,,froebel ,,as ,a ,,pioneer ,,in        
,,modern ,,psychology                   
,,froebel ,,as ,a ,,pioneer             
,,in ,,modern ,,psychology              
,,by                                ,e4 
,r4 ,,murray            ,author of 8,a  
,story of ,infant ,schools and          
,kindergartens0        8,through the    
battle1 through defeat1 moving yet and  
never stopping4                         
,pioneers6 ,o ,pioneers60               
,,baltimore ,md4 ,,warwick  ,,york1     
,,inc4 #aiad                            
7,all rights reserved7                  
,,preface      ,some day ,froebel will  
come to his own1 and the carefulness of 
his  observation1 the depth of his      
thought1 the truth of his theories1 and 
the  success of his actual experiments  
in education will all be acknowledged4  
,there are few schools nowadays so      
modern as the short-lived ,keilhau1     
with its spirit of freedom and          
independence and its 8,areopagus0 in    
which  the boys themselves judged grave 

misdemeanours while the masters settled 
smaller matters alone4 ,there are few   
schools now which have such an          
all-round curriculum1 including1 as it  
did1 the mother tongue as well as       
classics and modern languages2 ancient  
and modern history2 ,nature study  and  
,nature rambles2 school journeys1       
lasting for two or three weeks and      
extending as far as ,switzerland for the
 older lads1 while the younger  boys    
visited ,german towns and were made     
acquainted with peasant life2  definite 
instruction in field-work1 in building  
and carpentry1 etc42  religious teaching
 in which ,middendorf endeavoured 8to   
show the merits of  the religions of all
 nations02 physical training with the   
out-of-doors  wrestling ground and      
shooting stand and gymnasium 8for every 
spare moment  of the winter10 and       
organized games2 and dramatic teaching  
where 8classic  dramas0 and other plays 
were performed1 and for which the boys  
built the  stage and painted the scenes4

 ,there was even co-education1          
8flirtation  being unknown10 because all
 had their heads so full of more        
important  matters1 but where free      
intercourse of boy and girl 8softened   
the  manners of the young ,german       
savages40    ,the purpose of this book  
is to show that all these things1       
besides the  ,kindergarten and the      
excellent plan for the ,helba           
,institute1 did not come  into being by 
chance1 but were the outcome of the deep
 reflection of a  man who combined the  
scientific with the philosophic         
temperament2 and  who1 because his ideal
 as a teacher was 8,education by        
,development10 had  made a special study
 of the instinctive tendencies1 and the 
requirements  of different stages of    
child development1 as ,i have tried to  
prove in  ,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii4     
,i should like to explain one or two    
points1 first1 that though for all      
quotations ,i have referred to the most 
commonly used translations of           

,froebel's writings1 yet ,i have        
frequently given my own rendering when  
the other seemed inadequate2 secondly1  
that ,i have endeavoured to give  the   
context as often as possible1 and have  
also given the actual ,german  words1   
that ,i might not be accused of reading 
in modern ideas which are  not really in
 the text2 and1 lastly1 that ,i have    
purposely repeated  quotations rather   
than give my readers the trouble of     
turning back to  another page4    ,in   
conclusion may ,i take this opportunity 
of paying grateful thanks  first to     
,miss ,alice ,words and to ,miss ,k4 ,m4
 ,clarke1 without whose  kind           
encouragement ,i should never have      
completed my task1 and also to          
,professor ,alexander for several       
helpful suggestions1 and to ,miss ,ida  
,sachs for friendly help4               
,e4 ,r4 ,,murray4          ,,contents   
,,chap4                                 
,,page           ,i4 ,,froebel',s       
,,anticipation ,,of ,,modern            

,,psychology                            
#a          ,,ii4 ,,froebel',s          
,,analysis ,,of ,,mind                  
#ab         ,,iii4 ,,will ,,and ,,its   
,,early ,,manifestations                
#bb          ,,iv4 ,,characteristics    
,,of ,,the ,,earliest ,,consciousness   
#cf           ,v4 ,,how ,,consciousness 
,,is ,,differentiated4--,,the ,,place   
,,of ,,action ,,in ,,the ,,development  
,,of ,,perception              ,,and    
,,of ,,feeling                          
#dg          ,,vi4 ,,instinct ,,and     
,,instincts                             
#ff         ,,vii4 ,,play ,,and ,,its   
,,relation ,,to ,,work                  
#abb        ,,viii4 ,,froebel',s        
,,play-,,material ,,and ,,its ,,original
              ,,purpose                 
#adh          ,,ix4 ,,weak ,,points     
,,considered                            
#afh           ,x4 ,,some ,,criticisms  
,,answered                         #aij 
,,appendix ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,meaning ,,of
 ,,the ,,word              8,,activity0 

#bac        ,,appendix ,,ii4            
,,comparison ,,of ,,plays ,,noted ,,by  
,,froebel              ,,with ,,the     
,,enumeration ,,given ,,by ,,groos      
#bai        ,,index                     
#bbe          ,,explanation ,,of        
,,references    ,to the ,works of       
,froebel quoted in the text          ,e 
,,education ,,of ,,man4 ,,translated    
,,by ,w4 ,n4 ,,hailmann4        ,m      
,,mutter ,u4 ,,kose ,,lieder4           
,,translated ,,by ,f4 ,,and ,e4 ,,lord4 
,p  ,,pedagogics ,,of ,,the             
,,kindergarten4 ,,translated ,,by       
,,josephine ,,jarvis4        ,l         
,,letters4        ,,translated ,,by     
,,emilie ,,michaelis      ,a            
,,autobiography4  ,,and ,h4 ,,keatley   
,,moore1 ,b4,a41 ,b4,,mus4              
,,chapter ,i    ,,froebel',s            
,,anticipation ,,of ,,modern            
,,psychology    8,a great man condemns  
the world to the task of explaining     
him40      ,the purpose of this little  
book is to show that ,froebel's         

educational  theories were based on     
psychological views of a type much more 
modern  than is at all generally        
understood4 ,it is frequently stated    
that  ,froebel's psychology is          
conspicuous by its absence1 but in a    
somewhat  close study of ,froebel's     
writings ,i have been again and again   
surprised  to find how much ,froebel    
seems to have anticipated modern        
psychology4    ,a probable reason for   
the overlooking of so much sound        
psychological  truth is to be found in  
the fact that much of it is obscured by 
details  which seem to us trivial1 but  
which ,froebel meant as applications of 
the  theories he was endeavouring to    
make clear to minds not only innocent   
of1  but incapable of1 psychology4      
,most educationists have read 8,the     
,education of ,man10 but few outside the
  ,kindergarten world are likely to have
 bestowed much thought on ,froebel's    
later writings4 ,it is in these1        
however1 that we see ,froebel watching  

with earnest attention that earliest    
mental development which is now         
regarded as a distinct chapter in mental
 science1 but which was then  largely if
 not entirely ignored4    ,with the same
 spirit of inquiry and the same field   
for investigation--for  children acted  
and thought then as they act and think  
now--it is  only natural that ,froebel  
should have made at least some of the   
same  discoveries as the genetic        
psychologist of to-day4    ,it would be 
unfair at any date to expect a complete 
psychology from a  writer whose subject 
is not mental science1 but education4   
,mistakes1 too1  one must expect1 and   
these are not to be ignored4#a ,still   
there remains  a solid amount of        
psychological discovery for which       
,froebel has had as  yet but little     
credit4    ,indeed1 just as his         
disciples have been inclined1 like all  
disciples1  to think that their master  
has said the last word on his own       
subject1  so have opponents of          

,froebelian doctrines1 irritated perhaps
 by these  pretensions1 made direct     
attacks on somewhat insufficient        
grounds4 ,in a  later chapter1 an       
attempt has been made to deal with what 
seems unfounded  in such attacks4#b     
,the major part of the book1 however1 is
 intended to show the correctness  of   
,froebel's views on points now regarded 
as of fundamental importance1  and      
generally recognized as modern theories4
 ,for this purpose passages  from       
,froebel's writings are here compared   
with similar passages from such         
undoubted authorities as ,dr4 ,james    
,ward1 ,professor ,stout1 ,professor    
,lloyd  ,morgan1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,macdougall1  
,mr4 ,j4 ,irving ,king1 and others4     
,in the first place1 it should be noted 
that ,froebel was fully aware of  the   
necessity for a psychological basis for 
his educational theories4    ,writing in
 #ahda1 he says3        8,i am firmly   
convinced that all the phenomena of the 
child      world1 those which delight   

us1 as well as those which grieve       
us1 depend upon fixed laws as definite  
as those of the      cosmos1 the        
planetary system and the operations of  
,nature2 it      is therefore possible  
to discover them and examine them4 ,when
      once we know and have assimilated 
these laws1 we shall be able            
powerfully to counteract any retrograde 
and faulty tendencies      in children1 
and to encourage1 at the same time1 all 
that is      good and virtuous40--,l41  
p4 #ia4    ,nor was ,froebel in any     
doubt as to how these laws are to be    
discovered1  and his order of           
investigation is very similar to that   
prescribed by  ,professor ,stout4 ,the  
latter1 though regarding genetic        
psychology as  8the most important and  
most interesting10 considers that it    
should  be preceded by3--#a1 ,a general 
analysis of consciousness1 analytic and 
largely introspective2 #b1 ,an          
investigation of the laws of mental     
process1  8analytic also1 inasmuch as we

 endeavour to ascertain the general laws
 of  mental process by analysis of the  
fully developed mind40    ,froebel1 too1
 regards the analytic as a necessary    
preparation for the  genetic1 and says  
that parents and teachers1 who wish to  
supply the needs  of the child at       
different stages of development3        
8are to consider life firstly through   
looking into      themselves1 into the  
course of their own development1 its    
phenomena and its claims--through the   
retrospection 7,rckblick7      of the   
earliest possible years of their own    
lives1 and also      the introspection  
7,einblick7 of their present lives1 that
      their own experience may furnish a
 key to the problem of the      child's 
condition 7den ,zustand des ,kindes in  
sich zu lsen74      ,secondly1 by the   
deepest possible search into the life of
 the      child1 and into what he must  
necessarily require according to        
his present stage of development40--,p41
 p4 #afh4    ,professor ,stout adds     

later that anthropology and philology   
may ultimately  yield results as        
important as those yielded by           
physiology4 ,froebel could  have no idea
 of the physiological parallel to mental
 process1 but he did  not omit the      
anthropological inquiry1 for in another 
passage he enlarges  his first point1   
declaring that3        8,it is essential
 for parents and teachers1 for the sake 
of      their children1 and that their  
educational efforts may meet      with a
 rich reward1 not only to recall as far 
as possible the      first phenomena1   
the course and conditions of the        
development      of their own lives1 but
 that they should compare this with the 
phenomena1 the course and conditions of 
the development of      the world1 and  
of life in general in ,nature and       
,history1 and      so by degrees raise  
themselves to a knowledge of the general
      as well as of the particular laws 
of life development1 that      the      
guidance of the child may find in these 

laws a higher      and stronger--their  
true foundation1 as well as their surest
      determination40--,p41 p4 #ff4     
,even his detractors generally allow    
that ,froebel had a wonderful insight   
into child-nature1 but this is too often
 spoken of as if it were due to  some   
specialized faculty of intuition1 not   
known to psychology4    ,froebel's      
knowledge of child-nature came to him   
precisely as it comes  to the           
psychologist of the present day1 through
 patient observation of  the doings of  
little children1 and thoughtful         
interpretation of their  possible       
meaning4 ,it is true that he drew his   
conclusions from too  narrow a field1   
but of this he was well aware4 ,in a    
letter to a cousin  thanking her for the
 8comparative account of the various    
manifestations  of children10 which she 
had sent him1 he complains1 and this1 be
 it  remembered1 in #ahdj1 that 8it is a
 subject to which one can rarely get    
even cultivated parents to pay          

attention10 and he adds3        8,i     
would beg of you to collect as many     
observations for me as      you can1    
both things which you yourself have     
observed1 and      also remarks made by 
your ,robert and the other children when
      at play4 ,if you have the time for
 this1 pray do it for the               
furtherance of the cause2 other friends 
are at work for me in      the same     
way40--,l41 p4 #fg4    ,in another      
letter to this cousin he says3          
8,it would delight me greatly if you    
could confide to me what      you       
remember of your feelings1 perceptions1 
and ideas as a      mother greeting the 
new-born life of her infant1 and your   
observations of the first movements of  
its limbs and the      beginning of the 
development of its senses40--,l41 p4    
#aaj4    ,to another friend he writes3  
8,in the interests of the children ,i   
have still another      request to      
make--that you would record in writing  
the most      important facts about each

 separate child4 ,it seems to me most   
necessary for the comprehension1 and for
 the true treatment      of             
child-nature1 that such observations    
should be made public      from time to 
time1 in order that children may become 
better and      better understood in    
their manifestations1 and may therefore 
be more rightly treated1 and that true  
care and observation of                 
unsophisticated childhood may ever      
increase40--,l41 p4 #hi4    ,froebel    
made these requests1 as he made his own 
observations1 as the  result of the     
conviction with which he declares       
himself 8thoroughly  penetrated10       
8that the movements of the young and    
delicate mind of the      child1        
although as yet so small as to be almost
 unnoticeable1      are of the most     
essential consequence to his future     
life40--,p41 p4 #ec4        8,why do we 
observe the child less than the germ of 
a plant8 ,is      it to be supposed that
 in the child1 the capacity to become   

a complete human being is contained less
 than in the acorn      is contained the
 capacity to become a strong1 vigorous  
and      complete oak80--,p41 p4 #fb4   
8,we cannot pass over unmentioned the   
fact1 essential for      the whole life 
of the child1 for the whole course of   
his      development1 that phenomena and
 impressions which seem to us           
insignificant1 and which we generally   
leave unnoticed1 have for      the      
child1 and especially for his inner     
world1 most important      results1     
since the child develops more through   
what seems to      us small and         
imperceptible1 than through what appears
 to us      large and striking '''      
hence--wholly contrary to prevailing    
opinion--nowhere is consideration of    
that which is small and                 
insignificant of more importance than in
 the nursery40--,p41 p4      #abe4      
,professor ,dewey1 one of the few       
important educational writers who do    
justice to ,froebel as a pioneer1 gives 

as a general summary of his  educational
 principles3    8#a4 ,that the primary  
business of school is to train children 
in  co-operative and mutually helpful   
living2 to foster in them the           
consciousness of mutual interdependence1
 and to help them practically in  making
 the adjustments that will carry this   
spirit into overt deeds4    8#b4 ,that  
the primary root of all educative       
activity is in the  instinctive1        
impulsive attitudes and activities of   
the child1 and  not in the presentation 
and application of external material1   
whether  through the ideas of others or 
through the senses2 and that1           
accordingly1  numberless spontaneous    
activities of children1 plays1 games1   
mimic  efforts1 even the apparently     
meaningless motions of                  
infants--exhibitions  previously ignored
 as trivial1 futile1 or even condemned  
as positively  evil--are capable of     
educational use1 nay1 are the           
foundation-stones of  educational       

effort4    8#c4 ,that these individual  
tendencies and activities are organized 
and  directed through the uses made of  
them in keeping up the co-operative     
living already spoken of2 taking        
advantage of them to reproduce on the   
child's plane the typical doings and    
occupations of the larger maturer       
society into which he is finally to go  
forth2 and that it is through           
production and creative use that        
valuable knowledge is secured and       
clinched40#c    ,so little1 however1 are
 these principles understood as         
,froebel's1 that  in the ,pedagogical   
,seminary for ,july1 #aijj1 a paper was 
published on  8,the ,reconstruction of  
the ,kindergarten10 wherein it was      
maintained  that the basis of           
reconstruction must be the child's      
natural instincts4  ,the writer1 ,mr4   
,eby1 had apparently no idea that the   
,kindergarten was  originally based on  
this very foundation4 ,he evidently did 
not know  that ,froebel has given1 in   

his 8,education of ,man10 a very fair   
account  of these instincts1 omitting   
nothing of great importance1 and        
pointing1  at least1 to a better        
principle of classification than that   
adopted by  ,mr4 ,eby4#d ,it is1        
however1 only fair to ,froebel to       
mention that he  himself regarded his   
own account as far from being           
commensurate with  the importance of the
 subject1 for the year following that of
 the  publication of 8,the ,education of
 ,man0 he writes3        8,since these  
spontaneous activities of children have 
not yet      been thoroughly thought out
 from a high point of view1 and         
have not yet been regarded from what ,i 
might almost call their      cosmical   
and anthropological side1 we may from   
day to day      expect some philosopher 
to write a comprehensive book about     
them40--,a41 p4 #gf4    ,the problems   
,froebel endeavoured to solve are       
precisely those which are  absorbing the
 genetic psychologist of the present    

day1 as stated1 for  example1 in ,mr4   
,irving ,king's 8,psychology of ,child  
,development10 viz43  8to examine the   
various forms of the child's activity1  
to get some  insight into the nature of 
the child himself0--8to get at the      
meaning of  child-life in terms of      
itself40    ,every reader of 8,the      
,education of ,man0 will remember how   
,froebel uses his  own boyish           
reminiscences to help others to         
understand childish actions  often      
utterly misunderstood4 ,in his paper on 
8,movement ,plays0 he writes3           
8,in that nurture of childhood which is 
intended to assist      development1 it 
is by no means sufficient to supply     
play-material in proportion merely to   
the stage of development      already   
outwardly manifest4 ,it is at the same  
time of the      utmost importance to   
trace out the inner process of          
development      and to satisfy its     
demands4''' ,in the nurture1            
development1 and      education of the  

child1 and especially in the attempt to 
employ      him1 his own nature1 his own
 life and energy must be the main       
consideration4 ,the knowledge of        
isolated and external phenomena      may
 occasionally be a guide-post pointing  
our direction1 but      it can never be 
a path leading to the specific aim of   
child      culture and education2 for   
the condition of education is none      
other than comprehension of the whole   
nature and essence of      humanity as  
manifested in the child40--,p41 p4 #bci4
    ,just as ,mr4 ,irving ,king1 writing
 in #aijd1 says that we must take as our
  starting-point the child's bodily     
activities1 so did ,froebel too declare1
  that3        8,the present time makes 
upon the educator the wholly            
indispensable requirement--to comprehend
 the earliest activity1      the first  
action of the child40--,p41 p4 #af4     
,to this first action1 ,froebel devotes 
a whole paper1 8,das erste              
,kindesthun10 the opening sentence of   

which contains the words3        8,as   
the new-born child1 like a ripe grain of
 corn1 bears      life within itself    
which will be developed progressively   
and spontaneously1 though in close      
connection with life in      general1 so
 activity and action are the first      
manifestations of      awakening        
child-life40--,p41 p4 #bc4    ,writing  
in #ahdg1 ,froebel says that 8decision1 
zeal1 and perseverance0  must be brought
 to bear upon his plan1 in order that3  
87a7 ,more careful observation of the   
child1 his relationships      and his   
line of development1 may become general 
amongst us2 and      thereby        87b7
 ,a better grounded insight be obtained 
into the child's      being1 mental and 
physical1 and the general collective    
conditions of his life4''' ,deeper      
insight will be gained into      the    
meaning and importance of the child's   
actions and outward                     
manifestations40--,l41 p4 #bdh4    ,this
 quotation is important as showing that 

,froebel was deliberately  looking for  
8a line of development10 that he might  
better understand  8the child's being1  
mental and physical40 ,considering that 
,froebel wrote  between #ahbf and #ahej1
 the important points on which he may be
 said to  have successfully anticipated 
modern psychology are1 his recognition  
that  the mind is what he calls 8a      
tri-unity0 of action1 feeling1 and      
thought2  his treatment of early mental 
activity and his definition of will2 his
  conception of the earliest            
consciousness as an undifferentiated    
whole2  his recognition of the          
importance of action not only in the    
realm of  perception1 but also in that  
of feeling2 and his surprisingly        
complete  account of instinct4 ,such    
anticipations are due to the fact that  
the idea  of development then new to the
 scientific world possessed his very    
soul4        8,humanity1 which lives    
only in its continuous development and  
cultivation1 seems to us dead and       

stationary1 something to be             
modelled over again and again in        
accordance with its present      type4  
,we are ignorant of our own nature and  
the nature of      humanity4'''0--,e41  
p4 #adf4        8,god neither ingrafts  
nor inoculates4 ,he develops the        
most trivial and imperfect things in    
continuously ascending      series and  
in accordance with eternal self-grounded
 and      self-developing laws4 ,and    
,god-likeness is and ought to be man's  
highest aim in thought and deed40--,e41 
p4 #cbh4    ,justice has already been   
done to ,froebel's philosophy by ,dr4   
,john ,angus  ,mac,vannel1 who says in  
his closing paragraph3    8,froebel's   
system has that unmistakable mark of    
greatness about it  that makes it worth 
our faithful effort to understand it1   
and turn  its conclusions to our        
advantage4''' ,his philosophy of        
education taken  as a whole seems1      
perhaps1 the most satisfactory we have  
yet had4 ,one  cannot but believe1      

however1 that the candid reader will at 
times  find conclusions in his writings 
sustained by reasonings1 that are       
inadequately developed and important    
questions by no means satisfactorily    
answered4''' ,on the other hand we must 
not forget that it is insight1  rather  
than exactitude1 that is the life of a  
philosophy2 herein lies the  secret of  
,froebel's lasting influence and        
power40#e          ,,chapter ,,ii       
,,froebel',s ,,analysis ,,of ,,mind     
,it is probably due to the emphasis     
which ,froebel laid upon the careful    
observation and equally careful         
interpretation of the very earliest     
manifestations of mental activity1 that 
his views as to mental analysis         
approach so closely to more modern      
ideas4 ,his psychology cannot possibly  
be dismissed as 8faculty psychology0 in 
which the mind of a child is  regarded  
as a smaller and weaker replica of the  
mind of an adult4 ,the  older           
psychologies1 ,professor ,stout points  

out1 are based chiefly1 if not          
entirely1 on introspection alone1 while 
,froebel1 as we have already seen1      
demanded close observation of children  
in general1 and of 8each separate       
child10 as well as consideration of     
mental development in the race1 in      
addition to introspection4    ,this 8too
 exclusive reliance upon introspection0 
to which ,professor ,stout  refers as   
8the fundamental error0 of the faculty  
psychology1 caused the  older writers to
 infer that just as a child is possessed
 of legs1 arms  and hands1 smaller and  
weaker1 but otherwise apparently the    
same as those  of an adult1 even so did 
he possess mental 8faculties10 such as  
memory  and imagination1 which1 like the
 little legs and arms1 only required    
exercise in order to grow strong4 8,it  
never occurred to them10 writes         
,professor ,stout1 8that the powers of  
understanding1 willing1 imagining1      
etc41 instead of existing at the outset1
 might have arisen as the result  of a  

long series of changes1 each of which   
paved the way for the next40  ,it did   
more than 8occur0 to ,froebel1 it was a 
cardinal point with him4  ,professor    
,stout points out that the idea of      
development is essential  to mental     
science1 and ,froebel was a biologist   
actually studying  development1 before  
he became a psychologist4 ,he came to   
the study of  mind prepared to find just
 such a series of changes4#f ,in        
speaking of  evolution in general1 he   
says3        8,each successive stage of 
development does not exclude the        
preceding1 but takes it up into itself1 
ennobled1 uplifted1                     
perfected40--,p41 p4 #aih4        ,he   
speaks of3        8the master thought1  
the fundamental idea of our time1 that  
is1      the education and development  
of mankind40--,l41 p4 #adi4    ,and in  
his 8,education of ,man10 in a long and 
eloquent passage on the need  for       
continuity of training from the tiniest 
of beginnings1 he says3        8,it is  

highly pernicious and even destructive  
to consider the      stages of human    
development as distinct1 and not as life
 shows      them1 continuous in         
themselves1 in unbroken                 
transitions40--,e41      p4 #bg4    ,the
 analysis of mind which ,froebel        
recognizes1 is the still commonly       
accepted 8tri-partite10 but he never    
fails to refer to this as a unity or  a 
tri-unity4 ,indeed1 his constant harping
 upon this string becomes almost        
wearisome1 in spite of the ingenuity    
with which he continually varies his    
terms4        8,the early phenomenon of 
child-life1 of human existence in       
childhood1 is an activity1 one with     
feeling and perception                  
7,wahrnehmen740--,p41 p4 #bc4           
8,that the nature of man shows itself   
early in the life of      the child1 as 
feeling1 acting and representing1       
thinking and      perceiving1 and that  
in this tri-unity is included the whole 
of      his life utterance and activity1

 we have said repeatedly1 and      it   
lies open for any one to notice40--,p41 
p4 #abb4    ,disguised as ,love1 ,life1 
and ,light1 this trinity is made the    
connection  of man1 on the one side with
 ,nature1 on the other side with ,god4  
,god--who  is ,life1 ,love1 and ,light1 
the ,all--shows ,himself in ,nature1 in 
the  universe as life 7energy71 in      
humanity as love1 and in wisdom or in   
the  spirit as light4 ,energy or life   
man shares with ,nature2 by love he is  
united with humanity2 and by light or   
wisdom he is at one with ,god4    ,for  
his 8gift plays0 ,froebel claims that   
they 8take hold of the child in  the    
tri-unity of his nature03        8,as   
now each of the single plays separately 
considered takes      hold of the child 
early1 in the tri-unity of his nature1  
as      doing1 feeling1 and thinking1 so
 yet more do the employments as      a  
whole40--,p41 p4 #ef4    ,and a forcible
 passage runs3        8,only if the     
child is treated through fostering his  

instinct      for activity in the       
tri-unity of his nature1 as living1     
loving1      and perceiving1 in the     
unity of his life1 only thus can he     
develop as that which he is1 the        
manifold and organized1 but in          
himself single1 whole40--,p41 p4 #ab4   
,this development of the threefold yet  
single nature constitutes  the          
8harmonious development10 reiterated ad 
nauseam and without  explanation1 in    
,kindergarten text-books4 ,it is also   
the key to much that  seems to us       
useless detail as to the toys and games 
of early childhood4  ,the mother is told
 that3        8,it is of the highest    
importance for the nurse to consider the
      earliest and slightest traces of  
the organization 7,gliederung7          
within itself of the child's mind as    
bodily1 emotional and      intellectual1
 that in his development from mere      
existence      to perception and        
thought1 none of these directions of his
      nature should be fostered at the  

expense of the other ''' the      real  
foundation1 the starting-point of human 
development is      the heart and the   
emotions1 but cultivation of action and 
thought 7die ,ausbildung zur ,that und  
zum ,denken7 must go side      by side  
with it1 constantly and inseparably3 and
 thought must      form itself into     
action1 and action resolve and clear    
itself      into thought2 but both have 
their roots in the emotional            
nature40#g--,p41 p4 #db4    ,the first  
part of the following quotation from a  
letter written in  #ahea towards the    
close of ,froebel's life might almost be
 taken from a  text-book of the present 
day3        8,we find also three        
attitudes1 spheres of work1 and regions 
of      mind in man3        87#a7 the   
region of the soul1 the heart1 ,feeling2
        87#b7 the region of the mind1   
the head1 ,intellect2        87#c7 the  
region of the active life1 the putting  
forth to actual      deed1 ,will4       
8,as mental attitudes these three       

divisions seem the wider apart      the 
more we contemplate them2 as spheres of 
work and regions      of mind they seem 
quite separate and perfect opposites4   
,but      the highest and most absolute 
opposition is that which most           
needs1 and necessitates reconciliation2 
complete opposites      condition their 
uniting link4 ,the need for the uniting 
link      appears in almost every       
circumstance of life4''' ,to satisfy    
that      need is the most imperative   
need now set before the human      race1
 ''' you will realize that the          
strengthening of character      which we
 all agree to be a necessity of the age1
 is to be      gained not only by       
stimulating and elevating the soul and  
the emotions1 but by raising the whole  
mind1 by training the      intellect and
 the will4''' ,then the heart would     
acknowledge and      esteem the         
intellectual power1 just as the         
intellect already      recognizes       
feeling as that which gives true warmth 

to our      lives2 and life as a whole  
would make manifest the soul which      
quickens existence1 and gives it a      
meaning1 as well as the      intellect  
which gives it precision and culture4   
,intellect1      feeling and will would 
then unite1 a many-sided power1      to 
build up and constitute our life4 ,in   
the room of the      unstable character 
which must result from the mere         
cultivation      of the one department  
of emotion2 in the room of the doubt1   
or1 ,i might say empty negation1 which  
too often proceeds from      the mere   
cultivation of the intellect2 in the    
room of the      materialism1 animalism1
 and sensuality which must come from the
      mere attention to the body1 and   
physical side of our nature2      we    
should then have the harmonious         
development of every side      of our   
nature alike1 we should then be able to 
build up a life      which would be     
everywhere in touch with ,god1 with     
physical      nature1 with humanity at  

large40--,l41 p4 #cjj4    ,in his       
article in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1
 ,dr4 ,ward says1 that  in taking up the
 question of what we exactly mean by    
thinking1 8we  are really passing one of
 the hardest and fastest lines of the   
old  psychology--that between sense and 
understanding4 ,so long as it was the   
fashion to assume a multiplicity of     
faculties the need was less felt for  a 
clear exposition of their connection4 ,a
 man had senses and intellect  much as  
he had eyes and ears2 the heterogeneity 
in the one case was no  more puzzling   
than in the other40    ,in this         
connection it can again be shown that   
,froebel was in advance of  the old     
psychologists4 ,in the first of the two 
games in the ,mother-,play  book dealing
 with sense-training--two out of        
forty-nine1 the remainder  dealing      
chiefly with action--he makes it very   
clear that he draws no hard  and fast   
line between sense and understanding4   
,he tells the mother that  ,nature      

speaks to the child through the senses1 
which act as gateways to  the world     
within1 but that light comes from the   
mind3        8,durch die ,sinne1        
schliesst sich auf des ,innern ,thor    
,doch der ,geist ist's der dies zieht   
ans ,licht hervor40    ,and when he says
 that the baby in the cradle should not 
be left  unoccupied if it wakes1 he uses
 a pronoun in the singular in referring 
to  8the activity of sense and mind40   
,he suggests hanging a cage containing a
  lively bird in the child's line of    
vision and adds3        8,this attracts 
the activity of the child's senses and  
mind and      gives it nourishment in   
many ways40#h--;,e41 p4 #di4    ,the    
faculty psychology and the formal       
discipline theory that came from  it1   
says ,professor ,horne1 did not admit   
the possibility of training one         
faculty1 e4g4 perception1 by training   
another1 e4g4 reason1 8it was not  the  
mind that was trained1 but its          
faculties40    ,it is1 however1 of the  

merest infant that ,froebel uses such   
expressions  as 8the awakening power of 
thought10 8the tenderest growth of      
mind10  and tells the mother that he    
8shows trace of thought1 and can draw   
conclusions40 ,the ball is given to the 
baby to help him 8to find himself  in   
the midst of his perceptive1 operative1 
and his comparing 7thinking7            
activity40#i--,p41 p4 #ee4 ,long years  
before this he had written of the       
teaching of drawing1 8this instruction  
addresses itself to the senses1  and    
through them to the power of            
thought40--,e41 p4 #bid4        8,he who
 does not perceive traces of the future 
development of      the child1 who does 
not foster these with self-consciousness
      and wisdom1 when they lie hidden  
in the depths and in the      night1    
will not see them clearly1 will not     
nourish them      suitably1 at least1   
not sufficiently1 when they lie open    
before      him40--,p41 p4 #eh4         
,instead of ready-made faculties        

,froebel recognizes possibilities1      
conditions1 which will remain           
possibilities if the necessary stimulus 
is  not forthcoming1 for in noting how  
the mother talks to her infant1 though  
she is obliged to confess that there can
 be no understanding of her  words1 he  
says the mother's instinctive action is 
right3        8for that which will one  
day develop1 and which must originate1  
begins and must begin when as yet       
nothing exists but the      conditions1 
the possibility40--,p41 p4 #dj4         
,elsewhere he asks3        8,is it to be
 supposed that in the child the capacity
 for      becoming a complete human     
being is contained less than in the     
acorn is contained the capacity to      
become a strong1 vigorous      and      
complete oak80--,p41 p4 #fb4    ,and he 
speaks of how the mother appeals to the 
infant as        8understanding1        
perceptive and capable1 for where there 
is not      the germ of something1 that 
something can never be called forth     

and appear40--,p41 p4 #ca4    ,it is    
true that in the same passage in which  
he speaks of 8the tenderest  growth of  
mind10 he does speak of mental powers   
7,geisteskrfte71  as indeed every one   
does1 but a few lines above he has      
spoken of  8the cultivation of the      
mental power of the child in different  
directions40#aj ,besides1 the mental    
powers to which he here alludes1 and    
which are to be awakened and fostered in
 the infant1 are the powers 8to         
compare1 to infer1 to judge1 to         
think40--,p41 p4 #eg4 ,here1 too1       
,froebel  gives a description of what he
 means by memory1 and it is clearly not 
a  separate faculty considered apart    
from another faculty1 viz4 imagination3 
8,the plays carried on with the ball    
awaken and exercise the      power of   
the child's mind to place again before  
himself      mentally a vanished object1
 to see it mentally even when the       
outer perception is gone2 these games   
awaken and practise the      power of   

re-presenting1 of remembering1 of       
holding fast in      remembrance an     
object formerly present1 of again       
thinking of      it2 that is1 they      
foster the memory40--,p41 p4 #eg4    ,so
 even the infant is to think1 and the   
progress is well described in the       
,mother ,plays as        8from          
experience of a thing1 joined with      
thought about it1 up      to pure       
thought40--,m41 p4 #aba4    ,in a       
lecture#aa given many years ago1 ,dr4   
,ward sought to drive home to  teachers 
the futility of this hard and fast line 
between sense training  and training to 
think4 ,and there are some interesting  
parallels between  ,dr4 ,ward's         
metaphors here and ,froebel's writing in
 8,the ,education of  ,man40 ,dr4 ,ward 
said3    8,training of the senses1 as it
 is not very happily called1 is1 if it  
is anything1 so much intellectual       
exercise4''' ,and nothing can be more   
absurd than to suppose it is not        
necessary4''' ,by a judicious training  

in  observation you begin to make a     
child think when it is five years       
old4'''  ,if a child is to think to any 
purpose1 he must think as he goes on2 as
  soon as the material he has gathered  
begins to oppress him he must think  it 
into shape1 or it will tend to smother  
intellectual life at its dawn1  as a bee
 is drowned in its own honey1 for want  
of cells in which to store  it40    ,it 
is in describing how the little child   
collects pebbles1 twigs1 leaves1  etc41 
that ,froebel writes3        8,the child
 loves all things that enter his small  
horizon and      extend his little      
world4 ,to him the least thing is a new 
discovery2 but it must not come dead    
into the little world1 nor      lie dead
 therein1 lest it obscure the small     
horizon and crush      the little       
world4''' ,it is the longing for        
interpretation that      urges the child
 to appeal to us ''' the intense desire 
for this      that urges him to bring   
his treasures to us and lay them in our 

laps40--,e41 p4 #gc4    ,the help we are
 told to give at first is merely to     
supply the child with  a name1 for      
8through the name the form is retained  
in memory and defined  in thought40     
,later the mother is told to provide    
8encouragement and help1  that the child
 may weave into a whole what he has     
found scattered and  parted40 ,as a type
 of the help considered necessary we    
have3        8#8,mother1 are the pigeons
 and hens birds1 for the pigeons live   
in pigeon-houses and the chickens don't 
fly8' #8,have they no      feathers1    
child2 have they no wings8 ,haven't they
 two legs like      all birds8' #8,are  
the bees and butterflies and beetles    
birds1      too3 for they have wings and
 fly much higher4'''' #8,look1 they     
have no feathers1 they build no         
nests4'0--,m41 p4 #ef4    ,in another   
passage ,froebel calls it not only      
advisable but necessary  that the       
parents1 without being pedantic or      
over-anxious1 should connect  the       

child's doings with language1 because   
this 8increases knowledge1  and awakens 
that judgment and reflection 7die       
,urtheilskraft und das  ,nachdenken71 to
 which man1 left to ,nature1 does not   
attain sufficiently  early40--,e41 p4   
#gi4    ,giving names1 and helping in   
classification is surely a sufficient   
parallel to ,dr4 ,ward's 8thinking the  
material into shape10 and just as  the  
latter says that by such training you   
can 8make a child think0 when  it is    
five years old1 so ,froebel in his      
chapter on 8,man in ,earliest           
,childhood0 makes his ideal father 8sum 
up his rule of conduct in a few  words10
 declaring that3 8,to lead children     
early to think1 this ,i consider  the   
first and foremost object of            
child-training40--,e41 p4 #hg4          
,froebel's theories1 then1 cannot be    
dismissed as based on 8faculty          
psychology10 since it seems clear that  
wherever he found them his views  on    
mental analysis were very similar to    

those now generally accepted4  ,it is   
more remarkable1 however1 that he should
 have modern views about  ,conation and 
,will4          ,,chapter ,,iii         
,,will ,,and ,,its ,,early              
,,manifestations      ,it is open to    
doubt whether any modern psychologist   
has yet given a  better definition of   
fully developed ,will than that given by
 ,froebel  eighty-seven years ago3      
8,will is the mental activity of man    
ever consciously proceeding      from a 
definite point1 in a definite direction1
 to a definite      conscious end and   
aim1 in harmony with the whole nature of
      humanity40--,e41 p4 #if4    ,with 
this definition compare what ,professor 
,stout has to say3    8,in its most     
complex developments1 mental activity   
takes the form of  self-conscious and   
deliberate volition1 in which the       
starting-point is  the idea of an end to
 be attained1 and the desire to attain  
it2 and the  goal is the realization of 
this end1 by the production of a long   

series  of changes in the external world
 ''' it belongs to the essence of will1 
not  merely to be directed towards an   
end1 but to ideally anticipate this and 
consciously aim at it40#ab    ,between  
these two definitions the difference is 
in the omission in  ,froebel's          
definition of any mention of desire1 and
 this is supplied a  little later1 when1
 having stated that 8by school here is  
meant neither  the schoolroom1 nor      
school-keeping1 but the conscious       
communication of  knowledge for a       
definite purpose1 and in definite       
connection10 he ends up  with3          
8,by this knowledge1 instruction and the
 school are to lead man      from desire
 to will1 from activity of will to      
firmness of      will1 and thus         
continually advancing1 to the attainment
 of his      destiny1 of his earthly    
perfection40--,e41 p4 #aci4    ,now     
,professor ,stout's whole psychology is 
founded on his conception of  mental    
activity4 ,towards the end of his second

 volume he says3 8,the  reader is       
already familiar with my general        
doctrine4 ,it has pervaded  the whole   
treatment of psychological topics in    
this work4 ,the aim of  the present     
chapter is to present it in a more      
systematic form1 and to  guard it       
against objections4 ,our starting-point 
lies in the conception of  mental       
activity as the direction of mental     
process towards an end40    ,it is      
distinctly significant1 therefore1 to   
find how closely ,froebel's  ideas on   
the subject resemble ,professor ,stout's
 conception of mental  activity4        
8,conscious process10 writes ,professor 
,stout1 8is in every moment directed    
towards an end1 whether this end be     
distinctly or vaguely recognized by  the
 conscious subject1 or not recognized at
 all40    ,froebel writes3        8,in  
all activity1 in every deed of man1 even
 as a child1      yes the very smallest1
 an aim is expressed1 a reference to    
something1 to the furthering or         

representing of something2 '''      thus
 the child strives1 even if             
unconsciously1 to make his      inner   
life objective1 and through that        
perceptible1 that so he      may become 
conscious of it40--,p41 pp4 #bcg-bdj4   
,the same idea1 that conscious process  
is directed to an end1 though there  may
 be no consciousness of that end1 is    
given in another passage1 where         
,froebel is speaking of the need for    
satisfying a child's normal desire  for 
playthings4        8,very often the     
child seeks for something1 nevertheless 
he      himself does not know at all    
what he seeks2 at another time he       
puts something away from him and again  
knows not why40--,p41 p4      #afh4     
,of the earliest mental activity        
,professor ,stout writes3    8,in its   
earliest and simplest form1 mental      
activity consists in those  simple      
reactions which without being determined
 by any definite idea of  an end to be  
realized1 tend on the whole to the      

maintenance of immediate  pleasure and  
the avoidance of immediate pain40       
,the movements of the organism at this  
earliest stage 8seem primarily  adapted 
to the conservation and furtherance of  
vital process in  general40#ac          
,froebel speaks of the child's efforts3 
8to put far from him that which is      
opposed to the needs of his      life   
and yet would break in upon it40--,p41  
p4 #afg4    ,he tells the mother that1  
in the first stages at least1 the       
restlessness  and tears of the infant   
will warn her of the presence of        
anything in his  surroundings hurtful to
 his development1 while his laughter and
 movements  of pleasure will show 8what 
according to the feeling of the child is
  suited to the undisturbed development 
of his life as an immature human        
being40    ,mr4 ,stout goes on to say   
that such simple reactions are adapted  
8secondarily and by way of necessary    
corollary to the conservation and       
furtherance of conscious life40 ,he     

tells us that3 8,the primary craving    
with which the education of the senses  
begins1 so far as it does not  involve  
such practical needs as that of food1   
may be described as a  general craving  
for stimulation or excitement ''' this  
conation being in  the first instance in
 the highest degree indeterminate40     
,froebel1 who speaks of the nurse       
8soothing the restless child vaguely    
striving for definite and satisfactory  
outward activity10 tells us that3       
8if his bodily needs are satisfied and  
he feels himself well      and strong1  
the first spontaneous employment of the 
child is      spontaneous taking in     
7selbstthtiges ,aufnehmen7 of the outer 
world40--,p41 p4 #bi4    ,he writes to  
,madame ,schmidt1 the cousin for whose  
assistance he has  begged in observing  
children3        8,this spontaneous     
activity of limb and vividness of       
sensation      natural to infancy1 and  
,i may say inseparable from it1 must    
also be carefully studied40--,l41 p4    

#aaj4    ,and1 in the ,mother ,songs1 he
 says3        8,you can see how his     
bodily activity1 the movement and use of
      his limbs1 like the activity of   
his senses1 all turn towards      one   
point3 ,life must be grasped1           
experienced and perceived '''      he   
wants to appropriate the outer and to   
re-embody it ''' his      susceptibility
 for all that gives and takes up life   
will strike      you as something that  
elevates his life in every way2 even    
as young plants and animals are         
susceptible to the faintest             
workings of light and warmth1 or the    
impressions of their      environment1  
however delicate4 ,moreover1 this       
receptivity      is most closely related
 to great general excitability and      
sensibility 7,erregbarkeit1             
,reizbarkeit740--,m41 pp4 #aai-aba4     
,froebel's views as to the nature both  
of early and of later mental  activity  
then bear a strong resemblance to the   
modern view as stated by  ,professor    

,stout4#ad    ,in searching ,froebel's  
writings to find what he has to say     
about the  stages lying between early   
mental activity and fully developed     
will1  between what he calls 8natural   
activity of the will1 and true genuine  
firmness of will10 it soon becomes clear
 that it is impossible to  separate what
 is said about will development1 from   
what is said about  intellectual        
development4#ae ,this is a natural      
consequence of ,froebel's  constant     
insistence on the unity of              
consciousness1 and it is the position   
of modern psychology1 whether written   
from the analytic or the genetic  point 
of view4 ,mr4 ,irving ,king writes3     
8,the functional point of view          
emphasizes first of all the intimate    
inter-relation of all forms of  mental  
activity and the impossibility of       
describing any one aspect  of           
consciousness except with reference to  
consciousness as a whole40  ,professor  
,stout1 in his 8,analytic ,psychology10 

has a section entitled  8,conation and  
,cognition developed                    
co-incidentally10#af while ,froebel     
says3        8,thought must form itself 
in action1 and action resolve and       
clear itself in thought40--,p41 p4 #db4 
,froebel speaks of his projected        
institution at ,helba as 8fundamental10 
8inasmuch as in training and instruction
 it will rest on the      foundation    
from which proceed all genuine knowledge
 and all      genuine practical         
attainments2 it will rest on life itself
      and on creative efforts1 on the   
union and interdependence of      doing 
and thinking1 representation and        
knowledge1 art and      science4 ,the   
institution will base its work on the   
pupil's      personal efforts in work   
and expression1 making these1 again1    
the foundation of all genuine knowledge 
and culture4 ,joined      with          
thoughtfulness1 these efforts become a  
direct medium of      culture40--,e41 p4
 #ch4    ,professor ,stout's account of 

how the unconscious mental activity of  
early  childhood becomes transformed    
into the definite and conscious activity
 of  fully developed will is1 stated    
briefly1 something to this effect4 ,it  
is  of the essence of conation to seek  
its own satisfaction1 and this is only  
possible as the conation becomes        
definite4 8,blind craving gives place to
  open-eyed desire10 as the original    
conation tends to define itself4 ,so    
8the gradual acquisition of knowledge   
through experience is but another       
expression for the process whereby the  
originally blind craving becomes  more  
distinct and more differentiated40 ,the 
grouping of cognitions is not  produced 
by the conscious needs3 8,it is the way 
in which the conation  itself grows and 
develops40    ,for this account we can  
find a wonderfully exact parallel in one
 of  ,froebel's less well-known papers1 
that on 8,movement ,plays40        8,all
 outer activity of the child has its    
ultimate and      distinctive foundation

 in his inmost nature and life4         
,the deepest craving of this inner      
activity is to behold      itself       
mirrored in some outward object4 ,in and
 through such      representation1 the  
child himself grasps and perceives the  
nature1 direction and aim of his own    
activity1 and learns      also further  
to regulate and determine his life1 that
 is his      activity1 according to     
these outward phenomena40--,p41 p4 #bch4
    ,this craving for outward           
representation1 by satisfaction of which
 the  child gains knowledge of the ends 
of his activity1 is an exact equivalent 
of ,stout's blind craving which gives   
place to open-eyed desire as  it tends  
to define itself4 ,froebel's conclusion1
 that only as this  unconscious or blind
 craving for action is satisfied does   
the child  become 8conscious of the     
nature1 direction and ends of his own   
activity10  is but another way of       
stating ,professor ,stout's conclusion1 
that the  grouping of cognitions1 which 

is the gradual acquirement of knowledge 
through experience1 is 8the way in which
 the conation itself grows and          
develops40 ,so1 cognition and conation  
are developed simultaneously1 or1  to   
repeat ,froebel's own phrase1 8,thought 
forms itself in action1 and  action     
resolves and clears itself in thought40 
,professor ,stout goes on to say that in
 this defining process one conation     
springs out of another1 whereby as one  
conation is satisfied and so comes  to  
an end1 another becomes in its turn the 
end of activity4 ,he takes as           
illustration the child learning to walk1
 saying1 8,the mental attitude of  the  
child learning to walk is one of        
conscious endeavour4 ,when he has       
become habituated to the act1 he        
performs it without attending to his    
movements1 his mind being fixed on the  
attainment of other ends40 ,froebel     
proceeds in the same way1 using the very
 same example4 ,he has already  said    
that at first the child3        8cares  

for the use of his body1 his senses and 
limbs1 merely      for the sake of their
 use and practice1 but not for the sake 
of      the results of this use4 ,he is 
wholly indifferent to this2 or1         
rather1 he has as yet no idea whatever  
of this40--,p41 p4 #dh4    ,now1 in the 
paper on movement1 he goes on3          
8,each sure and independent movement    
gives the child pleasure1      because  
of the feeling of power which it arouses
 in him4      ,even simple walking      
produces this effect1 for it gives the  
child a threefold feeling1 a threefold  
consciousness3 ,first1      the         
consciousness that he moves himself2    
secondly1 that he      moves himself    
from one place to another2 third1 that  
through      this movement he attains or
 reaches something4''' ,it is a         
well-established fact that his first    
walking gives the child      pleasure as
 an expression of his power4 ,to this   
pleasure1      however1 are soon added  
the two joy-bringing perceptions of     

coming to something1 and of being able  
to attain something4      ,these several
 perceptions should all be fostered at  
the same      time ''' he should get his
 limbs1 and indeed his whole body1      
into his own power4 ,he should learn to 
use his bodily strength      and the    
activity of his limbs for definite      
purposes4''' ,the      effort to reach a
 particular object may have its source  
in the      child's desire to hold      
himself firm and upright by it1 but we  
also observe that it gives him pleasure 
to be actually near      the object1 to 
touch it1 to feel it1 to grasp it1 and  
perhaps      also--which is a new phase 
of activity--to be able to move it4     
,hence we see that the child when he has
 reached the desired      object1 hops  
up and down before it1 and beats on it  
with his      little arms and hands1 in 
order1 as it were1 to assure himself    
of the reality of the object and to     
notice its qualities4 ,it is      well1 
while the child is making these         

experiments1 to name      the object and
 its parts4 ,the object of giving these 
names is      not primarily the         
development of the child's power of     
speech1      but to assist his          
comprehension of the object1 its parts  
and      its properties1 by defining his
 sense-impressions40--,p41 p4      #bda4
    ,another passage runs3        8,the 
present effort of mankind is an         
endeavour after freer                   
self-development4''' ,therefore the more
 or less clear aim of the               
individual is to attain to clearness    
about himself and about      life1 to   
comprehension and right use of life1 to 
both insight      and accomplishment4'''
 ,therefore the educator must understand
 the      earliest activity and         
encourage the impulse to self-culture1  
through independent doing1 observing and
 experimenting40--,p41      p4 #af4     
,to say that a conation tends to define 
itself is only to say that  unconscious 
ends tend to be replaced by conscious   

ends1 and we have  seen that both       
,froebel and ,professor ,stout give     
unconsciousness or  consciousness of the
 end1 as the difference between earlier 
and later  forms of mental activity4    
,professor ,stout's conclusion is that  
8apart  from the perpetual germination  
of one conation out of another1 the     
characteristic features of the mental   
life of human beings would be           
inexplicable40    ,now1 to be conscious 
of one's ends or aims is1 in a certain  
sense1 to be  self-conscious1 so the    
transition from earlier to later forms  
of mental  activity is practically the  
development of self-consciousness4 ,it  
is  interesting1 therefore1 to see that 
just as ,professor ,stout gives as his  
explanation of human life1 the perpetual
 germination of one conation out  of    
another1 so ,froebel gives as his       
explanation1 his meaning of life1 the   
gradual development of                  
self-consciousness4                     
,self-consciousness1 involving true     

volition1 or self-determination1 is to  
,froebel 8the end of man1 for which he  
first was planned40 ,it is1 as he       
constantly put it1 man's 8destination40 
8,to become clearly conscious of all the
 conditions and      relations in which 
and by means of which man exists makes  
man      first become man in            
consciousness and in action40--,p41 p4  
#ab4        8,for man is destined for   
consciousness1 for freedom1 for         
self-determination40--,e41 p4 #acf4     
8,self-consciousness belongs to the     
nature of man1 is one with      it2 to  
become conscious of itself is the first 
task in the life      of the child as a 
human being1 as it is the task of his   
whole      life40--,p41 p4 #dj4    8,who
 amongst us10 exclaims ,professor       
,royce1 8conceives himself in his       
uniqueness except as the remote goal of 
some ideal process of coming  to himself
 and of awakening to the truth about his
 own life8 ,only an  infinite process   
can show me who ,i am40#ag    ,froebel  

never loses sight of this4 ,in his      
,autobiography he tells how  he began   
8unwillingly0 to write something in the 
album of a friend who  was the owner of 
a beautiful farm1 and he concludes3     
8,then my thoughts  grew clear and ,i   
continued1 #8,thou givest man bread2 let
 my aim be to  give man himself4'0 ,that
 he verily believed that the gradual    
development  of self-consciousness is   
the first task in the life of the child 
is  abundantly evident4 ,in the very    
beginning of his ,mother ,songs he tells
  the mother to give her child something
 to push against1 8to bring the  child  
to self-knowledge as soon as possible10 
and at the end he says1  8,when a child 
or human being has found himself and has
 firm hold over  himself1 he is ready to
 walk joyfully through life40    ,in    
8,the ,first ,action of a ,child10      
,froebel writes3        8,the nature of 
man1 as man1 is that he is              
self-conscious1 and      this is stamped
 with distinctness enough to be observed

 in      the quite peculiar character of
 childish activity1#ah in      his      
impulse to busy himself self-actively1  
spontaneously3 an      impulse which    
awakens simultaneously with mind1 and   
which is      in harmony with feeling   
and perception4 ,if this tendency to    
spontaneous activity is fostered1 man's 
triune nature--energy1      emotion and 
intellect--is satisfied40--,p41 p4 #ba4 
,a realization of what ,sir ,oliver     
,lodge calls 8the universal struggle for
  self-manifestation and corporeal      
realization1 which plays so large a part
  in all activity10 underlies all that  
,froebel has to say of the progress     
from unconscious activity to            
self-conscious volition4 ,his view of   
the  ,universe is exactly that          
tentatively suggested by ,professor     
,lodge1 viz4  that something akin to    
this universal struggle 8is exhibited in
 a region  beyond and above what is     
ordinarily conceived of as #8,nature4'  
,the process  of evolution can be       

regarded as the gradual unfolding of the
 ,divine  ,thought or ,logos1 throughout
 the universe1 by the action of ,spirit 
upon  matter40    ,this takes us out of 
the region of psychology1 but ,froebel's
 subject was  not psychology1 per se1   
but child development1 as a part of the 
whole  plan of evolution1 man being the 
most highly developed of creatures4     
,the whole universe is an expression of 
the ,divine1 but man alone can  become  
conscious of his origin4        8,all   
things are destined to reveal ,god in   
their external and      transient       
being4''' ,it is the special destiny of 
man1 as an      intelligent and rational
 being to become conscious of his       
divine essence and to render this       
active1 to reveal it in his      life1  
with self-determination and             
freedom40--,e41 p4 #b4    8,made in the 
image of ,god10 meant to ,froebel       
self-conscious and  self-determined4    
,the relation of man to ,god is         
expressed by ,froebel as  the relation  

of the thought to the thinker 8could the
 thought but become  conscious of       
itself40 ,in a letter of #ahdc1 he says3
        8,at the basis of the           
,kindergarten lies an idea which serves 
alike for all the interstellar spaces1  
for all systems of the      sun2 the    
fulfilment of the divine will and the   
manifestation      of the same4 ,in     
order to become such a manifestation    
of the divine1 man has first to attain  
the basis of      self-consciousness2 to
 which end serves the early culture of  
the spirit of humanity in the world of  
childhood40--,l41 p4      #acc4    ,in a
 paper entitled 8,a ,second ,review of  
the ,plays10 which really deals  chiefly
 with evolution1 we read3        8,we   
must see clearly the conditions of      
development in ,nature      and then    
employ them in life4 ,thus only can we  
raise man upon      his own plane1 that 
is1 the spiritual plane1 at least to    
such a      degree of perfection as is  
shown on their plane by the types of    

,nature4        8,man--the              
all-surveying--must develop himself by  
gradual growth      of consciousness1   
must raise himself eventually to clear  
consciousness of the foundation1        
conditions and goal of his              
life40--,p41 p4 #aih4    ,it was as     
clear to ,froebel as to ,professor      
,lloyd ,morgan that the lower  animals  
are kept from reaching                  
self-consciousness by the definiteness  
of their instincts1#ai but to ,froebel  
as to ,browning 8in completed ,man      
begins anew a tendency to ,god40 ,like  
,browning again1 ,froebel finds that    
man has 8somewhat to cast off1 somewhat 
to become10 he1 too1 8finds  ,progress  
man's distinctive mark alone1 not       
,god's1 and not the beasts'2  ,god is1  
they are1 man partly is1 and wholly     
hopes to be40        8,man in his first 
period of life on earth is to be        
regarded      while a child in three    
separate relations1 which are united in 
themselves4        87a7 ,as a child of  

,nature1 that is according to his       
earthly and natural conditions and      
connections1 and in this      relation  
bound1 chained1 unconscious1 subject to 
impulses      7als ein gebundenes1      
gefesseltes1 unbewusstes1 den ,trieben  
unterworfenes74        87b7 ,as a child 
of ,god1 and in this relation as a free 
being1      destined to                 
self-consciousness4        87c7 ,as a   
child of ,humanity1 and in this         
relation1 as      a being struggling    
from bondage toward freedom1 toward     
consciousness40--,p41 p4 #aa4    ,and   
the beginning of all he finds in 8,the  
,first ,action of the ,child40 ,in  the 
paper to which he gives this title      
,froebel writes3        8,helplessness  
and personal will1 a mind of one's own1 
soon      become therefore the          
turning-points of child-life1 the       
fulcrum      of which is free           
spontaneous activity1                   
self-employment40--,p41      p4 #bg4    
,it is because ,froebel believes this1  

that we hear so much of creative        
activity4 ,consciousness1 which         
,meredith calls 8the great result of    
mortal  suffering10 is the outcome of   
all the unconscious striving4           
8,the child1 although unconsciously1    
strives to make his life      outwardly 
objective1 and thus perceptible and so  
to become      conscious of it40--,p41  
p4 #bdj4        8,man only comes to the 
power of self-examination and           
self-knowledge in any relation whatever 
with the greatest      difficulty1 and  
must first learn to study himself ''' in
 the      mirror of ,nature and of all  
creation40--,l41 p4 #eg4        8,the   
child must perceive and grasp his own   
life in an objective      manifestation 
before he can perceive and grasp it in  
himself4      ,such mirroring of the    
inner life1 such making of the inner    
life      objective1 is essential1 for  
through it1 the child comes to          
self-consciousness and learns to order1 
determine and master                    

himself40--,p41 p4 #bch4    ,froebel    
realizes then1 that true volition is the
 outcome of unconscious  striving1 that 
it can only come through action1 and1   
what is most  important1 through action 
which is the outcome of feeling1 8worthy
 his  effort40 ,so1 while stating that  
the formation of 8a pure1 strong and    
enduring will0 is the main object of    
education1 he takes care to point  out  
that unless the boy is allowed to carry 
out in action 8that which is  within10  
ideas which have appealed to him1 and   
which he has already made  his own1 that
 main object will not be easily         
attainable4        8,to raise activity  
of will to firmness of will1 and so to  
arouse1 and form a pure1 strong and     
enduring will1 for the                  
representation of a characteristic      
humanity1 is the chief aim1      the    
main object of the school4''' ,the      
starting-point of all      mental       
activity in the boy should be energetic 
and healthy1      the direction should  

be simple and definite1 the aim certain 
and conscious1 and worthy of his effort4
 ,therefore to raise      the natural   
activity of the will to true genuine    
firmness of      will1 all the boy's    
activities should have reference to the 
development and accomplishment of what  
is within him4 ,activity      of will   
proceeds from activity of the feelings1 
and firmness      of will from firmness 
of the feelings1 and where the first is 
lacking1 the second will be difficult of
 attainment40--,e41 p4      #if4        
,,chapter ,,iv    ,,characteristics ,,of
 ,,the ,,earliest ,,consciousness       
,it is in the emphasis he lays upon the 
mental activity of the child from  the  
very first1 that ,froebel approaches so 
closely to the position of the  modern  
psychologist1 and in his account of the 
earliest consciousness he  distinctly   
resembles ,professors ,ward and ,stout4 
,only to 8some of our most distinguished
 modern psychologists0 does  ,professor 
,stout attribute a strong disposition to

 recognize in the  elementary processes 
of perception and association1 the      
rudimentary  presence of these mental   
operations which in their higher form we
 call  reasoning and constructive       
imagination4    ,now ,froebel writes3   
8,one can recognize and watch1 even in  
the first stages of      childhood1     
though only in their slightest traces   
and tenderest      germs1 all the mental
 activities which certainly do not stand
      out prominently till later life4  
,say not1 ye parents1 ,how can      such
 tendencies lie already in the life of  
the child still so      unconscious and 
so helpless8 ,if they did not lie in it 
they      could never be developed from 
it ''' for where there is not      the  
germ of something1 this something will  
never be called      forth and          
appear4''' ,as man is a being intended  
for increasing      self-consciousness1 
so shall he also become an inferring and
      judging being 7schliessendes und  
urtheilendes74 ,man has also a          

quite characteristic power of           
imagination1 and--what must never       
be forgotten1 but continually kept      
before the eyes as important      and   
guiding--the new-born child not only    
will become man1 but      the man with  
all his qualities1 and with the unity of
 his      being1 already appears and    
indeed is in the child40--,p41 pp4      
#cj-di4    ,psychologists in general1   
says ,professor ,stout1 show a tendency1
 which he  regards as erroneous1 8to    
ignore the constructive aspect of early 
mental  process1 to recognize mental    
productiveness only in complete and     
advanced  stages of mental development40
    ,but ,froebel1 in speaking of the   
mother's play with a mere infant1 when  
the coloured ball may present 8the      
perception of an object as such10 most  
distinctly states that the child's      
8first impressions1 as it were the      
first cognitions10 come to him in these 
early plays by means of his own         
activity1 an activity of body           

emphatically1 as we shall see presently1
  but an activity also of mind1 of      
perception1 8durch ,wahrnehmen ''' durch
  dunkles ,auffassen ''' durch          
,selbst-thtigkeit40#bj    ,froebel uses 
such expressions as 8the spontaneous    
reception0 and even  8the critical      
reception of the outer world10 just as  
,dr4 ,ward1 in  refusing to recognize an
 internal sense1 says 8the new facts '''
 are due to  our mental activity1 and   
not to a special mode of what has been  
called  our sensitivity40    ,the       
active1 rather than the passive         
attitude1 strikes ,froebel so forcibly  
that he calls the two modes of          
consciousness1 the receiving of1 and    
reacting upon impressions1 a 8double    
expression40        8,the first         
voluntary needs of the child1 if its    
bodily needs      are satisfied and it  
feels well and strong1 are observation  
of its surroundings1 spontaneous        
reception of the outer world            
7selbstthtiges ,aufnehmen der           

,aussenwelt7 and play1 which is         
spontaneous expression1 or acting out of
 what is within4 ,this      double      
expression 7,diese ,doppelusserung7 of  
taking in and      expressing outwardly 
is necessarily grounded in its nature1  
as      in human nature in general2     
since the child's first earthly         
destiny is to attain by critical        
reception 7durch prfende      ,aufnahme7
 of the outer world into itself1 by     
manifold inward      impressions and    
outward expressions of its inner world1 
and      by critical comparison of both1
 to the recognition of their            
unity4'''0--,p41 p4 #bi4    ,professor  
,stout attributes this ignoring by      
certain psychologists of  the           
constructive aspect of early mental     
process to a false view of the  nature  
both of association and of construction1
 the fundamental fallacy  of the        
associationists lying in their          
disposition to explain the nature  and  
existence of a whole by reference to the

 nature and existence of the  parts     
which are contained in it1 so that 8the 
parts must be supposed  to pre-exist    
before they are combined1 and to        
pre-exist in such a way  that they need 
only to be in some manner externally    
brought together or  associated in order
 to constitute the whole which contains 
them40    ,in like manner ,dr4 ,ward    
accuses psychologists of having 8usually
  represented mental advance as         
consisting fundamentally in the         
combination  and recombination of       
various elementary units1 the so-called 
sensations  and primitive movements1 or1
 in other words1 in a species of mental 
chemistry40    ,that ,froebel seems to  
have avoided the error thus pointed out 
by those  two psychologists1 is         
surprising enough1 but it is even more  
surprising  to find that this is        
probably due to the fact that his       
conception of the  earliest possible    
consciousness is very much like theirs4 
,in rejecting 8the atomistic view10     

,professor ,ward maintains that 8the    
further we go back1 the nearer we       
approach to a total presentation1       
having the character of one general     
continuum in which differences are      
latent40    ,froebel's account1 as given
 in 8,the ,education of ,man10 is very  
similar3        8,although in itself    
made up of the same objects and of the  
same      organization1 the external    
world comes to the child at first1      
out of its void1 as it were1 in misty1  
formless indistinctness1      in chaotic
 confusion1 even the child and the outer
 world merge      into one              
another40--,e41 p4 #dj4    ,this        
description reminds us of ,professor    
,james' picturesque expression1  8big1  
blooming1 buzzing confusion10 which is  
so often quoted1 but which  does not    
really convey so true a picture as ,dr4 
,ward's account1 for where  there is no 
distinction there can surely be no      
confusion4 ,but a few pages  further on 
we find ,froebel describing the infant  

consciousness before  speech begins1 as 
8still an unorganized1 undifferentiated 
unity0 7noch  eine ungegliederte        
mannigfaltigkeitslose ,einheit74 ,this  
is identical with  the expression used  
by ,professor ,stout1 who1 in speaking  
of the stage to  which he gives the name
 8implicit apprehension10 the           
apprehension of an  unanalysed whole1   
uses the phrase 8distinctionless unity40
 ,froebel talks  of the child feeling   
himself a whole and 8so also1 though    
unconsciously1  seeking to grasp a      
whole1 never merely a part as such40    
,and just as ,dr4  ,ward claims for     
psychology as well as for biology 8what 
may be called a  principle of           
progressive differentiation or          
specialization10 so ,froebel  writes3   
8,the child mind develops according to  
the law which governs      world        
development1 viz43 that of progression  
from the unlimited      to the limited1 
from the general to the special1 from   
the whole      to the part40--,p41 p4   

#agj4    ,in this1 of course1 lies the  
reason for ,froebel's correct           
apprehension  of the infant mind1 he was
 biologist first1 and his mind was full 
of the  idea of development4        8,at
 the same time there begins in the      
child1 as in the      seed-corn1 a      
development towards complexity40--,p41  
p4 #agb4        8,whether we are looking
 at a seed or an egg1 whether we        
are watching feeling or thought1 what is
 definite proceeds      everywhere from 
what is indefinite and this is the way  
in which      your child's life is sure 
to show itself40--,m41 p4 #aba4         
,professor ,ward goes on to discuss what
 is implied in this process of          
differentiation or mental growth1 saying
 that if analogies are to be  taken from
 the physical world at all1 the growth  
of a seed or embryo1  will furnish far  
better illustrations of the unfolding of
 the contents of  consciousness than the
 building up of molecules4    ,it was   
the endeavour1 and quaint enough it     

seems to us1 to translate this          
psychological truth into educational    
practice1 that led ,froebel to lay so   
much stress on the fact that the        
earliest of his so-called 8,gifts0 are  
indivisible wholes3        8,let us     
place ourselves at the nursery table1   
and try to      perceive what the child 
is impelled to do in the beginning      
of his self-employment4 ,let us sit     
ourselves as unnoticed as      possible 
considering how the child1 after he has 
examined the      self-contained        
tangible object in its form and colour1 
has      moved it here and there and    
proved its solidity1 how he then        
tries to divide it1 at least to change  
its form4''' ,thus after      perception
 of the whole1 the child desires to see 
it separated      into parts4''' ,let us
 stop at this significant phenomenon and
      try to discern through it what    
plaything following on the              
self-contained ball1 hard and soft1 and 
the solid hard cube1 we      should for 

inner reason and without arbitrariness  
give to the      child40--,p41 p4 #aag4 
,then come directions as to the manner  
in which the toy is to be presented3    
8in order to give the child the         
impression of the whole 7den            
,eindrck des ,ganzen74 ,from this as the
 first fundamental      perception 7der 
ersten ,grundanschauung7 everything     
proceeds      and must proceed40#ba     
,starting from the conception of an     
undifferentiated totality or objective  
continuum1 ,dr4 ,ward says1 8,of the    
very beginnings of this continuum we    
can say nothing1 absolute beginnings are
 beyond the pale of science4  ,actual   
presentation consists in this continuum 
being differentiated2  every            
differentiation constitutes a new       
presentation4 ,hence the  common-place  
of psychologists3 #8,we are only        
conscious as we are conscious  of       
change4'0 '''    ,as to absolute        
beginnings1 ,froebel too writes that    
these are past  finding out1 but he does

 so in order to call the mother's       
attention to  the importance of the very
 earliest steps3        8,do not say1   
,it is much too early4''' ,too early8   
,do you know      when1 where and how   
your child's intellectual development   
begins8 ,can you tell when and where is 
the boundary of      existence that has 
not yet begun1 and of its actual        
beginning1      and how this boundary   
manifests itself80--,m41 p4 #aed4       
,coming now to what ,froebel has to say 
as to how his 8unorganized unity0       
becomes differentiated1 we shall not    
find that his brief account differs  in 
any really fundamental way from that of 
,professor ,ward4 ,some of his          
expressions have a very modern sound1   
such as3 8how the outer world  begins to
 divide and analyse itself02 how 8out of
 the indefinite outside  and around the 
child comes the definite02 or again how 
the child gains  8the three great       
perceptions of object1 space and time1  
which at first  were one collective     

perception40 78,die drei grossen        
,wahrnehmungen von  ,gegenstand1 ,raum  
und ,zeit2 welche anfangs in einer      
,gesammtwahrnehmung in  dem ,kinde      
ruhten407--,p41 p4 #cg4    ,commenting  
upon the phrase 8,we are only conscious 
as we are conscious  of change10 ,dr4   
,ward remarks that the word change does 
not sufficiently  explain what happens  
in differentiation1 for this implies    
that the  increased complexity is due to
 the persistence of former changes2     
such persistence being essential to the 
very idea of growth or  development4''' 
,at the same time he is careful to point
 out that neither  in 8retentiveness0   
nor in assimilation is there 8any       
confronting of the  old with the new10  
any 8active comparison40 ,without change
 of impression  consciousness would be a
 blank1 but 8a difference between       
presentations  is not at all the same as
 the presentation of that difference4   
,the former  must precede the latter2   
the latter1 which requires active       

comparison1  need not follow ''' we must
 recognize objects before we can compare
 them40    ,froebel says that3          
8,all the development of the child has  
its foundation in      almost           
imperceptible attainments and           
perceptions ''' the first               
perceptions1 in the beginning almost    
imperceptible and      evanescent1 are  
fixed1 increased and clarified by       
innumerable      repetitions1 and by    
change40--,p41 p4 #ch4    ,froebel1 too1
 goes back to this very earliest stage1 
the stage when a  baby 8begins to       
notice40 ,he says that this indication  
of an intellect  7,seelenaeusserung7    
begins when the child is a few weeks    
old1 and is  occasioned at first by the 
movement1 that is change in position1 of
 a  bright object1 8in and by means of  
the motion the child first perceives    
the object40--,p41 p4 #fd4    ,in       
another passage ,froebel speaks of      
change as 8a dim conception of          
sequence1 and thus of dim comparison40  

8,these first impressions come to the   
child by means of      perception and   
seeing1 and by means of coming1 staying 
and      vanishing 7of the ball72 by    
means of change1 thus also1 in      a   
certain point of view by means of early 
dim conceptions of      sequence1 of    
foundation and result1 of cause and     
effect1 and      thus of dim            
comparison40--,p41 p4 #fe4    ,a change 
or difference which does not imply      
active comparison1 and a  change or     
sequence which does imply dim comparison
 are not very far  apart1 and ,froebel  
makes his meaning clearer still by using
 the words  8unconsciously comparing0   
7unbewusst vergleichend74        8,by   
this play his attention is called to the
 precise shape      of the cube2 and he 
will look at it sharply1 unconsciously  
comparing it with the hand1 to which his
 eyes were first      attracted40--,p41 
p4 #hd4    ,nor does ,froebel omit to   
notice the necessary close connection of
 the new  with the old1 which ,dr4 ,ward

 emphasizes4        8,the child very    
often seeks for something without at all
      knowing what he seeks2 in like    
manner he repels something      without 
at all knowing why4 ,yet the child does 
not for this      reason turn away      
accidentally1 neither does he seek the  
accidental4 ,generally it is the new for
 which the child      seeks1 but not a  
novelty which has no connection with    
what      has hitherto been1 for that1  
should it appear1 would obstruct        
development4 ,he seeks the new which has
 developed from the      old1 like a bud
 from a branch4 ,he seeks a new         
unexpected turn1      a new unexpected  
use of a thing1 new unexpected          
properties1      new and yet            
unconsciously anticipated development1 a
 new      unexpected connection with his
 life4''' ,the child indeed seeks       
for the new that is outside of himself1 
but not on account      of its          
externality4 ,really he is seeking the  
new of which he      feels premonitions 

in himself1 in his own development4     
,since1      however1 he does not yet   
know this1 and so cannot give an        
account of it1 the child seeks          
especially for change1 in      order to 
gain a means of growing up within       
himself1 and of      growing forth      
outwardly from himself4        8,above  
all1 therefore1 it is the old within the
 child which      clarifies1 unfolds and
 transmutes itself1 thus developing that
      which is new4 ,the whole process  
takes place according to a      definite
 law resting in the child himself1 in   
his life1 in life      as such40--,p41  
p4 #afh4    ,we have seen that ,froebel 
draws no hard and fast line between     
sensation  and thought4 ,on more than   
one occasion1 he does refer to something
 less  definite than a perception1 in   
one passage using the word 8,eindrck10  
and in another the term                 
8,vorentwickelung10 translated by ,miss 
,jarvis as  8preliminary impression10 of
 which he says it is 8to be raised      

later1 at  the right time1 by look and  
by word1 to a clear perception40--,p41  
p4 #hf4    ,in 8,the ,education of      
,man10 ,froebel's earlier work1 he deals
 with the  function of language1 8the   
word10 in differentiating 8the misty    
formless  darkness10 the nothing1 the   
mist4        8,at an early period there 
come1 too1 on the part of the           
parents1 corresponding words which at   
first separate the child      from the  
outer world1 but afterwards re-unite    
them4 ,with the      help of these      
words1 these objects present themselves1
 at first      singly and rarely1 but   
later in various combinations and more  
frequently in their self-contained      
definite individuality4 ,at      last   
man--the child--beholds himself as a    
definite individual      object1 wholly 
distinct from all others40--,e41 p4 #dj4
    ,the function of the name1 as       
calling attention to the thing1 seemed  
to  ,froebel of so much consequence1    
that he says1 8the name creates the     

thing  for the child40 ,it is in        
connection with the development of      
speech in  the stage just following on  
infancy that he says3 8,up to this      
stage1 the  inner being of man is still 
an unorganized undifferentiated unity4  
,with  language1 organization sets in40 
8,this period is pre-eminently the      
period of the development      of the   
faculty of speech4 ,therefore it was    
indispensable      that whatever the    
child did should be clearly and         
definitely      designated by the word4 
,every object1 every thing1 became      
such1 as it were only through the word2 
before it had been      named1 although 
the child might have seemed to see it   
with the      outer eyes1 it had no     
existence for him4 ,the name1 as it     
were1      created the thing for the    
child4--,e41 p4 #ij4        8,the object
 of giving names is not primarily the   
development of      the child's power of
 speech1 but to assist his comprehension
      of the object1 its parts and      

properties1 by defining his             
sense-impressions40--,p41 p4 #bdb4      
,professor ,stout also speaks of the    
casual naming of the object1 by those   
around the child as 8a means of fixing  
the attention of the child on the       
object when it would otherwise pass     
unnoticed10 and he guards against the   
misconception that the name at the      
outset is a name for the child4 ,he     
calls it 8merely a special sound        
associated with a special percept in a  
quite casual and indefinite way40       
,froebel1 too1 is careful when he says3 
8,a definite tone is to be connected    
with a definite perception1      and the
 tone when heard again may recall the   
perception40    ,though ,froebel has    
little to say about the separate senses1
 and what  little he has is worthless1  
yet on the other hand he has a great    
deal to  say1 especially in his later   
writings1 about the child's bodily      
activity1  and the experiences and      
perceptions 7,erfahrung-,wahrnehmen7 he 

gains from  it4 ,indeed he makes so much
 of this1 and it is so essentially a    
modern  way of thinking that it has been
 given a chapter to itself4             
,,chapter ,v    ,,how ,,consciousness   
,,is ,,differentiated4--,,the ,,place   
,,of ,,action ,,in ,,the  ,,development 
,,of ,,perception ,,and ,,of ,,feeling  
,once objects have begun to emerge1     
differentiated out of the formless      
indistinctness1 comes what ,froebel     
calls the 8sucking-in stage10 where  the
 child 8makes the external internal40   
,here1 more than anywhere perhaps1      
,froebel shows his genius1 his          
originality as a student of child       
psychology1 in that he perceived that   
this mental sucking-in is not merely a  
matter of sense organs1 but that  it is 
also a muscular performance4    ,who1   
before ,froebel1 understood the         
importance of motor activity from the   
very earliest days1 as a means of       
gaining ideas1 or realized as we now    
begin to do1 that this is the true      

explanation of the 8endless imitation   
which is the child's vocation08    ,in  
speaking of the 8new-born child10 it is 
activity or action which  is again and  
again repeated and emphasized as the    
outstanding  characteristic1 8an        
activity and action devoted to working  
with and  prevailing over the outer40   
8,as rest appears to be the earliest    
requirement of the bodily      life1 so 
movement soon appears as the demand of  
the soul      life40--,p41 p4 #fc4      
,the baby's 8feeble strength0 is to be  
drawn into the game1 where  possible1   
8particularly that he may experience and
 perceive1 directly  through and in his 
own activity0 7durch und in             
,eigenthtigkeit  unmittelbar selbst     
erfahre und wahrnehme74--,p41 p4 #gh4   
,it is 8through spontaneous activity1 as
 well as through the mother's           
instinctive knowledge of his needs0 that
 the child gains 8the first  impressions
 of the soul1 as it were1 the first     
cognitions40    ,out of forty-nine      

,mother ,songs1 two only deal           
specifically with the  senses1 though   
all deal with action1 and ,froebel takes
 care to point out  the close connection
 of sense and movement4        8,limbs  
and senses seem to have very different  
provinces of      activity1 and so they 
have2 yet so deep-seated is their linked
      interchange that neither of them  
fails to react on the other4      ,and  
no ,games for the limbs have presented  
themselves to us1 not      even the     
#8,kicking ,song' which have not also   
made demands upon      the sense of     
sight40--,m41 p4 #afh4        8,the use 
of the body and of the limbs is         
developed      simultaneously and in the
 same proportion as the use of the      
senses1 the order being determined by   
their own nature and the      properties
 of the material world4 ,outer objects  
are near1 or      moving away1 or fixed 
at a distance1 and either invite rest1  
seizure and holding fast1 or invite him 
who would bring them      nearer to move

 towards them40--,e41 p4 #dg4           
,froebel's account of the significance  
of the ceaseless activity of  the young 
child anticipates to a certain extent   
that of ,mr4 ,irving  ,king1 who1 in his
 most interesting 8,psychology of ,child
 ,development10  deals expressly with   
8the functional relation of             
consciousness to  activity40 ,but the   
views of ,professor ,stout as expressed 
in his 8,analytic  ,psychology10 and    
with which ,froebel's writing has       
already been compared1  and those of    
,mr4 ,irving ,king do not appear to     
clash in any way4    ,mr4 ,king begins  
by discussing the 8sort of              
consciousness0 a young child  must have1
 and concludes that it must from the    
very first be a unified  consciousness1 
however vague1 any discreteness being on
 the part of the  object4 ,he also      
states that the consciousness of a human
 being must  differ from that of the    
animal entering life with many          
8ready-made  complexes of adjustment10  

because 8,consciousness is related not  
to  activity1 but to the growth of      
activity40 ,we have just seen that      
,froebel  too insists on a unified      
consciousness1 that he too says that    
8the  external world10 though composed  
always of the same variety of objects1  
8comes to the child as #8an             
undifferentiated unity4'0 ,froebel is   
also  quite sound as to the difference  
between the mental possibilities of the 
animal 8whose instincts1 as they are    
called1 are at birth so definite  and   
strong10 and that of the child 8born in 
the extreme condition of  helplessness10
 by whom 8everything external is to be  
overcome40#bb    ,reflex and instinctive
 acts which the child brings into the   
world  with him1 says ,mr4 ,king1 are   
unconscious1 as are reflex and habitual 
activities to the adult1 but 8the       
checking of a movement must make the    
child more definitely conscious of it   
''' it is no longer mere movement1  but 
movement-stopped-by-something4 ,as soon 

as movement stands out1 as  soon as the 
consciousness of it is interwoven with  
something that is not  movement1 we have
 the basis for indefinite advance40     
,froebel says the same thing in the     
first of the ,mother ,songs1 where  he  
takes as the point of departure for all 
future training this                    
movement-stopped-by-something1 to which 
,mr4 ,king refers as the earliest       
beginning of consciousness4 ,the mother 
is told that when her baby  8strikes out
 with his small arms1 as he kicks with  
his feet10 it is a  challenge1 to which 
she instinctively responds by giving him
 her hand or  her chest1 8against which 
he tramples with alternate feet and so  
measures  and increases his strength40  
,so1 he reaches 8that first             
consciousness of  self1 which is born of
 physical opposition to and connection  
with the  external world40--,p41 p4     
#aga4    ,every one knows that ,froebel 
laid much stress on the necessity for   
what  is usually called 8expression10   

which he called ,darstellung--often     
translated 8representation40 ,one of his
 reasons for this emphasis is1  however1
 by no means always understood1 viz4    
that it 8induces clear  perception40    
,it is in discussing and criticizing    
,professor ,baldwin's description of    
imitation as a circular process1 that   
,mr4 ,irving ,king brings out two       
points of view from which we may regard 
imitation1 that of the observer  and    
that of the so-called imitator4         
,imitation1 he says1 is a term for  the 
observer only1 and not a term for       
psychology at all4 ,baldwin says  that  
8real or persistent imitation is the    
reaction that will reproduce  the       
stimulating impression and so tend to   
perpetuate itself40 ,but as ,mr4  ,king 
shows in the case of the child who      
imitates his mother's poking of  the    
fire1 8the response of the child to the 
copy does not reinstate the  original   
stimulus4''' ,what the child gets is not
 a reproduced stimulus1 but  a new      

experience40    ,in 8,the ,education of 
,man10 written years before his whole   
attention  was given to the young child1
 ,froebel had emphasized the necessity  
for  8representation0 which 8induces and
 implies clear perception40        8,for
 what man tries to represent or do1 that
 he begins to      understand40--,e41 p4
 #gf4    ,as we have seen that ,froebel 
sets before himself the self-same task  
which  ,mr4 ,king states as the business
 of the genetic psychologist1 so it     
should  be no surprise that he gives    
virtually the same answer to the        
question3  ,what do the imitative       
activities mean to the child8    ,mr4   
,king's answer is that the child's      
emphasis is not on the copying of  a    
certain act1 but on the attainment of a 
certain experience that comes  through  
the copying or imitating4 8,the child10 
he says1 8is seldom or  never imitating 
from his own point of view1 but is      
always trying to sort  out some of his  
own ill-organized experiences40         

,froebel's words are3        8,the      
child1 though unconsciously1 strives to 
make his inner      life outwardly      
objective and thus perceptible1 and so  
to become      conscious of it1 to see  
it mirrored in the outward phenomena4   
,it is for this reason that the child   
tries to do himself      whatever he    
sees done40--,p41 p4 #bdj4        8,if  
your child is to understand any action1 
you must let him      carry it out      
himself1 deeply rooted in this fact is  
his prompt      and delighted imitation 
of whatever he finds around him40--,m41 
p4 #af4        8,thought must form      
itself in action1 and action resolve and
      clear itself in thought40--,p41 p4
 #db4    ,every stimulus1 says ,mr4     
,king1 is a suggestion to activity1 and 
it is  interesting to notice how two    
minds working on the same lines1 though 
separated not only by years but by      
difference of language1 can fall into   
almost the same phrases4 ,mr4 ,king     
unconsciously uses almost ,froebel's    

very words when he writes3 8,the sight  
of the object tends to set the  activity
 free40    ,froebel writes3        8,as 
the ball stirs1 moves1 goes1 runs and   
rolls1 the child who      is playing    
with it begins to feel the desire to do 
likewise4'''      ,the smallest child   
moves joyfully1 springs gaily1 hops up  
and      down or beats with his arms    
when he sees a moving object4 ,this     
is not merely delight in the movement of
 the object before him1      but it is  
the working of the inner activity       
wakened in him by      the sight of     
outer activity4 ,through such vision the
 inner      life has been freed40--,p41 
p4 #bci4    ,we have seen that according
 to ,froebel the earliest consciousness 
is a  kind of self-consciousness4 ,mr4  
,irving ,king says that the very        
beginning  of consciousness is          
8movement-stopped-by-something10 and    
,froebel says  that when the baby kicks 
out or tramples with his feet and the   
mother  responds by giving him her hand 

or chest to push against1 the child     
reaches that 8first consciousness of    
self which is born of physical          
opposition to and connection with the   
external world40 ,here again we  come to
 a point in which ,froebel's insight    
shows well in comparison  with a typical
 modern genetic psychologist4 8,many    
writers10 says ,mr4  ,irving ,king1     
8have tried to select out certain kinds 
of activity as  peculiarly connected    
with the development of the infant's    
sense of  self40 ,preyer1 for instance1 
connects this development specially with
  painful sensations2 ,baldwin1 with    
experience associated with people1 as   
contrasted with experience of things4   
,his own conclusion is that 8it  seems  
more correct to say that all the child's
 activities are factors  of very nearly 
equal importance for developing the     
sense of self1 as  distinct from things 
and other people10 and it is this view  
that we find  in ,froebel's writings4   
,even in 8,the ,education of ,man0 we   

find3        8,if man1 in accordance    
with his destiny1 is truly and          
thoroughly to know each thing of the    
surrounding world2 if      with the aid 
of each thing he is truly and thoroughly
 to know      himself4'''0--,e41 p4 #ib4
    ,and among his later writings1 in   
connection with the child's play with   
bricks ,froebel says3        8,true and 
early knowledge of ,nature and of the   
outer world      and especially clear   
self-knowledge come to the child by     
this early dismembering and             
reconstruction and perception      of   
real things1 though not as yet1 by any  
means1 through      verbal designation  
of the various productions of childish  
activity40--,p41 p4 #abc4               
8,self-consciousness10 says ,mr4 ,king1 
8is essentially a relative and  variable
 term for all of us4 ,it stands for a   
process of definition1 that1  strictly  
speaking1 proceeds till maturity1 or    
even later40 ,and ,froebel1  writing    
about how1 through the mother's play    

with a ball1 a child may  gain his      
earliest perceptions of object1 space   
and time1 says that by the  coming and  
going of the ball1 etc41        8there  
goes forth to the child the object1     
recognized as such      by the mind and 
so held fast1 the consciousness of the  
object1      and so consciousness itself
 awakens in the child40    ,and without 
a pause he goes on3                     
8,self-consciousness belongs to the     
nature of man1 and is one      with it4 
,to become conscious of itself is the   
first task in      the life of the      
child1 as it is the task of the whole   
life of      man4 ,that this task may be
 accomplished the child is1 even        
from his first appearance1 surrounded by
 a definite place and      by objects3  
by the air blowing around all living    
creatures1 as      well as by the       
arousing1 human1 spiritual language of  
words4'''      ,thus it is with the     
attainment of man to consciousness and  
the speech required and conditioned by  

that attainment to                      
consciousness40--,p41 p4 #ci4    ,it is 
rather interesting to notice that in her
 translation of this  passage in which  
,froebel declares that                  
self-consciousness comes to  a child as 
a result of all his surroundings1 ,miss 
,jarvis omits the  word 8self40 ,she    
begins her paragraph with               
8,bewusstsein10 instead of              
8,selbstbewusstsein0 as it stands in the
 original4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,king1  8,it  
is generally held that these are two    
distinct attitudes1 that  consciousness 
may exist without an accompanying       
consciousness of the  self as separate  
from the objects1 activities and persons
 of the rest of  the world40 ,probably  
this was ,miss ,jarvis's own view1 and  
she left out  the word 8self0 as having 
no place or meaning in the context4 ,it 
was1  however1 not meaningless to       
,froebel himself4    ,mr4 ,king         
continues3 8,the really important point 
is not to be able  to put the finger    

down on some one thing that proves a    
developed  self-consciousness1 but to be
 able to show at every point that the   
process of definition is a function of  
the growing complexity of the  child's  
activities40 ,and1 in 8,the ,first      
,action of a ,child0 ,froebel writes3   
8,the nature of man as a being intended 
for self-consciousness1      shows      
itself in the quite distinctive nature  
of the child's      activity1 even at   
the end of the so-called three months'  
slumber1 in the totality of the first   
childish action4 ,this      cannot be   
better comprehended than by the         
expression #8to busy      himself' 7sich
 beschftigen7 in the impulse of the     
child--an      impulse awakening        
simultaneously with his inner life--an  
impulse in close union with feeling and 
perception1 to be      active for the   
increasing development of his life3 in  
this      lies the nature of man as a   
being intended to grow towards and      
ultimately to become                    

self-conscious40--,p41 p4 #bb4          
,speaking of his second plaything1      
intended for a child six months old1 he 
says3        8,and so his play1 and     
through his play1 his                   
surroundings--finally ,nature and       
,universe--may become a mirror      of  
himself and of his life4 ,but this      
cannot be too early      facilitated1   
that the child at once1 from the first  
beginning      of his self-developing   
feeling of life1 may grow up in exchange
      and comparison with ,nature and   
life1 and as he impresses his      life 
in form1 and as form on things outside1 
so he may again      perceive his life  
therein40--,p41 p4 #ie4    ,froebel was 
bound to watch for early developments of
 self-consciousness1  because his whole 
philosophy and pedagogy are based on his
 firm belief  that while everything in  
the universe is an expression of the    
,divine1 man  alone is 8destined0 to    
express the ,god within 8with           
self-determination40  ,so1 of the little

 child1 he writes3        8,because the 
child himself begins to represent his   
inner being      outwardly1 he imputes  
the same activity to all about him1 to  
the pebble and chip of wood1 to the     
plant1 the flower1 and      the animal4 
,and thus there is developed in the     
child at this      stage his own life1  
his life with parents and family1 and   
particularly his life in and with       
,nature1 as if this held life      like 
that which he feels within              
himself40--,e41 p4 #ed4    ,as the child
 grows older1 the mother1 ,froebel      
continues1 tries to teach  him to feel  
the complexity of his own body1 8,give  
me your arm10 8,where is  your hand80   
she says1 and she 8playfully leads him  
to a knowledge of the  members which he 
cannot see10 and the passage ends3      
8,the aim of all this is to lead the    
child to      self-consciousness1 to    
reflection about himself in the         
approaching period of boyhood4 ,thus1 a 
boy ten years old1      similarly guided

 by instinct1 believing himself         
unobserved1      soliloquized3 #8,i am  
not my arm1 nor my ear2 all my limbs    
and organs ,i can separate from myself1 
and ,i still remain      myself2 ,i     
wonder what ,i am2 who and what is this 
which ,i call      myself8'0--,e41 p4   
#ef4    ,nor does ,froebel forget the   
idea of the self as the boy grows older4
    ,once the activities of running1    
jumping1 etc41 are familiar1 the boy's  
play takes on a new complexion4 ,his    
games are now 8trials of strength10  or 
8displays of strength40        8,the boy
 tries to see himself in his companions1
 to feel      himself in them1 to weigh 
and measure himself by them1 to know    
and find himself by their aid40--,e41 p4
 #aad4        8,the life of the boy has1
 indeed1 no other purpose but that      
of the outer representation of his self3
 his life is in truth      but an       
external representation of his inner    
being1 of his      power1 particularly  
through plastic material4 ,in the forms 

he      fashions1 he does not see outer 
forms which he is to take in      and   
understand2 he sees in them the         
expression of his spirit1      of the   
activities of his own mind40--,e41 p4   
#bgi4    ,surely it is another touch of 
genius that makes ,froebel spring to the
  nascent idea of self as the reason for
 the child's craving for tales of  all  
kinds4        8,knowledge of a thing can
 never be attained by comparing it      
with itself4 ,therefore the boy cannot  
attain any knowledge of      the nature 
and meaning of his own life1 by         
comparing it with      itself '''       
everybody knows that comparisons with   
somewhat remote      objects are more   
effective than those with very near     
objects4      ,only the study of the    
life of others can furnish such points  
of comparison with the life he has      
himself experienced4''' ,it is      the 
innermost desire and need of a vigorous 
boy to understand      his own life4''' 
,this is the chief reason why boys are  

so fond      of stories1 legends and    
tales4''' ,the story concerns other men1
      other circumstances1 other times  
and places1 yet the hearer      seeks   
his own image1 he beholds it1 and no one
 knows that he      sees it40--,e41 p4  
#cje4    ,as ,froebel shows so much     
insight into the paramount importance of
 action  in the development of          
self-consciousness1 it is not surprising
 to find  that he recognizes also its   
special importance in the development of
  feeling4    ,it is probably to the    
late ,professor ,james and his sparkling
 paradoxes  that the educational world  
owes its grasp of the importance of     
expression  in connection with feeling2 
we feel because we act1 we are told1 we 
do  not run away because we are afraid1 
but we are afraid because we have run   
away4 ,but all ,froebelians had already 
learnt the truth at the bottom of  this 
from ,froebel's ,mother ,songs4    ,when
 he wrote his earliest and greatest     
book1 8,the ,education of ,man10        

,froebel was already far enough advanced
 to point out the necessity for at      
least verbal expression of feeling4 ,he 
then advocated giving to young  boys    
simple prayers or words by which they   
can express childish gratitude  for care
 and protection1 so that these feelings 
may be retained and  deepened4          
8,it is natural that religious feelings 
and thoughts should      spring up4'''  
,in the beginning these sentiments and  
feelings will      only manifest        
themselves as an effect1 a fullness     
without word      or form1 without any  
adequate expression of what they are1   
merely as something that uplifts our    
being and fills the soul4      ,at this 
juncture1 it is most beneficial1        
strengthening1 and      uplifting for   
the boy to receive words--a language for
 these      sentiments and feelings--so 
that they may not be stifled in         
themselves1 vanish for lack of          
expression40--,e41 p4 #bdf4    ,the same
 remark is made in connection with the  

teaching of poems and  songs4 ,when     
feeling is aroused by the contemplation 
of ,nature1 it must be  expressed4 ,when
 ,spring brings 8gladness10 and ,autumn 
8longing and hope10  and when ,winter   
awakens 8courage and vigour10 then3     
8,man1 too1 would express the thoughts  
and feelings that are      awakened in  
him and for which he cannot find words1 
and these      should be given him4'''  
the thoughtful teacher can easily       
interpret the thoughts and feelings of  
the boys1 as well as      the phases of 
,nature1 in living fitting words4''' ,in
 general1      all that was said        
concerning the appropriation of         
religious      expressions is true      
here40--,e41 p4 #bfg4    ,froebel had   
also noted even thus early how 8the     
natural mother0 from the  very beginning
 cultivates feeling through expression1 
through gesture or  action4             
8,mother love seeks to awaken and to    
interpret the feeling of      community 
between the child and the father1       

brother and sister1      when she says1 
#8,dear ,daddy6' as she caressingly     
passes the      child's hand over the   
father's cheek4 #8,love daddy1 love     
little      sister1' etc40--,e41 p4 #fi4
    ,in the ,mother's ,songs1 written   
much later and after ,froebel had made  
careful observation of young children1  
he is more emphatic1 and his ideas  of  
expression are both wider and more      
definite4 ,in 8,the ,education of ,man0 
he had said that literature exercises   
and tests judgment and feelings1  and he
 had added that this should be followed 
up by some constructive  action4 ,but   
now he knows that feeling when stirred  
ought to express  itself in actual      
service1 just as ,james suggests        
8speaking genially to  one's            
grandmother1 or giving up one's seat in 
a horse car1 if nothing  more heroic    
offers40    ,the mother is told that at 
first she should help her little one  to
 understand her care of him and his     
dependence on her by 8the  looking-glass

 of outer life10 by letting him1 for    
instance1 watch the hen  caring for her 
chickens1 and the parent birds feeding  
and brooding over  their young in the   
nest4 ,in the rhymed motto of 8,the     
,nest0 she is told3        8,already the
 baby likes to see pictures showing the 
loving care      of a mother4 ,let him  
do so often1 that his life experience   
may      become clear to him40    ,but  
the longer explanation has an important 
addition3        8,the way lies through 
our imaginative1 tender and emotional   
observation of ,nature and of man's     
life1 and through the      child's      
affectionately taking their most        
intimate meaning into      the life of  
his own heart1 and expressing by        
representation      what he thus takes  
in40--,m41 p4 #adi4    ,so1 as the child
 begins to realize what he owes1 comes  
the next little  play1 8,the ,flower    
,basket10 the key-note of which is given
 in its motto3        8,try to let the  
child give outward form to what stirs   

his      feelings1 for the love even of 
a child dies away if not      carefully 
fostered40--,m41 p4 #ch4    ,and the    
baby makes of his tiny hands a basket   
for flowers wherewith to  celebrate the 
father's birthday in orthodox ,german   
fashion4 ,in ,froebel's  own phrase1 the
 8inner meaning0 of the little finger   
play with its  picture1 is 8to cherish  
thoughtfully the bond1 which is         
invisible1 yet  which can be felt1      
whereby the life of humanity is bound   
together1 the  first opportunity for    
which is afforded by the life of the    
child and the  family40 ,what is        
important here is that ,froebel has     
pointed out the way  in which this bond 
can be strengthened1 that is by         
expression1 by giving  8outward form to 
what stirs feeling40    ,this idea of   
service as expression of feeling comes  
into ,froebel's  description of the     
ideal child1 8merry1 happy1 strong and  
busy10 when the  mother3        8,kissed
 upon his brow her blessing1      ,then1

 his love for her expressing1      ,off 
he starts his mother serving      ,all  
he can do1 she's deserving40--,m41 p4   
#aia4    ,again1 in connection with     
childish productions1 the little        
baskets1  napkin rings1 etc41 that they 
have made1 ,froebel wrote3        8,the 
use made of these little productions is 
very important to      the civilizing   
and nourishing of the child's being and 
mind1      for ,i consider the fact that
 many children receive so much      and 
can give hardly anything to be one of   
the most essential      causes of the   
frequent retrogression of childish love 
and      sensibility40    ,froebel      
always emphasizes the essential         
importance of family bonds in the       
development of feeling1 and he not only 
instructs the mother to see to  it that 
the child recognizes the family circle1 
but he tells her that he  will realize  
his 8kinship0 by service done for the   
family4        8,family1 family1 you are
 more than ,school or ,church '''       

without      you what are ,altar and    
,church4'''0--,m41 p4 #aei4             
8,that many things are in a whole       
,soon dawns upon a childish soul4       
,then let the mother teach him carefully
      ,to know the circle of the        
family40--,m41 p4 #df4        8,duties  
are not burdens1 duty fulfilled leads to
 light1 this is      why every healthy  
child likes and enjoys doing duties1    
provided      they speak to him clearly 
and simply1 above all inexorably4'''    
,see how happy a child is feeling he has
 done his small duties4      ,he already
 feels his kinship with you thereby4    
,cherish this      feeling1 and it will 
be salvation and blessing to him40--,m41
      p4 #agd4    ,as the feeling of the
 adult is called out by the helplessness
 of a child1  so1 too3        8the      
child's sympathy is roused by the young 
creatures'      necessities more than by
 anything else1 and among these         
chiefly by their nakedness and softness3
 #8''' ,mother1 the poor      little    

birds are so lonely1 ,i am so sorry for 
the poor little      things4'0--,m41 p4 
#aej4    ,and in this connection too    
comes the warning that feeling must not 
be  allowed to evaporate without action3
        8,if your child's to love and   
cherish        ,life that needs him day 
by day1      ,give him things to tend   
that perish        ,if he ever stops    
away40--,m41 p4 #hd4    ,the child is   
8to feel within himself ,nature's close 
interdependence03        8,whenever     
opportunity occurs1 make this inner     
dependence of      life clear1 visible1 
impressive1 tangible and perceptible to 
your child1 even though it be in only a 
few of the essential      links of this 
great chain1 until you come to the last 
ring that      holds all the rest1      
,god's ,father-love for all4 ,the baker 
cannot      bake if the miller brings   
him no flour1 the miller can grind no   
flour if the farmer brings him no corn1 
the field can yield no      crop if     
,nature does not work towards it in     

harmony1 and ,nature      could not work
 in harmony if ,god had not placed in   
her power      and material1 and if ,his
 love did not guide everything to its   
fulfilment40--,m41 p4 #adh4    ,and     
again1 as always1 follows the need for  
expression of some kind4 ,the  children 
are not to be disturbed while they 8say 
grace0 over their doll's  feast4        
8,it is no drawing down of the sacred   
into outer life2 no1 this      is the   
germ which gives the outside actions of 
life the inner      meaning and higher  
consecration1 which life so much needs4 
,for      how is your child to cultivate
 innocently in himself a lively         
feeling for what is holy1 if you will   
not grant that it takes      form for   
him even in his innocent games40--,m41  
p4 #adh4    ,it may be as well before   
leaving the subject to notice here one  
or two  other points in connection with 
feeling that are touched upon by        
,froebel4    ,though1 as we have        
seen#bc1 the feeling side is always kept

 in closest  connection with those of   
knowledge and action1 yet the           
fundamental  importance of the emotional
 side is stated quite distinctly4 ,the  
child  is 8living1 loving and           
perceiving10 or 8creating1 feeling and  
thinking10  still3        8,the         
cultivation of boyhood rests wholly on  
that of childhood2      therefore       
activity and firmness of the will rest  
upon activity      and firmness of the  
feelings and of the heart4 ,where the   
latter      are lacking1 the former will
 scarcely be attainable40--,e41 p4      
#ig4    ,this is put more strongly in   
connection with the child's imitation of
 the  music of the bell note1 the       
8bim-baum0 or 8ding-dong0 sung by the   
mother1  while she swings the ball to   
and fro1 which according to ,froebel    
8serves  the emotional side40           
8,the children thus early and definitely
 point out that the      centre1 the    
real foundation1 the starting-point of  
human      development is the heart and 

the emotions1 but the training      to  
action and thought1 the corporeal and   
mental1 goes on      constantly and     
inseparably by the side of it2 and      
thought      must form itself into      
action1 and action resolve and clear    
itself in thought2 but both have their  
roots in the emotional                  
nature40--,p41 p4 #db4    ,another point
 ,froebel makes in this connection1 is  
that feeling alone can  awaken feeling1 
and that those who complain of want of  
feeling in their  children have probably
 themselves to blame4 ,want of good     
feeling and the  prevalence among boys  
of egotism1 unfriendliness1 etc41 is    
explained as3        8clearly due not   
merely to the failure of arousing at an 
early      period1 and of subsequently  
cultivating in the child a feeling      
of common sympathy1 but also to the     
early annihilation of this      feeling 
between parents and children40--,e41 p4 
#abb4    ,the elders must show sympathy 
with the child's thoughts and feelings1 

they must not rest content with caring  
for his bodily welfare4 ,if the  child  
fails to find sympathy1 for example in  
connection with his interest  in        
,nature1 if he 8fails to find the same  
feelings among adults who  suppress his 
germinating inner life0 then1 says      
,froebel3        8a double effect       
follows1 loss of respect for the elder  
and a      recoil of the original       
anticipation40--,e41 p4 #afd4           
8,mothers and ,fathers1 is it not almost
 incredible how early      the child    
appears to distinguish inner            
intellectual and loving      gifts from 
outer bodily ones1 or1 rather1 to be    
conscious of      the heart and mind of 
the giver to feel the giving spirit8    
,who does not see this in the effect of 
a friendly glance1 of      a            
sympathizingly spoken word1 of a tender 
care which often      affords little    
more than sympathy and companionship8'''
 ,it is a      remarkable fact that the 
mere love for the outward person1 the   

mere bodily care1 does not satisfy him2 
indeed1 the nobler the      child is in 
his nature the less does he cling to the
 giving      person4 ,through this      
consideration we have found and         
recognized      what we sought1 namely1 
that the respect and love--yea1 the     
reverence--of children and youth are    
gained and secured to      parents in   
proportion to what the latter are doing 
for the      education of the mental    
life of the children4''' ,if the lively 
appreciation of what has been done to   
cultivate his inner world      fill the 
soul of a child1 then will true love and
 gratitude      towards parents1 respect
 and veneration for age1 germinate in   
the mind of a child40--,p41 p4 #aaa4    
,we have spoken in this chapter of what 
is popularly called the instinct  of    
imitation1 and we have seen that        
,froebel makes much of what he calls    
the instinct or impulse of activity     
7,thtigkeitstrieb71 or the instinct  for
 employment 7,beschftigungstrieb74      

,it may be well now to consider what1   
considering the ideas of his day and    
generation1 ,froebel could find to say  
on a subject so important as the        
instinctive activities of human beings  
and of other animals1 concerning  which 
so much has now been written and which1 
according to ,professor  ,dewey1        
,froebel regarded and rightly regarded  
as the foundation-stones of  educational
 method4          ,,chapter ,,vi        
,,instinct ,,and ,,instincts      8,the 
older writings on ,instinct are         
ineffectual wastes of words10  writes   
,professor ,james1 8because their       
authors never came down to this  simple 
and definite idea 7that the nervous     
system is to a great extent  a          
pre-organized bundle of reactions71 but 
smothered everything in vague  wonder at
 the clairvoyant and prophetic power of 
animals--so superior to  anything in    
,man40#bd    ,froebel was certainly not 
in a position to know much of the       
nervous  system1 but what he wrote about

 instinct cannot be classed with these  
older writings4 ,for even without modern
 knowledge1 he waxes indignant  over the
 opinions of those who created ,james'  
8ineffectual wastes  of words40 ,far    
from allowing that instinct in the lower
 animals is  superior to anything in    
man1 ,froebel maintains that the very   
weakness1  indefiniteness of man's      
instincts or impulses 7,triebe7 is a    
sign of his  superiority4               
8,notwithstanding the early             
manifestation in the human infant       
of the impulse to employment            
7,beschftigungstriebe71 much      has   
been said from an entirely wrong point  
of view about      man's helplessness at
 birth1 and his slow development to     
independence1 which necessitates for so 
long a period the      care and help of 
the mother4 ,it has even been said1     
that1      in this respect1 man's       
position is behind and below that of    
other animals4 ,but that very point1    
which has been cited as      evidence of

 man's imperfection1 is a proof of his  
worth4 ,for we      recognize through   
this helplessness1 that man is called to
 ever      higher                       
self-consciousness40--,p41 p4 #bd4      
,at the same time it should be pointed  
out that ,froebel does not make  the    
opposite mistake of supposing that man  
has no instincts4 ,since he  approached 
psychology from the biological side1 so 
far as it could be  known to him1       
,froebel was bound to have faith in     
instinct1 in race-habit1  in tendencies 
which1 because they have been of use to 
the race1 are  bedded in the nature of  
each individual4 ,it is to ,froebel's   
later  writings and especially to the   
little paper1 on 8,the ,first ,action of
 a  ,child10 that we must turn to see   
how wonderfully correct are his views on
  the whole question of instinct4    ,it
 may be better to give first the        
position of modern writers on the       
subject by quoting from the last chapter
 of ,professor ,lloyd ,morgan's  8,habit

 and ,instinct10 a clear and concise    
passage showing that the  contrary      
schools of thought represented on the   
one hand by the ,darwin and  ,romanes   
and on the other by ,professors ,james  
and ,wundt1 can after all be  resolved  
into a matter of definition4    8,if1   
then1 the question be asked1 whether man
 has a large or a small  endowment of   
instinct1 the answer will depend upon   
the precise definition  of #8instinct4' 
,if we take congenital definiteness as  
characteristic  of instinct1 we shall   
agree with ,darwin1 that #8the fewness  
and the  comparative simplicity of the  
instincts of the higher animals are     
remarkable as compared with those of    
lower animals2' and with ,romanes  that 
#8instinct plays a larger part in the   
psychology of many animals  than it does
 in the psychology of man4' ,if1 on the 
other hand1 a broader  definition of    
instinct be accepted1 so as to include  
what is innate1  in the sense before    
defined1 we shall agree with ,professor 

,wundt that  human life is #8permeated  
through and through with instinctive    
action1  determined in part1 however1 by
 intelligence and volition2' and shall  
not  profoundly disagree with ,professor
 ,wm4 ,james1 who says that man         
possesses  all the impulses that they   
7the lower animals7 have and a great    
many more  besides40    ,in ,mr4        
,mc,dougall's important contribution to 
the discussion of human  instinct1 he   
says that the view which is rapidly     
gaining ground is that  the gradual     
evolution of intelligence 8did not      
supplant and lead to the  atrophy of the
 instincts1 but controlled and modified 
their operation40  ,as ,mr4 ,mc,dougall 
goes on to state his belief 8that the   
recognition of the  full scope and      
function of the human instincts will    
appear to those that  come after us as  
the most important advance made by      
psychology in our  time10 it is         
important to the purpose of this book1  
to make clear to what  extent ,froebel's

 views on the subject approach those of 
modern writers4    ,mr4 ,mc,dougall     
makes a very clear distinction between  
specific tendencies  to which he limits 
the word instinct1 and non-specific or  
general  tendencies4 ,naturally ,froebel
 did not reach this standpoint1 but he  
does seem to have thought out his       
terminology4 ,he felt strongly as  to   
the use of words of foreign origin1 and 
generally uses 8,trieb10                
8,lebenstrieb10 8,drang0 or             
8,lebensdrang10 where we might use      
instinct4 ,but he does occasionally use 
8instinct10 notably in a passage  quoted
 below 8whose impulses1 powers and      
abilities1 whose instincts  as they are 
called0 7dessen ,lebenstriebe ,krfte und
 ,anlagen1 dessen  ,instincte wie man es
 nennt71 where he seems to be feeling   
about for  the right expression4 ,other 
words in constant use are 8,neigung10   
8,streben0 and 8,richtung10 probably    
best translated by 8tendency40 ,it  can 
be argued1 however1 that to the word    

,trieb ,froebel does seem to have       
attached a more definite meaning1 and   
his use of this word is certainly       
limited4    ,professor ,james' account  
of instinct begins with the statement   
that  8,every instinct is an impulse10 a
 driving to action1 but the use of the  
words 8,trieb0 and 8,drang0 makes such a
 pronouncement unnecessary to  a ,german
 writer1 and if this root idea is not   
implied by the noun1 it  generally1 in  
,froebel's writings1 makes its          
appearance in the verb4 ,thus  we       
frequently read of 8a longing which     
drives the child to10 etc4 7die         
,sehnsucht die das ,kind treibt74       
,the merest glance through ,froebel's   
writings is enough to show his belief   
in the existence of instinct in the     
human being4 ,his references to it are  
constant4 ,it is an impulse 7,trieb7    
8which the child did not give himself1  
which came without his will1 in later   
life even against his will10 but  which 
8urges to action0 7drngt ihn dazu74 ,it 

is a force so strong1 that  it 8holds   
captive mind and body40 ,the child is   
described as 8driven by  impulse0 7des  
von ,lebensdrang getriebenen ,kindes74  
,the boy again is 8held  captive by     
harmless1 even praiseworthy1 impulses0  
7sogar lobenswerten  ,triebe71 or 8gives
 himself up entirely to the impulses of 
his inner life0  7dem ,treibenden innern
 ,leben74    ,in his earlier work1 8,the
 ,education of ,man10 ,froebel is first 
concerned  with urging that the young   
human being1 8a product of ,nature10 has
  instincts quite as trustworthy as     
those of any other young animal1 and    
the following eloquent passage is very  
well known3        8,the undisturbed    
working of the ,divine ,unity is        
necessarily      good1 and this implies 
that the young human being1 still as it 
were in the process of creation1 would  
seek as a product of      ,nature1      
though still unconsciously1 yet         
decidedly and surely      that which is 
in itself best3 and1 moreover1 in a form

 wholly      adapted to his condition1  
disposition1 powers and means4 ,thus    
the duckling hastens to the pond1 while 
the young chicken      scratches the    
ground1 and the young swallow catches   
his food      upon the wing and scarcely
 ever touches the ground4 ,we grant     
space and time to young plants and      
animals because we know that      in    
accordance with the laws that live in   
them they will develop      properly and
 grow well4 ,arbitrary interference with
 their      growth is avoided because it
 is known that this would disturb       
their development2 but the young human  
being is looked upon as      a piece of 
wax1 a lump of clay1 which man can mould
 into what      he pleases4''' ,thus1 ,o
 parents1 could your children1 on whom  
you      force in tender years forms and
 aims against their nature1      thus   
could your children too unfold in beauty
 and develop in      harmony40--,e41 p4 
#g4    ,it is true that to ,froebel     
evolution is 8the working of ,divine    

,unity40  ,but there seems to be no     
special reason why this should          
invalidate  what ,froebel has to say1   
any more than ,sir ,oliver ,lodge should
 be  disqualified as a scientist1       
because he has produced a book in which 
he  writes3 8,development means         
unfolding latent possibilities '''      
growth and  development are in          
accordance with the law of the universe 
''' the law  of the universe and the    
will of ,god are here regarded as in    
some sort  synonymous terms40    ,this  
is exactly ,froebel's position2 he      
writes that        8,nature and man have
 their origin in one and the same       
eternal      ,being1 and their          
development takes place in accordance   
with the      same laws1 only at        
different stages40--,e41 p4 #afa4       
,that ,froebel not only recognized the  
presence of instinct in human  beings1  
but that he also saw1 as ,professor     
,wundt puts it1 that this  is           
8determined in parts by intelligence and

 volition10 he states very  plainly3    
8,natural instinct and good example will
 do much1 but here1      as in all human
 concerns1 one must proceed by extension
 of      knowledge1 and by careful      
scrutiny1 or both the one and the       
other may mislead or be misdirected4    
,experience cries aloud      to us1 to  
warn us of this danger4 ,assuredly man  
ought not to      neglect his natural   
instincts1 still less abandon them1 but 
he      must ennoble them through his   
intelligence1 purify them through       
his reason40--,l41 p4 #bbb4        8,in 
the progress of development three stages
 differentiate      themselves and fall 
apart2 and these stages are seen both in
      individual men1 and in the race as
 a whole4 ,they are3        7#a7        
,unconsciousness1 the merely instinctive
 stage2        7#b7 ,vague ,feeling1 the
 tendency upwards towards               
consciousness2 and        7#c7          
,relatively clear ,conscious            
,intelligence4        ,everything that  

is acquired by a great unity1 say by a  
family1      a community1 a nation1 must
 in its beginnings be acquired by       
the single members of that unity2 and   
further it will take      them in one of
 the three grades of development1 either
 that of      mere unconsciousness1 or  
of vague feeling1 or in the third and   
highest grade1 that of conscious        
intelligence1 so far as it has      been
 maintained by mankind up to the present
 time40--7,letter to      ,madame ,d4   
,lutkens1 dated ,march1 #ahea47    ,it  
is in 8,the ,first ,action of a ,child0 
that we find ,froebel contrasting  the  
instincts of the lower animals with     
those of man4 ,here curiously  enough1  
,froebel1 according to ,professor       
,stout1 is almost more correct  than    
,professor ,lloyd ,morgan himself1 whose
 statement 8that animals do not         
perceive relations0 ,professor ,stout   
regards as misleading4 ,his correction  
is1 8unless an artificial restriction is
 put on the meaning of the term         

relation1 this statement would imply    
that animals cannot perceive the        
position of objects in space or their   
motion4''' ,hence we should say1  not   
that the perception of relation is      
deficient in animals1 but only  that    
definite perception of relations is     
deficient which depends on  comparison40
    ,now it is this very point of       
comparison which ,froebel takes as the  
essential intellectual difference       
between the animal independent from     
birth thanks to fully developed         
instinct1 and the child helpless and    
apparently inferior at first1 yet       
destined for progress 8self-active and  
free40 ,he writes3        8,the animal  
whose life impulses1 powers and         
abilities1 whose      instincts as they 
are called 7dessen ,lebenstriebe1 ,krfte
      und ,anlagen1 dessen ,instincte   
wie man es nennt7 are at once      so   
definite and strong1 that in natural    
conditions it never      fails1 indeed  
cannot fail to overcome every hindrance 

within      its life's reach1 the animal
 just on this account can never         
arrive at a knowledge of its powers1 its
 qualities1 its nature      ''' for it  
lacks all points of comparison4 ,it     
lacks all points      of comparison1    
which1 in the case of man proceed from  
the fact      that the weakest output of
 strength meets with obstacles which    
increase as the strength increases1 and 
which will only with      difficulty be 
conquered or overcome and annihilated4  
8,it is quite different in the life of  
man1 in the beginning      of which     
practically nothing can be accomplished 
without help      from without4 ,nothing
 especially can be accomplished through 
a preponderance of inner power such1 for
 example1 as the      newly hatched     
duckling shows on the water4 ,thus      
everything      external must1 by ,man1 
with his preponderance of helplessness1 
be overcome as an obstacle solely       
through inner advancing1      and outer 
strengthening and increasing of power   

through free      activity of the       
will40--,p41 p4 #be4    ,with this      
passage from 8,the ,first ,action of a  
,child0 we can compare the  following   
from ,stout's 8,analytic ,psychology03  
8,the peculiar feature in the life of   
animals which prevents progressive      
development is the existence of         
instincts which do for them what the    
human being must do for himself4 ,their 
inherited organization is such1  that   
they perform the movements adapted to   
supply their needs on the  mere         
occurrence of an appropriate external   
stimulus4''' ,in man1 a blind  craving  
has to grope its way from darkness into 
light in order to become  effective2 in 
the animal the means of satisfaction are
 provided ready  made by ,nature at the 
outset40    ,after having stated that   
8,every instinct is an impulse10        
,professor ,james  goes on to say that  
instinct depends upon the biological    
fact that the  nervous system is 8a     
pre-organized bundle of re-actions10 and

 that when  impulses block one another1 
an animal with many impulses1 and whose 
mind  is elevated enough to             
discriminate1 8loses the instinctive    
demeanour and  appears to live a life of
 hesitation and choice1 an intellectual 
life40    ,notwithstanding the very     
obvious fact that ,froebel could know   
but little  of the nervous system and   
its re-actions1 it is still quite       
evident  that his observation had led   
him to a clear recognition of the       
earlier  stage1 when 8hesitation and    
choice0 are impossible4 ,the child1 he  
says1  8acts in obedience to an instinct
 which holds captive mind and body10  he
 is 8incredibly short-sighted in his    
obedience to instinct40 ,that he  also  
recognized the beginning of hesitation  
and choice is shown in his  defence of  
the child who 8in spite of abandonment  
to momentary impulse10  may have 8an    
intense inner desire for goodness10     
which1 8if it could  be appreciated in  
time10 would make of him a good man     

7,e41 p4 #abe72  and also in his plea   
for the early awakening and training 8of
 judgment  and of that reflection which 
avoids so many blunders and which1 in a 
natural way 7i4e4 without training71    
does not come to man sufficiently       
early40--,e41 p4 #gi4        8,another  
source of boyish faults is in the       
precipitation1      want of caution1    
indiscretion1 in a word the             
thoughtlessness1      the acting        
according to an impulse quite blameless1
 even      praiseworthy1 which holds    
captive all activity of mind and        
body1 but whose consequences have not as
 yet entered into his      experience1  
indeed it has not yet entered into his  
mind to      define the                 
consequences40--,e41 p4 #abb4           
,froebel gives from real life a few     
well-chosen examples of what the  boy so
 8incredibly short-sighted in his       
obedience to impulse0 may do2  telling  
how one deliberately aims a stone at a  
window 8with earnest  effort to hit it1 

yet without even saying to himself that 
if it does  so1 the window must be      
broken10 and how he 8stands rooted to   
the spot0  when this happens4 ,another1 
a 8very good-hearted boy1 who dearly    
loved  and took care of pigeons1 aimed  
at his neighbour's pigeon on the roof1  
without considering that if the bullet  
hit it the dove must fall40 ,no  wonder 
that he urges the early awakening of    
that reflection 7,nachdenken7  which    
would avoid so much1 and in this        
connection it must be remembered  too   
that ,froebel emphasized the            
indefiniteness of human instinct which  
makes comparison possible4 ,it is also  
worth remarking that ,froebel knew  that
 it is only by noting consequences of   
actual deeds that reflection  comes1 and
 this he shows in one of his quaint     
parallels between 8the  history of      
creation and the development of all     
things40        8,similarly in each     
child there is repeated the deed which  
marks      the beginning of moral and   

human emancipation1 of the dawn      of 
reason--essentially the same deed that  
marked the dawn of      reason in the   
race as a whole40--,e41 p4 #da4    ,it  
must have been a somewhat unorthodox    
view in #ahbf1 but some pages  further  
on ,froebel speaks even more boldly of  
8the fall or--since the  result is the  
same--the ascent of the mind of man from
 simple emotional  development into the 
development of externally analytic and  
critical  reason40--,e41 p4 #aic4       
,professor ,james goes on to state two  
other principles which make for         
non-uniformity of instinct4 ,the first  
of these is that instincts are          
inhibited by habits1 and the second that
 instincts are transitory4    ,the      
physiological fact of 8plasticity0 in   
which these principles are  grounded1   
was of course quite out of ,froebel's   
ken4 ,nevertheless1 the  principles     
themselves do not escape his shrewd     
observation4 ,mr4 ,mc,dougall  points   
out that even acquired habits of thought

 and action1 so important  as springs of
 action in the developed human mind1 are
 in a sense  derived from and secondary 
to instincts4 ,he goes on to say that   
8in the  absence of instincts no habits 
could be formed10 so it is interesting  
to find ,froebel arguing that the       
phenomena of habit is a proof of the    
existence of what in the infant he calls
 the impulse to activity or to          
self-employment4        8,the           
helplessness of the new-born human being
 in regard to      all outer things is  
the opposite of his future              
ability--since      life is a whole--to 
help himself through the enhancing of   
his will-power4''' ,helplessness and    
personal will1 therefore1      become   
the two points between which the child's
 life turns1 and      the fulcrum is    
free activity4 ,herein lies for the     
educator a      key to phenomena of     
child-life which seem to contradict each
      other4 ,for out of the impulse to 
activity 7,thtigkeitstriebe7      and to

 free self-employment1 or rather out of 
the united      three--helplessness1    
personal will1 and self-employment--soon
      proceed custom and habit1 often   
indolence and too facile      yielding4 
8,consideration of custom1 and of the   
spontaneous acquiring      of habit in  
the child1 especially in regard to what 
causes      it1 and to its effect upon  
the child1 is just as important      for
 the educator1 as is the consideration  
and guidance of his      instinct of    
activity4 ,this very phenomenon that the
 child so      early accustoms and      
inures himself to something1 this early 
phenomenon of child life1 the growing   
together and becoming      one1 as it   
were1 with his surroundings1 is a proof 
of the      existence and inner working1
 even thus early1 of the impulse        
for activity or employment1 even where  
the child appears      outwardly        
inactive and passive3 in that the child 
accommodates      himself to outer      
surroundings1 relations and requirements

 in      order to provide more scope for
 his inner activity40--,p41 p4      #bg4
    ,this proof may not be quite so     
clear to others as it was to ,froebel1  
but at least the passage shows the close
 connection in his mind between         
instinct--the impulse towards activity  
and employment--and habit1 and  that he 
had noted the interaction between the   
two4    ,there are many references to   
the transitory nature of at least       
childish  impulses4        8,what       
delight a child takes in noticing what  
is smooth1 woolly1      hairy1          
sparkling1 round1 etc4''' ,but if you do
 not cherish this      and do not set it
 going in the right way1 it becomes a   
lost      thing2 it grows rusty1 and    
loses its power as a magnet loses       
its power when it is not sufficiently   
used4 ,power that is not      at once   
used1 effort that does not at once meet 
the right      object--perishes40--,m41 
p4 #aha4        8,now1 at last1 we would
 fain give another direction to the     

energies1 desires and instincts 7,krfte1
 ,neigungen und ,triebe7      of the    
child growing into boyhood2 but it is   
too late4 ,for the      deep meaning of 
child-life passing into boyhood we not  
only      failed to appreciate1 but we  
misjudged it2 we not only failed      to
 nurse it1 but we misdirected and       
crushed it40--,e41 p4 #ge4        8,see 
parents1 the first impulse to activity1 
the first      constructive impulse     
7,bildungstrieb7 comes from man         
according      to the nature of the     
working of his mind1 unconsciously1     
unrecognized1 without his will1 as man  
can indeed perceive      in himself in  
later life4 ,if1 however1 this inner    
summons to      activity 7diese innere  
,aufforderung zur ,thtigkeit7 meets     
with outer hindrance1 especially such a 
one as the will of      the parents1    
which cannot be set aside1 the power is 
at      once weakened in itself1 and    
with many repetitions of this           
weakening1 falls into inaction40--,e41  

p4 #ajj4        8,the neglect of inner  
power causes the inner power itself to  
vanish40--,e41 p4 #acc4        8,it is  
true there are few such children2 but   
there would be      more1 were we not   
ignorantly blunting so many tendencies  
in our      children1 or starving them  
into inanition40--,e41 p4 #bbj4         
,writing of the origin of boyish faults 
,froebel says3        8,when we look for
 the sources of these shortcomings '''  
we find      a double reason1 first1    
complete neglect of the development     
of certain sides of human life1 secondly
 early misdirection1      early         
unnatural stages in development1 and    
distortion1 through      arbitrary      
interference with human powers1         
qualities and      tendencies good in   
their source4''' ,therefore at the      
bottom of      every shortcoming in man1
 lies a crushed1 frustrated quality or  
tendency1 suppressed1 misunderstood or  
misguided40--,e41 pp4      #aai-aba4    
,when we come to the enumeration of the 

various human instincts we find  that   
,froebel can hardly be said to have     
omitted any that are important  from an 
educational point of view1 except       
perhaps the instinct of fear1  and to   
this he would be loth to appeal4#be     
,moreover1 it can be shown  that his    
explanation of certain tendencies       
suggests a better basis of              
classification than is supplied by      
certain recent writers1 who might be    
expected to surpass him with ease4      
,before the publication of ,mr4         
,mc,dougall's 8,social ,psychology10    
there were  but few attempts at any     
classification of instincts within at   
least the  reach of ,english readers4   
,in ,july1 #aijj1 there appeared an     
article in  8,the ,pedagogical          
,seminary0 in which ,mr4 ,eby proposed  
to reconstruct the  ,kindergarten on the
 basis of natural instinct4 ,the writer 
had apparently  no dawning idea that    
this was the original basis#bf of the   
institution  he proposes to reform1 but 

,froebel's account of ,instinct shows in
 certain  ways a clearer understanding  
of the subject than does his own4       
,mr4 ,eby's tabulation was3             
,i4 ,language--with gesture and         
expression4          ,,ii4 ,curiosity1  
or ,instinct for ,knowledge4            
,,iii4 ,play ,instinct4                 
7a7 ,motor ,plays4              7b7     
,hunting and ,wandering4                
7c7 ,imitative4              7d7        
,constructive4              7e7         
,agricultural4              7f7         
,improvised4          ,,iv4 ,artistic   
and ,aesthetic ,instincts4           ,v4
 ,social ,instinct4          ,,vi4      
,instinct of ,acquisition and           
,ownership4         ,,vii4 ,number      
,instinct4        ,,viii4 ,interest in  
,stories4    ,another classification1   
well known at least to teachers1 is that
 given by  ,mr4 ,kirkpatrick in his     
8,fundamentals of ,child ,study40#bg    
,his list comprises3          ,i4       
,individual or ,self-preserving         

,instincts4              7,feeding1     
,fear and ,fighting47         ,,ii4     
,parental ,instincts4        ,,iii4     
,social or ,group ,instincts4           
7,gregariousness1 ,sympathy1 ,love of   
,approbation1 ,altruism47         ,,iv4 
,adaptive ,instincts4                   
7,imitation1 ,play1 ,curiosity47        
,v4 ,regulative4              7,moral1  
,religious47         ,,vi4 ,resultant   
and ,miscellaneous4                     
7,including such tendencies as those of 
collecting and constructing1 and the    
tendency to adornment1 with the         
sthetic pleasure of contemplating       
beautiful objects47    ,interesting1    
helpful and suggestive as these lists   
are1 they both serve  as examples of the
 difficulty1 if not impossibility1 of   
any hard-and-fast  lines of             
classification4 ,for example1 regulative
 instincts1 which ,mr4  ,kirkpatrick    
divides into moral and religious1 must  
be derived from social  instincts2      
gregarious instincts cannot be          

satisfactorily separated from  instincts
 of self-preservation1 and surely all   
instincts must be adaptive4             
,froebel's account of the instincts of a
 child in some ways resembles that  of  
,mr4 ,mc,dougall1 and it is certainly in
 some points more enlightening  than    
either of the others4    ,under the     
heading of ,investigation1 ,froebel     
brings both the ,number  ,instinct1 and 
the ,interest in ,stories1 to which ,mr4
 ,eby gives a position  as fundamental  
as that of the ,social ,instinct4 ,the  
constructive instinct  which ,mr4       
,kirkpatrick brings under 8,resultant   
and ,miscellaneous10 has a  very special
 place in ,froebel's account1 as being  
one way of imitating1  that is another  
mode of investigating the surroundings1 
and also what is  equally important1 a  
way by which the child gains a knowledge
 of his own  power1 reaches             
,self-,consciousness4    ,it is because 
of the emphasis ,froebel continually    
lays upon the  developing               

self-consciousness that his views       
somewhat tend to resemble  those of ,mr4
 ,mc,dougall1 though it would be absurd 
to attempt to draw  any parallel4 ,for  
,froebel1 though he in no way minimizes 
the importance  of ,imitation1 and      
although it is as the apostle of ,play  
that he is  most widely known1 yet1 like
 ,mr4 ,mc,dougall1 he never speaks      
either of  an ,instinct of ,play nor of 
,imitation1 that is1 he never uses for  
these  his special word ,trieb2 nor has 
he any ,instinct for ,religion4         
,curiously  enough1 too1 ,froebel1 with 
his constant insistence on the threefold
  aspect of mind1 partly forestalls ,mr4
 ,mc,dougall's view that 8instinctive   
action is the outcome of a distinctly   
mental process1 one which is  incapable 
of being described in purely mechanical 
terms1 ''' and one which1  like every   
other mental process1 has and can only  
be fully described in  terms of the     
three aspects of all mental process1 the
 cognitive1 the  affective1 and the     

conative aspects40    ,it is in         
connection with the very earliest       
activity that ,froebel writes3          
8,the first phenomenon of awakening     
child-life is activity4      ,it is an  
inner activity1 showing itself by       
consideration of      and working with  
what is outer1 by overcoming hindrances 
and      subduing the outer4 ,the nature
 of man as growing towards1 and         
destined to reach self-consciousness1 is
 shown in the quite      peculiar       
character of childish activity even as  
early as when      the infant awakes    
from its so-called three months'        
slumber4 ,it      is shown in the       
child's impulse to busy himself 7in dem 
,triebe      sich zu beschftigen7 in the
 instinct1 one with feeling and         
perception1 to be active for the        
progressive development of      his own 
life4        8,we are repeatedly        
impressed with the conviction that      
everything that is to be done for the   
specifically human      development of  

the child must be connected with the    
fostering      of this instinct to      
employ himself4 ,for this instinct      
corresponds to man's triune activity of 
doing1 feeling and      thinking4 ,it   
corresponds to the essential nature of  
humanity1      which is to have power   
and understanding1 to become ever more  
and more self-conscious and             
self-determining40--,p41 p4 #bd4    ,in 
the last sentence of this passage1 which
 refers to the merest infant1  and which
 immediately precedes ,froebel's        
comparison of human instincts  with     
those of the lower animals1 are         
indicated the lines on which we  may say
 ,froebel classified though he never did
 so formally4 ,he deals  only with the  
8purely0 or 8specifically0 human1 as he 
never tires of  reiterating1 so that    
fundamental animal instincts1           
self-preserving and  race-preserving1   
such as feeding and the sexual impulse1 
are little  noticed1 and only in        
connection with the necessity for       

self-control4    ,but1 as with ,mr4     
,mc,dougall much is made to depend on   
self-feeling1  so with ,froebel still   
more does everything centre round that  
self-consciousness which to him is of   
the very nature of man1 and which  is   
made possible by the undefined or       
undeveloped character of human          
instinct4    ,the instincts and impulses
 noted by ,froebel1 all1 be it clearly  
understood1 in the service of the       
growing self-consciousness1 and         
self-determination are3 the instinct to 
independent activity 7der  ,trieb zur   
,frei- und ,selbst-thtigkeit71 the      
instinct to investigation               
7,forschungstrieb71 with which ,froebel 
deals very thoroughly and by which  he  
explains a great deal1 the impulse of   
acquisition1 the instinct of            
construction or formation               
7,bildungstrieb ,gestaltungstrieb71 the 
social  instinct and the maternal       
instinct4    ,froebel himself never     
tabulates1 yet his apparently careful   

use of the  word ,trieb1 taken along    
with his convincing explanations of     
various  tendencies 7,richtungen1       
,neigungen1 ,streben7 seems to show that
 in  relation to instinct there were in 
his mind two pairs of ideas1 so  closely
 related as to be inseparable1 viz43    
7a7 ,investigation and ,control of      
,surroundings1 and 7b7 ,consciousness   
of ,self and ,self-,determination4      
,it is impossible to become conscious of
 one's self except by becoming          
conscious of a world of objects4#bh ,it 
is equally impossible to  become        
self-determining without gaining control
 over these objects1  over the          
surroundings4 ,in order to control the  
surroundings1 one  must first           
investigate them1 and this investigation
 brings with it  self-consciousness1    
knowledge of one's own powers and       
consequent  self-determination4 ,all    
this seems fully in accordance with what
 has  been already stated as to the     
close connection between volitional and 

intellectual development4    ,the two   
main lines on which instinctive action  
must run1 if it is to be1  as it must   
be1 adaptive1 are given in ,froebel's   
words1 8to have power  and              
understanding40 ,to adapt ourselves to  
our surroundings we must first  know    
them1 and secondly1 have power over     
them4 ,even this separation  into       
firstly and secondly is more a matter of
 words than of reality4  ,no one knew   
more clearly or emphasized more strongly
 than ,froebel that  action1 by which   
alone we gain power1 is also the child's
 royal road to  knowledge4 ,this he     
states very plainly in the 8,plan0 which
 he drew up for  the school at ,helba1  
which unfortunately never came into     
existence4        8,the institution will
 be fundamental inasmuch as in training 
and instruction it will rest on the     
foundation from which      proceed all  
genuine knowledge and all genuine       
practical      attainments2 it will rest
 on life itself and on creative         

effort1 on the union and interdependence
 of doing and thinking1                 
representation and knowledge1 art and   
science4 ,the institution      will base
 its work on the pupil's personal       
efforts in work and      expression1    
making these1 again1 the foundation of  
all genuine      knowledge and culture4 
,joined with thoughtfulness these       
efforts      become a direct medium of  
culture2 joined with reasoning1 they    
become a direct means of instruction and
 thus make of work a      true subject  
of instruction40--,e41 p4 #ch4          
,knowledge of his surroundings is       
however not the only knowledge that the 
child gains through action2 this is his 
only way of gaining knowledge of        
himself1 of his power and of his        
weakness4 ,it is through outward        
activity  that1 as ,froebel says1 he    
8comes to self-consciousness and learns 
to  order1 determine and master         
himself10 and it is in connection with  
the  earliest ,impulse to ,activity that

 ,froebel writes3        8,the present  
effort of mankind is an effort after    
freer      self-development1 freer      
self-formation1 freer determining of    
one's own destiny4''' ,therefore the    
more or less clear aim of      the      
individual is ,consciousness1 the       
attaining of clearness      about       
himself and about life in its unity as  
well as in its      thousand            
ramifications1 to attain to             
comprehension and right      use of     
life4''' ,that this highest aim may be  
accomplished1      the present time lays
 upon the educator the indispensable    
obligation--to understand the earliest  
activity1 the first      action of the  
child1 the impulse 7,trieb7 to          
spontaneous      activity1 which appears
 so early2 to foster the impulse        
7,trieb7      for self-culture and      
self-instruction1 through independent   
doing1 observing and                    
experimenting40--,p41 p4 #ae4           
8,the first spontaneous employments of  

the child are noticing      his         
environment1 and play1 that is1         
independent outward action1      living 
outside himself4''' ,the deepest        
foundation of all the      phenomena1 of
 the earliest activity of the child is  
this2 that      he must exercise the dim
 anticipation of conscious life1 and    
consequently must exercise power1 test  
and thus compare power1      exercise   
independence1 test and thus compare the 
degree of      independence40--,p41 pp4 
#bi-ca4        8,all outer activity of  
the child has its distinctive and       
ultimate ground in his inmost nature and
 life4 ,the deepest      craving of this
 inner life1 this inner activity1 is to 
behold      itself mirrored in some     
external object4 ,in and through        
such reflection the child learns to know
 his own activity1      its essence1    
direction and aim1 and learns also to   
order      and determine his activity in
 correspondence with the outer          
phenomena4 ,such mirroring of the inner 

life1 such making of the      inner life
 objective is essential1 for through it 
the child      comes to                 
self-consciousness1 and learns to order1
 determine and      master himself4 ,the
 child must perceive and grasp his own  
life      in an objective manifestation 
before he can perceive and grasp      it
 in himself40--,p41 p4 #bch4    ,it may 
seem very presumptuous to venture to    
discuss here the  classification of     
instincts adopted by ,mr4 ,mc,dougall1  
yet there are in  it a few points which 
would not have appealed to ,froebel1 and
 it is  conceivable that ,mr4           
,mc,dougall might make alterations in a 
future edition  and attach even more    
importance to positive self-feeling as  
,froebel  would undoubtedly have done4  
,it is impossible to imagine ,froebel   
having  any dealings with an ,instinct  
of ,self-,abasement1 though the         
,instinct of  ,self-,assertion is in    
full accordance with his ideas4 ,and    
while it is hard  to see the biological 

utility of an ,instinct of              
,self-,abasement1 it does  seem as if   
the frustration of the ,instinct of     
,self-,assertion might be  made to cover
 all that is brought under its opposite4
    ,it is difficult1 too1 to imagine   
,froebel allowing an ,instinct of       
,pugnacity1 and ,mr4 ,mc,dougall allows 
that this presupposes the other         
instincts1 and that it cannot strictly  
be brought under his own  definition of 
instinct4 ,he allows1 too1 that this    
instinct is 8lacking in  the            
constitution of the females of some     
species10 and it seems impossible  not  
to notice the difference between little 
boys and girls in this  respect4 ,surely
 it puts too much to the credit of mere 
pugnacity to say3  8,a man devoid of the
 pugnacious instinct would not only be  
incapable  of anger1 but would lack this
 great source of reserve energy1 which  
is called into play in most of us by any
 difficulty in our path40#bi  ,the      
,instinct of ,self-,assertion1 if it is 

worth anything1 ought to be  sufficient 
not only to produce anger1#cj but also  
to call up reserve  energy to deal with 
difficulties4 ,certainly ,froebel would 
have said so4  ,no doubt it is because  
of her weaker physique that the woman   
has not  the pugnacity of the man1 but  
,froebel too wrote mainly of the boy1   
and  he puts boyish tussling and        
fighting down to the instinctive desire 
to  measure and to increase power and   
this can easily be matched on the       
female side1 though the power measured  
may not be that of muscle4        8,at  
this age the healthy boy brought up     
simply and naturally      never evades  
an obstacle1 a difficulty2 nay he seeks 
it and      overcomes it4 #8,let it     
lie1' the vigorous youngster exclaims to
      his father1 who is about to roll a
 piece of wood out of the      boy's    
way--#8let it lie1 ,i can get over it4' 
,with difficulty1      indeed1 the boy  
gets over it the first time2 but he has 
accomplished the feat by his own        

strength4 ,strength and courage         
have grown in him4 ,he returns1 gets    
over the obstacle a      second time1   
and soon he learns to clear it          
easily4''' ,the most      difficult     
thing seems easy1 the most daring thing 
seems without      danger to him1 for   
his prompting comes from the innermost1 
from      his heart and will40--,e41 p4 
#ajb4        8,many of the plays and    
occupations of boys at this age are     
predominantly mere practice and trials  
of strength1 and many      aim simply at
 display of strength4''' ,the boy tries 
to see      himself in his companions1  
to feel himself in them1 to weigh       
and measure himself by them1 to know and
 find himself with      their           
help40--,e41 pp4 #aab-aad4    ,in       
passing1 it may be suggested that it    
hardly seems worth while to  postulate  
an ,instinct of ,repulsion with the     
impulses or actions of  rejecting       
evil-tasting substances from the mouth  
and of shrinking from  objects which are

 slimy or slippery4 ,surely the         
rejection of unsuitable  food might be a
 compound reflex action tending to the  
preservation of  health2 while shrinking
 from slimy objects1 and even from the  
touch of  fur1 might have had their uses
 in the case of children left in caves1 
and  might be drawn under the instinct  
of fear4    ,there does not seem to be  
anything to which ,mr4 ,mc,dougall would
 take  exception in what ,froebel has to
 say about ,play or about ,imitation4   
,as to play1 ,froebel must be regarded  
as a pioneer in the attempt to  explain 
a subject all important to educators1   
and by his explanation  certain kinds1  
and notably imitative play find an      
appropriate place under  his instinct of
 investigation 7,forschungstrieb74      
8,the means of shadowing forth to the   
child his own nature and      that of   
the cosmos are his play and             
playthings40--,p41 p4 #bja4    ,as the  
word ,investigation certainly implies   
activity1 it may be  permissible to     

wonder why ,mr4 ,mc,dougall has not made
 use of the terms  8,the ,instinct of   
,investigation and the ,emotion of      
,curiosity10 the more  so that he       
himself has clearly a strong inclination
 to use the word  curiosity to express  
emotion4#ca    ,imitation1 as we have   
seen1#cb is1 according to ,froebel1     
action which  renders a child conscious 
of what is around him1 conscious of his 
inner  life of perceptions1 ideas and   
feelings1 conscious of his own power4   
,froebel also points out that imitation1
 as well as habit1 is the outcome  of a 
more fundamental impulse to activity4   
8,it is just as important to notice the 
habits of a child1      especially with 
regard to cause and effect1 as it is to 
notice      and to foster its impulse to
 activity4''' ,as now habit springs     
from free and spontaneous activity1 so  
too does imitation1 and      it is no   
less important for the fostering of     
child-life to keep      in view this    
origin of imitation1 than it is to keep 

in view      the phenomena of habit1    
custom and independent activity4 ,for   
we see the whole inner life of the child
 manifest itself as a      tri-unity in 
the threefold phenomenon of spontaneous 
activity1      habit and imitation4     
,these three phenomena are closely      
united      in early childhood1 and give
 us most important discoveries          
concerning child-life1 as to foundation 
and result and surest      guides for   
the early correct treatment of the      
child40--,p41 p4      #bg4    ,mr4      
,mc,dougall notes 8at least three       
distinct classes0 of imitative  actions4
 ,the first class consists of expressive
 actions1 secondary to  the sympathetic 
induction of the emotions they express1 
as when a child  responds to a smile    
with a smile1 and here we remember how  
,froebel notes  the child's first smile 
to his mother as the earliest sign of   
what he  calls 8the feeling of          
community40 ,the third class is the     
deliberate and  voluntary imitation of  

an admired person1 which does not       
concern us here4  ,the second class are 
8simple ideo-motor actions evoked by the
 visual  presentation of a movement10   
and as a parallel to this we have       
,froebel's  8working of the inner       
activity wakened by the sight of outer  
activity40        8,the smallest child  
moves joyfully1 springs gaily1 hops up  
and      down1 or beats with his arms   
when he sees a moving object4 ,this     
is certainly not merely delight in the  
movement of the object      before him1 
but it is the working of inner activity 
wakened in      him by the sight of     
outer activity4 ,through such vision the
      inner life has been               
freed4'''0--,p41 pp4 #bci-dj4    ,a     
point to which exception may well be    
taken is that in the infant  ,froebel   
notes what he seems to regard as a      
fundamental tendency1 the  impulse or   
instinct of activity1 or as he          
frequently puts it1 the impulse  to busy
 oneself1 which1 however1 soon          

differentiates into two more  specific  
tendencies1 viz4 the impulse to         
investigate and the constructive        
impulse4        8,what formerly the     
child did only for the sake of activity1
      the boy now does for the sake of  
the result or product of his            
activity4 ,the child's impulse to       
activity 7,thtigkeitstrieb7      has in 
the boy become a constructive1 a        
formative impulse                       
7,bildungs-,gestaltungstriebe71 in which
 the whole outer life of      the boy   
finds at this stage its outlet40--,e41  
p4 #ii4    ,it may be worth mentioning  
that ,groos would like to assume a      
8universal  impulse to activity10 and   
though he 8can only hold fast to the    
primal  need for activity10 yet         
according to him ,ribot approaches this 
assumption4--78,the ,play of ,man10 p4  
#c74    ,even in the infant1 however1   
this instinct or impulse to activity is 
devoted to 8penetrating what is outer10 
and the ,kindergarten1 meant for        

children from three to six1 is intended 
to foster the three instincts1          
activity1 investigation and             
construction1 as well as to cultivate   
the  social instinct by placing a little
 child among his equals4 ,froebel       
describes it in his plan as3        8,an
 ,institution for fostering of family   
life and for shaping      the life of   
the nation and human life generally1    
through      cultivating the human      
instincts of activity1 of investigation 
7,forschungstrieb71 and of construction 
in the child1 as a      member of the   
family1 of the nation1 and of           
humanity4'''0--,p41      p4 #f4    ,as  
regards the child1 the word ,trieb1     
which is exactly equal to impulse1      
seems to be applied only in one other   
direction1 to what we would call  the   
social instinct1 and here again ,froebel
 shows his recognition of the  vagueness
 and indefiniteness of early            
consciousness4 ,as he attributes to  the
 infant the one impulse to activity     

which differentiates later into         
,investigation and ,construction1 so in 
the infant he recognizes a 8feeling  of 
community0 7,gesammtgefhl71 but says    
that it differentiates later into       
something more definite4#cc        8,the
 development of man constitutes an      
unbroken whole1 steadily      and       
continuously progressing1 gradually     
ascending4 ,the feeling      of         
community 7,gemeingefhl7 awakened in the
 infant1 develops      in the child into
 impulse1 inclination 7entwickelt sich  
in dem      ,kinde der ,trieb1 die      
,neigung740--,e41 p4 #ie4    ,under the 
important ,instinct of ,investigation1  
or the ,instinct for                    
,self-,instruction1 ,froebel includes a 
great deal4 ,many different  activities 
until recently somewhat carelessly      
talked of collectively  as 8play10      
,froebel has separated and explained as 
the child's way of  investigating his   
surroundings4 ,even 8the earliest       
activity and first  action of the       

child10 ,froebel says1 shows 8the       
instinct to self-teaching  and          
self-instruction40    ,imitative action 
or imitative play is always referred to 
as action which  helps towards          
understanding of the surroundings4 ,in  
the 8,mother ,songs0 we  read3          
8,your child will certainly understand  
all the better if you      make him take
 a part--though it be only by           
imitation--in      what grown-up people 
are doing in their anxiety to maintain  
life4'''0--,m41 p4 #ada4        8,i have
 already said that this little game     
arose because people      felt that a   
child's love of activity1 and his       
striving to get      the use of his     
limbs1 ought to be carried on in such a 
way      as to lift him at once into the
 complexity of the life which           
surrounds him4''' ,pray do not disturb  
them in their ingenious      charming   
play 7saying grace over the dolls'      
feast71 but rather      avoid noticing  
it if you cannot identify yourself with 

its      charm4''' ,for how is your     
child to cultivate in himself the       
feeling of what is holy1 if you will not
 grant that it takes      form for him  
in all its purity in his innocent       
games40--,m41 p4      #adh4             
8,what man tries to represent he begins 
to understand40--,e41 p4      #gf4      
,representation1 however1 may be carried
 out in many ways1 by the use of        
material1 as well as by bodily action so
 that the constructive instinct  also   
subserves that of investigation4        
8,to grasp a thing through life and     
action is much more      developing1    
cultivating and strengthening than      
merely to      receive it through the   
verbal communication of ideas4          
,similarly1 representation of a thing by
 material means1 in life      and       
action1 united with thought and speech1 
is more developing      than merely     
verbal representation of ideas40--,e41  
p4 #bgi4        8,the child must        
perceive and grasp his own life in an   

objective      manifestation before he  
can perceive and grasp it in himself4   
,this law of development1 prescribed by 
,nature and by the      essential       
character of the child1 must always be  
respected and      obeyed by the true   
educator4 ,its recognition is the aim of
 my      gifts and games apprehended    
relatively to the educator40--,p41      
p4 #ch4    ,here ,froebel has plainly   
stated the main object of his specially 
selected  play-material4 ,the ordinary  
parent not being 8the man advanced in   
insight10 who 8makes clear to himself   
the purpose of playthings10 ,froebel    
often saw children supplied with        
expensive but unsuitable toys1 toys     
which would not bring the child any     
nearer his destination1 8to have  power 
and understanding1 to become ever more  
and more self-conscious and             
self-determining40        8,here1 then1 
we meet as a great imperfection in      
ordinary      playthings1 a disturbing  
element which slumbers like a viper     

under roses1 viz4 that it is too        
complex1 too much finished4      ,the   
child can begin no new thing with it1   
cannot produce enough      variety by   
it2 his power of creative imagination1  
his power of      giving outward form to
 his own idea is thus actually deadened4
      ,when we provide children with too
 finished playthings1 we      deprive   
them of the incentive to perceive the   
particular in      the general 7,p41 p4 
#abb74''' ,what presents are most prized
      by the child8 ,those which afford 
him a means of unfolding      his inner 
life most freely and of shaping it in   
various      directions40--,p41 p4 #adb4
        8,the man1 advanced in insight1 
should be as clear as possible      in  
his own mind about all this before he   
introduces his      child into the outer
 world4 ,even when he gives the child a 
plaything1 he must make clear to himself
 its purpose1 and the      purpose of   
playthings and occupation material in   
general4 ,this      purpose is1 to aid  

the child freely to express what is in  
him and to bring the phenomena of the   
outer world nearer to      him40--,p41  
p4 #aga4        8,to realize his aims1  
man1 and more particularly the child1   
requires material1 if it be only a bit  
of wood or a pebble with      which he  
makes something or which he makes into  
something4 ,in      order to lead the   
child to the handling of material1 we   
gave      him the soft ball1 the wooden 
sphere and cube1 etc41 discussed      in
 the chapters on the ,kindergarten      
,gifts4 ,each of these gifts            
incites the child to free spontaneous   
activity1 to independent                
movement40#cd--,p41 p4 #bcg4    ,as the 
child grows older his constructions     
advance1 but still they  connect        
themselves with investigating3          
8,here he makes a little garden under   
the hedge2 there he      represents the 
course of the river in his furrow and in
 his      ditch2 there he studies the   
effects of the fall or pressure of      

water upon his little                   
water-wheel40--,e41 p4 #aje4            
,investigating naturally leads to       
exploring1 8external objects invite him 
who would bring them nearer to move     
toward them10 and so the child once  he 
is able to stand begins to travel3      
8,when the child makes his first        
attempts at walking he      frequently  
tries to go to some particular object4  
,this effort      may have its source in
 the child's desire to hold himself     
firm and upright by it1 but we also     
observe that it gives him      pleasure 
to be near the object1 to touch it1 to  
feel it1 and      perhaps also--a new   
phase of activity--to be able to move   
it4      ,hence we see the child hops up
 and down before it and beats      on it
 with his little hands1 in order to     
assure himself of      the reality of   
the object1 and to notice its           
qualities4''' ,each      new phenomenon 
is a discovery in the child's small and 
yet      rich world--e4g4 one can go    

round the chair1 one can stand          
before1 behind1 beside it1 but one      
cannot go behind the bench      or the  
wall4 ,he likes to change his           
relationship to different      objects1 
and through these changes he seeks      
self-recognition      and               
self-comprehension1 as well as          
recognition of the different            
objects which surround him1 and         
recognition of his environment      as a
 whole4 ,each little walk is a tour of  
discovery2 each      object is an       
,america--a new world1 which he either  
goes around      to see if it be an     
island1 or whose coast he follows to    
discover if it be a continent40--,p41 p4
 #bdc4    ,the boy has lost none of this
 tendency to explore1 but he goes       
further  afield1 and it is worth noting 
that because the boy has a distinct     
purpose in view his exploring is        
distinctly called work4        8,if     
activity brought joy to the child1 work 
now gives delight      to the boy4      

,hence the daring and venturesome feats 
of boyhood2      the explorations of    
caves and ravines2 the climbing of trees
      and mountains2 the searching of   
heights and depths2 the roaming         
through fields and forests4''' ,to climb
 a new tree means to      the boy the   
discovery of a new world4''' ,not less  
significant      of development is the  
boy's inclination 7,neigung7 to descend 
into caves and ravines1 to ramble in the
 shady grove and dark                   
forest40--,e41 pp4 #ajb-e4    ,even the 
baby shows trace of the collecting or   
acquiring instinct1 but to  ,froebel    
this still falls under the head of      
investigation4 ,the child who  has just 
learned to walk is3        8attracted by
 the bright round smooth pebble1 by the 
quaint      brilliant leaf1 by the      
smooth piece of wood1 and he tries to   
get hold of these with the help of the  
newly acquired use of      his limbs4   
,look at the child that can scarcely    
keep himself      erect and that can    

walk only with the greatest care--he    
sees      a twig1 a bit of straw2       
painfully he secures it4''' ,see the    
child laboriously stooping and slowly   
going forward under the      eaves4 ,the
 force of the rain has washed out of the
 sand small1      smooth1 bright        
pebbles1 and the ever-observing child   
gathers      them40--,e41 p4 #gb4       
,the boy1 still only from six to eight  
years old1 keeps up the collecting      
habit with more method and with a wider 
range1 and he demands assistance4       
8,not less full of significance1 nor    
less developing1 is the      boy's      
inclination to descend into caves and   
ravines1 to ramble      in the shady    
grove and in the dark forest4 ,it is the
 effort      7,streben7 to seek and find
 the new1 to see and discover the       
hidden1 the desire to bring to light and
 to appropriate that      which lies    
concealed in darkness and shadow4       
8,from these rambles the boy returns    
with rich treasures of      unknown     

stones and plants1 of animals--worms1   
beetles1 spiders      and lizards1 that 
dwell in darkness and concealment4      
#8,what      is this8 ,what is its      
name8' etc41 are the questions to be    
answered2 and every new word enriches   
his world and throws      light upon his
 surroundings4 ,beware of greeting him  
with the      exclamation1 #8,fie1 throw
 that down1 that is horrid6' or #8,drop 
that1 it will bite you6' ,if the child  
obeys1 he drops and      throws away a  
considerable portion of his             
power40--,e41 p4 #ajd4    ,this         
quotation brings us to another mode of  
investigation1 that of asking           
questions1 which ,froebel was not likely
 to miss4        8,the child1 your      
child1 ye fathers1 follows you wherever 
you      go4 ,do not harshly repel him4 
,show no impatience about his           
ever-recurring questions4 ,every harshly
 repelling word crushes      a bud of   
his tree of life4''' ,question upon     
question comes from      the lips of the

 boy thirsting for knowledge--,how8     
,why8 ,when8      ,what for8 and every  
satisfactory answer opens to him a new  
world40--,e41 p4 #hf4    ,professor     
,o',shea has an interesting section on  
what he calls 8,the  ,sense of          
,location10 which he says is 8at the    
bottom of one of the most  interesting  
and important phenomena of              
adjustment--the questioning  activity40 
,so it may be worth while to notice that
 ,froebel1 whom the  ,professor has     
dismissed with one slighting reference1 
has been beforehand  with him here1 and 
has dealt with this same early beginning
 in one of his  earliest ,mother ,songs1
 viz4 8,it's all ,gone10 where he says  
to the mother3        8,how can the     
child understand that anything is 8all  
gone10 yet      he must see sense in it 
or he will not be satisfied4 ,what he   
saw just now is there no longer1 what   
was above is below1 what      was there 
has vanished40--,m41 p4 #ah4            
,questioning implies language1 but      

,froebel has no language instinct4 ,he  
does1 however1 call speech immediate    
7unmittelbar71 usually translated       
8innate10 and he does say that because  
others talk to him1 the child's         
capacity for speech will develop of     
necessity and will break forth          
spontaneously4    ,it is in connection  
with the child's earliest investigations
 that ,froebel  brings in the learning  
to speak4 ,in 8,the ,education of ,man10
 he notes  how the young child brings   
all his discoveries1 8his treasures10 to
 the  mother's lap1 and she is warned to
 give the right kind of help and at the 
right time4        8,it is the longing  
for interpretation that urges the child 
to      appeal to us1 it is the intense 
desire for this that urges him      to  
bring his treasures to us and to lay    
them in our laps4 ,the      child loves 
all things that enter his small horizon 
and extend      his little world4 ,to   
him the least thing is a new discovery2 
but it must not come dead into the      

little world1 nor lie dead      therein 
lest it obscure the small horizon and   
crush the little      world40--,e41 p4  
#gc4    ,all the help the mother need   
give at first is to supply names1 since 
as  ,froebel says1 8the name1 as it     
were1 creates the thing for the child40 
,later she must help him to compare and 
classify4        8,how little is needed 
from those around the child to aid him  
in this tendency 7to seek for           
knowledge74 ,it is only necessary       
to name1 to put into words what the     
child does1 sees and      finds40--,e41 
p4 #ge4        8,it is as well while the
 child is making these first            
experiments 7at walking about the room7 
to name the      objects--e4g4 ,there is
 the chair1 the table1 etc4''' ,the     
object      of giving these names is not
 primarily the development of      the  
child's power of speech1 but to assist  
his comprehension      of the object1   
its parts and its properties by defining
 his      sense-impressions4 ,by a rich 

store of such experiences      the      
capacity for speech develops of         
necessity1 and speech      breaks forth 
of itself1 as it were1 through          
heightened mental      self-activity in 
accordance with the nature of           
mind40--,p41 p4      #bdb4              
,expression1 of course1 of which speech 
is but one form1 is to ,froebel         
all-important4 8,speech10 he says1 is   
8required and conditioned by  the       
attainment to consciousness10 and as    
self-consciousness is the               
characteristic of humanity1 so speech is
 8the first manifestation of  mankind40 
,in his 8,autobiography0 ,froebel       
writes3        8,mankind as a whole1 as 
one great unity1 had now become my      
quickening thought4 ,i kept this        
conception continually before      my   
mind4 ,i sought after proofs of it in my
 little world within      and in the    
great world without me2 ,i desired by   
many a struggle      to win it1 and then
 to set it worthily forth4 ,and thus ,i 

was      led back to the first          
appearance of man upon our earth1 and to
      the first manifestation of        
mankind1 his speech40--,a41 p4 #hd4     
,in talking of the mother's play with an
 infant he says that she  accompanies   
every action with words1 8even if       
obliged to confess that  there can be no
 understanding of the spoken word10 as  
8the general sense  of hearing is not   
yet developed1 still less the special   
sense of hearing  words40 ,froebel says 
she is right3        8for that which    
will one day develop and which must     
originate1      begins and must begin   
when there is as yet only the           
conditions1      the possibility        
thereof4 ,thus it is with the attainment
 of      the human being to             
consciousness1 and the speech required  
and      conditioned by                 
consciousness40--,p41 p4 #dj4    ,words1
 says ,froebel1 first separate the child
 from the world outside him4        8,up
 to this stage 7the beginning of        

speech71 the inner being      of man is 
still an unmembered1 undifferentiated   
unity4 ,with      language1 the         
expression and representation of the    
internal      begin2 with language1     
organization1 or a differentiation with 
reference to ends and means sets        
in40--,e41 p4 #ej4    ,both in the      
earlier 8,education of ,man10 and in his
 later writings ,froebel  uses the      
strong expression that 8the word creates
 the thing0 for the  child1 and in one  
passage he adds that by language the    
idea is defined  and retained4          
8,this period is pre-eminently the      
period of the development of            
speech4 ,therefore in all the child did1
 it was indispensable      that what he 
did should be clearly designated by     
words4 ,every      object1 every thing  
became such1 as it were1 only through   
the      word2 before it had been named 
although the child might have           
seemed to see it with the outer eyes1 it
 had no existence for      the child4   

,the name1 as it were1 created the thing
 for the      child2 hence the name and 
the thing seemed to be one40--,e41 p4   
#ij4        8,through her little rhymes 
the mother will make clear to the       
little one what he has done1 and so his 
accidental productions      will become 
a point of departure for his            
self-development4 ,word      and form   
are opposite and yet related4 ,hence the
 word should      accompany the form as 
its shadow4 ,in a certain sense1 giving 
a form a name really creates the form   
itself4 ,through the      name1         
moreover1 the form is retained in memory
 and defined in      thought40--,p41 p4 
#aib4    ,of very early speech ,froebel 
says that it shows3        8the         
peculiarity and requirement of the human
 mind to render      itself intelligible
 to clarify itself by communication with
      others40--,p41 p4 #ef4    ,having 
investigated his surroundings1 near or  
far1 and collected  what seems to him   
attractive1 the child1 whether older or 

younger1  arranges his treasures in some
 way1 and this arrangement implies some 
comparison4 8,like things must be ranged
 together and things unlike must  be    
separated10 says ,froebel of the child  
8scarce able to walk10 who has          
collected 8the small1 smooth1 pebbles   
washed out of the sand by the  rain40   
,this 8arranging objects of each kind   
singly in a row0 is at first  no doubt  
only a recognition of the like and      
unlike1 but ,froebel notes  that it is  
also one way in which the child may     
arrive at 8the capacity  for counting0  
by which his sphere of knowledge is     
again extended4        8,the knowledge  
of the relations of quantity adds much  
to a      child's life4''' ,at first he 
places together similar objects4'''     
,who has not had frequent opportunity to
 observe how the child      arranges the
 objects of each kind singly in a row4  
,let the      mother supply the         
quickening word1 saying ,apple1 apple1  
apple1      etc4 ,all apples4 ,pear1    

pear1 pear1 etc4 ,all pears4''' ,one    
pear1      another apple1 another       
apple4''' ,instead of the indefinite    
word      8another0 the mother          
subsequently uses the numerals1 counting
      together with the child1 thus3    
,one apple1 two apples1 three           
apples1 etc40--,e41 p4 #hj4    ,to many 
children1 however1 counting may come    
through efforts to draw4 ,i  have seen a
 child of four-and-a-half1 in drawing a 
man1 make a line for  the arm1 then lay 
down her pencil to count her own fingers
 and then draw  five lines for the man's
 hand4 ,froebel says3        8,the      
representation of objects by drawing1   
and the exact      perception           
conditioned and required by the         
representation1 soon      leads the     
child quickly to recognize the          
constantly repeated      association of 
certain numbers of different            
objects--e4g4 two      eyes and two     
arms1 five fingers1 etc4 ,thus the      
drawing of the      object leads to the 

discovery of number4''' ,by the         
development of      the capacity for    
counting1 the child's sphere of         
knowledge1 his      world1 is again     
extended4''' ,he was unable to determine
 relative      quantities1 but now he   
knows that he has two large and three   
small pebbles1 four white and five      
yellow flowers10 etc4--,e41      p4 #hj4
    ,yet another mode of ,investigation 
is that of ,experimenting2 every normal 
child is what ,froebel calls 8a         
self-teaching scientist40        8,the  
material must be known not only by its  
name1 but by its      qualities and     
uses4''' ,for this reason the child     
examines the      object on all sides2  
for this reason he tears and breaks it2 
for this reason he puts it in his mouth 
and bites it4 ,we      reprove the child
 for his naughtiness and foolishness2   
and      yet he is wiser than we who    
reprove him4 ,an instinct which      the
 child did not give himself1 the        
instinct which rightly      understood  

and rightly guided would lead him to    
know ,god in his      works1 drives him 
to this40--,e41 p4 #gc4    ,it may well 
be through his ceaseless experimenting  
that the little child  begins to draw1  
gains what the late ,mr4 ,ebenezer      
,cooke called 8a language  of line10 or 
as ,froebel puts it1 notices 8linear    
phenomena1 which direct  his attention  
to the linear properties of surrounding 
objects40        8,a child has found a  
pebble1 a fragment of lime or chalk4 ,in
      order to determine by experiment  
its properties1 he has rubbed      it on
 a board near by1 and has discovered its
 property of      imparting colour4 ,see
 how he delights in the newly discovered
      property1 how busily he makes use 
of it6 ''' but soon he begins      to   
find pleasure in the winding1 straight1 
curved1 and other      forms that       
appear4 ,these linear phenomena direct  
his attention      to the linear        
properties of surrounding objects4 ,now 
the      head becomes a circle1 and now 

the circular line represents      the   
head1 the elliptical curve connected    
with it represents      the body2 arms  
and legs appear as straight or broken   
lines1      and these again represent   
arms and legs2 the fingers he sees      
as straight lines meeting in a common   
point1 and lines so      connected are1 
for the busy child1 again hands and     
fingers2 the      eyes he sees as dots1 
and these again represent eyes2 and thus
      a new world opens within and      
without4 ,for what man tries to         
represent1 that he begins to            
understand40--,e41 p4 #ge4    ,i have   
watched a child go through the process  
of discovering 8linear  phenomena10 just
 as ,froebel describes it1 no doubt from
 his own  observation4 ,a boy of three1 
having folded a piece of paper for the  
roof  of a house1 was colouring it1 by  
rubbing on red chalk1 when he called    
out1 8,oh6 ,i'm making lines40 ,the     
other children went on rubbing1 but     
,phil  made 8lines0 till the roof was   

finished4    ,but ,froebel does not     
leave unnoticed the fact that the very  
earliest  8drawing0 is an outgrowth of  
the muscular action to which his        
instinct  of activity is urged by the   
stimulus of contact4        8,would you 
know how to lead the child in this      
matter8 ,watch      him1 he will teach  
you what to do4 ,see6 he is tracing the 
table      by passing his fingers along 
its edges and outlines as far as      he
 can reach1 he is sketching the object  
on itself4 ,this is      the first and  
the safest step by which he becomes     
aware of the      outlines and forms of 
objects4 ,in this way he sketches and so
      studies the chair1 the bench1 the 
window4 ,but soon he advances4      ,he 
draws lines across the four-cornered bit
 of board1 across      the leaf of the  
table1 or the seat of the chair1 in the 
dim      anticipation that so he can    
retain the forms and relations of       
the surfaces4 ,now1 already he draws the
 form diminished4        8,see6 there   

the child has drawn table1 chair and    
bench on a      leaf of the table4 ,do  
you not see how he spontaneously trained
      himself for this8 ,objects which  
he could move1 which were in      sight1
 he laid on the board1 and drew their   
form on the plane      surface1         
following the boundaries of the objects 
with his      hands4 ,soon scissors and 
boxes1 and later leaves and twigs1      
even his own hand and the shadows of    
objects will thus be      copied4       
8,much is developed in the child by this
 action1 more than      it is possible  
to express--a clear comprehension of    
form1      the possibility of           
representing the form separate from the 
object1 the possibility of retaining the
 form as such1 and      the             
strengthening and fitting of hand and   
arm for the free      representation of 
form40--,e41 p4 #gg4    ,here1 perhaps1 
is the right place to introduce what    
,froebel had to say  about the artistic 
tendencies of children1 since ,art1 to  

him1 is always  expression4             
8,absolutely nothing can appear1 nothing
 visible and sensible      can come     
forth1 that does not hold within itself 
the living      spirit2 that does not   
bear upon its surface the imprint of the
      living spirit of the being by whom
 it has been produced1 and      to whom 
it owes its existence4 ,and this is true
 of the work      of every human        
being--from the highest artist to the   
meanest      labourer--as well as of the
 works of ,god1 which are ,nature1 the  
creation1 and all created things40--,e41
 p4 #aec4    ,so1 when ,froebel comes to
 speak of art as a subject of the school
  curriculum he says3 8,here1 art will  
be considered only as the pure          
representation of the inner '''         
differentiated according to the material
  it uses1 whether motion1 as such1     
audible in sound1 or visible in lines1  
surfaces and colours1 or massive02 and  
he adds3        8,we noticed that even  
at an earlier stage children have the   

desire to draw1 but the desire also to  
express ideas by      modelling and     
colouring is frequently found at this   
earlier      stage of childhood1        
certainly at the very beginning of the  
stage of boyhood 7from six years old74  
,this proves that art      and          
appreciation of art constitute a general
 capacity or talent      of man1 and    
should be cared for early1 at latest in 
boyhood4        8,this does not imply   
that the boy is to devote himself       
chiefly      to art1 and is to become an
 artist2 but that he should be          
enabled to understand and appreciate    
true works of art4 ,at      the same    
time1 a true education will guard him   
from the error      of claiming to be an
 artist unless there is in him the true 
artistic calling40--,e41 p4 #bbg4    ,in
 connection with the mother's           
instinctive rhythmic crooning and       
dandling of the infant1 ,froebel says3  
8,thus the genuine natural mother       
cautiously follows in all               

directions the slowly developing        
all-sided life of the      child4       
,others suppose him to be empty4'''     
,thus those means      of cultivation   
that lead so simply and naturally to the
      development of rhythm are lost4'''
 ,nevertheless an early      development
 of rhythmic movement would prove most  
wholesome4'''      ,even very small     
children1 in moments of quiet1 and      
particularly      when going to sleep1  
will hum little strains of songs they   
have      heard2 and this should be     
heeded and developed as the first       
germ of future growth in melody and     
song4 ,undoubtedly this      would soon 
lead in children to a spontaneity such  
as is shown      by children in the use 
of speech40--,e41 p4 #ga4    ,in the    
8,mother ,songs10 too1 ,froebel writes3 
8,hence it is so very important to rouse
 at least the germs      of all this    
7the perceiving of harmony in sound and 
form and      colour7 early in a human  
being4 ,if they do not develop and take 

shape as independent formations in life1
 they at least teach      how to        
understand and recognize those of other 
people4 ,this is      life-gain enough4 
,it makes a person's life richer--richer
 by      the lives of others4 ,and how  
could our earthly life be long          
enough to form our being with equal     
perfection on all sides4      ,we can   
only do it by knowing and respectfully  
recognizing in      the mirror of the   
lives of others what we should like to  
carry      out ourselves4 ,and this is  
as it should be1 for it is by means     
of knowledge1 regard for and respectful 
recognition of others1      that the    
whole of humanity ought to represent the
 whole of a      ,god-like harmonious   
human being40--,m41 p4 #afb4    ,in what
 he says of the ,interest in ,stories1  
,froebel again seems to  show deeper    
insight than either ,mr4 ,eby or        
,professor ,kirkpatrick4 ,mr4           
,mc,dougall does not touch upon the     
subject4 ,it is still the outcome of the

  child's instinctive desire to         
understand himself and his surroundings4
  ,froebel says very truly that he can  
only understand others in proportion  as
 he understands himself1 and can only   
learn to understand himself1  his own   
life1 by comparing it with that of      
others4 ,the desire for  stories is 8a  
striving1 a longing1 a demand of the    
mind0 7ein ,streben1  eine ,sehnsucht1  
eine ,forderung des ,gemthes74 ,for the 
little one1 the  simplest story of the  
mother bird feeding her young ones is a 
help to the  understanding of his own   
life1 makes his own life objective2 the 
mother's  8effective story will hold up 
a looking-glass to the child1 especially
  if it be told at the right time40 ,for
 the boy the story does the same  and   
also answers to his instinctive demand  
not only to understand the  present1 but
 the past3        8,it is the innermost 
desire and need of a vigorous1 genuine  
boy      to understand his own life1 to 
get a knowledge of its nature1      its 

origin and outcome4 ,only the study of  
the life of others      can furnish such
 points of comparison with the life he  
himself      has experienced4 ,in these 
the boy1 endowed with an active life    
of his own1 can view the latter as in a 
mirror and learn to      appreciate its 
value4 ,this is the chief reason why    
boys are      so fond of stories1       
legends and tales2 the more so when     
these      are told as having actually  
occurred at some time1 or as lying      
within the reach of probability1 for    
which1 however1 there are      scarcely 
any limits for a boy40--,e41 p4 #cje4   
8,the existence of the present teaches  
him the existence of the      past4     
,that1 which was before he was1 he would
 know2 he would      know the reason1   
the past cause of what now is4 ,who     
fails to      remember the keen desire  
that filled his heart when he beheld    
old walls1 and towers1 ruins1 monuments 
and columns on hill and      the        
roadside--to hear others give accounts  

of these things1      their times and   
causes ''' thus is developed the desire 
and      craving for tales1 legends1 for
 all kinds of stories1 and later        
for historical accounts40--,e41 p4 #aae4
    ,even the fairy story seems to have 
found its legitimate place under  the   
same heading1 the instinct for          
investigation4 ,froebel sees that it    
covers for the little child the ground  
occupied by myth in the primitive       
consciousness4 ,it explains the         
otherwise inexplicable4        8,even   
the present in which the boy lives still
 contains much      that at this period 
of development he cannot interpret1 and 
yet      would like to interpret2 much  
that seems to him dumb1 and which       
he would fain have speak2 ''' and thus  
there is developed in him      the      
intense desire for fables and fairy     
tales which impart      language and    
reason to speechless things--the one    
within1 the      other beyond the limits
 of human relations4 ,surely all must   

have noticed this if they have given    
more than superficial      attention to 
the life of boys at this age4           
,similarly1 they must      have noticed 
that if the boy's desire is not         
gratified by those      around him1 he  
will spontaneously hit upon the         
invention and      presentation of fairy
 tales1 and either work them out in his 
own mind or entertain his companions    
with them4 ,these fairy      tales and  
stories will then very clearly reveal to
 the observer      what is going on in  
the innermost mind of the boy1 though   
doubtless the latter may not himself be 
conscious of it40--,e41      p4 #aaf4   
8,the child1 like the man1 would like to
 learn the significance      of what    
happens around him4 ,this is the        
foundation of the ,greek      choruses1 
especially in tragedy4 ,this1 too1 is   
the foundation      of very many        
productions in the realms of legends and
 fairy      tales1 and is indeed the    
cause of many phenomena in actual       

history4 ,this is the result of the     
deeply-rooted consciousness1      the   
deeply slumbering premonition of being  
surrounded by that      which is higher 
and more conscious than                 
ourselves40--,p41 p4      #adf4    ,the 
outcome of the instinct of construction1
 which is also so closely  connected    
with the instinct of investigation1 is  
that 8sense of  power0 which is         
self-consciousness4 ,without this there 
can be no  self-determination1 but1 says
 ,froebel1 8the sense of power must     
precede  its cultivation40 ,with this   
growing personality1 too1 ,froebel      
connects  what is called the instinct of
 ,acquisition1 which begins when the    
little  child 8painfully secures his bit
 of straw10 and the boy of six to eight 
shows 8the tendency to appropriate what 
he finds in the darkness of cave  and   
forest40        8,the same tendency that
 urges the boy to seek knowledge on     
the mountain and in the valley1 attracts
 and holds him to      the plain4 ,here 

he makes a garden1 there he represents  
the      course of the river1 and       
studies the effect of the presence of   
water ''' here he has dammed up the     
water to form a pool4''' ,he      is    
particularly fond of busying himself    
with clear running      water and with  
plastic materials4 ,in these the boy who
      seeks self-knowledge beholds his  
soul as in a mirror4 ,these             
employments are to him an element of his
 life1 for now1 because      of a       
previously acquired sense of power he   
seeks to control and      master new    
material4 ,everything must submit to his
 constructive      instinct2 there in   
that heap of earth he digs a cellar and 
on      it he places a garden and a     
bench4 ,boards1 branches and poles      
must be made into a hut1 the deep1 fresh
 snow must be rolled up      to form the
 walls and ramparts of a fort1 and the  
rough stones      on the hill are heaped
 together to form a castle4''' ,and thus
      each one soon forms for himself   

his own world2 for the feeling      of  
his own power requires and conditions   
also the possession      of his own     
space and his own material belonging    
exclusively to      him4 ,whether his   
kingdom1 his province1 his estate1 as it
 were1      be a corner of the yard1 or 
of the house1 or whether it be the      
space of a box1 the human being must    
have at this stage an      external     
point to which he refers all his        
activities1 and this      is best chosen
 and provided by himself40--,e41 p4     
#ajf4    ,and here1 just when he is     
emphasizing the fast developing         
consciousness  of self1 with its demand 
for its own space and its own material1 
,froebel  brings out the strength of the
 social instinct in boyhood4 ,it is here
  that he points out that this effort to
 construct has a uniting1 not a         
separating1 tendency4 ,continuous with  
the last quotation comes3        8,when 
the space to be filled is extensive1    
when the province      to be ruled is   

large1 when the whole to be represented 
is      composed of many parts1 then    
brotherly union of those who are      of
 one mind is displayed4 ,and when those 
who are of one mind      meet and put   
their hearts into the same effort1 then 
either      the work already begun is   
extended or begun again as a joint      
production40--,e41 p4 #ajg4    ,froebel 
describes such joint work first in the  
,keilhau schoolroom--his  own phrase is 
8education room0--where the younger boys
 are using building  blocks1 sand1      
sawdust1 and moss1 which they have      
brought in from the  forest around and  
then among the older boys4        8,down
 yonder by the brook1 how busy are the  
older boys with      their work6 ,they  
have made canals with locks1 bridges and
      seaports1 dams and mills1 each    
undisturbed by the others4 ,but      now
 the water is to be used to carry ships 
from one level to      another1 and now1
 at every stage1 each boy asserts his   
own      rights while recognizing the   

rights of others4 ,how can they         
settle their difficulties8 ,only by     
making agreements1 and so1      like    
,states1 they bind themselves by strict 
treaties40--,e41 p4      #aaa4    ,of   
games of physical movement1 running1    
wrestling1 etc41 ,froebel writes3       
8,it is the sense of power1 the sense of
 its increase1 both as      an          
individual and as a member of a group1  
that fills the boy      with joy1 in    
these games4''' ,the boy tries to see   
himself in his      companions1 to weigh
 and measure himself by them1 to find   
and      know himself by their help4    
,thus the games directly influence      
and educate the boy for life1 they awake
 and cultivate many      civic and moral
 virtues4 ,every town should have its   
common      playground for the boys4    
,glorious would be the results from     
this for the entire community4 ,for at  
this stage of development      games    
whenever possible are held in common1   
thus developing      the sense of       

community and the laws and requirements 
of a      community40--,e41 p4 #aac4    
,froebel had studied boys to some       
purpose1 and he tells us not1 however1  
to expect too much in the way of social 
virtues4 ,justice1 self-control1        
honesty1 courage and 8severe criticism  
of pleasant indolence0 may be  expected1
 but mutual forbearance and             
consideration for those who are  weaker 
or less familiar with the game1 though  
not entirely lacking1 are  referred to  
as 8the more delicate blossoms0 of the  
playground4 ,it is here  that he says   
with wise moderation1 8,the feeling of  
power must precede its  cultivation40   
,the social instinct does not suddenly  
spring into existence in boyhood4  ,it  
has its roots in what ,froebel calls the
 ,feeling of ,community which  unites   
the child first with the mother1 then   
with father1 brothers and  sisters4     
8,we cannot deny that there is at       
present among children and      boys    
little gentleness1 mutual forbearance   

''' indeed1 there is      much egotism1 
unfriendliness and roughness4 ,this is  
clearly due      not only to the absence
 of early cultivation of the feeling of 
community1 but this sympathy between    
parents and children is      too often  
disturbed1 yes even annihilated40--,e41 
p4 #aai4    ,the sympathy of the little 
child ought to be trained and is trained
 by  the wise mother always through     
action4        8,mother love seeks to   
awaken and to interpret the feeling     
of community1 which is so important1    
between the child and      the father1  
brother and sister1 saying while she    
draws the      child's little hand      
caressingly across the face of the      
father      or of the little sister1    
#8,love the dear father--the little     
sister4'0--,e41 p4 #fi4    ,in the      
,finger ,play called 8,the ,nest10      
,froebel tells the mother3        8,the 
way lies through our imaginative1 tender
 and emotional      observation of      
,nature and of man's life1 through the  

child's      taking their meaning into  
his own heart and expressing by         
representation what he thus takes in4'''
 ,the child's sympathy      is roused by
 the young creatures' necessities more  
than by      anything1 and chiefly by   
their nakedness and softness40--,m41    
p4 #adi4    ,and the action which       
fosters the growth of sympathy is not to
 be merely  representative2 ,the ,garden
 ,song has this motto3        8,if your 
child's to love and cherish ,life that  
needs him      day-by-day1 ,give him    
things to tend that perish ,if he ever  
stays away40--,m41 p4 #hd4    ,it is    
because 8the desire for unity is the    
basis of all true human  development0   
that the child is to be encouraged to   
help in the work he  sees going on      
around him4        8,family1 family--let
 us say it openly and plainly--you are  
more      than ,school and ,church1 and 
therefore more than all else that       
necessity may have called into being for
 the protection of      right and       

property ''' without you1 what are      
,altar and ,church8'''      ,therefore1 
,mother1 in the little finger game1     
teach your      child some notion of the
 nature of a whole1 especially of a     
family-whole40--,m41 p4 #aei4           
8,we have not yet touched nor even      
considered an important side      of    
child-life1 the side of association with
 father and mother      in their        
domestic duties1 in the duties of their 
calling4'''      7,e41 p4 #hd74 ,do not 
let the urgency of your business tempt  
you to say1 #8,go away1 you only hinder 
me4' ''' ,after a third      rebuff of  
this kind scarcely any child will again 
propose to      help and share the      
work40--,e41 p4 #ii4    ,it is an       
essential part of the ,kindergarten to  
consider the child as a  member of the  
human family4 ,it is described in one   
place as3        8,an establishment for 
training quite young children1 in their 
first stage of intellectual development1
 where their training      and          

instruction shall be based upon their   
own free action      or spontaneity1    
acting under proper rules ''' such rules
 as      are in fact discovered by the  
actual observation of children      when
 associated in companies4 7,l41 p4      
#bea74''' ,practice in      combined    
games for many children1 which will     
train the child1      by his very nature
 eager for companionship1 in the habit  
of      association with comrades1 that 
is1 in good fellowship and all      that
 this implies40--,l41 p4 #beb4    ,among
 his ,group ,instincts ,mr4 ,kirkpatrick
 mentions the ,love of  ,approbation1   
and this receives special attention from
 ,froebel at a  surprisingly early      
stage4 ,it is in the 8,mother ,songs10  
in connection with  his adaptation of an
 old ,german nursery rhyme about knights
 who come to  visit 8a good child10 that
 ,froebel tells the mother that3        
8,a new life stage has begun1 and you1  
dear ,mother1 must use      your best   
and most watchful care1 when first the  

child listens      to a stranger40      
,in the same connection he writes3      
8,the child must be roused to good by   
inclination1 love and      respect1     
through the opinion of others around    
him1 and all      this must be          
strengthened and developed4''' ,when1   
therefore1      ,mother1 observation as 
to the judgment of others awakes in your
      child--when1 separating himself   
and on the watch he brings      himself 
before the judgment of others1 then you 
really have a      double task to       
perform4'''0--,m41 p4 #aij4    ,the     
,love of ,approbation cannot be         
separated from what ,mr4 ,kirkpatrick   
calls the ,regulative1 i4e4 the ,moral  
and ,religious ,instincts1 for it is    
both social and regulative1 and in the  
social instincts ,froebel sees the      
foundation of the religious instincts or
 tendencies1 to which we shall  come    
presently4 ,but he also notes a 8sense  
of order10 as ,mr4 ,sully does  in his  
delightful 8,studies of ,childhood10 and

 this he traces back to very  early     
beginnings1 connecting it with the      
tendency towards rhythm4        8,that  
disorder and rough wilfulness may never 
enter the games1      it is a good plan 
wherever it is possible to accompany    
each      change in the play by rhyme   
and song2 so that the latent sense      
of rhythm and song1 and above all the   
sense of order in the      human being  
and child1 may be aroused and           
strengthened to an      impulse for     
social cooperation40--,p41 p4 #bfg4     
,one of the earliest ,mother ,plays1    
8,tic-tac10 deals with rhythmic         
movement1 and in 8,the ,education of    
,man0 ,froebel takes the beginning  of  
8conscious control0 still further back4 
,his ideal mother fosters  8all-sided   
life10 that is1 she fosters the         
cognitive1 emotional and  conative1 the 
first by calling the child's attention  
to his own body and  his immediate      
surroundings1 and the second by 8seeking
 to awaken and to  interpret the feeling

 of community between the child and the 
father1  brother and sister10 and       
,froebel goes on3        8,in addition  
to the sense of community as such1 the  
germ of      so much glorious           
development1 the mother's love seeks    
also      through movements to lead the 
child to feel his own inner      life4  
,by regular rhythmic movements--and this
 is of special      importance--she     
brings this life within the child's     
conscious      control when she dandles 
him up and down on her hand or arm in   
rhythmic movements and to rhythmic      
sounds4 ,thus the genuine      natural  
mother cautiously follows in all        
directions the slowly      developing   
all-sided life in the child1            
strengthening and      arousing to ever 
greater activity1 and developing the    
all-sided      life within4 ,others     
suppose the child to be empty and wish  
to      inoculate him with life1 and    
thus make him as empty as they          
think him to be40--,e41 p4 #fi4    ,it  

is surprising to find that ,froebel1    
writing so early1 has nothing  at all   
resembling any special 8moral faculty40 
,his references to  8,conscience0 are   
decidedly interesting1 though given in  
quaint connection  with games and rhymes
 for mere babes4 ,he asks why the       
8,where's ,baby80  game gives such      
delight1 and shows his psychological    
insight in the  answer he finds1 viz4   
that it is the feeling or recognition of
 self1 of  personality1 which gives such
 joy4        8,why1 now1 is my child so 
happy over the hiding game8 ,it is the  
feeling of ,personality which already so
 delights the child1 it      is the     
feeling of recognition of his own       
self40#ce    ,the game which follows    
this repeats the hiding experience1 but 
this time  with the cry of 8cuckoo10    
from some one unseen1 and this is       
likened to  the conscience call1 which  
is described as 8consciousness of union 
in  separation and of separateness1 that
 is personality1 in union40--,m41 p4    

#ih4        8,in #8,where's ,baby       
,been8' parting and union seem more     
separate1      as though in order that  
each may become more and more clearly   
conscious of itself2 in #8,cuckoo1'     
parting and union are1 as      it were1 
joined4 ,it is parting in union and     
union in parting      that makes        
#8,cuckoo' such a peculiar game and so  
delightful      to a child4 ,but        
consciousness of union in separation1   
and      of separateness--that is       
personality--in union1 is also the      
essence1 the deep foundation of         
conscience40--,m41 p4 #aig4    ,mr4     
,kirkpatrick's second ,regulative       
instinct or tendency is that of         
,religion1 but ,froebel again1 like ,mr4
 ,mc,dougall1 finds that ,religion has  
its roots in an instinct 8not           
specifically religious10#cf viz4 in the 
,social ,instinct4 ,he says this in     
8,the ,education of ,man0 in the        
plainest  of terms4        8,this       
feeling of ,community first uniting the 

child with      father1 mother1 brothers
 and sisters1 and resting on a higher   
spiritual unity1 to which later on is   
added the discovery that      father1   
mother1 brothers and sisters1 human     
beings in general1      feel and know   
themselves to be in community and unity 
with a      higher principle--with      
humanity1 with ,god--this is the very   
first germ1 the very first beginning of 
all true religious      spirit1 of all  
genuine yearning for unhindered         
unification with      the ,eternal1 with
 ,god40--,e41 p4 #be4    ,it seems quite
 in accordance with this that ,froebel  
should write that he  likes better the  
,german word ,gott-einigkeit--union with
 ,god--than the  foreign word religion2 
and also that he should speak of        
8developing the  sense of kinship with  
man in every child1 and the sense of    
kinship with  ,god in every man40 ,so1  
in his 8,mother ,songs10 he tells the   
mother to give  her child duties to     
perform1 that so he may 8feel his       

kinship0 with her3        8,every age1  
even the age of childhood1 has something
 to cherish      that is plain1 and from
 doing so no exemption can be procured2 
it has therefore its duties4 ,happy is  
it for a child if he      be led to deal
 with them adequately1 and for the      
present      unconsciously4 ,duties are 
not burdens4''' ,fulfilment of duty     
strengthens body and mind1 and the      
consciousness of duty done      gives   
independence2 even a child feels this4  
,see1 ,mother1 how      happy your child
 is in feeling he has done his small    
duties4 ,he      already feels his      
kinship with you thereby40--,m41 p4     
#agd4    ,there is never a separation   
between ,morality and ,religion3        
8,religion without industry1 without    
work1 is liable to be lost      in empty
 dreams1 worthless visions1 idle        
fancies4 ,similarly1      work or       
industry without religion degrades man  
into a beast      of burden1 a machine4 
,work and religion must be simultaneous2

      for ,god1 the ,eternal has been   
creating from all eternity4'''          
,where religion1 industry and           
self-control1 the truly undivided       
trinity rule1 there indeed is heaven    
upon earth40--,e41 p4 #ce4    ,there is 
only one other instinct mentioned by    
,froebel1 and that is the  parental1 or1
 rather1 the maternal instinct4 ,he is  
eager that this  should be recognized as
 an instinct1 but he is equally eager   
that1 like  other human instincts1 its  
action should be determined by          
intelligence4  ,in describing the       
8,plan0 for his ,kindergarten1 ,froebel 
pleads for more  careful observation of 
the child and his relationships1 and    
says that  8thereby03        8,deeper   
insight will be gained into the meaning 
and importance      of the child's      
actions and outward manifestations and  
also into the way of dealing with       
children which has been      evolved    
naturally by the mother led by her pure 
maternal      instinct40--,l41 p4 #bdh4 

,as to the early beginnings of the      
instinct in the little girl we can find 
just a few references1 sufficient to    
show that it did not pass unnoticed1    
and it seems here legitimate to say that
 8the girl anticipates her  destiny10 as
 ,froebel does in speaking of doll-play1
 though certainly this  does not cover  
all such play3        8,the joy of the  
child in its doll has a far deeper human
      foundation than is generally      
supposed--a foundation by no      means 
resting merely in the external          
resemblance ''' the girl                
anticipates her destiny--to foster      
,nature and life40--,p41 p4      #ic4   
,the boy's destiny is 8to penetrate and 
rule ,nature10 so in the 8,mother       
,songs0 ,froebel describes how the boy  
is 8cowering that no sign of life  in   
the chicken family may escape him1 while
 the girl starts up1 all her  care of   
things stirred1 in order to beckon or   
call the hen or cock not  to forget     
their chickens40--,m41 p4 #adc4    ,in  

all his writings1 ,froebel refers to how
 much he has learned from  mothers3 8,it
 was in watching your clever            
mother-doings that ,i learnt40  ,but1 as
 he says of himself1 it was 8a necessary
 part of me to be  irresistibly driven  
to search out the ultimate or primary   
cause of every  fact of life10 and so he
 writes3        8,the natural mother    
does all this instinctively without     
instruction or direction2 but this is   
not enough3 it is needful      that she 
should do it consciously1 as a conscious
 being      acting upon another which is
 growing into consciousness1 and        
consciously tending toward the          
continuous development of the      human
 being40--,e41 p4 #fd4        8,motherly
 and womanly instinct does much of its  
own accord2 but      it often makes     
mistakes40--,l41 p4 #fc4                
8,women's work in education must be     
based not upon natural      instinct1 so
 often perverted or misunderstood1 but  
upon      intelligent knowledge4'''     

,some mothers level the taunt at me that
      ,i1 a man1 understanding nothing  
of a mother's instinct1 should      dare
 to presume to instruct mothers in their
 dealings with      their own           
children4''' ,how could such a thought  
enter my head      as to attempt        
anything against the course of ,nature8 
,my whole      strength is exerted on   
the contrary1 to the work of getting the
      natural instinct and its          
tendencies more rightly understood1     
and more acknowledged2 so that women may
 follow its leadings      as truly as   
possible aided by the higher light of   
intelligent      comprehension1 and yet 
at the same time in all freedom1 and    
with complete individuality40--,l41 p4  
#bei4    ,so1 in what he says of this   
last instinct1 ,froebel is faithful to  
what he  has said of all human          
instincts4        8,man shall assuredly 
not neglect his natural instincts1 still
      less abandon them1 but he must    
ennoble them through his                

intelligence and purify them through his
 reason40          ,,chapter ,,vii      
,,play ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to      
,,work      ,to write even a small book 
on ,froebel without directly touching on
 the  subject of play would be          
impossible1 though in dealing with      
instincts and  the carrying out of      
natural activities we have necessarily  
considered  much that comes under this  
heading4    ,on the educative value of  
play1 ,froebel is recognizedly original1
 and  his views have influenced and are 
influencing schools for young children  
in most civilized countries4 ,indeed1 it
 would be difficult to show that  modern
 writers on play1 in spite of the       
scientific thoroughness of their        
investigations1 classifications and     
terminology1 have made much advance     
upon ,froebel's theories4 ,rather do    
they tend to show how remarkable was    
his insight1 and how surprisingly well  
grounded his theories4    ,nothing1     
however1 has yet been said as to the    

relation of play to work1  no direct    
definition has yet been given1 nor has  
any reference been made  to the now     
familiar theories of play4    ,in       
,froebel's day1 these1 as clearly       
formulated theories1 were  non-existent4
 ,his work was that of a pioneer1 and   
his theory might  have been called that 
of 8,preparation through                
,recapitulation40 ,he  would1 however1  
have allowed that play is sometimes1    
though not always1  recreative1 and he  
makes clear the necessity for what he   
calls 8healthy  vital energy0 7gesunden 
,lebensmuthe71 but he would never have  
called  this mere 8surplus energy10     
because he thought it was not more than 
was  required3        8,the genuine     
schoolboy should be full of life and    
spirit1      strong in body and mind4'''
 ,would that1 in judging the power of   
children and boys1 we might never forget
 the words of one of      our greatest  
,german writers3 that there is a greater
 advance      from the infant to the    

speaking child than there is from the   
schoolboy to a ,newton6 ,now1 if the    
advance is greater1 the      power1 too1
 must be greater2 this we should        
consider40--,e41 p4      #acd4          
,ebers1 the ,egyptologist1 tells us that
 when he was a boy at ,keilhau full     
provision was made for this abounding   
energy4 ,we read of walks long and      
short1 of botanizing and geologizing    
rambles1 of climbing trees and  cliffs  
for birds' eggs1 of which only one might
 be taken from a nest4  ,we hear of     
,indian games out of ,fenimore ,cooper's
 ,leatherstocking ,tales1  of classic   
and other dramas on winter evenings1 and
 of ,homeric battles1  which ,froebel1  
he says1 would have called 8signs of    
creative imagination  and individual    
life40 ,there was swimming and skating  
and coasting and  8the spacious         
wrestling ground with the shooting stand
 and the gymnasium  for every spare     
moment of the winter02 and a piece of   
ground 8assigned  to each pupil1 where  

he could wield spade and pickaxe1 roll  
stones1 sow  and reap40 ,but the great  
game was the ,bergwacht1 where the boys1
 divided  into four parties that all    
might be active1 actually constructed1  
and  then attacked and defended stone   
fortresses4 8,how quickly10 says ,ebers1
  8we learned to use the plummet1 to    
take levels1 hew the stone and wield    
the axe40 ,the weapons were blunted     
stakes4 ,it was forbidden to touch the  
head1 but it was a point of honour among
 the boys to yield as prisoner if       
touched by the pole1 8and what          
self-denial it required60 ,these combats
  were held on fine ,saturday evenings1 
and when all was over 8the women10      
probably the girls of the school        
community1 had lighted fires and made   
supper ready1 and the lads slept in     
their fortresses while two sentinels    
marched up and down1 relieved every     
half-hour4 ,on the ,sunday following    
the boys were not required to go to     
church1 8where we should merely have    

gone to sleep40    ,it has frequently   
been brought as an accusation against   
,froebel that  he makes no clear cut    
distinction between work and play1 and  
that is  true1 but who nowadays does8   
,common sense would probably join hands 
with the philosopher in saying that the 
feeling of freedom is the chief         
distinction of play as opposed to work1 
and this is the definition quite        
distinctly given by ,froebel4 ,the      
definition is given in his detailed     
enumeration of 8the various directions  
of an active life of instruction  and   
education10 and after mentioning        
religious training1 cultivation of  the 
body as the means of expressing mind1   
the study of ,nature1 etc41  etc41 he   
comes to3        8,play1 that is1       
spontaneous representation and exercise 
of      every kind40--,e41 p4 #bcf4     
,another definition given in 8,the      
,first ,action of a ,child0 is3         
8,play1 which is independent outward    
expression of what is                   

within40--,p41 p4 #bi4    ,it is because
 it is spontaneous that ,froebel calls  
play1 during the  period of earliest    
childhood1 when the child is gaining    
control of  language1 8the highest phase
 of human development at this stage40   
8,play and speaking form the element in 
which the child lives      at this      
time4''' ,play is the highest stage of  
child-development1      of human        
development at this stage1 because it is
 spontaneous      7freithtige7          
representation of the inner1            
representation of      the inner out of 
the need and desire of the inner itself4
 ,this      is implied in the very word 
,play40--,e41 p4 #cd4    ,for modern    
views on play we turn to the exhaustive 
study made by ,karl  ,groos in his two  
volumes1 8,the ,play of ,animals10 and  
8,the ,play of ,man40  ,here we find the
 writer taking 8the conception of       
impulse life as a  starting-point10 and 
reaching the conclusion 8that among     
higher animals  certain instincts are   

present which1 especially in youth1 but 
also in  maturity1 produce activity that
 is without serious intent1 and so give 
rise to the various phenomena which we  
include in the word #8play4'0 ,in  this 
play1 ,groos goes on1 8opportunity is   
given to the animal through  the        
exercise of inborn dispositions1 to     
strengthen and increase his  inheritance
 in the acquisition of adaptations to   
his complicated  environment1 an        
achievement which would be unattainable 
by mere  mechanical instinct alone40 ,in
 the treatment of human play he         
considers  8an analogous position is    
tenable10 but1 for the word instinct1   
with its  particular reactions1 he must 
substitute 8natural or hereditary       
impulse40    ,we have already seen that 
though ,froebel recognized the existence
  and importance of human instinct1     
still he distinguished between it  and  
the 8definite and strong instincts0     
which belong to the animals  lower than 
man4 ,we have seen that he regarded the 

play of childhood as  8spontaneous      
self-instruction0 based on the instincts
 of investigation  and of construction  
or representation1 action being regarded
 as the  principal means of             
investigating1 as well as of gaining    
control over  the surroundings and over 
the self4 ,we have noticed1 too1 that   
,groos  feels inclined to assume a      
universal 8impulse to activity10 and    
points  out that ,ribot approaches such 
an assumption1 though for himself he can
  only venture to 8hold fast to the fact
 of the primal need for activity40      
,froebel does1 as we have seen1         
attribute to the infant the one instinct
  of activity1 which in one place he    
calls 8the natural longing for some     
mode of activity inherent in all        
children10 and this he says becomes     
differentiated at a later period4       
,the special place given by ,groos to   
imitation as 8the link between          
instinctive and intelligent conduct0 is 
also noteworthy4 ,for we have  seen that

 ,froebel regards imitation in precisely
 the same light1 never  calling it an   
instinct1 but saying that it is the     
outcome of spontaneous  activity1 and   
that it leads on to understanding4      
8,for what man tries to represent or do 
he begins to      understand40--,e41 p4 
#gf4        8,as now1 habit in the child
 proceeds from spontaneous and          
independent activity1 so also does      
imitation2 ''' the whole      inner life
 of the child shows itself as a         
tri-unity in the      three-fold        
phenomenon of spontaneous activity1     
habit and      imitation40--,p41 p4 #bh4
    ,it is impossible to make plain how 
,froebel regarded play1 until it is     
known how he regarded work1 work1 too1  
not only for a child but for a  human   
being4 ,what he desired for all was work
 which produces joy2 he  calls it 8a    
debasing illusion that man works1       
produces1 creates1 only in  order to    
preserve his body1 only to secure food1 
clothing and shelter40  ,man1 he says1  

works 8primarily and in truth that his  
real essence may  assume outward form10 
and one of his sayings is that 8the true
 spirit of  life is the genuine spirit  
of play40 ,in an ideal state of affairs1
 no  human being would be condemned to  
entirely mechanical work4 ,work 8worthy 
of the nature of man0 is to ,froebel    
work which in some way expresses  the   
man2 mechanical work is dismissed as    
8degrading man into a beast of  burden  
or a machine40 ,it is because man is of 
,god that he must work1 must  produce4  
8,nearer we hold of ,god who gives1 than
 of his tribes who take1 ,i  must       
believe10 is ,froebel's thought in      
,browning's words3        8,each thought
 of ,god is a work1 an act1 a result4'''
 ,god created      man in ,his own      
image4 ,therefore man must create and   
work      like ,god4 ,man's spirit must 
hover over the unformed and move      it
 that figure and form may come forth4   
,this is the higher      meaning1 the   
deep significance1 the great purpose of 

work and      industry1 of working1 and1
 as it is truly significantly called1   
of creating4 ,we become like ,god by    
diligence and industry1 by      work and
 action1 which are accompanied by the   
clear perception      or even the least 
anticipation that thereby we represent  
the      inner by the outer2 that we    
give body to spirit and form to         
thought1 make visible the invisible1    
give an outward transient      existence
 to the eternal that lives in the       
spirit4''' ,early work1      guided in  
accordance with its inner meaning1      
confirms and      elevates religion4    
,religion without work is apt to become 
empty      dreaming40--,e41 p4 #cj4     
8,the boy is to take up his future work 
which now has become his      calling1  
not indolently in sullen gloom1 but     
cheerfully and      joyously1 trusting  
,god1 himself and ,nature1 rejoicing in 
the      manifold prosperity of his     
work4''' ,nor will the father say that  
his son must take up his own business   

''' he will see that every      business
 may be ennobled and made worthy of     
man40--,e41 p4 #bcc4    ,it is too cheap
 a jibe to throw at ,froebel and his    
educational theories  that he makes     
little distinction between work and     
play4 ,it ought never  to come from any 
one who has made even a slight study of 
psychology4  ,the sting is meant to lie 
in the suggestion that play is trifling 
and  easy and that it requires no       
exertion1 while work is serious and     
demands  concentrated effort1 but this  
view will not bear any consideration4   
,every  one knows that the play even of 
an adult1 where the differentiation     
between work and play ought to be more  
possible1 is often most  exhausting1    
either to body or to mind4 ,as to the   
play of childhood1 one  of the best     
known passages in 8,the ,education of   
,man0 is the one in which  ,froebel     
protests that3        8,play at this    
time is not trivial1 it is highly       
serious and of      deep                

significance40--,e41 p4 #ee4    ,it is  
in this passage1 too1 that he speaks of 
the child 8wholly absorbed  in play10   
who after 8playing enduringly even to   
the point of fatigue0 has  fallen asleep
 8while so absorbed10 and calls this    
8the most beautiful  expression of      
child-life at this stage40    ,it is    
,froebel's glory that as early as #ahbf 
he had applied the theory of            
development to education and1 rightly or
 wrongly1 he believed that if we  could 
but supply to our school children       
material suited to their needs          
according to their stage of development1
 they would respond with the same       
eagerness that the younger child shows  
in what we call his play1 but what      
,froebel called his 8self-culture and   
self-education40 ,he states this  view  
quite distinctly3        8,we have      
considered the object and aim of human  
life in      general4''' ,it now remains
 to show in what sequence and           
connection the life impulses of the boy 

develop at this stage1      how and in  
what order and form1 the school should  
work in order      to satisfy human     
instincts in general1 and especially the
      instincts of the boy at this stage
 of school-life4        8,from a        
consideration of the means of           
instruction and manner      of teaching 
thereby conditioned1 which necessarily  
coincide      with the striving of man  
toward development1 what is necessary   
for the knowledge of number1 of space1  
of form1 of exercises      in speech1 of
 writing and of reading comes out       
clearly and      definitely40--,e41 p4  
#bbi4    ,the view that 8the material of
 instruction and the manner of teaching0
  are necessarily conditioned by the    
child's stage of development is a  view 
that has rapidly gained ground4 ,froebel
 did his best to apply it1  and it had a
 partial application in the 8culture    
epochs0 theory of the  ,herbartians4 ,it
 has received a stronger impetus into   
what seems at  present a much truer     

direction1 from the experimental work   
carried out at  ,chicago1 under the     
auspices of ,professor ,dewey4 ,froebel 
maintained that  it was a condition of  
satisfactory work in every subject4 ,for
 example1 in  connection with the       
teaching of writing he says3            
8,here1 as in all instruction1 we should
 start from a definite      need of the 
boy1 a need1 which must1 to a certain   
extent1      have been previously       
developed1 if he is to be taught with   
profit and success4 ,this is the source 
of a multitude of      imperfections in 
our schools1 that we teach without      
having      awakened any need for it1   
nay even after having repressed what    
need was already there6 ,how can        
instruction and the school              
prosper80--,e41 p4 #bbc4    ,froebel    
speaks in the same way of work in       
colours1 saying 8children feel  the need
 of a knowledge of colours40 ,of poetry 
in general1 including  religious verses 
and prayers1 he says 8these must be     

given according to  the requirements of 
the development of the child's mind1 and
 must give  expression to what is       
already there40    ,returning now to the
 subject of play as such1 we find that  
,groos retains  as 8general             
psychological criteria of play10 but two
 8of the elements  popularly regarded as
 essential--namely1 its pleasurableness1
 and the  actual severance from life's  
serious aims40 ,of these he says3 8,both
 are  included in activity performed for
 its own sake40    ,it is in connection 
with very young children that ,froebel  
speaks of  activity for its own sake1   
and here he does not differentiate      
between  work and play4 ,he is true to  
his theory that in all things capable   
of development1 8what is definite       
proceeds everywhere from what is        
indefinite40 ,so he says that3          
8,play is at first just natural         
life40--,e41 p4 #ed4    ,he maintains   
that3        8,the activity of the      
senses and limbs is the first germ or   

bud1      and play1 building and shaping
 7,gestalten7 the first tender          
blossoms of the formative instinct1 and 
that this is the point      of time1 at 
which man is to be prepared for future  
industry1      diligence1 and productive
 activity40--,e41 p4 #cd4    ,but1 in   
the case of the boy a little older1     
though still only seven or  eight1      
,froebel does distinctly differentiate1 
giving the definition of  play already  
quoted1 8spontaneous expression and     
practice of every kind10  and saying of 
work1 that3        8,boys of this age   
should have definite domestic           
occupations1      indeed they could be  
actually instructed by mechanics and    
farmers as has already been done by many
 a father with active      natural      
insight4 ,boys of a somewhat advanced   
age should be      often placed in a    
position to accomplish something with   
their      own hands and their own      
judgment ''' should devote daily at     
least one or two hours to an occupation 

with outward results      ''' after such
 a refreshing work bath1 ,i cannot      
better      designate it1 the mind goes 
with new life to its intellectual       
employments40--,e41 p4 #bcf4    ,of the 
infant1 ,froebel writes3        8,at    
this stage of development the man-to-be 
7dem erschienenen      werdenden        
,menschen7 uses his body1 his senses1   
his limbs1      entirely for that use1  
practice and exercise1 not at all for   
its results1 to which he is quite       
indifferent1 or1 to speak      more     
correctly1 of which he has as yet no    
idea4 ,out of this      comes what      
begins at this stage1 the child's play  
with his      limbs2 with his hands1    
fingers1 lips1 tongue and feet1 and also
      with the movements of his eyes and
 of his face40--,e41 p4 #dh4    ,of the 
older child ,froebel very distinctly    
insists that he wants more  than the    
activity1 that he wants outward result4 
,but the result of which  he speaks is  
one which ,groos himself would not      

disallow4 ,it is only the  outward      
product of the impulse which has been   
gratified1 a result which  is present to
 the mind of the older child1 while to  
the infant no such  consciousness is    
possible4        8,what at an earlier   
stage of childhood was action for the   
sake of the activity1 is now1 in the    
boy1 activity for the      sake of the  
visible result2 the child's instinct of 
activity      has developed into an     
instinct for shaping or giving form1    
and herein lies the solution of the     
whole outer life or outer               
manifestation of boy life at this       
stage40--,e41 p4 #ii4    ,inquiring into
 the kind of pleasure derived from play1
 ,groos finds that  it rests primarily  
on the satisfaction of inborn impulses1 
which press  for discharge1 and he gives
 three special 8inborn necessities which
  ground our pleasure in play--namely1  
the exercise of attention1 the  demand  
to be an efficient cause1 and           
imagination40    ,as to attention1 he   

suggests that it lends a meaning to the 
vague idea  of a general need for       
activity1 speaking of 8the pitiable     
condition of  boredom0 if opportunity is
 withheld4    ,froebel1 of course1 has  
much to say about the instinct of       
activity1  or1 as he usually calls it in
 8,the ,first ,action of a ,child10 the 
instinct of employment                  
7,beschftigungstrieb71 which is         
noticeable 8even  when the so-called    
three months' slumber has just ended40  
,he1 too1  frequently refers to 8the    
ennui and pernicious lack of            
occupation10  to the 8mischievous       
idleness which results from our not     
satisfying or  misdirecting the natural 
longing for activity inherent in all    
children40  ,it is because ,froebel's   
thoughts always run on conscious        
revelation of  the self within as the   
explanation of human life1 that he makes
 so much  of 8the child's instinct to   
employ itself0 7,triebe des ,kindes1    
sich zu  beschftigen74 ,this also       

explains how so much that he says       
corresponds  with what ,groos brings    
forward with regard to 8the joy in being
 a cause10  and its modifications4      
,these modifications are 7a7 pleasure in
 the mere  possession of power1 7b7     
emulation1 when a model is copied1 and  
7c7  in the case of imitative           
competition there is pleasure in        
surpassing  others as well as the       
enjoyment of success resulting from that
 pleasure  of overcoming difficulties   
which comes under the combative         
instinct4    ,froebel is warning parents
 that they must provide for their       
children  opportunity for the exercise  
of the impulse to formative activity by 
letting them help1 even if their help is
 really a hindrance1 and he says3       
8,if his earlier activity was only      
imitation of what he saw      around    
him1 now it is sharing in the business  
of the house1      lifting1 pulling1    
carrying1 digging1 and wood-splitting4  
,in      everything the boy will        

exercise1 measure and compare his       
strength that his body may grow         
stronger1 that his power may            
increase1 and that he may know its      
measure4''' ,at this age the            
healthy boy1 brought up simply and      
naturally1 never avoids a               
difficulty1 never goes round a          
hindrance3 no1 he seeks it out      and 
overcomes it4 #8,let it lie1' calls the 
vigorous youngster      to the father1  
who offers to remove an obstacle2 #8,let
 it lie3      ,i can get over it4' '''  
,as activity gave pleasure to the child1
      so work gives pleasure to the boy4
 ,hence the daring feats of             
boyhood4''' ,easy is the most difficult1
 without peril the most                 
adventurous1 for the impulse comes from 
the innermost nature1      from his     
heart and will40--,e41 p4 #aja4         
8,but it is not only the impulse to use 
and to measure his      power that urges
 the boy to roam and to climb--it is the
 need      to widen his mental          

horizon4''' ,the same desire holds him  
to      the plain ''' he occupies       
himself with water and with plastic     
materials4 ,for he seeks now because of 
the feeling of power      over material 
already gained to master these4         
,everything      must serve his impulse 
towards construction4''' ,and so each   
forms for himself his own world1 for the
 feeling of his own      power demands  
his own space and his own               
material4'''0--,e41 pp4      #ajb-ajg4  
8,but all the plays and occupations of  
boys do not by any means      aim at    
representing objects and things4 ,on the
 contrary1 in      many pure exercise of
 strength and measuring of strength     
predominate1 and many have no further   
aim than the display      of strength4  
,yet the play of this age has always its
 peculiar      characteristic1 namely1  
as during the period of childhood1      
the aim of play consisted simply in     
activity as such1 so      now its aim is
 always a definite conscious purpose1   

which      characteristic develops more 
and more as the boys increase in        
age4 ,this is observable even with all  
games of bodily movement1      of       
running1 boxing1 wrestling1 with        
ball-games1 goal1 hunting1      and war 
games1 etc40        8,it is the sense of
 sure and reliable power1 the sense of  
its      increase both as an individual 
and as a member of the group      that  
fills the boy with all-pervading        
jubilant joy during      these          
games40--,e41 p4 #aac4    ,it is        
evidently difficult even for practised  
thinkers to grasp the  importance of    
what we so glibly call play in the case 
of the young child4  ,mr4 ,kirkpatrick1 
for instance1 fully recognizes its      
importance in regard  to children       
somewhat older1 and he makes a          
suggestive distinction between  play and
 amusement1 calling play active1 while  
amusement is passive4  ,others1 he says1
 work for our amusement4 ,but when he   
speaks of the  infant1 he slips into the

 mistake of saying that the infant1 even
 though  active1 8amuses0 itself4 ,to   
the ordinary observer the whole life of 
a  young child is play1 but it would be 
as correct to say that it is all  work4 
,professor ,stout1 true to what he calls
 the tendency of the moderns to  see in 
the little child what is writ large in  
the adult1 allows 8purely  intellectual 
curiosity0 on the part of the infant4   
,we have no right to  call an infant    
passive and therefore amused even when  
the mother shakes  the rattle for his   
edification4 ,he may be striving hard to
 accommodate  his organs of sight1 he   
may be recalling previous sounds similar
 and  dissimilar1 he may be watching and
 comparing different movements and      
different positions4 ,he has so much to 
learn 8with the world so new and  all10 
and1 to judge from his seriousness1 it  
is at times a most momentous  inquiry4  
,the baby to whom the activity of       
throwing is new1 and who  spends full   
twenty minutes in throwing a tram ticket

 on the floor of the  car--which the    
patient mother restores each            
time--throwing1 too1 with  such force   
and evident purpose1 cannot properly be 
said to be playing4  ,nor can the infant
 who stares with such concentration at  
the lighted lamp  and who1 when the     
mother moves out of the direct range of 
the light1  strives with all its feeble 
strength to readjust its position to    
that  entrancing brightness4    ,of the 
very young child1 ,froebel writes3      
8,the first voluntary employments of the
 child are observation      of its      
surroundings1 spontaneous taking in of  
the outer world1      and play1 which is
 independent outward expression ''' it  
is      evident therefore how important 
is the training ''' and also      the   
kind of voluntary playful occupation of 
the child4''' ,for as      the life of  
man is continuous one can recognize even
 in the      first baby life1 though    
only in the slightest traces and most   
delicate germs1 all the mental          

activities which in later life          
become predominant40--,p41 p4 #bi4      
,when ,groos reaches the pedagogical    
standpoint1 he says3    8,we have       
repeatedly found in the course of this  
inquiry that even the  most serious work
 may include a certain playfulness1     
especially when  enjoyment of being a   
cause and of conquest are prominent4    
,between  flippant trifling1 and        
conscientious study there is a wide     
chasm which  nothing can bridge1 but not
 all play is such trifling4 ,who would  
forbid  the teacher's making the effort 
to induce in his pupils a psychological 
condition like that of the adult worker1
 who is not oppressed by the  shall and 
must in the pursuit of his calling1     
because the very  exertion of his       
physical and mental powers in work1     
involving all his  capabilities1 fills  
his soul with joy8 ,since play thus     
approaches work1  when pleasure in the  
activity as such1 as well as its        
practical aim1  becomes a motive power  

7as in the gymnastic games of adults71  
so may work  become like play1 when its 
real aim is superseded by enjoyment of  
the  activity itself4 ,and it can hardly
 be doubted that this is the highest    
and noblest form of work40#cg    ,it is 
beyond dispute that this is the kind of 
work that ,froebel desired  for all     
humanity1 so it is not surprising if he 
drew no hard and fast  line between work
 and the 8play0 which he insists 8is not
 trivial10  and which he urges parents  
to protect and guide4 ,of play at the   
stage of  boyhood he writes3            
8,joy is the soul of every activity at  
this period40--,e41 p4      #cjd4       
,and in reference to the right kind of  
instruction he says3        8,the union 
of school and life is the first and     
indispensable      requirement ''' if   
men are ever to free themselves from the
      oppressive burden and emptiness of
 merely extraneously      communicated  
knowledge1 heaped up in memory1 if they 
would ever      rise to the joy and     

vigour of a knowledge of the real nature
      of things1 to a living knowledge  
of things4''' ,mankind is meant      to 
enjoy a degree of knowledge and insight1
 of energy and      efficiency1 of which
 at present we have no conception2 for  
who      has measured the limits of     
,god-born mankind6 ,the boy is to take  
up his work which has now become his    
calling1 not indolently in      sullen  
gloom1 but cheerfully and               
joyously40--,e41 pp4 #bcj-bcc4    ,one  
distinct line of division is that drawn 
by ,groos when he says that  with young 
animals and probably with children      
8their first manifestation  of what is  
afterwards experimentation1 fighting and
 imitative play1 etc41  is rarely       
conscious1 and therefore we cannot      
assert with assurance that  it is       
pleasurable40#ch ,in this case he says  
the biological but not the              
psychological germ of play is present4  
,froebel never lost sight of the        
psychological point of view in so far as

 his desire always was to see  what the 
action meant to the actor1 what the     
child's play meant to the  child1 and   
also in that he desired all the activity
 to be joyous1 to be  performed for its 
own sake4 ,but it was really the        
biological view that  he endeavoured to 
reach and to set forth4    ,coming now  
to the ,theories of ,play1 it seems     
clear that1 if he had  ever heard of    
them1 ,froebel would have endeavoured to
 combine those of  ,recapitulation and  
,preparation4 ,he states quite plainly  
that these are  not incompatible1       
recognizing that in any work or play1 by
 which the  child retraces past stages  
of human development1 he gains what is  
most  necessary for his own future life1
 control over his surroundings as well  
as over himself1 something after the    
manner in which these have been  gained 
by the race4        8,the observation of
 the development of individual man and  
its      comparison with the general    
development of the human race      show 

plainly that1 in the development of the 
inner life of      the individual man1  
the history of the mental development of
      the race is repeated1 and that the
 race in its totality may      be viewed
 as one human being1 in whom there will 
be found the      necessary steps in the
 development of individual man40--,e41  
p4      #afj4        8,indeed each      
successive generation and each          
successive      individual human being1 
inasmuch as he would understand the     
past and present1 must pass through all 
preceding phases of      human          
development and culture1 and this should
 not be done in      the way of dead    
imitation1 or mere copying1 but in the  
way of      spontaneous                 
self-activity40--,e41 p4 #ah4           
8,man should1 at least mentally1 repeat 
the achievements of      mankind1 that  
they may not be to him empty dead       
masses1 that      his judgment of them  
may not be external and spiritless2 he  
should mentally go over the ways of     

mankind1 that he may learn      to      
understand them4 ,however it may be said
 of this growing      activity of       
boyhood1 which by spirit and law are    
destined for      a conscious aim1 #8,my
 son does not require this4' ,perhaps   
you      are right1 ,i do not know1 but 
you do know that your sons need         
energy1 judgment1 perseverance1         
prudence1 etc41 and that these          
things are indispensable to them2 and   
all these things they are      sure to  
get in the course indicated4'''0--,e41  
p4 #bhb4    ,it is often said that      
traditional games are mere survivals1   
degenerate  imitations of ancient       
customs1 and therefore not worth        
encouraging4 ,but  children are not     
bound by tradition1 and ,froebel is     
probably right when  he says3           
8,it is my firm conviction that whenever
 you find anything that      gives      
children lastingly and ever freshly a   
joy belonging      to a true pure       
life--anything where innocence and mirth

      predominate--you have found       
something which has at the bottom       
of it a higher and more important       
meaning for a child's      life40--,m41 
p4 #agb4    ,we cannot always tell why  
children enjoy the game1 or what they   
gain  from it4 ,such games are at least 
the earliest and simplest introduction  
to 8the rules of the game10 and they    
contain the elements of choosing  sides 
and of whispered secrets4 ,these things 
may seem small to the  ordinary         
onlooker1 but not to the real observer1 
who sees the amount  of self-control    
required by a child of four or five1    
that he may not  proclaim the secret    
aloud1 the difficulty he has in         
whispering1 and the  importance to him  
of the choice between oranges and lemons
 or whatever it  may be4 ,there are     
certainly some which most thinking      
persons1 ,froebelian  or otherwise1     
would wish to discourage4 ,as ,froebel  
himself said of some  that he found in  
use3        8,i thought some were too   

empty and silly and some said a great   
deal that ,i would not willingly have   
said to children4 ,yet the      counting
 games themselves seemed to me important
 in many ways1      as ,i hope will     
appear from comparing the way ,i have   
dealt with      them1 and above all1 as 
the mottoes are meant to point out4 ,i  
even wished to keep the sound of the    
well-known popular words1      at least 
in the opening words4'''0--,m41 p4 #aeg4
    ,certainly1 ,froebel would have had 
no dealings with either work or  play   
which would interfere with progressive  
development1 he wanted  recapitulation  
because he regarded that 8great         
necessary highway0 as the  road to sure 
progress4        8,only if in each      
particular we tread again the great     
necessary      highway of humanity as a 
whole1 does the great and vigorous      
early life of humanity come back to us  
in and through the      children40--,e41
 p4 #bbb4        8,education must be    
much more tolerating#ci and following   

than      predetermining and            
prescribing1 for by the full application
 of      the latter method of           
instruction we should entirely lose the 
characteristic1 the sure and steady     
progressive development of              
mankind40--,e41 p4 #aj4    ,some        
educators who have made much of the     
8culture epochs0 might have  avoided    
mistakes and exaggerations if they had  
taken to heart ,froebel's  repeated     
warning that the child has 8living      
relations0 not only with the  past1 but 
with the future1 besides being at the   
same time the child of  the present     
generation4        8,parents should view
 their child in his necessary           
connection1      in his obvious and     
living relations to the past1 present1  
and future development of humanity1 in  
order to bring the      education of the
 child into harmony with the past1      
present and      future requirements of 
the development of humanity and of the  
race4''' ,man1 humanity in man1 as an   

external manifestation1      should     
therefore be looked upon not as         
perfectly developed1      not as fixed  
and stationary1 but as steadily and     
progressively      growing1 in a state  
of ever-living development1 ever        
ascending      from one stage of culture
 to another toward its aim1 which       
partakes of the infinite and eternal4   
8,it is unspeakably pernicious to look  
upon the development of      humanity as
 stationary and completed and to see in 
its present      phases only repetitions
 and greater generalizations of itself4 
,for the child1 as well as every        
successive generation1 becomes          
thereby exclusively imitative1 an       
external dead copy--a cast1      as it  
were1 of the preceding1 and not a living
 ideal of the      stage which it has   
attained in human development considered
      as a whole1 to serve future       
generations in all time to              
come40--,e41 p4 #ag4    ,underlying all 
that ,froebel has to say of play1 is the

 idea that it is  a preparation for     
future life activities4 ,this is implied
 even in the  definition given of the   
play of the child of three years old1   
viz4 that  it is 8spontaneous           
self-instruction02 it is most evident in
 the passage3        8,play1 building   
and modelling are the first tender      
blossoms1      and this is the period   
when man is to be prepared for future   
industry1 diligence and productive      
activity40--,e41 p4 #cd4        8,the   
whole later life of man has its source  
in the period of      childhood1 be this
 later life bright or gloomy1 gentle or 
violent1 industrious or lazy1 rich or   
poor in action1 passed      in dull     
stupor or in keen creativeness1 in      
stupid wonder or in      intelligent    
insight1 productive or                  
destructive40--,e41 p4 #ee4    ,of his  
later institution1 the ,kindergarten1   
,froebel says3        8,the great end   
and aim of the whole undertaking is the 
,education of ,man from its earliest    

beginning1 by means of      action1     
feeling1 and thought1 in accordance with
 his own      inward being and outward  
relations1 ''' this to be attained by   
the right care of child-life1 the       
encouragement of childish               
activities40--,l41 p4 #afd4        8,for
 the object is twofold3 ,firstly the    
realization in as      clear and perfect
 a manner as possible1 of the           
fundamental      conception of a mode of
 education based upon the early and     
complete training of human life1 and    
satisfying the needs      of children by
 a genuine encouragement of their       
spontaneous      activity through the   
medium of a normal institution which we 
have symbolically named a               
,kindergarten40--,l41 p4 #aff4    ,about
 the play of boyhood ,froebel says3     
8,play to the boy is a mirror of the    
combat of life awaiting him      in the 
future3 therefore1 in order to          
strengthen himself for      the combat1 
the human being both in early and later 

boyhood      seeks out obstacles1       
difficulty and combat in his play4'''   
,many      of his actions have an inner 
significance4''' ,how wholesome it      
would be if parents and child1 for their
 present and future1      if parents    
believed in this1 if they would observe 
the life of      their children in this 
respect1 what a new living bond would   
unite parents and child1 what a new     
thread of life would be      drawn      
between their present and their future  
life60--,e41 p4      #aah4    ,of his   
own ,keilhau boys he writes3            
8,one thing is certain1 these plays are 
the outcome of the      spirit of       
boyhood4 ,and the boys who played thus  
were good      scholars1 intelligent1   
and willing to learn1 seeing and        
expressing clearly1 diligent and full of
 zeal4 ,some are now      capable young 
men with well trained heads and hearts1 
quick      in expedients and dexterous  
in action2 some are capable1            
clear-sighted men1 and others will      

become so40--,e41 p4 #aaa4    ,in       
,america at least the authorities are   
beginning to realize the truth  of      
,froebel's words as to the importance of
 playgrounds1 and actual  experiment has
 shown that he was right in saying that 
8even the plays  should be under right  
guidance10 not for purposes of          
repression1 but for  the encouragement  
of real play which 8must necessarily    
break forth in joy  from within40       
8,justice1 moderation1 self-control1    
truthfulness1 loyalty1      brotherly   
feeling and again1 strict               
impartiality--who1 when      he         
approaches a group of boys engaged in   
such games1 could      fail to catch the
 fragrance of these delicious           
blossomings      of the heart and mind  
and of a firm will2 not to mention the  
beautiful1 though perhaps less fragrant1
 blossoms of courage1      perseverance1
 resolution1 prudence1 together with the
 severe      elimination of indolent    
indulgence8 ,flowers of still more      

delicate fragrance bloom '''            
forbearance1 consideration1 sympathy    
and encouragement for the weaker1       
younger and more delicate2      fairness
 to those who are as yet unfamiliar with
 the game4        8,would that all who1 
in the education of boys1 barely        
tolerate      playgrounds might consider
 these things6 ,there are1 indeed1      
many harsh words and many rude deeds1   
but the sense of power      must needs  
precede its cultivation4 ,keen1 clear   
and penetrating      are the boy's eyes2
 keen and decided therefore1 even harsh 
and      severe is his judgment of those
 who are his equals1 or who      claim  
equality with him in judgment and power4
        8,every place should have its   
own common playground for the      boys4
 ,glorious results would come from this 
for the entire      community4 ,for at  
this period1 games1 whenever it is      
feasible1      are common1 and thus     
develop the feeling and desire for      
community and the laws and requirements 

of community4        8,the boy tries to 
see himself in his companions1 to feel  
himself in them1 to weigh and measure   
himself by them1 to know      and find  
himself with their help4 ,thus the games
 directly      influence and educate the
 boy for life1 awaken and cultivate     
many civil and moral virtues40--,e41 p4 
#aac4    ,it was in watching boys one   
day--8boys10 he says1 8of the right age 
for  these plays1 but whose life is not 
awakened1 or has been dulled1 and who   
now idly lounge around1 getting in their
 own way1 as it were0--that a  friend   
said to him1 8,i do not understand how  
these boys cannot play1 how  many plays 
we had at their age60 ,and it is here   
that ,froebel gives his  version of the 
8surplus energy0 theory when he writes3 
8,in every case the plays of this age   
are or should be pure                   
manifestations of strength and vitality1
 they are the product      of fullness  
of life1 and of pleasure in life4 ,they 
presuppose      actual vigour of life1  

both inner and outer4 ,where these are  
lacking1 there cannot be true play1     
which1 bearing life in      itself1     
awakens1 nourishes and heightens        
life4''' ,this shows      clearly that  
even the plays at this age should be    
under      guidance#dj1 and the boy made
 ready for them1 i4e4 his life1      his
 experience both in school and out of   
it1 must be made so      rich that it   
must necessarily break forth in joy from
 within1      like the blossom from the 
swelling bud4 ,joy is the soul of       
every activity of boyhood at this       
period40--,e41 p4 #cjc4    ,it is here1 
too1 in the section entitled1 8,play or 
,spontaneous ,expression  and ,practice 
of ,every ,kind0 that ,froebel begins a 
general classification  of boy's play3  
8,the plays1 or spontaneous occupations1
 of this age are of      three kinds1   
they are either 7a7 imitations of life1 
or 7b7      spontaneous applications of 
what has been learned1 or they      are 
7c7 perfectly spontaneous expression    

with all kinds of      material4 ,these 
last are either governed by the         
material1 or by      the thought and    
feeling of the human being4''' ,they may
 be and      are either ,physical plays1
 exercising strength and dexterity1     
or else mere buoyancy of life2 or ,sense
 plays exercising the      hearing1 e4g4
 in hiding games1 etc41 or the sight1 as
 in      shooting plays or colour plays1
 etc42 or ,intellectual plays1          
games of reflection and judgment1 e4g4  
draughts1 etc4 ,as such      they are   
already arranged1 but the true aim and  
spirit of the      play is rarely       
understood and the games are seldom     
managed      according to the needs of  
the boy40--,e41 p4 #cjd4    ,this       
general classification is very much the 
same as that of ,groos1 who  divides    
,play first into two main classes1 viz4 
,playful ,experimentation  and ,playful 
,exercise of the ,second or ,socionomic 
,order4 ,under the first  heading come  
,i4 ,playful ,activity of the ,sensory  

,apparatus2 ,,ii4 ,playful  ,use of the 
,motor ,apparatus2 and ,,iii4 ,playful  
,exercise of the ,higher  ,mental       
,powers4 ,the first two correspond to   
,froebel's ,sense ,plays and  ,physical 
,plays1 and the third to his            
,intellectual ,plays4 ,under the second 
heading1 ,groos brings ,fighting ,plays1
 which as we have seen ,froebel         
attributes to the unconscious desire to 
measure and increase strength2          
,imitative ,play1 which to ,froebel is  
the child's way of learning by  action2 
,love ,plays of which ,froebel takes no 
notice at all1 and ,social  ,play4      
,under this comes what has been given as
 to the importance of  ,playgrounds1 and
 much of what ,froebel wrote as to the  
,kindergarten ,games4  ,for instance1 as
 part of the work of the students in his
 ,training ,course  comes3        8,the 
acquisition of little games arranged to 
exercise the      limbs and senses of   
the child4''' ,the acquisition of other 
games      arranged to suit special ends

 and suited to varied grades of         
development4''' ,practice in combined   
games for many children1 and            
particularly action games1 which will1  
from the first1 train      the child 7by
 his very nature eager for              
companionship7 in the      habit of     
association with comrades1 that is1 in  
good fellowship      and all that this  
implies4''' ,to games for individual    
children      succeed games for the     
whole ,kindergarten together4 ,the child
 in      these associated games         
alternately appears first as taking some
      individual or separate part1 and  
then as merely one of several           
closely knit and equally important      
members of a greater whole1      so that
 he becomes familiar with both the      
strongly opposed      elements of his   
life2 namely the individual determining 
and      directing side1 and the general
 ordered and subordinated               
side40--,l41 p4 #bec4    ,games of this 
kind have been much misused1 especially 

by being given a  rigidity of form      
which1 ,froebel wrote3        8,would   
quite destroy that fresh merry life     
which should animate      the games ''' 
the games would cease to be games and   
lose their      full educational power4 
,the main thought must be held fast2 but
      the precise form and style in     
which the games are played must      be 
the outcome of the moment4 ,the freer   
and more spontaneous      the           
arrangement1 the more excellent is the  
effect of the      game40--,l41 p4 #he4 
,the number and variety of plays and    
games noted by ,froebel is quite        
surprising4 ,of the long list given by  
,groos there are few indeed which  he   
does not mention4#da ,the plays for     
older children are given in 8,the       
,education of ,man10 but other games    
encouraged at ,keilhau are to be found  
in the accounts given by ,ebers4 ,even  
in his earlier work ,froebel shows  how 
closely he had been observing the play  
of little children1 but this  he worked 

out later in his ,mother ,songs1 in the 
papers on his various  8,gifts10 and in 
that on ,movement ,play4 ,these later   
books were written and  the play        
material was planned because ,froebel   
saw that the children who  do not play  
are those 8in whom life has not awakened
 or has been dulled10  just because 8the
 true aim and the spirit of play is     
rarely understood  and the games are    
seldom managed according to the needs of
 the boy40          ,,chapter ,,viii    
,,froebel',s ,,play-,,material ,,and    
,,its ,,original ,,purpose      ,to one 
who believed1 as ,froebel did1 that 8the
 means by which the child  gains his    
first ideas of his own nature and life  
and the nature and life  of the cosmos1 
are his play and playthings10 these     
playthings could not  be indifferent4   
8,it has been stated as a fundamental   
truth that the plays      and           
occupations of children should by no    
means be treated as      offering merely
 means for passing1 we might say for    

consuming1      time1 hence as mere     
outer activity1 but rather that by means
 of      such plays and employments the 
child's innermost nature must be        
satisfied40--,p41 p4 #ajh4    ,froebel  
was speaking of his own                 
,play-material--known by the name of    
8,froebel's ,gifts0 because he thought  
them the most suitable gifts for  little
 children--when he wrote3        8,to   
realize his aims1 man1 and more         
particularly the child1      requires   
material1 though it be only a bit of    
wood or a      pebble with which he     
makes something or which he makes into  
something40--,p41 p4 #bce4    ,and      
although his opinion of the importance  
of that particular series of            
playthings1 which he chose from among   
those he saw in general use1 may  have  
been exaggerated1 still there is a good 
deal of sound psychology  in what he    
says about them4 ,in speaking of        
imitative action and  construction1 we  
have already touched upon what were     

perhaps the most  important ideas       
underlying this series4#db        8,what
 presents are most prized by the child8 
,those which afford      him a means of 
unfolding his inner life most freely and
 of      shaping it in various          
directions40--,p41 p4 #adb4    ,but     
,froebel also writes of his ,gifts that 
8they will cover the whole  ground of   
training in sense perception10 and he   
has managed to think  out a very fair   
number of the points which ,dr4 ,ward1  
in his ,analysis of  ,perception1 notes 
as important4    ,one of ,froebel's     
frequent ,reviews of his play-material  
begins3        8,how has the child      
developed up to this point8 ,how has the
      world1 the objects and things     
around him developed8 ,how has      the 
child developed himself especially      
through the toys--the      means of play
 and employment--which have thus far    
been given      him8 ,the brightening   
light in the child's mind illuminates   
the      objects around him4 ,in        

proportion as the inner light increases1
      the nature of external objects    
grows clear to him ''' the law      of  
development is that of progress from the
 unlimited to the      limited1 from the
 whole to the part1 from an             
undifferentiated      to a membered     
totality ''' the outer world comes to   
meet the      inner world1 it does not  
hinder1 but helps the inner world4      
8,the man advanced in insight should be 
clear about all this      before he     
introduces his child to the outer world4
 ,even when he      gives his child a   
plaything he must make clear to himself 
its      purpose1 and the purpose of    
playthings and occupation material      
in general4 ,this purpose is to aid the 
child freely to express      what lies  
within him--to bring the phenomena of   
the outer world      nearer to him1 and 
thus to serve as mediator between the   
mind      and the world40--,p41 pp4     
#afi-aga4    ,then ,froebel explains in 
so many words the really psychological  

aim or  meaning of his sequence of      
8,gifts10 so well known by name--and    
even  better known in most              
un-psychological practice--but little   
understood  in their real and original  
significance1 as a means of perception1 
the  earlier ones at least1 for children
 much below even ,kindergarten age4     
8,recognizing the mediatorial character 
of play and playthings1      we shall no
 longer be indifferent either to the    
choice1 the      succession1 or the     
organic connection of the toys we give  
children4 ,in these ,i offer them1 ,i   
shall consider as carefully      as     
possible1 how the child may in using    
them develop his nature      freely and 
yet in accordance with law 7laws of     
mind71 and      how through such use he 
may also learn to apprehend external    
things correctly and to employ them     
justly4 ,as the child's      first      
consciousness of self was born of       
physical opposition to      and         
connection with the external world1 so  

through play with      the ball1 the    
external world itself began to rise out 
of chaos      and to assume             
definiteness4 ,in recognizing the ball  
the child      moved from the indefinite
 to the definite1 from the universal    
to the particular1 from mere externality
 7compare ,prof4      ,ward's #8mere    
thing stuff'7 to a self-included        
space-filling      object4 ,in the ball1
 especially through movement1 through   
the opposition of rest and motion1      
through departing and      returning1   
the object came forth out of general    
space as a      special space-filling   
object1 as a body3 just as the child by 
means of his life 7activity7 also       
perceives himself1 his bodily           
frame1 as a space-filling object1 as a  
body4 ,the child has      thus obtained 
two important terms of comparison for   
his first      intellectual development2
 body and body1 object and object4'''   
,at      the same time there begins in  
the child1 as in a seed-corn1 a         

development advancing towards           
manifoldness4 ,for this reason he       
should receive a corresponding seed-corn
 in the object which he      first      
detaches as object from the external    
chaos4 ,such object      should1 like   
himself1 include an indefinite          
manifoldness1 and      be susceptible of
 a progressive development4 ,such an    
object is      the ball 7,gift          
,i740--,p41 p4 #aga4    ,the very first 
8intimation of an intellect10 ,froebel  
writes1 is when the  child is seen to   
8keep his gaze fixed upon the motion of 
a bright object4  ,this begins a few    
weeks after birth40 ,the ball is to be  
given to the baby  8when the            
starting-point of recognition and       
knowledge 7,erkennens und               
,erkenntniss71 viz4 perceiving1         
noticing1 thinking 7das ,gewahrwerden1  
das  ,bemerken und ,beachten7 becomes   
perceptible03 when the child 8can freely
  move its little arms and hands1 when  
it can perceive and distinguish  tones1 

and can turn its attention and gaze in  
the direction from which  these tones   
come40    ,in his analysis of           
,perception1 ,dr4 ,ward distinguishes   
7i7 ,assimilation or  ,recognition1 7ii7
 ,localization or ,spatial ,fixation1   
and 7iii7 ,objective  ,reference1 or    
,intuition of ,things4 ,of these1 the   
first1 ,assimilation1 has  already been 
taken up in ,chapter ,,iv1 and we have  
seen that1 according to  ,dr4 ,ward1 it 
involves ,retention and                 
,differentiation1 though in itself      
there is no active comparison1 and we   
have seen that ,froebel also  spoke of  
the earliest impressions as 8almost     
imperceptible1 but fixed  by repetition 
and by change10#dc and of a 8perception 
of sequence0  involving 8dim0 or        
8unconscious comparison40    ,of the    
second process ,dr4 ,ward writes3 8,to  
treat of the localization  of           
impressions is really to give an account
 of the steps by which the              
psychological individual comes to a     

knowledge of space10 and he goes  on to 
say that psychologists may have been too
 apt to examine 8the  conception of     
space and not our concrete space        
perceptions40 ,now ,froebel  did        
consider concrete space perception1 and 
with a certain amount  of care4 ,that he
 saw its importance is clear from the   
fact that in  discussing his 8means of  
employment0 he says3        8,they will 
cover the whole ground of training in   
sense      perception but will begin    
with the observation of space and       
the knowledge that comes from that1     
since the child first      feels and    
finds himself in space and finds others 
occupying      space around him4 ,they  
are to go on by development of limbs    
and senses and by means of language to  
understand ,nature in      all          
directions1 so that finally man who at  
first could find      himself only in   
space and by means of space1 may learn  
to      know himself as an existent1    
feeling1 thinking1 intelligent1         

rational being1 and as such to try to   
live40--,p41 p4 #ai4    ,and although   
,froebel may not fully have realized    
that1 as ,dr4 ,ward puts  it3 8,the     
infant's earliest lessons in spatial    
perception are in exploring  his limbs10
 still we do find him writing from      
,blankenburg1 in a letter  accompanying 
the first sketch of his ,nursery ,songs3
        8,i soon felt that some         
important connecting link was           
imperatively required to prepare the    
newly awakening life of a      child for
 its later activity with the ball4 ,it  
was through the      ball itself that ,i
 discovered this link3 in general terms 
it      may be described as the first   
development of muscular movement        
and sensation specially distinguishing  
infancy4 ,the link      between the     
infant1 still an undivided              
self-sufficient whole      of peaceful  
life1 and the ball1 which is something  
external      given to him to play with1
 lies in the child's own limbs1 the     

child's own senses2 and the first toys  
and occupations of the      child come  
from himself2 he plays with his own     
limbs1 and      uses them as the        
material for representing his ideas4    
,this      spontaneous activity of limb 
and vividness of sensation natural      
to infancy must also be studied2 for a  
considerable degree of      cultivation 
of these powers is already necessary in 
the use      of the ball1 etc4''' ,to   
help the child to use his own body1 his 
limbs and sensations1 and to assist     
mothers to a consciousness      of their
 duties ''' ,i have carefully preserved 
several little      songs and games and 
send this collection to you for your    
severe      criticism40#dd--,l41 p4     
#ajh4    ,having said that 8the child   
first perceives himself1 his corporeal  
frame1 as a space-filling object1 as a  
body1 by means of his life10  or his    
activity1 the first two of this         
collection naturally deal with  large   
body movements4 ,in the one the mother  

alternately lowers and  raises the      
infant1 8letting him really feel a      
slight shock10 and in the  other the    
baby tramples with his feet1 and she is 
told to supply the  object of           
resistance4 ,this resistance1 as we have
 seen1 gives him 8the  dim consciousness
 of self1 which comes out of physical   
opposition to1  and connection with1 the
 outer world10 which ,dr4 ,ward speaks  
of under  the head of ,localization of  
,impressions4 ,dr4 ,ward writes that    
8the  distinction between his own and   
foreign bodies begins when the child    
feels the difference between a series of
 movements accompanied by passive       
touches1 and one without passive        
touches10 but ,froebel goes no further  
than noting what comes through          
8resistance40 ,the ball1 however1 as we 
have just seen1 is to be used so as to  
assist the child's comprehension  of 8a 
self-included space-filling object10 and
 through play with the ball  he is to   
gain the 8three great perceptions of    

object1 space and time40    ,in the     
,intuition of things1 ,dr4 ,ward        
distinguishes five points  8concerning  
which psychology may be expected to give
 an account3 7a7  the reality2 7b7      
solidity or occupation of space2 7c7    
permanence1  or1 rather1 continuity in  
time2 7d7 unity and complexity2 and 7e7 
substantiality and the connection of its
 attributes and powers40    7a7 ,reality
 he disposes of as 8not strictly an item
 by itself1 but  a characteristic of all
 the items that follow40 ,of 7b71       
,solidity  or ,impenetrability1 he      
writes that 8here our feelings of effort
 come  specially into play4 ,they are   
not entirely absent in those movements  
of  exploration by which we attain a    
knowledge of space2 but it is when these
  movements are definitely realized1 or 
are only possible by increased  effort1 
that we reach the full meaning of body  
as that which occupies  space40 ,dr4    
,ward goes on to add as 8in the highest 
degree essential10  that muscular effort

 should meet with something which seems 
to be 8making  an effort the counterpart
 of our own40    ,besides telling the   
mother to give the required definite    
resistance1 by  opposing her hand or    
chest to the little trampling feet1     
,froebel gives a  8new play1 a new      
perception of the object10 when he tells
 the mother that  8as soon as the child 
is sufficiently developed to perceive   
the ball as  a thing separate from      
himself10 she should tie a string to it 
and pull  gently4        8,the child    
will hold the ball fast1 the arm will   
rise as you      lift the ball1 and as  
you loosen the string the hand and arm  
will sink back from their own weight2   
the feeling of the      utterance of    
force1 as well as the alternation of the
 movement1      will delight the child4 
,from this1 however1 soon springs a     
quite new play1 that is also something  
new to the child1 when1      through a  
suitable drawing and lifting1 the ball  
escapes from      the child's hand and  

then quietly moves freely before him as 
an      individual object4 ,through this
 play is developed in the child      a  
new feeling1 the new perception of the  
object as a something      now clasped1 
grasped and handled1 and now as a freely
 active      opposite something40--,p41 
p4 #cf4    ,unity and ,complexity1 8the 
remaining factors in the psychological  
constitution of things10 says ,dr4      
,ward1 8might be described in general   
terms as the time-relations of their    
opponents4'''0    ,and ,froebel1 going  
straight on from 8the opposite          
something10 comes in  like manner to    
time-relations4        8,one may say    
with deep conviction that even this     
simple      activity is inexpressibly   
important for the child1 for which      
reason it is to be repeated as a play   
with the child as often      as         
possible4 ,what the little one has up to
 this time directly      felt so often  
by the touch of the mother's            
breast--union and      separation--it   

now perceives outwardly in an object    
which      can be grasped and clasped4  
,thus the repetition of this play       
confirms1 strengthens1 and clears in the
 mind of the child a      feeling and   
perception deeply grounded in1 and      
important to the      whole life of     
man--the feeling and perception of      
oneness and      individuality1 and of  
disjunction and separateness2 also of   
present and past possession4''' ,the    
idea of return or recurrence      soon  
develops to the child's perception1 from
 the presence and      absence2 that of 
reunion from the singleness and         
separateness2      of future            
repossession from present and past      
possession1 and so      the idea of     
being1 having and becoming1 are the dim 
perceptions      which first dawn on the
 child4        8,from these perceptions 
there at once develop in the child's    
mind the three great perceptions of     
object1 space and time1      which were 
at first one collective perception4     

,from the      perceptions of being1    
having and becoming in respect to space 
and object1 and in connection with them1
 there soon develop      also the new   
perceptions of present1 past and future 
in respect      to time4 ,indeed1 these 
ninefold perceptions which open to the  
child the portals of a new objective    
life1 unfold themselves      most       
clearly by means of his constant play   
with the one single      ball40--,p41 p4
 #cf4    ,dr4 ,ward gives as the first  
step 8in the psychological constitution 
of  distinct things0--as opposed to what
 he calls 8mere thingstuff0--8the       
simultaneous projection into the same   
occupied space of the several           
impressions1 which we thus come to      
regard as the qualities of the body     
filling it40    ,froebel writes3        
8,we gave1 therefore1 to the mother the 
brightly coloured soft      ball to make
 a unity of touch and perception through
 sight1      for through the brightness 
it makes itself known to sight1 and     

through warmth 7softness87 to touch1 as 
an objective phenomena1      a thing in 
itself40--,p41 p4 #fe4    ,to reach     
unity and complexity1 says ,ward1 8it is
 essential that objects  should recur1  
and recur as they have previously       
recurred1 if knowledge  is ever to      
begin40 ,the constituent impressions    
must also 8be again and  again repeated 
in like order to prompt anew the same   
grouping10 and  the constancy of one    
group must present itself 8along with   
changes in  other groups1 and in the    
general field4''' ,it is only where a   
group1 as a  whole1 has been found to   
change its position relatively to other 
groups1  and--apart from causal         
changes--to be independent of changes of
 position  among them1 that such        
complexes can become distinct unities   
and yield a  world of things40          
,froebel writes of one of his early     
plays3        8,it is really important  
for the human being1 especially as      
a child1 that the essential perceptions 

of things should be      repeated       
frequently under different forms1 and if
 possible      in a particular order1 so
 that the child may easily learn to     
distinguish the essential from the      
unessential and accidental1      and the
 abiding from the changing4 ,unnoticed  
and unrecognized      though the        
phenomena are to the child1 yet the     
impression of      them will be certain 
and firm1 and this so much the more when
      the repetition has been precise   
and clear40--,p41 p4 #hh4    ,later1    
speaking of a child's earliest attempts 
at walking1 he says3        8,the       
smallest child who begins to exercise   
the power of      walking1 loves to go  
from place to place--i4e4 he likes to   
turn about and to change the            
relationships in which he stands      to
 different objects1 and in which they   
stand to him4 ,through      these       
changes he seeks self-recognition and   
self-comprehension1      as well as     
recognition of the different objects    

which surround      him1 and recognition
 of his environment as a whole40--,p41  
p4      #bdc4    ,dr4 ,ward requires    
still more and says that 8the unity of a
 thing0 carries  us over to temporal    
continuity1 and this he attributes to   
8the continuous  presentation of such a 
group as the bodily self1 which makes us
 infer  continuity of existence1 for    
presentations which have been presented1
  removed and re-presented40    ,we have
 seen already that ,froebel says the    
child perceives the ball  8through      
departing and returning1 as a           
space-filling object1 as a body1  just  
as he perceives himself1 his corporeal  
frame1 as a space-filling  object1 as a 
body40 ,and there is also a quaint1 but 
interesting reference  to something of  
this kind in one of the earliest        
,nursery ,songs called  8,all ,gone10   
where the mother is distinctly told that
 she must help her  child to realize    
continuity through change4        8,how 
can the child understand what you mean  

when you say #8,it's      all gone1     
,baby'8 ,he will not be contented unless
 you put      meaning into it4 ,what he 
saw just now he sees no longer1 what    
was above is below1 what was there is   
just now vanished4 ,where1      then1   
has it gone80    ,and the baby is       
supposed to be quieted by the mother's  
playful tale of  the present whereabouts
 of his bread and milk1 a ,german       
version of the  homely 8,down red lane40
    ,professor ,ward's last point in the
 intuition of things is                 
8substantiality40 8,what is it10 he     
says1 8that has thus a beginning and    
continues indefinitely80 ,the answer is 
that 8of all the constituents  of things
 only one is universally present1 that  
of physical solidity1  which presents   
itself according to circumstances1 as   
impenetrability1  resistance or         
weight4''' ,in other words1 that which  
occupies space is  the substantial2 the 
other real constituents are but its     
properties or  attributes1 the marks or 

manifestations which lead us to expect  
its  presence40    ,froebel1 again1 sums
 up the ideas he intends the child to   
gain from play  with the ball3          
8,the ball shows contents1 mass1 matter1
 space1 form1 size      and figure2 it  
bears within itself an independent power
      7elasticity7 and hence it has rest
 and movement1 and      consequently    
stability and spontaneity2 it offers    
even colour1      and at least calls    
forth sound2 it is indeed heavy--that   
is1      it is attracted--and thus      
shares in the general property of       
all bodies4''' ,therefore1 it places    
man1 on his entrance into      the      
world1 furnished with activity of limbs 
and senses1 in      the midst of all    
phenomena and perceptions of ,nature and
 of      all life ''' to place man      
through a skilful education in the      
understanding of ,nature and life1 and  
to maintain him in it      with         
consciousness and circumspection cannot 
be done too      early40--,p41 p4 #ec4  

,the soft ball of the first gift is     
supposed to be given to the child when  
he is three or even two months old1 but 
when he reaches six or eight  months1 he
 is supposed to be ready for something  
which 8makes itself  known especially   
through noise1 sound1 tone1 as it were  
through speech40  ,the second gift      
therefore consists of a wooden sphere   
and a cube1 which  are intended not only
 to please the child by the noise they  
make1 but  to serve as material for     
comparison4 ,the mother is told to roll 
the  sphere and then1 in order to make  
this oppositeness between sphere and    
cube perceptible to the child1 to place 
the cube steadily before him and        
presently to take one of his little     
hands1 pushing gently at first1 but     
8finally overcoming the gravity of the  
cube and pushing it      away with the  
child's hand and fingers ''' drawing the
 child's      strength1 although yet so 
feeble1 into the play1 that his         
limbs may be trained1 his strength      

increased1 and that he may              
experience and perceive much through his
 own activity40--,p41      p4 #gg4      
,by even these few representations the  
mother can present to her child3        
8,the quiet1 firm sure-standing on a    
relatively larger surface2      the     
filling of space by each object2        
heaviness which is      expressed by    
pressure2 the final overcoming of       
heaviness      7gravity72 and the       
possibility of moving away the body by  
the      use of a proportionately       
greater strength4 ,the perception of    
all these and many other facts1 showing 
themselves merely as      changing      
phenomena in oft-recurring repetition1  
will give      pleasure even to the     
child who is scarcely half a year1 or at
      least not a whole year old1       
especially when the play is placed      
in intimate connection with the child's 
life1 and with his      impulse to      
activity40--,p41 p4 #gh4    ,many plays 
are suggested1 all to be accompanied by 

song or rhyme1 only1  says ,froebel1    
8one must not go on in opposition to the
 wish of the child1  but always follow  
his requirements and needs and his own  
expressions of  life and activity40     
,it is in this connection that ,froebel 
notices how early a child begins to     
note cause4        8,even the child     
whose capacity for speech is as yet     
undeveloped      will remark the cause  
of the fall of the cube1 at least       
experience has shown us that children of
 this age drew away the      holding    
support1 and1 as the cube then fell     
over1 turned toward      their mother   
with face and body as in joyous         
triumph40--,p41 p4      #hj4    ,the    
sphere and cube are also to be compared 
as to shape3        8,through all that  
has been done hitherto1 the child's     
attention      has been predominantly   
called to the object1 as filling space1 
and acting1 but only incidentally to the
 object as being the      identical one2
 nor yet to the figure and shape1 nor to

 the      members and parts4 ,but       
attention to the form and figure of the 
object can also be utilized for the     
child in play40--,p41 p4      #hc4      
,so the mother is directed to hide the  
cube in her hand and show it  again--so 
that the child will watch for its       
reappearance4        8,by this play the 
child is not only again made to notice  
that      the cube fills space1 but his 
attention is also called to its         
precise form2 and he will look at it    
sharply1 unconsciously      comparing it
 with the hand to which his eyes were   
first      attracted40--,p41 p4 #hd4    
8,each object speaks constantly to man  
by its qualities and      attributes1   
and still more to the child1 though in  
mute      speech4''' ,it is essential   
for the intellectual development      of
 man that the surroundings should speak 
to him by their      qualities and      
attributes40--,p41 p4 #ie4    ,froebel's
 8,gift ,,iii0 is a little box          
containing eight-inch cubes for         

building purposes1 and after the child  
has clearly gained the idea of  8outer  
object0 ,froebel says3        8,let us  
first of all hasten to place ourselves  
together in      the children's play    
corner1 and there seek to discover what 
attracts the child1 or1 rather1 in what 
direction he himself      turns his     
attention1 what he would like to do and 
what he needs      for the purpose4 ,let
 us take our place there as quietly and 
as      unnoticed as possible1 observing
 how the child1 between the      ages of
 one and three years1 after he has      
clearly gained the      idea of 8outer  
object10 has contemplated the form and  
colour of      the self-contained body  
which he can handle1 has moved it here  
and there in his hands1 and experimented
 upon its solidity1      now tries to   
pull it apart1 or at least to alter its 
form in      order to discover new      
properties in it1 and to find out new   
ways of using it4 ,if the little one    
succeeds in his attempt      to separate

 the object1 we see that he then tries  
to put the      parts together1 to form 
the whole which he had at first1 or to  
arrange them in a new whole4 ,we see    
that he will unweariedly      and       
quietly repeat this for a long time4    
8,let us linger over this significant   
phenomenon and seek to      recognize   
through it what we have to furnish to   
the child from      inner grounds and   
without arbitrariness4 ,this is3        
something      firm which can be easily 
pulled apart by the child's strength1   
and just as easily put together40--,p41 
p4 #aag4    ,the time when the child    
wants this something to arrange is given
 as  any time 8between the ages of one  
and three40 ,it is the time when 8his   
greatest delight consists in the quick  
alternation of building up and  tearing 
down40--,p41 p4 #ajf4    ,at first the  
little one will be satisfied with       
arranging and rearranging  the cubes1   
piling them one upon another1 8placing  
one before1 behind1  beside another40   

,soon1 however1 he will try to make     
something definite1  and 8the           
intelligent nurse interprets the dim    
idea and sees whether  a something1 a   
table1 a chair1 etc41 can be perceived  
in what is  represented40 ,then the     
something must have a purpose1 so the   
chair is  grannie's chair1 the table is 
ready for the soup1 and so on4    ,there
 is nothing here which is not quite a   
usual proceeding4 ,froebel's            
peculiarity of treatment comes from his 
desire to give the blocks to  the child 
as a whole which he can take to pieces4 
,this is the reason  of the traditional 
proceeding1 perhaps still kept up in    
old-fashioned  kindergartens1 when the  
children first slip the lid out a little
 way1  then reverse the boxes1 pull out 
the lid and lift it off the box4 ,the   
directions are ,froebel's own1 and are  
given3        8in order to furnish to   
the child at once clearly and           
definitely1 the impression of the whole1
 of the self-contained2      from this  

perception1 as the first fundamental    
perception      7,grundanschauung7 all  
proceeds and must proceed40--,p41 p4    
#abc4    ,it is clear that this meaning 
is quite lost when the same proceeding  
is  forced on older children1 who are   
quite accustomed to pull down and build 
up4    ,froebel emphasizes the fact that
 the pieces are of the same cubical form
  as the whole thus presented1 and adds3
        8,thus fundamental perceptions1 
whole and part1 form1 and size1      are
 made clear by comparison and contrast1 
as well as deeply      impressed by     
repetition40--,p41 p4 #aai4    ,it is in
 speaking of this simplest of toys that 
,froebel enters a strong  protest       
against the complex and useless toys    
which afford no scope for  childish     
activity4        8,here1 then1 we meet a
 very great imperfection and            
inadequateness--indeed in reference to  
the inner development      of the child 
an obstructing element in that which is 
now so      frequently provided as a    

plaything for children2 an element      
which slumbers like a viper under       
roses--it is1 in a word1 the            
already too complex and ornate1         
too-finished plaything4 ,the      child 
can begin no new thing with it1 cannot  
produce enough      variety by means of 
it2 his power of creative imagination1  
his power of giving form to his own     
idea1 are thus actually      deadened4  
,for when we provide children with too  
finished      playthings we at the same 
time deprive them of the incentive to   
perceive the particular in the general1 
and of taking the means      to find    
it4''' ,what presents are the most      
prized by the child as      well as by  
mankind in general8 ,those which afford 
him a means      of unfolding his inner 
life most purely and of shaping it in   
a varied manner1 giving it freest       
activity and presenting it              
clearly40--,p41 p4 #abb4    ,this       
quotation sets forth quite plainly the  
main idea underlying all the  varied    

toys or play-material known as the      
8,gifts and ,occupations0 of the        
,kindergarten4    ,according to ,mr4    
,hailmann and other writers1 the gifts  
are material by  which the child can    
gain ideas1 and the occupations furnish 
material for  gaining skill4 ,but ,mr4  
,hailmann allows that this distinction1 
which to  him seems important1 was never
 formulated by ,froebel4    ,froebel's  
psychological knowledge1 in fact1 was in
 advance of that of his  interpreters4  
,he knew that it was by action1 by      
manipulation of material1  that the     
child gains his ideas and that the clear
 distinction between  gift and          
occupation which to ,mr4 ,hailmann is   
8very important0 is on the  contrary    
actually non-existent4    ,gifts ,,iii  
to ,,vi are boxes of building blocks1   
intended to present  sequence in        
difficulty of manipulation1 and also    
increasing variety of  form4 ,because of
 the stress he laid on self-expression1 
,froebel thought  very highly of the    

educational possibilities of a box of   
bricks4 ,in 8,the  ,education of ,man0  
he writes3        8,look into this      
education room of eight boys1 seven to  
ten      years old4 ,on the large table 
stands a chest of building      blocks1 
in the form of bricks1 each side about  
one-sixth of the      size of actual    
bricks1 the finest and most variable    
material      that can be offered a boy 
for purposes of representation4 ,sand   
or sawdust1 too1 have found their way   
into the room1 and fine      green moss 
has been brought in abundantly from the 
last walk in      the beautiful pine    
forest4 ,it is free time1 and each one  
has      begun his own work4 ,there in a
 corner stands a chapel ''' there a     
building which represents a             
castle4'''0--,e41 p4 #ajh4    ,after the
 bricks come the coloured tablets of    
,gift ,,vii1 which children  from four  
and upwards1 if left free1 often highly 
appreciated as  material for making     
patterns2 and the ,sticks or splints of 

various  lengths of ,gift ,,viii1 with  
which they used to lay outlines of      
familiar  objects4 ,english children    
often use burnt matches for this1       
sometimes  they do the same thing with  
8mother's pin-box10 and a child quite   
innocent of ,kindergarten ideas has been
 seen to appropriate the various  nails 
of a tool-box to the same purpose4      
,along with the sticks ,froebel         
supplied rings of metal or paper2 the   
little ,english child who used the      
nails took small curtain rings for the  
petals of her flower and screw  nails   
for its stalk4 ,in ,gift ,,ix the child 
is presented with very small  articles  
for stringing or arranging--beads1      
coloured beans1 pebbles1  etc4 ,a       
child's pleasure in this material and in
 the sticks and rings  probably shows   
that he is ready to practise movements  
of the thumbs and  forefingers4 ,froebel
 said that the use of these sticks      
called the child's  attention to 8linear
 phenomena10 and ,i have already        

mentioned that many  years ago1 when we 
were still using ,froebel's             
play-material1 ,i heard a  child call   
out1 8,oh1 ,i'm making lines60 just     
after he had been using the  sticks4    
,the other children contentedly went on 
rubbing with the crayons2  but this     
young discoverer continued to make      
laborious lines1 always from  left to   
right1 till the work was completed to   
his satisfaction4    ,the remaining     
8,gifts0 include coloured paper to fold 
and cut either to  produce such objects 
as boats1 boxes1 purses1 chairs1 etc41  
or to form  patterns1 or to weave       
together for the well-known paper mat2  
drawing and  paper materials2 modelling 
clay and sand1 and so on4    ,the       
weakness of the series is the           
semi-psychological semi-mathematical    
arrangement1 which has been dealt with  
in the following chapter4 ,what         
,froebel meant to do was to pick out    
from among the material he saw given  to
 children1 or appropriated by them1     

those things which seemed to him  best  
adapted to call out the activities of   
children at various ages or  stages1 in 
accordance with his idea that 8the man  
advanced in insight  should make clear  
to himself the purpose of playthings1   
viz4 to help the  child to express      
himself1 and to bring the phenomena of  
the outer world  nearer to him40        
,surprise has often been expressed that 
,froebel did not include such toys  as  
dolls in his series4    ,one reason is  
that he did not live long enough1 for he
 does speak of  doll-play and says that 
later the time will come 8when we shall 
speak of  the doll and the hobby-horse  
as the plays of the awakening life of   
the  girl and of the boy40 ,in his brief
 reference he does speak of the child's 
own nature becoming objective through   
the doll-play1 and he adds that by  such
 play she 8anticipates and feels her    
destiny40 ,he notes1 too1 with  interest
 that3        8,little girls make their 
favourite dolls of the heavy bootjack   

or like piece of wood4 ,i was informed  
by a mother that a heavy      sandbag   
which she accidentally found became her 
most cherished      doll1 because it had
 in it the weight of an actual child1   
and      so she gave herself up to the  
illusion and imagined herself to      be
 carrying a real child40    ,undoubtedly
 ,froebel was right in demanding simple 
toys and in  characterizing the 8too    
complex toy0 as a 8viper under the      
roses10 and  also in demanding that toys
 should be carefully considered and     
chosen so  as to meet the needs of the  
child's developing mind4 ,but the plays 
and  the toys of a developing child     
cannot be definitely prescribed1 and    
every  similar attempt is likely to     
fail1 as ,froebel's has done4 ,in his   
choice1  ,froebel was biased by the     
great idea which obsessed him1 the idea 
of  development4 ,like all human beings1
 he had the defects of his virtues1  and
 it is to these defects that we must now
 turn our attention4          ,,chapter 

,,ix    ,,weak ,,points ,,considered    
,an honest attempt to show what credit  
is due to ,froebel1 for the  remarkable 
anticipations of modern theories on     
which he based his  pedagogy1 seems to  
involve the opposite process of         
inquiring whether or  not any of his    
practices can be shown to have an       
unsound basis4    ,the modern boys'     
school1 with a few1 and a very few      
exceptions1 does not  even approach the 
school at ,keilhau as a place of real   
education1 as any  one may see who reads
 the account given of it by ,georg      
,ebers4 ,on the  other hand1 the modern 
,kindergarten is probably in many ways  
an advance  upon the original attempts4 
,many practices of which ,froebel       
approved  are now discarded1 some no    
doubt because of progress in            
physiological  discovery2 we know now   
that a child is not fitted as regards   
nervous  development and muscular       
control to deal with fine pricking or   
drawing in  chequers4    ,but a better  

knowledge of physiology does not account
 for all the  changes that have taken   
place4 ,important as they undoubtedly   
were in  ,froebel's eyes1 the modern    
,kindergartener is inclined to smile    
over  her predecessors' 8worship of the 
#8,gifts'02 and1 though we are agreed   
as to the importance of games1 the      
modern teacher chooses from a wide1     
perhaps too wide a range1 and no longer 
reposes blind faith in certain          
circle-games with their supposed        
8symbolic0 virtue4    ,to some1 the word
 symbolic will at once suggest          
,froebel's weakest point1  others will  
resent any such idea1 for symbolism     
appeals strongly to one  and repels     
another4 ,for ,froebel himself1         
undoubtedly the whole world was         
symbolic1 in so far as he regarded the  
universe as one expression of the       
,divine4 ,to him1 as to ,browning3      
8,the earth has speech of ,god's writ   
down1 no matter if      ,in cursive     
script or hieroglyph40    ,but this has 

not affected his educational practice to
 the extent  generally supposed4    ,at 
the same time it does seem as if one1 if
 not two1 psychological errors  lie at  
the root of certain practices which the 
modern ,froebelian has  discarded4      
,it would be most unfair to ,froebel not
 to emphasize what is often  overlooked1
 viz4 that the 8,gifts0 were important  
in his eyes  solely because he believed 
that in them he was presenting toys1 or 
8play-material10 exactly suited to the  
succeeding stages of the child's        
development1 bodily and mental4 8,the   
new gift10 he says1 8corresponds  both  
to the child's increasing constructive  
ability1 and to his growing  capacity to
 comprehend the external world40 ,and he
 writes3        8,but such a course of  
training and occupations for children   
answering to the laws of development and
 the laws of life1      demanded a      
thoroughly expressive medium in the     
shape of      materials for these       
occupations and games for the child3    

therefore to meet this point ,i have    
arranged a series of play      materials
 under the title of3 #8,a complete      
series of gifts for      play4'0--,p41  
p4 #bej4    ,it should also be noted    
that ,froebel did not commit the mistake
 of  inventing new toys4 ,what he       
attempted to do was what we are all     
attempting now1 viz4 to use what natural
 instinct has already selected1  as a   
basis for conscious educational work4   
,balls and building blocks1  coloured   
tablets and papers1 sand and clay1 are  
all spontaneously  appropriated by      
normal children4 ,even these materials  
which seem to us  unchildlike are not so
 in different surroundings4 ,for        
instance1 in the  ,black ,forest1 one   
may watch children playing with long    
slivers of wood  exactly like ,froebel's
 laths1 and these they take from the cut
 logs which  are being hauled up for    
winter storage4    ,again1 it is only   
fair to point out that ,froebel's       
followers have  appropriated material   

which he suggested as suited to children
 aged from  three months to five or six 
years1 and have used them with children 
from  four or five to six or seven and  
even older4#de ,teachers have also found
  it convenient to disregard ,froebel's 
frequent warnings not to interfere1  to 
let the child 8bang and pound0 when he  
wants to1 to let him 8play  quietly and 
thoughtfully by himself as long as he   
will10 to give him  8the greatest       
possible freedom of expression40 ,in    
some1 at least1 of the  original        
text-books on ,kindergarten practice1   
written by ,froebel's early  disciples1 
this advice is totally disregarded1 and 
we find prescribed the  most formal of  
object lessons1 dealing with the        
properties of the ball in  set questions
 and answers2 only at the end comes 8,if
 there is time1 the  children may be    
allowed to roll the ball40    ,still1   
when all due allowance is made1 there   
remains the fact that  ,froebel         
attributed far too much importance to   

the series of toys he  arranged1 and in 
addition to this he must be held in     
large measure  responsible for the      
extraordinary amount of mathematical    
perceptions of  which young children    
have been considered capable1 and       
beneath which many  gleams of           
intelligence may have been extinguished4
    ,the psychological error which seems
 to underlie both these mistakes in     
pedagogy seems to have been that of     
making too much of the outer factor  in 
the process of perception4 ,froebel was 
quite right and quite modern  in        
refusing to draw any hard and fast line 
between sense perception and  thinking1 
in saying that the child moves 8from    
perception of a thing1  joined with     
thought about it1 up to pure thought40  
,but he must have  failed somehow1      
sufficiently to grasp the fact that all 
that is present  to sense is not        
necessarily perceived1 that perception  
depends not  merely upon what is        
presented1 but upon previous mind       

content4 ,the word  8apperception10     
though apparently somewhat fallen into  
disfavour of late1  has certainly been  
of service in emphasizing this point4   
,what seems strange is that in the very 
book1 in which we find the theory       
disregarded in practice1 we find        
,froebel stating the theory itself in   
the  plainest of terms3        8,the    
properties and nature of the outer world
 unfold themselves      in exact        
proportion to the capacities of the     
child40--,p41 p4      #abj4        8,the
 child creates his own world for        
himself2 it is at once      the         
expression of his inward realization of 
the external world      and its         
surroundings1 and also the outward      
representation      of his internal     
mental world1 the world of his own      
subjectivity40--,l41 p4 #ada4           
8,above all1 it is the old within the   
new1 which clarifies1      unfolds and  
transmutes itself1 thus developing what 
is new4''' ,we      must not require of 

the child anything not conditioned by   
his      previous achievements40--,p41  
p4 #afi4    ,no one1 surely1 can        
maintain that these words are carried   
into effect in  e4g43        8,could    
forms of knowledge 7mathematical forms7 
be1 for a      child of one to three1   
play forms1 and thus forms produced     
by spontaneous activity8 ,well1 why not8
 ,arrange the eight      part-cubes     
together1 and say1 #8,one whole4' ,but  
divide it      immediately and say1     
#8,two halves4'''' ,or1 comparing and   
connecting and describing by song at the
 same time that the      objects are    
manipulated3        #8,look here and    
see6 ,one whole two halves4      ,one   
half two fourths1 two halves four       
fourths4      ,one whole four fourths4  
,four fourths eight eighths4      ,eight
 eighths one whole4'0--,p41 p4 #ach4    
,there is certainly no 8old within the  
child0 of one to three1 which can       
condition this achievement1 nor is there
 any spontaneity4 ,for the child a      

little older we have3        8,the hints
 that are here given suffice to show    
that the      knowledge forms are       
adapted to children of three and four   
years      of age1 and that they incite 
plays which are both spontaneous        
and nourishing to heart and             
intellect4''' ,these few indications    
for the use of these forms must suffice2
 they already show      sufficiently    
clearly that the observation and        
comprehension      of them are perfectly
 suited to the active1 intellectual and 
emotional sides of children three and   
four years of age1      and to actual   
free play which strengthens intellect   
and      feeling40--,p41 p4 #ahe4       
,now the 8hints0 refer to making clear  
to the child1 always in justice1 be  it 
remembered1 in the concrete1 8as        
perceptible facts only10 such points  as
 8similarity of size with dissimilarity 
of shape and position1 in such  words   
as3        8,twice as long and half as  
wide1      ,half as long and twice as   

wide1      ,the same size are we two40  
,certainly children differ very much1   
and some have a special aptitude for    
mathematical relations1 but to most     
children under five these words would   
convey nothing4 ,half may have a        
meaning1 though at that age and for     
some time after we hear of 8a fair half0
 and 8quarter0 is generally used  as a  
name for any fraction recognized as not 
a half1 even if it should  be greater4  
,such words as fourth and eighth can    
have no meaning for  a child who shows  
no consciousness of difference when     
shown six1 seven  or eight objects4 ,at 
the age of three1 an average child      
recognizes three  objects1 but when a   
fourth is added1 he proceeds to count   
one by one1 he  does not recognize three
 plus one4    ,again1 we must repeat    
that ,froebel never intended any        
mathematical ideas  to be forced upon   
unwilling children4 ,he constantly tells
 the mother not  to force1 and he       
frequently speaks of the child's        

8accidental productions  which will     
become a point of departure for his     
self-development10 through  the         
explanatory rhymes1 to be sung by the   
mother in order to call the  child's    
attention to the results of his own     
action4 ,it is true1 too1 that  it is in
 connection with this kind of work1 or  
play1 that ,froebel writes  of 8the     
knowledge-acquiring side of the game1   
which is the quickly tiring  side40     
,but the fact remains that either       
,froebel made a miscalculation as to    
what mathematical ideas are within the  
grasp of children of tender age1  or    
else he attributed too much consequence 
to what is outside4 ,it is  indeed quite
 possible to present to a child of any  
age1 by means of the  cubes of his      
,fifth ,gift1 several particular        
instances of the ,theorem of            
,pythagoras1 as ,froebel suggests4 ,but 
though the construction is present  to  
the sense of both child and adult1 the  
career of the child of five  or six1 who

 perceives or apperceives the           
relationship of the squares so          
presented1 may be watched with interest4
 ,he is likely to distinguish  himself  
in mathematical research1 should he live
 long enough4 ,froebel  ought to have   
known1 indeed he did know1 for he taught
 it to others1  that the child does not 
8quickly tire0 of acquiring knowledge   
suited to  his stage of development by  
methods equally suitable4 ,from the     
houses  and railway trains1 of which at 
this stage they seem never to tire1     
children probably gain as much knowledge
 as ,nature means them to absorb  by    
such means4 ,in ,froebel's own hands1   
with his real and sympathetic           
understanding of the need for freedom of
 action1 probably no harm was  done1 but
 it is easy to see how the ordinary     
teacher would grasp at the  possibility 
of producing mathematical prodigies     
through what was supposed  to be play4  
,the same error seems to show itself in 
various ways1 e4g41 in some of  the     

reasons ,froebel gives for choosing his 
,first ,gift1 though there is  no fault 
to be found with the choice4 ,he was    
right in saying that the  child first   
takes in a whole1 not a variety of      
elements1 to be combined  later4        
,because of this fact1 the ordinary     
coral and bells1 with all its           
complexity1 is just as much a whole to  
the infant as the woollen ball4  ,but   
,froebel does seem to have thought that 
he must make the 8outer  objects10 or   
toys from which the child is to gain his
 earliest ideas1  as simple as these    
ideas1 and this certainly implies a     
wrong view of  perception4 ,the same    
objection might be taken to ,froebel's  
directions as  to how the ,third        
,gift--an #h-;inch cube1 cut once in    
each direction--is  to be presented2 how
 in order 8to furnish to the child      
clearly and  definitely the impression  
of the whole1 of the self-contained1    
from  which fundamental perception      
everything must proceed10 the box is to 

be  reversed1 the lid slipped out and   
the box is to be lifted 8that the play  
thing may appear as a cube closely      
united40 ,but in this case ,froebel is  
8presenting0 the first divided unit1    
8something which may be taken to        
pieces1 arranged and re-arranged and    
finally re-constructed10 for it is  8by 
this dismembering and re-constructing1  
and perception of real objects  that    
true knowledge and especially           
self-knowledge comes to the child40     
,a second psychological error1 or at    
least an inconsistency1 seems to lie  at
 the root of certain practical          
directions ,froebel gives with regard   
to the use of his toys4 ,in spite of his
 iteration and re-iteration that  the   
child's mind is a unity1 that though    
separation is 8permitted for  the       
thinking mind10 there is none in        
reality1 yet in his anxiety for the  due
 fostering of the whole1 of the 8doing1 
feeling and thinking0 his  harmonious   
development1 in actual practice he has  

an attempted separation  which has had  
bad results4 ,a ,kindergarten practice1 
now discontinued1  was to make the      
children build1 either on different     
occasions1 or during  different parts of
 one lesson1 what ,froebel called 7a7   
,life-forms or  ,objects 7,lebens oder  
,sachformen71 i4e4 houses1 churches1    
etc42 7b7  ,beauty or ,picture forms    
7,schnheits oder ,bildformen71 i4e4     
symmetrical  designs2 and 7c7 ,knowledge
 or ,instruction forms 7,erkenntniss    
oder  ,lernformen71 i4e4 squares1       
triangles1 etc4 ,though this            
classification is  based on the familiar
 and important 8knowing1 willing and    
feeling10 yet  it is plain that a child 
may experience quite as much emotion1   
probably  more1 in building a house as  
in making a star pattern1 and that the  
active side is involved in every kind of
 construction4 ,froebel draws  a        
parallel1 legitimate to a certain       
extent1 between intellect1 feeling  and 
will on the one hand1 and truth1 beauty 

and usefulness on the other4  ,here1    
however1 we can quote him against       
himself2 8,separation is only  permitted
 for the thinking mind40 ,the useful    
ought to be beautiful1 there  is beauty 
in all truth1 and the sthetic revelation
 of the world is the  world in order4   
,beauty degenerates into mere ornament  
and artificiality1  when separated from 
life and use4 8,mathematics10 as        
,froebel wrote  himself1 8is neither    
foreign to life1 nor deduced from life2 
it is the  expression of life as such3  
its nature may be studied in life1 and  
life may be studied with its help4'''   
,mathematics should be studied more     
physically and dynamically as the       
outcome of nature and energy40--,e41 p4 
#bjf-g4    ,the result of this suggested
 separation has in past times been      
disastrous4 ,failing to recognize that a
 young child is of necessity  exercising
 his intellectual power in constructing 
his castle or bridge  of blocks1 and    
failing still more to realize that      

ornament is far from  synonymous with   
beauty1 teachers have wearied and       
stupefied children  with mathematical   
forms for which they were not ready1 and
 have forced  upon them symmetrical     
designs when their souls hungered for   
8puffer  trains40#df    ,it is easy to  
show that what ,froebel wanted was only 
due attention  to what we now call the  
affective and conative as well as to the
  intellectual4 ,from the very first he 
insists on this1 and justly1 though  his
 way of doing it may seem to us quaint4 
,about the child's imitation  of the    
clock he writes3        8,as soon as the
 child's first capacity for speech is   
somewhat      developed1 we notice how  
he tries1 in and by the movement1       
to listen to the tone and to imitate it 
with the tone of his      own voice4    
,tic tac1 we hear him say1 imitating the
 movement      of the pendulum2 pim paum
 7ding dong87 he says when the          
sound is more noticed4''' ,so we must   
observe that even when      he first    

begins to speak the child expresses and 
retains      the physical part of the   
movement by tic tac1 but by pim         
paum he perceives the movement more1 if 
one may say so1      from the feeling in
 the mind1 and if ,i may be allowed so  
to      express myself1 by the #8here   
and there' which comes later1      the  
child catches hold 7festhalten7 of the  
movement more as      a thing of        
comparison1 of recognition1 and in his  
dawning      thought1 more              
intellectually4''' ,it is most important
 that the      mother should observe the
 first and slightest traces of the      
articulation 7,gliederung7 of the child 
as an active1 emotional      and        
intellectual being1 and watch it in his 
development from      existence to      
experience and thought1 so that in his  
development      no side of his nature  
should be cultivated at the cost of     
the others1 nor should any be repressed 
or neglected for the      sake of the   
others4 ,it seems important1 and we     

believe that      all who quietly       
observe the child have remarked1 or will
 yet      remark1 that from the first   
the child expresses the swinging        
movement in a singing tone1 in a tone   
which approaches song and      so serves
 the emotional nature4 ,thus early is it
 shown that      the real foundation1   
the starting-point for the education of 
humanity and so of the child1 is the    
heart and the emotions      7das ,gemth 
u4 die ,gemthliche71 but that training  
to      action and thought 7zur ,that u4
 zum ,denken71 the physical      and the
 intellectual goes with it side by side 
constantly      and inseparably4        
,thought forms itself in action1 and    
action      clears itself in thought1   
but both must have their roots in the   
emotions40--,p41 p4 #da4    ,two further
 reasons may be given for ,froebel's    
belief in his selected  series of toys3 
7a7 his delight in the theory of        
development1 and  7b7 his eagerness to  
bring the child as soon as possible to  

that  consciousness of self which       
differentiates man from the lower       
animals4    ,every sign of unity of plan
 within the universe gave ,froebel real 
joy1  and he traces development from the
 simple to the complex1 from the        
undifferentiated to the differentiated1 
not only in plant and animal  life1 but 
also in the inorganic4 ,much of what he 
says on crystals may be  fanciful1 but  
much is beautiful and suggestive4       
8,chemical combination0 is  to him 8the 
life of the inorganic world10 and he    
writes3        8,we have in this a new  
confirmation of the law of development  
in crystals1 the passing from           
special-sidedness to      all-sidedness1
 from imperfection to perfection as the 
law of      all development in nature4  
,man1 then1 appears as the most         
perfect earthly being1 in whom all that 
is corporeal appears      in highest    
equilibrium and in whom the primordial  
force is      fully spiritualized1 so   
that man feels1 understands1 and knows  

his own power4 ,but while man externally
 and corporeally has      attained      
equilibrium and symmetry of form1 there 
heave and      surge in him1 viewed as a
 spiritual being1 appetites1 desires    
and passions4        8,as in the world  
of crystals we noticed the heaving and  
surging      of simple energy1 and in   
the vegetable and animal worlds1 the    
heaving and surging of living forces1 so
 here the heaving and      surging of   
spiritual forces4 ,therefore man with   
reference to      spiritual development 
has returned to a first stage as        
crystals      are in a first stage with 
reference to the development of         
life4''' ,for this reason the boy should
 at an early period be      taught to   
see ,nature in all her diversity as a   
unit1 as a great      living whole1 as a
 thought of ,god4 ,the integrity of     
,nature1 as      a continually          
self-developing whole must be shown him 
at an      early period40--,e41 p4 #aih4
    ,although this particular passage   

was written in connection with ,nature  
,study for older boys1 yet it is from   
thoughts such as these that ,froebel    
seems to have taken an idea that        
man-in-infancy ought to meet1 if it may 
be so expressed1 matter-in-infancy4     
,though everything in the surroundings  
was to help to bring about              
self-consciousness1 8the air blowing    
about all  living creatures1 as well as 
the arousing spiritual language of      
words10  yet that definite              
thing-in-itself1 which is to help the   
child to an early  dim consciousness of 
self is to be 8the counterpart of       
himself10 a simple  undifferentiated    
whole 8susceptible of a progressive     
development40    ,and now we must come  
to the question of ,froebel's           
8,symbolism10 a thorny  subject1 because
 one into which the personal equation   
enters largely4  ,some writers1 notably 
,miss ,susan ,blow1 author of 8,symbolic
 ,education10  regard this symbolism as 
all-important1 ,froebel's glory rather  

than his  weakness4 ,others consider    
that it appeals to adults alone and that
 where  it is supposed to affect        
children it tends towards artificiality 
and  sentimentality4 ,in so far as this 
is true1 it must be regarded as a weak  
point4    ,it is1 however1 not an easy  
task to settle what ideas are covered by
  the term 8,froebel's symbolism40 ,the 
dictionary meaning for symbol is  8a    
visible sign or representation of an    
idea2 anything which suggests  an idea1 
as by resemblance or convention2 an     
emblem2 a representation2  a type2 a    
figure2 as the lion is the symbol of    
courage and the lamb of  meekness or    
patience40    ,it certainly passes my   
comprehension how anything can symbolize
 an  idea not yet acquired1 however much
 it may help in calling up ideas        
already more or less clearly gained4    
,the crown may symbolize power to  an   
adult1 but not to the child1 who when   
told that ,stephen and ,matilda  fought 
for the crown1 innocently inquired3     

8,couldn't they have had  another one   
made80 ,the ,union ,jack may symbolize  
,british nationality or  ,british       
freedom1 or even ,british ,jingoism to  
adults who already possess  these ideas1
 but not to a little child4 ,on the     
other hand1 any kind of  celebration    
appeals to children1 as to more         
primitive people1 and to  be allowed to 
march round the playground on ,empire   
,day carrying a flag  arouses a joyous  
emotion1 which will later be interwoven 
with patriotic  ideas of various kinds4 
,it is decidedly open to question       
whether as  regards the child ,froebel  
himself intended much more than this1   
whatever  his followers may have done4  
,professor ,thorndyke gives us to       
understand that ,froebel says a  child  
plays with a ball because it symbolizes 
8infinite development  and absolute     
limitation40 ,now it is true that       
,froebel wrote in his                   
8,aphorisms0--quoted in a footnote to   
,hailmann's 8,education of ,man0--8,the 

spherical is the symbol of diversity in 
unity and of unity in diversity4'''  ,it
 is infinite development and absolute   
limitation40 ,but the 8,aphorisms0  were
 not written for children1 and ,hailmann
 quotes the passage in  speaking of     
,froebel's philosophical doctrines as to
 the ultimate nature  of force and      
matter6    ,to ,froebel1 ,spirit is     
everywhere striving for utterance4 ,the 
,universe--the ,manifold--is the        
revelation of one great mind1 and       
everything in ,nature1 8though soundless
 it be to the ear1 a message can  give  
emblematic 7sinnbildlich7 but clear40   
,certainly1 he would have the  boy study
 ,nature1 8the writing and book of      
,god10 but it is not to the boy  that he
 says3        8,the works speak1 by the 
form the ,spirit manifests itself4 ,by  
that which has been produced and        
created1 the nature and spirit      of  
the producer and creator make themselves
 known4 ,the world      must therefore  
necessarily manifest the nature of its  

original      cause--the spirit of its  
,creator40    ,for ,froebel as for      
,goethe1 the ,time ,spirit 8weaves for  
,god the garment  we see ,him by40 ,he  
calls 8the temporal an expression of the
 eternal1  the material a manifestation 
of the spiritual40 ,he speaks of 8the   
,power  which reveals itself by uniting 
all things1 in ,nature in the ,universe 
as weight1 in human life as ,love10 and 
it pleases him to put into the  hand of 
the boy--in that picture of a family    
group by which he typifies  ,humanity--a
 ball hanging by a string1 and this he  
calls an emblem or  symbol 7,sinnbild74 
,there is nothing in all this with which
 any one need quarrel4 ,froebel  was    
assuredly an idealist1 but in these days
 that is no longer a term of  reproach4 
,no one1 to whom it does not appeal1    
need use the suggestion1  but to those  
of us who believe that right guidance of
 a child's delight  in fairy tales is   
one way of developing his sense of      
reverence1 there is  nothing so very far

 fetched even in ,froebel's way of      
trying to bring to  the child's         
consciousness1 the spirit striving for  
utterance not only  in every beautiful  
form1 but in everything beautiful as he 
does in 8,the  ,smell ,song40    ,of    
fairy tales ,froebel says3        8,the 
child1 like the man1 would like to know 
the meaning of      what happens around 
him4 ,this is the foundation of the     
,greek      choruses1 especially in     
tragedies4 ,this1 too1 is the foundation
      of many legends and fairy tales1  
and it is the result of the             
deeply-rooted consciousness of being    
surrounded by that which      is higher 
and more conscious than                 
ourselves40--,p41 p4 #adg4    ,so1 when 
the child delights in the scent of the  
flower1 ,froebel says to  the mother3   
8,let your child find in all things a   
mind1 a struggle for  being4 ,colour    
form and spicy smell all forthtell the  
,one ruling hand  which called all into 
existence40 ,but all she is told to pass

 on to the  child is only the thought   
that an angel has put the scent there   
and is  saying3 8,the little one does   
not see me1 but without me there would  
be no  fragrance40    ,although in one  
sense the educator of young children    
need have no  dealings at all with      
8symbolism10 yet in another1 a          
walking-stick does1  for the boy who    
bestrides it1 symbolize1 a horse1 as a  
piece of wood  may symbolize for his    
little sister the infant whom she may   
nurse and  caress1 with what ,froebel   
calls 8the dim and transferred          
perception of  inner life40 ,here       
,froebel seems quite right1 as when in  
speaking of a  child's visit to a       
toyshop he says1 8a true child is       
content with very  little of the outer1 
he is satisfied by a doll or cart1 a    
whistle or a  sheep1 provided only that 
in or through it he can find his own    
world and  represent it in actual       
deeds40--,m41 p4 #aii4    ,it may be    
said1 too1 that there is symbolism in   

children's drawings1 the  animal or     
object is symbolized by that which to   
the child is the most  outstanding      
characteristic4 ,one small boy drew a   
camel with a rider so  small that some  
one protested he could not see over the 
hump1 so the  artist promptly drew a    
second rider in front4 ,being asked if  
he could  draw an elephant1 he assented 
cheerfully and added a trunk to his     
camel4  ,by the addition of claws the   
elephant became a cat1 but at that point
 he  paused1 remarking1 8,it's not very 
like a cat1 it's more like a bird10 and 
a pair of wings completed the           
transformations4 ,in like manner by help
 of  a walking stick a child becomes his
 own father1 and a pair of spectacles   
transforms him into his grandmother4    
,but in all such cases the child is     
dealing with ideas he has already       
grasped4    ,to say that circle or ring 
games help a child to gain an idea of   
unity--,ring a ,ring of ,roses may give 
the first dim idea of corporate         

unity--is a very different thing from   
saying that a circle is to the  child a 
symbol of unity4 ,this is the kind of   
thing1 however1 that  ,froebel is       
supposed to have said1 but after careful
 investigation one  is surprised to find
 how little there is1 and to what extent
 ,froebel's  disciples and translators  
seem to have read in their own          
interpretations4    ,for instance1 in   
searching for passages about symbolism1 
we find in  the ,english translation of 
the paper on ,movement ,plays1 a passage
  stating that the 8,snail ,game0 forms 
a frequent conclusion to a 8games0      
period1 because it yields the form of   
the circle1 8which is symbolic of       
wholeness40 ,on comparing this with the 
original1 however1 we find that  this   
phrase is an addition of the            
translator's4 ,no doubt she considered  
it explanatory1 but all that ,froebel   
himself says is that the game  is       
suitable 8because it finally unites all 
the players in a lively  and completely 

finished whole40 ,to practical teachers1
 who know the  difficulty of getting a  
number of children to settle down after 
a game1  this may bear a very different 
meaning4    ,it seems to me that        
,froebel's translators have been        
altogether too fond  of the word        
8symbolic40 ,the ,german words usually  
translated 8symbol0  and 8symbolic0 are 
8,sinnbild0 and 8,vorbild10 with their  
respective  adjectives4 ,after          
considering innumerable passages in     
which these words  occur it seems plain 
that ,froebel's meaning would often have
 been  better expressed by 8typical10 or
 by 8significant10 and sometimes by     
8metaphorical40    ,for instance1 it is 
quite legitimate to say of such         
perceptions as  ,froebel intended a     
child to gain from his second           
8,gift0--resistance1  weight1 hardness  
and softness1 noise1 etc4--that the ball
 and cube  give1 and are only intended  
to give1 8normal1 fundamental and       
typical  perceptions0 7nur die normalen1

 begrndenden und vorbildlichen          
,anschauungen71 and ,froebel goes on to 
say that the same perceptions must  come
 from many other objects4 ,there is     
nothing symbolic here1 and there  is no 
reason for using this word4    ,that in 
many passages significant would be a    
much more correct  translation than     
symbolic is abundantly evident4 ,froebel
 was convinced1  and most people will   
now agree with him1 that there is real  
meaning or  significance in those       
activities1 which are common to children
 of all  countries1 and this meaning he 
endeavours to discover4 ,small blame to 
him  if1 though wonderfully correct on  
the whole1 he sometimes hits upon a     
wrong meaning1 in which case we are apt 
to fall back upon that convenient       
scapegoat1 his symbolism4    ,in one of 
his letters he thanks his cousin for    
describing to him how she  had watched a
 tiny child 8who quietly let his eye    
travel from the ball  hanging at the end
 of its cord1 up to the hand which held 

it10 and he  adds3        8,i am        
convinced1 and ,i wish that all         
teachers1 and especially      all       
mothers1 shared in the conviction1 that 
the very earliest      phenomena of     
child-life are full of symbolic meaning1
 that      is to say1 they indicate the 
higher1 the intellectual life in        
the child and his individual            
peculiarities at the same time4         
,our duty is to search in everything for
 its ultimate basis1      its point of  
origin1 its well-spring2 and to make    
clear the      connection between the   
outward manifestation and its inward    
cause40--,l41 p4 #aja4    ,what ,froebel
 deduced from the incident was that the 
child looks not only  at the appearance 
of the swinging ball1 but for the cause 
of the swinging  phenomenon1 the        
supporting1 moving hand4 ,so it is plain
 that for 8full  of symbolism0 we should
 here read 8full of significance40 ,or1 
again1 in  his excellent sketch of early
 boyhood1 with its desire to share the  

work  of the father1 its desire to      
explore1 to collect1 to construct1 etc41
  ,froebel concludes3        8,thus it  
is certain that very many of the boy's  
actions have      an inner1 an          
intellectual importance1 that they      
indicate his      mental tendencies and 
are therefore symbolical40--,e41 p4     
#aah4    ,here1 again1 significant would
 be a better ,english translation than  
symbolical4    ,again1 in accordance    
with his belief in instinct1 ,froebel   
declares that  it is his 8firm          
conviction that wherever we find        
anything that gives  children ever      
freshly a joy belonging to real life    
there is at the bottom  of it something 
important for a child's life40 ,when he 
sees that children  often enjoy going to
 church and joining in the singing at an
 age when  the words can have no        
meaning1 he says3 8,all the spontaneous 
activity of  child-life is symbolical   
7,sinnbildlich740 ,but there is not a   
word of  anything that is ordinarily    

called 8symbolical0 in what follows1 so 
far  as the child is concerned4 ,the    
little one is supposed to have 8reached 
a new life-stage10 viz4 8the dim        
anticipation that he is not alone in    
life1 but one amid mankind40            
,consequently he is attracted by        
8assembly  life40 ,the most ardent      
believer in symbolism can make little of
 the very  practical answers the mother 
is told to give to the child's          
questions4  ,he is to be answered 8out  
of the range of his own experience1     
feelings  and ideas1 his own            
intellectual development and            
necessities40 ,he is to be  told that   
when he is old enough to go to church1  
he will not only like to  hear the      
organ1 but will find out 8why flowers   
bloom and birdies sing and  why we still
 remember ,christmas ,day40    ,there is
 another child in the ,mother ,songs1   
who wants to visit the  moon1 and drags 
his mother towards the ladder that he   
may climb up4  ,according to the        

translator ,froebel says he wants to    
point out 8the  higher symbolical       
meaning40 ,but what he says is that one 
remark presses  itself upon him1 how 8we
 ought to cultivate intelligently the   
child's  observation of and pleasure in 
the moon1 and in the night sky1 and not 
let this sink into the formlessness and 
emptiness of mere wonder40 ,for         
example1 it is1 he says1 quite as easy  
to tell a child that the moon is a      
beautiful bright swimming ball1 as to   
say it is a man2 or that the stars  are 
sparkling suns which look small because 
they are far away1 as to call  them     
8golden pins10 and he adds 8,truth never
 injures1 but error always  does40      
,there are certainly some instances in  
which ,froebel found for the  tendencies
 and actions of children1 a meaning that
 does not commend  itself to common     
sense1 but as a rule he only 8ventures  
to suggest0  rather than insists1 and   
his practical application is generally  
unobjectionable4 ,we assent willingly1  

when ,froebel tells us that  rhythmic   
movement1 passive as well as active1 is 
the earliest beginning  of all ordered  
activity4 ,but we smile when1 in        
accounting for the  childish interest in
 clocks1 after allowing for the mystery1
 he goes on3        8,let me hold the   
opinion that a deeply slumbering notion 
of the      importance of time lies at  
the bottom of the pleasure children     
take in playing with a clock40--,m41 p4 
#aci4    ,as he truly and navely        
remarks1 8this opinion of mine hurts1 as
 an  opinion1 neither the child nor any 
one else10 and the application may1     
even in this instance1 be useful as he  
says it is1 viz4 that we should  use    
this pleasure to instil the beginnings  
of punctuality or law and  order4 ,as an
 opinion it is not worthy of ,froebel's 
insight1 and we can  only say that      
instances of this kind are really       
negligible1 though some  have been      
unnecessarily emphasized by certain     
,froebelians to whom they  appeal4      

,there are1 it is true1 a few instances 
which deserve the strictures which  have
 been heaped up somewhat rashly4 ,it is 
only put as a question1 but  ,froebel   
does say of children's pleasure in      
circle games1 8,may not their  delight  
spring from the longing and efforts to  
get an all-round1 or  all-sided1 grasp  
of an object80    ,as to metaphor1      
,froebel delights in this2 his bent of  
mind is to take  pleasure in all        
analogies1 and he suggests that the     
mother should make  more use of the     
metaphors implied in ordinary language4 
,for example1 he  speaks of 8the        
transferred moral meaning of such words 
and phrases as  #8straight and          
straightforward1' and of #8walking in   
crooked paths4'0  ,in using little      
finger plays to give a child control    
over his hands1  the mother is told to  
think how important for later life is   
8the right  handling of things1 in the  
actual as well as in the figurative     
sense40  ,the wise mother is represented

 as cherishing the child's love of light
  and brightness1 saying1 8,never shrink
 away from light02 and while she  shows 
the picture she says1 8,here is a boy   
who has broken the window and  now he   
must go a long way to fetch the glazier 
unless he can content  himself with a   
dark board that will keep out the dear  
bright light4 ,you  must not heedlessly 
stop ,light's entering your heart and   
mind1 for if you  do1 you will have to  
buy it back by trouble and loss of time 
lest heart  and mind become dark4 ,open 
your door and little window to the      
light40  ,thus she makes the child 8see 
inner things through the outer10 and    
uses  his pleasure in light to make him 
hate deeds of darkness4 ,but there is no
  harm in all this1 the words are used  
as a clergyman uses the half-dozen      
words of his text1 as a germ of thought 
which he cultivates1 as a  finger-post  
pointing the way in which our minds may 
travel4 ,and ,froebel1  like the        
clergyman1 sometimes travels far from   

the branching of the roads4             
,froebel's curious attempts at etymology
 ought perhaps to be mentioned  as a    
weak point1 though they really do not   
affect his theories1  psychological or  
educational1 one way or another4 ,the   
ball1 as the  child's first object      
through which he gains his first        
perceptions of  solidity1 weight1 mass1 
etc41 is described as on that account   
8an image  of the universe0 7der ,b--all
 ist der ,bild des ,alles74 ,the thought
 is  worth having1 the pseudo-etymology 
does not much matter4    ,to sum up1    
then1 there is mysticism in ,froebel's  
writings as addressed  to the adult1 and
 with this no one has any right to      
quarrel even if it  should not appeal to
 him or her personally4 ,but an undue   
preponderance  has been given to this   
side of ,froebel by those to whom it    
appeals1 or  so it seems to me4 ,it does
 not appeal to me1 nor can ,i perceive  
that it  affects to any appreciable     
extent the educational theories based on

 the  psychological grounds so carefully
 considered by ,froebel4 ,to writers    
like ,miss ,blow1 the author of         
8,symbolic ,education10 such a statement
  would no doubt seem outrageous4 ,with 
intellectual people possessed of  ,miss 
,blow's philosophic insight1 children   
may be safe from artificiality  and     
sentimentality4 ,but the average teacher
 is incapable of philosophy1  and when  
the uncultured mind is supplied with    
food it cannot digest1  that mind is    
starved4 ,the teacher who glibly uses   
phrases which she  does not understand  
has reached a state of mind immeasurably
 below  plain ignorance1 for it is      
destructive of honest thought and common
  sense4#dg ,the main business of the   
,froebelian is to forward the cause  to 
which ,froebel devoted his life 8to     
bring about a more general use of       
progressive development in the culture  
and education of children4 ,we must     
throw overboard everything that hampers 
action and set before ourselves1  as in 

his day ,froebel tells us he attempted  
to do1 the definite task of  8founding  
anew the practical methods of actual    
teaching so as to bring  them into      
satisfactory relation with the needs of 
our life of to-day40          ,,chapter 
,x    ,,some ,,criticisms ,,answered    
,professor ,adams ends the first chapter
 of his delightfully witty  8,herbartian
 ,psychology0 with a challenge to all   
educational thinkers to  come out of    
their caves and defend their idols4     
,throughout the book1  there is many a  
side-thrust at ,froebel1 all of a more  
or less disparaging  nature1 in spite of
 the humorous twinkle which has a fairly
 permanent  abode in the eye of the     
writer4    ,some of the accusations are 
tolerably sweeping1 for example1 that   
,froebelianism 8as a psychology is      
simply non-existent02 that ,froebel  has
 failed to correlate theory and         
practice2 that although in 8,the        
,education of ,man0 8we have beautiful1 
if obscurely expressed1 truths  about   

education10 yet the ,kindergarten cannot
 be evolved from it1 in fact  8between  
the two there is a great gulf fixed1 a  
gulf that ,froebel has not  bridged40   
,but the main contention is that        
,froebel disapproves in theory of any   
interference with the natural course of 
development4 ,the ,froebelian  teacher  
is thus1 according to ,professor ,adams1
 reduced to the position  of a 8humble  
under-gardener0 who merely watches with 
interest and  admiration1 and education 
becomes 8a general paralysis40    ,mr4  
,graham ,wallas1 whose objections to    
,froebel1 or at least to                
,froebelianism#dh1 as he understands it1
 are well known1 bases these on  the    
ground that because he was a            
pre-,darwinian evolutionist1 ,froebel   
was bound to overrate the importance of 
the innate as a factor in  development1 
and to undervalue the other factor of   
environment4    ,professor ,o',shea     
disposes of ,froebel in one sentence and
 in much the same  way1 as an advocate  

of what he calls 8the doctrine of       
,unfoldment10 where  8everything is     
inner and self-relating10 as opposed to 
the conception  gained from ,biology1   
which 8implies that the business of a   
human being is  to get properly related 
to the world--religious1 social and     
physical--of  which he is an integral   
part40    ,if ,froebel really believed  
that development is entirely from       
within1 as  stated by ,professor        
,o',shea1 or if he failed to realize the
 importance of  the surroundings1 as    
,mr4 ,graham ,wallas expresses it1 he   
would naturally  disapprove of any      
interference1 as ,professor ,adams says 
he does4 ,the  ,froebelian1 being thus  
reduced to passive watching1 the mere   
provision  of a ,kindergarten would be  
an interference with the surroundings   
and  a contradiction in practice of the 
theory of non-interference4 ,if         
non-interference is really the theory   
propounded in 8,the ,education of       
,man10 there certainly is a gulf between

 it and the ,kindergarten1 a gulf  it   
would be difficult to bridge4    ,but   
,froebelians are not prepared to admit  
the premises of any of these  critics4  
,it seems to many of us that these and  
all similar criticisms  are due to      
misunderstanding4 ,this is sometimes    
clearly due to careless  reading1 and   
consequent want of attention to the     
context1 but even  where this is not the
 case1 misunderstandings occur4 ,few1 of
 late  years1 have made any real study  
of ,froebel's writings as a whole1 such 
as is necessary to get at his real      
meaning1 which is often obscured  by    
prolixities and repetitions1 and        
sometimes hidden among apparent         
trivialities4    ,professor ,o',shea1   
for example1 does not seem to be aware  
to what extent  ,froebel1 like himself1 
derived his educational aim and         
principles  from biology4 ,he has       
probably never realized the deep        
interest taken  by ,froebel in the then 
all-absorbing question of natural       

development4  ,clearly he has no idea   
that ,froebel has given expression to a 
conception  of education1 practically   
identical with that given above which he
  himself draws from biology1#di and    
sets in contrast with the one he        
unjustly attributes to ,froebel4        
,there is no doubt whatever that        
,froebel laid much stress on what is    
innate4 ,in his generation1 he tells us 
the child was looked upon 8as a  piece  
of wax1 or lump of clay1 which man can  
mould into what he pleases40  ,because  
,froebel was a student of biology he    
knew better4 ,he knew1 as  we have seen1
 that human beings have instincts1      
innate tendencies or  dispositions      
differing from those of the lower       
animals chiefly in their                
indefiniteness4 ,we are not so afraid of
 the word 8innate0 nowadays1  when both 
innate ideas and innate faculties are   
safely buried1 and that  ,froebel had no
 dealings with these has been amply     
shown4    ,but that this stress on      

innate tendencies implies that the child
 is to  unfold from within1 the educator
 standing by passive#ej1 or that        
,froebel  imagined that the developing  
process could go on with little or no   
reference to the environment1 is quite  
another matter4    ,few of ,froebel's   
critics have taken the trouble to look  
up the original  ,german before         
pronouncing condemnation1 and this      
explains part of the  injustice that has
 been done to him4 ,the passage upon    
which much1 perhaps  most1 of the       
adverse criticism is based is the one in
 which ,froebel  applies to education   
the term 8leidend10 translated 8passive0
 in both the  ,english1 or1 rather1     
,american editions of 8,the ,education  
of ,man40 ,the  translation of 8leidend0
 as 8passive0 is not a happy one4       
,moreover1 the  translators have        
endeavoured to help the reader by       
dividing the text into  numbered        
sections1 a proceeding which though     
often helpful1 sometimes  tends to break

 the continuity of ,froebel's thought4  
,this effect is  heightened in          
,hailmann's translation by the          
interpolated notes1 however  valuable as
 some of these are in themselves4 ,this 
passage1 however1 opens  with           
8therefore10 and those who take         
exception to it ought to have           
considered the preceding argument4 ,fair
 criticism looks back to see why  and   
under what circumstances education is to
 be 8passive or following10  as opposed 
to 8dictating and limiting40    ,in the 
first place1 absolutely passive         
education is a contradiction in  terms4 
,froebel begins by stating that3        
8,education consists in leading man as a
 thinking1 intelligent      being1      
growing into self-consciousness1 to a   
pure1 conscious      and free           
representation of the law of his being1 
and in      teaching him ways and means 
thereto40    ,he defines the ,theory of 
,education as 8the system of directions 
derived  from the knowledge and study of

 that law to guide human beings in the  
apprehension of their life-work02 and   
the ,practice of ,education as  8the    
self-active application of this         
knowledge in the direct development  and
 cultivation of rational beings towards 
the attainment of their  destiny40      
,to go on from this to say1 on the next 
page but one1 that the educator is  to  
do nothing1 to stand aside and be truly 
passive1 would be absurd4    ,that our  
word 8passive0 is not the equivalent of 
,froebel's word  8leidend10 is easily   
proved1 for in another passage where    
,froebel does  mean 8passive0 he couples
 8leidend0 with 8inactive10 and puts    
passive  in a bracket beside it4 ,the   
passage runs3 8wo das ,kind usserlich   
als  unthtig1 leidend 7passiv7          
erscheint40 ,in the passage under       
discussion  8passiv0 does not appear at 
all1 and 8leidend0 is coupled1 not with 
8inactive10 but with 8following10 and is
 contrasted with 8dictating1  limiting  
and interfering40#ea    ,a few lines    

further we read how the gardener may    
even destroy the vine  8if he fail in   
his work passively and attentively to   
follow the nature  of the plant40 ,he   
cannot surely 8work0 and be inactively  
passive at the  same time4    ,a more   
correct translation of 8leidend0 here   
would perhaps be 8tolerant0  or         
8suffering0 in its old sense of         
8permitting10 8bearing with10 or  having
 patience with4    ,as to immediate     
context1 ,froebel has just stated that  
education ought 8to  lift man to a      
knowledge of himself and mankind1 to a  
knowledge of ,god  and ,nature1 and to  
the pure and consecrated life           
conditioned thereby40  8,but10 he goes  
on1 8education must be founded on what  
is essential or  innermost1 and though  
the real nature of things can only be   
known by  outer manifestations1 yet it  
behoves the educator to be very careful 
how he judges1 for the child that       
appears good outwardly1 is often not    
really good1 i4e4 does not will the good

 from his own determination1 or  from   
love1 respect for or recognition of it10
 while 8the outwardly rough  self-willed
 child often has within him a vigorous  
struggle to do what  seems to him       
right40 ,judging from outer             
manifestations furnishes constant       
occasion for false judgments concerning 
the motives of children1 for  endless   
misunderstanding between parent and     
child1 and for unreasonable  demands    
made upon children4    ,and here comes  
the force of the conjunction3           
8,therefore10 says ,froebel1            
8education1 instruction and training in 
their fundamental principles  must      
necessarily be tolerant1 following1 not 
dictating1 not limiting or  defining1   
not interfering40    ,what is it1 then1 
that ,froebel is telling us to follow   
almost passively1  interfering1 in our  
ignorance1 as little as possible8       
,simply the natural  order of           
development1 the natural instincts of   
childhood1 which in this  very passage  

he is arguing are as trustworthy as     
those of other young  animals4 ,here1 as
 everywhere1 man can only control       
,nature by following1  by obeying her   
laws4        8,as the duckling hastens  
to the pond and the chicken scratches   
the ground1 so will the human being1    
still young1 still1 as it      were1 in 
the process of creation1 though as      
unconsciously as      any ,nature       
product1 yet definitely and surely      
desire what is      best for him4 ,we   
give plants and animals time and space  
and      freedom to develop1 but the    
young human being is to man a piece     
of wax1 a lump of clay1 from which he   
can mould what he will4 ,o      man1 who
 roamest through garden and field1      
through meadow and      grove1 why dost 
thou close thy mind to the silent       
teaching of      ,nature80--,e41 p4 #h4 
,surely we have here a plea to 8suffer  
7leiden7 little children10 to  bear with
 the little one1 still1 as ,froebel     
describes him1 8still1 as  it were1 in  

the process of creation10 nay1 more1 a  
plea for the actual  recognition and    
fostering of these instinctive          
tendencies which ,professor  ,dewey     
calls 8the foundation-stones of         
educational method10 rather than  a     
recommendation to 8gratify every        
youthful impulse10 or to stand aside    
altogether4 ,for the context1 the whole1
 is not yet complete4    ,froebel goes  
on to say that if we are certain of any 
tendency to  unhealthy development we   
are to interfere with full severity 7so 
tritt  geradezubestimmende1 fordernde   
,erziehungsweise in ihrer ganzen        
,strenge  ein74    ,and now comes a     
sentence apparently quite overlooked by 
,mr4 ,graham  ,wallas1 who blames       
,froebel for underestimating the        
environment4 ,in the  mean-time1 until  
we are sure that our interference is    
justifiable1  8nothing is left for us to
 do but to bring the child into         
relations and  surroundings in all      
respects adapted to him40#eb--;,e41 p4  

#aa4    ,in many other passages ,froebel
 shows plainly that he had no thought of
  the 8gratifying of every youthful     
impulse0 in the sense of individual     
caprice4    ,in his plea for monetary   
help to establish ,kindergartens and    
training  establishments connected with 
them1 he complains that in existing     
institutions children are either        
8repressed and their energies crippled1 
or else we are confronted with the wild 
and uncontrollable character  which     
results when children are uncared for   
and are left altogether to  their own   
impulses40--,l41 p4 #aei4    8,life has 
no room for wilfulness and whims10 he   
says in his ,mother ,songs2  8,boyhood  
is the age of ,discipline0 he states in 
8,the ,education of ,man40  ,but1 as he 
himself sums up this discussion3        
8,all true education is double-sided1   
prescribing and following1      active  
and passive1 positive yet giving scope1 
firm and      yielding4''' ,between     
educator and pupil should rule invisibly

 a      third something to which both   
are equally subject4 ,the third         
something is the right1 the best ''' the
 child1 the pupil has a      very keen  
apprehension whether what father or     
teacher requests      is personal and   
arbitrary or the expression of general  
law and      necessity40--,e41 p4 #ad4  
,the proof of whether or not the        
educator has succeeded in rightly       
adjusting the claims of freedom and     
authority1 ,froebel expresses in words  
recalling ,kant's1 8,when the #8,thou   
,shalt' of the ,law becomes the #8,i    
will'  of the doer1 then we are free40  
8,in good education1 in genuine         
instruction1 in true teaching1          
necessity must and will call forth      
freedom1 law will call forth            
self-determination1 and outer compulsion
 inner free-will4        8,where        
necessity produces bondage1 where law   
brings fraud      and crime1 and outer  
compulsion causes slavery1 there every  
effect of education is destroyed4 ,there

 oppression destroys and      debases1  
severity and harshness bring obstinacy  
and deceit1 and      the burden is more 
than can be borne40--,e41 p4 #ad4    ,to
 emphasize the fact that ,froebel did   
realize the importance of  environment1 
and to anticipate the criticism that    
this shortened  rendering is an         
interpretation in the light of modern   
educational  theories1 of ,froebel's    
somewhat cumbrous phrases1 we can turn  
to a  passage in his later writing1 part
 of which has been quoted elsewhere3    
8,through the child's efforts to repel  
that which is contrary to      the needs
 of his life1 indignation and discontent
 are awakened2      and on the other    
hand1 from the fact that his normal     
desires      are ungratified1 they      
become inordinate and mischievous4 ,how 
may parents avoid these evil results8   
,most satisfactorily      through a     
threefold yet single glance at life4    
,let them look      into themselves1 and
 their own course of development and its

      requirements1 let them recall     
their own earliest years1 then          
later stages of development1 and look   
deeply into their present      life4    
,next1 let them look equally deeply into
 the life of      the child and what he 
must require for his present stage of   
development4 ,having scrutinized what   
the child needs1 let them               
scrutinize his environment1 and first   
observe what it offers      and does not
 offer for the fulfilment of such       
requirements4      ,let them utilize all
 offered possibilities of meeting normal
      needs2 and when such needs cannot 
be met1 let them recognize      this    
fact1 and show the child plainly the    
impossibility of      their fulfilment4 
,finally1 let them clearly recognize    
whatever      in the child's environment
 tends to awaken antagonism and         
discontent1 remove it if it be          
removable1 and admit its defect      if 
it be not removable40#ec--,p41 p4 #afg4 
,it is1 of course1 true that ,froebel   

was pre-,darwinian in time1 but it is   
equally true that he was post-,darwinian
 in many of his beliefs4    ,to find out
 whether or not his educational         
doctrines are really based  on false or 
exploded theories of development1 as the
 ,criticism of ,mr4  ,graham ,wallas    
implies1 we must gather together from   
,froebel's various  writings1 his most  
important references to the subject4    
,the key-note to his interest in it lies
 probably in the yearning for  unity and
 union in all relations1 which was a    
part of his individuality4  ,this may   
have dated back to the time when1 a     
puzzled little mortal of  eight or nine 
years old1 he was most unwisely allowed 
to hear his father  exhorting and       
rebuking his parishioners4 ,it seemed to
 the boy that most  of the trouble arose
 from the fact that human beings1 and   
human beings  alone1 so far as he knew1 
were divided into two sexes1 and he felt
 that  he would have arranged matters   
differently4 ,comfort came to him when  

his  older brother1 by showing him the  
male and female flower of the hazel1    
gave him some idea of a great law of    
,nature4 ,strange comfort1 too1 it      
seems1 for a boy not yet ten years old6 
,the late ,mr4 ,ebenezer ,cooke pointed 
out long ago#ed that ,mr4 ,graham       
,wallas had not only overshot the mark  
in saying that 8,darwin transferred  the
 cause of development from within to    
without10 but that he had himself       
failed to draw any distinction between  
the facts of development1 as  seen in   
the individual1 and the theory of the   
origin or development  of species1 which
 we associate with the names of ,darwin 
and ,wallace4  ,mr4 ,cooke pointed to   
,froebel's connection with ,batch1 the  
founder of a  ,natural ,history         
,society1 of which ,goethe was a member1
 as showing that  he was in direct touch
 with those who were working out the    
theory of  development of the           
individual4    ,froebel himself refers  
to this ,natural ,history ,society in   

his  ,autobiography1 saying that        
8students10 of whom he was one1 8who had
  shown living interest and done active 
work in ,natural ,science10 were        
invited to become members1 and that this
 awoke within him 8a yearning  towards  
higher scientific knowledge40 ,at this  
time ,froebel was but a  youth of       
seventeen1 with no idea that education  
was to be his life work4  ,three years  
later1 he meets a private tutor1 8a     
young man quite out of  the common1 with
 actively inquiring mind10 who was      
8especially fond of  making             
comprehensive schemes of education40    
,the year after this we find  him       
reading what he can of anthropology and 
history1 and saying of his  reading3    
8,it taught me of man in his broad      
historical relations and set  before me 
the general life of my kind as one great
 whole40    ,one year more1 and while he
 is looking for a situation with an     
architect--in spite of uneasy communing 
with himself as to how  architecture was

 to be used 8for the culture and        
ennoblement of  mankind0--,grner claps  
him on the shoulder with 8,give up      
architecture1 it  is not your vocation  
at all6 ,become a teacher40    ,it is   
perhaps because ,froebel passed thus    
from interest in biology to  interest in
 education that at this time he gives to
 his own question1  ,what is the purpose
 of education8--almost the identical    
answer that  ,professor ,o',shea puts   
into the mouth of his biologist#ee1 and 
which he  sets in opposition to         
,froebel's supposed opinions3           
8,in answering the question1 ,what is   
the purpose of education8      ,i relied
 at that time on the following          
observations3 ,man lives      in a world
 of objects1 which influence him and    
which he desires      to influence2     
therefore he ought to know these objects
 in      their nature1 in their         
conditions and in their relations with  
each other and with mankind4''' ,i      
sought1 to the extent of such           

powers as ,i consciously possessed at   
that time1 to make clear      to myself 
the meaning of all things through man1  
his relations      with himself1 and    
with the external world ''' it seemed to
 me      that everything which should or
 could be required for human            
education must be necessarily           
conditioned and given1 by virtue      of
 the very nature of the necessary course
 of his development1      in man's own  
being and in the relations amidst which 
he is set4      ,a man1 it seemed to me1
 would be well educated when he had been
      trained to care for these         
relationships and to acknowledge        
them1 to master them and to survey      
them40--,a41 p4 #fi4    ,in the very    
beginning1 then1 of his educational     
career1 ,froebel  emphasized rather than
 overlooked 8the relationships amidst   
which man is  set10 but he was to learn 
more yet about development4    ,six     
years later he is back at a university1 
and 8just at this time10 he  says1      

8those great discoveries of the ,french 
and ,english philosophers  became       
generally known through which the great 
manifold external world  was seen to    
form a comprehensive outer world40      
,the ,english writer may have been      
,erasmus ,darwin4 ,the ,french writer   
was  no doubt ,lamarck1 to whom belongs 
8the immortal glory of having for the   
first time worked out the theory of     
,descent as an independent scientific   
theory of the first order and as the    
philosophical foundation of the  whole  
science of ,biology40    ,from some such
 source1 at any rate1 ,froebel must have
 gained  8the key-note of development10 
viz41 that it is always from the        
undifferentiated to the differentiated4 
,we have already seen that he  applied  
this to mental development and so gained
 his modern conception  of the earliest 
infant consciousness1 8an               
undifferentiated unorganized  unity40   
,in 8,the ,education of ,man0 he speaks 
of        8the all-pervading law of     

,nature according to which the general  
gives rise to the particular10--,e41 p4 
#afg4    and in the ,mother ,songs he   
says3        8,whether we are looking at
 a seed or an egg1 whether we      are  
watching feeling or thought1 what is    
definite proceeds      everywhere from  
what is indefinite40--,m41 p4 #aba4     
,or1 again3        8,in the child as in 
the grain of seed1 there begins a       
development proceeding towards          
complexity40--,p41 p4 #agb4    ,such    
quotations fully exonerate ,froebel from
 belief in any  8pre-formation0 theory1 
whether physical or mental1 as indeed   
,mr4 ,cooke  made abundantly plain4     
,it is in one of his later papers#ef    
that ,froebel generalizes and states    
very plainly how everything is developed
 under the influence of its             
environment4        8,taking ,nature as 
our guide1 let us endeavour to find the 
essential nature of material objects and
 the conditions under      which this   
develops1 for the process of development

 shows the      essence of the          
developing object4        8,firstly1    
each thing and each object manifesting  
existence      and life1 develops itself
 in accordance with the highest and     
simplest1 the general laws of life4     
,thus everything manifests      these   
laws and their primeval cause4          
8,secondly1 each thing and each object  
in ,nature develops      itself         
according to its own individuality and  
the laws of its      being4             
8,thirdly1 everything in ,nature        
develops itself under the               
collective influence of all things4 ,if 
any object seems to be      withdrawn   
from this collective influence1 such    
withdrawal is      only mediate4'''     
8,in ,nature1 and in everything1 all    
things develop as members      of the   
world-whole1 the universal life1 as     
members of a whole1      each perfect in
 its kind1 because each1 while standing 
in      the centre of the collective    
influence streaming upwards and         

inwards--nay1 in a certain sense1 as the
 receiver1 yielding      itself to this 
influence--yet also acts 7as            
assimilative and      formative7 and    
develops itself1 faithful to the        
indwelling      laws of life universal  
and particular4 ,we must see clearly the
      conditions of perfect development 
in ,nature1 and then employ      them in
 human life4 ,thus only can we help man 
to attain1      upon the plane of human 
development--which means spiritual      
development--a degree of perfection     
corresponding to that which      the    
forms and types of ,nature show upon the
 plane of physical                      
development40--,p41 p4 #aif4    ,when   
child development is in question1 far   
from minimising1 as he is  supposed to  
do1 the importance of environment1      
parents and teachers are  told3         
8,we must hold fast for consideration in
 life this fact1 that      in the       
spontaneous occupation and playing of   
the child1 not      the germ only1 but  

the growing point of his life also1 is  
formed in union with his surroundings1  
and under their silent      unremarked  
influence 7im ,vereine mit der ,umgebung
 und unter      deren stillen           
unbemerkten ,einwirkung740--,p41 p4     
#ajh4    ,or1 again3        8,as the    
new-born child1 like a ripe grain of    
seed dropped from      the mother plant 
has life in itself1 and as it           
spontaneously      develops life in     
progressive connection with the common  
life whole2 so activity and action are  
the first phenomena      of his         
awakening life4 ,this activity bears the
 impress of      what is innermost1 it  
is an inner activity whose purpose is   
manifestation of the inner through the  
outer1 and1 as leading      up to this1 
devoted to consideration of and working 
with the      outer to penetrating the  
outer and overcoming hindrances as      
such40--,p41 p4 #bc4    ,this account   
surely makes plain1 that whatever       
,froebel may have believed  with regard 

to the origin of species1 he in no way  
believed that  development in general   
was a one-sided process1 in which the   
environment  went for nothing4    ,in   
his 8,criticism10 ,mr4 ,graham ,wallas  
remarked3 8,whoever divorced his        
educational system from his philosophy1 
would have seemed to ,froebel to  have  
taken all force and meaning out of his  
work40 ,this is most true1 and  it      
approaches absurdity to attribute so    
limited a view to a man imbued as       
,froebel was with the philosophical     
doctrine of the reconciliation of the   
opposites4#eg ,that all development was 
the result of a harmony between         
opposites was one of his cardinal       
doctrines4    8,we are living in an     
age10 he writes1 8when we are           
consciously under a  law of development 
acting by the reconciliation of         
opposites40    ,mr4 ,hailmann gives a   
long footnote where ,froebel is quoted  
as comparing  his idea of the law of    
connection or unification with the ideas

 of ,fichte  and ,hegel1 and saying3    
8,it is both of these1 and yet has      
nothing in common with either      of   
them2 it is the law which the           
contemplation of ,nature has      taught
 me4''' ,and where do we find absolute  
contrasts that have      not somewhere  
and somehow a connection8 ,in action and
 reaction      the contrasts that we see
 everywhere give rise to the motions    
in the universe as they do in the       
smallest organism4 ,this      implies   
for all development a struggle which    
however sooner      or later will find  
its adjustment2 and this adjustment is  
the      connection of contrasts40--,e41
 p4 #db4    ,what ,froebel knew of      
,hegel's philosophy was probably gained 
from  discussions among his friends1 for
 in the hearing of ,madame von          
,marenholz1 he said1 8,i do not know how
 ,hegel formulates and applies this     
law1 for ,i have had no time for the    
study of his system10 and he went  on to
 say of 8the philosophical systems of   

others0 that 8most of them  belong to a 
theory of the world that is passing     
away1 whose one-sidedness  becomes more 
apparent every day0 7,reminiscences1    
#bbe74 ,ebers1 too1 speaks  of          
,froebel's ideas as opposed to those of 
,hegel4    ,even ,mr4 ,graham ,wallas   
allows that ,froebel's casual references
 to the  development of species are     
8surprisingly modern40 ,no orthodox     
views as  to the exact date of the      
creation of the world keep him from     
accepting  the newly discovered         
testimony of the rocks as to 8the       
remains of  perished ages40 ,ardent as  
his religious convictions were1 they had
 a  philosophic width unusual indeed in 
his day4 ,the ,garden of ,eden is to    
him a parable1 repeated 8in the         
experience of every child from the time 
of his appearance on earth to the time  
when he consciously 7by the help  of    
names7 beholds himself in beautiful     
,nature spread out before him40 ,in     
each child he sees 8repeated at a later 

period1 the deed which marks the        
beginning of moral and human            
emancipation1 of the dawn of reason40   
,he refers calmly to        8the fall1  
or1 since the result is the same1 the   
ascent of      the mind of man1 from    
simple1 uniform1 emotional development1 
into the development of externally      
analytic and critical                   
reason40--,e41 p4 #aid4    ,not ,stanley
 ,hall himself insists more that the    
development of the  individual shall    
follow the development of the race1 and 
this in #ahbf1  two years before ,baer1 
and four years before ,comte1 to whom   
,herbert  ,spencer attributed the       
doctrine4 8,humanity10 he says1 8lives  
only in its  continuous development40   
8,each successive generation and each   
successive individual      human being1 
inasmuch as he would understand the past
 and      present1 must pass through all
 preceding phases of human              
development and culture1 and this should
 not be done in the way      of dead    

imitation or mere copying1 but in the   
way of living      spontaneous          
self-activity40--,e41 p4 #ah4    ,there 
is certainly no ground for assuming that
 ,froebel held any such  pre-,darwinian 
views as a special creation of each     
species1 for there  is no point on which
 he insists more emphatically than that 
in ,nature  development is continuously 
progressive4        8,in ,god's world1  
just because it is ,god's world1 by ,him
      created1 one thing constant is    
expressed to which we give the      name
 of unbroken progression of development 
in all and through      all40#eh--,m41  
p4 #aed4        8,god neither ingrafts  
nor inoculates1 ,he develops the most   
trivial and imperfect things in         
continuously ascending      series and  
in accordance with eternal self-grounded
 and      self-developing laws40--,e41  
p4 #cbh4    ,mr4 ,winch makes merry over
 ,froebel's sentence3        8,as ,man  
and ,nature have one origin1 they must  
be subject to the      same laws10      

and remarks that 8this conception is    
almost completely given up4''' ,our     
view now rather is one in which ,god and
 ,nature are at strife1 in which  the   
ethical interest overcomes ,nature4'''0 
,but ,froebel is far ahead of this4 ,the
 great law to him is the ,law of        
,development to which ,man and ,nature1 
which includes ,man1 are subject4 ,the  
ethical interest is not1 as ,mr4 ,winch 
intimates1 something transcending       
,nature1 but is itself evolved4         
,morality1 ,froebel distinctly tells us1
 is  8rooted0 in ,instinct1 and 8human  
development means spiritual             
development40    ,professor ,o',shea    
says of the doctrine of ,unfoldment     
which he attributes  to ,froebel that it
 8regards man on his spiritual side as  
an entity set  apart from everything in 
the universe40#ei    ,froebel1 however1 
writes3        8,difficult1 very        
difficult1 would it be to define where  
the      purely physical ends and the   
purely intellectual begins4 ,it      is 

precisely on account of this close      
welding or flowing into      one another
 of the ,physical and ,psychical1 the   
bodily and      mental1 the material and
 spiritual1 the vital 7des ,vitalen7    
and intellectual1 instinct and morality2
 it is because of      this rooting of  
the higher in the lower that the        
training      and ennobling of the      
senses1 such as smell and taste1 are so 
important40--,m41 p4 #ahc4    8,training
 and ennobling10 these words bring us   
back to the educational  doctrines      
,froebel based upon what he knew of     
development1 physical and  mental1 from 
whatever source he may have gained his  
information4    8,from the beginning of 
the ,darwinian reconstruction of the    
moral  sciences10 says ,mr4 ,graham     
,wallas1 8it was absurd1 while speaking 
of #8environment1' to ignore the fact   
that the deliberate care and            
contrivance of the parent must form a   
large part of the environment of  the   
child40 ,undoubtedly4    ,but it was    

because ,froebel exalted 8the deliberate
 care and contrivance  of the parent0   
that he wrote 8,the ,education of ,man10
 to tell his  generation how best to    
care and contrive4 ,it was because he   
realized  that this deliberate care and 
contrivance must begin from the very    
first  that he wrote his ,mother ,songs4
 ,he tells the mother here that 8if she 
is  wise1 in all she does a noble       
meaning lies02 that she must 8do nothing
  aimlessly or she'll create a child she
 cannot educate40 ,he tells her that  it
 is 8by watching what makes the child's 
eyes bright1 that she will know  how    
best to give delight10 and that she must
 8seek to strengthen power  and mind in 
all things40    ,in very truth the      
,kindergarten itself1 with all its      
imperfections1 is  nothing more nor less
 than an attempt to supply that very    
environment  which its founder is       
supposed to undervalue--an attempt to   
foster1  by providing suitable          
conditions1 those innate tendencies or  

natural  activities1 to which ,froebel  
attached infinite importance4    ,this  
is why the discovery of the name        
,kindergarten gave ,froebel the         
pleasure expressed in his cry1 8,eureka1
 ,i have it6 ,kindergarten shall be  its
 name40 ,the original designation       
contained the actual words 8through  the
 culture of the instinct for activity1  
inquiry and creation1 inherent  in man10
 but this original title spreads over   
several lines of print4  8,garden0 to   
,froebel expresses just what he wanted1 
8,as in a garden under  ,god's favour1  
and by the care of a skilled1           
intelligent gardener1  growing plants   
are cultivated in accordance with       
,nature's laws1 so here1  in our        
child-garden1 shall the noblest of all  
growing things1 men  7that is1 children1
 the germs and shoots of humanity71 be  
cultivated in  accordance with the laws 
of their own being1 of ,god and of      
,nature40--,l41  p4 #afa4    ,this is   
why he urges on his pupil1 ,ida ,seele1 

to retain the name in spite  of the     
prejudices it aroused4 ,it is to her    
that he writes3        8,is there really
 such importance underlying the mere    
name of      a system8--some one might  
ask4 ,yes1 there is3 ''' ,it is true    
that any one carefully watching your    
teaching would observe      a new spirit
 ''' you would strike him as personally 
capable1      nay1 as extremely capable1
 but you would fail to strike him       
as priestess of the idea1 and of the    
struggle towards the      realization of
 the idea--education by development--the
 destined      means of raising the     
whole human race4 ,for1 after all1 what 
do      we mean by #8,kindergarten'8''' 
,no man can acquire fresh knowledge     
beyond the measure which his own mental 
strength and stage      of development  
fits him to receive4 ,but little        
children have      no development at    
all4''' ,infant schools are nothing but 
a      contradiction of child nature4   
,little children ought not to be        

schooled and taught1 they merely need to
 be developed4 ,it is      the pressing 
need of our age1 and only the idea of a 
garden can      serve to show us        
symbolically the proper treatment of    
children4      ,this idea lies in the   
very name of a ,kindergarten4 ''' ,how  
much      better had you been able to   
call your work by its proper name1      
and to make evident by that expression1 
the real nature of the      new spirit  
you have introduced40--,l41 p4 #bij4    
,there is no gulf between the           
,kindergarten1 and 8,the ,education of  
,man10  with its appeal to educators to 
follow instead of interfering with      
,nature's methods1 to foster instead of 
repressing the 8instincts of  activity  
and of construction10 to foster play1   
which though 8merely  natural life10 yet
 holds 8the seed leaves of all later    
life40    ,froebel's gardener is        
8skilled and intelligent10 and a skilled
 gardener  is supposed to have          
scientific knowledge of his plants1 of  

the conditions  of soil1 exposure1 etc41
 best suited to them4 ,professor ,adams 
says that  8to call a child a plant does
 not advance matters much1 and it       
certainly  does not account for the use 
of the cubes1 spheres and such like40   
,this1  however1 it does most certainly 
if these cubes and spheres are the right
  food material for the child's mind1 as
 ,froebel at any rate believed4    ,all 
the employments of the ,kindergarten1   
all the varied materials1  the sand and 
clay1 the pencil and paint brush1 the   
building blocks1  cardboard1 sawdust1   
moss1 nut-shells1 etc41 for constructive
 or  8representative0 play are          
definitely mentioned and definitely     
commended  in 8,the ,education of ,man40
 ,they are commended because they are   
the  employments and the material which 
children everywhere find for            
themselves2 because ,froebel had        
sufficient knowledge of biology to know 
that instinctive action must somehow    
benefit the individual and the race2    

and also because he had psychological   
insight enough to see that by such      
activities children gain not merely     
skill1 but clear ideas and 8firmness  of
 will40    ,professor ,adams writes3    
8,not ,philosophy1 but common sense1    
experience  and loving observation1 have
 led ,froebel and his followers to adopt
  certain apparatus and certain methods1
 which are excellent in themselves1  and
 which in capable hands produce         
admirable results4 ,for this he         
deserves all the honour that has been   
heaped upon him--but he has not         
explained ,john40    ,true enough1      
,froebel has not explained1 at least1 he
 has not entirely  explained that       
charming ,john1 the ,professor's own    
creation and type  of all our children4 
,who has8 ,still1 by his efforts as a   
pioneer in  genetic psychology--the     
result of his belief that 8only by the  
study  of development in ourselves and  
others1 can we learn to understand the  
child0--and by the two sketches so full 

of insight into child-life and  into boy
 life1 which he has given us in 8,the   
,education of ,man10 surely  ,froebel   
has done at least his share even in     
explaining ,john4    ,no doubt he learnt
 much from 8loving observation40 ,nor   
does he undervalue  it1 but1 in his     
case1 the observation was induced by the
 ,philosophy1 as  well as by the love4  
,for1 as he tells us1 8it is a necessary
 part of  me to be irresistibly driven  
to search out the ultimate cause of     
every  fact in life1 to discover its    
roots40 ,he learned much from watching  
both  mothers and children1 but he says3
        8,what natural mother wit and   
human common sense left to              
themselves1 have been doing by chance   
and piece-meal1 ought now      to be    
brought forward by a thoughtful mind1   
its foundation1      connections and    
deeper meaning recognized1 that it may  
be      improved upon by clever and     
kindly thought40--,m41 p4 #adg4    ,an  
education which 8follows0 needs shown by

 the child1 which 8follows0  the laws of
 development1 physical and mental1 as   
far as these can be  discovered from    
history1 from introspection1 and from   
observation  of children in general and 
of 8each individual child10 that is the 
8patiently following0 education which   
,froebel puts before us as an ideal4    
8,for10 he says3        8,by the full   
application of the latter method of     
education1 the      prescribing and     
interfering1 we should wholly lose the  
sure1      steady and progressive       
development of mankind1 which is the    
ultimate aim and object of all          
education40--,e41 p4 #aj4               
,,note4--,the foregoing chapter was     
written some years ago1 but in          
#aiab there appeared a fresh criticism  
of ,froebel and his work      in many   
ways more adequate than certain others4 
,it appeared      as an ,introduction to
 a new translation of 8,the ,education  
of      ,man0 and of some of ,froebel's 
lesser writings1 by ,dr4 ,fletcher      

and ,professor ,welton4 ,in this        
introduction1 important points      are 
granted1 for example1 that ,froebel had 
8grasped the vital      principle that  
all true development1 and consequently  
all true      education1 is a           
self-directed process--that purpose is  
the      key-note of human culture and  
advance4 ,it was the emphasis      which
 he laid upon this which makes ,froebel 
one of the princes      of education and
 gives him an enduring place in the     
history      of thought40 ,or again1    
that ,froebel's teaching is 8not the    
negation of all human constraint10 but  
that he sees clearly      that          
8constraint is necessary to train the   
will to resist      impulse and follow  
purpose02 that with ,froebel            
8,discipline must      direct           
instinctive impulse1 not simply oppose  
and thwart it40      ,unfortunately1    
however1 the writers of the book do not 
seem to      have grasped the idea of   
the ,kindergarten as an ,institution    

which had this very end in view1 and the
 second part of the      book which is  
called 8,the ,kindergarten10 never      
mentions its      essential features4   
,so we have the familiar statement that 
between the ,kindergarten and 8,the     
,education of ,man0 a gulf is           
fixed1 a statement which has been       
already discussed4 ,and we are      also
 told that ,froebel attracts us 8by his 
very vagueness40      ,but ,keilhau and 
,helba and the real ,kindergarten are   
none of      them vague4 ,that ,froebel 
attributed too much importance to his   
,gifts and occupations most of us will  
readily allow1 but that      the forms  
of expression set forth in the ,helba   
plan are to be      regarded as merely  
additions to the ,gifts is impossible   
seeing      that the plan for ,helba is 
dated #ahbi4 ,besides1 all such work    
had already been very much in evidence  
at ,keilhau 7,see p4 v1      ,preface71 
and the ,gifts and ,occupations were an 
attempt to      provide in a similar    

manner for children very much younger1  
and      as materials are only such as  
children find for themselves4 ,we       
claim that ,froebel himself is the best 
interpreter of his own      invention1  
the ,kindergarten1 and we are content to
 abide by his      own definition of it3
 ,an ,institution for the cultivation of
      the life of mankind through       
fostering the impulse to activity1      
investigation and construction in the   
child2 an institution      for the      
self-instruction1 for self-education of 
mankind      through play1 that is      
creative self-activity and spontaneous  
self-instruction4          ,,appendix ,i
    ,,on ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,the     
,,word 8,,activity0      ,professor     
,stout is particularly definite in his  
use of the word  8activity10 and as he  
agrees with ,mr4 ,bradley1 from whom he 
quotes 8that  the current use of the    
word activity in the literature of      
philosophy is  a scandal10 it may be    
well to inquire here whether ,froebel   

used the word  loosely or with some     
degree of definiteness4    ,professor   
,stout considers the word 8activity0    
specially appropriate to  cases 8in     
which the return of a causal process    
upon itself is especially  prominent or 
important40 ,he quotes from ,mr4        
,bradley again that 8,activity  seems to
 be self-caused change4 ,a transition   
that begins with1 and comes  out of the 
thing itself is the process where we    
feel that it is active40  8,thus10 ,mr4 
,stout comments1 8the life and growth of
 organisms are  specially appropriate   
examples of activity2 for such processes
 are in a  large measure immanent or    
self-determining40    ,the first point  
that suggests itself is that in the     
majority of cases1  ,froebel may perhaps
 be said to have avoided the difficulty 
by his  constant reference not only to  
activity but to 8self-activity10 a word 
associated with the name of ,froebel    
closely as his very shadow4    ,in the  
second place1 we do find ,froebel very  

markedly referring to the               
self-determining activity of organisms1 
in a passage where he is trying  to show
 that all instruction should start from 
the child's own desire  and power of    
will4 ,he says that the                 
mother--grounding her instruction  in   
her child's desire to write to the      
absent father--acts like the  sun1      
8whose warmth awakens in every grain of 
seed1 life1 impulse1  power1            
self-activity1 self-determination0 7die 
,triebe1 die ,kraft1 die                
,selbstthtigkeit und                    
,selbstbestimmung74#fj    ,it is        
,froebel's peculiarity that he brings   
his philosophical conceptions  into the 
veriest details1 and so even in speaking
 of how the mother may  make a ball     
represent a springing kitten1 etc41 and 
saying that to the  child the ball is   
8the uniting object10 yet1 he says1     
considering the  plays as proceeding    
from the child 7vom ,kinde aus71 8all   
activity1 though  mediated 7vermittelt7 

by the ball1 proceeds definitely from   
the child1  and though going through the
 ball1 refers back again to the child1  
who is  himself a unit40    ,there is a 
particular passage which suggests that  
there existed a special  definite idea  
in ,froebel's mind in regard to the word
 8activity10 and it  is one which       
presents a difficulty to an ordinary and
 unphilosophical  mind1 though a        
possible light is thrown upon it by ,mr4
 ,bradley's  definition4 ,in this       
passage activity 7,thtigkeit7 is very   
distinctly  given as something higher   
than impulse 7,triebe74    ,the working 
of the primeval ,cause1 8the uniting10  
is called1 ,froebel  says1 8according to
 the different stages in development1   
,force1 ,impulse1  ,life1 ,life-impulse1
 ,activity0 7,wirken1 ,trieb1 ,leben1   
,lebenstrieb1  ,thtigkeit74    ,this    
placing of activity so high in the scale
 is at least no accident1  and conscious
 self-determination is constantly       
attributed to man as 8the  most perfect 

earthly being10 and to man alone4       
,mr4 ,stout proceeds to examine the     
conception of self-determining process1 
with special reference to changes within
 the sphere of an individual            
consciousness1 taking as the most       
convenient point of departure1 such     
illustrative analogies as come from the 
physical world1 and beginning  with the 
simplest form of self-determination1 the
 law of inertia4#fa    8,conscious      
life10 he says1 8is always in some      
degree self-sustaining1  this indeed is 
an indispensable part of the connotation
 of all such words  as activity1        
endeavour1 conation1 effort1 striving1  
will1 attention4  ,all such terms imply 
that the process to which they refer1   
tends by its  intrinsic nature in a     
certain direction1 or toward a certain  
end40    ,now the word 8endeavour0 or   
8effort0 7,streben7 is a word ,froebel  
constantly uses in speaking of a child's
 activity1 and he does more than  merely
 8imply0 that this process 8tends in a  

certain direction1 or toward  a certain 
end0 when he affirms that 8,in every    
activity1 in every deed of  man1 and of 
the smallest child1 an aim is           
expressed40    ,professor ,stout goes on
 to say that in conscious states we can 
always  distinguish between             
determination from within and from      
without1 and  8it is a point of vital   
significance that this distinction      
coincides  with that between mental     
activity and mental passivity40#fb ,with
  mental passivity ,froebel has but few 
dealings1 if indeed he has any4  ,there 
is one passage in which he uses the word
 passive 7passiv72 this1  however1      
merely states that the child1 in        
accommodating himself to his            
surroundings1 may outwardly appear      
inactive or passive1 but only in  order 
to have more scope for his inner        
activity 7wo es usserlich als  unthtig1 
leidend passiv erscheint ''' um so      
seiner innern ,thtigkeit  mehr          
,spielraum zu verschaffen74    ,from    

what he does say there is little doubt  
but that ,froebel would  willingly have 
subscribed to ,professor ,stout's       
dictum1 8that to be  mentally active is 
identical with being mentally alive or  
awake1#fc  though in degree the activity
 may shade off gradually from that      
8involving a sense of strain1 to that of
 almost passivity40 ,but just as        
,professor ,stout rejects the idea of   
purely passive consciousness1 so1  too1 
does he reject 8pure0 mental activity4  
8,it is impossible to find  any bit of  
mental process which is determined      
purely from within40#fd'''  8,at the    
same time it is equally true that no    
change within is entirely  determined   
from without40#fe ,mr4 ,stout does not  
say that pure  activity--a purely       
self-determined process--cannot exist1  
for 8we should1  by parity of reasoning1
 be bound to reject the second law of   
motion40#ff  8,but it rests10 he says1  
8with the advocates of pure activity1 if
 there  are such1 to adduce a case of   

it1 and until such a case is brought    
forward we must assume that there is    
none4''' ,no portion of matter can be1  
even for a moment1 outside the sphere of
 influence of other portions40    ,we   
have seen that ,mr4 ,o',shea practically
 accuses ,froebel of being an  8advocate
 of pure activity10#fg nor is he the    
only one of ,froebel's  critics who does
 so4 ,if1 however1 it be considered an  
accident that  ,froebel should in one   
passage put 8conscious                  
self-determination0 at the  highest     
point of life development1 and in       
another passage give this place  to     
8activity0 which ,mr4 ,bradley and ,mr4 
,stout tell us is to be regarded  as    
self-determined1 is it also an accident 
that in the very same passage  ,froebel 
should state that 8everything in ,nature
 develops and forms itself  under the   
total collective influence of all other 
things08    ,if these correspondences   
are not accidental1 then it must be     
allowed in  the first place that        

,froebel attached a fairly definite     
meaning to the  word 8activity10        
including self-determination in its     
connotation2 and in  the second place   
that the grounds on which he is charged 
with being a  believer in 8pure         
activity0 are very insufficient4 ,when  
,mr4 ,stout says  that even if it is    
allowable 8as an illustrative           
hypothesis0 to regard  the physical     
universe as an internally complete      
system1#fh it is clear  that 8the stream
 of individual consciousness is no such 
self-contained  unit10 but 8the merest  
fragment of universal reality1 as its   
correlated  brain process is the merest 
fragment of the material world#fi02 is  
this anything but a statement of that   
unity1 on which ,froebel insists  in    
season and out of season--which appears 
on almost every page of  his writings1  
so that the word has become the veriest 
8cant0 of the  half-trained             
,kindergarten teacher#gj4    ,the       
philosophic conception of unity1 the    

belief that there is no  separation in  
either world1 physical or psychical1 or 
between either  world1 was always       
present to ,froebel's mind4 8,in        
,nature10 he writes1  8every phenomenon 
has its sufficient foundation and its   
necessary  consequence40 ,but as every  
philosopher would say1 so ,froebel said1
  8,separation is permitted for the     
observing1 thinking and comparing       
intellect1 and the outwardly            
representing life1 and is indeed        
required by  it1 but must by no means on
 that account be permitted to appear in 
the  mind which is intended to grasp and
 constantly to retain in its original   
inner union1 that which is outwardly    
apparently separated by the thinking    
intellect1 the reason and the life40#ga 
,so ,professor ,mnsterberg1  writing as 
a professed scientist1 says1 8,science  
is to me1 not a mass  of disconnected   
information1 ''' but the certainty that 
nothing can exist  outside the gigantic 
mechanism of causes and effects1 but    

,science is not  and cannot be1 and     
ought never to try to be1 an expression 
of ultimate  reality40#gb    ,it would  
never have dawned on ,froebel1 nor would
 it have appealed to  him1 to separate  
his philosophy from his science1 but    
there is no  more contradiction in      
,froebel's 8self-activity0 which is     
influenced  from without1 than there is 
in ,professor ,stout when he speaks of  
self-determination as included in the   
connotation of 8activity10 and adds     
that until a case of 8pure activity0 is 
brought forward1 we must assume  that   
there is none4    ,of all his 8means of 
play10 ,froebel says3        8,in order1
 therefore1 on the one hand to introduce
 the child      to the handling of his  
play material1 we gave him the ball1 '''
      but each of these means of play   
summons the child in return      to     
self-activity1 to free self-activity2 to
 movement1 to      free independent     
movement0 7zur ,selbsthtigkeit1 zur     
freien      ,selbsthtigkeit2 zur        

,bewegung1 zur freien1 inabhngigen      
,bewegung74#gc          ,,appendix ,,ii 
,,comparison ,,of ,,plays ,,noted ,,by  
,,froebel ,,with ,,the ,,enumeration    
,,given ,,by ,,groos      ,much that is 
given in ,groos' more elaborate         
classification can also be  found in    
,froebel's suggestions1 particularly    
where younger children are  concerned4  
,for plays coming under the heading of  
,playful ,activity of the  ,sensory     
,apparatus1 ,froebel has a parallel for 
every kind except that of  ,temperature1
 and for this ,groos has not himself    
found anything that can  fairly be      
called play4    ,for ,sensations of     
,contact there is the ,kicking ,play1   
and ,taste and ,smell  are also         
represented in the ,mother ,play book4  
,for ,hearing play we have  the wooden  
ball1 8a plaything for the child liable 
to produce noise by  its movement10 as  
well as the ,tic-tac and ,finger ,piano 
plays1 and for  receptive play1 the     
mother is told to speak1 rhythmically if

 possible1  or to sing with every play4 
,for ,sensations of ,brightness we have 
8,mother  you want to foster this       
delight in all things that are sparkling
 clear  and bright0 of the 8,fish in the
 ,brook10 as well as 8,the ,lightbird10 
which  ,froebel has 8found over and over
 again in all grades of the culture that
  makes up social life in village and in
 town40    ,sensations of colour are    
well provided for4 ,in 8,the ,two       
,windows0 we have3  8,see the beautiful 
coloured circles and rays1 just like    
rainbow and  dew-drops1 see how         
beautifully the colours play through    
each other40  ,colour is a feature in   
,gift ,i1 in beadwork1 in the tablets1  
in paper  folding1 cutting and plaiting1
 and besides these there are crayons and
  paints1 and frequent reference is made
 to the child's pleasure in the  colour 
of flowers4    ,froebel also makes much 
play depend on perception of form3      
8,attention to  the form and figure of  
the object can also be utilized for the 

child in  play10 or1 again1 8,early in  
life the child delights in round and    
varied  pebbles1 he seeks and collects  
them1 he takes pleasure in the straight 
edged and right angled40 ,he has found  
8,the ,target0 play very widely  spread1
 8plainly because it contains1 as ,i see
 it1 the first trace of an  endeavour to
 make a child notice position and form40
    ,for perception of movement1 to     
which ,froebel would have added         
perception  of change of position1 there
 are many plays with the ball as well as
  8,tic-tac10 8,the ,child and the      
,pigeons10 8,the ,lightbird10 8,the     
,fish in the  ,brook10 etc4    ,groos'  
next class is ,play with the ,motor     
,apparatus and under this comes  first  
,playful movement of the ,bodily        
,organs4 ,here we have ,froebel saying3 
8,the first toys and occupations of the 
child come from himself3 he plays  with 
his own limbs40--,l41 p4 #ajh4 8,the    
child at this stage begins to  play with
 his limbs--his hands1 his fingers1 his 

lips1 his tongue1 his  feet1 as well as 
with the expression of his eyes and     
face40--,e41 p4 #dh4    ,under playful  
locomotion1 ,groos actually quotes      
,froebel's description  of the child    
learning to walk1 and we have also      
marching1 running1 and  racing games2   
8the large majority10 says ,froebel1 8,i
 have created simply  by watching the   
children at play4''' ,thus ,i have      
prepared a limping-game  because ,i see 
my boys always limping and hopping40    
,next comes ,playful ,movement of       
,foreign ,bodies1 and under this heading
  ,groos gives 8,hustling things about1 
pushing1 pulling1 shaking1 seizing  and 
pushing away1 dabbling in water1        
handling sand and clay1 kite-flying1    
and capture of insects40 ,of these      
,froebel mentions pushing of carriages1 
kite-flying1 hobby-horse riding2 he     
makes much of play with water1 sand  and
 clay1 and he speaks of the catching of 
insects1 etc41 desiring that  it should 
be wisely checked by directing the      

activity into other channels4    ,as to 
,destructive or ,analytic ,movement     
,play1 ,froebel notes that3 8,the  child
 wishes to know all the properties of   
the thing1 for this reason he  examines 
it on all sides2 for this reason he     
tears and breaks it2 for  this reason he
 puts it in his mouth and bites         
it40--,e41 p4 #gc4 8,the  cruel         
treatment of insects and other animals  
originates in the little  boy's desire  
to obtain an insight into the life of   
the animal40--,e41 p4  #afd4    ,of     
,constructive or ,synthetic ,movement   
,play1 so much has been said  already1  
that it is not necessary to dwell on it4
 ,froebel1 in fact1 gives  a far more   
inclusive account of this than ,groos   
himself1 not omitting  his 8simplest    
form10 viz4 moulding new forms with     
sand1 etc41 nor the  collecting and     
arranging in rows which to ,groos and to
 ,froebel is a more  primitive form of  
construction4 ,of ,exercise of          
,endurance1 too1 we have  spoken1 in    

quoting passages where ,froebel shows   
the boyish desire to  measure and to    
increase strength4 ,throwing and        
,catching ,plays have their  place in   
the 8,apprentice and ,master ,workman0  
game4    ,the important third class1 the
 ,playful ,use of the ,higher ,mental   
,powers1  includes according to ,groos a
 good deal that he has dealt with under 
other heads1 e4g4 ,memory ,play includes
 7a7 ,recognition and 7b7  ,reflective  
,memory4 ,under the former comes that   
pleasure in recognition  of form which  
has already been dealt with1 the        
pleasure given by  pictures1 often1 says
 ,groos1 greater than is given by the   
reality4  ,froebel1 too1 says that if   
the father makes a sketch1 8this man of 
lines1  this horse of lines1 will give  
the child more joy than an actual man1  
an  actual horse will do40--,e41 p4 #gg4
 ,froebel1 too1 notes the pleasure it   
will give a child to name flowers       
through recognition of a form3 8,spurred
  like a rider1 circled like a snail1   

umbrellas1 wheels1 he'll find the       
names40--,m41 p4 #aha4 ,there is also   
the recognition of animal and other     
noises1 as in ,froebel's ,yard ,gate4   
,rote learning as a play ,froebel hardly
  mentions4    ,as to the two groups    
which ,groos brings under the heading of
 ,imagination1  viz4 8,illusion either  
playful or serious10 and 8the voluntary 
or  involuntary transformation of our   
mental content10 these receive full     
recognition4 ,froebel notes how the     
stick becomes a horse or the knotted    
handkerchief the baby1 as well as the   
play of listening to and inventing      
stories4    ,under the head of          
,attention comes such games as ,hide and
 ,seek1 because  of the alternate stress
 and relaxation1 and ,froebel noted     
before ,darwin  did the pleasure of the 
baby in ,bo-peep4 ,groos also brings    
curiosity  under this heading1 and we   
have seen that ,froebel deals fully with
 such  play as the outcome of the       
instinct of investigation1 or the       

instinct for  self-teaching4    ,froebel
 would certainly not draw the line where
 ,groos does1 when he says  8the true   
characteristics of play are in inverse  
ratio to the intensity  of the desire   
for knowledge10 and if this rule were   
strictly adhered to1  a good deal of    
what ,groos does call play might have to
 come out4    ,the plays which fall     
under the head of ,reason have two      
bearings1 says  ,groos1 first causality1
 and second inherence4 ,there are       
various  references to the 8joy of being
 a cause0 from the child 8whose capacity
  for speech is as yet undeveloped10 but
 who draws away the support and  as the 
cube falls 8turns to his mother in      
joyous triumph10 up to the  pride of    
,keilhau boys1 who 8might not have      
accomplished their fortresses  without  
the sapper10 but 8who believed that if  
cast on a desert island1  each could    
build a hut of his own40 ,froebel also  
brings in intellectual  games such as   
draughts1 and he notes how children will

 invent their own  words and their own  
alphabets in play4 ,of the making and   
solving of  riddles ,i think ,froebel   
never speaks4    ,as to what ,groos says
 of ,experimentation with the feelings1 
the parallels  in ,froebel are surprise 
plays such as ,hide and ,seek1 adventure
 and  hunting games where there may be  
play with fear1 and the legends and     
stories4    ,under the ,impulse of the  
,second or ,socionomic order1 come the  
,fighting  ,plays1 ,love ,play1         
,imitative ,play1 and ,social ,play4 ,of
 ,love ,play1 ,froebel  has none1 but   
the hunting and fighting were allowed   
abundant scope at  ,keilhau4 ,of        
,imitative ,play there is much that can 
be cited from the  playful imitation of 
simple movements and sounds in the      
,mother ,songs and  the ,kindergarten   
,games1 to the 8classic dramas0 of the  
,keilhau boys4  ,plastic and            
constructive play1 too1 goes from the   
simplest sand play1  through the        
,kindergarten handwork1 not only up to  

the fortress making1  but also to the   
8boxes with locks and hinges1 so neatly 
finished1  veneered1 and polished that  
many a trained cabinet-maker's          
apprentice  could have done no better10 
which were made at ,keilhau4    ,of the 
,social ,plays ,groos says with feeling 
that1 however advisable1 it  is wellnigh
 impossible to make a distinct class4   
,he starts1 however1 with  the 8need of 
bodily association or the herding       
instinct40 ,he brings in  the child's   
eager desire to be with his fellows1 and
 the importance in  adult life of       
festivals1 religious or otherwise4 ,he  
mentions the child's  voluntary         
submission to a leader1 and speaks of   
play as instrumental in  teaching       
children submission to law4 ,we have    
noticed ,froebel speaking  of the       
8combined games1 which will train the   
child1 by his very nature  eager for    
companionship1 in the habit of          
association with comrades1 in  good     
fellowship and all that this implies40  

,he also wants the child to  take       
alternately some special part in the    
game and to be merely one of  the crowd3
 8,each child should have a chance to   
lead1 for it is especially  developing  
to a child to recognize himself as      
independent as well as a  member of the 
whole40 ,among the older boys1 the      
,bergwachts for instance  were carefully
 organized under separate leaders and   
the captain of  the first band was      
director of the whole4 ,froebel1 too1   
made much of  festivals at ,keilhau1 and
 this has always been a recognized      
feature of  the ,kindergarten4          
,enjoyment of the comic never1 ,i think1
 makes its appearance at all4  ,froebel 
had many gifts1 but the saving sense of 
humour does not appear to  have been    
among them4          ,,footnotes      #a
 ,see ,chapter ,,ix4    #b ,see ,chapter
 ,x4    #c 8,froebel's ,educational     
,principles10 ,elementary ,school       
,record1 ,vol4 ,i1  ,no4 #e1 or 8,the   
,dewey ,school10 published by the       

,froebel ,society4    #d ,see ,chapter  
,,vi1 p4 #gi4    #e ,the ,philosophy and
 ,psychology of the                     
,kindergarten4--8,teachers'  ,college   
,record10 ,nov41 #aijc4    #f ,it is    
true that ,froebel was pre-,darwinian1  
but see p4 #aih4    #g ,all this is said
 in connection with the infant's play   
with a woollen  ball1 with quaint       
suggestions that the singing tone       
accompanying the  swinging like a ball  
affects the feelings1 while the         
recognition of a  change of position is 
a thing of 8dawning thought10 and that  
by tic-tac  the movement is expressed4  
,see p4 #agf4    #h ,dies fesselt die   
,sinnen- und ,geistesthtigkeit des      
,kindes und gibt  ihm mehrseitige       
,nahrung4    #i ,in der ,mitte seiner   
wahrnehmenden 7empfindenden7 seiner     
wirkenden und  schaffenden1 seiner      
vergleichenden 7denkenden7 ,thtigkeit4  
#aj ,die ,ausbildung der verschiedenen  
,richtungen der ,geisteskraft des       
,kindes4    #aa 8,journal of            

,education40 ,reprinted in 8,child      
,life10 ,january1 #aija4    #ab         
8,analytic ,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4   
#aeb et seq4    #ac 8,analytic          
,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aec4    #ad 
,it is true that ,professor ,stout      
complains of the loose way in which  the
 word 8activity0 has been used1 and that
 he is careful to define his  own       
meaning1 but ,froebel too is careful4   
,see ,appendix ,i4    #ae ,see also p4  
#hb4    #af 8,analytic ,psychology10    
,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hb4    #ag 8,the        
,conception of ,immortality10 p4 #eh4   
#ah ,froebel is comparing the child with
 other young animals1 and  somewhat     
scornfully refers to those who1         
8notwithstanding the early              
manifestation of the instinct to employ 
himself10 regard the human infant  as   
inferior to the young of other animals4 
#ai ,see chapter on ,instinct4    #bj   
8,in dem ersten ,sinnenspiele1 kommen   
also dem ,kinde durch ,wahrnehmen  u4   
,schauen1 durch ,kommen1 ,bleiben u4    

,schwinden1 durch ,wechsel1 also auch   
in gewisser ,hinsicht durch frhes       
dunkles auffassen ''' somit von dunkler 
,vergleichung1 die ersten ,eindrcke der 
,seele1 gleichsam die ersten            
,erkenntnisse zugleich durch            
,selbst-thtigkeit1 wie durch die sein   
,leben  und dessen ,forderungen in sich 
tragende ,mutterliebe40--,p41 p4 #ff4   
#ba ,it does not1 however1 follow that  
this outer object1 or this manner  of   
presenting it1 is so important as       
,froebel supposed2 see ,chapter ,,ix4   
#bb ,see p4 #ff4    #bc ,see ,chapter   
,,ii4    #bd 8,principles of            
,psychology10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hhd4      
#be ,froebel is too often ignorantly    
accused of being 8soft10 but it is a    
mistake to think that he leaves fear out
 of count4 ,what he insists on is1  that
 rightly used authority should produce  
self-control1 not servility4    #bf ,see
 p4 #ij4    #bg ,macmillan1 #aijf4      
#bh ,p4 #ec4    #bi 8,social            
,psychology10 p4 #fa4    #cj ,mr4       

,mc,dougall allows 7p4 #fj7 that in the 
case of an unprovoked  blow1 the        
impulse1 the thwarting of which provokes
 anger1 is the impulse  of              
self-assertion4    #ca ,for example1 on 
p4 #df1 8,hence language provides       
special names  for such modes of        
affective experience1 names such as     
anger1 fear1  curiosity02 and on p4 #id1
 in connection with the sympathetic     
induction  of emotion1 we have1 8,later 
still1 fear1 curiosity1 and1 ,i think1  
anger  are communicated readily from one
 child to another02 and there are other 
examples4    #cb ,p4 #ea4    #cc ,this  
is all that can be said1 for the passage
 seems incomplete2  after 8entwickelt   
''' der ,trieb die ,neigung10 comes only
 8sie fhren zur  ,gemths- und           
,herzensbildung2 und aus ihr geht in dem
 ,knaben ,geistes- und                  
,willensthtigkeit hervor40    #cd ,for a
 fuller account of these 8,gifts10 see  
,chap4 ,,viii41 p4 #adh4    #ce ,in the 
well-known translation by ,f4 and ,e4   

,lord3        8,you wonder why a game at
 hide-and-seek      ,brings a glad flush
 of joy to baby's cheek8      ,the sense
 of his own personality      ,is causing
 all this joy that you can see          
,when people call him1 say1 #8,where's  
,baby been8'      ,he feels that it is  
he1 himself1 they mean40    #cf 8,social
 ,psychology10 p4 #hi4    #cg 8,the     
,play of ,man10 p4 #djj4    #ch 8,the   
,play of ,man10 p4 #chb4    #ci ,see p4 
#aid4    #dj ,in another place ,froebel 
does say that1 8,only on condition that 
the genuine spirit of play--i4e4 the    
true spirit of life--lives in the       
teacher1 can he call it forth in the    
child40    #da ,see ,appendix ,,ii4     
#db ,see pp4 #ic1 #id4    #dc ,see p4   
#dc4    #dd ,froebel goes on to say3 8,i
 believe1 that after progressing through
  the vast orbit of almost two          
generations 7he was nearly fifty-nine7  
,i  have been carried round to the point
 of commencement1 to the fountain  head 
of the education of mankind1 but with   

the significant addition of a  full     
consciousness of my task40    #de ,the  
material can of course be used at any   
age provided it conveys  suitable ideas 
in a suitable manner4 ,some of it is    
even now found useful  in helping senior
 classes to realize problems in area and
 in volume4    #df ,many years ago1 a   
young teacher came to me for help4 ,she 
had been  told to give her class number 
lessons1 for a whole term1 from ,gift   
,,iii1  which consists of eight little  
cubes1 and the children had long since  
grasped #d  #d1 #f  #b1 #e  #c1 and #h -
 #d1 #h - #b1 etc4 ,i suggested that she
  should leave the number out and let   
the children play with the blocks4      
8,oh6 ,i mayn't do that10 was the       
answer1 8they have building with ,gift  
,,iv40    #dg ,a really pathetic story  
has been told me of an earnest teacher  
in  far ,australia1 whose educational   
opportunities had been very limited1    
but whose desire for knowledge was most 
sincere4 ,she had been listening        

without comprehension to some glib user 
of phrases1 and was bewailing her       
ignorance to an enlightened teacher who 
knew there had been little of  real     
value1 and who said with a laugh 8,never
 mind1 ,miss ----1 it is only  a case of
 #8,mind and ,matter glide swift into   
the vortex of immensity4'0  ,and the    
listener said1 8,oh please1 would you   
say that slowly1 and ,i'll  write it    
down40    #dh ,these objections were    
embodied in a paper entitled 8,a        
,criticism  of ,froebelian ,pedagogy10  
which ,mr4 ,graham ,wallas read at a    
,conference  of the ,froebel ,society in
 ,january #aija1 and which was published
 in the  ,conference ,supplement for    
,child ,life1 ,july #aija4    #di ,see  
p4 #bjj4    #ej ,few critics are likely 
to go so far as ,mr4 ,winch1 who gave as
 a  ,froebelian conception 8that the    
true destiny of man is to be obtained by
  gratifying every youthful impulse40   
,but1 ,mr4 ,winch is perhaps not to be  
taken seriously1 for in the same paper  

he took one sentence out of a  passage  
on the importance of continuity         
extending over four pages1 and  says of 
it1 8,this jerky discontinuity 767 has  
not the slightest support  in biological
 science1 and never had40 7,see         
,memorandum written for ,mr4  ,graham   
,wallas in 8,problems of ,education407  
#ea ,deshalb sollen ,erziehung1         
,unterricht und ,lehre ursprnglich und  
in  ihren ersten ,grundzgen nothwendig  
leidend1 nachgehend 7nur behtend        
schtzend71 nicht vorschreibend1         
bestimmend1 eingreifend sein4    #eb    
,mr4 ,graham ,wallas said3 8,the        
educational task for us is not to find  
out how completely we can stand aside1  
but how far we can so influence  the    
environment of the child1 as to cause   
those tendencies in it which we  think  
best1 to become permanent40    #ec ,mr4 
,graham ,wallas said3 8,from the        
beginning of the ,darwinian             
reconstruction of the moral sciences1 it
 was absurd1 while speaking  of         

#8environment1' to ignore the fact that 
the deliberate care and  contrivance of 
the parent must form a large part of the
 environment of  the child40 ,the       
passage quoted shows that ,froebel was  
guilty of no such  absurdity4    #ed    
8,is ,development from ,within80 8,child
 ,life10 ,october1 #aijd1 and  ,january1
 #aije4    #ee ,see p4 #aib4    #ef     
8,second ,review of ,plays3 ,a          
,fragment10 but part of this has been   
omitted in the ,english translation4    
#eg ,those who desire a full and        
scholarly account of ,froebel's         
philosophy are referred to that given by
 ,professor ,angus ,mac,vannel1         
,ph4,d41 8,teachers' ,college ,record10 
,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #e4 ,the ,macmillan    
,co41 ,new  ,york4    #eh ,in ,gottes   
,welt1 eben weil es die ,welt ,gottes1  
durch ,gott ,gewordenes  ist1 spricht   
sich ein ,stetiges1 das heisst          
ungetrennt ,fortgehendes der            
,entwickelung in ,allem und durch ,alles
 aus4    #ei ,see ,appendix1 p4 #baf4   

#fj 8,das ,pedagogik des                
,kindergartens10 p4 #cbi4    #fa        
,according to this principle1 the mere  
fact that a particle is moving  with a  
certain velocity in a certain direction1
 is in itself a reason why  it should   
continue to move with the same velocity 
in the same direction4'''  ,now1 in so  
far as continuance of change in a       
certain direction is  traceable to the  
pre-existence of change in that         
direction1 this whole  process may be   
regarded as being in a perfectly        
intelligible sense1  self-determining   
78,analytic ,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4  
#adf74    #fb 8,analytic ,psychology10  
,vol4 ,i1 p4 #adg4    #fc 8,analytic    
,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #afh4    #fd 
8,analytic ,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4   
#aee4    #fe 8,analytic ,psychology10   
,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aef4    #ff 8,analytic    
,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aef4    #fg 
,p4 #aia4    #fh ,and so to regard 8each
 successive moment of the world-process 
as  issuing out of the preceding by     

purely immanent casuality40    #fi      
8,analytic ,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4   
#aef4    #gj 8,unity and ,froebel are   
synonymous terms10 is one 8howler0 from 
a  student's examination paper4    #ga  
,ed4 by ,development1 p4 #bab4    #gb   
8,the ,eternal ,life10 p4 #ad4    #gc   
8,das ,kindergartenwesen10 p4 #ccj4     
,,index        ,a      ,acquisition1    
,instinct of1 #if1 #aji      ,activity1 
,spontaneous1 #acb                      
,differentiation1 #ij      ,earliest    
,activity1 #a1 #i1 #cd1 #abf            
,consciousness and ,self-,consciousness1
 ,development of1 #dh1 #ha1 #hd1 #he    
,nature of ,first ,voluntary            
,employments1 #ace      ,expression1 see
 that title      ,foundation of         
,education1 #f1 #hd1 #adb1 #baj         
,fundamental ,tendency1 #dg1 #he1 #hh1  
#ij      ,meaning of1 in ,froebel's     
,writings1 #bac et seq4                 
,self-determination included in         
connotation1 #bag      ,universal       
,impulse1 #ij1 #abf      ,adams1 ,prof41

 quoted1 #aij1 #baj      ,amusement1    
,distinction from ,play1 #acd           
,analysis of ,mind      ,observation and
 ,introspection1 #ab      ,order of     
,investigation of ,laws of ,mental      
,process1 #c1 #d      ,sense and        
,understanding1 ,inseparability1 #ag1   
#bj      ,tri-une ,character1 #ac       
,animal ,instincts1 #gb                 
,anticipations of ,modern ,psychology1  
#b et seq4--,summary1 #aj               
,anthropological ,aspect of             
,psychological ,inquiry1 #d1 #h1 #bjf   
,approbation1 ,love of1 #aad1 #aae      
,arrangement and ,comparison1 #aja1 #aff
      ,artistic ,tendencies of          
,children1 #aje      ,associationists1  
,fallacy of1 #ch      8,atomistic       
,view10 #ch1 #ci      ,attacks on       
,froebel1 #b1 #aij-a        ,b          
,baer referred to1 #bjf      ,baldwin1  
,prof41 quoted1 #ej1 #eb                
,ball-,play--,ideas to be gained1 etc41 
#dj1 #aej1 #aea1 #aee1 #aef1 #aei       
,batch1 ,froebel's connection with1 #aii

      ,biological ,studies1 ,influence  
on ,froebel's ,views1 connection with   
stress laid on ,development1 etc41 #ac1 
#dj1 #fg1 #ach1 #aib1 #aii1 #baj        
,blow1 ,miss ,susan--,froebel's         
,symbolism1 #agi1 #ahi      ,bradley1   
,mr41 quoted1 #bac        ,c            
,cause1 ,early ,notice of1 #afj         
,change--,use in fixing ,impressions1   
#dc1 #aeb      ,collecting or ,acquiring
 ,instinct1 #if1 #aji      ,colour1     
,sense of1 #afe1 #aff      ,community1  
,feeling of1 refer to ,social ,instinct 
,comte referred to1 #bjf      ,conation1
 refer to ,will      ,connection or     
,unification1 ,law of1 #bjd             
,conscience1 references to1 #aaf1 #aag  
,consciousness      ,development by     
,action1 #dh        --,movement stopped 
by ,something1 #di1 #eb      ,earliest  
,consciousness        ,absolute         
,beginnings--,beyond the pale of        
,science1 #da        ,indefiniteness1   
#ci1 #di1 #ia--,undifferentiated1       
unorganized ,unity1          #ia1 #bja  

,process of ,differentiation1 #dj1 #db1 
#dg        ,reasoning and ,constructive 
,imagination1 #cf1 #ch      ,unity of1  
#bf      ,see also title                
,self-,consciousness      ,construction1
 ,instinct of1 #ij      8,sense of      
,power10 i4e41 ,self-,consciousness     
resulting1 #aji1 #acc      ,subserving  
,instinct of ,investigation1 #ib1 #id   
,continuous ,development1 see           
,development      ,cooke1 ,mr4          
,ebenezer1 quoted1 #ajb1 #aii1 #bjb     
,counting1 ,development of ,capacity    
for1 #aja1 #ajb      ,criticisms of     
,froebel1 #b1 #aij      8,culture       
,epochs0 ,theory1 #abi        ,d        
,darwin1 references to1 #fg1 #bja       
,development--,froebel's ,theory of     
,continuous ,development1 #aj1 #abh1    
#adj1         #agh1 #agi1 #bjf1 #bjg1   
#bji      ,biological ,studies1         
,connection with1 #ac      ,development 
from within1 #acf1 #aib1 #aie1 #aif     
8,harmonious ,development10 #ad-af      
,individual development of1 following   

that of the ,race1 #bjf      ,law       
of--,unlimited to ,limited1 ,whole to   
,part1 ,indefinite to ,definite1        
#dj1 #acj1 #aej1 #aea1 #aee1 #bja1 #bjb 
,possibilities and ,conditions in place 
of ,faculties1 #ah-bj                   
,reconciliation of ,opposites1 ,result  
of1 #bjd      ,self-directed ,process1  
#bab note      ,three ,stages1 #ga      
,development of ,species1 ,modernness of
 ,froebel's ,view1 #bje      ,dewey1    
,prof4      ,experimental ,work at      
,chicago1 #abi      ,summary of         
,froebel's ,educational ,principles1 #f 
,discipline      ,adjusting ,claims of  
,freedom and ,authority1 #aig           
,direction of ,impulse1 not             
,opposition1 #bab note                  
,non-,interference ,theory1 #aij1 #aia1 
#aib note1 #aic-e      ,doll-,play1 #afg
      ,drawing      ,counting ,capacity1
 ,means of developing1 #aja      ,origin
 of ,earliest ,drawing1 #ajc            
,process of discovering 8,linear        
,phenomena10 #ajc1 #aff      ,duties as 

a means of realizing ,kinship1 #fa1     
#aad1 #aah        ,e                    
,ebers--,account of ,life at ,keilhau1  
#abc1 #adg1 #afh      ,eby1 ,mr41       
quoted1 #g1 #gi      ,emotion1 see      
,feeling      ,employment1 ,instinct of1
 refer to ,activity      ,environment1  
,alleged ,neglect by ,froebel1 #aij1    
#aif      --,reply to ,critics1 #aig1   
#aii1 #bjj-d1 #bjh1 #baj                
,evolution--,froebel's                  
,post-,darwinianism1 #aih1 #bje         
,experimenting--,mode of ,investigation1
 #ajb      ,exploring ,tendency1 #id-e  
,expression      ,art as1 #aje          
,feeling1 ,importance in ,development   
of1 #eg-fb      ,need for1 #ej1 #ii1    
#acc      ,play1 ,definition of1 #abd1  
#abe      ,understanding1 ,means of1 #ib
        ,f      ,faculty ,psychology1   
,criticism of1 #ac1 #ag et seq4         
,fairy ,tales1 #ajh1 #ahb      ,family  
,bonds1 #fa1 #aac      ,fear1 ,froebel's
 attitude towards1 #gh and note         
,feeling1 ,development of1 etc41 #acj   

,action1 ,importance of1 #eg-fb         
,family ,bonds and ,service for the     
,family1 #fa1 #aac      ,fundamental    
,importance1 #fc      ,starting ,point  
of ,education1 #aag      ,want of ,good 
,feeling in ,children1 ,cause1 #fc-d1   
#aab      ,fichte1 ,reference to1 #bjd  
,fletcher1 ,dr41 quoted1 #bab note      
,following and ,tolerating--,character  
of ,true ,education1 #afj1 #aie         
,g      ,games1 refer to ,play          
,genetic ,psychology preceded by        
,analytic1 #c      8,gifts0 and 8,gift  
,plays0      ,description of the        
,series1 #aei-aff      ,excessive       
,importance attached to1 #agj           
,hailmann's1 ,mr41 distinction between  
8,gifts0 and 8,occupations10 #afd1      
#afe      ,psychological ,aim or        
,meaning1 #dj1 #adi1 #aej1 #afd1 #afi1  
#agh      ,selection following ,natural 
,instinct1 #afi1 #agj      ,tri-,unity  
of ,child-,nature1 ,relation of ,gift   
,plays to1 #ad      ,weakness of the    
,series1 #aff        ,two ,mistakes1 and

 the ,psychological ,errors underlying  
them1 #agj-f      ,groos1 ,karl1 quoted1
 #ij1 #abe1 #abf1 #acj1 #acb1 #acf1     
#acg1 #ade1 #adg1 #bai      ,grner1     
reference to1 #bjj        ,h      ,habit
      ,instinct1 ,proof of existence of1
 #gf      ,outcome of ,impulse of       
,activity1 #hh      ,hailmann1 ,mr41    
quoted1 #afd1 #aic      ,hall1 ,stanley1
 quoted1 #bjf      8,harmonious         
,development10 #ad-af      ,hegel1      
,froebel's knowledge of1 #bje           
,helba ,plan1 #bf1 #hd1 #bab note       
,herbartians--8,culture ,epochs0        
,theory1 #abi      ,horne1 ,prof41      
quoted1 #ag        ,i      ,imitation   
,mc,dougall's1 ,mr41 ,three ,classes of 
,imitative ,actions1 #hi      ,outcome  
of ,activity and ,means of ,expression1 
#dg1 #hh1 #abf      ,results gained1    
#ej1 #ea1 #ia      ,instincts           
,classifications        ,eby1 #gi1 #hj  
,froebel1 #hc et seq4                   
,kirkpatrick1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha             
,mc,dougall1 #gi1 #ha      ,direction   

and ,training needed1 #ga1 #aba         
,divergent ,views a matter of           
,definition1 #fg-h      ,froebel's      
belief in ,instinct1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd1
 #abe      ,froebel's ,terminology1 #fh1
 #fi      ,habit and ,instinct1         
,interaction between1 #gf               
,indefinite in ,man--,proof of          
,superiority and ,capacity for          
,progressive        ,development1 #ff1  
#gb1 #ge      ,specific and ,general    
,tendencies1 ,distinction between1 #fh  
,specifically ,human ,instincts only    
dealt with by ,froebel1 #hb             
,transitory ,nature1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh      
,two ,main ,lines of ,instinctive       
,action1 #hc      ,interdependence of   
,life1 #fb      ,intuition of           
,things--,dr4 ,ward's ,points1 #aed-e   
,investigation1 ,instinct of1 #hh1      
#ij-b1 #id-g1 #ajb1 #ajg        ,j      
,james1 ,prof41 quoted1 #ci1 #eg1 #ei1  
#fe1 #fh1 #fi1 #gc-e      ,jarvis1      
,miss--,translation of passage re       
,self-,consciousness1 #ed      ,joy in  

,activity1 #acf-g1 #aci1 #adc1 #ade     
,k      ,keilhau1 ,life at1 #aaa1 #abc1 
#adc1 #adg1 #afh1 #bab note1 #bbc1 #bbd 
,kindergarten      ,associated ,games1  
,social ,training1 etc41 #aad1 #adf1    
#adg      ,defined1 #ij1 #aad1 #adb     
,disregard of ,froebel's instructions by
 his disciples1 #adg1 #agj      ,end and
 ,aim of1 #ij1 #adb1 #bjh1 #baj         
,gifts and ,occupations1 refer to title 
,gifts      ,no gulf between            
,kindergarten and 8,the ,education of   
,man10 #baj1       #bab note      ,king1
 ,mr4 ,irving1 quoted1 #h1 #bf1 #dh1    
#di1 #ej-b1 #ed      ,kirkpatrick1 ,mr41
 quoted1 #gi-hj1 #aad1 #aae1 #aag1 #acd 
,l      ,lamarck1 reference to1 #bja    
,language      ,development of capacity 
for ,speech1 #ig-aja      ,earliest     
,training1 ,use in--,names the beginning
 of ,organization1 #ba1        #bi1 #de1
 #df1 #ih1 #ajj      ,feeling1          
,development of1 #eh      ,location1    
,sense of1 #aeb1 #aec      ,source of   
questioning ,activity1 #ig      ,lodge1 

,sir ,oliver1 quoted1 #cb        ,m     
,mc,dougall1 ,mr41 quoted1 #fh1 #gf1    
#hf1 #hi1 #aag      ,mac,vannel1 ,dr4   
,j4 ,a41 quoted1 #aj      ,marenholz1   
,madame von1 #bje      ,material of     
,instruction and ,manner of             
,teaching--,conditioned by stage      of
 ,development1 #abi      ,maternal      
,instinct1 #aai1 #abj      ,mathematical
 ,perceptions--,over-estimate of        
,children's ,capacity1 #agj-d           
,memory--,froebel's ,description1 #ai   
,mental ,activity1 #c1 #d1 #ac1 #bc-g   
,earlier and later ,forms1 #cj          
,possibilities--,difference between     
,child and ,animal1 #di      ,sense and 
,understanding1 ,close connection1 #ag1 
#bj1 #bjg      ,mental ,analysis1 see   
,analysis of ,mind      ,metaphor1      
,froebel's delight in1 #ahg-h           
,moral ,faculty1 #aaf1 #aah1 #bjg       
,morgan1 ,prof4 ,lloyd1 quoted1 #cc1    
#fg1 #gb      ,mother ,wit--,need for   
,thought and ,training1 #abj1 #baa      
,movement1 see ,activity                

,mnsterberg1 ,prof41 quoted1 #bah       
,music--,importance of early ,training1 
#ajf      ,mysticism1 see ,symbolism    
,n      ,naming1 refer to ,language     
,natural ,instincts1 see ,instincts     
,non-,interference1 ,froebel's ,theory  
of1 #aij-e      ,number1 ,discovery of1 
#aja1 #ajb        ,o      ,observation  
of ,children1 #d-f1 #h1 #i1 #bi1 #gd1   
#hg1 #ib1 #id1 #if1 #ajc1 #ajd1         
#aji1 #aaa1 #acc1 #afb1 #afe            
,order1 ,sense of1 and the ,instinct of 
,rhythm1 #aae1 #aaf      ,organization  
and ,language1 #ba1 #bi1 #de-f1 #ajj    
,outer ,factor in ,perception1          
over-emphasized by ,froebel1 #aga1 #agc1
 #agd      ,o',shea1 ,prof41 quoted1    
#ig1 #aia1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #baf        ,p   
,parental ,instinct1 #aai1 #abj         
,personality1 ,consciousness of1 see    
,self-,consciousness      ,philosophy1  
,froebel's1 #aj      ,physical and      
,psychical1 ,close connection between1  
#ag1 #bj1 #bjg      ,play               
,amusement1 ,distinction from1 #acd     

,biological ,view1 #ach                 
,classifications 7,froebel and ,groos71 
#ade1 #bai      ,earliest ,childhood1   
,play in1 #abd1 #abe1 #abh1 #acj1 #adg  
,educative ,value1 ,originality of      
,froebel's ,view1 #abb      ,groos'     
,criteria1 #acj      ,guidance needed1  
#adc1 #ade and note      ,imitative     
,play1 #hh      ,joy in ,games1 #acc1   
#acf1 #aci      ,recreative ,play1 #abb 
,self-,consciousness1 ,development of1  
in ,boyhood1 #ef      ,social ,virtues1 
,development by ,games1 #aaa1 #add1 #adf
      ,surplus ,energy ,theory1 #abc1   
#add      ,theories of                  
,play--,recapitulation and ,preparation1
 #ach1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb      ,work and  
,play        ,distinction               
between--,froebel's definition1 #abd1   
#abh        ,earliest ,activity--,no    
,differentiation1 #acj1 #aca            
,early ,boyhood1 ,differentiation in1   
#aca1 #acb      ,playgrounds1           
,importance of1 #adc                    
,play-,material      ,definite          

prescription impossible1 #afg           
,first ,playthings1 #aec                
,importance in relation to ,development1
 #adh1 #adi      ,mistake of giving     
expensive and complex toys1 #afd        
,number and variety of games noted1 #adg
      ,object of ,froebel's             
play-material1 #ic      ,see also title 
,gifts      ,poems and ,songs1 ,use in  
,development of ,feeling1 #eh1 #acj     
,preyer quoted1 #eb      ,psychological 
,basis for ,educational ,theories1 #b   
,pugnacity1 ,instinct of1 #hf           
,purpose of ,education1 #bjj      ,refer
 also to ,self-,consciousness        ,q 
,quantity1 ,relations of1 #aja          
,questioning ,activity1 #ig        ,r   
,reflection1 ,development of1 #ge       
,religious ,instincts      ,foundation  
in ,social ,instincts1 #aae1 #aag       
,morality and ,religion1 #aah      ,work
 and ,religion1 #abg      ,religious    
,convictions of ,froebel1 #bje-f        
,repetition1 ,impressions fixed by1 #dc1
 #aeb      ,representation              

7,darstellung71 see ,expression         
,rhythm--,importance of early           
development of ,instinct1 #ajf1 #afj1   
#ahg      ,order1 ,sense of1 ,connection
 with1 #aae1 #aaf      ,ribot quoted1   
#ij1 #abf      ,romanes quoted1 #fh     
,royce1 ,prof41 quoted1 #ca        ,s   
,seele1 ,ida1 #bji      ,self-,abasement
 and ,self-,assertion1 ,instincts of1   
#hf      ,self-,consciousness1          
,development of1 #eb1 #ec1 #ef1 #hd1    
#aji1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aec      ,early      
,developments1 #ed1 #ee                 
,indefiniteness of ,instinct rendering  
development possible1 #hb      ,purpose 
of ,education and 8,end of ,man10 #cj-e1
 #ec1 #agh      ,tales1 ,craving for1   
due to nascent idea of ,self1 #eg1 #ajg 
,self-,determination1 refer to ,will    
,self-,employment1 refer to ,activity   
,self-,instruction1 ,instinct of1 refer 
to ,investigation      ,sense and       
,movement1 ,connection of1 #dh          
,sense and ,understanding1 ,close       
connection of1 #ag1 #bj1 #bjg           

,separation attempted in use of         
8,gifts0--,psychological error1 #age-f  
,service as ,expression of ,feeling1    
#ei1 #fj      ,social ,instinct         
,development from the 8,feeling of      
,community10 #ia1 #aaj-ab      ,early   
,training essential1 #fc-d1 #aab        
,games1 ,education in1 #aaa-ab1 #add1   
#adf      ,religious ,instincts1        
,foundation of1 #aae1 #aag      ,speech1
 refer to ,language      ,spencer1      
,herbert1 quoted1 #bjf      ,sphere and 
,cube 7,gift ,,ii7--,material for       
,comparison1 #da1 #aei1 #afa            
,spontaneous ,activity1 see ,activity   
,stories1 ,interest in1 #eg1 #ajg       
,stout1 ,prof41 quoted1 #c1 #d1 #ab1    
#bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dh1 
#gc1      #ace1 #bac1 #bae1 #baf        
,summary of ,froebel's ,educational     
,principles1 #f      8,surplus ,energy0 
,theory1 #abc1 #add                     
,symbolism--,froebel's alleged excessive
 and far-fetched ,symbolism1 #afi1      
#agi-hb      ,exaggeration by disciples 

and translators1 #ahc-f1 #ahh           
,instances--,practical application      
usually harmless1 #ahf-g        ,t      
,tales1 ,craving for1 #eg1 #ajg         
,thorndyke1 ,prof41 quoted1 #ahj        
,time-,relations1 #aee      ,toys1 refer
 to titles ,gifts and ,play-,material   
,tri-une ,nature of ,man1 #aj1 #cb1 #cd1
 #hi1 #aaf1 #abf        ,u              
,unfoldment1 ,doctrine of1 see          
,development      ,unification or       
,connection1 ,law of1 #bjd-e      ,unity
 and ,complexity1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aeh      
,froebel's yearning for ,unity1 #aii1   
#bag        ,w      ,wallas1 ,mr4       
,graham--,criticisms of ,froebel1 #aij1 
#aif1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #bja1      #bjh 
,ward1 ,dr41 quoted1 #ag1 #bj1 #cf1 #cg1
 #ch1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee1     
#aeg1 #aeh      ,welton1 ,prof41 quoted1
 #bab note      ,will      ,definitions 
7,froebel and ,stout71 #bb              
,development        ,action and         
,feeling1 ,development through1 #ce     
,bound up with ,intellectual            

,development1 #bf1 #bg        ,parallel 
,accounts 7,froebel and ,stout71 #bg1   
#bh        ,self-,consciousness         
involving true volition1 #cj            
,winch1 ,mr4--,criticism of ,froebel1   
#aib note1 #bjg      ,women's ,work in  
,education--,intelligent knowledge      
needed in addition to      natural      
,instinct1 #abj1 #baa      ,work        
,condition of best work1 #abg1 #abh     
,play1 ,relation to1 see title ,play    
,religion and ,work1 #aah1 #aai         
,wundt1 ,prof41 quoted1 #fh    ,,george 
,,philip  ,,son1 ,,ltd41 ,,london