,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equal signs4 ,,symmes',s ,,theory ,,of ,,concentric ,,spheres2 ,,demonstrating ,,that ,,the ,,earth ,,is ,,hollow1 ,,habitable ,,within1 ,,and ,,widely ,,open ,,about ,,the ,,poles4 ,by a ,citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,there are more things in ,heaven and ,,earth1 ,horatio1 ,than are dreamt of in your philosophy6 ,,shakspeare4 ,if this man be erroneous1 who appears to be so sanguine and persevering in his opinions1 what withholds us but our sloth1 our self-will1 and distrust in the right cause1 that we do not give him gentle meetings and a gentle dismission2 that we debate not and examine the matter thoroughly1 with liberal and frequent audience2 if not for his sake1 yet for our own2 seeing that no man who hath tasted learning1 but will confess the many ways of profiting by those1 who1 not content with stale receipts1 are able to manage and set forth new positions to the world4 ,and were they but as the dust and cinders of our feet1 so long as in that notion1 they may yet serve to polish and brighten the armory of truth2 even for that respect they are not utterly to be cast away4 ,,milton4 ,,cincinnati3 ,,printed ,,and ,,published ,,by ,,morgan1 ,,lodge ,,and ,,fisher4 #ahbf4 ,,district ,,of ,,ohio1 ,,to ,,wit4 ,,be ,,it ,,remembered1 that on the fourth day of ,april1 in the year of our ,lord one thousand eight hundred and twenty six and in the fiftieth year of the ,american independence1 ,,messrs4 ,,morgan1 ,,lodge ,,and ,,fisher1 of said ,district1 hath deposited in this office1 the title of a book1 the right whereof they claim as proprietors1 in the words and figures following1 to wit3 ,symmes's theory of concentric spheres2 demonstrating that the earth is hollow1 habitable within1 and widely open about the poles3 by a citizen of the ,united ,states4 ',there are more things in ,heaven and ,earth ,horatio1 than are dreamt of in your philosophy' ,shakespeare1 ',if this man be erroneous who appears to be so sanguine and persevering in his opinions1 what withholds us but our sloth1 our self-will1 and distrust in the right cause1 that we do not give him gentle meetings and a gentle dismission2 that we debate not and examine the matter thoroughly1 with liberal and frequent audience3 if not for his sake1 yet for our own2 seeing that no man who has tasted learning but will confess the many ways of profiting by those1 who1 not content with stale receipts1 are able to manage and set forth new positions to the world4 ,and were they but as the dust and cinders of our feet1 so long as in that notion1 they may yet serve to polish and brighten the armory of truth3 even for that respect1 they are not utterly to be cast away4' ,milton4 ,in conformity to the act of ,congress of the ,united ,states1 entitled ,an act for the encouragement of learning by securing the copies of ,maps1 ,charts and ,books to the proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned2 and also of the act entitled ,an act supplementary to an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning by securing the copies of ,maps1 ,charts and ,books1 to the authors and proprietors of such copies1 during the times therein mentioned1 and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing1 engraving and etching historical and other prints4 ,attest1 ,,william ,,key ,,bond1 ,,clerk4 ,,advertisement4 ,the writer of the following work is said to be a resident of the ,miami country4 ,after reading ,captain ,symmes's numbers1 and hearing some of his lectures1 he wrote the work1 it seems1 in the first place without the idea of publication2 but afterwards corrected and enlarged it1 and left it with a friend of ,captain ,symmes for publication1 sometime in the autumn of the year #ahbd4 ,the nett profits were then1 as now1 to be paid to ,captain ,symmes1 towards enabling him to promote and establish his principles3 but owing to the absence of the author1 and other circumstances1 it has remained unpublished till now4 ,the author has chosen to present the work anonymously2 and has obtained the promise of ,captain ,symmes to forbear criticising it in manuscript1reserving any remarks or corrections1 he may wish to make1 for future publication4 ,some errors of the press will doubtless be discovered2 as 7in the absence of both ,compiler and ,theorist7 there was no proof-reader at hand1 sufficiently versed in the ,new ,theory1 at all times1 to detect them4 ,,the ,,publishers4 ,cincinnati1 ,april1 #ahbf4 ,to the ,public4 ,the following little treatise1 was written in the autumn of the year eighteen hundred and twenty-four2 when from the urgency of my common avocation1 and from a desire to remain incognito1 the manuscript was placed in the hands of a friend of ,captain ,symmes for publication4 ,as it was not my intention to seek a publisher1 or make advances to facilitate its progress1 ,i left the country for a considerable length of time1 without paying any further attention to the subject4 ,various difficulties intervening1 delayed the publication1 until subsequent events1 have destroyed my chief inducement2 which was1 that these speculations1 compiled from a cursory examination of facts1 should go forth as a harbinger1 merely1 and not follow in the wake1 of public investigation4 ,,the ,,author4 ,march1 #ahbf4 ,preface4 ,the author of the following pages does not write because he is a learned man2 he is conscious of the reverse2 and that his merits give him no claim to that appellation2 neither does he make this attempt because he is well acquainted with either the new1 or the old theories of the earth2 but1 from having observed that the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres has been before the world for six or seven years1 without attracting the attention of the scientific1 except in a very few instances2few besides the author himself having come forward to advocate its correctness4 ,the newspaper scribblers1 who have noticed the theory at all1 have almost uniformly appeared to consider it as a fit subject on which to indulge their wit1 the sallies of which1 clothed in all the humour and satire their fancies could suggest1 have in some degree had a tendency to throw around it an air of levity very unfavourable to serious investigation4 ,but to deal in sarcasm is not always reasoning2 and the truth is not to be ascertained by indulging in ridicule4 ,considerations of this nature1 first induced the author to devote a short time to the task of investigating a subject1 to which he had paid but little attention1 and to give the several papers1 published by ,captain ,symmes1 a cursory examination2 in the course of which1 he noted such of ,symmes's principles and proofs as attracted his attention1 as they occurred2 and has since presumed to arrange them in such order as his own fancy suggested2 supposing that1 as they had struck forcibly on his mind1 they might perhaps attract the attention of some other person1 whose habits of thinking may be similar to his own4 ,he has in a few instances inserted1 in addition to those which he has seen advanced by ,captain ,symmes1 such reasons and proofs in support of the theory as occurred to him at the time4 ,however1 he has no claim to originality2 as he has made a liberal use of the publications of ,captain ,symmes1 as well as the remarks made on them by others1 which came in his way4 ,the reader will not look for a complete analysis of the theory in this short treatise2 it is not intended as such by the author1 his object being merely to attract the attention of the learned1 who are in the habit of indulging in more abstruse researches into the operation and effect of natural causes2 and should it be found to merit the attention of such1 it is hoped their enquiries may be so directed as to accelerate the march of scientific improvement1 enlarge the field of philosophic speculation1 and open to the world new objects of ambition and enterprise4 ,should he therefore be fortunate enough to make any observations1 or indulge in any reflections1 in the course of the following chapters1 that may merit the attention of the reader1 he hopes they may in some degree atone for the many defects which will doubtless be discovered2 with a sincere wish1 that gentlemen of literature and science1 who have made deeper researches than he pretends to1 will have the goodness to correct them4 ,the author does not write for ,fame3 as anonymous compilers 7and it is the author's wish to be considered in no other light7 can never expect their true names to be inscribed on her records3 neither do pecuniary considerations influence him1 as he expects to reap no profit from the publication4 ,should it attract public curiosity to such a degree1 as to induce the sale of more copies than will be sufficient to meet the expense of printing1 it is the author's desire1 and he does hereby direct1 and fully authorize the publishers1 to pay over the nett profits to ,captain ,symmes1 for the purpose of enabling him further to prosecute his studies2 and to aid him in the accomplishment of his designs4 ,whether ,captain ,symmes has hit upon an important truth in the economy of nature1 as respects the organization of matter1 it is not for the author to determine2 to the more scientific we must look for a solution of the problem2 to them it is submitted4 ,the following pages are presented with no other intention1 than as a hint to elicit the attention of others1 who are qualified to investigate1 and improve the subject4 ,should they1 on examination1 consider the matter worthy of their investigation1 it will doubtless receive the attention which its importance so greatly demands4 ,if it be erroneous1 it is hoped they will detect1 and expose its fallacy to the world2 giving at the same time rational and satisfactory explanations of the many facts1 and appearances which ,captain ,symmes adduces as proofs of his positions4 ,august1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahbd4 ,apology ,,to ,,captain ,,symmes4 ,,sir ,to you ,i would apologize for the liberties ,i have taken with your ,theory1 and your publications in relation to it1 which have made their appearance in the newspapers of the day4 ,when ,i commenced this compilation1 in support of your doctrine of ,concentric ,spheres1 ,i had no view to its publication4 ,i had collected all the papers on the subject1 upon which ,i could lay my hands1 with the intention of investigating the ,theory for my own satisfaction3 but the scattered and irregular order in which ,i found them1 and in which they must necessarily appear in detached ,newspaper essays1 published at different and distant times1 induced me to attempt a methodical arrangement1 for the purpose of facilitating my own enquiries4 ,when ,i had completed this1 the same reasons1 added to the consideration1 that you have not only invited1 but solicited the investigation of your theory1 declaring it as free as air1 to every person1 to make such use of it as he may think proper1 influenced me to conclude on publishing the result of my investigations4 ,having come to this determination1 ,i have added a ,preface1 an ,introductory chapter1 and a few things in conclusion1 to make it look more like a ,book4 ,as ,i have not seen all your publications in the newspapers1 if ,i have not fully understood1 or if ,i have misrepresented your theory in any particular1 ,i assure you it has been done unintentionallyit has arisen entirely from my want of adequate information2 and ,i hope you will1 in the spirit of candour and good nature1 pardon and correct any errors into which ,i may have fallen4 ,had an opportunity offered1 and could ,i have done it with propriety1 ,i should certainly have submitted the manuscript to your revision1 previous to its publication4 ,however1 as this sketch is only intended to elicit further investigation1 and can only live until a formal and systematic treatise shall appear from your pen1 ,i hope you will permit it to pass as the ,pioneer to a more complete demonstration of your ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres4 ,i ,,am ,,sir1 ,one of the believers in that ,theory1 ,,the ,,author4 #ahbd4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,containing an introductory glance at some of the different ,theories and ,opinions which have been embraced respecting the formation of the ,earth1 and the reception which those ,theories met with from the world when first promulgated4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,symmes's ,theory2 comprehending his description of the form of the earth1 and of the other orbs in the ,universe2 his principles of gravity1 and the points wherein he differs from the old or generally received theories4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,symmes's ,theory supported by arguments drawn from the principles inherent in matter1 and the consequences resulting from motion2 tending to show that1 from necessity1 matter must form itself into concentric circles or spheres1 such as ,symmes describes the earth to be composed of4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,arguments in support of ,symmes's ,theory1 drawn from ,celestial appearances4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 supported by arguments drawn from ,terrestrial facts2 such as the migration of animals to and from the arctic regions1 and from refraction1 and the variation of the compass1 observed in high northern latitudes4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,facts tending to illustrate and prove the existence of a mid-plane space1 situated between the concave and convex surfaces of the sphere4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,several objections1 made to the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 answered1 particularly the one that it contravenes religious opinions2 demonstrating that the earth1 and the other orbs of the universe1 are formed on the best possible plan for the maintenance and support of organic life4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,general observations on the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 with a few suggestions to the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 to authorize and fit out an ,expedition for the discovery of the ,interior ,regions2 or1 at least1 to explore the northern parts of the continent of ,america4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,a few brief suggestions1 relative to the description1 tonnage1 and number of vessels1 necessary to be equipped for a voyage of discovery to the interior regions of the earth2 the number of men necessary to be employed on board1 articles necessary for the outfit1 and the probable expense attending the same2 also1 as to the route most proper to be pursued to accomplish the object of the expedition4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,a short ,biographical sketch of ,captain ,symmes2 with some observations on the treatment which he has met with in the advancement of his theory4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,concentric ,,spheres4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,containing an introductory glance at some of the different ,theories and ,opinions which have been advanced respecting the formation of the ,earth1 and the reception which those ,theories met with from the world when first promulgated4 ,it often happens1 that those who have been early taught to believe a certain set of principles and doctrines as true1 whether in philosophy1 religion1 or politics1 adhere to them with the utmost pertinacity during the remainder of their lives4 ,any new theory1 or principle1 is resisted with peculiar energy2 and1 however inconsistent or untrue their favorite systems may be1 they are disposed to make principles and facts bend to them2 and would sooner call in question the general and immutable laws of nature1 than the correctness of their own opinions4 ,perhaps this pertinacious adherence to prevalent and received opinions has retarded the progress of philosophic improvement more than the want of bold1 original1 and enquiring genius4 ,in former times those who cultivated science1 or rather those who were called learned1 generally based their philosophy on the doctrines of ,aristotle2 which1 as they had been taught to reverence them from their infancy1 had become almost interwoven with their constitutions4 ,hence1 though time has unfolded to us their errors1 during several centuries1 suspicion never hinted their fallibility4 ,the doctrine of the revolutions of the earth1 and other planets2 of gravitation1 magnetism1 and other properties now known to belong to matter2 have each in their turn met with a strong opposition from the most learned men living at the time of their discovery4 ,but1 notwithstanding this opposition1 in all ages1 a few bold1 enquiring minds have had the firmness to dissent from the established doctrines of the schoolmen1 and to lay the foundation of new systems1 the correctness of which subsequent improvements in science have more or less demonstrated to the world4 ,although nearly six thousand years have elapsed since man has been placed upon the earth1 he yet knows but little of its formation4 ,notwithstanding all our enterprise1 all our boasted acquirements1 and discoveries1 its true form yet remains uncertain2 and although admitted that it is not quite eight thousand miles in diameter1 we still have never explored its extent4 ,a space of nearly forty degrees of latitude remains as little known to us1 as if it were a part of the surface of ,saturn1 or an orb revolving round a star of the eighth magnitude4 ,we know nothing of the inhabitants of those regions1 or what kind of animate beings exist in them4 ,it was a prevailing opinion among the ancients1 the correctness of which they for ages never called in question1 that the temperate zones of our globe were alone habitable4,the torrid zone they imagined was composed of nothing but sandy deserts1 scorched up by the vertical and insupportable beams of a burning sun4 ,the frigid zones1 they believed were begirt with eternal snows1 and thick ribbed ice1 which rendered them inaccessible to man1 and incapable of supporting animal or vegetable life4 ,hence none ventured to approach them4 ,subsequent discoveries have1 however1 taught us the errors of the ancients4 ,we now know that the torrid zone teems with organic life2 and possesses1 in many parts1 a population more dense than the temperate1 and is equally well adapted to its support3 nay1 we even find the temperature of that region to be such that it contains mountains capped with perpetual snows1 which the beams of a ,july sun do not dissolve4 ,it has also been ascertained that the frigid zones are partially inhabited3 but it seems that a certain timid dread1 perhaps in part attributable to the prejudices imbibed from our ancestors1 has prevented our exploring the extent of those regions4 ,however1 as far as civilized man has yet ventured to penetrate towards the poles1 we find that plants grow1 flowers bloom1 and human beings make a permanent residence2 nay1 even the untutored savages who reside there tell us that other human beings reside yet further to the north2 and animals are known to migrate in that direction4 ,reasoning then from analogy1 and from what we know1 we have no ground to conclude that such a vast extent of surface has been created by an all-wise ,providence for no other purpose1 than to be eternally clothed with mountains of ice4 ,such a conclusion comports not with the general economy we do know to exist throughout his works4 ,we are constrained to acknowledge1 notwithstanding our improvements in science1 that1 comparatively1 we know but little of the economy of nature4 ,within a few years past1 almost an entire revolution has taken place in the world respecting the philosophy of light and heata change which affects the theory both of their nature1 and of their causes3,they are now believed to be two distinct things1 and that the sun communicates neither1 but merely gives activity1 in some manner not yet known1 to the principles1 or matter1 of light and heat with which our elements abound4 ,if this be the case1 as ,i believe is now admitted by the learned world1 we cannot undertake to say1 that the intensity or the absence of either1 is necessarily dependant alone on the altitude of the sun1 under any particular latitude2 or on our nearness to1 or remoteness from1 the centre of the system3,for aught we know1 both may be connected with arrangements that require but few of the sun's rays to make them answer the purposes of organic life4 ,for aught we can tell1 the planet ,georgium ,sidus1 which rolls eighteen hundred millions of miles distant from the orb of day1 may1 nevertheless1 be favoured with as brilliant light1 and as genial warmth as our little globe2 and for aught we know the interior of this planet1 in the concavity of the spheres1 under the equator1 may enjoy the same light and heat that fructify and bless the equatorial climes on the convex surface4 ,during a period of several thousand years the ancients were of opinion that the earth was a perfect plane1 at rest1 and supported below by an unknown something2 that it was bounded on all sides by an impassable barrier1 and covered with the blue canopy of heaven1 in which the sun1 moon1 and stars performed their diurnal revolutions for the sole use and service of a few frail mortals4 ,they believed that the sun1 every morning rose out of the ,eastern sea2 and in the evening plunged into the ,western ocean2 that the stars were lighted up in the evening by some kind deity1 and extinguished before the appearance of the sun4 ,for ages none doubted the correctness of such a theory4 ,at length1 however1 from an attentive examination of the regular appearances and revolutions of the heavenly bodies1 some of the ,babylonians adopted the opinion that the earth was spherical2 revolving at regular periods round the sun1 as the centre of the universe4 ,in this they were followed by ,pythagoras and others4 ,but those efforts of genius1 for the most part1 met no other reward than the execrations of the exasperated multitude4 ,such innovations were deemed an impious crime against the gods1 and could only be atoned for by the sacrifice of their lives4 ,in those times the people of every nation1 like the untutored ,indian of our ,north ,western wilderness at this day1 considered their own country to be situated in the centre of the world1 and they1 the most favoured people4 ,even in later times1 when the system of the ,babylonians1 and that of ,pythagoras1 were revived by ,copernicus2 and1 when new discoveries respecting the form and revolutions of the earth1 and other parts of the universe1 were made by ,galileo1 not more than two hundred years since1 we find an ignorant and bigoted world alarmed at such opinions4 ,we find ,galileo1 that incomparable philosopher1 cited before the court of ,inquisition1 accused of heresy1 and thrown into prison4 ,the charge of heresy against him was supported by alleging that he maintained the two following positions1 viz4 #a4 ,that the sun is the centre of the world1 and immoveable by a local motion2 and #b4 ,that the earth is not the centre of the world1 nor immoveable1 but that it moves with a diurnal motion4 ,these positions he was not permitted to maintain or defend1 but was ordered to renounce them2 and was prohibited from vindicating them either in conversation or writing4 ,however strange and impious these doctrines appeared at that time1 subsequent ages have confirmed their correctness4 ,when ,columbus advanced the theory of a western continent1 he was ridiculed1 persecuted1 and contemned1 by nearly all the literati of ,europe4 ,it was an idea which had never before entered their minds4 ,but1 notwithstanding all their opposition and ridicule1 the correctness of his visionary theory1 as they were pleased to call it1 was demonstrated by the actual discovery of this vast continent1 which is now sustaining millions of the very happiest of the human race4 ,many of the important discoveries of the immortal ,newton1 at the time they were first promulgated to the world1 were denounced as the splendid visions of a madman2 but1 subsequent ages have done him justice4 ,much as we may feel ourselves elated on account of the new lights which have since been shed upon us1 by the further progress and developement of science2 yet1 when ,i reflect on the unkind treatment which ,captain ,symmes and his new theory have received in our own day1 ,i cannot help fearing that we are still1 in some degree1 under the influence of the same feelings and prejudices which brought the earlier philosophers to the torture1 and the prison4 ,this theory differs much less from the one now commonly received1 than the doctrines of those philosophers differed from the prejudices of the multitude1 in an age when every one believed the earth to be as flat as a table2 and1 consequently1 it is but a small innovation in comparison to what the theory of ,pythagoras and ,copernicus must have appeared to be in their day2 yet ,captain ,symmes has been constantly1 and almost every where1 represented as a visionary and dangerous innovator1 and his alleged discovery ridiculed as the silly dream of a deranged imagination4 ,but let us not turn our backs and give a deaf ear to him1 or to the discoveries of any other man1 merely because they are new1 and in contravention of our previously received impressions4 ,true it is1 novelty is frequently dangerous and hurtful3 but on the other hand1 it is often necessary and useful4 ,without it we should still remain destitute of many of the greatest advantages we enjoy4 ,without the advancement of new principles1 and speculative ideas1 neither ourselves1 nor any other people1 could ever have emerged from a state of savage barbarity4 ,without it1 what purpose could our reason serve1 which1 under proper regulations1 and by a gradual progress1 is capable of contributing so largely to the general good of society8 ,were it my opinion that ,symmes's ,theory is one of the wildest and most ridiculous that ever entered into the brain of man1 ,i would not refuse to hear him2 nor by malevolent or satirical disapprobation1 attempt to discourage him1 before ,i had examined and reflected upon it4 ,by the examination of many speculative subjects1 abounding with falsehood1 we are frequently enabled to treasure up some truths4 ,some of the first and most important discoveries in chemistry1 owe their origin to the midnight vigils of the alchymists1 who vainly sought for the philosopher's stone3 and many valuable combinations in the science of mechanics have been discovered by those who wasted years in as vain a pursuit1 after a perpetual motion4 ,i believe there are but few theories1 which do not contain much that is profitable4 ,the man who has the ingenuity to advance new ones1 will be likely1 in the course of reasoning necessary to support them1 to say something that is useful to be known4 ,in his very reveries and wanderings1 he will often point out land-marks1 which may be useful to the future traveller4 ,whether then is it better to crouch under the tyranny of prejudice1 or employ our thoughts and reasoning powers in the search of truth1 though at the risk of deceiving ourselves1 as our predecessors have done8 ,had it not been for a prudent boldness in advancing and defending new doctrines1 the human mind must have remained to this day1 the sport of all the chimeras of the ancients4 ,the exact shape and formation of the earth are admitted not to be well understood4 ,the laws of gravity1 and the admeasurements which have been made in different places on the same meridian1 have demonstrated to us1 that the greatest mathematicians have mistaken its real figure4 ,various theories have at different times been published and refuted1 and others substituted in their stead4 ,yet still a shade of darkness and mystery appears to hang over the subject2 for many principles1 attractions1 and apparent variations from the established laws believed to exist in the economy of nature1 have been discovered1 particularly in the polar regions1 which remain unexplained and unaccounted for4 ,let us1 therefore1 examine and investigate any theory which proposes to explain them4 ,let us not be so tenacious of our own opinions1 and hereditary prejudices1 as to stop at the very point where every thing invites us to proceed4 ,let us rather push our researches after knowledge to the utmost1 and exercise our reason1 and every means in our power that may tend to the advancement of science and knowledge4 ,in the pursuit1 let us not be retarded by the cry of prejudice1 or the sarcastic whispers of the narrow minded1 and selfish4 ,let us1 therefore give ,captain ,symmes a gentle meeting1 and a candid hearing1 in the following short chapters2 ascertain what his theory is1 and on what principles he supports it2 and then adopt or reject it1 as our reason may dictate4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,symmes's ,theory2 comprehending his description of the form of the earth1 and of the other orbs in the ,universe2 his principles of gravity1 and the points wherein he differs from the old or generally received theories4 ,according to ,symmes's ,theory1 the earth1 as well as all the celestial orbicular bodies existing in the universe1 visible and invisible1 which partake in any degree of a planetary nature1 from the greatest to the smallest1 from the sun1 down to the most minute blazing meteor or falling star1 are all constituted in a greater or less degree1 of a collection of spheres1 more or less solid1 concentric with each other1 and more or less open at their poles2 each sphere being separated from its adjoining compeers by space replete with aerial fluids2 that every portion of infinite space1 except what is occupied by spheres1 is filled with an aerial elastic fluid1 more subtile than common atmospheric air2 and constituted of innumerable small concentric spheres1 too minute to be visible to the organ of sight assisted by the most perfect microscope1 and so elastic that they continually press on each other1 and change their relative situations as often as the position of any piece of matter in space may change its position3 thus causing a universal pressure1 which is weakened by the intervention of other bodies in proportion to the subtended angle of distance and dimension2 necessarily causing the body to move towards the points of decreased pressure4 ,it is a sound principle of philosophy1 that the particles of the common air of our atmosphere are of a repellant quality1 and mutually repulse each other4 ,the whole system of pneumatics goes to prove that air presses equally in all directions4 ,not a single experiment in this branch of natural science can be performed that does not depend on such a property4 ,this being the case1 if the boundless extent of the universe1 beyond the limits of our atmosphere1 be an entire vacuum1 why should the atmosphere be retained in its present circumscribed form1 and not expand1 by virtue of its repellant quality1 far beyond its known height8 ,to prevent this1 ,symmes believes universal space to be filled with an elastic fluid1 inconceivably rare1 and uniformly distributed throughout2 differing from common air1 and from the elastic fluids 7which also are known to be repellant7 existing in our atmosphere4 ,this tendency is what ,symmes believes should be understood by the term gravity2 the laws of action governing which he holds to be true1 as defined by ,newton3 and he moreover holds that the application of the laws of gravity1 as laid down by ,newton1 leads a reasoning mind to the belief of concentric spheres1 with open poles1 as all planetary bodies are in his opinion formed4 ,in regard to the effects of gravity1 he pretends not to differ from the generally received opinion of the age2 but the application of them1 as to the inner parts of insulated bodies1 has enabled him to improve in a knowledge of the formation of planets2 and finally led him to form a correct idea of what constitutes gravity4 ,the author of the new theory entertains a belief that the principles of planetary orbicular forms1 developed by him1 extend as well to the molecules of the most subtile fluids1 as to the innumerable stars or suns of the universe1 and all their planetary trains3 he contends that though he may not have discovered any new principles in physics1 yet that he has made interesting advances in a knowledge of the application of what was heretofore known4 ,according to him1 the planet which has been designated the ,earth1 is composed of at least five hollow concentric spheres1 with spaces between each1 an atmosphere surrounding each2 and habitable as well upon the concave as the convex surface4 ,each of these spheres are widely open at their poles4 ,the north polar opening of the sphere we inhabit1 is believed to be about four thousand miles in diameter1 and the southern above six thousand4#a ,the planes of these polar openings are inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of about twenty degrees2 so that the real axis of the earth1 being perpendicular to the plane of the equator1 will form an angle of twelve degrees with a line passing through the sphere at right angles with the plane of the polar openings2 consequently the verge of the polar openings must approach several degrees nearer to the equator on one side than on the other4 ,the highest north point1 or where the distance is greatest from the equator to the verge of the opening in the northern hemisphere1 will be found either in the northern sea1 near the coast of ,lapland1 on a meridian passing through ,spitsbergen1 in about latitude sixty-eight degrees1 or somewhat more eastwardly in ,lapland2 and the verge would become apparent1 to the navigator proceeding north1 in about latitude ninety degrees4 ,the lowermost point1 or the place where the distance is least from the equator to the verge of the northern polar opening1 will be found in the ,pacific ocean1 about latitude fifty degrees1 near the north-west coast of ,america1 on or near a meridian running through the mouth of ,cook's river1 being in about one hundred and sixty degrees west longitude1 the real verge being in about latitude fifty degrees and becoming apparent to a person travelling northward at right angles with the magnetic equator1 at the distance of about twelve hundred miles further4 ,the verge varies progressively from the lowest to the highest point1 crossing the north-west coast of ,america between latitude fifty-two and fifty-four1 thence across the continent of ,north ,america1 passing through ,hudson's ,bay and ,greenland1 near cape ,farewell2 thence by mount ,hecla to the highest point2 thence tending gradually more to the south1 across the northern parts of ,asia1 at or near the volcanoes of ,kamtschatka1 and along the extinguished volcanoes of the ,fox ,islands1 to the lowermost point again1 near the northwest coast4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 the highest point1 or place where the distance is greatest from the equator to the verge of the polar opening1 will be found in the southern ,pacific ocean1 in about latitude forty-six degrees south1 and perhaps about longitude one hundred and thirty degrees west2 and the lowermost point1 or place where the distance is least from the equator to the verge of the opening1 will be found on a meridian south or south-east of the island of ,madagascar1 in about latitude thirty-four degrees south1 and longitude about fifty degrees east2 thence passing near the cape of ,good ,hope1 across the ,atlantic ocean1 and southern part of the continent of ,america1 through a chain of active volcanoes1 to the highest point2 thence bearing regularly toward the lowest point1 passing between the two islands of ,new-,zealand1 or across the most southerly one1 and the northernmost part of ,van ,dieman's land1 to the lowest point1 which is south or south-east of ,madagascar2 the apparent verge being several hundred miles beyond the real verge4#b ,consequently1 according to this formation of the sphere1 the degrees of latitude1 on different meridians1 will vary according to their distance from the polar openings2 and the magnetical equator1 which encircles the sphere1 parallel to the plane of the polar openings1 would cut the real equator at an angle of twelve degrees4 ,a person standing on the highest part of the apparent verge would appear to be under the polar star1 or nearly so1 and at the ninetieth degree of latitude4 ,the meridians all converge to the highest point of the verge1 or the ninetieth degree2 consequently1 in tracing a meridian of longitude1 you would pursue a direction at right angles to the equator1 until you arrived in the neighbourhood of the real verge of the polar opening1 when the meridians would change their direction and turn along between the real and apparent verges towards the highest point1 until they all terminated at the ninetieth degree of latitude2 this being the direction a person would travel in order to have his back to the sun always at #ab o'clock1 the time of his greatest altitude4 ,although the particular location of the places where the verges of the polar openings are believed to exist1 may not have been ascertained with absolute certainty1 yet they are believed to be nearly correct2 their localities having been ascertained from appearances that exist in those regions2 such as a belt or zone surrounding the globe where trees and other vegetation 7except moss7 do not grow2 the tides of the ocean flowing in different directions1 and appearing to meet2 the existence of volcanoes2 the ground swells in the sea being more frequent2 the ,aurora ,borealis appearing to the southward2 and various other phenomena existing in and about the same regions1 mark the relative position of the real verges4 ,the heat and cold of the different climates are governed by their distance from the verge of the polar opening1 and do not depend on their nearness to or remoteness from the equator4 ,the natural climates are parallel to the planes of the polar openings1 and cut the parallels of latitude at an angle of twelve degrees4 ,when the sun is on the tropic of ,capricorn1 the circle of greatest cold would be about twenty-three and a half degrees south of the apparent verge1 and when the sun is on the tropic of ,cancer this circle would probably be just under the umbrage of the real verge3 hence it follows1 if this doctrine be correct1 that the climate of forty degrees north latitude on the plains of ,missouri1 in the western part of the continent of ,america1 will be as cold in winter1 as the latitude of fifty or fifty-two degrees in ,europe2 and observation has fully confirmed such to be the fact4 ,the magnetic principle which gives polarity to the needle1 is believed to be regulated by the polar openings1 and that the needle always points directly to the opening1 and of course parallel to a line drawn perpendicular to the plane of the opening4 ,and when the apparent verge shall be passed1 the needle will seem to turn nearly round1 so as to point in an opposite direction2 having the contrary end north on the interior of the sphere1 that was north on the exterior1 the same end being north on the interior which was south on the exterior4 ,hence1 when navigators arrive in the neighbourhood of the apparent verge1 the variation of the needle becomes extreme2 and when the verge is passed1 the variation is more or less reversed4 ,the meridians run from the highest northern to the highest southern point on the verges2 hence1 in tracing a meridian1 or sailing due north1 we would pursue that line which would conduct us directly from the sun at his greatest altitude2 and when we come to the verge1 the meridian would vary1 and wind along the vicinity of the edge of the real verge1 until it brought us to the highest point of the apparent verge4 ,the magnetic needle1 on arriving at the verge would appear to cease to pursue the same direction1 but would in reality continue to maintain it1 and lead directly into the polar opening4 ,according to this formation of the sphere1 a traveller or navigator might proceed true north any where west of the highest point of the verge1 say on the continent of ,america1 until he come to the verge4 ,the meridian on which he was travelling would then wind along the verge to the right1 until he arrived at the ninetieth degree2 and by proceeding south1 in the same direction1 he would arrive at the coast of ,siberia1 without going far into the concavity of the sphere1 and without knowing that he had been within the verge4 ,should such a journey be effected1 it would appear to confirm the old theory of the form of the earth1 and put the subject at rest2 although pursuing the needle might have directed the traveller into the interior1 and enabled him to discover those fine countries which ,captain ,symmes alleges to exist there4 ,each of the spheres composing the earth1 as well as those constituting the other planets throughout the universe1 is believed to be habitable both on the inner and outer surface2 and lighted and warmed according to those general laws which communicate light and heat to every part of the universe4 ,the light may not1 indeed1 be so bright1 nor the heat so intense1 as is indicated in high northern latitudes 7about where the verge is supposed to commence7 by the paleness of the sun1 and darkness of the sky2 facts1 which various navigators who have visited those regions confirm2 yet they are no doubt sufficiently lighted and warmed to promote the propagation and support of animal and vegetable life4 ,the different spheres constituting our planet1 and the other orbs in creation1 most probably do not revolve on axes1 parallel to each other1 nor perform their revolutions in the same periods of time2 as is indicated by the spots on the belts of ,jupiter1 which move faster on one belt than another4 ,the atmosphere surrounding the sphere is probably more dense on the interior than the exterior surface1 the increased pressure of which must increase the force of gravity2 as the power of gravity must increase in proportion as we approach nearer the poles4,clouds formed in the atmosphere of the convexity of the sphere1 probably float in through the polar openings1 and visit the interior1 in the form of rain and snow4 ,and the long continuation of winds1 or regular monsoons1 which occur in some parts of the earth1 may be supplied by winds sucked into one polar opening and discharged through the other1 thus performing the circuit of the sphere2 without which supposition1 it would be difficult to account for the long continued winds which1 at certain seasons1 are known to blow constantly for several months1 more or less obliquely to and from the poles4 ,the disciples of ,symmes believe that each sphere has a cavity1 or mid-plane space near the centre of the matter composing it1 filled with a very light1 subtile1 elastic substance1 partaking somewhat1 perhaps1 of the nature of hydrogen gas2 which aerial fluid is composed of molecules greatly rarified in comparison with the gravity of the extended or exposed surfaces of the sphere4 ,this mid-plane space tends to give the sphere a degree of lightness and buoyancy4 ,besides this large mid-plane space1 perhaps numerous other interstices exist in the sphere nearer the surface1 and of more limited extent4 ,the gas escaping from these spaces is1 no doubt1 the cause of earthquakes2 and supply the numerous volcanoes4 ,this gas becoming rarified and escaping1 must occasion most of those great revolutions and phenomena in nature1 which we know to have occurred in the geology of the earth4 ,this aerial fluid with which the mid-plane spaces are filled1 may possibly be adapted to the support of animal life2 and the interior surfaces of the spheres formed by them1 may abound with animals1 with organs only adapted to the medium which they are destined to inhabit4 ,in many parts of the unfathomable ocean there may be communications or passages from the surface of the sphere on the outer side to the surface of the inner1 at least all except the great mid-plane space1 through which liquid apertures1 light and heat may be communicated1 perhaps1 to the interior surface of the sphere4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,national ,intelligencer of ,june #ajth1 #ahbd4 #b ,a tolerably correct representation of the sphere might be made by taking a hollow terrestrial globe1 such as are used in colleges1 and insert a saw at north latitude sixty-eight degrees in ,lapland1 sawing obliquely through1 so as to come out at latitude fifty degrees in the ,pacific ocean4 ,the aperture thus produced1 will show the general dimensions and slope of the north polar opening4 ,and in the southern hemisphere1 commencing with the saw at south latitude thirty four degrees1 in longitude between fifty and fifty-five degrees east1 in the ,indian ocean1 and sawing obliquely through1 in the same manner1 so as to come out at south latitude forty-six degrees1 and longitude one hundred and thirty degrees west1 in the ,south ,pacific ocean1 you will represent the appearance of the south polar opening2 and the whole will exhibit a general representation of the sphere1 according to the new theory4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,symmes's ,theory supported by arguments drawn from the principles inherent in matter1 and the consequences resulting from motion2 tending to show that1 from necessity1 matter must form itself into concentric circles or spheres1 such as ,symmes describes the earth to be composed of4 ,it is a principle laid down by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 the correctness of which is generally admitted1 that matter attracts matter in proportion to its quantity and the squares of its distances inversely4 ,captain ,symmes contends that gravity consists in a certain expansive quality in the molecules which constitute the aerial fluid called ther1 which fills universal space1 and creates a pushing1 instead of a pulling power4 ,however1 let either be correct1 ,i conceive it cannot materially affect the principles necessary to constitute concentric spheres3 either principle1 ,i apprehend1 would lead us nearly to the same results4 ,when matter was in chaos1 or in a form not solid1 promiscuously disseminated through universal space1 suppose it then should at once receive the impression of those universal laws by which it is governed1 and see what would be the consequence4 ,according to ,sir ,isaac ,newton's principles of gravity1 the particle of matter that happened to be the largest would attract the smaller in its neighbourhood1 which would increase the power of attraction in proportion to the increase of matter1 until all in the universe would be collected into one vast body in the centre of space1 and there remain motionless and at rest forever4 ,this1 however1 we find not to be the case2 for innumerable bodies of matter1 differing in magnitude1 are known to exist throughout the universe1 arranged at suitable distances from each other1 and performing certain revolutions in obedience to certain fixed laws impressed on them4 ,now suppose all the matter in our globe to be an extended liquid mass1 the particles so disengaged from each other1 as to take their positions according to the established laws of matter1 and then see what would be the consequences resulting from motion and gravity4 ,taking the laws of ,newton for our guide1 the particles of matter in the centre would be operated on by the power of gravity equally on all sides and consequently be stationary4 ,suppose then a line struck through this globe of matter1 so as to make a globe of half the diameter of the whole in the centre1 it is plain that the inner globe would not contain more than one eighth part as much matter as the surrounding one2 hence it would be attracted towards the surface more than to the centre1 were it not for the attraction of the matter on the opposite side exerting an influence upon itbut this being removed to so much greater distance1 would not be more than an equipoise to the other4 ,the diameter of our globe1 according to the best observation1 is believed to be about #gigj ,english miles1 and its circumference #be1jch3 consequently1 if it were solid1 it would contain #bfe1jgh1eei1fbb cubic miles of matter2 while a globe of only half the diameter1 would contain only #cc1acd1hai1ieb4c ,suppose our globe divided into parts of one square mile on the surface1 bounded by straight lines converging to a point at the centre1 as the subjoined figure represents3 ,illustration and then suppose there were no other particles of matter in the universe but ,a and ,b1 ,a containing #a1cbh cubic miles of matter1 and ,b only #aff1 ,a would attract ,b so as to make their centre of attraction at ,o1 which point would become at once the common centre3 but admitting the whole matter of the globe to exist1 ,a would still exert its influence on ,b1 but both would be operated upon by ,t and ,s and the surrounding matter1 all perhaps1 tending to one common centre4 ,however1 ,i imagine that the tending to the centre would not be so great as is contended for by the generally received theory1 which alleges that matter at the centre of the earth is four times as hard as hammered iron4 ,the ,newtonian philosophy appears to contemplate a globe at rest1 and not in such rapid motion as we know the earth and other planetary bodies to be in1 communicating to them a centrifugal force1 which tends to throw matter from the centre4 ,the rotary motion of each planet is no doubt regulated by the quantity of matter it contains3 so that at its surface centrifugal and centripetal forces are equally balancedthe rotary motion being adequate to communicate a force to counter-balance the force of gravity4 ,newton ascertained by his investigations of the properties and principles of matter1 the earth to be a globe flattened at the poles3 and the ,french philosophers afterwards confirmed this fact by measuring a degree in different latitudes4 ,this difference between the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth1 and of the other planets which are also known to be of that shape1 is ascribed by those philosophers who attempt to account for such a formation1 to the projectile force of the globe at the equator occasioned by its rotary motion4 ,this is admitting that the matter of our globe was once in so soft a state as to take its form from motion2 for were the earth a compact solid body1 and four times as hard as hammered iron at the centre1 7as the ,newtonian system alleges7 this rotary motion round an imaginary axis could never give to the globe the form of an oblate spheroid1 as is ascertained to be the fact2 because a hard solid body moving in empty space1 could not be supposed to yield into that shape by any law of action as yet unfolded by science4 ,but were the matter of this globe thrown into a confused1 disorganized state1 and then put into a quick rotary motion1 such as it is known to have1 it would throw off from the centre towards the surface1 first the heaviest1 and next the lighter substances1 which is the very order in which they are found to be arranged1 in the composition of the earth4 ,this principle1 for it is simply the principle of projectile force1 will account for mountains1 hills1 vallies1 plains2 and for nearly all the inequalities on the face of the earth4 ,these circumstances depend on the density of substances composing the earth4 ,substances of the greatest specific gravity are susceptible of the greatest projectile force2 and hence we find that mountains are composed of heavy masses of rock1 mineral substances1 and heavy earths2 hills1 or the next highest eminences1 of earth of the next specific gravity2 and plains1 or level lands1 of lighter substances4 ,had the earth originally been composed of one uniform substance1 sand1 for example1 of equal fineness and weight1 the whole surface of the globe would have presented one uniform level or unbroken plain4 ,but1 presuming that it was originally composed of1 at least1 earths of different densities1 the heaviest masses would be first thrown out and raise their heads above the surface of the ocean3 thus islands would be formed2 and clusters of islands would form continents1 rearing their lofty heads into the air2 and1 if the substances of which they were originally composed1 were not as hard as the rocks which we now find on them1 the sun and changing temperature of the climates1 might convert certain kinds of earth into masses of stone1 increasing in specific gravity by petrifaction1 and other causes1 until the towering peaks of the ,alps and ,andes assumed their present solid form4 ,one continent having thus emerged1 another would naturally be produced simultaneously on the opposite side of the sphere1 as an equipoise to the first1 to keep equal the earth's motion2 until all the heavy substances should be thrown out and united in a compact sphere4 ,to an observer of the earth the crust every where appears to indicate the emergence of land from water3 almost the whole surface of the solid crust is alluvial1 and by reasoning and reflecting1 we are led to the conclusion1 that the solid parts of our globe are nothing more than a crust1 and formed into concentric spheres1 in accordance with the principles of projectile force4 ,i would ask1 what proofs have we1 that the sphere we inhabit is solid beyond the degree of thickness necessary to preserve it from injury by its rapid motion round the sun1 by its diurnal motion round its own axis1 and by its motion round its common centre of gravity with the moon8 ,it has been ascertained with mathematical certainty1 that the large planet ,jupiter1 is more than #acjj times the bulk of the earth1 and ,saturn independent of his double ring1 is about #ajjj times the size4 ,if we apply to those prodigious bodies1 the reasoning of ,newton relative to plastic forms moving variously1 there is no just grounds for concluding that they are solid substances to their centres4 ,if they were1 their vast weight and remote position would require much more attraction than probably even the sun could furnish1 to keep them within their orbits4 ,the acknowledged and received laws of gravity1 together with the measurements made on the same meridian1 in different latitudes1 have demonstrated to us that the greatest mathematicians have been mistaken as to the real figure of the earth4 ,it is for schoolmen to make exact calculations1 respecting the force of gravity1 and centrifugal and centripetal forces2 it is for them to determine with mathematical certainty where matter1 left to its own laws1 would settle2 for such undertakings1 ,i acknowledge my incompetency4 ,but ,i have long had strong doubts1 whether the laws of gravity are well understood2 or whether the rules on which these calculations could be accurately made1 are exactly known4 ,however1 ,i take the broad principles of nature1 as presented to my view1 for my guide2 and draw my conclusions from what ,i have seen or what is well known to exist4 ,observe the boy hurling a stone from a sling2 he whirls it round his head for a minute to acquire a certain degree of centrifugal force1 and although it is not whirled with half the velocity the earth revolves on its axis1 yet as soon as it is released from confinement1 notwithstanding the whole power of the earth is operating on it with all the force of gravity1 the centrifugal force which the stone acquired by the whirling is sufficient to carry it off1 at a tangent to the circle described by the sling1 for a very considerable distance1 before the gravity of the earth and atmospheric obstruction can force it to the ground4 ,if you will take the trouble to examine a mechanic grinding cutlery on a large stone that is smooth on the sides and has a quick motion1 you may observe that if a certain portion of water be poured on the perpendicular side whilst the stone is turning1 it does not settle or form itself into a body round the crank or axis2 nor does the gravity of the earth draw it from the surface1 but forms itself on the side of the stone into something resembling concentric circles1 one within another4 ,the surface of the earth1 ,i apprehend1 revolves with much greater velocity than any grindstone2 and the substances composing the spheres are much firmer than water4 ,most of us1 ,i presume1 have seen persons for amusement1 in displaying feats of dexterity1 place a full glass of wine or water on a hoop1 and whirl it round their heads without spilling one drop4 ,the centrifugal force it acquires by the revolutions overcomes the power of gravity1 although nothing appears to support it but the common atmosphere4 ,another experiment1 producing a similar effect1 might be made with a cup filled with fine sand4 ,on the surface of the sand1 describe a circle nearly in the centre2 it will then be apparent1 on observing the cup1 that the sand within the circle1 provided the particles attract one another as the planets do1 is as much attracted towards one verge of the cup as the other2 owing to its being equally surrounded by matter or sand1 and therefore it can be but very little1 if any1 gravitated centrewise4 ,hence1 being in a degree suspended1 only a small horizontal rotary motion is required to whirl it towards the rim or sides of the cup into a circular form2 and hence it follows1 that those particles of sand lying equidistant from the inner side of the circle of sand thus formed1 and the outer side would be in like manner balanced1 or supported1 by being equally gravitated in both directions4 ,a disposition would thus be produced to form into concentric circles1 and it would therefore follow1 that successive similar dispositions to subdivision should occur1 gradually lessening in force and quantity4 ,this principle applied to the earth or other planets1 would cause them to be formed into concentric spheres2 and would throw the matter from the axis1 as well at the poles1 as at the centre1 and thereby constitute open poles4 ,another simple experiment might also be made1 to illustrate that a disposition to concentric spheres does exist in nature4 ,on a piece of paper sift a small quantity of very fine magnetic particles1 such as steel or iron filings1 under which hold a loadstone2 and you will observe that the attractive power of the magnet will cause the filings on the paper to arrange themselves into various concentric circles1 nearly regular and equidistant from each other4 ,from what cause should this take place1 rather than that the filings should be accumulated into one mass8 ,various have been the conjectures relative to the cause and origin of the meteoric stones1 or fire balls1 which have been known to fall to the earth1 in all ages1 and in various parts of the world4 ,some have imagined them to be precipitated from a comet or some of the planets2 others that they come from the moon2 and ,captain ,symmes's opinion1 ,i believe1 is that they are formed isolated in space by spontaneous accumulations1 as by attracting molecules of matter at first in a fluid state1 which afterwards solidifies by heat or motion4 ,but come from whence they may1 they are said to be constituted of a substance unknown to our geologists2 and in several instances the fragments have been ascertained to consist of pieces1 some of which have concave and some convex surfaces1 affording a certain proof that previous to their descent1 they had been constituted of hollow spheres4 ,professor ,silliman1 of ,yale college1 has preserved some of the fragments of one of these fire balls2 and in his valuable journal1 has given the public an able description of the facts which occurred1 when they fell4 ,this fire ball fell in the state of ,connecticut1 in the year #ahjg1 producing three distinct reports1 like a cannon1 making three convulsive leaps or throes in its course1 which were simultaneous no doubt with the explosions1 becoming less luminous after each1 and being quite extinguished at the third4 ,three showers of stones fell to the earth in a line with its course2 the second shower fell five miles distant from the first1 and the last three or four miles from the second4 ,some of the fragments were found to be concave1 others convex1 and especially on those sides of the fragments which were glazed with sooty crusted surface1 as if vitrified4 ,these phenomena are precisely such as would occur1 supposing the fire ball to have been a small satellite1 or erratic planet1 at first fluid1 which had become so condensed by the increased action of terrestrial gravity1 occasioned by its sudden approach1 as to cause its fluid parts to chrystalize and form into1 at least1 three concentric spheres2 and the latent heat and light set free by such rapid condensation as to produce the meteoric flame2 which in this case was almost equal in light to that of the sun at mid-day4 ,as soon as the spheres became sufficiently solidified to prevent the heated aerial fluid1 contained in the mid-plane cavities of the spheres1 from passing out with freedom1 when expanded by the heat2 or let the atmospheric air pass in1 in case a condensation within afforded a vacuum2 the solid crusts of the spheres would be disruptured successively one after the other2 lose their regular rotation1 and fall in fragments to the earth4 ,the fall of this body is not a solitary instance of the kind3 others have fallen in many parts of the earth1 attended with phenomena more or less the same4 ,on the #afth of ,january1 #ahah1 in ,florida1 near ,mobile bay1 a fire ball bursted with a considerable report4 ,immediately before the explosion1 it was observed to project a cone of fire from each pole horizontally and at right angles with its course4 ,its bursting like a bomb-shell1 indicated that it must have been hollow2 and the two cones of light which appeared1 beside its train1 showed that it was open at the poles4 ,turn your attention to the general economy of nature throughout her works1 and you will perceive in various and almost innumerable substances that she forms hollow cylinders or spheres in the room of solid ones4 ,enquire of the botanist1 and he will tell you that the plants which spring up spontaneously1 agreeable to the established laws of nature1 are hollow cylinders4 ,if a hollow globe would answer the ends of supporting organic life as well as a solid onewhy not be hollow1 as well as a stalk of wheat8 or by what laws is the stalk of wheat governed1 that it should always grow hollow8 ,what law in nature causes the quills and feathers of a bird to be hollow cylinders8 ,why are they not solid8 ,i presume it is for this plain reason1 that nature1 throughout all her works1 has wisely assigned to every thing just matter enough for strength and usefulness2 and has in no case overburthened it with unnecessary and cumbrous weight4 ,enquire of the anatomist1 and he will tell you that the large bones of all animals are hollow1 and particularly that the bones of birds are more than ordinarily so3 even the minutest hairs of our heads are hollow4 ,go to the mineralist1 and he will inform you that the stone called rolites1 and many other mineral bodies1 are composed of hollow concentric circles2 and1 that strata of different kinds abound in various mineral substances4 ,even the earth itself is composed1 as geologists tell us1 of various strata1 composed of different substances1 and varying from one degree of density to another4 ,if every part of our globe be regulated according to the received laws of gravity1 and the relative density of matter1 why do we find almost all over the world1 light alluvial soil in the vallies and plains2 and on the tops of the highest mountains1 the more heavy granite1 and some of the heaviest substances that nature knows8 ,we can hardly indulge the thought that all this is the work of volcanic eruptions or some dread throe of nature4 ,however1 if we direct our attention alone to those general laws which are known1 and which are believed to govern matter1 ,i apprehend it would be very difficult to account for the creation of worlds1 and the admirable arrangement which subsists throughout the universe4 ,to account for every thing1 either according to the old or new theory1 would be attempting too much4 ,it would be placing the ,deity in some corner of the universe an idle spectator1 whilst matter governed by its own laws1 was forming itself into worlds and systems2 the bare thought of which is irreverent4 ,is the existence of matter owing to some other first cause1 or did matter create itself1 and impress upon itself the laws which govern it8 ,such an idea is absurd4 ,we might as well imagine that matter created ,god1 as itself4 ,by attempting to trace every effect to some natural cause1 is attempting to do more than we shall ever be able to accomplish4 ,such a course of reasoning must lead us to the conclusion that there is no ,god1 or first cause2 or1 at least1 to what would be nearly the same thing1 that there is no need of one4 ,but in reasoning upon this subject1 ,i take it for granted1 that there is a ,god1 and that he is the first cause of all things1 the creator of all the orbs in the universe1 be they either solid globes or concentric spheres2 and ,i hope such is the reader's belief4 ,and ,i cannot discover in this any thing derogatory from ,his infinite power1 wisdom1 or divine economy1 in the formation of a hollow world and concentric spheres1 any more than in that of solid ones4 ,i should rather be of opinion1 that a construction of all the orbs in creation1 on a plan corresponding with ,symmes's theory1 would display the highest possible degree of perfection1 wisdom1 and goodnessthe most perfect system of creative economyand1 7as ,dr4 ,mitchill expresses it7 a great saving of stuff4 ,,footnote3 #c ,the solidity of the earth is easily calculated by the measure of a meridional degree2 but the result will be different according to the measurement assumed1 as the length of a degree differs in different latitudes4 ,notwithstanding all the admeasurements that have hitherto been made1 it has never been demonstrated1 in a satisfactory manner1 that the earth is strictly a spheroid2 indeed1 from observations made in different parts of the earth1 it appears that its figure is by no means that of a regular spheroid1 nor that of any other known regular mathematical figure2 and the only certain conclusions that can be drawn from the works of the several gentlemen employed to measure the earth is1 that the earth is something more flat at the poles than at the equator4 ,keith on globes p4 #ef4 ,new-,york1 #ahaa4 ,according to ,mott's translation of ,newton's ,principia1 book #c1 page #bdc1 the equatorial diameter of the earth is #gifd ,english miles1 and the polar diameter #gibi1 for as #bcj3bbi33gifd3gibi miles1 the polar axis4 ,cassini1 who adopted ,picard's measure of a degree1 makes the diameter of the earth #gifg statute miles2 others have estimated it at #giag1 and some at #giaj miles4 ,but the estimate which is now esteemed most correct1 ,i believe1 is1 that the equatorial diameter is #gigg ,english miles1 and the polar diameter #gidj4 ,from this we may ascertain the solid contents of the earth4 ,the axis of the earth then assumed to be #gidj and #gigg miles respectively1 the area of the generating eclipse is 7#gidj #gigg #j1ghed7 #digdeagh1beb3 and its area multiplied by two thirds of the longer axis1 gives the solidity equal to 7#digdeagh1beb #b_/c #gigg7 #bfdeddhegidd1acf cubic miles4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,arguments in support of ,symmes's ,theory1 drawn from celestial appearances4 ,that a disposition to hollow cylinders does exist in nature1 ,i think1 must be admitted2 and that a similar principle exists in the planetary system1 at least in some degree1 appears to me as certain4 ,every person has seen or heard of ,saturn and his rings4 ,at certain periods of time the appearance of this planet1 viewed through a good telescope1 represents him to be surrounded with two luminous rings or bodies of matter1 concentric with each other1 and with the body of the planet4 ,these rings no where adhere to the body of the planet1 but are distinct and separate1 some considerable distance from him1 and from each other1 leaving a portion of vacant space between the planet and the rings1 through which we see the fixed stars beyond4#d ,it is a fact1 ,i believe1 admitted by all1 and of which we have positive ocular demonstration1 that these rings are constituted of some kind of matter1 if not solid1 at least to all appearance as much so as the body of the planet4 ,their thickness must be very inconsiderable1 for when the edge is turned to the eye it is no longer visible1 except to the powerful reflecting telescope of ,dr4 ,herschel4,thus the rings undergo phases according to the position of the planet in his orbit1 which prove them to be opaque1 like other bodies in the planetary system1 and like them shining by reflection4 ,i am not informed what is the precise velocity of the rotary motion of the rings2 probably their varying aspect1 or some other cause has prevented a correct observation from being made4 ,however1 the planet itself revolves on its axis1 with an astonishing velocity2 and no doubt the rings also1 though perhaps with different degrees of velocity4 ,the appearance of ,saturn1 ,i conceive1 establishes the fact1 that the principle of concentric spheres1 or hollow planets1 does exist1 at least in one instance1 in the solar system4 ,and if the fact be established that it exists in one case1 is it not fair1 nay1 is it not almost a certain and necessary consequence1 that the same laws of matter which formed one planet into concentric spheres1 must form all the others on a plan more or less the same8 ,if we draw any conclusion1 or form any opinion at all1 respecting the formation of the planets1 whose inner parts we cannot see2 or if we form any opinion in relation to our own planet in particular1 whose poles have never been explored1 would not reasoning from analogy bring us to the conclusion1 that all bodies of matter are formed similar to that of ,saturn1 unless we have positive proof to the contrary8 ,but it is not in ,saturn alone that we find proof of the principles contended for by ,captain ,symmes4 ,most1 if not all of the other planets1 belonging to our system1 whose relative situation afford us an opportunity of observation1 appear to exhibit strong proofs that the same principles prevail throughout4 ,the planet ,mars1 exhibits concentric circles round one or the other of his poles1 according as either is more or less in opposition to us4 ,these circles appear alternately light and dark1 exactly as they should1 supposing the planet to be constituted of concentric spheres1 7such as ,symmes believes of the earth7 the light being reflected from their verges on which it falls2 and in which case the vacant space between the spheres would necessarily appear dark4 ,sometimes he appears to us with a single ring at each pole4 ,at such times his axis is at right angles1 or nearly so1 with a line drawn from the earth to his centre4 ,this1 ,i conceive1 can be accounted for by the great refraction1 occasioned by the increased density of his atmosphere around the poles1 which appears to throw out the further sides of the verges so as to make them appear like rings1 in the form they present themselves to our view4 ,that such is the natural appearance may be evidenced by taking a small wooden sphere with open poles1 and immerse it in a circular glass vessel filled with water2 when viewed horizontally through the side of the glass1 with the plane of the openings at a right angle with the visual ray1 the refraction occasioned by the water1 answering to the dense atmosphere of ,mars1 will apparently throw out the polar openings1 and present you with a view1 similar to the appearance of ,mars1 when his axis is at right angles to us4 ,our next neighbour1 ,venus1 between us and the sun1 7though her being between us and the sun prevents us from having so favourable an opportunity of examining her poles1 as those of ,mars1 who is our next neighbour on the side opposite the sun7 presents appearances at certain times1 which seem to lead to the conclusion1 that she also is constituted of concentric spheres4 ,at times1 when this planet is nearly a crescent1 we are able to discover a deficient space near the tip of one of her horns4 ,admitting ,venus to be constituted of concentric spheres with open poles2 and supposing one of the vacant spaces1 between two of her spheres about the polar openings1 to traverse her horn or cusp1 at the place where the dark space occurs1it would present to us exactly such an appearance as does actually occur4 ,at other times1 one of the horns or cusps of ,venus is seen to wind inward as it were into the body of the planets1 extending about fifteen degrees further than the other horn4 ,this is an appearance which would also be presented1 if ,venus is formed according to ,symmes's theory4 ,and again1 supposing one of her horns to terminate around the verge of a polar opening1 in such way as to follow the curve of the verge for some distance1 7which is of course more curved than the periphery of the planet7 and the same appearances1 ,i think1 would occur4 ,the axis of the planet not being at right angles with the polar openings1 in its revolutions one side of the verge would be thrown much nearer to us than the other2 and the different spheres revolving on their axes with different velocities would at different times exhibit to our view the verge of a different sphere4#e ,the axis of the planet ,jupiter is always at right angles with a line drawn to the earth1 consequently his poles are never presented to us2 but his belts1 which we can and do see1 seem to speak loudly in favour of a plurality of spheres4 ,the most common appearance of ,jupiter is1 that he is surrounded by four belts2 two bright and two dark1 alternate to each other4 ,but they are variable1 presenting different appearances2 at some times seven or eight belts are discoverable1 at other times they appear interrupted in their length1 and to increase and diminish alternately1 running into each other1 and again to separate into a number of belts of a smaller size4 ,if ,jupiter be a solid globe1 ,i would enquire1 how is it possible to account for those various changes in his belts1 or even for their existence at all8 ,astronomers1 ,i understand1 have heretofore considered the phenomena of ,jupiter's belts as altogether unaccountable4 ,if he be a simple plain globe1 those belts could not exist2 or if they did1 they must forever remain uniform1 and not change their size and shape1 or relative positions in respect to each other2 neither could the spots on one belt rotate faster than those on another4 ,but if we adopt the doctrine of concentric spheres1 and that this planet is composed of a number of them1 we can account at once for all the various appearances in a rational manner4 ,the belts would be produced by the shadow cast on the space between the polar opening of one sphere and the adjoining one2 that is1 a portion of the sunshine1 would be reflected from the verges of the spheres on which it fell2 and another portion would appear to be swallowed by the intervening space4 ,and if refraction bends the rays of vision between and under his spheres1 as it bends a portion of the rays of the sun1 so as to produce the apparent belts of comparative shade1 then a very complete solution of those appearances1 heretofore considered wonderful1 would be afforded4 ,the variation which has been observed in their number1 shape1 and dimensions1 can in no way be better accounted for1 than by concluding the planet to be constituted of a number of concentric spheres1 of different breadths1 revolving on different axes1 and with different velocities1 so as sometimes to present to our view the verge of one sphere1 and sometimes that of another3 and the rays of the sun falling on the parts of the verges presented to us1 would occasion the diversified appearances which we discover4 ,if some sections of both crusts of the spheres be formed of water alone1 and become occasionally transparent1 it will afford an additional reason for the varying phenomena attendant on these appearances1 which may also be increased by alternate regions of water1 ice1 dry land1 and snow4 ,modern astronomers have long noticed the spots frequently visible on the sun4 ,they are described as having the appearance of vast holes1 or fractures1 in his outer surface or crust1 through which an inner appears to be seen4 ,this1 also1 seems to favour the doctrine of different spheres4 ,notwithstanding the sun revolves very slowly on his axis1 it is probable that his poles are open to a greater or less extent2 but we can never see into them1 owing perhaps to the earth1 never being very far from the plane of the sun's equator1 his being such a vast deal larger than the earth1 and the atmosphere surrounding him so extremely luminous4 ,very little doubt exists in my mind1 that the poles of the sun and of ,jupiter would appear somewhat like those of ,mars or the rings of ,saturn1 were it not that the two former never present their axes1 in any perceptible degree1 towards us2 neither does our satellite1 the moon1 ever present either of her poles to us3 hence1 though this may be in some degree open1 7notwithstanding her slow rotation7 owing to her axis always being nearly at right angles with a line drawn to the earth1 we are not able to see whether they are open or not1more especially as her atmosphere is so light and rare as not to produce much refraction4 ,the vast round deep caverns observable on the surface of the moon1 appear as if they might once have been polar openings2 if so1 she must frequently have changed her axis4 ,the spots of light which have at different periods been discovered by astronomers1 on the surface of the moon1 near her poles1 when she was on the face of the sun1 in an eclipse of that luminary1 are perhaps best accounted for by supposing the sun to shine in1 either at one of her polar openings or through a cavity on her further side1 and appearing to us through one of her annular cavities1 on this side1 and near her poles3 ,or the sun being much larger than the moon1 and the axis of the moon a little varied from right angles with the earth1 7or perhaps the low side of the sphere being next to the earth17 the sun would shine through an annular cavity or open pole1 so as to appear to us as a spot of light on the moon's disk4 ,the foregoing enumerated astronomical phenomena are some of the facts tending to confirm and elucidate ,symmes's theory4 ,they all have been long known to exist2 yet ,i have never heard them accounted for to the satisfaction of my mind4 ,indeed1 ,i believe some of them never was attempted to be accounted for in any manner whatever4 ,i would1 therefore1 request the reader1 who may deign to give the subject a serious thought1 to reflect1 that if all the celestial orbs are entire round globes1 as the old theory considers them to be1 on what principles1 or in what manner1 could they present the various appearances which ,i have enumerated8 ,why should the horns of ,venus assume different shapes8 ,what would make the appearance of belts on ,jupiter8 ,or rings and concentric circles at the poles of ,mars8 ,and1 finally1 in what position could a round solid globe be placed1 to exhibit the rings of ,saturn1 revolving with different velocities1 as it respects each other1 and spaces appearing between them and the body of the planet1 through which stars1 millions of miles beyond1 can be distinctly seen8 ,these are phenomena ,i should like to hear explained4 ,on the principle of concentric spheres1 they can all be accounted for in a most satisfactory manner4 ,they appear perfectly plain and intelligible4 ,what was thought to be involved in inexplicable mystery1 and mid-night darkness now perfectly accords with the established laws of nature1 and can be understood by the most ordinary capacity4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,physical ,world1 p4 #db4;,adam's ,philosophy1 vol4 #d1 p4 #bjf2 ,philadelphia1 #ahjg4 #e ,dr4 ,herschel has observed a faint illumination in the unlighted part of the planet ,venus1 which he ascribes to some phosphoric quality of its atmosphere4 ,editor's note to ,adams' ,philosophy1 vol4 #d1 p4 #bjd1 ,philadelphia1 #ahjg4 ,quere,might not such an appearance be accounted for as rationally1 by supposing the rays of the sun to shine or be reflected1 through one of her polar openings1 and fall on the verge of the sphere at the opposite polar opening8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 supported by arguments drawn from ,terrestrial facts2 such as the migration of animals to and from the arctic regions1 and from refraction1 and the variation of the compass1 observed in high northern latitudes4 ,i would now advert to a few of the known terrestrial facts1 which have a tendency to support the theory advanced by ,captain ,symmes2 such as the migration of animals1 including beasts1 birds1 and fishes1 in the arctic regions2 and from refraction1 and the variation of the compass observed in high northern latitudes4 ,it is a fact well attested by whalers and fishers in the northern seas2 and one that almost every author who adverts to the northern fisheries confirms1 that innumerable and almost incredible numbers of whales1 mackerel1 herring1 and other migratory fish1 annually come down in the spring season of the year1 from the artic seas towards the equator4 ,some authors describe the shoals of herring alone1 to be equal in surface to the island of ,great ,britain4 ,besides these1 innumerable shoals of other fish also come down4 ,these fish when they first come from the north in the spring1 are in their best plight and fattest condition3 but as the season advances1 and they move on to the southward1 they become poor2 so much so1 that by the time they get on the coast of ,france1 or ,spain1 as fishermen say1 they are scarce worth catching4 ,the history of the migratory fish affords strong grounds to conclude1 that the shoals which come from the north1 are like swarms of bees from the mother hive1 never to return2 particularly the herring and other small fish4 ,they are not known to return in shoals3 and it is doubted by some writers on the subject whether any of them ever return north again1 or whether they are not entirely consumed by men1 and by other fish4 ,whalers and other fishermen who go to the north1 generally prosecute their business in the seas between latitudes sixty and seventy degrees1 where whales are most abundant4 ,pinkerton1 in his voyages1 states1 that the ,dutch1 who at different periods got detained in the ice1 and were compelled to winter in high northern latitudes1 could find but few fish to subsist on during the winter3 which proves that the migrating fish do not winter amongst1 or on this side of the ice4,all these facts relative to fish1 appear to be well authenticated4 ,now1 were the earth a compact and solid spheroid1 according to the old theory2 and were the seas frozen nearly to the bottom at the poles1 as we would be led to conclude1 where could all those fish1 that come down to us every spring1 breed8 or1 if they even all returned in the autumn1 and all the north were a sea that did not freeze even to the poles1 it would require a great stretch of credulity to imagine where they could obtain food for the winter2 or even if their source of food were inexhaustible1 could the region of the pole afford space sufficient for their health1 so as to migrate south in the spring8 ,if the earth be not hollow1 7or at least greatly concave about the poles7 where could all those fish find room in winter8 ,but on ,symmes's plan1 admitting the globe to be a hollow sphere1 and the inner1 or concave part1 as habitable as without1 7at least as habitable for fish7 the whole matter is at once explained4 ,whales1 and various fish1 delight in cold regions4 ,according to ,symmes's ,theory1 a zone at a short distance beyond the real verge of the sphere1 7which constitutes the coldest part1 or as he has thought proper to term it1 the icy circle17 commencing at the highest point1 in about latitude sixty-eight degrees1 in the northern sea1 near ,norway1 thence gradually declining to about latitude fifty degrees in the ,pacific ocean1 which is the lowest point1 and thence regularly round again to the highest point4 ,a certain distance beyond this1 and short of the apparent verge1 this zone1 or icy circle exists1 which is believed to be the coldest region of the earth4 ,after passing this1 we would advance into the interior of the globe1 and into a milder clime4 ,in the interior region1 it is contended1 those immense shoals of fish are propagated and grow1 which annually come out and afford us such an abundant supply3 nor does it appear that the interior parts of the sphere are altogether forsaken by the fish in summer2 for shoals of fat mackerel and herring come down from the north in autumn1 as well as in the spring4 ,the seal1 another animal found in cold regions1 is also said to migrate north twice each year2 going once beyond the icy circle to produce their young2 and again to complete their growth1 always returning remarkably fatan evidence that they find something more than snow and ice to feed on in the country to which they migrate4 ,numerous other facts of importance1 relative to the migration of quadrupeds1 are well authenticated by travellers and others3 particularly that of the rein-deer4 ,in ,rees's ,cyclopedia1 under the head1 ,hudson's ,bay1 it is stated1 that the rein-deer are seen in the spring season of the year1 about the month of ,march or ,april1 coming down from the north1 in droves of eight or ten thousand1 and that they are known to return northward in the month of ,october1 when the snow becomes deep4 ,hudson's ,bay is situated between sixty and sixty-five degrees north latitude4 ,we are informed by professor ,adams of ,st4 ,petersburgh1 that on the northern coast of ,asia1 every autumn the rein-deer start north-eastwardly from the river ,lena1 and return again in the spring1 in good condition3 the mouth of the river ,lena is in about latitude seventy degrees north4 ,this appears to me rather a mystery according to the old theory of the earth1 for why should those deer when the cold commences1 seek a colder climate1 and a more sterile country8 ,the inhospitable coast of ,liberia and ,hudson's ,bay1 in the gloom of a dark winter1 ,i should suppose1 would be cold enough1 without their seeking to spend the winter among nothing but eternal mountains of ice at the pole2 where nature must be robed in snows and crowned with storms4 ,hearne1 who travelled very high north and northwest on the continent of ,america1 details various facts in his journal1 which strongly corroborate ,symmes's position4 ,some of the facts he attempts to explain agreeably to his own ideas1 and others he considers inexplicable4 ,among a great collection of facts1 he states1 that large droves of musk-oxen abound within the arctic circle1 few of which ever come so far south as the ,hudsons-,bay factories4 ,he mentions seeing in the course of one day1 several herds of those animals1 of seventy or eighty in a herd1 in about latitude sixty-eight degrees4 ,he states that the polar white bears are very rarely found by any of the ,indians in winter2 and that their winter retreats appear to be unknown2#f that they are sometimes seen retiring towards the sea on the ice in autumn2 and appear again in great numbers in the latter end of ,march1 bringing their young with them4 ,hearne also states1 that the white or arctic foxes are1 some years1 remarkably plentiful2 and always come from the north2 that their numbers almost exceed credibility2 that it is well known none of them ever migrate again to the northward2 and that naturalists are at a loss to know where they originate4#g ,he also mentions that all kinds of game1 as well as fish1 in those high latitudes1 are at some seasons excessively plentiful1 and at others extremely scarce4 ,these facts strongly corroborate the doctrine of a hollow sphere3 otherwise1 why should the rein-deer1 and other animals1 migrate north instead of south2 as our ,buffalo on the plains of ,missouri do1 when pressed with snow and cold weather8 ,instinct generally leads animals to fruitful and productive1 rather than unproductive1 regions2 why then proceed north on the approach of winter1 unless in expectation of finding a warmer climate1 or1 at least1 a more mild and plentiful country1 beyond the icy circle8 ,independent of the immense droves of rein-deer1 great numbers of musk-oxen1 white bears1 and white foxes1 spend their winters towards the north2 which tends to establish the fact1 that a considerable extent of land must exist in that quarter of the earth4 ,this1 however1 would infringe on the space necessary to accommodate the vast quantities of fish which appear to be propagated in that region1 if the old system were true4 ,if we were to judge of the internal surface of the sphere1 by its animal productions1admitting that those animals heretofore enumerated1 are propagated there1we should conclude that the internal region of the earth is as much more favourable to the support of animal life1 as the rein-deer is larger than our deer1 and the white bear larger than our bear2 and1 consequently1 we must conclude that there are more salubrious climates and better countries within1 than any we have yet discovered without4 ,hearne also informs us that swans1 geese1 brants1 ducks1 and other wild water-fowl1 are so numerous about ,hudson's ,bay1 in the spring and summer1 that the company every season salt up vast quantities of them1 sometimes sixty or seventy hogs-heads4#h ,he enumerates ten different species of geese1 several of which1 7particularly the snow geese1 the blue geese1 brent geese1 and horned wavey17 lay their eggs and raise their young in some country unknown1 even to the ,indians2#i as their eggs and young are never seen by them1 neither have the most accurate observers been able to discover where they make their winter residence2 as it is well known that they do not migrate to the southward2 but few of them ever pass to the south1 and some of the species are said never to have been seen south of latitude fifty-nine degrees4#aj ,most of those fowls molt or shed their feathers in a peculiar manner1 in summer1 and become nearly naked4 ,hence it would seem that they must breed in winter while absent1 for it is impossible that they could lay and sit whilst molting2 whereas1 the migratory geese and ducks of this country are not known to shed their feathers1 in any great degree2 and are well known to raise their young in the summer1 whilst in the north4 ,it may1 therefore1 be inferred1 that many of those water-fowls1 which ,hearne describes1 raise their young beyond the icy circle and within the sphere4 ,as many of the ten species of geese he saw there1 are unknown further south1 it establishes the fact1 that they do not come to the south to winter4 ,in the papers of the ,honourable ,d4 ,barrington1 and ,colonel ,beaufoy1 on the possibility of approaching the north pole1 read before the ,royal ,society of ,london1 there is an extensive collection of instances cited1 where navigators have reached high northern latitudes2 from which it appears to be well authenticated1 that navigators have in numerous instances reached the latitude of eighty-two1 eighty-three1 and eighty-four degrees3#aa and some are said to have sailed as far north as eighty-eight and eighty-nine degrees4#ab ,it is almost uniformly stated1 that in those high latitudes1 the sea is clear of ice1 or nearly so1 and the weather moderate4#ac ,to cite the various instances in which navigators have sailed far north1 would be too tedious3#ad the whole book principally consists of a series of facts1 which have a strong bearing on the subject1 and to which ,i would refer the reader who feels disposed to investigate4 ,the whole appears to strengthen the opinion1 that there is a barrier1 or circle of ice1 about where the whalers go to fish2 but1 when that is passed1 we come to an open sea1 and a more temperate region4 ,the sea is stated to be open1 and always clear of ice1 even in the middle of winter1 on the northern part of ,spitzbergen1 which is situated in latitude eighty degrees north2 and the further north the more clear it is of ice4#ae ,but1 at the same season1 on the southern parts of ,spitzbergen1 the sea is bound up with solid and compact ice4 ,if the doctrine be true1 that the earth is a solid spheroid1 the cold must increase regularly as we approach the pole1 and1 consequently1 vegetation invariably diminish3 this1 however1 is ascertained not to be the fact4 ,nova-,zembla1 which is situated in north latitude seventy-six degrees1 produces no timber1 nor even a blade of grass1#af consequently1 all the quadrupeds which frequent it1 are foxes and bears2 both carniverous animals4 ,on the coast of ,greenland1 about latitude sixty-five and seventy degrees1 neither timber nor grass grows2#ag while on the northern parts of ,spitzbergen1 they have rein-deer1 which are often exceedingly fat2 and ,mr4 ,grey mentions three or four species of plants which grow and flower there1 during the summer4#ah ,on any meridian passing through ,england1 it is ascertained to be more temperate at the latitude of eighty degrees north1 than at seventy-three degrees3#ai and both ,pinkerton and ,barrington inform us1 that beyond the latitude of seventy-five degrees1 the north winds are frequently warm in winter2#bj that in the middle of winter for several weeks1 there falls almost continued rain2 and that vegetables and animals are more abundant at the latitude of eighty degrees than at seventy-six degrees4 ,it has long been observed that the climates vary very considerably on the same parallels of latitude4 ,new ,york1 which is situated in latitude #dj degrees1 is known to be considerably colder in the winter than ,london1 which is situated in latitude fifty-five degrees2 and the parallel of latitude forty degrees on the plains of ,missouri is much colder than the city of ,new-,york4 ,the climate at ,st4 ,peters1 on the ,mississippi1 which is in latitude forty-six degrees1 is said to be considerably colder than ,quebec4#ba ,this difference of climate has1 by some1 been attempted to be accounted for1 on the principle that land is colder than water1 and that the cold is occasioned by the large portion of land in the continent of ,america3 however1 ,i submit to the consideration of the reader1 whether so great a difference could arise from a cause of this nature4 ,in the northern sea1 between ,spitzbergen and the continent of ,america1 there is a strong current1 which always comes from the north1 and sets southwardly4#bb ,it has been stated by some1 that1 in the spring season of the year1 the water of this current is warmer and fresher than the surrounding water of the sea4 ,various other currents have1 at different times1 been observed1 in different parts of the sea1 setting from the north4 ,floating southwardly on these currents1 have been seen large masses of ice1 from fresh water rivers1 with wolves and bears occasionally on them4 ,new fallen trees have also been seen floating from the north2 and various kinds of timber1 some of which the species have hitherto been unknown1 are frequently found lodged on the northern part of the coast of ,norway1 having drifted from some region still farther north4 ,trees have also been found floating in the ocean at latitude eighty degrees2 when no timber is known to grow north of latitude seventy degrees4 ,also1 seeds unknown to our botanists1 and those of tropical plants have been found drifted on the coast of ,norway1 and parts adjacent1 many of which were in so fresh a state as to vegetate and grow2#bc when it is well known that no plant of their species comes to perfection in any known climate far without the tropics4 ,and1 what makes the matter particularly extraordinary1 is1 that these things appear to be drifted by currents coming from the north2 when1 according to the old theory1 we must believe the sea to be always frozen at the poles1 which would render it difficult1 if not impossible1 to account for the existence of the currents at all4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america1 and in ,europe1 the ,aurora ,borealis is always seen to the north3 ,but many of those travellers and navigators1 who penetrated to high northern latitudes1 observed the ,aurora ,borealis in the south1 and never in the north4 ,the region in which it is believed to exist1 is supposed to be about the place where the verge commences1 and about fifty or sixty miles above the plane of the earth's surface2 and that the travellers who discovered these appearances south of them1 were at that time beyond the verge4 ,the ,indians discovered by ,captain ,ross1 on the coast of ,baffin's bay1 in the summer of #ahah1 in latitude seventy-five degrees fifty-five minutes north1 when interrogated from whence they came1 pointed to the north1 where1 according to their account1 there were plenty of people2#bd that it was a warmer country2 and that there was much water there4 ,and when ,captain ,ross informed them that he came from the contrary direction1 pointing to the south1 they replied1 that could not be1 because there was nothing but ice in that direction3#be ,consequently these people must live in a country not composed of ice2 for it appears they deem such an one uninhabitable4 ,hence we must infer1 if the relation given by ,captain ,ross be correct1 that1 north of where they then were1 the climate becomes more mild1 and is habitable2 a change1 the cause of which is not easily accounted for on the old philosophic principles4 ,in high northern latitudes1 owing to refraction1 or some other peculiar circumstance1 which hitherto has not1 to my knowledge1 been attempted to be accounted for1 the extent of vision appears to be greatly increased2 so that objects1 much further than the ordinary distance1 are distinctly seen2 frequently appearing elevated above the sea1 or their real situation2 and their image sometimes pictured in the sky4 ,the real objects1 themselves1 are sometimes seen with the naked eye one hundred and forty or one hundred and fifty miles1#bf and sometimes at the astonishing distance of two hundred miles4 ,these facts are well attested by ,captain ,ross and other navigators4 ,how this can be accounted for1 on the formation maintained by the old theory1 ,i cannot conjecture4 ,i believe it is admitted that the deck of a vessel at sea1 any where between the equator and latitude fifty or sixty degrees1 cannot be discovered1 even by the best telescope1 at a greater distance than twelve or fifteen miles4#bg ,nay1 were there no end to vision1 and could the eye penetrate two hundred miles through our atmosphere with sufficient clearness1 it would require an observer to be elevated about five miles1 before he could discover an object on the surface of the earth two hundred miles distant4 ,but1 on the edge of the verge of the polar opening1 if the atmosphere were clear1 and the power of vision strong enough1 an observer might discover objects situated on the verge at any point all round the sphere2 as they would be on an exact plane with the observer4 ,and on the contrary1 travelling across the verge from the convexity to the concavity of the sphere1 a very few miles make objects disappear4 ,all northern navigators and travellers agree1 that high north the sun becomes less bright1 and the sky darker1 than in more southern latitudes4 ,is not this owing to the rays of the sun being refracted round the verge of the polar opening8 ,another circumstance1 observed by navigators1 who have visited high latitudes is1 that the latitude and longitude1 as found by celestial observation1 frequently differ very materially1 sometimes as much as one half1 from that given by the log-line4#bh ,it has also been observed that the mercury in the barometer is less fluctuating in northern regions1 than it is further south4 ,those appearances observed in the southern hemisphere1 which are termed ,magellanic clouds1 by navigators1 have not1 so far as ,i know1 been accounted for4 ,they are three in number1 of an irregular shape1 and observed by night in the ,south ,atlantic1 and the south-east parts of the ,pacific oceans1 7reversed from ,new-,holland and ,new-,zealand17 but never visible in the eastern parts of the ,indian ocean3 their colour is like that of far distant mountains1 on which the sun is shining4 ,in the one sea they appear due south1 and in the other to the left4 ,they are stationary1 appearing perpetually fixed at a certain height1 and in a particular situation1 as viewed from any given place4 ,the stars and the heavens1 in their diurnal revolutions1 sweep by them1 and they remain the same4 ,to the navigator1 who proceeds to the east or west1 they appear to be more or less to the right or left of the meridian1 in proportion as he changes his longitude2 and as he sails south1 they increase in height1 until they reach the zenith1 and finally become north1 when seen by an observer south of the straits of ,magellan1 which is in latitude fifty-two degrees south4 ,captain ,symmes accounts for the appearance of these clouds by the great refractive power of the atmosphere about the polar openings2 causing the opposite side of the verge to appear pictured in the sky1 as navigators inform us objects do sometimes appear1 in the arctic regions2 and in the manner ,scoresby's ship appeared in the sky1 with every particular about her so accurately represented1 as to be at once identified by the observers1 though the vessel1 at that time1 was at such a distance as to render it rather incredible how she could be seen at all4 ,as proof of this position1 ,captain ,symmes alleges1 that the relative position1 shape1 and proportions of these clouds1 agree in their general outlines with the southern part of ,new-,zealand1 the southeast part of ,new-,holland1 and the whole of ,van-,dieman's land1 which are situated on1 and near to the verge of the sphere1 opposite to where the clouds are visible4 ,these clouds are only seen in the night when the atmosphere is clear1 at which time the sun is shining on the islands in question4 ,hence it is alleged1 that from these facts1 their relative appearance is deducible4 ,as we are never sensible that the rays of light are refracted by the medium through which they pass before they reach our visual organs2 we frequently imagine objects to be situated where they really are not2 and such is believed to be the case as respects ,van-,dieman's and the circumjacent land1 as before described4 ,franklin1 in his journey far north1 on the continent of ,america1 discovered a cloud1 which appeared to remain always in the same position1 and which the ,indians informed him was permanent4 ,not having the book at hand1 ,i cannot now advert particularly to what he says on the subject3 but1 from memory only1 recollect that he states something to that effect4 ,if such an appearance exist there1 may it not be accounted for in the same manner as the ,magellanic clouds8 ,navigators1 who have sailed far north1 admit the variation of the needle to be excessive4 ,captain ,ross found it in ,baffin's ,bay1 to be as much as one hundred and ten degrees2 and ,parry1 during his voyage in #ahbb1 found it so changed1 that the needle pointed within about fourteen degrees of south4 ,all1 ,i believe1 concur1 that this is a phenomenon which universally occurs in high northern latitudes2 but it has hitherto remained unexplained4 ,i believe1 according to the old theory1 the needle is imagined to be attracted by something at or near the pole3 were this supposition correct1 the needle would uniformly maintain its polarity on proceeding north1 on any given meridian1 until you arrived at the very pole itself4 ,the possibility of a moving magnetic cause is difficult1 if not impossible1 to be reconciled with a solid globe2 yet that the magnetic needle does vary on the same meridian1 and to a most extraordinary degree1 in high northern latitudes1 is confirmed beyond all doubt4 ,why not then urge the variableness of the magnetic cause against the possibility of a solid globe8 ,according to the doctrine of hollow spheres1 this whole mystery1 of the variation of the compass1 can be satisfactorily explained4 ,the magnetic needle1 it is believed1 regards the centre of the polar opening1 and not the pole or axis of the earth4 ,it will be recollected1 that the axis of the earth1 being at an angle of twelve or fifteen degrees from the plane of the polar openings1 causes one part of the verge to extend farther north than the other1 the highest part of which is nearly on a meridian running through ,spitzbergen1 in about latitude sixty-eight degrees1 and the lowermost side in about the fiftieth degree4 ,now in proceeding north on the first meridian1 running near ,spitzbergen1 there ought to be no variation of the needle until you arrive at the apparent verge1 when the needle would cease to traverse2 and by proceeding onwards1 would turn and point south4 ,should you proceed north1 on a meridian west of this1 when you approached the apparent verge1 the needle would seem to turn west1 but in reality1 it would be the meridian turning to the right along the verge to its highest or most northerly point2 the needle keeping at a right angle with the verge4 ,and1 in like manner1 pursuing a course north1 on a meridian east of ,spitzbergen1 on your approach to the apparent verge1 the needle would still direct its course at a right angle into the polar opening1 7governed1 most probably1 by some principle of electricity1 or other property contained in matter1 and kept in one position1 subject to the shape of the earth1 which may not even yet be exactly known17 the meridian would here wind to the left1 and conduct you to the highest point of the apparent verge1 north of ,spitzbergen4 ,hence the variation of the needle would be east in ,asia1 and west in ,america1 which ,i am told is the fact4 ,from an examination of the variation of the compass1 as ascertained in different degrees of latitude and longitude1 it increases as you proceed north1 and west2 which would be exactly the case in accordance with the theory of concentric spheres4#bi ,admitting the earth to be a solid globe1 and the cause of magnetism to be some attractive power at the pole1 how could the needle vary differently on the same meridian1 in different latitudes1 at the same period of time1 or vary at the same place1 at different periods of time8 ,but1 admit the doctrine contended for1 by the advocates of concentric spheres1 and it can be satisfactorily explained4 ,the observations of modern astronomers1 have ascertained1 that the poles1 or axis of the earth1 are not always directed to the same fixed star2 and1 of consequence1 that the axis does not always remain parallel to itself4 ,this variation is discovered to be about fifty-one minutes annually2 which would make a degree in about seventy-one years3 hence the needle always pointing to the polar opening1 would vary in about that proportion1 at the same place1 in the same period of time4#cj ,,footnotes3 #f ,hearne's ,journal1 pp4 #ceg1 #cfh4 #g ,hearne's ,journal1 pp4 #cfd1 #cfe4 #h ,hearne's ,journal1 p4 #ddb4 #i ,hearne's ,journal1 p4 #ddb1 #ddc1 #ddd1 #dde1 #ddf4 #aj ,ibid1 p4 #dde4 #aa ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 pp4 #ba1 #ea4 #ab ,ibid1 pp4 #be1 #fa4 #ac ,ibid1 pp #be1 #cb1 #cg1 #fa4 #ad ,from the ,national ,intelligencer of ,sept4 #cj1 #ahbd4 ,,polar ,,seas4,the fact that there are open seas round both the earth's poles1 has received strong corroboration within the last few months4 ,we have now a letter on our table from a naval officer at ,drontheim1 who notices the fact that ,captain ,sabine had good weather1 and reached eighty degrees and thirty-one minutes north latitude1 without obstruction from the ice2 so that the expedition might easily have proceeded farther had its object so required4 ,we have also had the pleasure to meet recently with a ,british officer who1 with two vessels under his command1 last season penetrated to seventy-four degrees twenty-five minutes south latitude1 in the antarctic circle1 which is about three degrees beyond ,cook's utmost limit4 ,there he found the sea perfectly clear of ice1 and might have prosecuted his voyage towards the pole1 if other considerations had permitted4 ,there was no field ice in sight towards the south2 and the water was inhabited by many finned and hump-backed whales2 the longitude was between the south ,shetland ,islands1 lately discovered1 and ,sandwich land3 this proves the former to be an ,archipelago 7as was supposed7 and not a continent4 ,the voyage is remarkable as being the utmost south upon record2 and we hope to be favoured with other particulars of it4 ,at present we have only to add1 that the variation of the needle was extraordinary1 and the more important as they could not readily be explained by the philosophical principles at present maintained on the subject4 ,literary ,gazette4 #ae ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 p4 #gd4 #af ,purchas1 vol4 #a1 p4 #dgi4 #ag ,hearne's ,journal1 p4 #g4 #ah ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 p4 #cf4;,dr4 ,birch's history of the ,royal ,society1 vol4 et seq4 #ai ,bar4 p4 #aja4 #bj ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 pp4 #be1 #abd4 #ba ,at the mouth of ,st4 ,peter's river1 in winter1 it is as much colder than at ,sacket's ,harbour1 as ,sacket's ,harbour is colder than ,mobile1 although ,st4 ,peter's is west and ,mobile south of ,sacket's ,harbour1 at nearly equal distances4 #bb ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 p4 #gd4,ross' ,voyage1 vol4 #a1 p4 #eb1 ,london1 #ahai4 #bc ,darwin's ,botanic ,garden4 #bd ,ross' ,voyage1 v4 #a1 p4 #age4 #be ,ross' ,voyage1 v4 #a1 p4 #aaj4 #bf ,ross' ,voyages1 v4 #a1 pp4 #ga1 #ace1 #aii1 #bjf4 #bg ,mackenzie states1 that sometimes the land looms1 so that there may be a great deception in the distances4,mackenzie's ,voyage1 p4 #aa1 ,new-,york1 #ahjb4 #bh ,ross' ,voyage1 v4 #b1 p4 #d1 ,london1 #ahai4 #bi ,ross' ,voyage1 v4 #b1 p4 #aai4 #cj ,physical ,world1 p4 #gb4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,facts tending to illustrate and prove the existence of a mid-plane-space1 situated between the concave and convex surfaces of the sphere4 ,according to ,symmes's ,theory1 each sphere has an intermediate cavity1 or mid-plane-space1 of considerable extent1 situated between the convex and concave surfaces of the sphere1 filled with a very light and elastic fluid1 rarified in proportion to the gravity1 or condensing power of the exposed surfaces of the respective spheres3 and also1 various other less cavities or spaces between the larger or principal one1 and the outer and inner surfaces of the spheres1 each filled with a similar fluid or gas1 most probably partaking much of the nature of hydrogen4 ,this fluid is lighter than that in which the sphere floats2 and has a tendency to poise it in universal space4 ,the spheres1 in many parts of the unfathomable ocean1 is believed to be water quite through from the concave or convex surfaces to the great mid-plane-space1 and probably the earthy or solid matter of the sphere1 may in many places extend quite through from one surface to the other1 tending1 like ribs or braces1 to support the sphere in its proper form4 ,such a formation of spheres appears to be supported by various facts and phenomena2 amongst the most prominent of which are ,volcanoes and ,earthquakes4 ,many volcanic mountains burst out and burn for ages1 discharging from the bowels of the earth immense quantities of lava1 pumice1 and various substances of various kinds4 ,some of these mountains have been burning for thousands of years1 at least as far back as the records of history have been made known to us4 ,had the earth1 at its formation1 been a solid globe1 four times as hard as hammered iron at the centre1 and gradually lessening in density towards the surface1 we must admit that it would still be solid matter4 ,governing ourselves by these principles1 how can we imagine that such immense caverns1 filled with combustible matter1 as would be necessary to supply those volcanoes from time immemorial1 could have existed8 ,however1 that they do exist is certain1 which ,i think is in no way more easily accounted for1 than on the plan of a mid-plane-space1 or of spaces1 filled with a certain hydrogenous gas1 which being much lighter than atmospheric air1 if there should be any small aperture or crevice extending from the surface to the space beneath1 the gravity of the outer part of the sphere pressing on it would occasion a portion of this gas to escape through the aperture2 and as it comes in contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere would take fire and occasion those tremendous explosions which we know do sometimes take place and cause those mountains to burn for years1 until the cavity which supplied the volcanic matter1 becomes exhausted2 or until some shock or convulsion consequent on the burning1 may have loosened rocks or earth of the denser part of the sphere1 which falling into the aperture1 choke it up4 ,hence the gas ceasing to escape1 the volcano would cease to burn1 until some shock or accident should again open the aperture4 ,the elastic fluid1 with which the mid-plane cavities are filled1 being forced out into the common atmosphere1 the greater degree of gravity would condense and set free its latent heat or caloric1 and be resolved into its original base1 somewhat as coal-gas1 out of the tube of a gas-light apparatus1 yields up its latent heat by condensation4 ,hence steam burns when mixed with coal-gas4 ,if the earth be a solid globe1 ,i am at a loss to account for the principles on which earthquakes occur4 ,long before ,i heard of ,symmes's theory1 or perhaps before it had an existence in the mind of man1 when reading accounts of earthquakes1 it appeared to me altogether unaccountable1 that such violent concussions could take place in one part of the world1 and not be felt throughout the globe4 ,it appears altogether inconsistent1 that one part of a solid piece of matter1 would be shaken so violently1 without affecting the whole mass4 ,we are informed by authentic history1 that whole islands1 and vast sections of country1 have been sunk by earthquakes1 and never more heard of4 ,on the other hand1 islands which are now inhabited1 and productive1 have been raised1 apparently1 from the bottom of the unfathomable ocean4 ,how such things occur1 ,i am unable to divine4 ,if the globe be solid1 on what principle could a large portion of its surface1 which is said to be lighter than the parts beneath1 sink into a dense medium8 ,how could a heavy mass1 lying a thousand fathoms deep at the bottom of the ocean1 rise1 and be suddenly elevated above the surface of the water1 when all below is so compact1 and governed by an opposite and immutable tendency8 ,it appears to be a solecism in nature4 ,the writer had once an opportunity of witnessing some of the effects of earthquakes4 ,it was his fortune to be on the ,mississippi river in the year #ahab1 at the time when that country was so violently convulsed with an earthquake4 ,he saw and heard innumerable explosions1 as though a large quantity of air had been confined in the bowels of the earth1 and1 seeking vent1 rushed out with a tremendous sound2 forcing up considerable quantities of sand through the apertures1 in many instances mixed with black muddy water1 and a substance resembling stone coal1 or carbonated wood1 which emitted a strong bituminous odour1 when exposed to fire4 ,at one place the river was stopped in its course a short time3 the water rose to a considerable height above its common level2 and1 on the west side of the channel of the river1 there was a counter-current for a few minutes of an astonishing velocity4 ,so great was its force1 that for some distance the cotton wood and willows on the margin of the river1 were either prostrated or bent up the stream2 and their branches looked as if they had been dragged a long way on the ground4 ,the waters of the river soon subsided1 and flowed in their natural direction4 ,so tremendous were those explosions1 that when happening under large trees1 the tenacity of their texture yielded at once to their force2 and the largest in the forest were split and fractured from root to top4 ,during these convulsions1 the ground on which the town of ,new-,madrid is situated1 together with the country for several miles round1 sunk about five feet below its former elevation2 in which situation it has remained4 ,eight years afterwards the writer was again on the same spot4 ,the desolate aspect1 which the country presented at the time he witnessed those scenes1 was measurably obliterated3 but the banks of the river were still in their sunken situation4 ,how could all those violent convulsions take place at this point1 and not be felt at ,new-,orleans1 along the sea coast of the ,united ,states1 and other places8 ,whence came this water and air1 which issued from those apertures in the earth8 ,and why did the river for a few minutes flow in a contrary direction1 and then resume its natural course8 ,if the earth be a compact and solid globe1 ,i can account for none of these things2 but admitting the formation of the sphere to be such as ,i contend for1 they are all resolved into the most simple principles2 and what would otherwise be impenetrable mystery1 is made as plain as noon-day4 ,if the sphere be formed as ,i allege1 those concussions were doubtless occasioned by the gas or fluid in the mid-plane or some intermediate space1 near the surface1 which1 by being suddenly rarified1 would make it expand1 and cause the upper part of the sphere to be suddenly elevated in the neighbourhood of the ,little ,prairie2 and hence the waters of the river1 pursuing the laws of gravity1 would flow in a contrary direction4 ,this sudden expansion1 and elevation of the surface1 would cause apertures1 through which the rare gas would escape1 and the surface would then settle down again1 not only to its former level1 but1 as a considerable portion of this gas had escaped1 the remaining part would occupy less space2 hence the surface of the country1 around ,new-,madrid1 would be below its former situation4#ca ,the fluid1 or gas1 which fills the mid-plane and intermediate cavities1 is most probably the same1 or partaking of the same nature1 7though perhaps in a purer state17 with that which oozes out of fissures in the earth1 at the bottom of deep mines1 called by chemists1 hydro-carbonate2 which being highly inflammable1 takes fire from the lamps used by workmen1 and explodes with such violence as to destroy both men and horses employed in the mine4 ,this is a frequent occurrence in the deep coal mines of ,england2 and great numbers annually have lost their lives in this way1 before the introduction of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy's lamp4 ,i am also informed1 from good authority1 that the miners1 in some of the deep coal mines in ,england1 once felt1 or heard an earthquake1 which happened in ,italy1 whilst those on the surface of the ground had no knowledge of it4 ,this would be the case1 if the intermediate cavity1 which caused the earthquake1 extended in that direction1 and near the bottom of the mine2 as it is presumed the rare gas with which those spaces are filled1 is better adapted to the conveyance of sound1 or vibratory motion1 than the more solid parts of the sphere1 or even the atmosphere around us4 ,on the supposition that the globe is solid1 and the matter composing it at rest1 as respects itself1 on what principle can boiling and hot springs be accounted for2 some of which issue out several thousands of miles distant from where any volcano or subterranean fire is known to exist2 particularly as to those on the waters of ,red river1 in the state of ,louisiana1 which are sufficiently hot to cook meat in a few minutes4 ,phenomena which occur in various lakes in ,europe1 may be adverted to in support of this theory4 ,the waters of lake ,zirchnitzer1 in the ,dutchy of ,carniola1 in ,germany1 flow off1 and leave the basin empty2 and again fill it1 in an extraordinary and impetuous manner2 bringing up with its waters fish and even sometimes wild water fowl4#cb ,in the same country1 there is a subterranean lake1 in the ,grotto ,podspetschio1 of considerable extent2 the whole of this vast body of water1 at certain times1 will disappear in a few minutes1 and leave the basin dry2 and after a few weeks1 it again suddenly returns1 with a frightful noise4 ,the lake of ,geneva1 and some others in ,switzerland1 at certain times rise and fall several feet without any cause1 which has as yet been satisfactorily explained2 and some writers inform us1 that those lakes1 particularly ,geneva1 send forth1 at times1 a grumbling noise4 ,in the ,saian mountains1 near the source of the ,yenisei1 is a lake1 called ,boulamy-,koul1 which1 at the approach of winter1 emits strange sounds1 somewhat similar to those which precede the eruption of a volcano1 and which are compared by the neighbouring inhabitants to howling4 ,the inhabitants on the borders of ,baikal1 also state1 that they have often heard dreadful and terrific howlings proceed from that lake4#cc ,the lake1 ,agnano1 in ,italy1 sometimes1 especially when the waters are high1 appears to boil at its borders4 ,this ebullition is supposed to be occasioned by some gaseous fluids1 discharged into the bottom1 which traverse the waters of the lake4#cd ,these various phenomena1 which cannot be easily accounted for1 might be best explained perhaps1 on the principles of mid-plane-spaces4 ,in various parts of the north1 thick strata of ice are found1 under a thick soil2 and on ice-bergs1 floating in the ocean1 have been discovered masses of earth1 of granite1 and of other rocks4#ce ,on the shores of ,greenland the ebb tide flows towards the coast1 apparently as though it passes under the land1 and the flood tide recedes from the shore2 and in those regions the sea is almost universally found deeper as you approach the shore4#cf ,when the whales become scarce1 experience has taught the whalers to seek for them near the shore1 as if at certain seasons they retired to it1 and then disappeared4 ,captain ,symmes imagines that the sea extends quite through the spheres1 about ,greenland1 and that the whales suddenly migrate either to the mid-plane-space1 or to the seas on the opposite side2 which he alleges to be the case with several other species of fish1 as well as seals2 all of which1 he supposes1 breed in the mid-plane-space4 ,the reasons that induce him to adopt this conclusion are various2 such as1 that fish have been thrown up by the eruption of a volcano in ,south ,america#cg;herring appearing in such immense numbers at certain seasons of the yearthe whales seeming to pass under ,greenlandtwo seals having been once caught in ,lake ,ontario1 which is said to be unfathomable1 although this lake is many degrees south of where the seals have ever before been known to comeand the various species of fish in our northern lakes which appear and disappear at certain periods4 ,that the exterior seas in some places communicate with the interior seas1 is rendered probable by various other circumces2 such as currents running continually into the ,mediterranean1 and no visible outlet to the water thus continually flowing in4 ,it is scarcely probable that evaporation could carry off all the water supplied by the straits of ,gibraltarthe white sea being more salt at the head than at the footthe tides being higher in the ,baltic than the ,mediterraneanwhite foxes having been forced up by the waters of the sea 7as ,symmes undertakes to prove7 in the northern regionsthe peculiarities of the tremendous whirlpool on the coast of ,norway1 called the ,maalstroom1 which sucks in1 and discharges the waters of the sea with great violenceand those observable in the ,bay of ,biscay1 which are said to be unfathomable4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,,earthquakes4,m4 ,biot1 after detailing the phenomena of the earthquake1 on the #bb;d of ,february1 #ahbb1 concludes an interesting paper with these observations3 ,in the infancy of ,chemistry and ,natural ,philosophy1 it was imagined that earthquakes might be easily explained2 in proportion as these sciences have become more correct and more profound1 this confidence has decreased4 ,but by a propensity1 for which the character of the human mind sufficiently accounts1 all the new physical agents which have been successively discovered1 such as electricity1 magnetism1 the inflammation of gases1 the decomposition and recomposition of water1 have been maintained in theories as the causes of the great phenomena of nature4 ,now all these conjectures seem to be insufficient to explain convulsions so extensive1 produced at the same time over such large portions of the earth1 as those which take place during earthquakes4 ,the most probable opinion1 the only one which seems to us to reconcile1 in a certain degree1 the energy1 the extent of these phenomena1 and often their frightful correspondence in the most distant countries of the globe1 would be to suppose1 conformably to many other physical indications1 that the solid surface on which we live is but of inconsiderable thickness in comparison with the semi-diameter of the terrestrial globe2 is in some measure only a recent shell1 covering a liquid nucleus1 perhaps still in a state of ignition1 in which great chemical or physical phenomena operating at intervals cause those agitations which are transmitted to us4 ,the countries where the superficial crust is less thick or less strong1 or more recently or more imperfectly consolidated1 would agreeably to this hypothesis1 be those the most liable to be convulsed and broken by the violence of these internal explosions4 ,now if we compare together the experiments on the length of the pendulum1 which have been made for some years past with great accuracy1 from the north of ,scotland to the south of ,spain1 we readily perceive that the intensity of gravitation decreases on this space1 as we go from the ,pole towards the ,equator1 more rapidly than it ought to do upon an ellipsoid1 the concentric and similar strata of which should have equal densities at equal depths2 and the deviation is especially sensible about the middle of ,france1 where too there has been observed a striking irregularity in the length of the degrees of the earth4 ,this local decrease of gravity in these countries should seem to indicate1 with some probability1 that the strata near the surface must be less dense there than elsewhere1 and perhaps have in their interior immense cavities4 ,this would account for the existence of the numerous volcanos of which these strata show the traces1 and explain why they are even now1 at intervals1 the focus of subterraneous convulsions4 #cb ,cook's ,geography1 v4 #b1 p4 #bej;,also ,rees' ,cyclopedia1 article ,lake4 #cc ,rees' ,cyclopedia1 article ,lake ,geneva4 #cd ,rees' ,cyclopedia1 article ,lake4 #ce ,ross' ,voyage1 v4 #a1 p4 #bbe4 #cf ,ibid1 v4 #a1 p4 #add4 #cg ,humboldt4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,several objections1 made to the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 answered1 particularly the one that it contravenes religious opinions2 demonstrating that the earth1 and the other orbs of the universe1 are formed on the best possible plan for the maintenance and support of organic life4 ,some of the most prominent objections which ,i have heard advanced against the theory of concentric spheres are the following3 #ast4 ,that if the earth be not a solid globe1 but a hollow concentric sphere1 the quantity of matter being diminished1 the attraction of gravitation must be lessened so much that all moveable bodies resting on the earth would be thrown off by centrifugal force1 in the line of a tangent from the surface of the sphere4 #b;d4 ,that according to the established laws of gravity1 a hollow sphere could not exist in nature3 that matter would be gravitated to the centre1 and particularly about the polar openings1 so as to make it collapse4 #c;d4 ,that if the orbs were hollow spheres1 the mutual influence of the planets on each other would be so far destroyed1 that they would cease to revolve in regular orbits4 #dth4 ,that the interior of the sphere can never receive the light and heat of the sun2 is involved in perpetual darkness1 and more suited to the infliction of punishment on perverse and rebellious spirits1 than for the residence of beings1 fitted and designed for the pursuit and enjoyment of happiness4 #eth4 ,and finally1 the adherents of the new theory have been charged with atheism1 deism1 and such like epithets1 as though they intended to overturn the works of ,god1 and thwart the laws of nature4 #ast4 ,as to the first objection1 ,i would enquire1 has it yet been ascertained with mathematical certainty1 in what exact proportion one particle of matter attracts another8 ,and may there not be some law of nature with which we are not yet well acquainted8 ,all the experiments1 hitherto made on the attractive power of gravity1 were made on the principle1 and under the belief1 that the earth is a solid globe2 and consequently the deductions were drawn accordingly4 ,suppose the attraction of gravitation1 inherent in matter1 to be so much increased1 that a hollow sphere would possess the same attractive power1 as if it were a solid globe1 would not all the results and consequences be exactly the same8 ,this being the case1and ,i know no reason why we should conclude differently1the whole force of the objection appears to fall to the ground4 ,according to ,newton's principle of gravity1 the matter of the sphere would attract all particles of matter placed on the surface1 as well upon the concave as convex1 in nearly equal proportions2 and the centrifugal force1 which1 on the outer side of the sphere1 tends to throw bodies off1 on the concave side1 would have an opposite effect4 ,hence1 a person standing1 or trees growing1 on the interior surface1 would be in no more danger of being precipitated to the next sphere1 between them and the centre1 than those on the outer part of the sphere1 when they should be turned 7what is familiarly called7 down4 ,the experiments made on the density of the globe1 by observations with the plum-line1 at the foot of a mountain1 are very ingenious2 but they must be subject to great uncertainty4 ,the true deviation of the plum-line1 the exact quantity of matter in the mountain1 or1 indeed1 the quantity of matter between the plummet and the centre of gravity1 are points difficult1 if not impossible1 to be ascertained with mathematical precision4 ,if the attraction of the sun is just sufficient to keep the earth in its orbit1 what can give the tendency to retain ,jupiter and ,saturn in theirs1 each of which1 if solid1 contains such a vast quantity more than the earth1 and removed to so great a distance from the sun1 that his influence upon either must be greatly lessened by both8 #b;d4 ,as to the objections that a hollow sphere of the dimension of the earth cannot exist in nature1 ,i can discover no sound reason to warrant such a conclusion4 ,many hollow cylinders and spherical figures1 we know do exist on the surface of the earth2 and notwithstanding their own gravity1 which the different parts exert on each other1 as well as the gravity of the earth1 they retain their shape and position2 and had the matter in the earth originally been thrown by a centrifugal force into the form of a hollow sphere1 or had the first creating power originally given it that shape1,i can discover no good reason for a change2 neither should ,i entertain any apprehensions of the particles of matter coalescing at the centre4 #c;d4 ,the force of this objection ,i cannot appreciate2 for if all the planetary orbs in the universe are composed of hollow concentric spheres1 they must exert the same relative influence on each other1 which they would if they were solid orbs1 as they would each contain the same proportion of matter as respects each other4 ,hence no good reason appears why a system of hollow concentric spheres might not do just as well1 and perform their revolutions with the same regularity1 as a system of solid ones4 #dth4 ,this great and alarming objection comes next3that we are about placing a world in eternal darkness1 cut off from all the comforts and pleasures of refined life1 for the enjoyment of which we are so eminently qualified4 ,let us examine the force of this objection2 and if we cannot show that the interior is1 at least in some degree1 illuminated1 we must then conclude that it is a very dreary abode1 and unfitted for the residence of beings so fond of light as we profess to be4 ,according to the new theory1 the northern polar opening is about four thousand one hundred and fifty miles in diameter1 and the axis of the earth is at an angle of about twelve degrees with the axis of the plane of the polar opening2 consequently1 as the sphere revolves on its axis1 one side of the verge of the polar opening will extend considerably further north than the other4 ,the verge of the north polar opening on the low side1 is laid down at about fifty degrees of latitude1 and the verge of the high side at about sixty-eight degrees4 ,now1 supposing the sun to be exactly of the same diameter as the earth1 and placed directly over the equator1 when the low side of the verge was turned towards the sun1 the direct rays from his northern limb1 independent of refraction1 would pass the edge of the lower part of the verge1 and fall on the inner part of the sphere1 on the concave part of the high side opposite1 as far as eighteen degrees1 or upwards4 ,when the sun would be on the tropic of ,cancer1 in ,june1 he must then throw the rays from his centre twenty-three and a half degrees further within the sphere1 or within twenty-six and a half degrees of the equator2 but the diameter of the sun being so much greater than the earth1 the rays from his northern limb1 would fall about thirty-three minutes further within the sphere1 and leave not quite twenty-six degrees between that and the equator to be excluded from his direct rays4 ,this relates to the northern polar opening2 as to that of the south1 which is believed to be much larger1 we will make a few remarks4 ,the lower side of the south polar opening1 is laid in about latitude thirty-four degrees1 and the higher side1 in about latitude forty-six degrees4 ,were the sun of the same diameter with the earth1 as above premised1 and placed on the equator1 his direct rays would be thrown into the south polar opening when the low side was towards him1 about twelve degrees1 or to within thirty-four degrees of the equator1 and when on the tropic of ,capricorn1 in ,december1 twenty-three and a half degrees further1 that is1 the inner part of the southern hemisphere of the sphere1 on the high side1 would be lighted thirty-five and a half degrees within the verge2 and the direct rays of the sun would shine within ten and a half degrees of the inner centre of the sphere or equator4 ,these observations1 you will observe1 are made in the most unfavourable point of view4 ,it is well known1 that the diameter of the sun1 is vastly greater than that of the earth2 consequently1 his rays would pass into the polar opening so much further1 in proportion as the angle of his diameter1 and that of the earth1 differ1 which would be about thirty-three minutes further1 bringing his direct rays in the south1 within less than ten degrees of the equator2 and this would be the case as the sphere revolved on its axis1 once in every twenty-four hours4 ,when the sphere turned1 with its high side towards the sun1 it would be night1 or twilight1 and when the low side was next the sun1 it would be day2 at all events1 the direct rays of the sun would fall on a space of about thirty-six and a half degrees in breadth2 the reflection from which would light the whole of the remaining portion of the inner part of the sphere1 to a greater degree1 than any moon-light with which we are acquainted4 ,but there is another circumstance which tends to throw the rays of the sun much further into the concave than we have yet got them2 that is1 the refractive power of the atmosphere4 ,it is a well known fact that the rays of light are very much refracted when passing out of a rare into a denser medium2 and about the poles of the earth it is believed1 7and this belief is confirmed by navigators7 that refraction increases very considerably1 owing to the great density of the atmosphere4 ,we have good reason then to believe that refraction throws the rays of the sun several degrees further within the sphere4 ,but let us take the known refraction of the horizontal ray1 at or near the equator 7say one half of a degree7 it would throw the rays of light so much further into the concave1 and not leave quite thirty-seven degrees in the centre of the sphere deprived of the sun's rays4 ,the motion of the earth causes the apparent motion of the sun to be about fifteen degrees in an hour1 as the diurnal revolution of the earth causes the sun to move apparently through three hundred and sixty degrees in twenty-four hours4 ,now it is a well known fact to all that the sun gives us light sufficient to be called day-light1 for about an hour after he descends below the horizon2 consequently he must afford us light when he is fifteen degrees obscured from our view4 ,accordingly1 the sun1 though he might not be visible1 would illuminate the concave part of the sphere fifteen degrees further than his direct rays fall1 which reduces the space in the interior of the sphere to the breadth of not quite seven degrees which would still remain unlighted4 ,but this is making calculations on the most unfavorable premises possible4 ,considering the form of the earth1 and the power of refraction1 ,i have no doubt but the direct rays of the sun would fall on every part of the inner sphere4 ,however1 ,i have proceeded on such premises as1 ,i conclude1 the most sceptical must admit4 ,light1 we know1 is reflected from solid bodies on which it falls1 and also from the atmosphere3 the rays of the sun1 then1 which would pass the lower part of the verge and fall on the opposite concave surface1 would be reflected back in all directions1 and most probably light the whole of the interior of the sphere sufficient for the ordinary purposes of life4 ,by way of further illustration1 suppose a perpendicular wall were raised on a plain1 one mile high1 does any person believe that there would be no light on the side of the wall opposite to the sun2 although his rays would have to form an angle of one hundred and forty1 or one hundred and fifty degrees1 to reach the earth on that side of the wall8 ,no axiom is more evident than that the rays of light are communicated to other places than those on which the rays of the sun fall directly2 for example1 we all know that a close room1 however large1 with a north window1 will be sufficiently lighted by refraction and reflection from the atmosphere1 provided there is no obstruction opposite the window1 although the rays of the sun would have to form an angle of one hundred and fifty degrees to enter it1 and why might not the whole interior of the sphere be lighted in the same manner1 even supposing the rays of the sun should never enter directly4 ,the north polar opening being about four thousand one hundred and fifty miles in diameter1 and the southern six thousand three hundred and fifty1 with the whole force of the direct rays of the sun falling on and passing through the atmosphere at either polar opening1 it would not require refraction1 or reflection1 to make an angle of ninety degrees to light the whole of the interior concave2 and certainly the polar openings are sufficiently large for the purpose1 when we compare a common window with the dimensions of an ordinary sized room4 ,it is believed1 by the adherents of the new theory1 that the atmosphere1 within the concave1 and about the polar openings1 is much denser than our atmosphere2 which appears inevitably to be the case1 as the centrifugal force on the convex has the tendency to throw the atmosphere from the surface1 and on the concave to force it from the centre of motion1 and nearer to the surface4 ,this admitted1 the rays of the sun passing out of a rare medium into a denser1 would be refracted much further into the sphere2 and the sun-shine on the surface of one sphere would be reflected obliquely1 according to the angle of incidence1 to the next sphere1 and in this manner might be extended even beyond the centre of the concave4 ,it is also believed1 that near the verges of the polar openings1 and perhaps in many other parts of the unfathomable ocean1 the spheres are water quite through1 7at least all except the mid-plane-spaces1 or cavities7 which being the case1 light would probably be transmitted between the spheres4 ,the apparent elevation of celestial bodies above their true altitude1 is greatest when the body is on the horizon1 which is ascertained to be a little more than half a degree2 hence1 in our climate1 the sun appears three minutes sooner1 and sets three minutes later than is really the case1 which increases the length of our day six minutes1 by refraction4 ,this gradually increases in proceeding from the equator to the frigid zones2 and at the poles1 were the earth entire1 the day should become thirty-six hours longer1 by refraction alone1 than it would otherwise be4#ch ,it was doubtless owing to some peculiar refractive power in the northern regions1 that caused the ,dutch1 who wintered on ,nova-,zembla1 7which is in latitude between seventy and seventy-eight degrees17 on the approach of summer1 to see the sun about two weeks sooner than he should have appeared in that latitude1 according to astronomical calculation4#ci ,this tends to show that there is more refraction in the northern regions than is observable in the south4#dj ,from an attentive examination of these considerations1 ,i am induced to conclude1 that the interior of the sphere may be as well lighted as the exterior2 or at all events1 if not favoured with so great a degree of light at all times1 it has a more regular and constant supply4 ,but1 admitting every thing on this subject that the opponents of the theory can suggest1 ,i still discover no substantial reason why the earth may not be a hollow sphere4 ,i can see no substantial reason why the inhabitants of that portion of the earth1 7if any exist there7 should be furnished with as great a degree of light1 and as intense a heat1 as we have upon the convex part of the sphere4 ,must it of necessity follow1 that it cannot be inhabited1 or if inhabited1 that the beings who people its surface1 are less happy than we8 ,certainly not4 ,is it not well known to us1 that every grade and species of animals1 under every variety of circumstance1 whether inhabiting the air1 the earth1 or the water1 are fitted by an all-wise ,providence to their several conditions1 and mediums1 in which they reside8 ,as well might we conclude1 that the immense planet ,jupiter1 situated so far from the sun as he is1 can be nothing but a dark1 cold1 and barren waste1 unfitted for the residence of intelligent beings4 ,it is ascertained by calculation1 that the light and heat which ,jupiter receives from the sun1 is only the one twenty-seventh part of what the earth receives4#da ,the light and heat which ,saturn receives from the sun is estimated at only the one hundredth part of that of the earth2#db and the planet ,georgium ,sidus1 revolving such an immense distance further from the sun1 than either of them1 must enjoy still less light and heat2 according to which1 we would conclude1 7if we adopt the belief1 that the degree of light and heat1 to which we are accustomed1 is necessary for the support of life17 that those vast planets are not fitted by the ,god of nature for the residence of intelligent beings2 however1 ,i am inclined to believe that both light and heat are communicated to them1 in some way not well known to us1 sufficient for the purpose4 ,the true principles of light and heat1 and the manner in which they are generated and transmitted1 are not perhaps yet well understood and defined4#dc #eth4 ,others1 when the new theory is mentioned1 cry ,atheist1 ,deist1 blasphemy6 as if its advocates proposed to make a new world1 and support it without the intervention of ,divine ,providence3 such opponents scarcely deserve an answer4 ,it is believed by all1 that the earth1 the sun1 the moon and stars1 are the work of an ,almighty power4 ,whether solid globes or hollow spheres1 they equally owe their existence to the great first cause1 that spoke matter into existence1 that arranged it in whatever form and order infinite wisdom dictated2 and that still supports and governs the whole by universal and unvarying laws4 ,but it is as well known1 that the ,almighty ,disposer1 interposes no miracles for the accomplishment of his designs1 but makes use of means that are uniform in their application1 to effect the intended purpose2 hence ,geologists1 ,philosophers1 and ,astronomers1 attempt to account for the existence of all matter1 and for the formation of planets1 according to what is believed to be the established laws of matter4 ,in so doing1 we do not disparage the wisdom of the ,creator1 nor controvert the truth of that divine record1 which ,providence1 in his goodness1 has given us for our rule of life4 ,true it is1 the sacred scriptures give us very little information relative to the structure and formation of the earth and the other planets4 ,they were not intended to teach mankind ,geology1 ,geography1 or ,astronomy2 yet where assertions are clearly and distinctly made respecting these things1 we have reason to believe them literally correct3 as for instance1 when the ,psalmist informs us1 that ,god hung the earth upon nothing2 that ,he balanced it in empty space1 we are to look for corresponding facts2 though it was at variance with the opinion of the world at that time1 modern astronomy now teaches that such is the fact4 ,in like manner1 when we meet with assertions1 such as that the fountains of the great deep were broken up1 7 1 chapter #a1 verse #b1dd7 we must acknowledge their correctness2 and ,i think it will be admitted1 that they are at least as much in favour of this new theory as the old4 ,the skilful and attentive observer of nature1 whether examining the most minute or the most sublime1 will discover that infinite wisdom1 judgment1 and ingenuity1 equally prevail throughout4 ,the principal aims of the great author of all things1 appear to have been animation1 diversity1 and usefulness2 the air we breathe1 the water we drink1 the vegetables on which we feed2 indeed every leaf and plant of the forest and fieldall teem with animal life4 ,why then should we believe1 or even presume to think1 that the ,almighty ,fiat1 which spoke matter into existence1 for the support and maintenance of living creatures1 innumerable1 and endless in the variety of their organization1 their colours1 their passions1 and their pursuitswhy1 ,i say1 should we then presume1 that the omnifick word would create even the smallest particle of any of the immense1 the innumerable orbs in the universe1 of inert or useless matter1 devoid of activity and design8 ,this earth1 when compared with the magnitude and number of other planets we know1 is but as a point2 yet we can hardly conceive1 small as she appears by comparison1 that she was only designed to have animate life on her surface1 and all the rest to remain useless6 ,such an idea seems unworthy of the ,divine ,being1 whose essence is all perfection4 ,can we for a moment suppose1 that the interior parts of the earth1 have received less attention from the ,creator1 than the objects which are under our immediate inspection8 ,on the contrary1 may it not be more rationally inferred1 that1 for the object of more widely disseminating animation1 spheres are formed within spheres1 concentric with each other1 each revolving on its own axis1 and thus multiplying the habitable superfices8 ,great and sublime as our conceptions of the ,deity must be1 when we contemplate the earth and its inhabitantsif we turn our attention to the solar system1 our world dwindles into a little insignificant ball4 ,yet if we cast our eyes still beyond1 and contemplate the eighty millions of fixed stars1 which a good telescope brings to our view1 each the centre of a mighty system of revolving worlds2 and then reflect that all this is only one little dark corner of creation1 we are lost in the magnitude of the contemplation4 ,but when we come to consider each of these fixed stars1 with their planets1 and they with their satellites1 all consisting of concentric spheres1 revolving within each other1 in due order1 and adapted to the support and comforts of life1 for countless millions of beings2 we are struck with ten-fold astonishment and admiration1 and bow with reverential awe1 before ,him who sits at the head of the universe1 and governs the whole by unvarying laws4 ,it would seem to me1 that in contemplating this new order of creation1 the imagination must break through and soar beyond its old boundaries4 ,it would seem that on embracing this doctrine1 the spirit must expand with increased devotion1 and be entirely absorbed in the infinite wisdom and power of ,him1 who was competent to devise1 and able to execute1 such a beautiful arrangement of matter4 ,,footnotes3 #ch ,physical ,world1 p4 #aje4 #ci ,barrington and ,beaufoy1 p4 #ajf1 and ,purchas1 v4 #c1 pp4 #dii1 #ejj4 #dj ,the late ,george ,adams1 in his ,philosophy1 treating of refraction1 states1 that at the horizon1 in this climate1 7,england7 it is found to be about thirty-three minutes4 ,in climates near the equator1 where the air is pure1 the refraction is less2 and in the colder climates1 nearer the pole1 it increases exceedingly1 and is a happy provision for lengthening the appearance of the light at those regions so remote from the sun4 ,gassendees relates1 that some ,hollanders1 who wintered in ,nova-,zembla1 in latitude seventy-five degrees1 were agreeably surprised with a sight of the sun seventeen days before they expected him in the horizon4 ,this difference was owing to the refraction of the atmosphere in that latitude4,adams' ,philosophy1 v4 #d1 p4 #aab1 ,philadelphia1 #ahjg4 #da ,keith on ,globes1 p4 #add4 #db ,ibid1 p4 #adi4 #dc ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in his ,principia1 under prop4 #af1 book #c1 lays down the following proposition1 viz3 that the heat of the sun is as the density of his rays1 that is reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the sun4 ,from this principle1 it has been assumed by some of our modern astronomers1 that but few of the planets can be inhabited1 as if the effect of light and heat are reciprocally proportionate to the squares of the distances from the centre of their propagation2 and if you divide the square of the earth's distance from the sun1 the quotient will show1 that the light and heat1 which ,mercury receives1 are about seven times greater1 making it more than twice as hot as boiling water4 ,the light and heat communicated to ,saturn1 being only the one hundredth part of that of the earth1 the difference is more than seven times as great as that between our summer heat and red hot iron1 if the light and heat of the sun are only in proportion to the density of his rays4 ,such extremes of heat and cold1 we would naturally conclude must totally preclude all material being1 if in the least degree resembling those we are acquainted with2 nor could any of the vegetable world1 known to us1 germinate in either extreme2 nay1 even the matter of our globe would scarcely withstand it1 our oceans would be dissipated in vapour1 on ,mercury1 and frozen to the bottom on ,saturn4 ,considerations like these must induce us to conclude1 that light and heat cannot be communicated exactly on the plan laid down by ,newton1 viz3 that the heat of the sun is simply as the density of his rays3 for though the sun's rays may be the sine qua non1 without which no light or heat would be communicated1 yet the quantum of heat may depend on the density and co-operation of the medium through which it passes1 or upon some other circumstance not known to us1 and perhaps impossible for us to know4 #dd ,i am indebted to an excellent ,hebrew scholar for the following3 ,,note4 ,the words ,theoo and ,beoo1 7,genesis1 chapter #a1 verse #b17 which has been rendered by the translators of our bible1 ,without form and void1 might perhaps1 with equal propriety1 have been translated without form and hollow4 #a4 ,theoo1 the root1 agreeably to the ,hebrew grammar1 is found as a noun or ,the or ,thee1 and1 is rendered confusion1 loose1 unconnected1 without form1 order1 or the like2 and so well understood4 #b4 ,be-oo1 the root1 is1 according to the same rule1 found in ,be1 7,bethhey7 hollow2 it occurs not only in this form but #a4 ,as a noun ,beoo,hollow1 empty1 having nothing in it but air1 filled only vacuo aere1 with empty air1 as ,lucan calls it1 ,lib4 #e1 line #id4 #b4 ,as a noun fem3 in reg3 1 ,bet1 ,bethoin1 the apparent hollow1 or pupil of the eye1 c4 ,comp4 ,bebath1 under1 ,beb4 #c4 ,as a noun fem3 ,thebe in ,reg3 ,thebeth1 an ark1 a hollow vessel1 under #b;d head of ,beb4 occurs not as a verb in kab1 but #a4 ,as a participial noun1 or participle in ,nipth ,neboob1 hollow1 made hollow1 c4 #b4 ,it is applied spiritually1 hollow1 empty1 vain4 #c4 ,to the sight1 or pupil of the eye2 that part of the eye which appears hollow1 and admits the light4 ,see ,parkhurst's ,hebrew ,lexicon4 ,had the learned translators of our bible possessed a knowledge of the theory of concentric spheres1 it is probable they would have given the ,english reader the most correct meaning of the words1 without form and hollow1 or shapeless and hollow4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,general observations on the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 with a few suggestions to the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 to authorize and fit out an ,expedition for the discovery of the ,interior ,regions2 or1 at least1 to explore the northern parts of the continent of ,america4 ,of the many various and conflicting theories which have been advanced1 relative to the form1 structure1 and motion of the earth1 the theory of ,concentric ,spheres deserves to rank as one of the most important3 for1 should it hereafter be found correct1 the advantages resulting to the civilized and learned world1 must cause it to stand pre-eminent among the improvements in philosophy4 ,the habitable superfices of our sphere would not only be nearly doubled2 but the different spheres of which our earth is probably constituted1 might increase the habitable surface ten-fold4 ,that such may be the construction of the earth1 every law of matter with which ,i am acquainted1 seems to admit1 at least of the possibility2 the different appearances of the other planets render it probable2 and the various concurring terrestrial facts existing in the arctic regions1 to my mind1 render such a conclusion almost certain4 ,and further1 that matter and space are never uselessly wasted1 is an axiom1 not only of sound philosophy1 but of natural religion1 and of common sense4 ,many of the theories which have been advanced respecting the earth1 are vague and uncertain1 and will remain so forever2 being predicated on deductions drawn from certain premises that can never be established with certainty2 consequently they must rest wholly on the strength of the arguments drawn from the premises1 as they are not susceptible of being demonstrated by experiment4 ,not so with the theory of concentric spheres4 ,its correctness admits of ocular demonstration4 ,the interior of the sphere is declared accessible1 and the whole extent capable of being accurately explored2 thereby establishing the theory1 or disproving and putting it at rest forever4 ,the celebrated ,dr4 ,halley1 in the year #afib1 in his attempt to account for the change of the variation of the magnetic needle1 advanced a novel hypothesis1 as respects the internal structure of the earth4 ,he supposes that there is an interior globe1 separated from the external sphere by a fluid medium2 or that there may be several internal spheres1 separated from each other by atmospheres1 and that the concave arches may in several places shine with a substance similar to that which invests the body of the sun1 producing light and heat for the accommodation of those internal regions which he alleges may possibly be inhabited by animate beings4#de ,however1 he suggests no idea of ,polar ,openings1 nor of any communication from the outer surface to those interior regions2 consequently their existence must have remained forever a matter of mere conjecture4 ,we find that ,dr4 ,halley1 in the wisdom of his philosophy1 believed those internal regions to be lighted1 though situated many thousand fathoms beneath the surface1 and without any aperture to communicate light from without4 ,why not1 then1 believe that the interior of the spheres1 according to ,symmes's theory1 may be lighted1 when he lays down such vast openings at either pole for that purpose8 ,euler was also an advocate for the theory of ,dr4 ,halley4 ,he believed1 with him1 that the earth is hollow1 with a ball1 or nucleus1 included in the centre2 he1 however1 differed from ,halley as to the nature of the nucleus4 ,halley believed it to be constituted of the same materials of the exterior crust of the earth4 ,euler believed it to be a luminous body formed of materials similar to the sun1 and adapted to the purpose of illuminating and warming the interior surface of the crust1 which he supposed might be inhabited equally with the exterior surface4 ,he fancied that this luminous ball had no rotary motion1 and that the outer shell revolved around it4 ,however1 neither he nor ,dr4 ,halley left any opening by which the internal regions could be explored2 their existence was therefore left to rest on vague hypothesis4#df ,these different theories1 however extravagant they may appear to us1 were believed and supported by those men1 whom we must acknowledge were among the most learned of the age in which they lived2 and among the mathematicians in ,europe they have yet some warm supporters4 ,why not then give ,symmes's theory of open poles1 and concentric spheres1 a serious investigation1 the correctness of which is so much more probable1 and the demonstration of its truth or falsehood so much more practicable8 ,at all events a voyage to the polar regions1 with an eye to the accomplishment of ,symmes's purpose1 might be productive of incalculable advantages to the cause of science in general4 ,with respect to astronomy and geography1 it would afford many new lights1 and perhaps discover and establish many new principles1 not thought of at this day4 ,knowledge is power1 and so far as an individual acquires a knowledge of literature and science1 above his contemporaries1 so far does he possess a power and influence over those among whom he resides4 ,so does a nation1 when she becomes characterized for the acquisition of knowledge in the sciences and the arts4 ,those nations which have made great and important advances in the improvement of science1 or in new discoveries1 have acquired a pre-eminence of character and standing1 among other nations of the world4 ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 having assumed a respectable station among the nations1 is fast advancing in wealth and power4 ,her territories are stretched over a vast extent of country2 and her population is increasing with a rapidity unprecedented4 ,we are already looked up to1 by other nations1 as a people of very considerable importance2 and as having made a successful experiment in politics and government1 which politicians had before considered impracticable4 ,ought we not then1 as a nation1 7paying some attention to the progress of science and knowledge17 to hold out inducements for the progressive improvements1 and useful discoveries of our own citizens8 ,while the ,english1 the ,russians1 and the ,french1 are making great exertions for the purpose of discovery1 and the advancement of science2 will ,america remain idle and inactive8 ,will she adopt the unwise policy that individual enterprise ought to be let alone8 ,other nations act differently2 and they have long been directing their researches towards the acquisition of a more perfect knowledge of our globe3 and such exertions have always been considered as the most glorious actions on record in the annals of their history4 ,by so doing1 they have not only been amply rewarded themselves1 but have benefited the world at large1 by the acquisition of important information respecting the before unknown parts of it1 and by the improvement of science4 ,will ,america then sit by inactive and contented1 while she is surrounded with plenty1 and enjoying a situation most enviable in the career of nations8 ,let us rather encourage than shackle the genius and enterprising spirit of our own citizens2 and not act like an avaricious miser1 who directs all his thoughts to the calculation of dollars and cents4 ,had this let alone policy1 been pursued by the nations that have sent out ships of discovery1 what would have been the situation of the world at the present day8 ,bounds would have been set to the great field of philosophy1 and the arts and sciences must have flourished only within a circumscribed sphere4 ,in vain might the revolving planets have forced upon the minds of mankind their beautiful order1 motions and attractions2the extensive continent of ,america1 must yet have remained a gloomy wilderness2 and the wild flowers have bloomed upon her fertile plains1 only to be crushed by the foot of the unlettered savage4 ,if we take a retrospective view of the world1 for some centuries back1 we shall find the knowledge of the most scientific nations1 bounded by a circumference of two or three thousand miles4 ,at length a few enterprising individuals1 aided by their governments1 made extensive discoveries3,a ,columbus discovered the vast continent of ,america2 and subsequent navigators discovered the extensive countries of ,new-,holland1 ,new-,zealand1 and numerous islands in the ,pacific ocean and ,south sea4 ,all of these now disclose to us1 that what was formerly believed to constitute the whole habitable world1 is but a spot1 one little corner1 in the parts known at this day4 ,even yet1 a vast portion of our globe remains unexplored4 ,why then should we contribute nothing towards the attainment of the grand pursuit of nations8 ,we1 who are destined1 ,i hope1 one day to stand as the first nation under the sun,why should we fold our arms and sit inactive1 while that little spot ,great ,britain1 is making such efforts to explore those regions8 ,it would not be an unwise policy1 for the ,american government to foster and encourage such noble workings of genius4 ,it can in no way be inconsistent with the present policy of our government1 that an expedition should be fitted out to explore the polar regions2 but1 on the contrary1 it would bespeak a spirit of liberality1 and a desire to promote scientific enterprize4 ,it is neither against the constitution nor laws of our country2 we are now at peace with the world2 taxes are comparatively trifling2 the situation of our country at present affords a most favourable opportunity for the accomplishment of the undertaking4 ,it is one of such importance too1 as will justify the use of money and men2 while the honour of the discovery of a ,new ,world would be its reward4 ,i apprehend that we only lack confidence in our own abilities1 to perfect and explain many things not dreamed of by the ancient philosophers4 ,we are inclined rather to undervalue our own efforts2 and1 like our former opinions on manufacturing subjects1 think we can never appear to advantage1 unless dressed in a coat of foreign manufacture4 ,it appears to savour of the doctrine1 that no new opinion or proposition can merit attention1 or be adopted1 unless it come from a ,european source4 ,had the proposition of concentric spheres1 or a hollow globe1 been made by an ,english or ,french philosopher1 instead of a native of the ,united ,states1 ,i very much question1 whether so large a share of ridicule would have been attached to its author and adherents4 ,it may be replied1 that the idea of a world within a world1 is absurd4 ,but1 who can assert with confidence1 that this idea is1 in reality1 nothing more than the imagination of a feverish brain8 ,how is it shown that such a form does not exist8 ,are there not as strong reasons for believing that the earth is constituted of concentric spheres1 as the court of ,spain1 or any man in ,europe1 had to believe that there was an undiscovered continent8 ,has not ,captain ,symmes theoretically proven his assertions of concentric spheres and open poles1 and embodied a catalogue of facts1 numerous and plausible1 in support of his opinions8 ,and who has confuted his assertions8 ,i dare to say1 that none can be found1 who can fully disprove them1 and account for the facts which he adduces as the proofs of his theory4 ,is there not the same reason to believe1 that the earth is hollow1 as there is to place implicit confidence in the opinion1 that the planets are inhabited8 ,and yet the one has been ridiculed as the wild speculations of a madman1 while the other receives credit among the most enlightened4 ,if it can be shown that ,symmes's ,theory is probable1 or has the least plausibility attached to it1nay1 that it is even possible1why not afford him the means of testing its correctness8 ,the bare possibility of such a discovery1 ought to be a sufficient stimulus to call forth the patronage of any government4 ,and should the theory prove correct1 and the adventure succeed1 would it not immortalize our nation8 ,the fame of ,symmes1 and his native country1 would only expire with time6 ,but1 even should the expedition fail in the main object1 there would still be neither loss nor disgrace4 ,if the interior world have no existence but in ,captain ,symmes's imagination1 would it be a matter worthy of no consideration to explore the northern parts of our own hemisphere8 ,in the attempt1 we might discover something of great importancein chasing a phantom1 we might hit on a realityin searching for the unknowable1 discover what has hitherto been unknown2 some new islands2 some undiscovered sea2 some north-west by west passage1 or inlet2 some new phenomenon of nature2 some hitherto unknown inhabitants of the polar regions2 nay1 even the pole itself4 ,and would it be a matter of no consequence1 that a citizen of our own country should first stand on the axis1 and plant the stars and stripes of our own country beneath the polar star8 ,and should this be effected1 will not the glory and honour our nation would acquire thereby1 be worth the expenditure8 ,no one1 ,i hope1 will say that it would not be worth it all1 ten times told4 ,but in case this should fail1 would it be a matter of no consequence1 to explore the northern parts of our own continent1 and fill up the blank on the map of the northern hemisphere8 ,this1 in my humble opinion1 is far from being impracticable4 ,a steam vessel might run from the mouth of the ,oregon river1 and proceed along the north-west coast of ,america through ,behring's ,straits1 round to the ,atlantic2 or1 if impeded by ice1 a party might pursue their journey on foot1 with sledges1 on the ice1 and along the coast quite round to ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the accomplishment of this1 ,i deem no chimera4 ,the writer of this1 for one1 7and he has no doubt ,captain ,symmes1 and a sufficient number of others7 would volunteer to accomplish the enterprise4 ,and should such an expedition be authorized and fitted out by the government1 rest assured1 if they did not penetrate the interior of our sphere1 or plant the ,american standard beneath the great ,northern ,bear1 they would at least furnish a correct map of the coast of ,america1 from the mouth of ,oregon round to fort ,churchill2or make the snows of the north their winding sheets4 ,within a few years1 several expeditions have been fitted out for the purpose of discovery1 by different nations in ,europe1 and particularly by the ,english4 ,ross1 and ,parry have visited the arctic regions2 and ,parry now is out on his third voyage1 as though there were some hidden mystery there1 which the ,english government is anxious to develope4 ,it is not likely that they would have fitted-out1 and dispatched four successive expeditions1 merely to view ,ice-bergs and ,esquimaux ,indians4 ,as for the discovery of a north-west passage to the ,east ,indies1 it cannot be their sole object1 as the continent of ,america has been explored by land to seventy-two degrees of north latitude2 and1 according to the old theory1 beyond that latitude the seas are so incumbered with ice as to render their navigation extremely difficult1 if not impracticable2 from which1 ,i am induced to believe1 that they have discovered something in those regions which indicates a state of things different from that heretofore believed to exist4 ,under the protection of the ,russian government1 ,kotzebue1 and ,baron ,wrangle1 have been engaged in similar enterprizes1 and although these different attempts have afforded considerable light on the subject1 yet they are rather calculated to awaken than satisfy curiosity4 ,many of the facts1 however1 which are urged as proof of the theory of concentric spheres1 have been confirmed or corroborated by the personal observations of those skilful navigators4 ,but so long as they lack confidence in the theory1 it can scarcely be expected they will make the discovery2 the winding meridians which they will pursue1 when intending to proceed straight forward1 will keep them bewildered among the ice1 along the circle of the verge1 or finally bring them out towards the exterior surface of the sphere1 no wiser than when they set out4 ,as yet1 we are more indebted to other nations1 than our own1 for a knowledge of the continent of ,america4 ,a knowledge of the north-west coast is interesting to the civilized world at large2 but to none more so1 than the ,united ,states2 and ,i humbly think1 that the honor and interest of this confederated ,republic1 are more deeply involved in this subject of making discoveries in the northern seas1 than any other nation's can be4 ,should a voyage of discovery be undertaken by our government1 it is hoped that the northern coast of the continent of ,america will1 at least1 be examined4 ,the undertaking would not only redound to the fame of our country1 and to that of the individual entrusted with the enterprise1 but must be productive of immense advantage to our commerce and national prosperity2 and carry our star spangled banner among a people with whom the civilized world1 as yet1 have had no intercourse4 ,the prosecution of such an enterprise would be attended with no very considerable demands on the treasury2 the employment of one or two of our ships of war1 now in commission1 for the object1 would cause little additional expense4 ,but1 even admitting that a few thousands1 or even hundreds of thousands1 would be necessary2 of what importance is it1 when weighed against the magnitude of the object to be accomplished8 ,could our public vessels be better employed1 than in surveying our north-west coast1 and in discovery8 ,our naval officers would rejoice on seeing opened to their view a new path to fame1 independent of the acquisition to their nautical experience4 ,many of our brave and skilful navigators would be proud of an appointment in such an enterprise2 many naturalists and men of science1 would cheerfully1 at their own expense1 if necessary1 accompany such an expedition4 ,and although we may not expect such an enterprise to be accomplished to the full extent of ,captain ,symmes's anticipations1 and those who believe in his doctrines2 yet1 as ,americans1 we cannot but wish that the theory1 which has been first advanced by a fellow-citizen1 should be countenanced by our own government1 and tested by the citizens of our own country4 ,,footnotes3 #de ,the application which the ,dr4 makes of this structure of the earth is this3 that the concave sides of the spheres are made up of magnetic matter2 that they revolve about their diurnal axes in about twenty-four hours2 that the outer sphere moves either a little faster or a little slower than the internal ball2 that the magnetic pole1 both of the external shell and included globe1 are distant from the poles of rotation2 and that the variation arises from a change of the relative distances of the external and internal poles in consequence of the difference of their revolutions4 ,see life of ,dr4 ,halley4 ,in ,rees' ,cyclopedia1 under the article 'ring1' is the following sentence2 by which it appears that ,kepler first suggested the earth to be composed of concentric crusts4 ,kepler1 in his ,epitom4 ,astron4 ,copern4 7as after him ,dr4 ,halley1 in his enquiry into the causes of the variation of the needle1 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #aie47 supposes our earth may be composed of several crusts or shells1 one within another1 and concentric to each other4 ,if this be the case1 it is possible the ring of ,saturn may be the fragment or remaining ruin of his former exterior shell1 the rest of which is broken or fallen down upon the body of the planet4 #df ,maclaurin1 in his fourteenth chapter of the second volume on ,fluxions1 investigates the theory of ,dr4 ,halley at considerable length2 and in conclusion1 appears to consider the existence of a hollow globe as very possible4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,a few brief suggestions1 relative to the description1 tonnage1 and number of vessels1 necessary to be equipped for a voyage of discovery to the interior regions of the earth2 the number of men necessary to be employed on board1 articles necessary for the outfit1 and the probable expense attending the same2 also1 as to the route most proper to be pursued to accomplish the object of the expedition4 ,captain ,symmes1 in his first circular1 published at ,st4 ,louis1 on the #ajth day of ,april1 #ahah1 asks an outfit of one hundred brave companions1 well equipped1 to set out from ,siberia in autumn1 with rein-deer and sleighs1 to pass over the ice of the frozen sea4 ,on being furnished with an outfit of this description1 he engages to explore the concave regions1 and discover a warm1 or at least a temperate country1 of fertile soil1 well stocked with animals and vegetables1 if not men1 on reaching about sixty-nine miles beyond latitude eighty-two degrees4 ,the route1 intended to be pursued by ,captain ,symmes1 appears to be that of the rein-deer1 and the time of setting out1 the same season of the year1 in which 7according to ,professor ,adams7 the rein-deer migrate from that coast north4 ,in this route it would be necessary to cross the verge1 or region of most intense cold1 with the greatest possible expedition1 so as to reach an inner temperate climate1 in the shortest time4 ,the concave regions could be partially explored during the winter2 and the party return in the spring1 and at the same time of the rein-deer1 to the mouth of the river ,lena4 ,the ,russians have been making considerable exertions to explore the northern regions4 ,baron ,wrangle made an attempt of this kind1 in the year #ahba4 ,and a second attempt was made in the year #ahbb1 by travelling with sledges1 drawn by dogs4#dg ,but1 probably owing to the party not having faith in the winding meridians about the verge of the polar opening1 or being unacquainted with their direction according to the theory of concentric spheres1 they were bewildered1 and kept travelling in the neighbourhood of the verge1 the region of greatest cold1 instead of proceeding in a direct course towards the pole1 until they were finally obliged to return without accomplishing the object of the expedition4 ,at the present time 7,august1 #ahbd7 an expedition is fitting out in ,russia at great expense1 under the auspices of that distinguished patron of science1 ,count ,romanzoff1 for the purpose of making discoveries in the northern regions1 with the intention of exploring over land1 or on the ice1 as far as it may be found practicable4 ,the celebrated ,admiral ,kruzenstern1 is to exercise a general superintendance over the expedition1 while the immediate command is to be conferred on some distinguished ,russian officer4 ,the continent of ,north ,america1 would1 in my opinion1 be a more suitable place1 for an exploring party to set out from1 than the coast of ,siberia4 ,a company of men1 well armed1 could travel over land1 and draw their provisions and baggage on hand sledges1 on the snow or ice1 as ,hearne did during his journey1 with light canoes for the purpose of crossing rivers and lakes1 should such be found to obstruct their progress4 ,in this manner1 the party would soon cross the verge1 or barren grounds1 as ,hearne calls it1 and arrive in that country of abundant game1 of which the ,indians informed him4 ,hearne1 according to his journal1 reached nearly the seventy-second degree of north latitude1 and his general course is laid down as being north-westwardly1 from ,fort ,churchill to the mouth of ,copper-,mine river1 which he says disembogues itself into the ,northern sea1 flowing in a northerly direction4 ,me-lo-no-bee1 the ,indian chief1 who served as ,hearne's guide from ,hudson's ,bay1 pointed out the mouth of ,copper-,mine river1 as being in a north-eastwardly direction from ,fort ,churchill1 and flowing in an eastwardly course4 ,subsequent discoveries have1 ,i believe1 determined ,me-lo-no-bee to be correct in this particular1 as that river has been ascertained to empty into the waters of the ,atlantic north of ,repulse ,bay1 several hundred miles distant from where ,hearne lays it down on his map4 ,it is so laid down in the map accompanying ,ross' voyage of discovery4 ,how ,hearne could be so much mistaken in the course he travelled1 as to lay it down at nearly a right angle from its true course1 is rather unaccountable3 he must have been deceived by the winding meridians of the verge1 which turned him to the right2 when to have passed directly into the concave1 he ought1 on arriving at a certain point1 to have proceeded west of north1 then west1 and finally south-west1 which would probably have conducted him to that country1 which the ,indian represented as being far to the west1 or south-west1 and so warm that there was never any frost4 ,in this direction1 an exploring party ought most probably to travel1 first north until they come to the verge2 where 7if they are on the continent of ,america7 the meridians begin to wind to the right1 then gradually1 as they advanced1 incline to the west1 then true west1 then south of west1 and finally1 when entirely beyond the apparent verge1 to the south-west1 if not due south4 ,in crossing the verge1 the cold would no doubt be considerable3 but cold in those regions1 as measured by the thermometer1 appears to us much greater than the feelings of those exposed to that temperature indicate4 ,hence it was1 no doubt1 that ,parry's crew could hunt in winter1 when the medium was below zero4 ,and the ,russians set out on their expedition over the ice in #ahba1 when the cold was thirty-two degrees ,reaumur2 and this too accounts for ,hearne's sleeping in the snow1 without fire1 by only digging a hole1 and lying therein1 with his sledge turned up to windward4 ,it does not appear that he complained of excessive cold2 though he travelled nearly all winter4 ,he had also several ,indian women in company4 ,the regions through which he passed1 as well as that in which ,ross and ,parry were1 are alleged to be the coldest of the earth2 and that those men experienced as great a degree of cold as would be in passing the verge into the concave regions4 ,but ,i am of opinion that the most practicable1 the most expeditious1 and the best mode of exploring the interior regions would be by sea1 and by way of the south polar opening1 crossing the verge at the low side1 in the ,indian ocean1 where it is presumed the sea is always open1 and nearly free from ice4 ,but1 as we are residents of the northern hemisphere1 the nearness of the north polar opening to us1 and the more immediate advantages which would result to us from an intercourse with the countries within the concave to the north1 would seem to point out that as the most proper direction to be pursued2 though the difficulties to be encountered in passing the verge of the north polar opening1 would doubtless be much greater than those of the south1 the cold much severer1 and the ice more compact and difficult to pass4 ,however1 notwithstanding all these difficulties1 the object1 ,i think1 might be safely accomplished by sailing1 either east of ,spitzbergen1 or between ,spitzbergen and ,greenland2 where1 writers1 in whom confidence may be placed1 inform us1 that the sea is open all winter4 ,the greatest difficulty to be apprehended1 would be the accumulation of drifting ice in the summer season2 but in the winter1 that difficulty1 perhaps1 would not be presented as in the fall or commencement of winter1 the ice would attach itself to one shore or the other1 and become permanent4 ,the ,russians who wintered on ,spitzbergen1 say that the sea was open during the whole winter1 quite across the north end of the island4 ,several sailors who were once left on an island near ,spitsbergen1 lived there several years2 though destitute of almost every necessary of life1 they were not only able to support the cold of the winters1 but even to supply themselves with provisions1 and light1 in those dreary regions4 ,they finally returned in health and safety to their native country and friends4 ,this island is probably as cold as any spot that is known to our sphere4 ,a vessel1 almost at any time in summer1 could sail to1 and remain at ,spitzbergen1 7having the necessary conveniences on board to make the crew comfortable7 for two or three years4 ,they could lie all winter at the north part of the island1 and after being there long enough to become acquainted with the nature and changes in the sea to the north of them1 they could take some favorable opportunity1 and reach the pole1 7if the earth be a globe7 or the interior concave regions4 ,the distance from the north of ,spitzbergen to the pole is only six hundred geographical miles4 ,another favorable direction for making the discovery is1 by ,bhering's straits on the north-west coast of ,america3 ,and an additional advantage which is presented by this direction1 is1 that if the vessels should be obstructed by1 or frozen in the ice1 the party could proceed by land on the shore of ,america1 7which is supposed to communicate with the concave regions17 a party remaining with the vessels till the others returned4 ,in case an expedition of discovery should be fitted out for the purpose of making the attempt1 by either route1 the safety of the party would require that two vessels should be equipped with rather more than an ordinary number of men1 and with a double number of boats at least2 some so light and portable as to be easily carried by men over ice1 or necks of land1 should it become necessary4 ,vessels propelled by steam would be preferable to any other1 as they could more easily avoid the floating ice in passing the verge2 as1 also ascend rapid rivers in the interior1 should such be discovered1 and it be found necessary to ascend them4 ,the vessels should be equipped with masts1 sails1 and every part of rigging necessary for sailing2 with a ballast of coal1 which should not be used1 or any other fuel for steam purposes1 until they come within the neighbourhood of the ice1 through which1 by pursuing a proper course1 it is believed1 they would in a few days pass1 and arrive at a more temperate climate1 and a country where they would be abundantly supplied with both wood and provisions4 ,perhaps it would be advisable to take on board a small boat1 with a proportionate steam-engine1 for the purpose of running up shallow rivers1 or along coasts1 to make more minute observations4 ,but the most important matter of all to be observed1 and that on which the success of the expedition must depend1 would be a proper observance of the principles of the theory1 and a due attention to the winding meridians1 and curvatures of the parallels of latitude1 when the verge shall be crossed2 and which will require the party to be continually varying their course as they proceed forward in accordance with the place at which the attempt shall be made4 ,the expense of an expedition of this kind1 would not be very great2 at least not considerable when compared with the magnitude of the object to be accomplished1 though ,i have not made1 nor do ,i consider myself adequate to make minute estimates on the subject4 ,but ,i should conclude that a sum of one or two hundred thousand dollars would be amply sufficient to defray all expenses attending such an expedition4 ,should an attempt be made by way of the south polar opening1 with vessels fitted out as for a whaling voyage1 the expense would probably not be the one fifth part of that sum4 ,and were an expedition undertaken over land1 from some post high north on the continent of ,america1 the expense must be still less4 ,,footnote3 #dg ,from a ,london paper1 under the head of ,,russian ,,discoveries4,in the year #ahbj1 a journey of discovery1 by land1 was ordered by the government1 to explore the extreme north and north-east of ,asia4,lieutenants ,wrangle and ,anjou1 of the navy1 were chosen for this expedition4 ,after having made the necessary preparations1 they departed from ,neukolyma1 in the north-eastern part of ,siberia1 on the #aith of ,feb4 #ahba1 in sledges drawn by dogs1 when the cold was thirty-two degrees ,reaumur1 in order to ascertain the position of ,schehaladshoi-,noss1 which captain ,burney conjectured might be an isthmus1 joining ,asia with the continent of ,america4 ,the travellers succeeded in determining the whole coast astronomically1 going themselves entirely round the coast1 and proceeding a day's journey farther to the west2 thus convincing themselves that ,asia and ,america are not united there by an isthmus4 ,on the #acth of ,march1 the expedition returned to ,neukolyma4 ,on the #bb;d of ,march1 ,mr4 ,wrangle undertook another journey1 likewise on sledges drawn by dogs1 with ten companions1 in the direction to the ,north ,pole1 in order to look for the great continent which is supposed to exist there4 ,the principal obstacle they met with1 was thin ice1 which being broken to pieces by continued storms1 was piled up in mountains1 and rendered farther progress impossible4 ,at a bear hunt1 which the company undertook1 they observed a sudden bursting of the ice1 accompanied with a dreadful noise resembling thunder4 ,on their journey back1 which the travellers were obliged to make without accomplishing their object1 they surveyed the bear islands1 and after an absence of thirty-eight days1 arrived safely at ,neukolyma on the #bhth ,april1 where they are to remain for the year #ahbb1 and then to continue their researches4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,a short ,biographical sketch of ,captain ,symmes2 with some observations on the treatment which he has met with in the advancement of his ,theory4 ,john ,cleves ,symmes1 the author of the ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres1 is the son of ,timothy ,symmes1 of the state of ,new-,jersey1 whose father's name was also ,timothy1 and who was the son of the ,rev4 ,thomas ,symmes1 of ,bradford1 who graduated at ,harvard college1 in #afih4 ,mr4 ,elliot1 publisher of the ,new-,england ,biographical ,dictionary1 at ,boston1 in the year #ahji1 makes honourable mention of his name4 ,timothy ,symmes1 the grandfather of the subject of this sketch1 had but two sons2 the one1 ,john ,cleves ,symmes1 well known as the father and founder of the first settlements in the ,miami country2 and the other1 ,timothy1 the father of our ,theorist1 and from whom the present family of ,symmes1 in the ,miami country1 are descended4 ,captain ,symmes is now about forty-six years of age4 ,he is of middle stature1 and tolerably proportioned2 with scarcely any thing in his exterior to characterize the secret operations of his mind1 except an abstraction1 which1 from attentive inspection1 is found seated on a slightly contracted brow2 and the glances of a bright blue eye1 that often seems fixed on something beyond immediate surrounding objects4 ,his head is round1 and his face rather small and oval4 ,his voice is somewhat nasal1 and he speaks hesitatingly and with apparent labour4 ,his manners are plain1 and remarkable for native simplicity4 ,he is a native of the state of ,new-,jersey4 ,during the early part of his life1 he received1 what was then considered1 a common ,english education1 which in after life he improved by having access to tolerably well selected libraries2 and being endued1 by nature1 with an insatiable desire for knowledge of all kinds1 he thus had1 during the greater part of his life1 ample opportunities to indulge it4 ,in the year #ahjb1 and at the age of about twenty-two years1 ,mr4 ,symmes entered the army of the ,united ,states1 in the office of ensign2 from which he afterwards rose to that of captain4 ,he continued in service until after the close of the late war with ,great-,britain4 ,while attached to the army he was universally esteemed a brave soldier1 and a zealous and faithful officer4 ,he was in the memorable battle of ,bridgewater2 and was senior ,captain in the regiment to which he belonged4 ,the company under his immediate command1 that day1 discharged seventy rounds of cartridges1 and repelled three desperate charges of the bayonet4 ,afterwards1 in the sortie from ,fort ,erie1 ,captain ,symmes1 with his command1 captured the enemy's battery number two2 and with his own hand spiked the cannon it contained3 yet1 owing to the want of correct information1 or from some other cause1 the honour and the reward of this achievement1 were alike bestowed upon others4 ,and1 it is a fact not less to be regretted1 that the official report of the battle of ,bridgewater1 has represented the regiment1 to which ,captain ,symmes was attached1 as almost the only one that retreated at ,lunday's lane2 when1 in truth1 it was nearly the only one which uniformly maintained the positions it was ordered to maintain1 throughout the action4 ,captain ,symmes1 has since1 however1 substantiated the correctness of its conduct1 by obtaining the necessary acknowledgments2 some of the particulars of which were communicated to the ,historical ,society of ,new-,york1 and published1 in the newspapers of the day4 ,the truth of this statement1 has also been confirmed to me1 by a respectable ,officer1 who was in the action1 and witnessed the occurrence4 ,during the period of about three years1 immediately after the close of the war1 and after ,captain ,symmes had left the army1 he was engaged in the difficult and laborious task of furnishing supplies to the troops stationed on the upper ,mississippi4 ,how he succeeded in this business ,i am not informed2 but1 ,i conclude from his present circumstances1 that he could not have realized any very considerable pecuniary advantage from the enterprise4 ,since that time he has resided at ,newport1 ,kentucky2 devoting1 almost exclusively1 the whole of his time and attention to the investigation and perfection of his favourite ,theory of ,concentric ,spheres4 ,in a short circular1 dated at ,st4 ,louis1 in #ahah1 ,captain ,symmes first promulgated the fundamental principles of his theory to the world4 ,he addressed a copy to every learned institution1 and to every considerable town and village1 as well as distinguished individuals1 of which he could gain any intelligence1 throughout the ,united ,states1 and to several learned societies in ,europe4 ,the reception this circular met with1 was that of ridicule2 it being looked upon as the production of a distempered imagination1 or the ravings of partial insanity4 ,indeed1 it became a fruitful source of jest and levity1 to publishers of the public prints of the day generally1 all over the ,union4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris1 before which it was laid by ,count ,volney1 decided that it was unworthy of their consideration2 and the editor of the ,london ,morning ,chronicle1 could not be induced to credit the statements of respectable men1 who declared that ,symmes was not a madman4 ,but in this1 his fate is not peculiar4 ,the experience of the world has taught us1 that the authors of new doctrines1 have mostly shared a similar lot4 ,an excellent contemporary writer has remarked1 that1 the fate of many projectors have been so melancholy1 that it requires1 at this day1 the daring spirit1 and the enthusiasm which are naturally allied to genius1 in any man to announce himself as the inventor of any thing new and extraordinary4 ,the patience and perseverance of a ,galileo1 and the adventurous spirit of a ,fulton1 are necessary to him who would benefit his species by the results of original plans and forms1 or that of new combinations of old and tried ones4 ,hence we cannot but respect and admire the man1 who1 regardless of the hard fate of so many who have trod before him1 in the thorny path of improvement1 still has the fortitude and philosophy of mind to spend years in toil and studyto labour by day with persevering industryand trim the midnight lamp with the vigilance ascribed to the ancient vestals1 in bringing to perfection an idea1 from which he hopes to reap fame and benefit to himself1 and to reflect credit1 at the same time1 on the genius of his country4 ,captain ,symmes published two other numbers at ,st4 ,louis1 in the year #ahah2 the one went to prove1 by geometrical principles1 that matter must necessarily form itself into concentric spheres1 and the other treated of geological principles4 ,his two next numbers1 marked four and five1 7the one treating of the original formation of the ,allegheny mountains1 and the other claiming the discovery of open poles17 ,i have never had an opportunity of seeing4 ,his sixth number appeared1 dated at ,cincinnati1 in ,january1 #ahai1 which contains a number of items and principles that he proposes treating of in subsequent numbers4 ,his seventh number1 entitled ,arctic ,memoir1 is dated at ,cincinnati1 in ,february1 #ahai2 and another number1 entitled ,light between the ,spheres1 dated at ,cincinnati1 in ,august1 #ahai1 was published in the ,national ,intelligencer4 ,from that time to the present1 numerous pieces from the pen of ,captain ,symmes have appeared in different newspapers2 but the most prominent and grand doctrines1 on which his theory is based1 are contained in the papers above enumerated4 ,independent of his written publications1 he has delivered a number of lectures on the theory1first at ,cincinnati1 in #ahbj1 and afterwards at ,lexington and ,frankfort1 in ,kentucky1 and at ,hamilton and ,zanesville1 in the state of ,ohio4 ,several of these lectures ,i had the pleasure of hearing2 and the respectable number of auditors1 and the profound stillness that reigned1 evinced in the strongest manner the interest felt by all present in the subject4 ,in addition to the various facts and phenomena1 to which he adverts in support of his positions1 he delineates in his lectures1 upon a wooden sphere1 constructed on the principles of his theory1 the cause of the winding meridians1 the icy hoop or verge1 and the course which ought to be pursued to reach the interior regions1 with the confidence of mathematical certainty4 ,captain ,symmes's want of a classical education1 and philosophic attainments1 perhaps1 unfits him for the office of a lecturer4 ,but1 his arguments being presented in confused array1 and clothed in homely phraseology1 can furnish no objection to the soundness of his doctrines4 ,the imperfection of his style1 and the inelegance of his manner1 may be deplored2 but1 certainly1 constitute no proof of the inadequacy of his reasoning1 or the absurdity of his deductions4 ,there is scarcely a single individual1 with whom ,i have conversed1 who does not confess that1 if the facts which he adduces1 and the arguments he uses1 were handled by an able orator1 they would produce a powerful effect4 ,in short1 those who attend to his lectures1 without regarding his peculiarities of style and manner2 who reflect alone on their substantial parts1 without regarding the want of eloquence in the lecturer2 who presume to think for themselves1 and are able to comprehend the naked facts1 and unadorned arguments1 which he advances1 will not fail to discover in them many particulars well worthy of their consideration2 and many arguments calculated to stagger their faith in pre-conceived opinions4 ,in the year #ahbb1 ,captain ,symmes petitioned the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 setting forth1 in the first place1 his belief of the existence of a habitable and accessible concave to this globe2 his desire to embark on a voyage of discovery to one or other of the polar regions2 his belief in the great profit and honour his country would derive from such discovery2and prayed that ,congress would equip and fit out for the expedition1 two vessels of two hundred and fifty1 or three hundred1 tons burthen2 and grant such other aid as government might deem necessary to promote the object4 ,this petition was presented in the ,senate by ,col4 ,richard ,m4 ,johnston1 a member from ,kentucky1 on the #gth day of ,march1 #ahbb2 when1 7a motion to refer it to the committee of ,foreign ,relations having failed17 after a few remarks it was laid on the table4,ayes1 #be4 ,in ,december1 #ahbc1 he forwarded similar petitions to both houses of ,congress1 which met with a similar fate4 ,in ,january1 #ahbd1 he petitioned the ,general ,assembly of the state of ,ohio1 praying that body to pass a resolution approbatory of his theory2 and to recommend him to ,congress for an outfit suitable to the enterprise4 ,this memorial was presented by ,micajah ,t4 ,williams2 and1 on motion1 the further consideration thereof was indefinitely postponed4#dh ,that ,captain ,symmes is a highminded1 honorable man1 is attested by all who know him4 ,he has devised a theory whereby to account for various singular and interesting phenomena2 and more satisfactorily to explain a great variety of acknowledged facts4 ,he argues from the effect to the cause1 in many of his positions1 with great perspicuity4 ,and the circumstance that few of the learned have yet attempted to show that his principles are founded in absurdity1 should at least entitle him to the respect1 and his theory to the attention1 of every candid man4 ,notwithstanding he has been buffeted by the ridicule and sarcasm of an opposing world for seven years1 under great pecuniary embarrassments2 he still labours with unshaken faith1 and unbroken perseverance2 with a willingness at any time to test the truth of his speculations amid the icy mountains of the polar seas4 ,already has he passed the meridian of life2 and should he be called from time1 without establishing his theory by actual discovery2 the science he has embodied1 and the facts he has collected and arranged in support of it1 together with his undeviating and indefatigable industry1 in the face of ,the world's dread laugh1 which scarce ,the firm philosopher can scorn1 will bear a testimonial to his talents and worth1 that the best of his species will ever delight to acknowledge4 ,and though he may not have accounted for every particular1 or brought forward every argument that might possibly be advanced in support of his positions2 he has1 nevertheless1 collected a greater number of peculiarly interesting facts1 and embodied a stronger phalanx of proof1 than could well have been expected on a subject so new1 and in the hands of the original discoverer4 ,if1 hereafter1 it should be ascertained that ,symmes's ,theory of the ,earth is true1 impartial posterity will not withhold the honour and fame due to the name of the discoverer4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the present age will not so far forfeit to posterity the high character it now sustains in scientific discovery1 as to remain deaf to his solicitations2 but1 that the citizens of our own country in particular1 if not the whole world1 will unite in testing the truth of his principles2 and in doing justice to the merits of this extraordinary man4 ,,finis4 ,,footnote3 #dh ,journal of the ,house of ,representatives of ,ohio2 session of #ahbc1 '#bdp4 #bbd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,punctuation has been standardized4 ,some alternate spellings have been retained4 ,pg4 iv3 faciliate changed to facilitate 7to facilitate its progress74 ,pg4 #ci3 obedidience changed to obedience 7in obedience to certain fixed laws74 ,pg4 #da1 #dd1 #gj1 #gi3 spheriod changed to spheroid 7is strictly a spheroid7 7that of a regular spheroid7 7the form of an oblate spheroid7 7a compact and solid spheroid7 7the earth is a solid spheroid74 ,pg4 #eg1 #acj3 occular changed to ocular 7positive ocular demonstration7 7admits of ocular demonstration74 ,pg4 #fb3 sometimes changed to some times 7at some times seven or eight belts74 ,pg4 #gc3 appea changed to appear 7and appear again in great numbers74 ,missing word of inserted 7in the latter end of ,march74 ,pg4 #gf3 7footnote7 ,herne's changed to ,hearne's 7,hearne's ,journal74 ,pg4 #hc3 7footnote7 ,ross's changed to ,ross' 7,ross' ,voyage74 ,pg4 #ii3 ,praire changed to ,prairie 7in the neighbourhood of the ,little ,prairie74 ,pg4 #ajg3 maintainance changed to maintenance 7the maintenance and support of organic life74 ,pg4 #aji3 plumet changed to plummet 7between the plummet and the centre of gravity74 ,pg4 #abc3 ,geogrophy changed to ,geography 7to teach mankind ,geology1 ,geography1 or ,astronomy74 ,pg4 #acd3 cotemporaries changed to contemporaries 7above his contemporaries74 ,pg4 #aea3 apparant changed to apparent 7beyond the apparent verge74 ,pg4 #aei3 catridges changed to cartridges 7discharged seventy rounds of cartridges74 ,pg4 #afa3 ,gallileo changed to ,galileo 7patience and perseverance of a ,galileo74 cotemporary changed to contemporary 7contemporary writer has remarked74 ,pg4 #aff3 buffetted changed to buffeted 7has been buffeted by the ridicule74