lankester1 8to be able1 in the minute cells of which it is composed1 to convert the carbonic acid and ammonia which it gets from the atmosphere into fibrine and albumen1 and by easy chemical processes we can separate these substances from our vegetable food4 ,wheat1 barley1 oats1 rye1 rice1 all contain fibrine1 and some of them also albumen4 ,potatoes1 cabbage1 and asparagus contain albumen4 ,it is a well-ascertained fact that those substances which contain most of these #8nutritious secretions1' as they have been called1 support life the longest40 ,they change little during the process of digestion1 entering the blood in a pure state1 and being directly employed to renew the nervous and muscular matter which has been used up during work1 either mental or muscular4 ,thus the supply of these substances is continually being drawn upon4 ,the carbon1 which forms their principal constituent1 is converted into carbonic acid2 and the nitrogen1 which forms about a sixth part of their substance1 re-appears in the nitrogen of urea1 a substance which forms the principal solid constituent of the matter daily thrown from the system through the action of the kidneys4 ,thus the amount of urea which daily passes from the body affords a measure of the work done during the day4 8,this is not10 says ,dr4 ,lankester1 8the mere dream of the theorist2 it has been practically demonstrated that increased stress upon the nervous system1 viz41 brain work1 emotion1 or excitement from disease1 increases the quantity of urea and the demand for nitrogenous food4 ,in the same manner the amount of urea is the representative of the amount of muscular work done40 ,it has been calculated that the average amount of urea daily formed in the body of a healthy man is about #dgj grains4 ,to supply this daily consumption of nitrogenous matter1 it is necessary that about four ounces of flesh-forming substance should be consumed daily4 ,it is important1 therefore1 to inquire how this substance may be obtained4 ,the requisite quantity of albuminous and fibrinous matter 8is contained10 says ,dr4 ,lankester1 8in a pound of beef2 in two pounds of eggs2 in two quarts of milk2 in a pound of peas2 in five pounds of rice2 in sixteen pounds of potatoes2 in two pounds of ,indian meal2 in a pound and a half of oatmeal2 and in a pound and three-quarters of flour40 ,a consideration of this list will show the importance of attending to the quality as well as the quantity of our food4 ,a man of ordinary appetite might satisfy his hunger on potatoes or on rice1 without by any means supplying his system with a sufficient amount of flesh-forming food4 ,on the other hand1 if a man were to live on bread and beef alone1 he would load his system with an amount of nitrogenous food1 although not taking what could be considered an excessive amount of daily nourishment4 ,we see1 also1 how it is possible to continually vary the form in which we take the required supply of nitrogenous food1 without varying the amount of that supply from day to day4 ,the supply itself should of course also vary from day to day as the amount of daily work may vary4 ,what would be ample for a person performing a moderate amount of work would be insufficient for one who underwent daily great bodily or mental exertions1 and would be too much for one who was taking holiday4 ,it would appear1 from the researches of ,dr4 ,haughton1 that the amount of urea daily formed in the body of a healthy man of average weight varies from #djj to #fcj grains4 ,of this weight it appears that #cjj grains results from the action of the internal organs4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the amount of flesh-forming food indicated in the preceding paragraph may be diminished in the proportion of #dg to #dj in the case of a person taking the minimum of exercise--that is1 avoiding all movements save those absolutely necessary for comfort or convenience4 ,on the other hand1 that amount must be increased in the proportion of #gd to #fc in the case of a person 7of average weight7 working up to his full powers4 ,it will be seen at once1 therefore1 that a hardworking man1 whether labourer or thinker1 must make good flesh-forming food constitute a considerable portion of his diet2 otherwise he would require to take an amount of food which would seriously interfere with his comfort and the due action of his digestive organs4 ,for instance1 if he lived on rice alone1 he would require to ingest nearly seven pounds of food daily2 if on potatoes1 he would require upwards of twenty-one pounds2 whereas one pound and a third of meat would suffice to supply the same amount of flesh-forming food4 ,men who have to work1 quickly find out what they require in the way of food4 ,the ,irishman who1 while doing little work1 will live contentedly on potatoes1 asks for better flesh-forming food when engaged in heavy labour4 ,in fact1 the employer of the working man1 so far from feeling aggrieved when his men require an improvement in their diet1 either as respects quality or quantity1 ought to look on the want as evidence that they are really working hard in his service1 and also that they have a capacity for continuous work4 ,the man who lives on less than the average share of flesh-forming food is doing less than an average amount of work2 the man who is unable to eat an average quantity of flesh-forming food1 is unable to do an average amount of work4 8#8,on what principle do you discharge your men8' ,i once said10 relates ,dr4 ,lankester1 8to a railway contractor4 #8,oh1' he said1 #8it's according to their appetites4' #8,but1' ,i said1 #8how do you judge of that8' #8,why1' he said1 #8,i send a clerk round when they are getting their dinners1 and those who can't eat he marks with a bit of chalk1 and we send them about their business4'0 ,at a lecture delivered at the ,royal ,museum of ,physics and ,natural ,history at ,florence1 by ,professor ,mantegazza1 a few years since1 the ,professor dwelt on the insufficient food which ,italians are in the habit of taking1 as among the most important causes of the weakness of the nation4 8,italians10 he said1 8you should follow as closely as you can the example of the ,english in your eating and in your drinking1 in the choice of flesh-meat 7in tossing off bumpers of your rich wines71#dc in the quality of your coffee1 your tea1 and your tobacco4 ,i give you this advice1 dear countrymen1 not only as a medical man1 but also as a patriot4 ,it is quite evident1 from the way millions of you perform the process which you call eating and drinking1 that you have not the most elementary notions of the laws of physiology4 ,you imagine that you are living4 ,you are barely prolonging existence on maccaroni and water-melons4 ,you neither know how to eat nor how to drink4 ,you have no muscular energy2 and1 therefore1 you have no continuous mental energy4 ,the weakness of the individual1 multiplied many millions of times1 results in the collective weakness of the nation4 ,hence results insufficient work1 and thence insufficient production4 ,thus the returns of the tax-collector and the custom-house officer are scanty1 and the national exchequer suffers accordingly40 ,nor is all this1 strange as it may sound1 the mere gossip of the lecture-room4 8,the question of good feeding10 says ,dr4 ,lankester1 8is one of national importance4 ,it is vain to expect either brain or muscles to do efficient work when they are not provided with the proper material4 ,neither intellectual nor physical work can be done without good food40 ,we have now considered the two principal forms of food1 the heat-forming--sometimes called the amylaceous--constituents1 and the flesh-forming or nitrogenous constituents4 ,but there are other substances which1 although forming a smaller proportion of the daily food1 are yet scarcely less important4 ,returning to our comparison of the human system to a steam-engine--we have seen how the heat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of food correspond to the supply of fuel and water2 but an engine would quickly fall into a useless state if the wear and tear of the material of which it is constructed were not attended to and repaired4 ,now1 in the human frame there are materials which are continually being used up1 and which require to be continually restored1 if the system is to continue free from disease4 ,these materials are the mineral constituents of the system4 ,amongst them we must include water1 which composes a much larger portion of our bodies than might be supposed4 ,seven-ninths of our weight consists simply of water4 ,every day there is a loss of about one-thirtieth part of this constituent of our system4 ,the daily repair of this important waste of material is not effected by imbibing a corresponding supply of water4 ,a large proportion of the weight of water daily lost is renewed in the solid food4 ,many vegetables consist principally of water4 ,this is notably the case with potatoes4 ,where the water supplied to a district is bad1 so that little water is consumed by the inhabitants--at least1 without the addition of some other substance--it becomes important to notice the varying proportion of water present in different articles of food4 ,as an instance of this1 ,i may call attention to a remarkable circumstance observed during the failure of the potato crops in ,ireland4 ,notwithstanding the great losses which the people sustained at that time1 it was noticed that the amount of tea imported into ,ireland exhibited a remarkable increase4 ,this seemed at first sight a somewhat perplexing phenomenon4 ,the explanation was recognized in the circumstance that the potato--a watery vegetable1 as we have said--no longer formed the chief portion of the people's diet4 ,thus the deficiency in the supply of water had to be made up by the use of a larger quantity of fluid food2 and as simple water was not palatable to the people1 they drank tea in much larger quantities than they had been in the habit of taking before the famine4 ,but we have to consider the other mineral constituents of the system4 ,if ,i were to run through the list of all the minerals which exist within the body1 ,i should weary the patience of the reader1 and perhaps not add very much to the clearness of his ideas respecting the constitution of the human frame4 ,let it suffice to state generally that1 according to the calculations of physiologists1 a human body weighing #aed pounds contains about #ag pounds of mineral matter2 and that the most important mineral compounds existing within the body are those which contain lime1 soda1 and potash4 ,without pretending to any strictly scientific accuracy in the classification1 we may say that the lime is principally found in the bones1 the soda in the blood1 the potash in the muscles2 and according as one or other of these important constituents is wanting in our food1 so will the corresponding portions of the frame be found to suffer4 ,we have a familiar illustration of the effects of unduly diminishing the supply of the mineral constituents of the body in the ravages which scurvy has worked amongst the crews of ships which have remained for a long period ill-supplied with fresh vegetables4 ,here it is chiefly the want of potash in the food which causes the mischief4 ,an interesting instance of the rapid--almost startling--effects of food containing potash1 in the cure of men stricken by scurvy1 is related by ,dana4 ,the crew of a ship which had been several months at sea1 but was now nearing the land1 were prostrated by the ravages of scurvy4 ,nearly all seemed hopelessly ill4 ,one young lad was apparently dying1 the livid spots which were spreading over his limbs seeming to betoken his rapidly approaching end4 ,at this moment a ship appeared in view which had but lately left the land1 and was laden with fresh vegetables4 ,before long large quantities of the life-bearing food had been transferred to the decks of the other ship4 ,the instincts of life taught the poor scurvy-stricken wretches to choose the vegetable which of all others was best suited to supply the want under which their frames were wasting4 ,they also were led by the same truthful instincts to prefer the raw to cooked vegetables4 ,thus the sick were to be seen eating raw onions with a greater relish than the gourmand shows for the most appetising viands4 ,but the poor lad who was the worse of the sufferers had already lost the power of eating2 and it was without a hope of saving his life that some of his companions squeezed the juice of onions between his lips1 already quivering with the tremor of approaching death4 ,he swallowed a few drops1 and presently asked for more4 ,shortly he began to revive1 and to the amazement of all those who had seen the state of prostration to which he had been reduced1 he regained in a few days his usual health and strength4 ,the elements which we require in order to supply the daily waste of the mineral constituents of the body are contained in greater or less quantities in nearly all the articles which man uses for food4 ,but it may readily happen that1 by adopting an ill-regulated diet1 a man may not take a sufficient quantity of these important elements4 ,it must also be noticed that articles of food1 both animal and vegetable1 may be deprived of a large proportion of their mineral elements by boiling2 and if1 as often happens1 the water in which the food has been boiled is thrown away1 injurious effects can scarcely fail to result from the free use of food which has lost so important a portion of its constituent elements4 ,accordingly1 when persons partake much of boiled meat1 they should either consume the broth with the meat1 or use it as soup on the alternate days4 ,vegetables steamed in small quantities of water 7this water being taken with them71 also afford a valuable addition to boiled meat4 ,in fact1 experience seems to have suggested the advantage of mixing carrots1 parsnips1 turnips1 and greens with boiled meat2 but unfortunately the addition is not always made in a proper manner4 ,if the vegetables are boiled separately in large quantities of water1 and served up after this water has been thrown away1 more harm than good is done by the addition2 since the appetite is satisfied with comparatively useless food1 instead of being left free to choose1 as it might otherwise do1 such forms of food as would best supply the requirements of the system4 ,salads and uncooked fruits1 for instance1 contain saline ingredients in large proportion1 and could be used advantageously after a meal of boiled meat4 ,potatoes are likewise a valuable article of food on account of the mineral elements contained in them4 ,and there can be no doubt that the value of potatoes as an article of food is largely increased when they are cooked in their skins1 after the ,irish fashion4 ,lastly1 we must consider those articles of food which promote the natural vital changes1 but do not themselves come to form part of the frame1 or1 at least1 not in any large proportion of their bulk4 ,such are tea1 coffee1 and cocoa3 alchoholic drinks2 narcotics2 and lastly1 spices and condiments4 ,we may compare the use of these articles of food to that of oil in lubricating various parts of a steam-engine4 ,for1 as the oil neither forms part of the heat-supply nor of the force-supply of the steam-engine1 nor is used to replace the worn material of its structure1 yet serves to render the movements of the machine more equable and effective1 so the forms of food we are considering are neither heat-producing nor flesh-forming1 nor do they serve to replace1 to any great extent1 the mineral constituents of the body1 yet they produce a sense of refreshment accompanied with renewed vigour4 ,it is difficult to determine in what precise way these effects are produced1 but no doubt can exist as to the fact that they are really attributable to the forms of food to which we have assigned them4 ,tea1 coffee1 and cocoa owe their influence on the nervous system to the presence of a substance which has received the various names of theine1 caffeine1 and theobromine4 ,it is identical in composition with piperine1 the most important ingredient in pepper4 ,it may be separated in the form of delicate white1 silky crystals1 which have a bitter taste4 ,in its concentrated form this substance is poisonous1 and to this circumstance must be ascribed the ill effects which follow from the too free use of strong tea or coffee4 ,however1 the instances of bad effects resulting from the use of 8the cup which cheers but not inebriates0 are few and far between1 while the benefits derived from it are recognized by all4 ,it has1 indeed1 been stated that no nation which has begun to make use of tea1 coffee1 or cocoa1 has ever given up the practice2 and no stronger evidence can be required of the value of those articles of food4 ,of alcoholic liquors it is impossible to speak so favourably4 ,they are made use of1 indeed1 almost as extensively as tea or coffee2 they have been made the theme of the poet1 and hailed as the emblems of all that is genial and convivial4 ,yet there can be little doubt that1 when a balance is struck between the good and evil which have resulted to man from their use1 the latter is found largely to preponderate4 ,the consideration of these evils belongs1 however1 rather to the moralist than to the physiologist4 ,i have here simply to consider alcoholic liquors as articles of food4 ,there can be little doubt that1 when used with caution and judgment1 they afford in certain cases an important adjunct to those articles which are directly applied to the reparation of bodily waste4 ,without absolutely nourishing the frame1 they ultimately lead to this end by encouraging the digestive processes which result in the assimilation of nutritive articles of food4 ,but the quantity of alcohol necessary to effect this is far less than is usually taken even by persons who are termed temperate4 ,it is also certain that hundreds make use of alcoholic liquors who have no necessity for them1 and who would be better without them4 ,those who require them most are men who lead a studious sedentary life2 and it is such men1 also1 who suffer most from excess in the use of alcoholic liquors4 ,it remains that ,i should make a few remarks on mistakes respecting the quantity of food4 ,some persons fall into the habit of taking an excessive quantity of food1 not from greediness1 but from the idea that a large amount of food is necessary for the maintenance of their strength4 ,they thus overtax the digestive organs1 and not only fail of their purpose1 but weaken instead of strengthening the system4 ,especially serious is the mistake often made by persons in delicate health of swallowing--no other word can be used1 for the digestive organs altogether refuse to respond to the action of the mouth--large quantities of some concentrated form of food1 such as even the strongest stomach could not deal with in that form4 ,i knew a person who1 though suffering from weakness such as should have suggested the blandest and simplest forms of food1 adopted as a suitable breakfast mutton-chops and bottled stout1 arguing1 when remonstrated with1 that he required more support than persons in stronger health4 ,he was simply requiring his weak digestive organs to accomplish work which would have taxed the digestive energies of the most stalwart labourer working daily in the open air for many hours4 ,on the other hand1 a too abstemious diet is as erroneous in principle as a diet in excess of the natural requirements of the system4 ,a diet which is simply too abstemious is perhaps less dangerous than persistent abstinence from the use of certain necessary forms of food4 ,nature generally prevents us from injuring ourselves by unwisely diminishing the quantity of food we take2 but unfortunately she is not always equally decided in her admonitions respecting the quality of our food4 ,a man may be injuring his health through a deficiency in the amount either of the heat-forming or of the flesh-forming food which he consumes1 and yet know nothing of the origin of the mischief4 ,it may also be noted that systematic abstinence1 either as respects quantity or quality of food1 is much more dangerous than an occasional fast4 ,indeed1 it is not generally injurious either to abstain for several days from particular articles or forms of food1 or to remain1 for several hours beyond the usual interval between meals1 without food of any sort4 ,on the contrary1 benefit often arises from each practice4 ,the ,emperor ,aurelian used to attribute the good health he enjoyed to his habit of abstaining for a whole day1 once a month1 from food of all sorts2 and many have found the ,lenten rules of abstinence beneficial4 ,as a rule1 however1 change of diet is a safer measure than periodical fasting or abstinence from either heat-producing or flesh-forming food4 ,it must be noticed1 in conclusion1 that young persons ought not1 without medical advice1 to fast or abstain for any length of time from the more important forms of food1 as serious mischief to the digestive organs frequently follows from either course4 ,,ozone4 ,the singular gas termed ozone has attracted a large amount of attention from chemists and meteorologists4 ,the vague ideas which were formed as to its nature when as yet it had been but newly discovered1 have given place gradually to more definite views2 and though we cannot be said to have thoroughly mastered all the difficulties which this strange element presents1 yet we know already much that is interesting and instructive4 ,let us briefly consider the history of ozone4 ,nine years after ,priestley had discovered oxygen1 ,van ,marum1 the electrician1 noticed that when electric sparks are taken through that gas1 a peculiar odour is evolved4 ,most people know this odour1 since it is always to be recognized in the neighbourhood of an electrical machine in action4 ,in reality1 it indicates the presence of ozone in the air4 ,but for more than half a century after ,van ,marum had noticed it1 it was supposed to be the 8smell of electricity40 ,in #ahdj1 ,schnbein began to inquire into the cause of this peculiar odour4 ,he presently found that it is due to some change in the oxygen2 and that it can be produced in many ways4 ,of these1 the simplest1 and1 in some respects1 the most interesting1 is the following3--8,take sticks of common phosphorus1 scrape them until they have a metallic lustre1 place them in this condition under a large bell-jar1 and half-cover them with water4 ,the air in the bell-jar is soon charged with ozone1 and a large room can readily be supplied with ozonized air by this process40 ,schnbein set himself to inquire into the properties of this new gas1 and very interesting results rewarded his researches4 ,it became quite clear1 to begin with1 that whatever ozone may be1 its properties are perfectly distinct from those of oxygen4 ,its power of oxidizing or rusting metals1 for example1 is much greater than that which oxygen possesses4 ,many metals which oxygen will not oxidize at all1 even when they are at a high temperature1 submit at once to the influence of ozone4 ,but the power of ozone on other substances than metals is equally remarkable4 ,dr4 ,richardson states that1 when air is so ozonized as to be only respirable for a short time1 its destructive power is such that gutta-percha and india-rubber tubings are destroyed by merely conveying it4 ,the bleaching and disinfecting powers of ozone are very striking4 ,schnbein was at first led to associate them with the qualities of chlorine gas2 but he soon found that they are perfectly distinct4 ,it had not yet been shown whether ozone was a simple or a compound gas4 ,if simple1 of course it could be but another form of oxygen4 ,at first1 however1 the chances seemed against this view2 and there were not wanting skilful chemists who asserted that ozone was a compound of the oxygen of the air with the hydrogen which forms an element of the aqueous vapour nearly always present in the atmosphere4 ,it was important to set this question at rest4 ,this was accomplished by the labours of ,de la ,rive and ,marignac1 who proved that ozone is simply another form of oxygen4 ,here we touch on a difficult branch of modern chemical research4 ,the chemical elements being recognized as the simplest forms of matter1 it might be supposed that each element would be unchangeable in its nature4 ,that a compound should admit of change1 is of course a thing to be expected4 ,if we decompose water1 for instance1 into its component elements1 oxygen and hydrogen1 we may look on these gases as exhibiting water to us in another form4 ,and a hundred instances of the sort might be adduced1 in which1 either by separating the elements of a compound1 or by re-arranging them1 we obtain new forms of matter without any real change of substance4 ,but with an element1 the case1 one would suppose1 should be different4 ,however1 the physicist must take facts as he finds them2 and amongst the most thoroughly recognized chemical facts we have this one1 that elementary substances may assume different forms4 ,chemists call the phenomenon allotropy4 ,a well-known instance of allotropy is seen in red phosphorus4 ,phosphorus is one of the chemical elements2 and1 as every one knows1 the form in which it is usually obtained is that of a soft1 yellow1 semi-transparent solid1 somewhat resembling bees' wax in consistence1 poisonous1 and readily taking fire4 ,red phosphorus is the same element1 yet differs wholly in its properties4 ,it is a powder1 it does not readily take fire1 and it is not poisonous4 ,ozone1 then1 is another form of oxygen4 ,it is the only instance yet discovered of gaseous allotropy4 ,and now we have to deal with the difficult and still-vexed questions of the way in which the change from oxygen is brought about1 and the actual distinction between the two forms of the same gas4 ,schnbein held that common oxygen is produced by the combination of two special forms of oxygen--the positive and the negative1 or1 as he called them1 ozone and antozone4 ,he showed that1 in certain conditions of the air1 the atmospheric oxygen exhibits qualities which are the direct reverse of those which ozone exhibits1 and are distinct from those of ordinary oxygen4 ,in oxygen thus negatived or antozonized1 animals cannot live any more than they can in nitrogen4 ,the products of decomposition are not only not destroyed as by ozone1 but seem subject to preservative influences1 and speedily become singularly offensive2 dead animal matter rapidly putrefies1 and wounds show a tendency to mortification4 ,but the theory of positive and negative forms of oxygen1 though still held by a few physicists1 has gradually given way before the advance of new and sounder modes of inquiry4 ,it has been proved1 in the first place1 that ozone is denser than ordinary oxygen4 ,the production of ozone is always followed by a contraction of the gas's volume1 the contraction being greater or less according to the amount of oxygen which has been ozonized4 ,regularly as the observers--,messrs4 ,andrews and ,tait--converted a definite proportion of oxygen into ozone1 the corresponding contraction followed1 and as regularly was the original volume of the gas restored when1 by the action of heat1 the ozone was reconverted into oxygen4 ,and now a very singular experiment was made by the observers1 with results which proved utterly perplexing to them4 ,mercury has the power of absorbing ozone2 and the experimenters thought that if1 after producing a definite contraction by the formation of ozone1 they could absorb the ozone by means of mercury1 the quantity of oxygen which remained would serve to show them how much ozone had been formed1 and thence1 of course1 they could determine the density of ozone4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that we have one hundred cubic inches of oxygen1 and that by any process we reduce it to a combination of oxygen and ozone occupying ninety-five cubic inches4 ,now1 if the mercury absorbed the ozone1 and we found1 say1 that there only remained eighty-five cubic inches of oxygen1 we could reason in this way3--,ten cubic inches were occupied by the ozone before the mercury absorbed it2 but these correspond to fifteen cubic inches of oxygen2 hence1 ozone must be denser than oxygen in the proportion of fifteen to ten1 or three to two4 ,and whatever result might have followed1 a real absorption of the ozone by the mercury would have satisfactorily solved the problem4 ,but the result actually obtained did not admit of interpretation in this way4 ,the apparent absorption of the ozone by the mercury1 that is1 the disappearance of the ozone from the mixture1 was accompanied by no diminution of volume at all4 ,in other words1 returning to our illustrative case1 after the absorption of the ozone from the ninety-five cubic inches occupied by the mixture1 there still remained ninety-five cubic inches of oxygen2 so that it seemed as though an evanescent volume of ozone corresponded in weight to five cubic inches of oxygen4 ,this solution1 of course1 could not be admitted1 since it made the density of ozone infinite4 ,the explanation of this perplexing experiment is full of interest and instruction4 ,the following is the account given by ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,heaton 7,professor of ,chemistry at ,charing ,cross ,hospital71 slightly modified1 however1 so that it may be more readily understood4 ,modern chemists adopt1 as a convenient mode of representing the phenomena which gases exhibit1 the theory that every gas1 whether elementary or compound1 consists of minute molecules4 ,they suppose that these molecules are of equal size1 and are separated by equal intervals so long as the gas remains unchanged in heat and density4 ,this view serves to account for the features of resemblance presented by all gases4 ,the features in which gases vary are accounted for by the theory that the molecules are differently constituted4 ,the molecules are supposed to be clusters of atoms1 and the qualities of a gas are assumed to depend on the nature and arrangement of these ultimate atoms4 ,the molecules of some elements consist but of a single atom2 the molecules of others are formed by pairs of atoms2 those of others by triplets2 and so on4 ,again1 the molecules of compound gases are supposed to consist of combinations of different kinds of atoms4 ,now1 ,dr4 ,odling1 to whom we owe the solution of the perplexing problem described above1 thus interpreted the observed phenomena4 ,a molecule of oxygen contains two atoms1 one of ozone contains three1 and the oxidizing power of ozone depends on the ease with which it parts with its third atom of oxygen4 ,thus1 in the experiment which perplexed ,messrs4 ,andrews and ,tait1 the mercury only seemed to absorb the ozone2 in reality it converted the ozone into oxygen by removing its third atom4 ,and now we see how to interpret such a result as we considered in our illustrative case4 ,five cubic inches of oxygen gave up their atoms1 each atom combining with one of the remaining oxygen doublets1 so as to form a set of ozone triplets4 ,clearly1 then1 fifteen cubic inches of oxygen were transformed into ozone4 ,they now occupied but ten cubic inches2 so that the mixture1 or ozonized oxygen1 contained eighty-five cubic inches of oxygen and ten of ozone4 ,when the mercury was introduced1 it simply transformed all the ozone triplets into oxygen doublets1 by taking away the odd atom from each4 ,it thus left ten cubic inches of oxygen1 which1 with the remaining eighty-five1 constituted the ninety-five cubic inches observed to remain after the supposed absorption of the ozone4 ,it follows1 of course1 that ozone is half as heavy again as oxygen4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,heaton remarked1 8this beautiful hypothesis1 although accounting perfectly for all known facts1 was yet but a probability4 ,one link was lacking in the chain of evidence1 and that link ,m4 ,soret has supplied by a happily devised experiment40 ,although mercury and most substances are only capable of converting ozone into oxygen1 oil of turpentine has the power of absorbing ozone in its entirety4 ,thus1 when the experiment was repeated1 with oil of turpentine in place of the mercury1 the ozone was absorbed1 and the remaining oxygen1 instead of occupying ninety-five inches1 occupied but eighty-five4 ,after this1 no doubt could remain that ,dr4 ,odling's ingeniously conceived hypothesis was the correct explanation of ,messrs4 ,andrews and ,tait's experiment4 ,we recognize1 then1 in ozone a sort of concentrated oxygen1 with this peculiar property1 that it possesses an extraordinary readiness to part with its characteristic third atom1 and so disappear as ozone1 two-thirds of its weight remaining as oxygen4 ,it is to this peculiarity that ozone owes the properties which render it so important to our welfare4 ,we are indeed1 as yet1 in no position to theorize respecting this element1 our knowledge of its very existence being so recent1 and our information respecting its presence in our atmosphere being of still more recent acquisition4 ,indeed1 it is well remarked by ,mr4 ,heaton1 that we had1 until quite lately1 no reason for confidently adopting ,schnbein's view that ozone exists in our atmosphere4 ,the test-papers which ,schnbein made use of turned blue under the influence of ozone1 it is true1 but they were similarly influenced by other elements which are known to exist in our atmosphere1 and even the sun's rays turned them blue4 ,however1 ,dr4 ,andrews has shown how the character of the air producing the change can be further tested1 so as to render it certain that ozone only has been at work4 ,if air which colours the test-papers be found to lose the property after being heated1 the change can only be due to ozone1 because nitrous and nitric acids 7which have the power of colouring the test-papers7 would not be removed by the heat1 whereas ozone is changed by heat into oxygen4 ,once we are certain that ozone exists in the air1 we must recognize the fact that its presence cannot fail to have an important bearing on our health and comfort2 for ozone is an exceedingly active agent1 and cannot exist anywhere without setting busily to its own proper work4 ,what that work is1 and whether it is beneficial or deleterious to ourselves1 remains to be considered4 ,in the first place1 ozone has immense power as a disinfectant4 ,it decomposes the products emanating from putrefying matter more effectually than any other known element4 ,perhaps the most striking proof ever given of its qualities in this respect is that afforded by an experiment conducted by ,dr4 ,richardson a few years ago4 ,he placed a pint of blood taken from an ox in a large wide-mouthed bottle4 ,the blood had then coagulated1 and it was left exposed to the air until it had become entirely redissolved by the effects of decomposition4 ,at the end of a year the blood was put into a stoppered bottle1 and set aside for seven years4 8,the bottle was then taken from its hiding-place10 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 8and an ounce of the blood was withdrawn4 ,the fluid was so offensive as to produce nausea when the gases evolved from it were inhaled4 ,it was subjected by ,dr4 ,wood and myself to a current of ozone4 ,for a few minutes the odour of ozone was destroyed by the odour of the gases from the blood2 gradually the offensive smell passed away2 then the fluid mass became quite sweet1 and at last a faint odour of ozone was detected1 whereupon the current was stopped4 ,the blood was thus entirely deodorized2 but another and most singular phenomenon was observed4 ,the dead blood coagulated as the products of decomposition were removed1 and this so perfectly1 that from the new clot that was formed serum exuded4 ,before the experiment commenced1 ,i had predicted on theoretical grounds that secondary coagulation would follow on purification2 and this experiment1 as well as several others afterwards performed1 verified the truth of the prediction40 ,it will of course be understood that ozone1 in thus acting as a disinfectant1 is transformed into oxygen4 ,it parts with its third atom as in the mercury experiment1 and so loses its distinctive peculiarity4 ,thus we might be led to anticipate the results which come next to be considered4 ,ozone has certain work to do1 and in doing that work is transmuted into oxygen4 ,it follows1 then1 that where there has been much work for ozone to do1 there we shall find little ozone left in the air4 ,hence1 in open spaces where there is little decomposing matter1 we should expect to find more ozone than in towns or cities4 ,this accords with what is actually observed4 ,and not only is it found that country air contains more ozone than town air1 but it is found that air which has come from the sea has more ozone than even the country air1 while air in the crowded parts of large cities has no ozone at all1 nor has the air of inhabited rooms4 ,so far as we have gone1 we might be disposed to speak unhesitatingly in favour of the effects produced by ozone4 ,we see it purifying the air which would otherwise be loaded by the products of decomposing matter1 we find it present in the sea air and the country air which we know to be so bracing and health-restoring after a long residence in town1 and we find it absent just in those places which we look upon as most unhealthy4 ,again1 we find further evidence of the good effects of ozone in the fact that cholera and other epidemics never make their dreaded appearance in the land when the air is well supplied with ozone--or in what the meteorologists call 8the ozone-periods40 ,and though we cannot yet explain the circumstance quite satisfactorily1 we yet seem justified in ascribing to the purifying and disinfecting qualities of ozone our freedom at those times from epidemics to which cleanliness and good sanitary regulations are notedly inimical4 ,but there is a reverse side to the picture4 ,and as we described an experiment illustrating the disinfecting qualities of ozone before describing the good effects of the element1 we shall describe an experiment illustrating certain less pleasing qualities of ozone1 before discussing the deleterious influences which it seems capable of exerting4 ,dr4 ,richardson found that when the air of a room was so loaded with ozone as to be only respirable with difficulty1 animals placed in the room were affected in a very singular manner4 8,in the first place10 he says1 8all the symptoms of nasal catarrh and of irritation of the mucous membranes of the nose1 the mouth1 and the throat were rapidly induced4 ,then followed free secretion of saliva and profuse action of the skin--perspiration4 ,the breathing was greatly quickened1 and the action of the heart increased in proportion40 ,when the animals were suffered to remain yet longer within the room1 congestion of the lungs followed1 and the disease called by physicians 8congestive bronchitis0 was set up4 ,a very singular circumstance was noticed also as to the effects of ozone on the different orders of animals4 ,the above-mentioned effects1 and others which accompanied them1 the description of which would be out of place in these pages1 were developed more freely in carnivorous than in herbivorous animals4 ,rats1 for example1 were much more easily influenced by ozone than rabbits were4 ,the results of ,dr4 ,richardson's experiments prepare us to hear that ozone-periods1 though characterized by the absence of certain diseases1 bring with them their own forms of disease4 ,apoplexy1 epilepsy1 and other similar diseases seem peculiarly associated with the ozone-periods1 insomuch that eighty per cent4 of the deaths occurring from them take place on days when ozone is present in the air in larger quantities than usual4 ,catarrh1 influenza1 and affections of the bronchial tubes1 also affect the ozone-periods4 ,we see1 then1 that we have much yet to learn respecting ozone before we can pronounce definitively whether it is more to be welcomed or dreaded4 ,we must wait until the researches which are in progress have been carried out to their conclusion1 and perhaps even then further modes of inquiry will have to be pursued before we can form a definite opinion4 ,,dew4 ,there are few phenomena of common occurrence which have proved more perplexing to philosophers than those which attend the deposition of dew4 ,every one is familiar with these phenomena1 and in very early times observant men had noticed them2 yet it is but quite recently that the true theory of dew has been put forward and established4 ,this theory affords a striking evidence of the value of careful and systematic observation applied even to the simplest phenomena of nature4 ,it was observed1 in very early times1 that dew is only formed on clear nights1 when1 therefore1 the stars are shining4 ,it was natural1 perhaps1 though hardly philosophical1 to conclude that dew is directly shed down upon the earth from the stars2 accordingly1 we find the reference of dew to stellar influences among the earliest theories propounded in explanation of the phenomenon4 ,a theory somewhat less fanciful1 but still depending on supposed stellar influences1 was shortly put forward4 ,it was observed that dew is only formed when the atmosphere is at a low temperature2 or1 more correctly1 when the air is at a much lower temperature than has prevailed during the daytime4 ,combining this peculiarity with the former ancient philosophers reasoned in the following manner3 ,cold generates dew1 and dew appears only when the skies are clear--that is1 when the stars are shining2 hence it follows that the stars generate cold1 and thus lead indirectly to the formation of dew4 ,hence arose the singular theory1 that as the sun pours down heat upon the earth1 so the stars 7and also the moon and planets7 pour down cold4 ,nothing is more common--we may note in passing--than this method of philosophizing1 especially in all that concerns weather-changes2 and perhaps it would be impossible to find a more signal instance of the mistakes into which men are likely to fall when they adopt this false method of reasoning2 for1 so far is it from being true that the stars shed cold upon the earth1 that the exact reverse is the case4 ,it has been established by astronomers and physicists that an important portion of the earth's heat-supply is derived from the stars4 ,following on these fanciful speculations came ,aristotle's theory of dew--celebrated as one of the most remarkable instances of the approximation which may sometimes be made to the truth by clever reasoning on insufficient observations4 ,for we must not fall into the mistake of supposing1 as many have done1 that ,aristotle framed hypotheses without making observations2 indeed1 there has seldom lived a philosopher who has made more observations than he did4 ,his mistake was that he extended his observations too widely1 not making enough on each subject4 ,he imagined that1 by a string of syllogisms1 he could make a few supply the place of many observations4 ,aristotle added two important facts to our knowledge respecting dew--namely1 first1 that dew is only formed in serene weather2 and secondly1 that it is not formed on the summits of mountains4 ,modern observations show the more correct statement of the case to be that dew is seldom formed either in windy weather or on the tops of mountains4 ,now1 ,aristotle reasoned in a subtle and able manner on these two observations4 ,he saw that dew must be the result of processes which are interfered with when the air is agitated1 and which do not extend high above the earth's surface2 he conjectured1 therefore1 that dew is simply caused by the discharge of vapour from the air4 8,vapour is a mixture10 he said1 8of water and heat1 and as long as water can get a supply of heat1 vapour rises4 ,but vapour cannot rise high1 or the heat would get detached from it2 and vapour cannot exist in windy weather1 but becomes dissipated4 ,hence1 in high places1 and in windy weather1 dew cannot be formed for want of vapour40 ,he derided the notion that the stars and moon cause the precipitation of dew4 8,on the contrary1 the sun10 he said1 8is the cause2 since its heat raises the vapour1 from which the dew is formed when that heat is no longer present to keep up the vapour40 ,amidst much that is false1 there is here a good deal that is sound4 ,the notion that heat is some substance which floats up the vapour1 and may become detached from it in high or windy places1 is of course incorrect4 ,so also is the supposition that the dew is produced by the fall of condensed vapour as the heat passes away4 ,nor is it correct to say that the absence of the sun causes the condensation of vapour1 since1 as we shall presently see1 the cold which causes the deposition of dew results from more than the mere absence of the sun4 ,but1 in pointing out that the discharge of vapour from the air1 owing to loss of heat1 is the true cause of the deposition of dew1 ,aristotle expressed an important truth4 ,it was when he attempted to account for the discharge that he failed4 ,it will be observed1 also1 that his explanation does not account for the observed fact that dew is only formed in clear weather4 ,aristotle's views did not find acceptance among the ,greeks or ,romans2 they preferred to look on the moon1 stars1 and planets as the agents which cause the deposition of dew4 8,this notion10 says a modern author1 8was too beautiful for a ,greek to give up1 and the ,romans could not do better than follow the example of their masters40 ,in the middle ages1 despite the credit attached to ,aristotle's name1 those who cultivated the physical sciences were unwilling to accept his views2 for the alchemists 7who alone may be said to have been students of nature7 founded their hopes of success in the search for the philosopher's stone1 the elixir vit1 and the other objects of their pursuit1 on occult influences supposed to be exercised by the celestial bodies4 ,it was unlikely1 therefore1 that they would willingly reject the ancient theory which ascribed dew to lunar and stellar radiations4 ,but at length ,baptista ,porta adduced evidence which justified him in denying positively that the moon or stars exercise any influence on the formation of dew4 ,he discovered that dew is sometimes deposited on the inside of glass panes2 and again1 that a bell-glass placed over a plant in cold weather is more copiously covered with dew within than without2 nay1 he observed that even some opaque substances show dew on their under surface when none appears on the upper4 ,yet1 singularly enough1 ,baptista ,porta rejected that part of ,aristotle's theory which was alone correct4 ,he thought his observations justified him in looking on dew as condensed--not from vapour1 as ,aristotle thought--but from the air itself4 ,but now a new theory of dew began to be supported4 ,we have seen that not only the believers in stellar influence1 but ,aristotle also1 looked on dew as falling from above4 ,porta's experiments were opposed to this view4 ,it seemed rather as if dew rose from the earth4 ,observation also showed that the amount of dew obtained at different heights from the ground diminishes with the height4 ,hence1 the new theorists looked upon dew as an exhalation from the ground and from plants--a fine steam1 as it were1 rising upwards1 and settling principally on the under surfaces of objects4 ,but this view1 like the others1 was destined to be overthrown4 ,muschenbroek1 when engaged in a series of observations intended to establish the new view1 made a discovery which has a very important bearing on the theory of dew3 he found that1 instead of being deposited with tolerable uniformity upon different substances1--as falling rain is1 for instance1 and as the rising rain imagined by the new theorists ought to be1--dew forms very much more freely on some substances than on others4 ,here was a difficulty which long perplexed physicists4 ,it appeared that dew neither fell from the sky nor arose from the earth4 ,the object itself on which the dew was formed seemed to play an important part in determining the amount of deposition4 ,at length it was suggested that ,aristotle's long-neglected explanation might1 with a slight change1 account for the observed phenomena4 ,the formation of dew was now looked upon as a discharge of vapour from the air1 this discharge not taking place necessarily upwards or downwards1 but always from the air next to the object4 ,but it was easy to test this view4 ,it was understood that the coldness of the object1 as compared with the air1 was a necessary element in the phenomenon4 ,it followed1 that if a cold object is suddenly brought into warm air1 there ought to be a deposition of moisture upon the object4 ,this was found to be the case4 ,any one can readily repeat the experiment4 ,if a decanter of ice-cold water is brought into a warm room1 in which the air is not dry--a crowded room1 for example--the deposition of moisture is immediately detected by the clouding of the glass4 ,but there is1 in fact1 a much simpler experiment4 ,when we breathe1 the moisture in the breath generally continues in the form of vapour4 ,but if we breathe upon a window-pane1 the vapour is immediately condensed1 because the glass is considerably colder than the exhaled air4 ,but although this is the correct view1 and though physicists had made a noteworthy advance in getting rid of erroneous notions1 yet a theory of dew still remained to be formed2 for it was not yet shown how the cold1 which causes the deposition of dew1 is itself occasioned4 ,the remarkable effects of a clear sky and serene weather in encouraging the formation of dew1 were also still unaccounted for4 ,on the explanation of these and similar points1 the chief interest of the subject depends4 ,science owes the elucidation of these difficulties to ,dr4 ,wells1 a ,london physician1 who studied the subject of dew in the commencement of the present century4 ,his observations were made in a garden three miles from ,blackfriars ,bridge4 ,wells exposed little bundles of wool1 weighing1 when dry1 ten grains each1 and determined by their increase in weight the amount of moisture which had been deposited upon them4 ,at first1 he confined himself to comparing the amount of moisture collected on different nights4 ,he found that although it was an invariable rule that cloudy nights were unfavourable to the deposition of dew1 yet that on some of the very clearest and most serene nights1 less dew was collected than on other occasions4 ,hence it became evident that mere clearness was not the only circumstance which favoured the deposition of dew4 ,in making these experiments1 he was struck by results which appeared to be anomalous4 ,he soon found that these anomalies were caused by any obstructions which hid the heavens from his wool-packs3 such obstructions hindered the deposition of dew4 ,he tried a crucial experiment4 ,having placed a board on four props1 he laid a piece of wool on the board1 and another under it4 ,during a clear night1 he found that the difference in the amount of dew deposited on the two pieces of wool was remarkable3 the upper one gained fourteen grains in weight1 the lower one gained only four grains4 ,he made a little roof over one piece of wool1 with a sheet of pasteboard2 and the increase of weight was reduced to two grains1 while a piece of wool outside the roof gained no less than sixteen grains in weight4 ,leaving these singular results unexplained for a while1 ,dr4 ,wells next proceeded to test the temperature near his wool-packs4 ,he found that where dew is most copiously produced1 there the temperature is lowest4 ,now1 since it is quite clear that the deposition of dew was not the cause of the increased cold--for the condensation of vapour is a process producing heat--it became quite clear that the formation of dew is dependent on and proportional to the loss of heat4 ,and now ,wells was approaching the solution of the problem he had set himself2 for it followed from his observations1 that such obstructions as the propped board and the pasteboard roof kept in the heat4 ,it followed also1 from the observed effects of clear skies1 that clouds keep in the heat4 ,now1 what sort of heat is that which is prevented from escaping by the interference of screens1 whether material or vaporous8 ,there are three processes by which heat is transmitted from one body to another1--these are1 conduction1 convection1 and radiation4 ,the first is the process by which objects in contact communicate their heat to each other1 or by which the heat in one part of a body is gradually transmitted to another part4 ,the second is the process by which heat is carried from one place to another by the absolute transmission of heated matter4 ,the third is that process by which heat is spread out in all directions1 in the same manner as light4 ,a little consideration will show that the last process is that with which we are alone concerned2 and this important result flows from ,dr4 ,wells' experiments1 that the rate of the deposition of dew depends on the rate at which bodies part with their heat by radiation4 ,if the process of radiation is checked1 dew is less copiously deposited1 and vice vers4 ,when we consider the case of heat accompanied by light1 we understand readily enough that a screen may interfere with the emission of radiant heat4 ,we use a fire-screen1 for instance1 with the object of producing just such an interference4 ,but we are apt to forget that what is true of luminous heat is true also of that heat which every substance possesses4 ,in fact1 we do not meet with many instances in which the effect of screens in preventing the loss of obscure heat is very noteworthy4 ,there are some1 as the warmth of a green-house at night1 and so on2 but they pass unnoticed1 or are misunderstood4 ,it was in this way that the explanation of dew-phenomena had been so long delayed4 ,the very law on which it is founded had been practically applied1 while its meaning had not been recognized4 8,i had often in the pride of half-knowledge10 says ,wells1 8smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners to protect tender plants from cold1 as it appeared to me impossible that a thin mat1 or any such flimsy substance1 could prevent them from attaining the temperature of the atmosphere1 by which alone ,i thought them liable to be injured4 ,but when ,i had seen that bodies on the surface of the earth become1 during a still and serene night1 colder than the atmosphere1 by radiating their heat to the heavens1 ,i perceived immediately a just reason for the practice which ,i had before deemed useless40 ,and now all the facts which had before seemed obscure were accounted for4 ,it had been noticed that metallic plates were often dry when grass or wood was copiously moistened4 ,now1 we know that metals part unwillingly with their heat by radiation1 and therefore the temperature of a metal plate exposed in the open air is considerably higher than that of a neighbouring piece of wood4 ,for a similar reason1 dew is more freely deposited on grass than on gravel4 ,glass1 again1 is a good radiator1 so that dew is freely deposited on glass objects1--a circumstance which is very annoying to the telescopist4 ,the remedy employed is founded on ,wells' observations--a cylinder of tin or card1 called a dew-cap1 is made to project beyond the glass1 and thus to act as a screen1 and prevent radiation4 ,we can now also interpret the effects of a clear sky4 ,clouds act the part of screens1 and check the emission of radiant heat from the earth4 ,this fact has been noticed before1 but misinterpreted1 by ,gilbert ,white of ,selborne4 8,i have often observed10 he says1 8that cold seems to descend from above2 for when a thermometer hangs abroad on a frosty night1 the intervention of a cloud shall immediately raise the mercury ten degrees1 and a clear sky shall again compel it to descend to its former gauge40 ,another singular mistake had been made with reference to the power which clouds possess of checking the emission of radiant heat4 ,it had been observed that on moonlit nights the eyes are apt to suffer in a peculiar way1 which has occasionally brought on temporary blindness4 ,this had been ascribed to the moon's influence1 and the term moon-blindness had therefore been given to the affection4 ,in reality1 the moon has no more to do with this form of blindness than the stars have to do with the formation of dew4 ,the absence of clouds from the air is the true cause of the mischief4 ,there is no sufficient check to the radiation of heat from the eyeballs1 and the consequent chill results in temporary loss of sight1 and sometimes even in permanent injury4 ,since clouds possess this important power1 it is clear that while they are present in the air there can never be a copious formation of dew1 which requires1 as we have seen1 a considerable fall in the temperature of the air around the place of deposition4 ,when the air is clear1 however1 radiation proceeds rapidly1 and therefore dew is freely formed4 ,but it might seem that since objects in the upper regions of the air part with their radiant heat more freely than objects on the ground1 the former should be more copiously moistened with dew than the latter4 ,that the fact is exactly the reverse is thus explained4 ,the cold which is produced by the radiation of heat from objects high in the air is communicated to the surrounding air1 which1 growing heavier1 descends towards the ground1 its place being supplied by warmer air4 ,thus the object is prevented from reducing the air in its immediate neighbourhood to so low a temperature as would be attained if this process of circulation were checked4 ,hence1 a concave vessel placed below an object high in air1 would serve to increase the deposition of dew by preventing the transfer of the refrigerated air4 ,we are not aware that the experiment has ever been tried1 but undoubtedly it would have the effect we have described4 ,an object on the ground grows cold more rapidly1 because the neighbouring air cannot descend after being chilled1 but continues in contact with the object2 also cold air is continually descending from the neighbourhood of objects higher in air which are parting with their radiant heat1 and the cold air thus descending takes the place of warmer air1 whose neighbourhood might otherwise tend to check the loss of heat in objects on the ground4 ,here1 also1 we recognize the cause of the second peculiarity detected by ,aristotle--namely1 that dew is only formed copiously in serene weather4 ,when there is wind1 it is impossible that the refrigerated air around an object which is parting with its radiant heat1 can remain long in contact with the object4 ,fresh air is continually supplying the place of the refrigerated air1 and thus the object is prevented from growing so cold as it otherwise would4 ,in conclusion1 we should wish to point out the important preservative influence exercised during the formation of dew4 ,if the heat which is radiated from the earth1 or from objects upon it1 during a clear night1 were not repaired in any way1 the most serious injury would result to vegetation4 ,for instance1 if the sun raised no vapour during the day1 so that when night came on the air was perfectly dry1 and thus the radiant heat passed away into celestial space without compensation1 not a single form of vegetation could retain its life during the bitter cold which would result4 ,but consider what happens4 ,the sun's heat1 which has been partly used up during the day in supplying the air with aqueous vapour1 is gradually given out as this vapour returns to the form of water4 ,thus the process of refrigeration is effectually checked1 and vegetation is saved from destruction4 ,there is something very beautiful in this4 ,during the day1 the sun seems to pour forth his heat with reckless profusion1 yet all the while it is being silently stored up2 during the night1 again1 the earth seems to be radiating her heat too rapidly into space1 yet all the while a process is going on by which the loss of heat is adequately compensated4 ,every particle of dew which we brush from the blades of grass1 as we take our morning rambles1 is an evidence of the preservative action of nature4 ,,the ,,levelling ,,power ,,of ,,rain4 ,it has been recognized1 ever since geology has become truly a science1 that the two chief powers at work in remodelling the earth's surface1 are fire and water4 ,of these powers one is in the main destructive1 and the other preservative4 ,were it not for the earth's vulcanian energies1 there can be no question that this world would long since have been rendered unfit for life1--at least of higher types than we recognize among sea creatures4 ,for at all times igneous causes are at work1 levelling the land1 however slowly2 and this not only by the action of sea-waves at the border-line between land and water1 but by the action of rain and flood over inland regions4 ,measuring the destructive action of water by what goes on in the lifetime of a man1 or even during many successive generations1 we might consider its effects very slight1 even as on the other hand we might underrate the effects of the earth's internal fires1 were we to limit our attention to the effects of upheaval and of depression 7not less preservative in the long run7 during a few hundreds or thousands of years4 ,as ,lyell has remarked in his 8,principles of ,geology10 8our position as observers is essentially unfavourable when we endeavour to estimate the nature and magnitude of the changes now in progress4 ,as dwellers on the land1 we inhabit about a fourth part of the surface2 and that portion is almost exclusively a theatre of decay1 and not of reproduction4 ,we know1 indeed1 that new deposits are annually formed in seas and lakes1 and that every year some new igneous rocks are produced in the bowels of the earth1 but we cannot watch the progress of their formation2 and as they are only present to our minds by the aid of reflection1 it requires an effort both of the reason and the imagination to appreciate duly their importance40 ,but that they are actually of extreme importance1 that in fact all the most characteristic features of our earth at present are due to the steady action of these two causes1 no geologist now doubts4 ,i propose now to consider one form in which the earth's aqueous energies effect the disintegration and destruction of the land4 ,the sea destroys the land slowly but surely1 by beating upon its shores and by washing away the fragments shaken down from cliffs and rocks1 or the more finely divided matter abstracted from softer strata4 ,in this work the sea is sometimes assisted by the other form of aqueous energy--the action of rain4 ,but in the main1 the sea is the destructive agent by which shore-lines are changed4 ,the other way in which water works the destruction of the land affects the interior of land regions1 or only affects the shore-line by removing earthy matter from the interior of continents to the mouths of great rivers1 whence perhaps the action of the sea may carry it away to form shoals and sandbanks4 ,i refer to the direct and indirect effects of the downfall of rain4 ,all these effects1 without a single exception1 tend to level the surface of the earth4 ,the mountain torrent whose colour betrays the admixture of earthy fragments is carrying those fragments from a higher to a lower level4 ,the river owes its colour in like manner to earth which it is carrying down to the sea level4 ,the flood deposits in valleys matter which has been withdrawn from hill slopes4 ,rainfall1 acts1 however1 in other ways1 and sometimes still more effectively4 ,the soaked slopes of great hills give way1 and great landslips occur4 ,in winter the water which has drenched the land freezes1 in freezing expands1 and then the earth crumbles and is ready to be carried away by fresh rains2 or when dry1 by the action even of the wind alone4 ,landslips1 too1 are brought about frequently in the way1 which are even more remarkable than those which are caused by the unaided action of heavy rainfalls4 ,the most energetic action of aqueous destructive forces is seen when water which has accumulated in the higher regions of some mountain district breaks its way through barriers which have long restrained it1 and rushes through such channels as it can find or make for itself into valleys and plains at lower levels4 ,such catastrophes are fortunately not often witnessed in this country1 nor when seen do they attain the same magnitude as in more mountainous countries4 ,it would seem1 indeed1 as though they could attain very great proportions only in regions where a large extent of mountain surface lies above the snow-line4 ,the reason why in such regions floods are much more destructive than elsewhere will readily be perceived if we consider the phenomena of one of these terrible catastrophes4 ,take1 for instance1 the floods which inundated the plains of ,martigny in #ahah4 ,early in that year it was found that the entire valley of the ,bagnes1 one of the largest side-valleys of the great valley of the ,rhne1 above ,geneva1 had been converted into a lake through the damming up of a narrow outlet by avalanches of snow and ice from a loftier glacier overhanging the bed of the river ,dranse4 ,the temporary lake thus formed was no less than half a league in length1 and more than #bjj yards wide1 its greatest depth exceeding #bjj feet4 ,the inhabitants perceived the terrible effects which must follow when the barrier burst1 which it could not fail to do in the spring4 ,they1 therefore1 cut a gallery #gjj feet long through the ice1 while as yet the water was at a moderate height4 ,when the waters began to flow through this channel1 their action widened and deepened it considerably4 ,at length nearly half the contents of the lake were poured off4 ,unfortunately1 as the heat of the weather increased1 the middle of the barrier slowly melted away1 until it became too weak to withstand the pressure of the vast mass of water4 ,suddenly it gave way2 and so completely that all the water in the lake rushed out in half an hour4 ,the effects of this tremendous outrush of the imprisoned water were fearful4 8,in the course of their descent10 says one account of the catastrophe1 8the waters encountered several narrow gorges1 and at each of these they rose to a great height1 and then burst with new violence into the next basin1 sweeping along forests1 houses1 bridges1 and cultivated land40 ,it is said by those who witnessed the passage of the flood at various parts of its course1 that it resembled rather a moving mass of rock and mud than a stream of water4 8,enormous masses of granite were torn out of the sides of the valleys1 and whirled for hundreds of yards along the course of the flood40 ,m4 ,escher the engineer tells us that a fragment thus whirled along was afterwards found to have a circumference of no less than sixty yards4 8,at first the water rushed on at a rate of more than a mile in three minutes1 and the whole distance 7forty-five miles7 which separates the ,valley of ,bagnes from the ,lake of ,geneva was traversed in little more than six hours4 ,the bodies of persons who had been drowned in ,martigny were found floating on the further side of the ,lake of ,geneva1 near ,vevey4 ,thousands of trees were torn up by the roots1 and the ruins of buildings which had been overthrown by the flood were carried down beyond ,martigny4 ,in fact1 the flood at this point was so high1 that some of the houses in ,martigny were filled with mud up to the second story40 ,it is to be noted respecting this remarkable flood1 that its effects were greatly reduced in consequence of the efforts made by the inhabitants of the lower valleys to make an outlet for the imprisoned waters4 ,it was calculated by ,m4 ,escher that the flood carried down #cjj1jjj cubic feet of water every second1 an outflow five times as great as that of the ,rhine below ,basle4 ,but for the drawing off of the temporary lake1 the flood1 as ,lyell remarks1 would have approached in volume some of the largest rivers in ,europe4 8,for several months after the dbcle of #ahah10 says ,lyell1 8the ,dranse1 having no settled channel1 shifted its position continually from one side to the other of the valley1 carrying away newly erected bridges1 undermining houses1 and continuing to be charged with as large a quantity of earthy matter as the fluid could hold in suspension4 ,i visited this valley four months after the flood1 and was witness to the sweeping away of a bridge and the undermining of part of a house4 ,the greater part of the ice-barrier was then standing1 presenting vertical cliffs #aej feet high1 like ravines in the lava-currents of ,etna1 or ,auvergne1 where they are intersected by rivers40 ,it is worthy of special notice that inundations of similar or even greater destructiveness have occurred in the same region at former periods4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary for the destructive action of floods in mountain districts that ice and snow should assist1 as in the ,martigny flood4 ,in ,october1 #ahfh1 the cantons of ,tessin1 ,grisons1 ,uri1 ,valois1 and ,st4 ,gall1 suffered terribly from the direct effects of heavy rainfall4 ,the ,st4 ,gothard1 ,splugen1 and ,st4 ,bernhardin routes were rendered impassable4 ,in the former pass twenty-seven lives were lost1 besides many horses and waggons of merchandise4 ,on the three routes more than eighty persons in all perished4 ,in the small village of ,loderio alone1 no less than fifty deaths occurred4 ,the damage in ,tessin was estimated at #dj1jjj4 ,in ,uri and ,valois large bridges were destroyed and carried away4 ,everything attested the levelling power of rain2 a power which1 when the rain is falling steadily on regions whence it as steadily flows away1 we are apt to overlook4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary to go beyond our own country for evidence of the destructive action of water4 ,we have had during the past few years very striking evidence in this respect1 which need scarcely be referred to more particularly here1 because it will be in the recollection of all our readers4 ,looking over the annals of the last half-century only1 we find several cases in which the power of running water in carrying away heavy masses of matter has been strikingly shown4 ,consider1 for instance1 the effects of the flood in ,aberdeenshire and the neighbouring counties1 early in ,august1 #ahbi4 ,in the course of two days a great flood extended itself over 8that part of the north-east of ,scotland which would be cut off by two lines drawn from the head of ,loch ,rannoch1 one towards ,inverness and the other to ,stonehaven40 ,the total length of various rivers in this region which were flooded amounted to between #ejj and #fjj miles4 ,their courses were marked everywhere by destroyed bridges1 roads1 buildings1 and crops4 ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder records 8the destruction of thirty-eight bridges1 and the entire obliteration of a great number of farms and hamlets4 ,on the ,nairn1 a fragment of sandstone fourteen feet long by three feet wide and one foot thick1 was carried about #bjj yards down the river4 ,some new ravines were formed on the sides of mountains where no streams had previously flowed1 and ancient river channels1 which had never been filled from time immemorial1 gave passage to a copious flood40 ,but perhaps the most remarkable effect of these inundations was the entire destruction of the bridge over the ,dee at ,ballater4 ,it consisted of five arches1 spanning a waterway of #bfj feet4 ,the bridge was built of granite1 the pier1 resting on rolled pieces of granite and gneiss4 ,we read that the different parts of this bridge were swept away in succession by the flood1 the whole mass of masonry disappearing in the bed of the river4 ,mr4 ,farquharson states that on his own premises the river ,don forced a mass of #djj or #ejj tons of stones1 many of them of #bjj or #cjj pounds' weight1 up an inclined plane1 rising six feet in eight or ten yards1 and left them in a rectangular heap about three feet deep on a flat ground1 the heap ending abruptly at its lower extremity40 ,at first sight this looks like an action the reverse of that levelling action which we have here attributed to water4 ,but in reality it indicates the intense energy of this action2 which drawing heavy masses down along with swiftly flowing water1 communicates to them so great a momentum1 that on encountering in their course a rising slope1 they are carried up its face and there left by the retreating flood4 ,the rising of these masses no more indicates an inherent uplifting power in running water1 than the ascent of a gently rising slope by a mass which has rolled headlong down the steep side of a hill indicates an upward action exerted by the force of gravity4 ,even small rivers1 when greatly swollen by rain1 exhibit great energy in removing heavy masses4 ,thus ,lyell mentions that in ,august1 #ahbg1 the ,college1 a small river which flows down a slight declivity from the eastern watershed of the ,cheviot ,hills1 carried down several thousand tons' weight of gravel and sand to the plain of the ,till4 ,this little river also carried away a bridge then in process of building1 8some of the arch stones of which1 weighing from half to three-quarters of a ton each1 were propelled two miles down the rivulet40 8,on the same occasion the current tore away from the abutment of a mill-dam a large block of greenstone porphyry1 weighing nearly two tons1 and transported it to a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile4 ,instances are related as occurring repeatedly1 in which from #ajjj to #cjjj tons of gravel are in like manner removed by this streamlet to still greater distances in one day40 ,it may appear1 however1 to the reader that we have in such instances as these the illustration of destructive agencies which are of their very nature limited within very narrow areas4 ,the torrent1 or even the river1 may wear out its bed or widen it1 but nevertheless can hardly be regarded as modifying the aspect of the region through which it flows4 ,even in this respect1 however1 the destructive action of water is not nearly so limited as it might appear to be4 ,taking a few centuries or a few thousand years1 no doubt1 we can attribute to the action of rivers1 whether in ordinary flow or in flood1 little power of modifying the region which they drain4 ,but taking that wider survey 7in time7 of fluviatile work which modern science requires1 dealing with this form of aqueous energy as we deal with the earth's vulcanian energies1 we perceive that the effects of river action in the course of long periods of time are not limited to the course which at any given time a river may pursue4 ,in carrying down material along its course to the sea1 a river is not merely wearing down its own bed1 but is so changing it that in the course of time it will become unfit to drain the region through which it flows4 ,its bottom must of necessity become less inclined4 ,now although it will then be lower than at present1 and therefore be then even more than now the place to which the water falling upon the region traversed by the river will naturally tend1 it will no longer carry off that water with sufficient velocity4 ,three consequences will follow from this state of things4 ,in the first place there will be great destruction in the surrounding region through floods because of inadequate outflow2 in the second place1 the overflowing waters will in the course of time find new channels1 or in other words new rivers will be formed in this region2 thirdly1 owing to the constant presence of large quantities of water in the depressed bed of the old river1 the banks on either side will suffer1 great landslips occurring and choking up its now useless channel4 ,several rivers are undergoing these changes at the present time1 and others1 which are manifestly unfit for the work of draining the region through which they flow 7a circumstance attested by the occurrence of floods in every wet season71 must before long be modified in a similar way4 ,we are thus led to the consideration of the second form in which the destructive action of inland waters1 or we may truly say1 the destructive action of rain1 is manifested1--viz41 in landslips4 ,these1 of course1 are also caused not unfrequently by vulcanian action1 but equally of course landslips so caused do not belong to our present subject4 ,landslips caused directly or indirectly by rain1 are often quite as extensive as those occasioned by vulcanian energy1 and they are a great deal more common4 ,we may cite as a remarkable instance a landslip of nearly half a mile in breadth1 now in progress1 in a district of the city of ,bath called ,hedgmead1 which forms a portion of the slope of ,beacon ,hill4 ,it is attributed to the action of a subterranean stream on a bed of gravel1 the continued washing away of which causes the shifting2 but the heavy rains of #ahgf-gg caused the landslip to become much more marked4 ,besides slow landslips1 however1 rain not unfrequently causes great masses of earth to be precipitated suddenly1 and where such masses fall into the bed of a river1 local deluges of great extent and of the most destructive character often follow4 ,the following instances1 cited in an abridged form from the pages of ,lyell's 8,principles of ,geology10 attest the terrible nature of catastrophes such as these4 ,two dry seasons in the ,white ,mountains of ,new ,hampshire were followed by heavy rains on ,august #bh1 #ahbf4 ,from the steep and lofty slopes of the ,river ,saco great masses of rock and stone were detached1 and descending carried along with them 8in one promiscuous and frightful ruin1 forests1 shrubs1 and the earth which sustained them40 8,although there are numerous indications on the steep sides of these hills of former slides of the same kind1 yet no tradition had been handed down of any similar catastrophe within the memory of man1 and the growth of the forest on the very spots now devastated clearly showed that for a long interval nothing similar had occurred4 ,one of these moving masses was afterwards found to have slid three miles1 with an average breadth of a quarter of a mile40 ,at the base of the vast chasms formed by these natural excavations1 a confused mass of ruins was seen1 consisting of transported earth1 gravel1 rocks1 and trees4 ,forests were prostrated with as much ease as if they had been mere fields of grain2 if they resisted for a while1 8the torrent of mud and rock accumulated behind till it gathered sufficient force to burst the temporary barrier40 8,the valleys of the ,amonoosuck and ,saco presented1 for many miles1 an uninterrupted scene of desolation1 all the bridges being carried away1 as well as those over the tributary streams4 ,in some places the road was excavated to the depth of from fifteen to twenty feet2 in others it was covered with earth1 rocks1 and trees to as great a height4 ,the water flowed for many weeks after the flood1 as densely charged with earth as it could be without being changed into mud1 and marks were seen in various localities of its having risen on either side of the valley to more than twenty-five feet above the ordinary level40 ,but perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the tremendous nature of this cataclysm is to be found in ,lyell's statements respecting the condition of the region nineteen years later4 8,i found the signs of devastation still very striking10 he says2 8,i also particularly remarked that the surface of the bare granite rocks had been smoothed by the passage over them of so much mud and stone40 ,professor ,hubbard mentions in ,silliman's ,journal that 8in #ahch the deep channels worn by the avalanches of mud and stone1 and the immense heaps of boulders and blocks of granite in the river channel1 still formed a picturesque feature in the scenery40 ,it will readily be understood that when destruction such as this follows from landslips along the borders of insignificant rivers1 those occurring on the banks of the mighty rivers which drain whole continents are still more terrible4 ,the following account from the pen of ,mr4 ,bates the naturalist1 indicates the nature of the landslips which occur on the banks of the ,amazon4 8,i was awoke before sunrise1 one morning10 he says1 8by an unusual sound resembling the roar of artillery2 the noise came from a considerable distance1 one crash succeeding another4 ,i supposed it to be an earthquake1 for1 although the night was breathlessly calm1 the broad river was much agitated1 and the vessel rolled heavily4 ,soon afterwards another loud explosion took place1 followed by others which lasted for an hour till the day dawned1 and we then saw the work of destruction going forward on the other side of the river1 about three miles off4 ,large masses of forest1 including trees of colossal size1 probably #bjj feet in height1 were rocking to and fro1 and falling headlong one after another into the water4 ,after each avalanche the wave which it caused returned on the crumbly bank with tremendous force1 and caused the fall of other masses by undermining4 ,the line of coast over which the landslip extended was a mile or two in length2 the end of it1 however1 was hid from our view by an intervening island4 ,it was a grand sight2 each downfall created a cloud of spray2 the concussion in one place causing other masses to give way a long distance from it1 and thus the crashes continued1 swaying to and fro1 with little prospect of termination4 ,when we glided out of sight two hours after sunrise the destruction was still going on40 ,we might consider here the action of glaciers in gradually grinding down the mountain slopes1 the destructive action of avalanches1 and a number of other forms in which snow and ice break down by slow degrees the upraised portions of the earth4 ,for in reality all these forms of destructive action take their origin in the same process whence running waters and heavy rainfalls derive their power4 ,all these destructive agencies are derived from the vapour of water in the air4 ,but it seems better to limit the reader's attention in this place to the action of water in the liquid form2 and therefore we proceed to consider the other ways in which rain wears down the land4 ,hitherto we have considered effects which are produced chiefly along the courses of rivers1 or in their neighbourhood4 ,but heavy rainfall acts1 and perhaps in the long run as effectively 7when we remember the far wider region affected7 over wide tracts of nearly level ground1 as along the banks of torrents and rivers4 ,the rain which falls on plains or gently undulating surfaces1 although after a while it dries up1 yet to some degree aids in levelling the land1 partly by washing down particles of earth1 however slowly1 to lower levels1 partly by soaking the earth and preparing a thin stratum of its upper surface to be converted into dust1 and blown away by the wind4 ,but it is when very heavy storms occur that the levelling action of rain over widely extending regions can be most readily recognized4 ,of this fact observant travellers cannot fail to have had occasional evidence4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell mentions one instance observed by him1 which is specially interesting4 8,during a tour in ,spain10 he says1 8,i was surprised to see a district of gently undulating ground in ,catalonia1 consisting of red and grey sandstone1 and in some parts of red marl1 almost entirely denuded of herbage1 while the roots of the pines1 holm oaks1 and some other trees1 were half exposed1 as if the soil had been washed away by a flood4 ,such is the state of the forests1 for example1 between ,oristo and ,vich1 and near ,san ,lorenzo4 ,but being overtaken by a violent thunderstorm1 in the month of ,august1 ,i saw the whole surface1 even the highest levels of some flat-topped hills1 streaming with mud1 while on every declivity the devastation of torrents was terrific4 ,the peculiarities in the physiognomy of the district were at once explained1 and ,i was taught that1 in speculating on the greater effects which the direct action of rain may once have produced on the surface of certain parts of ,england1 we need not revert to periods when the heat of the climate was tropical40 ,he might have cited instances of such storms occurring in ,england4 ,for example1 ,white1 in his delightful 8,natural ,history of ,selborne10 describes thus the effects of a storm which occurred on ,june #e1 #aghd3 8,at about a quarter after two the storm began in the parish of ,harpley1 moving slowly from north to south1 and from thence it came over ,norton ,farm and so to ,grange ,farm1 both in this parish4 ,had it been as extensive as it was violent 7for it was very short7 it must have ravaged all the neighbourhood4 ,the extent of the storm was about two miles in length and one in breadth4 ,there fell prodigious torrents of rain on the farms above mentioned1 which occasioned a flood as violent as it was sudden1 doing great damage to the meadows and fallows by deluging the one and washing away the soil of the other4 ,the hollow lane towards ,alton was so torn and disordered as not to be passable till mended1 rocks being removed which weighed two hundredweight40 ,we have mentioned the formation of dust1 and the action of wind upon it1 as a cause tending to level the surface of the land4 ,it may appear to many that this cause is too insignificant to be noticed among those which modify the earth's surface4 ,in reality1 however1 owing to its continuous action1 and to its always acting 7in the main7 in one direction1 this cause is much more important than might be supposed4 ,we overlook its action as actually going on around us1 because in a few years1 or in a few generations1 it produces no change that can be readily noticed4 ,but in long periods of time it changes very markedly the level of lower lands1 and that too even in cities1 where means exist for removing the accumulations of dust which are continually collecting on the surface of the earth4 ,we know that the remains of old ,roman roads1 walls1 houses1 and so forth1 in this country1 are found1 not at the present level of the surface1 but several feet--in some cases many yards--below this level4 ,the same holds elsewhere1 under the same conditions--that is1 where we know quite certainly that the substances thus found underground were originally on the surface1 and that there has been neither any disturbance causing them to be engulfed1 nor any deposition of scori1 volcanic dust1 or other products of subterranean disturbance4 ,we cannot hesitate to regard this burying of old buildings as due to the continual deposition of dust1 which eventually becomes compacted into solid earth4 ,we know1 moreover1 that the formation of dust is in the main due to rain converting the surface layers of the earth into mud1 which on drying requires but the frictional action of heavy winds to rise in clouds of dust4 ,in some soils this process goes on more rapidly than in others1 as every one who has travelled much afoot is aware4 ,there are parts of ,england1 for instance1 where1 even in the driest summer1 the daily deposition of dust on dry and breezy days is but slight1 others where in such weather a dust layer at least a quarter of an inch in thickness is deposited in the course of a day4 ,if we assumed1 which would scarcely seem an exaggerated estimate1 that in the course of a single year a layer of dust averaging an inch in thickness is deposited over the lower levels of the surface of the land1 we should find that the average depth of the layer formed in the last thousand years would amount to no less than eighty-three feet4 ,of course in inhabited places the deposition of dust is checked1 though not so much as most persons imagine4 ,there is not probably in this country a single building five hundred years old1 originally built at a moderately low level1 the position of whose foundation does not attest the constant gathering of matter upon the surface4 ,the actual amount by which the lower levels are raised and the higher levels diminished in the course of a thousand years may be very much less1 but that it must amount to many feet can scarcely be questioned4 ,and as in considering the action of rain falling over a wide range of country1 we have to distinguish between the slow but steady action of ordinary rains and the occasional violent action of great storms of rain1 so in considering the effects of drought following after rain which has well saturated the land we have to distinguish between ordinarily dusty times and occasions when in a very short time1 owing to the intensity of the heat and the violence of the wind large quantities of dust are spread over a wide area4 ,darwin thus describes the effect of such exceptional drought1 as experienced in the years #ahbg-ahcb in ,buenos ,ayres3--8,so little rain fell that the vegetation1 even to the thistles1 failed2 the brooks were dried up1 and the whole country assumed the appearance of a dusty high road4 ,this was especially the case in the northern part of the province of ,buenos ,ayres1 and the southern part of ,santa ,f40 ,he describes the loss of life caused by the want of water1 and many remarkable circumstances of the drought which do not here specially concern us4 ,he then goes on to speak of the dust which gathered over the open country4 8,sir ,woodbine ,parish10 he says1 8informed me of a very curious source of dispute4 ,the ground being so long dry1 such quantities of dust were blown about that in this open country the landmarks became obliterated1 and people could not tell the limits of their estates40 ,the dust thus scattered over the land1 whether left or removed1 necessarily formed part of the solid material brought from higher to lower levels1 indirectly 7in this case7 through the action of rain2 for a drought can only convert into friable matter earth which has before been thoroughly soaked4 ,but the action of rain1 which had originally led to the formation of these enormous masses of dust1 presently took part in carrying the dust in the form of mud to yet lower levels4 8,subsequently to the drought of #ahbg to #ahcb10 proceeds ,darwin1 8a very rainy season followed1 which caused great floods4 ,hence it is almost certain that some thousands of the skeletons0 7of creatures whose deaths he had described before7 8were buried by the deposits of the very next year4 ,what could be the opinion of a geologist1 viewing such an enormous collection of bones1 of all kinds of animals and of all ages1 thus embedded in one thick earthy mass8 ,would he not attribute it to a flood having swept over the surface of the land1 rather than to the common order of things80 ,in fact1 a single great drought1 followed by a very rainy season1 must in this instance1 which was however altogether exceptional1 have produced a layer or stratum such as geologists would ordinarily regard as the work of a much longer time and much more potent disturbing causes4 ,it may be well to consider in this place the question whether in reality the quantity of rain which falls now during our winter months does not greatly exceed that which formerly fell in that part of the year4 ,the idea is very prevalent that our winters have changed entirely in character in recent times1 and the fear 7or the hope87 is entertained that the change may continue in the same direction until wet and mild winters replace altogether the cold which prevailed in former years4 ,there is no sufficient reason1 however1 for supposing that any such change is taking place4 ,it is1 indeed1 not difficult to find in the meteorological annals of the first half of the present century1 instances of the occurrence of several successive winters very unlike the greater number of those which we have experienced during the last ten or twelve years4 ,but if we take any considerable series of years in the last century we find the alternations of the weather very similar to those we at present recognize4 ,consider1 for instance1 ,gilbert ,white's brief summary of the weather from #agfh onwards3-- ,for the winter of #agfh-fi we have ,october and the first part of ,november rainy2 thence to the end of #agfh alternate rains and frosts2 ,january and ,february frosty and rainy1 with gleams of fine weather2 to the middle of ,march1 wind and rain4 ,for the winter of #agfi-gj we have ,october frosty1 the next fortnight rainy1 the next dry and frosty4 ,december windy1 with rain and intervals of frost 7the first fortnight very foggy72 the first half of ,january frosty1 thence to the end of ,february mild hazy weather4 ,march frosty and brighter4 ,for #aggj-ga1 from the middle of ,october to the end of the year1 almost incessant rains2 ,january severe frosts till the last week1 the next fortnight rain and snow1 and spring weather to the end of ,february4 ,march frosty4 ,for #agga-gb1 ,october rainy1 ,november frost with intervals of fog and rain1 ,december bright mild weather with hoar frosts2 then six weeks of frost and snow1 followed by six of frost1 sleet1 hail1 and snow4 ,for #aggb-gc1 ,october1 ,november1 and to ,december #bb1 rain1 with mild weather2 to the end of #aggb1 cold foggy weather2 then a week of frost1 followed by three of dark rainy weather4 ,first fortnight of ,february frost2 thence to the end of ,march misty showery weather4 ,passing over the winter of #aggc-gd1 which was half rainy1 half frosty1 what could more closely resemble the winter weather we have had so much of during the last few years1 than that experienced in the winter of #aggd-ge8 ,from ,august #bd to the third week of ,november1 there was rain1 with frequent intervals of sunny weather2 to the end of ,december1 dark dripping fogs2 to the end of the first fortnight in ,march1 rain almost every day4 ,and so on1 with no remarkable changes1 until the year #agib1 the last of ,gilbert ,white's records4 ,if we limit our attention to any given month of winter1 we find the same mixture of cold and dry with wet and open weather as we are familiar with at present4 ,take1 for instance1 the month usually the most wintry of all1 viz41 ,january4 ,passing over the years already considered1 we have ,january1 #aggf1 dark and frosty with much snow till the #bfth 7at this time the ,thames was frozen over71 then foggy with hoar frost2 ,january1 #aggg1 frosty till the #ajth1 then foggy and showery2 #aggh1 frosty till the #acth1 then rainy to the #bdth1 then hard frost2 #aggi1 frost and showers throughout ,january2 #aghj1 frost throughout2 #agha1 frost and snow to the #beth1 then rain and snow2 #aghb1 open and mild2 #aghc1 rainy with heavy winds2 #aghd1 hard frost2 #aghe1 a thaw on the #bnd1 then rainy weather to the #bhth1 the rest of the month frosty2 #aghf1 frost and snow till ,january #g1 then a week mild with much rain1 the next week heavy snow1 and the rest mild with frequent rain2 #aghg1 first twenty-four days dark moist mild weather1 then four days frost1 the rest mild and showery2 #aghh1 thirteen days mild and wet1 five days of frost1 and from ,january #ah to the end of the month dry windy weather2 #aghi1 thirteen days hard frost1 the rest of the month mild with showers2 #agij1 sixteen days of mild foggy weather with occasional rain1 to the #bast frost1 to the #bhth dark with driving rains1 and the rest mild dry weather2 #agia1 the whole of ,january mild with heavy rains2 and lastly #agib1 8some hard frost in ,january1 but mostly wet and mild40 ,there is nothing certainly in this record to suggest that any material change has taken place in our ,january weather during the last eight years4 ,and if we had given the record of the entire winter for each of the years above dealt with the result would have been the same4 ,we have1 in fact1 very striking evidence in ,gilbert ,white's account of the cold weather of ,december1 #aghd1 which he specially describes as 8very extraordinary10 to show that neither our severe nor our average winter weather can differ materially from that which people experienced in the eighteenth century4 8,in the evening of ,december #i10 he says1 8the air began to be so very sharp that we thought it would be curious to attend to the motions of a thermometer2 we therefore hung out two1 one made by ,martin and one by ,dolland0 7sic1 presumably ,dollond71 8which soon began to show us what we were to expect2 for by ten o'clock they fell to twenty-one1 and at eleven to four1 when we went to bed4 ,on the #ajth1 in the morning the quicksilver in ,dolland's glass was down to half a degree below zero1 and that of ,martin's1 which was absurdly graduated only to four degrees above zero1 sank quite into the brass guard of the ball1 so that when the weather became most interesting this was useless4 ,on the #ajth1 at eleven at night1 though the air was perfectly still1 ,dolland's glass went down to one degree below zero60 ,the note of exclamation is ,white's4 ,he goes on to speak of 8this strange severity of the weather10 which was not exceeded that winter1 or at any time during the twenty-four years of ,white's observations4 ,within the last quarter of a century1 the thermometer1 on more than one occasion1 has shown two or three degrees below zero4 ,certainly the winters cannot be supposed to have been ordinarily severer than ours in the latter half of the last century1 when we find that thermometers1 by well-known instrument makers1 were so constructed as to indicate no lower temperature than four degrees above zero4 ,let us return1 after this somewhat long digression1 to the levelling action of rain and rivers4 ,if we consider this action alone1 we cannot but recognize in it a cause sufficient to effect the removal of all the higher parts of the land to low levels1 and eventually of all the low-lying land to the sea1 in the course of such periods as geology makes us acquainted with4 ,the mud-banks at the mouths of rivers show only a part of what rain and river action is doing1 yet consider how enormous is the mass which is thus carried into the sea4 ,it has been calculated that in a single week the ,ganges alone carries away from the soil of ,india and delivers into the sea twice as much solid substance as is contained in the great pyramid of ,egypt4 8,the ,irrawaddy10 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 8sweeps off from ,burmah #fb cubit feet of earth in every second of time on an average1 and there are #hf1djj seconds in every day1 and #cfe days in every year2 and so on for other rivers4 ,nor is there any reason to fear or hope that the rains will cease1 and this destructive process come to an end4 ,for though the quantity of water on the surface of the earth is probably undergoing a slow process of diminution1 small portions of it year by year taking their place as waters under the earth1#dd yet these processes are far too slow to appreciably affect the supply of water till a far longer period has elapsed than that during which 7in all probability7 life can continue upon the earth4 ,when we consider the force really represented by the downfall of rain1 we need not greatly wonder that the levelling power of rain is so effective4 ,the sun's heat is the true agent in thus levelling the earth1 and if we regard1 as we justly may1 the action of water1 whether in the form of rain or river1 or of sea-wave raised by wind or tide1 as the chief levelling and therefore destructive force at work upon the earth1 and the action of the earth's vulcanian energies as the chief restorative agent1 then we may fairly consider the contest as lying between the sun's heat and the earth's internal heat4 ,there can be little question as to what would be the ultimate issue of the contest if land and sea and air all endured or were only so far modified as they were affected by these causes4 ,sun-heat would inevitably prevail in the long run over earth-heat4 ,but we see from the condition of our moon how the withdrawal of water and air from the scene must diminish the sun's power of levelling the irregularities of the earth's surface4 ,we say advisedly diminish1 not destroy2 for there can be no question that the solar heat alternating with the cold of the long lunar night is still at work levelling1 however slowly1 the moon's surface2 and the same will be the case with our earth when her oceans and atmosphere have disappeared by slow processes of absorption4 ,the power actually at work at present in producing rain1 and so1 indirectly1 in levelling the earth's surface1 is enormous4 ,i have shown that the amount of heat required to evaporate a quantity of water which would cover an area of #ajj square miles to a depth of one inch would be equal to the heat which would be produced by the combustion of half a million tons of coals1 and that the amount of force of which this consumption of heat would be the equivalent corresponds to that which would be required to raise a weight of upwards of one thousand millions of tons to a height of one mile4#de ,when we remember that the land surface of the earth amounts to about fifty millions of square miles1 we perceive how enormous must be the force-equivalent of the annual rainfall of our earth4 ,we are apt to overlook when contemplating the silent and seemingly quiet processes of nature--such as the formation of the rain-cloud or the precipitation of rain--the tremendous energy of the forces really causing these processes4 8,i have seen10 says ,professor ,tyndall1 8the wild stone-avalanches of the ,alps1 which smoke and thunder down the declivities with a vehemence almost sufficient to stun the observer4 ,i have also seen snow-flakes descending so softly as not to hurt the fragile spangles of which they were composed2 yet to produce from aqueous vapour a quantity which a child could carry of that tender material demands an exertion of energy competent to gather up the shattered blocks of the largest stone-avalanche ,i have ever seen1 and pitch them to twice the height from which they fell40 ,,ancient ,,babylonian ,,astrogony4 ,it is singular to consider how short a time elapsed1 after writings in the arrow-headed or cuneiform letters 7the ,keilschriften of the ,germans7 were discovered1 before1 first1 the power of interpreting them was obtained1 and1 secondly1 the range of the cuneiform literature 7so to speak7 was recognized4 ,not more than ninety years have passed since the first specimens of arrow-headed inscriptions reached ,europe4 ,they had been known for a considerable time before this4 ,indeed1 it has been supposed that the ,assyrian letters referred to by ,herodotus1 ,thucydides1 and ,pliny1 were in this character4 ,della ,valle and ,figueroa1 early in the seventeenth century1 described inscriptions in arrow-headed letters1 and hazarded the idea that they are to be read from left to right4 ,but no very satisfactory evidence was advanced to show whether the inscriptions were to be so read1 or from right to left1 or1 as ,chardin suggested1 in vertical lines4 ,the celebrated ,olaus ,gerhard ,tychsen1 of ,rostock1 and other ,german philologists1 endeavoured to decipher the specimens which reached ,europe towards the end of the last century2 but their efforts1 though ingenious and zealous1 were not rewarded with success4 ,in #ahja ,dr4 ,hager advanced the suggestion that the combinations formed by the arrow-heads did not represent letters but words1 if not entire sentences4 ,lichtenstein1 on the other hand1 maintained that the letters belonged to an old form of the ,arabic or ,coptic character2 and he succeeded to his own satisfaction in finding various passages from the ,koran in the cuneiform inscriptions4 ,dr4 ,grotefend was the first to achieve any real success in this line of research4 ,it is said that he was led to take up the subject by a slight dispute with one of his friends1 which led to a wager that he would decipher one of the cuneiform inscriptions4 ,the results of his investigations were that cuneiform inscriptions are alphabetical1 not hieroglyphical2 that the language employed is the basis of most of the ,eastern languages2 and that it is written from right to left4 ,since his time1 through the labours of ,rich1 ,botta1 ,rawlinson1 ,hincks1 ,de ,saulcy1 ,layard1 ,sayce1 ,george ,smith1 and others1 the collection and interpretation of the arrow-headed inscriptions have been carried out with great success4 ,we find reason to believe that1 though the original literature of ,babylon was lost1 the tablet libraries of ,assyria contained copies of most of the writings of the more ancient nation4 ,amongst these have been found the now celebrated descriptions of the ,creation1 the ,fall of ,man1 the ,deluge1 the ,tower of ,babel1 and other matters found in an abridged and expurgated form in the book of ,genesis4 ,it is to that portion of the ,babylonian account which relates to the creation of the sun and moon and stars that ,i wish here to call attention4 ,it is not only curious in itself1 but throws light1 in my opinion1 on questions of considerable interest connected with the views of ancient ,eastern nations respecting the heavenly bodies4 ,it may be well1 before considering the passage in question1 to consider briefly--though we may not be able definitely to determine--the real antiquity of the ,babylonian account4 ,in ,smith's interesting work on the ,chaldan account of ,genesis1 the question whether the ,babylonian account preceded the writing of the book of ,genesis1 or vice vers1 is not definitely dealt with4 ,probably this part of his subject was included among the 8important comparisons and conclusions with respect to ,genesis0 which he preferred to avoid1 as his 8desire was first to obtain the recognition of the evidence without prejudice40 ,it might certainly have interfered to some degree with the unprejudiced recognition of the evidence of the tablets if it had been maintained by him1 and still more if he had demonstrated1 that the ,babylonian is the earlier version4 ,for the account in the book of ,genesis1 coming thus to be regarded as merely an expurgated version of a narrative originally containing much fabulous matter1 and not a little that is monstrous and preposterous1 would certainly not have been presented to us in quite that aspect in which it had long been regarded by theologians4 ,but although ,mr4 ,smith states that he placed the various dates as low as he fairly could1 considering the evidence1--nay1 that he 8aimed to do this rather than to establish any system of chronology10--there can be no mistake about the relative antiquity which he in reality assigns to the ,babylonian inscriptions4 ,he states1 indeed1 that every copy of the ,genesis legends belongs to the reign of ,assurbanipal1 who reigned over ,assyria ,b4,c4 #fgj4 ,but it is 8acknowledged on all hands that the tablets are not the originals1 but are only copies from earlier texts40 ,the ,assyrians acknowledge themselves that this literature was borrowed from ,babylonian sources1 and of course it is to ,babylonia we have to look to ascertain the approximate dates of the original documents4 8,the difficulty10 he proceeds1 8is increased by the following considerations3 it appears that at an early period in ,babylonian history a great literary development took place1 and numerous works were produced which embodied the prevailing myths1 religion1 and science of that day4 ,written1 many of them1 in a noble style of poetry on one side1 or registering the highest efforts of their science on the other1 these texts became the standards for ,babylonian literature1 and later generations were content to copy these writings instead of making new works for themselves4 ,clay1 the material on which they were written1 was everywhere abundant1 copies were multiplied1 and by the veneration in which they were held these texts fixed and stereotyped the style of ,babylonian literature1 and the language in which they were written remained the classical style in the country down to the ,persian conquest4 ,thus it happens that texts of ,rim-agu1 ,sargon1 and ,hammurabi1 who were #ajjj years before ,nebuchadnezzar and ,nabonidus1 show the same language as the texts of these later kings1 there being no sensible difference in style to match the long interval between them10--precisely as a certain devotional style of writing of our own day closely resembles the style of the sixteenth century4 ,we cannot1 then1 from the style1 determine the age of the original writings from which the ,assyrian tablets were copied4 ,but there are certain facts which enable us to form an opinion on this point4 ,babylonia was conquered about ,b4,c4 #acjj1 by ,tugultininip1 king of ,assyria4 ,for #bej years before that date a foreign race 7called by ,berosus1 ,arabs7 had ruled in ,babylonia4 ,there is no evidence of any of the original ,babylonian ,genesis tablets being written after the date of ,hammurabi1 under whom it is supposed that this race obtained dominion in ,babylonia4 ,many scholars1 indeed1 regard ,hammurabi as much more ancient2 but none set him later than #aeej ,b4,c4 ,now1 before the time of ,hammurabi several races of kings reigned1 their reigns ranging over a period of #ejj years4 ,they were called chiefly ,kings of ,sumir and ,akkad--that is1 ,kings of ,upper and ,lower ,babylonia4 ,it is believed that before this period1--ranging1 say1 from about #bjjj ,b4,c4 to #aeej ,b4,c4 7at least not later1 though possibly1 and according to many scholars1 probably1 far earlier71--the two divisions of ,babylonia were separate monarchies4 ,thus1 evidence whether any literature was written before or after ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 may be found in the presence or absence of mention1 or traces1 of this division of the ,babylonian kingdom4 ,mr4 ,smith considers1 for example1 that two works1--the great ,chaldan work on astrology1 and a legend which he calls 8,the ,exploits of ,lubara10--certainly belong to the period preceding ,b4,c4 #bjjj4 ,in the former work1 the subject of which specially connects it1 as will presently be seen1 with the tablet relating to the creation of the heavenly bodies1 ,akkad is always referred to as a separate state4 ,now ,mr4 ,smith finds that the story of the ,creation and ,fall belongs to the upper or ,akkad division of the country4 ,the ,izdubar legends1 containing the story of the ,flood1 and what ,mr4 ,smith regards as probably the history of ,nimrod1 seem to belong to ,sumir1 the southern division of ,babylonia4 ,he considers the ,izdubar legends to have been written at least as early as ,b4,c4 #bjjj4 ,the story of the ,creation 8may not have been committed to writing so early20 but it also is of great antiquity4 ,and these legends 8were traditions before they were committed to writing1 and were common1 in some form1 to all the country40 ,remembering ,mr4 ,smith's expressed intention of setting all dates as late as possible1 his endeavour to do this rather than to establish any system of chronology1 we cannot misunderstand the real drift of his arguments1 or the real significance of his conclusion that the period when the ,genesis tablets were originally written extended from ,b4,c4 #bjjj to ,b4,c4 #aeej1 or roughly synchronized with the period from ,abraham to ,moses1 according to the ordinary chronology of our ,bibles4 8,during this period it appears that traditions of the creation of the universe1 and human history down to the time of ,nimrod1 existed parallel to1 and in some points identical with1 those given in the book of ,genesis40 ,thus viewing the matter1 we recognize the interest of that passage in the ,babylonian ,genesis tablets which corresponds with the account in the book of ,genesis respecting the creation of the heavenly bodies4 ,we find in it the earliest existent record of the origin of astrological superstitions4 ,it does not express merely the vague belief1 which might be variously interpreted1 that the sun and moon and stars were specially created 7after light had been created1 after the firmament had been formed separating the waters above from the waters below1 and after the land had been separated from the water7 to be for signs and for seasons for the inhabitants of the world--that is1 of our earth4 ,it definitely states that those other suns1 the stars1 were set into constellation figures for man's benefit2 the planets and the moon next formed for his use2 and the sun set thereafter in the heavens as the chief among the celestial bodies4 ,it runs thus1 so far as the fragments have yet been gathered together3-- ,,fifth ,,tablet ,,of ,,creation ,,legend4 #a4 ,it was delightful all that was fixed by the great gods4 #b4 ,stars1 their appearance in figures of animals he arranged1 #c4 ,to fix the year through the observation of their constellations1 #d4 ,twelve months 7or signs7 of stars in three rows he arranged1 #e4 ,from the day when the year commences unto the close4 #f4 ,he marked the positions of the wandering stars 7planets7 to shine in their courses1 #g4 ,that they may not do injury1 and may not trouble any one4 #h4 ,the positions of the gods ,bel and ,hea he fixed with him4 #i4 ,and he opened the great gates in the darkness shrouded1 #aj4 ,the fastenings were strong on the left and right4 #aa4 ,in its mass 7i4e4 the lower chaos7 he made a boiling4 #ab4 ,the god ,uru 7the moon7 he caused to rise out1 the night he over shadowed1 #ac4 ,to fix it also for the light of the night until the shining of the day1 #ad4 ,that the month might not be broken1 and in its amount be regular4 #ae4 ,at the beginning of the month1 at the rising of the night1 #af4 ,his horns are breaking through to shine on the heaven4 #ag4 ,on the seventh day to a circle he begins to swell1 #ah4 ,and stretches towards the dawn further4 #ai4 ,when the god ,shamas 7the sun7 in the horizon of heaven1 in the east1 #bj4 4 4 4 formed beautifully and 4 4 4 #ba4 4 4 4 4 4 4 to the orbit ,shamas was perfected #bb4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 the dawn ,shamas should change #bc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 going on its path #bd4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 giving judgment #be4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 to tame #bf4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 a second time #bg4 4 4 4 ,of this tablet ,smith remarks that it is a typical specimen of the style of the series1 and shows a marked stage in the ,creation1 the appointment of the heavenly orbs running parallel to the biblical account of the fourth day of ,creation4 ,it is important to notice its significance in this respect4 ,we can understand now the meaning underlying the words1 8,god said1 ,let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens1 to divide the day from the night2 and let them be for signs and for seasons1 and for days and years40 ,the order1 indeed1 in which the bodies are formed according to the biblical account is inverted4 ,the greater light--the sun--is made first1 to rule the day3 then the lesser light--the moon--to rule the night4 ,these are the heavenly bodies which in this description rule the day of #bd hours4 ,the sun may be regarded also as ruling 7according to the ancient view1 as according to nature7 the seasons and the year4 ,the stars remain as set in the heaven for signs4 8,he made the stars also40 8,and ,god set them0--that is1 the sun1 moon1 and stars--8in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth1 and to rule over the day and over the night10 and so forth4 ,no one can doubt1 ,i conceive1 that the biblical account is superior to the other1 both in a scientific and in a literary sense4 ,it states much less as actually known1 and what it does state accords better with the facts known in the writer's day4 ,then1 the ,babylonian narrative1 though impressive in certain passages1 is overloaded with detail4 ,in both accounts we find the heavenly bodies set in the firmament by a special creative act1 and specially designed for the benefit of man4 ,and in passing ,i would observe that the discovery of these ,babylonian inscriptions1 however they may be interpreted1 and whether they be regarded as somewhat earlier or somewhat later than the ,bible narrative1 appears to dispose finally of the fantastic interpretation assigned by ,hugh ,miller and others to the biblical cosmogony1 as corresponding to a series of visions in which the varying aspects of the world were presented4 ,it has long seemed to me an utterly untenable proposition that a narrative seemingly intended to describe definitely a certain series of events should1 after being for ages so interpreted1 require now for its correct interpretation to be regarded as an account of a series of visions4 ,if the explanation were reconcilable in any way with the words of ,genesis1 there yet seems something of profanity in imagining that men's minds had thus been played with by a narrative purporting to be of one sort yet in reality of quite a different character4 ,but whatever possibility there may be 7and it can be but the barest possibility7 that the ,genesis narrative admits of the vision interpretation1 no one can reasonably attempt to extend that interpretation to the ,babylonian account4 ,so that either a narrative from which the ,genesis account was presumably derived was certainly intended to describe a series of events1 or else a narrative very nearly as early as the ,genesis account1 and presumably derived from it at a time when its true meaning must have been known1 presents the sun1 moon1 and stars as objects expressly created and set in the sky after the earth had been formed1 and for the special benefit of man as yet uncreated4 ,i am not concerned1 however1 either to dwell upon this point1 or to insist on any of its consequences4 ,let us return to the consideration of the ,babylonian narrative as it stands4 ,we find twelve constellations or signs of the zodiac are mentioned as set to fix the year4 ,i am inclined to consider that the preceding words1 8stars1 their appearance in figures of animals he arranged10 relate specially to the stars of the zodiac4 ,the inventor of this astrogony probably regarded the stars as originally scattered in an irregular manner over the heavens1--rather as chaotic material from which constellations might be formed1 than as objects separately and expressly created4 ,then they were taken and formed into figures of animals1 set in such a way as to fix the year through the observation of these constellations4 ,it is hardly necessary1 perhaps1 to remind the reader that the word zodiac is derived from a ,greek word signifying an animal1 the original name of the zone being the zodiacal way1 or the pathway of the animals4 ,our older navigators called it the ,bestiary4#df 8,twelve months or signs in three rows40 ,smith takes the three rows to mean 7i47 the zodiacal signs1 7ii47 the constellations north of the zodiac1 and 7iii47 the constellations south of the zodiac4 ,but this does not agree with the words 8twelve signs in three rows40 ,possibly the reference is to three circles1 two bounding the zodiac on the north and south respectively1 the third central1 the ecliptic1 or track of the sun2 or the two tropics and the equator may have been signified4 ,instead of 8twelve signs in three rows10 we should1 probably1 read 8twelve signs along a triple band40 ,the description was written long after astronomical temples were first erected1 and as the designer of a zodiacal dome like that 7far more recently7 erected at ,denderah would set the twelve zodiacal signs along a band formed by three parallel circles1 marking its central line and its northern and southern limits1 so we can understand the writer of the tablet presenting the celestial architect as working in the same lines1 on a grander scale2 setting the twelve zodiacal signs on the corresponding triple band in the heavens themselves4 ,the next point to be noticed in the ,babylonian astrology is the reference to 8wandering stars40 ,mr4 ,smith remarks that the word nibir1 thus translated1 8is not the usual word for planet1 and there is a star called ,nibir near the place where the sun crossed the boundary between the old and new years1 and this star was one of twelve supposed to be favourable to ,babylonia40 8,it is evident10 he proceeds1 8from the opening of the inscription on the first tablet of the ,chaldan astrology and astronomy1 that the functions of the stars were1 according to the ,babylonians1 to act not only as regulators of the seasons and the year1 but also to be used as signs1 as in ,genesis i4 #ad2 for in those ages it was generally believed that the heavenly bodies gave1 by their appearance and positions1 signs of events which were coming on the earth40 ,the two verses relating to ,nibir seem to correspond to no other celestial bodies but planets 7unless1 perhaps1 to comets74 ,if we regard ,nibir as signifying any fixed star1 we can find no significance in the marking of the course of the star ,nibir1 that it may do no injury and may not trouble any one4 ,moreover1 as the fixed stars1 the sun1 and the moon1 are separately described1 it seems unlikely that the planets would be left unnoticed4 ,in the biblical narrative the reference to the celestial bodies is so short that we can understand the planets being included in the words1 8,he made the stars also40 ,but in an account so full of detail as that presented in the ,babylonian tablet1 the omission of the planets would be very remarkable4 ,it is also worthy of notice that in ,polyhistor's ,babylonian traditions1 recorded by ,berosus1 we read that 8,belus formed the stars1 the sun1 the moon1 and the five planets40 ,in the tablet narrative the creator of the heavenly bodies is supposed to be ,anu1 god of the heavens4 ,this is inferred by ,mr4 ,smith from the fact 8that the ,god who created the stars1 fixed places or habitations for ,bel and ,hea with himself in the heavens40 ,for according to the ,babylonian theogony1 the three gods ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,hea share between them the divisions of the face of the sky4 ,the account of the creation of the moon is perhaps the most interesting part of the narrative4 ,we see that1 according to the ,babylonian philosophy1 the earth is regarded as formed from the waters and resting after its creation above a vast abyss of chaotic water4 ,we find traces of this old hypothesis in several biblical passages1 as1 for instance1 in the words of the ,third ,commandment1 8the heaven above1 the earth beneath1 and the waters under the earth20 and again in ,proverbs xxx4 #d1 8,who hath bound the waters in a garment8 who hath established all the ends of the earth80 8,the great gates in the darkness shrouded1 the fastenings strong on the left and right10 in the ,babylonian account1 refer to the enclosure of the great infernal lake1 so that the waters under the earth might not overwhelm the world4 ,it is from out the dark ocean beneath the earth that the god ,anu calls the moon into being4 ,he opens the mighty gates shrouded in the nether darkness1 and creates a vast whirlpool in the gloomy ocean2 then 8at his bidding1 from the turmoil arose the moon like a giant bubble1 and passing through the open gates mounted on its destined way across the vaults of heaven40 ,it is strange to reflect that in quite recent times1 at least #djjj years after the ,babylonian tablet was written1 and who shall tell how many years after the tradition was first invented8--a theory of the moon's origin not unlike the ,babylonian hypothesis has been advanced1 despite overwhelming dynamical objections2 and a modern paradoxist has even pointed to the spot beneath the ocean where a sudden increase of depth indicates that matter was suddenly extruded long ago1 and driven forcibly away from the earth to the orbit along which that expelled mass--our moon--is now travelling4 ,it would have been interesting to have known how the ,babylonian tablet described the creation of ,shamas1 the sun2 though1 so far as can be judged from the fragments above quoted1 there was not the same fulness of detail in this part of the description as in that relating to the moon4 ,mr4 ,smith infers that the ,babylonians considered the moon the more important body1 unlike the writer or compiler of the book of ,genesis1 who describes the sun as the greater light4 ,it does not seem to follow very clearly1 however1 from the tablet record1 that the sun was considered inferior to the moon in importance1 and certainly we cannot imagine that the ,babylonians considered the moon a greater light4 ,the creation of the stars precedes that of the moon1 though manifestly the moon was judged to be more important than the stars4 ,not improbably1 therefore1 the sun1 though following the moon in order of creation1 was regarded as the more important orb of the two4 ,in fact1 in the ,babylonian as in the 7so-called7 ,mosaic legend of ,creation1 the more important members of a series of created bodies are1 in some cases1 created last--man last of all orders of animated beings1 for instance4 ,if we turn now from the consideration of the ,babylonian tradition of the creation of the heavenly bodies to note how the biblical account differs from it1 not only or chiefly in details1 but in general character1 we seem to recognize in the latter a determination to detach from the celestial orbs the individuality1 so to speak1 which the older tradition had given to them4 ,the account in ,genesis is not only simpler1 and1 in a literary sense1 more effective1 but it is in another sense purified4 ,the celestial bodies do not appear in it as celestial beings4 ,the ,babylonian legend is followed only so far as it can be followed consistently with the avoidance of all that might tempt to the worship of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,the writer of the book of ,genesis1 whether ,moses or not1 seems certainly to have shared the views of ,moses as to the ,sabanism of the nation from which the children of ,abraham had separated4 ,moses warned the ,israelite1--8,take good heed unto thyself1 lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven2 and when thou seest the sun1 and the moon1 and the stars1 even all the host of heaven1 shouldest be driven to worship them1 and serve them1 which the ,lord thy ,god hath divided unto all nations under the whole heaven40 ,so the writer of ,genesis is careful to remove from the tradition which he follows all that might suggest the individual power and influence of the heavenly bodies4 ,the stars are to be for signs1 but we read nothing of the power of the wandering stars 8to do injury or trouble any one40 7,that is1 not in the book of ,genesis4 ,in the song of ,deborah we find1 though perhaps only in a poetic fashion1 the old influences assigned to the planets1 when the singer says that the 8stars in their courses fought against ,sisera40 ,deborah1 however1 was a woman1 and women have always been loth and late to give up ancient superstitions47 ,again1 the sun and the moon in ,genesis are the greater and the lesser lights1 not1 as in the ,babylonian narrative1 the god ,shamas and the god ,uru4 ,we may find a parallel to this treatment of the ,babylonian myth in the treatment by ,moses of the observance of the ,sabbath1 a day of rest which the ,babylonian tablets show to have had1 as for other reasons had been before suspected1 an astrological significance4 ,the ,jewish lawgiver does not do away with the observance2 in fact1 he was probably powerless to do away with it4 ,at any rate1 he suffers the observance to remain1 precisely as the writer of the book of ,genesis retains the ,babylonian tradition of the creation of the celestial bodies4 ,but he is careful to expurgate the ,chaldan observance1 just as the writer of ,genesis is careful to expurgate the ,babylonian tradition4 ,the week as a period is no longer associated with astrological superstitions1 nor the ,sabbath rest enjoined as a fetish4 ,both ideas are directly associated with the monotheistic principle which primarily led to the separation of the family of ,abraham from the rest of the ,chaldan race4 ,in ,babylonia1 the method of associating the names of the sun1 moon1 and stars with the days1 doubtless had its origin4 ,saturn was the ,sabbath star1 as it is still called 7,sabbatai7 in the ,talmud4 ,but1 as ,professor ,tischendorf told ,humboldt1 in answer to a question specially addressed to him on the subject1 8there is an entire absence in both the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 of any traces of names of week-days taken from the planets40 ,the lunar festivals1 again1 though unquestionably ,sabaistic in their origin1 were apparently too thoroughly established to be discarded by ,moses2 nay1 he was even obliged to permit the continuance of many observances which suspiciously resembled the old offerings of sacrifice to the moon as a deity4 ,he had also to continue the sacrifice of the passover1 the origin of which was unmistakably astronomical1--corresponding in time to the sun's passage across the equator1 or rather to the first lunar month following and including that event4 ,but he carefully dissociates both the lunar and the lunisolar sacrifices from their primary ,sabaistic significance4 ,in fact1 the history of early ,hebrew legislation1 so far as it related to religion1 is the history of a struggle on the part of the lawgivers and the leaders of opinion against the tendency of the people to revert to the idolatrous worship of their ancestors and of races closely akin to them--especially against the tendency to the worship of the sun and moon and all the host of heaven4 ,in the very fact1 however1 that this contest was maintained1 while yet the ,hebrew cosmogony1 and in particular the ,hebrew astrogony1 contains indubitable evidence of its origin in the poetical myths of older ,babylonia1 we find one of the strongest proofs of the influence which the literature of ,babylon1 when at the fulness of its development1 exerted upon surrounding nations4 ,this influence is not more clearly shown even by the fact that nearly #bjjj years after the decay of ,babylonian literature1 science1 and art1 a nation like the ,assyrians1 engaged in establishing empire rather than in literary and scientific pursuits1 should have been at the pains to obtain copies of many thousands of the tablet records which formed the libraries of older ,babylonia4 ,in both circumstances we find good reason for hoping that careful search among ,assyrian and ,babylonian ruins may not only be rewarded by the discovery of many other portions of the later ,assyrian library 7which was also in some sense a museum71 but that other and earlier copies of the original ,babylonian records may be obtained4 ,for it seems unlikely that works so valuable as to be thought worth recopying after #aejj or #bjjj years1 in ,assyria1 had not been more than once copied during the interval in ,babylonia4 8,search in ,babylonia10 says ,mr4 ,smith1 8would no doubt yield earlier copies of all these works1 but that search has not yet been instituted1 and for the present we have to be contented with our ,assyrian copies4 ,looking1 however1 at the world-wide interest of the subjects1 and at the important evidence which perfect copies of these works would undoubtedly give1 there can be no doubt10 ,mr4 ,smith adds1 8that the subject of further search and discovery will not slumber1 and that all as yet known will one day be superseded by newer texts and fuller and more perfect light40 ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,edinburgh ,london ,,footnotes #a ,more strictly1 it plays the same part as a glass screen before a glowing fire4 ,when the heat of the fire falls on such a screen 7through which light passes readily enough71 it is received by the glass1 warming the glass up to a certain point1 and the warmed glass emits in all directions the heat so received2 thus scattering over a large space the rays which1 but for the glass1 would have fallen directly upon the objects which the screen is intended to protect4 #b ,the case here imagined is not entirely hypothetical4 ,we examine ,mercury and ,venus very nearly under the conditions here imagined2 for we can obtain only spectroscopic evidence respecting the existence of water on either planet4 ,in the case of ,mars we have telescopic evidence1 and no one now doubts that the greenish parts of the planet are seas and oceans4 ,but ,venus and ,mercury are never seen under conditions enabling the observer to determine the colour of various parts of their discs4 ,i may add that a mistake1 somewhat analogous to that which ,i have described in the cases of an imagined observer of our earth1 has been made by some spectroscopists in the case of the planets ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,in considering the spectroscopic evidence respecting the condition of these planets' atmospheres1 they have overlooked the circumstance that we can judge only of the condition of the outermost and coolest layers1 for the lower layers are concealed from view by the enormous cloud masses1 floating1 as the telescope shows1 in the atmospheric envelopes of the giant planets4 ,thus the ,german spectroscopist ,vgel argues that because in the spectrum of ,jupiter dark lines are seen which are known to belong to the absorption-spectrum of aqueous vapour1 the planet's surface cannot be intensely hot4 ,but ,jupiter's absorption-spectrum belongs to layers of his atmosphere lying far above his surface4 ,we can no more infer the actual temperature of ,jupiter's surface from the temperature of the layers which produce his absorption-spectrum1 than a visitor who should view our earth from outer space1 observing the low temperature of the air ten or twelve miles above the sea-level1 could infer thence the actual temperature of the earth's surface4 #c ,in 8,other ,worlds than ,ours10 ,i wrote as follows3--8,the lines of hydrogen1 which are so well marked in the solar spectrum1 are not seen in the spectrum of ,betelgeux4 ,we are not to conclude from this that hydrogen does not exist in the composition of the star4 ,we know that certain parts of the solar disc1 when examined with the spectroscope1 do not at all times exhibit the hydrogen lines1 or may even present them as bright instead of dark lines4 ,it may well be that in ,betelgeux hydrogen exists under such conditions that the amount of light it sends forth is nearly equivalent to the amount it absorbs1 in which case its characteristic lines would not be easily discernible4 ,in fact1 it is important to notice generally1 that while there can be no mistaking the positive evidence afforded by the spectroscope as to the existence of any element in sun or star1 the negative evidence supplied by the absence of particular lines is not to be certainly relied upon40 #d ,dr4 ,draper remarks here in passing1 8,i do not think that1 in comparisons of the spectra of the elements and sun1 enough stress has been laid on the general appearance of lines apart from their mere position2 in photographic representations this point is very prominent40 #e ,the word 8ignited0 may mislead1 and indeed is not correctly used here4 ,the oxygen in the solar atmosphere1 like the hydrogen1 is simply glowing with intensity of heat4 ,no process of combustion is taking place4 ,ignition1 strictly speaking1 means the initiation of the process of combustion1 and a substance can only be said to be ignited when it has been set burning4 ,the word glowing is preferable2 or if reference is made to heat and light combined1 then 8glowing with intensity of heat0 seems the description most likely to be correctly understood4 #f ,it would be an interesting experiment1 which ,i would specially recommend to those who1 like ,dr4 ,draper1 possess instrumental means specially adapted to the inquiry1 to ascertain what variations1 if any1 occur in the solar spectrum when 7i47 the central part of the disc alone1 and 7ii47 the outer part alone1 is allowed to transmit light to the spectroscope4 ,the inquiry seems specially suited to the methods of spectral photography pursued by ,dr4 ,draper1 and by ,dr4 ,huggins1 in this country4 ,still1 ,i believe interesting results can be obtained even without these special appliances2 and ,i hope before long to employ my own telescope in this department of research4 #g ,in #ahfj1 a year of maximum sun-spot frequency1 ,cambridge won the ,university boat-race2 the year #ahfe1 of minimum sun-spot frequency1 marked the middle of a long array of ,oxford victories2 #ahgb1 the next maximum1 marked the middle of a ,cambridge series of victories4 ,may we not anticipate that in #ahgh1 the year of minimum spot frequency1 ,oxford will win8 ,this prediction made in autumn1 #ahgg1 was fulfilled4 ,i doubt not similar evidence might be obtained about cricket4 #h ,it must be understood that this remark relates only to the theory that by close scrutiny of the sun a power of predicting weather peculiarities can be obtained1 not to the theory that there may be a cyclic association between sun-spots and the weather4 ,if this association exists1 yet no scrutiny of the sun can tell us more than we already know1 and it will scarcely be pretended that new solar observatories could give us any better general idea of the progress of the great sun-spot period than we obtain from observatories already in existence1 or1 indeed1 might obtain from the observations of a single amateur telescopist4 ,i think it quite possible that1 from the systematic study of terrestrial relations1 the existence of a cyclic association between the great spot period and terrestrial phenomena may be demonstrated1 instead of being merely surmised1 as at present4 ,by the way1 it may be worth noting that a prediction relative to the coming winter that of #ahgg-gh has been made on the faith of such association by ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth4 ,it runs as follows3-- 8,having recently computed the remaining observations of our earth-thermometers here1 and prepared a new projection of all the observations from their beginning in #ahcg to their calamitous close last year #ahgf--results generally confirmatory of those arrived at in #ahgj have been obtained1 but with more pointed and immediate bearing on the weather now before us4 8,the chief features undoubtedly deducible for the past thirty-nine years1 after eliminating the more seasonal effects of ordinary summer and winter1 are3-- 8#a4 ,between #ahcg and #ahgf three great heat-waves1 from without1 struck this part of the earth1 viz41 the first in #ahdfe1 the second in #ahehj1 and the third in #ahfhg4 ,and unless some very complete alteration in the weather is to take place1 the next such visitation may be looked for in #ahgie1 within limits of half a year each way4 8#b4 ,the next feature in magnitude and certainty is that the periods of minimum temperature1 or cold1 are not either in1 or anywhere near1 the middle time between the crests of those three chronologically identified heat-waves1 but are comparatively close up to them on either side1 at a distance of about a year and a half1 so that the next such cold-wave is due at the end of the present year #ahgg4 8,this is1 perhaps1 not an agreeable prospect1 especially if political agitators are at this time moving amongst the colliers1 striving to persuade them to decrease the out-put of coal at every pit's mouth4 ,being1 therefore1 quite willing1 for the general good1 to suppose myself mistaken1 ,i beg to send you a first impression of plate #ag of the forthcoming volume of observations of this ,royal ,observatory1 and shall be very happy if you can bring out from the measures recorded there any more comfortable view for the public at large4 8,,piazzi ,,smyth1 8,astronomer-,royal for ,scotland40 ,if this prediction shall be confirmed this was written in autumn1 #ahgg1 it will afford an argument in favour of the existence of the cyclic relation suggested1 but no argument for the endowment of solar research4 ,professor ,smyth's observations were not solar but terrestrial4 ,the prediction was not confirmed1 the winter of #ahgg-gh being1 on the contrary1 exceptionally mild4 #i ,the reader unfamiliar with the principles of the telescope may require to be told that in the ordinary telescope each part of the object-glass forms a complete image of the object examined4 ,if1 when using an opera-glass 7one barrel71 a portion of the large glass be covered1 a portion of what had before been visible is concealed4 ,but this is not the case with a telescope of the ordinary construction4 ,all that happens when a portion of the object-glass is covered is that the object appears in some degree less fully illuminated4 #aj ,it may be briefly sketched1 perhaps1 in a note4 ,the force necessary to draw the earth inwards in such sort as to make her follow her actual course is proportional to 7i7 the square of her velocity directly1 and 7ii7 her distance from the sun inversely4 ,if we increase our estimate of the earth's distance from the sun1 we1 in the same degree1 increase our estimate of her orbital velocity4 ,the square of this velocity then increases as the square of the estimated distance2 and therefore1 the estimated force sunwards is increased as the square of the distance on account of 7i71 and diminished as the distance on account of 7ii71 and is1 therefore1 on the whole1 increased as the distance4 ,that is1 we now regard the sun's action as greater at this greater distance1 and in the same degree that the distance is greater2 whereas1 if it had been what we before supposed it1 it would be less at the greater distance as the square of the distance 7attraction varying inversely as the square of the distance74 ,being greater as the distance1 instead of less as the square of the distance1 it follows that our estimate of the sun's absolute force is now greater as the cube of the distance4 ,similarly1 if we had diminished our estimate of the sun's distance1 we should have diminished our estimate of his absolute power 7or mass7 as the cube of the distance4 ,but our estimate of the sun's volume is also proportional to the cube of his estimated distance4 ,hence our estimate of his mass varies as our estimate of his volume2 or1 our estimate of his mean density is constant4 #aa ,only very recently an asteroid1 ,hilda 7#aecrd in order of detection71 has been discovered which travels very much nearer to the path of ,jupiter than to that of ,mars--a solitary instance in that respect4 ,its distance 7the earth's distance being represented by unity71 is #cie1 ,jupiter's being #ebj1 and ,mars's #aeb2 its period falls short of #h years by only two months1 the average period of the asteroidal family being only about #d years4 ,five others1 ,cybele1 ,freia1 ,sylvia1 ,camilla1 and ,hermione1 travel rather nearer to ,jupiter than to ,mars2 but the remaining #aff travel nearer to ,mars1 and most of them much nearer4 #ab ,even this statement is not mathematically exact4 ,if the rails are straight and parallel1 the ratio of approach and recession of an engine on one line1 towards or from an engine on the other1 is never quite equal to the engines' velocities added together2 but the difference amounts practically to nothing1 except when the engines are near each other4 #ac ,i have omitted all reference to details2 but in reality the double battery was automatic1 the motion of the observing telescope1 as different colours of the spectrum were brought into view1 setting all the prisms of the double battery into that precise position which causes them to show best each particular part of the spectrum thus brought into view4 ,it is rather singular that the first view ,i ever had of the solar prominences1 was obtained 7at ,dr4 ,huggins's observatory7 with this instrument of my own invention1 which also was the first powerful spectroscope ,i had ever used or even seen4 #ad ,it varies more in some months than in others1 as the moon's orbit changes in shape under the various perturbing influences to which she is subject4 #ae ,it may seem strange to say that one hundred and twenty years after the passage of a comet which last passed in #ahfb1 and was then first discovered1 ,august meteors have been seen4 ,but in reality1 as we know the period of that comet to be about one hundred and thirty years1 we know that the displays of the years #ahdj1 #ahda1 etc41 to #ahej1 must have followed the preceding passage by about that interval of time4 #af ,the ,d line1 properly speaking1 as originally named by ,fraunhofer1 belongs to sodium4 ,the line spoken of above as the sierra ,d line is one close by the sodium line1 and mistaken for it when first seen in the spectrum of the coloured prominences as a bright line4 ,it does not appear as a dark line in the solar spectrum4 #ag ,since this was written1 ,i have learned that ,mr4 ,backhouse1 of ,sunderland1 announced similar results to those obtained at ,dunecht1 as seen a fortnight or so earlier4 #ah ,here no account is taken of the motions of the stars within the system2 such motions must ordinarily be minute compared with the common motion of the system4 #ai ,eight pictures of nebul were exhibited in illustration of this peculiarity4 #bj ,sir ,john ,herschel long since pointed to the variation of our sun as a possible cause of such changes of terrestrial climate4 #ba ,during these journeys the ,atlantic was sounded1 and ,scoresby's estimate of the enormous depth of the ,atlantic to the north-west of ,spitzbergen was fully confirmed1 the line indicating a depth of more than two miles4 ,it was found also that ,spitzbergen is connected with ,norway by a submarine bank4 #bb ,it is far from improbable that a change has taken place in the climate of the part of the ,arctic regions traversed by ,koldewey2 for the ,dutch seem readily to have found their way much further north two centuries ago4 ,indeed1 among ,captain ,koldewey's results is one which seems to indicate the occurrence of such a change4 ,the country he explored was found to have been inhabited4 8,numerous huts of ,esquimaux were seen1 and various instruments and utensils of primitive form2 but for some reason or other the region seems to have been finally deserted4 ,the ,polar bear reigns supreme on the glaciers1 as the walrus does among the icebergs40 ,not improbably the former inhabitants were forced to leave this region by the gradually increasing cold4 #bc ,dr4 ,emile ,bessels was tried at ,new ,york in #ahgb1 on the charge of having poisoned ,captain ,hall1 but was acquitted4 #bd ,the phenomena here described are well worth observing on their own account1 as affording a very instructive and at the same time very beautiful illustration of wave motions4 ,they can be well seen at many of our watering-places4 ,the same laws of wave motion can be readily illustrated also by throwing two stones into a large smooth pool1 at points a few yards apart4 ,the crossing of the two sets of circular waves produces a wave-net1 the meshes of which vary in shape according to their position4 #be ,it is a pity that men of science so often forget1 when addressing those who are not men of science1 or who study other departments than theirs1 that technical terms are out of place4 ,most people1 ,i take it are more familiar1 on the whole1 with eyelids than with palpebr4 #bf ,this nautical expression is new to me4 ,top-gallants--fore1 main1 and mizen--,i know1 and forecastle ,i know1 but the top-gallant forecastle ,i do not know4 #bg ,the instrument was lent to ,mr4 ,huggins by ,mr4 ,w4 ,spottiswoode4 ,it has been recently employed successfully at ,greenwich4 #bh ,thus in ,christie ,johnstone1 written in #ahec1 when ,flucker ,johnstone tells ,christie the story of the widow's sorrows1 giving it word for word1 and even throwing in what dramatists call 8the business10 he says1 8#8,here ye'll play your hand like a geraffe4' #8,geraffe8' she says2 #8that's a beast1 ,i'm thinking4' #8,na2 it's the thing on the hill that makes signals4' #8,telegraph1 ye fulish goloshen6' #8,oo1 ay1 telegraph6 geraffe's sunnest said for a'4'0 8,playing the hand like a telegraph0 would now be as unmeaning as ,flucker ,johnstone's original description4 #bi ,not 8to represent the gutta-percha10 as stated in the ,times account of ,mr4 ,muirhead's invention4 ,the gutta-percha corresponds to the insulating material of the artificial circuit2 viz41 the prepared paper through which the current along the tinfoil strips acts inductively on the coating of tinfoil4 #cj ,i must caution the reader against ,fig4 #cdh in ,guillemin's ,application of the ,physical ,forces1 in which the part c d of the wire is not shown4 ,the two coils are in reality part of a single coil1 divided into two to permit of the bar being bent2 and to remove the part c d is to divide the wire1 and1 of course1 break the current4 ,it will be seen that c d passes from the remote side of coil b c1 ,fig4 #f1 to the near side of coil d e4 ,if it were taken round the remote side of the latter coil1 the current along this would neutralize the effect of the current along the other4 #ca ,the paper is soaked in dilute ferrocyanide of potassium1 and the passage of the current forms a ,prussian blue4 #cb ,sir ,w4 ,thomson states1 in his altogether excellent article on the electric telegraph1 in ,nichol's ,cyclopdia1 that the invention of this process is due to ,mr4 ,bakewell4 #cc ,it is to be noticed1 however1 that the recording pointer must always mark its lines in the same direction1 so that1 unless a message is being transmitted at the same time that one is being received 7in which case the oscillations both ways are utilized71 the instrument works only during one-half of each complete double oscillation4 #cd ,it seems to me a pity that in the ,english edition of this work the usual measures have not been substituted throughout4 ,the book is not intended or indeed suitable for scientific readers1 who alone are accustomed to the metric system4 ,other readers do not care to have a little sum in reduction to go through at each numerical statement4 #ce ,hanno's ,periplus--the voyage of ,hanno1 chief of the ,carthaginians1 round the parts of ,libya1 beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules1 the narrative of which he posted up in the ,temple of ,kronos4 #cf ,i may mention one which occurred within my own experience4 ,a mastiff of mine1 some years ago1 was eating from a plate full of broken meat4 ,it was his custom to bury the large pieces when there was more than he could get through4 ,while he was burying a large piece1 a cat ran off with a small fragment4 ,the moment he returned to the plate he missed this1 and1 seeing no one else near the plate1 he1 in his own way1 accused a little daughter of mine 7some two or three years old7 of the theft4 ,looking fiercely at her1 he growled his suspicions1 and would not suffer her to escape from the corner where his plate stood until ,i dragged him away by his chain4 ,nor did he for some time forget the wrong which he supposed she had done him1 but always growled when she came near his house4 #cg ,it may be suggested1 in passing1 that the association which has been commonly noticed between prominent eyeballs and command of language 7phrenologists place the organ of language1 in their unscientific phraseology1 behind the eyeballs7 may be related in some degree to the circumstance that in gradually emerging from the condition of an arboreal creature the anthropoid ape would not only cease to derive advantage from sunken eyes1 but would be benefited by the possession of more prominent eyeballs4 ,the increasing prominence of the eyeballs would thus be a change directly associated with the gradual advance of the animal to a condition in which1 associating into larger and larger companies and becoming more and more dependent on mutual assistance and discipline1 they would require the use of a gradually extending series of vocal signs to indicate their wants and wishes to each other4 #ch ,the word hypothesis is too often used as though it were synonymous with theory1 so that ,newton's famous saying1 8,hypotheses non fingo0 has come to be regarded by many as though it expressed an objection on ,newton's part against the formation of theories4 ,this would have been strange indeed in the author of the noblest theory yet propounded by man in matters scientific4 ,newton indicates his meaning plainly enough1 in the very paragraph in which the above expression occurs1 defining an hypothesis as an opinion not based on phenomena4 #ci ,i find it somewhat difficult to understand clearly ,mr4 ,mivart's own position with reference to the general theory of evolution4 ,he certainly is an evolutionist1 and as certainly he considers natural selection combined with the tendency to variation 7as ordinarily understood7 insufficient to account for the existence of the various forms of animal and vegetable existence4 ,he supplies the missing factor in 8an innate law imposed on nature1 by which new and definite species1 under definite conditions1 emerged from a latent and potential being into actual and manifest existence20 and1 so far as can be judged1 he considers that the origin of man himself is an instance of the operation of this law4 #dj ,the ,middle ,tertiary period--the ,tertiary1 which includes the ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene periods1 being the latest of the three great periods recognized by geologists as preceding the present era1 which includes the entire history of man as at present known geologically4 #da ,closely following in this respect his illustrious namesake ,roger1 who writes1 in the sixth chapter of his ,opus ,majus1 8,sine experientia nihil sufficienter sciri potest40 #db ,fibrine and albumen are identical in composition4 ,caseine1 which is the coagulable portion of milk1 is composed in the same manner4 ,the chief distinction between the three substances consists in their mode of coagulation2 fibrine coagulating spontaneously1 albumen under the action of heat1 and caseine by the action of acetic acid4 #dc ,to this article of the ,professor's faith decided objection must be taken1 however4 #dd ,those whose custom it is to regard all theorizing respecting the circumstances revealed by observation as unscientific1 may read with profit an extremely speculative passage in ,newton's ,principia relating to the probable drying up of the earth in future ages4 8,as the seas10 he says1 8are absolutely necessary to the constitution of our earth1 that from them the sun1 by its heat1 may exhale a sufficient quantity of vapours1 which1 being gathered together into clouds1 may drop down in rain1 for watering of the earth1 and for the production and nourishment of vegetables2 or being condensed with cold on the tops of mountains 7as some philosophers with reason judge71 may run down in springs and rivers2 so for the conservation of the seas and fluids of the planets1 comets seem to be required1 that1 from their exhalations and vapours condensed1 the wastes of the planetary fluids spent upon vegetation and putrefaction1 and converted into dry earth1 may be ultimately supplied and made up2 for all vegetables entirely derive their growths from fluids1 and afterwards1 in great measure1 are turned into dry earth by putrefaction2 and a sort of slime is always found to settle at the bottom of putrefied fluids2 and hence it is that the bulk of the solid earth is continually increased2 and the fluids1 if they are not supplied from without1 must be in a continual decrease1 and quite fail at last4 ,i suspect1 moreover1 that it is chiefly from the comets that spirit comes which is indeed the smallest but the most subtle and useful part of our air1 and so much required to sustain the life of all things with us40 #de ,see my 8,science ,byways10 pp4 #bdd1 #bde4 #df ,the following passage from ,admiral ,smyth's ,bedford ,catalogue is worth noticing in this connection3--8,we find that both the ,chinese and the ,japanese had a zodiac consisting of animals1 as zodiacs needs must1 among which they placed a tiger1 a peacock1 a cat1 an alligator1 a duck1 an ape1 a hog1 a rat1 and what not4 ,animals also formed the ,via ,solis of the ,kirghis1 the ,mongols1 the ,persians1 the ,mantshus1 and the ancient ,turks2 and the ,spanish monks in the army of ,cortes found that the ,mexicans had a zodiac with strange creatures in the departments4 ,such a striking similitude is assuredly indicative of a common origin1 since the coincidences are too exact in most instances to be the effect of chance2 but where this origin is to be fixed has been the subject of interminable discussions1 and learning1 ignorance1 sagacity1 and prejudice have long been in battle array against each other4 ,diodorus ,siculus considers it to be ,babylonian1 but ,bishop ,warburton1 somewhat dogmatically tells us1 #8,brute worship gave rise to the ,egyptian asterisms prior to the time of ,moses4'0 ,there is now1 of course1 very little reason for questioning that ,egyptian astronomy was borrowed from ,babylon4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,cover created by ,transcriber and placed in the ,public ,domain4 ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,some ditto marks have been replaced by the actual text4 ,page #hc3 ,in the illustration1 8,o0 should be 8,c04 ,page #aga3 ,there is no obvious closing quotation mark to match the opening mark at 8of most unusual age and thickness04 ,page #aib3 8,divided even between the ocean0 may be a misprint for 8evenly04 ,page #aig3 ,no matching closing quotation mark for the opening mark at 8the small bright spot04 ,page #bbb3 ,transcriber added an opening quotation mark at 8,down his back0 to match the closing mark after 8,he was seen by every one on board40 ,page #bcj3 ,no matching closing quotation mark for the opening mark at 8a whale of large size04 ,page #cjb3 ,transcriber added an opening quotation mark at 8,about fifty years ago0 to match the closing mark after 8fed himself with the other40 ,page #cgb3 ,no matching opening quotation mark for the closing mark after 8its lower extremity40 ,page #che3 ,no matching closing quotation mark for the opening mark at 8sweeps off from04