,,autobiography ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,rennie1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,illustration ,,autobiography ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,rennie1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,past ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers4 ,,comprising ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,his ,,professional ,,life1 ,,together ,,with ,,reminiscences ,,dating ,,from ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #dh1 ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,new ,,york3 #ddf1 ,,broome ,,street4 #ahge4 ,,preface4 ,the following ,autobiography was written by ,sir ,john ,rennie in #ahfg1 shortly after he had retired from the active duties of his profession4 ,as will be perceived in the sequel1 it was composed wholly from memory4 ,sir ,john was subsequently unable to revise it as he would have desired1 and it has since been found impossible to do so4 ,nevertheless it is believed that but few substantial errors will be found2 while the kindliness with which the autobiographer invariably speaks of every person with whom he came in contact1 is a guarantee that there can be nothing to offend the most sensitive person1 or which might tend to injure the just claims and reputations of others4 ,it is now presented to the public in its original state1 having undergone merely some necessary correction1 in the hope that the memoirs of the man who was perhaps unrivalled in his branch of the profession--and which comprise valuable hints as to the neglected art of hydraulics1 as well as advice to engineers commencing their career1 the result of the experience of a lifetime of no ordinary duration--together with the reminiscences of one who had seen much both of men and things1 8,qui mores hominum multorum vidit et urbes10 may not be unacceptable either to the profession or the world at large4 ,,london1 ,september1 #ahge4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,my birth and early education--,i enter my ,father's office--,commencement of ,waterloo and ,southwark ,bridges--,anecdotes of ,mr4 ,ferguson1 of ,pitfour--,the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway1 and ,surveys between ,port ,patrick and ,donaghadee--,account of the mode of erecting the arches of ,southwark ,bridge--,journey to the ,continent and ,field of ,waterloo--,account of the building of ,waterloo ,bridge--,it is opened in ,state by the ,prince ,regent1 #ahag4 ,page #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,travels in ,switzerland1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 ,constantinople1 and ,egypt--,return to ,england--,death of ,mr4 ,rennie #cf ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,eau ,brink ,cut--,ramsgate ,harbour--,sheerness ,dockyard--,plymouth ,breakwater--,anecdote of the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,fox--,london ,bridge and ,approaches--,sir ,f4 ,trench's ,plan for ,quaying the ,thames--,nene ,outfall--,cross ,keys ,bridge--,norfolk ,estuary--,improvement of the ,witham--,ancholme ,drainage #aeg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,sketch of the ,rise and ,progress of the ,railway ,system--,the ,manchester and ,liverpool1 ,london and ,birmingham1 and other early ,lines #bbh ,,chapter ,v4 ,travels in the ,north of ,europe and ,spain #beb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,ship ,canal from ,portsmouth to ,london--,machinery and ,engine ,making--,screw ,steam ,ships--,hartlepool and ,coquet ,harbours--,railways round ,london--,railway ,mania--,south-,eastern ,railway--,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway #bhd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,swedish ,railways--,surveys in ,holland and ,portugal #cjd ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,surveys in ,portugal and ,tunis #cdc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,surveys at ,odessa and ,vienna--,harbour at ,ponta ,delgada--,ramsgate--,dagenham #cgg ,,chapter ,x4 ,retrospect--,london ,bridge--,sheerness ,dockyard--,plymouth ,breakwater and ,victualling ,yard--,steam ,vessels for the ,navy--,harbours--,railways--,broad and ,narrow ,gauge--,atmospheric ,railway--,water ,supply and ,sewage #djg ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,formation of ,natural ,breakwaters--,the ,society of ,civil ,engineers--,the ,education of a ,civil ,engineer--,some ,hints on ,practice--,estimating--,conclusion #dbg ,index #dei ,,autobiography ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,rennie4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,my birth and early education--,i enter my ,father's office--,commencement of ,waterloo and ,southwark ,bridges--,anecdotes of ,mr4 ,ferguson1 of ,pitfour--,the ,stockton and ,darlington ,railway and ,surveys between ,port ,patrick and ,donaghadee--,account of the mode of erecting the arches of ,southwark ,bridge--,journey to the ,continent and ,field of ,waterloo--,account of the building of ,waterloo ,bridge--,it is opened in ,state by the ,prince ,regent1 #ahag4 ,i was born at #bg1 ,stamford ,street1 ,blackfriars1 ,london1 on the #cjth of ,august1 #agid4 ,having been taught my letters at home1 ,i was sent to the care of ,dr4 ,greenlaw1 who kept a boys' school at ,isleworth4 ,it was a large house1 formerly belonging to the ,bishop of ,london4 ,to the house were attached excellent gardens and playground4 ,the situation1 moreover1 was open and healthy1 and the total number of boys was about fifty1 ranging from eight to sixteen years of age4 ,they were well fed and taken care of by the ,doctor's excellent wife1 and his sister-in-law1 ,miss ,hodgkins4 ,the ,doctor's eldest daughter1 ,miss ,greenlaw1 taught the youngest boys their letters2 whilst the ,doctor and his assistants devoted themselves to the education of the others1 which education consisted chiefly of classics1 writing1 arithmetic1 ,french1 and occasionally geography and the elements of astronomy4 ,during the time that ,i was there the most remarkable scholar was the celebrated poet1 ,percy ,bysshe ,shelley1 who was then about twelve or thirteen 7as far as ,i can remember71 and even at that early age exhibited considerable poetical talent1 accompanied by a violent and extremely excitable temper1 which manifested itself in all kinds of eccentricities4 ,his figure was of the middle size1 although slight1 but well made4 ,his head was well proportioned1 and covered with a profusion of brown locks2 his features regular1 but rather small2 his eyes hazel1 restless1 and brilliant2 his complexion was fair and transparent2 and his countenance rather effeminate1 but exceedingly animated4 ,the least circumstance that thwarted him produced the most violent paroxysms of rage2 and when irritated by other boys1 which they1 knowing his infirmity1 frequently did by way of teasing him1 he would take up anything1 or even any little boy near him1 to throw at his tormentors4 ,his imagination was always roving upon something romantic and extraordinary1 such as spirits1 fairies1 fighting1 volcanoes1 c41 and he not unfrequently astonished his schoolfellows by blowing up the boundary palings of the playground with gunpowder1 also the lid of his desk in the middle of schooltime1 to the great surprise of ,dr4 ,greenlaw himself and the whole school4 ,in fact1 at times he was considered to be almost upon the borders of insanity2 yet with all this1 when treated with kindness1 he was very amiable1 noble1 high-spirited1 and generous2 he used to write verse1 ,english and ,latin1 with considerable facility1 and attained a high position in the school before he left for ,eton1 where1 ,i understand1 he was equally1 if not more1 extraordinary and eccentric4 ,cotemporary with ,shelley there was another peculiar character1 named ,tredcroft1 from the same county1 viz4 ,sussex2 he also had considerable poetical talent1 but unfortunately lost his health1 and ultimately1 ,i understand1 died completely imbecile at an early age4 ,i remained at this school until the year #ahjg1 by which time ,i had acquired a tolerable knowledge of the ,greek and ,latin classics1 and arithmetic as far as vulgar fractions and decimals4 ,i was then sent to the celebrated ,dr4 ,burney's1 at ,greenwich1 where there were about #ajj boys1 varying from ten to eighteen4 ,dr4 ,charles ,burney was considered one of the best ,greek and ,latin scholars of the day1 and was the intimate friend of ,porson and numerous other literary celebrities4 ,his school was therefore very highly esteemed for classics1 but for little or nothing else2 for although a certain quantity of arithmetic and the elements of algebra and geometry were taught1 yet these were quite secondary to the classics4 ,i therefore made little further progress in anything but classics1 in which ,i became a tolerable proficient1 and had ,homer1 ,thucydides1 ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 ,virgil1 ,horace1 c41 at my fingers' ends1 whilst ,i could scarcely demonstrate the ,pons asinorum of ,euclid2 in fact1 in those days a knowledge of ,greek and ,latin was considered as including everything else1 and anything like a science or physics was considered of secondary consequence4 ,i made the acquaintance of two men1 who afterwards much distinguished themselves by their scientific acquirements1 namely1 the late ,herbert ,mayo1 the well-known surgeon and physiologist2 also the late ,sir ,george ,everest1 the scientific ,director of the ,triangular ,survey of ,india2 and ,dr4 ,milman1 late ,dean of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,dr4 ,burney's school was by no means so well managed as that of ,dr4 ,greenlaw in everything which regarded the comfort of the boys1 neither were they so well fed or looked after1 and it was a great relief to me when ,i left the school in #ahji4 ,it then became a question with my father whether ,i should go to ,oxford or ,cambridge1 or whether ,i should finish my education at home1 under the superintendence of proper masters4 ,about this period1 and ever since the year #ahjb1 there was nothing but war heard or talked of all over the world4 ,the whole country was as it were turned into a camp2 every man capable of bearing arms became a volunteer1 and at school even we were regularly drilled to the use of arms2 and ,i was so excited by the extraordinary victories of ,nelson and the early career of ,wellington that ,i determined to enter the army1 but to this my father was decidedly opposed1 as he wished to bring me up to his own profession4 ,i was therefore reluctantly obliged to give up all idea of the military profession and follow that of a civil engineer2 and my father wisely determined that ,i should go through all the gradations1 both practical and theoretical1 which could not be done if ,i went to the ,university1 as the practical part1 which he considered most important1 must be abandoned2 for1 he said1 after a young man has been three or four years at the ,university of ,oxford or ,cambridge1 he cannot1 without much difficulty1 turn himself to the practical part of civil engineering4 ,all idea1 therefore1 of my going to ,cambridge or ,oxford was given up4 ,my father at that period had one department of his business exclusively devoted to practical mechanics1 that is1 to the making of machinery of all kinds2 this department1 although it formed by no means the principal part of his profession1 nevertheless enabled him to make experiments which were of great value in the other departments of his business1 and was by no means unprofitable1 as the importance of machinery and mechanical contrivances was then to a certain extent appreciated1 and was daily becoming more so4 ,my father always said that theoretical and practical mechanics were the true foundations of all civil engineering2 and he therefore insisted that as ,i had to a certain extent learned the theoretical1 so ,i must now learn the practical part4 ,i was therefore sent into the mechanical department1 and commenced work planing and sawing boards1 making patterns1 and other similar works4 ,after this ,i was put to turning both wood and metal2 and although ,i did not attain complete practical efficiency in these departments1 which would have required several years1 nevertheless ,i learned sufficient to enable me to become a tolerable judge of workmanship4 ,i was then put into the drawing office1 where ,i learned to copy geometrical plans1 by which1 in a short time1 in combination with what ,i had acquired in the workshop1 ,i gained a general knowledge of design and construction4 ,my time was employed in this manner about eight hours daily1 but my evenings were devoted to the acquisition of geometry1 algebra1 and trigonometry1 plane and spherical2 also astronomy under the late ,astronomer ,royal1 ,mr4 ,pond1 and his father-in-law1 ,dr4 ,bradley1 and in learning ,french1 ,italian1 and ,german4 ,having acquired to a certain extent a proficiency in the mathematical sciences1 ,i was placed under the direction of the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles1 a land surveyor of considerable experience and ability1 who was generally employed by my father to make his various hydraulic surveys for canals and harbours under his immediate direction1 which ,mr4 ,giles executed with his usual fidelity and ability4 ,under ,mr4 ,giles ,i learned the use of the chain1 level1 and theodolite1 and was enabled to apply my theoretical knowledge in trigonometry1 plane and spherical1 to practice4 ,about this period1 viz4 the year #ahac1 having obtained a tolerable knowledge of the rudiments of my profession1 both theoretical and practical1 my father determined to place upon my shoulders a certain degree of responsibility1 and put me under the direction of that late worthy and excellent man1 ,mr4 ,james ,hollingsworth1 whom my father had appointed to be resident engineer of the ,waterloo ,bridge1 which was then building4 ,i felt the responsibility of this office a good deal1 and entered upon it with every determination and desire to meet my father's approbation2 and during the inclement winter of #ahac-ad1 when the frost lasted about two months1 and the ,thames above ,london ,bridge was frozen over for several weeks1 ,i was obliged to attend the piling of the foundations of the first and second piers on the ,surrey side of the river night and day for three days each week1 which severely tried my constitution4 ,at this period ,vauxhall ,bridge was also in course of construction1 and ,i was directed by my father to attend to this also1 under ,mr4 ,jones1 the resident engineer2 but they had scarcely finished the ,middlesex abutment up to the springing of the first arch1 and were preparing the caisson for founding the first pier1 when the ,company found that they had not sufficient funds to carry into effect ,mr4 ,rennie's design1 which was very beautiful4 ,the bridge was to be made entirely of the fine blue sandstone from ,dundee1 and was to consist of seven arches1 segments of circles1 the centre arch being #aaj feet span1 with a rise or versed sine of #ai feet1 and depth of keystone #d feet #f inches2 piers #ah feet #f inches thick at the springing of the arch1 the two arches next the centre being #aje feet span each1 with a rise or versed sine of #ag feet1 keystone #d feet #e inches1 and springing stones #i feet long1 and the two piers #ag feet #f inches thick each4 ,the two next arches were #ajj feet span1 with a rise or versed sine of #ae feet1 keystones #d feet #d inches1 and springers #i feet1 and piers #ag feet thick each2 the two sub or shore arches #ij feet span each1 with a rise or versed sine of #ac feet1 keystones #d feet1 and springers #h feet1 abutments #ba feet thick at the springing1 having a total width of waterway of #gjj feet4 ,the arches were surmounted by a ,roman ,doric cornice and plain block and plinth parapet1 and the projecting points of the piers were surmounted by solid square pilasters1 with a niche in the centre4 ,the roadway was #cd feet wide between the parapets1 and was formed by a very flat segment of a circle rising #a in #ec4 ,the piers were intended to be founded by caissons resting upon a platform supported by bearing and surrounded by sheeting piles4 ,this was upon the whole a very elegant1 light1 and chaste design4 ,finding that the ,company had not sufficient funds to carry into effect the stone design1 ,mr4 ,rennie proposed another wholly of iron1 consisting of eleven arches1 with a total waterway of #gcb feet1 supported upon cast-iron columns filled with masonry and resting upon a platform supported upon piles and surrounded by sheeting piles4 ,the centre arch was to be #hf feet span and #h feet rise1 and the others diminishing regularly to each end so as to enable the roadway to be formed into a graceful curve rising #a foot in #fj4 ,this also was an extremely light1 elegant1 and economical design4 ,the total cost of this elegant design was estimated at #ajj1jjjl41 and would have been executed first1 but at that time even this amount was not forthcoming4 ,the works then stopped1 and some time elapsed before the ,company was resumed1 and ultimately constructed the present bridge4 ,in the year #ahad-ae my father was appointed engineer-in-chief of the ,southwark ,bridge ,company1 and as this was proposed to be constructed in the narrowest part of the river between ,blackfriars and the ,old ,london ,bridge1 considerable opposition was made to the ,act of ,parliament for its construction by the ,corporation of ,london and the ,conservators of the river1 on account of the obstruction which they said the bridge would offer to the navigation2 this however was finally overcome1 but it was decided by ,parliament that the bridge should be constructed with as large arches as possible4 ,accordingly ,mr4 ,rennie submitted a design consisting of three cast-iron arches1 the centre being #bdj feet span1 with a versed sine of #bd feet1 and two side arches of #baj feet each1 with a versed sine or rise of #ah feet #aj inches each1 with piers of #bd feet wide each at the springing1 thus giving a clear lineal waterway of #ffj feet1 which was a great deal more than that of the ,old ,london ,bridge at that time existing4 ,this design was approved of and ordered to be carried into effect4 ,by this time1 with the experience of the ,waterloo and ,vauxhall bridges and my other studies1 ,i had gained considerable knowledge in bridge building1 and my father was anxious to give me as much encouragement as possible2 although1 therefore1 he appointed a worthy and practical man1 ,mr4 ,meston1 as nominally the resident engineer1 yet he confided to me the arduous task of making out the working drawings under his own direction1 and of carrying them into effect4 ,i therefore felt highly gratified with this great mark of confidence1 and devoted my whole energies to the work night and day4 ,the ironwork was carried into effect by ,messrs4 ,walker1 of ,rotherham1 under the able management of their experienced and able superintendent1 ,mr4 ,yeats1 and the masonry and piling under the well-known contractors1 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks2 and ,mr4 ,meston1 the resident engineer1 faithfully discharged his duties4 ,as these arches were the largest of the kind ever constructed1 considerable doubts as to their stability occurred to many1 and the subject was discussed amongst scientific men with considerable energy2 and amongst others1 the celebrated ,dr4 ,young undertook to investigate ,mr4 ,rennie's calculations1 and came to the conclusion that the bridge was well designed1 and would be a perfectly safe and stable structure1 and equal to the support of any weight or amount of traffic which could be brought over it4 ,but in order to fulfil these conditions1 it was absolutely necessary that every detail of materials and workmanship should be worked out with the greatest skill and accuracy4 ,as the arches were of such great span with so small rise1 the pressure upon the piers and abutments was chiefly lateral2 it therefore became necessary to construct them in such a manner that they should offer the most effectual resistance to this pressure4 ,in consequence1 the foundations of the abutments were made on an incline1 and the masonry from thence upwards to the springing of the arches was made to consist of a series of courses radiating upwards until they reached the angle of the springing courses2 so that1 in point of fact1 the abutments formed1 as it were1 a continuation of the side arches to their base2 and in order to connect the courses of masonry more solidly together1 the courses were connected with each other from the top to the bottom by several series of vertical bond stones1 thus forming one solid immovable mass4 ,these abutments were supported on a platform composed of piles1 double sleepers1 and planking1 the piles being #bj feet long1 #ab inches in diameter in the middle1 and driven solidly into the ground at right angles to the inclination of the foundation4 ,as the pressure upon the piers was nearly equal on both sides1 it was necessary that the foundations should be laid level4 ,these also rest upon a wooden platform of double sills and planking1 lying upon piles of the same dimensions as those of the abutments1 driven vertically into the ground below1 and the courses of masonry1 which were laid horizontally1 were connected together in the vertical direction by a series of bond stones in a similar manner to those of the abutments4 ,the abutments and piers were founded many feet below low-water mark of spring tides1 so as to be below the reach of any possible scour of the river4 ,those parts of the piers from immediately below the springing of the arches to a point above the top of the main solid ribs of the arches were composed of large blocks of stone set nearly vertically1 breaking bond laterally and vertically with each other1 and in the centre of this part of the piers there was a set of keystones #ab feet long and #b feet thick1 tapering on each side1 forming so many stone wedges4 ,these were very finely worked on all sides4 ,these wedge stones broke bond laterally with the blocks in front of them1 and were firmly driven into their places for a depth of #b feet by means of heavy wooden rams4 ,the masonry of the pilasters and salient angles of the piers is of the same character as those of the interior of the pier before described1 and worked into them in the same manner1 so as to form one solid bond from one point of the pier to the other4 ,the whole of the exterior of this part of the piers1 as well as of the abutments1 is cased with granite from ,scotland or ,cornwall2 and it was necessary that the blocks forming this casing should be of the largest kind1 which hitherto was quite unusual1 particularly for the facing of the abutments from whence the arches were to spring1 which required blocks from #ae to #bj tons4 ,these were of such unusual magnitude1 and nothing of the kind had hitherto been used in ,london1 or even elsewhere in ,england1 that the contractors made considerable objection to obtaining them1 and even went so far as to say that it could not be done4 ,i was perfectly convinced that it could be done1 and that it was merely a question of a little extra expense1 and strongly recommended my father to insist upon it1 as it was absolutely necessary for the security of the bridge2 and he did so1 and directed me to proceed to ,aberdeen for the purpose of obtaining them4 ,i accordingly started for ,aberdeen2 and when there1 carefully examined all the quarries in the neighbourhood1 which ,i found had only been opened up on a small scale1 and were merely adapted for getting paving stones1 the commerce of which with ,london was then upon a considerable scale2 but the idea of obtaining blocks of the size required for the ,southwark ,bridge was considered to be entirely out of the question2 or1 even if they could be obtained1 the price would be such that the contractors would not consent to pay4 ,in fact1 so many difficulties and objections were made that ,i found nothing could be done in that quarter4 ,i therefore determined to proceed to ,peterhead1 #cj miles farther northward1 where the red granite abounds in large masses near the coast1 and where ,i was told that ,i should probably succeed2 but still1 they said1 even there it would be very difficult to get them4 ,upon arriving at ,peterhead ,i immediately set to work exploring the adjacent country for several miles round1 and soon found that blocks of the size required could readily be obtained1 and even larger ones if necessary4 ,i accordingly selected1 by way of experiment1 a mass of solid rock about four miles to the south of ,peterhead1 lying within a quarter of a mile of the sea coast1 and about #bjj feet above the main turnpike road to ,peterhead1 which ran along the sea shore4 ,this block1 weighing about #be tons1 was accordingly marked out1 and was soon detached from the main mass of rock by means of wedges1 and was #aj feet long and #e feet square4 ,the workmen who executed this task were rewarded with ample wages and a good supply of whisky1 and were extremely proud of their achievement4 ,then came the important question1 how they were to convey it to ,peterhead4 ,to get it to the turnpike road was soon accomplished by means of a wooden inclined tramway formed of stout planks moved upon wooden rollers4 ,good wages and whisky settled this1 and the workmen considered it a further great triumph2 but still the greater difficulty remained1 how to get this vast block 7as it was then considered7 four miles to ,peterhead4 ,i then went back to ,peterhead1 and after numerous inquiries1 and as many failures and objections on all sides1 at last found two large single bogies1 each consisting of a pair of strong wheels #h feet in diameter1 connected by a strong axle shaft and a double pair of shafts in front4 ,these two pairs of wheels ,i joined together at the axle shafts by two strong beams1 cased with wrought iron1 and strengthened the wheels and axles in other respects as far as necessary4 ,i then took this carriage to the block of red granite already mentioned lying in the road1 and slung the stone1 by means of strong chains1 to the two longitudinal bearers of the carriage4 ,some twelve or fourteen horses were then attached to the carriage1 and off we departed in great triumph for ,peterhead4 ,the toll-keeper1 never having seen such a mass of stone before1 did not know what to charge4 ,however1 having at length satisfied his demand1 we proceeded onwards1 and we had scarcely advanced a mile when we came to a soft piece of road1 which yielded under the great weight of the stone1 and the wheels stuck fast1 buried about #i inches in the ground4 ,this accident created general dismay amongst the attendant workmen1 and they began to consider the task hopeless4 ,however1 nothing daunted by this mischance1 ,i soon rallied their courage1 and with plenty of screw-jacks1 wedges1 and levers judiciously applied1 we raised the wheels out of the ground1 and placed strong wooden beams under them1 forming a rough kind of railway1 over which we dragged and pushed the carriage with its stone in safety1 until we had passed the unsound part of the road4 ,this operation detained us about a day4 ,everybody worked with the greatest ardour and goodwill1 which was aided not a little by a plentiful supply of ale and whisky1 and the men were determined1 for the honour of ,scotland1 that they would not be beaten4 ,having overcome this serious obstacle1 we started again on our journey1 and reached ,peterhead about four hours afterwards1 making the total length of the journey--four miles--a day and a half4 ,the whole town of ,peterhead1 having never seen such a sight before1 and having considered our task impracticable1 turned out to see us1 and welcomed us with the most enthusiastic acclamations4 ,the next thing to be done1 having succeeded so far1 was to get a vessel that would take this monstrous block of stone1 as it was termed1 to ,london2 and although there were a considerable number of vessels in the harbour1 ,i could not at first prevail upon any of the captains to take the charge4 ,all sorts of objections were made1 and amongst the rest1 it was impossible to get the stone on board1 and if they did1 it would make a hole in the bottom1 and the vessel would founder with all on board4 ,at last1 after a great deal of difficulty1 ,i found a brig of about #bjj tons burthen1 the captain of which1 after a good deal of persuasion1 consented to take the block of stone to ,london1 provided that ,i would put it on board at my own risk and expense1 and indemnify him against all risk or loss on the voyage1 which ,i accordingly agreed to do4 ,then came the last important question1 how was the block to be got on board8 ,there was no crane in the port capable of lifting above #b or #c tons4 ,i immediately set to work to supply this deficiency by means of two sets of strong sheer-poles1 capable of bearing #aj to #ae tons each4 ,the vessel engaged was accordingly brought alongside the quay where the #d-ton crane was fixed1 so that it should nearly plumb the centre of the hatchway of the vessel1 which it was necessary to enlarge and strengthen considerably before it could receive the stone4 ,i then secured the sheer-poles well at the top1 and placed one set on each side of the crane1 a short distance from the extremity of each end of the hatchway4 ,the legs of the sheer-poles were firmly fixed in the bed of the harbour1 striding over the vessel1 so that they were perfectly independent of the vessel1 and the top of each pole was directly over the centre of the hatchway4 ,to the top of the sheer-poles ,i applied a pair of strong treble sheave-blocks1 capable of receiving a thick rope2 each block was worked by a double purchase crab or windlass manned by eight men each1 besides four to work the crane1 so that the block would be suspended at three points1 the sheers taking the greatest weight4 ,after a good deal of trouble ,i got the whole of this apparatus as complete as circumstances would permit1 which were not the most favourable4 ,from the quay a strong timber gangway was constructed over the hatchway1 the outer end being supported1 clear of the vessel1 by piles driven into the bed of the harbour on each side1 in order that the ship might be kept perfectly steady until the stone was placed within the hold1 because otherwise the stone resting upon any part of the deck might have upset it4 ,everything being ready1 the stone was brought alongside the vessel and the tackle of the crane and of the two pairs of sheer-poles was made fast to three sets of strong chains fastened round the stone1 which was transferred upon rollers over the centre of the hatchway of the vessel1 the purchases of the crane and sheer-poles being kept sufficiently tight so as to prevent any undue pressure upon the platform4 ,the stone was then raised clear of the platform1 when ,i heard a crack2 in fact1 one of the sheer-poles had bent and partially yielded2 it was then blocked1 and1 the sheers having been first spliced with strong rope1 the stone was again hoisted and swung clear of the platform1 which was removed1 and the stone was lowered into the hold of the vessel and properly secured without any further delay or accident4 ,the whole of these operations were witnessed with intense interest by many of the inhabitants of ,peterhead1 and when so successfully completed the quays resounded with cheers4 ,the gallant workmen who laboured so arduously and with such goodwill1 and to whose exertions the success may be mainly attributed1 were plenteously regaled1 together with their friends1 with all the good things which ,peterhead afforded1 in which the worthy inhabitants joined1 and the remainder of the day was passed in mutual goodwill and festivity4 ,my readers will1 ,i trust1 excuse the detailed manner in which ,i have described these operations1 which at the present day would be considered trifling to a degree1 but1 at the time above mentioned1 more than half a century since1 operations of this kind had not been attempted1 and were entirely novel1 and were considered extraordinary2 they must1 therefore1 be viewed as the pioneer to the far greater operations of the kind which have followed4 ,for now such stones are considered mere trifles1 and blocks of almost any reasonable size can be quarried1 polished1 and transported to their destination1 however distant1 at comparatively much less cost and with greater facility4 ,the cutting and polishing of granite at that time was accomplished at great expense1 as it was done entirely by manual labour2 now it is performed by means of machinery at greatly reduced cost1 and polished granite of every kind is introduced into buildings1 which was formerly considered impracticable2 and thus the architect is provided with additional means of ornamenting his structures4 ,it is true that many centuries before the ,egyptians had shown the way2 but then the whole power and resources of the nation had been devoted to this object1 and incredible sums of money and great labour had been expended1 regardless of the misery and oppression of the people4 ,but in ,great ,britain it has been considered a true maxim of political economy1 that every article should be produced at the least possible cost1 and no work should be undertaken unless it would yield a fair profit for the capital expended2 and whenever there is a reasonable prospect of obtaining this satisfactory result1 any amount of capital which may be required is always forthcoming4 ,witness the vast sums which have been expended on railways alone1 besides steam-vessels1 manufactures1 machinery1 and other similar undertakings4 ,whilst at ,aberdeen and ,peterhead1 my father gave me an introduction to his old and intimate friend1 the well-known ,james ,ferguson1 of ,pitfour1 the member for the county1 and the intimate friend of ,mr4 ,pitt4 ,mr4 ,ferguson possessed a large fortune2 he was an old bachelor of the most amiable and charitable disposition1 beloved by everybody and universally popular throughout the county4 ,as illustrative of the manners of those days1 ,i will simply mention that when ,i presented my father's letter of introduction he received me most kindly1 and invited me to spend a few days under his most hospitable roof1 which ,i accepted1 and on the first day there was assembled a large party of the most influential gentlemen of the county2 as was usual wines of all kinds flowed in abundance1 and universal hilarity prevailed4 ,the consequence was that not long after dinner several of the guests fell off their chairs and took their nap under the table1 from which after a short time they recovered and resumed their seats1 and again set to work at their potations1 which continued until long past midnight2 by this time another considerable batch of guests were under the table1 leaving their glasses full4 ,i was so much amused at this unaccustomed scene1 that1 by way of frolic1 ,i took the full glasses of some of the guests on the floor and poured them down their throats1 which had no other effect than to make them sleep sounder4 ,in this manner the evening passed merrily away1 and it was late in the morning before the whole of the company found their way to their beds4 ,the amiable host allowed everyone to do as he liked1 and when he had had enough1 which was not very soon1 he retired to bed1 leaving his guests to take care of themselves2 in fact1 ,pitfour was 8,liberty ,hall10 and was open to all comers1 the only limit being the amount of sleeping accommodation4 ,to give some idea of his hospitality1 ,mr4 ,ferguson seldom had less than thirty-six pipes of fine port wine in his cellars1 besides claret1 burgundy1 sherry1 champagne1 brandy1 and whisky1 in proportion4 ,he was so fond of ,mr4 ,pitt1 that it is believed that if ,mr4 ,pitt had survived him1 he intended to have made him heir to his estates1 which were said to have been worth above #bj1jjjl4 a year4 ,when attending his duties in the ,house of ,commons1 he lodged in apartments in ,st4 ,james's ,street1 and after the parliamentary labours of the week were over1 ,mr4 ,pitt1 the late ,harry ,dundas1 ,first ,lord ,melville1 and ,mr4 ,ferguson used to retire to a country house at ,wimbledon1 and spend the ,saturday1 ,sunday1 and ,monday in the greatest conviviality1 until it was time to return to their parliamentary labours4 ,mr4 ,ferguson rarely1 if ever1 spoke in the ,house of ,commons1 but when he did1 it was always to the purpose3 his speeches1 although exceedingly short1 were replete with much common sense1 accompanied by a terseness of wit1 humour1 and drollery1 which convulsed his hearers with laughter1 so that he was a general favourite4 ,he used always to say that he had heard 8mony a gude speech1 but that he never changed his vote1 he aye voted with ,mr4 ,pitt40 ,having shown the good people of ,peterhead how to get and ship the large blocks of red granite for the ,southwark ,bridge1 and feeling that there would be no further difficulty about the matter1 ,i returned to ,london1 after an absence of two weeks1 and resumed my duties at the ,southwark ,bridge4 ,in the spring of #ahad my father1 being desirous that ,i should be initiated into the practice of marine and trigonometrical surveying upon a large scale1 sent me1 under the direction of the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles1 who had then been appointed by ,mr4 ,rennie to make an extensive survey of the different places where it was practicable to construct proper artificial harbours on the south-west coast of ,scotland1 such as ,port ,nessock1 ,ardwell1 and ,port ,patrick bays1 on the ,scotch side of the channel1 and ,ballantrae1 ,donaghadee1 ,ballyhone1 and ,bangor bays1 on the opposite coast of the ,irish ,channel1 in order to decide which were the best places on either side of the channel to make permanent good artificial harbours for packets1 for the purpose of establishing the best and most direct communication between the south-west coast of ,scotland and the opposite coast of ,ireland4 ,in addition to making the surveys of the different ports above mentioned1 it was absolutely necessary to make a correct chart of the channel within the above limits1 comprehending a coast-line of about #cj miles on each side1 including the ,copeland ,islands4 ,it was also necessary to determine the exact distances between the different ports1 together with the soundings1 currents1 rises of tide1 prevailing winds1 and all the other attendant hydraulic phenomena4 ,this was a very extensive survey1 and required great skill1 judgment1 and experience1 and ,mr4 ,giles was fully competent to undertake it4 ,as the shore1 particularly on the ,scotch side of the channel1 was very precipitous1 rugged1 and mountainous1 it was impossible to measure with anything like accuracy a base line from which a series of triangular observations could be made so as to connect the two coasts together2 ,mr4 ,griles was therefore obliged to resort to the ,bay of ,luce1 situated about #aj miles to the east of ,port ,patrick2 it had this disadvantage1 however1 that in consequence of the intervening mountains neither the ,scotch nor ,irish coast could be seen4 ,but there was no alternative1 for no other convenient place could be found to measure a base line4 ,the head of the ,bay of ,luce1 however1 at low water consists of an extensive district of flat sand #f miles long1 admirably adapted for the purpose of measuring a correct base line4 ,this plan was accordingly adopted1 and a base was measured #f miles in length1 first by the common chain1 then by another chain consisting of steel links each #e feet long1 and lastly by well-seasoned deal rods each #aj feet long2 these measurements were repeated with great accuracy several times1 and a mean was then struck by which the variation was reduced to a fraction of an inch4 ,it should also be observed that the measurements were taken when the atmosphere was about the same temperature1 so that the final measurement was reduced to as near accuracy as practicable4 ,having established the base1 strong vertical staffs with flags at their summits were then accurately fixed upon the summits of the neighbouring mountains which overlooked the ,irish ,channel1 and from which on a clear day the opposite coast of ,ireland could be distinctly seen4 ,from each end of the base the above-mentioned angles were taken with one of ,troughton's best #g-;inch theodolites1 between the different mountain stations1 and the distance between the extreme points of these stations was accurately calculated1 so that it gave a base line of about #cj miles along the ,scotch coast1 from whence correct sights were taken on flagstaffs fixed on the high land above ,bangor1 ,donaghadee1 and ,ballantrae1 including the ,copeland ,islands on the opposite coast of ,ireland4 ,these observations being taken on different levels1 were subsequently reduced to the same plane1 so that the exact distance was obtained between the different stations on each side of the channel1 and a correct chart was made4 ,in addition to the general survey1 detailed hydraulic charts were made of the places on each coast which were best adapted for making harbours of the size required1 viz4 ,port ,nessock1 ,ardwell1 and ,port ,patrick1 on the ,scotch side1 and ,bangor1 ,ballyhone1 ,donaghadee1 and ,ballantrae1 on the ,irish side of the channel2 and as there was a great variety of interests concerned1 each proprietor being desirous of having the permanent ports established on his own property1 it was finally decided by the ,government1 at the recommendation of my father1 that the whole of the surveys should be submitted to the arbitration of the ,trinity ,board1 to select one port on each side of the channel which was best adapted for establishing a communication by packets between the two countries for letters and passengers in the most expeditious1 convenient1 and effective manner4 ,the ,trinity ,board1 after having given the subject their most mature consideration1 ultimately decided on ,port ,patrick on the ,scotch1 and ,donaghadee on the ,irish side4 ,this decision was approved of by the ,government1 and ,mr4 ,rennie was desired by them to prepare designs for harbours in both of the above places2 he did so1 and the ,government ordered them to be carried into effect under his direction3 for a more particular description the reader is referred to my work on ,british and ,foreign ,harbours4 ,during the progress of these surveys ,i learned a great deal in this important department of civil engineering1 and personally surveyed the bay of ,port ,nessock and the ,copeland ,islands1 which gave me an excellent lesson1 as1 on account of the rugged nature of the coasts1 they were attended with considerable difficulties4 ,as already observed1 in the following year1 #ahae1 ,i was placed under ,mr4 ,giles' direction during the whole period of the survey of the river ,tyne1 which had been entrusted to him by my father also4 ,in the same year ,i was under ,mr4 ,giles during the surveys for the ,barnard ,castle1 and ,stockton and ,darlington railways and canal2 and ,i subsequently made a hydraulic survey of the port of ,blythe for my father1 and for which he afterwards made a design for its improvement4 ,i had been previously employed under ,mr4 ,giles in the surveys for the eastern extension of the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal4 ,during a part of this time our head quarters were at ,windsor2 and one ,sunday afternoon ,i recollect very well attending the promenade on the terrace at ,windsor ,castle when ,his ,majesty ,king ,george the ,third1 accompanied by the ,queen and ,royal ,family1 made their appearance with their attendants and joined the promenade1 and were received in the most loyal and affectionate yet respectful manner4 ,i also about the same time assisted ,mr4 ,giles in the survey of the ,thames in the vicinity of ,woolwich ,dockyard1 the accumulation of the mud in front of which was so great at that time that it threatened to render that dockyard useless4 ,the evil to a certain extent has since been remedied by removing a number of the projections which interfered with the currents of the ebb and flood tide1 according to the plan laid down by the late ,mr4 ,rennie1 although1 as he clearly pointed out1 it would be impossible to improve the river to such an extent in front of ,woolwich and ,deptford dockyards as to render them fit for the construction and accommodation of large vessels of war2 and therefore he recommended that they should be abandoned and sold1 and that a proper establishment should be made at ,northfleet capable of accommodating at all times of tide any number of the largest vessels of war at that time in the navy1 or that might be built hereafter4 ,this dockyard was intended to be so arranged that all classes of vessels of war could be built there2 and it would contain establishments for manufacturing cordage1 sails1 anchors1 guns1 smith work of every kind1 together with depts of provisions1 and stores of all sorts1 all of which were to be arranged in such a manner that each operation of building1 repairing1 storing1 and fitting out for sea should be completed in the order required2 so that a vessel1 after having been built1 might be transferred at once into a dry dock to be coppered1 then take in her masts1 ballast1 rigging1 sails1 stores1 provisions1 guns1 boats1 and seamen1 and sail at once complete to her station from the centre dock-gates2 in the same manner1 when returning from her station1 she might be repaired and fitted out again ready for sea4 ,the saving effected by such an establishment would have been immense1 and the service would have been performed in a far more expeditious and effective manner4 ,mr4 ,pitt was then ,prime ,minister1 and his master mind at once acknowledged the advantages of such an establishment2 it was accordingly approved of by the ,government1 the land was bought1 and it was ordered to be carried into effect1 but the unfortunate death of that great minister and the change of ,government effectually put a stop to all further proceedings in this direction4 ,since that time the old dockyards of ,woolwich and ,deptford1 ,sheerness and ,chatham1 have been improved and enlarged1 at an expenditure as great as would have completed ,mr4 ,rennie's establishment at ,northfleet1 without half the efficiency or accommodation4 ,the old useless dockyards of ,woolwich and ,deptford1 which the late ,lord ,melville1 when ,first ,lord of the ,admiralty1 condemned and ordered to be sold1 have been retained1 and the increase of unnecessary expense has been enormous1 whilst the evils complained of have not been remedied till quite lately4 ,having by this time a considerable knowledge of surveying1 practical and theoretical1 in all its departments either on land or water1 so that ,i could undertake either1 my father deemed that ,i had learned sufficient1 and directed me to return to my practical duties in the construction of the ,southwark ,bridge4 ,as this was considered a work of great importance and difficulty ,i felt highly honoured by my father's confidence1 and devoted my energies to it with the greatest anxiety and with a determination to do everything in my power to make it successful4 ,the difficulty of obtaining the large blocks of granite and other stone had been successfully overcome1 and they arrived with great punctuality1 and the masonry of the abutments and piers was successfully carried into effect as previously described4 ,then came the important question of erecting the cast-iron arches2 each arch consisted of eight main ribs1 and each rib consisted of thirteen pieces1 the lower or main part of which formed the chord or arch upon which the whole of the superstructure was to be supported4 ,these thirteen pieces were solid1 #b inches thick in the mass and #c inches thick at the bottom1 and #b thick at the top1 and formed so many radiating blocks1 like arch-stones4 ,at the end of every block there was a transverse frame extending from one side to the other through the whole width of the bridge2 against each side of these frames the main ribs abutted and were nicely fitted to them1 and in order to prevent them from moving laterally there were projecting dovetailed cheeks cast on the frame1 and between these cheeks and the ends of the main ribs solid cast-iron wedges the whole depth of the main rib were fitted1 then drawn home against the ends of the rib2 by this means the ribs were kept firmly within their places1 and as an additional precaution strong diagonal braces1 having a strong feathering rib on each side1 were inserted diagonally between the ribs from one end of the arch to the other1 and secured to the ribs by projecting dovetailed cheeks on them1 and wedges and bolts1 so that these cast-iron arches were constructed in the same manner as a stone arch1 being almost as it were a solid mass depending upon the equilibrium of the different pieces for its stability4 ,the depth of the main rib of the centre arch at the crown is #f feet and #h feet at the piers1 whilst the depth of the ribs of the side arches at the crown is #f feet and #h feet at the abutments4 ,as these ribs with their attendant transverse frames and diagonal braces formed the main part of the arches upon which the whole of the superstructure depended1 it was necessary that they should be extremely well put together and properly united to the piers and abutments4 ,contrary to the usual mode of constructing stone arches1 they were commenced at the centre instead of the sides1 a strong wooden centring supported upon tiers of piles having been previously constructed between the piers and abutments to support them whilst being put in their places4 ,each piece of each rib was carefully placed upon the centre1 resting upon nicely-adjusted strong wooden double wedges1 and connected together as they proceeded by the transverse frames and diagonal braces before mentioned4 ,by this means the whole of the arches were constructed at the same time from the centre to the skewbacks or bearing parts of the piers and abutments2 but in order to connect them properly with them it was necessary to devise a particular arrangement4 ,for this purpose a transverse frame1 similar to those already described for connecting the rib pieces together1 was accurately imbedded and fitted to the skewbacks or bearing places on piers and abutments1 resting on a bed of sheet lead1 and the joints were filled in with melted lead also2 this formed a solid and to a certain extent elastic bearing1 upon which the main ribs were ultimately to rest4 ,at the ends of the arched rib-plates next to the piers and abutments there was another transverse frame plate of the same kind as those previously described1 and fixed there in a similar manner2 this brought the ends of the arches within #f inches of the abutting or bearing plates fixed in the skewbacks or springing places of the piers and abutments4 ,between the frame plates fitted on the skewbacks or masonry of the piers and abutments1 and those fitted on the ends of the rib plates of each arch1 solid cast-iron wedges1 #i feet long and #f inches thick at the back1 and #b inches thick at the bottom1 #i inches wide1 three being behind each rib1 were accurately fitted by chipping and filing1 so that it would slide down to within #ab inches of the bottom2 when these wedges were all accurately adjusted at the same temperature to the same depth1 they were simultaneously driven home by wooden rams to their full depth1 so as to reach about an inch below the bottom of each rib2 by this means the whole of the three arches were gradually brought to their bearing without being raised wholly from their centres4 ,matters were then allowed to remain in this state for a few days in order to give time for every part to come to its bearing and to ascertain whether there was any defect in any part4 ,after the minutest search in every part no defect could be discovered2 the wedges between the centres and the under sides of the ribs were then gradually slackened until the whole of the arches came to their full bearing1 and were removed entirely1 leaving the arches perfectly free of support4 ,during the whole of these operations1 from first to last1 which occupied about a week1 not the slightest accident or fracture occurred2 the total subsidence of the main arch barely exceeded #b inches1 whilst the subsidence of the two side arches barely exceeded #b inches1 which had been allowed for in the construction4 ,in order to ascertain the effects of expansion and contraction of the arches by the variation of the temperature of the atmosphere1 ,i constructed steel1 brass1 and wooden gauges1 accurately divided into decimal parts of an inch1 and erected them upon different parts of the centres1 where the effects were most likely to be apparent1 and ,i kept the register for several weeks1 during the height of summer1 autumn1 winter1 and spring4 ,i found that the variation in the rise and fall of the crown of the arches1 the abutments being fixed1 was #a_/ajth of an inch for every #aj of temperature1 so that1 taking the extremes of temperature at ,london to be #aj below freezing point of ,fahrenheit in winter1 and #hj in summer2 the utmost rise and fall of the arches may be taken at #g_/ajths1 or at most one inch2 but as any variation in the temperature1 unless continued for some time1 has no sensible effect upon such a large mass of iron1 so1 in our variable climate1 the rise and fall of the crowns of the arches may be taken upon the average somewhat below the amount above given4 ,after the arches had been brought to their bearing and had been relieved from the centres1 the superstructural framework was carried up and firmly connected and bracketed together by diagonal ties and wedges2 in doing this the ends of the superstructural frames were too tightly wedged to the masonry of the piers1 without my knowledge1 so that they would not allow the main ribs of the arches to play freely1 and some of the masonry courses above the main ribs were slightly splintered and deranged2 the wedges were then slackened1 and some of them removed entirely1 and thus the evil was immediately remedied2 the whole structure has ever since remained in a perfect state4 ,the bridges and approaches were finally completed and opened to the public traffic in ,march1 #ahai1 the ceremony being performed by ,sir ,john ,jackson1 the chairman1 the directors1 and a few friends4 ,in the month of ,august1 #ahah1 having worked very hard1 ,i may say almost night and day1 for some time1 ,i was nearly worn out1 and was permitted to have a short holiday4 ,i therefore determined to go to ,belgium and visit the celebrated field of ,waterloo1 which closed the long and eventful revolutionary war1 and attracted the admiration and interest of the whole civilized world4 ,i accordingly started for ,dover1 in company with my old friend1 the late ,mr4 ,joseph ,gwilt1 architect1 and crossed over to ,calais4 ,on landing we repaired to ,dessin's hotel1 at that time one of the best in ,europe1 and rendered famous by ,sterne1 whose rooms are still shown as one of the most interesting curiosities 7to ,englishmen at least7 of the place4 ,here we passed the remainder of the day very agreeably4 ,everything was new to us--the people1 their language1 their manners1 their mode of living4 ,we had been so long considering the ,french as our deadly foes that we could hardly believe ourselves to be at peace with them1 and to be actually in ,france and so civilly treated by them4 ,then the living was so good and cheap1 compared to that of ,england2 champagne1 which with us was considered the greatest luxury1 and only within reach of the highest and most wealthy1 was here obtainable for four francs a bottle1 whilst in ,england it was twenty-four1 and almost everything in the same proportion4 ,in the town of ,calais there is nothing to see4 ,the harbour is but indifferent1 and almost dry at low water1 and is chiefly maintained open by sluicing and dredging4 ,on such a flat1 sandy shore1 with the prevailing winds and currents always driving on and accumulating the sands1 it is very difficult to make and maintain a good harbour2 still ,i think that a great deal more might be effected by pursuing a different course1 and having a proper system of open piers and breakwaters on the outside4 ,after breakfast on the following day we started in a travelling calche1 with two horses1 for ,st4 ,omer1 about #bf miles distant4 ,on our way we stopped to examine the celebrated quadrangular bridge1 called the ,pont ,sans ,pareille1 across the junction of the two canals of ,picardy4 ,this is certainly a meritorious1 well-executed work1 but the idea is by no means new1 as the ,gothic triangular bridge of ,crowland1 in ,lincolnshire1 across the junction of the ,welland1 was executed many centuries previous to the ,pont ,sans ,pareille1 and is still extant in a perfect state4 ,near this bridge is the celebrated maiden fortress of ,ardres1 which is said to have never been taken4 ,here also1 according to ,froissart1 was the ,champs d',or1 or ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold4 ,ardres is a poor1 miserable little fortress1 surrounded with earthworks and ditch1 on a flat plain4 ,in ancient times it might have been formidable1 with their means of attack1 but now it would be utterly defenceless4 ,from ,ardres we passed through ,st4 ,omer and ,lille1 and after visiting ,tournay and ,ghent we proceeded to the capital of ,belgium1 where we took up our quarters at the ,htel de ,flandre1 in the highest and best part of the city4 ,we were particularly struck with the magnificent ,htel de ,ville and its lofty spire2 also the remarkable place or square in front of it1 which1 looking to its picturesque medival buildings and the remarkable historical events which have taken place there1 renders it one of the most interesting in ,europe4 ,the fine old ,gothic cathedral of ,st4 ,gudule1 the museum1 fine canals1 c41 particularly attracted our attention4 ,on the next morning we started for the scene of the celebrated battle of ,waterloo1 which had occurred about two months previously4 ,in this place1 like every ,englishman1 ,i took the greatest possible interest1 and pictured to myself the whole of that terrific and stirring scene as being enacted before me4 ,notwithstanding the lapse of time since which that battle had taken place considerable traces of it were still visible1 particularly in the blood-stained walls and ruined1 desolate1 and half-consumed buildings of the keys of the position1 ,hougumont and ,la ,haye ,sainte1 and the remnants of shakos1 arms1 and military clothing which strewed the field on all sides1 and the fresh-made graves1 where many thousand gallant fellows lay entombed4 ,the whole field and neighbouring villages were crowded with guides to explain the different particulars of that memorable struggle1 and to sell the numerous articles which they had raked up from the field of battle2 we bought some of these as mementos1 and wandered for hours over every part of this field of desolation1 until we fancied that we had mastered every detail of the conflict1 and were almost fit to take the command of an army ourselves4 ,we then returned to ,brussels1 highly gratified and instructed by the excursion4 ,we left ,brussels much pleased with that pretty little industrious capital1 and proceeded to ,malines1 where the fine old cathedral and town rewarded us well during our short visit4 ,from thence we journeyed on to ,antwerp1 where we stopped at the ,grand ,labourer1 a celebrated old-fashioned hotel4 ,this famous old city1 the great emporium of the ,belgian trade1 interested me much1 with its magnificent cathedral and other churches1 its fine old ,htel de ,ville1 and spacious quays and docks2 the ,scheldt is here a fine river4 ,there was a good museum of ,dutch and ,flemish pictures1 but the chef-d'uvres of ,rubens and ,vandyke had not yet returned from ,paris4 ,i was much struck with the extent and strength of the fortifications2 also with the costume of the natives1 particularly that of the women1 which still resembled a good deal that of their former masters1 the ,spaniards4 ,at the time of our visit everything was in a depressed state4 ,its trade had not yet recovered from the effects of the great war1 and its then silent streets contrasted greatly with their former activity4 ,the ,roman ,catholic religious ceremonies were conducted with great magnificence1 and struck us simple ,protestants1 who had never witnessed anything of the kind before1 with considerable astonishment4 ,we left ,antwerp for ,ghent1 and took our departure for ,bruges in one of the trackschuyts or barges1 by means of which the great bulk of the goods and passenger traffic of the kingdom was carried on4 ,these canals are magnificent specimens of the kind1 and1 being upon a much greater scale than our own1 particularly struck me with admiration4 ,the canal was bounded on each side with spacious banks1 and was of great width1 with a towing path and carriage way for general traffic4 ,these banks were bounded by rows of trees1 which serve for shade2 at the same time their clippings and timber yield a considerable amount of profit4 ,we reached ,bruges about noon1 and had just time to examine the fine cathedral and townhall1 as well as the interesting town1 its quaint old buildings1 quays1 mercantile warehouses1 all in the architecture of the ,middle ,ages1 during which ,bruges attained its greatest prosperity4 ,we left this interesting town in the afternoon by another trackschuyt for ,ostend1 about #ab miles distant1 by a canal of the same dimensions as the one above described4 ,most of these canals being connected with each other1 ,brussels1 ,ghent1 ,malines1 ,louvain1 and the other large towns1 possessed a complete network of water communication with the ports of ,antwerp and ,ostend1 and trade is carried on with the greatest facility4 ,we reached ,ostend in the evening1 and learned that a packet was about to sail for ,margate1 of which we determined to avail ourselves4 ,we had1 however1 sufficient time to examine this indifferent port1 the second in the kingdom1 which1 in addition to a badly-contrived entrance by two guide piers1 has two small docks4 ,it is a mere tidal harbour1 with an awkward bar at the entrance1 and numerous shoals on the outside4 ,the town possesses nothing remarkable2 it was then garrisoned by ,english troops1 and there was constant communication with ,england4 ,from this period ,i devoted my time almost exclusively to the ,waterloo and ,southwark bridges1 but particularly to the latter1 which was almost entirely under my direction1 subject to the orders of my father4 ,besides the above works1 ,i was a good deal employed in the drawing office in making drawings and estimates and calculations for a variety of new works upon which my father was engaged4 ,i also occasionally visited the rolling and other machinery of the ,royal ,mint on ,tower ,hill1 which my father at that time was constructing for the ,government1 and during the evenings ,i was employed in learning mathematics under ,dr4 ,bradley and ,dr4 ,firminger1 and the ,italian1 ,french1 and ,german languages1 so that my time from morning to evening was fully employed4 ,i must not omit to say that at this time ,i attended the lectures of the celebrated ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 the ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,royal ,institution1 who at that day astonished the world by his wonderful discoveries4 ,the first1 second1 and third arches of the ,waterloo ,bridge being completed1 ,mr4 ,rennie determined to slacken the centres of the first arch1 which was on the ,surrey shore1 where the bridge commenced4 ,this was when the arches were entirely relieved from the centres1 and the total subsiding of this arch was #b inches1 which is nearly half an inch less than had been allowed2 the centres were then removed from the first arch to the fourth arch1 only three centres being employed4 ,each centre consisted of eight ribs1 upon the truss principle1 resting upon a compound system of wedges1 supported upon struts placed upon the offsets of the piers and abutments2 all the ribs were well connected together by transverse and diagonal ties1 as well as the planking upon which the arch-stones rested4 ,the trestles or bearers of the centre ribs1 together with the wedges1 having been first fixed in their places upon the offsets of the pier and abutment where the centre was to be fixed1 four ribs of the centre were transferred1 and fixed upon them in the following manner4 ,the ribs of the centre having been constructed upon a platform upon the shore near the bridge1 a large barge or floating stage1 capable of carrying four complete ribs1 which weighed #dj tons each1 was built to receive them4 ,this floating stage was extremely strong1 and transversely across the centre of it there were four strong stages at the same distance from each other as the ribs of the centre were intended to be when fixed in their position1 to support the arches whilst building4 ,these stages were supported by double transverse beams1 resting upon powerful screws #ae inches diameter1 in boxes resting upon the bottom of the vessel4 ,above each of these stages1 yet securely attached to them1 was a framework1 to which the ribs of the centres were lashed whilst being transported to their places4 ,when the centre ribs were finished and all was ready1 the floating stage1 at high water1 was brought alongside the platform1 upon which the ribs of the centre had been constructed1 and were lying ready to be transferred to their places4 ,each rib was then raised by means of powerful sheer-poles1 to which were double-purchase crabs1 treble blocks1 with all the necessary ropes1 chains1 and other tackle1 by which means each rib of the centre was readily raised from the platform where it was built and transferred to its proper stage in the floating barge1 and there secured in an upright position1 when the ribs had been fixed in their places4 ,the barge was then floated into the opening where the arch was to be constructed1 which was generally done about half an hour before high water1 so as to allow ample time to adjust and fix the ribs over the corresponding pair of wedges and trestles upon which it was ultimately to rest1 which was done as the tide fell1 and adjusted to the greatest nicety by the screws before mentioned2 when the rib had been fixed in its place1 the barge returned to bring another1 which was served in the same manner as the first1 and thus the fixing of one centre occupied only six days4 ,this system answered most effectually1 and was subsequently adopted by ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson for fixing the great tubes for the ,menai and ,conway bridges4 ,the ,waterloo ,bridge1 as well known1 consists of nine equal semi-elliptical arches1 #abj feet span each1 with a rise of #cd feet #f inches1 the keystones at the crown being #d feet #f inches deep and #aj feet at the spring1 and #ah inches thick at the soffit2 inverted arches on each pier between the main arches #d feet #f inches deep4 ,the piers were #bj feet wide1 each having projecting buttresses1 supported by two three-quarter ,doric columnar pilasters1 over each pier1 the whole being surmounted by a ,doric block cornice and balustrade parapet1 level from end to end1 the same as the roadway4 ,the roadway above the piers was supported by six brick walls1 #b ft4 #c in4 thick1 covered with corbel stones4 ,the shores being low on both sides of the river1 the approaches are constructed so as to form an inclined plane rising #a in #cj on the ,surrey side1 and nearly level on the north1 or ,middlesex side1 with the ,strand1 upon a series of brick arches #af feet wide each4 ,these arches serve for storehouses4 ,the roadway was formed by a layer of well-puddled clay #ae inches thick1 then a layer of lime and of fine gravel #c inches thick1 then a layer of equally broken granite1 in pieces #b inches in diameter1 #a foot thick4 ,through the centre of the masonry of each pier a hole #ah inches in diameter was cut1 entering the river on one side of the pier at low water1 and from the top of this hole inside the pier cast-iron branch pipes of the same diameter were carried to side drains on each side of the roadway1 so that all rain and surface water was effectually carried off into the river1 thus preventing leakage4 ,the piers and abutments were founded in the solid bed of the river1 which is strong gravel2 they rest upon a wooden platform1 supported upon piles #ab inches in diameter driven #bj feet into the bed of the river4 ,the whole of the arches and exterior face of the bridge are built of ,cornish granite1 from the vicinity of ,penryn1 and the balustrade is made of fine grey ,aberdeen granite4 ,the contract for the ,cornish granite was taken by a very worthy man of the name of ,gray1 and the price was such as on so large a quantity ought to have enabled him to realize a very handsome profit2 but he had no system or machinery adequate for the purpose1 and instead of opening quarries properly upon an enlarged scale in the solid rock1 by which he would have saved a great deal1 he chiefly confined his operations to the loose outlying blocks1 which reduced his profits considerably1 and in the end it is very doubtful whether he did more than cover his expenses4 ,as the dressing of granite for masonry was entirely new at that time1 nothing having been built of this material in ,london1 it was extremely difficult to find masons who would undertake it1 even at such enormous prices as #as4 #i;d4 to #bs4 per cube foot1 so that the contractors1 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks1 could not afford to pay it4 ,workmen were therefore obtained from ,aberdeen1 and the price was ultimately reduced from #bs4 to #as42 notwithstanding1 however1 the prime cost of the stone1 the freight1 dressing1 mortar1 and setting complete in the bridge cost about #gs4 #b;d4 to #gs4 #c;d41 so that the total cost was near #gs4 #f;d4 ,it should be observed1 however1 that at that time there was a duty of threepence per cubic foot 7or ton87 on stone1 which has since been taken off4 ,the interior stone consisted of hard sandstone from ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire4 ,the bridge and approaches were completed and opened with great ceremony by ,george ,,iv41 then ,prince ,regent1 on the #aeth of ,june1 #ahag1 in commemoration of the battle of ,waterloo1 after which it was especially named4 ,twenty-five pieces of artillery were placed on the centre of the bridge1 which fired a salute as ,his ,royal ,highness1 the directors of the ,company1 and a brilliant suite walked over in procession1 when he christened it ,waterloo ,bridge1 and declared it open to the public4 ,his ,royal ,highness came by water in his state barge1 accompanied by the ,admiralty and other barges1 in which were the ministers and suite2 he landed at the stairs on the south-east side of the bridge1 and walked over it from south to north2 he embarked again on the north-east side1 and returned to ,whitehall and ,carlton ,house4 ,the sight was very brilliant1 the weather magnificent1 and everybody seemed to be satisfied4 ,the total cost of the bridge was #efe1jjjl41 which was #aj1jjjl4 more than estimated by ,mr4 ,rennie2 the approaches1 besides the land and buildings1 cost a further sum of #aab1jjjl42 so that the total cost of the bridge and approaches was #fgg1jjjl41 and the land and buildings and contingencies #cgc1jjjl41 making a total of #a1jej1jjjl4 ,this is certainly a very large sum for a bridge and its approaches2 but when its extent is considered1 the bridge alone being a quarter of a mile long1 and the approaches nearly three-quarters of a mile more1 also the great cost of materials and labour of every kind1 the stone-cutting costing from #ds4 to #fs4 a cubic foot in the rough state1 timber from #gl4 to #adl4 per load1 and labour in the same proportion 7which is more than double the present price71 we cannot be surprised at the total cost4 ,i still continued my duties at the ,southwark ,bridge1 which was completed in ,march1 #ahai1 and was opened without any ceremony by ,sir ,john ,jackson1 the chairman of the ,company1 and the other directors4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,travels in ,switzerland1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 ,constantinople1 and ,egypt--,return to ,england--,death of ,mr4 ,rennie4 ,i had now received a tolerably good education1 both theoretical and practical1 as a civil engineer2 but before entering fully into practice on my own account1 my father thought it advisable that ,i should travel for a time to study what had been done in ancient and modern times both in architecture and engineering4 ,i accordingly left ,england on the #gth of ,june1 #ahai1 in company with my cousin1 ,colonel1 now ,general1 ,sir ,j4 ,aitchison1 and the late ,lord ,hotham1 his friend4 ,we had a thirty-three hours' passage from ,brighton to ,dieppe1 during which time1 having exhausted the captain's store of bread and cheese1 not very abundant1 we were glad to fall back on a dozen mackerel1 which ,lord ,hotham's servant was fortunate enough to catch4 ,we passed through ,france without much incident2 but when the view from the summit of the ,jura suddenly burst upon us1 the magnificent scene made a most lasting impression upon my memory4 ,the valley of the ,rhone1 the ,lake of ,geneva1 backed by ,mont ,blanc and its splendid range of mountains1 rose before us as if by magic2 we were totally unprepared for it1 could scarcely believe our senses1 and stood enraptured for nearly half an hour4 ,we then descended to ,geneva1 where we passed several days very agreeably1 examining what was then the picturesque old town1 with its clumsy1 old-fashioned waterworks2 for the improvement of these my father1 through the well-known ,dr4 ,marcet1 had just made a design for the municipality1 which was much approved of1 and which ,i understand has since been partially carried into effect4 ,i here made the acquaintance of ,general ,dufour1 so well known for his scientific acquirements1 and after a few days went on an expedition to ,chamounix1 where1 as no one then thought of ascending ,mont ,blanc1 we climbed the ,montanvert and the ,mer de ,glace1 where ,i made some experiments with ,leslie's hygrometer4 ,having returned to ,geneva1 we started again on the #gth ,july for a more extended tour in the mountains1 going by the lakes of ,morat and ,bienne1 the scene of the great battle of #adgf4 ,i examined these two lakes1 which were evidently rapidly filling up1 but by lowering the outfalls a great part of the whole might be recovered1 whereas at present the borders are to a great extent covered with reeds1 and the marshes exhale unwholesome effluvia4 ,after passing through ,freibourg1 where the bridge1 then newly opened1 was considered one of the wonders of ,switzerland1 and which1 as a most remarkable work of its kind1 ,i examined attentively1 we passed on to ,berne1 and going through the mountains1 returned to ,geneva4 ,on our way1 being at ,meyringen1 and short of ready cash1 we proposed either to return direct to ,geneva1 or to change one of ,herries' circular notes2 but on offering one of these notes to the landlord1 he at once said there was no occasion for it1 as we were ,englishmen1 and that was enough4 ,having produced a large bag of five-franc pieces1 he told us to help ourselves1 and was with difficulty persuaded to take one of ,herries' notes in exchange4 ,i merely mention this to show how high the name of ,englishmen then stood on the ,continent4 ,leaving ,geneva for ,italy1 we proceeded by the route of the ,simplon1 the construction of which ,i had promised to observe very attentively for my father4 ,the first portion only presents1 as objects of interest1 the excavations through the rock of ,st4 ,gingough1 near the upper end of the lake4 ,from ,martigny we started up the valley of the ,rhone1 where1 though the ground is generally level1 the road yet encounters considerable difficulties from the river1 which here assumes the character of a torrent1 and when swollen by floods sweeps almost everything before it2 wandering from side to side it deposits the dbris of the one side on the banks of the other1 forming1 we may say1 alternately rapids and almost still pools1 which renders it extremely difficult to confine its course within any reasonable limits2 so that the art of the engineer is taxed to the uttermost4 ,i thought that in many places the works were not designed with that solidity which is so necessary under such circumstances1 and that sufficient precautions were not taken to arrest the progress of the dbris4 ,i considered that by providing depositories for it at certain favourable stations1 the violence of the floods might have been considerably controlled1 a much greater extent of land on both sides of the river rendered available for cultivation1 and the extensive marshes1 which1 operated upon by a powerful sun1 now produce most injurious exhalations1 might have been deprived of their baneful influence4 ,having passed ,sion1 we left ,brieg early on the #ajth of ,august1 and as soon as we began the ascent ,i descended from the carriage1 and with line and rule ,i measured every bridge until we reached ,boveno1 on the ,lake ,maggiore4 ,i sent off from ,milan1 as ,i had promised1 a detailed account of this celebrated road to my father1 giving a drawing and account of every work1 which ,i afterwards had the gratification of knowing afforded him great pleasure4 ,the whole ,pass must have at first sight been appalling to the engineers who traced the line of road2 and although many other works of the kind of greater magnitude have been since executed1 nevertheless1 all things considered1 it is worthy the approbation of mankind1 and does great credit both to those who designed and those who executed it4 ,we reached ,milan#a on the #abth of ,august1 and ,i was much struck with the fine canal which unites it with ,pavia1 and which can only be compared with the canals of ,belgium4 ,it has been said that the first pound lock was invented and executed by the famous ,leonardi da ,vinci1 but subsequent inquiries have induced me to believe that our own country is entitled to the honour in the ,exeter ship canal4 ,i was also greatly pleased with the system of irrigation employed generally throughout ,lombardy4 ,this system was originally introduced by the ,italians themselves1 and during the ,austrian rule was carried to the greatest perfection1 ,lombardy being by nature peculiarly well adapted to it4 ,the vast and fertile valley of the ,po is for the most part destitute of rain during the summer1 when it is most wanted2 but it fortunately happens that at this season water is most abundant from the melting of the snows on the ,alps1 which descend into the adjacent lakes and rivers1 and would be otherwise wasted and thrown away if not employed for fertilizing the land4 ,the water1 therefore1 at this season is conducted by an elaborate system of artificial canals1 and distributed over the adjacent lands according to their respective levels1 at a certain price1 varying with the quantity distributed4 ,thus the constant supply of water1 the high temperature1 and the fertility of the soil combined1 produce the most abundant crops1 and the plains of ,lombardy are rendered the most productive and valuable in ,europe2 whereas in winter1 when the temperature is lowest1 the snow is congealed on the ,alps1 and comparatively little water comes down when it is least wanted4 ,from ,milan we reached ,verona1 where the bridge1 consisting principally of brick1 with binding courses of marble1 can boast of one of the largest brick arches in the world1 an excellent example of what may be done with this material when properly handled4 ,after passing ,vicenza and ,padua1 we reached ,venice early in ,september1 #ahai4 ,the extraordinary and at the same time most beautiful and novel appearance of the city1 with numerous towers and spires1 about which ,i had read and heard so much1 and had so long wished to see1 now stood before me1 and its loveliness more than realized my most sanguine expectations4 ,when ,i considered its origin1 a few fishermen's huts built upon the mud banks of the lagoon by men flying from the invasion of ,attila1 then the rise of the great republic whose wealth1 conquests1 and influence were destined hereafter to play such an important part in the world1 and lastly the fallen and degraded state in which it then presented itself before me1 ,i was lost in astonishment2 ,i was for a while transported as it were in a dream1 and could scarcely believe where ,i was4 ,the ,grand ,canal first attracted our notice1--perhaps there is no thoroughfare in the world lined with so many magnificent palaces1--and along which we passed until we came to the ,rialto1 a drawing of which ,i made and sent to my father4 ,but if ,i was delighted1 and ,i may almost say astonished1 at the ,grand ,canal1 ,i was still more so with the ,place of ,st4 ,marc and its surrounding buildings1 so varied in their architectural styles1 yet each so picturesque and elegant in itself1 and combined together forming at once the most interesting and beautiful scene of the kind in the world4 ,it is one of those sights1 at least speaking for myself1 that never satiates--the more ,i looked the more ,i admired it4 ,as to the details of these different buildings which we saw1 they are so much better described in the numerous guide books that it is unnecessary to repeat them here4 ,i visited every part of the lagoons1 including the various islands1 all of which are more or less deserving of notice1 particularly the island of ,murano1 the seat of the celebrated glass manufactories2 and also the ,moravian establishment4 ,but what really most interested me were the lagoons1 and the means which must have been resorted to for keeping them open1 notwithstanding the numerous causes which were and are constantly in operation to fill them up with the alluvial matter brought down from the mountains and plains by the various rivers and streams which discharge their waters into this portion of the ,adriatic1 also from the alluvium brought in from the adjacent shores1 by the tide1 which rises from #b to #d feet1 and at times1 during heavy gales from the southward1 as much as #f feet1 overflowing the quays of ,st4 ,marc's ,place4 ,there was a long-continued discussion amongst the numerous distinguished mathematicians1 engineers1 and others who have written upon this subject1 as to the best way of preventing the filling up of the harbour4 ,some contended that the only method of effecting this was to admit all the rivers into the lagoons freely2 for although they might deposit a certain amount of alluvial matter1 nevertheless the great quantity of water discharged would alone be sufficient to carry away this deposit4 ,but they forgot that when the rivers met the sea the current would necessarily be checked and rendered powerless to carry forward any matter which might be held in suspension1 and that consequently the detritus would be deposited and form banks and shoals which the waters could not remove2 thus in time the lagoons would be filled up1 grass marshes would be formed1 the city of ,venice would be united to the mainland1 and the harbour would be destroyed4 ,on the other hand1 it was argued1 for the reasons above mentioned1 that the only way to preserve the lagoons and the port of ,venice was to exclude the rivers when densely charged with alluvial matter1 and only to admit their waters at certain times1 when they were comparatively clear2 thus all the advantage would be obtained from the scour of these rivers1 without the disadvantage arising from their deposits4 ,ultimately the arguments of the latter prevailed1 the rivers were excluded from the lagoons by making a capacious canal all around them with sluices at their mouths1 by means of which the waters were discharged into the lagoons when they were tolerably clear of alluvial matter2 the surplus waters were discharged into the adjacent sea clear of the lagoons1 and any alluvial matter which was brought in from the sea was removed by dredging from the main channels of the lagoons1 so that they were in a fit state to admit the tidal waters and thus to keep the lagoons open4 ,but there was another important agent to be provided against1 namely1 the alluvial matter brought in by the winds1 waves1 and currents from the scouring of the adjacent shores of the ,adriatic2 this is done to a certain extent by dredging4 ,originally these banks contributed materially to the formation of the outer banks1 which protect the lagoon on the sea side4 ,if these banks were broken through or completely swept away1 which the storms of the ,adriatic frequently threatened to do1 the lagoon1 and with it the port1 would be seriously injured or totally destroyed4 ,this was remedied by defending this outer barrier bank of the lagoon by facing it with stone1 and where the sea was most violent by constructing a solid breakwater of stone1 and protecting it further by stone filters carried out a sufficient distance into the sea in order to divert the current1 and to enable the alluvial matter to be deposited between them so as to form an additional protection to the main breakwater2 this was accordingly done1 and thus an extraordinary work at great expense has been constructed between ,lido and ,malamocco1 the principal entrances from the sea to the lagoon1 for a length of four miles1 where the effects of the sea are greatest4 ,malamocco is the principal entrance for large vessels1 and the channel from thence to ,venice has been deepened1 chiefly by dredging1 to the extent of #bd feet at low water4 ,lido1 which is the next chief entrance and the nearest to ,venice1 being about #a mile distant from it1 serves for the general class of merchant vessels4 ,the other entrances of ,foggia1 ,tre ,porte1 and the ,piave1 are seldom used except for fishing vessels1 and it is not necessary to do more to these than to keep them in their present state1 that is1 to prevent deterioration1 as it is an object of importance to allow the great mass of water by which the lagoon is chiefly preserved to pass in and out of the main entrances1 ,malamocco and ,lido4 ,upon the whole it appears to me that this latter plan is the wisest that could be adopted1 and the result has proved that it has been so far successful1 although attended with considerable expense4 ,it is in fact a choice of two evils1 and the least has been chosen4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 admitted that the port of ,venice is now capable of receiving as large1 if not larger1 vessels than she ever received before2 for it should be recollected that in the most flourishing times of ,venice there were no ships drawing #bc or #bd feet1 and vessels of this size can now enter and depart at all times4 ,hence ,venice has been converted into a port fit for modern requirements2 but it must always be borne in mind that so strong are the natural obstacles against its maintenance that nothing can preserve it in its present condition but the most constant vigilance and care4 ,fortunately the method of dredging by steam has been introduced1 and this may be done to any extent1 at a comparatively moderate cost1 but it can only be compensated for when there is a sufficient amount of trade to pay for it4 ,still1 in whatever way we may consider the question1 it must be admitted that the port of ,venice has been preserved in a most extraordinary manner during so many centuries1 notwithstanding the natural obstacles against it2 and now that it has been connected with the kingdom of ,italy1 there is no further drawback to its full development1 and it only requires self-reliance and energy to render it what it once was1 one1 if not the most important1 of the commercial cities of ,italy4 ,at ,bologna we had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of the celebrated linguist ,mezzofanti1 whose modest and simple manner1 accompanied by his extraordinary acquirements1 quite enchanted us4 ,the singular fact is that at the time of our meeting him he had never been out of the province of ,bologna1 and yet he had acquired the knowledge of twenty-four languages1 and1 as far as our limited acquaintance went1 he spoke the ,english1 ,german1 ,french1 ,greek and ,latin tongues perfectly2 and those conversant with the ,oriental languages informed us that he spoke them equally well4 ,he appeared to be completely absorbed in languages1 and was scarcely acquainted with any other branches of knowledge2 still his wonderful mastery of this branch of study was a great acquirement1 and must have required vast powers of memory as well as indefatigable study4 ,from thence we passed through ,ravenna to ,ancona1 the position of which is good1 occupying as it does a salient point of the coast4 ,the water is deep and there is a commanding height for a citadel4 ,the ,roman emperors resolved to take advantage of the situation1 and built a town here1 the place being well adapted for a seaport4 ,they accordingly made a mole on the south side to protect the harbour against the most dangerous winds1 namely1 those blowing from the south2 they commenced the work from the shore by throwing down large blocks of rough stone1 which were obtained from the rocks in the vicinity1 in order to form a base for the superstructure2 these blocks of stone were deposited promiscuously in the sea and left to the action of the waves1 which in a comparatively short time consolidated them until they formed a mass that at length became immovable1 always adding more stone as required until the whole became solid2 this foundation was carried up to the level of low-water mark4 ,they then commenced the superstructure of masonry1 of squared stone and brickwork cemented together by pozzolana or hydraulic mortar1 which was best adapted to make the work permanent4 ,the inside or quay wall was formed by first placing a close framework of timber in front and at the angle or slope at which the quay wall was to be formed4 ,they then threw down a mass of pozzolana1 lime1 and small rubble stone1 mixed together1 between the wooden frames and the rubble stone which had been previously deposited to form the base of the mole4 ,this in a comparatively short time become solid1 as the mixture of pozzolana1 lime1 and stone possesses the quality of setting under water4 ,when it had become sufficiently solid1 the timber frame was removed and transferred to another section to form a continuation of the quay wall1 and thus the whole line of inner quay wall which formed the roadway was made by backing the quay wall to its full height with rubble1 and a parapet of masonry was erected on the outside2 this superstructure1 although rough1 stood very well with occasional repairs4 ,in this manner the mole was carried out to a great extent4 ,a fine triumphal arch was erected at the end to commemorate the completion of the work4 ,it is singular that the same emperor should have constructed a like work in a similar situation and in the same manner at ,civita ,vecchia1 on the opposite coast of ,italy1 after every attempt had been made to establish a port by his predecessors at ,ostia1 which was built at extraordinary expense1 and has been filled up by the alluvial matter brought down by the ,tiber and from the sea by the littoral currents1 so that it is now three miles from the sea4 ,the principle of construction used in these works resembles a good deal the mode adopted by the ,phnicians at ,tyre1 and subsequently by the ,carthaginians at ,carthage1 and by the moderns4 ,the ,romans also employed the hollow mole1 that is1 a mole constructed with arches1 by means of which the current charged with alluvial matter was enabled to pass through the mole1 and thus any deposit within or without the mole was to a great extent prevented4 ,the harbour of ,civita ,vecchia remains serviceable at the present day for vessels drawing #bj feet of water1 although1 as may be naturally expected1 a certain deposit has taken place during the lapse of so many centuries which requires to be dredged out occasionally4 ,at ,ancona only one pier was built on the south side1 and consequently an eddy and stagnation took place on the north side1 as the littoral current runs from south to north1 and therefore there is a tendency to deposit on the north side4 ,the ,french when masters of ,italy commenced another mole on the north side1 thus enclosing a considerable space of sea so as to form a close harbour1 which no doubt is of great service2 still1 from the nature of the local circumstances1 a certain deposit may always be expected4 ,this1 however1 can be removed by dredging1 and the harbour may always be preserved in a state of efficiency if the extent of trade will warrant the expenditure necessary for the purpose4 ,on reaching ,rome1 it is difficult to express the emotions ,i felt on a first sight of the ,holy ,city1 surrounded by the desolate ,campagna1 the ,tiber rolling in front1 the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 and the numerous towers of churches rising out of the mass of houses1 crowned by the gorgeous dome of ,st4 ,peter's elevated in proud majesty above the whole1 backed by the magnificent views of the ancient city1 once the mistress of the world4 ,this most interesting1 ,i may say1 most thrilling1 sight lay before me in all its solemn majesty4 ,when ,i considered that it rose from a few insignificant shepherds' hovels to imperial splendour1 then became the prey of the barbarian hordes of the north1 and lastly1 the throne of the ,catholic ,christian world1 ,i was awed by the wonderful decrees of ,providence1 and at the instability of all human grandeur4 ,i lay restless all night2 ,i could scarcely realize the fact that ,i was actually in this wonderful1 all-absorbing city1 to visit which from my childhood had been one of the greatest objects of my ambition4 ,it would be vain to attempt to describe in detail its numerous splendid buildings1 both ancient and modern1 its museums1 and its countless treasures of priceless art4 ,i will merely remark that there is no city in the world more worthy of a visit than ,rome1 or where greater gratification and instruction can be derived2 for example1 the aqueducts and the ,cloaca ,maxima show how thoroughly the ,romans understood the importance of sewerage and good water for the preservation of human life1 an importance that is only now beginning to be recognized in ,england1 while there still remains very much to be accomplished4 ,my friend ,colonel ,aitchison was obliged to hasten his departure4 ,i then took lodgings in the ,piazza de ,spagna1 and devoted myself to the study of the ,italian language1 architecture1 and drawing1 and in my leisure moments entered into society2 and fortunately at that time there were assembled there some of the most distinguished characters in science1 literature1 and art1 besides diplomatists and leaders of fashion1 from the various capitals of ,europe4 ,amongst the first may be mentioned the celebrated chemist and philosopher1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 and his talented wife1 under whose hospitable roof ,i passed many happy days1 and at the same time received much valuable instruction4 ,i made acquaintance with the ,marchese ,martinette1 the scientific engineer1 who at that time devised the extensive hydraulic works for the improvement of the rivers and drainage of the marsh-land districts of ,bologna and ,ferrara1 from whom ,i derived much information4 ,i also met the well-known antiquary1 ,sir ,w4 ,gell1 who to his interesting memoir of ,greece afterwards added much towards explaining the antiquities of ,rome1 and in his agreeable society ,i spent many a pleasant day4 ,dodwell too had just returned from ,greece2 and ,i made the acquaintance of that prince of sculptors1 ,canova1 to whom my father had given me a letter of introduction4 ,i frequently went to his studio1 where he always received me with the greatest kindness4 ,he was then at work on the model of his famous dying ,madeleine1 which struck me as a masterpiece of elegance and beauty1 combined with the resignation and piety which so pre-eminently distinguishes it as a beautiful specimen of art4 ,nobody could be more kind1 amiable1 and modest in his manner than that distinguished sculptor4 ,flattered by emperors1 kings1 and the great and cultivated of every land1 he never for a moment forgot himself or appeared to be elated1 or to be put out of his ordinary simple1 unobtrusive manner2 whilst to his brother artists he was equally kind and familiar2 to his inferiors he was always gentle and considerate1 giving his humbler fellow-workers every encouragement and advice1 cheering them on their way1 and not unfrequently assisting them with his purse when their necessities required it4 ,he was devoted to his art1 of which he was so eminent a professor1 and with it combined all those amiable and charitable feelings which rendered him an universal favourite and a benefactor to mankind4 ,i made acquaintance also with the great ,dane1 ,thorwaldsen1 who frequently admitted me to his studio4 ,he was totally different from ,canova4 ,his square1 massive head1 covered with a redundance of flowing locks2 his finely-developed countenance1 beaming with talent and firmness of purpose2 his colossal and well-proportioned figure1 and erect and commanding gait1 all combined to raise in the mind of the spectator a degree of respect and admiration not usually to be met with4 ,yet with all this apparent sternness there was combined a happy mixture of gentleness1 genial sociability1 and good-nature1 which1 after a little acquaintance1 soon made you feel at home with him2 and the more you knew him the more you liked him4 ,he was then at work upon the colossal figures of the ,twelve ,apostles1 for the church at ,copenhagen1 a commission given to him by the ,king4 ,several of these were finished1 and magnificent specimens of art they were4 ,i have since seen them in their places1 and have looked at them with increased admiration4 ,his ,triumph of ,alexander had just then been completed1 and a finer specimen of bas-relief it is impossible to see4 ,it is singular that with all this nobleness of character1 and being withal a perfect master in his art1 this great man--for certainly he was so in his sphere--should have looked upon ,canova as his rival1 and disliked him with a dislike almost amounting to hatred1 whereas the gentle ,canova had no such feeling towards ,thorwaldsen4 ,their styles1 moreover1 were so totally different from each other1 that there could be no reason for jealousy between them4 ,canova excelled in the female form1 where nothing but elegance1 gentleness1 and grace are required1 although he by no means failed in the male figure2 whereas ,thorwaldsen excelled in that of the male1 where force1 manliness1 and dignity are mainly requisite4 ,both were at the head of their profession in their respective styles1 and both have left behind them numerous masterpieces of art1 which have never been surpassed in ancient or modern times4 ,in addition to these celebrities1 there were ,lawrence1 ,chantrey1 and ,turner1 all engaged in their respective walks of art4 ,these ,i had known in ,england1 and ,i received much kindness and instruction from them1 and enjoyed the greatest pleasure in their delightful society4 ,numerous great houses were at that time open for the reception of all the celebrities of ,roman and foreign society1 to which ,i had access4 ,amongst many others may be mentioned those of the beautiful ,princess ,borghese1 the ,duchess of ,devonshire1 and ,lord ,william ,bentinck4 ,at the house of the ,duchess of ,devonshire ,i was introduced to the polished courtier and priest1 ,cardinal ,gonsalvi1 at that time ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs to the ,pope1 whose graceful manners and elegant language1 combined with a vast fund of information1 enchanted everybody4 ,i also met ,thomas ,moore1 who enraptured the whole audience by singing his fresh melodies1 with a degree of pathos1 taste1 and feeling which was peculiarly his own4 ,neither must ,i forget ,lady ,morgan1 whose lively and constant prattle afforded much amusement1 not altogether destitute of information4 ,at the hospitable house of ,lord and ,lady ,william ,bentinck ,i saw the lite of ,english society1 where ,i was frequently a welcome guest4 ,amongst others1 appeared the beautiful ,miss ,canning1 afterwards the ,marchioness ,clanricarde1 and the silent1 amiable1 and unfortunate ,lord ,william ,russell1 who afterwards fell a victim to his servant1 the assassin ,courvoisier4 ,to enumerate all the agreeable and talented persons of whom ,i had the honour of making the acquaintance at ,rome would be foreign to my purpose1 and out of place here4 ,suffice it to say1 that the winter of #ahai1 which ,i passed at ,rome1 was one of the most agreeable and instructive of my life1 and will ever be remembered by me with the most lively feelings of satisfaction4 ,before leaving ,i had the honour of being presented to the benevolent ,pius ,,vii41 and was much captivated with his kind and unostentatious reception4 ,after witnessing the ,church ceremonies of ,christmas1 ,i left ,rome just before the ,carnival4 ,i passed through ,castel ,gandolfo1 and afterwards came upon the ,pontine ,marshes4 ,the ,pontine ,marshes consist of a low tract of land1 extending from the elevated ridge of ,castel ,gandolfo to a spur of the ,apennines1 which approach the ,mediterranean near ,velletri1 being a length of about #bj miles1 whilst on the east they are bordered by the ,apennines1 from whence numerous streams and torrents descend into the marshes2 and on the west1 or sea side1 they are bounded by a line of sandbanks1 or dunes1 thrown up by the waves and storms from the west2 so that they form1 as it were1 a basin into which all the waters flow1 without a natural outfall through which they can escape4 ,to attempt to make a direct outfall to the sea was perfectly practicable1 but there was no rise of tide1 so that though the outfall would be considerably improved1 there would yet remain the difficulty of keeping it open1 in consequence of the constant influx of the sand4 ,in similar1 and indeed in all cases of this class1 there are two points to be considered1 namely1 the water which comes from the highlands1 and that which falls directly upon the lowlands4 ,now the former1 coming from a higher level1 and necessarily having greater velocity1 will naturally descend to the lowest level1 which is the marshes1 and will force its way to the outfall before the lowland water2 so that until the highland water is discharged1 the lowland water1 having less inclination1 cannot escape1 and as the outfall was extremely deficient1 neither the highland nor lowland water could be discharged1 and both combined accumulated upon the lowlands and flooded them4 ,it therefore was evident that so long as this state of things remained it was impossible for the lowlands to be properly drained1 as the outfall was deficient for the discharge of both waters when combined4 ,the only feasible mode of attaining the desired object was to separate them2 then1 at least1 the lowlands could not be incommoded by the highland water1 and would only have to discharge its own drainage4 ,thus1 if a catchwater drain had been made along the base of the highlands1 all that water might be discharged into the sea at any level required1 for there is ample fall or inclination2 and if another and separate outfall had been made for the discharge of the water falling upon the lowlands1 although with much less fall1 it might have been discharged1 at least1 to a great degree1 if well embanked and of a proper size1 because it would have been unobstructed by the highland water4 ,but even supposing that any portion of the lowlands had been below the level of the outfall1 this defect could easily have been remedied by pumping machines1 worked either by wind1 animal1 or steam power1 connected with main and subsidiary drains of proper capacity4 ,this plan1 which has been so effectively exemplified in the drainage of the great level of the ,fens and elsewhere1 was not adopted1 but the whole of the waters1 highland as well as lowland1 were thrown into one drain and outfall1 and thus before the highland water could be discharged1 the lowland water stagnated upon the land4 ,until ,mr4 ,rennie's system is adopted1 there never will be a perfect drainage2 and the more imperfect the outfall1 the greater is the necessity for adopting his system4 ,at ,terracina we were terrified with the account of the brigands whom we should have to encounter in crossing the spur of the ,apennines before we entered the kingdom of ,naples4 ,i here examined the old ,roman port1 consisting of two artificial piers of stone carried out from the shore1 with the entrance pointing west4 ,both piers are long1 and are well constructed of solid masonry1 with a parapet and roadway2 there being large mooring stones1 with holes through their extremities1 fixed solidly into the inner or quay walls of each pier4 ,upon the whole this is a substantial work1 although1 as the piers are curved1 they are badly adapted for breaking the waves on the outside1 and for preserving tranquillity within the harbour4 ,the whole space within and without the piers was filled up with sand to within two feet of the quay walls4 ,it is a common error1 even at the present day1 to make curved piers2 the consequence is1 that when the waves strike them they accumulate as they move forward1 until at length they break with increased force and carry all before them4 ,the same takes place with the waves entering the harbour1 which produce such a degree of agitation within that vessels cannot lie in safety2 whereas by making the piers in several straight arms the waves strike them on the outside1 and they are broken1 and neutralize each other at the angles4 ,i reached ,naples through a road closely patrolled by soldiers1 with blockhouses for ten or twelve men at very short intervals4 ,being bound for ,greece1 my time was very short1 yet ,i managed to ascend ,vesuvius and visit ,herculaneum with ,lord ,guildford1 as well as the ,museo ,borbonico as often as possible4 ,i examined the modern harbour of ,naples1 and ,i doubt if anything could be more badly designed4 ,there are two small piers1 the entrance between which is difficult2 it is exposed to the prevalent and dangerous winds1 and is scarcely safe inside4 ,this is the more extraordinary1 because the numerous remains of the ancient harbours of the ,romans1 dispersed throughout the bay1 might have served as models for a port adapted for all the requirements of modern trade as well as for war vessels4 ,the harbour must be improved before ,naples can be provided with that accommodation which her increasing trade imperatively requires4 ,i started from ,naples with several others on the #cast ,january1 #ahbj1 and after an alarm from a threatened attack by brigands on the summit of the pass of ,baveno1 from which we were rescued by the timely arrival of the ,receiver-,general of the province1 on his official journey1 accompanied by a numerous escort of dragoons4 ,we reached ,lecce1 the capital of the province1 on the evening of the #hth ,february1 having been eleven days on the journey1 a distance of about #cjj miles1 rather fatigued1 but much pleased with this novel and interesting country1 so seldom visited by travellers4 ,i alighted at the best hotel in the place1 which was but very indifferent1 and the next day called upon ,general ,church1 the ,governor of the province1 and was most kindly received by him1 he insisting upon my making his house my home4 ,here ,i again met with ,lord ,guildford1 ,lord ,william ,russell1 and ,chevalier ,bronsted1 with whom ,i had previously made acquaintance at ,rome4 ,lord ,guildford was on his way to the ,ionian ,islands on official business1 and ,sir ,thomas ,maitland1 the ,governor1 had ordered a vessel to be sent to ,brindisi to convey his ,lordship1 who very civilly offered me and our two mutual friends a passage4 ,as the vessel was not expected for several days1 we in the meantime became the guests of ,general ,church1 and were most hospitably entertained by him4 ,general ,church was an extraordinary man4 ,he was below the middle size1 about the age of five-and-forty1 extremely well built1 spare1 sinewy1 and active1 with a well-proportioned head1 sharp piercing eyes1 rather aquiline nose1 and a closely-compressed mouth1 denoting great firmness and resolution4 ,he commanded a regiment of ,albanians and ,greeks1 as an auxiliary corps in the ,british employment1 during the great war1 and in that position assisted the operations of the ,british cruisers on the coast of ,italy2 and hence he became subsequently attached to the army of ,lord ,william ,bentinck1 after his conquest of ,sicily4 ,church was a proficient in the ,greek1 ,italian1 and ,french languages1 and1 having considerable military talent1 and being a great disciplinarian1 soon brought the rough and savage elements of which his corps was composed into tolerable order1 and rendered them of considerable service in the wild warfare in which they were engaged4 ,at the conclusion of the war he retired on half pay to ,naples1 where1 being well known to the ,government1 he was made ,governor of the province of ,otranto1 at that time overrun with brigands4 ,church was appointed to the command with unlimited control1 and by his vigorous and energetic conduct soon spread terror and dismay amongst them2 he was here1 there1 and everywhere2 when they least expected1 he came upon them suddenly1 dispersed them1 and destroyed the leaders without mercy4 ,he had many narrow escapes himself from sharing the same fate4 ,once it is related that he and his aide-de-camp1 ,captain ,kusini1 entered unknowingly a small town1 of which one of the most able and daring brigand chiefs1 with a powerful band of followers1 was in possession4 ,church1 when he found this1 determined to make the best of it1 being perfectly aware of his danger4 ,he entered the chief inn and sent for the landlord1 who recognized him at once1 and asked him if he knew that the brigand chief and his followers were actually in the town4 8,yes10 replied ,church1 with imperturbable coolness1 8,i am come expressly to meet him2 tell him that ,i want to see him immediately40 ,the brigand chief accordingly came1 astonished to see the ,general1 whom he least expected2 he began to be alarmed1 thinking he was surrounded4 ,the ,general1 addressing the brigand by name1 informed him that there was no chance of his escape1 but that if he and his followers would surrender1 he would pardon them and get them employed in the ,king's army4 ,the brigand chief and his men declined this generous offer4 ,church then told him that he was sorry1 for their own sakes1 as in future they could expect no mercy4 ,the brigand and his followers then withdrew1 determined on their side to show no quarter to the troops if ever they should get them within their power2 but for the moment1 being ignorant of ,church's position1 they were afraid to attack him1 little supposing that he was at that time theirs4 ,this extraordinary interview having terminated1 ,church felt that he had played the game far enough1 and the sooner he and his aide-de-camp made their escape the better4 ,the landlord1 fortunately for them1 kept the secret4 ,the ,general and his aide-de-camp escaped by the back of the house1 climbed over some fences1 reached their horses1 and then galloped off1 never pulling bridle until they had reached their own followers1 who1 when they heard what had passed1 were astonished at their escape1 which was due alone to the coolness and courage of the ,general4 ,scarcely had ,church and his aide-de-camp departed when the brigand and his followers learned how completely they had been deceived1 and at once set off in pursuit2 but they were soon obliged to retreat1 being themselves pursued by a superior force1 from which they narrowly escaped capture2 the band was afterwards destroyed4 ,this is but one out of the numerous instances of ,church's extraordinary adventures4 ,in a short time he extirpated brigandism1 the province regained its tranquillity1 and the people pursued their several employments in peace without fear of molestation1 blessing the ,general who had relieved them from their oppressors4 ,being particularly desirous of seeing ,brindisi1 from my recollections of ,horace1 ,i obtained an escort of two dragoons from ,general ,church1 for1 said he1 8,you may meet some unwelcome visitors on the way2 but if they see the uniform of my dragoons they will not trouble you with their acquaintance40 ,brindisi1 which ,i need not now describe1 struck me as being an excellent port on the whole1 and now that it is made the terminus of the railway from ,naples1 which connects it with the entire railway system of ,europe1 it will no doubt become a place of considerable importance4 ,i embarked with ,lord and ,lady ,guildford and others in a ,government vessel1 and reached ,corfu on the #bgth ,february4 ,the day was fine1 and we were much struck with the beauty of the surrounding sea and mountains1 together with the view of the magnificent inlet forming the harbour of ,corfu1 comprising as it did the ancient and picturesque town on the bold outline of ,st4 ,salvador and the rich undulating fields4 ,as this was the first time ,i had seen anything of ,greece1 ,i particularly remarked the handsome appearance of the population and their picturesque costume4 ,there was nothing worthy of notice in the town except the old fortifications1 so that ,i determined to make my stay as short as possible and take the first conveyance for ,zante1 and from thence to the mainland of ,greece4 ,corfu1 having been under so many different governments1 partook in some measure of the character of all--,turkish1 ,venetian1 ,russian1 ,french1 ,english1 but the ruling feature was ,greek and ,albanian4 ,our ,government1 urged on by that amiable1 excellent1 and enthusiastic person1 the late ,lord ,guildford1 had determined to establish an university at ,zante1 to revive classical learning1 and ,lord ,guildford was appointed ,lord ,rector4 ,he was an excellent scholar and linguist1 and a most good-natured person2 he was anything but a man of the world1 and little acquainted with the real character of the modern ,greeks4 ,sir ,thomas ,maitland1 the ,lord ,chief ,commissioner and ,governor of the islands1 was a totally different character1 and knew the ,greeks well4 ,he was a stern1 uncompromising soldier1 with great talent1 courage1 and firmness1 joined to long experience in war1 politics1 and governing mankind in every part of the world2 he was not to be deceived by plausible appearances2 to use his own phrase1 he would stand no humbug1 and would make his commands obeyed1 although he was a strict administrator of justice4 ,he treated ,lord ,guildford's plan with great ridicule4 8,they were clever and learned enough1 but they had already a great deal to unlearn2 the first thing was to make them honest and obedient to the law40 ,when ,sir ,thomas became ,lord ,chief ,commissioner of the ,ionian ,islands1 the population was in a most disorganized state2 pillage1 murder1 and piracy1 were very common1 and the malefactors were triumphant1 and defied the law4 ,it therefore required a strong hand to keep them in order1 and ,sir ,thomas was just the man to do it--which he did4 ,under his strict but just rule they soon became more manageable1 as they found he would not be trifled with4 ,on the day after my arrival ,i left my card at the palace1 and received an invitation to dine with him on the #bnd ,march4 ,i had taken no letter of introduction to him1 although he knew my father2 but ,i had previously heard that he disliked nothing so much as letters of introduction1 and seldom paid them any respect1 even when coming from the highest quarters4 ,i accordingly made my appearance at the palace punctually at the time appointed1 and soon after a brilliant assemblage was collected1 in full costume1 all waiting for the ,governor4 ,he shortly after appeared in full uniform1 covered with orders4 ,he was a rather fine-looking man1 about sixty-five1 of the middle size1 with a strong1 square1 well-built1 well-proportioned1 figure4 ,his countenance and speech betrayed his ,scotch origin2 and his large bluish-grey eyes shaded by shaggy eyebrows1 his well developed nose1 and compressed mouth1 evinced a decided strength of will4 ,his speech was terse and blunt1 but with a strange mixture of kindness and severity1 and altogether he was evidently made to command and be respected4 ,i kept in the background1 but he came up to me1 and in his dry ,scotch manner said1 8,i suppose you are ,mr4 ,rennie2 and pray1 sir1 may ,i ask what brought you to this country80 8,to study the antiquities of ancient ,greece40 ,he at once replied1 with a certain degree of vehemence1 8,a pack of nonsense2 gang awa' back to your worthy father in ,england1 he will teach you more in two days than ye will learn here in all your life40 ,then1 shaking me very cordially by the hand1 he said1 8,but ,i am very glad to see you1 and if ,i can do anything for you ,i shall be very happy1 for your gude father's sake40 ,dinner was then announced1 and a capital dinner we had1 ,sir ,thomas making himself very agreeable1 and cracking his ,scotch jokes right and left with a great deal of glee4 ,i sat nearly at the bottom of the table1 and immediately opposite to me was ,colonel ,napier1 afterwards the celebrated ,sir ,charles ,napier of ,scinde4 ,i was much struck with his countenance2 his keen piercing eyes1 his prominent aquiline nose1 and his restless1 quivering lips1 marked him out as a man of great character4 ,i said to myself1 if opportunity offers1 that man will much distinguish himself hereafter1 and time has shown that ,i was not mistaken4 ,sir ,thomas is reported to have said1 8,napier is a great ,radical1 and a friend to liberty and equality2 he has considerable talents1 and ,i will give him an opportunity of showing himself1 and ,i will wager that before six months are over there will be a petition to the ,house of ,commons against him for tyranny and oppression of the people40 ,sir ,thomas was a true prophet2 he made ,colonel ,napier ,governor of the island of ,cephalonia2 a most troublesome set he had to deal with1 and he was obliged to use harsh measures to bring them under control2 true enough a petition was got up by the inhabitants of the island complaining of him for his severity and cruelty1 and requesting the ,government to remove him from his command4 ,when ,sir ,thomas heard of this he laughed heartily1 and said1 to his staff1 8,did not ,i tell you so8 the ,radicals1 however much they may preach about liberty and equality1 are always the greatest tyrants40 ,sir ,thomas was held in high respect at head-quarters1 and whenever he went to ,england and asked for instructions at the ,colonial ,office1 was told to write them for himself1 as the ,government had entire confidence in him4 ,i here made the acquaintance of ,captain ,smyth1 of the ,navy1 and his amiable and accomplished wife4 ,captain ,smyth was then employed in making a survey of the ,ionian ,islands for the ,british ,government1 which was afterwards published2 and certainly for elaborateness of detail and completeness of execution it has seldom been surpassed4 ,every plate is ornamented with a view of the architectural remains of the most remarkable buildings in the district1 and also views of the coast1 which were drawn by ,mrs4 ,smyth with great taste1 beauty1 and fidelity1 and form an important feature in this great work4 ,captain 7afterwards ,admiral7 ,smyth was a man of considerable scientific acquirements2 and after having been most actively employed in different parts of the world 7always with distinction71 he retired to ,bedford1 where he erected an observatory1 and published his celebrated astronomical observations1 which1 in addition to his public service1 entitle him to a high place among literary1 scientific1 and professional men4 ,he was of a most amiable and jovial disposition1 ever ready for fun and amusement whenever they did not interfere with his duties2 he was1 moreover1 always ready to serve a friend1 and was universally beloved and respected by his numerous acquaintance4 ,for myself1 ,i regarded him as a valuable and sincere friend1 whose loss ,i afterwards most deeply regretted4 ,count ,lunzi1 one of the ,greek nobles1 a most agreeable and talented young man1 and a large proprietor on the island1 who had travelled with us1 invited me to his country house1 and ,i set off with my friend the ,chevalier ,bronsted to pay him a visit on the following day1 the #ajth ,february4 ,we started on horseback on a fine day1 and after riding through a rich1 level plain for about ten miles1 we reached the volcanic pitch-wells1 and on our return found ,count ,lunzi awaiting our arrival at his ,villa ,sarachina4 ,he received us most cordially1 and conducted us into the house1 and we were introduced to his family1 by whom we were most hospitably entertained4 ,we then took a kind farewell of our host at #e ,p4,m41 mounted our horses1 and proceeded homewards4 ,at first we rode along leisurely1 and gradually quickened our pace2 at last we got into a full gallop4 ,my horse1 which was little better than a pony1 although a very handsome1 strong1 well-made animal1 by this time became so excited that he fairly got the better of me1 and proceeded at a furious rate1 so that ,i lost all control over him4 ,away he went helter-skelter over land and water1 driving all before him4 ,in vain ,i attempted to stop him4 ,at last1 finding it useless1 ,i let him have his way2 and arriving at the bay of ,zante1 he made direct for the sea4 ,i allowed him to proceed until he began to swim2 then1 finding he was in no disposition to return1 ,i dismounted1 and partly swam1 partly waded ashore1 where ,i awaited his return2 he soon got tired of swimming1 and came to land4 ,i then caught him1 and mounted1 and returned to ,zante4 ,my friend ,bronsted1 who was completely distanced1 joined me as ,i remounted1 and we rode back together4 ,as we entered the town ,i saw a number of soldiers looking on and laughing2 ,i did not know why4 ,but it appeared that this pony was noted throughout the place for his tricks1 and they wondered how1 after venturing upon his back 7which ,i certainly should not have done if ,i had known his vicious character71 ,i had come back safe and sound4 ,however1 ,i had punished him pretty well1 and he became quieter afterwards4 ,we had a hearty laugh at the adventure2 and1 being thoroughly drenched to the skin1 ,i changed my clothes1 and joined ,sir ,patrick ,ross's dinner-party1 when again everybody laughed at me1 and congratulated me upon my happy escape4 ,before quitting this subject ,i cannot help saying a few words about my friend ,bronsted1 the ,dane4 ,he was a most excellent person1 and a first-rate scholar and antiquary1 well known for his researches4 ,he had acquired some most valuable bronzes1 being portions of helmets found at ,cortona1 of which he published an elaborate account4 ,the figures and other ornaments are most elaborate in design and execution2 in fact1 they are masterpieces of art1 and were afterwards bought by the ,british ,museum 7for a considerable sum71 where1 ,i believe1 they still remain4 ,i made several other excursions to various parts of the island2 amongst others1 to the top of the mountain which forms the south-west promontory of the bay4 ,the summit rises far above the ,mediterranean1 and the view from it is magnificent1 commanding the whole of the beautiful island1 which lies at its base like a rich garden1 and some other islands and adjacent coasts4 ,the inhabitants are a good-looking1 active1 and industrious race1 but1 like their neighbours1 inclined to be very turbulent1 and require to be kept in order by the strong arm of the law4 ,while here1 just at the equinox1 we had1 as usual1 some very severe storms2 and one night ,i was roused from my sleep with a violent shaking of the bed1 which lasted several seconds4 ,it was at the same time raining tremendously1 and blowing very hard1 accompanied by violent thunder and lightning4 ,i jumped out of bed1 not knowing what it was2 the house trembled1 and ,i thought it was coming down4 ,the other inmates were also alarmed4 ,after waiting anxiously for some time the storm abated4 ,i went to bed again1 and slept soundly until morning1 and then inquired of the landlord the cause1 when he informed me that it was the shock of an earthquake1 which they frequently felt in the island2 and on the following day we learned that the same earthquake had been most severely felt at the neighbouring island of ,santa ,maura1 that many houses had been thrown down1 and a number of the unfortunate inhabitants destroyed4 ,i had frequently been told by persons who had lived in volcanic countries of the extraordinary sensation produced by earthquakes on the human frame1 but until ,i had experienced it ,i never could appreciate its effects2 certainly they are most remarkable2 the whole nervous system is convulsed1 and one fancies that the last hour has arrived1 so that it takes some time before the system recovers its usual tone4 ,i certainly should not wish to experience another shock1 and was extremely happy to have escaped with nothing more than a shaking and a severe fright4 ,having now spent fourteen days very agreeably1 being most kindly entertained by the ,governor1 ,sir ,patrick ,ross1 the officers of the #geth1 and others1 and having seen enough of ,zante1 ,i was anxious to proceed on my journey1 only waiting for a vessel to take me to ,greece1 when fortunately ,i heard that an ,english mercantile brig1 commanded by ,captain ,burgess1 a rough old ,scotchman1 was about to sail for ,patras1 so ,i at once took my leave of ,sir ,patrick ,ross1 his family1 and all my other kind friends1 packed up my baggage1 embarked at #c ,p4,m4 on the #bcrd ,march1 and bade adieu to ,zante4 ,after a pleasant passage1 but rough accommodation1 we arrived at the entrance to the ,gulf of ,corinth1 and anchored in the roadstead about a mile from the shore4 ,i paid my passage1 landed1 proceeded up to the town1 called upon ,mr4 ,green1 the ,consul1 and soon found tolerably comfortable quarters in a ,greek house1 but the beds were sadly infested with bugs1 which annoyed me much4 ,before leaving ,zante1 ,i ought to say that ,i here engaged a ,greek1 who had been well recommended to me4 ,his name was ,demetrius ,papandriopolo4 ,he was about thirty-five1 of the middle size1 sharp1 active1 sober1 intelligent1 and honest1 and served me faithfully through the greater part of my journey1 for above twelve months1 until ,i returned to ,malta on my way back to ,england4 ,i found him a most valuable servant1 and he rendered me the most essential services4 ,patras was then a trading town of some importance1 in fact1 the principal one in the ,morea1 and it contained a considerable number of inhabitants1 almost wholly ,greeks1 without including the ,turkish garrison4 ,it is situated on a hill about a quarter of a mile from the gulf of the same name1 where there is a small rubble jetty for boats to land their goods1 c4 ,the roadstead outside is safe and well protected4 ,the town is surrounded by a rich1 fertile plain1 well cultivated with olives1 vines1 and currants4 ,the entrance to the ,gulf of ,corinth is protected by two old castles1 the distance between them being about a mile and a half2 and three miles east is the modern town of ,lepanto 7it was formerly the ancient ,naupactus71 celebrated for the victory over the ,turks by ,john of ,austria2 it contains #bjjj souls2 the surrounding views are very fine4 ,the town was under the command of a ,turkish ,governor1 and is situated upon the side of a hill rising to the east1 encompassed by a rude wall and ditch1 and crowned at the summit by a citadel1 in which the ,governor and the garrison resided4 ,besides the citadel there were no remarkable buildings of any kind3 the streets were narrow and dirty4 ,there were a few mosques interspersed here and there1 whose graceful minarets1 rising above the mass1 gave the place a most picturesque appearance4 ,the town contained numerous bazaars1 where all the trade of the place was carried on1 and the neighbourhood of the main street was filled with cafs1 crowded with ,greeks1 ,turks1 ,ionians1 ,french1 ,english1 and various other nations1 all smoking their long pipes1 drinking coffee1 sherbet1 and various other liquors1 apparently in great comfort4 ,the ,turk1 as lord supreme1 moved leisurely about with the most solemn dignity1 having the greatest contempt for his neighbours1 and every now and then1 as a ,christian passed by1 he greeted him with a lofty scowl1 as if he considered him unworthy of notice1 uttering the simple word ,giaour6 and passed on without further ceremony4 ,i frequently wandered amongst the bazaars1 then to me a perfectly novel sight1 and was much amused with the gravity and solemn dignity with which the ,turks sat cross-legged behind their counters2 if you asked for any of their wares1 they quietly1 with a monosyllable1 ordered their assistant to show it to you1 as if they considered it a favour4 ,this was so different to what ,i had been accustomed to in the civil1 well-bred shopkeepers in ,europe1 that ,i could not help laughing outright1 which ,i soon found would not do1 as it gave great offence4 ,one morning1 whilst walking along the shore in front of the roadstead1 whom should ,i stumble upon but my old friend ,captain ,smyth1 who had come to ,patras on a surveying expedition in one of the small auxiliary boats attached to his larger vessel1 which lay at anchor in the roadstead4 ,this auxiliary boat1 although small1 was fitted up with every convenience for the purpose1 and adapted to enter shoal water1 in order to complete the details of the survey4 ,in this he was accompanied by one or two assistants1 and a few men to work it1 so that he could be absent from his ship for several days without inconvenience4 ,captain ,smyth was delighted to see me1 and asked me to dine with him on board his boat1 and ,i agreed to1 with great pleasure4 ,i accordingly went there at the time appointed1 and amongst the guests met ,captain ,hunter and his wife1 and our worthy ,consul 7,mr4 ,green74 ,we had a most cordial welcome and an excellent dinner1 and afterwards passed a delightful evening4 ,towards sunset we adjourned to the beach in order to take ices1 which we got from the town1 and enjoy ourselves by smoking our cigars4 ,whilst we were thus happily seated1 laughing and talking together1 we were surrounded by numerous ,greeks from the town1 amongst whom were several ,turkish soldiers1 armed to the teeth1 and carrying their long pipes1 which they never abandoned for a moment4 ,the jolly old ,captain said1 8,now ,i will astonish these fellows10 and immediately dispatched one of his officers for his seven-barrelled pistol1 which was brought1 and duly loaded4 ,he then told his interpreter to inform the ,turks that this was a pistol which he could discharge as many times as he liked without reloading4 ,the ,turks held up their hands in astonishment1 exclaimed 8,in ,shallah60 and with a scornful look at us1 said such a thing was not possible4 ,smyth1 however1 at once rose from his seat1 deliberately discharging his pistol one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 and six times1 to the utter amazement of the ,turks1 who could scarcely believe what they saw4 ,he then1 with the utmost coolness1 asked whether they were convinced1 to which they all replied1 with the exclamation of 8,in ,shallah60 perfectly so4 ,smyth then offered them coffee and ices1 of which they readily partook1 and1 after a hearty salutation and shaking of hands1 they returned to the town1 saying what wonderful people these ,ingleses are4 ,this pistol resembled the modern ,colt revolver1 although differing in some particulars4 ,before leaving ,i visited the celebrated cypress tree1 three miles to westward4 ,its base is about #dj feet in circumference1 and it is #ce to #dj feet high1 the upper part having been blown off during a gale4 ,i also visited ,st4 ,andrea1 where were the remains of the well and some fragments of sculpture4 ,i took leave of my excellent and talented friend1 the ,captain1 and determined to start the next day1 the #bgth of ,march4 ,upon returning to my quarters at ,patras1 ,i was informed that there was a ,french gentleman of the name of ,prevot1 an artist1 who was about proceeding to ,athens to make a panoramic view of that city1 and was desirous of knowing whether ,i would allow him to accompany me4 ,finding him a very agreeable person1 and having been introduced by ,mr4 ,green1 and being glad of a companion upon my lonely and novel journey1 ,i willingly consented to his joining me4 ,having got all my baggage on board1 attended by my servant ,demetrius1 we started early on the following morning1 the #bgth1 at seven4 ,the day was unfortunately very rough1 with violent gusts of wind1 heavy rain1 accompanied by thunder and lightning2 notwithstanding which we started on our journey1 and when we got into the gulf there was a heavy swell 7which threatened at times to overwhelm the boat and all in it71 with baffling winds1 which materially retarded our progress4 ,we struggled on all day3 at last our boatmen said that it was impossible to proceed farther2 we therefore determined to run ashore1 and finish our journey the next day4 ,we accordingly did so1 and landed in a small bay1 the only safe one on the south side1 near ,vostizza1 at about four o'clock in the afternoon1 two hours before sunset4 ,then came the question1 where were we to sleep8 ,vostizza was about one or two miles distant1 and there were no means of transporting our baggage there2 and to leave it in the boat was to expose it to being plundered1 as the boatmen said they would not be responsible for it1 in consequence of the numerous bad characters lurking about1 pirates1 robbers1 c4 ,as there was no possibility of getting our things to ,vostizza1 and there were the remains of a convent 7which had been ruined by an earthquake7 close by on the shore1 on a cliff about #ej feet above the gulf1 ,i proposed at once that we should place our things there1 and sleep1 to which my companion1 who was very tired and sick of the voyage1 readily consented4 ,we got the boatmen to land the things1 and place them in the convent2 but when we got there1 to our great surprise and mortification1 found that it was uninhabited and half in ruins4 ,there was no alternative1 however1 as there was no other building near us2 so we made the best of it1 and prepared to pass the night there4 ,we went upstairs1 explored the ruined building all over1 and at length we discovered one large room tolerably perfect1 and capable of keeping out the rain4 ,this we chose for our night's quarters1 placed the baggage in order1 and then commenced to prepare our supper4 ,upon examining our provisions1 such as we had1 we found them considerably damaged by the wet and unfit for use4 ,i then decided that ,demetrius and myself should go to the bazaar of ,vostizza1 and purchase what we could get1 whilst we left ,m4 ,prevot in charge in the convent2 and ,i gave the boatmen some money on account to provide themselves for the night where they could3 the boat1 everything having been taken out1 was firmly moored to the shore4 ,demetrius and myself went to ,vostizza1 and returned to the convent just after dark1 laden with a bag well furnished with wine and provisions1 the best we could get1 and immediately set about preparing our mattresses for beds1 and lighting a good fire to cook the supper4 ,demetrius was a capital cook1 and about nine o'clock had got ready an excellent repast4 ,having had scarcely anything all day1 and being miserably wet and cold1 after having washed1 and dressed in dry things1 with a roaring wood fire before us1 we enjoyed our supper excessively1 forgot all discomforts1 and about eleven lay down upon our mattresses for the night4 ,before doing this1 warned by what our boatmen told us of the insecurity of the place1 we fastened the door of our room as well as we could with an ,english padlock1 and placed our heavy baggage and the table against the door1 examined the priming of our pistols1 which were well loaded1 and lay down to sleep4 ,my mattress was placed immediately opposite to the door1 ,demetrius was in the other corner1 and ,m4 ,prevot near the fireplace1 with an understanding between us that if any noise occurred during the night we were not to leave our berths1 for fear of mistaking each other for an enemy4 ,we slept tolerably sound until about two o'clock in the morning1 when ,i awoke and thought ,i heard the movement of footsteps on the landing outside our door4 ,we had kept a light burning all night4 ,i listened again attentively1 and thought ,i heard voices outside1 then something like a push against the door4 ,i awakened my companions1 and told them to be ready with pistols1 but not to fire until we were attacked1 and then if possible to keep our positions4 ,i had scarcely done this when a violent attack was made against the door1 which in a moment was burst in1 the table1 portmanteaus1 c41 being hurled into the middle of the room2 this was immediately followed by a rush of several armed men4 ,i instantly fired into the midst of them1 ,demetrius seconded me by another shot1 and ,i repeated mine4 ,we then heard a shriek as if somebody was wounded1 and the whole of our assailants precipitately beat a retreat1 scampering down the stairs as rapidly as possible4 ,i reloaded1 and we jumped up1 rushed to the stair-head1 and were going to follow them1 but upon second thoughts we considered it best to remain where we were4 ,we then secured the door again and tried to sleep1 but in vain2 we therefore lay watching until daylight1 when our boatmen called us1 and we prepared to depart1 rejoicing heartily at our lucky escape from being robbed and murdered1 as we assuredly should have been if we had not been armed and defended ourselves so stoutly4 ,before leaving1 we examined the landing and stairs1 and discovered some traces of blood1 so that some one must have been wounded4 ,our boatmen told us that we had a very narrow escape2 they said that they would not have slept there1 and indeed told us before that we had better not1 as there were numerous pirates and rascals in the vicinity1 who waylaid all travellers1 and seldom allowed them to escape even with their lives4 ,early in the morning1 which was very fine after the storm1 we set sail with a fair wind1 and bid adieu to ,vostizza1 with a remembrance of its inhospitable shore not likely to be soon forgotten4 ,we had a delightful voyage1 and enjoyed the beautiful mountain scenery on both sides of the gulf with much satisfaction1 and reached the custom-house of ,corinth1 three miles from the town1 before the close of the day4 ,we then discharged our boatmen1 and finding no horses1 were obliged to stop at this nasty1 wretched place1 and passed a most miserable night4 ,next morning1 the #bith1 having got horses1 we started at eight and reached the caravanserai at ,corinth at nine1 and having breakfasted and dressed1 called upon the ,bey1 who received us very civilly4 ,we wandered about all day examining the place and its antiquities4 ,i arose early in the morning1 awakened by the ,muezzin as he was calling the faithful to prayers from the galleries of the minarets attached to the mosques4 ,i had not heard this at ,patras1 having slept too late1 and therefore it appeared to me for the first time most novel and singular4 ,i listened to it with peculiar interest1 as the contrast was so different to our own1 where this office is performed by bells4 ,on the same day1 after breakfast1 ,i examined the town1 a poor miserable place domineered over by the ,turks1 with no trade1 and the wonder was how the people lived4 ,there was nothing worthy of examination except the beautiful remains of the ,temple of ,venus1 of the simple1 severe1 yet commanding ,doric order4 ,a few columns only were left1 surmounted by the cornice and entablature2 these have been so often measured and engraved1 that it is unnecessary to say more about them here1 except that they are eminently beautiful1 and an excellent specimen of that bold and expressive style of architecture4 ,i was anxious to mount the ,acropolis1 crowned by an old fort and garrisoned by ,turks1 but this was not permitted3 ,i regretted it much1 for1 seated as it is on a commanding eminence1 eighteen hundred feet above the level of the adjoining gulf1 the view over the sea and the fine mountainous surrounding country must be magnificent2 but the ,turks in those days were so proud1 insolent1 and domineering1 that the sight of a ,christian was an abhorrence to them1 and one was glad to get out of their way1 although even then they had considerable respect for the ,english1 more indeed than any other nation2 for we had saved them from the ,french and had protected them against the encroachment of the ,russians1 who had already begun to be very troublesome4 ,having nothing further to see1 we were anxious to get away as early as possible4 ,there were two routes to ,athens1 to which we were destined1 one entirely by land over the isthmus1 the other by sea1 after crossing the six miles of isthmus which separates the ,corinthian ,gulf from the gean ,sea4 ,we determined therefore to take the latter1 and on the #cjth ,march1 having engaged the necessary number of horses1 and loaded them after a considerable wrangling and noise with their keepers1 started at #a ,p4,m4 for ,recrees ,ceneres1 on the borders of the gean ,sea4 ,at #c ,p4,m41 in crossing the isthmus1 we came upon the remains of the wall said to have been built by the ,venetians for preventing the incursions of the ,turks into the ,morea4 ,here we dismounted1 and engaged one of the boats of the country and embarked4 ,however1 as there was little or no wind1 we were out all night1 and did not reach the ,pirus before four o'clock in the afternoon of the #cast4 ,this is a fine natural port1 but the town was then a miserable place1 surrounded by a few wretched buildings1 at the head of which was a ,turkish custom-house1 where the authorities at first made considerable opposition to our landing4 ,however1 ,i soon silenced them with a respectable backshish1 or present1 when they became as civil as possible1 and not only allowed us to land with our baggage1 but did not subject us to any examination2 we therefore at once inquired for horses to take us to ,athens1 but finding none to be had1 were obliged to remain that night in a wretched plastered room at the custom-house4 ,next day1 #ast ,april1 having got horses1 we started at six1 with no end of wrangling with muleteers1 which the ,turks soon silenced by laying about right and left1 to our great amusement4 ,i at once interfered1 and rewarded the ,turks with another backshish1 when they heartily saluted me1 and we started without further molestation1 and reached ,athens1 six miles distant1 over a miserable road1 within an hour and a half1 at half-past seven o'clock4 ,there were then no hotels1 so we took up our quarters at the house of a respectable ,greek1 ,toagrafos1 with but poor accommodation4 ,i by this time had become so accustomed to bad fare and lodging that ,i did not mind it1 but my friend1 the ,french artist1 was not so easily satisfied2 we therefore parted1 and he endeavoured to find better apartments elsewhere4 ,i never met him again1 and consequently do not know how he succeeded with his panorama1 or whether he ever completed it1 but ,i heard that about a year afterwards a panorama of ,greece had been exhibited at ,paris with considerable success4 ,i hoped that it was that of my friend1 for he appeared to be an excellent person1 and was certainly a very pleasant companion1 with all the characteristic ardour and enthusiasm of his countrymen4 ,he had never been out of ,france before1 and therefore felt the dsagrments of the journey a great deal more than ,i did2 nevertheless1 by the time he reached ,athens he had become tolerably well accustomed to it1 and1 with the usual ,french sang froid1 made up his mind to it1 and enjoyed the journey as much as myself4 ,we arrived at ,athens on ,friday1 the #ast ,april1 in the midst of spring2 the weather was delightful1 the sun shining brightly1 the sky cloudless1 the vegetation bursting into full luxuriance1 the plain and mountains covered with flowers and shrubs of the most brilliant and varied hues4 ,nature seemed to be in all her glory1 and man to sympathize with her4 ,i was in most exuberant spirits1 and was pleased with everything around me4 ,the beauty of the country1 and the very idea that ,i was in ,athens1 which from my boyhood ,i was most anxious to see1 and which ,i scarcely ever expected to behold1 aroused me to such a pitch of enthusiasm that ,i could scarcely believe my eyes2 which was not extraordinary1 considering the brilliant and memorable scene which burst upon my sight1 and by which ,i was surrounded4 ,i soon sallied forth again1 called upon the ,english and ,austrian consuls and delivered my letters1 and hurried about all day1 taking a hasty view of the ,parthenon1 the ,temple of ,theseus1 ,jupiter ,olympus1 and the ,temple of the ,winds1 which ,i admired excessively2 then1 thoroughly tired and exhausted1 ,i returned to my lodgings1 took a hasty supper and went to bed1 dreaming of the glories of ancient ,greece4 ,after breakfast ,i went out1 and at once made my way to the ,acropolis1 where the glorious ,parthenon stood out prominently4 ,i was riveted to the spot with admiration1 and could go no farther4 ,at last ,i came to myself1 and found the scorching rays of the sun rather more than agreeable4 ,i then returned to my quarters1 dined1 reposed during the heat of the day1 and towards evening ,i again sallied forth1 and enjoyed a magnificent sunset1 such as ,i had been totally unaccustomed to in our frigid climate of ,england4 ,i again went to the ,acropolis the following day1 and there enjoyed the splendid scene4 ,the ,acropolis is a detached rock1 standing high above the plain or valley on which ,athens is situated2 upon this rock is the citadel1 where the ,parthenon1 the ,erechtheum1 and all the other principal buildings are placed1 and in addition to this it is a citadel or fortress1 where1 in case of attack1 and the city below being taken1 the ,acropolis would form a refuge for the garrison and the inhabitants4 ,from the summit you command a view of the country all around3 on the north ,mount ,olympus and the ,pindus range of mountains2 on the south the ,mediterranean1 the island of ,syra1 and several others2 on the east the plain of ,athens1 flanked by ,mount ,hymettus1 and ,mount ,hybla on the north2 on the west the ,pirus1 the gean ,sea1 and the mountains of the ,peloponnesus or ,morea2 in fact1 whichever way you look1 the view is delightful1 and you are satisfied4 ,i at once removed into a new lodging in a ,greek house1 which appeared tolerably clean and comfortable but as usual ,i found it full of fleas1 which tormented me day and night4 ,however1 when ,i went to bed ,i hit upon a plan to relieve me at least of a good many of them1 which fortunately proved successful4 ,i placed a number of large plates filled with oil1 having a wick in them2 ,i then lighted the wicks1 and the fleas1 attracted by this1 leaped into the plates1 which in the morning were black with them1 and by this means ,i got rid of the greatest part1 and at length enjoyed some comfort4 ,i now determined to study the antiquities more at leisure1 and set regularly about it4 ,every morning1 immediately after breakfast1 ,i proceeded to the ,acropolis1 and employed myself in drawing and measuring the ,parthenon1 ,erechtheum1 and other buildings until dinner time2 and after1 in the evening1 ,i took walks and rides round the adjacent country4 ,having finished the ,acropolis1 ,i then proceeded to the ,temples of ,theseus and ,jupiter ,olympus1 the ,temple of the ,winds1 and the other antiquities1 which occupied me about a month4 ,all these splendid specimens of architecture have been so accurately described in the elaborate works of ,stuart1 ,cockerell1 ,dodwell1 ,gell1 and others1 that it is unnecessary to describe them here4 ,with regard to the ,pirus1 and the other ports of ,athens1 ,i examined them minutely1 and for plans and description of them ,i refer to my work on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours4' ,i also saw a little of ,athenian society4 ,amongst others1 ,i made the acquaintance of the ,maid of ,athens 7so celebrated by ,byron71 who was very pretty1 ladylike1 and agreeable4 ,i was also most kindly received by ,mr4 ,gropeus1 the ,austrian ,consul1 ,mr4 ,logotheti1 the ,english ,consul1 and by the well-known artist1 ,mr4 ,luzieri1 who had made some fine views of ,athens for ,lord ,elgin4 ,the ,turks treated the ,greeks with great contempt and very little ceremony4 ,by way of illustration1 ,i was present at the arrival of a new ,governor or ,vaivode4 ,his ,excellency came mounted on a beautiful white ,arabian horse1 surrounded by about a hundred well-mounted cavalry1 all in the magnificent ,turkish costume of the day2 next there followed the hareem1 in crimson-coloured carriages1 each slung between two horses1 and escorted on foot by numerous eunuchs and blacks1 all splendidly attired2 then the baggage1 which was carried on the backs of horses1 led and guarded by ,greeks1 mixed with ,turkish soldiers on foot4 ,the whole town turned out to witness the sight and welcome their new ,governor1 who scarcely deigned to look at them2 whilst the attendants going before cleared the way with sticks1 which they by no means used sparingly1 dealing their blows right and left on everyone within reach4 ,a number of ,turkish lads amongst the crowd amused themselves by firing off their guns and pistols1 which were loaded with ball and shot4 ,they took no care which way they fired2 sometimes in the air1 sometimes on the ground1 and sometimes straight forward amongst the crowd2 of course everybody got out of the way1 myself amongst the number4 ,i saw one ,greek who had his leg broken by a shot from a ,turkish lad near me1 at which he1 the ,turk1 and the whole of his companions1 shouted with joy1 and seemed to think it great fun3 at this ,i could not restrain my indignation1 and being armed with a good stout stick1 ,i rushed amongst them1 striking right and left3 some ,greeks tried to stop me1 but ,i stuck to them1 and had the satisfaction of seeing that no more shots were fired except in the air4 ,nothing impressed the ,turks with so much respect as courage and vigour2 the more you humbled yourself1 the more they bullied you1 being anything but fond of fighting4 ,i found from experience that this was the only way to treat them2 for though frequently amongst them1 and under the most trying circumstances1 ,i was rarely molested4 ,afterwards ,i witnessed the entrance of the ,pacha of ,negropont1 which was in the same style1 but upon a more extended scale4 ,i occasionally visited the convents1 inhabited by a few worthy monks1 who kindly receive strangers and lodge and board them for a moderate sum4 ,the situation is excellent1 being in the higher part of the town1 close to the beautiful remains of the ,temple of the ,winds1 with a splendid view4 ,athens at the time of my visit was a poor miserable place1 without an inn worthy of the name4 ,it was surrounded by a crenellated wall1 which even the artillery of that day would have demolished with a few rounds of shot4 ,the ,ilyssus and ,cephisus are trifling streams1 which1 passing on the south side of the town1 discharge their waters into the sea a few miles below4 ,during summer there is scarcely any water1 as it is conducted away by different channels for irrigation1 so that the beds of these two rivulets are dry4 ,having explored ,athens sufficiently for my purpose1 ,i determined to make a tour of the ,morea1 and accordingly hired a small decked vessel of about #cj tons to cross the gean ,sea1 leaving ,athens for the ,pirus on the #beth of ,march2 and after waiting some time on board in the harbour1 at seven on the #beth started1 reached gina at eight1 landed after breakfast1 and proceeded on foot to the ,temple of ,jupiter1 on a hill about a mile from the shore4 ,we spent here nearly three hours measuring and examining the remains of this beautiful specimen of ,greek architecture1 and sketching the surrounding picturesque scenery2 then started for the town and port of gina1 whither ,i had sent the vessel to meet us1 and was told that the distance was only three or four miles1 which turned out to be nearly twelve1 over a rough path1 so that we did not reach gina until nearly #f ,p4,m41 very tired and hungry1 having had no lunch4 ,the ,temple of ,jupiter is a fine specimen of the ,doric1 and is well described in ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,cockerell's excellent work1 to which the reader is referred4 ,the small town of gina is situated about the middle of the west side of the island1 facing the ,morea1 from which it is separated by a channel about eight or ten miles wide4 ,the town and island of gina were governed by a ,vaivode1 who had a few ,turkish soldiers1 and was inhabited chiefly by fishermen and small traders4 ,the surrounding country is hilly1 with fertile valleys producing olives1 vines1 and grain1 and beans of several kinds2 and there are a few sheep and goats4 ,the next morning1 the #bfth ,march1 ,i rose early and examined the port1 which consisted of two artificial harbours1 formed by two piers1 each carried out from the shore1 enclosing a considerable space of water1 with a depth of about #aj or #ab feet4 ,this was made by the ancients1 and ,mr4 ,cockerell gave me a plan of it1 which is inserted in my work on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours4' ,it was then blowing very hard north-west and contrary2 however1 soon after noon the wind abated1 when we embarked1 and arrived at the little port or bay of ,pilascro1 the ancient ,epidauros1 on the opposite shore of the ,morea1 about five o'clock in the afternoon4 ,here we disembarked1 and walked round the place1 and could only discover what appeared to be the remains of a bath1 and some mutilated figures near it2 and a little farther some similar remains1 but nothing remarkable2 so that it would require considerable time to make anything out of them4 ,in ,sir ,w4 ,gell's #8,itinerary of the ,morea' what is there is well described4 ,we slept on board4 ,on the #bgth we rose at daylight1 and found that the baggage horses1 ,greek servants1 and an excellent ,arabian horse1 which ,i bought at ,athens1 and which ,i sent round by land1 had arrived at ,epidauros4 ,having disembarked our baggage and discharged the vessel1 we loaded the baggage on the horses1 after which we started for ,napoli di ,romania1 a small town situated on the ,gulf of ,argos1 not many miles distant from ,epidauros1 through an undulating1 picturesque1 and rich country4 ,on account of the guide taking the wrong road1 we were obliged to stop at the village of ,tero1 where there are a considerable number of ,roman and ,greek remains4 ,on ,friday1 #bhth ,march1 we started at half-past six1 and at noon reached the picturesque fortress of ,napoli di ,romania1 on the east side of the ,gulf of ,argos1 situated on a lofty hill commanding the entrance to the gulf4 ,the miserable town lay beneath the citadel1 which1 as well as the town itself1 was strongly fortified according to the ,venetian system1 and was a place of considerable strength1 garrisoned by a set of bigoted ,turkish troops1 imbued with a thorough hatred of ,christians1 so that ,i was strongly advised not to stop there4 ,there was1 however1 no alternative1 as there was no other place near4 ,i therefore rode into the town1 and took up my quarters at the ,english ,vice-,consul's1 who was a ,greek4 ,immediately after my arrival ,i went out1 and tried to get into the citadel1 in order to have a view of the town and surrounding country1 which was very fine1 but the ,turks refused me admittance in the most insolent manner1 and told me to get about my business as quickly as possible4 ,i found that it was of no use to attempt to proceed farther1 and returned at once to the town1 and after having examined it1 and found nothing worthy of notice1 returned to my lodgings4 ,here the ,vice-,consul came to me in a great fright1 and said that the ,turks had been much annoyed at my arrival1 and that ,i must depart directly2 strongly urging me to do so1 as he said that he could not protect me1 and if ,i stayed he would not be responsible for the consequences4 ,i replied that as it was night it was too late to depart then1 but that ,i would do so the next morning at daybreak4 ,to this he consented4 ,i accordingly supped1 and went to bed4 ,on the following morning my servant and myself were in the saddle before daybreak1 and were at the gates of the fortress waiting for them to be opened4 ,in ,turkish fortresses at that day it was the custom to make every foreigner and ,greek dismount and walk over the drawbridge4 ,i thought that this was degrading1 and determined not to do it4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the gates were opened1 and the drawbridge let down1 ,i started off at a rapid pace1 and told ,demetrius to follow me4 ,in passing the ,turkish guard1 consisting of three or four badly-armed men1 they called out to me to stop1 which ,i disregarded1 and galloped off as fast as ,i could4 ,i had scarcely proceeded a couple of hundred yards when1 turning round1 ,i saw ,demetrius in the hands of the ,turks1 who were belabouring him with sticks1 and trying to pull him off his horse4 ,he kicked and fought with all his might4 ,i immediately rode back with a loaded pistol in each hand1 and dashed amongst the ,turks1 who soon released my man1 and spurring our horses we galloped off as hard as possible1 never pulling rein for a full mile1 and then1 finding we were not followed1 stopped and joined our men and baggage1 whom ,i had left behind in a small ,greek house before ,i entered ,nauplia the preceding evening4 ,thus ,i got happily out of this affair1 which might have been rather serious2 but ,i always found the best way was to show a bold front to the ,turks1 and not allow them to insult you4 ,after a little halt we started again1 and stopped to examine the ruins of the ancient city of ,tiryns1 said to have been built by the ,cyclopeans4 ,these are very curious and interesting1 and are supposed to be the oldest specimens of architecture in ,greece4 ,they are constructed of rough1 only partially hewn blocks of stone1 rudely put together without cement4 ,we have here an attempt to construct a ,gothic arch2 but the stones are not radiated1 the beds being flat1 each stone projecting over another until they meet in the centre4 ,these ruins are extensive1 covering a surface of several acres4 ,they are well described and represented in ,gell's #8,itinerary4' ,from ,tiryns ,i proceeded to ,mycene1 about #ab miles farther northward4 ,these ruins are also very extensive1 and once formed the capital of ,agamemnon1 with a small surrounding territory4 ,the chief building worthy of remark is the ,hall of ,atreus4 ,this1 of the kind1 is a fine work1 constructed of solid masonry1 of large blocks of stone well squared1 and put together without cement4 ,the hall is circular1 and #dg feet #f inches in diameter in the inside1 and #db feet #f inches high1 the top covered by a single stone1 thus forming a ,gothic arch inside of squared blocks of stone1 the beds being horizontal1 and the stones projecting over each other in the inside until they meet in the centre1 the angles of the projecting stones in the inside being cut off and dressed smoothly on the face1 so that1 when viewing it from within1 the whole has the appearance of a nicely-constructed dome1 lighted from the top by a circular opening4 ,the side walls are #ah feet #f inches at bottom1 diminishing to #ah inches at top4 ,it is a remarkable work1 and may be considered as one of the earliest specimens of the arch1 and a considerable improvement upon that of ,tiryns4 ,the entrance to the hall is by a massive doorway1 the sides being formed of single stones well dressed1 and the top of another single block equally well prepared2 this is surmounted by another large block1 upon which is sculptured in bold relief two lions rampant4 ,the approach to the doorway is between two solid walls of masonry1 forming a passage open to the air4 ,this being near the summit of a hill1 there is a fine view from it over the plain1 or rather valley1 beneath1 backed by the ruins of the ancient city of ,argos and its ,acropolis1 on the ,gulf of ,nauplia1 and on the west by a fine range of mountains1 the highest of which towers prominently above the rest1 standing far above the level of the ,mediterranean4 ,after having measured the ,hall of ,atreus1 and having made a sketch of the surrounding country1 during which my people had managed to cook an excellent dinner in the open air1 ,i dined1 and started about #d ,p4,m41 and reached ,argos at #e ,p4,m4 ,the ruins of the ancient city contain little worthy of remark1 and the modern one is a miserable village1 seated amongst the ruins4 ,the rich country was not half cultivated1 merely dotted here and there with a few vineyards and olive woods4 ,argos is now about a mile from the head of the ,gulf of ,nauplia1 but it is very probable that in former times the sea washed the walls of the ancient city2 the intervening space has been filled up by alluvial deposit1 and it is now little better than a marsh4 ,i slept at the caravanserai1 and next morning started for the ,temple of ,jupiter at ,nemea1 passing through a rich valley with vines1 grain1 and olives1 and the village of ,agioz ,georgious1 near which is a convent on a hill4 ,these convents are not the seats of learning1 for the monks are lazy and ignorant2 but they form comfortable resting-places for travellers who pay well for their accommodation4 ,the ruins of the ,temple of ,jupiter1 well described by ,gell1 consist only of three columns of an indifferent style of ,doric4 ,having returned to ,argos to sleep1 on ,sunday1 ,may #a1 ,i arose early4 ,the morning was wet and stormy1 and ,i was detained by the muleteer demanding extra pay for the horses1 which1 however1 the ,bey decided against him4 ,we accordingly started about seven1 and soon after began to ascend the ,pass through the mountains1 having on the left the miserable village ,lerna1 seated on the swampy shore of the gulf1 anciently called ,hydra2 and hence was derived the ,lernean hydra or monster1 celebrated by ,virgil4 ,this was no doubt nothing more than the malaria fever personified1 which prevails severely in this district4 ,in fact1 the whole of this country had a wretched1 forlorn1 deserted appearance4 ,the population was scanty1 oppressed by poverty1 misery1 and tyranny1 their countenances for the most part pale and haggard1 expressing despair and dejection1 to extricate themselves from which appeared hopeless2 whilst the surrounding country1 naturally fertile1 aided by the influence of a genial climate1 only required the industry of man to make it yield the richest reward4 ,nothing was done2 all lay dead and desolate4 ,nature seemed to have done everything for man1 while man had in everything neglected nature2 a not uncommon occurrence1 and one which1 as far as my experience goes1 has produced more misery than almost anything else4 ,we began to ascend the ,pass over a rude causeway1 about eight or ten feet wide1 in many places cut up into deep gullies by the torrents2 the ascent steep1 rugged1 and difficult1 fit only for mules and pack-horses4 ,the evening was fine1 however1 the air fresh and invigorating1 and the scenery beautiful1 which raised my spirits after the melancholy caused by the depressing influence of the sight of so much desolation4 ,having got to the summit of the ,pass1 we had a magnificent view on both sides4 ,looking back1 we had the ,gulf of ,nauplia1 with the picturesque fortress at the entrance1 the plain of ,argos and its ruins1 also those of ,mycene and ,tiryns1 backed by a rugged outline of hills2 on the west the fertile plain1 with its capital ,tripolitza1 and the ruins of ,mantinea1 backed by a bold line of hills1 with the magnificent ,taygetus rising #gjjj feet1 flanked on both sides by the blue waters of the ,mediterranean4 ,we reached ,tripolitza just after dark1 and1 as usual1 put up at the best ,greek house where we could find admittance2 and as ,i had a good sumpter mule1 ,demetrius soon prepared a capital supper1 which ,i enjoyed much after a hard-working day of nineteen hours1 during which ,i had been fourteen hours in the saddle4 ,i slept soundly1 notwithstanding the attacks of numerous fleas1 to which by this time ,i had become tolerably well accustomed4 ,tripolitza1 although the capital of the ,morea1 was but a poor place1 with about #djjj inhabitants1 and the ,turkish garrison of about #cjj men4 ,the ,governor's palace was merely an assemblage of some low1 insignificant buildings enclosed within a wall4 ,the rest of the town consisted of irregular1 crooked1 narrow1 dirty streets1 some of them hardly wide enough for a carriage1 for which1 indeed1 there was no need1 and there were none2 with a place or square near the centre1 surrounded by cafs1 where the ,turks and better class of natives1 such as they were1 sat idly smoking their long pipes and nargillas with that stupid indifference and repose which characterized them1 perfectly regardless of any but themselves1 and quite unconscious and indifferent to the misery around them4 ,there were one or two bazaars1 where all the business of the place was transacted2 in these cloths1 furs1 shawls1 leather articles1 such as saddles1 bridles1 c41 silks1 arms1 pipes1 tobacco1 and provisions of all kinds1 were sold1 but scarcely any articles of ,european manufacture4 ,the town was surrounded by a crenellated wall1 unfit for artillery1 and incapable of resistance to ,european troops2 and there were two or three mosques1 with their minarets rising above the mass of insignificant buildings1 and a few ,greek churches1 the interiors of which were decorated with rude and almost grotesque representations of saints4 ,these edifices1 towering above the rest1 had a picturesque and imposing effect when viewed from a distance1 but this vanished the moment you drew near and entered1 when little else but dirt and misery met the eye4 ,the following day after my arrival ,i walked about the town1 amusing myself with the little which was to be seen2 and the next day ,i rode1 accompanied by my servant ,demetrius1 to the ruins of the ancient ,mantinea1 formerly a city of considerable importance1 and well fortified according to the style of that period4 ,it was surrounded by a strong lofty stone wall1 about #be feet high1 flanked at intervals by circular turrets1 and in front of each entrance there was a kind of lunette or advanced work to protect it1 so that an enemy1 in endeavouring to enter1 was exposed to flank attacks from the garrison4 ,these walls were surrounded by a wide ditch filled with water1 and the total surface enclosed by them is considerable4 ,the ruins within consist of the remains of a hippodrome1 theatre1 and other private and public buildings1 concerning which1 from their scattered and dilapidated condition1 it was difficult to define anything accurately4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,tripolitza there are numerous kalavatha1 or subterranean conduits for carrying off the water for drainage1 irrigation1 and supplying the inhabitants4 ,the river flowing through the plain1 if such it can be called1 is an insignificant stream2 it is connected with the subterranean conduits described above4 ,the surrounding country was tolerably cultivated1 and produced corn1 pulse1 oil1 and wine1 both red and white4 ,this wine was made in a very rough way1 and1 in order to preserve it1 was mixed with a certain quantity of turpentine1 which gave it a strong bitter flavour1 by no means agreeable at first2 and until you become accustomed to it1 you cannot drink it with any degree of relish1 but by degrees you like it1 and it is very wholesome4 ,whilst at ,tripolitza ,i became acquainted with the late ,mr4 ,hodgets ,foley1 afterwards ,m4,p4 for ,droitwich1 a very amiable1 good-natured person4 ,as an instance of ,turkish civility1 ,mr4 ,foley was taking his usual ride in the evening1 accompanied by his servant1 and on his way met with a party of the delhi1 or cavalry1 playing at football1 a game in which they much delighted4 ,as they passed he civilly pulled up to get out of their way1 when two or three of them at once1 without the smallest provocation1 attacked him1 laid hold of his horse1 and otherwise maltreated him1 and he with some difficulty extricated himself from their hands1 and rode back to ,tripolitza as quickly as possible1 to lay his complaint before our ,vice-,consul1 who was a ,greek4 ,he made his complaint to the ,governor1 who promised redress1 but 7,turkish fashion7 never gave it4 ,foley's mistake was this1 that instead of getting out of the way1 he should have ridden right into the midst of them1 laying about him on both sides with his whip as hard as possible2 then they would have feared and respected him1 and have never offered him any violence4 ,after having seen all that was worthy of attention in the town and neighbourhood1 ,i started for ,misitra1 the site of the ancient ,sparta1 some miles from ,tripolitza1 the route to which lay through the plain4 ,we reached ,misitra1 a miserable village1 towards evening1 and obtained tolerable quarters in a respectable ,greek house1 where we were received very kindly1 and most hospitably entertained1 which of course ,i paid for by a handsome present4 ,i sat down to supper with the family1 consisting of the husband1 his handsome wife1 daughter1 and son1 before a low table1 placed upon the floor2 the dishes consisted of soup1 a species of stewed mutton1 vegetables1 and cakes and fruits4 ,after dinner the servant came round with a basin and ewer1 and poured water over our hands1 and then presented a napkin to wipe them3 we next adjourned to another room1 where coffee and pipes were served1 and the daughter sung very prettily some ,greek airs1 accompanied by the mandoline2 and thus ,i passed a very agreeable evening4 ,the following morning ,i rose early and proceeded to the ruins of ancient ,sparta1 some miles distant4 ,here nothing is to be seen of this ancient celebrated city1 but some mounds1 fragments of walls and buildings1 the extent and designation of which it is extremely difficult to make out4 ,it was in vain1 therefore1 to attempt more1 and so ,i next determined to prosecute my journey into ,maina1 said to be inhabited by the descendants of the ,spartans4 ,this was considered at that time to be a journey of considerable difficulty and danger1 and1 indeed1 impracticable1 on account of the lawlessness of the natives1 who were said to be nothing more than a set of pirates and robbers1 at war with the whole world and each other4 ,lord ,byron wished to go there1 but was dissuaded from it1 although no person ever accused his lordship of want of courage4 ,my janissary advised me not to make the journey1 and said that he would not accompany me1 as we should all be murdered2 and added that the ,turks1 who had frequently endeavoured to conquer the country both by land and by sea1 had always failed4 ,the more they tried to dissuade me from going1 the more ,i was determined to do it1 being stimulated also by doing that which few persons would attempt2 therefore ,i discharged my janissaries and extra horses and servants1 and sent them to meet me at ,calamata1 the other side of the peninsula1 and decided to undertake the journey with ,demetrius alone1 who was well acquainted with one of the captains or chiefs of the district of ,marathonesi1 and who was anxious to go himself1 and said that the difficulties had been greatly exaggerated1 and that we should get through very well4 ,i resolved1 therefore1 to start on the following morning4 ,before proceeding farther ,i will endeavour to describe the country which we were about to visit4 ,the district of ,maina is situated at the southern extremity of the ,morea2 it is bounded on the north by ,mount ,taygetus1 and its subsidiary range of mountains1 and by ,cape ,matapan on the south1 so that it forms a triangle1 jutting out into the ,mediterranean2 and on the east and west sides it is bordered by that sea1 so that on all sides1 except on the north1 it is surrounded by water4 ,as to the aborigines1 it is difficult to find any well-authenticated account2 it is supposed that they at one time formed part of the ,spartan republic4 ,after the conquest of the ,greeks by the ,romans1 and subsequently by the ,turks1 they took refuge here1 and being of a warlike and restless temperament1 disdained all subjection to any one chief1 but divided themselves into separate communities1 and chose their chief for the time1 who was the most able and successful warrior amongst them4 ,these communities or tribes were wholly independent1 and were frequently at war with each other1 but always united to defend themselves against the common enemy1 and they drove out the ,turks1 who frequently1 but in vain1 attempted to bring them under subjection1 and latterly had quite given it up4 ,such was the state of the country when ,i visited it4 ,the whole population was considered to be about #bj1jjj1 divided into capitanates or beylichs1 with a supreme chief1 to whom1 however1 the allegiance was merely nominal1 and only accorded when the whole country was invaded by a common enemy4 ,on other occasions1 each tribe or community made war upon the others upon the least provocation1 or upon the surrounding countries and seas as it suited them2 in fact1 they were a horde of pirates1 at war with all mankind1 who treated them accordingly4 ,it was no uncommon event at that day for a ,british ship of war to bombard its seaports and to land a strong body of men to chastise the natives whenever they could lay hold of them2 but as the coast is intersected with numerous creeks1 backed by innumerable inaccessible mountain fortresses1 to which they escaped when overpowered1 it was almost impossible to root them out4 ,every petty chief had a stronghold or fortress1 where he lived with his most intimate followers4 ,in some cases this fortress was surrounded by a strong loop-holed wall1 to which no access was given except by a drawbridge or ladder1 which could be drawn up when attacked2 and the access to the castle within was the same4 ,in others it was a simple square or round tower1 with the entrance about #aj feet above the ground1 approachable only by a ladder1 which could be removed at pleasure1 and was always drawn up at night4 ,the country for the most part was uncultivated1 and although extremely fertile1 capable of producing corn1 wine1 oil1 fruit1 and silk in abundance1 served little more than to supply the deficiency when booty was scarce4 ,such was the general state of ,maina1 which ,i determined to visit4 ,we accordingly left our heavy baggage behind1 and ,i started early in the morning1 accompanied by ,demetrius and one baggage horse4 ,shortly after leaving ,misitra we crossed the frontier1 came to a wild1 desolate country with nothing but brushwood1 occasionally mixed with lofty valonia trees1 the bark and fruit of which form a valuable article of export4 ,at midday we halted as usual to give our horses1 as well as ourselves1 rest and refreshment2 and the ever-active ,demetrius1 in a comparatively short time1 provided us with a tolerable dinner1 and after a couple of hours' rest started again on our journey1 and passing through the same kind of wild country we reached the sea-shore and the ruins of the ancient ,marathonesi1 the greatest portion of which had been submerged by an earthquake1 and we could distinctly discern the buildings through the clear water4 ,a few miles farther we reached the neat little seaport town1 the modern ,marathonesi1 the capital of the tribe of which ,demetrius's friend was the chief4 ,in the course of our day's journey we were not a little inspired and gratified that we had not been attacked or even molested1 notwithstanding the dismal accounts and forebodings which had been made to us4 ,it is true we met a few rough1 straggling1 armed fellows on the way1 and they looked at us with a fierce1 independent scowl1 but seeing us well armed and prepared to meet them1 passed on without further remark4 ,we arrived1 soon after sunset1 at the house of the chief1 and were most kindly received by him1 and he showed us into some clean comfortable bedrooms1 furnished1 to my surprise1 in the ,french fashion4 ,the fact is1 the chief was a great merchant and trader with the ,ionian ,islands1 ,italy1 and ,france1 and possessed considerable wealth1 and was far more civilized than the rest of his countrymen4 ,he was a fine handsome courteous young man1 about twenty-eight1 of the middle size1 and extremely well-proportioned1 sinewy1 active1 and vigorous4 ,his countenance was oval1 of the true ,greek form1 with dark piercing eyes1 black eyebrows and lashes1 well-defined nose1 small mouth1 with compressed lips1 and beautiful white teeth2 with long moustaches1 curling several inches below his chin1 and his head covered with a profusion of black hair hanging down in natural ringlets2 he wore no beard1 his chin being closely shaven2 in fact1 he was a very dashing personage4 ,he gave us an excellent supper1 and entertained us with numerous anecdotes and accounts of the country and its inhabitants2 he asked me how ,i could think of venturing among such a lawless people1 whom no stranger ever visited1 and strongly recommended me to go back1 as after having learned that ,i proposed to cross the country and return by the opposite coast1 he said the journey would be attended with considerable danger1 and he feared that he could not protect me4 ,both ,demetrius1 who sat at table with us1 and myself told him that it would be disgraceful to go back1 and if he would furnish us with an escort of some of his followers they should be properly paid1 and we had no doubt but that we should get through our journey without difficulty4 ,finding that we were determined to proceed1 he opposed our intentions no more1 but said he would do the best he could for us4 ,being rather tired with our day's ride1 we went to bed and slept soundly until soon after sunrise the next morning1 when we were up and stirring4 ,our friend1 the chief1 told me that he would provide me with an escort of twenty-five well-armed men1 whom ,i might safely rely upon4 ,we accordingly breakfasted1 and went to look over the town1 which was the neatest and cleanest ,i had seen in ,greece4 ,there were several vessels taking in and delivering their cargoes2 in fact1 the little town was bustling with activity and industry4 ,all my escort1 consisting of five-and-twenty stout1 active1 wiry fellows1 were mustered outside of the town waiting for me1 and a fierce1 rough1 savage-looking set they were1 armed to the teeth with guns1 pistols1 and yatagans1 clad a good deal like ,albanians1 with kilts1 jackets1 hose1 and red skull-caps1 with long moustaches1 close-shaven chins1 and long hair falling down their shoulders4 ,most of them had several scars from wounds received in their various fights4 ,before starting ,i examined their arms to see if they were properly loaded and flinted1 as it frequently happened that they were in bad order and would not go off when they pulled the trigger1 and often burst1 so that they did more harm to themselves than to their enemies4 ,i found the arms1 however1 better than ,i expected1 and giving some of them fresh flints and good powder and ball1 they were properly loaded4 ,i then said a few words of encouragement1 which their chief1 who was with me1 interpreted1 and told them to behave like men1 and take care of me1 and they would be properly paid4 ,the men answered one and all1 that there was no fear but that they would take good care of the ,english ,milord1 as they called me1 and off we started in high spirits for the opposite side of the peninsula4 ,the view from ,marathonesi was extremely beautiful4 ,on the north the noble ,mount ,taygetus1 with its numerous peaks1 deeply-indented gorges1 ravines1 and its sides covered densely with woods1 rose towering above the clouds4 ,at its base there was a torrent running east and west through a valley bordered by precipitous cliffs towards the sea4 ,on the south side of the torrent was a narrow road1 and the perpendicular cliff on the south side of the road was full of caverns admirably adapted for the concealment of brigands1 pirates1 and bad characters of all kinds1 of which so many abounded in the country4 ,we had to pass through this gorge1 and at the time there was a great number of these vagabonds concealed in the caves1 waiting to intercept the merchants going backwards and forwards to and from ,marathonesi4 ,i was warned of this1 and determined to drive these rascals1 if there were any1 out of the caverns before we passed4 ,i accordingly told about eight or ten of the most active of my escort to cross the river and climb the base of the hill1 and to fire into the caves1 whilst ,i and the main body proceeded along the road2 and as we searched each cave as we advanced1 if any robbers were concealed in them1 they could not escape2 and if they attempted to do so1 they were exposed to two fires4 ,we were thus proceeding cautiously through the ,pass1 and had scarcely well entered when my men on the opposite side of the valley commenced firing into the caverns1 and at first they were sharply replied to by the concealed bandits4 ,this did not last long1 for the robbers1 who were not equal to us in numbers1 found that they were out-manuvred1 and if they remained in the caves must all be taken1 and they expected little mercy from their captors4 ,they therefore left the caves1 and fled as fast as possible1 upon seeing which my people on both sides of the torrent followed them with equal speed1 firing at random whilst they went forward4 ,this rude and desultory mode of fighting was fortunately attended with no slaughter1 although several flesh wounds occurred4 ,my party being the stronger1 we overtook the brigands1 and made three or four prisoners4 ,at this my people were delighted1 and at the same time exasperated against them1 and wished to shoot them4 ,i at once interposed1 but found that my men were so excited with the fight and subsequent pursuit1 that it was extremely difficult to control them4 ,however1 after a little while ,i pacified them by saying that it was unmanly and unworthy to kill an enemy after he had surrendered4 ,this did not seem to have much impression on them1 as they considered the conquered their lawful prize1 and that they might do what they liked with them4 ,i ultimately quieted them by saying that ,i would pay a good sum per head for each of the four taken1 which they willingly accepted1 fearing that if they refused ,i should report them to their chief4 ,i therefore released the captives1 who upon their knees thanked me for their lives4 ,having reached the end of the ,pass1 and the road being tolerably clear to the end of the day's journey1 ,i dismissed my escort with about ten shillings each1 besides a capital dinner1 and a good sum for the captives1 with which they were pleased1 and left me with many thanks and cheers1 expressed very cordially in their peculiar and rough manner4 ,having parted with my escort1 ,i rode leisurely forward with ,demetrius and the baggage horse1 until we reached the castle of a capitano1 to whom ,i had a letter of introduction from my excellent friend the ,captain of ,marathonesi4 ,on our arrival1 which was just as the sun was setting1 we found the chief surrounded by numerous followers seated on stone benches fixed to the gate of the outer wall by which the castle was surrounded4 ,the old chief and his attendants were quietly enjoying their pipes and coffee1 whilst the cowherds were driving in the cattle for the night1 just as described in ,homer4 ,the chief and his suite arose to meet me as ,i advanced and presented my letter of introduction1 which he received with much dignity1 and welcomed me most kindly to his castle1 and certainly a wild1 rough place it was4 ,within the outer wall was placed the keep or castle1 consisting of a great square tower massively built1 containing a few rough apartments with little or no furniture except a few mattresses and cushions1 which were removed during the day4 ,the space between the main tower or residence was filled with numerous outhouses and sheds for the cattle and servants and guards of the chief4 ,after a short conversation we adjourned to the inner castle1 and were shown into the principal room1 about #cj feet square1 with divers rows of low cushions placed all round against the walls4 ,directly after our arrival1 a low table was brought in1 and the chief1 his attendants1 myself1 and servant ,demetrius1 to the number of about a dozen1 sat down cross-legged to supper1 which was immediately served4 ,this consisted of stewed mutton1 with vegetables1 roast game1 sweets1 and fruits1 which for the most part we ate with our fingers4 ,before each guest was placed a bottle full of wine1 but there were no glasses on the table1 so that one had no alternative but to drink out of the bottle1 which was refilled several times with good red wine4 ,after dinner we took to our pipes and coffee1 during which we had a good deal of agreeable conversation1 which was chiefly devoted to inquiries about ,england1 in which they appeared to take the greatest interest4 ,after having well supped1 and having smoked and conversed as long as we felt it agreeable1 one by one we dropped off to sleep upon our mattresses1 armed1 and without undressing1 ready for a surprise at any moment4 ,i soon fell asleep1 and awoke at daybreak thoroughly refreshed4 ,we all got up1 shook ourselves1 washed1 and took coffee and a pipe1 and then strolled about till breakfast4 ,this castle is situated on a fine bay on the sea-shore1 near the base of ,taygetus4 ,outside the walls of the castle there is a straggling village4 ,besides fishing-boats1 there were several others of a more suspicious character1 being sharply built1 and having the appearance of pirates4 ,we got a capital breakfast with the old chief2 afterwards rowed in the bay2 and then taking a hearty farewell of my worthy host1 started for ,kitriai1 the castle of the ,bey1 who was the nominal chief of the whole of ,maina4 ,we reached ,kitriai a little before sunset1 and were most kindly received by the ,bey1 a fine old warrior1 about #e feet #aj inches high1 well built1 square1 and muscular1 with an open1 well-developed ,greek countenance1 thick moustache1 and flowing white beard4 ,there was something mild and gentlemanlike in his manner1 very different to any other we had met4 ,we were shown to our apartments1 which were very comfortable1 overlooking the sea and surrounding coasts4 ,i spent the next day very agreeably in looking about the adjacent country1 which was very pretty1 but not so wild and grand as that nearer to ,taygetus4 ,besides the ,bey1 there were several of his counsellors1 his secretary1 and one or two ,greek priests1 all accomplished persons1 who spoke the ,greek in its purity1 much to my gratification and instruction4 ,the town of ,kitriai is about the size of ,marathonesi1 but not nearly so neat and clean1 neither had it so much trade4 ,on the morning after1 we started at daybreak1 and proceeded along the coast to ,calamata4 ,this town ranked about the third in the ,morea1 and was then doing a good trade2 but1 like all the towns in the ,morea1 was miserable and dirty1 with narrow streets1 low buildings1 from one to two stories high1 two or three insignificant mosques and ,greek churches1 and a square near the centre1 with several cafs1 filled1 as usual1 with idle ,turks and ,albanians1 smoking their pipes and sipping coffee and sherbet1 whilst numerous ,greek merchants and ,jews were transacting their business4 ,the bazaars were close by1 and crowded with purchasers4 ,the harbour was full of vessels and sailors of various kinds--,hydriote ,greeks 7amongst the best sailors on the ,mediterranean71 ,austrian1 ,french1 and a few ,english vessels1 besides a number of boats called caiques1 and fishing vessels1 altogether a busy scene4 ,i took up my quarters at a ,greek house1 as rough and dirty as usual1 and found my heavy baggage1 servants1 and janissary whom ,i had sent from ,misitra4 ,next day ,i started at daybreak through a wild1 undulating1 partially-cultivated country to visit the two ,doric temples of ,messenia1 where ,mr4 ,cockerell discovered the celebrated ,phigalian marbles4 ,it is said that these marbles were sent to ,malta for sale1 of which due notice was given by advertisement1 and a certain day fixed for the auction1 to which commissioners were sent by the ,british and other ,governments4 ,the sale1 however1 by some mistake1 took place at ,athens4 ,the ,british agent1 not being aware of this1 remained at ,malta4 ,there was therefore no person present to bid on the part of the ,british ,government1 and they were knocked down to the ,bavarian agent4 ,when this was announced1 the ,british ,government refused to deliver up the marbles1 upon the plea that the sale ought to have taken place at ,malta4 ,the matter remained in abeyance until the ,peace of #ahad1 when the ,bavarian sovereign was in ,england4 ,certain negotiations then took place1 and the ,british ,government ultimately agreed to give the marbles up to ,bavaria1 upon condition that a complete set of casts was sent to the ,british ,museum4 ,by this unfortunate affair ,england lost a valuable prize2 and this loss was the more annoying1 because1 having already obtained the ,elgin marbles1 the ,phigalian marbles--which represented an earlier stage of ,greek art--would have rendered the ,english collection the most complete in the world4 ,i spent the greater part of the day at ,phigalia in measuring and sketching the temples1 which are situated upon a hill commanding a fine view of the picturesque surrounding country4 ,i took up my quarters in a ,greek house1 got supper as soon as possible1 and went to bed1 with the customary annoyance of vermin4 ,the country around was naturally rich and fertile1 but left1 as usual1 almost in a state of nature4 ,undulating1 with clumps of wood scattered about1 it resembled a good deal the park-like scenery of ,england4 ,there were numerous flocks of sheep and goats and a few herds of cattle feeding upon excellent herbage1 guarded here and there by wild1 shepherds1 armed with guns and yatagans4 ,the peasantry appeared very poor and ragged1 but1 notwithstanding1 many of the women had skull-caps made of gold coins strung together1 called mahmoudies1 about the size of a sovereign4 ,this composed their whole wealth2 and it is a curious fact that these head-dresses were respected1 and never stolen4 ,the men also1 and in some cases the women1 had the girdles round their waists fastened together by large discs of silver about the size of a small plate4 ,thus there was a strange contrast of wealth and poverty exhibited in the same person4 ,we started early next day1 and at noon on the second day reached the ,alpheus1 the most considerable river in the ,morea1 and which flows through the famous plain of ,olympia4 ,the river ,alpheus here was #aej to #bjj yards broad1 but fortunately the waters were low1 although we had some difficulty in crossing without swimming our horses4 ,in the ,olympian plain there were scarcely any remains worth noticing1 though numerous fragments of marble1 brick1 and pottery are strewed about4 ,we got some very rough quarters for the night in a village near ,olympia1 and next day1 passing over a similar kind of country1 reached ,patras before sunset1 at which we greatly rejoiced1 as we were tolerably tired with our rough journey in the ,morea4 ,i succeeded in getting1 as ,i thought1 clean1 comfortable quarters in a respectable ,greek house4 ,i was shown upstairs into a large well-furnished room1 with apparently a delicious-looking bed covered with a snow-white counterpane4 ,they gave me an excellent dinner and some good wine1 after which1 being very tired1 ,i threw myself on the outside of the bed for a nap4 ,i slept most soundly for about five or six hours1 and when ,i awoke it was quite dark2 ,i felt all the torments of the damned1 for ,i was almost devoured by immense bugs4 ,i jumped out of the bed in an instant1 rubbing my face1 which was covered with blood and bugs1 and struck a light1 when ,i found that the bed too was almost covered with them4 ,i very soon caught some dozens1 ,i may almost say hundreds2 ,i undressed1 and cleared my clothes of them1 then dressed myself1 and waited until daylight1 being resolved not to trust to a ,greek bed again1 but to my own mattress4 ,i spent the next day at ,patras quietly1 and then started off on my return to ,athens1 taking the circuitous route by ,delphos1 ,livadia1 ,euba1 ,negropont1 and ,marathon4 ,we coasted along the south shore of the ,gulf of ,lepanto1 passed our old friend the ruined convent near ,vostizza1 and dined at the house of a ,greek merchant near1 who kindly invited and treated me most hospitably4 ,after dinner1 just before ,i departed1 our worthy host said he would show me a curiosity1 and without more ado he brought out a large tub full of black snakes each about four feet long2 at the word of command all these reptiles leaped out of the tub and began dancing about the table1 at which ,i got considerably alarmed1 when my host burst out laughing1 and said they would do me no harm unless ,i irritated them1 which of course ,i had no idea of doing4 ,i therefore looked quietly on1 and in a short time he called to them and they quickly leaped back into the tub4 ,he said these snakes abounded in the cornfields which had just been reaped1 but they were timorous1 and never did any harm unless provoked2 their bite was not dangerous1 although for a time it occasioned a good deal of inflammation4 ,i parted from my worthy host with many thanks1 and then hired a large boat to take myself1 servants1 horses1 and baggage across the gulf to ,scalo1 on the opposite side4 ,we reached the landing-place about sunset1 after a four hours' voyage1 and proceeded to a caravanserai close by for the night4 ,this was a most wretched place1 in the middle of a marsh filled with large frogs and mosquitoes innumerable2 and what with the loud croaking of the frogs1 and the bites of the mosquitoes and bugs1 it was impossible to sleep with any degree of comfort4 ,there was a party of ,turks and ,albanians at the caravanserai who suffered as much as we did2 being unable to sleep1 they revenged themselves on the kangh or master of the caravanserai1 and belaboured him with their sticks most unmercifully1 and left him without paying for anything4 ,the poor fellow complained to me bitterly2 but unfortunately ,i could give him no redress4 ,as soon as it was daylight we started also2 ,i paid him handsomely1 although we had scarcely anything from him1 but lived on our own provisions4 ,he was very grateful1 and hoped to see me again1 but ,i told him that was very improbable4 ,as we cleared the marsh and got amongst the splendid mountain scenery1 in the midst of which the classic ,mount ,parnassus reared his majestic head1 towering above the whole1 the fine fresh air completely revived us4 ,we passed ,salano1 surrounded by olives1 and breakfasted under the trees1 much to our comfort4 ,a little before noon on the #bfth of ,may we reached the village of ,kastri1 the site of the celebrated ,delphos1 situated at the base of ,mount ,parnassus4 ,enhanced as it is by classical recollections1 the magnificence of the surrounding scenery it is impossible to describe2 let it suffice to say ,i shall never forget it4 ,of the temple and spring scarcely anything remain1 and a good deal must be left to the imagination4 ,i descended into a small plastered well1 said to be the ancient ,castalian spring1 which is situated in a cavern at the base of the mountain2 here the oracle was said to have been placed1 and although ,i was not inspired1 nevertheless ,i could not divest myself of the sanctity of the place and of the wonderful influence which the oracle once held over the ancient world4 ,the surrounding scenery1 with ,parnassus towering above the clouds1 added much to my enthusiasm1 which was increased by the sight of seven or eight fine eagles soaring over our heads and screaming wildly4 ,i was delighted with the scene1 and only regretted that ,i had not time to ascend to the summit of ,olympus4 ,after a halt of three or four hours1 during which ,i dined1 ,i started in high spirits for ,livadia1 where we halted for the night4 ,this was a rather large town1 with extensive cotton manufactories1 seated on the side of a lofty hill overlooking the ,lake ,copais and the fertile plain of ,thebes4 ,we got tolerable quarters here1 not forgetting the ever present bugs and mosquitoes4 ,next day ,i visited the ancient ,orchomenus1 the remains of which are very inconsiderable1 consisting of the treasury1 similar to that of ,mycene1 but elliptical instead of circular2 also of the citadel4 ,i also visited the ancient lion of ,chrona1 which is tolerably perfect1 cut out of the solid rock4 ,returned to ,livadia to sleep4 ,on the #bhth ,may ,i examined the cave of ,trophonius4 ,the weather was very hot1 as it was the latter end of the month4 ,i then travelled on until1 passing through the miserable modern town of ,thiva1 for of the ancient celebrated ,thebes there are no remains worthy of notice1 we took a route to the north-east1 and entered a defile1 in the centre of which there is the beautiful tranquil ,lake of ,copais about four miles long1 upon which some wild swans and ducks were enjoying themselves4 ,the next day we were off at daybreak1 and on our way examined the kolavothora or outlet at the lower end of ,lake ,copais1 which was a rough1 unfinished tunnel cut through the sandstone rock2 by means of this tunnel the surplus waters of the lake are discharged into the sea1 otherwise the lake would overflow and totally submerge the surrounding plain4 ,this is a considerable work1 but is not carried far enough2 if it were the whole lake would be laid dry1 a large quantity of valuable and fertile soil would be gained1 and the surrounding district rendered much more healthy4 ,from there we proceeded through an arid1 stony1 undulating country to ,negropont4 ,upon reaching the shores of the arm of the sea which divides the island of ,negropont from the main1 and which is scarcely #bjj yards wide at the narrowest point1 although very hot1 ,i stopped to make a sketch of the beautiful scene2 having done this we proceeded across the bridge which connects the island with the mainland1 to the fortified town of ,negropont4 ,the town is surrounded by a strong wall with circular towers at the angles2 these towers mount some heavy guns1 particularly towards the sea front1 where there is a casemated battery1 incapable1 however1 of resisting the broadside of a heavy frigate4 ,this town at the time of my visit was garrisoned by fierce1 bigoted ,turks1 who had the utmost contempt for ,christians1 nevertheless with a certain respect for ,europeans1 particularly the ,english4 ,the chief inhabitants were ,greeks1 whom the ,turks kept in the most perfect subjection4 ,the interior of the town consisted of narrow streets with low1 mean houses1 and a few mosques1 ,greek churches1 bazaars1 cafs1 c4 ,there was very little trade1 although the place is well adapted for it1 as the island is rich and fertile4 ,we got into a ,greek house and made ourselves as comfortable as we could1 and one of my ,greek servants for greater protection requested one of my old hats1 which ,i gave him1 and of which he was very proud1 although it contrasted strangely with his picturesque ,greek costume4 ,there was nothing to be seen in the town1 and as we did not appear to be welcome guests1 the sooner we left the better1 so the next day ,i started for ,marathon1 having sent the heavy baggage down to ,athens1 which ,i expected to reach the same evening4 ,this renowned battle-field interested me exceedingly2 it is about two miles wide1 and is bounded by the sea on the east1 and the ranges of ,mounts ,hymettus and ,pentelicus on the west4 ,i fancied in my enthusiasm that ,i could discover the positions of the different commanders1 their manuvres1 and in fact the whole battle from beginning to end4 ,i remained there several hours1 until near sunset1 and then left with ,demetrius at a hand-gallop1 expecting to reach ,athens in the course of a couple of hours or so4 ,we had no guide1 and thought that our most direct course lay through the wood on our right1 where there was a convent1 which would serve as a halting-place if necessary4 ,off we started1 and were soon in the wood1 which became thicker and thicker as we advanced2 the road1 which at the first was only a horse-track1 now became fainter and fainter2 and at last we lost it altogether4 ,the sun had now set1 and the short twilight had disappeared4 ,after floundering about the wood for some time1 our horses came to a dead stop1 and neither whip nor spur would make them budge an inch farther1 but they backed1 snorting violently1 and rearing occasionally so as almost to unseat us4 ,we could see nothing1 it being quite dark1 and could not imagine why our horses had come to such a dead stand2 we therefore threw the reins on their necks and allowed them to have their own way2 and most fortunately we did so1 for they had more sense than their masters4 ,when left to themselves they immediately turned round and went back for some distance1 then turned to the left and commenced a very rapid descent1 occasionally sliding for a considerable distance2 sometimes losing their footing1 then slipping and sliding again1 so that we could hardly keep our seats4 ,at last we came to the bottom1 cleared the wood1 and reached a grass plain4 ,it was now about midnight2 we did not know where we were or where the convent was2 in fact1 we were lost1 so that there was no alternative but to picket our horses and lie down on the grass till morning4 ,although very tired and hungry we had nothing to eat2 we accordingly wrapped ourselves in our cloaks and lay down and slept until sunrise4 ,when we woke we found ourselves at the bottom of a perpendicular cliff above #hj feet high2 we now saw the cause of our horses' halt the night before2 we were doing all we could to force them over this precipice1 but by a merciful ,providence their instinct saved us4 ,we were sincerely grateful for our escape1 and shuddered to think how narrowly we had missed a terrible catastrophe4 ,we then looked for our horses1 but they were nowhere to be seen2 we at once concluded that they must have been stolen by robbers1 who were said to be numerous in the neighbourhood4 ,after searching everywhere for about a mile round1 we at last observed them quietly feeding under a hill1 and had very little difficulty in catching and mounting them4 ,we rode to the convent which was close by1 and which for the darkness we could not find the previous night4 ,here we got a capital breakfast1 and rested1 and the good monks having heard our story1 congratulated us on our escape1 not only from the precipice but from the robbers4 ,we dined here also1 and rode to ,athens in the cool of the evening1 where ,i took up my old quarters4 ,before leaving the convent ,i went out and took a sketch of ,athens1 which is about four miles distant1 and the surrounding country4 ,the view is extremely beautiful2 in the front you have ,athens1 with its ,acropolis1 rising out of the plain1 backed by the island of gina in the midst of the gean ,sea1 and beyond that by the mountains of the ,morea2 whilst as a foreground there is ,mount ,hymettus1 with the convent rising out of the woods1 and ,pentelicus on the right4 ,this ,i think is the best view of ,athens4 ,being again settled in ,athens1 ,i set about finishing my studies of the antiquities1 and taking sketches of the neighbourhood2 as the weather was very hot1 being now the middle of ,june1 ,i started off one morning before sunrise with ,demetrius to take a sketch of the ,isthmus of ,corinth and the surrounding scenery1 and found an excellent position which commanded the whole1 near a marsh with a small lake in front4 ,i was so absorbed in my sketch that ,i did not think of the malaria1 which was very fatal in that place4 ,the sketch occupied about three hours1 and although ,i had taken some breakfast in the open air1 and ,demetrius the same1 we both felt very ill and returned to ,athens1 and sent directly for the doctor1 when ,i found that ,i had the malaria fever in the form of an ague4 ,demetrius was much worse1 and towards night he became delirious1 and remained so for some time4 ,i rallied in three or four days1 but remained very weak4 ,demetrius was confined to the house for above a fortnight4 ,although ,i could go about1 still the fever clung to me more or less1 and ,i could do very little4 ,at this time1 a singular person1 a ,mr4 ,scott1 a friend of ,lord ,byron's1 called upon me and offered every attention2 he was a shy1 kind1 and well-informed man1 living quite shut up by himself1 seldom stirring out till dusk1 when he was to be seen galloping round the walls of ,athens quite alone4 ,there were also at ,athens1 ,mr4 ,hodgetts ,foley1 ,mr4 ,beaumont1 ,mr4 ,waddington 7the late7 ,dean of ,durham1 and the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hanbury4 ,the latter was a tall1 fine-looking man1 of fair complexion1 with long light brown hair hanging over his shoulders1 and a long beard1 altogether a very striking figure2 he was perpetually thinking of firearms2 so that it might well be said1 that instead of being a man of peace1 he was a man of war4 ,i was now introduced to the ,maid of ,athens1 so celebrated by ,lord ,byron2 she certainly was a handsome and elegant young woman1 about twenty1 with a very pleasing manner and lively and intelligent in conversation4 ,she had a younger sister1 a very agreeable person also1 but not so handsome4 ,they lived with their parents1 who made their house a very pleasant resort for strangers4 ,by this time1 the beginning of ,july1 ,i was a great deal better1 and was recommended to take a sea voyage for change of air4 ,the above-named gentlemen had hired an ,hydriote brig to take a month's cruise amongst the islands1 and ,i agreed to join them4 ,we accordingly started about the end of the first week in ,july1 the weather still very hot4 ,we left the ,pirus in the morning1 and as there was very little wind we were becalmed off ,cape ,colonna1 which forms the eastern promontory of the ,gulf of ,athens4 ,here we cast anchor1 lowered a boat1 and went on shore to visit the celebrated temple4 ,as we landed we were much struck by the appearance of the beautiful ruin1 perched upon the summit of the promontory in solitary grandeur1 and overlooking the surrounding coasts and islands1 altogether forming a very imposing and charming scene4 ,whilst in the midst of silent admiration at this beautiful temple1 all of a sudden ,hanbury cried out1 8,there goes an old hawk10 and fired at it immediately4 ,this dispelled the charm1 and we all burst out laughing4 ,having finished our exploration1 we returned on board our vessel to dinner4 ,a light breeze soon afterwards sprang up2 we lay-to for a short time off the island of ,syra1 and the following morning got under way for ,paros1 a fine land-locked port1 which we reached early in the day1 and landed after breakfast4 ,we then proceeded to explore the quarries from which the celebrated marble was extracted4 ,these quarries are situated near the top of a hill1 about a mile distant from the port1 with a steep broken road for an approach4 ,the ancients1 instead of opening out a good face1 so that the quarries might be worked to any extent with advantage1 excavated caverns in the side of the hill1 and having arrived at the good sound rock1 cut it out by wedges and picks in such masses as they required1 so that the inside of the quarry presented a long gallery from whence the stone had been taken1 worked in a very regular manner in steps one above the other1 without any appearance of waste2 in fact1 the rock is so solid that when worked by pick and wedge no blasting is necessary2 indeed1 if blasting were adopted1 it would entail considerable waste4 ,at the same time1 it appeared to me that if the solid rock was bared from the surface and a good length of face opened out1 the pick-and-wedge system might be worked to almost any extent1 with much greater advantage2 and if inclined planes with railways were made to the port1 and a proper embarking jetty1 with cranes1 carried out into deep water1 so as to enable large vessels to come alongside at all times to receive their cargoes1 this fine marble might be quarried and exported at a very moderate cost1 infinitely below the price now charged for ,carrara marble4 ,as the ,parian marble is of a beautiful white cream-colour1 almost free from veins1 and of an even1 close texture1 the sale would be immense and yield an excellent profit2 and considering the enormous price of fine marble adapted for sculpture1 amounting to one and two guineas and upwards per foot cube1 according to the size of the block and fineness of the quality1 it is astonishing that the value of these quarries has not been recognized before1 and that capital has not been forthcoming to work them4 ,the harbour is spacious1 with ample depth1 and well protected against all winds4 ,the following day we devoted to the examination of the celebrated stalactite caverns of ,antiparos1 a small island on the north-west of ,paros1 and only separated from it by a narrow strait4 ,we accordingly went there after breakfast1 and being accompanied by a sufficient number of guides with torches and wax lights1 commenced the exploration4 ,we entered by a lofty arch1 and after proceeding some distance came to a magnificent chamber1 from the roof of which depended the most magnificent stalactites1 many of them eight and ten feet long1 reflecting the light of our torches like so many diamonds4 ,from this hall issued several galleries1 some of which had not then been explored2 we pursued our way through all which had been investigated1 and returned1 after a fatiguing walk1 to the surface4 ,this island1 like that of ,paros1 is composed of fine1 close marble1 which might be developed in the same manner with considerable profit4 ,we next set sail for ,naxos2 and here the whole party started in a native open boat to visit some ruins1 which turned out to be not in the least worth seeing4 ,we were first becalmed for many hours1 and on our return were overtaken by a violent storm1 and only escaped1 as the entire coast was one wall of almost perpendicular rock1 by one of the sailors accidentally remembering the vicinity of a small creek1 into which the captain1 a brave and skilful man1 managed to steer us through the breakers4 ,we ultimately returned to ,naxos1 after an absence of thirty-nine hours1 by far the greater part of which we passed without food1 as the ruins being only eight miles from ,naxos1 it was considered a mere morning's sail4 ,the day after our return we invited the ,english ,consul1 a ,greek1 and several of the principal inhabitants to dinner1 and had a jovial party1 for the ,greeks like good cheer1 and are certainly not water drinkers4 ,the wine of ,naxos1 of which a considerable quantity is made1 both for home and foreign consumption1 is excellent2 it is chiefly white wine1 resembling a good deal brown sherry1 and if well made is equally good4 ,besides wine they export ,velana bark1 wool1 figs1 currants1 and other articles4 ,having nothing further to see1 we set sail from ,naxos1 with a lively and lasting recollection of our visit to the celebrated antiquities1 and then steered for ,scio1 the ancient ,chios1 passing amongst numerous islands1 many of them very beautiful2 some were covered with woods and verdure to the water's edge1 others consisted of bold barren rocks rising perpendicularly from the water to a great height1 and terminating in lofty peaks4 ,the scene was ever changing1 and we enjoyed views of wood1 water1 plain1 and mountain1 combined in the most charming manner1 and of endless variety4 ,it was amusing also to see how well the ,greek sailors managed our ship4 ,at this time of the year strong northerly winds prevail during the day1 against which we had to heat4 ,in tacking about and manuvring the vessel they showed considerable skill and activity4 ,mitylene1 where we next arrived1 is a poor little place1 surrounded by steep1 lofty hills covered with wood almost to their summits4 ,there is some trade of wine and oil1 and wood and bark4 ,i was much amused by a fight between my man ,demetrius and a ,turk who insulted him2 fortunately they had neither firearms nor knives1 but they used their hands in the most clumsy manner possible1 and after a little time ,i parted them before they had done any mischief4 ,we spent about three days in the island1 which is well worthy of a visit on account of its rich and beautiful scenery1 and then returned to ,scio1 where our party separated4 ,i took lodgings1 and rested a few days1 for ,i was still very weak1 and liable to attacks occasionally from the malaria fever4 ,i had several enjoyable rides about this island4 ,a ridge of lofty hills1 extending from north to south1 added greatly to the picturesqueness of the scenery4 ,the soil is extremely rich and fertile1 and a large quantity of excellent wine1 besides oil1 silk1 fruits1 grain1 wood1 c41 is produced4 ,a great trade is carried on with different parts of the ,mediterranean1 particularly ,constantinople and ,smyrna4 ,perhaps1 with the exception of ,sicily1 it is the richest island in the ,mediterranean1 and has a great number of wealthy merchants and proprietors4 ,the port1 which is formed by a small creek1 defended by two stone piers1 contained numerous vessels1 some of considerable size1 and bearing the flags of most ,european nations4 ,the town was better and more substantially built than any ,i had hitherto seen1 and there were some good bazaars1 rich with the wares of the ,east and with ,european articles4 ,the square in the centre was surrounded by handsome cafs and houses1 and also one or two large mosques and ,greek churches4 ,the island was governed by a ,turkish officer of rank1 with a small body of janissaries and cavalry4 ,the following year1 #ahba1 this island suffered terribly during the ,greek revolution1 when the inhabitants attempted to overcome the ,turks1 who were too strong for them1 and showed them no mercy2 many were massacred1 and the island was devastated4 ,having taken a sketch of the port1 and seen everything of interest1 ,i hired a ,greek open boat1 and embarked with ,demetrius and all our baggage for ,smyrna1 where ,i got tolerably comfortable lodgings in a ,greek house4 ,smyrna is situated at the south-eastern extremity of the gulf of that name1 and extends northward along the coast for about a mile and a half4 ,the shore of the bay in front of the city is lined with a quay-wall1 formed partly of wood and partly of stone1 with small wooden jetties projecting from it at irregular intervals4 ,between this quay-wall and the houses is a road1 which runs nearly along the whole sea-front4 ,from this road innumerable narrow1 crooked streets lead to the different parts of the town2 many of these are so narrow that two horses can scarcely go abreast4 ,the buildings for the most part consist of two and three stories4 ,the bazaars were numerous1 extensive1 and rich1 filled with all the commodities of the ,east1 such as rick silks1 plain and brocaded1 shawls1 jewellery1 arms1 leather articles1 and pipes of all kinds1 rough iron and pottery ware1 besides tobacco1 fruit1 and provisions4 ,all these bazaars were laid out in different sections1 with a particular trade assigned to each1 and were kept in tolerable order2 the ,jews and ,armenians were the bankers1 and had their counters or stalls1 with offices behind1 where they transacted business to a large amount4 ,all the ,consuls' houses were in front of the quay1 and were substantial stone buildings of considerable extent1 and1 with the flags of the respective nations which they represented1 had a very imposing appearance4 ,in front of the quay were moored at times several hundreds of vessels of all nations1 and the immense number of boats and barges passing continually between them and the shore1 formed a most busy and lively scene4 ,there were several fine and extensive mosques1 which no ,christian was ever permitted to enter2 also many ,greek churches1 with their gorgeously-bedaubed paintings representing innumerable saints4 ,i attended the ,greek service at different times1 but generally came away anything but satisfied2 their strong nasal tone in saying prayers1 and their indifferent music and singing1 greatly disappointed me4 ,towards the land the city was surrounded by a high wall1 and at each gate was a strong guard4 ,at the south end there was a kind of citadel on a hill1 in which the ,governor resided1 and about half a mile from the city were the cemeteries1 deeply embosomed in cypress trees4 ,many of the tombs were very pretty1 of white1 well-sculptured marble1 with inscriptions from the ,koran engraved upon them1 and they were tastefully ornamented with garlands of flowers4 ,the exports from ,smyrna are various1 and its trade with ,europe is very extensive4 ,the articles of export are figs1 raisins1 silk1 oil1 bark1 grain1 c42 figs and raisins1 however1 are the chief1 and these are exported to a vast amount1 and certainly they are the finest in the world4 ,there are two crops1 those which are ripe about the end of ,july1 which are mostly consumed in the country and neighbourhood2 they are most delicious1 and extremely wholesome4 ,the second crop is ripe about the end of ,september4 ,these are gathered1 dipped in water1 then carefully packed in boxes and exported1 chiefly to ,england1 ,france1 and the north of ,europe1 and by the time of their arrival they are covered with a rich coating of crystallized sugar1 and are fit for use4 ,at the season of shipping the figs1 which ,i witnessed1 the greatest activity is visible everywhere--the producers selling1 the merchants buying1 the packing-case makers splitting the wood and making up the boxes--the packers carefully stowing the figs--the men loading them into lighters1 by which they are transported to the fast-sailing vessels waiting for them1 which are generally clipper schooners of about #abj to #agj tons--the ,consuls' offices besieged with numerous applicants for their clearance papers--the whole combined to form a most active and industrious scene1 not omitting the numberless dinners and social parties at the different hotels and coffee-houses1 which are thronged with natives of all nations4 ,i walked about and witnessed this busy scene with much delight and satisfaction4 ,i must not omit the melons1 both sweet and water1 and the grapes1 which were the most delicious ,i ever tasted4 ,the finest raisins are those called sultanas grown at ,scala ,nova1 a small port to the south-west of ,smyrna1 which ,i visited4 ,the grapes from which they are made are especially delicious4 ,the town is a poor place as regards the buildings2 but1 notwithstanding1 there is a considerable amount of wealth4 ,when ,i was there the town had recently been visited by a severe attack of plague1 and many of the houses were shut up1 all the inmates having died1 and1 having no heirs1 the property belonged to the ,government4 ,whilst ,i was at ,smyrna the ,british ,consul was ,mr4 ,werry1 a fine old gentleman of about sixty-five1 with considerable vigour and talent1 just the man for the place4 ,all ,british subjects were under his protection1 amongst whom were a considerable number from the ,ionian ,islands1 who were the most troublesome and daring vagabonds1 committing all ,sorts of crimes1 and mixed up with every row in the place2 these rows daily occurred1 and bloodshed and murder not unfrequently was the consequence4 ,old ,werry was the arbiter1 and delivered his judgments with great impartiality and justice4 ,the ,turks also were very troublesome1 and frequently attempted acts of great barbarity4 ,werry1 however1 was equal to the occasion1 and at such times went direct to the ,governor and claimed an audience2 he was at once admitted and seated at the head of the divan2 then he claimed protection for his ,british subjects2 and whenever the ,governor demurred1 ,werry drew his sword1 threw his hat down on the floor1 and threatened him with a ,british frigate to blow up the town before his eyes4 ,the ,governor would try to pacify him by offering pipes and coffee1 and soothing words1 which ,werry treated with contempt1 and nothing would do but releasing the prisoners1 which was soon effected4 ,then ,werry strode off in triumph1 scarcely condescending to return the ,governor's salute4 ,the ,turks looked upon him as a madman2 but they have always entertained the greatest respect for him1 and allowed him to have his way1 invariably calling him the mad ,consul4 ,nevertheless1 he was a most kind and worthy man1 greatly respected and liked by his countrymen1 the other consuls1 and by the whole population4 ,he received me with the greatest kindness and hospitality4 ,i was a frequent visitor at his house1 both in town and at his country seat1 ,bridjar1 about nine miles distant to the south-east4 ,whilst at ,smyrna ,i made acquaintance with my countryman1 ,mr4 7afterwards ,professor7 ,donaldson1 a ,m4 ,parke1 and another ,french architect1 who had just returned to ,smyrna after a very successful exploration of some of the most remarkable ruins of the ancient cities of ,asia ,minor1 and their portfolios were filled with drawings of these most interesting relics of antiquity4 ,i passed several happy days in their company1 and ,donaldson most kindly made out for me a map by which ,i might be enabled to visit these remarkable ruins2 ,i therefore determined to follow it out as nearly as possible without delay1 and took leave of them with many thanks4 ,on the next day1 having obtained the usual firman1 ,i started1 in company with my faithful servant ,demetrius1 to explore some of the ruins of ,ionia1 with a ,turkish surgee1 or guide1 a janissary1 and a couple of baggage horses1 leaving my heavy baggage at ,smyrna4 ,after passing through a wild1 rich1 and almost uncultivated country1 we reached ,aiasolok1 on the ,meander1 near the ruins of ,ephesus1 in the evening1 and took up our quarters in a ,turkish caravanserai4 ,demetrius soon prepared a good supper1 laid our mattresses1 and we both slept soundly until the morning4 ,every inmate was up transacting his business soon after daybreak1 and ,i at once sallied forth to examine the ruins of ,ephesus4 ,this celebrated city was situated on the left bank of the ,meander1 at the base of an elevated ridge of hills4 ,the only remains which we could distinctly make out was the amphitheatre1 of the rest little could be discovered2 but numerous fragments of columns1 cornices1 blocks of masonry1 pottery1 brickwork1 c41 lay scattered about4 ,i made a sketch of the whole from the best place ,i could find4 ,the ruins of ,ephesus formed the foreground1 with the ,meander and its numerous windings and the marshy valley flanked by the mountains on each side1 whilst in the background was the miserable town of ,aiasolok1 with its fortress and mosque on a conical hill above it1 backed by a wild range of mountains of considerable elevation1 which completed the view4 ,the scene was most picturesque1 replete with solitary grandeur and desolation4 ,the stillness was something remarkable2 nothing was seen moving1 except at rare intervals a long line of camels laden with merchandise1 led by their guide1 smoking his pipe1 and mounted on a donkey2 or here and there a solitary heron fishing amongst the reeds of the ,meander1 and flocks of wild ducks1 which took to flight at the slightest disturbance4 ,it was singular and melancholy to remark the ruins of the three most celebrated of the ,churches of the world before me1 namely1 those of the ancient ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,christians1 dominated over by the ,mahometan mosque4 ,i remained alone lost in contemplating this solemn and desolate scene for two or three hours1 reflecting upon the vicissitudes and instability of human grandeur1 and walked slowly back to the caravanserai at ,aiasolok1 where ,i took my breakfast1 and then started on my journey4 ,we slowly wound our way through the ,pass between the mountains at the back of ,aiasolok1 and descended into the plain of the ancient ,magnesia1 the site of one of the seven ,churches1 through which two streams flow sluggishly to the sea1 and reached the ruins about a couple of hours before sunset4 ,i picketed my horse here whilst ,i examined the ruins1 and sent ,demetrius forward with the other horses and baggage to a village1 where ,i proposed to pass the night1 ordering ,demetrius to have supper ready by my arrival4 ,the principal building is the hippodrome1 which was tolerably perfect1 and ,i took some pains to measure it accurately1 which occupied me about two hours4 ,there was nothing else worthy of remark1 although there were numerous fragments of buildings scattered around4 ,i met a ,turkish ,aga1 handsomely accoutred and well mounted1 attended by a servant1 who watched my movements with considerable attention1 and politely accosted me4 ,having finished my work1 ,i mounted and galloped off to the place of my rendezvous as quickly as possible4 ,passing through the adjacent forest ,i observed something like hammocks slung to the trees about #aj or #ab feet from the ground2 these1 ,i learned1 were the sleeping places of the shepherds who attended their flocks in the neighbourhood1 and as there were no habitations near1 they slept in these hammocks to keep themselves out of the influence of the malaria1 which is very fatal in these parts4 ,about sunset ,i reached my destination1 which was situated at the head of a valley surrounded by lofty mountains4 ,there was a cluster of miserable mud huts1 but no place fit to sleep in1 so ,demetrius was obliged to take possession of an open shed1 with a bare mud hut adjoining1 in which he placed the baggage1 spread my mattress in the shed1 and laid out the table attached to my canteen in the open air in front1 upon which he had got ready a tolerably good supper4 ,this canteen1 it should be mentioned1 was a very smart affair2 all the utensils were plated on the outside and gilt on the inside1 and1 being quite new1 had a very stylish and attractive appearance3 it was much finer than ,i wanted1 and had been sent out from ,england by my brother4 ,no sooner had ,i sat down to supper1 than ,i was surrounded by a considerable number of ,kurds1 wild-looking fellows1 armed to the teeth1 who had come from their own country with their flocks1 for the rich pasture which this country afforded4 ,their encampment was close by4 ,they appeared very friendly1 and admired my turn-out with great satisfaction1 thinking1 no doubt1 that it was real gold and silver4 ,i treated them very courteously1 gave them wine1 coffee1 and tobacco1 for which they appeared very thankful1 and we parted1 as ,i thought1 excellent friends4 ,it was a fine summer evening1 and soon after became dark4 ,the ,kurds retired with many thanks1 and being tired ,i lay down for the night on my mattress without taking off my clothes1 whilst ,demetrius and the other servants were in front1 and the horses picketed before them1 having only their girths slackened1 so that we were ready for a start at any alarm4 ,i examined my pistols1 my men did the same1 and we all retired2 but ,i was very restless and feverish1 and could not sleep1 although excessively weary4 ,i was continually roused by the barking of the great mastiffs which were kept by the shepherds to drive off the wolves and panthers in the vicinity4 ,at last1 towards midnight1 ,i fell fast asleep4 ,i awoke all of a sudden to find two fierce-looking ,kurds by my side1 one with a pistol close to my head1 the other flaring a lighted torch in my face1 with one hand thrust under my pillow1 to steal my purse and valuables4 ,i sat up directly and secured my pistols2 seeing this1 the fellow with the pistol pulled the trigger1 but fortunately it only flashed in the pan4 ,i at once fired4 ,i think ,i hit him somewhere1 for he uttered a loud cry1 and instantly took to flight with his companion4 ,my men awoke at the noise1 jumped up directly1 and fired also4 ,by this time we were surrounded by the ,kurds1 and had a hand-to-hand fight for a few minutes1 when ,i called to my men to mount and gallop off as quickly as possible4 ,i did the same1 and off we went at full speed1 leaving the baggage behind4 ,we could do no other1 for by this time the whole tribe was on the alert2 they came running to the help of their companions1 and commenced firing at us4 ,fortunately it was hardly daylight1 and they could not see us clearly4 ,in order to avoid the shots that whistled past us1 we crouched down upon our saddles1 and soon got out of their reach4 ,they did not follow us1 either being deterred by the stout resistance we had made1 or being satisfied with the booty which they had got4 ,to have remained longer would have been madness1 for we should soon have been overpowered1 and probably all murdered1 as there were at least thirty or forty of them1 and we were only five4 ,we never pulled bridle until we had made about six or eight miles2 it was then broad daylight1 and the sun was just rising above the horizon2 we continued1 however1 at a smart pace1 passing through a rich and partially cultivated valley1 until1 about seven o'clock in the morning1 we reached a small town1 where the ,aga1 or ,turkish ,governor of the district resided4 ,here we stopped at the caravanserai1 tolerably tired with our morning's ride of about seventeen miles1 and heartily thankful for our providential escape4 ,after a good wash1 and breakfast1 ,i sent my janissary1 a gallant fellow1 to demand an audience of the ,aga1 which he granted at midday4 ,i went accordingly1 showed my firman1 and then related my story by means of an interpreter4 ,the ,aga was a fine-looking man1 about forty1 surrounded by his divan and a number of well-armed ,tartars and guards4 ,he listened to my tale with the utmost gravity and attention1 and then burst out into a violent rage at the indignity which ,i had suffered1 and said that such an insult to an ,english gentleman had never occurred before in his district1 and he would lose no time in bringing the offenders to justice4 ,he was most particular in inquiring as to the place where the offence had occurred1 and the number and description of my assailants1 and then ordered a strong body of well-armed and well-mounted ,tartars to the place1 with strict orders to bring them to him immediately2 in the meantime he ordered coffee and pipes to be served1 and offered me any money ,i required4 ,he also asked me where ,i was going4 ,i told him that ,i was going southwards for two or three days4 ,he then said that upon my return he should be happy to see me again1 when he would have all the culprits in custody for me1 and if ,i could identify them he would have their heads taken off directly4 ,i took my leave1 with many thanks for his courtesy2 to which he replied1 with the greatest civility1 that he was too happy to be of any service to an ,englishman4 ,i left soon afterwards1 and crossed another mountain ridge1 passing through a wild1 desolate country1 and descended into a fertile valley1 through which a small river wound its tortuous course4 ,on the way ,i examined the ruins of the ancient ,priene1 seated on a hill on the right side of the valley4 ,here ,i saw considerable remains of some temples of the ,ionic order1 besides the relics of numerous other buildings1 which it was very difficult to define4 ,this city was surrounded by a strong wall of massive masonry1 considerable remains of which were visible4 ,we crossed the river by a ford1 and took up our quarters for the night amongst the ruins of ,miletus4 ,there were only a few scattered wretched hovels in the vicinity1 but none of them fit for our accommodation2 ,i therefore preferred the open air1 and determined to bivouac amongst the ruins2 as ,i had already provided myself and my people with mattresses and coverlets1 and a good supply of provisions1 ,i felt myself comfortable and independent4 ,i was roused about daybreak by something tugging hard at my pillow2 upon jumping up ,i descried a large wolf close by1 with several more near him4 ,i immediately laid hold of a stout stick1 and dealt him a heavy blow on the head4 ,this aroused ,demetrius and the servants1 who fired several shots at the other wolves1 and they all scampered off as quickly as possible1 so that we had no further molestation4 ,early in the morning ,i set about examining the ruins1 of which there were but few2 the principal was the theatre1 but even of this1 except some massive walls1 there was little remaining4 ,i made a sketch1 with the ,lake ,bofi and the mountains behind it for a background1 the whole forming a very beautiful picture4 ,we then went on to ,yirondi1 which we reached about four o'clock in the afternoon1 and got comfortable quarters in the caravanserai4 ,the next morning ,i proceeded to examine the ruins of the celebrated ,temple of ,apollo ,didymus4 ,this is one of the largest and most magnificent specimens of the ,ionic order1 and well worthy of the attention of every traveller who takes an interest in architecture4 ,i was much pleased with and instructed by it4 ,of the front columns several were still standing1 and numerous fragmentary blocks of pillars1 entablature1 pediment1 and substructure lay scattered all around1 the whole being of the most elaborate workmanship4 ,when entire it must have been a very magnificent work of art1 as the remains evidently show4 ,after finishing my examination1 ,i determined to return to ,smyrna as quickly as possible1 having much to do before my tour was completed4 ,i accordingly started soon after midday1 although the weather was very hot1 and the next day ,i sent my janissary to request an audience of the ,aga1 which he granted me at midday4 ,he then said that he had captured all the ,kurds1 and ordered them to be brought from the prison4 ,accordingly the whole of them1 amounting to about thirty in number1 were produced1 and marched before me slowly1 when the ,aga asked me if ,i could recognize any of them1 in which case he would take care that justice should be administered4 ,i was pretty well aware what this justice would be1 namely1 that their heads would be taken off if ,i recognized them4 ,i certainly remembered several of their faces1 but having been robbed only of a few articles1 worth about eighty pounds1 ,i did not consider that the punishment of death could be put in comparison with my loss1 although it is true they would have murdered me if they could4 ,i therefore resolved to save them1 as they had already suffered sufficiently by being confined in a miserable dungeon with scarcely any food for four days4 ,they were accordingly discharged1 having been1 as ,i understood1 pretty well punished1 in addition to their imprisonment1 by heavy fines1 and perhaps sundry stripes into the bargain1 so that it was not likely that they would attack an ,englishman again4 ,the ,tartars had recovered several of my lost things2 for this ,i made them a handsome acknowledgment1 with which they were much pleased1 and gave me many thanks4 ,i also rendered my best thanks to the ,aga1 and we parted upon the most amicable terms4 ,having returned to ,smyrna1 ,i there met my friend ,scott1 whom ,i had previously known at ,athens1 and we resolved to proceed at once to ,constantinople by land4 ,the first night we reached the modern ,magnesia1 a large town situated on a plain1 surrounded by rude crenellated walls1 inhabited chiefly by a ,turkish population1 and containing nothing worthy of remark4 ,the following morning we proceeded through an open undulating country1 very fertile1 but1 as usual1 only partially cultivated4 ,here and there were extensive plains1 some only tenanted by shepherds tending their large flocks of goats1 cattle1 and sheep1 others growing cotton1 maize1 corn1 beans1 and tobacco1 occasionally interspersed with vineyards2 the inhabitants looked poor and miserable1 and the villages and towns wore the same appearance4 ,after a long1 hard day's ride of eighteen hours1 we came in sight of ,broussa1 the ancient capital of the ,turks4 ,the surrounding country was rich and beautiful1 and covered with luxurious gardens1 intermixed with comfortable villas and houses2 the city1 with its numerous mosques and towering minarets1 lay in the foreground2 whilst the magnificent ,mount ,olympus1 above #gjjj feet high1 rearing his head above the clouds1 formed a noble background4 ,when within a mile of the city ,i felt very tired and thirsty4 ,just then a countryman approached1 and offered us some bunches of magnificent grapes1 which ,i accepted with much gratification1 and gave him a handsome present4 ,i devoured them voraciously4 ,we reached the caravanserai at sunset1 and as there were a great number of travellers1 we got but poor accommodation4 ,i awoke about three in the morning with a violent diarrha1 which continually increased1 until ,i became so exhausted that ,i could scarcely move4 ,it turned out to be dysentery1 and my friends considered that it must end fatally4 ,before leaving ,england ,i had consulted my friend1 the late distinguished ,dr4 ,james ,johnson1 as to what was to be done under similar circumstances1 and he recommended large doses of calomel as the only and best means of cure4 ,i had provided myself with this1 and took it accordingly1 with the assistance of which ,i rallied considerably1 and we then determined to proceed at once to ,mondania1 on the shores of the ,sea of ,marmora1 where we should find much better accommodation4 ,off1 therefore1 we went1 without being able to see anything further of the beauties of ,broussa4 ,i was much fatigued with the journey1 and immediately after our arrival took to my bed4 ,here the dysentery came on more violently than ever4 ,i again had recourse to a large dose of calomel1 and ordered ,demetrius to get some chicken broth as soon as possible4 ,this the good fellow got ready without delay4 ,i swallowed as much as ,i could1 and then fell back on my mattress perfectly exhausted4 ,i was delirious for four or five hours2 but at the end of that time ,i broke out into a violent perspiration2 the calomel had done its work effectually1 and ,i became conscious and tranquil1 although very weak4 ,the disease1 however1 had been arrested1 and ,i recovered rapidly4 ,i reached ,constantinople at last by sea1 and after a day or two of repose ,i regained my strength and sallied forth with a janissary to examine the ,moslem capital4 ,i first paid a visit to our ambassador1 ,mr4 ,frere4 ,he received me most kindly1 and asked me to dinner the next day4 ,the entertainment was sumptuous1 and ,i spent a delightful evening4 ,i was afterwards frequently invited to this most hospitable house1 and always received the same kind attention1 ever returning from it both amused and instructed4 ,mr4 ,frere was a very accomplished1 unassuming gentleman1 ever ready to protect his countrymen2 he discharged his onerous duties in such a manner as to gain the respect of the ,turks 7which was very difficult in those days71 as well as that of the corps diplomatique and foreigners of every nation1 and the respect and affection of his own countrymen4 ,i also frequently visited the hospitable house of our worthy and most excellent ,consul1 ,general ,cartwright4 ,he was a man above the common order1 and no one was better calculated to deal with the ,turks2 frank1 open1 courageous1 honest1 and decided1 understanding thoroughly the people he had to deal with1 and never flinching from his duties1 firmly upholding his countrymen when right1 but no less inflexible in refusing his support when wrong4 ,he was hospitable and sociable to a degree1 yet withal never neglected the least of his duties1 and was universally respected and beloved4 ,constantinople has been often described1 and is now so well known that ,i need not weary my reader with any detailed description4 ,but as ,i was there at a time when the reforms of the ,sultan ,mahmoud had not long commenced2 when the janissaries were still in existence2 when the old ,turkish bigotry1 insolence1 and fanaticism was at its height2 when the fierce vigour which had formerly carried out its conquests was nearly extinct1 and ,european ideas and civilization had not yet dawned2 when1 in short1 the ,government was most corrupt1 and the whole ,turkish population sunk in indolence and sensuality1 a few rough notes of what ,i then saw may perhaps not be unacceptable4 ,amongst the sights during my short stay was the marriage of one of the ,sultan's daughters1 which was made the occasion of great ftes1 and amongst others a grand tournament or display of djerid4 ,this consisted of a number of horsemen extremely well mounted1 each armed with a short blunted dart1 which they hurled at one another1 and those who received the greatest number of hits were declared to be losers ,the game was very exciting1 and the display of horsemanship and the activity and skill of the riders were worthy of the highest admiration4 ,there was also another sight equally new and beautiful1 the sultan proceeding in state to the mosque of ,st4 ,sophia during the ,bairam4 ,it was a very imposing spectacle1 all the actors in it being clothed in the ancient picturesque costume--long flowing robes of endless variety of brilliant colours1 furs1 and turbans of every shape1 those worn by the ,sultan and his great officers mounted in gold and silver and studded with precious stones4 ,the ,sultan's body guard consisted of about one hundred fine-looking men wearing dresses of the most brilliant colours1 richly ornamented with gold embroidery1 and having on their heads helmets of finely polished brass1 surmounted by a crescent of the same metal1 being three to four feet long1 on the top of which were fixed plumes of the finest white ostrich feathers1 flowing on all sides4 ,the ,sultan1 clothed in a splendid dark sable pelisse1 with a green turban ornamented with the plumes of a bird of paradise1 set in a most costly diamond aigrette1 rode in the midst of them1 mounted on a magnificent pure white ,arabian charger1 covered with housings richly embroidered with gold4 ,he was a very handsome1 stern1 dignified-looking man1 about fifty1 with sharp1 piercing black eyes1 moustache1 and beard2 his nose short and well developed1 and a medium-sized1 well-defined mouth2 his whole appearance was very stately1 grave1 and solemn1 expressing majesty1 firmness1 and courage4 ,as the procession moved slowly1 silently1 and majestically along1 through a dense mass of spectators1 everyone was impressed with awe and admiration1 and certainly it was one of the most unique and finest sights of the kind ,i had ever witnessed4 ,i afterwards saw a review of several thousand of the ,ottoman troops1 consisting of infantry1 cavalry1 and artillery4 ,these1 though inferior in discipline and mechanical contrivances to ,european armies1 nevertheless expressed a degree of fierce and enthusiastic courage1 mixed with a thorough contempt of ,christians1 which inspired them with the confidence that they could overwhelm all their enemies1 and plant the crescent over the cross with triumphant success4 ,constantinople proper was inhabited chiefly by ,turks imbued with the most bigoted hatred and contempt for ,christians1 and it was attended with not a little danger to go amongst them4 ,as ,i walked boldly along ,i was frequently saluted by fierce scowls and curses loud and deep1 and sometimes with a small shower of stones1 which but for the presence of the janissary1 whom they feared1 might have been attended with serious consequences4 ,these janissaries1 a certain number of whom were attached to every embassy for their protection1 were called pig-keepers by their comrades1 who considered them as an inferior class4 ,the streets for the most part were narrow1 crooked1 and dirty to a degree2 here and there was a fine stone mansion1 inhabited by some ,turkish grandee1 but this presented only a dead stone wall to the street4 ,the population of the city generally looked poor1 miserable1 and oppressed4 ,i tried to visit the mosques1 but the fanaticism of the ,ottomans was so great at that time that no ,christian was permitted to enter1 and ,i was more than once1 when trying to penetrate the outer court of one of them1 driven away by a shower of stones4 ,on the arrival of a fresh ambassador from any ,christian court a special firman1 allowing him to visit the mosques1 was issued1 when the different strangers in ,constantinople at the time were allowed to accompany him4 ,the ambassador and suite on these occasions were always accompanied by a strong guard of janissaries1 for protection4 ,it happened that a little time previous to my visit the new ,russian ambassador1 ,count ,stroganoff1 arrived1 and obtained a special firman to visit the mosques1 when he was accompanied by two or three hundred of his own countrymen and other strangers1 attended by a strong guard of janissaries4 ,whilst in one of these edifices1 a ,frenchman1 it is said1 spat upon the pavement2 immediately a cry of horror was uttered by the priests and assistants1 the mosque was defiled2 the alarm was raised1 which spread like wildfire1 and the place was quickly surrounded by a vast multitude of angry ,turks1 many of whom rushed into the mosque1 shouting for vengeance on the infidels who had desecrated their temple1 and attacking them with the most savage ferocity4 ,the ambassador and his followers were obliged to defend themselves and fight for their lives4 ,the doors were shut1 and there they were obliged to remain until the ,government sent another strong body of janissaries to rescue them from their perilous situation1 which they did with the greatest difficulty2 and whilst they were escorted back through the streets1 they were assailed with yells1 curses1 and missiles of every description2 many were seriously hurt1 and they had some difficulty in escaping with their lives4 ,at ,bouyukder ,i spent several days at a comfortable ,greek hotel1 and was much amused at seeing two or three grave ,turks enter the hotel one evening and engage a private room4 ,for a time everything went on quietly4 ,then came a most tremendous noise1 and shouts of all kinds2 in fact1 they were getting very drunk4 ,then all was silent1 and ,i imagined they were senseless2 but shortly after1 to my great surprise1 they sallied forth and entered their boat apparently quite sober4 ,i afterwards asked the ,greek waiter whether the water they had drunk had rendered them so noisy4 ,he replied1 laughing1 8,no2 they had two bottles of rum apiece40 ,he said1 farther1 that it was their constant practice1 especially during the ,ramadan1 to go prowling about in search of some quiet place where they might indulge4 ,knowing this1 some of the proprietors of ,greek inns1 after closing the front door1 left a private one open1 and allowed none but ,turks to enter1 not even appearing themselves when they did4 ,the ,turks1 seeing the coast clear1 would enter1 and presently find a room in which was a table covered with good things1 both to eat and drink1 whereupon they helped themselves liberally1 and after leaving a handsome donation on the table1 walked out as quietly as they came in1 satisfied with having cheated their religion and satisfied their appetites without anyone being the wiser4 ,constantinople is supplied with water from five reservoirs1 situated on the western base of the ,little ,balkan ,mountains1 and communicating with the city by stone conduits4 ,they were originally built by the ,byzantine emperors1 and their preservation was enforced by repeated imperial edicts1 some of which are still preserved in the archives of ,constantinople2 a heavy fine was imposed1 amounting to a pound of gold for every ounce of water taken from these reservoirs by any individual without express permission4 ,the water for ,pera is supplied from the southern reservoirs1 near ,bagtche1 by means of a conduit1 upon which are placed at certain intervals hollow stone columns1 called sous terrasi1 which rise to the level of the source from which the water is taken2 the water in the conduit rises up these pillars nearly to the same level1 and thus acts as a safety valve1 overcoming the friction of the water in the conduit1 forcing it forward to the level required at ,pera1 and so relieving the pressure upon the upper surface of the conduit1 which otherwise would be blown up through such a long line1 had it not a vent to relieve the pressure4 ,this ingenious idea was the invention of the ,turks1 and was adopted for the purpose of saving the expense of the lofty stone aqueducts used by the ,romans and their successors4 ,some expedient of this kind became inevitable1 as they had no iron pipes large or strong enough4 ,in modern times a similar device1 called the stand-pipe1 is occasionally employed to relieve the pumping engines2 but such is not necessary along the line of the conduit1 because the material of the conduit is made of cast iron of such dimensions that it is strong enough to more than amply resist the pressure of the highest column of water which it may be necessary to employ4 ,the whole of the sides of the mountains where the reservoirs are placed used formerly to be covered with dense woods1 and when ,i visited the reservoirs in ,october1 #ahbj1 nothing could be more beautiful2 but after the massacre of the janissaries1 about a year and a half subsequent to my visit1 a remnant took possession of the forest1 and committed intolerable acts of brigandage1 until the ,ottoman ,government1 thoroughly roused1 surrounded the entire forest with troops1 and destroyed it and its inmates together4 ,there is also a fine aqueduct1 but there can be very little doubt that proper means are not taken during the rainy season to preserve and store the water nature then places at their disposal4 ,if this were done1 the serious evil of drought would be avoided2 and means are now being taken to ensure a more constant and better supply4 ,this scarcity of water1 for the same reason1 has been felt in ,london and other great cities4 ,we shall continue to suffer from these droughts until men come to understand that only a certain and known quantity of water falls upon the earth1 and that at certain periods2 and that it is necessary to store the surplus waters to supply the deficiency of the dry season4 ,this great truth is fortunately now beginning to be fully appreciated in the civilized world1 and it is to be hoped that we shall no longer hear the cry of scarcity of water4 ,on leaving ,constantinople ,i took passage in a native vessel for ,alexandria4 ,passing down the ,hellespont1 at its narrowest point ,i remarked the positions selected by ,xerxes for erecting his famous double bridge1 or rather two bridges1 one taking a north-west and the other a north-easterly direction4 ,an ancient author1 ,polynus1 says 8that they connected together a vast number of ships of different kinds--some long vessels of fifty oars1 others three-banked galleys--to the number of three hundred and sixty1 on the side towards the ,euxine ,sea1 and three hundred and thirteen on that of the ,hellespont4 ,the former of these were placed transversely2 but the latter1 to diminish the strain upon the cables1 in the direction of the current4 ,when these vessels were firmly fastened to each other1 they were secured on each side by anchors of great strength--on the upper side1 towards the winds which set in from the ,euxine2 on the lower side1 towards the gean ,sea1 on account of the south and south-east winds4 ,they left1 however1 openings in three places sufficient to afford a passage for the light vessels which might have occasion to sail into the ,euxine or from it4 ,having done this1 they extended cables from the shore1 stretching them upon large capstans of wood4 ,for this purpose they did not employ a number of separate cables1 but united two of white flax with two of byblos4 ,these were alike in thickness1 and apparently so in goodness2 but those of flax were in proportion much the more solid1 weighing not less than a talent to every cubit4 ,when the passage was thus secured1 they sawed out rafters of wood1 making their length equal to the space required for the bridge4 ,these they laid in order across upon the extended cables1 and then bound them fast together4 ,they next brought unwrought wood1 which they placed very regularly upon the rafters4 ,over all they threw earth1 which they raised to a proper height1 and finished the whole by a fence on each side1 that the horses and other beasts of burthen might not be terrified by looking down upon the sea40 ,this bridge of boats1 for such it may be properly called1 resembled materially those constructed by the moderns4 ,the addition of the suspension cables1 which connected both ends of the bridge with the shore1 must have contributed greatly to its strength4 ,the floating bridges used in modern warfare1 however1 have this advantage over those constructed by the ancients 7of which that devised by ,xerxes was a very favourable specimen72 the boats or pontoons upon which such bridges are now erected are specially constructed for the purpose1 and an army on the march can carry these pontoons1 like other baggage1 and when necessary a bridge can be built in a very short time4 ,when the army has passed the river the bridge can readily be taken to pieces and the materials transported elsewhere1 to serve the same purpose again4 ,an enemy pursuing1 unless provided with similar appliances for constructing a bridge1 would find his farther progress barred2 but in the floating bridges used by the ancients it was possible for the pursued to erect a bridge that would be used also by their pursuers4 ,the floating bridge by which ,darius crossed the ,bosphorus is said to have been similar to that contrived by ,xerxes1 although no precise record exists to enable us to ascertain exactly how it was fashioned4 ,alexander adopted a different course2 taking advantage of such vessels as he could obtain on the spot1 by rowing or sailing he crossed the particular river or strait which opposed his march4 ,we have a remarkable example of a floating bridge on the river ,douro opposite to ,oporto1 but the bridge erected by ,xerxes seems rather to have resembled that thrown over the ,adour4 ,the only incident that occurred on our voyage to ,alexandria was furnished by a ,turkish ,aga1 one of the passengers1 who came on board in considerable state4 ,his attendants spread his carpet on deck1 that he might attend to his devotions4 ,however1 the sea was so rough that directly he appeared on deck he lost his balance and rolled over and over1 which greatly hurt his dignity4 ,he was very much enraged1 and1 to revenge himself1 immediately set to work belabouring the unfortunate captain with his cane1 saying that it was entirely his fault for giving them a foul wind1 though all the time it was blowing most favourably1 though rather too fresh for the ,aga's comfort4 ,i burst out laughing1 but soon checking myself1 interceded for the poor captain and got him off1 while the ,aga retired to his cabin and delivered himself over to seasickness4 ,the situation chosen for the city of ,alexandria1 which ,alexander the ,great founded as the emporium of the ,mediterranean after the destruction of ,tyre1 was peculiarly favourable1 for the seven mouths of the ,nile at that time existing were ill adapted for the safe passage of large vessels2 all of them were more or less obstructed by bars1 upon which during the stormy seasons there was a heavy surf1 so that it was extremely dangerous to attempt their navigation4 ,alexander therefore resolved to adopt a situation totally independent of the ,nile1 and accordingly selected ,alexandria1 as being the farthest point from the mouths of that river1 and the least affected by the alluvium brought down by it1 and that which is carried along the shore by the western littoral current4 ,at the time the present situation was selected there was a small island not far from the shore4 ,this island he connected with the mainland by means of an embankment faced with masonry1 thus forming a double harbour1 namely1 one on the eastern side1 which was protected by the promontory bounding the bay2 and one on the western side1 protected by a reef of rocks running in a westerly direction from the original island1 and the projecting point of the bay to the west1 so that the western harbour was tolerably well shielded on all sides1 with the exception of the entrances between the rocks on the north2 but through these only a comparatively small amount of swell can penetrate4 ,it contains space for all the vessels that are likely to frequent this port1 and the accommodation may be further increased1 to almost any extent required1 by making docks inland4 ,it is true that in order to connect this port with the ,nile above the bars and the interior country1 a canal or other means of communication was requisite4 ,a canal at that time was the only effectual method known1 and this was accordingly adopted1 and was made to the ,canopic branch of the ,nile1 skirting along the shores of the ,lake ,mareotis for a considerable distance2 but it was frequently filled up by the sand blown in from the desert and the adjacent shores4 ,this sand was as constantly removed1 and the communication between ,alexandria and the ,nile more or less imperfectly preserved4 ,in #ahea the ,pacha completed a line of railway between ,alexandria and ,cairo1 and thus got rid of the uncertainty and expense of maintaining the canal and the river navigation4 ,this railway was made under the direction of the late eminent engineer1 ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 and now a perfect and economical communication is kept up by this means between ,alexandria1 ,cairo1 and the interior4 ,the eastern harbour of ,alexandria1 the water being very shallow1 is now scarcely used except for the small coasting vessels2 but it does not appear that in either the eastern or western harbours there is any material tendency to shoal4 ,when ,i was there1 ,alexandria1 although possessing considerable trade1 was but a poor place compared to the present city1 and all the business of shipping1 transhipping1 and storing of goods was carried on in a very rude and costly manner1 which is now materially changed for the better4 ,besides ,pompey's ,pillar1 the other important relic is ,cleopatra's ,needle1 then as now lying prostrate4 ,this needle was given to the ,british army1 and a large subscription1 amounting it is said to about #bj1jjjl41 was raised to transport it to ,england1 and there to erect it in some conspicuous place in the metropolis1 as a trophy of the signal success of the ,british army4 ,for some reason or other1 never properly explained1 this has never been done1 although seventy years have elapsed since the money was subscribed4 ,when ,i returned from ,upper ,egypt1 in the month of ,march1 #ahba1 ,i found that the ,english ,government1 after repeated applications1 had sent the #8,spry1' sloop of war1 commanded by ,captain ,boswell1 with my old friend and schoolfellow1 ,captain ,wright1 of the ,royal ,engineers1 to report upon the cost1 and the best plan for bringing ,cleopatra's ,needle to ,england2 but this all ended in nothing being done1 although ,captain ,wright's report was very favourable1 both as to the cost and feasibility4 ,on reaching ,cairo ,i had an audience with the celebrated or notorious pasha1 ,mehemet ,ali4 ,he received me with great dignity and civility1 and said that the ,english were his best friends1 upon which ,i could not help saying to myself1 ,thank ,god we are not his subjects6 ,he was no doubt a very remarkable man--cool1 determined1 able1 and courageous4 ,he reduced the turbulent rulers and ,bedouin tribes of ,egypt to subjection1 and procured a degree of tranquillity and peace for the oppressed inhabitants which they had not enjoyed for many generations2 and if he plundered them himself1 he would allow no one else to do so4 ,nevertheless1 one cannot but be horrified at the atrocities with which all this was accompanied and accomplished4 ,while here ,i saw a few ,mamelukes who had escaped the massacre of #ahji1 and who were permitted to reside here4 ,i was much struck by their martial air1 their richly-embroidered costumes1 and superbly mounted pistols and scimitars4 ,as a body they were nearly exterminated1 the survivors being allowed to subsist on the little property saved from the wreck4 ,egypt1 like ,constantinople1 has since been so well described1 and is now so well known 7though at that time my journey to the second cataract was deemed extraordinary71 that it is unnecessary for me to go over the same ground4 ,i hired a khang1 or small boat1 manned by a reis1 or captain1 and eight rowers1 with a tolerably comfortable raised cabin behind1 divided into two parts1 in neither of which1 however1 could ,i stand upright4 ,but by this time ,i had become pretty well accustomed to the usages of the country1 and my limbs being tolerably supple1 ,i did not much mind it4 ,i engaged the khang at so much per month1 ,i finding provisions for myself and servants1 the reis agreeing to do the same for himself and his crew4 ,having stocked my boat with everything we were likely to require for four months1 ,i embarked at ,bouloe1 accompanied by my servant ,demetrius and a janissary4 ,we came to anchor every night near the most convenient village1 and started next morning soon after daybreak4 ,at midday ,i halted for an hour1 and sometimes more1 in order to allow the captain and his crew to take their dinner comfortably1 whilst ,i and my servants took ours4 ,when the wind was unfavourable the crew were obliged to row or track the boat against the current2 at such times ,i used to land and walk along the bank1 gun in hand1 exploring the adjacent antiquities or the surrounding country2 and ,i found that ,i could easily keep pace with the boat4 ,where there was any object particularly worthy of remark1 ,i had the boat moored as near to the bank as ,i could1 whilst ,i went ashore1 examined1 sketched1 and measured the objects in question at my leisure1 and in this way ,i took measurements of all the edifices of any note4 ,when there were none1 ,i used to indulge in a sporting excursion1 and found ample amusement4 ,i not only procured many interesting objects of natural history1 but shot numerous wild fowl1 that were a very welcome addition to my table4 ,thus ,i passed a very agreeable time4 ,never idle for a moment--always employed1 either for instruction or amusement2 and my whole time was my own4 ,i carried my house with me2 and when there was nothing interesting on the route1 and ,i had filled my book with sketches1 if my journal was in arrear1 ,i used to remain in the boat posting it up1 whilst we were sailing1 tracking1 or rowing4 ,on my way up a sad accident deprived me of the services of my faithful attendant--,i may say friend--,demetrius4 ,we met a boat1 having on board the ,o',conor ,don1 ,captain ,groding1 and another1 coming down4 ,they hailed us1 and as they were short of provisions1 ,i gave them a liberal supply1 and invited them to dinner1 the two crews regaling themselves and firing feux de joie at the same time4 ,suddenly a tremendous explosion1 followed by a loud cry1 was heard1 and hastening on deck ,i found poor ,demetrius covered with blood from two deep wounds in the throat and breast1 his pistol having burst in his hand4 ,at first ,i thought it would have been fatal1 the effusion of blood was so great4 ,i succeeded1 however1 in tying up the wounds and stopping the hemorrhage4 ,it was then a question what should be done with him1 as ,i was not surgeon enough to cure him1 and no advice was to be had4 ,in this emergency my new friends were so kind as to offer to take him to ,cairo1 where he could be properly attended to4 ,i gladly accepted the offer1 and supplied him with a sufficient sum of money1 and requested them to place him in charge of the ,consul1 with directions to procure the best medical advice1 for which ,i was of course responsible4 ,independently of the accident1 ,i was much grieved to part with him1 and was at first greatly at a loss for his services2 but my janissary1 an ,italian turned ,mussulman1 and who spoke ,arabic very well1 and was not a bad cook1 cheerfully consented to do what he could2 and the reis also1 a very civil fellow1 as well as his crew1 did all in their power to compensate me for the loss of ,demetrius1 so that after a short time we managed between us to get along pretty well4 ,i will only add one more incident1 because it seems to show that the serpents used by serpent-charmers are not always deprived of their fangs1 as is usually supposed1 but that there is some real secret which renders them harmless or powerless4 ,i was measuring the ,temple of ,edfou1 when ,i saw a peculiarly venomous serpent come out of its hole1 whilst an ,arab boy who stood by fixed his eye steadily upon it the moment he saw it1 the reptile fixing his eyes on the boy4 ,the lad began waving his hands gently up and down1 humming a peculiar tune in a low1 monotonous tone4 ,the serpent seemed to be charmed1 and lay perfectly still1 listening to and keeping its eyes attentively on the boy1 who1 finding that he had charmed it1 was about to secure it2 but at this ,i was so horrified1 that ,i took up a large stone and killed the reptile4 ,the boy was very angry1 and assailed me with the most vehement gestures and imprecations1 at which ,i laughed heartily4 ,i afterwards learned that he was the son of a serpent-charmer1 and was collecting these reptiles for his father4 ,in proceeding along the banks of the ,nile1 ,i observed that the land inclined from the margin of the river to the base of the adjacent hills4 ,this is nothing more than might have been expected1 as it is usual under all similar circumstances1 and is caused by the periodical inundation4 ,thus1 whenever the river rises above the margin1 the current naturally diminishes in velocity as it encroaches on the banks1 and to a certain extent becomes stagnant1 and then deposits the alluvial matter with which the waters are charged2 and as the water spreads farther on both sides from the main body of the river1 it becomes clearer1 and contains less alluvial matter4 ,this is a wise provision of nature1 for it enables the waters to extend a long way1 and thus to irrigate a great extent of land4 ,in order to ensure this irrigation more effectually1 it is only necessary to keep open sufficient channels1 which may be done with facility4 ,but suppose this was not the case2 suppose the land farthest off silted up first1 then it would be necessary1 for the purpose of irrigation1 to raise the water by artificial means at considerable extra cost1 to irrigate those lands farthest from the river4 ,however1 in process of time1 as the land rises both at the sides of the river and the parts more remote from it where they have attained the utmost level of the floods1 recourse must be had to art to irrigate the lands1 otherwise their fertility and cultivation must cease1 as the quantity of rainfall in the lower valley of the ,nile1 as it passes through ,egypt1 is comparatively trifling2 in fact1 the fertility of the country depends almost entirely upon the floods4 ,it is very probable that these waters might be utilized to a much greater extent by establishing large reservoirs in the adjacent valleys1 which would be filled during the rising of the floods2 and when these latter have subsided1 the stored-up water could be discharged during the dry seasons for irrigation1 navigation1 and numerous other purposes4 ,according to the present system1 a vast quantity of water is allowed to waste1 and the means of cultivating a large additional tract of country1 now a desert1 is lost4 ,this object might be carried still farther by improving the channel of the ,nile up to the great lakes of ,albert and ,victoria ,nyanza1 for the most part now a marshy1 pestiferous district2 this will very probably be done1 as the subject becomes better understood2 indeed1 it is surprising how little the advantages which nature offers us in this respect are turned to account4 ,the delta of the ,nile1 like other rivers of the same class and magnitude under similar circumstances1 advances outwards into the ,mediterranean1 and in proportion as it moves forward1 the depth of water increases1 and the width of the delta becomes greater1 so that it requires a larger quantity of alluvium to maintain its progress1 which becomes necessarily slower--that is1 as far as concerns the alluvium brought down by the ,nile4 ,but then it must be observed1 that as the delta proceeds outward1 the stagnation produced by the protrusion of its apex into the ,mediterranean causes a greater accumulation of alluvial matter to be deposited on both sides of the apex1 and consequently two great bays are formed1 one on either side1 although the shores of these bays necessarily do not advance so rapidly as the centre portion4 ,in proportion as the several branches of the ,nile advance seaward1 so their courses become lengthened1 and consequently the total fall or inclination of the current becomes diminished1 so that it cannot keep them all open2 and hence1 out of the eight branches or mouths of the ,nile which existed in ancient times1 only two now remain--namely1 the ,damietta and ,rosetta mouths1 and these are slowly deteriorating4 ,whilst upon this part of the subject1 it may be advisable to make a few remarks about the ,suez ,canal4 ,this great work consists of an open cutting or trench from the ,bay of ,pelusium 7,port ,said7 to the ,red ,sea at ,suez1 a total length of #ii miles1 #aif feet wide at top1 #gb feet wide at bottom1 and #bf feet deep1 with side slopes of #b to #a4 ,at the ,mediterranean end there is a rise of tide or variation in the surface of the sea of from #a foot to #b feet1 and at the ,suez end from #b feet at neaps to #f feet at springs4 ,on the ,mediterranean the entrance to the canal is protected by an artificial harbour composed of two piers carried from the shore4 ,the western pier is carried out #bdjj yards in a straight line1 pointing towards the north1 it then inclines slightly to the east for #ccj yards1 so that the total length of the west breakwater or pier is #bgcj yards1 or #haij feet4 ,the eastern breakwater or pier is carried out from the shore at a distance of #aecj yards from the commencement of the western pier1 and is extended in a northerly direction #bjgj yards1 where it terminates at #gfj yards from extremity of the west pier1 which constitutes the entrance4 ,thus the two piers enclose a space of #ejj acres1 with a depth within of #bf feet4 ,this harbour is said to be well protected against the prevailing or north-west winds4 ,this outer harbour1 called ,port ,said1 is connected with extensive quays and basins within1 from whence the canal proceeds across the isthmus4 ,at #eb miles from ,port ,said there is ,lake ,timsah2 also ,lake ,ismaila and the ,bitter ,lakes1 at #eg miles from ,port ,said4 ,these ,bitter ,lakes cover a surface of about #ajj1jjj acres1 and will always ensure a considerable draught or current from the ,red ,sea1 to compensate for the large amount of evaporation which is constantly going on1 particularly during the summer season1 and is said to amount to about #bej1jjj1jjj cubic feet daily4 ,in order to supply fresh water to ,suez1 ,ismaila1 and ,port ,said1 a considerable channel has been made from the ,nile1 at ,cairo1 to ,suez and ,ismaila1 and a double line of cast-iron pipes between ,ismaila and ,port ,said1 with pumping engines of the requisite power at the former place4 ,the entrance to the ,suez end of the canal is formed by an extensive double embankment through the shoal water1 increasing gradually from a width of #gb feet at bottom1 to #ihj feet1 where there is an open tidal dock1 with #bf feet depth at low water4 ,this is no doubt a very extraordinary performance1 rendered remarkable for the vast amount of capital which has been raised by a single individual--not an engineer--and the wonderful energy and perseverance with which he has accomplished it1 opposed by innumerable obstacles1 political and financial1 which would have daunted and overwhelmed any person of ordinary physical powers4 ,although as an engineering work it is encountered by no unusual difficulties in the execution--being simply a matter of digging and dredging upon a vast scale--yet it certainly entitles ,m4 ,lesseps and his officers to the greatest credit4 ,having now generally described the canal1 let us consider how far natural obstacles exist which should cause any doubts as to its being possible to maintain the canal at such an expense as will enable it to produce something like a reasonable profit upon the capital expended in making it4 ,these obstacles may be enumerated as follows3 ,firstly4 ,the alluvial matter brought down by the ,nile1 and that from the prevailing littoral westerly current in the ,mediterranean4 ,secondly4 ,the sands driven by the north-westerly winds into ,port ,said4 ,thirdly4 ,the sands driven into ,suez by the southerly winds4 ,fourthly4 ,the sands driven into the canal from the surrounding deserts by the kamsin1 or south-east winds4 ,fifthly4 ,from the great evaporation which will take place1 and the consequent requirement of a corresponding supply of water both from the ,mediterranean and the ,red ,sea4 ,sixthly4 ,whether the expenses which must necessarily be incurred in overcoming these obstacles will amount to such a sum as will render the canal practically useless1 that is to say1 that it will not be worth the while of the ,company to maintain it4 ,before considering these important questions1 it will be right to investigate the natural causes which have formed the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,i think we may conclude that ,africa was originally an island1 and that by degrees the waters of the ,red ,sea1 driven in by the southerly winds1 and those of the ,mediterranean1 driven by the northerly winds1 brought with them a great quantity of alluvial matter2 at the junction of these waters the currents would be destroyed1 and the alluvium with which the waters were charged would be deposited and form a bank or bar1 which by degrees rose above the ordinary level of the sea4 ,this bank1 once formed1 would continually increase1 not only from the alluvium brought in by the seas1 but also from the sands blown in by the northerly and southerly winds from the surrounding deserts2 and thus1 in the process of time1 the present isthmus would be formed4 ,i think that the practical evidence of this is undoubted4 ,the same operations are still in existence1 and it is simply a question of time as to the increase4 ,having discussed the cause of the formation of the isthmus1 ,i will now proceed to consider the objections or obstacles above mentioned4 ,with regard to the first1 the waters of the ,nile are constantly bringing down alluvial matter1 but whether the quantity brought down now is the same as formerly1 or greater or less1 is a question which nothing but experience can decide4 ,but as far as experiments have already been made1 it appears that the accumulation which has already taken place is considerable1 and if it proceeds in the same ratio as hitherto1 it must shortly become a very serious question whether it should be removed or not1 and whether it might not be remunerative to do so4 ,secondly4 ,with regard to the sands driven in by the northerly winds2 these must be very considerable1 and not being able to escape1 they must accumulate and tend to fill up the harbour2 this will necessitate constant dredging to keep it open4 ,thirdly4 ,the sands driven by the tide and the southerly winds into the ,suez end of the canal4 ,these also must be very considerable1 as is already evinced by the great extent of shallow water at the northern extremity of the ,red ,sea4 ,this also must be reduced by dredging4 ,fourthly4 ,with regard to the quantity of sand which may be expected to be driven into the other parts of the canal from the surrounding deserts1 during the winter and spring prevailing kamsin1 or southeasterly gales4 ,this quantity has been proved by one year's experience to be not less than #caj1jjj cubic yards1 and at times it may possibly be much more4 ,it is proposed to check this by planting the sides of the canal with trees4 ,still a great deal of dredging must be constantly required4 ,fifthly4 ,the evaporation from the ,bitter ,lakes1 and parts of the canal adjacent1 is said to be #bej1jjj1jjj cubic feet of water1 which is equivalent to about three-quarters of an inch daily4 ,this water will have to be supplied chiefly from the ,red ,sea2 and as it will have to pass through such a narrow channel1 the velocity of the current will probably amount to two or three miles per hour1 and if the banks of the canal are not well secured by paving1 or similar works1 they will be liable to be seriously affected4 ,the constant indraught of the current will impede vessels coming from the ,mediterranean1 whilst it will facilitate the passage of vessels coming from the ,red ,sea2 and in the same manner there will be a constant current from the ,mediterranean1 but by no means to so great an extent4 ,these currents will also very probably bring in a considerable quantity of alluvium4 ,they will not1 however1 very materially interfere with the passage of steam-vessels1 although1 if the latter are permitted to go at full speed1 the waves produced by them will scour away the sides considerably1 unless well protected by stone paving1 fagoting1 or similar works4 ,upon the whole1 viewing the difficulties above mentioned1 the question naturally arises1 whether they are of such a character as to be insurmountable2 and to this ,i think we may safely say that they are not4 ,what has been done once1 as has been proved by the completion of the canal1 can be done again1 and will be maintained with much less difficulty4 ,so far1 therefore1 viewed simply as a work of engineering1 it resolves itself into a question of cost1 or in other words1 will the work pay as a commercial speculation1 seeing that it has already cost #bj1jjj1jjjl41 and a great deal more is still required before it can be said to be quite complete1 besides a very large sum for annual maintenance1 and what this last item will be it is very difficult to decide1 and nothing but experience can prove2 still the more the canal becomes known1 the more in all probability will it be used1 and therefore the more money will be available for keeping it in repair4 ,in addition to the dredging1 it is very probable that the piers1 both at ,port ,said and ,suez1 will have to be extended considerably4 ,the whole of the valley of the ,nile1 from the head of the delta below ,cairo1 is bordered by ridges of sandstone hills a few hundred feet high1 with generally a plain monotonous tableland above1 intersected by numerous ravines2 no granite appears until we reach ,assouan4 ,in the vicinity of this place there are numerous quarries of fine granite1 chiefly red2 the masses are so compact that blocks of almost any size may be obtained from near the surface4 ,from this district all the granite for the obelisks1 statues1 and columns of the various buildings1 temples1 and pyramids on both sides of the valley have been taken4 ,transported in flat-bottomed boats and rafts to the places where they were intended to be used1 they were landed by means of inclined planes of wood1 with rollers1 and wedges1 assisted by numerous rough capstans or windlasses1 worked by countless gangs of men4 ,this work appears to have been done with considerable skill1 and the necessary combined operations were carried on simultaneously1 by means of well-concerted signals4 ,these operations are very clearly explained by the sculptured figures1 and have been published by ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson and others4 ,whilst examining the granite quarries near ,assouan1 ,i observed several imperfect blocks1 which the ,egyptians had commenced quarrying1 but found them defective1 and ceased working them4 ,the mode of quarrying seems to have been nearly the same as we employ at the present time1 namely1 by wedges1 levers1 and pickaxes4 ,even if gunpowder had been known it would have been of very little use1 for it would have in most cases destroyed the blocks1 and the waste would have been enormous4 ,it does not quite clearly appear of what metal the tools were composed with which they worked the granite1 whether of iron or bronze2 if of the former1 it must have been case-hardened4 ,the polishing would be done by attrition with emery or sharp silicious sand4 ,as for the stone1 being sandstone1 it was easily worked1 and softer tools only were required4 ,as soon as ,i got back to ,alexandria my first inquiries were for poor ,demetrius4 ,to my great delight ,i found him quite recovered1 and overjoyed at seeing me2 but he said he had been very ill for six weeks1 and had several times considered himself dying4 ,i immediately set to work making arrangements for my journey overland to ,palestine1 when ,i was suddenly interrupted by letters from my father1 saying that he was very unwell1 and wishing me to come back as soon as possible4 ,i instantly dismissed ,demetrius with a very handsome gratuity1 discontinued my preparations1 and1 through ,mr4 ,lee1 our ,consul at ,alexandria1 hired a passage to ,malta in a merchant vessel4 ,i was1 however1 laid up for several days at ,cairo with fever1 which was not pleasant1 as the plague was then raging4 ,as soon as ,i was sufficiently recovered ,i proceeded to ,alexandria1 where ,i found that the merchantman had already sailed4 ,however1 as ,i have said before1 ,captain ,boswell1 with ,h4,m4 sloop1 the #8,spry1' was there1 having ,captain ,wright on board1 and the latter having finished his report on ,cleopatra's ,needle1 the sloop was about to return to ,malta1 and they very kindly offered me a passage4 ,this ,i gladly accepted1 and on arriving at ,malta found that the plague had broken out on board the merchantman in which ,i had engaged a passage1 and that several of the crew had died4 ,she was then in quarantine1 and before long everyone on board died of the plague1 and ,i saw the ship burnt4 ,i humbly thanked an all-merciful ,providence for its inscrutable dispositions4 ,at ,malta1 though better1 ,i still retained the fever1 and consulted ,dr4 ,groves1 the head of the naval medical department4 ,he looked very grave and said little1 but recommended me to go to ,england as soon as possible1 while he told a friend of mine that he did not think ,i should recover1 the fever having taken such hold of my constitution4 ,however1 by the aid of bark and port wine ,i became temporarily myself1 and as soon as ,i was able ,i proceeded to pay my visits4 ,i called on the ,commander-in-,chief of the ,mediterranean squadron1 ,sir ,graham ,moore1 who gave me every assistance in his power1 and introduced me to ,admiral ,woolley1 chief of the dockyard1 to whom and his amiable wife ,i owe my gratitude for their kind hospitality4 ,they introduced me to ,sir ,manly ,power1 the commander of the military forces1 and from him and the various messes of the regiments composing the garrison ,i met with the most friendly reception4 ,i here made the acquaintance of ,mr4 ,strutt1 one of the sons of ,mr4 ,strutt1 of ,belper1 and with him ,i explored both ,malta and ,gozo4 ,he shortly after left for ,greece and the ,east1 where he died of malaria1 which ,i much regretted1 as he was a remarkably fine1 intelligent1 and spirited young man4 ,while ,i was here ,his ,majesty ,george ,,iv4's birthday was celebrated with the greatest clat4 ,at twelve o'clock the entire garrison was reviewed by ,sir ,manly ,power1 with the usual salutes from the forts and ships of war4 ,at sunset all the guns on the works were fired4 ,this was a magnificent sight1 and1 that ,i might see it properly1 ,i was invited to dine at the artillery mess at ,st4 ,elmo1 from whence the first gun was fired2 this was taken up by fort after fort until the entire fortress seemed in a blaze1 and the whole was terminated by a magnificent bouquet of rockets4 ,i embarked for ,naples on board a cutter commanded by ,mr4 ,thurtle1 one of the oldest midshipmen in the navy4 ,he was a very peculiar and rather eccentric character1 rough and sarcastic in manner1 an excellent sailor1 and a kind-hearted man4 ,his long service and great experience rendered him well known throughout the navy1 and his wit and good-humour made him a favourite wherever he went2 in fact1 he was a privileged person throughout the fleet1 and enabled to assume a character which few officers of far higher rank thought of attempting4 ,unfortunately he was the brother of that daring and dissipated criminal who shortly afterwards murdered his companion1 ,welsh1 at ,elstree1 for which he was hanged at the ,old ,bailey4 ,this was a sad blow to the poor midshipman1 and one from which ,i afterwards heard that he never recovered4 ,my voyage with him was most agreeable4 ,he was very kind and attentive1 full of fun and humour1 yet never for a moment neglecting his duties1 and he kept his crew and ship in the most perfect order4 ,on landing at ,naples ,i got apartments in the ,gran ,bretagna 7then1 and ,i believe now1 the principal hotel71 with more ease than usual1 in consequence of the rapid advance of an ,austrian army1 thirty thousand strong1 commanded by ,general ,baron ,pirmont1 at the request of the ,king of ,naples4 ,i saw them enter1 and very fine troops they were1 especially the ,tyrolese yagers4 ,later on1 when ,i wished to make an excursion to ,pstum1 ,i obtained1 through the kindness of the colonel of the regiment1 two ,tyrolese corporals as escort4 ,they sat1 rifle in hand1 on the box of my carriage1 and mounted guard while ,i sketched4 ,we saw several ill-looking fellows1 armed1 prowling about1 but none dared venture within reach of the rifles4 ,letters from my father reached me here1 saying that he was a good deal better1 and that there was no necessity for my hurrying2 ,i therefore1 while still hastening home1 thought ,i might allow myself a few days on the road to visit those objects of interest which ,i had previously omitted4 ,while at ,naples ,i also examined an open pier1 of which there are numerous specimens about the bay4 ,this pier is constructed in a peculiar manner of pozzolana mixed up with irregular-shaped pieces of brick1 marble1 and tufa1 or volcanic stone4 ,the piers were formed by enclosing the space in a wooden dam or box1 then filling it with the materials above mentioned1 which after a short time set under water1 and became a solid mass2 the cofferdam was then removed and the pier left standing2 then another was constructed in the same manner1 until the required number were completed2 upon these piers arches were built1 and upon the top of them a roadway and parapet were constructed4 ,the piers were about the same thickness1 or rather greater1 than the span of the arches4 ,the object of the openings and piers was to provide a barrier which should be just sufficient to break the swell1 but not large enough to obstruct the current1 as the latter prevented any sediment from accumulating on either side of the pier4 ,this is a very ingenious and novel mode of constructing piers1 and it is strange that a like method has not been adopted in ,england1 where the vast quantity of alluvial matter carried by the currents along our coasts accumulates round solid piers1 and frequently fills up the harbours1 rendering them almost useless1 unless the accumulated matter be removed by dredging at continual expense4 ,whilst breakfasting at the hotel at ,pozzoli ,i felt an attack of my old enemy1 the malaria fever1 coming on2 ,i therefore got back to ,naples as soon as possible1 and was obliged to go to bed1 and there ,i remained for several days perfectly helpless4 ,thinking it would leave me1 ,i did not send for medical advice4 ,however1 finding myself gradually getting worse1 ,i was recommended to send for ,dr4 ,roskilly1 formerly an army surgeon1 who had now established himself at ,naples as a physician1 and from his well-known skill and courteous manners had obtained considerable practice1 particularly amongst the ,english4 ,he came1 and ,i found him such as described2 he examined me carefully1 and1 after a considerable time of grave consideration1 he said that ,i was in a very bad way1 that the fever had got such a strong hold of me that it was continually undermining my constitution1 and that1 if not speedily arrested1 he could not answer for the consequences2 indeed1 ,i might not live to see ,england4 ,the worthy doctor1 with whom ,i was much pleased1 then left1 and promised to return the next day at the same time1 which he did4 ,he then said that he had given my case his utmost consideration1 and he was more than ever convinced that some decisive measure was necessary4 ,my constitution was still good1 and strong enough for the measure he would propose2 and if ,i would submit to him1 he felt confident that he could carry me through4 ,he explained his remedy1 which was nothing more or less than that ,i should take blue pill1 as much as ,i was able2 this1 he said1 would thoroughly eradicate the fever4 ,i accordingly consented1 as my case was desperate4 ,it succeeded completely after about a fortnight's trial4 ,i felt very weak1 but ,i was entirely a different man4 ,i soon began to recover strength and appetite1 and in about another week ,i was enabled to go out1 and became myself again4 ,no doubt the remedy was severe1 but ,i must in justice to the able doctor say that he perfectly cured me2 for although in after life ,i was frequently exposed to malaria influence in the fens of ,lincolnshire1 ,walcheren1 the worst parts of ,holland1 ,tunis1 and elsewhere1 ,i never had an attack of the malaria fever4 ,on my way northwards ,i stopped two days at ,mola di ,gaeta1 where the ,apennines approach the sea1 and where are numerous traces of the villas of the old ,roman aristocracy2 it was well ,i did so1 for the brigands had mustered in great strength in the adjoining mountains1 and committed many atrocities2 amongst other things1 they had just carried off a number of pupils from a neighbouring school4 ,the ,austrians1 who were there in great force1 at the request of the local authorities came to the rescue4 ,a very strong patrol of cavalry kept the main roads1 while a still more numerous body of ,tyrolese swept the valleys and penetrated the recesses of the mountains4 ,the brigands at first defied their pursuers1 but finding themselves hard pressed1 they killed their unfortunate prisoners4 ,on hearing this the ,austrians attacked at once1 and having slain a great number1 made the rest prisoners4 ,i saw about thirty chained together1 who1 ,i believe1 were all shot the next day4 ,the road being now clear1 ,i resumed my journey4 ,at ,florence ,i carefully examined and measured the celebrated bridge of the ,most ,holy ,trinity1 by ,ammanati1 across the ,arno1 near the ,gran ,bretagna4 ,this beautiful structure1 a masterpiece in the art of bridge-building1 consists of three arches2 the arches may be termed semi-elliptic1 slightly pointed at the crown2 perhaps they might be more appropriately termed ,gothi-elliptic4 ,the slight pointing at the crown may have been done to allow for sinking1 which did not take place to the extent calculated upon4 ,each of the arches is surrounded with a moulded archivolt of equal thickness throughout1 with an ornamented scroll or shield in the centre of the spandril walls supporting the roadway1 which is bounded by a solid panelled bridge4 ,the piers are terminated by acute angular buttresses carved up to the top1 and panelled also4 ,the whole is built of marble1 and is certainly one of the lightest1 most elegant1 and most scientific structures of the kind in existence4 ,some doubts as to its stability have existed at various times2 nevertheless1 it still exists without a flaw1 and as a model to engineers and architects4 ,i visited the magnificent picture gallery of the ,palazzo ,pitti1 replete with choice specimens of the great ,italian masters4 ,the palace itself is a fine example of the simple1 massive1 rusticated style1 devoid of ornament4 ,the effect is imposing1 and shows what may be done by bold1 well-defined masses1 without resorting to that exuberant over-ornamented style1 intermixed with all sorts of coloured marble1 so much the fashion of the present day1 particularly in ,england1 where the climate is peculiarly unsuited for it2 in any case it can only be termed a vitiated taste4 ,if the building is well designed and properly grouped in effective masses1 so as to give well-defined portions of light and shade1 there can be no need of extraneous ornaments1 as they only detract from the general effect2 and where a building is not well designed no ornament can render it effective4 ,the port of ,leghorn consisted of several solid stone piers1 which did not appear to be laid out in the most scientific manner1 and considerable improvements were in contemplation when ,i saw it4 ,the great difficulty it has to contend with is the quantity of alluvial matter brought down by the ,arno1 which spreads along the coast for some distance both to the north and south4 ,this might be obviated by judiciously adopting the principle of open piers1 as invented by the ,romans1 so as to allow the littoral current full scope2 this would sweep away the alluvium as fast as it was deposited1 and the requisite protection from westerly winds might be easily obtained if the works were constructed on a proper system4 ,passing by ,carrara1 ,i was much struck by the waste consequent on the clumsy method of working the quarries1 and of transporting and loading the blocks4 ,it occurred to me at the time how easy it would be to construct an iron tramway from the quarries to the shore1 with a suitable pier furnished with powerful derricks at its termination1 and this1 with proper machinery for quarrying1 all of which would have cost but little1 would materially reduce the price of the marble1 and consequently increase the demand4 ,as ,i passed the magnificent and well-protected ,gulf of ,spezzia1 ,i thought1 8,what a splendid site for a naval arsenal60 ,this idea has now been at least partially carried into effect1 and if the works are properly designed and executed1 it ought to be one of the finest in ,europe4 ,the morning after my arrival at ,genoa ,i arose early1 quite refreshed1 and went first to the harbour1 which ,i had always heard was one of the finest works of the kind in the world1 and as such my excellent father expected that ,i should give him a complete account of it4 ,i therefore examined it very minutely1 and took great pains in tracing1 sketching1 and measuring it1 when ,i could do so without being observed1 for there was a good deal of jealousy about it4 ,at first sight ,i was very much struck by the extent and magnificence of the bay1 with the fine old town rising like a vast amphitheatre of palaces round it1 surrounded by a huge circle of forts which crowned the summits of the hills2 and by the great extent and massiveness of the two outer moles1 the depth of water enclosed within them being capable of receiving at all times the largest vessels of war4 ,but when ,i began to examine more narrowly ,i found that there1 was a great error in the design of the main or outer moles4 ,the southern1 which was the longest1 consisted of two arms1 the outer one inclining inward at a considerable angle1 whilst the northern mole consisted of a single straight line projecting from the shore in a south-south-west direction1 so that the entrance pointed south-south-west1 and was consequently exposed to the full effect of the severe gales which blow up the ,gulf of ,lyons during the winter and autumn months2 the consequence is that during severe gales from this quarter a heavy swell sets into the entrance and produces such a strong current throughout the interior of the harbour that vessels in front of the town and under the southern mole can scarcely ride with safety at their moorings4 ,this is a serious defect1 and it might be easily remedied1 although up to the present ,i have not heard that anything has been done4 ,in the construction of the works there was nothing particular to find fault with1 but there was a serious error committed in the disposal of the sewage2 the whole of this was discharged into the harbour1 so that in hot weather a most disagreeable effluvia arose in front of the lower part of the town2 moreover1 it caused the accumulation of a considerable quantity of alluvial matter4 ,this had to be removed by constant dredging1 in which convict labour was employed4 ,the alluvium was emptied into lighters and sent out to sea to be discharged4 ,the old arsenal was situated at the south-east corner of the inner harbour2 it was quite unequal to the requirements of modern times4 ,while ,i was at ,genoa an accident occurred by which my old acquaintance the sloop #8,spry' was nearly lost4 ,captain ,boswell1 having served his time1 had been succeeded by another captain1 who1 contrary to strict rule1 had his wife on board4 ,the evening on which the captain had given orders to prepare for sailing there happened to be a grand ball in the town1 and the lady persuaded her husband to take her1 and defer sailing to the morrow4 ,by this time the #8,spry' had left the harbour1 and lay at single anchor outside the north mole4 ,during the night a strong gale sprung up from the south4 ,as the ship could not regain her old position the officer in command let go two more anchors1 but two cables having parted she dragged her third anchor1 and was driven close to the rocks4 ,no assistance could be given from the shore1 and1 as her position seemed hopeless1 the officers and crew took to their boats1 and managed to get off in safety4 ,to the astonishment of everybody1 however1 the last cable held1 and the recoil of the waves1 so close was she to the rocks1 actually prevented her from striking1 and so she remained until the gale abated1 and the ship was saved4 ,the odd part of it was1 that when the crew were about leaving the ship my old friend ,dr4 ,biggar was asleep in the cabin1 and when aroused flew into a violent rage1 and threw a bootjack at the head of the midshipman who woke him4 ,after several ineffectual attempts1 the midshipman was obliged to leave him1 and he turned round and slept soundly till the morning4 ,judge of his surprise when he awoke and found what had happened during the night6 ,after passing rapidly through ,france1 ,i embarked from ,boulogne1 ,september #bc1 #ahba1 in a small packet1 during a very strong gale1 with about fifty other passengers4 ,the following day we started with the morning's tide with about seventy passengers1 of whom ,colonel ,hylton ,jolliffe1 a friend of my father's1 was one4 ,we left ,boulogne about eleven1 and reached ,dover at #b ,p4,m42 ,i directly started by coach for ,london1 and reached my father's1 #bg1 ,stamford ,street1 the same night4 ,i found him in very bad health1 lying upon the sofa in the principal front bedroom2 he was glad to see me4 ,he continued in the same weak state1 although in perfect possession of all his great faculties1 dictated to me several letters on business1 and talked of sundry new works that he was about to undertake1 particularly the new ,london ,bridge1 and the removal of the old one1 which had been for some time under discussion in ,parliament2 a ,bill for this purpose had actually been introduced during the past session1 and my father had been requested to prepare a design for it1 which he did1 and it was very similar to that since executed by myself4 ,my father's bodily health appeared to decline gradually2 he was confined almost to the sofa1 and could do little more than walk across the room2 in this manner he continued until the #crd of ,october4 ,he went to bed as usual1 perfectly sensible and composed1 and hoped that he would soon be better1 as he was most anxious to return to business and make up for lost time4 ,i went to his room on the morning of the #dth of ,october1 and found that a considerable change for the worse had taken place2 he seemed to be in much pain1 and was walking about the room1 evidently scarcely knowing what he was about4 ,i got him into bed1 and immediately sent for his physician1 ,dr4 ,ainslie1 who had known him all his life1 but he was unfortunately out of town4 ,the apothecary1 ,mr4 ,welbank1 came1 and we consulted together as to whom we should send for1 and ultimately summoned ,dr4 ,roberts1 who1 although in good practice1 had never seen my father1 and consequently knew nothing of his constitution or complaints4 ,he did the best he could1 but evidently thought the case was very serious4 ,my father lay in bed all day1 almost unconscious1 although ,i thought he knew me4 ,i remained with him nearly the whole day1 and about five o'clock in the afternoon he appeared to be sinking fast1 and breathed very heavily1 which alarmed us all excessively4 ,in a short time this ceased1 his features began gradually to relax1 and he breathed his last at half-past five on the afternoon of the #dth of ,october1 #ahba1 in the sixty-first year of his age4 ,the disease which killed my poor father was that of the kidneys and liver1 as far as we could ascertain4 ,all my brothers and sisters were assembled round his deathbed4 ,it was a sad1 sad sight1 and afflicted us most severely2 we had1 however1 the melancholy satisfaction of having done all in our power1 though of no avail1 to arrest the fatal event4 ,he was universally known and respected2 the news of his death spread immediately throughout the town1 the public papers were filled with leading articles giving accounts of his public and private life1 and everybody deplored his loss4 ,one of the most powerful and touching articles was written by his talented friend ,perry1 the proprietor of the #8,morning ,chronicle1' who was then at ,brighton in bad health1 and died there three months afterwards4 ,it seemed to be the universal wish that he who had rendered so many services to his country and was so generally beloved1 should be buried in ,st4 ,paul's1 and arrangements were made accordingly4 ,the funeral took place a few days afterwards1 at eleven o'clock1 and he was attended to his last resting-place by a vast concourse of literary1 scientific1 and private friends4 ,the late talented ,john ,wilson ,croker1 ,esq41 then ,first ,secretary of the ,admiralty1 wrote the epitaph1 which was composed in the most feeling and scholar-like manner for which that able gentleman was so particularly well qualified4 #a ,let me here relate an anecdote of the almost incredible instinct of the dog4 ,passing by the palace of the ,austrian viceroy1 ,i observed a dog sitting with an air of profound melancholy before one of the sentry-boxes4 ,colonel ,brown1 our representative1 who was then with me1 said that this dog formerly belonged to a soldier of the body-guard of ,eugne ,beauharnois1 the viceroy1 and accompanied his master to ,moscow4 ,the man never returned1 but upwards of two years afterwards the dog did1 and resumed his station before his former master's sentry-box4 ,after a time the dog came to be talked about1 and at length the viceroy1 an ,austrian archduke1 had him brought into the palace and tried to domesticate him1 but he always returned to the sentry-box1 where he lay motionless1 and at times moaning4 ,seeing this1 the archduke ordered him daily rations1 and he was placed in the sentry's orders for protection1 and in this state ,i saw him2 but a short time after the dog died1 apparently inconsolable4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,eau ,brink ,cut--,ramsgate ,harbour--,sheerness ,dockyard--,plymouth ,breakwater--,anecdote of the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,fox--,london ,bridge and ,approaches--,sir ,f4 ,trench's ,plan for ,quaying the ,thames--,nene ,outfall--,cross ,keys ,bridge--,norfolk ,estuary--,improvement of the ,witham--,ancholme ,drainage4 ,it was some time before ,i could recover from the shock4 ,i had been absent abroad nearly two years and four months1 and had passed through so many different scenes1 that when ,i returned to ,england everything seemed perfectly new to me2 being deprived of my father so unexpectedly threw me almost into a state of despair1 so that ,i scarcely felt myself equal to undertake the responsibility of following his noble career1 which ,i could never expect to equal4 ,after giving way to my melancholy reflections for about a month1 ,i determined to rouse myself to the utmost and to do my best1 and with his brilliant example before me1 and cheered on by his numerous attached friends1 ,i felt that if ,i had no chance of attaining the same degree of celebrity as my dear father1 ,i might still do something1 and although lungo intervllo1 ,i might still keep up the name4 ,i determined therefore to set to work in right earnest and endeavour to obtain some of my father's numerous appointments4 ,my first ambition was to succeed him in his numerous great works then being carried on by the ,admiralty1 such as the ,plymouth ,breakwater1 and the new ,chatham and ,woolwich dockyards4 ,that most excellent and able man1 the late ,lord ,melville1 was at the head of the ,admiralty2 the distinguished and gallant ,sir ,george ,cockburn1 one of ,nelson's officers at the ,nile and elsewhere1 was the ,first ,naval ,lord2 ,john ,wilson ,croker and ,sir ,john ,barrow were the ,secretaries2 and there never has been such a galaxy of talent at the ,admiralty since4 ,all these great and good men have since passed away from us1 not without1 however1 leaving behind them indisputable monuments of their skill and the great benefits they conferred upon their country4 ,as for myself1 ,i owe them my deepest gratitude1 and shall never forget their kindness4 ,i was appointed by the ,admiralty to succeed my father as their engineer4 ,this high honour at my early age 7for ,i was only seven-and-twenty7 filled me with the greatest thankfulness1 although ,i felt it was due to no merit of my own1 but rather to the regard and respect which they entertained for my father2 ,i therefore resolved to do everything in my power to render myself worthy of it1 and set to work with right good will4 ,the next appointment ,i obtained was as drainage engineer to the ,eau ,brink ,commissioners4 ,this was at that time the greatest work of the kind1 at the head of which were the late ,general ,lord ,william ,bentinck1 afterwards ,governor-,general of ,india2 the late ,sir ,andrew ,hammond1 ,bart42 the late ,sir ,charles ,browne1 physician to the ,king of ,prussia2 and the late ,thomas ,hoseason1 ,esq41 of ,banklands1 in the district of ,marshland1 near ,lynn4 ,these able and distinguished men formed the ,committee for carrying into effect the ,eau ,brink ,cut1 for the improvement of the drainage of the great level of the fens1 called the ,bedford ,level1 amounting to about #cjj1jjj acres of valuable land4 ,this work consisted of a cut for altering the channel of the ,ouse1 by means of which nearly two miles of the navigation of that river would be saved1 and an additional fall for the drainage of five feet perpendicular would be gained4 ,this great work had been planned nearly a century before1 but had always been opposed by the inhabitants of the fens1 as being in their opinion inadequate to effect the desired object4 ,at length1 after great opposition on the part of the townspeople1 who alleged that it would ruin their harbour and trade1 the plan was decided on1 and an ,act of ,parliament was obtained1 in the year #agha1 to carry it into effect1 and to lay a tax of #d;d4 per acre per annum upon all fen lands which it was supposed would derive benefit from it2 certain guarantees were given to ,lynn ,harbour and the interior navigation interests1 as well as to the owners of the banks of the ,ouse1 that they should be indemnified for any damages they might sustain in consequence of the ,eau ,brink ,cut being executed4 ,under this ,act it was decreed that there should be two engineers1 one appointed by the drainage interests1 namely1 the late ,robert ,mylne 7the architect of ,blackfriars ,bridge71 and ,sir ,thomas ,hyde ,page1 ,r4,e41 as the engineer for navigation4 ,these two gentlemen were to decide the direction and dimensions of the proposed ,eau ,brink ,cut1 which was to commence below ,german's ,bridge and to terminate a short distance above the boat wharf at ,lynn4 ,they1 however1 differed so materially that it was necessary to call in an umpire to decide between them1 and the late scientific ,captain ,joseph ,huddart1 of the ,trinity ,board1 and the inventor of the celebrated patent cable machinery1 was appointed arbitrator4 ,captain ,huddart made his award2 but when it was determined to carry on the works1 it was found that the whole of the funds appropriated for that purpose1 which amounted to about #hj1jjjl41 had been expended in litigation and the cost of obtaining the ,act of ,parliament1 so that the whole matter fell to the ground4 ,meanwhile the defective state of drainage of the great level of the fens still continued1 and everybody was convinced that the only remedy was to carry into effect the ,eau ,brink ,cut as awarded by ,captain ,huddart4 ,it was therefore resolved that a new ,act of ,parliament should be obtained for this purpose1 increasing the tax upon the lands proposed to be benefited sufficiently to cover the costs according to the estimate of my father1 who was appointed engineer-in-chief of the drainage interests2 and the above-mentioned gentlemen1 ,lord ,w4 ,bentinck1 ,sir ,a4 ,hammond1 ,sir ,charles ,browne1 and ,thomas ,hoseason1 ,esq41 were appointed as the executive committee4 ,the ,act having passed1 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks tendered for1 and received and executed the contract4 ,the effect of this work greatly exceeded the most sanguine expectations of its supporters4 ,immediately after it was opened the low-water mark at the upper end of the cut fell five feet1 and the drainage waters were carried off with a degree of rapidity which astonished the whole country4 ,the autumn and winter of #ahba-b was characterized by an unusual quantity of rainfall1 and if it had not been for the opening of the ,eau ,brink ,cut the whole1 or the greater part1 of the level of the fens would have been under water1 and therefore the fenmen were very well pleased with the result4 ,at this time ,i was appointed to succeed my father as chief drainage engineer1 and the late ,mr4 ,telford had been previously appointed the chief engineer for navigation4 ,immediately after my appointment1 which was in the month of ,december1 #ahba1 ,i went to ,lynn to examine the works1 and was much astonished to find the great effects which had been produced by the ,eau ,brink ,cut4 ,instead of the circuitous old shallow course1 full of shoals and obstructions of every kind1 there was a fine straight1 deep channel1 two miles shorter than the old one1 of the proper width1 bordered by strong banks of the full height2 the floods passed off without difficulty1 and the navigation was so much improved that the lighters and barges going up the river from ,lynn saved several tides4 ,it is true that upon examining the country between ,denver ,sluice and ,cambridge1 there was a great deal of water out in several places1 but this was attributed to the interior drains and rivers not being properly defended and embanked1 so that they could carry off the water to the main outfall below4 ,i also examined the new steam pumping apparatus1 which had lately been erected for draining ,soham and other fens4 ,this1 although proposed by my father in #aghf1 was the first of the kind that had been erected4 ,it consisted of a scoop wheel1 with a perpendicular lift1 worked by a condensing engine4 ,it answered its object completely1 and has since been imitated by numerous others with equal success in different parts of the fen and lowland districts4 ,yet in many places it has been found very difficult to induce the fen proprietors to combine together in order to effect a natural drainage1 which would be better and less expensive2 they prefer to act independently of each other1 and adopt the steam wheel4 ,still1 even with this1 the main outfalls must be improved to their fullest extent1 otherwise the water cannot run off2 and when the floods in the adjacent rivers rise so high that the banks are endangered1 the pumping must be discontinued1 otherwise the banks will break1 and then a greater injury will ensue4 ,nevertheless1 the steam pumping apparatus is an immense improvement on the old windmill1 which could only work when there was wind4 ,my next appointment was to succeed my father as engineer-in-chief to ,ramsgate ,harbour4 ,this harbour was established by special ,act of ,parliament for the purpose of affording shelter to vessels of #cjj tons lying in the ,downs during south-west gales4 ,when these winds prevail that anchorage is crowded with all classes of vessels1 and the smaller ones1 not being so well found with ground tackle as the larger1 are liable to be driven from their moorings and fall foul of the larger vessels1 causing them to go adrift also1 and thus creating considerable confusion and damage2 but by having ,ramsgate under their lee1 the small vessels can always get under way1 run for it at the commencement of the flood1 and reach it in safety long before high water1 at which time the ,goodwin ,sands are covered1 and a heavy sea rolls into the ,downs4 ,in fact1 ,ramsgate ,harbour was made for clearing the ,downs of small vessels1 so that the large ones may ride in safety1 and so far has effectually answered its object4 ,there were a certain number of trustees appointed under the ,act1 who were selected from the principal merchants and shipowners of ,london1 and the ,deputy ,master and three or four ,elder ,brethren of the ,trinity were members of the ,board of ,trustees ex officio4 ,at the time ,i was appointed engineer1 the celebrated ,sir ,william ,curtis1 ,bart41 member for the ,city of ,london1 was chairman1 and the worthy ,deputy ,master of the ,trinity ,house1 ,sir ,john ,woolmore1 represented that ,corporation with three others of the ,elder ,brethren4 ,as this was one of the oldest and most important harbour trusts in the kingdom1 ,i felt great honour in being appointed their chief engineer1 the more so as the celebrated ,smeaton and my father had previously occupied that position4 ,it was here that ,smeaton followed out the idea that had been originally proposed at ,dundee1 of establishing an inner basin with sluices for the purpose of scouring away the mud which continually accumulated in the outer harbour1 owing to the great quantity of alluvial matter brought in from the adjacent coast and waters1 which otherwise in a very short time would have filled it up and rendered it useless4 ,ramsgate ,harbour was also celebrated for being the first place of the kind where the diving bell was introduced by ,smeaton for the purpose of laying down moorings and removing obstacles under water4 ,the diving bell was afterwards1 in #ahac1 much improved1 and rendered1 for the first time1 applicable to building masonry under water with as much security and accuracy as building upon dry land4 ,in such an exposed situation it was more economical and expeditious than the old cofferdams2 it was in this manner ,mr4 ,rennie rebuilt the east pier-head in #ag feet at low-water spring tides1 which was originally made by ,smeaton1 and which failed4 ,i also succeeded my father at ,sunderland1 ,donaghadee1 ,port ,patrick1 and ,kingstown harbours1 the ,west ,india ,docks1 besides other places soon afterwards1 so that ,i had a large business1 and was daily getting more4 ,the most difficult and anxious work1 however1 at that time was the new dockyard at ,sheerness1 designed and partly carried into effect by my father4 ,he originally1 in the year #ahjg1 recommended that the old dockyard1 which was composed only of some old wooden slips imbedded in the mud1 a few storehouses1 a wretched basin1 lined with wooden walls1 and some timber jetties1 should be abolished4 ,he said that it was on the lee or wrong side of the harbour1 that the foundation for new works was of mud and quicksand1 that the space1 on account of the buildings in the old town1 was very confined1 and1 therefore1 that to make a good dockyard there would be very expensive1 and he thought it would be far better to make a new complete establishment at ,northfleet1 just above ,gravesend1 and to get rid of ,woolwich1 ,deptford1 and ,sheerness altogether4 ,mr4 ,pitt1 then ,prime ,minister1 decided that it should be done2 but when he died the matter fell to the ground1 as ,i have before said1 although the land was bought for the purpose4 ,however1 after the great war had terminated1 in #ahae1 the nation was naturally anxious to reduce the expenditure as much as possible1 so that the ,house of ,commons would not listen to the idea of expending any large sums upon great new works either for the navy or the army2 and it was only after considerable difficulty that the ,house of ,commons would grant money for the repairs of ,sheerness ,dockyard1 and1 like most extensive repairs1 it was found1 when too late1 that it would have been far better to have abandoned ,sheerness altogether4 ,nevertheless it was absolutely necessary to do something to the ,thames and ,medway dockyards1 to keep in repair the large fleet of vessels which was there laid up in ordinary4 ,the total number of pennants flying at the close of the war was about #ajjj1 and the last vote for seamen in #ahae included #abg1jjj sailors and marines4 ,as there was greater depth of water at ,sheerness than at any of the dockyards1 and as the harbour immediately contiguous was capable of accommodating with ease any number of large vessels1 ,sheerness was decided upon as the place where the greatest repairs and improvements should be made1 and it ended in an entirely new dockyard being built4 ,the works accordingly commenced in #ahae1 and the late ,lord ,melville laid the first stone at the north end that year4 ,it ended in expending nearly #c1jjj1jjjl41 #a1gjj1jjjl4 of which went to the engineering department1 and the remainder in the purchase of ground1 buildings in the town of ,sheerness1 in storehouses1 mast and timber ponds1 smithery1 admiral's and officers' houses4 ,the engineering works were of the most difficult kind2 the foundations were composed of nothing but soft mud and loose quicksands to an almost interminable depth1 so that my father was obliged to invent an entirely new system of hollow walls faced with granite in front and brick behind4 ,this system of walls1 which was entirely new1 by giving a greater superficial area of bearing surface with the same weight of materials1 rendered them thoroughly secure4 ,he had adopted this kind of construction with perfect success at the docks at ,great ,grimsby1 in ,lincolnshire1 and they succeeded equally well at ,sheerness1 although exposed to much greater difficulties4 ,the dockyard as completed consists of one basin of nearly #c acres1 at the east end of which are three docks for first-rate vessels of war1 with a depth of #i feet at low water of spring tides1 the basin being of the same depth1 so that with a rise of tide of #ah feet at spring tides the largest vessels can always be docked at those times4 ,there is also another tidal basin of about the same size1 together with large storehouses1 smithery1 mast ponds1 boathouses1 admiral's and officers' houses1 chapel1 c41 and ample space for timber and other materials4 ,this dockyard1 therefore1 as was the intention1 is well adapted for keeping in repair the numerous vessels lying up in ordinary in the adjacent harbour1 or for executing any repairs which vessels on the northern stations may require2 it never was intended to be a building yard1 and it answers its original purpose well4 ,it should be mentioned1 that here ,mr4 ,rennie first introduced cast-iron gates for the dry docks2 these fitted to the granite quoins so nicely by polishing the two surfaces1 iron and stone1 with emery1 that they worked together perfectly1 and were completely water-tight2 and although they have now been in use forty-five years1 they are as good as on the day when they were made4 ,at the time that these works were proceeding1 it was decided to make a new large granite dry dock at ,chatham1 similar to those at ,sheerness2 and some improvements in the line of river wall1 which partly interfered with the free circulation of the tide there1 were being constructed when ,i was appointed1 and ,i finished them4 ,the breakwater in ,plymouth ,sound1 which was designed by my father and commenced in #ahae1 had made considerable progress2 in fact1 the great mass of rubble stone had been deposited throughout its entire length1 so that vessels of war as well as merchantmen could safely lie under its protection during the heaviest gales from the westward4 ,when ,i was appointed engineer to the ,admiralty1 the late excellent ,mr4 ,joseph ,whidbey1 who was distinguished for his scientific acquirements1 and who had sailed round the world with ,vancouver1 was the superintendent of the breakwater1 so that ,i had but little to do with it until the latter end of #ahbd1 when1 on the #bbnd and #bcrd of ,november of that year1 a violent storm occurred from the south-south-west1 the most dangerous wind1 and its effect upon the breakwater above low water of spring tides was to disarrange nearly the whole of the superstructure1 and to transfer a very large portion of the stone from the south to the north slope4 ,the effects of this severe storm were considered to be so serious as to create considerable doubts as to the security of the breakwater1 and even ,mr4 ,whidbey was alarmed4 ,i was accordingly sent by the ,admiralty to make a detailed report as to what had occurred4 ,i carefully examined the whole work1 and had numerous transverse and longitudinal sections taken to show its exact state1 and reported that the main body of the work remained as substantial as ever1 but that the rubble from above low water to the top1 on the south or sea slope1 had only been laid at an angle of #c to #a1 and the waves during the storm above mentioned had in a great measure disturbed it1 and had transferred a very large portion from the south to the north slope1 increasing the south slope to #e to #a4 ,now it is singular that my father1 when it was decided to raise the breakwater from the level of half tide 7which was the original intention7 to above high water of spring tides1 always said that the outer slope should be laid at #e to #a4 ,after his death1 however1 ,mr4 ,whidbey1 with an idea of economy1 reduced the south slope to #c to #a1 so that the effects of the storm had been to confirm my father's views2 and not only had no real damage been done1 but it had consolidated and strengthened the breakwater materially1 and had given a practical example as to the best mode of completing it1 and ,i recommended that the outer slope should be finished at #e to #a1 and the inner at #b to #a4 ,the ,admiralty1 however1 feeling their responsibility1 thought it advisable1 in addition to myself1 to consult three other experienced engineers1 and the late ,mr4 ,telford1 ,mr4 ,josias ,jessop1 and my eldest brother1 ,george1 were appointed for that purpose4 ,we proceeded to ,plymouth in the month of ,march1 #ahbe1 and spent several days in examining the breakwater4 ,we finally recommended that the outer slope should be finished at #e to #a and the inner at #b to #a 7as ,i had previously suggested to the ,admiralty71 that the outer slope and top should be paved with rough square blocks set closely together1 and that the inside slope should be paved with rubble4 ,mr4 ,whidbey was1 unfortunately1 of a different opinion1 and recommended a nearly vertical wall of solid masonry on the top1 of which the ,admiralty did not approve1 and adopted our plan1 which was ordered to be carried into effect4 ,mr4 ,whidbey was so much annoyed that he resigned his situation and retired into private life near ,taunton4 ,this was much regretted1 as he was a most able and honest public servant1 and beloved and respected by everybody who knew him4 ,i was then appointed chief engineer1 and upon considering the subject again1 ,i thought that1 as the base or toe of the outer slope was the most exposed part of the work1 it would be better to strengthen it by benching1 which would effectually break the force of the waves before they could reach the main body of the work4 ,this was approved by the ,admiralty1 and has since been carried into effect with complete success4 ,i may here relate a curious anecdote in connection with the death of ,mr4 ,perceval4 ,messrs4 ,fox1 ,williams1 and ,co41 the great mining contractors in ,cornwall1 took the first contract for blasting the rock and depositing the stones on the breakwater4 ,in #ahae ,mr4 ,john ,fox1 a ,quaker1 having come to town on business1 breakfasted with my father and several others1 including myself4 ,the conversation happened to turn on the death of ,mr4 ,perceval4 ,mr4 ,fox said in a simple1 unaffected manner1 8,i remember it very well2 it is a curious story1 and now ,i will tell it you4 ,i was then visiting my friend ,williams at ,redruth4 ,i went to bed as usual1 and awoke in a most restless state1 having had an extraordinary dream4 ,i dreamed that ,i went to the ,house of ,commons1 where ,i had never been before1 and having no admission into the interior of the ,house1 ,i sat down quietly on one of the benches in the lobby1 expecting a ,cornish member who had promised when ,i came to ,london to give me a ticket of admission to hear the debates4 ,beside me on the bench sat a tall1 muscular man 7describing ,bellingham most exactly71 who appeared to be very restless1 and continually asking whether ,mr4 ,perceval had come to the ,house1 and every now and then putting his right hand into his left breast pocket4 ,at length1 after waiting some minutes1 there was a bustle1 and several persons near me said that ,mr4 ,perceval was coming2 and shortly after ,mr4 ,perceval made his appearance 7,mr4 ,fox describing the exact dress he wore1 namely1 a blue coat with gilt metal buttons1 white cravat and waistcoat1 with nankeen shorts1 white stockings1 and shoes1 according to his usual attire in the summer74 ,immediately after ,mr4 ,perceval made his appearance1 the man who sat next to me got up1 and1 advancing close to ,mr4 ,perceval1 drew a pistol from his left breast pocket1 fired1 and ,mr4 ,perceval fell at his feet4 ,this occasioned great commotion4 ,the man who fired the pistol was at once seized1 and ,i rushed out and asked what had happened1 and the bystanders told me that ,mr4 ,perceval had been shot by a man named ,bellingham1 who was the identical individual who had been a few minutes before sitting by my side4 ,when my dream had come to this point ,i awoke in the greatest agitation4 ,i could not account for it4 ,i had never seen ,mr4 ,perceval1 nor his murderer1 ,bellingham2 ,i had never been in the lobby of the ,house1 and ,i had been in no way connected with ,mr4 ,perceval1 either by correspondence or otherwise1 still ,i was so much affected by the dream that ,i felt convinced that ,mr4 ,perceval had been murdered4 ,i passed the remainder of the night in great restlessness4 ,i could not sleep1 but was always thinking of the dream1 being thoroughly convinced that it was true4 ,i came down to breakfast at the usual hour1 in the most anxious and nervous state1 which ,i in vain endeavoured to conceal as much as possible2 but my friend and partner ,williams and his whole family observed it1 and said that ,i looked very ill1 and kindly asked me to explain the cause4 ,after much pressing1 ,i told my story4 ,friend ,williams and the whole of his amiable family said that it was nonsense2 that ,i had been unwell1 and still was so1 and said that they would send for their family doctor4 ,i said no2 ,i felt perfectly convinced that my dream would1 unfortunately1 prove but too true1 and that the mail1 which would arrive in the evening1 would bring a confirmation of it4 ,they tried to laugh me out of it1 but nothing would do2 ,i therefore went about with my friend ,williams1 transacting our mining business1 being convinced that the arrival of the mail in the evening would confirm the truth of my dream in all particulars4 ,we returned to dinner at five o'clock2 at nine the mail arrived1 and confirmed every particular of my dream4 ,i was afterwards taken to the ,house of ,commons1 where ,i had never been before1 and ,i correctly pointed out the whole particulars of the melancholy transaction exactly as they occurred1 to the astonishment of my friends and the bystanders4 ,the whole story seems so strange that ,i cannot account for it4 ,i relate it to you just as it occurred to me40#b ,this is certainly one of those marvellous instances of foresight which baffles all comprehension4 ,john ,fox was generally considered by his numerous friends and acquaintance to be a most honest1 plain1 straightforward1 business man1 and incapable of stating anything but what he believed to be true4 ,i heard him relate the dream1 and my father and all present believed it4 ,the curious part of the story is how he should have dreamed such a thing1 being in no way connected with it4 ,about this time 7#ahbe7 the several victualling departments of the navy at ,plymouth were very inefficient1 and divided into three or four establishments--one at ,southdown1 opposite to ,devonport1 another at ,cremill ,point1 near ,stonehouse1 a third at ,plymouth1 and the fourth in ,plymouth town--being several miles from each other1 so that the extra expense and delay in provisioning vessels of war was considerable4 ,upon this being represented to the ,admiralty by the ,victualling ,board1 of which the late ,general ,stapleton was the chairman1 they determined to make an entirely new victualling establishment1 concentrating the whole of the several departments into one1 upon a well-organized plan1 so that every operation should be carried out with the greatest dispatch and economy4 ,after much discussion ,cremill ,point1 being nearest to the dockyard at ,devonport1 and being in other respects1 as to depth of water1 c41 possessed of peculiar advantages1 was finally selected as the best place for the new establishment1 and ,i was ordered by the ,victualling ,board to prepare the necessary plans1 specifications1 and estimates1 and to see them carried into effect4 ,whilst these works were proceeding1 a proposal was made to the ,admiralty to apply the ,cornish system of engines to the ,admiralty steam-vessels4 ,up to this time steam1 according to the principle of ,watt1 not exceeding #e lb4 pressure upon the square inch1 was only used1 whereas in the ,cornish condensing engines steam of the pressure of #cg lb4 per square inch was then usual1 with much greater effect and economy4 ,i was accordingly sent by the ,admiralty to ,cornwall to investigate their scheme4 ,i took with me my principal assistant1 the late ,mr4 ,william ,lewin1 a very zealous1 able1 practical engineer4 ,we examined the whole system very carefully at different mines1 measured the actual work done and the quantity of fuel consumed1 and came to the conclusion that the ,cornish system of high-pressure condensing might be applied to the navy with the greatest advantage1 and reported the same to the ,admiralty4 ,it was not adopted at the time1 although high-pressure condensing engines have since been introduced into the navy2 at the present time the pressure has advanced to #bg and #bh lb4 per square inch1 and in the non-condensing engines to #ajj and #abj lb4 ,watt1 although he had tried steam at every temperature1 yet generally preferred low pressure2 his reason for this must have been the imperfect means then at command for controlling it1 and perhaps he was right at the time1 for the manufacture of wrought iron had not then made sufficient progress to render it capable of resisting with safety the great power of high-pressure steam4 ,he pointed out the way1 and others1 through the improvements in the manufacture of iron1 have profited by his discoveries4 ,i must not omit1 in justice to the very talented ,mr4 ,perkins1 his views as to the value of high-pressure steam1 upon which he made numerous experiments2 amongst other things1 he proposed to use it as a destructive power in war1 by means of his celebrated steam gun1 which created much sensation at the time2 and it is rather singular that this has not been taken up in modern times1 when every invention which can add to the methods of destruction is most greedily adopted4 ,there can be no doubt that the 8steam gun0 may be used with the most terrible effect in fixed batteries either for musketry or artillery1 and probably the day will come when we shall see batteries worked by steam1 with a great diminution of manual agency2 and the men employed to work them will be so protected as to render the destruction of human life comparatively trifling4 ,amongst the other legacies which my dear father had left to me1 was that of building ,london ,bridge4 ,he had shown1 to the satisfaction of the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 the impracticability of keeping up the old bridge by any amount of repair or alteration2 that it could not be rendered fit for the improvement of the river ,thames1 nor for the continually increasing traffic which must pass over it1 at any reasonable expense1 and that therefore an entirely new bridge would be by far the most satisfactory4 ,the ,house of ,commons was so fully convinced by his arguments that it unanimously condemned the old bridge1 and refused to comply with the recommendation of the ,city of ,london that it should be altered1 but resolved that a new bridge should be built according to the design made by my father4 ,an ,act of ,parliament was accordingly passed to this effect1 the late talented and energetic ,mr4 ,holme ,sumner being the leading member of the ,committee4 ,the ,corporation demurred to this1 saying that there were other engineers equal to ,mr4 ,rennie1 and demanding a public competition4 ,the advertisement for designs was accordingly issued1 and a great number were sent in and referred to the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons and the ,government1 according to the previous ,act4 ,after considering the various rival plans1 it was finally decided that that of my father was the only one which complied with all the required conditions1 and it was therefore adopted4 ,at this resolution great discontent was manifested by the different competitors4 ,the ,corporation of ,london also objected to this decision1 as they considered that they ought to have been the sole judges4 ,but finding that the ,government adhered to its decision1 they submitted1 at the same time urging that they1 who were to pay the expense of the new bridge1 ought to select the engineer that was to execute the work4 ,the ,government agreed to this1 subject to their approval2 and finally the ,committee appointed by the ,corporation to carry into effect my father's design1 fixed upon me as the engineer-in-chief2 ,mr4 ,richard ,lambert ,jones was appointed the chairman of the executive committee of the ,corporation4 ,a very able and efficient chairman he was1 and conducted the whole to a conclusion1 to the great satisfaction of the ,corporation and of the ,government4 ,the design1 as ,i have already observed1 was made by my father1 but no detailed working drawings1 specification1 or estimate1 had been prepared by him2 it fell to my lot1 therefore1 to do this4 ,as ,i had acted under my father during the construction of the ,waterloo and ,southwark bridges1 ,i had become so thoroughly acquainted with his system1 that ,i had no very great difficulty about it4 ,the design consisted of five semi-elliptical arches1 the centre being #aej feet span1 the two next arches #adj feet span each1 the two side or land arches #acj feet span each2 the two centre piers were #bd feet thick at the springing1 and the two side piers #bb feet each2 the whole was to be built of the best grey granite4 ,the width of the roadway was originally designed to be #dh feet1 but was afterwards increased to #ed feet wide1 at an extra cost of #df1jjjl4 ,it was intended by my father that the new bridge should be built on the site of the old one1 which was to be pulled down in the first instance1 and a temporary wooden one was to be built above it to accommodate the traffic whilst the new bridge was building4 ,it was considered that as soon as the fall of #e feet occasioned by the old bridge should be removed1 the river would be restored to its natural state1 and there would then be less difficulty and expense in making the cofferdams and founding the piers and abutments2 the old approaches to the bridge would then be preserved1 and thus a less quantity of valuable property would be required4 ,the wish1 however1 of the ,corporation to preserve the old bridge during the construction of the new one was so strong1 that there was no possibility of resisting it4 ,i therefore yielded to their desire1 and agreed to build the new bridge immediately above the old one1 and as near as practicable to it2 notwithstanding1 ,i felt at the time that there would be considerable difficulty1 risk1 and extra expense in so doing1 on account of the great depth of water in which the piers must be founded1 namely1 #bh feet at low water of spring tides1 and the strong current and fall through the old bridge both during the flood and ebb1 particularly during the latter4 ,it should be observed that the old bridge stood as it were upon a hill1 the foundations of the piers being from #bh to #cj feet above the bottom of the river immediately above and below it1 occasioned by the great fall and scour produced by the contracted waterway2 thus it was necessary to secure the piers by large projecting starlings1 and to throw considerable quantities of stone continually round them1 in order to prevent the old bridge from being carried away4 ,however1 there was no alternative but to build the new bridge above the old one1 and ,i accordingly set about taking every possible precaution in order to prevent accident4 ,as the loose stone thrown round the piers of the old bridge was continually washed into the holes immediately above and below1 it was in vain to attempt driving the piles for the cofferdams of the piers until this stone was removed1 which was done by dredging4 ,the cofferdams for the piers were elliptical in form1 this shape being the best adapted for resisting the strong current in which they were placed2 they consisted of two main rows of piles each #ad inches square1 each pile being properly hooped and shod with wrought iron1 and driven #be feet into the bed of the river4 ,these piles were connected together in the horizontal direction by three rows of braces #ae inches square1 namely1 one at the level of the lowest tides1 another at the level of half tide1 and the third at the level of high water4 ,at every #aj feet the two rows of piles were fastened together with wrought-iron bolts #b inches diameter1 which passed through the horizontal braces or walings1 as they are technically termed1 and were secured outside and inside with additional wooden cleats #ae inches square and #h feet long1 so as to cover the joints where the main horizontal braces met2 outside of these were large iron plates1 and as the bolts were screwed at each end1 they could be tightened up to the full bearing without crushing the timber4 ,on the outside of these two main rows of piles was a third row of the same dimensions1 and driven the same depth into the bed of the river at a distance of #f feet in the clear from the two main rows1 and connected together with a tier of horizontal braces1 and to the two main rows of piles with bolts1 cleats1 and plates of the same dimensions as those already described4 ,when the piles had been driven to their proper depth1 and had been properly secured to each other as above described1 the joints between every pile1 which had been previously fitted to each other1 were well caulked with oakum1 and the outside joints were covered with melted pitch1 so as to render them water-tight2 the spaces between the three rows of piles were then filled with strong well-puddled clay4 ,in addition to the above three rows of piles1 there was a fourth row on the inside1 driven down in the form of a parallelogram1 corresponding with the exact size of the foundation of the piers1 and to the same depth as the outer piles4 ,every tenth pile1 and those at the corners or angles1 extended up to the level of low water4 ,upon the heads of these piles longitudinal and transverse braces were fixed across the inside of the dam1 at the level of low water1 half tide1 and high water2 so that the dam was braced internally and externally in every direction to resist the pressure of the water1 like a well-made cask4 ,there was a powerful steam engine1 with the requisite pumps1 attached to each dam1 to remove any water which might either rise from the foundation or from the outside4 ,each dam was provided with a trunk secured by a valve #c feet diameter1 laid at the level of low water1 so that in the event of any unusual pressure of water coming against the dam1 these valves were opened1 and the dam was then filled with water1 and all mischief was prevented4 ,the first pier cofferdam on the ,southwark side was completed1 the water pumped out1 and the earth was excavated to the depth of #cj feet1 going below low-water mark of spring tides2 the bottom consisted of the stiff ,london clay4 ,piles1 consisting of ,baltic fir1 elm1 and beech1 #bb feet long1 and #ab inches diameter in the middle1 properly hooped and shod with wrought iron1 were then driven #bj feet into the solid ground1 or until1 with a weight of #ab cwt4 falling #ah to #bj feet1 they would not move above an inch at a blow4 ,these piles were driven #c feet #f inches from centre to centre1 both in the longitudinal and transverse direction4 ,after having driven them1 their heads were cut off and accurately levelled4 ,the loose earth between their heads was then removed1 to the depth of #ab inches1 and the spaces filled in with stone bedded in concrete2 all the rows of piles were then connected together in the transverse direction by ,baltic fir sills or beams #ad inches square1 well fitted to each pile head by jagged wrought-iron spikes #bj inches long and three quarters of an inch square1 driven through the sills into the pile heads below2 the spaces between the sills were well filled in with stone and brickwork2 another row of sills was then laid in the transverse direction above the pile heads and spiked down to the lower sills in the same manner2 the spaces between the upper sills were then filled in with stone and brickwork4 ,the whole surface of the foundation was covered with elm plank #f inches thick1 closely jointed together and bedded in mortar1 and well spiked down to the sills below with jagged spikes #aj inches long and half an inch square4 ,upon this platform the masonry was built1 each course diminishing in length and width by a series of offsets #ab inches wide1 until they reached the shaft of the pier1 when it was carried up solid to the springing of the arches4 ,the whole of the exterior masonry was of the best whitish-grey granite1 and the interior stone was of the best hard ,yorkshire grit stone from the quarries of ,bramley ,fall4 ,the abutments were constructed upon piles and masonry of the same character as the piers4 ,the first stone was laid with considerable ceremony on the first pier cofferdam from the ,surrey shore by ,his ,royal ,highness the late ,duke of ,york4 ,the dam was fitted up with great taste like an amphitheatre1 with seats all round1 the whole being covered at top with a handsome coloured canvas awning adorned with numerous flags of all nations4 ,the ,lord ,mayor1 assisted by the ,aldermen1 ,common ,councilmen1 and ,committee1 with ,mr4 ,jones1 the ,chairman1 attended in great state1 and everything went off well4 ,after this pier had advanced nearly to the level of high water1 one day whilst examining it1 standing upon one of the cross beams1 my foot slipped1 and ,i fell headlong into the dam upon the top of the masonry2 fortunately1 my left foot caught in a nail in the beam1 and ,i hung by it for a few seconds4 ,this somewhat broke and changed the direction of my fall1 and ,i pitched upon an inclined plank1 upon which ,i slid until ,i struck my head against a stone2 my hat deadened the blow2 as it was1 however1 ,i was cut about the forehead and half stunned4 ,the after effects of this fall were very serious2 my whole system got such a severe shaking1 that ,i did not recover thoroughly until nearly ten years afterwards1 and ,i carried on my large professional business with the greatest difficulty4 ,the works made satisfactory progress1 and the centres for the first and second arches from the ,surrey shore were soon fixed4 ,each centre was composed of eight ribs1 framed upon the truss principle1 resting upon a continued series of wedges in one piece1 laid horizontally and resting upon tressels or legs formed by the piles of the cofferdams1 which had been cut off and levelled for that purpose4 ,the mode of setting and fixing the ribs was the same as that adopted at the ,waterloo and ,southwark bridges4 ,a large lighter was constructed especially for this purpose4 ,in the centre was placed a strong framing1 which rested upon eight screws1 four in each row1 working in a strong cast-iron box1 to which levers were attached1 by means of which the screws and framing above them could be gradually raised and lowered at pleasure2 at one end of the framing there was an upright scaffold4 ,the centres1 ,i have already said1 consisted of eight main ribs framed together separately4 ,as there was no room to frame these centres near the bridge1 a special workshop and wharf were provided by the contractors at ,millwall1 in the ,isle of ,dogs2 when ready they were launched in one piece1 from a properly-prepared platform1 into the river1 and towed to the ,southwark end of the bridge1 where the lighter1 with its apparatus of powerful sheers1 crabs1 and tackle1 was in readiness to receive them2 by these means they were gradually hauled up an inclined plane1 and then raised upright upon the platform1 supported by the frame and screws beneath1 and firmly braced to the scaffolding in the lighter2 two centre frames were thus placed upon it at one time1 and adjusted by the screws to an extra height of #b feet1 so as to allow for any deficiency in the rise of the tide4 ,two ribs having been placed upon the framing1 the lighter was hauled off from the shore and placed in front of the opening in which the centre was to be1 the lighter being moored #ajj yards from it1 about half an hour before high water2 upon the turning of the tide it was gradually allowed to float down with the ebb current to its place4 ,by the time that the lighter with the centre ribs arrived in its exact position there was always #b feet to spare1 in order to allow for any deficiency of the tide2 as the tide fell the two ribs were securely deposited in their places upon the framing and wedges below them4 ,it should be observed1 that upon the wedges there was an additional framing so as to reduce the weight of the main ribs of the centring4 ,when the main ribs had been deposited upon the framing wedges1 they were securely braced together until the whole number of ribs required for each centre was fixed1 when they were all braced firmly together longitudinally1 transversely1 and diagonally4 ,this mode of fixing centres for arches of any span was most successful and economical1 and ,i believe that my father was the inventor of it1 if it may be termed an invention4 ,my excellent and talented friend1 the late ,robert ,stephenson1 adopted the same method for fixing the tubes of the ,conway and ,menai ,straits bridges4 ,he told me that he was not aware that my father had proposed it before him2 but in the #8,history of the ,britannia and ,conway ,bridges1' edited1 ,i believe1 by the present ,mr4 ,edwin ,clarke1 who was employed under ,mr4 ,stephenson at the ,conway ,bridge1 it is expressly mentioned that my father had previously employed the same plan4#c ,but to return to ,london ,bridge4 ,the works proceeded successfully2 the fifth or last arch on the ,city side was completed in #ahbi4 ,the centres of the first1 second1 and centre arches having been removed1 it was found that they had subsided only #c inches each1 which was the exact distance that had been allowed for1 with an extra half inch for the centre arch4 ,upon examining the arches and piers after it was supposed that they had subsided1 it was found that there had been an unequal sinking1 that the two centre piers had subsided on the east side slightly more than on the west side4 ,i was much puzzled at this1 and could not for some time account for the difference4 ,three or four of the quoin arch-stones of the second arch from the ,city shore had been fractured for about #h or #i inches2 this1 however1 was of no consequence1 for it is always difficult in such large arches to get the workmen to bed the quoins accurately4 ,the same thing had occurred in the ,waterloo and other bridges2 ,i was therefore led to investigate the subject more thoroughly during the construction of the new bridge4 ,it was found that the cofferdams for the piers in several instances were made in front of the openings or arches of the old bridge1 which could not be avoided4 ,these dams necessarily still further obstructed the waterway through the old bridge2 ,i therefore felt that it was absolutely essential to find relief for the ebbing and flowing tides1 detained both by the old bridge and the cofferdams of the new bridge1 and accordingly recommended that1 on the south side of the main arch of the old bridge1 which was only #hj feet wide1 two arches should be thrown into one1 and that the intermediate pier should be removed1 by which means a single wide opening would be made facing the space between the cofferdams of the arch and the centre on the ,surrey side of the new bridge1 but the difficulty of doing this arose from the fact that the traffic over the old bridge could not be interrupted for a moment4 ,i soon1 however1 found an expedient2 ,i ordered that the requisite number of logs of the best ,baltic fir timber #ae inches square should be prepared sufficiently long to extend over the two arches and piers of the old bridge which ,i proposed to remove4 ,having got these ready1 ,i stopped up one half of the roadway1 leaving the other half open for the traffic1 and working night and day1 ,i laid these whole timbers spanning the two arches to the adjoining piers close together1 bolted them to each other1 and secured them to a longitudinal bearer of the same dimensions imbedded in the masonry of the adjoining piers1 so that the timbers which were to form the increased opening rested firmly upon them4 ,having done this1 ,i removed the masonry of the intermediate arch by degrees from beneath the timber girders1 placing a strong diagonal strut or support under each girder as ,i proceeded1 at the same time connecting together all these diagonal struts4 ,having completed one half of the temporary arch or opening1 the traffic was diverted over it1 and the other half was completed in the same manner2 the whole operation was accomplished within ten days1 and the traffic was not stopped for one hour4 ,the intermediate pier of the old arch was then removed entirely4 ,as the work advanced to the fourth pier on the ,city side another similar opening was made4 ,these alterations relieved the river materially1 and enabled the works to be carried on much more securely1 and greatly diminished the fall through the old bridge at low water4 ,nevertheless1 there was increased scour against the dams where the openings were made1 which occasioned the slight unequal subsidence before mentioned4 ,the last or fifth arch was completed on the ,city side1 ,january1 #ahbi4 ,it has been mentioned that ,lord ,liverpool's ,government had always taken the greatest interest in the construction of new ,london ,bridge1 and gave the ,corporation of ,london every support in their power1 not only for the accommodation of the great traffic across it1 but for the improvement of the ,thames1 which the removal of the old bridge would effect2 and amongst the men most zealous in ,lord ,liverpool's ,government were the late ,marquis of ,salisbury1 then ,lord ,cranbourne1 and the late ,earl of ,lonsdale1 then ,lord ,lowther2 both these noblemen had considerable talent1 and1 fully alive to the advancing ideas of the day1 were mainly instrumental in forwarding this great work4 ,that amiable1 able1 and conscientious nobleman1 the ,earl of ,liverpool1 had succumbed to the effects of a paralytic stroke1 and the ,duke of ,wellington was now ,premier2 he took the greatest interest in the promotion of ,london ,bridge and everything connected with it2 so that the ,corporation of ,london1 who had hitherto been radically inclined1 or had rather been opposed to the ,tory ,government1 turned rather ,conservative than otherwise1 and the ,duke became most popular with them2 he invariably1 whenever he could1 accepted their invitations to ,guildhall and the ,mansion ,house1 and was always received by them with the greatest respect and attention4 ,richard ,lambert ,jones1 the ,chairman of the ,london ,bridge ,committee1 was his particular favourite1 and he always shook ,jones by the hand1 a favour which he did not accord to everyone4 ,at this time the bridge had made considerable progress towards completion1 and the important question arose1 what was the best plan for the approaches8 ,it was originally intended1 in order to save expense1 that the old line of ,fish ,street ,hill1 on the ,city side1 should be adopted1 pulling down such of the houses on this line as might be necessary to make the incline not steeper than #a in #cj2 but inasmuch as the great traffic of ,upper and ,lower ,thames ,street interposed materially with the main body of the traffic coming north and south1 it became most important to consider how this might be avoided1 and the old idea of making an arch over ,thames ,street was revived1 and was favourably received by the ,london ,bridge ,committee2 the question was accordingly referred by them to me4 ,i had always felt that the old approach by ,fish ,street ,hill was a very great difficulty2 but1 restricted as ,i was to the old line of approach1 ,i felt that ,i could not get out of it without some pressing necessity2 ,i was therefore glad to have the opportunity of reconsidering the subject1 particularly when proposed by the ,committee4 ,it was quite clear1 that in any case an arch over ,thames ,street to separate the great cart traffic of that quarter from the main coach and passenger traffic coming from the ,city1 ,southwark1 and the northern and southern parts of the town1 was absolutely necessary1 and ,i should have proposed it myself in the first instance1 if there had at that time been any chance of its adoption1 and ,i am quite sure that my father would have done the same4 ,but if it had been proposed to divert the traffic from the old line of ,fish ,street ,hill at the first1 it is most probable that it would never have been carried2 ,i was obliged1 therefore1 to confine myself to the old approaches1 leaving the future to develop itself4 ,the ,committee1 however1 having taken up the idea of an arch over ,thames ,street1 ,i was only too happy to fall in with it2 but as nothing could be done without the sanction of the ,government1 it was determined by the ,committee to bring the subject before them at once2 the more so1 as it would require a much larger sum than originally calculated to make the approaches1 for which the ,committee had no funds1 and a new ,act of ,parliament would be required4 ,plans and estimates were accordingly prepared for the new approaches1 and submitted to ,his ,majesty's ,government4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington took the greatest interest in the subject1 and investigated it to the fullest extent2 he visited the place himself1 he interrogated the ,chairman of the ,committee and myself most closely1 and at length1 being fully convinced that it was necessary1 gave the consent of the ,government1 provided that the funds could be found4 ,in order to meet this difficulty1 the ,committee proposed to increase the coal tax1 which1 with the necessary sinking fund1 would pay off the whole sum necessary to make the new approaches1 which were estimated at #a1djj1jjjl41 in a given number of years4 ,the ,government consented to this1 and the requisite notices1 plans1 c41 were given and deposited in the month of ,november1 #ahbh4 ,early in #ahbi the ,bill was brought into ,parliament1 and was most strongly opposed by the great northern coal-owners1 ,lord ,durham1 ,lord ,londonderry1 ,lord ,lauderdale1 and others1 as well as by a considerable body of ,londoners1 and after a hard fight the ,bill passed the ,house of ,commons and got into the ,lords2 but here the opposition was more violent and powerful than ever4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington1 however1 having been thoroughly convinced of the necessity and justice of the measure1 determined that it should be carried if possible1 whilst the ,opposition were equally determined to throw it out4 ,the ,committee accordingly met in the ,painted ,chamber of the ,house of ,lords1 and the extraordinary number of forty peers1 including seven cabinet ministers1 assembled1 the ,duke of ,wellington being in the chair4 ,the ,opposition comprised1 amongst others1 ,earl ,grey1 his son-in-law the ,earl of ,durham1 the ,marquis of ,londonderry1 the ,earl of ,lauderdale1 c4 ,such a committee upon a private ,bill has never since been seen in the ,lords1 and perhaps never will be again4 ,the brunt of the battle fell upon me2 ,i was the leading witness1 and had to establish the whole case4 ,i never felt more nervous in my life2 ,i was to be prepared upon all points to defend everybody else's errors as well as my own4 ,i knew there were several weak points1 and though ,i had an excellent case upon the whole1 ,i still felt the greatest difficulty about it2 ,i knew also perfectly well1 that if ,i broke down1 my career as an engineer was ruined for ever1 for the ,government had pinned their faith upon me2 ,i therefore had made myself thoroughly master of the subject1 and determined to sink or swim with it4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,montague1 then surveyor to the ,city1 was a very sensible1 practical man1 and of great experience in the valuation of property1 and possessed considerable influence with the ,corporation2 but whether it was jealousy at my being so much younger than himself1 or whether he thought the post of honour should have been given to him1 ,i cannot say1 but he did not act cordially with me4 ,that very remarkable man1 ,richard ,lambert ,jones1 the ,chairman of the ,bridge1 with his usual tact and sagacity1 at once saw this1 and thought that if he was examined there might be some discrepancy which our enemies would take advantage of2 he therefore1 with the concurrence of his ,committee1 determined that ,i alone should fight the battle of the estimates1 upon which the whole fate of the ,bill depended4 ,it was well1 both for ,montague and myself1 that this course was taken2 for ,montague1 when the first ,bill of #ahba was carried1 had made the surveys of the property to be taken for the approaches on both sides of the bridge1 which was confined to #ahj feet above the old bridge4 ,this limit ought to have been taken in a direct line1 at right angles to the old bridge2 but unfortunately it was taken according to the line of the shore1 which near the old bridge receded considerably1 whilst the old ,fishmongers' ,hall projected beyond it1 making the direct line1 if taken1 as it ought to have been1 at right angles to the old bridge1 #bj feet longer than if measured according to the line of the shore4 ,this difference of #bj feet rendered it necessary that old ,fishmongers' ,hall should be removed1 and negotiations immediately commenced between the ,london ,bridge ,committee and the ,fishmongers' ,company with respect to the purchase of this piece of land4 ,the ,fishmongers' ,company behaved very fairly2 they said that they did not wish to build a new hall1 as the existing structure answered their purpose very well2 but if they were compelled to part with this #bj feet of ground1 they must build a new hall1 which they did not want to do4 ,however1 as they had no wish to impede the construction of the bridge and approaches1 they were willing to sell the strip of land on which part of their hall stood1 namely1 #bj feet in width1 for #bj1jjjl4 #ajjjl4 per foot at first sight appeared a very large sum1 although at present it would be considered remarkably cheap4 ,the ,committee of the bridge1 looking at the matter fairly1 resolved to pay the ,fishmongers' ,company the required sum in full compensation for everything1 and the ,fishmongers' ,company might1 if they thought fit1 build a new hall at their own expense4 ,this agreement was then settled1 provided that the ,bill for making the new approaches by an arch across ,thames ,street should pass the legislature4 ,knowing this fact1 ,i was very anxious that this error of ,mr4 ,montague's should not come out before the ,committee of the ,house of ,lords1 as it was no doubt a great mistake1 and if it had transpired1 it might materially have injured our case4 ,i determined1 therefore1 during my examination1 to keep it out of view as far as possible2 at the same time1 if it was fairly put to me1 of course ,i felt myself bound to give every honest explanation4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,montague was not anxious to be examined2 anyhow1 he was not1 and the whole burthen fell upon me4 ,the opposition in the ,lords' ,committee was headed by the ,earl of ,durham1 a very able and intelligent man2 he would have made an excellent lawyer if ,providence had so designed it1 and in this instance he conducted his case admirably4 ,i got through the examination in chief very well1 and the opposing counsel commenced his cross-examination1 and made nothing of it4 ,then ,lord ,durham got up and for three days ,i underwent as severe a cross-examination as ,i ever experienced1 either before or since4 ,he seemed to be aware of all the facts1 and omitted nothing to render his case triumphant4 ,i always feared that he was coming to the mistake about ,fishmongers' ,hall1 but he never did1 and ,i had to lead him away from it as far as possible2 at last he got to the frontages in the different streets of the respective parishes which were proposed to be taken1 and the new frontages of the new streets which were to be erected4 ,here ,i showed very clearly that the lineal frontage according to the proposed new streets would be greater than the frontages taken away4 ,this1 however1 did not satisfy his ,lordship1 for he contended that some of the parishes would lose a great deal more frontage than they would obtain4 ,i had some idea that this would be the case1 and therefore did not think it necessary to take the individual frontage gained and lost by each parish4 ,i thought it was quite sufficient to know that upon the whole a greater line of frontage would be given by the new approaches1 than taken away from the old4 ,the parishes which had petitioned against the ,bill on this account1 argued that in some of them the rates would be greatly diminished1 and that in others they would be greatly increased1 which would cause an unequal and unjust distribution4 ,i still kept to my point1 and said upon the whole1 without going into detail1 the parishes would be the gainers1 and it was for them to adjust the rates amongst themselves4 ,lord ,durham was very indignant at my obstinacy in maintaining this point1 and tried in every way to make me confess that ,i had made a mistake2 ,i nevertheless stuck to it1 and said that if ,i had tried to equalize all the frontages1 my survey might have extended to the ,tower1 and there would have been no end of the expense4 ,by this time he was losing his temper1 and said that if ,i was not very careful ,i might go to the ,tower still4 ,at this the ,committee smiled1 and his ,lordship1 being fairly baffled1 sat down1 and ,i1 having been told that they had no further questions1 left the witness-box with the greatest alacrity4 ,it was considered that ,i had made out the case for the ,bill so completely1 both as regards the estimates and the absolute necessity1 in a public point of view1 of carrying the new approaches into effect1 that no other professional witness was put into the box1 except the present able chamberlain1 ,mr4 ,scott1 then chamberlain's chief assistant1 who gave such clear and straightforward evidence with regard to the funds which were disposable by the ,corporation1 and the way in which they were administered1 that the ,committee of the ,lords passed the ,bill for the ,london ,bridge ,approaches with but few dissentient voices4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington1 and five or six ,cabinet ,ministers with him1 attended every day1 and in fact kept ,parliament sitting to pass the ,bill4 ,it was curious to observe that he never for a moment interrupted the opponents of the measure2 he gave them full scope1 and never said a word until they had had their say1 then he put the question1 and carried it without difficulty4 ,after the fifth arch1 the first on the ,surrey side1 was keyed1 the sinking was observed to be #d inches1 or about #a inch more than the others4 ,i could not very well account for this4 ,i also observed that two of the quoins on the south-east end of the fourth arch from the ,surrey shore had splintered off at the soffit1 but no crack could be observed in the spandril walls2 but upon levelling the piers1 it was found that the east end had subsided from #aj to #ad inches more than the upper or west end4 ,this ,i could account for in no other way but that there had been a greater scour here than at the upper end1 and that the piles had to some extent been laid bare4 ,i levelled the arches and piers constantly after this for several months from a fixed standard gauge1 but could find no alteration2 ,i therefore felt satisfied that the whole of the pier abutments had come to their final bearing1 and the works were continued as fast as possible towards completion4 ,in #ahcj the ,duke's ,government retired1 and he himself became as unpopular as he before had been popular2 yet he never deserted ,london ,bridge1 and was more frequent in his visits than ever4 ,i often used to attend him at five and six in the summer mornings2 he generally came on horseback1 and remained from half an hour to an hour1 and sometimes more if necessary4 ,at length the whole bridge and the approaches were completed1 and ,his ,majesty1 ,king ,william1 at the special request of the ,corporation of ,london1 condescended to fix a day on which he would open the bridge in person4 ,earl ,grey1 who had strongly opposed the ,bill for the improved approaches two years before1 now1 as ,premier1 accompanied ,his ,majesty to inaugurate the opening of the same4 ,perhaps1 as a spectacle of the kind1 it was the most brilliant of any that had taken place for fully a century2 and the whole ,corporation1 including the ,bridge ,committee1 did everything in their power1 for the honour of the ,city of ,london1 to render the pageant as splendid as possible4 ,the whole of the space at the north or ,city end of the bridge was covered with a magnificent tent1 several hundred feet long1 decorated in the greatest taste with the flags of all nations1 and with ancient and modern arms grouped round the standards forming the supports of the tent1 under which were arranged tables for #adjj guests1 for whom a splendid collation was provided4 ,his ,majesty1 ,king ,william1 came in the royal barge in state1 accompanied by all his ministers1 and upon his arrival was greeted with a salute of twenty-one guns from the ,tower4 ,all the piers and arches were decorated with lofty standards displaying the national emblems2 the whole of these1 as well as the great tent and decorations1 were under the direction of ,mr4 ,stacey1 of the ,ordnance department of the ,tower1 and the greatest credit is due to him for the admirable taste which he displayed4 ,the ceremony consisted in ,king ,william walking over the bridge1 accompanied by his ministers1 the ,lord ,mayor and ,corporation1 and the ,bridge ,committee4 ,when ,his ,majesty arrived at the ,southwark end a balloon ascended1 carrying ,mr4 ,richard ,crawshay2 the ,tower guns then sent forth another salute1 and ,king ,william and his cortge returned to the tent at the ,city end of the bridge1 where they partook of lunch with the usual ceremonies1 and returned by water as they came1 with another royal salute from the ,tower4 ,the day was remarkably fine1 the river was covered with boats filled with gaily-dressed people2 the wharves1 warehouses1 and bridges were thronged with spectators2 in fact1 it was a great metropolitan holiday2 everything went off well1 and all appeared to be satisfied2 ,i was particularly so4 ,i had been very hard worked1 ,i may say almost night and day1 for some time past1 to get things ready1 and was of course rather tried2 nevertheless1 the success which attended the whole rendered me completely unmindful of myself1 and ,i forgot all my fatigues1 for ,i was amply rewarded for all my troubles and anxieties4 ,a few days after the opening of ,london ,bridge1 ,jeffreys1 the cheesemonger of ,ludgate ,hill1 presented a petition to ,parliament through the well-known ,henry ,hunt1 stating that the new bridge was coming down4 ,jeffreys was very much annoyed because he had received no recompense for his repeated proposals with regard to the new approaches1 though he was never regularly employed2 but he was one of those active1 intelligent persons1 who are always interfering in matters which do not concern them4 ,if he had devoted himself to his own business he might have done well2 but1 unfortunately1 he neglected this1 and fancied himself a great engineer1 a post for which he was absurdly incompetent4 ,he mistook his vocation1 and in attempting to do that for which he was wholly unfit1 he neglected the business of a tradesman1 for which he was thoroughly suited4 ,the petition ended in its being referred to a ,commission1 consisting of ,j4 ,walker1 ,telford1 and ,tierney ,clark1 who examined the bridge carefully and made their report1 which was colourless and came to nothing1 as the subsidence spoken of had taken place two years and a half before1 and had not increased1 nor has it done so up to the present day4 ,in all works of great magnitude1 and particularly in such a difficult situation as that in which ,london ,bridge is built1 it is impossible to be certain of attaining absolute perfection1 but the ,committee1 being perfectly satisfied of the stability of the new bridge1 determined to remove the old one forthwith1 and ,i received orders accordingly4 ,the removal was contracted for by ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks1 for the sum of #aj1jjjl41 they having the benefit of the old materials1 except in so far that they were to fill up the holes in the river below both bridges1 to the extent of #ad feet below low water of spring tides1 which was rather more than the average depth of the river in the vicinity2 they were also bound to remove the whole of the foundations of the piers1 starlings1 c41 of the old bridge1 to the same depth4 ,the whole of these operations were completed in the year #ahcd1 when the river1 after a lapse of #feh years1 was restored to its natural state4 ,the history of old ,london ,bridge is replete with interest1 and forms a very curious epoch in the annals of bridge building before the embankment of the river ,thames by the ,romans4 ,the ,southwark side1 which is in many places considerably below the level of high water of spring tides1 was frequently flooded1 and numerous creeks were formed in it1 so that the river must have been very unequal in its depth1 and filled with numerous shoals1 and fordable at low water in several places near ,london2 and there was evidently an appearance of a ford at the site of old ,london ,bridge1 as in many cases the piers were founded on the original ground1 which must have been dry1 or nearly so1 at low water2 these piers were in many instances wider than the adjoining arches1 so that they offered considerable obstruction to the free flow of the tidal and fresh waters through the bridge4 ,these obstructions necessarily increased the velocity and scour of the current1 and threatened to carry away the old bridge4 ,great starlings1 or timber casings of piles1 were erected round the bridge piers1 and the spaces between them were filled in with chalk4 ,these starlings still further narrowed the openings of the arches1 so that at low water some of them were little more than #h or #aj feet wide1 and the obstructions became so great1 that the fall at low water increased to #e feet perpendicular4 ,five openings on the south end and one in the north end were occupied by water-wheels for pumping water for the ,city4 ,the obstruction caused by these works was so great that the celebrated ,smeaton was employed by the ,corporation of ,london to take down the two arches near the centre1 and replace them by a single one of #hj feet span4 ,the original bridge is said to have been built in the year #aagf2 but between that time and the period of its removal in #ahcd1 it underwent so many alterations and changes that it may almost be said to have been rebuilt several times4 ,it was originally covered with houses1 as everyone knows1 leaving a narrow passage between for the traffic4 ,to describe the numerous alterations would require a large volume1 and the reader is therefore referred to an interesting account of this curious old structure called #8,the ,chronicles of ,old ,london ,bridge4' ,numerous speculations were made by scientific men1 engineers and others1 on the effect the removal of the old bridge would have upon the river4 ,my father pointed out the probable results in a very simple manner2 he said that the river was in an artificial state in consequence of the old bridge acting as a dam to the free passage of the waters upwards and downwards1 both tidal and fresh2 and the consequence was1 that the river above had to a certain extent accommodated itself to circumstances4 ,by the removal of this obstruction the river would soon be reduced to its natural level2 the fall of #d to #e feet through the bridge would be removed1 consequently the tide would rise so much higher and fall so much lower above bridge1 and so much more tidal water would be admitted above the old bridge throughout the whole length of the tidal flow as far as ,teddington ,lock2 and this increased quantity of tidal water passing up and down twice each way during the twenty-four hours would scour the bed of the river1 and thus remove the great quantity of mud deposited along the shores4 ,and further1 that the drainage of the metropolis1 and in fact the whole valley of the ,thames1 at least as far as ,teddington1 would be greatly improved2 and the water1 being constantly changed1 would be clearer and fresher4 ,he further said1 that the actual level of high water would scarcely be materially affected1 perhaps not exceeding #e or #f inches2 and lastly1 that the process would be gradual1 and that it would take several years before the river would attain its final and natural state4 ,such has proved to be the result4 ,as the works of new ,london ,bridge proceeded attention was drawn to the irregular outline of the wharves1 which were not only unsightly but extremely injurious to the regular passage of the waters4 ,at this time also1 people having visited ,paris and other great continental cities1 were struck with the architectural beauties which they had seen1 and became much disgusted with the mean1 shabby-looking appearance of ,london2 and well they might1 for there were no great leading thoroughfares worthy of the name4 ,cockspur ,street1 leading from the ,strand to ,pall ,mall1 was scarcely #bj feet wide2 the ,royal ,mews occupied ,trafalgar ,square2 the ,haymarket was encumbered by haycarts2 ,cross's ,menagerie and ,exeter ,change blocked up the ,strand near ,waterloo ,bridge2 the connection between ,holborn and ,oxford ,street was round by old ,st4 ,giles'1 and ,farringdon ,street was filled with a market1 and surrounded by undertakers4 ,regent ,street had been commenced under the direction of that clever architect ,nash1 which1 from his novel mode of grouping shops into distinct masses of different styles1 excited considerable attention1 and was totally different to anything we had hitherto seen in the metropolis4 ,this great and really magnificent street was1 ,i am told1 entirely his own idea1 and according to the opinion of the late ,sir ,robert ,smirke1 was a ,herculean task1 on account of the great variety of interests to be dealt with1 and he told me that nobody but the indefatigable ,nash could have carried it through4 ,he built a house there for himself1 now the ,gallery of ,illustration1 opposite to the ,club ,chambers near ,waterloo ,place1 where ,george ,,iv4 honoured him with a visit4 ,in fact1 just about this time there was a perfect mania for architectural improvements4 ,a committee1 called the ,committee of ,taste1 was accordingly appointed1 in order to design such improvements as were imperatively required in the neighbourhood of ,charing ,cross1 the ,strand1 and ,holborn and ,oxford ,street4 ,this ,committee consisted of the late ,lord ,farnborough1 ,john ,wilson ,croker1 ,sir ,john ,soane1 ,sir ,robert ,smirke1 ,nash1 and two or three others1 and certainly no committee ever discharged its duties better4 ,to its labours we are indebted for ,trafalgar ,square and the improvements in the ,strand1 ,cockspur ,street1 the ,haymarket1 the old ,opera ,house1 and those between ,oxford ,street and ,holborn1 which are really very good1 and the architecture1 although not altogether faultless1 is nevertheless1 taken as a whole1 very effective2 in fact1 nothing like these improvements has been effected since4 ,the new street from ,waterloo ,bridge to ,oxford ,street1 undertaken soon after1 has been a miserable failure2 instead of taking a direct line1 they availed themselves as far as they could of the old miserable intervening streets1 so that this thoroughfare1 which ought to have been one of the best in ,london1 is now one of the worst1 and the increase in the value of the property on each side has been very little4 ,but if this street had been made in a straight line1 and of ample width1 the shops and buildings on both sides would have been of a superior character1 and would have yielded far higher rents1 which would have gone a long way towards paying part of the expenses1 if not the whole4 ,about this time ,sir ,f4 ,trench1 who moved in the most fashionable circles and was a great amateur in architecture and fine arts1 was seized and enraptured with the idea of constructing quays along the banks of the ,thames1 between ,whitehall and ,blackfriars ,bridge1 and converting the space so recovered from the shore of the ,thames into a handsome carriage-drive and promenade ornamented with gardens and fountains4 ,he applied to the late ,mr4 ,philip ,wyatt and myself to assist him in preparing the designs and in obtaining an ,act of ,parliament to carry it into effect4 ,at the request of the ,london ,bridge ,committee ,i had previously1 in company with the late ,mr4 ,w4 ,mylne1 prepared a general plan for this object1 but it went no farther on account of the difficulty of raising the funds4 ,trench1 however1 overlooked this1 and said he had no doubt that sufficient money would be obtained4 ,he accordingly1 with his great influence and indefatigable activity1 formed a committee of the highest class2 neither were the ladies excluded2 amongst others1 the beautiful ,duchess of ,rutland took the greatest interest in the undertaking1 and at the first meeting1 which took place at ,her ,grace's house1 she was unanimously voted to the chair1 and conducted everything in the most business-like manner4 ,lord ,palmerston1 then ,secretary for ,war1 took a leading part1 and it is singular that many years later his ,lordship1 then ,premier1 should have proposed a similar measure1 and the continuation of the coal duties for carrying it into effect1 which was adopted2 but when we proposed the undertaking and the mode of raising the funds1 notwithstanding our powerful committee1 the idea was considered as chimerical4 ,trench1 however1 was so confident that the means would be found1 that he went to considerable expense in preparing a book ornamented with numerous beautiful engravings showing the effect which would be produced by the undertaking1 to which ,wyatt and myself contributed our share4 ,a solicitor1 named ,leech1 was appointed1 notices for going to ,parliament were duly given1 and the necessary plans and estimates were deposited2 but when the question as to the means of raising the funds came before the ,managing ,committee1 everybody was at a loss4 ,to form a company appeared impossible1 as it did not appear that sufficient revenue would be derived from the undertaking2 and as to raising funds by increasing and extending the coal tax1 the ,government was decidedly opposed to it2 they said they had done as much in this way as possible for ,london ,bridge1 and that the public would not submit to any further tax of the kind4 ,thus1 after a considerable deal of useless trouble and expense1 ,trench1 ,wyatt1 and myself were obliged to abandon this great undertaking1 which has since been carried into effect nearly upon the same principles as we recommended4 ,as to the architecture of the approaches to ,london ,bridge1 ,i referred the subject to my brother-in-law1 ,cockerell1 a very accomplished and competent authority1 and ,i exhibited his designs to the ,committee as well as some of my own4 ,they1 however1 considered them to be too ornamental and costly1 although they were as plain and simple as these important approaches rendered necessary4 ,the ,committee1 having rejected them1 referred the subject to the late ,sir ,robert ,smirke1 then one of the ,crown architects1 and he designed the present buildings on both sides of the bridge1 as far as ,king ,william ,street on the north1 and the old townhall of ,southwark on the south2 and certainly1 with all due respect to my late friend ,sir ,robert ,smirke1 a more unworthy set of buildings was never designed4 ,thus not only has a rare opportunity of making handsome and appropriate buildings to one of the greatest thoroughfares in the world been lost1 but the buildings are so low and badly built1 that the advantages of the ground1 which it must have been foreseen were capable of almost unlimited development as regards rental1 have been in a great measure thrown away4 ,whilst building ,london ,bridge ,i had also numerous other works to attend to1 namely1 the ,admiralty works1 the harbours of ,ramsgate1 ,sunderland1 ,donaghadee1 ,port ,patrick1 ,kingstown1 and ,port ,rush1 ,staines ,bridge1 the bridge across the ,serpentine in ,hyde ,park1 finishing the ,eau ,brink ,works1 the ,nene and ,witham outfalls1 the ,ancholme ,drainage1 together with a good deal of miscellaneous business4 ,as the harbours and ,admiralty works are fully described in my book on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours1' ,i will proceed to the drainage3 first1 the ,eau ,brink4 ,i have already said that the ,great ,cut was opened in #ahba1 just at the period of my father's death2 according to the latest ,act1 the engineers of drainage and navigation were obliged to report within twelve months after the opening of the cut2 they were obliged to examine the whole1 and report how far they had been completed1 and what further was necessary in order to render them efficient4 ,mr4 ,telford and myself accordingly devoted several days to this2 on examining the ,eau ,brink ,cut we found that it had been made in exact conformity with ,huddart's design1 as specified by the ,act2 but1 notwithstanding1 the upper end was too small1 and the scour there was so great that it threatened to break through the bank across the upper end of the old channel1 and thus revert to its old course4 ,we therefore recommended that it should be increased one-third in area1 the greatest part of the increase being at the upper end1 and that the money destined in the estimate for clearing away the shoals in the river between the cut and ,denver ,sluice should be used for the purpose of widening the cut1 as the bed of the river did not require clearing4 ,this report took the ,commissioners by surprise4 ,they said they had been deceived1 and did not believe that it was required1 and would have the whole subject investigated by other engineers1 which was accordingly done4 ,however1 it ended in proving that ,mr4 ,telford and myself were right1 and the enlargement of the ,eau ,brink ,cut was made under my direction2 this had the effect of lowering the low-water mark at the upper end #b feet more1 making #g feet altogether4 ,the scour of the cut was so much more than estimated1 that the banks between ,denver ,sluice and the cut were in many places undermined1 the channel was diverted from the old quays in ,lynn1 and several buildings on the opposite shore were washed down1 and as the ,eau ,brink ,commissioners were bound under the ,act to compensate for any damages done to any interest or party1 they1 the ,commissioners1 were compelled to pay for all these damages--#ej1jjjl4 to the bank owners1 #bh1jjjl41 and #gjjl4 a year to ,lynn ,harbour1 #aj1jjjl4 to the ,marshland ,drainage1 and other minor sums4 ,having settled this1 they obtained an ,act to relieve themselves from all further liability4 ,my father had been employed by the ,duke of ,bedford1 and other great landowners in the north level of the fens1 to consider the best plan of improving the ,nene1 so as to render it a good outfall for the drainage of the extensive low fen lands bordering it1 which1 on account of their bad drainage1 were frequently subject to floods1 and comparatively valueless4 ,my father wrote a very able report on the subject1 and recommended that the ,nene should be deepened1 enlarged1 and lowered throughout its course from ,peterborough to the sea2 that a new channel should be made from a place called ,rummery ,mill above1 to the ,horse-shoe ,bend1 below ,wisbeach 7for the course followed by the river through the town was so crooked and confined that it could not be sufficiently improved without incurring great unnecessary expense7 and that the navigation to and from the town should still be preserved by locks connecting the old with the new channel2 and also to make a new outfall for the river from ,kinderly's ,cut to a place called ,crab ,hole1 in the ,great ,wash1 where there was ample depth of water4 ,he said that the new outfall might be made partly within the estuary and partly in the marshes without1 to ,skates ,corner1 but that then it would neither be so direct nor so effectual as if made entirely within the banks of the ,nene estuary4 ,mr4 ,rennie's report was approved of1 but the necessary means for carrying it into effect were wanting1 so the matter for the time lay dormant4 ,subsequently ,mr4 ,telford and myself were appointed the engineers1 and reconsidered the whole matter4 ,finding the people of ,wisbeach were violently opposed to the main channel passing by their town1 we were obliged to give up this part1 as well as the upper portion of the channel to ,peterborough1 and confine ourselves to the improvement of the outfall below ,wisbeach1 and to commence the new outfall near the lower end of ,kinderly's ,cut4 ,i strongly advocated my father's plan of making the new outfall direct to ,crab ,hole1 within the old banks1 but as the first expense would have been a little more1 although far less in the end1 as has been proved1 it was resolved to make the new outfall to ,skates ,corner1 partly within1 partly without the old banks4 ,an ,act of ,parliament was accordingly obtained1 and ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks became the contractors4 ,the works commenced1 and the outfall was opened in #ahca4 ,whilst it was in progress ,mr4 ,telford and myself frequently visited the works together1 and in ,june we went down the old estuary of the ,nene in a boat at low water1 for the purpose of examining more minutely the state of the channels near ,crab ,hole and ,skates1 where we proposed that the new outfall should enter the estuary4 ,it was a very stormy day1 accompanied by lightning1 thunder1 rain1 and a strong south-west wind4 ,we got as far as ,crab ,hole at low water1 when the weather beat us completely1 and we were obliged to walk over the muddy shore half-way up to our knees1 and drenched to the skin4 ,we had sent some refreshment to an old house1 called ,king ,john's ,house1 near the bank1 said to have been erected during his reign1 and to have afforded ,his ,majesty shelter after his retreat from ,lynn4 ,the rain now came down heavier than ever1 so that we had no alternative but to retrace our steps back to the dirty old 8public0 at the ,ferry1 called ,cross ,keys1 about #c miles distant4 ,we got back1 thoroughly soaked1 about three in the afternoon4 ,i immediately stripped and went to bed4 ,old ,telford1 being a strong1 hearty man1 of about seventy1 instead of following my example1 ordered a large fire to be made in the only sitting-room there was1 called for the newspaper1 and sat himself down to dry4 ,after two hours' nap ,i was thoroughly refreshed1 and went down to the sitting-room4 ,when ,i entered there was such a steam that ,i could hardly see anything2 but1 approaching the fire1 found ,telford had nearly dried himself1 and he abused me thoroughly for being so effeminate as to go to bed4 ,he suffered1 however1 severely afterwards for his imprudence2 for he was taken with a violent diarrha at ,cambridge on his return1 and was confined there for a fortnight1 and escaped with difficulty with his life2 but the diarrha haunted him more or less ever after1 until his death4 ,he was a most agreeable1 facetious companion1 and ,i passed many happy days with him4 ,previous to the diversion of the old channel through the new outfall1 ,mr4 ,telford and myself ordered the contractors to assemble as many men1 horses1 carts1 and materials as possible1 in order that the old channel should be stopped up during the neap tides4 ,when everything was ready we went down and met the contractors1 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks1 and immediately gave them orders to commence filling up the old channel2 they had about thirteen hundred men1 and horses1 carts1 and materials1 and appliances of all kinds1 and set to work in right good earnest4 ,the ,corporation of ,wisbeach1 who had always opposed the measure1 although they were compelled by the ,act to contribute #cj1jjjl4 towards it1 which was perhaps the cause1 offered every obstruction in their power1 and said that the new outfall was not excavated deep enough according to the ,act1 and came down in their barge with their law officers1 giving us official written notices to stop all proceedings4 ,at this critical moment the contractors were rather taken aback2 ,mr4 ,telford and ,i1 however1 nothing daunted1 ordered the men to proceed stopping the channel1 and to take no notice of the ,corporation4 ,we further told them1 that if they did not go away1 their barge and all in it would be swamped1 and that the responsibility would rest entirely with them4 ,seeing that we were in earnest they turned tail1 and1 leaving their protest1 returned to ,wisbeach4 ,the third day afterwards the old channel was completely closed1 and the ,nene diverted to its new outfall4 ,it should be observed here1 that ,mr4 ,telford and myself1 calculating upon the loose nature of the soil1 which was silt1 and which we felt confident would scour when fairly acted upon by the current1 only made the contract for the excavation to the level of low water of spring tides2 and therefore it would have wasted money to have excavated that which we knew the current would do for nothing4 ,the current at first appeared to have very little effect2 and the ,duke of ,bedford's manager1 the late excellent and talented ,tycho ,wing1 a schoolfellow of mine at ,dr4 ,burney's1 became much alarmed1 and was sadly afraid that the outfall would be a failure4 ,telford and ,i knew better1 and assured him that our only doubt was whether the current would not be too strong1 and render it necessary to protect the sides with stone4 ,this we considered to be no disadvantage--on the contrary a great benefit2 for making the cut small in the first instance1 we should always be able to regulate the scour whenever it might have a tendency to enlarge the cut beyond the size necessary to discharge the drainage water effectually1 at the same time preserving a sufficient depth for navigation2 but if it had been too large in the first instance1 it could not have been properly adjusted afterwards4 ,mr4 ,wing was comforted by our assurances2 still he had his doubts1 and two months elapsed before any sensible scour appeared to take place4 ,the fact was1 the fall in the bottom was so little1 that the current had to remove the obstacles to its progress1 which it could only do by degrees1 when it had accumulated sufficient fall or head2 having done this1 its progress was most rapid1 and increased daily1 so that within six months after it had been opened it had scoured out the bottom to #i feet below low water of spring tides2 the sides also had been regularly scoured away1 and the area of the cut was increased to three times its original size4 ,spring tides1 which had scarcely exceeded a few feet at ,wisbeach1 and not much more at ,cross ,keys1 rose remarkably at both places1 so that vessels of considerable tonnage could reach ,wisbeach even at neaps1 whereas before they could only get up there at spring tides4 ,the trade of the port increased so rapidly1 that they were soon enabled to pay off the #cj1jjjl4 which they had been previously obliged to borrow to contribute to the cost of the outfall4 ,the outfall by the scour had now attained its proper dimensions1 and we recommended that the banks should be paved with stone1 in order to prevent them from being enlarged1 which was accordingly done4 ,the outfall went on improving until the year #ahcg1 when ,i examined it1 and found that the low-water mark had fallen #aj feet #c inches at ,cross ,keys ,bridge1 that there was a rise of tide of #bj feet at springs1 and depth of #i feet at low water1 and a rise proportionate at ,wisbeach at both springs and neaps2 so that vessels drawing #af feet could go up to the town at springs1 and #ab feet at neaps1 and the whole of the surrounding lowland country was completely drained and the property nearly doubled in value4 ,mr4 ,john ,young was appointed engineer under me for paving the new outfall with stone1 and afterwards entered business upon his own account as merchant and shipowner at ,wisbeach2 and by his talents1 energy1 and industry has since realized an ample fortune1 has been elected mayor several times1 and has become member for the county of ,cambridge4 ,it had long been a favourite idea with the late ,lord ,william ,bentinck and his friend ,mr4 ,thomas ,hoseason1 of ,banklands1 to make a bridge across the ,nene estuary1 at ,cross ,keys1 in order to shorten the distance between the south of ,lincolnshire and ,norfolk4 ,the bridge over the lower end of the ,eau ,brink had been completed1 and another had been made at the ,fossdyke ,wash by my father1 for the ,welland2 so that it was only necessary to make another across the ,nene estuary1 at ,cross ,keys1 to complete this desirable line of communication4 ,a company was accordingly formed for this purpose1 of which ,lord ,william ,bentinck was the head4 ,an ,act was obtained at the same time as the ,nene ,outfall ,act1 and ,i was appointed the engineer4 ,the ,nene ,outfall ,commissioners obtained a clause in the ,bridge ,act compelling the ,company to build the bridge over the ,nene ,outfall ,cut at the same time2 this ,i told them was very unwise1 for as the bridge was to be built of wood1 with a drawbridge opening in the centre to allow vessels to pass1 it would be impossible to drive the great piles forming the piers of the bridge sufficiently deep to be below the scour in the outfall2 the better plan would be to wait until the outfall had been scoured to its full depth1 and then build the bridge4 ,my opinion was overruled2 the bridge was built2 and it was impossible1 as ,i expected1 to drive the piles to the requisite depth4 ,where the full effect of the scour had taken place it was found necessary to secure the piles of the bridge by throwing a great mass of stone round them4 ,this materially obstructed the current through the bridge1 until at length there was a fall through it of from two to three feet1 which greatly injured the drainage1 so that the ,nene ,outfall ,commissioners ultimately got an ,act to make a new bridge for the ,company at the ,commissioners' expense4 ,all this might have been avoided if the bridge had been built as ,i originally recommended4 ,the spot where this bridge and line of embankment is made is the same place where ,king ,john's army was lost1 and where my father was nearly drowned some years before1 crossing in his carriage1 being overtaken by the tide4 ,six thousand acres of this ,wash have been reclaimed from the sea by myself2 and where once the tides used to ebb and flow1 are now fields under culture producing the finest crops4 ,notwithstanding all the attempts to improve the river ,nene above ,wisbeach1 nothing had been done1 and ,i was again requested by the ,duke of ,bedford's advisers to examine the subject and make a comprehensive plan by means of which ,whittlesea ,mere and all the low fenny country around it might be drained1 to the extent of #ee1jjj acres1 it being then little better than a marsh4 ,i accordingly surveyed and levelled the whole country1 and made my report in #ahcg4 ,i showed that by improving the ,nene from ,peterborough to the outfall1 and making a main drain to ,whittlesea ,mere to connect it with the ,nene1 and by making a catchwater drain round the base of the surrounding hills1 so as to discharge the highland water into the ,nene at ,peterborough and the ,ouse at ,hermitage ,sluice1 the whole country would be thoroughly well drained1 the navigation would be greatly improved1 and there would be an ample supply of fresh water at moderate cost4 ,this plan was approved of by the late ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1 but was not adopted4 ,the ,middle ,level ,corporation1 in whose district was the greatest part of the lowlands to be drained1 would not listen to it1 but insisted on draining them by the ,ouse1 #aj miles farther distant4 ,this measure was carried out at double the cost of my plan1 and a minor plan substituted for the improvement of the ,nene1 which is said to have cost a great deal more than any benefits derived from it1 although the ,eau ,brink ,cut had lowered the low-water mark on the ,ouse nearly #f feet4 ,still the sands below ,lynn1 at the mouth of the ,ouse1 accumulated to such an extent1 that the navigation up to that town was so seriously obstructed that moderate-sized vessels could only come up to the town at spring tides1 and they frequently got ashore upon the numerous shoals1 lost their tide1 and were detained for days together1 besides suffering considerable injury4 ,the drainage interests1 moreover1 complained that the water in the ,ouse did not fall low enough to enable the middle and south level lands to be properly drained4 ,in fact1 the good effects produced by the ,eau ,brink ,cut were decreasing1 in consequence of the waters not being able to get off below ,lynn1 so that they were held up to the extent of #b feet at the lower end of the ,eau ,brink ,cut1 thus reducing the original fall gained by that cut from #g feet to #e1 whilst the fall gained by the ,nene ,outfall had been fully #aj feet #f inches to #aa feet1 being a difference of #f feet in favour of the ,nene4 ,a committee1 consisting of ,lord ,w4 ,bentinck1 ,sir ,william ,foulkes1 and others1 leading proprietors and parties interested1 requested me to examine into the whole subject and report as to what was best to be done4 ,i accordingly employed nearly twelve months in surveying and levelling the ,great ,wash and the mouths of the ,ouse1 ,nene1 ,welland1 and ,witham1 which are the principal rivers discharging their waters into the ,great ,wash1 and which drain all the adjacent fen lands1 amounting to nearly a million of acres1 besides the high lands4 ,i found that by improving all the mouths of these rivers an additional fall of #g feet might be gained for the ,ouse1 #b feet for the ,nene1 and a similar amount for the ,welland and the ,witham1 and recommended that all these rivers should be united and made to discharge their waters into one great main channel in the centre of the ,great ,wash1 and that the main and minor channels should be properly embanked4 ,by this means not only would all these rivers be much improved1 and the drainage and navigation rendered as perfect as they could be made1 but1 in addition to this1 from #aej1jjj to #bjj1jjj acres of land would be gained from the ,wash1 or1 in other words1 a new county1 of most valuable land1 would be added to the kingdom4 ,this project was so vast and important that it took the world by surprise4 ,it was impossible to deny the soundness of the principles or data upon which it was founded1 or the vast importance of it in a national point of view1 if means could be found to carry it into effect2 but here was one of the great difficulties1 and another still greater presented itself1 namely that of uniting together the vast number of conflicting interests concerned1 so that they might combine together as one whole body for the completion of the undertaking4 ,after the plan had been published and promulgated for some time1 all sorts of objections were raised and attacks made upon it4 ,i replied coolly and steadily to them all1 and the more it was investigated1 the more the world became convinced of its practicability4 ,still it was impossible to combine the various conflicting interests1 and equally difficult to form a company for such a vast and novel undertaking4 ,the public naturally said1 if the drainage and navigation interests and the landed proprietors1 who were so much interested1 did not see their way1 how could it be expected that a company should8 ,thus the affair1 although frequently agitated1 lay in abeyance for several years4 ,its chief supporters1 ,lord ,william ,bentinck and ,mr4 ,hoseason1 having gone to ,india1 there remained none of sufficient energy and influence to push it forward4 ,at length the late talented and indefatigable ,lord ,george ,bentinck became member for ,lynn1 in succession to his uncle1 ,lord ,william1 when he became ,governor-,general of ,india4 ,lord ,george was unanimously chosen chairman1 and examined most minutely1 with his usual sagacity1 every detail of the measure1 and was perfectly satisfied of its practicability and value1 but thought that it was too great to be undertaken as a whole1 and that it would be better to divide it into two parts1 one comprising the ,ouse and ,nene1 the other the ,welland and ,witham4 ,i must not omit to mention that the late ,prince ,consort was much pleased with the plan1 and expressed his approbation to me of it4 ,it was accordingly decided to form a company for the ,norfolk half1 including the ,ouse and ,nene1 and to reclaim #ce1jjj acres of land from the ,great ,wash2 and at the end of #ahde the requisite plans were prepared and notices given for a ,bill to be applied for in the ensuing session1 under the title of the ,norfolk ,estuary ,act4 ,the ,company originally calculated that the land gained from the estuary would have indemnified them for making the new cut for the ,ouse2 and so it would1 if they had been allowed all the land below high-water mark1 without having any other burdens entailed upon them4 ,but unfortunately this was not the case2 they were saddled with the maintenance of the ,great ,cut1 although1 strictly speaking1 it ought to have been maintained by the navigation and the drainage interests1 which alone derived the benefit from it4 ,the land frontagers claimed all the land1 or green marsh1 to be embanked at the expense of the ,company1 who were only to receive a certain portion of its improved value2 the ,ouse bank owners were to be indemnified to some extent also4 ,the ,crown was to have a commission of five per cent4 upon the expenditure2 and the ,church was to have a certain portion1 or tithe1 upon the land gained3 indeed1 so many restrictions were placed on the ,company that their calculated profits were materially reduced2 nevertheless1 as a number of the shareholders were otherwise greatly interested in the improvement of the drainage1 frontage1 c41 they calculated that if the shares were worth nothing1 they would still be the gainers4 ,i protested as much as ,i could1 without avail1 against all these restrictions1 and ,i doubted much whether the ,act could or would be carried into effect with any benefit to those shareholders who simply looked to their profit from the shares4 ,it turned out as ,i expected4 ,the ,act passed during the session of #ahdf4 ,still there was no prospect of the ,norfolk ,estuary ,act being carried into effect1 on account of the restrictions above mentioned2 and the ,company wisely determined not to proceed unless the drainage and navigation interests1 which were so materially concerned1 came forward with a handsome contribution towards it4 ,the ,middle ,level proprietors had obtained a ,bill1 in the year #ahdf1 for the improvement of their drainage1 which was much opposed1 and in which ,i took a leading part4 ,however1 they carried their ,bill1 and the works were designed and commenced under ,mr4 ,james ,walker2 but they soon found that the work would be comparatively valueless4 ,the ,norfolk ,estuary ,act had now been carried1 and they therefore entered into negotiations with the ,norfolk ,estuary ,company1 and these negotiations finally ended in the ,middle ,level ,commissioners and the ,lynn ,corporation1 who represented the drainage and navigation interests1 agreeing to contribute each the sum of #fj1jjjl4 towards the completion of the new channel for the ,ouse1 contemplated by the ,norfolk ,estuary ,company1 upon condition that the late ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson should be joint engineer to the ,norfolk ,estuary ,company with myself1 to which1 of course1 ,i had no objection2 and it was agreed that an ,act of ,parliament should be obtained in order to ratify this agreement1 which passed in the year #ahej4 ,at that time a former ,act rendered it necessary that before any improvement was made in any port or harbour1 a ,commission should be appointed by the ,admiralty to investigate the plan1 the ,commission to hold its inquiry in public2 ,captain ,washington and ,captain ,veitch were appointed by the ,admiralty for this purpose4 ,they held their court at the townhall1 ,lynn1 and1 singular to relate1 the gallant gentlemen advocated a curved instead of a straight channel1 which1 under the circumstances1 was so contrary to the practice of every good hydraulic engineer1 that their report was simply ridiculous1 and when produced by the ,admiralty before the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on the ,bill1 was proved by the best engineers to be wrong1 and was therefore ignored by the ,committee1 and the plan proposed by ,mr4 ,stephenson and myself was unanimously adopted4 ,the ,bill accordingly passed1 and the agreement between the ,middle ,level ,commissioners1 the ,corporation of ,lynn1 and the ,company1 the two former contributing #fj1jjjl4 each1 was ratified2 still there were several restrictive clauses1 such as entailing the maintenance of the works upon the ,company1 giving up the whole of the green marsh to the several frontages1 which materially abridged the profits of the ,company1 and increased their risks1 and which ,i in vain protested against4 ,the main cut commenced on the lower side of ,lynn1 and was continued in a straight line #b miles4 ,we calculated that certain dimensions were ample in the first instance1 because it was not necessary to excavate the cut artificially to the full depth1 as we knew that as soon as the current began to act upon it1 it would in a short time be adjusted to its proper capacity for the admission and discharge of the tidal waters1 in the same manner as had taken place in the ,nene estuary outfall already mentioned4 ,from the lower end of the above cut the channel for a distance of two miles farther to deep water was to be trained through the sands1 formed by guide walls of rough stone raised to about the level of half tide1 with beacons upon it at certain distances to indicate the channel2 and when once the channel had been thus trained1 the remainder of the banks to their full height above high water would be raised naturally by the silting up on each side1 combined with the gradual process of embanking the land from each of the shores of the estuary1 if properly managed4 ,messrs4 ,peto undertook the contract of the main cut4 ,the land having been bought1 and everything arranged1 a day was fixed for turning the first sod1 at the upper end near ,lynn4 ,the ceremony was performed by the late worthy ,sir ,william ,foulkes1 the chairman of the ,company1 on the #ast of ,november1 #ahej4 ,on that day a grand procession1 consisting of the ,company1 the ,corporation and trades of ,lynn1 the ,earl of ,leicester1 ,lord ,lieutenant1 together with numerous gentry1 and other spectators1 attended the ceremony1 which went off with great clat1 and the whole1 as usual1 terminated with a grand dinner to about two hundred persons at the townhall4 ,unfortunately my friend ,mr4 ,stephenson was abroad and could not attend4 ,the excavation of the great cut proceeded rapidly for some time1 until ,mr4 ,stephenson and myself1 judging that enough had been done1 and that the current would do the rest more effectually1 ordered the dams to be removed at both ends and the water admitted1 which was accordingly done4 ,as soon as the fen proprietors heard of this1 they were greatly alarmed2 they said that the ,company had violated their agreement with them1 and had gone contrary to the ,act of ,parliament1 in not excavating the cut to the full depth required before letting the water in4 ,we endeavoured in vain to persuade them to the contrary4 ,they immediately applied for a mandamus to stop the works and restore the dams until the cut had been excavated to the full dimensions required by the ,act1 and obtained an injunction1 so that we were compelled to restore the dams and stop out the water4 ,we determined1 however1 not to give up the point1 and argued the question before ,vice-,chancellor ,turner1 and were beaten4 ,we then applied to the ,admiralty1 who would not assist4 ,we appealed from the ,vice-,chancellor's decision to the ,lords ,justices of ,appeal1 and were again beaten2 still we would not give up1 and at last we found that there was no alternative but to get a new ,act of ,parliament allowing us to make the cut in any manner we pleased1 provided that we made it of the dimensions originally agreed upon4 ,the ,eau ,brink ,commissioners opposed us by every means in their power1 but our evidence1 which was given by the first engineers of the day1 so completely satisfied ,parliament that we carried our new ,bill as we wished it4 ,thus1 after a severe struggle for two years1 we carried our point2 but this was so much valuable time lost1 besides a great deal of money spent in litigation4 ,having obtained our new ,act1 we set to work immediately to remove the dams of the cut1 and to let the water in1 and at the same time to commence the dam for stopping up the old channel of the ,ouse at the lower end of the town of ,lynn1 near the upper end of the new cut4 ,as the dams and bottom of the river near them were composed of strong clay1 it took some time to remove them so as to admit the waters freely into the cut2 but as soon as this was done1 the scour began to have a sensible effect2 this was increased by the closing of the dam across the old channel1 so that within a few months afterwards not only had the new cut been scoured out to the full depth required by the old ,act1 but considerably beyond it4 ,thus ,stephenson and myself were proved in the right1 and the opposition entirely in the wrong4 ,the effect on the port of ,lynn was very remarkable4 ,the depth of water at spring tides was #ah to #bj feet1 and neaps #ad to #af feet2 and there was a regular depth at low water of spring tides of #i to #ab feet in the cut1 so that the largest vessels could always come up and depart with their full cargoes either at spring or neap tides1 and the channel was so direct and easy of navigation1 that pilots1 of whom there was a large establishment1 became in a great measure unnecessary1 and their numbers were considerably reduced as well as their charges1 and the increase of trade soon enabled the town of ,lynn to pay off the #fj1jjjl4 contribution to the estuary works4 ,the drainage interests also derived a similar benefit by the lowering of the low-water mark #f feet1 which1 together with that obtained by the ,eau ,brink ,cut1 was altogether #aa feet4 ,the ,middle ,level ,drainage1 upon which a large sum had been expended1 obtained an increased fall of between #c and #d feet1 which enabled the ,commissioners to drain the greatest portion of their lands naturally instead of artificially4 ,in fact1 the ,port of ,lynn by means of these works has become one of the best on the east coast of ,england1 at the least expense1 and with the most moderate dues2 indeed1 if the ,drainage and ,navigation had paid double the money which they did to this great work1 and which in justice they ought to have done for the benefits it has conferred upon them1 they would have been more than amply indemnified4 ,the ,estuary ,company having now completed the cut1 turned their attention to the best means of reclaiming from the ,wash the #ce1jjj acres which had been allotted to them by the ,crown1 or at least as much of it as they could2 but unfortunately there were so many different opinions among them and their advisers1 that they lost a great deal of time and money in pursuing improper measures4 ,i1 who originally designed the undertaking1 and had acquired great experience in this department from having carried on successfully similar works in the ,great ,wash and elsewhere1 always adhered to one system1 namely1 to work with nature1 and never to go against her2 if we did1 ,i invariably found that we were beaten4 ,we knew1 from a variety of experiments that had been made1 that the alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters in the ,great ,wash was an ascertainable quantity2 that this alluvial matter was transferred from one place to another1 according to the prevailing winds and currents2 and that it was only deposited where circumstances were favourable1 such as eddies and sheltered stagnant places4 ,now my great object 7after having confined the fresh and tidal waters of the river ,ouse to one adequate channel1 so as to preserve the drainage and navigation in an efficient state7 was to cause to be deposited the alluvial matter that was held in suspension in the waters spreading over the other parts of the estuary4 ,this could only be done effectually by arresting the progress of the flowing and ebbing waters in such a manner1 that as much of the alluvial matter as possible might be deposited in the places most convenient1 that is1 in those places where it was desired to raise the soil above the level of high water of neap tides4 ,when this level is reached grass may be expected to grow1 and in a very short time the whole is converted into a green marsh4 ,the process simply this3 when the deposit has reached a certain number of feet above low water of spring tides1 a species of light green vegetation first covers the surface in patches1 then by degrees extends over the whole2 the reclaimed land still continues rising1 and at a higher level above low water samphire makes its appearance2 the accumulation of soil still goes on increasing1 when the samphire disappears1 and grass succeeds it1 and in a short time afterwards the place assumes the appearance of a level green marsh well adapted for grazing cattle4 ,after it has arrived at this stage1 which it does at about the level of high water of neap tides1 the accumulation is very slow2 on our coasts it seldom attains a much higher elevation1 except where the sand is blown up by strong winds from the sea1 which forms dunes or banks1 that1 as in the case of ,holland and other places1 sometimes attain an elevation of #cj feet and upwards above the level of the highest tides4 ,this1 however1 is not the case around the shores of the ,great ,wash2 there the marshes are simply produced by the gradual deposit of alluvial matter in the manner above stated4 ,the great object1 therefore1 as ,i have said1 is to facilitate this deposit or accretion as much as possible by artificial means4 ,nature1 if left to herself1 though sure1 is very slow4 ,we must therefore assist nature1 by following and working in unison with her laws4 ,we must go to work gradually1 and not by great and expensive operations check the currents violently and at once1 which would only produce an equally strong current elsewhere1 so that while we gained in one place we should lose in another4 ,by a series of light works composed of bushy fagots or other similar materials1 raised about #ab or #ae inches above the level of the sands1 and disposed in a series of lines at certain distances from each other1 not continuous1 but in lengths1 so that the ends may overlap each other1 the currents will be gently checked without being wholly obstructed1 the water between them will be rendered stagnant1 and the alluvial matter with which it is charged will be deposited4 ,when the deposit has reached to the top of these works1 the works themselves should be raised higher in the same place1 or in an intermediate position1 as circumstances shall render advisable4 ,where a certain space is intended to be raised or warped up1 it is generally better to commence at the upper end and work downwards2 the works themselves are less expensive1 the height to be raised is less1 and the water impelled by the mass of the tide behind brings up a greater quantity of alluvial matter1 and in proportion as the space above is warped up it accumulates in a greater degree below4 ,in carrying on works of this kind1 wherever we find that there is a tendency to make a channel1 and with it a strong current1 it must be checked gradually from the upper end1 so that the quantity of water passing through it may be decreased1 and this channel will soon fill up4 ,when a certain space has been naturally or artificially raised to the level of a fine green marsh1 provided that there be a sufficient quantity to pay the expense1 it should be embanked entirely from the sea4 ,as to the expense incurred in embanking it1 and the value of the land when embanked1 generally speaking1 we shall seldom err if we take as a rule that the land should be worth double the cost of embanking4 ,when we have an estuary to deal with from which we may expect to reclaim several thousand acres of land1 it resolves itself into a serious question both of time and money as to the best mode of accomplishing it4 ,one object should be as far as practicable to reduce the extent of main or barrier banks1 and if the situation be well adapted for the purpose1 a barrier bank may be commenced at the lower end1 and gradually pushed forward in proportion as the space above it exhibits a tendency to silt up2 in combination with this the minor operations should be carried on1 so that the one may assist the other4 ,when a sufficient quantity of marsh above the barrier bank has been formed1 it may be embanked from the sea1 and by keeping the barrier bank always sufficiently in advance the interior banks will become less costly1 as they will not be exposed to the main force of the waves during storms2 otherwise each separate bank must be made a barrier bank1 and the whole cost will be materially increased4 ,the propriety of adopting either the one system or the other will greatly depend upon the peculiar local circumstances4 ,with regard to the quantity of land1 when fit for the purpose1 to be embanked or enclosed at one time1 this also will1 like the other1 depend upon the local circumstances4 ,generally speaking it is safer to confine the operation to about #djj or #ejj acres2 and the proper time for closing the embankment is during neap tides1 when the work will be much facilitated4 ,it is true that much greater quantities may be taken in at one time1 according to the ,dutch system1 but then several closing spaces must be left open1 and these must all be specially prepared for the purpose by lining the bottom and sides with wicker-work and fascines to prevent the scour1 and then filling them up with clay1 stone1 fascines1 and earth1 as the case may require2 and if by chance a breach should take place1 which occasionally occurs under the best of management1 the internal space to be filled with water is so great that the violence and strength of the inpouring current is increased in the same proportion1 so that it carries all before it1 scoops out great channels in the interior space1 and damages the land by the great quantity of sand brought in1 and it becomes difficult to clear the internal space of water4 ,and although by this plan a less quantity of embankment is required1 nevertheless the expense per lineal foot becomes greater2 but where the length of the embankment is small compared to the depth of the land to be enclosed1 this system1 if properly managed1 may be adopted with advantage4 ,the most advisable plan must be left a good deal to the judgment and skill of the engineer-in-chief taking advantage of the local circumstances4 ,the above principles for warping and enclosing land ,i recommended in several reports to the ,norfolk ,estuary ,company1 but they were not adopted to the extent ,i recommended2 the consequence has been that several years' time and a good deal of money have been unnecessarily expended4 ,but ,i believe that they have been finally convinced that my system was the proper one1 and it has since been adopted to some extent1 with considerable success1 and about #ajjj acres 7in #ahfg7 have been enclosed1 the property of the ,company1 at the cost of about #ael4 per acre1 the land being worth #djl4 ,they have1 moreover1 enclosed #fjj acres more for the ,prince of ,wales1 upon which they will be paid one-third of its improved value4 ,as several thousand acres in the estuary belonging to the ,company are rapidly approaching that state when they may be profitably embanked1 ,i confidently believe1 by proper management1 that the shareholders will ultimately recover a good deal if not the whole of their capital1 and perhaps a good portion of their interest also2 but ,i shall always contend that if my recommendations had been followed from the beginning1 a great deal of money would have been saved4 ,the ,company ought not to have submitted to the restrictions imposed by the ,acts4 ,the contribution from the drainage and navigation interests ought to have been double1 for which they would have been amply repaid1 and the land gained would have been far greater1 so that even by this time it might have been a very profitable concern4 ,whilst the ,nene ,outfall was in progress1 ,i was employed by the ,corporation of ,boston to improve the outfall of the river between the ,grand ,sluice at the upper end of the town1 and ,hobhole near the mouth of the river1 a distance of nearly four miles4 ,this had previously been proposed by my father1 in the year #ahde1 to the ,corporation of ,boston1 previous to commencing the great drainage of the ,east1 ,west1 and ,wildmere fens bordering upon the ,witham between ,lincoln and ,boston1 amounting to about #abe1jjj acres of lowland1 which for the most part was little better than a marsh4 ,it was here he proposed his grand system for the drainage of lowlands by means of catchwater drains for the waters from the highlands1 and main and minor drains for the waters from the lowlands1 both systems of drains being distinct and separate from each other1 and which he afterwards most successfully carried into effect4 ,in order to obtain the requisite fall1 it was necessary that the outfalls of the two main drains should be carried into the ,witham below the town of ,boston2 but in order that this might be effectual1 it was also necessary that the ,witham should be greatly improved between ,boston and the mouth at ,hobhole2 and as the navigation between these two points was very defective1 he thought that the ,corporation should bear the expense1 as they would derive the greatest benefit4 ,for this purpose my father proposed two plans3 one was to improve the old channel1 partly by cutting off the bends and confining and straightening its course1 and from ,hobhole making a new cut to ,clayhole1 where there was ample depth of water at all times of tide2 and the other plan was to make a direct cut within land from the lower end of ,boston to ,clayhole4 ,he proposed also1 for the drainage1 to make an outfall for the highland water at ,maudfoster1 just below the town of ,boston1 as he said that by bringing the highland water there1 it would effectually serve to keep the river open between that point and its mouth at ,hobhole1 and to make an outfall for the lowland waters at the latter place2 and he recommended the drainage interests to contribute a certain portion of the expense towards the improvement4 ,the ,corporation of ,boston declined doing anything1 and the drainage was left to take care of itself4 ,mr4 ,rennie1 however1 foresaw that if the ,witham was not improved by either one or the other of the plans that he recommended1 the highland water would not be effectively discharged by the sluice at ,maudfoster1 and therefore he made a communication between the ,maudfoster drain and the ,hobhole drain at a place called ,cowbridge1 a few miles above ,boston1 where there was a gauge1 so that whenever the water in ,maudfoster drain exceeded the gauge it passed into the lowland main drain1 and from thence into the ,witham at ,hobhole4 ,what ,mr4 ,rennie foresaw came true2 the ,witham1 not having been improved1 became worse1 and the river in front of the ,maudfoster ,sluice was silted up1 so that it could not discharge its water1 and therefore the whole of the water1 highland and lowland1 was obliged to go by ,hobhole1 which drain and sluice1 foreseeing what would take place1 he had enlarged for the purpose4 ,in the year #ahbg1 the outfall of the ,witham between ,boston and ,hobhole had become so much silted up that at high water of neap tides there was scarcely water enough for fishing boats to come up to the town during the summer months and dry seasons1 and at spring tides only sloops of very small draught could get up to the town2 in fact1 it might be said that at that time ,boston as a seaport was lost1 and the trade and navigation of the port ruined4 ,at this the ,corporation became greatly alarmed1 and sent for me4 ,i directed the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles to make a complete survey of the river1 which he did in his usual able and correct manner1 and no person could do it better4 ,being provided with this survey1 ,i made my report1 and saw clearly that there was no remedy but to carry into effect either the one or the other of my father's plans of #ahje4 ,as the ,corporation funds were very limited1 ,i recommended the plan for improving the old channel1 partly by cutting off the bends and confining the river as far as ,hobhole1 and from thence making a new cut to ,clayhole1 as recommended by my father4 ,there were three parties who were to contribute towards the improvement of the outfall of the ,witham1 namely1 the ,corporation of ,boston1 and the ,witham and the ,black ,sluice ,commissioners4 ,the ,black ,sluice ,commissioners demurred to the plan proposed by me1 which was my father's1 on the ground that the cut ought to be made from the ,black ,sluice inland direct to ,hobhole1 otherwise they would not derive the advantages they had a right to expect from their contributions2 so the whole matter was referred to ,mr4 ,telford1 who said that no improvement in the river below ,boston would be of any use1 unless the ,grand ,sluice above ,boston was removed1 so as to admit the tide to flow farther up the river4 ,now1 although ,telford was to a certain extent right1 but by no means wholly so1 because by carrying into effect either of my father's plans there could be no doubt that considerable improvement would be made on the outfall of the ,witham below ,boston1 as the sequel will show1 nevertheless1 if the ,grand ,sluice had been removed the tide would have flowed farther up the river and the increased quantity of tidal water passing upwards and downwards would have improved the outfall still further2 but there were insuperable objections to the removal of the ,grand ,sluice1 which neither of those parties above mentioned who were to make the improvement in the outfall could control1 for the river above the ,grand ,sluice was under a different body4 ,the banks must have been raised to admit the tide2 compensation must have been made for the loss of fresh water1 and various other interests must have been consulted that were hostile4 ,the ,black ,sluice ,commissioners stuck to ,telford's report1 and withdrew from the contribution1 so that the whole matter fell to the ground4 ,the outfall of the ,witham became worse1 and the ,corporation of ,boston1 being left single-handed1 and having determined to do what they could to improve the river1 again requested my advice4 ,i said that the best thing they could do under the circumstances would be to carry into effect by degrees1 as far as their means would allow1 the plan of my father already referred to for improving the old channel of the river1 and to begin by cutting off the bend between ,hobhole and the upper end of ,burton's ,marsh 7this cut would be about half a mile long71 and blocking up the old channel immediately above it1 which was about half a mile wide4 ,these two works would shorten the navigation quite half a mile1 and admit and discharge the tidal and fresh waters more readily1 and thus produce a corresponding scour and lowering of the low-water line and bed of the river all the way up to the ,grand ,sluice above ,boston4 ,the ,corporation adopted my recommendation1 and entered into a contract with ,jolliffe and ,banks for that purpose4 ,although a small work1 it was attended with considerable difficulty1 particularly in closing the old channel1 on account of its great width and the great body of tidal water which passed through it4 ,the effect of this work exceeded my most sanguine expectations2 in a short time it improved the channel upwards to ,boston to such an extent that spring tides rose at ,boston ,bridge #ad feet1 and neaps #aj feet1 and the bed of the river was deepened from #c to #d feet below low water of springs1 so that vessels drawing #ae feet and #af feet could come up to the town at springs1 and vessels drawing #ab to #ac feet could come up at neaps2 moreover1 all the silt was scoured away from the front of the ,maudfoster ,sluice1 so that it discharged the highland water from the fens1 which it had not done for years before1 and improved also the discharge of the waters from the ,grand and ,black sluices4 ,i must confess that ,i was not a little elated at this successful result1 as it most completely established the correctness of my father's opinion as well as my own1 and demonstrated the fallacy of my friend ,telford's judgment4 ,the cost of the above works was #cc1jjjl41 which was very small compared to the advantage obtained4 ,the ,corporation of ,boston were so much pleased with the success that they determined to carry into effect the remainder of the improvement in the old channel to ,boston1 which was afterwards done by confining the channel by degrees to a proper width by means of fascines and loose stone and clay properly combined together up to the level of half tide1 so that the flood and ebb always acted to the greatest advantage in one and the same channel without materially diminishing the quantity of tidal water4 ,the effect of these additional works was to still further deepen the bed of the river and increase the flow of the tide by lowering the low-water mark1 which improved the navigation and drainage still further1 so that the trade of ,boston revived and increased in prosperity1 and all this was effected by the resources of ,boston alone2 and it is only to be regretted that the drainage interests1 who derived so much benefit1 were not compelled to contribute their just proportion4 ,in #aheb a ,bill was obtained to carry into effect my plan for improving the mouths of the ,witham below ,hobhole1 and the ,welland below ,fosdike ,bridge1 and reclaiming #ce1jjj acres of land from the ,great ,wash1 as formerly described1 but the ,bill was clogged with so many restrictions1 and neither the drainage or navigation interests would contribute anything towards it1 although they would have been greatly benefited1 that it was found impossible to carry it into effect so as to remunerate the shareholders1 and therefore it was abandoned4 ,i about this time finished some minor works which had been designed and partly executed for the improvement of the ,witham near ,lincoln4 ,this was part of a great plan of my father for improving the river ,witham1 so as to make it navigable for the ,yorkshire coasting vessels1 drawing #f feet and carrying about #gj tons4 ,from ,lincoln they proceeded to the ,trent by the ,old ,foss navigation1 which entered the ,trent at ,torksey1 and from thence to the ,humber and the adjacent coasts4 ,this improved navigation of the ,witham answered very well as a commercial speculation1 and in the year #ahdg was sold to the ,great ,northern ,railway ,company1 who established a railway on its banks1 which now forms part of their loop line between ,peterborough and ,lincoln1 which has in a great measure superseded the navigation4 ,during this period ,i was requested by the ,commissioners of the ,ancholme ,level1 consisting of about #ej1jjj acres of low fen lands1 bordering upon the ,ancholme in ,north ,lincolnshire1 to give them my advice as to the best means of improving their drainage1 and at the same time the navigation of that river4 ,the ,ancholme takes its rise near ,market ,rasen1 in the highlands of the north of ,lincolnshire1 and after a course of some miles it enters the lowland district of the valley1 and proceeds through it in a northerly direction for a distance of about #ah miles1 when it joins the ,humber at right angles to its course4 ,the valley varies from one mile in width at the upper end to three miles at the lower end1 where it joins the ,humber4 ,it is bounded on the south by a ridge of chalk hills of considerable elevation1 and on the north by a similar ridge of sandstone hills4 ,the ,ancholme having very little fall where it enters the lowlands1 and being prevented from discharging its waters with facility into the ,humber on account of the great mass of water and high tides in the latter river1 was forced back upon the lowlands1 and frequently inundated them1 so that they became little better than marshes1 and the river itself was necessarily extremely circuitous4 ,in #ahjf the ,commissioners applied to my father for advice1 and he recommended1 in the first place1 that the river should be straightened as far as practicable1 in order to utilize the fall of the current to the fullest extent2 also that a sluice should be constructed to exclude the tides at ,terreby2 and a catchwater drain made on the south side1 with separate sluice to discharge the highland waters into the ,humber4 ,this advice was only partly followed3 the river was straightened2 the catchwater drain only extended as far as ,brigg2 a lock was made for the navigation at ,hortestow ,green1 where the river entered the lowlands2 and a sluice with a lock was made at ,terreby4 ,in principle1 these works were correctly designed and well adapted for the purpose as far as they went2 but ,i am not exactly aware whether they were carried out according to his plan1 or under his immediate direction2 and twenty years had elapsed before ,i was invited to give my opinion4 ,when ,i visited them the level was very badly drained2 the river was full of shoals2 the navigation1 which was intended for the ,yorkshire coasting vessels up to ,bishop's ,bridge1 was only practicable a few miles beyond ,brigg1 and that in a very imperfect manner2 and the works generally were in a very bad state4 ,after having inspected the works1 ,i recommended1 first1 that the main river should be deepened1 widened1 and enlarged throughout the entire length of the level1 so as to accommodate the full-sized ,yorkshire coasting vessels drawing #f ft4 #f in42 and that the river should be of ample capacity to contain the floods fully #b to #c feet below the level of the lowlands1 so that they could not be overflowed1 and might always be able to drain into it4 ,secondly1 that a lock should be made with a lift of #f feet1 so that coasting vessels might be enabled to get up to ,bishop's ,bridge2 and that as a great deal of sand was brought down by the upper part of the river1 which continually produced shoals and filled it up1 ,i recommended that at the upper end of the lock an overfall should be made1 together with a capacious reservoir1 into which the sand might be discharged1 in order to prevent it from getting into the river2 then it could be removed whenever necessary4 ,thirdly1 that a new sluice and lock should be made at ,terreby1 where the ,ancholme joined the ,humber2 that all the new sluices should be laid #f feet below the old one2 and that new bridges should be made across the main river to replace the old ones1 which were not of sufficient capacity4 ,fourthly1 that the south catchwater drain should be drained out and enlarged1 and extended to the upper end of the level4 ,fifthly1 that a catchwater drain of the requisite dimensions should be made on the north side of the level1 from the new sluice to the farther extremity of the level1 and that the water should be discharged through a separate opening in the new sluice4 ,sixthly1 that wherever a brook entered the catchwater drain on either side1 there should be corresponding weirs and reservoirs for receiving the sand and other deposits1 so as to prevent them from getting into the drains4 ,these several works were executed1 under my directions1 by ,messrs4 ,jolliffe and ,banks1 as contractors2 and ,mr4 ,adam ,smith1 as resident engineer1 to whom the real credit is due for the very able1 honest1 and zealous manner in which he discharged his duties1 particularly for the execution of the new sluice at ,terreby1 which was done without a contractor1 and is one of the cheapest and best works of the kind4 ,these works have answered their object completely2 and the ,ancholme district is as well drained as any level in the kingdom1 and the navigation is complete of the kind4 ,whilst carrying on these works ,i was the frequent guest of the ,earl of ,yarborough1 the ,commodore of the ,yacht ,club1 and received the greatest kindness and attention from his lordship2 without his support1 ability1 and firmness1 these works would never have been attempted1 nor carried to a successful conclusion4 #b ,i have always heard this story in ,cornwall2 and a pamphlet on the subject1 now very scarce1 was published at the time4 ,mr4 ,fox1 ,i have been told1 was taken before a magistrate1 and made an affidavit concerning it the morning after the occurrence1 and before the mail came down4--,c4 ,g4 ,c4 ,r4 #c ,i may mention here that before ,telford built the suspension bridge near ,bangor1 ,mr4 ,rennie proposed a cast-iron bridge of several arches1 on the site of the present ,britannia ,bridge1 which would ultimately have carried the railway1 but the scheme was considered too bold at the time4 ,the possibility of the construction of the present magnificent bridge1 which marks an era in engineering1 is of course due to the great improvements in the manufacture of iron since ,mr4 ,rennie's time4 ,thus every age has its specialty1 and what cannot be done at one time becomes practicable at another4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,sketch of the ,risk and ,progress of the ,railway ,system--,the ,manchester and ,liverpool1 ,london and ,birmingham1 and other early ,lines4 ,i will now proceed to a very important epoch in my life1 namely1 my first introduction to railways upon the locomotive system4 ,railways of wood were first introduced on the ,tyne1 for the purpose of bringing down coal from the adjacent collieries1 to be shipped from ,newcastle and the vicinity for exportation to ,london and other places4 ,these were #d feet #f inches wide from centre to centre1 and the coal waggons were specially adapted to them4 ,the wooden rails wore out rapidly1 and were subsequently improved by having cast iron edge rails fixed upon the wooden ones1 and the wheels of the waggons were made of cast iron also1 having a flange on the inside to keep them in their places4 ,it reduced materially the friction of the road1 enabled the horses by which the waggons were drawn to take a greater load1 and the expense of maintaining the ways was greatly reduced4 ,matters proceeded in this manner until towards the end of the last century4 ,at that time1 the celebrated ,james ,watt began his experiments upon steam1 and then turned his attention to the improvement of the steam engine1 which had previously been so far perfected by ,savery1 ,newcomen1 and ,smeaton1 as to be used for pumping water from mines with considerable effect1 by employing steam and atmospheric pressure alternately1 for raising and lowering the piston in the cylinder to which the pumping apparatus was attached4 ,the waste of fuel and the expense of working these engines were very considerable1 and they were inapplicable to any other purpose but pumping4 ,watt saw these defects1 and immediately set about devising means for remedying them4 ,he first enclosed the steam cylinder at top and bottom1 and elevated and depressed the piston by means of steam only2 and instead of allowing the spent steam to escape into the atmosphere1 it was discharged into a separate vessel1 into which a jet of cold water was constantly playing1 so that the steam was condensed there1 and hence this vessel was called a 8condenser40 ,in this condenser there was an air pump constantly working1 so that to some extent a vacuum was produced1 which facilitated the discharge of the steam from above and below the piston1 relieved the pressure upon it both ways1 and added considerably to the effect of the whole machine1 as well as economizing the fuel required to work it4 ,he also added a crank to a connecting rod at the opposite end of the beam to which the piston was attached1 and by means of this crank communicated rotary motion to any machinery connected with it1 adding still further to the value of the steam engine1 and rendering it universally applicable4 ,the boiler also he greatly improved1 so as to produce a larger quantity of steam with less fuel4 ,the ingenious idea of the crank was pirated from him before he could patent it1 and he resorted to another invention to produce rotary motion1 which he called the sun and planet wheel2 this consisted of a toothed wheel attached to the lower end of the connecting rod fixed to the end of the beam1 which wheel worked into another attached to the end of a horizontal shaft1 upon which were fixed other wheels to give motion to any system of machinery which might be required4 ,it should be observed that in this improved engine the connecting rod of the piston was attached to one end of the beam1 the connecting rod attached to the crank1 or sun and planet1 was fixed to the other1 and the air and cold water pumps were attached to rods connected with the intermediate part of the main beam1 so that they were all worked together by the rising and falling of the piston1 and thus formed one whole compact machine4 ,he also added several minor contrivances1 which it is unnecessary to mention1 and which rendered the steam engine still more complete4 ,his improvements did not end here1 for he made numerous experiments upon the expansibility or elasticity and effects of steam at various temperatures1 constructed a high pressure engine1 and subsequently one with a condenser mounted upon a carriage supported by wheels1 which was nothing more than the locomotive engine1 a model of which still exists4 ,watt1 however1 as ,i have already observed1 did not like high-pressure steam3 he was fully aware of its importance2 but at that time1 from the backward state of the iron manufacture1 he did not see his way to controlling it with safety1 and he considered that his low-pressure condensing system was the best and most economical1 and he therefore gave up all idea of pursuing the investigation of the locomotive engine and its applicability4 ,fortunately1 however1 everybody was not of the same opinion4 ,watt had clearly invented the locomotive engine1 and his able and faithful assistant1 ,william ,murdock1 afterwards made another working model of it on the same plan1 with which he used to amuse himself by setting it in motion to run about his room4 ,but the idea and its practicability once established1 the locomotive was not to be thus abandoned4 ,amongst those who heard of it1 and who appreciated its value1 were two ,cornish engineers1 ,trevithick and ,vivian1 who had been accustomed to work high-pressure steam1 which was largely used in the ,cornish mining engines about this time4 ,trevithick and ,vivian soon saw that ,watt's waggon boiler was too cumbrous1 and not capable of producing steam fast enough or in sufficient quantity for a locomotive engine4 ,they therefore invented a new kind of boiler with a tube in the centre1 around which the heat from the furnace circulated1 so that a greater surface was exposed to its action1 and1 consequently1 steam was generated much more quickly and in greater volume and elasticity4 ,this boiler was1 moreover1 more compact1 lighter1 and more portable than ,watt's2 the engine also was more simple2 and the cylinder and piston being vertical1 the latter was attached to a crank1 which again was applied to the axles of the wheels1 which made them revolve at every double stroke of the piston4 ,the whole of this engine was mounted on a carriage2 and this may be termed an improvement upon ,watt's engine1 and the second stage of this great invention4 ,trevithick and ,vivian being convinced of success1 took out a patent for the tubular boiler and the engine1 for its application to common roads and railways2 and foreseeing that if the wheels were applied to the smooth surface of a railway1 the adhesion of their surface1 combined with the weight of the whole machine1 would be sufficient to impel it forward when worked by the engine1 proposed that the peripheries of the wheels should be smooth2 but in other cases1 where more grip or action might be necessary1 they proposed to add bosses or cogs to the peripheries of the wheels4 ,what they now required was to apply the invention to practice4 ,they accordingly were either invited or went to the ,merthyr ,tydvil ,iron ,works1 where iron tramways were in extensive use1 and there proposed an engine for drawing the waggons1 instead of manual and horse labour4 ,the invention was greatly approved of1 and the proprietors of the mines determined to give it a fair trial4 ,a locomotive engine was then made by ,trevithick and ,vivian and placed on the railway4 ,waggons laden with ten tons of iron and coal were attached to the engine1 and1 to the surprise of all1 it drew them at the rate of six miles an hour4 ,this was in the year #ahjb4 ,one would have thought that the principle1 practice1 and value of the invention having been thus fairly demonstrated1 the wealthy and enterprising ironmasters would at once have adopted it and have brought it into general use4 ,indeed1 it is difficult to conceive why this was not so4 ,it is true that the machine was still cumbrous and difficult to manage1 and the cast-iron tramways were probably too light and badly laid1 so that they were frequently broken2 still sufficient must have been proved to show that these were defects that might easily be remedied1 and that continued practice would enable the inventors to render both the locomotive and the railway more perfect4 ,in almost all new inventions1 nothing is made perfect at first1 and it requires constant trials and much perseverance to remove obstacles which cannot be foreseen1 and the existence of which can only be proved by experience1 when the proper remedy can be applied4 ,the attempt to introduce locomotives on railways was not1 however1 for the time prosecuted further at ,merthyr ,tydvil4 ,it may be asked1 why did not ,trevithick and ,vivian pursue the matter further elsewhere8 ,i believe the answer to this is simply that they had not the means2 they had already expended so much in prosecuting the invention that their resources were exhausted1 and unless fresh pecuniary aid came in they must necessarily abandon it1 at least for the time4 ,nothing is more difficult than to introduce a new invention1 however plausible it may appear at first sight4 ,we become by habit so wedded to our old ways that we are apt to regard anything new with indifference4 ,when it has succeeded1 the more simple it is the more we are astonished that we should not have perceived its value before2 hence1 unfortunately1 we so frequently find that many able men1 who have made brilliant discoveries and inventions which have conferred so much benefit upon mankind1 have exhausted their all1 and have died of starvation1 just at the very moment when they have succeeded4 ,then some lucky one steps in and derives all the advantage4 ,such was the fate of poor ,trevithick1 who may be said to have been the inventor of the modern railway system4 ,even ,watt himself would have probably shared the same fate1 if he had not met with the great ,matthew ,boulton1 who appreciated his inventions1 and furnished the means for carrying them into effect4 ,the same may be said of ,cort1 who introduced puddling1 the simplest mode of converting cast into wrought iron4 ,bessemer himself told me that he was nearly ruined before his great discovery succeeded4 ,in fact1 numberless examples might be adduced of this melancholy truth2 but to my story4 ,the next example we find of the employment of the locomotive engine was that of ,blenkinsop1 of ,leeds1 which was similar to1 but more compact and lighter than that of ,trevithick and ,vivian1 and was applied to draw the waggons laden with coal from ,middleton ,colliery1 near ,leeds1 to that town2 ,i saw it at work in the year #ahad4 ,it then drew #bj tons at the rate of seven miles an hour1 at which ,i was much astonished4 ,although quite a lad1 ,i thought to myself1 8,something more will come out of this hereafter40 ,but the most singular thing connected with this was1 that the principle of adhesion to the rails by the smooth tired wheels1 and the fact of the power of a locomotive being in its weight1 as laid down by ,trevithick1 was completely forgotten1 and the locomotive was propelled forward by means of a toothed wheel driven by the engine1 acting on a corresponding toothed rack laid alongside the rails2 this was nothing more than ,trevithick's idea of bosses or teeth attached to the wheels1 but intended to be applied in a different way4 ,still the invention was making its way4 ,blenkinsop's engine excited great interest in the north1 especially in the neighbourhood of the ,tyne and ,wear1 and numbers of engineers1 scientific men1 and others went to see it1 and being convinced of its value1 determined to introduce it into that district4 ,amongst others1 ,mr4 ,blackett1 of ,wylam ,colliery1 who had seen ,blenkinsop's engine and railway1 perceived the error of attempting to propel the locomotive by means of the toothed wheel and ratchet1 and determined to revert to ,trevithick's original design of the smooth tired wheels4 ,whether he had heard of ,trevithick's invention or not1 does not appear1 although1 as the subject had become generally known1 and numerous intelligent minds had been directed towards it1 it is very probable that he had4 ,however1 be that as it may1 he has the credit of reintroducing ,trevithick's invention1 and a locomotive1 with improvements1 leaving out the toothed wheel and ratchet1 was applied to a railway at ,wylam with complete success4 ,amongst others who visited ,blenkinsop's railway and locomotive engine was ,mr4 ,james1 a general land agent and surveyor1 at ,newcastle1 who was in large practice1 and had a respectable fortune4 ,he was a man of enlarged mind and great intelligence1 and although not a practical mechanician1 he was so much struck with the effect of ,blenkinsop's engine and railway1 that he at once said it was a new mode of conveying passengers and goods which must supersede all others1 and become universal4 ,in his enthusiasm he wrote a long letter1 addressed to the ,prince ,regent1 on the subject1 in #ahae1 pointing out the value of this new mode of transport1 the saving which it would effect in manual and horse labour1 the ease and expedition with which goods and passengers would be conveyed1 and the vast benefits which would be conferred upon the country by the general introduction of the railway system4 ,immediately he set to work and devoted his whole energies and time1 regardless of his own business1 to the promotion of this new mode of transit4 ,the celebrated ,george ,stephenson1 who up to this time had been a working collier1 began to emerge from his obscurity and exhibit his genius to the world4 ,james got acquainted with him1 and being greatly taken by his talent1 imparted his views about the introduction of railways1 and1 it is said1 supplied money towards aiding him in prosecuting the work4 ,be this as it may1 ,stephenson1 who had seen ,blackett's engine1 was fully convinced of the soundness of the system1 and that it must become universal2 and therefore1 with his usual indomitable energy and talent1 he applied himself to promote and develop the new scheme by every means in his power4 ,he became acquainted1 and ultimately entered into partnership1 with ,mr4 ,lord1 and established a manufactory for locomotive engines at ,newcastle1 which maintains its celebrity at the present day4 ,he first made a locomotive of a new and improved construction1 which worked with considerable success upon the ,hetton ,colliery railways4 ,next he was employed on the ,stockton and ,darlington1 for which he made several locomotives1 all of which1 be it observed1 were employed solely for carrying goods at the rate of about eight miles an hour2 and it was by no means anticipated that they would be able to exceed that1 or that they could calculate much upon general passenger traffic4 ,however1 the success that had already attended their efforts1 made ,stephenson confident that the railway system could be equally well applied wherever there was a large traffic4 ,james and ,stephenson then entered into a kind of partnership1 and first proposed to make a railway1 in #ahag1 from ,manchester to ,liverpool1 for between those towns the traffic was so enormous that the ,duke of ,bridgewater's ,canal and the ,mersey could not accommodate it properly1 and great dissatisfaction was expressed at the delays and high charges4 ,nothing1 however1 was done at the time1 and it was not until the year #ahbe that the project was so far matured as to enable a company to be formed to carry it into effect4 ,this company was principally composed of gentlemen from ,manchester1 ,liverpool1 and ,newcastle2 and ,george ,stephenson was their chief engineer4 ,they went to ,parliament in the year #ahbe1 but were so ill prepared to encounter the violent and powerful interests by which they were opposed1 particularly that of the ,bridgewater ,canal1 which enjoyed a very large portion of the traffic1 that they lost their ,bill4 ,the late ,earl of ,lonsdale1 then ,lord ,lowther1 one of the ,lords of the ,treasury1 a very able and intelligent young man1 knowing me from my connection with ,london ,bridge1 and with the ,whitehaven ,harbour1 of which ,i was the engineer 7where his father was the chief owner of all the great collieries round the town71 asked my opinion about the proposed new system1 and whether ,i thought that it was likely to succeed4 ,i told him frankly that ,i thought it would4 ,his lordship replied1 8,i think so1 too20 and he offered me the post of engineer to the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 adding1 8,although it will be greatly opposed1 ,i think we shall carry it40 ,i replied that my brother and myself would be happy to undertake it1 provided that we did not interfere with ,mr4 ,stephenson or any other engineer who had been previously employed4 ,lord ,lonsdale said that he would arrange all that with the ,company1 and my brother and myself were accordingly appointed engineers-in-chief4 ,as we were left entirely to our own discretion to adopt the old or to choose an entirely new line1 we selected the present energetic and talented engineer1 ,mr4 ,charles ,vignolles1 to make the necessary surveys for ,parliament4 ,after examining the old line and the surrounding country1 we finally decided upon adopting the present one1 which passes over ,chatmoss4 ,whilst we were proceeding with the survey1 my brother ,george and ,mr4 ,vignolles met ,mr4 ,bradshaw1 who was the sole and independent manager of the ,duke of ,bridgewater's ,canal1 on ,chatmoss1 not far from the line1 and near his own residence4 ,he went up to my brother and introduced himself as the manager of the ,duke's ,canal1 and my brother at once mentioned his name4 ,mr4 ,bradshaw shook him by the hand very cordially1 and said that he was glad to make the acquaintance of the son of his old friend1 ,mr4 ,rennie1 for whom he had the greatest respect and friendship2 and knowing what we were about1 said that he1 on the part of the ,duke's ,canal and the other water carriers1 would oppose the railway by every means in their power1 and he felt pretty confident that they could throw out the ,bill a second and even a third time1 if it were attempted4 ,at the same time he expressed the most friendly feeling towards my brother1 and invited him and ,mr4 ,vignolles to his house1 where he received them most hospitably1 and conversed1 amongst other subjects1 about the ,bridgewater ,canal1 and the great difficulties they had to overcome in completing it4 ,pointing to a little whitewashed house1 near the ,moss1 about half a mile distant1 he said to my brother3 8,do you see that house8 ,many a time did the late ,duke of ,bridgewater1 ,brindley1 and myself spend our evenings there during the construction of the canal1 after the day's labours were over2 and one evening in particular we had a very doleful meeting4 ,the ,duke had spent all his money1 had exhausted his credit1 and did not know where to get more1 and the canal was not finished4 ,we were all three in a very melancholy mood1 smoking our pipes and drinking ale1 for we had not the means to do more1 and were very silent4 ,at last the ,duke said3 #8,well1 ,mr4 ,brindley1 what is to be done now8' ,brindley said3 #8,well1 ,duke1 ,i don't know2 but of this ,i feel as confident as ever3 if we could only finish the canal1 it would pay well1 and soon bring back all your ,grace's money4'0 ,after remaining a little longer1 the party broke up in melancholy silence1 and each went his way4 ,it happened shortly afterwards that the ,duke managed to get money enough to complete the canal1 and ,brindley was a true prophet1 for the canal has paid well1 and has been mainly the making of the great houses of ,sutherland and ,ellesmere4 ,the surveys for the line over ,chatmoss were completed and deposited in due time1 and the usual notices were given4 ,the ,bill was read a first time in the ,commons1 and after the second reading was referred to a committee4 ,certainly ,bradshaw had not exaggerated the opposition1 for the ,bill was most energetically contested1 the leading counsel against the ,bill being the late able and amiable ,baron ,alderson4 ,the ,bill1 however1 passed the ,commons1 and ultimately the ,lords1 after an equally strong contest2 but ,lord ,lowther and his friends were indefatigable1 and to his lordship's great exertions the success may be mainly attributed4 ,at the time ,i was so completely prostrated by the effects of the fall which ,i had met with at ,london ,bridge1 as previously mentioned1 that ,i was unable to take any very active part1 which therefore chiefly devolved upon my brother and ,mr4 ,vignolles4 ,after the passing of the ,bill1 my brother and myself prepared working drawings and estimates for carrying the work into effect1 and we naturally expected to be appointed the executive engineers1 after having with so much labour and anxiety carried the ,bill through ,parliament4 ,the ,executive ,committee of the ,company behaved extremely ill to us4 ,stephenson1 although he had failed in carrying the first ,bill1 still possessed considerable influence with the ,executive ,committee1 who proposed that ,mr4 ,stephenson should be united with us4 ,we said that we had no objection to ,mr4 ,stephenson taking the locomotive department1 which should be distinct from the other works4 ,this1 however1 the ,committee declined1 and at once appointed ,mr4 ,stephenson the chief engineer1 and ,mr4 ,vignolles the resident4 ,my brother and myself designed that the width of gauge should be #e feet #f inches from centre to centre of the rail1 and if this had been adopted we should never have heard of any other4 ,this was the proper gauge for which an engine could have been made of the most powerful description1 without being too long4 ,moreover1 the centre of gravity being lower1 it would have been more steady1 being better adapted to going round sharp curves4 ,the same advantages would have been gained by the passenger and goods carriages4 ,unfortunately1 ,mr4 ,stephenson was of a different opinion3 he thought that the old colliery waggon gauge of #d feet #h inches from centre to centre of the rail was ample1 and it was adopted4 ,hence all the enormous litigation and expense which afterwards ensued4 ,brunel subsequently1 on the ,great ,western ,railway1 feeling confident that ,stephenson's gauge was too narrow1 proposed and ultimately adopted #g feet as the proper gauge4 ,now this was as much too wide as ,stephenson's was too narrow4 ,stephenson's party have ultimately prevailed1 and the narrow gauge has been generally adopted1 much to the efficiency and economy of railways4 ,before leaving this part of the subject1 it may be right to remark that the opposition endeavoured to make a strong case against our line crossing ,chatmoss1 which they said was utterly impracticable at any reasonable expense4 ,this we knew from our own experience to be simply ridiculous1 and so it was found to be during the execution2 it has now proved to be the best part of the line1 and the easiest to keep in repair4 ,all that was required was to drain the surface by moderate-sized drains1 so as to get rid of the superfluous water1 then the foundation for the rails would be sufficiently solid to bear anything2 moreover1 it possesses a certain degree of elasticity which prevents the concussion or jolting that is usually found on a hard unyielding road4 ,in #ahbh the line was so far advanced that the ,company determined to advertise for locomotives1 and to give a premium of #ajjjl4 for the best one that was produced4 ,amongst the competitors were ,messrs4 ,stephenson and ,lord1 ,messrs4 ,braithwaite and ,ericsson1 and ,mr4 ,t4 ,hackworth4 ,the competition took place at ,rainhill4 ,the ,company restricted the weight of the engines to seven tons1 which shows how little the subject was at that time understood1 for the power of a locomotive engine is in proportion to its weight and the steam generated to work it2 hence it was quite clear that in restricting the weight they restricted its power4 ,notwithstanding this1 the engines performed wonders1 and attained the speed of #bh to #bi miles an hour4 ,this was so contrary to the general expectation1 for even the makers did not expect above #h or #aj miles an hour1 that everybody was astonished1 and from that time forward the glorious career of railways was established1 and the old road system for goods and passengers was condemned as a thing of the past4 ,the shares1 which had been at a discount1 now rose to a premium1 and numerous new lines were in contemplation4 ,stephenson's engine1 the #8,rocket1' gained the premium1 as it complied with all the required conditions1 although that of ,messrs4 ,braithwaite and ,ericsson was in other respects considered the best4 ,the rails used upon this line were what is technically called the edge rail4 ,these were of cast iron1 weighing #cj lb4 per yard1 and they were cast on lengths #c feet long1 resting upon blocks of stone about #ab inches thick and #b feet square1 like the old tramways4 ,here is another example of the little that was known upon the subject2 for it was forgotten that the old tramways were worked by horses1 which seldom exceeded the speed of #b miles1 and1 consequently1 the vibration upon a tolerably well made road was scarcely sensible1 although it prevailed to a certain extent2 but when the velocity was increased to above #bj miles an hour1 the case was totally different1 as should have been anticipated2 yet the line was opened for traffic on the old principle1 until it was found that the concussion and vibration produced by the rigidity of the road were so serious as to cause considerable trouble4 ,on account of its elasticity1 the ,chatmoss section was found to be the easiest and best part of the road1 yet it is singular that this did not occur to the ,company4 ,they continued to use stone blocks more or less up to the year #ahcg1 when they discovered their error1 and replaced the blocks with wooden sleepers1 and large hillocks of these stone blocks may still be seen lying along the ,manchester and ,liverpool1 and ,birmingham lines4 ,but to return to the edge rail1 which was certainly a great improvement upon the old flange rail4 ,this edge rail was1 ,i believe1 first invented by ,william ,jessop1 a celebrated man of his time1 and tried under ,smeaton1 who proposed it for the ,leicester and ,loughborough ,tram ,railway4 ,the flange was transferred from the rail to the inner edge of the waggon wheel2 and the edge rail having no flange occasioned less friction to the shaft4 ,as the rails were manufactured of cast iron1 they could not be made longer than #c feet without materially increasing their liability to break2 but there were so many joints that it was very difficult to make a smooth road and keep it in order1 particularly when the speed of travelling increased4 ,hence the use of stone blocks had not been abandoned4 ,this difficulty was at length overcome by the substitution of wrought-iron rails1 which were first proposed by ,buckenshaw4 ,these were laid on wooden sleepers1 and this was another great improvement2 but the numerous joints were still a great difficulty in the way of making a smooth road and keeping it in order4 ,this was at last overcome by making the rails in one single piece on rollers patented for the purpose4 ,rails have now been increased from #cj to #hj lb4 per foot1 and have been fished at every joint2 that is1 a plate has been fixed on each side with sufficient room in the connecting bolt-holes to allow for expansion and contraction4 ,with regard to locomotives1 numerous improvements have been made4 ,we have first ,watt's idea of making a steam engine1 with its boiler complete1 upon an independent carriage1 mounted upon wheels1 so that it could move in any direction and propel itself2 as well as a weight attached to it1 mounted upon wheels also4 ,as the tramways of cast iron were then established1 this locomotive machine could have readily been applied to it1 so that1 in fact1 to ,watt may be attributed the first practical idea of the locomotive engine1 although there are some doubts about this1 for a ,m4 ,cugnot is said to have made a working model of a locomotive engine upon a considerable scale1 at ,paris1 in the year #aghc4 ,be this as it may1 they were both made so nearly about the same time that it is difficult to decide which had the priority4 ,at all events1 ,watt is justly entitled to the merit of having been the first to invent it in ,england4 ,hackworth's 7of ,darlington7 engine was made about the same time1 and was similar to ,stephenson's4 ,the next improvement consisted in placing the cylinders of the engine horizontally instead of vertically1 so that the piston acted directly upon the axle upon which the driving wheels were placed1 instead of by the intervention of a double crank2 this made the engine more compact4 ,the next was the multitubular boiler1 by means of which the generation of steam was greatly accelerated1 in consequence of the increased surface exposed to the action of the heat4#d ,i will now revert to #ahbf1 the time when ,i was asked my opinion as to the value of railways1 and ,i said1 in the most decided terms1 to ,lord ,lowther1 that ,i thought very highly of them1 that they must succeed and eventually supersede every other mode of transport for passengers and goods4 ,being quite convinced of this1 with which opinion my brother ,george cordially agreed1 ,i set about projecting lines to those places where ,i thought they were most applicable2 that is1 where there was actually a large and constant traffic1 and where a more facile means of locomotion would be attended with an increased trade4 ,next to the ,liverpool and ,manchester1 ,i selected the ,london and ,birmingham line1 whilst my brother1 in company with the late ,jonas ,jessop and ,william ,chapman1 chose a direct line1 from the termination of mine at ,birmingham1 to ,liverpool1 so that the two lines together would have considerably reduced the distance between ,london1 ,birmingham1 and ,liverpool4 ,my line proceeded by ,aylesbury1 ,banbury1 ,bicester1 ,kenilworth1 and ,warwick1 to the higher part of ,birmingham2 and my brother's from thence by ,stafford and ,runcorn--with a bridge across the ,mersey at that place--to ,liverpool4 ,thus ,london1 ,birmingham1 and ,liverpool1 the three largest and most important commercial towns in the kingdom1 would have been connected together in the shortest possible distance and with the least expensive works practicable4 ,the project1 upon the whole1 was well received1 but the public were not quite prepared for such an undertaking2 in fact1 it was in advance of the time1 and for a while fell to the ground4 ,canals had not fallen into disrepute1 and ,mr4 ,telford1 who succeeded my father in carrying into effect the great improvements proposed by him for the ,birmingham ,canal1 suggested a continuation of this 7through the very district which my brother1 ,jessop1 and ,chapman had proposed to carry their railway71 to connect it with the ,bridgewater and ,mersey canal to ,liverpool2 this was accordingly executed1 and1 as regards a commercial speculation1 failed entirely1 as it was soon superseded by railways4 ,the fact was1 that ,telford1 having been bred in the old school1 and having seen the triumph of canals1 could not1 or would not1 believe in the efficacy of railways1 or that they would ever succeed2 and1 indeed1 he laughed heartily when he had succeeded in supplanting my brother's line of railway from ,birmingham to ,liverpool by a canal4 ,he had a strong prejudice against railways1 which he maintained until his death1 in #ahce4 ,he had just finished his great work the ,holyhead ,road1 with the great connecting suspension bridges of ,conway and ,bangor1 and of which1 with good reason1 he was justly proud1 and could not bear the idea of their being superseded by any other system of locomotion4 ,although an able engineer in many respects1 he was not much of a practical mechanic1 and very likely conscientiously thought that railways would not succeed4 ,he had done his work well in his own department1 and was too old to learn anything new4 ,he died at a good old age1 much respected and beloved by those who knew him1 and leaving numerous monuments behind him of his engineering talents4 ,another important line of railway which ,i proposed at this time was one between ,london and ,brighton1 and ,i employed two very experienced and competent surveyors1 ,messrs4 ,edward ,grantham and ,jago1 who had frequently been employed by my father to make surveys in various parts of ,england1 particularly in the region between ,london and ,portsmouth1 and the ,weald of ,kent1 so that they had a thorough knowledge of the district4 ,after examining the country myself1 ,i directed that the line should commence at ,kennington ,common1 and proceed from thence by ,clapham and ,streatham to the lower end of ,croydon2 from thence up ,smitham ,bottom valley to the hill at ,merstham1 which was to be pierced by a tunnel2 from thence to ,redhill1 ,horley1 and the valley to the ,cinder ,banks at the base of the ridge of hills called ,tilgate ,forest1 where there was to be another tunnel2 from thence1 skirting the left side of the valley near ,balcombe1 to the valley of the ,ouse1 which was to be crossed by a viaduct1 and thence to ,hayward's ,heath1 between ,lindfield and ,cuckfield1 where it passed through another ridge of hills by a deep cutting2 it then proceeded direct to the ,southdown hills1 near ,clayton ,hill1 which was to be pierced by a tunnel2 thence down the valley to ,brighton1 where it terminated at the upper end of the town on the right side of the valley4 ,this line extended from ,kennington ,common to ,brighton4 ,the country is very rugged1 having three lofty ridges of hills running east and west1 which it was necessary to pass through1 as there are no leading valleys or gaps to facilitate the passage without going a long way round1 which would have defeated my object4 ,this line might have been shortened nearly a mile by going direct from ,tilgate ,forest to ,cuckfield1 but the works would have been much heavier1 and could scarcely have been justified at the time1 as the public were not prepared for such expensive operations4 ,i also employed ,mr4 ,vignolles to survey another line from ,nine ,elms1 ,vauxhall1 by ,dorking1 ,horsham1 and ,shoreham2 from thence along the coast to the west end of ,brighton4 ,this line1 upon the whole1 was easier of execution than the other1 but it was five miles longer1 which ,i considered objectionable1 as my object was to lay down the shortest possible line between the two termini1 so as to render all future competition out of the question4 ,by this time ,i was so fully convinced of the ultimate success of railways1 both for speed and economy1 that ,i announced in the prospectus1 that when the railway system had been introduced into ,france1 the journey from ,london to ,paris might be made by this route in twelve hours2 however1 at this period no passenger railway had been completed1 and therefore my statement was considered only as a rough guess1 which might never come to pass1 and therefore a company could not be formed4 ,at the same time ,i employed competent persons to make the survey for a coast line from ,brighton to ,worthing1 ,arundel1 ,chichester1 ,havant1 ,portsmouth1 ,southampton1 ,salisbury1 and thence to ,warminster1 with the intention of extending it hereafter to ,bristol4 ,the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway was opened with great ceremony1 when the ,duke of ,wellington1 then ,premier1 and ,mr4 ,huskisson1 the ,president of the ,board of ,trade1 attended4 ,unfortunately1 the latter most able ,minister was killed1 by being run over by one of the locomotives4 ,poor ,huskisson was standing between the two lines of rails1 with the ,duke and several others1 when the engine came up unexpectedly2 he lost his presence of mind1 and took a wrong step1 which ended in a death universally deplored by the nation1 as well as by his numerous friends4 ,the success of the ,manchester and ,liverpool railway having been established1 the next thing was to extend the line to ,birmingham1 and a company was immediately formed for the purpose1 with ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson as engineer4 ,about the same time another line was projected by his son ,robert1 from ,london to ,birmingham1 pursuing pretty nearly the line of the old ,grand ,junction or ,paddington ,canal2 this line was longer than mine1 led over much more difficult country1 and did not pass through the same number of towns and population1 although it touched the important city of ,coventry4 ,my line commenced at ,blackwall1 and pursued the route of the ,regent's ,canal1 nearly similar to the line of railway which my father had formerly laid down4 ,there were two strong parties1 one of which supported ,stephenson's line1 and the other mine2 but ultimately ,stephenson's party was the strongest1 he carried his line by one or two votes1 and the present ,london and ,birmingham railway was executed4 ,the route to ,liverpool was unnecessarily long1 and therefore a new line was started to shorten the distance1 called the ,trent ,valley ,line1 which commenced at ,rugby1 and joined the ,birmingham line at ,stafford1 thus cutting off the angle at ,birmingham1 and saving a considerable distance4 ,this line was strongly opposed1 but was carried1 it is said1 by the influence of the late ,sir ,r4 ,peel1 and was executed1 ,i believe1 at the cost of three millions4 ,if my own and my brother's line had been carried out1 this would have been unnecessary1 as a branch to ,stafford would have sufficed for that and other towns1 and ,birmingham would have been upon the main line4 ,it is singular1 also1 that ,telford's canal1 which supplanted our line1 has been absorbed by the adjacent railways4 ,having now1 in a rather rambling manner1 brought my professional diary so far1 ,i must revert again to some incidents connected with my private life4 ,on the death of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy was unanimously elected ,president of the ,royal ,society in the year #ahbj1 and ,i had the honour of being elected ,fellow1 #ahbc4 ,i was elected member of the ,travellers' ,club1 #ahbb4 ,this club was formed in the year #ahah1 for the express purpose of associating travellers together1 and for promoting travelling4 ,it was enacted that no person was eligible to become a member unless he had travelled on the ,continent1 in a direct line1 #ejj miles from ,london1 and great things were expected from it2 but although it was the first travelling club established in ,london1 and contained amongst its members the most distinguished travellers1 it shortly degenerated into an ordinary club1 and nothing has ever emanated from it towards extending our knowledge of the globe1 or in publishing the travels of the numerous able men who belonged to it4 ,sir ,arthur de ,capel ,brooke1 who was a member of it1 and who travelled a good deal himself1 particularly in the north of ,europe1 going as far as the ,north ,cape1 and who published an interesting account of his journey1 spoke to my brothers1 myself1 and numerous other travellers on the subject1 proposing to establish a new club1 composed of none but distinguished travellers2 he suggested that this1 in the first instance1 should be nothing more than a dining club1 to meet once every month1 saying that travellers meeting together in this social manner would communicate to each other their various voyages1 and would stimulate each other to further discoveries2 that although a mere social club in the first instance1 in time some good would result1 and that in the end a regular scientific society might be established for the promotion of geography4 ,he accordingly collected together all the distinguished travellers of the day1 naval1 military1 and civil1 and a most delightful society it was2 the result clearly proved ,sir ,arthur ,brooke's sagacity1 for from the ,raleigh ,club was originated the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,i am not quite certain with whom the idea first originated1 but ,i recollect that at one meeting1 when1 amongst others1 the late distinguished traveller and ,secretary to the ,admiralty1 ,sir ,john ,barrow1 was present1 an animated conversation took place1 to the effect that the ,raleigh ,club had been in existence many years1 and a very agreeable club it was2 but1 except amusing each other with our adventures1 we had done nothing towards promoting our original intention1 which was to stimulate discovery in foreign lands1 and to extend the knowledge of geography throughout the world4 ,i think ,sir ,john ,barrow then said1 8,why cannot we establish a real geographical society1 and read papers1 and publish transactions1 like other scientific societies80 ,the idea caught at once3 the whole of the members then present applauded it1 and resolved to carry it into effect4 ,a committee was appointed1 and every member1 ,i think1 of the club joined4 ,a general meeting was then called1 members soon joined1 and ,sir ,john ,barrow was appointed first president2 a council and vice-presidents were chosen1 a house was taken in ,waterloo ,place1 ,colonel ,jackson was chosen secretary1 a royal charter was applied for and obtained1 and the society was duly instituted1 under the name of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,this society1 like all others in their infancy1 had a good deal to contend with2 it went on well for a time1 but at length it began to languish4 ,it required some man of weight and influence to devote his time to it1 to enlist the ,government heartily in the cause1 and to make it understand that it was its interest1 on the part of the public1 to promote the ,society by every means in its power4 ,fortunately1 at that time the ,society had in ,sir ,roderick ,murchison the very man most competent to undertake this arduous office4 ,he worked hard2 he convinced the ,government of the utility of the ,society1 and the many advantages that would be afforded by its existence1 as it could collect information upon all geographical subjects1 at far less expense than could be obtained by any ,government establishment2 it would1 moreover1 stimulate travellers to increased exertions1 and accumulate a fund of geographical information--knowledge that is so important to a commercial country like our own4 ,the then head of the ,government was so much struck by the representations made to him of the value of the ,society and of the advantage it would be to the ,government1 that he resolved in the ,house of ,commons to grant #ejjl4 a year in aid of its funds4 ,this at once revived the members' spirits2 they started1 as it were afresh2 the ,society became exceedingly popular1 and there was no end of applications to be enrolled as members1 both from ladies and gentlemen1 and ever since then it has been one of the most1 if not the most1 popular societies of the day4 ,the old ,raleigh ,club1 from which the ,geographical ,society originated1 having done its duty1 and most of its original members having succumbed to time1 there was no longer any necessity for its existence2 but as all scientific societies have their dining clubs1 which meet on the days of the societies' meetings1 it was resolved to merge the ,raleigh into the ,geographical ,club4 ,in the year #ahbd1 ,john ,wilson ,croker1 ,esq41 originated the ,athenum ,club1 for men distinguished in science1 literature1 and art1 and asked me to become a member4 ,i was only too happy to be associated with such a company as he collected together4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 in the year #ahbe1 originated the ,zoological ,society1 and asked me to join1 which ,i did most willingly1 and perhaps it has been the most popular and successful of any modern society of that kind4 ,it commenced operations by purchasing the well-known ,cross collection of ,exeter ',change1 in which in my early days ,i took an especial delight2 for1 considering all things1 it was a very wonderful collection1 and it is difficult to understand how1 in such a confined and unhealthy spot1 it could have been maintained in such good condition4 ,the only other exhibition of the kind in ,london was at the ,tower2 the collection of animals there consisted of presents from the sovereigns of different countries4 ,these were afterwards lent to the ,zoological ,society1 who established their museum in the ,regent's ,park1 and1 taking it altogether1 it is probably the finest and best maintained in the world4 #d ,the blast-pipe1 also1 was one of the most important improvements4 ,previous to this invention it was necessary to employ bellows to keep up the fire in the boiler1 and these were worked by the engine1 so that a good deal of power was wasted in order to keep the furnace going1 and the greater the speed1 the greater the power necessary to work the bellows2 moreover1 the waste steam ejected from the cylinders was constantly puffing out in the faces of the drivers1 so that they could not see clearly before them4 ,this was a great annoyance1 which they were most anxious to get rid of1 but nobody seemed to know how4 ,at last1 either ,stephenson1 ,hackworth1 or ,booth1 or somebody else1 whilst driving an engine1 and being much annoyed by the blowing in their faces1 said1 8,confound the steam2 let us send it up the chimney40 ,a pipe was accordingly made1 connecting the cylinder with the chimney1 so that the discharged steam might be ejected through it into the chimney4 ,when this alteration was made1 the engine was again tried1 and to their astonishment they not only got rid of the annoyance of the steam1 but the bellows were of no use1 and the faster the engine went the more vigorous became the fire4 ,upon thinking over this coolly1 the mystery was soon explained1 for the hot steam being discharged into the comparatively cold chimney1 a vacuum was produced1 and the air rushed through the furnace to fill up the vacuum2 the faster the engine went the greater the amount of steam sent up the chimney1 and the more active the draught through the furnace4 ,the bellows became wholly unnecessary1 so much power was saved1 and the nuisance of the escaping steam was entirely got rid of4 ,this was really a great step towards in rendering the locomotive more effective2 and it is very difficult to ascertain to whom the improvement is justly due4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,travels in the ,north of ,europe and ,spain4 ,having been very hard worked1 and being in bad health1 owing to my still suffering from the effects of my fall into the cofferdam of ,london ,bridge1 ,i felt the necessity for some relaxation4 ,i therefore made my arrangements for a short continental tour1 resolving to visit the north of ,europe4 ,adhering to my original plan1 ,i shall only mention those places and occurrences which1 for particular reasons1 ,i think1 may possess some little interest1 and shall pass over the ordinary descriptions of places and things which are now so well known as to be hackneyed4 ,my journey1 principally by sea1 from ,london to ,st4 ,petersburg passed without incident1 except that off the ,island of ,bornholm we met the ,russian fleet1 consisting of seven sail of the line4 ,it was a fine sight1 and the ships seemed well handled2 but one line-of-battle ship in going about missed stays1 and got into what the sailors term irons1 that is to say1 she would move neither way4 ,our sailors laughed heartily1 and we could see by the signals made from the flag-ship that the admiral was very much annoyed4 ,on board the steamer ,i made acquaintance with ,lieutenant ,conolly1 who intended to take the route from ,st4 ,petersburg overland to ,india--a particularly difficult and dangerous journey2 but ,conolly was an intelligent1 ardent1 and courageous person1 anxious for information1 and ambitious to explore a route which had hardly ever been undertaken before2 but he unfortunately fell a victim to his ambition4 ,he was a little man1 determined and energetic1 capable of undergoing great fatigue1 and a very agreeable and sociable companion4 ,he and ,i took to each other and became great friends1 and entertained the pleasing idea of meeting again after his return from ,india2 but this never took place1 for he was murdered with his companions4 ,conolly and ,i got our luggage together as soon as possible after landing1 and drove to the ,grand ,hotel1 which was then a sort of barrack or caravanserai1 near the ,newski ,prospect4 ,before seeing the city1 ,i presented the various letters of introduction with which ,i had been provided2 amongst others were several from my old friend1 ,chevalier ,benkausen1 the ,russian ,consul-,general in ,london4 ,i first called upon ,lord ,heytesbury1 our ambassador1 whom ,i had previously known as ,mr4 ,abbott1 at ,naples1 by whom ,i was most cordially welcomed4 ,i also waited upon all the authorities1 and was well received by them2 but the person to whom ,i was most indebted was my friend1 ,general ,wilson1 a sensible ,scotchman1 who had entered the ,civil ,service of the ,government1 as engineer to the cotton1 gun1 and general iron manufactures1 for which he had erected a large establishment at ,kolpnau1 about #ac or #ad miles from ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,this place ,i visited with him2 it was very complete1 for the ,emperor ,nicholas1 who was at times very fond of ,englishmen and everything ,english1 had taken ,wilson and his establishment under his especial protection1 and had given him authority to incur any reasonable expenditure to make it perfect4 ,wilson1 therefore1 imported the newest and most improved machines and tools of every kind from ,england1 and obtained also the best of ,english workmen4 ,the cotton manufactories were upon a most extensive and imposing scale2 in fine buildings1 with hosts of employs1 they were conducted in the true imperial style1 that is1 with great show1 but little profit4 ,still1 they were not without their advantages2 they were the means of training a set of native workmen1 who1 although not inventive1 are excellent imitators1 consequently after a time their services must have been valuable4 ,the same may be said of the iron manufactories1 particularly as ,russia has some of the richest iron mines1 and they only require skilled workmen to develop them to their utmost2 ,wilson contributed materially towards this2 and it was impossible to have selected a better man for this purpose4 ,he possessed a calm even temper1 firm1 but just1 and conciliating1 with a competent knowledge of what he undertook to perform1 without possessing any considerable amount of invention4 ,he spoke the ,russian language like a native1 besides ,french and ,german4 ,he therefore most justly possessed a good deal of influence1 and was thoroughly liked and respected1 from the humblest workman under his orders up to the ,emperor1 who was very fond of him4 ,lastly1 he was thoroughly honest1 a rare thing in ,russia in those days1 where peculation was rife from the highest to the lowest2 and if ,wilson had followed the universal example1 which he might have done with impunity1 he would have made a large fortune2 but after many years' service he died comparatively poor4 ,although anything but a military man1 he was a general in the ,russian service1 and was decorated with several stars and orders4 ,all persons officially employed like ,wilson had military rank2 he concealed this as much as he could2 but in ,st4 ,petersburg he was always obliged to wear uniform1 and as there were guardhouses in almost every street1 whenever he passed the guard turned out to salute him1 which annoyed him much4 ,there was another remarkable ,scotchman1 of the name of ,baird1 with whom ,i made acquaintance4 ,he was1 however1 a totally different character--a shrewd1 intelligent1 clever1 active1 indefatigable person1 wholly devoted to making money4 ,he was in constant communication with ,england2 and as soon as a patent was taken out there for any new invention1 if it was applicable in ,russia he at once imported and patented it1 and thus obtained a monopoly4 ,he cultivated1 with the greatest tact and assiduity1 all the officials1 from the highest to the lowest1 as well as all persons of any influence1 and had a thorough understanding with them1 particularly with the police and officers of customs2 thus he contrived to gain the greatest influence1 and secured almost a monopoly of everything worth having4 ,if ever the ,government was desirous of contracting for any large work1 ,baird was almost sure of obtaining it1 at the best price4 ,whether his numerous friends were interested in the profits resulting from these multifarious undertakings is best known to himself2 but according to the ordinary practice of human nature1 particularly in ,russia at that time1 everybody endeavoured to make the most he could1 and it is probable that there was no exception in this case2 but suffice to say that ,baird made a very large fortune1 with which he retired to his native country2 and we must not omit to mention that ,baird1 whilst benefiting himself1 was of the greatest service to ,russia1 and tended materially to advance her prosperity by the numerous valuable inventions he introduced1 and by training the natives1 and inciting them and urging them to make all sorts of improvements1 which1 without such a man1 would never have been undertaken1 so that nobody grudged his wealth1 and he left the country to which he had been a real benefactor universally liked and esteemed4 ,as to myself1 personally1 ,i feel much indebted to him2 through his kindness ,i had the opportunity of knowing many persons and seeing many things which otherwise would have been out of my power4 ,i frequently dined at the cafs and restaurants when not otherwise engaged1 and at some of the best of them met persons of the first class1 who were always very well bred and polite4 ,one day ,i dined at one of the best table d'htes1 when several persons of high rank were present1 and amongst them a young naval officer of good family4 ,amongst other subjects of conversation1 the recent taking of ,varna came forward1 and the naval officer seemed to speak rather disparagingly of it4 ,i observed one of the superior waiters looking at him and listening attentively for some time1 then he quietly went up to him and whispered a few words in his ear1 which my neighbour told me was an order to hold his tongue1 for such conversation would not be allowed4 ,the fact was that all these waiters were employed by1 or in the pay of1 the police1 and all conversations were reported4 ,the young naval officer held his tongue immediately1 and the party broke up very shortly afterwards1 and ,i was told that the matter would not end there4 ,i took the hint also1 for nothing was more dangerous than to talk politics1 and ,i avoided them ever after4 ,in considering the position of ,st4 ,petersburg1 it is1 perhaps1 difficult to find a more inconvenient and unhealthy spot for a great seaport town than that chosen for the ,russian capital1 at the mouth of the ,neva1 at the head of the ,gulf of ,finland1 where there is no tide1 and where the greatest depth over the bar is only seven feet1 so that none but vessels of a small class can ascend the river4 ,hence1 though within the bar there is ample depth of water at all times1 large mercantile vessels are obliged to stop at ,cronstadt1 seven miles distant1 and there discharge their cargoes1 which are transferred to ,st4 ,petersburg in lighters2 in like manner they receive their cargoes from the capital2 this1 of course1 is attended with great delay and considerable expense4 ,moreover1 during the prevalence of strong westerly winds1 the waters of the ,gulf of ,finland are heaped up at the upper end1 and those of the ,neva are driven back1 so that it frequently happens that a large portion of the city is inundated2 and in ,november1 in the year #ahbg1 a terrible example of this occurred4 ,in many parts of the city the waters rose more than fourteen feet1 many thousand persons were drowned1 and a vast amount of valuable property was destroyed4 ,these inundations might be avoided1 and the port improved to a considerable extent1 although it would necessarily require a very great expenditure4 ,still the object to be gained is of such importance that every reasonable means should be adopted to effect it1 and compared with the enormous sums which have been expended in establishing this capital1 the cost of improving the port would appear trifling4 ,cronstadt is1 properly speaking1 the port of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,here all vessels1 whether of war or merchandise1 must stop2 and the southern side of the island1 where there is the deepest water1 from #bd to #bg feet1 has been chosen as the site for the naval arsenal1 as well as the port for merchant vessels1 where docks had been made when ,i was there by enclosing a portion of the water space from the gulf2 the two basins or harbours were close together1 separated only by a partition wall4 ,the accommodation for the mercantile vessels1 although not small1 nevertheless was in a rude state1 devoid of the usual mechanical appliances which we have for many years been so accustomed to in ,england4 ,the naval arsenal1 which was made in the time of ,peter the ,great1 and was considered perfect at the time it was made1 consists of a long canal leading from the outer to a small circular basin4 ,connected with this there were four dry docks for the line-of-battle ships of that period4 ,from this the circular basin on the east side was connected with two other dry docks2 and around these canals1 basin and docks1 there were several storehouses and magazines2 but upon the whole they were badly arranged4 ,i may here as well mention that my brother and myself afterwards1 at the request of the ,emperor1 designed a complete naval establishment for this place1 utilizing as much as we could of the old construction1 and this design1 ,i believe1 was to some extent adopted4 ,we afterwards built four iron steamboats1 with their engines1 for the ,caspian ,sea1 which were the first ever afloat there4 ,these vessels were built in ,england1 then taken to pieces1 and sent with the requisite number of workmen to ,odessa4 ,thence by land they were transported to the ,caspian1 where they were again put together1 with their engines1 and answered their purpose well4 ,we afterwards made the iron gates for the docks of ,sebastopol1 a pair of which were subsequently brought to ,england and ,france as war trophies4 ,we also constructed several vessels of war1 worked by the screw1 for the ,baltic and ,black ,seas2 amongst others a yacht for the ,emperor1 to review his fleets in the ,gulf of ,finland1 as well as for pleasure excursions4 ,this was a small vessel1 about #bfj tons1 with a pair of oscillating engines of the nominal power of #abj horses1 although capable of working up to three times that power1 and making fully #ad knots an hour4 ,she was fitted up plainly but very neatly4 ,from circumstances over which we had no control1 the completion was prolonged to a later period of the year than we anticipated2 and it was not before the middle of ,october1 #ahej1 that we were ready to leave ,england1 when my brother and his son ,george determined to go with her and deliver her in person4 ,she was well insured1 and was navigated by an ,english captain--who1 ,i observed at the time1 was not a very sharp fellow--and an ,english crew4 ,as she was a small vessel she had to take a considerable quantity of coals on deck1 which brought her down beyond her usual line of floatation4 ,i went with her as far as ,gravesend1 and saw them fairly on their voyage1 but before she reached the ,baltic she encountered a severe storm1 when she behaved admirably4 ,at ,copenhagen she took in more coals1 and started again1 and in the ,baltic encountered another severe storm1 which she got through equally as well as before4 ,the weather then became fine1 and they thought that all their troubles were over4 ,the last storm had driven her considerably out of her course1 which the captain had not taken a correct account of2 and one fine starlight night1 about ten o'clock1 they were steaming away with a smooth sea1 at the rate of about #aj to #ab knots an hour1 when the engineer1 putting his head out of the engine-house to enjoy the fine evening1 suddenly called out1 8,i think ,i see land10 and went at once to the captain4 ,the captain said1 8,it is impossible4 ,we cannot be nearer land than #cj or #dj miles40 ,the captain and the ,russian officer and my brother were at the time in the cabin taking their grog comfortably before going to bed4 ,but he quickly went upon deck and soon discovered his error1 and ordered the vessel to be put about2 but before this could be done she struck upon a rock1 and in spite of all their endeavours she could not be got off4 ,the ,russian officer declined taking any of the responsibility1 saying it lay with the captain1 and he would have nothing to do with it4 ,at daylight they found themselves hard and fast upon the ,island of ,dago4 ,my brother1 finding that nothing could be done to get the vessel off1 resolved with his son to make his way at once to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and report the loss of the vessel4 ,as the winter had begun1 the journey was attended with considerable difficulty4 ,however1 they reached ,st4 ,petersburg1 and had an audience of the ,emperor ,nicholas1 who1 when he heard the story1 laughed heartily1 and said1 8,now1 if this had occurred under the command of ,russian officers and sailors1 what would the ,english have said8 why1 that no wonder an accident had occurred1 when the vessel was confided to those stupid fellows1 the ,russians4 ,now1 you see1 it has happened with the ,english2 and they1 with all their pretended knowledge1 don't know the ,baltic yet1 and are more stupid than the ,russians40 ,again he laughed heartily1 and said1 8,i am delighted to find that my sailors are1 after all1 as clever as the ,english1 and under the circumstances ,i am not sorry that the yacht is lost4 ,it will teach the ,english in future not to be so proud of their knowledge1 and to give the ,russians credit for knowing the ,baltic as well as they do40 ,although the yacht was wrecked1 we lost nothing1 neither did the ,emperor1 for he was insured to the full1 and we received an order to make another of precisely the same size4 ,the underwriters1 as soon as they heard of the accident1 sent out a clever fellow1 ,captain ,farr1 who1 upon arriving at the spot where the vessel was stranded1 found that she had not received much damage2 he1 therefore1 finding that the season was too far advanced to take her back to ,england1 or even to get her into any ,baltic port1 at once weighed her and then sank her in deeper water in order that she might be protected during the winter4 ,in the spring he returned1 weighed her again1 and took her to ,revel1 where he repaired the trifling damage she had received1 then returned with her to ,england1 calling at ,hamburg on his way1 and from thence she made a quicker voyage that had ever been made before4 ,i saw her in the ,east ,india ,dock1 and she looked quite new2 and unless ,i had known ,i should never have supposed that she had been stranded1 and been a whole winter under water in the ,baltic4 ,she afterwards sold1 ,i think1 for #ijjjl41 having originally cost #ad1jjjl42 and as the insurers had been paid nearly #djjjl4 for the original insurance1 the underwriters scarcely lost anything4 ,thus we gained considerably by the accident1 having to make two yachts instead of one1 and neither the ,emperor nor the underwriters lost anything4 ,leaving ,st4 ,petersburg ,i started for ,moscow1 traversing #djj miles of most uninteresting country in an open droschky1 drawn at the rate of #aj miles an hour--as ,i paid liberally--by four horses abreast4 ,the only noticeable place ,i passed through was ,novogorod1 a considerable town1 with a good deal of activity1 and apparently an extensive trade4 ,here the two great water-carriage systems met1 connecting the ,baltic with the ,black ,sea1 and also with the ,caspian4 ,the canals were crowded with vessels laden with the products of the ,east and ,west2 natives from the ,east clad in their flowing garments1 ,tartars1 with their bows and arrows1 ,cossacks from the ,don1 ,armenian1 ,greek1 and ,turkish merchants1 and the never-failing ,jew1 ,english1 ,french1 and ,germans1 all mixed together1 and carrying on their particular business1 formed a very amusing and busy scene4 ,i contrived to get a tolerable dinner there1 the only one deserving of the name since ,i left ,petersburg2 ,i devoted two or three hours to looking over the canal-works1 which1 for that time1 were not badly executed1 but the town contained nothing remarkable4 ,on reaching ,moscow1 what struck me most was the ,eastern appearance of the inhabitants1 particularly when compared with the extremely modern look of the town itself4 ,the ,kremlin1 of course1 ,i need not describe4 ,i visited the celebrated ,riding ,house1 which is #abjj feet long1 covered by a wooden roof1 of the single span of #bdj feet2 it is without doubt the finest and largest shed in the world1 and a splendid piece of carpentry1 well worth going some distance to see4 ,it is frequently used for reviewing troops in unfavourable weather1 and it is said that ten thousand men can go through their exercises under its shelter4 ,on my way from ,moscow to ,warsaw ,i had no idea that this great road--one of the principal in ,russia1 and1 upon the whole1 not through an unproductive country--,i should find so totally unprovided with anything for the accommodation of travellers4 ,in those days ,i certainly did not expect much1 and having travelled in more barbarous countries1 ,i could submit cheerfully to a good deal2 but ,i certainly did not expect that it would be so bad as ,i found it1 and therefore ,i carried little with me1 contrary to my usual practice4 ,this ,i certainly repented of1 for our fare was most miserable2 if we got eggs1 butter1 cheese1 and bread1 we thought ourselves lucky1 though sometimes we got better provisions2 however1 perhaps it was well1 for although ill when ,i started1 ,i began to get better1 and slept soundly4 ,my man ,weiss consoled himself with plenty of vodki1 and considering the rough fare we got ,i could not altogether blame him4 ,we passed ,smolenski1 and a very poor place it was2 there was nothing like an hotel1 nor any accommodation for travellers4 ,although seventeen years had elapsed since the invasion of the ,french in #ahab1 the remains of the fire and battle which took place when the ,french captured it were still very visible4 ,when we entered ,poland cultivation appeared to be carried on more extensively and with greater skill1 and the people seemed more intelligent2 we passed several large proprietors' houses4 ,at ,warsaw ,i attended a review of the garrison1 in the ,great ,square1 in honour of the recent victories of the ,russians over the ,turks4 ,it consisted of about twelve thousand men of all arms1 commanded by the ,grand ,duke ,constantine1 the ,viceroy4 ,i never saw finer troops in my life1 nor any that manuvred better4 ,before the review mass was said in their midst1 and when ,te ,deum was sung by the whole of the men--and they sang it with great skill--the effect was very fine1 and was rendered still more so by a salvo of one hundred and one guns1 fired from the forts4 ,i returned rapidly through ,germany1 and reached home after an absence of sixty-five days1 during which period ,i had travelled nearly thirty nights4 ,i immediately visited ,london ,bridge1 and found everything going on well4 ,in fact1 during my absence my brother ,george had diligently looked after my business as well as his own4 ,my brother ,george married the only daughter of ,sir ,john ,jackson1 ,bart41 in ,june #ahbh4 ,i had then taken a house for myself1 ,no4 #ae1 ,whitehall ,place1 where my two younger brothers1 ,matthew and ,james1 lived with me for about a couple of years4 ,at this time1 as a bachelor1 ,i saw a good deal of society1 and made acquaintance with most of the celebrated scientific men of the day1 also the leading literati1 artists1 painters1 and sculptors4 ,in fact1 when ,i could tear myself away from my business ,i passed my time most agreeably and profitably in that distinguished society4 ,i numbered amongst my acquaintance ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,dr4 ,young1 ,wollaston1 ,dawes1 ,gilbert1 ,sir ,a4 ,cooper1 ,sir ,d4 ,home1 ,laurence1 ,greene1 ,playfair1 ,leslie1 ,whewell1 ,peacock1 ,hopkins1 ,liston1 ,barlow1 ,irving1 ,bailey1 ,colby1 ,parley1 ,sedgwick1 ,greenough1 ,delabeche1 ,meecham1 ,lyell1 ,brande1 ,faraday1 ,christie1 ,allen1 ,pepys1 ,sir ,james ,m',intosh1 ,w4 ,w4 ,scott1 ,j4 ,w4 ,croker1 ,j4 ,barrow1 ,sir ,s4 ,raffles1 ,marsden1 ,sir ,f4 ,chantrey1 ,sir ,t4 ,lawrence1 ,turner1 ,calcott1 ,stansfield1 ,behnes1 ,chalon1 ,sir ,a4 ,m4 ,shee1 ,eastlake1 ,varley1 ,martin1 ,philips1 ,theodore ,hook1 ,samuel ,rogers1 ,southey1 ,robert ,brown1 ,hallam1 ,sir ,a4 ,alison1 ,sir ,j4 ,parry1 ,sir ,j4 ,franklin1 ,sir ,john ,ross1 the late ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 the late ,admiral ,fitzroy1 ,professor ,owen1 and many others1 and last1 not least1 ,mrs4 ,somerville4 ,amongst foreigners--,humboldt1 ,laplace1 ,cuvier1 ,arago1 ,pring1 ,gerard1 ,cardinal ,mezzofauit1 ,mailenette1 ,wree-,viking1 and ,von ,breek4 ,in #ahcc1 having now completed ,london1 ,hyde ,park1 ,staines1 and ,crammond bridges1 the great naval works at ,sheerness1 ,woolwich1 and ,chatham1 the ,victualling ,department1 or ,royal ,william ,yard1 and a large portion of the breakwater at ,plymouth1 ,sunderland1 ,port ,patrick1 ,donaghadee1 ,port ,rush1 and a large portion of ,kingstown ,harbours1 the ,eau ,brink ,cut1 the ,nene ,outfall1 the ,witham ,outfall1 the ,ancholme ,drainage1 and several other minor works1 ,i was almost knocked up1 and was recommended to take another continental journey for recreation4 ,as ,i had never seen ,spain ,i determined to go there1 and accordingly started in the mail for ,falmouth1 and reached ,cadiz on the fifth day4 ,whilst at ,gibraltar there was a grand military and civil fte1 given by the governor of the fort ,algesiras on the opposite side of the bay1 to celebrate the establishment of the constitution1 when he invited the governor of ,gibraltar1 ,sir ,w4 ,houston1 one of ,king ,william ,,iv4's most attached followers1 and who had received me most kindly1 and all the officers of the garrison4 ,the governor of course could not go1 nor all the officers2 but a considerable number did1 and ,i went in a boat in company with a number of the officers of the ,rifles1 while a great many rode round by land4 ,we were received in the most courteous manner by the governor and the ,spanish officers1 and were most hospitably entertained4 ,on leaving ,gibraltar ,i bargained with a respectable ,spanish muleteer named ,manuel1 well known and recommended by my landlord1 for the hire of four good mules1 one each for myself and servant1 and two for the baggage--which ,manuel and his man occasionally mounted also4 ,my idea was to go by ,ronda to ,malaga1 but ,i was advised not to do it1 as it was reported to be greatly infested by brigands2 moreover1 ,spain at the time of my visit was in a very disturbed state on account of the ,carlist war1 and to add to this the cholera spread dismay and terror in most quarters1 so that the time was very unfavourable for travel2 still ,i determined to go on1 and trusted to ,providence for a happy deliverance1 only instead of going by ,ronda ,i determined to take the coast road4 ,we proceeded through a wild1 uncultivated country1 and after two days' travelling reached ,malaga about sunset1 and took up our quarters at a comfortable little hotel situated in a narrow street near the ,alameda4 ,here our consul1 ,mr4 ,march1 warned me against going any farther without waiting for some companions2 but as my time was valuable1 ,i thanked him for his advice1 and determined to proceed1 and after two days' stay started again1 sleeping the first night at ,velez1 or ,old ,malaga4 ,after supper ,manuel came in and said that there were several suspicious characters about the village1 and that1 moreover1 our arrival had caused some commotion2 he had therefore told the landlord that we should start at daybreak1 but strongly recommended our setting out two hours earlier4 ,this we accordingly did1 and at midday reached the old ,moorish town of ,alhama1 perched upon the summit of the pass which separates ,malaga from the vale of ,granada2 from here we descended into another rich vale1 which1 well irrigated and cultivated1 teemed with wine1 oil1 corn1 and fruits1 and was filled with villages and chateaux1 all indicating wealth and prosperity2 yet withal there was a certain degree of wildness intermixed with it1 which made it appear as if they were only half-civilized4 ,it was long after dark before we reached ,granada1 then we had to go to the custom-house1 where the officers were very much inclined to be troublesome2 but ,i made friends in the usual comfortable manner1 and got to a posada near the centre of the town--not a bad place1 and which ,i was very glad to get into4 ,manuel came in whilst ,i was at supper and congratulated me upon our safe arrival2 he said that for the last two hours he expected that we should be attacked every minute1 and he therefore had urged us on as fast as possible2 in fact1 we came latterly at the rate of about eight miles an hour1 which1 he said1 had saved us4 ,the city of ,granada1 although extensive1 appeared to be1 like most of the towns ,i there saw1 in a state of decadence1 little trade1 and consequently no prosperity4 ,the lords of the soil seldom visited their estates1 but left the whole to their factors or managers2 and when the proprietor did come1 he seemed to take no interest in his tenants or labourers1 but lived in a half-ruined chteau in a miserable manner1 reserving all for show and extravagance4 ,manuel said1 that as our route lay through the mountains1 and as it was very unsafe1 it was absolutely necessary to take one or two escopoteros or armed police1 to escort us at least as far as ,andujar3 this ,i at once consented to do1 and we were now no contemptible party1 consisting as we did of six well-armed men4 ,after halting at midday at ,jaen1 we proceeded through an open country1 which presented anything but a thriving and prosperous appearance2 the peasants were returning from their labour armed with guns1 and they had a savage and discontented look4 ,manuel1 who did not like the look of things1 went up and spoke to one of them4 ,when he came back to me he said that we must not go to ,andujar that night1 as the peasant had told him that there was a strong band of brigands in the neighbourhood1 who had plundered the country right and left1 so that all the country people were obliged to go armed and keep together4 ,on hearing this news ,i resolved to stop for the night at a small village about two miles in front of us1 which ,manuel said was decidedly the best plan4 ,we halted there a little before sunset1 and a wretched place it was1 without even a venta or public inn of any kind2 ,i therefore hired one of the most respectable of the cottages1 which was more like a stable or cowhouse than anything else1 although it had a kitchen1 and one or two rooms abovestairs2 the floors were of broken brick1 there were no windows1 and only some planks on tressels for beds1 with one or two broken chairs4 ,however1 we were able to purchase materials for supper1 and with cloaks1 saddles1 and bags very soon made beds4 ,i confess ,i did not like the place at all4 ,as we might be attacked during the night1 we barricaded the house as well as we could1 and slept in our clothes1 with our arms ready1 and one man keeping watch4 ,having done this we went to sleep1 but were awoke soon after midnight by loud cries and screams1 and a man began knocking violently at our door asking admittance1 crying out that the robbers were come4 ,we were up in an instant1 prepared to give the rascals a warm reception4 ,we had scarcely made our dispositions for defence when the robbers1 to the number of at least a dozen1 made their appearance1 well armed1 and demanded our money1 horses1 and baggage1 on pain of death4 ,these ,i determined not to yield1 and defied them4 ,they1 seeing that we were well armed and prepared for a stout resistance1 hesitated for a minute2 and ,i1 not wishing to push matters to extremities1 called to ,manuel to tell them1 that as for yielding to their demands it was ridiculous1 and if they did not go away at once1 ,i should be joined by some troops1 and then every rascal of them would be shot2 but if they chose to send four or five of their men to escort me towards ,andujar ,i would pay them liberally4 ,they then consulted1 and agreed to the proposal1 when ,i told them that ,i should be ready to start at five in the morning4 ,accordingly1 at the appointed time1 our friends1 armed to the teeth and well mounted--as rascally-looking a set as ever one saw--made their appearance4 ,i gave them a cigar and glass of brandy each1 which put them in good humour4 ,i could get on tolerably with ,spanish1 and entered into conversation with them2 they were very agreeable1 and told some curious stories4 ,manuel came riding up to me and told me to be upon my guard1 for that one never could be sure of them for a moment2 however1 ,i thought the best plan was to show no fear4 ,at nine o'clock we got to our destination1 at a miserable village between ,andujar and ,cordova1 where we went to a wretched venta2 ,i gave them a breakfast of such as we could get1 with cigars4 ,i paid them handsomely1 and so we parted1 apparently the best of friends4 ,my guide and worthy friend ,manuel1 as we left1 said1 8,you seem to be very well pleased1 but you don't know these ratteros4 ,i hope that we have done with them1 but ,i very much doubt it2 you have paid them too well not to make them wish for further acquaintance with you1 and depend upon it we shall meet them again1 when we shall perhaps not be so well prepared40 8,well10 ,i said1 8we have got rid of them for the present1 and if we happen to make their acquaintance again1 depend upon it we shall have the best of it40 ,we jogged on all the day through a wild but not uncultivated country2 the land was rich--plenty of vines1 olives1 corn1 maize1 and fruits1 and everything1 if properly cultivated1 well calculated to make the people comfortable and prosperous2 yet everything around denoted misery1 poverty1 and wretchedness4 ,when ,i talked to the people they seemed reasonable enough2 they said that they toiled from morning to night1 but never got paid1 or at least so little that they could not live upon it2 and then1 what with the government taxes and the priests1 it was impossible to live1 so that there was no use in working4 ,i certainly could not help sympathizing with them1 for they are really a fine generous people1 and if they were properly treated1 there is not a finer race anywhere4 ,unfortunately there is no middle class1 and the nobility are completely worn out1 so that the unfortunate peasants are ground down to the lowest misery2 yet with all this there is a nobleness1 independence1 and enduring fortitude about a ,spanish peasant which causes you to admire them the more you know of them4 ,i soon recognized their character1 and appreciated it accordingly4 ,whenever ,i entered a venta or posada ,i always made it a point to treat the host and hostess with frankness and courtesy as if we were equals1 also to show myself ready to oblige and to assist in any preparations that might be going on4 ,thus ,i secured the utmost attention1 and they readily produced their best at the cheapest rate1 a result which no amount of money would have obtained4 ,but to return to my story4 ,when within seven miles of ,cordova1 while passing near the small fortress of ,ercaloro1 at about half-past five in the evening1 i4e4 not long before sunset1 ,i met a priest1 who told me that it would be impossible to proceed1 as he had observed five mounted robbers prowling in the olive woods between the fortress and ,cordova1 who would be certain to fall upon us2 and that1 moreover1 they were in all probability only the scouts of a much larger body4 ,manuel exclaimed1 8,did ,i not tell you that we should meet these rascals again80 ,i1 however1 replied that ,i was determined to reach ,cordova that night1 and asked the priest to introduce me to the governor of the fort4 ,to this he willingly consented1 and the governor having heard my story1 was so obliging as to say that he intended sending fifty men to ,cordova next day1 but that they might accompany me now4 ,we accordingly started and soon came in sight of the five mounted men1 who sure enough proved to be our five old friends1 who very soon turned and galloped off as hard as they could4 ,we fired one or two shots at them2 but as night was coming on we thought it best not to pursue1 and continued on our way to ,cordova1 which we reached at eight o'clock1 very glad to get off so well4 ,from ,cordova we reached ,seville1 where ,mr4 ,wetherall1 the ,consul1 strongly advocated the introduction into ,england of ,manzanilla1 a wine then scarcely known4 ,i requested him to send me a hogshead1 which was universally approved of1 and henceforth the taste for pale dry sherry has entirely superseded that for the old golden and brown1 and there is no doubt that as a tonic it is far superior4 ,the road across the ,sierra ,morena was kept clear by the singular expedient of intrusting its defence to a body of ,german colonists1 who held considerable lands and dues on condition of keeping the roads free from brigands4 ,this plan answered admirably2 in a very short time the brigands were exterminated1 and after that1 though no patrols were ever seen1 yet if any fresh bands ventured to appear1 the ,germans were instantly under arms and never relaxed their pursuit until the brigands were either destroyed or driven out of the country4 ,we proceeded by diligence from ,seville to ,madrid2 and when we reached ,ocna1 after having travelled three days and nights1 our majoral or conductor had compassion on us1 and said we should halt for the night2 that is1 we arrived about nine o'clock and he said we must be off again at five in the morning2 this1 however1 was a great release1 and we all thanked him2 but ,i believe we had no great reason for being so very grateful for his kindness1 as it was rumoured that if we had proceeded we might have been attacked by the ,carlists4 ,however1 be that as it may1 we got a comfortable bed1 to my great surprise4 ,the cholera had been flying about the neighbourhood1 and ,i felt a slight attack of it1 which ,i got rid of by a few drops of sal volatile and camphorated spirits in a wineglass of cold water4 ,at five in the morning we started from ,ocna1 after getting a biscuit1 a cup of chocolate1 and glass of cold water1 which one finds almost everywhere in ,spain2 indeed1 rough as the travelling was in those days--and it could not be worse--we always got most excellent bread1 eggs1 and sometimes milk and wine1 although the latter was generally new1 and as thick as porridge and almost undrinkable2 still with bread1 eggs1 and milk one could always get on4 ,when ,i arrived at ,madrid1 the city was in the greatest state of excitement2 the ,carlists were making war in the most vigorous and successful manner1 headed by the celebrated ,zumalacarragui2 and it being dangerous to talk politics1 ,i particularly avoided them1 and went about seeing everything ,i could as a stranger4 ,i also called upon our minister1 ,sir ,george ,villiers1 whom ,i had known in ,england1 and was most kindly received by him4 ,i here met a ,colonel ,downie1 who had served under ,wellington and afterwards settled in ,spain4 ,he spoke ,spanish perfectly1 and was much respected by the natives1 which was saying a good deal for him2 for the ,spaniards are a most peculiar people1 and especially the upper classes1 extremely reserved and exclusive towards strangers4 ,personally1 however1 ,i have no reason to complain1 for they were very civil to me4 ,i was introduced by ,downie and other friends1 and had an opportunity of visiting some of the first families of the place1 amongst others the ,veraguas1 the descendants of ,columbus1 of ,cortez1 ,viluma1 ,frias1 and others4 ,i went to their tertulias or conversaziones1 which were the only kind of society to be had when ,i was there2 in fact1 parties were so divided on account of the civil war that many of the great houses were shut up4 ,at the tertulia there was nothing but conversation1 so that with the exception of the lights there was no expense of entertainment4 ,as you were leaving the house1 in the hall the servant presented you with a glass of cold water1 with a biscuit of flour and sugar1 which1 when taken with the water1 was not unpalatable4 ,at one of these tertulias the servant1 in the midst of the conversation1 brought to the lady of the house her supper1 which she set to work on1 without making the least remark2 in fact1 it was usual1 and no person thought anything of it4 ,having now viewed everything worth seeing in the city1 ,i determined to see something of the environs1 and accordingly asked ,downie to accompany me to ,toledo2 and as politics were very uncertain1 ,i thought it better to be doubly armed with passports4 ,i therefore got our minister1 ,sir ,g4 ,villiers1 to verify mine1 and also the minister of police1 a very gentlemanly man1 the ,marquis of ,viluma1 who was unusually civil1 and gave me a capital dinner and a special passport for ,toledo4 ,the next morning at daybreak we started1 with four horses1 and were just leaving the town when we were stopped by a messenger running after us1 who proved to be the servant of a lady whom ,i had met the day before at the ,marquis de ,viluma's1 and who was a niece of the ,archbishop of ,toledo4 ,she had sent her servant with a letter of introduction for us to her uncle the ,archbishop1 for which we were thankful1 as it is rather difficult to obtain permission to see all the different objects1 such as the treasury4 ,accordingly we started off afresh over a very wild country1 with a very indifferent road1 or rather none1 and reached ,toledo about noon4 ,we immediately went to the cathedral1 which is a very rich and imposing ,gothic edifice1 and although we did not see the archbishop1 who was not there1 yet the dean most kindly showed us everything1 particularly the treasury1 which was replete with a most gorgeous collection of vestments1 mitres adorned with precious stones1 silver croziers1 gold and silver chalices1 cups and basins and priestly utensils without number4 ,we then went and paid our respects to civil and military governors1 and got an order to see the ,royal ,sword ,manufactory1 which formerly was celebrated throughout ,europe for its excellent blades1 which were said to be equal to those of ,damascus1 but had for some time past been rapidly on the decline2 there were some two or three hundred men employed where ,i was1 but they were making only ordinary blades for the army4 ,having seen everything1 and perambulated this curious old city1 which was in anything but a thriving state1 we returned to the fonda or hotel1 miserable as it was1 to our dinner1 previous to starting for ,aranjuez4 ,we had just done dinner when an officer of police made his appearance1 and said very politely that the civil governor wished to see me4 ,i said that ,i had already seen him1 and paid my respects1 and shown my passport2 ,i asked if anything was wrong with it4 ,he said no1 then went away1 and again returned1 saying the civil governor must see me4 ,i again asked if the passport was right4 ,he said perfectly4 ,then ,i said that ,i thought the governor's conduct was extraordinary1 and ,i declined going4 ,two more police officers then came1 and said that the gates of the city were closed to me1 and that ,i should not leave without first going to the civil governor4 ,my friend ,downie then got alarmed1 and said that he would go with the officers1 see the civil governor and explain matters4 ,he accordingly went1 and asked the civil governor what he meant4 ,the governor replied that he was surrounded by ,carlists1 and he was obliged to be constantly on his guard1 for fear of an insurrection2 but he had been informed that ,i had brought a private letter to the archbishop1 who was the greatest ,carlist in the place1 and he must know what that letter contained4 ,fortunately it was open1 and both ,downie and ,i had read it before delivering it1 and it was nothing more than a request that we might be shown everything in the cathedral4 ,with this explanation the governor was perfectly satisfied1 and dispensed with my personal attendance1 which ,i was glad of1 and determined to carry no more introductory letters1 for at that time it was most dangerous to both parties4 ,off we started1 but were stopped at the city gates1 at which we were both much annoyed1 and being determined that we would stand this annoyance no longer1 were just going to force our way through1 when a messenger from the governor told them to let us go1 and off we galloped as hard as possible4 ,before leaving ,madrid ,i visited some of the convents1 though with great difficulty1 for a short time before my arrival the mob1 in a fit of revolutionary excitement1 had attacked several of them1 and murdered many of the unfortunate inmates1 whilst the rest were obliged to fly for their lives4 ,when ,i applied for admission it was refused1 until learning that ,i was an ,englishman1 they opened the outer gates1 which had been well secured1 and admitted me1 and a melancholy spectacle ,i beheld4 ,very few of the monks remained1 and those that ,i saw had their heads and arms bandaged up on account of the wounds they had received4 ,a great deal of property had been destroyed1 and a still greater quantity had been stolen2 in fact everything had a most wretched and desolate appearance4 ,shortly afterwards the whole of the convents and religious establishments for monks and nuns were shut up by order of the government1 and all the property was seized for the benefit 787 of the nation4 ,leaving ,madrid with several others1 we proceeded to ,france vi ,saragossa and ,barcelona1 as the direct route through ,bayonne was of course quite impracticable4 ,barcelona was then1 and is now1 taking it altogether1 the finest and most thriving town in the peninsula1 and may be called the ,manchester of ,spain4 ,it is situated on the shore of the ,mediterranean1 in a rich fertile plain1 backed by a lofty range of mountains about three or four miles distant4 ,the central streets are very narrow1 but the ,marina and artificial harbour1 with the fine spacious quays by which they are surrounded1 have a noble effect1 although the mole1 a fine work as it undoubtedly is1 has been badly designed with respect to the currents and the great quantity of alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters1 and carried along the shore from the deltas and mouths of the ,hobugal and ,ebro4 ,the consequence is1 that the space covered by the mole is constantly filling up1 and requires incessant dredging at great expense2 notwithstanding which1 the trade is so great that the harbour is always more or less full of shipping1 and besides its manufactures of cotton and silk1 it exports largely wine1 oil1 bark1 fruits1 and timber4 ,i made an excursion with my servant to the celebrated convent of ,monte ,serrata1 situated upon the mountain of that name1 about #cj miles to the west of ,barcelona2 starting early in the morning1 and stopping at the bridge of ,mastoul across the ,hobugal1 about #ae miles from ,barcelona4 ,here ,i enjoyed1 from below the bridge1 one of the most interesting and beautiful views1 ,i think1 that ,i ever beheld4 ,facing me was the bridge1 consisting of two ,gothic arches2 the south one was the largest ,i ever saw1 being about #adj feet span4 ,on the north side of the bridge was a ,roman arch1 in tolerable preservation1 except the cornice2 and on the south side of the bridge were the remains of a ,moorish fort4 ,thus ,i had before me1 at one coup d'il1 the ruined works of three great nations2 in the distance was the convent of ,montserrat1 perched upon the mountain side1 with its numerous pinnacles rising above it1 and these overtopped by the numerous lofty peaks of the ,pyrenees behind4 ,whilst examining the bridge1 ,i perceived on a sudden a large body of troops1 with several mounted officers1 rapidly approaching2 upon inquiring the cause1 ,i was told by an officer that ,i had better get out of the way as soon as possible1 as there were a great many ,carlists about1 and they expected to be attacked every minute1 as they had to defend the pass to prevent the ,carlists from getting to ,barcelona4 ,i therefore went off at once to the convent4 ,i left the carriage at the bottom of the mountain1 at a small inn1 and got a man to carry up our things2 and having a letter to the worthy superior1 was most hospitably received4 ,they gave us a comfortable dinner4 ,we then set out to examine the numerous hermitages which were perched upon different peaks of the mountain1 which resembled the teeth of a saw1 from which the hill takes its name4 ,these hermitages consisted of a small hut1 just large enough for the hermit's bed1 and table1 and chair2 here they remained winter and summer1 and only occasionally descended to the convent4 ,all the hermitages were empty1 the hermits had fled1 and there were scarcely a dozen monks in the convent4 ,whilst climbing about the mountain ,i observed several ,carlist scouts1 well armed1 lurking about1 and ,i saw others at a distance--no doubt they were part of the attacking force expected at ,barcelona2 they1 however1 did not molest me1 and ,i was too happy to leave them alone4 ,the view from the mountain all round is very fine2 all the leading valleys are filled with manufacturing towns and villages1 amongst the principal of which was ,manresa1 in the valley immediately below us4 ,we got back to the convent soon after dark1 where the prior had ordered us a good supper1 and afterwards invited me to his apartments1 where he gave an excellent concert1 which was very well executed by the choristers and monks attached to the convent4 ,i soon found out that the prior and all around him were most devoted partisans of ,don ,carlos1 and wished the ,christinos and all revolutionists to perdition1 to which place they said they would be most assuredly consigned4 ,knowing that ,i was an ,englishman1 and being recommended to him1 he felt himself perfectly at home with me1 and seemed to be tolerably well informed about ,english politics3 he understood perfectly well the difference between ,whigs1 ,tories1 and ,radicals1 and had not a doubt but that the good sense and talent of the ,tories would soon upset the ,whigs and ,radicals2 and so far he proved right2 but he went on to say that they would assist the ,spanish ,carlists1 and send all the ,christinos and their wicked associates to the devil1 where they ought to go2 for the ,catholic religion could never thrive and ,spain never could prosper so long as the ,christinos were triumphant4 ,by this time ,i could get on tolerably well with ,spanish4 ,we conversed on various topics1 and passed the evening very agreeably1 as the prior was a very superior person1 and really1 considering that he was a ,spanish priest1 he was an enlightened man1 and by no means bigoted4 ,he said that no nation could prosper without religion2 and according to his belief he considered that the ,roman ,catholic was the true faith2 at the same time he did not mean to say that a person professing any other religion could not be saved1 but that ,god in ,his great mercy would pardon their ignorance4 ,we bade the prior good-night1 thanking him much for his kindness1 and retired to our dormitory1 which was very cold and solitary1 near the chapel3 we had plenty of cloaks1 which were indispensable2 and ,i told my man to make a stiff glass of hot punch1 not only for myself1 but also for the worthy monks who attended us1 and ,i took care that they should be offered supper2 but although they had a glass of punch and a cigar1 they would take no more4 ,the night was very cold1 the moon shone bright1 and the stillness was remarkable4 ,i awoke long before light1 and heard the monks saying their matins2 feeling it was cold1 ,i got more covering1 and again fell asleep4 ,awaking soon after eight o'clock1 we got up1 and had chocolate2 then1 making a handsome present to the poor-box1 ,i retraced my steps downwards1 and ,i must say that ,i never passed a more agreeable day4 ,the scenery was magnificent2 that alone was sufficient to recompense anyone for the journey2 and in addition to this there was the visit to this great convent1 at one time one of the most powerful in ,spain1 but now in its decadence1 and its once powerful inmates degraded so far as to hope for deliverance from the formerly hated and persecuted heretics of ,england6 ,it was a most singular sight2 and it is still more extraordinary1 that after a lapse of thirty-four years1 these very ,christinos1 with the queen at their head1 should now be persecuting all liberal ,catholics1 and again threatening the establishment of the ,inquisition4 ,leaving ,barcelona1 ,i traversed ,france1 passing through ,toulouse1 ,bordeaux1 and ,paris1 and reached ,london in the beginning of #ahcd4 ,although not strictly in chronological order1 ,i will here mention one or two incidents which occurred to me shortly before1 and which may be of interest4 ,in the early part of #ahca the cholera visited ,england for the first time4 ,everybody was alarmed at its approach3 it was a mysterious disease1 nobody seemed to know much about it4 ,they knew that it came from ,india1 and that it was most fatal and capricious1 sometimes attacking those on the mountains1 and sometimes those on the plains2 sometimes1 in passing through towns and villages1 carrying off in its strange and deadly course all those on one side of a street1 leaving the other side untouched4 ,it was making its way regularly from the ,east to the ,west1 deviating rather northwards in its course1 and hence it approached ,europe by ,russia1 thence to the north of ,germany4 ,its regular and gradual approach struck everyone with awe3 we saw the enemy coming1 but how to avoid or how to attack him nobody knew4 ,the medical profession were completely at fault1 all suggesting different remedies1 each proposing what he considered his own specific1 yet doubtful of the result4 ,at last the dreaded mystery leaped across the ,german ,ocean1 and made its appearance in ,sunderland1 where it spread alarm and dismay far and wide4 ,it then turned southward1 and made its appearance in ,london1 in the month of ,march1 and numbers left the city1 flying in all directions4 ,the ,french1 dreading its invasion1 closed their ports1 and placed ,england in quarantine1 but in vain attempted to shut out the terrible malady1 for1 in two or three months apparently glutted with death1 it jumped over the ,channel into ,france1 and became more virulent than ever4 ,the ,french physicians1 who had visited ,england during its prevalence1 and thought they had acquired good knowledge of the disease and its treatment1 were1 if anything1 more at fault than our own medical men2 for the disease held them as it were in derision1 and in ,paris seven thousand fell victims in one day4 ,i was attacked with it one morning in ,june1 about four o'clock1 with a sudden shock1 and felt as if death had clutched me in his jaws4 ,i had been some time previously thinking what ,i should do in the event of an attack1 and consulted my medical advisers1 but could elicit nothing satisfactory4 ,i then made up my mind that1 as the attacks of the disease were sudden and violent1 the remedy must be something of the kind2 and the most likely remedy1 if any1 appeared to me some strong stimulant1 such as camphor1 sal volatile1 and opium1 which1 having previously been subject to diarrha1 ,i had frequently tried with effect4 ,i therefore always kept a mixture of this kind ready4 ,feeling the attack1 ,i jumped out of bed and staggered to the table1 took a strong dose1 rang the bell violently1 sent for my doctor directly1 and went back to bed1 and for an hour suffered terribly4 ,i then became calmer1 but excessively exhausted1 and lay almost motionless4 ,the doctor came about seven1 when ,i was much better3 he asked me what ,i had taken1 and ,i told him3 he then said1 8,i do not know that ,i should have prescribed exactly what you have taken1 but the principle is correct10 and he gave me something of the same kind1 but in a milder form4 ,in a couple of days ,i was quite well1 and ,i have ever since carried camphor1 sal volatile1 and opium with me2 and subsequently1 when travelling in ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,sweden during the prevalence of cholera1 ,i frequently took these remedies myself1 and administered them with success to others4 ,the same year ,i took a trip to ,austria and the south of ,germany1 and attended the meetings of the scientific society1 the ,natur ,geforsches1 then being held at ,vienna4 ,i was well received1 and made a member of the society2 and there ,i made acquaintance with some of the most distinguished professors of ,germany1 and a most sociable set of gentlemen they were4 ,the assemblage consisted of about three hundred2 we dined every day together1 and received much gratification and instruction4 ,i attended the sections regularly1 and there ,i saw the ,austrian archdukes1 distinguished for their scientific acquirements1 who took part1 and no mean one1 in the discussions1 without the least pretension1 precisely upon the same footing as the other members2 foremost amongst the rest was the celebrated ,prince ,metternich1 then in the height of his power and consequence1 as ,prime ,minister of ,austria4 ,he certainly was a very remarkable man2 of the middle size1 extremely good-looking1 with an aquiline nose1 sharp1 intelligent eyes1 a firmly compressed lip1 a thoroughly gentlemanlike manner1 a dignified appearance1 complete self-command1 and altogether impressing you with the idea that he was the great grandee and sovereign minister of the ancient and then all-powerful empire of ,austria4 ,notwithstanding his high position1 he attended sections in the most unassuming manner1 like the most insignificant member present4 ,he attended the different sections daily1 and always sat amongst the crowd1 not on the bench near the president1 and took his share in the discussions as if he was a simple citizen1 and any point that he happened to take up he well maintained4 ,having heard so much of the all-powerful ,prince ,metternich1 ,i was rather astonished to see him act so amiable and distinguished a part in such a society4 ,i was introduced to him1 and was very kindly received4 ,he opened his palace1 and he and his distinguished and handsome consort1 the ,princess1 received the whole of the members and their ladies with the greatest cordiality4 ,i also was invited amongst the rest1 and remarked that1 although princes of the imperial family and the most distinguished nobles were present1 ,i did not observe many of their ladies2 and ,i was told by a friend1 that as the ladies of the ,german professors could not afford to dress in the splendid style of the great ,austrian ladies1 these latter were excluded for fear of their eclipsing in dress the ,german professors' wives4 ,the ,emperor ,francis gave the ,association a most magnificent entertainment at one of his palaces1 ,laxembourg1 about #ab miles from ,vienna4 ,his ,imperial ,majesty sent sixty-five royal carriages1 with outriders in uniform1 to conduct the association to ,laxembourg2 and when we arrived there1 we found sixty-five other imperial carriages1 with servants in the imperial livery1 to take us to the palace1 and drive us about the park and environs to show us everything worth seeing4 ,at three o'clock dinner was announced in the palace1 and a most imperial dinner it was4 ,several of the archdukes1 and ,prince and ,princess ,metternich were there1 with all the members and their ladies2 and before sitting down to dinner the ,prince said that ,his ,imperial ,majesty the ,emperor ,francis intended to have been present to receive the ,association1 but unfortunately ,his ,majesty was very unwell1 and was unable to attend2 he therefore requested the ,prince to apologise to them for his absence2 ,his ,majesty hoped that we would excuse his absence1 and make ourselves as comfortable as if we were at home1 which we certainly did1 and a splendid affair it was4 ,a magnificent band played during dinner1 ,tokay champagne flowed in abundance1 and at five o'clock we started on our return to ,vienna1 conveyed in the same royal carriages and accompanied by the same escort of imperial servants that brought us to ,laxembourg in the morning2 in fact1 it was impossible that anything could have been better done1 or that royalty could have shown more respect or deference to science than was done to us4 ,on the following ,sunday1 the municipality of ,baden1 a place some miles from ,vienna1 invited us to another banquet1 and sent comfortable carriages to take us there and back4 ,the burgomaster and councillors received us on our arrival1 and gave us a most excellent entertainment1 accompanied by the greatest cordiality and kindness4 ,when we arrived it wanted about two hours to dinner2 and a friend of mine1 high in office1 asked me if ,i should like to be introduced to the celebrated ,archduke ,charles1 the ,commander-in-,chief of the ,austrian armies1 and who was the first general who defeated the great ,emperor ,buonaparte1 viz4 at ,aspern4 ,the proposition was quite unexpected1 and ,i eagerly accepted it4 ,we accordingly went to the ,archduke's palace1 where1 on account of ill-health1 ,his ,imperial ,highness was living very quietly1 taking the baths4 ,upon arriving1 we were shown into an ante-room furnished in the most simple manner4 ,after waiting a few minutes1 a chamberlain made his appearance1 and ushered us into the ,archduke's presence1 when we were formally introduced to ,his ,imperial ,highness--a most simple1 unaffected1 dignified gentleman1 characterized strongly by the features of the imperial family1 at the same time possessing all the dignity and command of a great soldier4 ,he received us with great courtesy1 and after bidding us be seated1 entered into conversation with us in the most easy and familiar manner4 ,he addressed me very kindly in ,french1 asked after the ,duke of ,wellington in particular 7whom fortunately ,i had the honour of knowing71 and expressed in the highest terms his admiration of him as a soldier and statesman1 and said that ,england owed much to him4 ,he then entered into a general conversation about ,england1 her great importance and power1 saying that she was the saviour of ,europe1 and expressed an ardent wish that she might long retain her present influence4 ,he said that he should have been most happy to have dined with the municipality1 to meet us there1 but unfortunately his health would not permit4 ,after an excellent dinner the ,association returned in the evening to ,vienna1 much gratified with their entertainment4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,ship ,canal from ,portsmouth to ,london--,machinery and ,engine ,making--,screw ,steam ,ships--,hartlepool and ,coquet ,harbours--,railways round ,london--,railway ,mania--,south-,eastern ,railway--,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway4 ,railways had by this time made rapid progress1 and had been completely established as the future means of conveyance for goods and passengers4 ,the ,manchester and ,liverpool and the ,stockton and ,darlington had been completed with the most successful results4 ,the ,grand ,junction between ,liverpool and ,birmingham1 the ,london and ,birmingham1 and ,great ,western1 were making rapid progress towards completion1 and numerous other lines were either projected or about being carried into effect4 ,still the canals were not altogether supplanted2 and it was proposed to make a ship canal from ,london to ,portsmouth1 by means of which the dangerous1 tedious1 and expensive navigation between those places would be avoided4 ,the late ,mr4 ,horace ,twiss1 ,m4,p4 for ,wootton-,bassett1 and afterwards ,under ,secretary of ,state for ,foreign ,affairs1 took the greatest interest in this undertaking2 and from calculations which he had carefully made from official returns1 he stated that a clear revenue of #a1jjj1jjjl4 per annum might be derived from it4 ,the first ,lord ,ashburton1 then ,alexander ,baring1 with whom ,i had a long conversation on the subject1 said that1 if practicable at reasonable cost1 it would be a valuable national work4 ,during the height of the great revolutionary war with ,france1 long before the public had been accustomed to the vast sums which have been raised and expended upon great works in modern times1 a canal between ,london and ,portsmouth had been considered as a very desirable and profitable work4 ,my father made a plan for it in #ahjg1 and the then ,earl of ,egremont offered to subscribe largely to it3 a money crisis however occurred1 and it was abandoned for the time4 ,a canal1 however1 upon a much smaller scale was afterwards made by ,mr4 ,josias ,jessop1 between the ,wey and ,arun1 and from thence through ,chichester and ,longston harbours to ,portsmouth4 ,it was upon too small and imperfect a scale1 and therefore did not answer4 ,a ship canal1 however1 capable of transporting a #gd-;gun ship and ,indiamen of the largest class1 was afterwards contemplated4 ,a very influential committee requested me to investigate the subject thoroughly2 firstly1 as to its practicability2 secondly1 what was the best time for such a canal2 and thirdly1 what would be the cost4 ,i accordingly1 with the assistance of the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles1 who took the levels and surveys1 explored and examined the three lines which were most practicable--the first by the ,merstham1 the second by the ,dorking1 and the third by the ,guildford valley4 ,the last was decidedly the best line1 having the least height1 the easiest route1 and the best supply of water for the lockage4 ,it commenced at the ,thames1 and continued up the valley of the ,wey to ,guildford1 where it crossed the summit1 descended into the vale of the ,arun1 which it crossed by an aqueduct1 and thence along the base of the hills to ,portsmouth ,harbour4 ,the canal was to have been #ajj yards wide at the top1 and #bd feet deep4 ,at the summit there were to have been ample reservoirs1 and capacious basins or docks at each end4 ,the voyage from ,london to ,portsmouth would have been made in two days--that is to say1 by common haulage--but steam tugs would have reduced it to twenty-four hours4 ,the estimate was #g1jjj1jjjl41 which was considered so large at the time1 that all idea of prosecuting the undertaking further was at once abandoned4 ,the world had not then been accustomed to the enormous sums since spent upon railways1 and then they would never have believed that #af1jjj1jjjl4 would be spent upon the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway1 only the same length as the proposed canal1 or that a similar amount would be spent in the same county upon the ,south-,eastern ,railway4 ,that the canal is perfectly practicable there can be no doubt1 and it would have been of great public advantage2 but whether1 after all1 it would have yielded a reasonable profit for the capital expended1 is a question which ,i will not undertake to determine4 ,one part of my father's business was the making of machinery1 of which he was very fond1 being a first-rate theoretical and practical mechanic2 but the machinery department formed only a very small part of his extensive business1 although he constructed several important works1 such as the ,albion ,flour ,mills near ,blackfriars ,bridge1 afterwards destroyed by fire1 and where he subsequently had his own works1 which still exist4 ,this is admitted to have been one of the best pieces of that class of engineering ever constructed1 either before or since1 and performed a quantity of work in proportion to the power employed1 such as has never been surpassed4 ,he also designed and constructed the rolling mills in the ,royal ,mint1 which have been in full work for more than half a century1 and are still in as efficient a state as ever4 ,the diving bell may almost be said to have been an invention of his1 for he effected such great improvements in it that he was enabled to apply it to building under water at ,ramsgate ,harbour for the first time in #ahac4 ,it was worked from a scaffold above water1 to which were attached movable trucks with windlasses1 working upon a rack-and-pinion railway1 so that the diving bell and the apparatus for raising and lowering the bell1 together with the stones1 could be worked1 and the building carried on with the same certainty and nearly the same expedition as above water4 ,he also erected a similar apparatus applied for raising heavy blocks of mahogany at the ,west ,india ,docks3 this is the ,gantry crane1 which has been since very generally employed in almost all building operations4 ,my object in mentioning the subject here is merely to say that when my father died he left this machinery department to my brother ,george and myself1 though ,i believe that if he had lived a few years longer he would have given it up altogether4 ,the site of this manufactory was formerly one of the most fashionable suburbs of the metropolis1 and here the celebrated ,nell ,gwynne had her country house4 ,my brother and self continued the business1 rebuilt the place entirely1 with considerable improvements1 and did a large amount of business here4 ,we constructed the rolling mills for the ,calcutta and ,bombay mints2 the great flour mills and baking machines of ,deptford1 ,portsmouth1 and ,cremill ,point yards2 numerous locomotive engines for different railways1 amongst others the #8,satellite' for the ,brighton ,railway1 which was one of the first that attained the speed of #fj miles an hour upon the narrow gauge4 ,we made the steam engines and machinery for ,her ,majesty's ship #8,bulldog1' the yacht #8,dwarf1' and others2 also for the famous ,russian steamer #8,wladimir1' which did so much mischief at ,sebastopol2 two yachts for the ,emperor of ,russia1 and other vessels for the ,russian navy1 together with the whole of the iron gates for the dockyard at ,sebastopol1 two pair of which were brought back as trophies by the ,british and ,french armies4 ,we built four iron steam vessels and their machinery for the ,russian ,government1 for the ,caspian ,sea1 which were the first that floated on its waters2 they were first built in ,london1 then taken to pieces1 sent to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and thence down the ,volga to the ,caspian2 men were sent with them by us1 who put them together there1 and launched them successfully4 ,we made and erected the small-arms manufactory at ,constantinople1 for making five hundred muskets per week4 ,we constructed the engines and machinery for the #8,archimedes' screw-vessel1 which was the first screw used in this country2 and again1 the iron vessel1 engines1 and screw for the #8,dwarf1' which was the first screw-vessel ever introduced into the ,british ,navy1 in the year #ahci1 for which ,i take the credit myself2 for after we had succeeded so well with the #8,archimedes1' ,i waited upon ,sir ,george ,cockburn1 then ,senior ,naval ,lord of the ,admiralty1 and proposed to him to make a small iron vessel worked by a screw4 ,i engaged that the vessel should make the speed of ten knots an hour by the measured mile2 and that if after she was completed and tried she did not come up to the required conditions1 of which their own officers were to be sole judges1 ,i would take back the vessel and machinery1 without any compensation2 but if they were satisfied1 they themselves were to fix the price to be paid for the vessel and machinery4 ,sir ,george said the offer was so fair1 that if ,i would put it in writing in the form of an official tender1 he would recommend the ,admiralty to accept it2 this ,i accordingly did4 ,the vessel1 engines1 and screw were completed to the satisfaction of the ,admiralty officers1 the price settled by them was at once paid1 and so the #8,dwarf' was the first screw-vessel introduced into the ,british ,navy4 ,it was certainly no small gratification to myself to have introduced the first vessel propelled by the screw into the ,royal ,navy1 as ,i felt convinced that it was the only proper method of propelling vessels of war3 it was the more gratifying1 because my father was the first who1 in #ahai1 introduced the paddle-wheel system into the ,navy2 and thus our family have had the honour--and a great one it is--of introducing into the ,navy the two greatest improvements of modern times4 ,my father1 who was always consulted by the ,admiralty1 proposed machinery in every department where it could be applied with any advantage2 such as railways2 the ,gantry crane1 and others1 worked by machinery2 heating anchors in furnaces1 by means of which only could they be properly made2 employing convicts to do the labour1 with a moderate gratuity to stimulate their exertions1 and thus reduce the expense of their keep2 and employing private establishments wherever they could do the work cheaper than in the dockyards4 ,the state must and ought to have such establishments as should be able to do their own work when occasion requires2 but in a country like ,england1 where the arts and manufactures are carried to the highest possible extent by individual competition1 and where the field of exertion is so vast and the prizes of success are so great1 no government establishment can compete with them4 ,it cannot hold out sufficient inducement for exertion1 and hence we find that no great invention has ever emanated from a public establishment4 ,certain officers the government must have1 and these must be at fixed salaries1 for which they have to do a certain quantity of work1 and for this the hours are fixed2 they have no inducement to go beyond this4 ,yet this perhaps is the wisest course for a government like ours2 it can always command the talent of the day1 and it is far more economical for a government to pay the market price1 whatever it may be1 than to take persons1 however well qualified1 wholly into its employment2 the moment this is done the inducement to extra exertion ceases1 and the government must go again to the market for the next best talent1 and so on4 ,hence it is my opinion that a government should have the fewest possible establishments it can get on with1 so as not to leave itself wholly dependent upon private firms2 and that it should go liberally to the public1 specifying in general terms what is required1 then it will obtain the best workmen in the wisest manner1 without being taxed by extra pensions or any other drawback2 by this means a government would command all private establishments1 and make the most of its own4 ,in #ahcb ,i was requested by the authorities of the ,isle of ,man to examine the whole of the coast of the ,island1 and to give my opinion as to the best plan for improving the harbours4 ,i accordingly sent over my assistant1 ,mr4 ,coombe2 and having carefully surveyed ,douglas1 ,derby ,haven1 ,castleton1 ,peel1 ,ramsey1 and ,laxey1 made complete hydrographical surveys of the whole1 and detailed plans for the best way of improving them4 ,at ,douglas ,i proposed to make an extensive low-water asylum harbour1 and also at ,derby ,haven1 which were the most important places1 and possessed the greatest capability of making good refuge harbours at the most economical rates for the numerous vessels trading between ,ireland and ,england1 and also for foreign vessels bound for ,liverpool4 ,the other ports susceptible of improvement were chiefly local1 and therefore only a moderate sum was proposed to be expended upon them4 ,a great harbour might1 indeed1 have been made near the ,calf of ,man2 but this would have involved an expense which the revenues of the ,island had no means of paying1 though a harbour there would have been of importance to the vast number of vessels of all classes trading between ,liverpool and ,america2 and therefore1 if anything was to be done there1 ,liverpool ought to have contributed largely towards it4 ,liverpool1 however1 thought differently4 ,they had no idea of encouraging their vessels to stop so near home4 ,so that all idea of making a refuge harbour near the ,calf of ,man was abandoned4 ,neither could the ,islanders obtain foreign aid for ,douglas1 or ,castleton1 or ,derby ,haven4 ,they were therefore left to their own resources1 and were obliged to confine their operations to making a small addition to ,douglas ,pier1 which ,i designed for them1 and which was carried into effect by ,mr4 ,james ,brown--a most excellent practical engineer--who had been employed many years by my father at ,holyhead ,harbour and elsewhere4 ,about the same time ,i was asked to make a plan for the improvement of the ancient port of ,hartlepool 7,i think one of the oldest in ,england71 for shipping coal from the coal-fields of ,south ,durham1 which were then being developed to an extraordinary extent4 ,i made a plan1 which was afterwards carried into effect under my direction1 the late ,mr4 ,james ,brown1 above mentioned1 being the resident engineer4 ,when ,i visited the place1 it was the most secluded1 primitive fishing village ,i ever saw4 ,it has now become one of the most thriving and populous towns of ,durham4 ,at this time ,i was also requested by a society of gentlemen--amongst whom were ,messrs4 ,ladbrooke1 ,mills1 ,smith1 ,webb1 c4--to examine the mouth of the ,coquet1 near ,warkworth1 in order to make a harbour there for the shipping of coal from some collieries which were about to be opened in that district4 ,this harbour1 which consisted of a north pier and south pier1 was made under my direction2 ,mr4 ,george ,remington being the resident engineer4 ,it was merely intended as a tidal harbour1 with floating docks attached to it2 which latter1 for want of funds1 were never made4 ,by extending the northern pier farther seaward1 they could easily obtain #ab feet or more at low water2 and the ,coquet ,island outside forms an excellent and safe roadstead for vessels drawing #bj feet at low water--an advantage that no other port on the east coast possesses4 ,there is plenty of coal in the vicinity1 that has never been developed for want of capital2 but no doubt the day will come when this port will be of considerable consequence4 ,whilst superintending these works1 the late ,earl ,grey1 then ,prime ,minister1 who lived at ,howick1 about nine miles to the north of the ,coquet1 invited me to spend a day there4 ,i accordingly went over1 and was most kindly received4 ,i there met his son1 the present ,earl1 and the present ,sir ,george ,grey1 and passed my time very agreeably and instructively4 ,the late ,earl1 when ,commissioner of ,portsmouth ,dockyard1 knew my father well1 and had great respect for his talents4 ,whilst employed in constructing the piers of ,sunderland ,harbour1 ,i made acquaintance with ,mr4 ,lambton1 afterwards the ,earl of ,durham1 who married one of ,earl ,grey's daughters4 ,he was one of the commissioners of the harbour1 and a great coalowner4 ,he was a slight-made person1 of the middle size1 with an olive complexion1 dark1 piercing eyes1 and a profusion of jet-black hair4 ,he possessed considerable talent1 great firmness1 and a stern1 haughty1 proud bearing1 with great impetuosity of temper4 ,being heir to a large fortune1 he was spoiled in his youth1 although not without kindly1 generous1 and noble feelings1 and where he took a liking1 was a firm friend4 ,he was always very kind and friendly to me1 and took a leading part in promoting the success of ,sunderland ,harbour4 ,his violent temper1 and inability to control it1 was the cause of his failure as a public man4 ,when ,governor-,general of ,canada he1 contrary to all rules of order and subordination1 threw up his command in a pet on account of some trifling provocation1 and returned to ,england without authority4 ,the obloquy which this foolish and imprudent step entailed upon him for ever after rendered him unfit to take a leading part in public affairs1 for which otherwise he was well calculated1 and he died soon after1 it is believed of a broken heart4 ,railways having been now fairly established1 and having to a considerable extent superseded roads and canals1 the ,brighton ,railway scheme was started again4 ,the history of this work ,i have already described4 ,during the years #ahcg-ahch it occupied a considerable portion of my time1 and although ,i was then very ill1 and totally unfit for business1 ,i was obliged to struggle through it1 and carried it at last4 ,at times ,i was so nervous and unwell that ,i scarcely knew what ,i was about4 ,i felt perfectly stupid1 and thought that my life must end in a lunatic asylum2 and many1 even of my friends1 considered that my career was over4 ,when cross-examined before parliamentary committees1 which examinations ,i was obliged to undergo at this time1 after two or three hours my head got so confused that ,i could see nothing distinctly--everything appeared either double or upside down4 ,however1 ,i got through not only the ,brighton1 but also the ,blackwall1 ,railway ,bills4 ,apropos of the ,blackwall ,railway1 ,i long had an idea that ,blackwall1 including the ,east and ,west ,india1 the ,regent's ,canal1 and the ,london ,docks1 should be connected with ,london by a railway1 and that this line should form the grand trunk and terminus for all the railways which were to connect the eastern counties of ,essex1 ,suffolk1 ,norfolk1 and ,cambridge with ,london4 ,a ,bill for making the ,eastern ,counties ,railway through ,essex and ,suffolk had then passed1 having their terminus in ,shoreditch1 which was quite out of the way1 and left out all the docks2 whereas the line which ,i proposed would not only have connected them with ,london at ,fenchurch ,street1 which is within half a mile of the ,royal ,exchange1 but would have brought the great traffic of the eastern counties there also4 ,mr4 ,stephenson1 seeing the importance of my ,blackwall line1 started another in opposition1 which was defeated in ,parliament1 and my line was carried2 but my party was not strong enough to carry it into effect2 ,mr4 ,stephenson's was1 therefore they took up my line1 and he was appointed the chief engineer4 ,he wholly ignored my principle of making the ,blackwall line the main trunk for the eastern counties' traffic1 but declared that the ,blackwall line should be considered distinct2 and as he thought that so short a line was not adapted for locomotives1 he said that it would be far better to work it by means of ropes attached to powerful engines fixed at each end of the line4 ,i foresaw that this plan would not succeed1 and told my friends so2 however1 it was of no use1 the rope system was adopted1 until it was found that the constant breaking of the ropes1 their great friction1 and the power required to work them1 entailed so much expense and inconvenience1 that the line would not pay a dividend4 ,the company therefore resolved to abolish the rope system altogether1 and adopt locomotive engines1 according to my original plan2 and the line was extended to join the ,eastern ,counties ,railway at ,stratford1 and the ,tilbury and ,southend ,railway1 and it has been connected with the ,victoria1 ,east and ,west ,india1 ,london1 and ,st4 ,katharine ,docks1 and now pays a dividend of about #c to #c per cent4 ,in fact1 all that ,i recommended has been done1 and the result has been successful2 but it would have been much more profitable if my plan had been adopted in the first instance1 while the extra expense of the rope system would have been saved4 ,in the year #ahdd came the great railway mania4 ,railways were considered as a mine of wealth to whoever would undertake them2 and consequently new lines were projected in all directions1 and ,i had my full share of them3 amongst others the ,great ,northern1 the ,leeds and ,carlisle1 the ,leeds and ,bradford1 the ,york and ,scarborough1 the ,bristol and ,monmouth1 the ,bishop's ,stortford and ,thetford 7called the ,direct ,norwich71 the ,birmingham and ,boston1 the ,newry and ,enniskillen1 the ,east ,lincolnshire1 the ,lincoln and ,hull1 the ,cannock ,chase1 and the ,north ,wales1 c4 ,the consequence was that the demand for engineering surveyors and assistants was very great4 ,engineering was considered to be the only profession where immense wealth and fame were to be acquired1 and consequently everybody became engineers4 ,it was not the question whether they were educated for it1 or competent to undertake it1 but simply whether any person chose to dub himself engineer2 hence1 lawyers' clerks1 surgeons' apprentices1 merchants1 tradesmen1 officers in the army and navy1 private gentlemen1 left their professions and became engineers2 the consequence was that innumerable blunders were made1 vast sums of money were recklessly expended1 and the greater part of the lines were thrown out of ,parliament in consequence of the innumerable errors committed in them4 ,the committee rooms of the ,houses of ,lords and ,commons were thronged to such a degree with engineers1 lawyers1 and witnesses1 that it was scarcely possible to find sufficient room for them4 ,the barristers1 solicitors1 and parliamentary agents made enormous sums1 and so did those engineers who were fortunate enough to get paid4 ,my labours were most arduous4 ,i had to work night and day for several weeks in preparing plans for ,parliament1 and if ,i had only got paid1 ,i should have made a good fortune1 for ,i employed in one department or another above three hundred assistants4 ,it is true that ,i received a great deal of money2 but the expenses were so great that the advances made to me were immediately absorbed1 and before ,i could balance my accounts1 most of the companies had vanished1 remaining largely in my debt4 ,as to recovering my debts in a court of law1 it was impossible on account of the difficulty of proving whether there was a sufficient number of directors present when the order was given1 and what were the names of the directors present2 because1 as they were not legally constituted companies1 the different members of the board could only be sued in their individual capacities1 whilst ,i1 who employed the different parties to make the surveys and work out the details1 was clearly liable to them2 so that the claims against me were innumerable1 and made without mercy1 and ,i had the greatest difficulty in satisfying them without material loss4 ,to give an example of the difficulties ,i had to contend with in establishing my case against one of the companies that employed me--viz4 the ,cannock ,chase ,railway1 an essentially good concern1 which has since been carried into effect with considerable profit to another company who took it up afterwards3 ,my company had paid me #bejjl4 on account of the expenses1 and they owed me #bgjjl4 more1 which they never disputed4 ,they had #ab1jjjl4 in hand1 and could have easily paid my bill2 but finding that they could not at that time carry their line1 they united with another company without paying me1 and handed over to them the #ab1jjjl4 subscribed for my company4 ,i then got them to call a meeting1 and said that as their original company had collapsed1 ,i was prepared to meet them upon the most equitable terms1 namely1 that they should pay the balance of my disbursements actually out of pocket2 this they declined to do4 ,i then offered to deduct my share of the disbursements if they would pay the balance2 this they declined also1 and they would pay no more4 ,finding that ,i could do nothing with them1 ,i sued them at law1 and brought an action against the chairman2 he1 however1 proved that he was not present when the order was given to me1 ,i was therefore nonsuited1 and had to pay my expenses and his1 which cost me #ejjl4 ,i then brought an action against two other parties1 who were present when the order was given2 but then it was proved against me that there was not a quorum1 and as ,i could not get hold of the books1 the secretary having absconded with them1 ,i was nonsuited again at the cost of #ejjl4 more4 ,at last this secretary having got into difficulties1 ,i got hold of the minutes of proceedings by an extraordinary combination of circumstances1 went to the ,court of ,chancery1 and eventually established my case1 and recovered the whole of my claim1 viz4 #bgjjl42 but without the costs4 ,so that after seven years' litigation ,i recovered the #bgjjl41 which was wholly absorbed in the expenses2 and therefore ,i was where ,i began4 ,the principal parliamentary battle ,i had was in #ahdd-e2 and in the following year ,i had another with the ,great ,northern ,railway4 ,the late ,mr4 ,gravatt had the dual line from ,king's ,cross by ,barnet1 ,welwyn1 ,stilton1 ,stamford1 ,corby1 ,lincoln1 ,asking to ,york2 this was in every respect the shortest and the most easy of execution2 unfortunately1 our company was not formed until the end of ,september1 so that it was extremely difficult1 in so short a time1 to get the surveys and levels made correctly4 ,the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles undertook to have the whole completed in the most perfect manner by the #cjth ,november1 #ahdd1 for depositing with the respective ,clerks of the ,peace1 as required by the ,standing ,orders of ,parliament4 ,mr4 ,giles's well-known reputation as a first-rate engineering surveyor appeared to ,mr4 ,gravatt and myself a sufficient guarantee that the surveys would be well completed by the required time2 in this1 unfortunately1 we were most grievously disappointed1 for ,mr4 ,giles1 who had a good deal of other business in hand1 could not devote his whole attention to it1 which was absolutely necessary2 in fact1 he ought never to have undertaken it2 but he always assured us that it would be properly done in time4 ,however1 finding that he did not go on so well as we expected1 we endeavoured1 as far as practicable1 to remedy the evil by setting on additional surveyors ourselves1 under the control of ,mr4 ,giles2 but in spite of all our exertions1 ,mr4 ,giles failed completely1 and our line1 in consequence of the numerous defects in the survey1 was thrown out upon ,standing ,orders1 and the present ,great ,northern line1 which was our rival1 but acknowledged to be not so good1 notwithstanding a strong opposition1 was carried through ,parliament1 very much to the annoyance of ,mr4 ,gravatt and myself1 and ,mr4 ,gravatt never forgave ,mr4 ,giles's neglect4 ,my rule on all these occasions was to endeavour to conciliate the landowners through whose estates we went1 always asking and obtaining their permission before entering upon their lands1 and by this means we made friends wherever we went2 amongst other great proprietors we went through a considerable portion of the ,marquis of ,exeter's estate1 near ,stamford4 ,upon going down the line ,i found one of our surveyors drunk1 and he had so completely departed from his instructions that ,i paid and discharged him at once4 ,i called on the ,marquis to explain this1 but he was not visible1 as he was busy with preparations for the reception of ,her ,majesty and ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince ,consort1 who were expected to arrive the next day4 ,i then went down the line as far as ,york1 and upon my return called again upon the ,marquis at ,burleigh1 who received me very coldly1 and said when he gave me permission to go through his estate1 it was upon a particular line1 which ,i faithfully promised to adhere to2 but he was much surprised and sorry to find that ,i had broken my word1 for that when ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince ,consort was shooting in his preserves he found one of my surveyors with several assistants breaking into and carrying the line through them1 which he had strictly forbidden1 and which ,i had as strictly promised to his ,lordship that ,i would not touch2 and it was most fortunate that the surveyor and his assistants were not shot1 for it was never for a moment expected that they would be there4 ,after having heard his ,lordship quietly1 and having asked the day1 and the name of the surveyor1 which his ,lordship told me1 ,i said that the man was not in my employment1 for the very day on which ,i last called at ,burleigh ,i found this same surveyor drunk1 and carrying the line into the preserves1 which ,i had strictly forbidden1 and ,i immediately discharged him4 ,and ,i added that as his ,lordship found him in the preserves1 he must have been sent there by somebody else4 ,his ,lordship was at once perfectly satisfied with this explanation1 and became as friendly as ever1 and pressed me to stop and dine with him2 this invitation ,i courteously declined1 for ,i was so much occupied that ,i had not an hour to spare4 ,one very important feature of our line1 besides making it shorter1 more direct1 and easier of execution1 was the position of the station at ,york1 which we proposed to make on the main line1 immediately outside the walls of the city2 and in order to effect this we carried our line by a bridge across the railways then entering the ,york station1 while our rivals proposed to carry their line into the station itself2 which scheme having been adopted1 compels them to back in and out1 and not only occasions considerable loss of time1 but materially increases the risk of collisions4 ,another important line was the ,bristol and ,chepstow1 which would materially have shortened the distance between ,bristol1 ,birmingham1 and ,liverpool1 instead of going round by ,gloucester1 and would have enabled the ,south ,wales ,railway to shorten materially their distance to ,london4 ,in order to effect this ,i proposed to carry the line across the ,severn at the old passage by an iron bridge1 with a clear height of #ajj feet above the high-water level of spring tides1 so as to enable the largest ships to pass under4 ,it happened that the rocks in the river afforded excellent foundations for the piers4 ,the late ,mr4 ,cobden was chairman of the ,committee in the ,house of ,commons to whom this ,bill was referred1 and they were all astonished at the boldness and grandeur of the undertaking2 although the late ,mr4 ,brunel and others did not deny its practicability1 yet the promoters of the undertaking could not see their way to find the means for carrying it into effect1 and therefore the ,bill was withdrawn4 ,i forgot to mention the ,central ,kent ,railway line1 #ahch4 ,it had long been considered a desirable object to connect ,dover and ,london by a railway for the ,continent1 and the ,south-,eastern had already obtained an ,act to make a line by ,redhill1 thence to ,tunbridge1 ,ashford1 and ,folkestone1 to ,dover1 the distance being #hf miles1 whereas the old coach road was only #gb4 ,moreover1 the ,south-,eastern avoids all the principal towns and population in ,kent2 so much so1 that it was considered to be very objectionable1 and that it would not pay4 ,i was accordingly requested by a most influential committee to examine the county of ,kent carefully1 and endeavour to find out a better line4 ,i was not long in discovering one1 namely1 to commence at ,london ,bridge1 thence by ,lewisham1 ,eltham1 the ,crays1 the ,darent1 #d miles above ,dartford1 thence by ,gravesend1 through ,gad's ,hill1 crossing the ,medway a mile above ,rochester1 thence1 within a mile of ,maidstone1 to ,eastwell1 where it was to separate into two branches1 one to ,ashford1 and thence on to ,folkestone and ,dover2 another to ,canterbury1 thence to ,sandwich1 where it was to terminate2 while from the ,darent another branch was intended to run up the valley of that river1 with a tunnel at its head1 and thence to ,sevenoaks and ,tunbridge4 ,from this it will be seen that the main line connected all the principal towns in the county together2 each was at the same time within the shortest distance from the metropolis1 and nearly #ad miles nearer to ,dover than the present ,south-,eastern line2 and there was no inclination steeper than #a in #bfd1 or #bj feet to the mile1 and the ,new ,cross inclined plane of the ,greenwich and ,croydon line of #a in #ajj for three miles would have been avoided4 ,this line was so obviously the best for ,kent and the sea-coast1 that when submitted to the ,south-,eastern ,company1 who had not commenced theirs1 they admitted it1 and told their solicitors1 ,messrs4 ,fearon1 to tell our solicitors1 ,messrs4 ,freshfield1 that they would make terms with us for carrying it into effect4 ,how the negotiations fell through ,i never heard2 whether it was from the opposition of ,maidstone and ,lord ,winchelsea1 who1 as well as ,sir ,percival ,dyke1 violently opposed it--although since1 ,i understand1 they have sincerely repented--,i never could learn2 but the negotiation failed1 although we were perfectly ready to give up the line to the ,south-,eastern upon a reasonable compensation1 and they 7the ,south-,eastern ,railway7 commenced and completed their line round by ,tunbridge1 and bitter cause they had to repent it4 ,two of my assistants--,crampton and ,morris--after leaving me1 considering that it would be a good speculation to get up a shorter line to ,dover1 persuaded a very worthy nobleman1 ,lord ,harris1 who has considerable property near1 between ,sittingbourne and ,canterbury1 and some other influential landowners on the line1 to form a company to make a line between ,rochester and ,canterbury1 and ,mr4 ,george ,burge1 the contractor of the ,st4 ,katharine ,docks and ,herne ,bay ,pier1 under the late ,mr4 ,telford1 joined them4 ,burge had invested a good deal of money at ,herne ,bay1 and naturally expected that one day a line of railway would be made to it1 and that the value of his property would be considerably increased thereby4 ,morris1 a very honest1 painstaking1 and industrious man1 who had been in my service many years1 and afterwards became one of the contractors of the ,south-,eastern ,railway1 and made a good deal of money there1 had the sagacity to purchase the old harbour of ,folkestone1 it is said for #aj1jjjl41 and sold it to the ,south-,eastern ,railway ,company1 profiting considerably by the transaction4 ,crampton had made some improvements in the locomotive engine1 and afterwards became the principal executive engineer to ,messrs4 ,samuda4 ,at the time ,crampton came into my employment ,messrs4 ,samuda had had a vessel constructed1 and had made the engines for propelling her upon a new principle4 ,the vessel was called the #8,gipsey ,queen1' and a day was appointed for the trial4 ,whether ,crampton had some misgivings about the success of the experiment1 or whether he was tired of the employment1 ,i do not know1 but he was anxious to come under me4 ,knowing him to be a clever1 hard-working person1 ,i took him1 and he continued serving me faithfully for four years4 ,crampton entered my service four days before the experimental trial of the #8,gipsey ,queen1' which took place1 ,i think1 in the year #ahdj4 ,the result of the trial was that the boiler blew up1 ,samuda's brother and four men were killed1 and if ,crampton had remained in their service1 he would probably have been killed also4 ,during the time ,crampton was in my service1 he made the acquaintance of my solicitors1 the ,messrs4 ,freshfield1 who conceived a high opinion of his talents and energy4 ,morris1 ,crampton1 and ,burge1 then1 commenced the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway with comparatively very little support for an undertaking of the kind1 and experienced very great uphill work2 so much so1 that ,burge got alarmed1 and ,morris and ,crampton bought him out4 ,morris and ,crampton still struggled on with it1 and then ,morris went out1 and ,crampton remained alone4 ,at last he got ,peto and ,betts to join him1 and then the concern went ahead4 ,lord ,sondes1 a large proprietor in ,norfolk and in ,kent1 also joined them1 and they completed the original line4 ,they then went to ,parliament to extend their railway by an independent line to ,london1 and from ,canterbury to ,dover1 and1 subsequently1 by lines to the ,city1 so as ultimately to join the ,metropolitan ,railway1 and from thence with the ,great ,northern ,railway at ,king's ,cross4 ,how they raised the enormous amount of capital to execute these works was a miracle1 but the tale has at last been unfolded1 and the unfortunate subscribers have found it out1 to their cost2 the concern has become bankrupt1 and the great contracting firm of ,peto and ,betts1 as well as ,crampton1 have ended in the #8,gazette1' as a melancholy example of what energy and capital will come to when pushed beyond their just limits4 ,the original shares of #ajjl4 may now 7at the time of writing7 be bought at #ahl41 and the ,south-,eastern ,railway have been compelled to expend nearly #gjj1jjjl4 to cut off the angle between ,london and ,tunbridge2 whereas1 if they had only adopted my line of the ,central ,kent ,railway1 as they agreed to do in #ahch1 all this would have been avoided2 the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover would never have been made1 the enormous losses would not have occurred1 thirty-two millions would not have been spent in railways for a single county1 and the ,south-,eastern shares would not 7at the time of writing7 be at #fe4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,swedish ,railways--,surveys in ,holland and ,portugal4 ,in #ahdd ,count ,adolphe ,rosen obtained a concession for making railways in ,sweden1 and offered me half the concession1 provided that ,i would go over to ,sweden1 lay out the lines1 and bring the matter before the ,english public4 ,i accordingly employed a ,mr4 ,tottie1 a ,swede1 who had been employed by ,mr4 ,rastrick1 to make the surveys of the lines laid out by me1 which consisted of a main one from ,gothenburg right through the kingdom to ,oxhoe1 as the central portion for the iron trade2 from thence one branch went to the upper end of the ,lake ,wener1 and the other to the ,lake ,malar1 to communicate with ,stockholm2 the line then proceeded north by ,westers to ,upsala1 and thence to ,stockholm4 ,the same year ,i went from ,hull with ,count ,rosen to ,gothenburg by steam1 and spent two or three days there4 ,the country through which ,i passed1 though not rich1 was much more so and better cultivated than ,i expected to find it1 and the people honest1 simple1 and industrious1 and extremely civil4 ,the general appearance rather picturesque1 and in places wild1 being covered with dense forests of firs1 larch1 beech1 c42 large spaces had been cleared of wood and brought under cultivation4 ,the houses were for the most part built of wood1 in the ,russian fashion1 the logs being laid close together1 dovetailed at the ends1 and the joints caulked with moss1 the inside being closely planked1 and in every room was a stone or porcelain stove2 the windows were double1 and in winter the outer and inner were both shut up1 and all the joints pasted with paper so as to prevent the admission of the outer air4 ,the houses were generally very comfortable4 ,in some of the larger towns1 such as ,orebro1 many of the houses were solidly built of stone1 others had stone foundations and wooden superstructure2 most of the country churches were of stone1 with a detached building of wood for the bells1 which were frequently of a large size1 with a very fine full melodious sound4 ,gothenburg is a very well and regularly built town1 chiefly of stone1 in the ,dutch style1 with canals running through the streets4 ,some of the houses of the principal merchants1 as well as public buildings1 are spacious and handsome1 although the town generally has a heavy1 dull1 yet substantial appearance4 ,i resolved to visit the celebrated iron mine of ,daunemora1 some miles farther northward4 ,i accordingly started off with ,count ,rosen1 and reached it the same evening1 and visited the mine next day2 it consisted of a mass of rock1 cropping out to the surface1 of almost solid magnetic iron1 containing about #ge to #hj per cent4 of the finest metal4 ,there were extensive forests round1 so that there was no want of fuel2 the wood was converted into charcoal1 and the finest iron was extracted1 the best for making steel2 it fetched the highest price in the ,english market1 where there was a great demand for it4 ,the machinery employed was very rude and simple1 the bellows for the forges being in some cases driven by manual or horse labour1 in others1 where it was accessible1 by water power4 ,i was anxious to go to the great mining district of ,dalecarlia1 about #ajj miles farther north1 but the season was getting late1 and therefore ,i was obliged to return to ,england4 ,when ,i had got all my surveys finished1 ,i made a report upon the whole line2 but ,i found that the ,swedish ,government was not sufficiently alive to the importance of railways at that time1 or rather the ,government did not see its way to giving them encouragement by subscribing or rather taking a pecuniary interest in them4 ,though by no means undervaluing the importance of railways1 yet1 being naturally cautious and economical1 with only moderate funds at its command1 the ,government doubted much whether a reasonable profit would be derived from them1 but at the same time wished us every success in obtaining the money in ,england4 ,i represented to them that people in ,england1 knowing nothing of ,sweden1 or her capabilities1 would hesitate to subscribe their money without a certain guarantee by the ,government of interest of #d or #e per cent4 upon the amount of capital expended1 and that as it was quite clear that the railways would pay that1 there could be no risk2 in fact1 the guarantee would be merely nominal1 but that it would have the effect of obtaining the money in ,england1 and thus conferring upon ,sweden a great national benefit1 by saving their capital without running the least risk4 ,i was recommended to give a grand dinner1 which several of the ministers and all the other notables of ,stockholm attended4 ,everybody was enthusiastic1 and a great number of speeches were made as to the importance of railways1 and the great national benefit they would confer1 and my health was proposed by the ,minister of ,commerce1 ,skogman1 and was received with the greatest enthusiasm1 but the effect was nothing1 for we neither got private subscriptions nor public guarantee4 ,however1 after all we had done something2 we had introduced the subject of railways into ,sweden1 we had shown the importance of them1 and we had in some measure opened their eyes1 and we trusted that in time1 when they had maturely reflected upon the advantages1 they would view them more favourably1 and contribute liberally towards them2 but as there was no use in then pressing the subject further1 we returned at once to ,england4 ,in all fevers there is a climax2 the railway fever had its climax like the rest1 and it was then upon the decline4 ,the vast multitude who had expected to make their fortunes found at last to their sorrow that their money was gone2 but that was not the worst1 for they would have been very happy if they had not had to pay more4 ,as for any new railway speculation1 that was entirely out of the question1 and therefore it turned out that the ,swedish railways were too late for the market2 nobody would entertain the subject2 the very name of railway was sufficient to drive everyone away1 so that there was no help for it but to abide better times4 ,accordingly the ,swedish railways remained in abeyance until the year #aheb2 by this time the ,swedish ,government had considered the subject maturely1 and felt that1 as every other ,european nation had adopted them1 ,sweden1 if she desired to keep pace with other countries1 must either make the railways herself1 for which at the time the ,government had not the money1 or she must encourage others to make them by guaranteeing a sufficient interest for the capital expended4 ,accordingly ,i went there again1 and was as usual very kindly received by the ,king and his ,ministers1 and ,i saw that they were becoming more anxious than ever that the railways should be made4 ,i had been there in ,october1 #ahdh1 and had the honour of being invited to dine at the palace in ,stockholm1 as ,i had previously the honour of dining with their ,majesties at the summer palace of ,hoga1 near ,stockholm4 ,upon arriving at the palace ,i was most courteously received by ,king ,oscar1 who did me the honour of presenting me to his handsome1 graceful1 and intelligent queen4 ,when her ,majesty heard that the railways were to be commenced1 she said that she had heard so much talk about them and nothing had been done1 that she feared they never would be made1 8therefore talk no more about them1 but set to work and make them40 ,the dinner party consisted of about thirty4 ,i had the honour of sitting next the ,lord ,chancellor1 a very agreeable1 intelligent person1 who sat next to the ,royal ,family4 ,we had an excellent dinner1 without the least restraint1 and the common topic of conversation seemed to be1 who would be elected ,president of the ,french ,republic1 ,cavaignac or ,louis ,napoleon1 and everybody seemed in favour of ,cavaignac as the proper person2 they all spoke very disparagingly of ,louis ,napoleon4 ,it seems curious to think how little the world knew of that extraordinary man1 and how completely he disappointed all previous expectations4 ,when at ,stockholm ,i was presented to his present ,majesty1 ,king ,charles ,,xv41 then ,prince ,karl1 a very handsome intelligent young man4 ,since his accession to the throne he has done me the honour of conferring upon me the order of ,knight ,commander of the ,order of ,wasa1 for what his ,majesty was pleased to term the great services which ,i had rendered ,sweden4 ,this was the more agreeable1 as it was sent to me through my personal friend ,count ,platen1 then the ,swedish representative at the ,court of ,london4 ,many years ago ,i made acquaintance with his father1 the celebrated ,count ,platen1 who was the chief instrument in changing the dynasty from the worn-out old race1 and in placing ,bernadotte on the throne4 ,my introduction to the ,count arose in this manner4 ,the ,count took the utmost interest in the completion of the great ,gotha ,canal1 which unites the river ,gotha below the falls of that river and the lower end of the great ,lake ,werner1 thus completing the navigation between the whole of the towns bordering upon that lake and ,gothenburg4 ,a canal had formerly been made between the lower end of the lake and the river ,gotha 7which issues from it7 below the falls1 and at the time a very great work it was1 but the locks were so unequally distributed1 and the rise of some of them so great1 that the navigation was very much impeded2 the ,count1 therefore1 came over to ,england1 after the death of my father1 to consult ,mr4 ,telford1 who was then considered our first engineer1 as to what was the best means of improving the ,gotha ,canal1 so as to avoid the inconvenience complained of4 ,mr4 ,telford went over1 prepared a plan1 and carried it into effect1 much to the satisfaction of the ,swedish ,government4 ,during ,count ,platen's visit to ,england1 ,mr4 ,telford brought him to ,lynn1 where we met as engineers of the ,eau ,brink ,drainage and ,navigation1 and we explained to him the whole of the ,eau ,brink ,works1 with which he was much pleased4 ,he was a very superior person1 grave and dignified1 with great intelligence1 and of easy1 affable manners4 ,the ,mayor of ,lynn being informed by ,mr4 ,telford of his visit1 called upon him1 and being introduced1 invited him1 in the name of the ,corporation1 to one of their civic dinners1 which he accepted4 ,he had1 however1 brought no dress suit with him1 and indeed was perfectly indifferent about it1 and would have gone to the mayor's feast in his travelling costume1 which1 to say the least1 was very rough4 ,telford consulted me about it1 and we both agreed that the ,count could not attend the dinner without the usual evening dress costume4 ,upon this being delicately explained by ,mr4 ,telford1 he took the hint and sent for a tailor1 who in the course of a couple of days equipped him properly4 ,the greatest attention was of course paid to him by all the company4 ,to return to my subject4 ,as time went on1 the money market got in such a bad state--no end of failures--that nothing could be done with the ,swedish railway1 and ,i began to think all my money and labour would be thrown away4 ,the period for which ,count ,rosen's concession was granted had elapsed1 and it was very doubtful whether it would be renewed at all1 but it certainly would not in any case be to the extent of the original concession1 which comprised the whole kingdom4 ,fortunately1 however1 in #aheb1 confidence in the money market had been restored1 and we received a renewal of the concession for so much of the line as extended between the ,lakes ,malari and ,werner1 with a branch to the iron mines of ,nora from ,orebro1 which was as valuable as any part of the line2 and the ,government gave a guarantee of #d per cent1 on the amount of capital required1 namely1 #dbj1jjjl41 with power to raise #afg1jjjl4 more4 ,the line was very easy1 and ,mr4 ,burge1 the contractor1 agreed to complete it for that sum4 ,a company was accordingly formed1 the capital was immediately subscribed1 and the shares went to a premium4 ,i went over to ,sweden again2 appointed ,mr4 ,watson resident engineer1 and the works began and proceeded very well for one year2 unfortunately the chairman and leading man on the committee was the notorious ,john ,sadlier1 ,m4,p41 who afterwards made away with himself near ,jack ,straw's tavern1 ,hampstead ,heath1 when the whole of his proceedings were made public2 and1 amongst others1 his mismanagement of the ,swedish railway4 ,what became of the money ,i never could make out1 for ,i never could account for above #fj1jjjl4 as having been expended on the works and land combined2 but it is certain that accounts far beyond that were presented to me by the directors for my certificate1 which they were obliged to get before they could be passed by the ,government1 though ,i never would give the certificate1 because they kept everything back from me2 and finding that matters were going on in such a discreditable manner1 ,i felt that with any regard for my character ,i could no longer remain their engineer4 ,i therefore resigned at once1 and fortunate it was that ,i did so1 for ,i afterwards was informed that they had not only spent the whole #dbj1jjjl41 but also #afg1jjjl4 of debentures1 and had issued #afg1jjjl4 more without authority2 so that in round numbers they had expended about #gjj1jjjl41 and had not completed #ej miles of single line1 which required nothing more than surface formation1 and one or two short lengths of embankment and cutting scarcely exceeding #bj feet high2 for which #fjjjl4 per mile complete was ample4 ,in fact1 there never was a good affair so completely mismanaged1 not to use much stronger terms4 ,the consequence was that after ,sadlier's death the whole came out1 and everyone laid the blame upon him4 ,the particulars ,i do not know1 and thank ,god ,i got clear of it in good time1 finding that it was impossible to remain with honour4 ,i never would certify the accounts the directors presented to me1 because ,i believed that at the least they were in error1 if not something worse4 ,all ,i did was to certify to the contractor1 ,mr4 ,burge 7who1 as ,i knew1 behaved very honestly71 to the extent1 ,i think1 of #be1jjjl4 or #cj1jjjl4 ,thus this fine concern went to the dogs from sheer mismanagement1 to speak mildly1 and the shares1 which had stood at a premium1 were worth nothing2 whereas in the hands of any sensible1 honest body of directors1 the line ought to have been completed for the estimate1 and would have paid well4 ,the ,swedish ,government could not with justice pay any guarantee when no part of the line had been completed and no satisfactory accounts rendered2 and ,i have reason to believe that they were so disgusted with the way in which this railway had been mismanaged by the ,board that they would have nothing further to do with ,english or any other companies1 but determined to make all the rest of the lines themselves--which ,i understand they have done--and that the cost did not exceed my estimate of #ejjjl4 to #fjjjl4 per mile1 including stations and rolling stock4 ,i had previously examined several other parts of ,sweden1 and in ,november1 #ahej1 ,i had gone there1 undertaking to deliver on my way a confidential letter from ,count ,reventlow1 the ,danish ,ambassador in ,london1 to the ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs at ,copenhagen4 ,we went by ,hamburg and ,kiel1 for at this time war was again expected to break out between ,schleswig-,holstein and ,denmark1 and both parties were watching one another with the greatest anxiety4 ,schleswig-,holstein is not a rich country by any means1 although there are apparently some substantial farmers4 ,the country is generally flat1 with here and there some gentle eminences1 with patches of fir trees2 but there are some extensive mosses which might be reclaimed and converted into valuable land if properly drained4 ,these mosses in many cases rest upon a bed of marl1 which upon being dug up and mixed with the peat forms most valuable manure4 ,we saw many examples of this in the fens of ,lincolnshire1 and in the north of ,denmark4 ,i have been informed upon credible authority that there are vast tracts of moss lands lying upon marl1 and small lakes which might easily be drained and become most fertile2 and it is to be hoped that the ,danish ,government will find the means of reclaiming them1 as they will well repay the expense4 ,rendsburg1 through which we passed1 is a little town1 well fortified1 and may be made much stronger4 ,kiel1 situated upon a splendid bay in the ,baltic1 is the university of ,holstein1 and a very neat little thriving town1 with prettily wooded environs4 ,from here we proceeded to ,schleswig1 the capital of the province1 its inhabitants being partly ,germans and partly ,danes2 in the northern part of ,schleswig the inhabitants are wholly ,danes4 ,the town of ,schleswig is about #ab miles from the ,baltic2 it is well built1 surrounded with a very pretty fertile country1 well cultivated1 and diversified with wood4 ,there is a good deal of agricultural traffic with the surrounding country1 and the place appeared very thriving and prosperous4 ,we arrived there about six o'clock in the evening1 about two hours after dark1 and it began to feel very cold4 ,we got to a very comfortable inn1 and were dining1 or rather had finished our dinner1 when the waiter entered with a quiet1 mysterious air1 and said1 or rather whispered1 that a gentleman wished to speak to me4 ,knowing no one in the place1 ,i could not conceive what he meant2 he1 however1 repeated the whisper in my ear in the same mysterious manner4 ,when ,i told him to show the stranger in1 there was no person in the room but my friend1 ,mr4 ,william ,sim1 afterwards the solicitor to the ,swedish ,railway ,company1 who had accompanied me4 ,immediately after the waiter's departure the door opened1 and in came a gentleman muffled up to the eyes in a blue military cloak4 ,he cautiously shut the door1 then uncovered his face1 and looking stealthily round1 and observing nobody but ,sim and myself1 advanced at once to the table1 threw off his cloak1 took off his cap1 and saluted me as a naval officer4 ,i motioned him to be seated1 which he courteously declined1 and addressing himself to me1 said that he had been informed that ,i was the ,english gentleman who had brought despatches of importance from ,count ,reventlow to the ,danish ,government1 and that he was a ,danish naval officer1 and had been sent by the commanding officer of ,alsen to request that ,i would deliver up my despatches to him1 as it was of the utmost consequence that they should be delivered to the ,danish ,government as soon as possible4 ,i told him that ,i was perfectly unacquainted with him1 and that ,i could not do so without a personal conference with the ,general commanding at ,alsen1 because these despatches had been confided to me by the ,danish ,minister in ,london1 and as a point of honour ,i could not deliver them to any but an accredited officer of the ,government4 ,he then said that if ,i would be at ,dussel1 opposite to ,alsen1 the following morning1 at eight o'clock1 the ,general would have a boat ready to take me over to the island1 and would have a war steamer in readiness to take me to ,kosoa1 where ,i could readily get to ,copenhagen4 ,i accordingly agreed to be at ,dussel the following morning at eight o'clock4 ,the officer1 who was a perfect gentleman1 then muffled himself up in his cloak1 and requesting that we should say nothing about his arrival1 quietly left the room4 ,sim and myself ordered a carriage with four horses to be ready the following morning at six o'clock1 paid our bill1 and went to bed4 ,during the night there had been a very heavy fall of snow1 and when we started there was some difficulty in moving forward4 ,we were therefore obliged to take extra horses1 and passing by the now celebrated heights of ,dussel1 reached the shore opposite the island of ,alsen precisely at the time appointed1 where we found a boat with four oars ready to take us across the ,sound 7which was about half a mile wide72 here we were received by the ,general in full uniform4 ,i then delivered him the despatches1 for which he felt very much obliged1 and we went on board a small war steamer1 which got under way immediately1 and landed us at ,kosoa1 not far from ,copenhagen1 where we slept4 ,next day we examined the cathedral at ,roskeld1 and reached ,copenhagen in the evening4 ,when ,i first visited ,sweden1 a vast quantity of brandy distilled from potatoes was consumed2 so much so1 that the country was1 to a certain extent1 demoralized1 and drunkenness was very common2 and the farther north you went1 the worse it was4 ,the ,government therefore determined to take every means in its power to suppress it4 ,heavy duties were imposed on potato brandy2 and since that time1 ,i am glad to hear that drunkenness has considerably abated4 ,the ,swedes are an excellent1 open-hearted1 gallant1 and generous people1 and most amiable and hospitable4 ,i was treated with the greatest kindness by them1 for which ,i shall always feel grateful4 ,christmas is a general holiday throughout the country for a month1 commencing with ,christmas ,eve4 ,during that time1 scarcely any business is done4 ,there is nothing but visiting and social parties from morning to night2 and it requires a strong stomach and head to go through that festive ordeal without feeling the worse for it4 ,when once entered the house1 you cannot refuse to accept their kind and profuse hospitality4 ,as a specimen1 whenever a marriage takes place1 the bride not only appears before her friends1 but the house is thrown open to the public1 and everybody is at liberty to enter and pay his respects to the bride and bridegroom1 who receive all comers in full-dress bridal costume2 and refreshments of all kinds are in great profusion4 ,when ,i was there a marriage took place between two noble families1 to which ,i was invited4 ,the bride and bridegroom were both young1 and bride very handsome and splendidly dressed4 ,i was most kindly received and entertained1 and did not get home until very late in the morning4 ,i found that ,i had taken as much as ,i could decently carry1 and if ,i had not escaped at the time ,i did1 ,i must have remained all the next day1 as many of the bridegroom's friends did4 ,in ,sweden ,i made acquaintance1 amongst many others1 with our excellent ,consul1 ,major ,pringle1 who during the last ,american war had the command of ,washington for twenty-four hours4 ,i was frequently a guest at his house1 and ,i owe many thanks to him and his amiable wife and family for their great kindness and hospitality4 ,another excellent fellow was ,mr41 or ,colonel1 ,elsworthy 7as he called himself71 the ,american ,consul4 ,he was a bachelor1 and kept open house1 and he was so exceedingly hospitable1 and pressed his guests so strongly1 that it was with the greatest difficulty you could escape sober enough to reach your quarters with safety4 ,the woods of ,sweden were being fast cleared away1 both to furnish fuel for the iron manufactory1 in which a great quantity was consumed1 and also that the land might be used for agriculture1 so that this source of fuel for iron making is rapidly disappearing4 ,in addition to these causes may be mentioned the great export of timber to every part of ,europe for building and other purposes4 ,it is true that large forests of fine timber still exist farther north1 and also in ,norway1 but then the expense of transport to the iron districts will be very heavy2 yet as ,swedish iron is so very valuable1 on account of its magnetic properties1 for making steel1 a large quantity must always be required for the southern markets of ,europe1 and with the greater cost of fuel the price of ,swedish iron must increase4 ,the ,bessemer process has considerably reduced the expense of producing good iron in ,england1 and also for converting it into steel1 still the ,swedish iron is so much better that there will always be a certain demand for it4 ,it becomes a question1 then1 whether it would not be worth while to export the ,swedish ore to ,england1 where there is plenty of fuel1 and where it could be converted into the best iron at the least expense4 ,would it not be cheaper to do this1 than to manufacture the iron in ,sweden1 where fuel is so much dearer8 and as the ,swedish iron ore is very rich compared with ours1 except the haematite1 the extra freight would soon be recouped4 ,i think it is by no means improbable that it will come to this at last4 ,about the time that the ,railway guarantee was obtained from the ,swedish ,government1 and the company was successfully started1 another undertaking was proposed to me by a ,m4 ,von ,alstein1 a ,belgian proprietor1 and a man of some influence and property in that kingdom4 ,the ,dutch ,government was anxious to get a more direct and constant navigation up the ,scheldt1 as that round by ,bergen-op-,zoon was only practicable from half tide to high water1 while at low water the whole channel was completely dry4 ,it was considered1 also1 that the whole of the old channel might be filled up and converted into valuable land1 so that the fertile island of ,st4 ,beveland might be joined to the mainland1 and thus the kingdom would be greatly benefited4 ,the ,government did not1 however1 want to undertake the necessary works itself1 but was ready to give up the whole of the old channel to any company that would construct the new canal above mentioned1 as well as an embankment and road across the old channel1 so as to connect the island of ,st4 ,beveland with the mainland4 ,accordingly upon these terms a concession was granted to ,m4 ,von ,alstein and others1 giving them the whole of the lands to be reclaimed1 which would amount to a very considerable tract4 ,the plan1 upon due investigation1 appeared to offer considerable advantages to any party who would undertake it4 ,it was accordingly brought before the ,english public4 ,a ,belgian and ,english company was formed to carry it out4 ,the money was duly subscribed1 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,hutchings1 at that time a large railway contractor1 and considered to possess undoubted means1 offered to take a large number of shares4 ,he accordingly became the contractor for the work1 and ,i was appointed the engineer-in-chief1 while ,m4 ,von ,alstein became the managing director1 and a ,m4 ,dronker1 a ,dutch engineer and contractor of considerable experience1 was appointed by ,mr4 ,hutchings sub-contractor under him4 ,i went over to ,holland to examine the whole district and the works proposed1 and it appeared to me that if they were properly carried into effect1 it would turn out a very fair speculation1 yielding considerable profit4 ,my visit was made in ,december1 #ahea4 ,things having1 in #aheb1 been satisfactorily settled with the ,government at the ,hague1 as soon as the weather would permit1 arrangements were made for commencing the works1 and in the month of ,june ,mr4 ,hutchings1 myself1 and the ,english and ,belgian directors being present1 the first sod of the canal was turned with considerable ceremony by one of the ,dutch ,princes4 ,whilst the canal was proceeding1 the company was empowered to enclose as much of the land of the old channel as was considered advisable by a jury of ,dutch experts1 without whom nothing could be done4 ,m4 ,von ,alstein1 the manager of the company1 attended1 and the jury marked out a space in the old channel of the ,scheldt1 which was always covered to a considerable extent at high water of spring tides1 and even neap tides1 including the green marsh as well as the sands4 ,the ,dutch jury marked a space of #cjjj acres1 which included about one-third of green marsh and two-thirds of sand--part of which was clayey2 when this was done1 ,i went over to examine it1 and was much surprised to find that so large a space had been decided upon4 ,i said to ,m4 ,von ,alstein1 the director1 that ,i thought it was far too much to be taken in at once2 that it would cost a great deal of money2 that the sands were not worth the expense2 and that ,i thought it would be far better to confine the intake to the green marshes for the present year1 and that before the sands were taken in they ought to be worked up so as to become green marshes4 ,for1 in fact1 in ,england1 where ,i had reclaimed many thousand acres1 ,i never thought of enclosing bare sands4 ,the manager1 however1 told me that was totally contrary to the ,dutch system1 and as the jury had decided upon taking the sands as well as the green marshes to the extent above mentioned1 it must be done1 and he would not listen to my recommendation of taking in a less quantity4 ,the ,dutch engineers also fixed the dimensions and form of the embankments1 which ,i did not approve of4 ,in fact1 ,i disapproved of the whole plan1 and told ,m4 ,von ,alstein my opinion1 and that ,i could not take upon myself the responsibility4 ,the manager said that the works must be carried into effect as decided by the ,dutch jury and the ,dutch engineers4 ,i was therefore obliged to be silent1 particularly as ,mr4 ,hutchings1 who was the contractor and also the leading shareholder1 had consented to it4 ,the works accordingly began under ,m4 ,dronker1 ,mr4 ,hutchings' sub-contractor2 and ,mr4 ,brown1 one of ,mr4 ,hutchings' partners1 was sent over to superintend the works on the part of ,hutchings1 ,brown1 and ,wright4 ,i remained some time on the spot1 and had a boat fitted up to live in at ,barth1 for there were no lodgings to be had4 ,i soon saw by the manner in which ,m4 ,dronker was carrying on the works that they could not succeed1 and ,i wrote repeatedly to ,mr4 ,hutchings to come over1 otherwise he would be ruined1 as his partner--,brown--knew nothing about it1 and allowed ,dronker to proceed as he liked4 ,it appeared to me as if it was nothing more nor less than throwing away money by handfuls1 no adequate amount of work being done for it4 ,i never saw such gross mismanagement in my life4 ,there were from twelve to thirteen hundred men employed at #cs4 to #ds4 a day1 with a number of assistants1 and they were not doing work enough for half that number4 ,i also expostulated with ,dronker1 the ,dutch contractor1 but he would not listen to me1 and said that he would do as he liked4 ,the works continued to proceed in this manner1 and ,i wrote almost every post to ,hutchings to come over himself without delay1 or to stop the works1 for it was impossible to complete them for any reasonable sum in the manner in which they were being carried on4 ,i told him1 moreover1 that it was in vain to attempt to reclaim #cjjj acres at once1 and the better plan would be to confine his operations1 in the first instance1 to taking in the green marsh1 which was about #ajjj acres1 and to wait until the sands were worked on the outside1 which would be done much more rapidly when once the green marsh was enclosed4 ,i told the manager and ,dronker the same2 however1 they would not listen4 ,at length1 after great difficulty1 ,i got them to divide the enclosure into two parts1 each consisting of #aejj acres1 and ,i hoped that ,i should be able to induce them to subdivide these two again into #gej each4 ,by this means the green marsh in each division would have been reduced to about #ejj acres1 which would easily have been enclosed at a considerable profit1 leaving the sands to be dealt with hereafter according to circumstances4 ,however1 nothing would do but they must continue pushing on the outer bank over the sands1 which ,i saw was impracticable at any cost within reason4 ,at last1 ,hutchings came over himself1 and when he visited the works held up his hands in astonishment1 and saw that he was a ruined man4 ,by this time money ran short1 the workmen rebelled for wages and threatened destruction to ,hutchings and all concerned2 and the ,dutch ,government1 being applied to1 sent three hundred soldiers and two armed cutters to keep order4 ,the men were paid1 great numbers were discharged1 and the works went on upon a much better system1 and considerable progress was made1 but still they would not confine themselves to the enclosure of the green marsh4 ,after a great deal of difficulty they nearly succeeded in enclosing #aejj acres near to ,barth2 but before this could be done ,hutchings' funds were exhausted1 and he was obliged to stop payment4 ,if my advice had been followed this never would have occurred4 ,some fresh parties then joined the concern1 and1 adopting my advice1 confined themselves to enclosing the #ajjj acres of marsh land4 ,at certain times of the year1 particularly at the end of summer and in the autumn1 it is difficult to conceive a more unwholesome district1 as at those times the marsh fever invariably makes its appearance with the most deadly effect4 ,i had several fine1 strong1 healthy young men as assistants with me1 living in my ship1 and at dinner it was by no means uncommon to see one taken ill and fall off his chair4 ,the only remedy was to give him a strong stimulant of wine or brandy1 wrap him up in blankets1 and send him off as quietly as possible4 ,fortunately ,i had been so thoroughly cured of my fever when at ,naples1 as before mentioned1 that ,i had become as it were acclimatized and never experienced the least attack4 ,the island of ,st4 ,beveland1 where these works were carried on1 is one of the most rich1 and fertile districts imaginable1 teeming with luxurious vegetation of every kind1 and abounding in beautiful little villages1 the very models of cleanliness and comfort2 but amongst them the fever lurks in the most insidious form4 ,mr4 ,brown1 a fine1 powerful man of about forty-five1 whilst superintending these works for his partners and himself1 had an excellent house in the village of ,yersike1 about four miles distant1 supplied with every ,english comfort both of furniture and provisions2 but after a time he caught the fever1 which stuck to him for a considerable time1 and ultimately he was obliged to leave the place1 as otherwise he must have succumbed4 ,the ,dutch never go out in the morning without taking a cup of coffee and a dram of bitters1 composed of gentian1 quinine1 and gin1 and a pipe1 which is scarcely ever out of their mouths1 and they repeat the dose at night and not unfrequently during the day4 ,in the ,english fens and lowlands we do pretty much the same1 and good port wine and quinine are considered a specific2 but ,i do not think that the fever is so bad with us as in ,holland2 the cause may be that these ,dutch islands being surrounded by the sea1 the tide leaves a large surface of mud exposed to the action of the sun1 and thus a considerable amount of malaria is engendered2 this ,i have always found to prevail most densely where there are trees1 which prevent it from being dissipated2 so that it is always safer to be in a boat1 or in a house without any trees near it1 so as to be exposed to the free circulation of the air1 also to sleep at least #bj feet above the ground4 ,the whole of the seaboard of ,holland requires to be remodelled4 ,the numerous channels through which the tidal and fresh waters pass occupy a considerable surface which is comparatively useless1 and only serve to deteriorate the main channels of the rivers1 and thus prevent them from discharging their waters effectually1 and so keeping them open1 in the best state for drainage and navigation4 ,if these superfluous channels were filled up1 and the islands which they surround were united to the mainland1 a great quantity of valuable land would be gained to the ,state2 the extensive embankments which are now necessary to prevent these islands from being submerged1 and which entail a great and constant tax upon the kingdom1 would be considerably reduced2 the main rivers and harbours would be materially improved1 and the general surface of the water in the interior would be lowered2 the drainage also might be improved in the same manner1 so as to render a considerably less amount of artificial drainage power necessary1 which would in turn cause a corresponding reduction of the taxes2 while the land would be greatly improved1 because the present general body of water is too near the surface1 so that it is impossible to carry on agriculture to the greatest advantage2 also the risk of breaking the banks would be greatly reduced4 ,i think1 moreover1 that the vast multitude of shoals which skirt the coast might1 by the adoption of proper means--and those not expensive1 compared to the object to be obtained--be raised sufficiently so as to be converted into valuable land1 and be added to the kingdom with considerable profit1 while the navigation along the coast and in the interior might be greatly improved4 ,further1 the whole of the ,zuyder ,zee1 which is said to have been under cultivation in early times1 might be reclaimed4 ,as extraordinary spring tides seldom rise high along these coasts1 and as vegetation generally takes place at the level of high water of neap tides1 the lands on the coast1 if properly managed1 should not be above #d or #e feet below the level of high water of spring tides1 although ,i believe it is a fact that many tracts in the interior are much lower1 and this arises from their having been embanked too soon4 ,now that these lands have been brought into cultivation at vast expense1 it would be difficult to raise them without rendering them useless for a considerable time4 ,still1 in all contemplated new enclosures1 the lands should be raised by warping1 that is1 accumulating the alluvial matter1 which can always be done if properly managed up to the level of high water of neap tides4 ,in fact1 ,i repeat1 a considerable extent of ,holland has been embanked too soon1 and what has been done it would be extremely difficult1 perhaps not advisable1 to disturb2 although1 if any of these very low lands are not sufficiently fertile1 it would be well to warp them up with fresh soil4 ,they might thus be sufficiently raised to do away with the greater part of the artificial power now required to keep them dry1 and be rendered very fertile2 thus a double advantage would be gained4 ,this subject is well worthy of the serious attention of the ,dutch ,government and its able staff of hydraulic engineers1 who1 nevertheless1 go too much upon the old routine1 and prefer patching up the old system in preference to striking out a new course4 ,probably this is not the fault of the engineers1 as they would naturally attempt any new course whereby they might distinguish themselves4 ,the ,government1 also1 would most likely be induced to adopt any new method1 provided that it could see its way to bettering the condition of the country4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,government feels great disinclination to depart from an old system which1 it may be said with some reason1 has continued so many years1 has answered its purpose very well1 and has rendered ,holland1 under the circumstances1 one of the most extraordinary countries in the world4 ,this is very true2 but then it must be recollected that hydraulic science has advanced like other sciences1 and what would be considered good practice some centuries back would not be thought so now4 ,the ,dutch introduced their system into ,england in the reign of ,charles ,i41 when ,vermuyden was considered the first hydraulic engineer of the time4 ,he certainly was considerably in advance of the ,english engineers of that period2 but at the present time his method would be wholly inadequate to deal with the circumstances to be encountered1 and it was abandoned long ago4 ,the combination system1 and comparatively narrow channels1 combined with warping the land1 is what is required in ,holland as in all other countries similarly situated4 ,in #ahee ,i went to ,portugal1 at the request of the ,government1 to make arrangements for a general system of railways and other works4 ,as we passed the ,fort ,belem1 at the entrance of the ,tagus1 the view gradually opened out1 until you obtained a coup d'il of the whole1 which really is very fine and striking4 ,fancy a range of streets1 houses1 palaces1 and churches rising rapidly from the water's edge until they crown the summits of the hills on which they are built1 backed by the picturesque outline of the ,cintra hills1 and extending for upwards of three miles4 ,we landed at the custom house1 close by the ,plaza1 commonly called by the ,english ,blackhorse ,square1 from the fine equestrian figure of the ,marquis of ,pombal in the centre4 ,this is certainly a handsome square1 surrounded by all the public offices1 terminated in the centre1 on the south1 by a fine triumphal archway1 which leads by a spacious street to the square of ,dom ,pedro4 ,beyond this are the public gardens1 very tastefully laid out4 ,i was introduced to ,dom ,fernando1 the husband of the late ,dona ,maria1 ,queen of ,portugal1 and at that time ,regent during the minority of his son4 ,he was of the ,house of ,coburg1 and brother to the late ,prince ,consort4 ,he received me very graciously1 and spoke ,english very well1 although with a peculiar accent4 ,his ,royal ,highness afterwards invited me to a ball and supper1 at the ,palace of ,belem1 which was extremely well managed1 without magnificence or ostentation4 ,i was there introduced to the ,minister of ,finance1 ,signor ,mello de ,fontes1 a young man of great talent and an excellent orator4 ,on the following day ,i attended a launch at the dockyard1 which was honoured by the presence of the ,prince ,regent1 and here ,i was introduced to the ,duke de ,saldanha1 ,president of the ,cabinet2 the ,duke de ,tereira and his amiable wife2 ,viscount de ,bandiera1 together with the distinguished men of all parties4 ,before proceeding to ,oporto ,i was obliged to remain several days until ,i could get my official instructions as to what they required4 ,i employed the interim in visiting the different objects in ,lisbon most worthy of the traveller's notice4 ,i first went to the great aqueduct1 which is really a very grand and magnificent work1 the finest of the kind in ,europe1 and every part is readily accessible4 ,it enters at the highest part of the northern portion of the town1 and conveys the water to a large artificial reservoir1 whence it is distributed by pipes to fountains situated in different parts of the town1 and from these fountains it is carried to the various houses by means of carriers and water-carts4 ,these carriers are chiefly ,gallegoes or ,spaniards from the ,biscayan ,provinces1 who are allowed to charge so much per barrel4 ,it is singular to see them travelling about from one part of the town to the other with cries of 8,agua10 and it is more singular still that this practice should have been allowed to continue so long1 to the great and unnecessary tax upon the inhabitants1 where1 if pipes were only laid to the houses1 the water might be distributed at probably one-tenth of the cost4 ,the ,gallegoes are a hard-working1 temperate race1 who save every penny they can1 and as soon as possible retire to their own country to enjoy the hard-earned fruits of their labours4 ,the water before it reaches the city is collected in reservoirs distributed about the valleys1 at the base of the ,cintra hills1 but these reservoirs are upon too small a scale1 and in dry seasons the water is very scarce4 ,a ,portuguese company has since been formed to enlarge the works1 increase the supply1 and deliver it direct to the houses1 but1 like most ,portuguese companies of the kind1 has failed from the want of understanding the subject and from mismanagement4 ,i visited the fine old ,cathedral of ,belem1 built in honour of ,prince ,henry1 the ,portuguese navigator4 ,the style is a species of richly florid ,gothic1 and the interior is spacious and imposing4 ,there was an hospital for invalid sailors attached to it1 which is now converted into a naval academy4 ,i also visited the ,castle of ,belem close by1 where all ships coming to ,lisbon are obliged to stop and show their papers and get pratique before they are allowed to proceed4 ,the castle itself is a very small fortress1 built in the ,moorish style1 and mounts a few light brass guns1 and is manned by about fifty artillerymen4 ,it is a very pretty object to look upon1 but as a fortress it is good for nothing4 ,there is another fort1 called ,st4 ,julian1 about five or six miles lower down1 on the same side1 which commands the channel passing close to it1 but it also was in a dilapidated condition1 with a few light guns4 ,it is certainly much stronger than that of ,belem1 but wholly unfit to prevent the passage of any large vessel of war1 or to resist a land attack4 ,there is another small fort near the bar at the entrance of the southern channel4 ,this fort is circular1 and called the ,bugia4 ,in the centre is a lighthouse1 with a revolving light4 ,this also as a fort is good for nothing4 ,i accompanied ,dom ,fernando and his ministers to examine the entrance of the ,tagus1 which was said to be deteriorating4 ,in the northern channel1 during the heavy south-west gales1 which are very prevalent1 there is a very heavy broken sea1 which at times cannot be passed without great danger4 ,the strength of these gales when at their utmost is extraordinary4 ,the waves break with tremendous violence on the shore1 and carry the sand in vast masses to a considerable distance inshore1 so as to render the soil perfectly barren on the north side of the entrance4 ,these sands extend for several miles1 and the whole coast is covered with it4 ,at low water1 in some places1 they are dry during the ebb for a mile and upwards4 ,the port of ,lisbon properly speaking is at the custom house1 which immediately adjoins ,blackhorse ,square4 ,it consists of nothing more than an open roadstead1 where all the mercantile vessels lie at their anchors1 and are loaded and unloaded by means of lighters1 at great delay and cost1 and with frequent interruptions from heavy gales of wind2 but it rarely happens that the vessels suffer any material damage1 as the mouth of the river1 although about seven miles wide1 is never seriously agitated4 ,docks or landing jetties might be made here with considerable advantage to the trade4 ,at the request of the ,government1 ,i prepared some plans upon a moderate scale4 ,docks also might have been made in the bay to the westward1 although it would have involved the removal of the custom house1 which would1 however1 be a great improvement4 ,the naval dockyard and ,admiralty are close by1 and1 in fact1 form part of the west side of ,blackhorse ,square4 ,it is a miserable place1 and consists of a dry dock1 two or three building slips1 with a ropery1 and some warehouses1 all in the most antique fashion1 and supplied with cranes1 tools1 c41 of the last century4 ,in fact1 it required to be wholly remodelled and removed to the bay above mentioned4 ,the ,government has since then parted with this bay to a private company1 which has nearly filled it up1 and propose to convert it into building ground4 ,as the ,great ,eastern and ,northern ,railway terminates on the east side of the custom house1 docks in connection with it might be made between it and the custom house1 and as these are so obviously wanted1 it is not improbable that they will be made some time hence2 but1 unfortunately1 from some cause or another1 the railways have been mismanaged1 and the ,government has no funds to undertake any great works itself4 ,the roadstead for large foreign vessels of war is situated about a mile and a half lower down1 nearer to the southern shore1 where there is ample depth of water1 and where they are completely out of the way of the merchant vessels4 ,the channel1 from the entrance at ,belem to ,blackhorse ,square1 is about three miles long1 and from two to two and a half miles wide4 ,it then branches out to about seven miles wide1 and continues more or less of about the same width for nine or ten miles1 when it contracts to a mile1 so that it may be readily imagined that the harbour is one of the finest and most spacious in ,europe1 always excepting that of ,vigo4 ,at ,lisbon ,i visited the collection of royal state carriages1 which1 without doubt1 is the finest and most extensive anywhere4 ,i think ,i counted nearly fifty1 gilt and decorated with the royal arms in the most elaborate manner4 ,upon the panels are very beautiful paintings executed by first-rate artists4 ,some of these carriages are above two centuries old2 and it is curious to observe1 that whilst the decorations are most elegant and finished in the highest style of art1 the ironwork1 springs1 c41 in many of these are of the rudest description4 ,the ,sunday after my arrival there was a grand bull fight1 which ,dom ,fernando and some of the royal princes honoured with their presence4 ,these bull fights are totally different from those of ,spain4 ,here the bulls have their horns capped with large bosses of wood1 so that they can do no harm1 whilst1 on the other hand1 they are never killed4 ,instead of being tortured with barbed arrows and spears by a host of banderilleros and picadores1 and when thoroughly exhausted and worn out killed by the matador1 they are encountered by about a dozen stout and most active men1 accustomed to the fight4 ,these grapple with the bull1 and master him by main force1 and pin him down to the ground1 and some of the most powerful and skilful will1 of a sudden1 seize the bull by the horns1 and throwing their whole weight upon the animal1 completely roll him over1 when he becomes perfectly helpless4 ,this is a great feat1 and is most enthusiastically applauded4 ,but notwithstanding their strength and activity1 the bull-fighters frequently get knocked about a good deal1 and receive heavy falls and bruises1 but they never get tossed1 and are seldom severely hurt4 ,the sight is by no means disgusting1 cruel1 or barbarous1 like those of ,spain4 ,indeed1 there is a good deal of fun in it1 and at times you cannot help laughing heartily1 and generally go away much pleased4 ,after every fight1 the men came forward1 and were handsomely rewarded by ,dom ,fernando and the audience4 ,there still exist the remains of many fine convents and churches2 of some the building had never been finished4 ,when monastic institutions were abolished these buildings became the property of the ,state1 and have since been sold to the public and converted to different purposes2 some to manufactories1 others to barracks1 others to domestic residences4 ,the inmates have been dismissed1 with moderate pensions1 and thrown out upon the world4 ,the property brought little to the ,state2 and as they were in a great measure founded by the charity of private individuals1 to which the ,state had no right1 it would have been better to have allowed them to die a natural death4 ,religion has gained nothing1 the ,state little or nothing1 while gross superstition has degenerated into scepticism and infidelity4 ,all violent changes have an opposite result to that desired4 ,the roots of old institutions once torn up1 it is difficult to substitute a new plant to succeed them4 ,it would be better if such important changes could be made gradually1 but1 unfortunately1 the old generation1 strong in possession1 and forgetful of the times in which they live1 will listen to no alteration1 and cling firmly to the past1 as if it must endure for ever4 ,the new generation1 born under different circumstances1 have no respect for old institutions1 and regardless of what is good in them1 will listen to no compromise1 and are never satisfied until they have rooted them out altogether4 ,there can be no doubt that the institution of convents and monasteries was of great service to the world in the middle ages--in preserving the learning of past times1 in teaching the ignorant1 in distributing alms amongst the poor1 and in healing the sick4 ,they curbed the ambition1 and controlled the violent passions of the barbarous feudal lords1 who considered that the world was made for them alone1 and gratified their lusts at the expense of the unfortunate people over whom they ruled4 ,no power but that of religion could have controlled them4 ,they felt its wondrous influence1 and were told in stern1 unmistakable language that there was a hereafter1 and that the great ,god who governed the world would surely visit their sins with condign punishment1 unless they sincerely repented of their wickedness1 and prayed for ,his forgiveness4 ,we must therefore be grateful for the services which religion1 under its peculiar forms and ceremonies1 rendered in those days2 and although abuses by degrees crept in1 yet these might have been remedied by much milder measures4 ,the monasteries and convents1 however1 served their purpose2 but now they are gone1 and it is to be hoped that as the world becomes wiser and more enlightened the great ,creator will be worshipped in a purer and simpler manner4 ,having heard so much of the filthiness of ,lisbon1 ,i was most agreeably disappointed to find it so much the reverse4 ,with the exception of the old part of the town1 to the westward of ,blackhorse ,square1 and which was filthy enough1 few cities1 certainly not ,london1 were cleaner than ,lisbon at the time of my first visit in #ahee4 ,the streets were broad and straight1 well lighted and watered1 and the buildings regular and handsome4 ,the police certainly was not the most effective1 but still the town was safe4 ,i left ,lisbon about four o'clock in the afternoon1 in a fast steamer1 full of passengers1 and after a fine passage of sixteen hours1 with only a moderate swell ahead--which1 however1 made most of the passengers sick--we arrived off the bar of the ,douro at six the following morning1 when a pilot came on board1 and we crossed the bar and proceeded up to the town quay1 about two miles from the entrance of the river2 ,i was recommended to the ,peninsular ,hotel1 situated in the higher part of the town4 ,this was entirely a ,portuguese establishment and extremely rough1 where you boarded and lodged at so much per day4 ,at the table d'hte ,i made acquaintance with a fine old ,peninsular veteran1 ,colonel ,owen1 formerly attached to the ,duke of ,wellington's army1 where he was constantly employed on outpost duty1 and he necessarily saw a great deal of hard service4 ,he was a fine-looking man1 six feet high1 and seventy years of age1 with a determined countenance1 and full of fire and energy even at that advanced age4 ,he possessed a good deal of talent1 had studied much1 spoke the ,portuguese like a native1 and was an excellent writer both in that language and his own4 ,i found him a very agreeable1 intelligent companion1 and we soon became well acquainted with each other1 which was the more agreeable as he knew well and had frequently served with ,colonel ,somers ,cocks1 a distant connection of mine1 who was a distinguished officer and favourite of the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,colonel ,cocks1 much to the regret of the ,duke1 was killed at the siege of ,burgos ,castle4 ,owen knew his whole history1 and at my particular request wrote a complete and very interesting memoir of him1 which ,i privately printed4 ,owen was almost my constant companion1 and having long resided at ,oporto1 knew all the principal merchants in the place1 both ,english and native1 and was much liked and respected4 ,he introduced me to several1 but being upon public business1 namely1 the improvement of the port1 which all desired1 ,i had no need of introductions1 for the principal inhabitants called upon me and invited me to their houses2 amongst others may be mentioned ,messrs4 ,lambert1 ,sandeman1 ,herries1 and others1 the principal wine merchants of the place1 who paid me the greatest attention and hospitality4 ,i lost no time after my arrival in proceeding to examine the port1 and to consider what was best to be done4 ,i soon discovered its defects1 which were the exposed and dangerous nature of the bar at the entrance of the ,douro1 the depth of water over it being scarcely #aj feet at low water of spring tides1 the tides rising only from #f to #g feet2 the conformed and circuitous channel both within and without the bar1 in which there were several rocks2 and the prevalence during three-fourths of the year of strong westerly winds from south-west to north-west4 ,moreover1 during heavy floods the outgoing current was so strong that it carried all before it1 frequently tearing vessels from their anchors1 driving them to sea1 or wrecking them in the harbour4 ,from these different causes the bar could only be attempted during the flood or ebb for entering or departing during the most moderate weather1 and then only by vessels drawing #ab to #ad feet at spring tides4 ,from all these combined causes the harbour of ,oporto might be said to be hermetically sealed for three-fourths of the year1 and frequent instances have occurred of vessels having made the passage to the ,brazils and back again1 whilst others have been beating about the offing waiting for a favourable opportunity to cross the bar2 and equal time was lost by those vessels that were waiting1 laden in the port1 to go to sea4 ,and the mails for ,oporto1 the second city in the kingdom1 frequently had to be delivered at ,vigo1 #fj miles farther north1 and to be transported thence by land1 which occasioned the loss of one or two days4 ,in consequence of these serious disadvantages the trade naturally suffered materially4 ,in order to remedy these defects1 ,i drew up a plan by which ,i proposed to carry out two piers--one on the ridge of rocks on the south side1 and another on the north--in such a direction that the entrance between them1 which was to be #ejj feet wide1 should be least exposed to the prevailing storms2 and the space between the piers on the inside of the entrance should be wider than the entrance itself1 so that any swell which might enter would diminish as it proceeded up the harbour4 ,i also proposed to remove the rocks both inside and outside1 and to strengthen the channel4 ,by this means ,i expected that the bar would be lowered about #e feet2 so that at high water of spring tides there would be about #bj feet1 and a vessel drawing #ah feet could enter at springs1 and #af feet at neaps4 ,the expense of these works was estimated at about #djj1jjjl4 ,this no doubt would have been a very great improvement1 and worth the money1 although at times even with this expenditure the bar would not be approachable either way4 ,under these circumstances1 ,i explored the adjacent coast in order to ascertain whether another and better place for a harbour could not be found1 and at ,mattozenhas1 about three miles farther1 ,i found that there was a detached reef of rocks1 #bjjj feet long1 lying about a quarter of a mile distant from the shore1 and between it and the shore there was a depth of from #be to #ej feet at low water4 ,this reef had been observed by others before me1 and it had struck them that an excellent harbour might be made4 ,as this also lay within my instructions1 ,i made a design for a harbour2 but upon maturely considering the subject1 ,i thought it would be scarcely safe to make a close harbour at this point1 as1 from the great quantity of sand which lay along the coast1 there was a chance of its filling up4 ,i therefore proposed to make it open3 that is to say1 to construct a breakwater along the line of the rocks as far as they reached1 and as much farther each way as might be considered advisable4 ,in fact1 this breakwater might be extended so as to make a magnificent asylum harbour for the largest vessels of any class2 and by making an open landing pier within the breakwater1 vessels could take in and deliver their cargoes1 and send them to ,oporto by rail1 when vessels could not pass over the bar of the ,douro4 ,as there was plenty of fine granite on the spot1 and labour could be obtained comparatively cheap1 ,i considered that for the sum of #ejj1jjjl4 an excellent harbour might be made here with a double entrance1 and as there would be a free passage for the current both ways1 no sand would lodge within the breakwater4 ,in fact1 the current1 being confined1 would force out the sand and make the harbour deeper1 so that at low water 7spring tides7 there would never be less than from #be to #cj feet in the shallowest part of the northern entrance1 and above #ej feet at the southern4 ,this place appeared1 and1 in fact1 was so much better and more advantageous in every respect than ,oporto1 that1 considering the increased cost would not exceed #ajj1jjjl41 ,i strongly recommended it in preference to expending #djj1jjjl4 on the old entrance4 ,still1 if the ,government thought it advisable to improve the entrance of the ,douro1 to some extent this might be done advantageously by the expenditure of about #aej1jjjl4 ,both the ,king and the ,government approved of my plan for the breakwater and landing pier at the ,secars ,rocks1 near ,mattozenhas1 and the ,finance ,minister--,fontes--gave me an order in writing to provide the necessary apparatus1 and to commence the work immediately4 ,but soon after1 the ,government being changed1 the whole was stopped1 and nothing material has been done since1 although1 ,i believe1 some attempts have been made by the ,portuguese ,board of ,works to blow up the rocks at the entrance of the ,douro1 with very little effect2 and as funds are very scarce1 it is probable that nothing of consequence will be effected for a long time1 which is the more to be regretted1 as meanwhile the trade of ,oporto suffers most materially4 ,having completed my investigation of ,oporto harbour1 ,i prepared to return direct to ,lisbon1 and report to the ,government the results of my examination1 when ,i received a telegraphic message saying that the ,government wished me to examine the harbour of ,viana1 some thirty miles farther north1 also that of ,aveiro1 twenty miles farther south1 and that of ,figuera1 the mouth of the ,mondego1 about twenty miles south of ,aveiro2 and that they would send a small vessel of war to take me to those places4 ,i therefore determined to await the arrival of the war-steamer1 which came two days afterwards4 ,it was not above #bjj tons1 mounting three or four small guns1 and commanded by a lieutenant of the ,portuguese navy1 having with him about thirty men4 ,i embarked and proceeded at once to ,viana1 which we reached about three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,there being a heavy swell1 we could not enter the port1 and a pilot boat with six rowers was therefore sent out to take us ashore1 where we were received by the authorities4 ,as our time was limited1 ,i immediately proceeded to examine the harbour1 which was formed by the river ,scina1 the entrance to which was at times very dangerous1 from the same causes as those already described as existing at the bar of the river ,douro1 namely1 a shallow1 much-exposed bar1 little tide1 tortuous channel1 and exposure to a heavy swell during the prevailing westerly winds4 ,i observed1 however1 that there was a long reef of rocks running parallel to the channel nearly as far as the bar1 and that by erecting a breakwater upon the reef1 for which there was plenty of stone adjacent1 the current1 instead of spreading over the rocks and losing its force1 might be confined1 and thus act more effectively upon the bar and deepen it several feet2 and1 further1 by this means the entrance channel would be protected1 and very little swell could get in4 ,thus the principal defects of the entrance would be remedied2 and the small depth of water at the quays could be increased by dredging4 ,i consulted the pilots and the practical men of the place1 as ,i always do 7for from experience they generally have a knowledge of the subject71 and it was satisfactory to know that their opinions entirely coincided with mine4 ,i accordingly made my notes1 and returned on board the vessel in the evening about eight o'clock4 ,the days being long1 and low water in the harbour1 it gave me a very good opportunity of examining it4 ,i had occasion to visit ,viana subsequently4 ,it is a very pretty little commercial town1 surrounded by a rich1 thriving country2 it does a good deal of trade1 and is therefore very prosperous1 there being some wealthy merchants and a good deal of property in the place4 ,the valley through which the ,scina flows is very beautiful and fertile1 surrounded by mountains varying from #bjjj to #gjjj feet high4 ,the large village of ,scina1 about twelve or fourteen miles above ,viana1 is particularly picturesque4 ,it is situated in a delicious country1 abounding in corn1 wine1 and oil1 and apparently wanting in nothing4 ,as soon as ,i got on board the vessel weighed anchor4 ,the night was fine1 so that we reached the offing of ,figuera1 at the mouth of the ,mondego1 about noon the next day4 ,i was met on landing by the captain of the port1 who had received intelligence of our coming1 and on account of the heat we were obliged to take refuge in his house1 where he exhibited all his plans1 and the measures which had been taken to improve the bar at the entrance1 which1 upon the whole1 as far as they went1 were satisfactory4 ,after a couple of hours' rest we took a boat and sounded the bar1 upon which the water was very shallow4 ,there was a very extensive reservoir for tidal and fresh water within1 which1 under proper management ,i considered might be rendered very valuable in deepening and scouring out the entrance1 and in lowering the bar2 but at low water there was a narrow channel1 which was constantly changing1 so that there was no good entrance1 and consequently neither the fresh nor tidal waters could be either admitted or properly discharged2 thus the quantity of water was reduced1 and the effect upon the bar considerably diminished4 ,i therefore saw at once that it was necessary to confine the low water channel to some extent by slight works1 composed of osiers and faggots1 extending from two to three feet above the low water level1 so that it should be confined always to the same course2 thus the low water line would be lowered1 more tidal water would be admitted and discharged1 the surrounding lowlands1 which were frequently flooded1 would be better drained1 and the bar improved4 ,i observed also that the channel at the entrance was too wide1 and that consequently it was much exposed to the swell during westerly gales4 ,i therefore proposed to reduce the width of the entrance to a certain extent2 by this means a greater quantity of water would be admitted and discharged1 the bar would be reduced1 the drainage improved1 and a less quantity of swell would be admitted2 when ,i explained my views to the captain of the port1 who was a very intelligent person1 he quite agreed with me4 ,having finished my examination here1 we embarked at sunset and proceeded to ,lisbon1 which we reached on the following morning1 when ,i took my leave of the commander of the vessel and his officers1 who had treated me most kindly1 for which ,i felt very grateful2 ,i wanted to make a present of some champagne1 but this was most politely declined4 ,i therefore renewed my thanks1 and went on then to the ,braganza hotel4 ,i next day called upon the ,finance ,minister1 ,fontes1 and ,vicomte de ,luz1 the chief officer of the ,board of ,works1 reported generally what ,i had done1 and said that ,i would proceed to ,england at once1 and send my plans1 estimates1 and reports as early as possible4 ,i accordingly left two days afterwards1 and reached ,england in the middle of ,june1 after an absence of between six and seven weeks4 ,when ,i was in ,portugal ,i had a good deal of conversation with ,m4 ,fontes about their railways4 ,he said that they had already given a concession for them to an ,english company1 ,messrs4 ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co41 of whom the ,government was now desirous if possible of getting quit4 ,m4 ,fontes also talked to me about their financial affairs1 and said that they had had a good deal of trouble with our ,stock ,exchange4 ,i did not know the precise cause of this at the time1 but it was afterwards explained to me that the ,english ,stock ,exchange would not allow their funds to be quoted in the ,english money market in consequence of the ,portuguese ,government having reduced the interest of the last ,portuguese loan without the consent of the subscribers1 so that unless this was remedied1 it would not be possible to raise another loan in ,england4 ,i saw the full force of this1 and told the minister frankly my opinion1 which he appeared to take very well1 for he then said that he wished me to lay out a line between ,coimbra and ,oporto1 and gave me instructions accordingly4 ,in the month of ,august1 ,dom ,pedro1 the heir apparent to the throne1 and his brother1 ,dom ,louis1 paid a visit to our ,queen at ,osborne ,house1 ,isle of ,wight1 and ,count ,lavradio1 the ,portuguese minister in ,london1 recommended me to go there to pay my respects to his future majesty4 ,i therefore went1 and was honoured with an audience on board ,her ,majesty's yacht1 which was lying off ,osborne1 and in which ,dom ,pedro and his brother were living at the time1 as the ,queen did not wish them to be on shore1 on account of the prevalence of the smallpox in the vicinity4 ,dom ,pedro and his brother received me very courteously1 and we had a great deal of conversation about ,portuguese affairs1 particularly concerning the various engineering works that he wished to see carried into effect1 such as railways1 harbours1 docks1 c41 and he said that until these were done ,portugal could not be on a par with other nations4 ,he also very kindly invited me over to ,portugal again4 ,i took my leave and returned to ,southampton1 where ,i dined with ,count ,lavradio at ,radley's hotel1 and then returned to ,london4 ,it should be added that ,dom ,pedro attained his majority on the #aeth of ,september1 when he was crowned4 ,as soon as ,i got my harbour plans and reports ready1 ,i determined to go over and present them in person after the coronation4 ,as ,i had been commissioned by the ,government to make the surveys and estimates for the proposed railway between ,coimbra and ,oporto1 and consult two other ,english contractors about making railways in ,portugal1 ,i went to ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts1 who said that they would be happy to undertake them1 provided that they could make proper arrangements with the ,government1 and that they did not interfere with any other contractors or companies who were then employed2 and that in order to ascertain the ,government views1 they would send over their agent1 ,mr4 ,giles1 with me4 ,as ,i had previously agreed with ,mr4 ,cheffins to make the survey of the line between ,coimbra and ,oporto1 he preceded me with his staff1 while ,mr4 ,giles went to ,lisbon with me in the ,royal ,mail ,company's vessel the #8,trent1' leaving ,southampton on the #ith ,september1 #ahee4 ,after a fine passage we reached ,lisbon on the morning of the #adth of ,september4 ,i immediately presented myself to ,m4 ,fontes1 the ,finance ,minister1 and the ,duke de ,saldanha1 ,president of the ,cabinet1 and delivered my plans1 which were well received1 and tickets were sent to us to visit the various ceremonies of the coronation4 ,it happened just before our arrival that the ,government and the ,english contractors of the ,great ,eastern ,railway from ,lisbon to ,santarem1 who had been quarrelling for some time past1 came to an open rupture1 and the ,government took possession of the whole of the works and all the materials1 machinery1 and plant1 with an armed force1 turned the ,company adrift1 and would have nothing further to do with them4 ,the contractors complained to the ,british representative1 ,mr4 ,ward1 ,charg d',affaires1 who was very indignant at this summary mode of treating his countrymen2 and ,m4 ,fontes was equally indignant at the way in which the ,company had behaved2 but more of this hereafter4 ,in the meantime the coronation took place1 and a very pretty sight it was4 ,we had the usual demonstrations of ftes1 reviews1 illuminations1 salvos of artillery1 c4 ,to heighten the spectacle a ,british fleet of five line-of-battle ships was sent over to do honour to the occasion4 ,these ftes lasted for three days1 and no business was done2 but in the mean time ,i had the honour of being presented to the king at the great palace of the ,ajude2 and when ,m4 ,fontes returned to his office again1 ,i called upon him and presented ,mr4 ,giles1 ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts's agent4 ,afterwards1 when ,mr4 ,giles had left1 ,m4 ,fontes commenced talking to me about their dispute with ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co4 ,he spoke very temperately on the subject1 and said that justice should be done to them4 ,i said that ,i did not wish for a moment to defend them2 in fact1 ,i did not know the merits of the case on either one side or the other4 ,at the same time1 ,i said that it would be far better to arrange with them amicably2 and if they could not agree1 they should settle accounts and dissolve the agreement2 as until this matter was satisfactorily concluded1 it would be impossible to get any fresh ,english contractors of respectability to finish the works1 or form a new ,english company1 or indeed to raise any money in ,england1 which the ,government at that time wanted to do4 ,moreover1 it was desirable above all things to arrange matters with the ,english ,stock ,exchange1 and until the affair of ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co4 had been settled this could not be done4 ,these arguments appeared to have much weight with the minister1 who replied1 that he would think them over2 that he was desirous of coming to an amicable settlement2 that he had very little doubt but it would be ultimately arranged properly2 and that when ,mr4 ,griles and ,i returned from our examination of the country1 he would be glad to see us again4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,surveys in ,portugal and ,tunis4 ,after visiting1 with a great deal of pleasure1 ,batalha1 by far the finest ecclesiastical edifice in ,portugal1 we reached ,coimbra1 than which1 with its environs1 it is difficult to conceive a more beautiful prospect4 ,the town1 with its numerous churches and academical buildings rising from the opposite shore of the ,mondego1 and situated in a rich fertile plain1 backed by the lofty and picturesque hills of ,busaco1 clothed with wood to their summits1 with a fine old bridge in the foreground1 while the ,mondego is seen winding through the valley until it is lost in the sea1 which forms the distant horizon1 altogether made a picture which1 for loveliness1 was unsurpassed by anything ,i have seen in ,portugal4 ,we found here1 a rare thing at that time in ,portugal1 a clean1 comfortable little hotel1 near the ,rocio1 where ,mr4 ,cheffins and his assistant had arrived before us4 ,we accordingly made preparations to start next morning at six o'clock1 on horseback1 to explore a line along the coast to ,oporto4 ,we started punctually at six1 and crossed the valley of the ,mondego1 which is here about three miles wide1 and is quite flat4 ,it has a rich and fertile alluvial soil1 but is frequently inundated by the floods of the ,mondego1 so that the roads1 such as they were1 viz4 extremely bad1 were formed by rough causeways raised #c or #d feet above the level of the adjacent land4 ,in fact1 at the time of my visit there were no roads worthy of the name in ,portugal1 except the road above mentioned1 from ,cairegado to ,coimbra2 and upon this1 what was still more extraordinary1 a regular four-horse mail-coach1 like those of ,england1 had been just established for the first time to run from ,lisbon to ,coimbra1 at the rate of about seven miles an hour4 ,another similar road had been commenced from ,oporto to ,braga1 and had been carried only a few miles4 ,in fact1 unless you had seen and visited ,portugal you could hardly have conceived such a state of things possible4 ,all the other roads were nothing but mere horse-tracks1 in the most wretched state imaginable1 full of holes and great stones1 so that you could seldom go faster than a walking pace without danger of breaking your neck at every step1 except in those parts where the track lay through forests and open plains4 ,over these the rude bullock carts jolted up and down at about the rate of half a mile an hour1 and the creaking of the axles might be heard two or three miles off4 ,as for inns1 for the most part there were none1 and the wearied traveller had to carry everything with him1 and take refuge in some miserable cottage full of filth1 which he was obliged to clear away before he could establish himself with anything approaching to comfort4 ,i had heard of this before leaving ,england1 and ,i took care to provide myself with a light travelling-bed1 and a canteen with the necessary provisions4 ,leaving ,coimbra1 we reached ,aveiro the next evening1 after a most fatiguing journey of fifteen hours in the saddle2 during a great portion of our ride we were exposed to a terrific storm of rain1 and lost our way1 and narrowly escaped passing the night in a pine forest4 ,not far from ,aveiro1 ,messrs4 ,pinto1 ,basto1 ,co4 had established a large manufactory for porcelain and common crockery ware1 which was in a very thriving state1 and the imitations of the ,english porcelain were very creditable1 as well as the artistic decorations2 as they were well protected by high import duties on foreign porcelain1 they enjoyed a monopoly for a time1 and made considerable profits4 ,these duties have latterly been greatly modified1 and it has not been found worth while to continue this establishment4 ,it has1 however1 ,i understand1 answered very well for the proprietors1 who have1 by this and other enterprises1 realized considerable fortunes4 ,in fact1 it was quite evident that such an establishment1 which had to import all the materials and the fuel from ,england1 could not compete with the superior talent and industry of ,england without extraordinary protective duties1 which are nothing more or less than a heavy tax upon the country4 ,portugal is not a manufacturing country4 ,she has a most genial climate and generally a rich soil1 and can produce a variety of raw commodities which ,england and the north of ,europe cannot4 ,portugal therefore1 by exporting these articles1 such as wine1 oil1 fruits1 cork1 salt1 cattle1 c41 can always realize a good profit1 which will enable her to import all other articles required at a far less cost than they can be produced at home1 besides contributing materially to the ,state revenue4 ,messrs4 ,pinto and ,basto were not at the establishment when we visited it1 but their manager had received notice from them that we were coming1 with orders to show us everything1 and to give us a handsome entertainment1 which he did to the very letter1 and we returned to ,aveiro much delighted with our reception4 ,indeed1 the manager regretted greatly that we had not stayed there the previous night1 and if we had known it1 we certainly should have done so4 ,for although1 considering all things1 we were not badly off at ,aveiro1 still we should have been much better off at ,messrs4 ,pinto and ,basto's establishment1 and should have been saved the severe fatigue of the last ten miles of our journey4 ,the next day we started for ,oporto1 and passed the thriving little town of ,ovar1 situated at the north end of the ,aveiro lagoon1 but having a separate entrance from the sea1 formed by a small stream passing through the town4 ,our railway passed along the base of the hills1 which was very favourable4 ,from ,ovar we continued near the shore through a forest of pines for several miles2 these pines would furnish excellent sleepers for the railway at a very moderate cost4 ,from the forest we continued along the shore through most favourable ground1 until we reached the entrance of the ,douro3 the distance from ,ovar being about twenty miles4 ,from the entrance of the ,douro there was a favourable line for the railway for two miles along the banks to ,oporto1 where it would have been necessary to cross the river by a rather expensive bridge to reach the chief part of the city4 ,this1 however1 must have been done in any case1 and as all the great wine depts or lodges1 as they are called1 are on the south side1 and as the wine trade of ,oporto is the most important1 this would have been a great advantage2 moreover1 there is on the south side1 near the entrance1 a much better position for docks4 ,between ,ovar and the ,douro stands a rock surrounded by extensive sands4 ,on this rock is a chapel1 reputed to be of peculiar sanctity1 which is annually visited by immense numbers of pilgrims4 ,it is very curious to see the extent to which these devotions are carried1 and the occasionally strange results4 ,in going one day1 on foot1 from ,mattozenhas to ,oporto during one of these festivals1 ,i was surprised to meet a man walking1 or rather shuffling1 along in an extraordinary manner1 in what appeared to me to be a sack4 ,i immediately stopped to look at him1 and gazed on him with astonishment4 ,several persons1 apparently friends1 accompanied him1 and ,i inquired what it meant2 ,i was informed that the person whom ,i saw enveloped in a sack had1 during a severe illness1 prayed to the ,saint of the church of ,mattozenhas to deliver him from his illness1 promising that if he recovered he would annually on the ,saint's fte-day walk to the church in his grave-clothes1 to return his thanks for his delivery from death4 ,the poor fellow seemed to be much fatigued1 and no wonder1 as travelling for two miles in such hot weather over a dusty road in such an uncomfortable costume must have been very severe work4 ,next day we were off before daylight1 and reached our old quarters at ,aveiro the same night4 ,i soon saw that it would be difficult to get a good line for the railway over this district2 it was too hilly and expensive1 and would have required long tunnels through granite rocks and heavy embankments4 ,i therefore gave up this line1 that is as far as ,ovar4 ,after leaving ,aveiro we took a new route nearer to the hills1 and with the exception of a part of the river ,vouga1 it was preferable to the coast line formerly mentioned4 ,the summit near the ,busaco hills was a little higher1 but there the line was shorter1 and on the hill there was plenty of fine limestone fit for bridges and any other works4 ,this line evidently therefore was the best2 ,i ordered it to be minutely surveyed and levelled1 and the result proved that my anticipations were correct4 ,we reached our old quarters at ,coimbra1 and having examined the city again were much more pleased with it than before4 ,the ,university is a very handsome building upon an extensive scale1 with an excellent library1 museum1 extensive lecture rooms1 and a competent establishment of professors and lecturers4 ,the costume of the professors and students1 although totally different from that of our own1 was very appropriate2 and the method of teaching and conferring degrees was extremely good1 although a little too much savouring of sacerdotalism1 but still greatly improved in this respect to what it was only a few years before4 ,the city moreover was comparatively clean1 and there appeared to be a degree of outer tranquillity and prosperity about it which pleased me much4 ,i have seen many foreign universities1 but none delighted me more than ,coimbra4 ,after leaving ,coimbra we passed through ,thomar and reached the valley of the ,tagus2 this we descended until we arrived at ,santarem1 which is but an inconsiderable place2 it is situated on the highest point of the ridge1 and bounded by precipitous rocks which abut on the ,tagus1 there being a small valley on the north1 also on the east and west4 ,being thus isolated1 it occupies an admirable position as a fortress1 and might easily be made impregnable2 commanding1 as it does1 the country all around1 if it were properly defended1 the approach of an enemy would be extremely difficult2 and if fortified according to modern ideas1 with a sufficient garrison and provisions1 it might hold its own against all comers for almost any length of time2 in fact1 it may be considered as one of the keys of the kingdom4 ,when ,i saw it1 its works were in a very unfinished and dilapidated state4 ,from ,santarem we proceeded down the river to a small place termed the ,white ,house1 where we embarked on board the steamer for ,lisbon4 ,the hills on either side of the ,tagus alternately advance and recede2 but the whole scenery is very rich1 the soil being highly cultivated to the very tops of the hills1 and in places abounding with cattle4 ,in the flat country1 however1 bordering on the river1 malaria and intermittent fever are very common1 and indeed the whole course of the ,tagus requires regulating4 ,we reached the ,braganza at ,lisbon in the evening1 after a rough but satisfactory journey4 ,mr4 ,giles was now anxious to go to ,england1 and a few days after our arrival he sent in a general proposal to the ,government1 on the part of ,peto and ,betts1 for making railways1 and then started in the packet for ,england1 leaving his assistant1 ,mr4 ,o',neil1 with me1 to make any further necessary explanations4 ,the season was getting late1 and we had no time to lose1 for it was now nearly the middle of ,october4 ,i saw ,m4 ,fontes several times1 and he always received me very civilly1 and said that he was determined to meet ,messrs4 ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co41 fairly4 ,mr4 ,o',neil and myself then started to survey the country for lines suitable for railways in the east and south4 ,after being detained for a time by heavy rains at the ,white ,house1 we reached ,salvatierra1 a wretched place on the left bank of the ,tagus1 about seven o'clock in the evening1 fully two hours after dark2 it was a nasty pestilential hole1 close by the marshes2 however1 bad as it was1 we were very glad to get there4 ,there was no inn in the place1 but after a little inquiry we found a shopkeeper who was willing1 for a consideration1 to accommodate us4 ,we accordingly agreed with him1 and took possession2 we found the rooms full of corn1 beans1 c41 which we soon cleared out1 swept the floors1 walls1 and ceiling as well as we could1 and unpacked our things4 ,i sent out my man for some provisions1 we got a good wood fire lighted1 and after about an hour and a half had a tolerable supper1 turned into bed1 and slept soundly until the morning4 ,in fact1 ,i never grumbled2 ,i took the people as ,i found them2 they were generally very civil1 and did everything in their power to make us as comfortable as possible4 ,i always carried plenty of cigarettes and cigars1 and distributed them liberally1 not only to the men attending the horses1 but also to the people in the house and to any casual visitors that might come in2 as ,i had by this time acquired some knowledge of the ,portuguese language1 ,i made myself as agreeable as possible1 and in consequence every one did the best they could to help me4 ,the ,portuguese are a very civil1 quiet people1 and if you only treat them properly1 as ,i always did1 they will do everything they can to accommodate you4 ,i of course also took good care of the horses and men1 and they were so much pleased that they never grumbled1 and would do anything ,i required4 ,throughout the whole of my journeys ,i never had a single squabble2 we all went on merrily together1 and whenever ,i could get a good laugh ,i always did1 and this was not seldom4 ,we left ,salvatierra at daylight1 and proceeded over a gently undulating country1 and in three days reached the old fortress of ,estremoz4 ,the people of the district through which we were now travelling were extremely primitive1 and in one large village1 where we halted1 as usual1 at midday1 the whole population1 it being ,sunday1 turned out to have a look at us4 ,the country here is elevated and very well cultivated4 ,the olive-trees are planted in regular rows1 and carefully attended to1 a thing ,i had not before observed in ,portugal1 as they are generally in forests1 and left entirely to nature4 ,the vines also were more looked after1 and some excellent wine is made here4 ,upon the whole this was certainly a thriving district4 ,we took a ride to the ridge of mountains about ten miles to the south1 which1 extending east and west1 separates this district from the southern part of the ,alentejo4 ,they are covered with verdure to the top1 afford excellent pasture for sheep and cattle1 and form a very picturesque prospect4 ,estremoz is in a commanding position1 but its fortifications were in a dilapidated state4 ,after having spent a day here1 we proceeded over an elevated1 fertile1 cultivated country1 to ,elvas1 on the frontier4 ,the ,government had been employed for some time past in making a good road here1 and a considerable portion had been finished1 so that we made tolerable progress1 and reached ,elvas soon after midday1 and found a very clean1 comfortable little hotel4 ,elvas is a very strong fortress1 situated upon the summit of the ridge of hills forming the western boundary of the valley of the ,guadiana1 which winds through the extensive valley below1 about seven miles distant1 and the boundary or frontier line between ,spain and ,portugal is about half way between ,elvas and the ,guadiana4 ,the fortifications are very extensive1 and upon the whole well laid out and tolerably well kept up4 ,there are several large outworks1 particularly that on a hill about a mile to the north1 which may be said to be the citadel4 ,it commands the town1 being situated upon the highest part of the ridge4 ,the view from this is very extensive1 overlooking the dreary and bare valley of the ,guadiana1 with ,badajoz1 the ,spanish frontier fortress1 about nine miles distant2 and farther on the bare bleak hills of ,estramadura bound the horizon4 ,on the west you have a fine view of this part of ,portugal1 whilst north and south you command the view of this elevated ridge1 which bounds the ,guadiana as far as the eye can reach4 ,having explored this part of the country1 and having satisfied ourselves that it would be difficult to get a good line here1 we turned our attention to the southward1 and again leaving ,estremoz1 reached the poor but considerable village of ,oana1 not many miles from the frontier4 ,i therefore determined to stop there for the night1 and to my surprise found that there were two or three small inns4 ,i selected the best1 and bad was the best4 ,i was informed that ,oana was the resort of the worst characters of all sorts1 both ,portuguese and ,spaniards1 who made this their head quarters1 from whence they could easily cross the frontier of either country1 according as either ,spain or ,portugal became too hot for them4 ,i was told that we ought to be upon our guard1 for it was not improbable that we might be attacked in the night1 or waylaid on our route the next day1 for the country through which we should have to pass was very wild and lonely4 ,therefore1 as is always the case1 ,i thought the best plan would be to put a good face upon it1 and to show that we had no fear1 put confidence in the people around us1 and make them friends4 ,i therefore invited as many as ,i could get1 men and women1 to a sort of ball1 inquired for some musicians1 and found half-a-dozen with guitars1 castanettes1 and tambourines1 and as the inn where we were would not hold all the guests1 ,i engaged the other two inns also4 ,the whole population crowded to the balls at these inns1 and ,i visited them alternately1 danced with the women1 and made myself as agreeable as ,i could4 ,wine and refreshments were not wanting1 everything passed off in the best manner1 and nothing but mirth and good humour prevailed4 ,soon after midnight ,i had had enough of it1 and the guests below1 excited by wine1 became very noisy4 ,i told my servants1 guide1 and horse-keepers to have everything ready by four o'clock on the following morning1 the horses saddled and the baggage packed1 outside the town1 and having previously paid the reckoning1 we quietly departed1 without beat of drum1 leaving our delighted guests in the midst of their revelry1 and in no disposition to follow us4 ,by daylight we had travelled five or six miles without encountering any person on the way--for road there was none4 ,we laughed heartily at our adventure1 and ,i was afterwards congratulated at having succeeded so well1 for we had had a narrow escape of being robbed1 and probably something worse4 ,we passed through a wild but not unpicturesque country1 and reached ,abrantes1 on the ,tagus1 without further adventure1 on the afternoon of the second day4 ,this is one of the most considerable fortresses in the kingdom1 situated in a commanding position of great strength2 but the works were very much neglected1 and there was scarcely any garrison4 ,the town itself is a poor place4 ,as regards the country through which we had passed being adapted for a railway1 there was no doubt that a good line could be made through it1 although at considerable expense2 the difficulty was how to cross the main ridge which separated the valley of the ,guadiana from that of the ,tagus4 ,it certainly was most desirable to connect ,abrantes with ,elvas1 but the descent from it to the ,guadiana valley was too rapid2 still1 this was only a matter of expense4 ,i thought that some more practicable gap through the ridge might be found farther southward1 but this ,i was obliged to leave for future investigation4 ,i now determined to proceed northwards1 in order to ascertain whether a line for a railway could be obtained preferable to that which we had previously examined when returning from ,coimbra4 ,having slept at our old quarters at ,thomar1 we proceeded to the banks of the ,zezere1 which we found to be extremely lofty and falling rapidly to the river4 ,we proceeded for some miles along them1 but the higher we went up the river1 the higher we found the hills2 in fact1 there was no valley except that occupied by the river1 so that we had to give up all hopes of a line in that direction4 ,however1 in the course of a few days' explorations we were fortunate enough to find an easily practicable line for the northern railway1 in the direction of ,oporto4 ,in one of these expeditions we met a ,portuguese gentleman dressed in the native costume1 and attended by his servant4 ,he courteously saluted us in good ,english1 and then asked where we were going1 and what we were doing1 which1 of course1 we told2 he then asked1 8,where do you sleep to-night80 and when we told him1 he said1 8,nonsense2 you cannot and you shall not sleep there3 it is not fit for a dog0 7in which he was not far wrong74 8,i live close by4 ,yon must come and sleep at my house1 and leave as early as you like to-morrow morning40 ,we gladly accepted his invitation4 ,we returned to the cottage1 dressed ourselves in rather better costume1 while our new friend rode forward to receive us4 ,his house was something like a good farm1 surrounded by a courtyard and farm-buildings1 situated in the midst of a kind of rough park4 ,the night was very dark1 and we had some difficulty in making our way through the woods1 and if it had not been for the barking of the dogs1 we should scarcely have found it4 ,however1 we got there1 and were most cordially received1 shown into a comfortable room with a blazing wood fire1 and in about half an hour after sat down to an excellent supper1 with plenty of good wine4 ,our host was a most excellent and well-informed man of about sixty1 of the middle size1 rather stout and well-made1 with a fine open countenance4 ,his name was ,don ,s4 de ,silva4 ,he had served in the ,portuguese army under the ,duke of ,wellington1 and had been engaged in several battles with the ,french1 of which he was very proud4 ,he took the greatest interest in the railways1 offered every assistance in his power1 and insisted upon our making his house our home whenever we came that way4 ,he said that after the war he had retired to his estate1 and devoted the whole of his time to farming1 and that he passed a very active1 pleasant time4 ,i think he said that his wife and family were at ,lisbon1 where they frequently went1 as they had many friends and connections there4 ,we were shown into a comfortable and clean double-bedded room1 and the only thing we required to make us thoroughly comfortable was more blankets1 for the night was excessively cold4 ,however1 ,i slept soundly1 and awoke next morning thoroughly refreshed4 ,we had an excellent breakfast1 and took leave of our worthy host with many thanks for his most hospitable entertainment4 ,we reached ,thomar about midday1 having travelled over a rather better road than usual4 ,here we halted at the ,old ,inn for a couple of hours1 and then made the best of our way over the old road to ,basquenha1 before mentioned1 where we slept4 ,the next day we hurried on by ,santarem1 caught the tugboat and the steamer at the ,white ,house1 and reached the ,braganza1 ,lisbon1 the same evening1 having been absent about eighteen days2 fortunately1 with the exception of the first day1 we had tolerably fine weather1 without which we should have had a good deal of difficulty in making such a rough journey4 ,i forgot to mention that while ,mr4 ,giles and myself went to ,coimbra and ,oporto1 we sent ,mr4 ,o',neil to explore the line of the ,tagus beyond ,abrantes as far as the frontier1 in order to ascertain whether there was any practicable line for a railway in that direction4 ,mr4 ,o',neil1 however1 gave a very unfavourable account of it1 for a few miles beyond ,abrantes the ,tagus passes through a deep chasm1 hemmed in on both sides with steep1 precipitous granite rocks1 swarming with eagles1 and wild and desolate to a degree4 ,there were scarcely any inhabitants save a few shepherds1 clad in goat-skins1 who lived in small cottages stuck in the clefts of the rocks1 or built upon some small patches of ground close by the margin of the river1 with a few vegetables and fruits growing round them4 ,they were thoroughly surprised at seeing ,mr4 ,o',neil2 they said they were never visited by strangers1 and could not conceive why he had come there4 ,nevertheless1 they were civil1 and gave him freely the best they had1 which was very little indeed1 and would scarcely take anything in return2 when pressed1 they said they would keep the money for his sake1 or would buy something in remembrance of him4 ,the eagles appeared quite at home there1 and were seldom molested1 except when they had carried off some favourite pet-lamb or kid1 or had paid a visit to the poultry4 ,mr4 ,o',neil's report was so unfavourable that we did not think it advisable to pursue our investigations farther in that direction4 ,we had now pretty well explored the country between the ,tagus and the ,douro for the north1 and the ,tagus and the ,guadiana for the east line to connect ,portugal with ,spain1 and it only required that these should be investigated to ascertain which was best4 ,upon my arrival at ,lisbon1 ,i called upon ,m4 ,fontes1 and reported what ,i had done4 ,we had also a good deal of conversation about their finances2 arranging affairs with ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co42 getting good contractors for making further lines2 raising a loan in ,england1 c4 ,i said with all deference that the whole of these things might be satisfactorily settled2 but that the first and most important of all was to arrange matters with the ,stock ,exchange in ,england1 for until this was done a loan could not be obtained 7and the ,government was much in want of money7 without paying very high interest1 which would soon consume the revenues of the country4 ,for example1 their stock of #ej was only nominally quoted at #ah to #bj1 for which they paid #cl4 interest1 or #ae per cent42 whereas1 if they settled with the ,stock ,exchange1 their funds would at once rise to #dj or upwards1 and thus they might borrow at #g per cent4 ,i further ventured to hint that by free trade--that is1 lowering their import duties--the revenue would be much benefited1 and that their exports would be increased in the same ratio4 ,m4 ,fontes listened with much attention1 but said nothing4 ,having finished my business1 ,i prepared to return to ,england1 and was told by ,m4 ,fontes that ,i should have an audience of the ,king4 ,i accordingly presented myself1 and had an audience of his ,majesty ,dom ,pedro1 who was an exceedingly well-informed1 sensible young man1 of about twenty-one1 and whose sole object and desire was the advancement and improvement of his country1 to which he devoted himself day and night4 ,he was exceedingly amiable and modest1 and much beloved and respected1 not only by his own subjects1 but by every person who had the honour of being presented to him4 ,his ,majesty received me in the most condescending manner1 entered into the subject of railways1 the great advantage they would be to ,portugal1 the making of common roads to join them1 the benefit of free trade1 and the necessity of improving agriculture and extending the cultivation of vines1 olives1 corn1 fruits1 and all native produce1 as well as the improvement of the harbours1 and everything else which would advance the prosperity of the country4 ,he had studied all these subjects thoroughly1 and was perfectly at home in them2 and with regard to the finances1 he quite agreed with me4 ,i took my leave of his ,majesty1 and he shook me by the hand1 and bade me farewell1 trusting that he should soon see me again4 ,i then called upon the ,duke de ,saldanha1 the ,president of the ,cabinet and ,commander-in-,chief of the ,army1 a very estimable man1 who spoke ,english very well2 he had served under the ,duke of ,wellington during the great ,peninsular war4 ,he spoke ,english perfectly1 and was very popular amongst his countrymen1 and always happy to see the ,english4 ,when ,i told him that ,i was about to leave the next day for ,england1 he said that he was very glad to hear it4 ,he further remarked that a ,cabinet ,council had been held the day before1 and that ,i should hear more of it before the day was over4 ,i returned to the ,braganza1 packed up my things1 and was ready to leave by the packet the next day4 ,at nine o'clock the same evening ,i received a message from ,m4 ,fontes to come to him at his office4 ,i went there immediately1 and he said he had been ordered to proceed to ,england with me1 to endeavour to settle the matter in dispute between his ,government and the ,english ,stock ,exchange1 and the quarrel with the railway contractors4 ,we started together next morning1 and on arriving in ,london ,i had the pleasure of being partly instrumental in bringing about an arrangement between the principal holders of ,portuguese stock in ,england and the ,portuguese ,government1 to their mutual satisfaction and advantage2 also an arrangement between the ,portuguese and ,messrs4 ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co41 which1 as we shall see1 was not subsequently ratified4 ,m4 ,fontes returned to ,portugal with considerable clat1 having re-established the credit of ,portugal with their ,english stockholders1 and settled the railway difficulty1 and it was thought that he and his ministry had a long and prosperous career before them4 ,unfortunately1 however1 this turned out quite the contrary2 whether it was envy at his success1 or some other political cause1 ,i do not know1 but in the spring of the following year1 #ahef1 ,fontes and his ministry were obliged to resign1 and the ,marquis de ,loul1 a connection of the royal family1 succeeded him4 ,the ,marquis de ,loul was a remarkably fine1 handsome man1 a thorough gentleman1 with considerable talents1 of imperturbable temper and great good humour2 ,i know no man with whom he might better be compared than the late ,lord ,palmerston4 ,loul1 like ,fontes1 was equally desirous of completing the railway system of ,portugal4 ,i continued the surveys for a line between ,coimbra and ,oporto1 and when they were completed ,i received a tender from ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts1 saying they would execute the line for #aj1jjjl4 per mile1 without the land4 ,as his ,royal ,highness the ,prince ,consort took considerable interest in the improvement of ,portugal1 and as ,i had heard indirectly that information respecting the progress of the railways would be gratifying to him1 ,i communicated with his ,royal ,highness's secretary1 and received a command to go to ,windsor4 ,i went1 and was received in the most affable manner4 ,the ,prince was thoroughly acquainted with everything going on in ,portugal1 and took great interest in the construction of railways in that country4 ,he thanked me for the information ,i had communicated1 and wished me every success4 ,towards the end of ,august all the plans1 estimates1 and specifications of the line between ,coimbra and ,oporto were completed1 and in the month of ,september ,i went over and presented them in person4 ,i was very kindly received by his ,majesty and by his ministers4 ,when ,i arrived1 ,i found that ,m4 de ,soveral1 the very clever ,chief ,secretary of the ,portuguese ,embassy in ,london1 was home on leave4 ,he also took the warmest interest in the establishment of railways4 ,the dispute with ,messrs4 ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co4 had not yet been settled1 and consequently no new arrangement could be made4 ,i had frequent meetings with the ,marquis de ,loul and ,m4 de ,soveral on the subject1 and fully explained to them that it would be impossible to get any ,english contractors of influence to form a new and powerful company of ,english capitalists to make railways in ,portugal1 unless this matter could be honourably adjusted2 and ,i added that ,i thought the terms agreed upon with ,m4 ,fontes were1 upon the whole1 the best that could be adopted4 ,the ,marquis listened with much attention to all my arguments1 and finally gave me instructions to see ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts and their friends1 upon my return to ,england1 in order to ascertain upon what terms they would be willing to form a new company to complete the ,northern ,railway to ,oporto2 and ,i was to inform him of the result1 but not to commit the ,government in any way4 ,he requested me1 before ,i left ,portugal1 to examine the port of ,setubal1 or1 as the ,english call it1 ,st4 ,ubes1 a little to the south of ,lisbon4 ,i accordingly proceeded to reconnoitre the port1 and found that it was formed by a river which ran a considerable distance into the interior4 ,st4 ,ubes was situated on the right bank of it1 about four miles from the bar1 but the river here was so wide and shallow that it was only an estuary4 ,the opposite side being covered at high water1 the returning ebb and flood waters were expanded over such a wide space that the current had not sufficient force to maintain a good channel1 nor did it act upon the bar powerfully enough to maintain a good passage over it4 ,moreover1 the estuary was exposed to the full effect of the south-westerly gales1 which1 sweeping across the ,atlantic with great violence1 send a very heavy swell across the bar1 rendering it extremely dangerous to approach1 and driving a great quantity of sand into the mouth of the river2 this would materially reduce the depth1 and render the navigation both dangerous and difficult2 and there was too little fresh water coming down to be of much service in assisting the operation of the tide4 ,i soon saw what was necessary to be done to remedy to a great extent1 if not entirely to remove1 these evils2 this was confine the channel on the opposite or sea side by a low line of wicker or fascine work1 in the first instance to the level of a little above half tide1 and then to raise it as required2 the sand would soon accumulate behind it1 and thus the tidal and fresh waters1 being always confined to the same channel1 would greatly improve it1 and considerably lower the bar4 ,i also thought the channel for some distance above the town should be deepened1 embanked1 and improved by dredging1 and that below the town to the bar the channel should be dredged also to assist the operation of the current4 ,i embodied these observations in a plan and report on my return to ,lisbon1 and delivered them to the ,marquis1 with which he was much satisfied4 ,i now prepared to return to ,england1 in company with my friend de ,soveral2 but as the latter was desirous of breaking his voyage at ,oporto1 for the purpose of ascending the ,douro and visiting his estates1 ,i agreed to accompany him4 ,we reached ,pescoa de ,ragosa1 a very important place in this district1 being the centre of the port wine trade4 ,here is held the market where all the port wine growers assemble at the end of the vintage1 and here come all the wine merchants from ,oporto1 and make their purchases for the season4 ,the veritable port wine district is a very remarkable country4 ,it is situated on the banks of the ,douro1 which are here composed of lofty1 undulating hills1 clothed with rich soil1 rising rapidly from the river1 about forty miles above ,oporto1 where the granite formation1 on which no vines will grow1 ceases4 ,the district consists of the transition rocks above the granite2 it extends about forty miles1 as far as the cataracts of ,st4 ,joao de ,pesqueira and is about five or six miles wide1 including both sides of the valley of the ,douro2 one side is exposed to the morning and the other to the evening sun1 and the reflected rays make the valley like an oven during the summer months1 so that no place could be more advantageously situated for the development of the vine4 ,no trees are allowed to grow upon the hillsides4 ,the vines are like so many gooseberry or currant bushes1 and they are cut down almost to the roots so that the nutriment applied to the plant may be developed in producing the fruit to the greatest possible extent4 ,the vines are planted in rows1 and the intervening space is carefully weeded1 so that the whole power of the sun is concentrated upon the vines2 and it is wonderful to see the quantity of fruit borne compared to the extent of branches and leaves4 ,when the vintage has been made1 there are a certain number of tasters who are appointed by the ,government4 ,these men1 who neither smoke1 snuff1 or drink1 then examine the wine1 which they do by a saucer1 much indented in the bottom1 of pure silver1 which enables them to judge of the colour2 then they smell it1 and taste it by the touch of the tongue without drinking any4 ,by these three tests they pronounce the quality of the vintage1 and this1 combined with the quantity1 determines the price4 ,it is said that the wine is prepared according to a certain standard for the ,english market2 that is1 the wine is made to resemble as near as possible a vintage that has pleased the ,english1 who are the great consumers of port wine2 this is done either by mixing some old approved wine with the new1 or adding brandy4 ,there has been a great deal of argument and doubt about adulteration4 ,i will not take upon myself to decide1 but ,i will say this1 that a good vintage of port wine requires no doctoring4 ,at ,ragosa1 after the vintage1 all the great wine merchants of ,oporto assemble1 and there make their purchases for the ensuing season4 ,all transactions are made in cash1 for the wine growers are very important and wealthy personages4 ,the merchants are equally so1 and take their cash with them4 ,i heard an anecdote when there1 which says much for the honesty of the ,portuguese4 ,m4 ,sandeman1 one of the wealthiest and most important wine merchants of ,oporto1 went up to the wine district after the vintage one season1 with his sons and friends--for it is generally made a party of pleasure--to purchase wine for the ensuing season1 and they took #ae1jjjl4 in gold to make their purchases1 the gold being carried in sacks on mules1 the whole party riding1 as usual1 for there were no roads for carriages4 ,the first night1 having arrived at their usual halting-place1 just as they were sitting down to their supper1 old ,sandeman said to his son1 8,george1 ,i hope that you have taken good care of the mules and the money80 8,yes1 father10 said ,george2 8it is all right40 8,well1 ,george10 said old ,sandeman1 8you had better go and see40 ,george immediately went out to the stables1 and after some minutes came back in great consternation1 and said1 8,father1 ,i can't find the mules with the money40 ,at this old ,sandeman got in a great rage1 and said1 8,george1 you shall have no supper until you find them40 ,the whole party got up at the same time1 and took lanterns and torches to look after the lost money and mules4 ,away they went back several miles on the road they had come1 and there they found the mules1 which had slipped their halters1 quietly feeding by the roadside1 with the bags of gold untouched4 ,they returned with them to the inn with much satisfaction1 got the mules comfortably installed in their stables1 having previously relieved them of the gold bags1 which they took to their bedrooms4 ,now perhaps in no other country could you have found such an example of honesty as this4 ,it was well known before they started from ,oporto that the ,sandemans were going up to the wine country to purchase wines for the ensuing season2 and as they were the most wealthy merchants of the place1 it was equally well known that they would buy the largest quantity of wine1 and would take the greatest amount of hard cash to pay for it2 therefore1 if the natives wished to make a prize1 here was an excellent opportunity to do so4 ,but quite the contrary1 the natives were honest1 and had not the least idea of robbing1 which they might have done1 if so disposed1 most easily4 ,from this place we proceeded leisurely to ,guimaraens1 one of the ancient capitals of ,portugal4 ,the natives appeared different from any ,i had seen4 ,the better classes were dressed in jackets1 ornamented with large silver buttons1 knee-breeches1 leggings1 and silver-buckled shoes2 having over all a loose1 blue cloth cloak1 and a large1 conical1 broad-brimmed black felt hat4 ,it seemed to be a place wholly sui generis1 and totally separated from the rest of the world4 ,the well-to-do people seemed to have nothing to do but to walk leisurely about conversing with their friends1 and smoking their cigarettes4 ,there was no trade1 no bustle1 nothing1 as it were1 moving2 it was one of those places where a man disgusted with the world would wish to bury himself4 ,the repose was something surprising to a person accustomed to active life4 ,we found a pretty good inn1 and a convent with a few old nuns1 who were still allowed to live there1 and who employed themselves in preserving in a particular manner a very fine sort of plum that grows in the neighbourhood4 ,they fetch a high price in all ,european markets2 ,i bought a few to take to ,england4 ,there is a splendid old ,moorish castle outside the town1 which1 although in ruins1 was not in a very bad state4 ,upon the whole ,i was much pleased with the place1 so totally different from anything ,i had seen either in ,portugal or ,spain4 ,i should have liked much to have spent several days there1 but the inexorable time would not permit2 we therefore set out the next day for ,braga1 and passing through the beautiful environs1 which are a perfect garden1 we continued our way through a well-cultivated and picturesque country1 and reached ,braga soon after midday4 ,braga1 also one of the ancient capitals of ,portugal1 is a handsome town1 more modern than ,guimaraens1 also much more lively1 and surrounded by a rich1 fertile1 picturesque country4 ,it is well built1 with handsome streets1 and squares upon a moderate scale1 with an appearance of quiet imposing dignity4 ,it is the residence of many old families1 who seem to enjoy their otium cum dignitate1 and to be wholly independent of the world4 ,they appeared to be above the grovelling pursuits of trade1 for there was certainly little appearance of business about1 yet withal we could not help admiring its clean1 comfortable1 well-to-do appearance4 ,from here we proceeded over a tolerable road towards ,viana1 the sea being about a mile distant2 and the intervening space1 composed of rich alluvial soil1 was well cultivated4 ,we passed several granite crosses1 erected near the village churches1 one of which was extremely elegant1 beautifully worked in a species of ,corinthian style4 ,i never saw granite so elaborately worked as in this part of ,portugal1 namely1 the district between the ,douro and the ,minho2 in fact1 they have no other stone but granite1 and no other people work it so well2 but then the natives are the most docile and industrious in ,portugal4 ,they are never idle2 constantly at work1 either abroad or at home1 and saving money4 ,large numbers emigrate to the ,brazils1 where by their energy and industry they may acquire ample fortunes1 and return home to their native country1 where they buy an estate1 build a handsome house1 and spend the remainder of their lives in tranquillity and enjoyment4 ,on reaching ,vigo1 after passing through ,viana1 ,i found that ,i had to wait two days for the steamer4 ,i could not help remarking the superior beauty of the ,spanish as compared with the ,portuguese women1 a thing ,i could not well understand1 as the personal appearance of the men is about the same in both countries1 although the ,spanish peasants are apparently more robust than those of ,portugal4 ,immediately on my return ,i set to work to carry out the instructions of the ,marquis de ,loul1 and endeavoured to obtain powerful contractors and wealthy and influential capitalists who would form a company to undertake the railways in ,portugal4 ,i frequently had communications with ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts1 who with their friends were perfectly ready to come forward to form a company1 provided that ,messrs4 ,shaw1 ,waring1 and ,co4 were satisfactorily settled with4 ,in these negotiations ,m4 de ,soveral was indefatigable1 and of immense service1 as he was perfectly acquainted with the views of his ,government1 and knew what would be acceptable to them1 and what they would not agree to4 ,at last1 towards the latter end of ,december1 certain conditions stating the terms upon which they would form a company and find the capital were drawn up and signed by ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts1 and seven other well-known capitalists1 and were submitted to the ,portuguese ,embassy1 to be transmitted to the ,government for their approval4 ,towards the end of ,january1 #aheg1 they answered that they generally approved of the conditions proposed1 with one or two exceptions1 which ,peto1 ,betts1 and ,co4 agreed to alter4 ,the ,government then sent an official letter to ,count ,lavradio1 ,ambassador in ,london1 requesting that ,sir ,moreton ,peto and myself would come out to ,lisbon immediately1 to finally conclude the arrangements1 in order that a ,bill might be prepared without delay to be laid before the ,portuguese parliament4 ,in ,march1 #aheg1 ,i accordingly proceeded to ,lisbon4 ,it is not my intention to enter into the unfortunate disputes between ,peto and ,co4 and the ,portuguese ,government--disputes which terminated in the abandonment of what would have been for ,portugal a great national work4 ,doubtless1 as in all these cases1 there were faults on both sides2 and ,i believe that one of the main causes of the failure1 on behalf of ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts1 to carry out the works1 was that their resources were swallowed up by a great variety of speculations1 some of which1 as we have seen1 did not in the long run turn out very profitable1 and they were really unable to undertake them4 ,i will proceed to relate briefly the only other occasion on which ,i was connected with that firm4 ,but first ,i may mention that ,i completed my work on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours' 7which had occupied what little leisure ,i could command during some years7 in #ahed1 having previously1 in #ahdg1 published a monograph on ,plymouth ,breakwater4 ,i may also add1 that conjunction with the late ,mr4 ,john ,plews1 ,i constructed a considerable extension of the ,cardiff ,docks for the trustees of the ,marquis of ,bute2 as it is fully described in the above work1 ,i need not here further refer to it4 ,in the early part of #ahei ,i was asked to proceed to ,tunis1 in company with one of ,messrs4 ,peto and ,betts' agents1 to examine into the feasibility of constructing a railway from the ,goletta to the city4 ,i accordingly started in ,march1 and having embarked on board a ,french steam-packet1 reached ,tunis after a four or five days' passage1 including a stoppage1 for some unexplained reason1 of two days at ,philippeville4 ,the view of the ,bay of ,tunis cannot be compared in picturesque effect with that of ,bona1 which we had just left2 still there is something wild and striking about it4 ,on the east the bay is bounded by a lofty ridge of bare irregular hills1 with a narrow strip of level marshy land bordering the bay4 ,on the west it is bounded by the celebrated peninsula of ,carthage4 ,in front1 to the south1 there is the ,goletta1 or channel to the ,lagoon1 surrounded by the custom house and a small town1 and beyond is the ,lagoon1 extending about six miles1 at the farther end of which is the city of ,tunis1 seated upon a gentle eminence1 bristling with minarets1 and a lofty chain of hills in the background1 the whole having a wild1 uncultivated appearance1 so that at first sight you were puzzled to conceive whence supplies could be obtained for feeding the metropolis of the kingdom4 ,we got clear of the ,turkish customs after a good deal of delay1 not from any fastidiousness of the officials1 for they were easy and good-natured enough to let anything pass1 but from the confused and blundering manner in which all business is transacted4 ,everything was then bundled into a large boat1 which was also laden with merchandise of all kinds1 as much as it would hold4 ,we then entered1 along with a ,colonel ,west1 who had come out upon a shooting excursion1 and set sail for the capital across the ,lagoon1 which was about six miles long and four or five miles wide4 ,the channel was nearly in the centre1 and had five or six feet of water4 ,we passed numerous flocks of wild geese1 ducks1 cranes1 and flamingoes1 disporting themselves in the water4 ,we reached the landing quay of ,tunis1 outside the walls1 about two or three in the afternoon1 and immediately proceeded to the only hotel in the place1 kept by a ,frenchman1 and1 upon the whole1 it was very clean and comfortable2 but before we could get to it we had to wade through a sea of filthy mud in a narrow lane that was scarcely #ab feet wide1 bounded by the city wall on the one side1 and a row of miserable buildings on the other1 showing little more than bare walls1 the windows looking into small courts on the inside1 which were approached by solid well-barred gateways4 ,it was nearly dark before we got installed in our new domicile1 and then we dined at not a bad table d'hte in the ,french fashion1 passed the evening agreeably1 and went to bed early1 rather tired after the kind of knocking about we had had during the day4 ,fortunately the weather was fine after the great quantity of rain which had lately fallen4 ,the next day was fine also1 and after an early breakfast we got a carriage with a couple of horses1 and drove along the west side of the ,lagoon to the ,goletta in order to select the line for the railway2 nothing could be more favourable1 the country being--to use a homely phrase--as flat as a pancake1 and therefore required no particular exercise of the engineer's art4 ,having so far completed our investigation we adjourned to the examination of the ruins of ,carthage1 of which scarcely anything remains1 except the cisterns for supplying the city with water1 which are of massive masonry1 the walls being lined on the inside with a thick coat of stucco1 which was glazed1 and presented an excellent1 smooth surface4 ,these cisterns were covered with arches1 so that the water was preserved from the action of the sun1 and was thus always kept cool and in the best state for use4 ,the water was brought1 by means of an aqueduct1 from a fine and plentiful spring close by the mountain of ,kegouan1 about #dj miles distant1 and was carried with the requisite inclination by means of tunnels pierced through the hills1 and extensive lines of arched aqueducts across the intervening valleys1 some of these aqueducts being above #fj feet high1 and the total length of the tunnels several miles2 in fact1 the whole aqueduct was a series of tunnels and bridges about #dj miles long1 and is certainly a most extraordinary work1 not to be surpassed by anything of the kind in existence at the present day4 ,the conduit for the water was about #b feet #f inches wide and #c feet deep4 ,in this single example we have nearly all the improvements of modern times1 namely1 excellent water1 an ample supply1 and covered storing reservoirs4 ,the water required no filtering1 but it has not been ascertained whether it was distributed to each house2 probably not2 most likely it was delivered to the fountains1 where the natives sent for it4 ,as baths are known to have existed at ,carthage1 it is probable that the water was supplied direct to them as well as to the houses of the more wealthy citizens and to the palaces4 ,iron pipes were not then known1 and consequently they were obliged to carry the water on aqueducts1 otherwise they had no mean of resisting the hydraulic pressure4 ,besides these cisterns1 one cannot make out distinctly any other remarkable buildings2 but there are plenty of remains of foundations of walls1 some of them of masonry and some of them of brickwork1 showing great solidity2 there are also great quantities of pottery and fragments of marble sculpture lying about4 ,as to the celebrated arsenals and docks1 it is still more difficult to point out satisfactorily their extent1 form1 and position2 but from the accounts we find in ancient writers1 and from the well-known recorded fact that the ,carthaginians were a great commercial as well as warlike nation1 it is evident that they must have possessed the means of building1 sheltering1 and repairing both classes of vessels1 those for commerce and those for war4 ,these docks and arsenals must have been on the sea-shore2 the peninsula is composed of comparatively high land1 and they could not have built them anywhere else1 for the low lands which border the peninsula on the south side were not1 so far as we can learn1 included within the walls of the city1 and it was not likely that they would have left such important establishments as these1 upon which in a great measure their power depended1 unprotected4 ,i repeat1 therefore1 and ,i believe it is confirmed by most authorities1 ancient as well as modern1 that these docks and arsenals were on the sea-shore2 and as they would not have built them on the northern side of the peninsula1 which is so much exposed to the strong northerly gales1 they must have placed them on the eastern shore1 which is tolerably well protected by the opposite sides of the bay4 ,indeed1 ,i walked round the northern shores of the peninsula and carefully examined them1 and could find no traces of any works having been executed there2 but upon the eastern shore ,i could discover traces of considerable works4 ,the ships of those days were comparatively small and drew but little water1 and by running out moles or breakwaters of loose stone into the sea1 a sufficient space might have been enclosed to answer the required purposes4 ,we know that the ancestors of the ,carthaginians did this to a great extent at ,tyre1 and we can have no reason to doubt that they adopted the same system at ,carthage4 ,this is a question still open to discussion2 but ,i think1 after what has been stated1 that the arguments are in favour of the eastern shore2 and until more decisive remains have been found elsewhere1 ,i must adhere to my conclusion1 for we must not forget that this is the weather shore1 where all such works should be carried out1 so as to afford the greatest facility for egress and ingress4 ,as the ,bey was not then in ,tunis1 ,i determined to make use of the interval by going to see the remains of the ancient city of ,utica1 about twenty miles distant1 west-north-west4 ,my two companions were not very well1 and therefore thought that they had better remain at ,tunis1 in case anything connected with our business should occur2 so ,i determined to go alone1 as ,i was told that ,i should meet with no difficulty1 for the country was perfectly safe4 ,i accordingly hired a carriage with three excellent horses1 and engaged a clever ,frank servant1 an ,italian1 half ,jew1 half ,mohammedan1 who had lived many years in ,tunis1 and besides ,english1 ,french1 and ,italian1 spoke the ,arabic very well also4 ,he was a clean fellow1 and was well recommended by our vice-consul4 ,being told that ,i should find nothing on the way1 ,i took a good provision basket and plenty of cloaks4 ,we started soon after noon over a wretched road1 or rather open track made by the peasants' carts1 and as the weather had been very wet the wheels of the carriage were frequently half-way up to the axles in mud4 ,the country through which we passed was wild and lonely in the extreme1 not a creature to be seen4 ,after having driven about eight or ten miles we came to a kind of village1 or cluster of about half-a-dozen mud huts whitewashed1 where there was a sort of caf of the roughest kind1 and close by it there was a sort of chteau belonging to some aga or district chief1 surrounded by trees and a rude wall1 the whole having a most solitary and gloomy appearance4 ,there we halted about half an hour to refresh the horses1 which were tired enough1 and at length we reached the caravanserai1 a solitary building two stories high1 surrounded by a high mud wall4 ,it would be difficult to conceive a wilder or more desolate spot4 ,in front was an extensive marsh1 half covered with water1 through which the river pursued its devious course1 the banks being covered with rushes2 at the back lay the dreary country through which we had passed2 to the right the marshy plain extended to the sea1 some #aj miles distant1 and to the left it stretched as far as the eye could reach1 bounded by blue hills of considerable elevation4 ,there was not a soul in the house but the kangh or master1 and another man and a boy4 ,he welcomed me1 however1 very civilly1 and showed me to the upper floor by an outside staircase2 here ,i found two rooms with bare walls1 brick floor1 a trestle for a mattress1 a wooden table1 and a couple of rude chairs2 to my great delight there was a chimney-place1 in which ,i soon lighted a wood fire4 ,the kangh brought up a couple of tolerably clean mattresses1 two oil lamps1 and some bread1 and water1 which was all he had4 ,this1 however1 was of no consequence1 as ,i had come provided1 and after a good supper1 in spite of the loneliness of the place ,i slept soundly4 ,as there1 was no road any farther1 it was necessary to provide horses to go to ,utica the next day1 which the kangh said he would do4 ,at daybreak we mounted1 and were just about starting when we were joined by an aga1 a fine handsome fellow1 exceedingly well mounted4 ,he was accompanied by two or three servants1 also well mounted and armed4 ,the aga saluted me very courteously1 and said he was proud to see ,englishmen1 and that if ,i was fond of sporting he would be most happy to see me at his castle1 and would show me some capital sport1 wild boars1 deer1 partridges1 quail1 c42 for this kind invitation ,i thanked him1 but was obliged to decline on account of want of time4 ,we rode together along the marshy plain1 our horses at times being up to their knees in water1 and crossed the river by a rough stone bridge1 immediately beyond which we reached the high land which bounds the river on the west4 ,here we parted in the most courteous manner1 and ,i continued along the left bank for two or three miles farther1 when ,i reached the ruins of ,utica1 situated at the foot of the hills1 at a height of about #cj feet above the level of the bottom of the valley1 and about a mile distant from the left bank of the river1 and #e miles from the sea-shore1 with nothing but a dreary flat marsh intervening4 ,utica was originally seated on the sea-shore1 and was a port of considerable importance2 the marshes that now exist have been gradually formed during the lapse of centuries2 and in this there is nothing remarkable1 as there are many similar examples1 even to a much greater extent1 at the mouths of rivers in different parts of the world4 ,of the city nothing now remains but portions of the broken down walls1 a square tower near the middle1 and some remains of foundations scattered about4 ,nothing could be more desolate and solitary than the whole scene1 which afforded a most striking contrast to its former magnificence2 and reflecting upon its ancient compared with its present state1 one could not help remarking1 8,alas1 poor human nature60 ,on my return from ,utica ,i found that ,his ,highness the ,bey had consented to receive us at his palace1 distant about #ab miles from ,tunis1 on the following day at eleven o'clock4 ,we accordingly started off about eight o'clock1 and got there in good time1 and were presented to the ,bey--who was seated in great state and surrounded by his officers--by our consul1 ,mr4 ,wood1 and were most graciously received4 ,the ,bey was about fifty-five1 of the middle size1 rather stout1 with an open1 frank1 kind countenance2 he conversed in ,arabic with the consul in the most genial manner1 said he was glad to see us1 and was much pleased at the idea of having railways in his kingdom1 about which he had heard so much2 he said he would give us every assistance in his power1 and hoped that this would lead to other ,european improvements1 that would tend so much to the prosperity of his country4 ,after about twenty minutes of very agreeable conversation we retired1 very much pleased with his ,highness's courteous reception4 ,in front of the palace there was an encampment of about #bjjj troops of all kinds1 horse1 foot1 and artillery1 whom the ,bey was in the habit of reviewing daily4 ,the remainder of the story is soon told4 ,we knew perfectly well that the ,french were very jealous of any foreign capital or enterprise being introduced into ,tunis1 that the consul was somewhat suspicious of us1 and that he and his spies were always on the watch3 we were warned of this1 and advised to be very cautious4 ,so well was our secret kept1 that the ,french consul had come to the conclusion that we were nothing but a party of ordinary travellers1 and was just getting rid of his suspicions4 ,on the other hand1 the ,bey and his ,divan had agreed to grant a most favourable concession1 and there can be no doubt that the line would have succeeded admirably in every respect4 ,but in an evil moment ,messrs4 ,peto's agents discovered that they could not make a proper report to their employers without taking levels4 ,in vain ,i represented the extreme imprudence of such a proceeding2 that it was a mere surface line1 without the slightest engineering difficulty1 and which did not present the least obstacle2 moreover1 that the land was to be conceded free of all cost1 and that1 in short1 there was nothing which men of their experience could not estimate accurately without taking the smallest measurement4 ,they persisted in their intention1 and1 of course1 the moment they got out their instruments the ,french consul understood the whole affair1 and in an audience with the ,bey threatened him with the vengeance of ,france if the concession were granted4 ,the poor ,bey had no alternative but to submit1 and there the whole matter ended4 ,before leaving ,tunis ,i saw all the different sights2 amongst others1 serpent charming1 which is quite a profession4 ,the charmers display considerable dexterity2 indeed1 it is a profession of long standing4 ,the northern portion of ,africa1 on account of its sandy and sultry climate1 is peculiarly well adapted for the breeding of serpents of the most venomous kinds1 and in consequence they attain an enormous size and secrete a large amount of poison4 ,the bites of many of the species are fatal1 and hence it has become for ages past the object of certain of the natives to study the habits and characteristics of these reptiles and the antidotes to cure any unfortunate individual who may by chance have been bitten by them2 indeed1 the ,roman armies during their campaigns in this part of the world were always accompanied by a certain number of these serpent charmers1 and the profession exists at the present day4 ,you find them in ,egypt and throughout the whole of the northern part of ,africa1 and they not only practise the cure of serpent bites1 but also collect numbers of them for exhibition to the multitude1 to show their power over them1 and by this means realize a considerable amount of money4 ,at ,tunis ,i saw several of these serpent charmers1 who were always surrounded by a large crowd4 ,they appeared to have complete control over the reptiles2 they always kept their eyes constantly upon them1 and regulated their movements by a wand in their hands1 whilst an attendant boy kept time by beating a small drum and blowing a pipe with a low monotonous sound4 ,i was much surprised to find the natives so very civilized2 we walked about the town1 in the suburbs1 and in the country1 without experiencing the smallest molestation or incivility4 ,i was told that robberies were very rare1 and that frequently large sums of money were sent by a single messenger on a dromedary from ,tunis to ,tripoli without the least danger of being robbed4 ,there were scarcely any palm trees to be seen1 but we had plenty of the finest dates1 which were brought from the interior1 ,i think ,tafilet4 ,upon the whole ,i was much pleased with ,tunis4 ,it is a country possessing great natural resources of all kinds1 by which1 if only properly developed1 this kingdom might be again rendered very powerful1 as it was in the time of the ,carthaginians and ,romans1 when1 it is said1 it contained above ten millions of inhabitants1 whereas at present there are little more than two millions4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,surveys at ,odessa and ,vienna--,harbour at ,ponta ,delgada--,ramsgate--,dagenham4 ,during the latter part of the year ,i had some correspondence with the municipality of ,odessa about paving their streets and making a complete system of sewers for the city2 and in the spring of the following year ,i was requested by the municipality to come to ,odessa1 and to confer with them as to the best means of carrying these works into effect1 and the cost of doing so4 ,i accordingly started for that city2 but when ,i arrived at ,vienna ,i could get no idea as to when the steamer would leave for ,odessa4 ,so to pass away the time ,i determined to visit the ,smmering ,mountain1 over which the ,imperial ,elisabeth ,railway passes on the great line from ,vienna to ,trieste4 ,as that part of the line which crosses the ,smmering ,mountain was said to be a great feat of engineering1 we determined to visit it1 and certainly it was a very creditable performance4 ,the inclines were very steep1 and the curves very sharp and very numerous4 ,galleries were cut through the rock1 high embankments made1 and bridges thrown across the ravines1 and the railway1 having to wind round the sides of the mountain1 was very tortuous4 ,the works1 however1 upon the whole were not badly designed or executed1 though ,i will not say whether a better line might not have been found4 ,the engines used were of the most powerful kind4 ,having returned to ,vienna we descended the ,danube and reached the ,sulina mouth4 ,this mouth of the ,danube was selected as the most capable of improvement1 and considerable sums of money have been expended upon it1 under the direction of ,sir ,charles ,hartley1 an ,english engineer of considerable reputation4 ,the works designed by him consisted of two embankments or moles carried out from the shore1 one on each side1 and nearly parallel to each other1 in an ,e4,s4,e4 direction1 for a considerable distance seaward1 having a good opening between them for the entrance4 ,these moles1 by keeping the current of the river to one course1 enable it to act more effectually in deepening the channel and lowering the bar4 ,the operations of the current are assisted by dredging4 ,the works1 ,i understand1 have been very successful so far1 although by no means completed4 ,an increased depth over the bar and in the channel has already been obtained1 which is a very great improvement1 for on account of the continual shifting of the channel1 and its shallow and tortuous course1 it was at all times uncertain and frequently very dangerous4 ,when we passed1 the new channel had not been completed2 the captain of our steamer therefore thought it advisable to come to anchor for the night and wait until the following morning4 ,there is a wretched place called the town of ,sulina1 on the right bank of the river1 near the commencement of the moles2 it consists of wooden houses1 stores1 shops1 and cafs1 scarcely two feet above the level of the water1 and surrounded by marshes1 that send forth the most pestiferous malaria4 ,i was told that fevers constantly prevail there1 and ,i am not surprised at it1 for a more abominable1 uninviting place ,i have seldom seen4 ,next morning we started for ,odessa soon after daybreak1 and after a tolerably smooth passage reached the western harbour at about four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the view of ,odessa1 at about two or three miles' distance1 as you approach it from the sea1 is rather pretty and imposing4 ,it is situated upon a calcareous sandstone cliff1 about #dj feet above the sea1 with a very fine row of majestic stone buildings running the whole length from north to south1 having a spacious road1 terrace1 and garden between them and the edge of the cliff4 ,the town behind is for the most part well and regularly laid out1 with wide1 spacious streets1 at right angles to each other1 and some handsome shops and buildings1 the residences of tradesmen and merchants4 ,a great number of wealthy nobles and landowners reside here in winter1 and houses worthy of the name of palaces1 such as those of the elegant and high-born ,countess of ,urrenzoff1 the ,governor-,general ,prince ,manukeb1 ,count ,tolstoy1 ,mr4 ,maas the great banker1 and numerous others4 ,the surrounding country1 although the soil is rich1 is open1 with very few trees1 and has therefore a bleak1 uncomfortable appearance4 ,the custom-house officers were very civil1 to my surprise1 and gave us very little trouble1 so we soon got permission to land1 and immediately went to the ,htel de ,londres1 a very fine extensive building1 situated in the grand row of buildings already mentioned facing the sea4 ,here we obtained handsome1 spacious1 well-furnished rooms1 and lived very comfortably at a moderate charge4 ,the next day ,i called upon the ,governor1 ,count ,strogonoff2 the ,mayor1 ,count ,tolstoy2 the ,english ,consul1 ,mr4 ,grenville ,murray1 and several members of the municipality4 ,having paid these formal visits of ceremony1 at which ,i was courteously received1 ,i immediately began to inquire into the best mode of paving and draining the city1 where the best materials were to be obtained and their prices2 in fact1 everything connected with them4 ,before proceeding further it may be proper to describe the state of the place as regards paving and sewers1 which may be summed up in a few words4 ,there was neither one nor the other2 and it is difficult to conceive how such a fine and wealthy city could have been built1 or could have existed so long without them4 ,first1 with regard to the streets4 ,the soil is composed chiefly of sand mixed with clay1 which during fine dry weather makes a tolerably good road1 but the moment it becomes saturated with water1 which is the case for a considerable portion of the year1 it is converted into one vast puddle1 and the large and constant traffic cuts it up into deep holes and gullies1 so that in a comparatively short time the road is a sea of mud1 and almost impassable4 ,during my stay there were only a few days' rain1 but even this gave me a tolerable idea of it1 so that ,i could easily believe the account given to me by the authorities and other inhabitants was by no means exaggerated4 ,during the worst state of the streets1 the obstruction of bullocks and horses trying to drag the loaded waggons and carriages was something dreadful1 and many a waggon was left irrevocably fixed in the mud with numerous carcasses of horses and bullocks lying beside it4 ,it was a singular thing that nearly all the corn warehouses were in the upper parts of the town1 about a mile from the harbour where the corn was to be shipped1 instead of being close by4 ,during the wet season it costs as much to get the corn from the granaries to the harbour as to take it from ,odessa to ,london4 ,the butchers' shops were at the upper end of the town1 from half to three quarters of a mile from the eastern part1 where all the principal people live1 and when provisions were required for the family they were obliged to hire a carriage with three or four horses to get them2 and unless a family kept a regular store of provisions they ran a great risk of being starved4 ,the roads in the country round are not a bit better than those in ,odessa2 during wet weather they are almost impassable4 ,about twenty-eight miles from ,odessa1 at a place on the ,river ,dneister1 is a kind of dept for the vast quantities of corn brought down from the interior4 ,immense heaps or hills of corn were lying there when ,i visited it4 ,in wet weather these cannot be removed1 and ,i was informed that a great deal was burnt or allowed to rot because it could not be taken away1 either on account of the badness of the roads or the dangerous state of the bar at the entrance of the river4 ,the sewers were very simple4 ,gullies had been made along each side of the streets1 into which all the filth was thrown1 so that in dry seasons it accumulated there1 creating the most offensive effluvia1 and in wet weather it would not run off1 on account of the gullies being blocked up with mud4 ,it was impossible to find a city in a worse state1 and it was astonishing that such a great1 wealthy1 and luxurious city could have so long existed in such a condition4 ,as there was no stone in the neighbourhood fit for paving the streets1 granite or a similar hard stone being the only kind fit for the purpose1 the next question was where it was to be found1 how to get it1 and the cost of doing so4 ,upon inquiry1 ,i heard that excellent granite might be obtained in any quantity from a quarry situated on the river ,bug1 and on proceeding there ,i found that very good stone might be got with great ease1 and at a comparatively trifling cost4 ,having made my report1 ,i returned to ,england4 ,in #ahfb ,i was appointed chairman of the ,civil ,engineering ,department of the ,international ,exhibition1 assisted by the ,marquis of ,salisbury1 ,m4 ,bommart1 ,m4 ,koch1 of ,berlin2 ,m4 ,lelere1 ,belgium2 ,m4 ,loehr1 ,austria2 ,cesare ,valerio1 ,italy2 the ,baron ,baude1 ,m4 ,mille1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,manby1 ,mr4 ,kelk1 and ,mr4 ,page4 ,our report1 ,i believe1 was entirely satisfactory4 ,after this ,i was asked to examine the water supply of ,vienna1 and accordingly1 having reached that city1 ,i turned my attention to the following objects3 ,first1 to the mode there adopted for supplying the water2 this ,i found to be by means of steam pumping engines of inadequate power1 which forced the water through iron pipes to fountains in the different streets1 whence it was obtained and delivered into the houses by carts and carriers4 ,the supply was not enough for the wants of the town1 neither was the water sufficiently pure nor properly filtered4 ,it contained a good deal of vegetable matter at the best of times1 as the water was admitted through the porous soil adjoining the river into very small reservoirs1 and it had no time to deposit the alluvial matter with which it was charged before it was delivered for use4 ,moreover1 this method of supplying the water by means of steam pumping engines was a constant expense1 and the more water that was required the greater would the expense be4 ,i found1 also1 that an ,english party had proposed to extend and amplify the existing system1 by erecting more powerful engines1 and by making receiving and filtering reservoirs upon a much larger scale about three or four miles higher up the ,danube1 on the same side1 where the water was clearer and more free from the sewage of the city4 ,now1 when ,i considered that the population was even then between five and six hundred thousand1 and that it was daily increasing1 this pumping system appeared to me to be the worst plan possible to effect the desired object1 unless no other means could be found4 ,i therefore determined to explore the environs of the city1 as ,i felt convinced1 from the geographical features of the neighbourhood1 that there must be numerous streams amply supplied with water1 with their beds sufficiently elevated1 and with reservoir room to any extent1 to afford1 by gravitation1 an abundant supply of the best water to ,vienna1 not only for the present number of inhabitants1 but for three millions and upwards4 ,in other words1 ,i proposed to conduct the water from some of these sources in a covered aqueduct1 simply by its own natural inclination1 to a reservoir situated above the tops of the loftiest houses1 in the highest part of the city2 thus all pumping would be done away with1 and a vast yearly expenditure would be saved2 the first cost of these works would not exceed the first cost of the extended plan on the old system above mentioned1 as proposed to be made higher up the ,danube4 ,further investigation completely established the correctness of my opinion4 ,on my return ,i took the railway to ,trieste1 passing by ,baden1 ,neustadt1 up the line or valley of the ,leitha1 as far as the base of the ,smmering ridge4 ,here ,i first visited the ,fischa ,dagnitz river1 one of the tributaries of the ,leitha2 it is a splendid stream1 about twenty feet wide1 three to four feet deep1 the water as clear as crystal1 and flowing over a gravelly bottom4 ,during the height of summer the temperature seldom exceeds #dj degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,it is impossible to imagine a finer stream2 it has been analyzed and highly approved by some of the first chemists1 who pronounce it to be exceedingly pure4 ,this water could be conveyed by gravitation through a covered conduit to the top of a hill overlooking ,vienna1 and from thence it could be delivered to the highest parts of the city in ample quantity1 without pumping or filtration4 ,the water of the ,danube1 even after filtration1 cannot be compared with it4 ,the ,fischa ,dagnitz turned a number of mills in its course1 and this was the only objection to taking the water4 ,but this was a loss that could easily be compensated for by making reservoirs1 to be supplied by the surplus waters of this and other streams4 ,the ,fischa ,dagnitz1 therefore1 appeared to me to be decidedly the best source for supplying ,vienna with pure water1 for any reasonable number of inhabitants4 ,i next examined the ,leitha above the ,dagnitz1 and here ,i found that there was a superabundant supply1 although the water was by no means so good as that of the ,dagnitz4 ,i examined several other tributaries to the ,leitha1 passing over an extensive mass of dbris1 called the ,steinfeld1 where ,i found that by damming some large reservoirs could be made1 from which an ample supply could be obtained of the same quality as that of the ,leitha1 although by no means so good as that of the ,fischa ,dagnitz4 ,it was quite clear1 therefore1 that plenty of water could be obtained for ,vienna now and for all future time from this quarter4 ,but not wishing to overlook any source from whence a supply of water could be procured1 ,i took the railway from ,vienna to ,st4 ,polten1 a town on the road to ,linz4 ,here ,i found a very fine and copious stream1 though when ,i examined it1 it was nearly in its lowest state4 ,the ground between it and ,vienna was very high1 so that to a certain extent pumping must have been resorted to1 if this source of supply was adopted4 ,another objection was the much greater distance as compared with the streams up the valley of the ,leitha4 ,i felt therefore satisfied that it would not do1 and that the question lay between the ,fischa ,dagnitz and the tributaries of the ,leitha on the ,steinfeld above mentioned4 ,all these observations ,i embodied in a report to the municipality of ,vienna1 and recommended the ,fischa ,dagnitz2 for although there might be a few feet less fall1 still1 taking into account the far greater purity of the water1 it was the best4 ,the municipality received my report1 and returned me their thanks for it4 ,at all events1 ,i had decided the question against taking the water from the ,danube4 ,having made these investigations and sent in my report upon them1 it now remained for the municipality to decide4 ,they said they would take time to consider1 and accordingly appointed some of the most able and scientific officers of their own body1 as well as those attached to the ,government1 to investigate the subject further4 ,after above two years' examination these persons made their report1 recommending that the principle of gravitation as proposed by me should be adopted1 and that the supply should be taken from the tributaries of the ,leitha in the ,steinfeld3 this was in fact adopting my plan1 although ,i preferred the ,fischa ,dagnitz as the source of supply1 as none could or did dispute the superior quality of its water to all others4 ,the municipality have been deliberating ever since on the best plan of carrying this great work into effect1 whether by a private company1 or whether they shall execute the works by contract and supply the water at their own cost4 ,this question1 as far as ,i know1 has not been settled1 although it has been now nearly six years in agitation2 meanwhile the city suffers materially from the want of a good supply of pure wholesome water4 ,in the spring of #ahfa a ,mr4 ,parkenscholz1 and ,m4 ,jos de ,cont1 a member of one of the wealthiest and most respectable families of ,st4 ,michael's1 the principal island of the ,azores1 called and informed me that the ,portuguese ,government had decided to make a harbour at ,ponta ,delgada1 the chief town of ,st4 ,michael's1 the cost of which was estimated at the sum of #acd1jjjl4 ,i replied that ,i should be willing to undertake the superintendence and construction of this harbour1 provided that ,i was not compelled to serve them beyond the term of four years1 and that ,i was not to be responsible either for the plan or for the amount estimated to complete it4 ,to these terms the ,portuguese ,government consented1 and ,i started for the ,azores in ,september1 #ahfa4 ,we reached ,ponta ,delgada on the #bjth ,september1 and were very much delighted with our first view of it4 ,the town rose rapidly from the sea1 and presented a most interesting appearance4 ,the spires of numerous churches1 starting up from the level of the surrounding houses1 pierced the blue sky1 while here and there were gardens filled with the gayest of flowers1 and groves of orange1 lemon1 and olive trees1 the whole embosomed in a picturesque bay1 backed by evergreen conical hills1 reminding one a good deal of ,naples4 ,on landing ,i was received with great ceremony1 and was waited on by the ,junta at my hotel4 ,the next day ,i attended a meeting of the ,junta at the ,governor's house1 when we discussed all the various preliminary operations that were necessary preparatory to commencing the harbour4 ,it appeared desirable that the first stone should be laid before ,i left the island1 and preparations were ordered to be made accordingly4 ,i gave ,mr4 ,plews full instructions as to what was necessary for this1 and having two days to spare ,i determined to accompany my friend1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,ivens1 on an excursion to ,furness1 a celebrated watering-place1 situated near the eastern end of the island1 about #bg miles distant4 ,we started on a couple of good donkeys1 with another carrying some provisions1 and proceeded along the south shore over a very fair carriage road1 for about five miles1 through some neat villages embowered in orange and lemon orchards1 passing also by comfortable villas and country houses1 and then struck in a north-easterly direction across the island over an undulating well-cultivated country1 chiefly growing ,indian corn and other cereals and green crops4 ,when we reached the summit of this part of the island we got a good view of the mountains to the eastward and of the sea on the north and south sides4 ,we halted for about an hour1 and then proceeded to a large town situated on the northern shore1 surrounded by rich gardens and fields1 having every appearance of prosperity4 ,from thence we proceeded along the north shore over some very steep hills and cliffs overlooking the sea1 the road still good1 until we got to a little roadside inn about dark4 ,there was1 however1 light enough from the stars to find our way1 so off we set again1 and going over a very wild hilly country got to the top of the pass which descended to ,furness about ten o'clock at night4 ,here the road ceased1 and we found it necessary to get off the donkeys and walk1 for fear of being tumbled over their heads1 although they were very sure-footed4 ,at a subsequent visit to this place ,i crossed over the pass by daylight1 and the view from the summit is very fine1 looking into what was formerly the crater of a volcano1 which is nearly two miles wide1 surrounded by lofty rugged hills between #bjjj and #cjjj feet high1 the bottom of the crater valley being now covered with rich verdure and gardens and tropical trees and plants of various kinds4 ,near the crater was the little village of ,furness1 with its church and white houses dotted about1 and close by were the sulphurous hot baths sending forth volumes of steam1 the whole forming one of the most picturesque and agreeable scenes imaginable4 ,we got to the inn at the bottom of the valley at about #ab ,p4,m41 thoroughly tired1 having ridden and walked for nearly eleven hours4 ,the inn1 considering all things1 was by no means bad4 ,i got a good bed and supper1 and soon fell asleep1 while my companion1 ,mr4 ,ivens1 went to his family1 who were stopping there4 ,after a sound night's sleep ,i got up in the morning and took a warm sulphur bath as hot as ,i could stand it1 which was about #if2 but you may have the water at almost any temperature1 as it issues boiling from the spring4 ,close by1 within a few yards1 is a cold chalybeate spring1 and not far distant is a vast extent of rich alum deposit1 from which great quantities may be extracted1 and a manufactory had then commenced operations4 ,i walked about until midday1 quite enchanted with the beauty of the place1 dined with my friend ,ivens and his amiable family1 and about one o'clock in the afternoon mounted my donkey and started off with the guide for ,ponta ,delgada1 being determined if possible to get there that night4 ,we had a tolerably stiff hilly road fit only for mules1 donkeys1 or horses1 before we could get out of the valley4 ,having ascended the summit of the first pass1 we had a delightful view behind over the delicious valley of ,furness which we had just left4 ,we then came to a rather extensive lake1 surrounded by evergreen hills of much less elevation than those surrounding the valley2 and on the opposite side of this lake1 which was two to three miles long and about a mile wide1 we observed the country house of our ,consul1 ,samuel ,vines1 ,esq41 seated on the side of a hill about #bjj or #cjj feet above the lake1 embosomed in woods2 and at the foot of the hill1 close by the water's edge1 was a strong sulphur spring1 of the same temperature as those of ,furness1 and like them covered with clouds of steam4 ,there was not a house near it all round the lake4 ,it was singular that he should have chosen such a solitary spot4 ,i continued along the south and west side of the lake1 which is bounded by hills covered with underwood and evergreens1 but not a house nor even a shed to be seen2 only a few solitary cattle here and there with a shepherd boy4 ,nothing could be more still or lonely2 but at the same time there was a degree of quiet and repose which gave to the place a certain undefinable charm not to be resisted4 ,upon leaving the west end of the lake we ascended the hill over a rugged path1 passing through a wild1 bare district1 and from the summit enjoyed a fine view of nearly the whole of the island1 which was very beautiful whichever way you looked4 ,we now descended a very steep path1 the view changing at every turn4 ,at last1 about five o'clock1 we reached the clean1 pretty town of ,villa ,franca1 where ,i halted nearly an hour for refreshment4 ,villa ,franca1 which is situated in a small bay on the sea-shore1 was formerly the capital of the island1 but an earthquake having occurred near1 it was abandoned for ,delgada4 ,it is still a thriving little place1 with a rich surrounding country4 ,there is a small island1 a few hundred yards from the shore1 where a good harbour might be made4 ,after leaving this town we had to take a rough road along the sea-coast for a couple of miles1 partly through deep sand1 and partly among scattered rocks1 for there was no regular road4 ,we then left the shore and travelled over the cliffs by an equally bad path1 sometimes over deep chasms and sometimes up narrow glens1 until we reached the high road again1 at which ,i was very glad1 as it was now dark and very difficult to find our way4 ,we pushed forward with confidence1 and the donkeys went on very well2 after passing through numerous villages1 sometimes lying on the sea-shore1 at others a little distance inland1 at last1 much to my satisfaction--for ,i was very tired--we reached ,mr4 ,rodrigue's comfortable hotel about midnight4 ,old ,rodrigue was surprised that ,i had made the journey of between #ej and #fj miles in so short a time1 for although it was the month of ,september1 the sun was very powerful1 and the road for many miles was very bad4 ,next day we had another meeting of the ,junta1 and they made all the arrangements for laying the first stone of the new harbour1 which was to take place with every possible ceremony4 ,i found that ,mr4 ,plews had got a couple of large stones well dressed for the purpose2 the captain of the port had provided the sheers and tackle for hoisting them2 and the ,junta had procured in the town a very pretty silver trowel1 a mallet1 and mortar holder4 ,a commodious gangway had been prepared from the shore to the west end of the old mole1 fronting the area where the new pier or mole was to commence1 according to the plan approved of by the ,government4 ,the whole town was in motion at an early hour1 and great numbers of people came in from the neighbouring towns and villages1 all dressed in holiday costume4 ,the town was decorated with the flags of various nations1 amongst which the ,union ,jack was particularly conspicuous4 ,in fact1 it was considered a great national fte2 the more so1 as a work such as this was intended to be had never been previously undertaken in this island1 or in the kingdom of ,portugal itself4 ,the procession was marshalled at the ,town ,hall1 and consisted of the band of the militia of the island2 then the governor1 his secretary1 and the ,junta or committee that was to conduct the work1 followed by the principal officers1 merchants1 and deputations from the chief towns in the island1 with their respective banners1 closed by a number of the most respectable inhabitants of the place2 the lower orders1 clad in their best1 lining the way by which we passed4 ,upon arriving at the place we were met by the chief priest of the island1 who1 in a short prayer1 invoked a blessing from the ,almighty that the enterprise might prosper4 ,then1 upon a signal being given1 coins of the realm1 together with a printed paper1 containing an account of the proposed work1 the names of the governor and ,junta1 the engineers1 officers1 c41 were placed in a glass bottle1 and deposited in the cavity of the lower stone1 which had previously been prepared and set4 ,the governor having placed the glass case in the cavity1 ,i handed to him the silver trowel1 with which he spread out the mortar4 ,the stone was lowered into its place1 and the governor1 having previously adjusted it1 gave the usual three taps with the mallet1 and the ceremony was finished with a discharge of guns from the fort1 and numerous showers of rockets from the town1 amidst the cheers and vivas of the bystanders1 the band playing the national anthem4 ,in the evening a very handsome entertainment was given at ,m4 ,jos de ,cont's villa1 on the outside of the town1 to which the ,junta and principal officers and merchants of the place were invited4 ,the ,portuguese band played admirably during and after dinner1 and we all retired much pleased with the success of the day's proceedings4 ,the governor presented me with the silver trowel1 which ,i respectfully declined1 and requested him to keep it as a memorial of the happy day2 which he1 after some hesitation1 accepted1 and ,i contented myself with the polished mortar holder1 and the next leading man of the ,junta accepted the mallet4 ,the next day ,i made final arrangements for my departure by the packet1 which was expected on its return from ,fayal the day after4 ,in the mean time ,i had been considering the danger of the harbour as laid down or rather approved by the ,government1 and found that if the west mole was commenced at the east end of ,fort ,san ,bray1 as proposed1 the fort would be exposed to a much heavier swell2 but that by making it commence at the western end of the fort this would be avoided2 moreover1 the sum of #fjjl4 would be saved1 and the harbour would be made so much larger4 ,this recommendation was afterwards adopted by the ,government4 ,i now took my leave of the governor and all the authorities1 and my other friends1 with my grateful thanks for their kindness and attention4 ,the island1 taken in a direct line from north to south1 is about #dj miles long1 and from #g to #i miles wide4 ,it is entirely volcanic4 ,the east and west ends exhibit the most powerful effects of the volcanic force4 ,in the former we see mountains raised to the height of about #ccjj feet above the level of the ,atlantic1 in the centre of which lies the valley of ,furness1 the bottom being occupied by a lake that still sends forth sulphurous vapours2 and in the latter or west end we find mountains of about #cjjj feet1 the centre of which is occupied by a large lake1 without any exhibition of existing volcanic action4 ,near the centre of the island1 which is the narrowest part1 there are numerous minor conical-shaped hills of less elevation1 but all more or less showing their volcanic origin4 ,the island enjoys a most genial climate1 and frost or snow is of rare occurrence2 but during the autumn and winter it is visited by heavy gales from all quarters of the compass1 which extend over a distance of about #ajj miles4 ,during this period a great deal of rain falls1 and the climate may be said to be moist1 much resembling that of ,madeira4 ,formerly a good deal of wine was produced here1 but since #ahee1 when the oidium disease made its appearance1 the vintage has been very unsatisfactory2 and although a certain quantity of wine1 resembling that of ,madeira1 is still made for home consumption1 none is exported4 ,the principal productions of the island now are oranges and lemons1 of which vast quantities are annually exported to the north of ,europe4 ,the district where these are produced is restricted to the centre of the island1 commencing at ,ponta ,delgada1 and extending eastward about #g or #h miles4 ,on the north it is bounded by the central ridge of hills1 and on the south by the sea1 the width being about #c or #d miles1 so that it enjoys the full rays of the southern sun4 ,these orange and lemon orchards are cultivated with the greatest care1 and wherever they are exposed to the east1 west1 or southern gales are protected by high stone walls4 ,on the north the hills alone afford sufficient shelter4 ,towards the latter end of ,october the season commences1 and continues until about the end of ,february1 during which time the harbour of ,ponta ,delgada is continually crowded with shipping1 whilst on shore the inhabitants are busy packing the fruit in boxes2 these boxes are made from the wood brought chiefly from the forests that clothe the mountains at the eastern end of the island4 ,the vessels in which the fruit is exported are principally small schooners1 built rather short1 capital sea boats1 and manned by the best of captains and sailors1 who thoroughly understand their profession4 ,they go to sea in any weather1 which is at times most severe1 rarely if ever meet with any accidents on the voyage1 and make the passage to ,england in from eight to ten days4 ,it is true they are sometimes driven ashore when they break from their moorings in the exposed roadstead of ,ponta ,delgada during heavy gales from the south-west to the south-east1 to which it is exposed2 but this will be obviated by the new harbour1 and was one of the objects of its being made4 ,sometimes1 during the prevalence of these gales1 they are obliged to slip their anchors1 and run for shelter to the northern side of the island1 where they occasionally ship their cargoes1 which is always done by means of lighters from the shore4 ,immediately they are laden they start with the first fair wind1 however strongly it blows2 they never wait for weather1 but as soon as laden they put to sea1 and generally make good1 indeed1 the best of passages4 ,i met a young botanist who had come out in one of these vessels to ,ponta ,delgada1 for the purpose of making botanical researches in this and in the neighbouring islands1 in the month of ,march2 they had an excellent passage until they got within about a hundred miles of ,st4 ,michael's1 when he said to the captain1 8,we shall be there to-morrow40 ,the captain1 an excellent sailor1 looking at the signs of the weather1 replied1 8,i don't think so4 ,we are going to have a hard gale from the southward40 ,he immediately ordered his mate to well batten down the hatchways1 shorten sail1 and make all as snug as possible4 ,the captain was right2 the gale from the south came a few hours afterwards1 with a very heavy sea4 ,the young botanist frankly confessed to me that he began to be terribly afraid at seeing the tremendous sea running after them1 and asked the captain if there was any danger2 when the captain coolly replied1 8,never fear3 it is only a little loss of time4 ,go to your berth1 and lie there quietly4 ,we shall get there safe enough1 with a little patience40 ,the captain then ordered the vessel to be hove-to1 and there she lay as comfortably as possible1 never shipping a single sea1 although the waves were running mountains high4 ,after about five or six days she entered the bay of ,ponta ,delgada without having sustained the least damage4 ,she got her cargo of fruit aboard and returned directly1 and made one of the quickest passages that season to ,england4 ,besides oranges and lemons1 ,st4 ,michael's grows large quantities of ,indian corn1 wheat1 barley1 potatoes1 and other articles1 of which she exports largely to ,portugal1 and is considered the granary of the kingdom2 her exports are much larger than her imports1 and she receives back in return wine1 oil1 and manufactured goods4 ,in fact1 ,st4 ,michael's is looked upon by the ,portuguese as their most productive and wealthiest island4 ,the population is extremely civil1 hard-working1 and industrious1 and the upper classes are wealthy1 enterprising1 and energetic1 and send some of the most talented deputies to the ,cortes1 who by their ability and perseverance attain the highest offices in the ,state2 for example1 the late ,minister of ,finance1 ,senhor ,avila1 who1 although a rough subject1 was yet possessed of great talents and integrity4 ,the island also furnishes some very fine hardy sailors and soldiers2 and ,i was told that the other islands of ,pico1 ,fayal1 and ,st4 ,mary's1 although not equal in extent or wealth1 do the same4 ,on the #ith of ,october 7#ahfc7 ,i again left ,london for ,lisbon by one of the ,royal ,mail steamers1 and reached it on the morning of the #acth following1 and on the #aeth1 in the evening1 ,i started in the packet for ,ponta ,delgada1 which we reached on the morning of the #bjth1 after an agreeable and tolerably smooth passage4 ,i found that some considerable progress had been made with the preliminary works2 although these were not so far advanced as they might have been1 in consequence of the ,junta not having found the necessary funds4 ,i had previously explained to them in written reports1 that the more complete the preliminary works were made1 and the larger the scale on which the operations were conducted1 the sooner the harbour would be completed1 and the greater would be the economy4 ,i have already observed that the ,government had approved of a certain plan for the harbour without consulting me1 and that it had simply confided to me the charge of carrying the design into effect4 ,however1 ,i felt it my duty to consider the plan more maturely1 so as to ascertain how far it was likely to answer the object intended2 as1 for example1 whether the estimate made was sufficient for the purpose1 and whether it could be done within the time stated4 ,i could not at first do this1 because ,i had not had time sufficient to investigate the local circumstances2 however1 upon my second visit1 the experience of my former one1 combined with the observations which ,mr4 ,plews had made in the meantime1 enabled me to master the subject2 and upon carefully considering the plan adopted by the ,government1 and comparing it with the local experience which ,i had now obtained1 ,i felt convinced that the design would not effect the object proposed4 ,vessels would neither be able to enter nor depart during the most dangerous and prevalent winds1 without the risk of being shipwrecked2 neither could those vessels lying in the harbour be considered safe4 ,the plan was deficient in all the qualities necessary for a good harbour2 as regards the expense1 it would cost at least more than double the estimate2 and as to the time1 it would be extremely difficult to state when the works would be completed4 ,having clearly satisfied myself upon these points1 ,i felt it my duty to inform the ,junta1 so that they might report the same to the ,government4 ,the ,junta received my remarks very cautiously1 and said that several objections to the plan adopted had occurred to them2 however1 they did not pretend to give any opinion upon the subject1 and they requested me to make a full report upon the plan adopted1 together with all my objections1 and the cost of carrying it into effect4 ,they also requested me to prepare a new plan1 according to what ,i conceived best adapted to the local circumstances2 also an estimate of the cost of carrying it into effect2 and said that as soon as they received them they would send them to the ,government1 and would communicate to me their decision as early as possible4 ,this ,i accordingly did upon my return to ,england4 ,this report was submitted by the ,junta to the ,government1 and it was decided that the plan ,i proposed was the best1 and the ,government ordered it to be carried into effect4 ,this decision was very gratifying to me1 for ,i was strongly convinced that ,i was right1 and if the ,government had decided otherwise ,i felt that there was no alternative but to resign my situation4 ,the works were therefore ordered to be proceeded with according to the new plan that ,i recommended4 ,the ,junta before ,i departed arranged with me that the contract for my services should be limited to five years from #ahfa1 although ,i was previously informed that it should only be for four years1 the sum for my remuneration being the same for five as for four years2 this was certainly a loss to me1 but ,i did not wish to make any difficulty about it1 as ,i was anxious that my plan should be adopted4 ,my design consisted simply of one mole or breakwater carried from the west side of ,fort ,st4 ,braz1 and in such a direction that no eastern pier would be required1 as the opposite shore of the bay would answer that purpose4 ,the mole consists of two arms1 one at the shore end1 #bjjj feet long1 and the outer end from #hjj to #ajjj feet long1 with ample depth within from #dj to #ej feet1 and covering a water space of nearly double the extent of the old plan4 ,this new mole when finished will have a strong promenade stone parapet #bj feet above the level of high water1 and a roadway below #dj feet wide1 lined by a quay wall on the inside1 alongside of which the largest vessels may approach and take in and deliver their cargoes at all times4 ,railways will be laid along the quays1 and cranes worked by steam will travel along them for loading and unloading the vessels4 ,this mole is now advanced outwards about #afjj feet1 and if the ,junta had only followed my advice1 it ought to have been finished by this time4 ,i always calculated that after the first year1 when the whole of the works were in full operation1 from #ajjj to #abjj tons of stone should be daily deposited1 whereas1 upon an average they have not done half that quantity1 in consequence of their not employing sufficient plant in the shape of waggons1 trucks1 cranes1 locomotives1 tools1 c42 however1 that is their fault1 not ours4 ,i have constantly made reports pointing out these deficiencies4 ,the quarries having now been opened1 railways laid1 and a sufficient number of locomotives1 waggons1 and trucks having been provided for the present1 ,i proposed to the ,junta that they should commence depositing stone on the line of the great mole4 ,the laying of the first1 as mentioned before1 was simply a matter of ceremony1 as they were really not then in a position to commence the actual work4 ,the ,junta approved of my proposal1 and accordingly1 two days before my departure1 this ceremony took place4 ,about six waggons laden with blocks from two to five tons weight were drawn by one of the locomotive engines from the quarries to the end of the staging or platform in the line of the mole1 and were there deposited with great clat4 ,the locomotive then returned with the empty waggons and brought six more1 which were deposited in the same manner1 and this operation continued throughout the day4 ,as this mode of conducting the harbour works had never been before seen on the island1 it created much interest and astonishment amongst the natives1 and the ladies were particularly amused by taking a ride upon the locomotive engines4 ,i simply observe once for all that this mole was to be constructed by depositing1 from open staging in the line of the mole1 blocks of rough stone varying from a quarter of a ton to #aj tons in weight1 when they could be obtained4 ,these blocks being deposited in the sea1 the waves would soon drive and consolidate them together1 until after a time the mass becomes immovable2 in fact1 the sea is the workman or mason to arrange the stone deposited in such a manner that it shall become fixed in its place2 therefore1 during the operation the more and heavier the storms the better1 the great point being that the stone shall be carried out and deposited in such masses that the sea shall not break through it1 but merely act upon it1 by drawing down the exterior or sea slope to such an angle that it will stand after the heaviest storms4 ,now my father1 who commenced this system at the breakwater in ,plymouth ,sound1 and in other places1 found that the sea slope of a mole or breakwater constructed in this manner would stand an inclination of about #e or #e to #a for every foot perpendicular1 and #a to #a on the land side1 as ,i have mentioned in a former chapter4 ,throughout all my experience ,i have found the same1 therefore the breakwater at ,ponta ,delgada was founded upon this principle4 ,five lines of railway of the #g-;feet gauge have been carried out upon the staging1 so that the top has a width of fully #ej feet2 and as the works proceed outwards another will perhaps be added1 if circumstances require it1 which will make the width #gj feet4 ,by keeping up a constant supply of stone1 there will always be sufficient for the waves to act upon until the sea slope has attained its ultimate point of repose4 ,as fast as the large blocks of stone are deposited and washed into their place1 great quantities of quarry rubbish are supplied to fill up the minor interstices and render the whole mass more solid1 until the slopes are in a fit state to be regularly formed and paved for receiving the parapet4 ,for some years there had been constant complaint from merchants and shipowners that they were taxed for ,ramsgate harbour when their vessels never did or could use it4 ,these continued complaints1 so often repeated1 at last had effect1 and ,parliament decided1 in the year #ahfa1 that the passing toll of ,ramsgate harbour should cease1 and that only those vessels that used it should pay1 according to a certain tariff4 ,the trustees under whose direction the harbour had been made and maintained1 complained to the ,government that without the passing toll they did not see from whence funds could be derived to maintain it in a proper state of efficiency1 and therefore they requested to be relieved of their responsibility1 and tendered their resignations1 which were accepted by the ,government1 and an ,act of ,parliament was passed in the year #ahfb relieving the old trustees from their trust1 repealing their ,acts of ,parliament1 and vesting the harbour1 all its funds1 and responsibilities1 in the ,board of ,trade4 ,i succeeded my father in ,december #ahba as engineer-in-chief to the harbour1 at the same salary1 namely1 #bajl4 per annum1 which included travelling and office expenses of every kind1 the trustees paying the salary of the resident engineer themselves4 ,the harbour was in a very dilapidated state1 in fact1 it almost required rebuilding1 when it came under my direction1 and monthly visits of two and three days were necessary1 besides attending the ,board in ,london once every fortnight examining accounts1 correspondence1 reports1 and plans1 all of which required a good deal of labour and responsibility1 and which1 if paid for according to the usual professional scale1 would have amounted to at least treble the sum of #bjjl41 or more2 but considering the appointment to be permanent1 and that upon retirement ,i should be entitled to an adequate pension according to my years of service1 ,i thought it better not to decline4 ,in the year #ahbb1 a committee was appointed by the ,house of ,commons to investigate ,ramsgate harbour and everything connected with it4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 afterwards ,lord ,wallace1 was chairman of this committee2 he made a searching inquiry1 and found nothing wrong4 ,i was examined at great length touching all works1 the mode of managing them1 and what would be the total cost of doing so4 ,the cost it was extremely difficult if not impossible to state1 for the greater part of the works were under water1 and failures and accidents were constantly occurring without any previous warning1 so that what was sound one day was in ruin the next4 ,as an example1 ,i may mention the west pier-head3 this upon examination carefully from above appeared quite sound2 not a crack could be seen above low water4 ,it is true that the projecting basement floor of the lighthouse1 which was not properly connected with the lighthouse tower itself1 and was little more than a mere shed1 showed a slight subsidence1 but this outer part of the lighthouse was in no way connected with the outer walls of the pier head2 in fact1 it rested upon the chalk filling between the outer walls and the lighthouse4 ,now this chalk filling might have subsided1 by some leaks through the outer wall of the pier head1 without denoting any serious defects in the pier-head walls2 however the walls fell1 with little or no warning1 and the consequence was that it was necessary to rebuild the whole pier-head1 and the lighthouse also1 at a cost of nearly #bj1jjjl4 ,to a certain extent the same thing occurred at the east pier-head2 but this ,i observed in time1 and completely secured it at a cost of #bjjjl4 ,the whole of the inner walls of the east and west piers were completely undermined1 although from above they showed no signs of failure1 and ,i was obliged to underpin them to a depth of from #aj to #ab feet below low water of spring tides4 ,the old wooden sluices were worn out2 and these it was necessary to replace4 ,the main entrance from the harbour to the basin was in such a dilapidated state that it was necessary to take it down and rebuild it2 this cost #ah1jjjl4 ,the quay walls of the inner basin were fast going to decay2 and ,i was obliged to take them down and rebuild them4 ,all the filling in between the outer and inner walls of the outer harbour had sunk in numerous places1 and it was unsafe for any person or carriage to go over it2 it was therefore imperative to take the whole of this out and refill it with proper concrete4 ,the pavement also was completely worn out1 so that we had to renew it4 ,there was no means of supplying the ships with fresh water1 or of extinguishing fires4 ,it was therefore necessary to lay pipes with stop cocks and hoses round the piers and basin1 connected with the main water-pipes in the town4 ,the whole of the sewage of the town was discharged into the basin1 and at low water it created a most offensive effluvia1 which rendered this part of the town unhealthy2 ,i therefore recommended that an intercepting sewer should be made round the basin1 so that all the sewage should be diverted from the town and harbour into the sea1 to the westward1 and by this means it was carried away by the tide1 and a great nuisance taken away from the town4 ,there was no regular tide gauge to ascertain the exact rise and fall of the tide1 so that the harbour light at night could not be shown at the proper time1 neither could the day signal be hoisted to show when there was sufficient depth at the entrance4 ,this defect ,i remedied by establishing a self-acting tide gauge in a well within the lighthouse at the west pier-head4 ,the pole of this tide gauge was connected with a cylinder and a clock hand2 on the cylinder was a roll of paper1 and to the hand of the clock was attached a pencil1 which1 as the rod or tide gauge rose and fell1 marked it on the paper2 thus the rise and fall of every tide was indicated upon the paper1 and the clock showed the time1 so that the rise and fall of every tide was regularly registered and kept in a book from year to year4 ,i also established barometers at different parts of the harbour1 under lock and key1 the latter of which was kept by the harbour-master2 these barometers were set every morning1 and the rise and fall was registered in a book1 so that all the captains of vessels in the harbour could ascertain as nearly as practicable the state of the weather2 rain gauges were also established1 a regular account of the rainfall being registered4 ,before my time the trustees had got an admirable time clock1 by ,moore1 for which they paid #bjjl41 and ,mr4 ,turner1 one of the chairmen of the trustees1 got another clock from ,dent's1 which cost #ajel4 ,these two clocks were kept in repair by a competent person1 and corresponded to a second with the ,royal ,observatory time at ,greenwich1 hence every captain of a vessel starting from ,ramsgate could carry the correct time with him4 ,thus ,ramsgate was provided with all the instruments for ascertaining the correct time1 the state of the tides1 together with the barometer1 thermometer1 the wind and rain gauges1 and everything necessary to indicate the probable state of the weather4 ,all harbours ought to be provided with these instruments1 and a regular journal should be kept1 forming a careful record of the observations made from them4 ,after the harbour was transferred to the ,board of ,trade ,i still continued as principal engineer1 at the same salary1 viz4 #cael4 per annum and travelling expenses4 ,in the middle of the last century a breach was made on the left bank of the ,thames1 near the village of ,dagenham1 and many thousand acres of the adjacent lowlands were inundated4 ,the most skilful engineers of the day tried long and in vain to close the breach1 but at last it was effected by ,captain ,perie1 at a cost of #bj1jjjl42 but although the breach was closed1 and nearly the whole submerged lands relieved from the water1 still a space amounting to about #ajj acres1 where the breach took place1 has ever since remained covered1 and is called ,dagenham ,lake at the present day4 ,the position of this fine sheet of water being on the ,london side of the ,thames1 its depth varying from #d to #bj feet below low water of spring tides1 the great depth and width of the river in front of it and its proximity to ,london render it admirably adapted for wet or floating docks4 ,for a long time it passed unnoticed1 until1 the trade of ,london increasing1 other docks were established on both sides of the ,thames at and close to ,london2 the enormous cost of these and the high rates which they were necessarily obliged to charge in order to get anything like a remunerating dividend for the capital expended1 induced enterprising people to look out for some situation lower down the river where docks could be established upon more moderate terms1 and where consequently the rates would be much lower4 ,amongst other places ,dagenham ,lake attracted their notice1 and very naturally so1 for it possessed all the requisites for making a complete establishment of the kind at a most moderate cost1 far below that which had been expended upon any of the great dock establishments in ,london4 ,who were the first persons who originated the idea of converting ,dagenham ,lake into a great dock establishment ,i do not know1 but amongst others1 ,i am told1 was ,mr4 ,george ,burge1 the well-known contractor1 about #ahde4 ,subsequently ,mr4 ,crampton took up the idea1 and proposed to convert ,dagenham ,lake into a great dock establishment nearly twenty years ago1 but the project never came to maturity4 ,at last ,mr4 ,george ,remington1 a well-known projector1 entered into it in #ahed1 and asked me to join him4 ,on investigating the subject ,i was satisfied of its intrinsic merits1 and agreed to co-operate in the undertaking4 ,a ,bill was therefore obtained in the year #ahee for this purpose4 ,it was simply proposed in the first instance to connect the ,dagenham ,lake with the ,thames by means of a lock1 together with some small warehouses1 landing wharves1 and a railway to connect it with the ,london and ,tilbury line2 the whole estimate of what it was proposed to do there being confined to #abj1jjjl41 that is to say1 #ij1jjjl4 subscriptions1 and borrowing power of #cj1jjjl4 ,this1 it must be observed1 was merely to commence the undertaking upon a moderate scale2 and it was intended to extend the quays and warehouse room in proportion as the increased trade required it1 for the floating basin accommodation was equal to that of the largest docks in ,london1 and the depth of water in the river and in the dock was greater4 ,the dock1 if it could be commenced upon this moderate scale1 could not1 it is true1 have been considered as a powerful rival to the other dock establishments1 but it would have relieved them from the greatest part of the lumber trade1 which they could not accommodate without great inconvenience and even loss1 such as the timber1 guano1 hemp1 flax1 coal trades1 c42 moreover1 it would give accommodation for laying up in ordinary the great number of vessels which are always more or less unemployed in the port of ,london4 ,it is computed that of unemployed vessels there are generally about #aej1jjj tons2 now these vessels1 at a penny per ton per week1 would alone return #gjjjl4 per annum1 and as they require no superintendence except from their owners1 they alone would have paid #e per cent4 upon the total capital of the ,company1 and all the other trade would have added so much more to their income4 ,it was quite clear that it would be to the interest of all the unemployed vessels to lay up there1 because they could do so at half the expense compared with the other docks2 for even if they were to lie at their moorings in the river1 although they would be charged nothing1 still their expenses would be a great deal more4 ,there was1 besides1 another trade open to these docks1 that could not be accommodated in any of the others1 namely1 the foreign cattle trade1 which is every day increasing1 and which must continue to increase with the population of the metropolis4 ,the first ,act1 as ,i have already said1 passed in #ahee1 and although several attempts were made to form a company to carry it into effect1 they all failed4 ,in #ahfb another ,act of ,parliament was obtained1 as the original one had nearly expired4 ,in the new ,act the powers were enlarged1 and the works were extended to #cjj1jjjl41 with power to borrow #ajj1jjjl4 more2 and it was again attempted to form a company to carry it into effect1 but failed4 ,in #ahfe a third attempt was made to form a company1 and by the aid of ,messrs4 ,rigby1 the well-known contractors of the great ,admiralty harbour at ,holyhead1 a company was at length formed4 ,those gentlemen contracted for the works at a certain price1 and agreed to take a large number of the shares as well in payment4 ,the works commenced under my direction1 in the month of ,may #ahfe1 and proceeded very well until the end of ,march #ahff1 when the ,messrs4 ,rigby got into difficulties1 and were unable to complete their contract1 and the consequence was that the whole of the works were stopped4 ,the state of the money market ever since has been so depressed that it has hitherto been impossible to find the money to carry them on1 and thus this really valuable concern remains still in abeyance4 ,in #ahff another ,act of ,parliament was procured1 enabling the ,company to obtain more land and to increase the works1 so that ultimately1 when times become favourable1 it is very probable that this great undertaking will be carried out1 and will form one of the largest and most important dock establishments on the banks of the ,thames4 ,during the year #ahff it was attempted to obtain an ,act of ,parliament for making a railway between ,romford and the docks4 ,it passed the ,house of ,commons1 but when it got into the ,house of ,lords its supporters drew back and the ,bill was abandoned4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,retrospect--,london ,bridge--,sheerness ,dockyard--,plymouth ,breakwater and ,victualling ,yard--,steam ,vessels for the ,navy--,harbours--,railways--,broad and ,narrow ,gauge--,atmospheric ,railway--,water ,supply and ,sewage4 ,i have thus endeavoured to give1 in the foregoing narrative1 an account of my professional and private life as near as my memory would serve4 ,i have not had a single date1 or note-book1 or journal to refer to2 so that many inaccuracies may have occurred1 particularly with regard to the dates1 although the facts and circumstances are1 ,i believe1 pretty fairly narrated4 ,in my professional career ,i consider that ,i have executed the following works3 ,i4 ,london ,bridge4 ,this was designed by my father1 as far as the general outline and proportions1 but he did not live long enough to design any details1 such as the depth of the arch-stones and those of the inverted arches between the main arches1 or the adjustment of them1 so that the whole might be placed in a perfect state of equilibrium1 not only as regards the individual arches1 but also with each other2 neither was the width of the foundations of the piers and abutments given1 nor the extent of piling necessary1 the cornice and parapets1 stairs1 pilasters of the piers and abutments1 the construction of the cofferdams and centres2 the specification as to what materials should be used1 and how they were to be put together2 the approaches to the bridge on both sides1 or how they were to be designed and put together2 all these had to be worked out and executed by myself4 ,it is true that my brother ,george gave me his advice when ,i required it1 but still ,i was the sole engineer1 and the whole responsibility rested with myself4 ,the execution of these works was rendered much more difficult than intended by my father1 for at his death the site was that of the old bridge4 ,but the ,committee of the ,corporation of ,london insisted that the new bridge should be built immediately above the old one1 the latter to be left standing during the construction of the new bridge4 ,i was therefore obliged to build it in the deep hole above the old bridge1 which was from #be to #cj feet below the level of low-water mark of spring tides4 ,,ii4 ,the completion of the great works of ,sheerness ,dockyard4 ,these1 as ,i have said1 had been wholly designed by my father upon an entirely original and novel plan of hollow walls1 which he first carried into effect at ,great ,grimsby ,docks1 in the year #aghf4 ,these walls1 though composed of a mass of materials of the same weight as ordinary dock walls1 were distributed over a wider area1 and pressed less heavily upon that surface in proportion to their extent1 and therefore the soft1 sandy foundation upon which they were built was able to bear them without yielding2 the increased friction also produced by the increased surface of their base enabled them to withstand with greater effect the lateral pressure of the earth behind them2 thus a double object was gained1 namely1 security against both vertical and lateral pressure4 ,when my father died1 on the #dth of ,october #ahba1 the northern half of the new dockyard1 including the sea wall1 the great basin1 the three large dry docks at the west end1 and the mast ponds and locks1 had been nearly completed2 so that it only remained to fix iron gates for the dry docks and those of the mast and boat ponds1 which had been already designed and ordered1 and were put into their places under my direction4 ,this portion of the dockyard1 although comprising the most extensive and costly part1 was not the most difficult4 ,the most arduous task still remained1 namely1 the construction of the northern portion4 ,here was the greatest depth of water1 varying from #be to #cj feet at low water of spring tides1 the worst foundation1 and the situation was much exposed to northerly and easterly winds4 ,these obstacles were felt so strongly by my father1 that he originally contemplated carrying out the works by means of the diving bell2 but as so much experience had already been obtained by the employment of cofferdams in similar constructions1 where they had been very successful1 it became a question for my serious consideration whether it would not be better to use cofferdams for the northern portion of the dockyard1 instead of employing the diving bell1 which would necessarily require much more time4 ,after consulting with the enterprising contractors1 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe1 ,banks1 and ,nicholson1 who had completed the works already made1 and ,mr4 ,john ,thomas1 the experienced resident engineer1 we came to the unanimous conclusion that it was perfectly practicable to construct the remainder of the works by means of cofferdams2 and although it would be rather more expensive1 nevertheless they could be done much better and far more speedily than by the diving bell2 and1 indeed1 they told me that my father had expressed the same opinion before he died2 and that there was little doubt but that if he had lived he would have recommended cofferdams instead of the diving bell4 ,i consulted my brother ,george upon the subject1 and he was of the same opinion4 ,we resolved to recommend that the remainder of the works should be completed by cofferdams1 and the ,admiralty approved of our recommendation4 ,messrs4 ,jolliffe1 ,banks1 and ,nicholson therefore undertook the contract for these works at the sum of #hde1jjjl41 and gave ample security2 and they were most successfully finished for the sum of #hed1jjjl4 in round numbers1 or at about #ijjjl4 beyond the contract price1 our estimate being nearly #ijj1jjjl42 so that they were actually completed for about #de1jjjl4 below our estimate1 and fully three years sooner than they would have been if the diving bell had been used4 ,of course the real merit of these works is due to my father2 but ,i claim some credit for having successfully carried them into effect1 for if any failure had taken place--and there was very great difficulty and risk--,i should have been blamed for it1 and probably been ruined at the outset of my career1 as the whole responsibility rested with me2 my brother never went near them4 ,,iii4 ,i finished the ,chatham dry docks1 commenced by my father1 at the cost of #ajj1jjjl4 ,in these there was nothing remarkable2 after those of ,sheerness they were much less difficult1 although of a somewhat similar kind4 ,,iv4 ,the next great work was the finishing of the great breakwater in ,plymouth ,sound4 ,the chief merit ,i claim for this is in adding the benching or berm on the outside1 at the base of the sea slope1 which breaks the sea before it reaches the slope and prevents it from acting injuriously upon it4 ,i also claim a certain portion of the credit for arranging and executing the paving of the upper surface1 and the dovetailed masonry of the two ends of the breakwater4 ,v4 ,the design and execution of the ,royal ,william ,victualling ,establishment1 at ,stonehouse1 near ,devonport1 ,i claim entirely as my own1 with the exception of the machinery1 for which my brother ,george is entitled to an equal share of credit with myself4 ,this establishment1 including the cost of the land1 amounted1 ,i believe1 to between #fjj1jjjl4 and #gjj1jjjl4 ,,vi4 ,the great basin1 two building slips for first-rates1 mast slip1 and the river wall in front1 at the ,royal ,dockyard at ,woolwich1 costing #cdj1jjjl4 ,,vii4 ,in company with ,mr4 ,joseph ,whidby1 ,mr4 ,walker1 and ,captain ,fullerton1 of the ,trinity ,house1 ,i made a report for removing the bar1 by means of dredging1 at the entrance of ,portsmouth harbour1 upon which there was only #ac feet at low water of spring tides1 which we estimated at #ee1jjjl42 and it is singular that this important work was never carried into effect until many years afterwards1 when it proved to be completely successful as far as it went4 ,the bar was lowered #e or #f feet1 and it might be lowered #h or #aj feet more1 so as to enable the largest class of vessels to enter and depart at low water of spring tides1 which would be of the greatest possible advantage to the public service2 and although the ,admiralty have not carried the dredging far enough1 still there is now #ah feet at low water of spring tides1 which enables the largest class of vessels to pass the bar at half tide1 instead of only at high water as before4 ,this fully proves the value and correctness of our joint report2 it only now requires that our recommendation should be carried further1 and there can be little doubt that it will be successful4 ,this great national harbour will be rendered accessible at low water1 and it ought to be1 particularly after the enormous sums that have been expended upon it1 for unless the depth over the bar is increased all improvements will be comparatively valueless4 ,mr4 ,murray and myself wrote a joint report to the ,admiralty1 recommending that1 in order to assist the dredging operations over the bar1 a sluice should be erected across the entrance to ,langston harbour1 with the gates or doors of the sluice pointing inwards1 so that at high water they might be shut1 and all the water1 or so much of it as might be required1 should be sent through ,portsmouth harbour at ebb tide1 to assist in scouring down the bar4 ,of course1 in order to render these works effective1 it would be necessary to enlarge the connecting channel between ,portsmouth and ,langston harbour1 so that all the ,langston tidal water should flow out through ,portsmouth during the time of ebb4 ,the ,admiralty up to the present time have not adopted this report4 ,they must1 however1 in order to preserve the requisite depth over ,portsmouth bar1 do either the one or the other1 or both2 that is to say1 they must increase the dredging operations1 or send more tidal water over it1 and the latter can only be obtained from ,langston2 as this harbour is of little commercial value1 supposing that any partial silting up should take place1 the depth could be restored by dredging2 but if both the dredging of ,portsmouth bar and the additional quantity of tidal water from ,langston harbour should be resorted to1 the bar might be kept down to the depth required1 and ,langston would not be injured4 ,if these two operations are skilfully conducted1 so as mutually to assist each other1 the result will be successful1 and this success is the more necessary1 in consequence of the quantity of land which is now being reclaimed from ,portsmouth harbour for the new works4 ,,viii4 ,the great flour mills and biscuit machinery at the ,clarence ,victualling ,yard1 ,portsmouth1 were designed and executed by my brother ,george and myself4 ,the idea of the bread apparatus was proposed by ,m4 ,grout1 and worked out by ourselves4 ,the great flour and biscuit mills at ,deptford were also designed and executed by my brother and myself4 ,,ix4 ,the ,thames ,tunnel shield2 the rolling machinery of the ,bombay1 the ,calcutta1 and the ,mexican mints2 the machinery at ,constantinople for manufacturing small arms2 numerous locomotive engines and tenders for different railways1 amongst them the #8,satellite1' for the ,brighton ,railway1 which was one of the first that travelled at the rate of #fj miles an hour4 ,the engines and machinery for several of ,her ,majesty's vessels of war1 amongst which may be mentioned the #8,bull ,dog1' the yacht #8,elfin1' and others2 four iron vessels1 engines1 and machinery for the ,russian ,government for the ,caspian ,sea1 the first that were ever placed there2 two yachts for the ,emperor ,nicholas2 the #8,vladimir' frigate2 two large screw vessels of war for the ,baltic2 three also for the ,black ,sea2 several for the ,danube ,company2 cranes1 sugar mills1 diving bells1 and machinery2 gantry cranes for the mahogany roofs of the ,west ,india ,docks2 spinning and all kinds of machinery1 from the year #ahba until the year #aheb4 ,x4 ,the first sea-going screw vessel that was constructed1 namely1 the #8,archimedes2' and also the #8,dwarf1' #ahci1 the first screw vessel of war that was introduced into the navy4 ,,xi4 ,i recommended that the use of the ,cornish high-pressure condensing system should be introduced into the steam-vessels of the ,royal ,navy4 ,at that time they were entirely upon the system of ,boulton and ,watt1 when steam was only employed to the extent of #e lb4 pressure upon every square inch4 ,now it was well known that the intensity of the power of steam increased in a much greater ratio than the additional quantity of fuel required to raise the temperature1 so that high-pressure condensed steam was much more economical than low pressure4 ,there was a good deal of prejudice against it1 in consequence of the decided objections of ,boulton and ,watt1 and therefore it was not adopted at the time1 but by degrees this prejudice has been overcome1 and now steam of #be to #cj lb4 is employed in the ,royal ,navy1 with great advantage and economy4 ,,xii4 ,i may also say that ,i was the means of introducing oscillating engines into the navy4 ,these ,i believe were invented by a ,mr4 ,witt1 of ,hull1 but in consequence of the extreme accuracy required in making them1 and some degree of prejudice against the vibratory action of the cylinder1 this very valuable invention was laid aside4 ,the able and ingenious ,mr4 ,maudslay took it up1 but was dissatisfied with it1 and abandoned it4 ,mr4 ,john ,penn1 who had a small establishment for making machinery at ,greenwich1 then adopted it1 and commenced manufacturing these engines upon a small scale for the steamboats on the ,thames4 ,he improved on the idea1 acquiring the greatest experience in constructing the engines1 and he was convinced that they could be made upon any scale with equally successful results4 ,it happened about this time that the ,admiralty required new engines of greater power for their official yacht1 the #8,black ,eagle1' whose speed averaged little more than #h knots an hour1 and they applied to ,boulton and ,watt1 who had made the old engines for the #8,black ,eagle4' ,they said they could easily make more powerful engines1 but that these would necessarily be heavier1 and sink the vessel lower in the water1 when the resistance would be so much increased that very little additional speed would be gained1 and therefore it would be better to have an entirely new vessel4 ,the ,admiralty did not wish to incur the expense1 and the matter was likely to fall to the ground4 ,penn heard of this1 and1 quite uninvited1 sent in a tender to make new engines for the #8,black ,eagle1' double the power of the old ones1 of the same weight1 and occupying the same space1 for a sum1 not1 ,i think1 exceeding the cost of engines of the same power on the old method4 ,he further offered1 if the ,admiralty officers were not satisfied1 to take them out1 and replace the old engines at his own expense4 ,i happened to be present upon other business with the ,comptroller of the ,navy1 ,sir ,thomas ,byam ,martin1 when ,penn's tender was sent in1 and after reading it he threw it to me1 and said1 8,rennie1 what do you think of that2 should ,i accept it or not80 ,i read ,penn's tender carefully1 and knowing something about the oscillating engine1 and having a good opinion of it1 ,i said ,i thought he should accept it4 8,then10 said he1 8,i will do so1 and if it turns out badly you shall have the blame40 8,very well10 ,i replied1 8if it turns out badly ,i will take the blame40 ,penn's offer was accordingly accepted4 ,the engines were made and fixed on board2 all the conditions of the tender were fully complied with1 and the ,admiralty were perfectly satisfied with their bargain4 ,from that time forward ,penn became one of the chief manufacturers of the ,admiralty engines1 and has continued to be so up to the present time4 ,the harbours which ,i made are described in my work on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours'2 they were a portion of ,kingstown1 in ,dublin ,bay2 ,donaghadee1 ,port ,patrick1 ,port ,rush1 ,warkworth1 ,sunderland1 ,east ,hartlepool1 ,whitehaven2 nearly rebuilding ,ramsgate harbour2 ,ponta ,delgada1 in the ,azores4 ,i designed harbours for ,oporto2 the ,mattozenhas2 ,viana1 ,aveiro1 ,figuera1 and ,st4 ,ubes1 for the ,portuguese ,government2 also for ,douglas1 ,castleton1 ,peel1 ,ramsey1 and ,laxey1 in the ,isle of ,man1 for the local authorities2 and ,redoubt ,kal1 in the ,black ,sea1 for the ,russian ,government4 ,,xiii4 ,london ,bridge2 ,hyde ,park1 ,kensington ,gardens1 and ,staines ,bridges1 besides finishing those at ,crammond and ,new ,galloway1 designed by my father4 ,i laid out and carried through ,parliament the ,brighton ,railway and the ,black wall ,railway1 in #ahch2 also the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 in conjunction with my brother ,george1 in #ahbg4 ,in #ahch ,i designed the ,central ,kent ,railway1 which1 by passing through the centre of the county1 connected all the leading towns on the main line1 besides reducing the distance between the metropolis1 ,dover1 and ,folkestone to the minimum4 ,i also projected a line for the ,great ,northern in the years #ahdd-de1 which was admitted to be the best and shortest line2 but it unfortunately failed in consequence of the late ,mr4 ,francis ,giles not having completed the parliamentary surveys4 ,i laid down a railway between ,leeds and ,carlisle1 that would have materially shortened the distance between the important manufacturing town of ,leeds1 ,carlisle1 ,glasgow1 and the north of ,scotland2 a line between ,leeds and ,bradford1 and another between ,york and ,scarborough4 ,another1 called the ,north ,wales ,railway1 between ,bangor and ,port ,dyllaen1 where ,i designed a capacious harbour and docks1 that would have been of the greatest advantage to ,liverpool1 avoiding the dangerous navigation between that place and ,port ,dyllaen1 and affording an excellent point of departure for ,ireland4 ,i also made a design for a new port for ,holyhead1 upon the principles laid down by my father1 that would have answered the purpose far better1 and have saved in a great measure the expense that has been incurred by the present ill-contrived harbour1 and which has not answered the object intended4 ,in company with my friend ,mr4 ,george ,remington1 ,i designed the direct ,london and ,manchester ,railway in the years #ahdd-de2 this line would have reduced the distance between ,london and ,manchester to #agf miles1 besides affording railway communication to a number of the intermediate towns1 such as ,bradford1 ,burton1 ,leicester1 ,congleton1 and other places that had not hitherto received the benefit of direct railway accommodation4 ,this line was pronounced by the ,board of ,trade to be the most important and best laid down line that had been brought before ,parliament1 and was strongly recommended by them2 and it would have been carried1 but unfortunately there was another competing line by ,mr4 ,rastrick1 that was ultimately abandoned by its promoters1 who1 before doing so1 united with us2 but in doing this the reference books containing the names of the owners and occupiers along both lines became mixed1 and the result was1 that seven miles of the reference of the competing line was substituted for seven miles of our line1 and vice vers4 ,this was fatal1 and the ,bill was consequently lost2 and this valuable line1 almost the best of any in ,england1 could never be resuscitated4 ,the ,north-,western ,railway1 thinking that they were safe from all competition1 declined taking up the line1 though their interest imperatively called upon them to do so1 and further1 would not unite with nor buy up the ,midland from ,leeds to ,rugby4 ,the ,midland ,company then determined to make an independent line to ,london1 and took the identical course laid down by ,remington and myself4 ,they have become a very formidable rival to the ,north-,western1 and this is precisely a similar case to that between the ,south-,eastern and the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,companies4 ,if the ,south-,eastern ,company had only adopted my ,central ,kent line1 which was laid down in #ahch1 before they had commenced their present line--and they promised to do so--the ,london1 ,chatham1 and ,dover ,railway would never have been made1 and the county of ,kent would have been better served1 many millions would have been saved1 and many thousand unfortunate shareholders would have avoided ruin4 ,i laid down lines for the kingdoms of ,sweden and ,portugal1 which have been more or less adopted1 and projected a line from ,odessa to ,moscow4 ,also the ,london1 ,brighton1 and ,south ,coast as far as ,salisbury1 and from thence to ,warminster1 which has since been adopted4 ,a line from ,london to ,birmingham1 ,leeds1 and ,carlisle2 ,leeds and ,bradford2 ,dumfries and ,port ,patrick2 ,newry and ,enniskillen1 in ,ireland2 ,bangor to ,port ,dyllaen1 ,north ,wales2 ,cannock ,chase line1 in ,staffordshire1 through an undeveloped coal district1 another of my lines which has since been carried into effect4 ,the ,east ,lincoln1 from ,lynn to ,great ,grimsby2 the direct ,london and ,norwich1 from ,bishop's ,stortford to ,thetford1 which would have shortened the distance between ,london and ,norwich and ,yarmouth4 ,all these lines were laid upon the direct principle1 that is1 taking the shortest distance that the nature of the intervening country would permit between the two termini2 this principle is now proved to be the correct one1 and if it had only been acted upon before1 we may readily conceive the vast amount of capital which would have been saved1 while the counties through which railways have been made would have received a much greater benefit2 whereas1 by the system which has hitherto been adopted1 a great number of unnecessary lines have been constructed1 and a constant competition and rivalry have taken place between the different companies1 and now1 with reduced dividends and increased charges1 they find out their error1 when it is too late to be remedied4 ,another most important error has been committed by a too narrow gauge having been adopted4 ,my brother and myself1 when we carried the ,bill for the ,manchester and ,liverpool through ,parliament1 in the year #ahbf--;and this may be considered almost the very commencement of the railway system--after investigating the width between all the various carriage wheels1 whether for goods or passengers1 we decided that the width of gauge from centre to centre of the rails should be #e feet #f inches or #f feet4 ,when ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson became the engineer for executing the line1 he decided that the gauge should be only #d feet #h inches from centre to centre of the railway1 for no other reason than that the gauge between the old colliery rails was #d feet #h inches2 hence arose all the subsequent difficulties4 ,it was quite clear that #d feet #h inches was too narrow4 ,brunel1 seizing on this mistake1 proposed at once to make the gauge #g feet from centre to centre of the rails for the ,great ,western ,railway4 ,this was as evidently too much as ,stephenson's was too little4 ,the power of a locomotive engine is in proportion to its weight1 and the greater the weight the greater the power1 acting as it does by its adhesion to the rails2 and to increase the power of an engine upon the narrow gauge could only be done with safety by increasing its length2 for if it be done by increasing the height1 the centre of gravity would be raised also1 and the motion of the engine would be rendered unsteady2 and by increasing the length the engine would be less adapted for going round sharp curves4 ,now in the ordinary traffic of goods1 such as coals1 c41 extraordinary velocity was not required1 and therefore the width of the gauge was not of so much consequence1 but when it came to carrying passengers the case was wholly altered4 ,latterly the coaches and mails had travelled at the rate of #aj and #ab miles an hour1 whereas goods were seldom carried at the rate of more than #c miles an hour4 ,if passengers were to travel by railway it would not be less than #ab miles an hour1 and therefore it was at length necessary to provide for this velocity1 and more2 otherwise1 as there was a certain prejudice on the outset against railway travelling1 the latter could not expect to have the preference4 ,but when it was ascertained1 as it was at the trial of engines upon the ,rainhill plane of the ,manchester and ,liverpool ,railway1 that the imperfect locomotives of that day could go at the rate of #cj miles an hour1 the whole case was changed2 the carriage of goods1 which at first was most important1 gave way to that of carrying passengers1 and it was evident that the whole system of locomotion1 whether of goods or passengers1 must be absorbed by railways4 ,it was therefore more especially necessary that the question of the gauge should be most carefully considered4 ,i may be answered1 certainly1 that the improved locomotive engines upon the narrow gauge realize a speed of #ej to #fj miles an hour1 and this is fast enough for anything2 but then this cannot be done without incurring greater risk than upon a broader gauge4 ,the ,great ,western realize a speed of #de miles an hour without the least risk1 i4e4 including stoppages1 whereas the narrow gauge does not do more than #ce to #cg miles an hour1 and that probably with a greater wear and tear of the rails4 ,a medium therefore between the two gauges1 that is #e feet #f inches or #f feet1 instead of #d feet #h inches or #g feet1 appeared to my brother and self the proper gauge2 and if such had been adopted we should never have heard of the #g-;feet gauge1 and the #e feet #f inches or #f-;feet gauge would have been universally adopted1 to the great advantage of all4 ,before leaving railways1 it may be proper to say something about the atmospheric system4 ,when an experiment was made on a large scale and succeeded very well1 it was subsequently reduced to practice upon the ,dublin and ,bray ,railway1 between ,kingstown and ,dalkey1 a length of about #c miles4 ,here it succeeded perfectly2 the steepest incline was completely mastered1 and the smoothness and luxury of travelling were unequalled4 ,brunel afterwards took it up1 and employed it upon the ,south ,devon ,railway4 ,there it succeeded also perfectly as far as speed and luxury of travelling were concerned4 ,the difficulty however of making the valve in the exhausting tube was so great that it was ultimately abandoned1 after having incurred great expense1 and the locomotive system was again resorted to4 ,the ,croydon ,railway also adopted it1 but gave it up for the same reason as the ,south ,devon4 ,my brother and myself were much taken with this system1 and made several of the steam engines for it1 that answered their purpose perfectly1 and we thought that by a little more perseverance in it1 the difficulties complained of might have been overcome1 but the proprietors would not listen either to ,brunel or ourselves4 ,the ,stephensons made a dead set against it1 and1 taking the facts at the time1 perhaps they were right2 but it is very rarely that a new invention succeeds at the first or second trial3 it requires time to ascertain the defects1 and to study more minutely the remedy1 and1 after a little while1 the cure for the evil is found out4 ,i should not be surprised if ultimately the atmospheric system comes to life again3 indeed1 the very strongest opponents of it have already adopted it in ,london1 with certain modifications1 for conveying the mail bags in ,london from the ,general ,post ,office to some of the railway stations1 with considerable success1 and ,mr4 ,rammell made an experimental line of this kind at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the defects in the original lines were principally those of workmanship1 and can be remedied by degrees1 as is always the case whenever a principle is sound1 for it only requires perseverance to achieve ultimate success4 ,,xiv4 ,drainage of lowlands upon a large scale ,i have carried into effect in several instances already described4 ,the completion of the ,eau ,brink ,cut1 the designing and making the ,norfolk ,estuary ,cut below ,lynn1 and the ,marshland works1 by means of which from #cej1jjj to #djj1jjj acres of land are drained2 the ,nene ,estuary ,cut1 by which about #aej1jjj acres of land are drained2 the improvement of the ,witham between ,boston and the sea1 by which the drainage of about #bej1jjj acres has been materially improved2 the ,ancholme drainage1 by which #ej1jjj acres of lowlands have been well drained2 altogether amounting to between #hjj1jjj and #ijj1jjj acres4 ,,xv4 ,i may also say that ,i have embanked from the estuaries of the ,ouse1 the ,nene1 and the ,witham1 about #fjjj acres of fen land1 which is now more or less under cultivation4 ,i have also laid down a plan1 at present being carried into effect1 by which #cb1jjj additional acres will be embanked from the estuaries of the ,ouse and ,nene2 and another plan for embanking #de1jjj acres from the estuaries of the ,welland and ,witham2 indeed1 my original plan of #ahcg was for embanking from #aej1jjj to #bjj1jjj acres of land from the estuaries of the ,ouse1 ,nene1 ,welland1 and ,witham1 and the ,great ,wash2 and ,i have no doubt that in time this will be effected1 and another large and most valuable county--all rich agricultural land--will be added to the kingdom4 ,i also obtained an ,act for embanking #cb1jjj acres from the north side of the estuary of the ,thames1 near ,shoeburyness4 ,i believe that1 in addition to this1 three times the amount may be taken from this and other parts of the ,thames estuary4 ,let to these be added the lands which may be saved from the estuaries of the ,humber1 the ,forth1 the ,tay1 the ,clyde1 the ,solway1 ,morecambe ,bay1 and the ,mersey1 altogether from #ejj1jjj to #fjj1jjj acres of land may be reclaimed1 or three large new counties may be added to the kingdom1 capable of producing annually an additional supply of #c1ejj1jjj quarters of corn1 which1 at #cl4 per quarter1 would1 after deducting #bjs4 per quarter for the cost of production1 add a revenue of about #f1jjj1jjjl4 a year to the country4 ,a great deal may be done in this way also in ,ireland4 ,we should1 however1 deduct a million a year for the first fifteen years to cover the cost of embankment4 ,the clear annual gain would be #e1jjj1jjjl4 a year to the country2 or1 putting it in another light1 the land so acquired would maintain an additional number of inhabitants4 ,besides this1 large tracts of lowlands adjacent to these estuaries might be greatly improved in their drainage1 in connection with the reclamation works1 which would add considerably to their produce4 ,the execution of all these works1 besides draining the quantity of land ,i have stated1 and more than doubling its value1 has also very greatly improved the navigation4 ,i also extended the ,newry ,ship ,canal nearly two miles1 which has a depth of #af to #ah feet1 and is #acj feet wide1 with an entrance lock #ej feet wide4 ,i deepened the old canal to ,newry1 so that large vessels1 drawing nearly #af to #ag feet1 can come up to the town4 ,,xvi4 ,soon after my father's death1 in #ahba1 when ,i may be said to have entered my professional career upon my own account1 ,i began to consider the water question2 that is to say1 the best mode of economizing water1 so that those districts where it might be most required could be supplied1 as far as the physical geography of those places would render it practicable4 ,generally speaking1 there falls a certain quantity of rain in every district during the year1 and this1 with more or less regularity1 at particular seasons and times4 ,in some places the rain is periodical1 and falls in the course of three or four consecutive months2 in other countries it falls at different times1 principally1 however1 in the winter and autumn months4 ,now after the periodical rain is over1 the whole country is deprived of water throughout the remainder1 or about three-fourths1 of the year4 ,the remedy for this is to construct reservoirs in the most convenient places1 upon such a scale as the wants of the country may require2 in these reservoirs the surplus waters should be stored during the periodical rains1 to serve as a supply in the dry season1 not only for domestic purposes1 but for irrigation1 navigation1 c42 the reservoirs should1 in some cases1 be covered1 and in others open1 even to the extent of making them large lakes4 ,they should be provided with proper sluices and culverts1 open or covered1 as may be required1 and best adapted for distributing the water in the most beneficial manner4 ,having obtained a sufficient supply1 the next point to be attended to is1 to take care that the water shall not be polluted3 in order to effect this1 in all thickly-peopled districts the sewage should not be discharged into the river or watercourses1 but into separate1 isolated1 and well-ventilated tanks1 and then be deodorized by mixing it with earth1 or subjecting it to any well-known process for this purpose1 and the refuse should be distributed for manure2 thus the sewage1 instead of being a nuisance1 will become valuable for agricultural purposes4 ,by these means1 regulated according to the particular circumstances of each case1 the whole question1 viz4 economy of water1 which is so very important in every respect1 is solved4 ,i have long endeavoured to make it clearly understood1 but in ,england we are slow to move in a new direction4 ,the enemy must be at our doors before we are prepared to meet him1 and then we begin in earnest4 ,such has been the case with the water question3 we carried drainage almost to the utmost extent1 so that the rainwater was discharged into the adjacent watercourses and rivers with the greatest rapidity and was carried off to sea1 and we thought not a moment that the day would come when we should want it4 ,the universal cry was1 8,only get rid of the water1 and all will go on well40 ,at the same time all the sewage matter was discharged into the watercourses1 the cry being1 8,only get rid of the sewage1 and our cities and towns will be healthy1 and we shall hear no more of it20 little thinking that the streams would be polluted1 and that water when most wanted would not be forthcoming1 and that even the moderate quantity that could be obtained would be unfit for domestic purposes4 ,the ,thames and all the great rivers and streams were converted into common sewers1 threatening to spread pestilence around them4 ,the water that was to be obtained for domestic purposes was polluted to such an extent1 that the malaria caused by the foul state of the watercourses was increased by drinking the contaminated water that we fondly expected we had got rid of4 ,at last the public opened their eyes1 and asked how all this had arisen2 then commissioners of all kinds were appointed by the ,government to investigate these important questions2 and what is the result8 ,precisely that which ,i mentioned years ago1 namely1 #a4 ,that means must be established for economizing water and for affording an ample supply at all times4 #b4 ,that all sewage matter must be diverted or be prevented from being discharged into the watercourses4 #c4 ,that as far as practicable the sewage matter must be utilized for manuring the land4 ,all these three propositions1 which constitute the whole elements of these important questions1 are now being carried into effect by ,acts of ,parliament2 better late than never1 for if these terrible evils had been allowed to exist much longer the consequences would have been most fatal4 ,about four years ago ,i wrote two letters to #8,the ,times1' which were printed in that journal1 embodying my views upon this subject in a detailed manner1 according to the principles above described4 ,i am extremely glad that at the eleventh hour the subject is beginning to be thoroughly understood1 and it is to be hoped that now the proper remedy will be employed2 it is contained in the principles that ,i have recommended for the last forty years4 ,i may not perhaps claim the merit of the whole2 but this ,i must say in justice to myself1 that ,i have contributed in some degree to direct attention to the subject1 and ,i most sincerely trust that1 having been made conscious of its importance1 the public will not be content until the question has been thoroughly sifted1 and the evils complained of successfully remedied4 ,up to the present time neither compensating reservoirs for the due supply of water during the dry seasons have been made1 nor1 with a few solitary exceptions1 has the sewage been excluded from the rivers1 nor have the watercourses been properly improved so as to prevent inundations of the adjacent lowlands4 ,in fact1 the authorities have only just begun to get an idea of what is required to obtain an ample supply of good water2 but the more they investigate the subject1 the more they will find that only upon a right understanding of the principles above recommended can this supply be procured4 ,sewage matter has now been recognized as a fertilizing agent1 and the only points undecided with regard to it are the best modes of deodorization1 so as not to injure its manuring value1 and the most suitable method of applying it to the land1 whether in a liquid or in a solid state4 ,with regard to water for domestic use1 considerable progress has been made3 the water is conducted into covered reservoirs1 where it is excluded from the action of the atmosphere2 it is also filtered1 so that all the alluvial and tangible vegetable matters are excluded2 and the best method of separating from it those injurious ingredients with which it is chemically combined has made great progress4 ,these1 no doubt1 are considerable advantages gained1 but unless the means of obtaining an ample supply be used1 the other advantages will be comparatively of little service4 ,it is true they will be valuable as far as they go1 but if there be a deficient supply of water1 there will remain a great deal to be remedied1 therefore it will be necessary to secure an ample supply by means of open reservoirs4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,formation of ,natural ,breakwaters--,the ,society of ,civil ,engineers--,the ,education of a ,civil ,engineer--,some ,hints on ,practice--,estimating4 ,in the introduction to my work on #8,british and ,foreign ,harbours1' ,i have suggested a method by which shoals formed by alluvial deposits in the open sea might be converted into effective breakwaters1 so as to become harbours of refuge2 or the means of removing them altogether4 ,it is well known that many existing shoals form1 to some extent1 safe roadsteads at certain times of tide1 e4g4 the ,goodwin ,sands1 the banks outside ,yarmouth ,roads1 the banks off the coast of ,holland1 and many other places4 ,these are generally formed off alluvial shores1 where the meeting of opposing currents causes an eddy or line of stagnation1 and the alluvial matter held in suspension is deposited1 forming a bank1 according to the extent1 width1 and direction of the eddy4 ,in some instances1 as in the case of deltas of rivers1 and along coasts where the waters are densely charged with alluvial matter1 these shoals1 by continual deposit1 are raised to the level of high water of neap tides1 when a succession of marine vegetation appears on the surface1 finally becoming a rich grass marsh2 except under special circumstances1 the land is seldom raised higher1 and where there is no flow of tide the same result takes place at the medium level of the waters4 ,in other cases1 as in the open sea1 where the waters are exposed to violent agitation by the wind1 these deposits not only rarely reach the level of high water1 but1 except under particular circumstances1 seldom exceed the level of half-tide1 and often the banks remain many fathoms below low water1 though even in their lowest state they are far above the bottom of the sea4 ,as all these banks are composed of alluvial matter1 we can only ascribe the different levels1 first1 to the variable quantity of alluvium with which the waters are charged2 secondly1 to the degree of agitation to which the waters are exposed2 and thirdly1 to the velocity and extent of the opposing currents which produce the banks4 ,having thus stated generally the causes that produce these banks1 ,i now come to my proposition1 namely1 the best mode of utilizing them for making harbours of refuge1 or the method for clearing them away where they may be injurious4 ,with regard to the first1 it is only necessary to increase the power of the depositing eddy by means of artificial works1 to raise the banks to any height required2 by this means they may be rendered permanent breakwaters at the least expense4 ,secondly1 where these shoals are injurious they may be removed by diverting the course of one or both currents1 so that the line of stagnation shall be destroyed2 the action of the sea will then gradually remove the shoal4 ,thus we have the means in our power of converting these sandbanks into most valuable harbours of refuge1 or of removing them where they are found to be injurious4 ,this ,i do not pretend to call an invention1 but simply an idea1 and ,i am not aware that it has been suggested before4 ,modern engineers have not sufficiently directed their attention to the construction of harbours4 ,it is a very simple affair to build piers or breakwaters of any extent1 provided the requisite means are forthcoming1 but it is a totally different thing to ascertain whether1 after these works have been constructed1 they will answer the purpose originally intended4 ,when ,president of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 during the years #ahde-f-g1 ,i drew up detailed reports of the history of the profession from its commencement in ,great ,britain up to that time1 showing what had been done in every department1 by whom1 and at what date4 ,these reports are published in their #8,transactions4' ,subsequent presidents have to some extent adopted a similar course2 but with all due respect to them1 they have not taken that large and scientific view of the profession of a civil engineer which it is imperatively necessary to adopt in order to keep the profession up to that high tone which its importance requires1 not only for its own credit1 but for the benefit of the world at large4 ,perhaps there is no profession 7with all proper respect to others7 that has conferred so much benefit upon mankind as that of the civil engineer4 ,its objects are clearly defined in the two mottoes belonging to the ,smeatonian ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 which was the first of the kind established in this country1 having originated with ,smeaton1 ,mylne1 and my father1 namely1 8,omnia numero pondere et mensur20 4 ,up to that date the profession of a civil engineer may be said to have been unknown in ,great ,britain2 previous to that time we were simply known as 8vulgar mechanics0--men who toiled with their hands1 as masons1 bricklayers1 carpenters1 blacksmiths1 c4 ,but those who so called us would have entertained a very different idea of the 8mechanics0 if they had been forced to dispense with their services4 ,let me ask how could the various and complicated operations which alone render modern trade1 and therefore modern civilization1 possible1 be carried on without the aid of the mechanic1 alias the civil engineer8 ,the object of the ,smeatonian ,society was merely a social gathering in the form of a club1 to assemble the members at dinner at certain times1 when they could discuss in a friendly manner the various subjects connected with their profession1 and to endeavour to obliterate all those rivalries and jealousies which unfortunately are too common amongst professional men of all classes4 ,the society was to serve as a rallying point for the profession1 and it was believed that when their members increased sufficiently 7for there was little more than a dozen engineers in the kingdom at the time who were counted as such7 the society might extend its usefulness by reading papers1 discussing them1 and publishing them regularly to the world1 in the same manner as the already established scientific societies2 this has since been done by the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers4 ,but ,i think the time has now arrived when that ,institution should be enlarged1 and take a wider sphere4 ,it has hitherto been confined too much to the class practising purely engineering works2 but the mechanical engineers now form a body which must be treated with every deference4 ,it is very true that the latter are freely admitted into the institution1 but there seems to be a tacit understanding amongst the former that they should not attain the honour of becoming presidents and vice-presidents4 ,it is true that the late ,mr4 ,field1 a most distinguished mechanical engineer1 was elected president1 and served his time2 but this1 ,i believe1 arose more from his having been one of the earliest members of the institution than from any respect due to the particular class of the profession to which he belonged4 ,now there cannot be a greater mistake than this4 ,every member of that institution1 to whatever class he belongs1 from the moment he is elected should be in every respect upon precisely the same footing as those who are now considered the governing class1 and the ablest man should be chosen from each grade as president or vice-president alternately1 so that each department should successively occupy the chair4 ,also1 instead of choosing the president and council by rotation1 according to seniority1 the acknowledged best men in every department should be chosen as officers4 ,and further1 the institution thus regulated should have the power of giving certificates of competency after the candidates for admission have been duly examined by independent examiners2 and until they have received these certificates they should not be allowed to practise4 ,this is the rule in every other learned profession1 and there can be no reason why it should not be adopted by the engineers4 ,it is the only method by which it can take rank amongst the learned professions2 and as no other requires more scientific knowledge1 or is entrusted with a greater portion of responsibility or a larger amount of trust1 or where failure becomes more disastrous1 it is quite clear that no man should be allowed to practise it unless he has passed a proper examination1 and has received a certificate of competency from proper authorities4 ,against this proposal it may be argued1 that many illiterate men1 although of great original genius1 would be excluded if their competency were tried by such a test4 ,my reply is1 let them not be tried only by the ordinary rules of scientific books1 but also by the general principles which the candidate professes1 and let those principles be tested1 to prove how far they are in accordance with sound philosophy4 ,a man like ,stephenson or ,brindley1 although illiterate1 may understand these principles perfectly1 and yet may not be able to explain them4 ,nevertheless1 let him be examined1 but in a different manner from the ordinary routine1 and it will soon be discovered whether his profession and his practice are founded upon true mechanical and philosophical principles4 ,if these examinations are properly conducted every possible objection will be abolished1 and no scientific educated engineer1 or any illiterate person of true scientific genius1 will be prevented from pursuing the profession1 whilst only the speculator and charlatan will be excluded4 ,by this means the public will be assured that the works for which they subscribe the funds will be conducted in the best manner1 and most probably to a successful termination4 ,at present1 the system upon which public works are carried on is wholly wrong4 ,there is no system4 ,any man without business1 competent or not1 dubs himself engineer1 starts a project1 well or ill founded1 as the case may be1 generally the latter1 and issues a prospectus to the public1 to obtain the necessary funds to carry his proposal into effect4 ,next he gets a contractor to back him by taking a certain number of shares1 provided that he has the contract at his own price4 ,the shares he looks upon as good for nothing1 and therefore adds so much more to his ordinary profits1 so that instead of receiving #aj or #ab per cent4 upon his cost price1 which is the usual rule of the trade1 he gets double1 with the shares into the bargain1 all of which is added to the capital of the undertaking2 and in order to carry into effect this wasteful policy1 the contractor generally stipulates for two or three of his own nominees to be placed upon the board1 to 8look after0 his interests1 so that1 in point of fact1 he pays himself pretty nearly what he likes4 ,the engineer1 who ought to be his master1 loses all control over him1 and in many cases becomes little better than his servant4 ,this is certainly a most discreditable state of things1 and has been the cause of the most wasteful expenditure1 and the ruin of many valuable undertakings1 and it will always continue to be the case so long as the present system prevails4 ,the real object of the civil engineer is to promote the civilization of the world1 by the proper application of all the great mechanical means at his command1 and to take a high1 independent position as a scientific man1 thoroughly versed in his profession both theoretically and practically1 and wholly independent of contractors1 and all sinister influences4 ,unless he can do this1 he never will be held in that esteem and respect1 or take that high position without which no professional man can properly discharge the duties that he owes to himself and to the public4 ,against what ,i have said it may perhaps be urged that ,i assign too high a place to the profession to which my father and myself have had the honour to belong2 but ,i think that when the subject has been calmly and fairly considered it will be generally admitted that ,i have not done so without reason4 ,without wishing for a moment to depreciate the merits of any other body of men1 ,i think it will be conceded that the objects proposed by the engineer1 and the acquirements1 knowledge1 and experience that he must possess before he can practise successfully1 are at least equal to those of any other profession1 particularly after the practical examples exhibited to the world of the great benefits that engineering has already conferred upon mankind4 ,therefore are we entitled to be ranked amongst the most learned professions1 and to receive all the honours they have most justly earned2 and ,i trust the time is not far distant when this justice will be accorded to them4 ,before concluding this sketch of my career ,i will offer a few observations as to what ,i consider1 from my experience1 the best plan of education for the profession of a civil engineer4 ,hitherto there has been no regular system4 ,a youth leaves school about the age of seventeen or eighteen1 without any previous training1 and his parents1 thinking that he has got a mechanical turn1 as it is termed1 decide at once to make him a civil engineer1 whether he likes it or is fit for it or not4 ,they then send him1 with a considerable premium1 to an engineer of some standing and practice1 who1 unless special conditions are made 7and very few engineers will make them71 will not undertake to teach him the profession4 ,the pupil is sent into the office1 and placed under the direction of the principal assistant1 who directs him to do whatever is required1 if he can do it1 whether drawing1 writing1 or calculating1 or anything else2 and if he wishes to learn anything1 he must find it out himself3 neither the principal nor assistant explains the principles or reasons of anything that is done4 ,if he prove to be steady1 intelligent1 and useful1 keeps the regular office hours1 and evinces a determination to understand thoroughly the why and wherefore of every kind of work that is brought before him1 and by this means acquires some practical knowledge1 he will soon attract the notice of his employer1 and will be gradually transferred from one department to another1 until the expiration of his pupilage1 which varies from three to four years2 then1 if he really has acquired a competent knowledge of the profession1 and the employer thinks his old pupil can be of further service to him1 he is engaged at a moderate salary1 to be employed in such capacity as he is fit for4 ,if during his pupilage he has made but little progress1 nothing beyond mere routine1 he is discharged with a certificate according to his merits1 and sent into the world1 to find his way forward as best he can4 ,now it should be understood that the pupil only learns one part of his business1 such as the construction of railways1 canals1 improvement of rivers1 docks1 drainage1 harbours1 and waterworks1 and the buildings connected with them2 but there is another and very important part of civil engineering1 namely1 the mechanical department1 of which he remains totally ignorant4 ,nor will he gain any insight into the raising of coals1 iron1 or any other geological product4 ,now1 in order to form a good civil engineer1 in my opinion it is absolutely necessary that he should be well acquainted with all these different branches4 ,to this it may be replied1 that it is not necessary an engineer should be acquainted with all departments of the profession1 but only with the one to which he intends more particularly to devote himself4 ,now this is a very great mistake1 for they are all so intimately connected1 that without having a general knowledge of the whole you cannot practise in any one department with complete success2 for whenever you have to rely upon the resources of another department you can never make sure of being thoroughly well served1 unless you are yourself a tolerable judge of work4 ,i repeat1 then1 that an engineer who has studied only one department cannot be termed properly educated4 ,and the question arises1 what is the best mode of education for a pupil to obtain this multifarious1 and1 as ,i contend1 absolutely necessary1 information1 to enable him to practise the profession of a civil engineer in the most enlightened1 scientific1 and practical manner8 ,my answer is this3 ,let him first get a sound elementary education in the several departments of arithmetic1 algebra1 geometry1 natural philosophy1 geography1 geology1 astronomy1 chemistry1 land and hydrographical surveying1 as well as grammar1 ,english composition1 history1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,latin1 according to the improved system of modern education2 every youth of ordinary talents has a tolerably fair knowledge of these at seventeen or eighteen4 ,what then should be the training for an engineer8 ,first let him go through the best course of modern education at his command1 including the elements of geometry1 mathematics1 and the physical sciences1 not excluding ,latin and ,greek1 in spite of the prejudice against them now frequently expressed4 ,then let him be apprenticed for two or three years to some good steam engine and machinery manufacturer1 where he should learn to make drawings and calculations1 handle tools1 make models1 steam-engine machinery1 and put machinery together4 ,by this means1 if he applies his mind to it properly1 he may become a practical as well as theoretical mechanician1 which is the soundest basis for good engineering2 indeed1 without this it is impossible for an engineer to be thoroughly successful1 but being well grounded in this most important knowledge1 all the others will become comparatively easy4 ,having gone through this apprenticeship1 let him bind himself for three or four years to some well-known civil engineer1 of large practice in railways1 docks1 harbours1 waterworks1 canals1 drainage1 rivers1 c4 ,in this office the pupil will learn everything connected with these departments1 and as they are founded more or less upon practical mechanics1 he will soon find that from his previous mechanical education he has already acquired considerable knowledge of them1 and it will only be necessary to apply those principles1 modified according to the particular circumstances required3 in fact1 the principles are the same1 although applied upon a larger scale4 ,in laying down a railway the young engineer will have to consider the particular local1 geographical and geological features of the country through which the line is to pass1 and the extent of mechanical power that will be necessary to work it effectually1 consistent with the cost of making the cuttings and embankments4 ,here is a purely mechanical question1 which the pupil's previous instruction will enable him to decide1 and which he could not do without this instruction4 ,if it be a question of improving a river1 the quantity of water flowing through it1 the inclination of its bed1 the extent and levels of the district which it has to drain1 will reduce themselves to the laws of the pressure and movement of fluids1 which are explained under the general theorems of hydraulics and hydrostatics1 supplemented by certain rules derived from practical experience1 such as friction1 c4 ,again1 if it be the making of a harbour1 the student must first thoroughly examine the nature of the locality1 that is1 its geographical position and geological character4 ,as regards the former1 whether the harbour is to be at the mouth of a river1 whether that river discharges its waters into a bay1 or through a projecting exposed line of coast where the main tidal currents run continuously and rapidly past it4 ,with regard to the latter1 whether the adjacent coasts be flat and alluvial2 or elevated1 but still composed of soft alluvial or sandy and calcareous soil1 easily abraded or worn away by the passing currents2 or whether they be composed of the harder or primary rocks4 ,he must also carefully consider the strength and the direction of the currents4 ,all these various conditions must be carefully weighed before coming to a decision4 ,in constructing close harbours1 the same observations must be made4 ,each of these cases requires a totally different kind of treatment1 and the correct method can only be ascertained by a thorough investigation and knowledge of the local circumstances1 such as winds1 tides1 currents1 coasts1 c41 so that the harbour when constructed may afford every facility for ingress and egress1 safety when within1 and not be liable to any deposit4 ,in order to give the requisite supply of water to canals it is imperative that sufficient reservoirs should be established chiefly at the high level if possible1 also at each intervening ascent and descent2 but it is most desirable that there should be only one high level1 and generally speaking this may obtained2 but when1 from particular local circumstances1 this cannot be done1 then the high levels1 even at considerable extra expense1 should be reduced to as few as practicable4 ,the same may be said with regard to railways1 but in the case of canals it is always absolutely necessary that there should be reservoir space to supply the greatest amount of lockage that may be required during the season when there is the least quantity of rainfall4 ,the rainfall in any given district may always be ascertained by proper rain gauges2 and whenever it has been found that there is no probability of obtaining a sufficiency of water to pass the amount of trade that may be expected over any given length of canal1 then the high level must be lowered sufficiently to obtain the required supply4 ,when1 from peculiar local circumstances1 this cannot be done1 then it will become necessary to erect steam engines of the requisite power to pump back the water from the lower to the higher levels4 ,but as a rule it will be found1 that by laying out a canal properly1 and by storing sufficient water to answer all the required lock supply at proper places1 pumping back will only be necessary in extreme cases4 ,this1 however1 is a question of detail that will be governed by the local circumstances of each particular case4 ,with regard to the construction of canals1 that must be regulated by the quantity of trade to be passed1 and the charges that it will bear2 but1 within certain limits1 the larger the canal the better4 ,in the case of ship canals for seaborne vessels1 it is advisable to construct them wherever they can be made at a reasonable cost1 and there is traffic enough to pay a fair interest upon the capital4 ,in the drainage of extensive districts of lowlands1 whether bordering upon rivers or otherwise1 it is the better plan1 with some exceptions1 to divide the lowland from the highland waters1 and to discharge them by separate outfalls2 because if they are both discharged by one outfall1 the highland water1 coming from a higher level1 and naturally having the greatest velocity1 will force its way first to the outfall1 and until it is discharged the lowland water cannot get off1 but will accumulate upon and inundate the adjacent lands4 ,again1 if only one outfall be provided1 a much more extensive system of main and interior drains will be required1 as these latter must serve as reservoirs to contain both waters until they can be discharged by the common outfall2 but by keeping them distinct from each other1 the highland water may readily be discharged into the upper part of the rivers or watercourses1 whilst the lowland water may be made to discharge itself at the lowest point the outfall will admit of1 and will get off before the highland water can reach it4 ,moreover1 the highland water1 being discharged so much higher up the watercourses or rivers1 will scour out their channels as well as the outfall1 prevent them from filling up1 and preserve them in the best state both for drainage and navigation4 ,these catchwater drains for the highland waters will also be found very useful for supplying the lowland districts with fresh water for cattle1 domestic purposes1 and irrigation during the summer and dry seasons1 when fresh water is so much needed for the lowlands4 ,this system was first introduced by my father1 in #ahje1 in the drainage of the extensive district of lowlands bordering upon the river ,witham1 between ,boston and ,lincoln1 amounting to about #aej1jjj acres4 ,generally speaking1 before attempting to improve the interior drainage of any lowland district1 it is necessary1 in the first place1 to examine the state of the outfall1 and how far it is capable of improvement2 before this is ascertained it is impossible to lay down any effectual plan4 ,in order to make the outfall effective it should be improved to the greatest extent practicable1 so that the low-water line or level may be reduced to the lowest point4 ,having done this1 the interior drainage may be laid out accordingly4 ,when this is combined with the catchwater system above described1 the drainage may be rendered as complete as possible1 as far as it can be upon the natural principle of gravitation4 ,when the water cannot be discharged from the outfall at all times by gravitation1 we must enlarge the main and tributary drains1 so that they may serve as reservoirs to contain the drainage water during the time that the outfall sluice is closed in consequence of the water in the river or the sea1 where the outfall sluice may be placed1 being higher than the level of the water in the main and interior drains4 ,no land can be considered as properly drained unless the surface of the water in the adjacent drains can be kept from #b to #c feet below the surface of the adjacent lands at all times4 ,there must be no stagnation of water2 at the same time there must always be the means1 as far as practicable1 of supplying the land with that proper degree of moisture necessary for nourishing the soil1 either from the direct rainfall or from the water discharged into the catchwater drains from the adjacent highlands2 and if these be not sufficient1 then they may be supplemented by reservoirs of the proper dimensions attached to them4 ,the best mode of arranging this is1 of course1 a matter of detail1 keeping always in view the great principle of a thorough drainage and an ample supply of fresh water4 ,the system that ,i have above explained is based upon the soundest principles of theory and practice1 and therefore ,i feel no hesitation in recommending it4 ,with regard to the sewerage and drainage of towns1 the same principle may be adopted1 modified according to local circumstances4 ,the drains here will require greater fall or inclination4 ,the sewage should not be discharged into the watercourses1 but into separate depts at a proper distance from the dwellings4 ,these depts should be thoroughly ventilated1 and the sewage deodorized by mixing it with earth1 or some other suitable substance1 that will not impair its value1 and then it may be sold for manure2 and thus instead of becoming a nuisance it may be turned to profitable account4 ,all rivers in densely populated countries should have their flood waters stored in capacious reservoirs1 with proper sluices1 in the main or adjacent subsidiary valleys1 so that during the dry seasons there may be always an ample supply of good water for domestic and agricultural purposes1 irrigation1 and navigation4 ,the reservoirs will also be advantageous in preventing the too frequent inundations and consequent devastation caused by floods4 ,in waterworks gravitation should be adopted wherever practicable1 so that the source of supply shall be placed at such an elevation that it may command the highest part of the buildings to be supplied1 thus all artificial power for pumping will be avoided4 ,but in most cases1 except where natural lakes can be found1 it will be necessary to make settling or filtering reservoirs1 from which the water when sufficiently pure may be delivered into the supply reservoirs1 and both of these should be capacious enough to contain a sufficient supply for a month1 more or less1 according to the particular local circumstances4 ,last1 but not least1 the quality of the water for the proposed supply should be thoroughly tested chemically1 in order to ascertain its purity2 it should be as soft as possible1 and be free from vegetable as well as all other matter prejudicial to health2 and it must be obtained in sufficient quantity to guarantee a supply of thirty gallons a day to each inhabitant of the town1 with the means of augmenting the supply at the same rate for any increase of inhabitants4 ,the conduit which is to supply the service reservoir should be covered throughout1 as well as the service reservoir1 which of course should be occasionally cleansed2 the other1 or settling reservoir1 near the fountain head1 need not be covered if made large enough2 that also should be cleansed as often as is necessary4 ,where the water cannot be supplied by means of gravitation1 then the artificial method of pumping by steam engines or water-wheels1 or other means1 must be adopted2 but in this case also settling1 filtering1 and service reservoirs must be employed1 as already described4 ,it is unnecessary to remark that in all cases the reservoirs and conduits should be made thoroughly water-tight and impervious to any drainage water from the adjacent districts4 ,docks may be divided into two classes1 viz4 floating and dry docks2 the former may be designated as enclosed spaces filled with water1 penned up to such depth as may be required for floating vessels of all classes4 ,these docks or basins must be rendered water-tight1 and in most cases it is necessary to surround them with nearly vertical walls1 to economize space and to enable vessels to come alongside and discharge and receive cargoes4 ,with regard to the situation of these docks and designing the plans for them1 this depends upon the local circumstances and the requirements of the particular class of vessels that they are to accommodate1 and the trade that is to be carried on in them4 ,without a thorough knowledge of all these circumstances it is impossible to give anything like a correct opinion as to their dimensions1 mode of designing them1 or any other particulars4 ,i may say generally1 however1 that as these docks are always situated contiguous to some river or harbour1 either with or without the tidal ebb and flow1 the position and direction of the entrances to the docks become of the greatest importance1 in order that they may not be too much exposed1 and that vessels may be enabled to enter and depart with the greatest facility2 and in such part of the river or harbour where there is the greatest depth of water and the best channel outwards and inwards4 ,there should also1 as far as possible1 be the means of supplying the basins with clear water1 in order to diminish the amount of deposit within2 there should also be a smaller or entrance basin adjoining the outer lock1 the level of water in which can be more readily adjusted with that of the adjacent river or harbour1 so that vessels may be taken into the docks with the greatest despatch out of the reach of the currents in the outer harbour1 and without the necessity of lowering the surface of the water in the inner basin4 ,floating docks in general should have dry docks attached to them1 for the purpose of repairing vessels2 and these dry docks should communicate by means of a tunnel or culvert with the tidal river or harbour4 ,with regard to the warehouse accommodation for receiving and delivering the different classes of merchandise brought to or taken out of the vessels frequenting the docks1 these should as far as possible be made fire-proof1 and should be properly adapted for the reception of the different articles placed in them1 so that they may be stowed away in the most convenient manner and be readily accessible4 ,where space will permit it is desirable to keep the warehouses as low as possible2 by this means the damage in the event of fire will be greatly reduced1 and the expense of taking in and delivering goods considerably diminished1 and the cost of construction lessened also4 ,between the warehouses and the edge of the dock there should be sufficient space for a road all round the warehouses2 and between the road and the edge of the dock there should be landing-sheds1 so that the cargoes of vessels1 when discharged1 may be placed there1 to be examined and sorted1 and from thence taken away to their destination1 or delivered into the warehouses1 as occasion may require4 ,all inflammable articles1 such as oils1 naphtha1 turpentine1 tar1 pitch1 jute1 hemp1 flax1 c41 should be stowed away in low warehouses or covered sheds1 completely isolated1 and with the interior divided into distinct compartments1 with access round each4 ,these compartments should be no larger than necessary4 ,railways should be laid along all the quays1 and should be carried through the ground floors of the whole of the warehouses1 while the upper floors should also have rail or tramways through each division of goods1 with the necessary turn-tables at their intersection with each other4 ,these railways should be worked either by steam power or horse traction1 as may be most advisable4 ,all the quays and warehouses should be supplied with a sufficient number of cranes1 of the requisite strength to lift and stow away the heaviest goods4 ,these cranes should be worked either by hydraulic1 steam1 vacuum1 manual1 or animal power1 as may be most advisable2 in fact1 they should be so designed that they may be worked either by the one or the other1 as may be required4 ,fresh water should be laid round all the quays and warehouses1 through iron or glazed earthen pipes1 and there should always be an ample supply1 either for vessels frequenting the docks1 or for extinguishing fires2 and for this purpose capacious tanks or reservoirs should be established at the most convenient places2 and if these reservoirs cannot be made at a sufficient height so as to command the highest warehouses1 then the water should be forced through the hose attached to the supply-pipes by steam or other power1 as shall be found most advisable4 ,gas1 also1 in properly fitted pipes1 should be distributed over the quays and warehouses1 and the movable lights should be as few as possible2 those that are used should be properly guarded1 so that all risk of fire from them may be avoided4 ,no lucifer-matches should be permitted in any part of the establishment1 nor should smoking be allowed4 ,by these means the probabilities of fire will be reduced2 and if1 notwithstanding these precautions1 a fire should break out1 there will be the most ample provision for extinguishing it in the shortest possible time1 and with the least damage to the property4 ,with regard to architecture1 that strictly belonging to the office of the civil engineer is of the most simple character4 ,the buildings should be laid out in the best manner1 and the most convenient for their respective purposes1 and thoroughly substantial4 ,at the same time1 their exterior appearance should possess a certain degree of symmetry and dignity1 so as to impress upon the spectator the idea that they are thoroughly adapted for their purpose4 ,the materials should be chiefly iron1 stone1 and brick2 and timber should only be used when absolutely necessary4 ,at the same time1 although it is not altogether necessary1 the civil engineer should have a thorough knowledge of the five orders of architecture1 and the mode of applying them2 the principles of constructing and equilibrating arches of all kinds must be thoroughly understood2 and if he intends to combine the practice of domestic and public architecture with that which is only strictly necessary for civil engineering1 then he must enter more largely into the subject1 and study the different ancient and modern styles of building4 ,surveying and levelling will also form an important part of his duties4 ,in order to understand them it is necessary that he should know thoroughly plane and spherical trigonometry1 and the calculations necessarily connected with them4 ,he should also have a certain knowledge of astronomy1 to enable him to calculate the tides and other phenomena connected therewith1 and to be able to lay down correct charts of any harbour or sea coast1 with the soundings1 currents1 and winds prevailing there4 ,geology will form another important department of study1 without which he cannot understand the nature of the materials that he will have to deal with1 such as stone1 lime1 cements1 earths1 c42 the angles at which they will stand in making deep cuttings and embankments2 the best and most durable kind to be employed in any particular work1 the proper mode of working it1 and how to place it in the best position so as to resist the effects of the atmosphere or running water1 the concussion of waves1 c41 in the most effectual manner4 ,the study of geology will further enable him to account for the formation of shoals and any given line of coast1 together with the operation of the currents upon them1 and the best mode of remedying their disastrous effects2 also the best plan for designing and constructing harbours on each particular coast or situation4 ,again1 by having a thorough knowledge of the strata and formation of any given district of country1 he will be enabled to ascertain where water may be found1 and in what quantity2 and if he practises mining1 he will be able to predict with tolerable certainty where different kinds of minerals may be obtained1 such as coal1 iron1 lead1 copper1 tin1 gold1 silver1 c41 and the mode of working them to the greatest advantage4 ,in fact1 geology combined with mineralogy he will find to be of most essential service in almost every department of civil engineering4 ,embankments4--,this is another department of engineering which requires a good deal of skill and judgment1 particularly along an exposed open coast1 where lowlands are to be protected against the encroachments of the sea4 ,the first point is to select the line of embankment in such a manner that there shall always be in front of it a good foreshore1 so that the force of the sea may be broken before it reaches the embankment2 that is to say1 where practicable1 to have a certain extent of green or outlying marsh in front of it1 so that the embankment when completed will seldom have a head of water to contend with at high tide of above six or seven feet4 ,and even with this moderate depth at high water1 when exposed to the action of a heavy gale of wind1 there will for three or four hours be a considerable broken sea1 calculated to do a great deal of damage1 if the embankment be not properly constructed4 ,now1 if the embankment have a good green foreshore in front1 with sea slope of about #e or #f to #a1 well sodded up1 a facing of clay about #ah inches thick1 #f feet above the highest level of spring tides1 the top being #f feet wide1 with back slopes of #b to #a1 with a back ditch #aj feet from the foot of the inner slope1 the interior of the embankment being composed of sound earth well rammed or pressed together1 so as to make it solid--an embankment of this kind will be able to resist such a pressure as we may ordinarily expect it to be exposed to4 ,there may be extraordinary cases where this will not be sufficient4 ,when these occur it will be necessary to pave the surface with stone1 about #i inches thick1 or with fagots4 ,the former is1 however1 decidedly the best plan1 as it will be permanent1 whereas fagots are constantly rotting1 and require renewal4 ,if the sea shows a tendency to carry away the foreshore1 it must be prevented1 by means of jetties so disposed as to collect the alluvial matter held by the sea water in suspension4 ,these1 if properly designed and constructed1 will generally have the desired effect4 ,in cases where the water outside is deep and the sea face of the embankment may be exposed to a head of water of #ab feet and upwards1 much greater precautions must be taken to guard against accident4 ,the sea slopes of the embankment must be increased to #g or #i to #a1 well faced with clay and paved with stone1 having the foreshore in front well protected with jetties4 ,in fact1 no two cases will be alike3 each must be treated separately according to the particular local circumstances1 and therefore it is impossible to design a proper plan for any embankment without knowing all the local circumstances4 ,the general principle is that the sea face of the embankment should never be less than from #d or #e to #a4 ,in some particular cases a less slope will do1 say #c to #a4 ,this1 however1 certainly depends upon local circumstances4 ,the base of the outer slope should be particularly watched1 and if any crack appears to be forming1 it should be immediately stopped by jetties carried out as far as necessary4 ,in forming embankments it is usual1 when it can be done1 to take the earth from the outside of the sea slope1 but this should never be done within less than #aj yards from the base of the slope1 and these 8floor pits10 as they are termed1 should generally not exceed #ab to #ah inches in depth1 and be increased in width in proportion to the quantity of earth required for the bank2 at every #aj or #ae yards1 in the longitudinal direction1 the earth should not be removed1 but left to form small cross banks between the floor pits1 so as to prevent any current being formed in them2 thus these floor pits will soon be filled up by the alluvial matter brought in by the tide1 when the outside slopes of the bank are neither exposed to the heavy lash of the waves nor to strong currents4 ,then if they are covered with good grass sods properly laid on and beaten into the face of the bank it may suffice1 but not otherwise4 ,if this should not answer the slope must be increased and1 if necessary1 paved with stone as above mentioned4 ,when good clay cannot be obtained to face the bank1 then the best of the earth that can be got must be employed1 mixed with straw1 well puddled with water1 and laid upon the surface of the bank in a moist state about #ah inches thick1 and then faced with stone about #i inches thick1 well rammed edgeways into it4 ,in cases where it is necessary to protect any line of coast against the ravages of the ocean1 the measures to be adopted will depend upon the form and geological character of the coast to be so protected1 whether low flats and alluvial1 or cliffs composed of rocks more or less hard1 and easily acted upon by the waves1 rain1 and atmosphere4 ,in the former case it will generally be found that the coast is surrounded by extensive flat sands1 and that the water holds a large quantity of alluvial matter in suspension4 ,the great object1 therefore1 should be to cause this alluvial matter to be deposited in such form and in such places as are best adapted to our purpose4 ,now this may generally be effected in an inexpensive manner1 considering the object to be attained1 by a series of jetties1 either composed of stakes wattled together with fagots1 or lines of loose stones disposed in such a manner that they shall break the rising and falling waters1 and make them stagnant between the jetties1 so that they may deposit their alluvial matter4 ,in the first instance these jetties need not be raised more than two feet above the level of the sand1 and when the sand or alluvial soil has accumulated up to the top1 they may be again raised to a similar height1 and so on until the soil in front of the coast has been converted into a green marsh2 thus there will not only be formed a protection to the coast invaded by the sea1 but fresh land may be gained in front of it and embanked from the sea4 ,it is impossible to explain the precise disposition and direction of these jetties and works without a thorough knowledge of the locality1 and such circumstances as its exposure to winds1 tides1 and currents4 ,the principle however is to check the currents gradually1 and in such a way as to prevent any strong current from being formed2 for if a new and strong current should be created1 not only will the alluvial matter not be deposited1 but the works themselves will be carried away1 and all the labour and expense will be wasted4 ,it is generally advisable that such works should be commenced near the shore1 and worked downwards towards the sea2 thus1 if they are properly managed1 no deep pools or strong currents will be formed behind them2 and the required process of filling or silting up will proceed regularly seaward1 always increasing the protection required1 and obtaining additional land as they proceed4 ,in some cases1 where the sea is heavy1 it may be necessary to have stronger jetties or works to relieve and protect the minor ones above described2 but these should only be resorted to in places where the others are insufficient1 or in greatly exposed situations2 wherever the minor works will suffice1 as they will in most cases if properly applied and constructed1 the less heavy works are resorted to the better1 as the great object is to lead not drive ,nature2 that is1 to work with her instead of against her4 ,by this means a few bricks and stakes will do a great deal more than far greater and more expensive works4 ,so far as regards low alluvial coasts1 these1 if properly managed1 will be found comparatively easy to deal with4 ,when we come to rocky coasts that are wearing away by the combined action of the sea below and the rains and atmosphere above1 and where there is little or no alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters1 that might be collected so as to form a protecting deposit at their base1 then we must adopt a different system1 but not altogether ignoring the other when it can be made useful4 ,in this latter case we must secure the bases of the cliffs at least up to high-water mark by means of retaining walls1 where the rock itself is not hard enough to resist the action of the sea4 ,these walls need not be carried higher than absolutely necessary4 ,in some cases a mere footing will do2 in others1 the wall may be carried up to half tide2 and in others up to the full high-water mark2 and although the rock may be naturally soft1 yet if its surface be protected by harder stone1 even of a very moderate thickness1 it will be quite sufficient to resist further encroachment by the sea4 ,as these retaining walls will be founded upon a base of solid rock1 there is very little fear of their being undermined2 therefore1 when ,i said before that it would be necessary to carry these retaining walls up to high-water mark1 it must be understood as applying only to those rocks that are easily abraded by the sea4 ,there is another point to be attended to4 ,the base being secured1 we must look to the cliff above4 ,here1 from the effect of rains1 the water frequently cannot get away1 accumulates behind at the top1 and sinks through the fissures1 when partly by hydraulic pressure and partly by the effects of frost1 large masses are detached and fall below2 and as this is continually occurring1 the progress of decay goes on increasing4 ,having secured the base1 the next thing1 where practicable1 is to slope off the upper surface of the cliff1 so as to prevent it from overhanging1 and then to make a drain at the back to carry off any water that may lodge there4 ,by these means1 if properly carried into effect1 the base of the cliff being protected against the sea from below and rainwater from above1 there is every probability that it will be preserved1 in all ordinary cases4 ,in extraordinary cases additional measures must be taken to meet them upon the same principles4 ,with regard to retaining walls of brickwork or masonry1 these should be always in excess of strength beyond the pressure1 whether vertical or lateral1 that they may have to resist4 ,when the pressure is simply lateral1 then the mean thickness of wall built of masonry and brickwork--the mean thickness1 generally speaking1 of the main body of the wall--should be about one-fourth of the height1 besides counterforts at the back at certain distances from each other1 regulated according to the particular circumstances4 ,these1 upon the average1 including the thickness of the main wall1 will make the total mass to be equal to nearly one-third of the total height4 ,my father frequently made these walls curved in the front as well as at the back1 the front being struck from a radius whose centre was level with the top of the wall1 and of such a length that the face of the wall should batter one-fifth of the total height2 the back of the wall should be struck from a centre at the same level as the other1 but a little longer1 so that at the base the wall might be about #b feet thicker than at the top1 in addition to two or three footings of #f inches each2 and the base of the wall was made to incline backwards1 according to the radius from whence it was struck4 ,these walls1 when they are to rest upon alluvial soil1 must be founded upon a platform composed of piles of a sufficient length and thickness1 driven at right angles to the line of the foundation1 until with the blow of a ram weighing #ae cwt4 and falling #bj feet they will not move one-eighth of an inch4 ,these piles should be driven in regular rows1 longitudinally and transversely1 about #c feet apart1 and hooped and shod with wrought-iron hoops and shoes4 ,at the front1 immediately under the tie of the wall1 there should be a row of grooved and tongued sheeting piles driven close together1 and to the same depth as the others1 about #f inches thick1 having a waleing or longitudinal brace #f inches thick and #ab inches wide1 well bolted in each side of the top of the sheeting piles4 ,the loose earth should be taken out to about a foot in depth1 and the space filled in with stone or brickwork to the level of the pile heads1 which should be carefully trimmed1 then covered with sills about #ab inches square1 well spiked down to them4 ,the spaces between the sills should be well faced with brickwork1 and the whole surface should then be covered with #f-;inch plank1 properly spiked down to the sills below4 ,upon this platform the masonry and brickwork of the wall should be built4 ,the wall should be carefully backed up as it proceeds with sound earth or clay1 or clay mixed with one-sixth of gravel or concrete1 as shall be deemed most advisable4 ,these curved walls1 if properly constructed1 are stronger and more economical than the ordinary walls4 ,in some cases1 as in that of ,sheerness1 for example1 the foundation is so bad that a totally different plan must be adopted4 ,at ,sheerness it was necessary that the base of the walls should be increased1 distributing the weight over a wider area1 so that each superficial foot of the superincumbent mass should have a larger bearing1 thus greatly relieving the pressure over every part4 ,the foundation upon which the walls were built was as bad as possible1 being composed of nothing but loose running silt and sand4 ,upon such a foundation walls of the ordinary kind would not have stood2 my father therefore saw the necessity of designing some new construction1 upon the principles above mentioned4 ,he had previously adopted something similar for the docks at ,great ,grimsby1 in ,lincolnshire1 in #aghf1 which design was carried into effect with great success4 ,the walls at ,sheerness and at ,great ,grimsby were built both upon the same principle1 modified according to local circumstances4 ,sheerness docks were finished altogether in the year #ahbf1 and they have stood ever since4 ,i believe that ,i have now enumerated all the chief points to which the education of a civil engineer should be directed4 ,whilst he continues in an engineer's office1 whatever business is brought before him1 he should always endeavour to thoroughly understand the reasons for which such and such a work is proposed to be made1 and the principles upon which it is to be constructed2 and if he finds1 according to his previous education1 difficulties either in the principle or construction1 he should modestly state his doubts to his superior2 if no explanation is given1 he has simply to do as he is ordered1 making notes of his doubts1 and when the work is carried into effect he will then be able to ascertain how far he was right or wrong4 ,if the work turns out to be a failure1 his previous calculations will show him that he was right2 but if the work succeeds1 his calculations were wrong1 and he should carefully go over them again to ascertain his error4 ,he should follow the same process when he has to design and carry into effect any work upon his own responsibility1 and if he is in doubt as to any point1 let him consult some one of his professional brethren in whom he has confidence4 ,when he is consulted on similar occasions by another engineer1 let him give his advice and opinion to the best of his power2 by this means he will gain the respect of his colleagues1 and every one will be ready to help him when required4 ,let him be particularly careful about his estimates2 and after he has estimated fully the probable cost of a work1 let him add an allowance of quite #ae per cent4 for contingencies1 which in all engineering works are so numerous and varied that it is almost impossible to foresee them4 ,we should always recollect that the great object of all engineering works is to produce a fair return for the capital expended upon them1 or1 in other words1 that they should pay4 ,if1 after due calculation1 it is found there is no chance of that1 they should not be undertaken2 for although it may be very gratifying to the professional reputation of an engineer to have executed a great work1 it is but a poor consolation to his subscribers to find that their money has been comparatively thrown away without any adequate return4 ,upon these grounds1 therefore1 ,i think it is better that the engineer should confine himself strictly to his business1 that is1 of designing and estimating any proposed work in the best possible manner to ensure the object intended4 ,let those who are most competent ascertain whether there is a sufficient prospect of traffic to pay a good return for the required capital2 and so long as the engineer executes the work for his estimate1 he cannot be blamed if the work does not pay a sufficient return4 ,in fact1 the whole commercial value of a work depends upon its cost1 and therefore it is so important that the estimate should be adhered to as closely as possible1 for if this be much exceeded the commercial calculation falls to the ground1 and then the subscribers have just reason to complain4 ,against this ,i have heard it argued that if correct estimates were always made1 and the ultimate cost of many works was known beforehand1 they would never have been carried out1 although notwithstanding the increased cost they have finally proved to be very valuable4 ,this is certainly to some extent true2 many inventions and discoveries have ruined the original promoters1 yet have ultimately conferred the greatest benefits upon mankind2 and many enterprises that have ruined the original undertakers have greatly enriched their successors4 ,still there can be no excuse for an engineer knowingly underestimating the cost of a work2 he is undoubtedly bound to make a fair1 honest estimate of every work committed to his charge1 so far as his judgment goes2 having done that his duty is discharged2 nothing further can be expected of him than to see that the work entrusted to his care is strictly carried into effect according to that estimate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the summer of #ahff ,i have done scarcely anything4 ,the great crisis and subsequent panic that occurred at that time paralysed the commercial world4 ,i considered my advancing years 7,i was then seventy-two71 and the great hazard and uncertainty of carrying on business1 and thought it most prudent to retire4 ,after the harassing and anxious life that ,i had led for so many years1 ,i felt my health so shaken as to require complete repose4 ,but ,i hope1 if ,god spares me1 to be still useful to the profession and my country1 by completing a work on the drainage of the fens and lowlands of ,great ,britain1 and hydraulics generally4 ,i also design to write a history of engineering1 enlarged from my ,address to the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 and a life of my revered father4 ,all these ,i have already sketched out1 and ,i hope to complete them1 if it please ,god to spare my life a few years longer4 ,my apology for the present work is this3 ,i think it is the duty of everyone who has led an active professional life faithfully to record the various works in which he has been engaged1 the failures as well as the successes1 detailing the causes of both2 for we frequently learn more from the former than from the latter4 ,i believe ,i have in this book faithfully done this4 ,from unavoidable circumstances ,i have been obliged to trust entirely to memory while writing these pages1 having been totally precluded from consulting notes or memoranda of any kind2 ,i hope1 therefore1 that any inaccuracies that may be detected by the reader will be pardoned1 though ,i believe that in the main my statements will be found correct4 ,like others1 ,i have had to contend with professional jealousy2 but ,i believe ,i have on all occasions done justice to my rivals1 and ,i have never wilfully attempted to injure anyone4 ,naturally of a very sanguine temperament1 ,i am but too apt to view things in a favourable light1 and to judge well of those with whom ,i come in contact2 as a consequence of this ,i have often been deceived by those in whom ,i have placed the greatest confidence4 ,this sanguine disposition has been the cause of many disappointments2 but it has also enabled me to bear up successfully against failure1 and still to look forward with hope to the future4 ,whenever a misfortune has occurred ,i have endeavoured to forget it as soon as possible2 ,i always called to mind the words of the great ,duke of ,wellington1 who said1 ,there is no use in looking back and brooding over the past2 forget it1 and apply your energies to the future1 and do better next time4 ,this many people either cannot or will not do2 hence they succumb4 ,doubtless everyone has his trials1 and some are much better able to get through them than others2 nevertheless1 a very little reflection will show that what is past cannot be helped1 and that by brooding over misfortune we do no good1 but only waste our energies and invite failure in everything else4 ,the motto of life should be1 ,forward6 ,we must expect to be checked1 thwarted1 and baffled in our endeavours to attain success2 but these obstacles1 instead of totally arresting our progress1 should serve only to increase our energy4 ,like a river1 impeded in its course1 in silence waits till its accumulated strength sweeps the obstruction from its path1 and it flows on majestically as before--so should we make every difficulty we encounter add to our strength1 instead of increasing our weakness4 ,nevertheless1 since 8'tis not in mortals to command success10 we may sometimes struggle in vain2 and fortune ever against us1 we may be overcome at the last2 but even then we have this satisfaction--we have fought a good fight2 we have done the best we could2 we have done our duty to the best of our ability1 and that is all that can be required of us4 ,to do my duty has been my endeavour through life2 and probably if ,i had adhered to it more strictly ,i might have done a great deal better4 ,nevertheless1 little as ,i have done1 ,i should not have accomplished half so much had ,i not kept that one object in view1 as far as my physical and mental powers would permit2 and this is no small consolation4 ,the old motto1 8,nil desperandum10 should be constantly on our lips1 and should act like the spur on a jaded steed4 ,affairs are never so bad but they might have been worse1 and they may generally be mended by energy and perseverance1 and a determination to make the best of everything4 ,we may not be able to accomplish all we aspire to achieve2 nevertheless by refusing to yield to misfortune we shall escape the reproach of cowardice and faintheartedness4 ,when we suffer a defeat1 let us calmly consider the cause of it1 and nine times out of ten we shall find that it is through our own fault2 these lessons of experience should be carefully laid to heart1 and serve for our future guidance4 ,i have never deemed wealth desirable for mere personal gratification1 but only in so far as it would have enabled me to help others1 to promote the advancement of science and the well-being of my fellow creatures2 this would have conferred the greatest happiness upon me1 but it has been denied by the ,almighty ,disposer of events1 and most probably with justice1 that it might be done better by other hands4 ,i therefore humbly bow to the ,almighty's decision2 and if ,i have done the best ,i could in ,his sight1 ,i am amply rewarded4 ,i1 however1 most deeply regret that ,i have not done more4 ,i return my most fervent thanks to the ,almighty that ,he1 out of ,his great mercy1 has allowed me to do the little ,i have done2 and ,i most devoutly hope that ,he through ,his ,son ,jesus ,christ will pardon my shortcomings2 and ,i say with all reverence1 ,bless the ,lord for all ,his mercies6 ,,dawlish1 ,december #i1 #ahfg4 ,,index4 ,aberdeen1 #aj1 #ae4 ,acts of ,parliament1 #g1 #aei1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bab1 #bbc1 #bch1 #cii1 #dje4 ,adventures in ,greece1 #ajb4 ,adventures in ,portugal1 #ceb4 ,adventures in ,spain1 #bff1 #bfi1 #bgc4 gina1 #gh4 ,africa an island1 #ada4 ,aga1 a ,turkish1 #aah1 #abj1 #aca4 ,aiasolok1 #aad4 ,albion flour mills1 #bhf4 ,alderson1 ,baron1 #bch4 ,alexandria1 #aca4 ,alpheus1 river1 #ih4 ,ancholme level1 #bbd4 ,ancona1 #dd1 #df4 ,antiparos1 #ajg4 ,antwerp1 #bi4 ,apollo1 temple of1 #aai4 ,approaches1 ,london ,bridge1 #ahc-ahh1 #aig4 ,aqueducts1 #cbe1 #cfi4 ,arches1 #f1 #bb1 #be1 #cb1 #aej1 #agc1 #agh-ahj1 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