,,emile  ,by ,jean-,jacques ,rousseau   
,translated by ,barbara ,foxley         
,author's ,preface  ,this collection of 
scattered thoughts and observations has 
little order or continuity2 it was begun
 to give pleasure to a good mother who  
thinks for herself4 ,my first idea was  
to write a tract a few pages long1 but  
,i was carried away by my subject1 and  
before ,i knew what ,i was doing my     
tract had become a kind of book1 too    
large indeed for the matter contained in
 it1 but too small for the subject of   
which it treats4 ,for a long time ,i    
hesitated whether to publish it or not1 
and ,i have often felt1 when at work    
upon it1 that it is one thing to publish
 a few pamphlets and another to write a 
book4 ,after vain attempts to improve   
it1 ,i have decided that it is my duty  
to publish it as it stands4 ,i consider 
that public attention requires to be    
directed to this subject1 and even if my
 own ideas are mistaken1 my time will   
not have been wasted if ,i stir up      

others to form right ideas4 ,a solitary 
who casts his writings before the public
 without any one to advertise them1     
without any party ready to defend them1 
one who does not even know what is      
thought and said about those writings1  
is at least free from one anxiety--if he
 is mistaken1 no one will take his      
errors for gospel4  ,i shall say very   
little about the value of a good        
education1 nor shall ,i stop to prove   
that the customary method of education  
is bad2 this has been done again and    
again1 and ,i do not wish to fill my    
book with things which everyone knows4  
,i will merely state that1 go as far    
back as you will1 you will find a       
continual outcry against the established
 method1 but no attempt to suggest a    
better4 ,the literature and science of  
our day tend rather to destroy than to  
build up4 ,we find fault after the      
manner of a master2 to suggest1 we must 
adopt another style1 a style less in    
accordance with the pride of the        

philosopher4 ,in spite of all those     
books1 whose only aim1 so they say1 is  
public utility1 the most useful of all  
arts1 the art of training men1 is still 
neglected4 ,even after ,locke's book was
 written the subject remained almost    
untouched1 and ,i fear that my book will
 leave it pretty much as it found it4   
,we know nothing of childhood2 and with 
our mistaken notions the further we     
advance the further we go astray4 ,the  
wisest writers devote themselves to what
 a man ought to know1 without asking    
what a child is capable of learning4    
,they are always looking for the man in 
the child1 without considering what he  
is before he becomes a man4  ,it is to  
this study that ,i have chiefly devoted 
myself1 so that if my method is fanciful
 and unsound1 my observations may still 
be of service4 ,i may be greatly        
mistaken as to what ought to be done1   
but ,i think ,i have clearly perceived  
the material which is to be worked upon4
 ,begin thus by making a more careful   

study of your scholars1 for it is clear 
that you know nothing about them2 yet if
 you read this book with that end in    
view1 ,i think you will find that it is 
not entirely useless4  ,with regard to  
what will be called the systematic      
portion of the book1 which is nothing   
more than the course of nature1 it is   
here that the reader will probably go   
wrong1 and no doubt ,i shall be attacked
 on this side1 and perhaps my critics   
may be right4 ,you will tell me1 ,this  
is not so much a treatise on education  
as the visions of a dreamer with regard 
to education4 ,what can ,i do8 ,i have  
not written about other people's ideas  
of education1 but about my own4  ,my    
thoughts are not those of others2 this  
reproach has been brought against me    
again and again4 ,but is it within my   
power to furnish myself with other eyes1
 or to adopt other ideas8 ,it is within 
my power to refuse to be wedded to my   
own opinions and to refuse to think     
myself wiser than others4 ,i cannot     

change my mind2 ,i can distrust myself4 
,this is all ,i can do1 and this ,i have
 done4 ,if ,i sometimes adopt a         
confident tone1 it is not to impress the
 reader1 it is to make my meaning plain 
to him4 ,why should ,i profess to       
suggest as doubtful that which is not a 
matter of doubt to myself8 ,i say just  
what ,i think4  ,when ,i freely express 
my opinion1 ,i have so little idea of   
claiming authority that ,i always give  
my reasons1 so that you may weigh and   
judge them for yourselves2 but though ,i
 would not obstinately defend my ideas1 
,i think it my duty to put them forward2
 for the principles with regard to which
 ,i differ from other writers are not   
matters of indifference2 we must know   
whether they are true or false1 for on  
them depends the happiness or the misery
 of mankind4 ,people are always telling 
me to make ,,practicable suggestions4   
,you might as well tell me to suggest   
what people are doing already1 or at    
least to suggest improvements which may 

be incorporated with the wrong methods  
at present in use4 ,there are matters   
with regard to which such a suggestion  
is far more chimerical than my own1 for 
in such a connection the good is        
corrupted and the bad is none the better
 for it4 ,i would rather follow exactly 
the established method than adopt a     
better method by halves4 ,there would be
 fewer contradictions in the man2 he    
cannot aim at one and the same time at  
two different objects4 ,fathers and     
mothers1 what you desire that you can   
do4 ,may ,i count on your goodwill8     
,there are two things to be considered  
with regard to any scheme4 ,in the first
 place1 ,is it good in itself ,in the   
second1 ,can it be easily put into      
practice8  ,with regard to the first of 
these it is enough that the scheme      
should be intelligible and feasible in  
itself1 that what is good in it should  
be adapted to the nature of things1 in  
this case1 for example1 that the        
proposed method of education should be  

suitable to man and adapted to the human
 heart4  ,the second consideration      
depends upon certain given conditions in
 particular cases2 these conditions are 
accidental and therefore variable2 they 
may vary indefinitely4 ,thus one kind of
 education would be possible in         
,switzerland and not in ,france2 another
 would be adapted to the middle classes 
but not to the nobility4 ,the scheme can
 be carried out1 with more or less      
success1 according to a multitude of    
circumstances1 and its results can only 
be determined by its special application
 to one country or another1 to this     
class or that4 ,now all these particular
 applications are not essential to my   
subject1 and they form no part of my    
scheme4 ,it is enough for me that1      
wherever men are born into the world1 my
 suggestions with regard to them may be 
carried out1 and when you have made them
 what ,i would have them be1 you have   
done what is best for them and best for 
other people4 ,if ,i fail to fulfil this

 promise1 no doubt ,i am to blame2 but  
if ,i fulfil my promise1 it is your own 
fault if you ask anything more of me1   
for ,i have promised you nothing more4  
,,book ,i  ,god makes all things good2  
man meddles with them and they become   
evil4 ,he forces one soil to yield the  
products of another1 one tree to bear   
another's fruit4 ,he confuses and       
confounds time1 place1 and natural      
conditions4 ,he mutilates his dog1 his  
horse1 and his slave4  ,he destroys and 
defaces all things2 he loves all that is
 deformed and monstrous2 he will have   
nothing as nature made it1 not even man 
himself1 who must learn his paces like a
 saddle-horse1 and be shaped to his     
master's taste like the trees in his    
garden4 ,yet things would be worse      
without this education1 and mankind     
cannot be made by halves4 ,under        
existing conditions a man left to       
himself from birth would be more of a   
monster than the rest4 ,prejudice1      
authority1 necessity1 example1 all the  

social conditions into which we are     
plunged1 would stifle nature in him and 
put nothing in her place4  ,she would be
 like a sapling chance sown in the midst
 of the highway1 bent hither and thither
 and soon crushed by the passers-by4    
,tender1 anxious mother1 ,footnote3 ,the
 earliest education is most important   
and it undoubtedly is woman's work4 ,if 
the author of nature had meant to assign
 it to men he would have given them milk
 to feed the child4 ,address your       
treatises on education to the women1 for
 not only are they able to watch over it
 more closely than men1 not only is     
their influence always predominant in   
education1 its success concerns them    
more nearly1 for most widows are at the 
mercy of their children1 who show them  
very plainly whether their education was
 good or bad4 ,the laws1 always more    
concerned about property than about     
people1 since their object is not virtue
 but peace1 the laws give too little    
authority to the mother4 ,yet her       

position is more certain than that of   
the father1 her duties are more trying2 
the right ordering of the family depends
 more upon her1 and she is usually      
fonder of her children4 ,there are      
occasions when a son may be excused for 
lack of respect for his father1 but if a
 child could be so unnatural as to fail 
in respect for the mother who bore him  
and nursed him at her breast1 who for so
 many years devoted herself to his care1
 such a monstrous wretch should be      
smothered at once as unworthy to live4  
,you say mothers spoil their children1  
and no doubt that is wrong1 but it is   
worse to deprave them as you do4  ,the  
mother wants her child to be happy now4 
,she is right1 and if her method is     
wrong1 she must be taught a better4     
,ambition1 avarice1 tyranny1 the        
mistaken foresight of fathers1 their    
neglect1 their harshness1 are a         
hundredfold more harmful to the child   
than the blind affection of the mother4 
,moreover1 ,i must explain what ,i mean 

by a mother and that explanation        
follows4 ,i appeal to you4 ,you can     
remove this young tree from the highway 
and shield it from the crushing force of
 social conventions4 ,tend and water it 
ere it dies4  ,one day its fruit will   
reward your care4 ,from the outset raise
 a wall round your child's soul2 another
 may sketch the plan1 you alone should  
carry it into execution4  ,plants are   
fashioned by cultivation1 man by        
education4 ,if a man were born tall and 
strong1 his size and strength would be  
of no good to him till he had learnt to 
use them2 they would even harm him by   
preventing others from coming to his    
aid2 ,footnote3 ,like them in externals1
 but without speech and without the     
ideas which are expressed by speech1 he 
would be unable to make his wants known1
 while there would be nothing in his    
appearance to suggest that he needed    
their help4 left to himself he would die
 of want before he knew his needs4 ,we  
lament the helplessness of infancy2 we  

fail to perceive that the race would    
have perished had not man begun by being
 a child4  ,we are born weak1 we need   
strength2 helpless1 we need aid2        
foolish1 we need reason4 ,all that we   
lack at birth1 all that we need when we 
come to man's estate1 is the gift of    
education4  ,this education comes to us 
from nature1 from men1 or from things4  
,the inner growth of our organs and     
faculties is the education of nature1   
the use we learn to make of this growth 
is the education of men1 what we gain by
 our experience of our surroundings is  
the education of things4  ,thus we are  
each taught by three masters4 ,if their 
teaching conflicts1 the scholar is      
ill-educated and will never be at peace 
with himself2 if their teaching agrees1 
he goes straight to his goal1 he lives  
at peace with himself1 he is            
well-educated4  ,now of these three     
factors in education nature is wholly   
beyond our control1 things are only     
partly in our power2 the education of   

men is the only one controlled by us2   
and even here our power is largely      
illusory1 for who can hope to direct    
every word and deed of all with whom the
 child has to do4  ,viewed as an art1   
the success of education is almost      
impossible1 since the essential         
conditions of success are beyond our    
control4 ,our efforts may bring us      
within sight of the goal1 but fortune   
must favour us if we are to reach it4   
,what is this goal8 ,as we have just    
shown1 it is the goal of nature4 ,since 
all three modes of education must work  
together1 the two that we can control   
must follow the lead of that which is   
beyond our control4 ,perhaps this word  
,nature has too vague a meaning4 ,let us
 try to define it4  ,nature1 we are     
told1 is merely habit4 ,what does that  
mean8 ,are there not habits formed under
 compulsion1 habits which never stifle  
nature8 ,such1 for example1 are the     
habits of plants trained horizontally4  
,the plant keeps its artificial shape1  

but the sap has not changed its course1 
and any new growth the plant may make   
will be vertical4 ,it is the same with a
 man's disposition2 while the conditions
 remain the same1 habits1 even the least
 natural of them1 hold good2 but change 
the conditions1 habits vanish1 nature   
reasserts herself4 ,education itself is 
but habit1 for are there not people who 
forget or lose their education and      
others who keep it8  ,whence comes this 
difference8 ,if the term nature is to be
 restricted to habits conformable to    
nature we need say no more4  ,we are    
born sensitive and from our birth       
onwards we are affected in various ways 
by our environment4 ,as soon as we      
become conscious of our sensations we   
tend to seek or shun the things that    
cause them1 at first because they are   
pleasant or unpleasant1 then because    
they suit us or not1 and at last because
 of judgments formed by means of the    
ideas of happiness and goodness which   
reason gives us4 ,these tendencies gain 

strength and permanence with the growth 
of reason1 but hindered by our habits   
they are more or less warped by our     
prejudices4 ,before this change they are
 what ,i call ,nature within us4        
,everything should therefore be brought 
into harmony with these natural         
tendencies1 and that might well be if   
our three modes of education merely     
differed from one another2 but what can 
be done when they conflict1 when instead
 of training man for himself you try to 
train him for others8 ,harmony becomes  
impossible4 ,forced to combat either    
nature or society1 you must make your   
choice between the man and the citizen1 
you cannot train both4  ,the smaller    
social group1 firmly united in itself   
and dwelling apart from others1 tends to
 withdraw itself from the larger        
society4 ,every patriot hates           
foreigners2 they are only men1 and      
nothing to him4,footnote3 ,thus the wars
 of republics are more cruel than those 
of monarchies4 ,but if the wars of kings

 are less cruel1 their peace is         
terrible2 better be their foe than their
 subject4 ,this defect is inevitable1   
but of little importance4 ,the great    
thing is to be kind to our neighbours4  
,among strangers the ,spartan was       
selfish1 grasping1 and unjust1 but      
unselfishness1 justice1 and harmony     
ruled his home life4 ,distrust those    
cosmopolitans who search out remote     
duties in their books and neglect those 
that lie nearest4 ,such philosophers    
will love the ,tartars to avoid loving  
their neighbour4  ,the natural man lives
 for himself2 he is the unit1 the whole1
 dependent only on himself and on his   
like4 ,the citizen is but the numerator 
of a fraction1 whose value depends on   
its denominator2 his value depends upon 
the whole1 that is1 on the community4   
,good social institutions are those best
 fitted to make a man unnatural1 to     
exchange his independence for           
dependence1 to merge the unit in the    
group1 so that he no longer regards     

himself as one1 but as a part of the    
whole1 and is only conscious of the     
common life4 ,a citizen of ,rome was    
neither ,caius nor ,lucius1 he was a    
,roman2 he ever loved his country better
 than his life4 ,the captive ,regulus   
professed himself a ,carthaginian2 as a 
foreigner he refused to take his seat in
 the ,senate except at his master's     
bidding4 ,he scorned the attempt to save
 his life4 ,he had his will1 and        
returned in triumph to a cruel death4   
,there is no great likeness between     
,regulus and the men of our own day4    
,the ,spartan ,pedaretes presented      
himself for admission to the council of 
the ,three ,hundred and was rejected2 he
 went away rejoicing that there were    
three hundred ,spartans better than     
himself4 ,i suppose he was in earnest2  
there is no reason to doubt it4 ,that   
was a citizen4  ,a ,spartan mother had  
five sons with the army4 ,a ,helot      
arrived2 trembling she asked his news4  
,your five sons are slain4 ,vile slave1 

was that what ,i asked thee8 ,we have   
won the victory4 ,she hastened to the   
temple to render thanks to the gods4    
,that was a citizen4  ,he who would     
preserve the supremacy of natural       
feelings in social life knows not what  
he asks4 ,ever at war with himself1     
hesitating between his wishes and his   
duties1 he will be neither a man nor a  
citizen4 ,he will be of no use to       
himself nor to others4 ,he will be a man
 of our day1 a ,frenchman1 an           
,englishman1 one of the great middle    
class4  ,to be something1 to be himself1
 and always at one with himself1 a man  
must act as he speaks1 must know what   
course he ought to take1 and must follow
 that course with vigour and            
persistence4 ,when ,i meet this miracle 
it will be time enough to decide whether
 he is a man or a citizen1 or how he    
contrives to be both4  ,two conflicting 
types of educational systems spring from
 these conflicting aims4 ,one is public 
and common to many1 the other private   

and domestic4  ,if you wish to know what
 is meant by public education1 read     
,plato's ,republic4 ,those who merely   
judge books by their titles take this   
for a treatise on politics1 but it is   
the finest treatise on education ever   
written4  ,in popular estimation the    
,platonic ,institute stands for all that
 is fanciful and unreal4 ,for my own    
part ,i should have thought the system  
of ,lycurgus far more impracticable had 
he merely committed it to writing4      
,plato only sought to purge man's heart2
 ,lycurgus turned it from its natural   
course4  ,the public institute does not 
and cannot exist1 for there is neither  
country nor patriot4 ,the very words    
should be struck out of our language4   
,the reason does not concern us at      
present1 so that though ,i know it ,i   
refrain from stating it4  ,i do not     
consider our ridiculous colleges        
,footnote3 ,there are teachers dear to  
me in many schools and especially in the
 ,university of ,paris1 men for whom ,i 

have a great respect1 men whom ,i       
believe to be quite capable of          
instructing young people1 if they were  
not compelled to follow the established 
custom4 ,i exhort one of them to publish
 the scheme of reform which he has      
thought out4 ,perhaps people would at   
length seek to cure the evil if they    
realised that there was a remedy4 as    
public institutes1 nor do ,i include    
under this head a fashionable education1
 for this education facing two ways at  
once achieves nothing4 ,it is only fit  
to turn out hypocrites1 always          
professing to live for others1 while    
thinking of themselves alone4 ,these    
professions1 however1 deceive no one1   
for every one has his share in them2    
they are so much labour wasted4  ,our   
inner conflicts are caused by these     
contradictions4 ,drawn this way by      
nature and that way by man1 compelled to
 yield to both forces1 we make a        
compromise and reach neither goal4 ,we  
go through life1 struggling and         

hesitating1 and die before we have found
 peace1 useless alike to ourselves and  
to others4  ,there remains the education
 of the home or of nature2 but how will 
a man live with others if he is educated
 for himself alone8 ,if the twofold aims
 could be resolved into one by removing 
the man's self-contradictions1 one great
 obstacle to his happiness would be     
gone4  ,to judge of this you must see   
the man full-grown2 you must have noted 
his inclinations1 watched his progress1 
followed his steps2 in a word you must  
really know a natural man4 ,when you    
have read this work1 ,i think you will  
have made some progress in this inquiry4
  ,what must be done to train this      
exceptional man6 ,we can do much1 but   
the chief thing is to prevent anything  
being done4 ,to sail against the wind we
 merely follow one tack and another2 to 
keep our position in a stormy sea we    
must cast anchor4 ,beware1 young pilot1 
lest your boat slip its cable or drag   
its anchor before you know it4    ,in   

the social order where each has his own 
place a man must be educated for it4 ,if
 such a one leave his own station he is 
fit for nothing else4 ,his education is 
only useful when fate agrees with his   
parents' choice2 if not1 education harms
 the scholar1 if only by the prejudices 
it has created4 ,in ,egypt1 where the   
son was compelled to adopt his father's 
calling1 education had at least a       
settled aim2 where social grades remain 
fixed1 but the men who form them are    
constantly changing1 no one knows       
whether he is not harming his son by    
educating him for his own class4  ,in   
the natural order men are all equal and 
their common calling is that of manhood1
 so that a well-educated man cannot fail
 to do well in that calling and those   
related to it4 ,it matters little to me 
whether my pupil is intended for the    
army1 the church1 or the law4  ,before  
his parents chose a calling for him     
nature called him to be a man4 ,life is 
the trade ,i would teach him4 ,when he  

leaves me1 ,i grant you1 he will be     
neither a magistrate1 a soldier1 nor a  
priest2 he will be a man4 ,all that     
becomes a man he will learn as quickly  
as another4 ,in vain will fate change   
his station1 he will always be in his   
right place4 ,occupavi te1 fortuna1     
atque cepi2 omnes-que aditus tuos       
interclusi1 ut ad me aspirare non       
posses4 ,the real object of our study is
 man and his environment4 ,to my mind   
those of us who can best endure the good
 and evil of life are the best educated2
 hence it follows that true education   
consists less in precept than in        
practice4 ,we begin to learn when we    
begin to live2 our education begins with
 ourselves1 our first teacher is our    
nurse4 ,the ancients used the word      
,education in a different sense1 it     
meant ,nurture4 ,educit obstetrix1 says 
,varro4 ,educat nutrix1 instituit       
paedagogus1 docet magister4 ,thus1      
education1 discipline1 and instruction  
are three things as different in their  

purpose as the dame1 the usher1 and the 
teacher4 ,but these distinctions are    
undesirable and the child should only   
follow one guide4  ,we must therefore   
look at the general rather than the     
particular1 and consider our scholar as 
man in the abstract1 man exposed to all 
the changes and chances of mortal life4 
,if men were born attached to the soil  
of our country1 if one season lasted all
 the year round1 if every man's fortune 
were so firmly grasped that he could    
never lose it1 then the established     
method of education would have certain  
advantages2 the child brought up to his 
own calling would never leave it1 he    
could never have to face the            
difficulties of any other condition4    
,but when we consider the fleeting      
nature of human affairs1 the restless   
and uneasy spirit of our times1 when    
every generation overturns the work of  
its predecessor1 can we conceive a more 
senseless plan than to educate a child  
as if he would never leave his room1 as 

if he would always have his servants    
about him8 ,if the wretched creature    
takes a single step up or down he is    
lost4 ,this is not teaching him to bear 
pain2 it is training him to feel it4    
,people think only of preserving their  
child's life2 this is not enough1 he    
must be taught to preserve his own life 
when he is a man1 to bear the buffets of
 fortune1 to brave wealth and poverty1  
to live at need among the snows of      
,iceland or on the scorching rocks of   
,malta4 ,in vain you guard against      
death2 he must needs die2 and even if   
you do not kill him with your           
precautions1 they are mistaken4 ,teach  
him to live rather than to avoid death3 
life is not breath1 but action1 the use 
of our senses1 our mind1 our faculties1 
every part of ourselves which makes us  
conscious of our being4 ,life consists  
less in length of days than in the keen 
sense of living4 ,a man maybe buried at 
a hundred and may never have lived at   
all4 ,he would have fared better had he 

died young4  ,our wisdom is slavish     
prejudice1 our customs consist in       
control1 constraint1 compulsion4        
,civilised man is born and dies a slave4
 ,the infant is bound up in swaddling   
clothes1 the corpse is nailed down in   
his coffin4 ,all his life long man is   
imprisoned by our institutions4  ,i am  
told that many midwives profess to      
improve the shape of the infant's head  
by rubbing1 and they are allowed to do  
it4 ,our heads are not good enough as   
,god made them1 they must be moulded    
outside by the nurse and inside by the  
philosopher4 ,the ,caribs are better off
 than we are4 ,the child has hardly left
 the mother's womb1 it has hardly begun 
to move and stretch its limbs1 when it  
is deprived of its freedom4 ,it is      
wrapped in swaddling bands1 laid down   
with its head fixed1 its legs stretched 
out1 and its arms by its sides2 it is   
wound round with linen and bandages of  
all sorts so that it cannot move4 ,it is
 fortunate if it has room to breathe1   

and it is laid on its side so that water
 which should flow from its mouth can   
escape1 for it is not free to turn its  
head on one side for this purpose4  ,the
 new-born child requires to stir and    
stretch his limbs to free them from the 
stiffness resulting from being curled up
 so long4 ,his limbs are stretched      
indeed1 but he is not allowed to move   
them4 ,even the head is confined by a   
cap4 ,one would think they were afraid  
the child should look as if it were     
alive4  ,thus the internal impulses     
which should lead to growth find an     
insurmountable obstacle in the way of   
the necessary movements4 ,the child     
exhausts his strength in vain struggles1
 or he gains strength very slowly4 ,he  
was freer and less constrained in the   
womb2 he has gained nothing by birth4   
,the inaction1 the constraint to which  
the child's limbs are subjected can only
 check the circulation of the blood and 
humours2 it can only hinder the child's 
growth in size and strength1 and injure 

its constitution4 ,where these absurd   
precautions are absent1 all the men are 
tall1 strong1 and well-made4 ,where     
children are swaddled1 the country      
swarms with the hump-backed1 the lame1  
the bow-legged1 the rickety1 and every  
kind of deformity4 ,in our fear lest the
 body should become deformed by free    
movement1 we hasten to deform it by     
putting it in a press4 ,we make our     
children helpless lest they should hurt 
themselves4  ,is not such a cruel       
bondage certain to affect both health   
and temper8 ,their first feeling is one 
of pain and suffering2 they find every  
necessary movement hampered2 more       
miserable than a galley slave1 in vain  
they struggle1 they become angry1 they  
cry4 ,their first words you say are     
tears4 ,that is so4 ,from birth you are 
always checking them1 your first gifts  
are fetters1 your first treatment1      
torture4 ,their voice alone is free2 why
 should they not raise it in complaint8 
,they cry because you are hurting them2 

if you were swaddled you would cry      
louder still4  ,what is the origin of   
this senseless and unnatural custom8    
,since mothers have despised their first
 duty and refused to nurse their own    
children1 they have had to be entrusted 
to hired nurses4 ,finding themselves the
 mothers of a stranger's children1      
without the ties of nature1 they have   
merely tried to save themselves trouble4
 ,a child unswaddled would need constant
 watching2 well swaddled it is cast into
 a corner and its cries are unheeded4   
,so long as the nurse's negligence      
escapes notice1 so long as the nursling 
does not break its arms or legs1 what   
matter if it dies or becomes a weakling 
for life4 ,its limbs are kept safe at   
the expense of its body1 and if anything
 goes wrong it is not the nurse's fault4
  ,these gentle mothers1 having got rid 
of their babies1 devote themselves gaily
 to the pleasures of the town4 ,do they 
know how their children are being       
treated in the villages8 ,if the nurse  

is at all busy1 the child is hung up on 
a nail like a bundle of clothes and is  
left crucified while the nurse goes     
leisurely about her business4 ,children 
have been found in this position purple 
in the face1 their tightly bandaged     
chest forbade the circulation of the    
blood1 and it went to the head2 so the  
sufferer was considered very quiet      
because he had not strength to cry4 ,how
 long a child might survive under such  
conditions ,i do not know1 but it could 
not be long4 ,that1 ,i fancy1 is one of 
the chief advantages of swaddling       
clothes4  ,it is maintained that        
unswaddled infants would assume faulty  
positions and make movements which might
 injure the proper development of their 
limbs4 ,that is one of the empty        
arguments of our false wisdom which has 
never been confirmed by experience4 ,out
 of all the crowds of children who grow 
up with the full use of their limbs     
among nations wiser than ourselves1 you 
never find one who hurts himself or     

maims himself2 their movements are too  
feeble to be dangerous1 and when they   
assume an injurious position1 pain warns
 them to change it4  ,we have not yet   
decided to swaddle our kittens and      
puppies2 are they any the worse for this
 neglect8 ,children are heavier1 ,i     
admit1 but they are also weaker4 ,they  
can scarcely move1 how could they hurt  
themselves6 ,if you lay them on their   
backs1 they will lie there till they    
die1 like the turtle1 unable to turn    
itself over4 ,not content with having   
ceased to suckle their children1 women  
no longer wish to do it2 with the       
natural result motherhood becomes a     
burden2 means are found to avoid it4    
,they will destroy their work to begin  
it over again1 and they thus turn to the
 injury of the race the charm which was 
given them for its increase4 ,this      
practice1 with other causes of          
depopulation1 forbodes the coming fate  
of ,europe4 ,her arts and sciences1 her 
philosophy and morals1 will shortly     

reduce her to a desert4 ,she will be the
 home of wild beasts1 and her           
inhabitants will hardly have changed for
 the worse4  ,i have sometimes watched  
the tricks of young wives who pretend   
that they wish to nurse their own       
children4 ,they take care to be         
dissuaded from this whim4 ,they contrive
 that husbands1 doctors1 and especially 
mothers should intervene4 ,if a husband 
should let his wife nurse her own baby  
it would be the ruin of him2 they would 
make him out a murderer who wanted to be
 rid of her4 ,a prudent husband must    
sacrifice paternal affection to domestic
 peace4 ,fortunately for you there are  
women in the country districts more     
continent than your wives4 ,you are     
still more fortunate if the time thus   
gained is not intended for another than 
yourself4  ,there can be no doubt about 
a wife's duty1 but1 considering the     
contempt in which it is held1 it is     
doubtful whether it is not just as good 
for the child to be suckled by a        

stranger4 ,this is a question for the   
doctors to settle1 and in my opinion    
they have settled it according to the   
women's wishes1 ,footnote3 ,the league  
between the women and the doctors has   
always struck me as one of the oddest   
things in ,paris4 ,the doctors'         
reputation depends on the women1 and by 
means of the doctors the women get their
 own way4 ,it is easy to see what       
qualifications a doctor requires in     
,paris if he is to become celebrated4   
and for my own part ,i think it is      
better that the child should suck the   
breast of a healthy nurse rather than of
 a petted mother1 if he has any further 
evil to fear from her who has given him 
birth4  ,ought the question1 however1 to
 be considered only from the            
physiological point of view8 ,does not  
the child need a mother's care as much  
as her milk8 ,other women1 or even other
 animals1 may give him the milk she     
denies him1 but there is no substitute  
for a mother's love4  ,the woman who    

nurses another's child in place of her  
own is a bad mother2 how can she be a   
good nurse8 ,she may become one in time2
 use will overcome nature1 but the child
 may perish a hundred times before his  
nurse has developed a mother's affection
 for him4  ,and this affection when     
developed has its drawbacks1 which      
should make any feeling woman afraid to 
put her child out to nurse4 ,is she     
prepared to divide her mother's rights1 
or rather to abdicate them in favour of 
a stranger2 to see her child loving     
another more than herself2 to feel that 
the affection he retains for his own    
mother is a favour1 while his love for  
his foster-mother is a duty2 for is not 
some affection due where there has been 
a mother's care8  ,to remove this       
difficulty1 children are taught to look 
down on their nurses1 to treat them as  
mere servants4 ,when their task is      
completed the child is withdrawn or the 
nurse is dismissed4 ,her visits to her  
foster-child are discouraged by a cold  

reception4 ,after a few years the child 
never sees her again4 ,the mother       
expects to take her place1 and to repair
 by her cruelty the results of her own  
neglect4  ,but she is greatly mistaken2 
she is making an ungrateful             
foster-child1 not an affectionate son2  
she is teaching him ingratitude1 and she
 is preparing him to despise at a later 
day the mother who bore him1 as he now  
despises his nurse4  ,how emphatically  
would ,i speak if it were not so        
hopeless to keep struggling in vain on  
behalf of a real reform4 ,more depends  
on this than you realise4 ,would you    
restore all men to their primal duties1 
begin with the mothers2 the results will
 surprise you4 ,every evil follows in   
the train of this first sin2 the whole  
moral order is disturbed1 nature is     
quenched in every breast1 the home      
becomes gloomy1 the spectacle of a young
 family no longer stirs the husband's   
love and the stranger's reverence4 ,the 
mother whose children are out of sight  

wins scanty esteem2 there is no home    
life1 the ties of nature are not        
strengthened by those of habit2 fathers1
 mothers1 children1 brothers1 and       
sisters cease to exist4 ,they are almost
 strangers2 how should they love one    
another8 ,each thinks of himself first4 
,when the home is a gloomy solitude     
pleasure will be sought elsewhere4  ,but
 when mothers deign to nurse their own  
children1 then will be a reform in      
morals2 natural feeling will revive in  
every heart2 there will be no lack of   
citizens for the state2 this first step 
by itself will restore mutual affection4
 ,the charms of home are the best       
antidote to vice4 ,the noisy play of    
children1 which we thought so trying1   
becomes a delight2 mother and father    
rely more on each other and grow dearer 
to one another2 the marriage tie is     
strengthened4 ,in the cheerful home life
 the mother finds her sweetest duties   
and the father his pleasantest          
recreation4 ,thus the cure of this one  

evil would work a wide-spread           
reformation2 nature would regain her    
rights4 ,when women become good mothers1
 men will be good husbands and fathers4 
,my words are vain6 ,when we are sick of
 worldly pleasures we do not return to  
the pleasures of the home4 ,women have  
ceased to be mothers1 they do not and   
will not return to their duty4 ,could   
they do it if they would8 ,the contrary 
custom is firmly established2 each would
 have to overcome the opposition of her 
neighbours1 leagued together against the
 example which some have never given and
 others do not desire to follow4  ,yet  
there are still a few young women of    
good natural disposition who refuse to  
be the slaves of fashion and rebel      
against the clamour of other women1 who 
fulfil the sweet task imposed on them by
 nature4  ,would that the reward in     
store for them might draw others to     
follow their example4 ,my conclusion is 
based upon plain reason1 and upon facts 
,i have never seen disputed2 and ,i     

venture to promise these worthy mothers 
the firm and steadfast affection of     
their husbands and the truly filial love
 of their children and the respect of   
all the world4 ,child-birth will be easy
 and will leave no ill-results1 their   
health will be strong and vigorous1 and 
they will see their daughters follow    
their example1 and find that example    
quoted as a pattern to others4  ,no     
mother1 no child2 their duties are      
reciprocal1 and when ill done by the one
 they will be neglected by the other4   
,the child should love his mother before
 he knows what he owes her4 ,if the     
voice of instinct is not strengthened by
 habit it soon dies1 the heart is       
still-born4 ,from the outset we have    
strayed from the path of nature4  ,there
 is another by-way which may tempt our  
feet from the path of nature4 ,the      
mother may lavish excessive care on her 
child instead of neglecting him2 she may
 make an idol of him2 she may develop   
and increase his weakness to prevent him

 feeling it2 she wards off every painful
 experience in the hope of withdrawing  
him from the power of nature1 and fails 
to realise that for every trifling ill  
from which she preserves him the future 
holds in store many accidents and       
dangers1 and that it is a cruel kindness
 to prolong the child's weakness when   
the grown man must bear fatigue4        
,thetis1 so the story goes1 plunged her 
son in the waters of ,styx to make him  
invulnerable4 ,the truth of this        
allegory is apparent4 ,the cruel mothers
 ,i speak of do otherwise2 they plunge  
their children into softness1 and they  
are preparing suffering for them1 they  
open the way to every kind of ill1 which
 their children will not fail to        
experience after they grow up4  ,fix    
your eyes on nature1 follow the path    
traced by her4 ,she keeps children at   
work1 she hardens them by all kinds of  
difficulties1 she soon teaches them the 
meaning of pain and grief4 ,they cut    
their teeth and are feverish1 sharp     

colics bring on convulsions1 they are   
choked by fits of coughing and tormented
 by worms1 evil humours corrupt the     
blood1 germs of various kinds ferment in
 it1 causing dangerous eruptions4       
,sickness and danger play the chief part
 in infancy4 ,one half of the children  
who are born die before their eighth    
year4 ,the child who has overcome       
hardships has gained strength1 and as   
soon as he can use his life he holds it 
more securely4  ,this is nature's law2  
why contradict it8 ,do you not see that 
in your efforts to improve upon her     
handiwork you are destroying it2 her    
cares are wasted8 ,to do from without   
what she does within is according to you
 to increase the danger twofold4 ,on the
 contrary1 it is the way to avert it2   
experience shows that children          
delicately nurtured are more likely to  
die4 ,provided we do not overdo it1     
there is less risk in using their       
strength than in sparing it4 ,accustom  
them therefore to the hardships they    

will have to face2 train them to endure 
extremes of temperature1 climate1 and   
condition1 hunger1 thirst1 and          
weariness4 ,dip them in the waters of   
,styx4 ,before bodily habits become     
fixed you may teach what habits you will
 without any risk1 but once habits are  
established any change is fraught with  
peril4 ,a child will bear changes which 
a man cannot bear1 the muscles of the   
one are soft and flexible1 they take    
whatever direction you give them without
 any effort2 the muscles of the grown   
man are harder and they only change     
their accustomed mode of action when    
subjected to violence4 ,so we can make a
 child strong without risking his life  
or health1 and even if there were some  
risk1 it should not be taken into       
consideration4 ,since human life is full
 of dangers1 can we do better than face 
them at a time when they can do the     
least harm8  ,a child's worth increases 
with his years4 ,to his personal value  
must be added the cost of the care      

bestowed upon him4 ,for himself there is
 not only loss of life1 but the         
consciousness of death4 ,we must        
therefore think most of his future in   
our efforts for his preservation4 ,he   
must be protected against the ills of   
youth before he reaches them3 for if the
 value of life increases until the child
 reaches an age when he can be useful1  
what madness to spare some suffering in 
infancy only to multiply his pain when  
he reaches the age of reason4 ,is that  
what our master teaches us8  ,man is    
born to suffer2 pain is the means of his
 preservation4 ,his childhood is happy1 
knowing only pain of body4 ,these bodily
 sufferings are much less cruel1 much   
less painful1 than other forms of       
suffering1 and they rarely lead to      
self-destruction4 ,it is not the twinges
 of gout which make a man kill himself1 
it is mental suffering that leads to    
despair4 ,we pity the sufferings of     
childhood2 we should pity ourselves2 our
 worst sorrows are of our own making4   

,the new-born infant cries1 his early   
days are spent in crying4 ,he is        
alternately petted and shaken by way of 
soothing him2 sometimes he is           
threatened1 sometimes beaten1 to keep   
him quiet4 ,we do what he wants or we   
make him do what we want1 we submit to  
his whims or subject him to our own4    
,there is no middle course2 he must rule
 or obey4 ,thus his earliest ideas are  
those of the tyrant or the slave4 ,he   
commands before he can speak1 he obeys  
before he can act1 and sometimes he is  
punished for faults before he is aware  
of them1 or rather before they are      
committed4 ,thus early are the seeds of 
evil passions sown in his young heart4  
,at a later day these are attributed to 
nature1 and when we have taken pains to 
make him bad we lament his badness4  ,in
 this way the child passes six or seven 
years in the hands of women1 the victim 
of his own caprices or theirs1 and after
 they have taught him all sorts of      
things1 when they have burdened his     

memory with words he cannot understand1 
or things which are of no use to him1   
when nature has been stifled by the     
passions they have implanted in him1    
this sham article is sent to a tutor4   
,the tutor completes the development of 
the germs of artificiality which he     
finds already well grown1 he teaches him
 everything except self-knowledge and   
self-control1 the arts of life and      
happiness4 ,when at length this infant  
slave and tyrant1 crammed with knowledge
 but empty of sense1 feeble alike in    
mind and body1 is flung upon the world1 
and his helplessness1 his pride1 and his
 other vices are displayed1 we begin to 
lament the wretchedness and perversity  
of mankind4 ,we are wrong2 this is the  
creature of our fantasy2 the natural man
 is cast in another mould4  ,would you  
keep him as nature made him8 ,watch over
 him from his birth4 ,take possession of
 him as soon as he comes into the world 
and keep him till he is a man2 you will 
never succeed otherwise4 ,the real nurse

 is the mother and the real teacher is  
the father4 ,let them agree in the      
ordering of their duties as well as in  
their method1 let the child pass from   
one to the other4 ,he will be better    
educated by a sensible though ignorant  
father than by the cleverest master in  
the world4 ,for zeal will atone for lack
 of knowledge1 rather than knowledge for
 lack of zeal4 ,but the duties of public
 and private business6 ,duty indeed6    
,does a father's duty come last4        
,footnote3 ,when we read in ,plutarch   
that ,cato the ,censor1 who ruled ,rome 
with such glory1 brought up his own sons
 from the cradle1 and so carefully that 
he left everything to be present when   
their nurse1 that is to say their       
mother1 bathed them2 when we read in    
,suetonius that ,augustus1 the master of
 the world which he had conquered and   
which he himself governed1 himself      
taught his grandsons to write1 to swim1 
to understand the beginnings of science1
 and that he always had them with him1  

we cannot help smiling at the little    
people of those days who amused         
themselves with such follies1 and who   
were too ignorant1 no doubt1 to attend  
to the great affairs of the great people
 of our own time4 ,it is not surprising 
that the man whose wife despises the    
duty of suckling her child should       
despise its education4 ,there is no more
 charming picture than that of family   
life2 but when one feature is wanting   
the whole is marred4 ,if the mother is  
too delicate to nurse her child1 the    
father will be too busy to teach him4   
,their children1 scattered about in     
schools1 convents1 and colleges1 will   
find the home of their affections       
elsewhere1 or rather they will form the 
habit of caring for nothing4  ,brothers 
and sisters will scarcely know each     
other2 when they are together in company
 they will behave as strangers4 ,when   
there is no confidence between          
relations1 when the family society      
ceases to give savour to life1 its place

 is soon usurped by vice4 ,is there any 
man so stupid that he cannot see how all
 this hangs together8  ,a father has    
done but a third of his task when he    
begets children and provides a living   
for them4 ,he owes men to humanity1     
citizens to the state4 ,a man who can   
pay this threefold debt and neglect to  
do so is guilty1 more guilty1 perhaps1  
if he pays it in part than when he      
neglects it entirely4 ,he has no right  
to be a father if he cannot fulfil a    
father's duties4 ,poverty1 pressure of  
business1 mistaken social prejudices1   
none of these can excuse a man from his 
duty1 which is to support and educate   
his own children4 ,if a man of any      
natural feeling neglects these sacred   
duties he will repent it with bitter    
tears and will never be comforted4  ,but
 what does this rich man do1 this father
 of a family1 compelled1 so he says1 to 
neglect his children8 ,he pays another  
man to perform those duties which are   
his alone4 ,mercenary man6 do you expect

 to purchase a second father for your   
child8 ,do not deceive yourself2 it is  
not even a master you have hired for    
him1 it is a flunkey1 who will soon     
train such another as himself4  ,there  
is much discussion as to the            
characteristics of a good tutor4  ,my   
first requirement1 and it implies a good
 many more1 is that he should not take  
up his task for reward4 ,there are      
callings so great that they cannot be   
undertaken for money without showing our
 unfitness for them2 such callings are  
those of the soldier and the teacher4   
,but who must train my child8 ,i have   
just told you1 you should do it         
yourself4 ,i cannot4 ,you cannot6 ,then 
find a friend4 ,i see no other course4  
,a tutor6 ,what a noble soul6 ,indeed   
for the training of a man one must      
either be a father or more than man4 ,it
 is this duty you would calmly hand over
 to a hireling6  ,the more you think of 
it the harder you will find it4 ,the    
tutor must have been trained for his    

pupil1 his servants must have been      
trained for their master1 so that all   
who come near him may have received the 
impression which is to be transmitted to
 him4 ,we must pass from education to   
education1 ,i know not how far4 ,how can
 a child be well educated by one who has
 not been well educated himself6  ,can  
such a one be found8 ,i know not4 ,in   
this age of degradation who knows the   
height of virtue to which man's soul may
 attain8 ,but let us assume that this   
prodigy has been discovered4 ,we shall  
learn what he should be from the        
consideration of his duties4 ,i fancy   
the father who realises the value of a  
good tutor will contrive to do without  
one1 for it will be harder to find one  
than to become such a tutor himself2 he 
need search no further1 nature herself  
having done half the work4  ,some one   
whose rank alone is known to me         
suggested that ,i should educate his    
son4 ,he did me a great honour1 no      
doubt1 but far from regretting my       

refusal1 he ought to congratulate       
himself on my prudence4 ,had the offer  
been accepted1 and had ,i been mistaken 
in my method1 there would have been an  
education ruined2 had ,i succeeded1     
things would have been worse--his son   
would have renounced his title and      
refused to be a prince4  ,i feel too    
deeply the importance of a tutor's      
duties and my own unfitness1 ever to    
accept such a post1 whoever offered it1 
and even the claims of friendship would 
be only an additional motive for my     
refusal4 ,few1 ,i think1 will be tempted
 to make me such an offer when they have
 read this book1 and ,i beg any one who 
would do so to spare his pains4 ,i have 
had enough experience of the task to    
convince myself of my own unfitness1 and
 my circumstances would make it         
impossible1 even if my talents were such
 as to fit me for it4 ,i have thought it
 my duty to make this public declaration
 to those who apparently refuse to do me
 the honour of believing in the         

sincerity of my determination4 ,if ,i am
 unable to undertake the more useful    
task1 ,i will at least venture to       
attempt the easier one2 ,i will follow  
the example of my predecessors and take 
up1 not the task1 but my pen2 and       
instead of doing the right thing ,i will
 try to say it4  ,i know that in such an
 undertaking the author1 who ranges at  
will among theoretical systems1 utters  
many fine precepts impossible to        
practise1 and even when he says what is 
practicable it remains undone for want  
of details and examples as to its       
application4  ,i have therefore decided 
to take an imaginary pupil1 to assume on
 my own part the age1 health1 knowledge1
 and talents required for the work of   
his education1 to guide him from birth  
to manhood1 when he needs no guide but  
himself4 ,this method seems to me useful
 for an author who fears lest he may    
stray from the practical to the         
visionary2 for as soon as he departs    
from common practice he has only to try 

his method on his pupil2 he will soon   
know1 or the reader will know for him1  
whether he is following the development 
of the child and the natural growth of  
the human heart4  ,this is what ,i have 
tried to do4 ,lest my book should be    
unduly bulky1 ,i have been content to   
state those principles the truth of     
which is self-evident4 ,but as to the   
rules which call for proof1 ,i have     
applied them to ,emile or to others1 and
 ,i have shown1 in very great detail1   
how my theories may be put into         
practice4 ,such at least is my plan2 the
 reader must decide whether ,i have     
succeeded4 ,at first ,i have said little
 about ,emile1 for my earliest maxims of
 education1 though very different from  
those generally accepted1 are so plain  
that it is hard for a man of sense to   
refuse to accept them1 but as ,i        
advance1 my scholar1 educated after     
another fashion than yours1 is no longer
 an ordinary child1 he needs a special  
system4 ,then he appears upon the scene 

more frequently1 and towards the end ,i 
never lose sight of him for a moment1   
until1 whatever he may say1 he needs me 
no longer4  ,i pass over the qualities  
required in a good tutor2 ,i take them  
for granted1 and assume that ,i am      
endowed with them4 ,as you read this    
book you will see how generous ,i have  
been to myself4  ,i will only remark    
that1 contrary to the received opinion1 
a child's tutor should be young1 as     
young indeed as a man may well be who is
 also wise4 ,were it possible1 he should
 become a child himself1 that he may be 
the companion of his pupil and win his  
confidence by sharing his games4        
,childhood and age have too little in   
common for the formation of a really    
firm affection4 ,children sometimes     
flatter old men2 they never love them4  
,people seek a tutor who has already    
educated one pupil4 ,this is too much2  
one man can only educate one pupil2 if  
two were essential to success1 what     
right would he have to undertake the    

first8 ,with more experience you may    
know better what to do1 but you are less
 capable of doing it2 once this task has
 been well done1 you will know too much 
of its difficulties to attempt it a     
second time--if ill done1 the first     
attempt augurs badly for the second4    
,it is one thing to follow a young man  
about for four years1 another to be his 
guide for five-and-twenty4 ,you find a  
tutor for your son when he is already   
formed2 ,i want one for him before he is
 born4 ,your man may change his pupil   
every five years2 mine will never have  
but one pupil4 ,you distinguish between 
the teacher and the tutor4 ,another     
piece of folly6 ,do you make any        
distinction between the pupil and the   
scholar8 ,there is only one science for 
children to learn--the duties of man4   
,this science is one1 and1 whatever     
,xenophon may say of the education of   
the ,persians1 it is indivisible4       
,besides1 ,i prefer to call the man who 
has this knowledge master rather than   

teacher1 since it is a question of      
guidance rather than instruction4 ,he   
must not give precepts1 he must let the 
scholar find them out for himself4  ,if 
the master is to be so carefully chosen1
 he may well choose his pupil1 above all
 when he proposes to set a pattern for  
others4 ,this choice cannot depend on   
the child's genius or character1 as ,i  
adopt him before he is born1 and they   
are only known when my task is finished4
 ,if ,i had my choice ,i would take a   
child of ordinary mind1 such as ,i      
assume in my pupil4 ,it is ordinary     
people who have to be educated1 and     
their education alone can serve as a    
pattern for the education of their      
fellows4 ,the others find their way     
alone4  ,the birthplace is not a matter 
of indifference in the education of man2
 it is only in temperate climes that he 
comes to his full growth4 ,the          
disadvantages of extremes are easily    
seen4 ,a man is not planted in one place
 like a tree1 to stay there the rest of 

his life1 and to pass from one extreme  
to another you must travel twice as far 
as he who starts half-way4  ,if the     
inhabitant of a temperate climate passes
 in turn through both extremes his      
advantage is plain1 for although he may 
be changed as much as he who goes from  
one extreme to the other1 he only       
removes half-way from his natural       
condition4 ,a ,frenchman can live in    
,new ,guinea or in ,lapland1 but a negro
 cannot live in ,tornea nor a ,samoyed  
in ,benin4 ,it seems also as if the     
brain were less perfectly organised in  
the two extremes4 ,neither the negroes  
nor the ,laps are as wise as ,europeans4
 ,so if ,i want my pupil to be a citizen
 of the world ,i will choose him in the 
temperate zone1 in ,france for example1 
rather than elsewhere4  ,in the north   
with its barren soil men devour much    
food1 in the fertile south they eat     
little4 ,this produces another          
difference3 the one is industrious1 the 
other contemplative4 ,society shows us1 

in one and the same spot1 a similar     
difference between rich and poor4 ,the  
one dwells in a fertile land1 the other 
in a barren land4  ,the poor man has no 
need of education4 ,the education of his
 own station in life is forced upon him1
 he can have no other2 the education    
received by the rich man from his own   
station is least fitted for himself and 
for society4 ,moreover1 a natural       
education should fit a man for any      
position4 ,now it is more unreasonable  
to train a poor man for wealth than a   
rich man for poverty1 for in proportion 
to their numbers more rich men are      
ruined and fewer poor men become rich4  
,let us choose our scholar among the    
rich2 we shall at least have made       
another man2 the poor may come to       
manhood without our help4  ,for the same
 reason ,i should not be sorry if ,emile
 came of a good family4 ,he will be     
another victim snatched from prejudice4 
,emile is an orphan4 ,no matter whether 
he has father or mother1 having         

undertaken their duties ,i am invested  
with their rights4 ,he must honour his  
parents1 but he must obey me4 ,that is  
my first and only condition4  ,i must   
add that there is just one other point  
arising out of this2 we must never be   
separated except by mutual consent4     
,this clause is essential1 and ,i would 
have tutor and scholar so inseparable   
that they should regard their fate as   
one4 ,if once they perceive the time of 
their separation drawing near1 the time 
which must make them strangers to one   
another1 they become strangers then and 
there2 each makes his own little world1 
and both of them being busy in thought  
with the time when they will no longer  
be together1 they remain together       
against their will4 ,the disciple       
regards his master as the badge and     
scourge of childhood1 the master regards
 his scholar as a heavy burden which he 
longs to be rid of4 ,both are looking   
forward to the time when they will part1
 and as there is never any real         

affection between them1 there will be   
scant vigilance on the one hand1 and on 
the other scant obedience4  ,but when   
they consider they must always live     
together1 they must needs love one      
another1 and in this way they really    
learn to love one another4 ,the pupil is
 not ashamed to follow as a child the   
friend who will be with him in manhood2 
the tutor takes an interest in the      
efforts whose fruits he will enjoy1 and 
the virtues he is cultivating in his    
pupil form a store laid up for his old  
age4  ,this agreement made beforehand   
assumes a normal birth1 a strong1       
well-made1 healthy child4 ,a father has 
no choice1 and should have no preference
 within the limits of the family ,god   
has given him2 all his children are his 
alike1 the same care and affection is   
due to all4 ,crippled or well-made1 weak
 or strong1 each of them is a trust for 
which he is responsible to the ,giver1  
and nature is a party to the marriage   
contract along with husband and wife4   

,but if you undertake a duty not imposed
 upon you by nature1 you must secure    
beforehand the means for its fulfilment1
 unless you would undertake duties you  
cannot fulfil4 ,if you take the care of 
a sickly1 unhealthy child1 you are a    
sick nurse1 not a tutor4 ,to preserve a 
useless life you are wasting the time   
which should be spent in increasing its 
value1 you risk the sight of a          
despairing mother reproaching you for   
the death of her child1 who ought to    
have died long ago4  ,i would not       
undertake the care of a feeble1 sickly  
child1 should he live to four score     
years4 ,i want no pupil who is useless  
alike to himself and others1 one whose  
sole business is to keep himself alive1 
one whose body is always a hindrance to 
the training of his mind4 ,if ,i vainly 
lavish my care upon him1 what can ,i do 
but double the loss to society by       
robbing it of two men1 instead of one8  
,let another tend this weakling for me2 
,i am quite willing1 ,i approve his     

charity1 but ,i myself have no gift for 
such a task2 ,i could never teach the   
art of living to one who needs all his  
strength to keep himself alive4  ,the   
body must be strong enough to obey the  
mind2 a good servant must be strong4 ,i 
know that intemperance stimulates the   
passions2 in course of time it also     
destroys the body2 fasting and penance  
often produce the same results in an    
opposite way4 ,the weaker the body1 the 
more imperious its demands2 the stronger
 it is1 the better it obeys4 ,all       
sensual passions find their home in     
effeminate bodies2 the less satisfaction
 they can get the keener their sting4   
,a feeble body makes a feeble mind4     
,hence the influence of physic1 an art  
which does more harm to man than all the
 evils it professes to cure4 ,i do not  
know what the doctors cure us of1 but ,i
 know this3 they infect us with very    
deadly diseases1 cowardice1 timidity1   
credulity1 the fear of death4 ,what     
matter if they make the dead walk1 we   

have no need of corpses2 they fail to   
give us men1 and it is men we need4     
,medicine is all the fashion in these   
days1 and very naturally4 ,it is the    
amusement of the idle and unemployed1   
who do not know what to do with their   
time1 and so spend it in taking care of 
themselves4 ,if by ill-luck they had    
happened to be born immortal1 they would
 have been the most miserable of men2 a 
life they could not lose would be of no 
value to them4 ,such men must have      
doctors to threaten and flatter them1 to
 give them the only pleasure they can   
enjoy1 the pleasure of not being dead4  
,i will say no more at present as to the
 uselessness of medicine4 ,my aim is to 
consider its bearings on morals4 ,still 
,i cannot refrain from saying that men  
employ the same sophism about medicine  
as they do about the search for truth4  
,they assume that the patient is cured  
and that the seeker after truth finds   
it4 ,they fail to see that against one  
life saved by the doctors you must set a

 hundred slain1 and against the value of
 one truth discovered the errors which  
creep in with it4 ,the science which    
instructs and the medicine which heals  
are no doubt excellent1 but the science 
which misleads us and the medicine which
 kills us are evil4 ,teach us to know   
them apart4 ,that is the real           
difficulty4 ,if we were content to be   
ignorant of truth we should not be the  
dupes of falsehood2 if we did not want  
to be cured in spite of nature1 we      
should not be killed by the doctors4 ,we
 should do well to steer clear of both1 
and we should evidently be the gainers4 
,i do not deny that medicine is useful  
to some men2 ,i assert that it is fatal 
to mankind4  ,you will tell me1 as      
usual1 that the doctors are to blame1   
that medicine herself is infallible4    
,well and good1 then give us the        
medicine without the doctor1 for when we
 have both1 the blunders of the artist  
are a hundredfold greater than our hopes
 from the art4 ,this lying art1 invented

 rather for the ills of the mind than of
 the body1 is useless to both alike2 it 
does less to cure us of our diseases    
than to fill us with alarm4 ,it does    
less to ward off death than to make us  
dread its approach4 ,it exhausts life   
rather than prolongs it2 should it even 
prolong life it would only be to the    
prejudice of the race1 since it makes us
 set its precautions before society and 
our fears before our duties4 ,it is the 
knowledge of danger that makes us       
afraid4 ,if we thought ourselves        
invulnerable we should know no fear4    
,the poet armed ,achilles against danger
 and so robbed him of the merit of      
courage2 on such terms any man would be 
an ,achilles4  ,would you find a really 
brave man8 ,seek him where there are no 
doctors1 where the results of disease   
are unknown1 and where death is little  
thought of4 ,by nature a man bears pain 
bravely and dies in peace4 ,it is the   
doctors with their rules1 the           
philosophers with their precepts1 the   

priests with their exhortations1 who    
debase the heart and make us afraid to  
die4  ,give me a pupil who has no need  
of these1 or ,i will have nothing to do 
with him4 ,no one else shall spoil my   
work1 ,i will educate him myself or not 
at all4 ,that wise man1 ,locke1 who had 
devoted part of his life to the study of
 medicine1 advises us to give no drugs  
to the child1 whether as a precaution1  
or on account of slight ailments4 ,i    
will go farther1 and will declare that1 
as ,i never call in a doctor for myself1
 ,i will never send for one for ,emile1 
unless his life is clearly in danger1   
when the doctor can but kill him4  ,i   
know the doctor will make capital out of
 my delay4 ,if the child dies1 he was   
called in too late2 if he recovers1 it  
is his doing4 ,so be it2 let the doctor 
boast1 but do not call him in except in 
extremity4  ,as the child does not know 
how to be cured1 he knows how to be ill4
  ,the one art takes the place of the   
other and is often more successful2 it  

is the art of nature4 ,when a beast is  
ill1 it keeps quiet and suffers in      
silence2 but we see fewer sickly animals
 than sick men4 ,how many men have been 
slain by impatience1 fear1 anxiety1 and 
above all by medicine1 men whom disease 
would have spared1 and time alone have  
cured4 ,i shall be told that animals1   
who live according to nature1 are less  
liable to disease than ourselves4 ,well1
 that way of living is just what ,i mean
 to teach my pupil2 he should profit by 
it in the same way4  ,hygiene is the    
only useful part of medicine1 and       
hygiene is rather a virtue than a       
science4 ,temperance and industry are   
man's true remedies2 work sharpens his  
appetite and temperance teaches him to  
control it4  ,to learn what system is   
most beneficial you have only to study  
those races remarkable for health1      
strength1 and length of days4 ,if common
 observation shows us that medicine     
neither increases health nor prolongs   
life1 it follows that this useless art  

is worse than useless1 since it wastes  
time1 men1 and things on what is pure   
loss4  ,not only must we deduct the time
 spent1 not in using life1 but          
preserving it1 but if this time is spent
 in tormenting ourselves it is worse    
than wasted1 it is so much to the bad1  
and to reckon fairly a corresponding    
share must be deducted from what remains
 to us4 ,a man who lives ten years for  
himself and others without the help of  
doctors lives more for himself and      
others than one who spends thirty years 
as their victim4 ,i have tried both1 so 
,i think ,i have a better right than    
most to draw my own conclusions4  ,for  
these reasons ,i decline to take any but
 a strong and healthy pupil1 and these  
are my principles for keeping him in    
health4 ,i will not stop to prove at    
length the value of manual labour and   
bodily exercise for strengthening the   
health and constitution2 no one denies  
it4 ,nearly all the instances of long   
life are to be found among the men who  

have taken most exercise1 who have      
endured fatigue and labour4 ,footnote3  
,i cannot help quoting the following    
passage from an ,english newspaper1 as  
it throws much light on my opinions3 ,a 
certain ,patrick ,o',neil1 born in      
#afdg1 has just married his seventh wife
 in #agfj4 ,in the seventeenth year of  
,charles ,,ii4 he served in the dragoons
 and in other regiments up to #agdj1    
when he took his discharge4 ,he served  
in all the campaigns of ,william ,,iii4 
and ,marlborough4 ,this man has never   
drunk anything but small beer2 he has   
always lived on vegetables1 and has     
never eaten meat except on few occasions
 when he made a feast for his relations4
 ,he has always been accustomed to rise 
with the sun and go to bed at sunset    
unless prevented by his military duties4
 ,he is now in his #acjth year2 he is   
healthy1 his hearing is good1 and he    
walks with the help of a stick4 ,in     
spite of his great age he is never idle1
 and every ,sunday he goes to his parish

 church accompanied by his children1    
grandchildren1 and great grandchildren4 
,neither will ,i enter into details as  
to the care ,i shall take for this      
alone4 ,it will be clear that it forms  
such an essential part of my practice   
that it is enough to get hold of the    
idea without further explanation4  ,when
 our life begins our needs begin too4   
,the new-born infant must have a nurse4 
,if his mother will do her duty1 so much
 the better2 her instructions will be   
given her in writing1 but this advantage
 has its drawbacks1 it removes the tutor
 from his charge4 ,but it is to be hoped
 that the child's own interests1 and her
 respect for the person to whom she is  
about to confide so precious a treasure1
 will induce the mother to follow the   
master's wishes1 and whatever she does  
you may be sure she will do better than 
another4 ,if we must have a strange     
nurse1 make a good choice to begin with4
  ,it is one of the misfortunes of the  
rich to be cheated on all sides2 what   

wonder they think ill of mankind6 ,it is
 riches that corrupt men1 and the rich  
are rightly the first to feel the       
defects of the only tool they know4     
,everything is ill-done for them1 except
 what they do themselves1 and they do   
next to nothing4 ,when a nurse must be  
selected the choice is left to the      
doctor4 ,what happens8 ,the best nurse  
is the one who offers the highest bribe4
 ,i shall not consult the doctor about  
,emile's nurse1 ,i shall take care to   
choose her myself4 ,i may not argue     
about it so elegantly as the surgeon1   
but ,i shall be more reliable1 ,i shall 
be less deceived by my zeal than the    
doctor by his greed4  ,there is no      
mystery about this choice2 its rules are
 well known1 but ,i think we ought      
probably to pay more attention to the   
age of the milk as well as its quality4 
,the first milk is watery1 it must be   
almost an aperient1 to purge the remains
 of the meconium curdled in the bowels  
of the new-born child4 ,little by little

 the milk thickens and supplies more    
solid food as the child is able to      
digest it4 ,it is surely not without    
cause that nature changes the milk in   
the female of every species according to
 the age of the offspring4  ,thus a     
new-born child requires a nurse who has 
recently become mother4 ,there is1 ,i   
know1 a difficulty here1 but as soon as 
we leave the path of nature there are   
difficulties in the way of all          
well-doing4 ,the wrong course is the    
only right one under the circumstances1 
so we take it4  ,the nurse must be      
healthy alike in disposition and in     
body4 ,the violence of the passions as  
well as the humours may spoil her milk4 
,moreover1 to consider the body only is 
to keep only half our aim in view4 ,the 
milk may be good and the nurse bad2 a   
good character is as necessary as a good
 constitution4 ,if you choose a vicious 
person1 ,i do not say her foster-child  
will acquire her vices1 but he will     
suffer for them4 ,ought she not to      

bestow on him day by day1 along with her
 milk1 a care which calls for zeal1     
patience1 gentleness1 and cleanliness4  
,if she is intemperate and greedy her   
milk will soon be spoilt2 if she is     
careless and hasty what will become of a
 poor little wretch left to her mercy1  
and unable either to protect himself or 
to complain4 ,the wicked are never good 
for anything4  ,the choice is all the   
more important because her foster-child 
should have no other guardian1 just as  
he should have no teacher but his tutor4
 ,this was the custom of the ancients1  
who talked less but acted more wisely   
than we4 ,the nurse never left her      
foster-daughter2 this is why the nurse  
is the confidante in most of their      
plays4 ,a child who passes through many 
hands in turn1 can never be well brought
 up4  ,at every change he makes a secret
 comparison1 which continually tends to 
lessen his respect for those who control
 him1 and with it their authority over  
him4 ,if once he thinks there are       

grown-up people with no more sense than 
children the authority of age is        
destroyed and his education is ruined4  
,a child should know no betters but its 
father and mother1 or failing them its  
foster-mother and its tutor1 and even   
this is one too many1 but this division 
is inevitable1 and the best that can be 
done in the way of remedy is that the   
man and woman who control him shall be  
so well agreed with regard to him that  
they seem like one4  ,the nurse must    
live rather more comfortably1 she must  
have rather more substantial food1 but  
her whole way of living must not be     
altered1 for a sudden change1 even a    
change for the better1 is dangerous to  
health1 and since her usual way of life 
has made her healthy and strong1 why    
change it8  ,country women eat less meat
 and more vegetables than towns-women1  
and this vegetarian diet seems          
favourable rather than otherwise to     
themselves and their children4 ,when    
they take nurslings from the upper      

classes they eat meat and broth with the
 idea that they will form better chyle  
and supply more milk4 ,i do not hold    
with this at all1 and experience is on  
my side1 for we do not find children fed
 in this way less liable to colic and   
worms4  ,that need not surprise us1 for 
decaying animal matter swarms with      
worms1 but this is not the case with    
vegetable matter4 ,footnote3 ,women eat 
bread1 vegetables1 and dairy produce2   
female dogs and cats do the same2 the   
she-wolves eat grass4 ,this supplies    
vegetable juices to their milk4 ,there  
are still those species which are unable
 to eat anything but flesh1 if such     
there are1 which ,i very much doubt4    
,milk1 although manufactured in the body
 of an animal1 is a vegetable substance2
 this is shown by analysis2 it readily  
turns acid1 and far from showing traces 
of any volatile alkali like animal      
matter1 it gives a neutral salt like    
plants4  ,the milk of herbivorous       
creatures is sweeter and more wholesome 

than the milk of the carnivorous2 formed
 of a substance similar to its own1 it  
keeps its goodness and becomes less     
liable to putrifaction4 ,if quantity is 
considered1 it is well known that       
farinaceous foods produce more blood    
than meat1 so they ought to yield more  
milk4 ,if a child were not weaned too   
soon1 and if it were fed on vegetarian  
food1 and its foster-mother were a      
vegetarian1 ,i do not think it would be 
troubled with worms4  ,milk derived from
 vegetable foods may perhaps be more    
liable to go sour1 but ,i am far from   
considering sour milk an unwholesome    
food2 whole nations have no other food  
and are none the worse1 and all the     
array of absorbents seems to me mere    
humbug4 ,there are constitutions which  
do not thrive on milk1 others can take  
it without absorbents4 ,people are      
afraid of the milk separating or        
curdling2 that is absurd1 for we know   
that milk always curdles in the stomach4
 ,this is how it becomes sufficiently   

solid to nourish children and young     
animals2 if it did not curdle it would  
merely pass away without feeding them4  
,footnote3 ,although the juices which   
nourish us are liquid1 they must be     
extracted from solids4 ,a hard-working  
man who ate nothing but soup would soon 
waste away4 ,he would be far better fed 
on milk1 just because it curdles4 ,in   
vain you dilute milk and use absorbents2
 whoever swallows milk digests cheese1  
this rule is without exception2 rennet  
is made from a calf's stomach4  ,instead
 of changing the nurse's usual diet1 ,i 
think it would be enough to give food in
 larger quantities and better of its    
kind4 ,it is not the nature of the food 
that makes a vegetable diet             
indigestible1 but the flavouring that   
makes it unwholesome4 ,reform your      
cookery1 use neither butter nor oil for 
frying4 ,butter1 salt1 and milk should  
never be cooked4 ,let your vegetables be
 cooked in water and only seasoned when 
they come to table4 ,the vegetable diet1

 far from disturbing the nurse1 will    
give her a plentiful supply of milk4    
,footnote3 ,those who wish to study a   
full account of the advantages and      
disadvantages of the ,pythagorean       
regime1 may consult the works of ,dr4   
,cocchi and his opponent ,dr4 ,bianchi  
on this important subject4 ,if a        
vegetable diet is best for the child1   
how can meat food be best for his nurse8
 ,the things are contradictory4  ,fresh 
air affects children's constitutions1   
particularly in early years4 ,it enters 
every pore of a soft and tender skin1 it
 has a powerful effect on their young   
bodies4 ,its effects can never be       
destroyed4 ,so ,i should not agree with 
those who take a country woman from her 
village and shut her up in one room in a
 town and her nursling with her4 ,i     
would rather send him to breathe the    
fresh air of the country than the foul  
air of the town4 ,he will take his new  
mother's position1 will live in her     
cottage1 where his tutor will follow    

him4 ,the reader will bear in mind that 
this tutor is not a paid servant1 but   
the father's friend4 ,but if this friend
 cannot be found1 if this transfer is   
not easy1 if none of my advice can be   
followed1 you will say to me1 ,what     
shall ,i do instead8 ,i have told you   
already--,do what you are doing2 no     
advice is needed there4  ,men are not   
made to be crowded together in          
ant-hills1 but scattered over the earth 
to till it4 ,the more they are massed   
together1 the more corrupt they become4 
,disease and vice are the sure results  
of over-crowded cities4 ,of all         
creatures man is least fitted to live in
 herds4 ,huddled together like sheep1   
men would very soon die4 ,man's breath  
is fatal to his fellows4 ,this is       
literally as well as figuratively true4 
,men are devoured by our towns4 ,in a   
few generations the race dies out or    
becomes degenerate2 it needs renewal1   
and it is always renewed from the       
country4 ,send your children to renew   

themselves1 so to speak1 send them to   
regain in the open fields the strength  
lost in the foul air of our crowded     
cities4 ,women hurry home that their    
children may be born in the town2 they  
ought to do just the opposite1          
especially those who mean to nurse their
 own children4  ,they would lose less   
than they think1 and in more natural    
surroundings the pleasures associated by
 nature with maternal duties would soon 
destroy the taste for other delights4   
,the new-born infant is first bathed in 
warm water to which a little wine is    
usually added4 ,i think the wine might  
be dispensed with4 ,as nature does not  
produce fermented liquors1 it is not    
likely that they are of much value to   
her creatures4  ,in the same way it is  
unnecessary to take the precaution of   
heating the water2 in fact among many   
races the new-born infants are bathed   
with no more ado in rivers or in the    
sea4 ,our children1 made tender before  
birth by the softness of their parents1 

come into the world with a constitution 
already enfeebled1 which cannot be at   
once exposed to all the trials required 
to restore it to health4 ,little by     
little they must be restored to their   
natural vigour4 ,begin then by following
 this custom1 and leave it off          
gradually4 ,wash your children often1   
their dirty ways show the need of this4 
,if they are only wiped their skin is   
injured2 but as they grow stronger      
gradually reduce the heat of the water1 
till at last you bathe them winter and  
summer in cold1 even in ice-cold water4 
,to avoid risk this change must be slow1
 gradual1 and imperceptible1 so you may 
use the thermometer for exact           
measurements4  ,this habit of the bath1 
once established1 should never be broken
 off1 it must be kept up all through    
life4 ,i value it not only on grounds of
 cleanliness and present health1 but    
also as a wholesome means of making the 
muscles supple1 and accustoming them to 
bear without risk or effort extremes of 

heat and cold4 ,as he gets older ,i     
would have the child trained to bathe   
occasionally in hot water of every      
bearable degree1 and often in every     
degree of cold water4 ,now water being a
 denser fluid touches us at more points 
than air1 so that1 having learnt to bear
 all the variations of temperature in   
water1 we shall scarcely feel this of   
the air4 ,footnote3 ,children in towns  
are stifled by being kept indoors and   
too much wrapped up4  ,those who control
 them have still to learn that fresh    
air1 far from doing them harm1 will make
 them strong1 while hot air will make   
them weak1 will give rise to fevers1 and
 will eventually kill them4  ,when the  
child draws its first breath do not     
confine it in tight wrappings4 ,no cap1 
no bandages1 nor swaddling clothes4     
,loose and flowing flannel wrappers1    
which leave its limbs free and are not  
too heavy to check his movements1 not   
too warm to prevent his feeling the air4
 ,footnote3 ,i say cradle using the     

common word for want of a better1 though
 ,i am convinced that it is never       
necessary and often harmful to rock     
children in the cradle4 ,put him in a   
big cradle1 well padded1 where he can   
move easily and safely4 ,as he begins to
 grow stronger1 let him crawl about the 
room2 let him develop and stretch his   
tiny limbs2 you will see him gain       
strength from day to day4 ,compare him  
with a well swaddled child of the same  
age and you will be surprised at their  
different rates of progress4 ,footnote3 
,the ancient ,peruvians wrapped their   
children in loose swaddling bands1      
leaving the arms quite free4 ,later they
 placed them unswaddled in a hole in the
 ground1 lined with cloths1 so that the 
lower part of the body was in the hole1 
and their arms were free and they could 
move the head and bend the body at will 
without falling or hurting themselves4  
,when they began to walk they were      
enticed to come to the breast4 ,the     
little negroes are often in a position  

much more difficult for sucking4 ,they  
cling to the mother's hip1 and cling so 
tightly that the mother's arm is often  
not needed to support them4 ,they clasp 
the breast with their hand and continue 
sucking while their mother goes on with 
her ordinary work4 ,these children begin
 to walk at two months1 or rather to    
crawl4 ,later on they can run on all    
fours almost as well as on their        
feet4--,buffon4 ,m4 ,buffon might also  
have quoted the example of ,england1    
where the senseless and barbarous       
swaddling clothes have become almost    
obsolete4 ,cf4 ,la ,longue ,voyage de   
,siam1 ,le ,beau ,voyage de ,canada1    
etc4  ,you must expect great opposition 
from the nurses1 who find a half        
strangled baby needs much less watching4
 ,besides his dirtyness is more         
perceptible in an open garment2 he must 
be attended to more frequently4 ,indeed1
 custom is an unanswerable argument in  
some lands and among all classes of     
people4  ,do not argue with the nurses2 

give your orders1 see them carried out1 
and spare no pains to make the attention
 you prescribe easy in practice4 ,why   
not take your share in it8 ,with        
ordinary nurslings1 where the body alone
 is thought of1 nothing matters so long 
as the child lives and does not actually
 die1 but with us1 when education begins
 with life1 the new-born child is       
already a disciple1 not of his tutor1   
but of nature4 ,the tutor merely studies
 under this master1 and sees that his   
orders are not evaded4 ,he watches over 
the infant1 he observes it1 he looks for
 the first feeble glimmering of         
intelligence1 as the ,moslem looks for  
the moment of the moon's rising in her  
first quarter4  ,we are born capable of 
learning1 but knowing nothing1          
perceiving nothing4 ,the mind1 bound up 
within imperfect and half grown organs1 
is not even aware of its own existence4 
,the movements and cries of the new-born
 child are purely reflex1 without       
knowledge or will4  ,suppose a child    

born with the size and strength of      
manhood1 entering upon life full grown  
like ,pallas from the brain of ,jupiter2
 such a child-man would be a perfect    
idiot1 an automaton1 a statue without   
motion and almost without feeling2 he   
would see and hear nothing1 he would    
recognise no one1 he could not turn his 
eyes towards what he wanted to see2 not 
only would he perceive no external      
object1 he would not even be aware of   
sensation through the several           
sense-organs4 ,his eye would not        
perceive colour1 his ear sounds1 his    
body would be unaware of contact with   
neighbouring bodies1 he would not even  
know he had a body1 what his hands      
handled would be in his brain alone2 all
 his sensations would be united in one  
place1 they would exist only in the     
common sensorium1 he would have only one
 idea1 that of self1 to which he would  
refer all his sensations2 and this idea1
 or rather this feeling1 would be the   
only thing in which he excelled an      

ordinary child4  ,this man1 full grown  
at birth1 would also be unable to stand 
on his feet1 he would need a long time  
to learn how to keep his balance2       
perhaps he would not even be able to try
 to do it1 and you would see the big    
strong body left in one place like a    
stone1 or creeping and crawling like a  
young puppy4  ,he would feel the        
discomfort of bodily needs without      
knowing what was the matter and without 
knowing how to provide for these needs4 
,there is no immediate connection       
between the muscles of the stomach and  
those of the arms and legs to make him  
take a step towards food1 or stretch a  
hand to seize it1 even were he          
surrounded with it2 and as his body     
would be full grown and his limbs well  
developed he would be without the       
perpetual restlessness and movement of  
childhood1 so that he might die of      
hunger without stirring to seek food4   
,however little you may have thought    
about the order and development of our  

knowledge1 you cannot deny that such a  
one would be in the state of almost     
primitive ignorance and stupidity       
natural to man before he has learnt     
anything from experience or from his    
fellows4  ,we know then1 or we may know1
 the point of departure from which we   
each start towards the usual level of   
understanding2 but who knows the other  
extreme8 ,each progresses more or less  
according to his genius1 his taste1 his 
needs1 his talents1 his zeal1 and his   
opportunities for using them4 ,no       
philosopher1 so far as ,i know1 has     
dared to say to man1 ,thus far shalt    
thou go and no further4 ,we know not    
what nature allows us to be1 none of us 
has measured the possible difference    
between man and man4 ,is there a mind so
 dead that this thought has never       
kindled it1 that has never said in his  
pride1 ,how much have ,i already done1  
how much more may ,i achieve8  ,why     
should ,i lag behind my fellows8  ,as ,i
 said before1 man's education begins at 

birth2 before he can speak or understand
 he is learning4 ,experience precedes   
instruction2 when he recognises his     
nurse he has learnt much4 ,the knowledge
 of the most ignorant man would surprise
 us if we had followed his course from  
birth to the present time4 ,if all human
 knowledge were divided into two parts1 
one common to all1 the other peculiar to
 the learned1 the latter would seem very
 small compared with the former4  ,but  
we scarcely heed this general           
experience1 because it is acquired      
before the age of reason4 ,moreover1    
knowledge only attracts attention by its
 rarity1 as in algebraic equations      
common factors count for nothing4 ,even 
animals learn much4 ,they have senses   
and must learn to use them2 they have   
needs1 they must learn to satisfy them2 
they must learn to eat1 walk1 or fly4   
,quadrupeds which can stand on their    
feet from the first cannot walk for all 
that2 from their first attempts it is   
clear that they lack confidence4        

,canaries who escape from their cage are
 unable to fly1 having never used their 
wings4 ,living and feeling creatures are
 always learning4 ,if plants could walk 
they would need senses and knowledge1   
else their species would die out4 ,the  
child's first mental experiences are    
purely affective1 he is only aware of   
pleasure and pain2 it takes him a long  
time to acquire the definite sensations 
which show him things outside himself1  
but before these things present and     
withdraw themselves1 so to speak1 from  
his sight1 taking size and shape for    
him1 the recurrence of emotional        
experiences is beginning to subject the 
child to the rule of habit4 ,you see his
 eyes constantly follow the light1 and  
if the light comes from the side the    
eyes turn towards it1 so that one must  
be careful to turn his head towards the 
light lest he should squint4 ,he must   
also be accustomed from the first to the
 dark1 or he will cry if he misses the  
light4 ,food and sleep1 too1 exactly    

measured1 become necessary at regular   
intervals1 and soon desire is no longer 
the effect of need1 but of habit1 or    
rather habit adds a fresh need to those 
of nature4 ,you must be on your guard   
against this4  ,the only habit the child
 should be allowed to contract is that  
of having no habits2 let him be carried 
on either arm1 let him be accustomed to 
offer either hand1 to use one or other  
indifferently2 let him not want to eat1 
sleep1 or do anything at fixed hours1   
nor be unable to be left alone by day or
 night4 ,prepare the way for his control
 of his liberty and the use of his      
strength by leaving his body its natural
 habit1 by making him capable of lasting
 self-control1 of doing all that he     
wills when his will is formed4  ,as soon
 as the child begins to take notice1    
what is shown him must be carefully     
chosen4 ,the natural man is interested  
in all new things4 ,he feels so feeble  
that he fears the unknown3 the habit of 
seeing fresh things without ill effects 

destroys this fear4 ,children brought up
 in clean houses where there are no     
spiders are afraid of spiders1 and this 
fear often lasts through life4 ,i never 
saw peasants1 man1 woman1 or child1     
afraid of spiders4  ,since the mere     
choice of things shown him may make the 
child timid or brave1 why should not his
 education begin before he can speak or 
understand8 ,i would have him accustomed
 to see fresh things1 ugly1 repulsive1  
and strange beasts1 but little by       
little1 and far off till he is used to  
them1 and till having seen others handle
 them he handles them himself4 ,if in   
childhood he sees toads1 snakes1 and    
crayfish1 he will not be afraid of any  
animal when he is grown up4  ,those who 
are continually seeing terrible things  
think nothing of them4  ,all children   
are afraid of masks4 ,i begin by showing
 ,emile a mask with a pleasant face1    
then some one puts this mask before his 
face2 ,i begin to laugh1 they all laugh 
too1 and the child with them4 ,by       

degrees ,i accustom him to less pleasing
 masks1 and at last hideous ones4 ,if ,i
 have arranged my stages skilfully1 far 
from being afraid of the last mask1 he  
will laugh at it as he did at the first4
 ,after that ,i am not afraid of people 
frightening him with masks4  ,when      
,hector bids farewell to ,andromache1   
the young ,astyanax1 startled by the    
nodding plumes on the helmet1 does not  
know his father2 he flings himself      
weeping upon his nurse's bosom and wins 
from his mother a smile mingled with    
tears4 ,what must be done to stay this  
terror8 ,just what ,hector did2 put the 
helmet on the ground and caress the     
child4 ,in a calmer moment one would do 
more2 one would go up to the helmet1    
play with the plumes1 let the child feel
 them2 at last the nurse would take the 
helmet and place it laughingly on her   
own head1 if indeed a woman's hand dare 
touch the armour of ,hector4  ,if ,emile
 must get used to the sound of a gun1 ,i
 first fire a pistol with a small       

charge4 ,he is delighted with this      
sudden flash1 this sort of lightning2 ,i
 repeat the process with more powder2   
gradually ,i add a small charge without 
a wad1 then a larger2 in the end ,i     
accustom him to the sound of a gun1 to  
fireworks1 cannon1 and the most terrible
 explosions4  ,i have observed that     
children are rarely afraid of thunder   
unless the peals are really terrible and
 actually hurt the ear1 otherwise this  
fear only comes to them when they know  
that thunder sometimes hurts or kills4  
,when reason begins to cause fear1 let  
us reassure them4 ,by slow and careful  
stages man and child learn to fear      
nothing4  ,in the dawn of life1 when    
memory and imagination have not begun to
 function1 the child only attends to    
what affects its senses4 ,his sense     
experiences are the raw material of     
thought2 they should1 therefore1 be     
presented to him in fitting order1 so   
that memory may at a future time present
 them in the same order to his          

understanding2 but as he only attends to
 his sensations it is enough1 at first1 
to show him clearly the connection      
between these sensations and the things 
which cause them4 ,he wants to touch and
 handle everything2 do not check these  
movements which teach him invaluable    
lessons4 ,thus he learns to perceive the
 heat1 cold1 hardness1 softness1 weight1
 or lightness of bodies1 to judge their 
size and shape and all their physical   
properties1 by looking1 feeling1        
,footnote3 ,of all the senses that of   
smell is the latest to develop in       
children up to two or three years of age
 they appear to be insensible of        
pleasant or unpleasant odours2 in this  
respect they are as indifferent or      
rather as insensible as many animals4   
listening1 and1 above all1 by comparing 
sight and touch1 by judging with the eye
 what sensation they would cause to his 
hand4  ,it is only by movement that we  
learn the difference between self and   
not self2 it is only by our own         

movements that we gain the idea of      
space4 ,the child has not this idea1 so 
he stretches out his hand to seize the  
object within his reach or that which is
 a hundred paces from him4 ,you take    
this as a sign of tyranny1 an attempt to
 bid the thing draw near1 or to bid you 
bring it4 ,nothing of the kind1 it is   
merely that the object first seen in his
 brain1 then before his eyes1 now seems 
close to his arms1 and he has no idea of
 space beyond his reach4 ,be careful1   
therefore1 to take him about1 to move   
him from place to place1 and to let him 
perceive the change in his surroundings1
 so as to teach him to judge of         
distances4  ,when he begins to perceive 
distances then you must change your     
plan1 and only carry him when you       
please1 not when he pleases2 for as soon
 as he is no longer deceived by his     
senses1 there is another motive for his 
effort4 ,this change is remarkable and  
calls for explanation4  ,the discomfort 
caused by real needs is shown by signs1 

when the help of others is required4    
,hence the cries of children2 they often
 cry2 it must be so4 ,since they are    
only conscious of feelings1 when those  
feelings are pleasant they enjoy them in
 silence2 when they are painful they say
 so in their own way and demand relief4 
,now when they are awake they can       
scarcely be in a state of indifference1 
either they are asleep or else they are 
feeling something4  ,all our languages  
are the result of art4 ,it has long been
 a subject of inquiry whether there ever
 was a natural language common to all2  
no doubt there is1 and it is the        
language of children before they begin  
to speak4 ,this language is             
inarticulate1 but it has tone1 stress1  
and meaning4 ,the use of our own        
language has led us to neglect it so far
 as to forget it altogether4 ,let us    
study children and we shall soon learn  
it afresh from them4 ,nurses can teach  
us this language2 they understand all   
their nurslings say to them1 they answer

 them1 and keep up long conversations   
with them2 and though they use words1   
these words are quite useless4 ,it is   
not the hearing of the word1 but its    
accompanying intonation that is         
understood4  ,to the language of        
intonation is added the no less forcible
 language of gesture4 ,the child uses1  
not its weak hands1 but its face4 ,the  
amount of expression in these           
undeveloped faces is extraordinary2     
their features change from one moment to
 another with incredible speed4 ,you see
 smiles1 desires1 terror1 come and go   
like lightning2 every time the face     
seems different4 ,the muscles of the    
face are undoubtedly more mobile than   
our own4 ,on the other hand the eyes are
 almost expressionless4 ,such must be   
the sort of signs they use at an age    
when their only needs are those of the  
body4 ,grimaces are the sign of         
sensation1 the glance expresses         
sentiment4  ,as man's first state is one
 of want and weakness1 his first sounds 

are cries and tears4 ,the child feels   
his needs and cannot satisfy them1 he   
begs for help by his cries4 ,is he      
hungry or thirsty8 there are tears2 is  
he too cold or too hot8 more tears2 he  
needs movement and is kept quiet1 more  
tears2 he wants to sleep and is         
disturbed1 he weeps4 ,the less          
comfortable he is1 the more he demands  
change4 ,he has only one language       
because he has1 so to say1 only one kind
 of discomfort4 ,in the imperfect state 
of his sense organs he does not         
distinguish their several impressions2  
all ills produce one feeling of sorrow4 
,these tears1 which you think so little 
worthy of your attention1 give rise to  
the first relation between man and his  
environment2 here is forged the first   
link in the long chain of social order4 
,when the child cries he is uneasy1 he  
feels some need which he cannot satisfy2
 you watch him1 seek this need1 find it1
 and satisfy it4 ,if you can neither    
find it nor satisfy it1 the tears       

continue and become tiresome4 ,the child
 is petted to quiet him1 he is rocked or
 sung to sleep2 if he is obstinate1 the 
nurse becomes impatient and threatens   
him2 cruel nurses sometimes strike him4 
,what strange lessons for him at his    
first entrance into life6  ,i shall     
never forget seeing one of these        
troublesome crying children thus beaten 
by his nurse4 ,he was silent at once4 ,i
 thought he was frightened1 and said to 
myself1 ,this will be a servile being   
from whom nothing can be got but by     
harshness4 ,i was wrong1 the poor wretch
 was choking with rage1 he could not    
breathe1 he was black in the face4 ,a   
moment later there were bitter cries1   
every sign of the anger1 rage1 and      
despair of this age was in his tones4 ,i
 thought he would die4 ,had ,i doubted  
the innate sense of justice and         
injustice in man's heart1 this one      
instance would have convinced me4 ,i am 
sure that a drop of boiling liquid      
falling by chance on that child's hand  

would have hurt him less than that blow1
 slight in itself1 but clearly given    
with the intention of hurting him4      
,this tendency to anger1 vexation1 and  
rage needs great care4 ,boerhaave thinks
 that most of the diseases of children  
are of the nature of convulsions1       
because the head being larger in        
proportion and the nervous system more  
extensive than in adults1 they are more 
liable to nervous irritation4 ,take the 
greatest care to remove from them any   
servants who tease1 annoy1 or vex them4 
,they are a hundredfold more dangerous  
and more fatal than fresh air and       
changing seasons4 ,when children only   
experience resistance in things and     
never in the will of man1 they do not   
become rebellious or passionate1 and    
their health is better4 ,this is one    
reason why the children of the poor1 who
 are freer and more independent1 are    
generally less frail and weakly1 more   
vigorous than those who are supposed to 
be better brought up by being constantly

 thwarted2 but you must always remember 
that it is one thing to refrain from    
thwarting them1 but quite another to    
obey them4 ,the child's first tears are 
prayers1 beware lest they become        
commands2 he begins by asking for aid1  
he ends by demanding service4 ,thus from
 his own weakness1 the source of his    
first consciousness of dependence1      
springs the later idea of rule and      
tyranny2 but as this idea is aroused    
rather by his needs than by our         
services1 we begin to see moral results 
whose causes are not in nature2 thus we 
see how important it is1 even at the    
earliest age1 to discern the secret     
meaning of the gesture or cry4  ,when   
the child tries to seize something      
without speaking1 he thinks he can reach
 the object1 for he does not rightly    
judge its distance2 when he cries and   
stretches out his hands he no longer    
misjudges the distance1 he bids the     
object approach1 or orders you to bring 
it to him4 ,in the first case bring it  

to him slowly2 in the second do not even
 seem to hear his cries4 ,the more he   
cries the less you should heed him4 ,he 
must learn in good time not to give     
commands to men1 for he is not their    
master1 nor to things1 for they cannot  
hear him4  ,thus when the child wants   
something you mean to give him1 it is   
better to carry him to it rather than to
 bring the thing to him4  ,from this he 
will draw a conclusion suited to his    
age1 and there is no other way of       
suggesting it to him4  ,the ,abbe       
,saint-,pierre calls men big children2  
one might also call children little men4
 ,these statements are true1 but they   
require explanation4 ,but when ,hobbes  
calls the wicked a strong child1 his    
statement is contradicted by facts4 ,all
 wickedness comes from weakness4 ,the   
child is only naughty because he is     
weak2 make him strong and he will be    
good2 if we could do everything we      
should never do wrong4 ,of all the      
attributes of the ,almighty1 goodness is

 that which it would be hardest to      
dissociate from our conception of ,him4 
,all nations who have acknowledged a    
good and an evil power1 have always     
regarded the evil as inferior to the    
good2 otherwise their opinion would have
 been absurd4 ,compare this with the    
creed of the ,savoyard clergyman later  
on in this book4  ,reason alone teaches 
us to know good and evil4 ,therefore    
conscience1 which makes us love the one 
and hate the other1 though it is        
independent of reason1 cannot develop   
without it4 ,before the age of reason we
 do good or ill without knowing it1 and 
there is no morality in our actions1    
although there is sometimes in our      
feeling with regard to other people's   
actions in relation to ourselves4 ,a    
child wants to overturn everything he   
sees4 ,he breaks and smashes everything 
he can reach2 he seizes a bird as he    
seizes a stone1 and strangles it without
 knowing what he is about4  ,why so8 ,in
 the first place philosophy will account

 for this by inbred sin1 man's pride1   
love of power1 selfishness1 spite2      
perhaps it will say in addition to this 
that the child's consciousness of his   
own weakness makes him eager to use his 
strength1 to convince himself of it4    
,but watch that broken down old man     
reduced in the downward course of life  
to the weakness of a child2 not only is 
he quiet and peaceful1 he would have all
 about him quiet and peaceful too2 the  
least change disturbs and troubles him1 
he would like to see universal calm4    
,how is it possible that similar        
feebleness and similar passions should  
produce such different effects in age   
and in infancy1 if the original cause   
were not different8 ,and where can we   
find this difference in cause except in 
the bodily condition of the two4 ,the   
active principle1 common to both1 is    
growing in one case and declining in the
 other2 it is being formed in the one   
and destroyed in the other2 one is      
moving towards life1 the other towards  

death4 ,the failing activity of the old 
man is centred in his heart1 the child's
 overflowing activity spreads abroad4   
,he feels1 if we may say so1 strong     
enough to give life to all about him4   
,to make or to destroy1 it is all one to
 him2 change is what he seeks1 and all  
change involves action4 ,if he seems to 
enjoy destructive activity it is only   
that it takes time to make things and   
very little time to break them1 so that 
the work of destruction accords better  
with his eagerness4  ,while the ,author 
of nature has given children this       
activity1 ,he takes care that it shall  
do little harm by giving them small     
power to use it4 ,but as soon as they   
can think of people as tools to be used1
 they use them to carry out their wishes
 and to supplement their own weakness4  
,this is how they become tiresome1      
masterful1 imperious1 naughty1 and      
unmanageable2 a development which does  
not spring from a natural love of power1
 but one which has been taught them1 for

 it does not need much experience to    
realise how pleasant it is to set others
 to work and to move the world by a     
word4  ,as the child grows it gains     
strength and becomes less restless and  
unquiet and more independent4 ,soul and 
body become better balanced and nature  
no longer asks for more movement than is
 required for self-preservation4 ,but   
the love of power does not die with the 
need that aroused it2 power arouses and 
flatters self-love1 and habit           
strengthens it2 thus caprice follows    
upon need1 and the first seeds of       
prejudice and obstinacy are sown4       
,,first ,,maxim4--,far from being too   
strong1 children are not strong enough  
for all the claims of nature4 ,give them
 full use of such strength as they have2
 they will not abuse it4  ,,second      
,,maxim4--,help them and supply the     
experience and strength they lack       
whenever the need is of the body4       
,,third ,,maxim4--,in the help you give 
them confine yourself to what is really 

needful1 without granting anything to   
caprice or unreason2 for they will not  
be tormented by caprice if you do not   
call it into existence1 seeing it is no 
part of nature4  ,,fourth               
,,maxim--,study carefully their speech  
and gestures1 so that at an age when    
they are incapable of deceit you may    
discriminate between those desires which
 come from nature and those which spring
 from perversity4  ,the spirit of these 
rules is to give children more real     
liberty and less power1 to let them do  
more for themselves and demand less of  
others2 so that by teaching them from   
the first to confine their wishes within
 the limits of their powers they will   
scarcely feel the want of whatever is   
not in their power4  ,this is another   
very important reason for leaving       
children's limbs and bodies perfectly   
free1 only taking care that they do not 
fall1 and keeping anything that might   
hurt them out of their way4  ,the child 
whose body and arms are free will       

certainly cry much less than a child    
tied up in swaddling clothes4 ,he who   
knows only bodily needs1 only cries when
 in pain2 and this is a great advantage1
 for then we know exactly when he needs 
help1 and if possible we should not     
delay our help for an instant4 ,but if  
you cannot relieve his pain1 stay where 
you are and do not flatter him by way of
 soothing him2 your caresses will not   
cure his colic1 but he will remember    
what he must do to win them2 and if he  
once finds out how to gain your         
attention at will1 he is your master2   
the whole education is spoilt4  ,their  
movements being less constrained1       
children will cry less2 less wearied    
with their tears1 people will not take  
so much trouble to check them4 ,with    
fewer threats and promises1 they will be
 less timid and less obstinate1 and will
 remain more nearly in their natural    
state4 ,ruptures are produced less by   
letting children cry than by the means  
taken to stop them1 and my evidence for 

this is the fact that the most neglected
 children are less liable to them than  
others4 ,i am very far from wishing that
 they should be neglected2 on the       
contrary1 it is of the utmost importance
 that their wants should be anticipated1
 so that they need not proclaim their   
wants by crying4 ,but neither would ,i  
have unwise care bestowed on them4 ,why 
should they think it wrong to cry when  
they find they can get so much by it8   
,when they have learned the value of    
their silence they take good care not to
 waste it4 ,in the end they will so     
exaggerate its importance that no one   
will be able to pay its price2 then worn
 out with crying they become exhausted1 
and are at length silent4  ,prolonged   
crying on the part of a child neither   
swaddled nor out of health1 a child who 
lacks nothing1 is merely the result of  
habit or obstinacy4 ,such tears are no  
longer the work of nature1 but the work 
of the child's nurse1 who could not     
resist its importunity and so has       

increased it1 without considering that  
while she quiets the child to-day she is
 teaching him to cry louder to-morrow4  
,moreover1 when caprice or obstinacy is 
the cause of their tears1 there is a    
sure way of stopping them by distracting
 their attention by some pleasant or    
conspicuous object which makes them     
forget that they want to cry4 ,most     
nurses excel in this art1 and rightly   
used it is very useful2 but it is of the
 utmost importance that the child should
 not perceive that you mean to distract 
his attention1 and that he should be    
amused without suspecting you are       
thinking about him2 now this is what    
most nurses cannot do4  ,most children  
are weaned too soon4 ,the time to wean  
them is when they cut their teeth4 ,this
 generally causes pain and suffering4   
,at this time the child instinctively   
carries everything he gets hold of to   
his mouth to chew it4 ,to help forward  
this process he is given as a plaything 
some hard object such as ivory or a     

wolf's tooth4 ,i think this is a        
mistake4 ,hard bodies applied to the    
gums do not soften them2 far from it1   
they make the process of cutting the    
teeth more difficult and painful4 ,let  
us always take instinct as our guide2 we
 never see puppies practising their     
budding teeth on pebbles1 iron1 or      
bones1 but on wood1 leather1 rags1 soft 
materials which yield to their jaws1 and
 on which the tooth leaves its mark4    
,we can do nothing simply1 not even for 
our children4 ,toys of silver1 gold1    
coral1 cut crystal1 rattles of every    
price and kind2 what vain and useless   
appliances4 ,away with them all6 ,let us
 have no corals or rattles2 a small     
branch of a tree with its leaves and    
fruit1 a stick of liquorice which he may
 suck and chew1 will amuse him as well  
as these splendid trifles1 and they will
 have this advantage at least1 he will  
not be brought up to luxury from his    
birth4  ,it is admitted that pap is not 
a very wholesome food4 ,boiled milk and 

uncooked flour cause gravel and do not  
suit the stomach4 ,in pap the flour is  
less thoroughly cooked than in bread and
 it has not fermented4 ,i think bread   
and milk or rice-cream are better4 ,if  
you will have pap1 the flour should be  
lightly cooked beforehand4 ,in my own   
country they make a very pleasant and   
wholesome soup from flour thus heated4  
,meat-broth or soup is not a very       
suitable food and should be used as     
little as possible4 ,the child must     
first get used to chewing his food2 this
 is the right way to bring the teeth    
through1 and when the child begins to   
swallow1 the saliva mixed with the food 
helps digestion4  ,i would have them    
first chew dried fruit or crusts4 ,i    
should give them as playthings little   
bits of dry bread or biscuits1 like the 
,piedmont bread1 known in the country as
 grisses4 ,by dint of softening this    
bread in the mouth some of it is        
eventually swallowed the teeth come     
through of themselves1 and the child is 

weaned almost imperceptibly4 ,peasants  
have usually very good digestions1 and  
they are weaned with no more ado4  ,from
 the very first children hear spoken    
language2 we speak to them before they  
can understand or even imitate spoken   
sounds4 ,the vocal organs are still     
stiff1 and only gradually lend          
themselves to the reproduction of the   
sounds heard2 it is even doubtful       
whether these sounds are heard          
distinctly as we hear them4 ,the nurse  
may amuse the child with songs and with 
very merry and varied intonation1 but ,i
 object to her bewildering the child    
with a multitude of vain words of which 
it understands nothing but her tone of  
voice4 ,i would have the first words he 
hears few in number1 distinctly and     
often repeated1 while the words         
themselves should be related to things  
which can first be shown to the child4  
,that fatal facility in the use of words
 we do not understand begins earlier    
than we think4 ,in the schoolroom the   

scholar listens to the verbiage of his  
master as he listened in the cradle to  
the babble of his nurse4 ,i think it    
would be a very useful education to     
leave him in ignorance of both4  ,all   
sorts of ideas crowd in upon us when we 
try to consider the development of      
speech and the child's first words4     
,whatever we do they all learn to talk  
in the same way1 and all philosophical  
speculations are utterly useless4  ,to  
begin with1 they have1 so to say1 a     
grammar of their own1 whose rules and   
syntax are more general than our own2 if
 you attend carefully you will be       
surprised to find how exactly they      
follow certain analogies1 very much     
mistaken if you like1 but very regular2 
these forms are only objectionable      
because of their harshness or because   
they are not recognised by custom4 ,i   
have just heard a child severely scolded
 by his father for saying1 ,mon pere1   
irai-je-t-y8 ,now we see that this child
 was following the analogy more closely 

than our grammarians1 for as they say to
 him1 ,vas-y1 why should he not say1    
,irai-je-t-y8 ,notice too the skilful   
way in which he avoids the hiatus in    
irai-je-y or y-irai-je8 ,is it the poor 
child's fault that we have so           
unskilfully deprived the phrase of this 
determinative adverb y1 because we did  
not know what to do with it8 ,it is an  
intolerable piece of pedantry and most  
superfluous attention to detail to make 
a point of correcting all children's    
little sins against the customary       
expression1 for they always cure        
themselves with time4 ,always speak     
correctly before them1 let them never be
 so happy with any one as with you1 and 
be sure that their speech will be       
imperceptibly modelled upon yours       
without any correction on your part4    
,but a much greater evil1 and one far   
less easy to guard against1 is that they
 are urged to speak too much1 as if     
people were afraid they would not learn 
to talk of themselves4 ,this indiscreet 

zeal produces an effect directly        
opposite to what is meant4 ,they speak  
later and more confusedly2 the extreme  
attention paid to everything they say   
makes it unnecessary for them to speak  
distinctly1 and as they will scarcely   
open their mouths1 many of them contract
 a vicious pronunciation and a confused 
speech1 which last all their life and   
make them almost unintelligible4  ,i    
have lived much among peasants1 and ,i  
never knew one of them lisp1 man or     
woman1 boy or girl4 ,why is this8 ,are  
their speech organs differently made    
from our own8 ,no1 but they are         
differently used4 ,there is a hillock   
facing my window on which the children  
of the place assemble for their games4  
,although they are far enough away1 ,i  
can distinguish perfectly what they say1
 and often get good notes for this book4
 ,every day my ear deceives me as to    
their age4 ,i hear the voices of        
children of ten2 ,i look and see the    
height and features of children of three

 or four4 ,this experience is not       
confined to me2 the townspeople who come
 to see me1 and whom ,i consult on this 
point1 all fall into the same mistake4  
,this results from the fact that1 up to 
five or six1 children in town1 brought  
up in a room and under the care of a    
nursery governess1 do not need to speak 
above a whisper to make themselves      
heard4 ,as soon as their lips move      
people take pains to make out what they 
mean2 they are taught words which they  
repeat inaccurately1 and by paying great
 attention to them the people who are   
always with them rather guess what they 
meant to say than what they said4  ,it  
is quite a different matter in the      
country4 ,a peasant woman is not always 
with her child2 he is obliged to learn  
to say very clearly and loudly what he  
wants1 if he is to make himself         
understood4 ,children scattered about   
the fields at a distance from their     
fathers1 mothers and other children1    
gain practice in making themselves heard

 at a distance1 and in adapting the     
loudness of the voice to the distance   
which separates them from those to whom 
they want to speak4 ,this is the real   
way to learn pronunciation1 not by      
stammering out a few vowels into the ear
 of an attentive governess4  ,so when   
you question a peasant child1 he may be 
too shy to answer1 but what he says he  
says distinctly1 while the nurse must   
serve as interpreter for the town child2
 without her one can understand nothing 
of what he is muttering between his     
teeth4 ,footnote3 ,there are exceptions 
to this2 and often those children who at
 first are most difficult to hear1      
become the noisiest when they begin to  
raise their voices4 ,but if ,i were to  
enter into all these details ,i should  
never make an end2 every sensible reader
 ought to see that defect and excess1   
caused by the same abuse1 are both      
corrected by my method4 ,i regard the   
two maxims as inseparable--always       
enough--never too much4 ,when the first 

is well established1 the latter         
necessarily follows on it4  ,as they    
grow older1 the boys are supposed to be 
cured of this fault at college1 the     
girls in the convent schools2 and indeed
 both usually speak more clearly than   
children brought up entirely at home4   
,but they are prevented from acquiring  
as clear a pronunciation as the peasants
 in this way--they are required to learn
 all sorts of things by heart1 and to   
repeat aloud what they have learnt2 for 
when they are studying they get into the
 way of gabbling and pronouncing        
carelessly and ill2 it is still worse   
when they repeat their lessons2 they    
cannot find the right words1 they drag  
out their syllables4 ,this is only      
possible when the memory hesitates1 the 
tongue does not stammer of itself4 ,thus
 they acquire or continue habits of bad 
pronunciation4 ,later on you will see   
that ,emile does not acquire such habits
 or at least not from this cause4  ,i   
grant you uneducated people and         

villagers often fall into the opposite  
extreme4 ,they almost always speak too  
loud2 their pronunciation is too exact1 
and leads to rough and coarse           
articulation2 their accent is too       
pronounced1 they choose their           
expressions badly1 etc4  ,but1 to begin 
with1 this extreme strikes me as much   
less dangerous than the other1 for the  
first law of speech is to make oneself  
understood1 and the chief fault is to   
fail to be understood4 ,to pride        
ourselves on having no accent is to     
pride ourselves on ridding our phrases  
of strength and elegance4 ,emphasis is  
the soul of speech1 it gives it its     
feeling and truth4 ,emphasis deceives   
less than words2 perhaps that is why    
well-educated people are so afraid of   
it4 ,from the custom of saying          
everything in the same tone has arisen  
that of poking fun at people without    
their knowing it4 ,when emphasis is     
proscribed1 its place is taken by all   
sorts of ridiculous1 affected1 and      

ephemeral pronunciations1 such as one   
observes especially among the young     
people about court4 ,it is this         
affectation of speech and manner which  
makes ,frenchmen disagreeable and       
repulsive to other nations on first     
acquaintance4 ,emphasis is found1 not in
 their speech1 but in their bearing4    
,that is not the way to make themselves 
attractive4  ,all these little faults of
 speech1 which you are so afraid the    
children will acquire1 are mere trifles2
 they may be prevented or corrected with
 the greatest ease1 but the faults which
 are taught them when you make them     
speak in a low1 indistinct1 and timid   
voice1 when you are always criticising  
their tone and finding fault with their 
words1 are never cured4 ,a man who has  
only learnt to speak in society of fine 
ladies could not make himself heard at  
the head of his troops1 and would make  
little impression on the rabble in a    
riot4 ,first teach the child to speak to
 men2 he will be able to speak to the   

women when required4  ,brought up in all
 the rustic simplicity of the country1  
your children will gain a more sonorous 
voice2 they will not acquire the        
hesitating stammer of town children1    
neither will they acquire the           
expressions nor the tone of the         
villagers1 or if they do they will      
easily lose them2 their master being    
with them from their earliest years1 and
 more and more in their society the     
older they grow1 will be able to prevent
 or efface by speaking correctly himself
 the impression of the peasants' talk4  
,emile will speak the purest ,french ,i 
know1 but he will speak it more         
distinctly and with a better            
articulation than myself4  ,the child   
who is trying to speak should hear      
nothing but words he can understand1 nor
 should he say words he cannot          
articulate2 his efforts lead him to     
repeat the same syllable as if he were  
practising its clear pronunciation4     
,when he begins to stammer1 do not try  

to understand him4 ,to expect to be     
always listened to is a form of tyranny 
which is not good for the child4 ,see   
carefully to his real needs1 and let him
 try to make you understand the rest4   
,still less should you hurry him into   
speech2 he will learn to talk when he   
feels the want of it4  ,it has indeed   
been remarked that those who begin to   
speak very late never speak so          
distinctly as others2 but it is not     
because they talked late that they are  
hesitating2 on the contrary1 they began 
to talk late because they hesitate2 if  
not1 why did they begin to talk so late8
 ,have they less need of speech1 have   
they been less urged to it8 ,on the     
contrary1 the anxiety aroused with the  
first suspicion of this backwardness    
leads people to tease them much more to 
begin to talk than those who articulated
 earlier2 and this mistaken zeal may do 
much to make their speech confused1 when
 with less haste they might have had    
time to bring it to greater perfection4 

,children who are forced to speak too   
soon have no time to learn either to    
pronounce correctly or to understand    
what they are made to say2 while left to
 themselves they first practise the     
easiest syllables1 and then1 adding to  
them little by little some meaning which
 their gestures explain1 they teach you 
their own words before they learn yours4
 ,by this means they do not acquire your
 words till they have understood them4  
,being in no hurry to use them1 they    
begin by carefully observing the sense  
in which you use them1 and when they are
 sure of them they adopt them4  ,the    
worst evil resulting from the precocious
 use of speech by young children is that
 we not only fail to understand the     
first words they use1 we misunderstand  
them without knowing it2 so that while  
they seem to answer us correctly1 they  
fail to understand us and we them4      
,this is the most frequent cause of our 
surprise at children's sayings2 we      
attribute to them ideas which they did  

not attach to their words4 ,this lack of
 attention on our part to the real      
meaning which words have for children   
seems to me the cause of their earliest 
misconceptions2 and these               
misconceptions1 even when corrected1    
colour their whole course of thought for
 the rest of their life4 ,i shall have  
several opportunities of illustrating   
these by examples later on4  ,let the   
child's vocabulary1 therefore1 be       
limited2 it is very undesirable that he 
should have more words than ideas1 that 
he should be able to say more than he   
thinks4 ,one of the reasons why peasants
 are generally shrewder than townsfolk  
is1 ,i think1 that their vocabulary is  
smaller4 ,they have few ideas1 but those
 few are thoroughly grasped4  ,the      
infant is progressing in several ways at
 once2 he is learning to talk1 eat1 and 
walk about the same time4 ,this is      
really the first phase of his life4 ,up 
till now1 he was little more than he was
 before birth2 he had neither feeling   

nor thought1 he was barely capable of   
sensation2 he was unconscious of his own
 existence4  ,vivit1 et est vitae       
nescius ipse suae4--,ovid4     ,,book   
,,ii  ,we have now reached the second   
phase of life2 infancy1 strictly        
so-called1 is over2 for the words infans
 and puer are not synonymous4  ,the     
latter includes the former1 which means 
literally one who cannot speak2 thus    
,valerius speaks of puerum infantem4    
,but ,i shall continue to use the word  
child 7,french enfant7 according to the 
custom of our language till an age for  
which there is another term4  ,when     
children begin to talk they cry less4   
,this progress is quite natural2 one    
language supplants another4 ,as soon as 
they can say ,it hurts me1 why should   
they cry1 unless the pain is too sharp  
for words8 ,if they still cry1 those    
about them are to blame4 ,when once     
,emile has said1 ,it hurts me1 it will  
take a very sharp pain to make him cry4 
,if the child is delicate and sensitive1

 if by nature he begins to cry for      
nothing1 ,i let him cry in vain and soon
 check his tears at their source4 ,so   
long as he cries ,i will not go near    
him2 ,i come at once when he leaves off 
crying4 ,he will soon be quiet when he  
wants to call me1 or rather he will     
utter a single cry4 ,children learn the 
meaning of signs by their effects2 they 
have no other meaning for them4 ,however
 much a child hurts himself when he is  
alone1 he rarely cries1 unless he       
expects to be heard4  ,should he fall or
 bump his head1 or make his nose bleed1 
or cut his fingers1 ,i shall show no    
alarm1 nor shall ,i make any fuss over  
him2 ,i shall take no notice1 at any    
rate at first4 ,the harm is done2 he    
must bear it2 all my zeal could only    
frighten him more and make him more     
nervous4 ,indeed it is not the blow but 
the fear of it which distresses us when 
we are hurt4 ,i shall spare him this    
suffering at least1 for he will         
certainly regard the injury as he sees  

me regard it2 if he finds that ,i hasten
 anxiously to him1 if ,i pity him or    
comfort him1 he will think he is badly  
hurt4 ,if he finds ,i take no notice1 he
 will soon recover himself1 and will    
think the wound is healed when it ceases
 to hurt4 ,this is the time for his     
first lesson in courage1 and by bearing 
slight ills without fear we gradually   
learn to bear greater4  ,i shall not    
take pains to prevent ,emile hurting    
himself2 far from it1 ,i should be vexed
 if he never hurt himself1 if he grew up
 unacquainted with pain4 ,to bear pain  
is his first and most useful lesson4 ,it
 seems as if children were small and    
weak on purpose to teach them these     
valuable lessons without danger4 ,the   
child has such a little way to fall he  
will not break his leg2 if he knocks    
himself with a stick he will not break  
his arm2 if he seizes a sharp knife he  
will not grasp it tight enough to make a
 deep wound4 ,so far as ,i know1 no     
child1 left to himself1 has ever been   

known to kill or maim itself1 or even to
 do itself any serious harm1 unless it  
has been foolishly left on a high place1
 or alone near the fire1 or within reach
 of dangerous weapons4 ,what is there to
 be said for all the paraphernalia with 
which the child is surrounded to shield 
him on every side so that he grows up at
 the mercy of pain1 with neither courage
 nor experience1 so that he thinks he is
 killed by a pin-prick and faints at the
 sight of blood8  ,with our foolish and 
pedantic methods we are always          
preventing children from learning what  
they could learn much better by         
themselves1 while we neglect what we    
alone can teach them4 ,can anything be  
sillier than the pains taken to teach   
them to walk1 as if there were any one  
who was unable to walk when he grows up 
through his nurse's neglect8 ,how many  
we see walking badly all their life     
because they were ill taught8  ,emile   
shall have no head-pads1 no go-carts1 no
 leading-strings2 or at least as soon as

 he can put one foot before another he  
shall only be supported along pavements1
 and he shall be taken quickly across   
them4 ,footnote3 ,there is nothing so   
absurd and hesitating as the gait of    
those who have been kept too long in    
leading-strings when they were little4  
,this is one of the observations which  
are considered trivial because they are 
true4 ,instead of keeping him mewed up  
in a stuffy room1 take him out into a   
meadow every day2 let him run about1 let
 him struggle and fall again and again1 
the oftener the better2 he will learn   
all the sooner to pick himself up4  ,the
 delights of liberty will make up for   
many bruises4 ,my pupil will hurt       
himself oftener than yours1 but he will 
always be merry2 your pupils may receive
 fewer injuries1 but they are always    
thwarted1 constrained1 and sad4 ,i doubt
 whether they are any better off4  ,as  
their strength increases1 children have 
also less need for tears4 ,they can do  
more for themselves1 they need the help 

of others less frequently4 ,with        
strength comes the sense to use it4 ,it 
is with this second phase that the real 
personal life has its beginning2 it is  
then that the child becomes conscious of
 himself4 ,during every moment of his   
life memory calls up the feeling of     
self2 he becomes really one person1     
always the same1 and therefore capable  
of joy or sorrow4 ,hence we must begin  
to consider him as a moral being4       
,although we know approximately the     
limits of human life and our chances of 
attaining those limits1 nothing is more 
uncertain than the length of the life of
 any one of us4 ,very few reach old age4
 ,the chief risks occur at the beginning
 of life2 the shorter our past life1 the
 less we must hope to live4 ,of all the 
children who are born scarcely one half 
reach adolescence1 and it is very likely
 your pupil will not live to be a man4  
,what is to be thought1 therefore1 of   
that cruel education which sacrifices   
the present to an uncertain future1 that

 burdens a child with all sorts of      
restrictions and begins by making him   
miserable1 in order to prepare him for  
some far-off happiness which he may     
never enjoy8 ,even if ,i considered that
 education wise in its aims1 how could  
,i view without indignation those poor  
wretches subjected to an intolerable    
slavery and condemned like galley-slaves
 to endless toil1 with no certainty that
 they will gain anything by it8  ,the   
age of harmless mirth is spent in tears1
 punishments1 threats1 and slavery4 ,you
 torment the poor thing for his good2   
you fail to see that you are calling    
,death to snatch him from these gloomy  
surroundings4 ,who can say how many     
children fall victims to the excessive  
care of their fathers and mothers8 ,they
 are happy to escape from this cruelty2 
this is all that they gain from the ills
 they are forced to endure3 they die    
without regretting1 having known nothing
 of life but its sorrows4  ,men1 be kind
 to your fellow-men2 this is your first 

duty1 kind to every age and station1    
kind to all that is not foreign to      
humanity4 ,what wisdom can you find that
 is greater than kindness8 ,love        
childhood1 indulge its sports1 its      
pleasures1 its delightful instincts4    
,who has not sometimes regretted that   
age when laughter was ever on the lips1 
and when the heart was ever at peace8   
,why rob these innocents of the joys    
which pass so quickly1 of that precious 
gift which they cannot abuse8 ,why fill 
with bitterness the fleeting days of    
early childhood1 days which will no more
 return for them than for you8 ,fathers1
 can you tell when death will call your 
children to him8 ,do not lay up sorrow  
for yourselves by robbing them of the   
short span which nature has allotted to 
them4 ,as soon as they are aware of the 
joy of life1 let them rejoice in it1 go 
that whenever ,god calls them they may  
not die without having tasted the joy of
 life4  ,how people will cry out against
 me6 ,i hear from afar the shouts of    

that false wisdom which is ever dragging
 us onwards1 counting the present as    
nothing1 and pursuing without a pause a 
future which flies as we pursue1 that   
false wisdom which removes us from our  
place and never brings us to any other4 
,now is the time1 you say1 to correct   
his evil tendencies2 we must increase   
suffering in childhood1 when it is less 
keenly felt1 to lessen it in manhood4   
,but how do you know that you can carry 
out all these fine schemes2 how do you  
know that all this fine teaching with   
which you overwhelm the feeble mind of  
the child will not do him more harm than
 good in the future8 ,how do you know   
that you can spare him anything by the  
vexations you heap upon him now8 ,why   
inflict on him more ills than befit his 
present condition unless you are quite  
sure that these present ills will save  
him future ill8 ,and what proof can you 
give me that those evil tendencies you  
profess to cure are not the result of   
your foolish precautions rather than of 

nature8 ,what a poor sort of foresight1 
to make a child wretched in the present 
with the more or less doubtful hope of  
making him happy at some future day4 ,if
 such blundering thinkers fail to       
distinguish between liberty and licence1
 between a merry child and a spoilt     
darling1 let them learn to discriminate4
  ,let us not forget what befits our    
present state in the pursuit of vain    
fancies4 ,mankind has its place in the  
sequence of things2 childhood has its   
place in the sequence of human life2 the
 man must be treated as a man and the   
child as a child4 ,give each his place1 
and keep him there4 ,control human      
passions according to man's nature2 that
 is all we can do for his welfare4 ,the 
rest depends on external forces1 which  
are beyond our control4  ,absolute good 
and evil are unknown to us4 ,in this    
life they are blended together2 we never
 enjoy any perfectly pure feeling1 nor  
do we remain for more than a moment in  
the same state4 ,the feelings of our    

minds1 like the changes in our bodies1  
are in a continual flux4  ,good and ill 
are common to all1 but in varying       
proportions4 ,the happiest is he who    
suffers least2 the most miserable is he 
who enjoys least4 ,ever more sorrow than
 joy--this is the lot of all of us4     
,man's happiness in this world is but a 
negative state2 it must be reckoned by  
the fewness of his ills4  ,every feeling
 of hardship is inseparable from the    
desire to escape from it2 every idea of 
pleasure from the desire to enjoy it4   
,all desire implies a want1 and all     
wants are painful2 hence our            
wretchedness consists in the            
disproportion between our desires and   
our powers4 ,a conscious being whose    
powers were equal to his desires would  
be perfectly happy4  ,what then is human
 wisdom8 ,where is the path of true     
happiness8 ,the mere limitation of our  
desires is not enough1 for if they were 
less than our powers1 part of our       
faculties would be idle1 and we should  

not enjoy our whole being2 neither is   
the mere extension of our powers enough1
 for if our desires were also increased 
we should only be the more miserable4   
,true happiness consists in decreasing  
the difference between our desires and  
our powers1 in establishing a perfect   
equilibrium between the power and the   
will4 ,then only1 when all its forces   
are employed1 will the soul be at rest  
and man will find himself in his true   
position4  ,in this condition1 nature1  
who does everything for the best1 has   
placed him from the first4 ,to begin    
with1 she gives him only such desires as
 are necessary for self-preservation and
 such powers as are sufficient for their
 satisfaction4 ,all the rest she has    
stored in his mind as a sort of reserve1
 to be drawn upon at need4 ,it is only  
in this primitive condition that we find
 the equilibrium between desire and     
power1 and then alone man is not        
unhappy4 ,as soon as his potential      
powers of mind begin to function1       

imagination1 more powerful than all the 
rest1 awakes1 and precedes all the rest4
 ,it is imagination which enlarges the  
bounds of possibility for us1 whether   
for good or ill1 and therefore          
stimulates and feeds desires by the hope
 of satisfying them4 ,but the object    
which seemed within our grasp flies     
quicker than we can follow2 when we     
think we have grasped it1 it transforms 
itself and is again far ahead of us4 ,we
 no longer perceive the country we have 
traversed1 and we think nothing of it2  
that which lies before us becomes vaster
 and stretches still before us4 ,thus we
 exhaust our strength1 yet never reach  
our goal1 and the nearer we are to      
pleasure1 the further we are from       
happiness4  ,on the other hand1 the more
 nearly a man's condition approximates  
to this state of nature the less        
difference is there between his desires 
and his powers1 and happiness is        
therefore less remote4 ,lacking         
everything1 he is never less miserable2 

for misery consists1 not in the lack of 
things1 but in the needs which they     
inspire4  ,the world of reality has its 
bounds1 the world of imagination is     
boundless2 as we cannot enlarge the one1
 let us restrict the other2 for all the 
sufferings which really make us         
miserable arise from the difference     
between the real and the imaginary4     
,health1 strength1 and a good conscience
 excepted1 all the good things of life  
are a matter of opinion2 except bodily  
suffering and remorse1 all our woes are 
imaginary4 ,you will tell me this is a  
commonplace2 ,i admit it1 but its       
practical application is no commonplace1
 and it is with practice only that we   
are now concerned4  ,what do you mean   
when you say1 ,man is weak8 ,the term   
weak implies a relation1 a relation of  
the creature to whom it is applied4 ,an 
insect or a worm whose strength exceeds 
its needs is strong2 an elephant1 a     
lion1 a conqueror1 a hero1 a god        
himself1 whose needs exceed his strength

 is weak4 ,the rebellious angel who     
fought against his own nature was weaker
 than the happy mortal who is living at 
peace according to nature4 ,when man is 
content to be himself he is strong      
indeed2 when he strives to be more than 
man he is weak indeed4 ,but do not      
imagine that you can increase your      
strength by increasing your powers4 ,not
 so2 if your pride increases more       
rapidly your strength is diminished4    
,let us measure the extent of our sphere
 and remain in its centre like the      
spider in its web2 we shall have        
strength sufficient for our needs1 we   
shall have no cause to lament our       
weakness1 for we shall never be aware of
 it4  ,the other animals possess only   
such powers as are required for         
self-preservation2 man alone has more4  
,is it not very strange that this       
superfluity should make him miserable8  
,in every land a man's labour yields    
more than a bare living4 ,if he were    
wise enough to disregard this surplus he

 would always have enough1 for he would 
never have too much4 ,great needs1 said 
,favorin1 spring from great wealth2 and 
often the best way of getting what we   
want is to get rid of what we have4 ,by 
striving to increase our happiness we   
change it into wretchedness4 ,if a man  
were content to live1 he would live     
happy2 and he would therefore be good1  
for what would he have to gain by vice8 
,if we were immortal we should all be   
miserable2 no doubt it is hard to die1  
but it is sweet to think that we shall  
not live for ever1 and that a better    
life will put an end to the sorrows of  
this world4  ,if we had the offer of    
immortality here below1 who would accept
 the sorrowful gift8 ,footnote3 ,you    
understand ,i am speaking of those who  
think1 and not of the crowd4 ,what      
resources1 what hopes1 what consolation 
would be left against the cruelties of  
fate and man's injustice8 ,the ignorant 
man never looks before2 he knows little 
of the value of life and does not fear  

to lose it2 the wise man sees things of 
greater worth and prefers them to it4   
,half knowledge and sham wisdom set us  
thinking about death and what lies      
beyond it2 and they thus create the     
worst of our ills4 ,the wise man bears  
life's ills all the better because he   
knows he must die4 ,life would be too   
dearly bought did we not know that      
sooner or later death will end it4  ,our
 moral ills are the result of prejudice1
 crime alone excepted1 and that depends 
on ourselves2 our bodily ills either put
 an end to themselves or to us4 ,time or
 death will cure them1 but the less we  
know how to bear it1 the greater is our 
pain1 and we suffer more in our efforts 
to cure our diseases than if we endured 
them4 ,live according to nature2 be     
patient1 get rid of the doctors2 you    
will not escape death1 but you will only
 die once1 while the doctors make you   
die daily through your diseased         
imagination2 their lying art1 instead of
 prolonging your days1 robs you of all  

delight in them4 ,i am always asking    
what real good this art has done to     
mankind4 ,true1 the doctors cure some   
who would have died1 but they kill      
millions who would have lived4 ,if you  
are wise you will decline to take part  
in this lottery when the odds are so    
great against you4 ,suffer1 die1 or get 
better2 but whatever you do1 live while 
you are alive4  ,human institutions are 
one mass of folly and contradiction4 ,as
 our life loses its value we set a      
higher price upon it4 ,the old regret   
life more than the young2 they do not   
want to lose all they have spent in     
preparing for its enjoyment4 ,at sixty  
it is cruel to die when one has not     
begun to live4 ,man is credited with a  
strong desire for self-preservation1 and
 this desire exists2 but we fail to     
perceive that this desire1 as felt by   
us1 is largely the work of man4 ,in a   
natural state man is only eager to      
preserve his life while he has the means
 for its preservation2 when             

self-preservation is no longer possible1
 he resigns himself to his fate and dies
 without vain torments4 ,nature teaches 
us the first law of resignation4        
,savages1 like wild beasts1 make very   
little struggle against death1 and meet 
it almost without a murmur4 ,when this  
natural law is overthrown reason        
establishes another1 but few discern it1
 and man's resignation is never so      
complete as nature's4  ,prudence6       
,prudence which is ever bidding us look 
forward into the future1 a future which 
in many cases we shall never reach2 here
 is the real source of all our troubles6
 ,how mad it is for so short-lived a    
creature as man to look forward into a  
future to which he rarely attains1 while
 he neglects the present which is his8  
,this madness is all the more fatal     
since it increases with years1 and the  
old1 always timid1 prudent1 and miserly1
 prefer to do without necessaries to-day
 that they may have luxuries at a       
hundred4 ,thus we grasp everything1 we  

cling to everything2 we are anxious     
about time1 place1 people1 things1 all  
that is and will be2 we ourselves are   
but the least part of ourselves4 ,we    
spread ourselves1 so to speak1 over the 
whole world1 and all this vast expanse  
becomes sensitive4 ,no wonder our woes  
increase when we may be wounded on every
 side4 ,how many princes make themselves
 miserable for the loss of lands they   
never saw1 and how many merchants lament
 in ,paris over some misfortune in the  
,indies6  ,is it nature that carries men
 so far from their real selves8 ,is it  
her will that each should learn his fate
 from others and even be the last to    
learn it2 so that a man dies happy or   
miserable before he knows what he is    
about4 ,there is a healthy1 cheerful1   
strong1 and vigorous man2 it does me    
good to see him2 his eyes tell of       
content and well-being2 he is the       
picture of happiness4 ,a letter comes by
 post2 the happy man glances at it1 it  
is addressed to him1 he opens it and    

reads it4 ,in a moment he is changed1 he
 turns pale and falls into a swoon4     
,when he comes to himself he weeps1     
laments1 and groans1 he tears his hair1 
and his shrieks re-echo through the air4
  ,you would say he was in convulsions4 
,fool1 what harm has this bit of paper  
done you8 ,what limb has it torn away8  
,what crime has it made you commit8     
,what change has it wrought in you to   
reduce you to this state of misery8     
,had the letter miscarried1 had some    
kindly hand thrown it into the fire1 it 
strikes me that the fate of this mortal1
 at once happy and unhappy1 would have  
offered us a strange problem4 ,his      
misfortunes1 you say1 were real enough4 
,granted2 but he did not feel them4     
,what of that8 ,his happiness was       
imaginary4 ,i admit it2 health1 wealth1 
a contented spirit1 are mere dreams4 ,we
 no longer live in our own place1 we    
live outside it4 ,what does it profit us
 to live in such fear of death1 when all
 that makes life worth living is our    

own8  ,oh1 man6 live your own life and  
you will no longer be wretched4 ,keep to
 your appointed place in the order of   
nature and nothing can tear you from it4
 ,do not kick against the stern law of  
necessity1 nor waste in vain resistance 
the strength bestowed on you by heaven1 
not to prolong or extend your existence1
 but to preserve it so far and so long  
as heaven pleases4 ,your freedom and    
your power extend as far and no further 
than your natural strength2 anything    
more is but slavery1 deceit1 and        
trickery4 ,power itself is servile when 
it depends upon public opinion2 for you 
are dependent on the prejudices of      
others when you rule them by means of   
those prejudices4 ,to lead them as you  
will1 they must be led as they will4    
,they have only to change their way of  
thinking and you are forced to change   
your course of action4 ,those who       
approach you need only contrive to sway 
the opinions of those you rule1 or of   
the favourite by whom you are ruled1 or 

those of your own family or theirs4 ,had
 you the genius of ,themistocles1       
,footnote3 ,you see that little boy1    
said ,themistocles to his friends1 the  
fate of ,greece is in his hands1 for he 
rules his mother and his mother rules   
me1 ,i rule the ,athenians and the      
,athenians rule the ,greeks4 ,what petty
 creatures we should often find         
controlling great empires if we traced  
the course of power from the prince to  
those who secretly put that power in    
motion4 viziers1 courtiers1 priests1    
soldiers1 servants1 babblers1 the very  
children themselves1 would lead you like
 a child in the midst of your legions4  
,whatever you do1 your actual authority 
can never extend beyond your own powers4
 ,as soon as you are obliged to see with
 another's eyes you must will what he   
wills4 ,you say with pride1 ,my people  
are my subjects4 ,granted1 but what are 
you8 ,the subject of your ministers4    
,and your ministers1 what are they8 ,the
 subjects of their clerks1 their        

mistresses1 the servants of their       
servants4 ,grasp all1 usurp all1 and    
then pour out your silver with both     
hands2 set up your batteries1 raise the 
gallows and the wheel2 make laws1 issue 
proclamations1 multiply your spies1 your
 soldiers1 your hangmen1 your prisons1  
and your chains4 ,poor little men1 what 
good does it do you8 ,you will be no    
better served1 you will be none the less
 robbed and deceived1 you will be no    
nearer absolute power4  ,you will say   
continually1 ,it is our will1 and you   
will continually do the will of others4 
,there is only one man who gets his own 
way--he who can get it single-handed2   
therefore freedom1 not power1 is the    
greatest good4 ,that man is truly free  
who desires what he is able to perform1 
and does what he desires4 ,this is my   
fundamental maxim4 ,apply it to         
childhood1 and all the rules of         
education spring from it4  ,society has 
enfeebled man1 not merely by robbing him
 of the right to his own strength1 but  

still more by making his strength       
insufficient for his needs4 ,this is why
 his desires increase in proportion to  
his weakness2 and this is why the child 
is weaker than the man4 ,if a man is    
strong and a child is weak it is not    
because the strength of the one is      
absolutely greater than the strength of 
the other1 but because the one can      
naturally provide for himself and the   
other cannot4 ,thus the man will have   
more desires and the child more         
caprices1 a word which means1 ,i take   
it1 desires which are not true needs1   
desires which can only be satisfied with
 the help of others4  ,i have already   
given the reason for this state of      
weakness4 ,parental affection is        
nature's provision against it2 but      
parental affection may be carried to    
excess1 it may be wanting1 or it may be 
ill applied4 ,parents who live under our
 ordinary social conditions bring their 
child into these conditions too soon4   
,by increasing his needs they do not    

relieve his weakness2 they rather       
increase it4 ,they further increase it  
by demanding of him what nature does not
 demand1 by subjecting to their will    
what little strength he has to further  
his own wishes1 by making slaves of     
themselves or of him instead of         
recognising that mutual dependence which
 should result from his weakness or     
their affection4  ,the wise man can keep
 his own place2 but the child who does  
not know what his place is1 is unable to
 keep it4 ,there are a thousand ways out
 of it1 and it is the business of those 
who have charge of the child to keep him
 in his place1 and this is no easy task4
 ,he should be neither beast nor man1   
but a child4 ,he must feel his weakness1
 but not suffer through it2 he must be  
dependent1 but he must not obey2 he must
 ask1 not command4 ,he is only subject  
to others because of his needs1 and     
because they see better than he what he 
really needs1 what may help or hinder   
his existence4 ,no one1 not even his    

father1 has the right to bid the child  
do what is of no use to him4  ,when our 
natural tendencies have not been        
interfered with by human prejudice and  
human institutions1 the happiness alike 
of children and of men consists in the  
enjoyment of their liberty4 ,but the    
child's liberty is restricted by his    
lack of strength4 ,he who does as he    
likes is happy provided he is           
self-sufficing2 it is so with the man   
who is living in a state of nature4 ,he 
who does what he likes is not happy if  
his desires exceed his strength2 it is  
so with a child in like conditions4     
,even in a state of nature children only
 enjoy an imperfect liberty1 like that  
enjoyed by men in social life4  ,each of
 us1 unable to dispense with the help of
 others1 becomes so far weak and        
wretched4 ,we were meant to be men1 laws
 and customs thrust us back into        
infancy4 ,the rich and great1 the very  
kings themselves are but children2 they 
see that we are ready to relieve their  

misery2 this makes them childishly vain1
 and they are quite proud of the care   
bestowed on them1 a care which they     
would never get if they were grown men4 
,these are weighty considerations1 and  
they provide a solution for all the     
conflicting problems of our social      
system4 ,there are two kinds of         
dependence3 dependence on things1 which 
is the work of nature2 and dependence on
 men1 which is the work of society4     
,dependence on things1 being non-moral1 
does no injury to liberty and begets no 
vices2 dependence on men1 being out of  
order1 ,footnote3 ,in my ,,principles   
,,of ,,political ,,law it is proved that
 no private will can be ordered in the  
social system4 gives rise to every kind 
of vice1 and through this master and    
slave become mutually depraved4 ,if     
there is any cure for this social evil1 
it is to be found in the substitution of
 law for the individual2 in arming the  
general will with a real strength beyond
 the power of any individual will4 ,if  

the laws of nations1 like the laws of   
nature1 could never be broken by any    
human power1 dependence on men would    
become dependence on things2 all the    
advantages of a state of nature would be
 combined with all the advantages of    
social life in the commonwealth4 ,the   
liberty which preserves a man from vice 
would be united with the morality which 
raises him to virtue4  ,keep the child  
dependent on things only4 ,by this      
course of education you will have       
followed the order of nature4 ,let his  
unreasonable wishes meet with physical  
obstacles only1 or the punishment which 
results from his own actions1 lessons   
which will be recalled when the same    
circumstances occur again4 ,it is enough
 to prevent him from wrong doing without
 forbidding him to do wrong4 ,experience
 or lack of power should take the place 
of law4 ,give him1 not what he wants1   
but what he needs4 ,let there be no     
question of obedience for him or tyranny
 for you4 ,supply the strength he lacks 

just so far as is required for freedom1 
not for power1 so that he may receive   
your services with a sort of shame1 and 
look forward to the time when he may    
dispense with them and may achieve the  
honour of self-help4  ,nature provides  
for the child's growth in her own       
fashion1 and this should never be       
thwarted4 ,do not make him sit still    
when he wants to run about1 nor run when
 he wants to be quiet4 ,if we did not   
spoil our children's wills by our       
blunders their desires would be free    
from caprice4 ,let them run1 jump1 and  
shout to their heart's content4 ,all    
their own activities are instincts of   
the body for its growth in strength2 but
 you should regard with suspicion those 
wishes which they cannot carry out for  
themselves1 those which others must     
carry out for them4 ,then you must      
distinguish carefully between natural   
and artificial needs1 between the needs 
of budding caprice and the needs which  
spring from the overflowing life just   

described4  ,i have already told you    
what you ought to do when a child cries 
for this thing or that4 ,i will only add
 that as soon as he has words to ask for
 what he wants and accompanies his      
demands with tears1 either to get his   
own way quicker or to over-ride a       
refusal1 he should never have his way4  
,if his words were prompted by a real   
need you should recognise it and satisfy
 it at once2 but to yield to his tears  
is to encourage him to cry1 to teach him
 to doubt your kindness1 and to think   
that you are influenced more by his     
importunity than your own good-will4 ,if
 he does not think you kind he will soon
 think you unkind2 if he thinks you weak
 he will soon become obstinate2 what you
 mean to give must be given at once4 ,be
 chary of refusing1 but1 having refused1
 do not change your mind4  ,above all1  
beware of teaching the child empty      
phrases of politeness1 which serve as   
spells to subdue those around him to his
 will1 and to get him what he wants at  

once4 ,the artificial education of the  
rich never fails to make them politely  
imperious1 by teaching them the words to
 use so that no one will dare to resist 
them4 ,their children have neither the  
tone nor the manner of suppliants2 they 
are as haughty or even more haughty in  
their entreaties than in their commands1
 as though they were more certain to be 
obeyed4 ,you see at once that ,if you   
please means ,it pleases me1 and ,i beg 
means ,i command4 ,what a fine sort of  
politeness which only succeeds in       
changing the meaning of words so that   
every word is a command6 ,for my own    
part1 ,i would rather ,emile were rude  
than haughty1 that he should say ,do    
this as a request1 rather than ,please  
as a command4 ,what concerns me is his  
meaning1 not his words4  ,there is such 
a thing as excessive severity as well as
 excessive indulgence1 and both alike   
should be avoided4 ,if you let children 
suffer you risk their health and life2  
you make them miserable now2 if you take

 too much pains to spare them every kind
 of uneasiness you are laying up much   
misery for them in the future2 you are  
making them delicate and over-sensitive2
 you are taking them out of their place 
among men1 a place to which they must   
sooner or later return1 in spite of all 
your pains4 ,you will say ,i am falling 
into the same mistake as those bad      
fathers whom ,i blamed for sacrificing  
the present happiness of their children 
to a future which may never be theirs4  
,not so2 for the liberty ,i give my     
pupil makes up for the slight hardships 
to which he is exposed4 ,i see little   
fellows playing in the snow1 stiff and  
blue with cold1 scarcely able to stir a 
finger4 ,they could go and warm         
themselves if they chose1 but they do   
not choose2 if you forced them to come  
in they would feel the harshness of     
constraint a hundredfold more than the  
sharpness of the cold4  ,then what      
becomes of your grievance8 ,shall ,i    
make your child miserable by exposing   

him to hardships which he is perfectly  
ready to endure8 ,i secure his present  
good by leaving him his freedom1 and his
 future good by arming him against the  
evils he will have to bear4 ,if he had  
his choice1 would he hesitate for a     
moment between you and me8  ,do you     
think any man can find true happiness   
elsewhere than in his natural state2 and
 when you try to spare him all          
suffering1 are you not taking him out of
 his natural state8 ,indeed ,i maintain 
that to enjoy great happiness he must   
experience slight ills2 such is his     
nature4 ,too much bodily prosperity     
corrupts the morals4 ,a man who knew    
nothing of suffering would be incapable 
of tenderness towards his               
fellow-creatures and ignorant of the    
joys of pity2 he would be hard-hearted1 
unsocial1 a very monster among men4  ,do
 you know the surest way to make your   
child miserable8 ,let him have          
everything he wants2 for as his wants   
increase in proportion to the ease with 

which they are satisfied1 you will be   
compelled1 sooner or later1 to refuse   
his demands1 and this unlooked-for      
refusal will hurt him more than the lack
 of what he wants4 ,he will want your   
stick first1 then your watch1 the bird  
that flies1 or the star that shines     
above him4 ,he will want all he sets    
eyes on1 and unless you were ,god       
himself1 how could you satisfy him8     
,man naturally considers all that he can
 get as his own4 ,in this sense ,hobbes'
 theory is true to a certain extent3    
,multiply both our wishes and the means 
of satisfying them1 and each will be    
master of all4 ,thus the child1 who has 
only to ask and have1 thinks himself the
 master of the universe2 he considers   
all men as his slaves2 and when you are 
at last compelled to refuse1 he takes   
your refusal as an act of rebellion1 for
 he thinks he has only to command4 ,all 
the reasons you give him1 while he is   
still too young to reason1 are so many  
pretences in his eyes2 they seem to him 

only unkindness2 the sense of injustice 
embitters his disposition2 he hates     
every one4  ,though he has never felt   
grateful for kindness1 he resents all   
opposition4  ,how should ,i suppose that
 such a child can ever be happy8 ,he is 
the slave of anger1 a prey to the       
fiercest passions4 ,happy6 ,he is a     
tyrant1 at once the basest of slaves and
 the most wretched of creatures4 ,i have
 known children brought up like this who
 expected you to knock the house down1  
to give them the weather-cock on the    
steeple1 to stop a regiment on the march
 so that they might listen to the band2 
when they could not get their way they  
screamed and cried and would pay no     
attention to any one4 ,in vain everybody
 strove to please them2 as their desires
 were stimulated by the ease with which 
they got their own way1 they set their  
hearts on impossibilities1 and found    
themselves face to face with opposition 
and difficulty1 pain and grief4         
,scolding1 sulking1 or in a rage1 they  

wept and cried all day4 ,were they      
really so greatly favoured8  ,weakness1 
combined with love of power1 produces   
nothing but folly and suffering4 ,one   
spoilt child beats the table2 another   
whips the sea4 ,they may beat and whip  
long enough before they find            
contentment4  ,if their childhood is    
made wretched by these notions of power 
and tyranny1 what of their manhood1 when
 their relations with their fellow-men  
begin to grow and multiply8 ,they are   
used to find everything give way to     
them2 what a painful surprise to enter  
society and meet with opposition on     
every side1 to be crushed beneath the   
weight of a universe which they expected
 to move at will4 ,their insolent       
manners1 their childish vanity1 only    
draw down upon them mortification1      
scorn1 and mockery2 they swallow insults
 like water2 sharp experience soon      
teaches them that they have realised    
neither their position nor their        
strength4 ,as they cannot do everything1

 they think they can do nothing4 ,they  
are daunted by unexpected obstacles1    
degraded by the scorn of men2 they      
become base1 cowardly1 and deceitful1   
and fall as far below their true level  
as they formerly soared above it4  ,let 
us come back to the primitive law4      
,nature has made children helpless and  
in need of affection2 did she make them 
to be obeyed and feared8 ,has she given 
them an imposing manner1 a stern eye1 a 
loud and threatening voice with which to
 make themselves feared8 ,i understand  
how the roaring of the lion strikes     
terror into the other beasts1 so that   
they tremble when they behold his       
terrible mane1 but of all unseemly1     
hateful1 and ridiculous sights1 was     
there ever anything like a body of      
statesmen in their robes of office with 
their chief at their head bowing down   
before a swaddled babe1 addressing him  
in pompous phrases1 while he cries and  
slavers in reply8  ,if we consider      
childhood itself1 is there anything so  

weak and wretched as a child1 anything  
so utterly at the mercy of those about  
it1 so dependent on their pity1 their   
care1 and their affection8 ,does it not 
seem as if his gentle face and touching 
appearance were intended to interest    
every one on behalf of his weakness and 
to make them eager to help him8 ,and    
what is there more offensive1 more      
unsuitable1 than the sight of a sulky or
 imperious child1 who commands those    
about him1 and impudently assumes the   
tones of a master towards those without 
whom he would perish8  ,on the other    
hand1 do you not see how children are   
fettered by the weakness of infancy8 ,do
 you not see how cruel it is to increase
 this servitude by obedience to our     
caprices1 by depriving them of such     
liberty as they have8 a liberty which   
they can scarcely abuse1 a liberty the  
loss of which will do so little good to 
them or us4 ,if there is nothing more   
ridiculous than a haughty child1 there  
is nothing that claims our pity like a  

timid child4 ,with the age of reason the
 child becomes the slave of the         
community2 then why forestall this by   
slavery in the home8 ,let this brief    
hour of life be free from a yoke which  
nature has not laid upon it2 leave the  
child the use of his natural liberty1   
which1 for a time at least1 secures him 
from the vices of the slave4 ,bring me  
those harsh masters1 and those fathers  
who are the slaves of their children1   
bring them both with their frivolous    
objections1 and before they boast of    
their own methods let them for once     
learn the method of nature4  ,i return  
to practical matters4 ,i have already   
said your child must not get what he    
asks1 but what he needs2 ,footnote3 ,we 
must recognise that pain is often       
necessary1 pleasure is sometimes needed4
 ,so there is only one of the child's   
desires which should never be complied  
with1 the desire for power4 ,hence1     
whenever they ask for anything we must  
pay special attention to their motive in

 asking4 ,as far as possible give them  
everything they ask for1 provided it can
 really give them pleasure2 refuse      
everything they demand from mere caprice
 or love of power4 he must never act    
from obedience1 but from necessity4     
,the very words ,,obey and ,,command    
will be excluded from his vocabulary1   
still more those of ,,duty and          
,,obligation2 but the words strength1   
necessity1 weakness1 and constraint must
 have a large place in it4 ,before the  
age of reason it is impossible to form  
any idea of moral beings or social      
relations2 so avoid1 as far as may be1  
the use of words which express these    
ideas1 lest the child at an early age   
should attach wrong ideas to them1 ideas
 which you cannot or will not destroy   
when he is older4 ,the first mistaken   
idea he gets into his head is the germ  
of error and vice2 it is the first step 
that needs watching4 ,act in such a way 
that while he only notices external     
objects his ideas are confined to       

sensations2 let him only see the        
physical world around him4 ,if not1 you 
may be sure that either he will pay no  
heed to you at all1 or he will form     
fantastic ideas of the moral world of   
which you prate1 ideas which you will   
never efface as long as he lives4       
,reason with children was ,locke's chief
 maxim2 it is in the height of fashion  
at present1 and ,i hardly think it is   
justified by its results2 those children
 who have been constantly reasoned with 
strike me as exceedingly silly4 ,of all 
man's faculties1 reason1 which is1 so to
 speak1 compounded of all the rest1 is  
the last and choicest growth1 and it is 
this you would use for the child's early
 training4 ,to make a man reasonable is 
the coping stone of a good education1   
and yet you profess to train a child    
through his reason6  ,you begin at the  
wrong end1 you make the end the means4  
,if children understood reason they     
would not need education1 but by talking
 to them from their earliest age in a   

language they do not understand you     
accustom them to be satisfied with      
words1 to question all that is said to  
them1 to think themselves as wise as    
their teachers2 you train them to be    
argumentative and rebellious2 and       
whatever you think you gain from motives
 of reason1 you really gain from        
greediness1 fear1 or vanity with which  
you are obliged to reinforce your       
reasoning4  ,most of the moral lessons  
which are and can be given to children  
may be reduced to this formula2 ,master4
 ,you must not do that4  ,child4 ,why   
not8  ,master4 ,because it is wrong4    
,child4 ,wrong6 ,what is wrong8         
,master4 ,what is forbidden you4        
,child4 ,why is it wrong to do what is  
forbidden8  ,master4 ,you will be       
punished for disobedience4  ,child4 ,i  
will do it when no one is looking4      
,master4 ,we shall watch you4  ,child4  
,i will hide4  ,master4 ,we shall ask   
you what you were doing4  ,child4 ,i    
shall tell a lie4  ,master4 ,you must   

not tell lies4  ,child4 ,why must not ,i
 tell lies8  ,master4 ,because it is    
wrong1 etc4  ,that is the inevitable    
circle4 ,go beyond it1 and the child    
will not understand you4 ,what sort of  
use is there in such teaching8 ,i should
 greatly like to know what you would    
substitute for this dialogue4 ,it would 
have puzzled ,locke himself4 ,it is no  
part of a child's business to know right
 and wrong1 to perceive the reason for a
 man's duties4  ,nature would have them 
children before they are men4 ,if we try
 to invert this order we shall produce a
 forced fruit immature and flavourless1 
fruit which will be rotten before it is 
ripe2 we shall have young doctors and   
old children4 ,childhood has its own    
ways of seeing1 thinking1 and feeling2  
nothing is more foolish than to try and 
substitute our ways2 and ,i should no   
more expect judgment in a ten-year-old  
child than ,i should expect him to be   
five feet high4  ,indeed1 what use would
 reason be to him at that age8 ,it is   

the curb of strength1 and the child does
 not need the curb4  ,when you try to   
persuade your scholars of the duty of   
obedience1 you add to this so-called    
persuasion compulsion and threats1 or   
still worse1 flattery and bribes4       
,attracted by selfishness or constrained
 by force1 they pretend to be convinced 
by reason4 ,they see as soon as you do  
that obedience is to their advantage and
 disobedience to their disadvantage4    
,but as you only demand disagreeable    
things of them1 and as it is always     
disagreeable to do another's will1 they 
hide themselves so that they may do as  
they please1 persuaded that they are    
doing no wrong so long as they are not  
found out1 but ready1 if found out1 to  
own themselves in the wrong for fear of 
worse evils4 ,the reason for duty is    
beyond their age1 and there is not a man
 in the world who could make them really
 aware of it2 but the fear of           
punishment1 the hope of forgiveness1    
importunity1 the difficulty of          

answering1 wrings from them as many     
confessions as you want2 and you think  
you have convinced them when you have   
only wearied or frightened them4  ,what 
does it all come to8 ,in the first      
place1 by imposing on them a duty which 
they fail to recognise1 you make them   
disinclined to submit to your tyranny1  
and you turn away their love2 you teach 
them deceit1 falsehood1 and lying as a  
way to gain rewards or escape           
punishment2 then by accustoming them to 
conceal a secret motive under the cloak 
of an apparent one1 you yourself put    
into their hands the means of deceiving 
you1 of depriving you of a knowledge of 
their real character1 of answering you  
and others with empty words whenever    
they have the chance4 ,laws1 you say1   
though binding on conscience1 exercise  
the same constraint over grown-up men4  
,that is so1 but what are these men but 
children spoilt by education8 ,this is  
just what you should avoid4 ,use force  
with children and reasoning with men2   

this is the natural order2 the wise man 
needs no laws4  ,treat your scholar     
according to his age4 ,put him in his   
place from the first1 and keep him in   
it1 so that he no longer tries to leave 
it4 ,then before he knows what goodness 
is1 he will be practising its chief     
lesson4 ,give him no orders at all1     
absolutely none4 ,do not even let him   
think that you claim any authority over 
him4 ,let him only know that he is weak 
and you are strong1 that his condition  
and yours puts him at your mercy2 let   
this be perceived1 learned1 and felt4   
,let him early find upon his proud neck1
 the heavy yoke which nature has imposed
 upon us1 the heavy yoke of necessity1  
under which every finite being must bow4
 ,let him find this necessity in things1
 not in the caprices ,footnote3 ,you may
 be sure the child will regard as       
caprice any will which opposes his own  
or any will which he does not           
understand4 ,now the child does not     
understand anything which interferes    

with his own fancies4 of man2 let the   
curb be force1 not authority4 ,if there 
is something he should not do1 do not   
forbid him1 but prevent him without     
explanation or reasoning2 what you give 
him1 give it at his first word without  
prayers or entreaties1 above all without
 conditions4 ,give willingly1 refuse    
unwillingly1 but let your refusal be    
irrevocable2 let no entreaties move you2
 let your ,no1 once uttered1 be a wall  
of brass1 against which the child may   
exhaust his strength some five or six   
times1 but in the end he will try no    
more to overthrow it4  ,thus you will   
make him patient1 equable1 calm1 and    
resigned1 even when he does not get all 
he wants2 for it is in man's nature to  
bear patiently with the nature of       
things1 but not with the ill-will of    
another4 ,a child never rebels against1 
,there is none left1 unless he thinks   
the reply is false4 ,moreover1 there is 
no middle course2 you must either make  
no demands on him at all1 or else you   

must fashion him to perfect obedience4  
,the worst education of all is to leave 
him hesitating between his own will and 
yours1 constantly disputing whether you 
or he is master2 ,i would rather a      
hundred times that he were master4  ,it 
is very strange that ever since people  
began to think about education they     
should have hit upon no other way of    
guiding children than emulation1        
jealousy1 envy1 vanity1 greediness1 base
 cowardice1 all the most dangerous      
passions1 passions ever ready to        
ferment1 ever prepared to corrupt the   
soul even before the body is full-grown4
 ,with every piece of precocious        
instruction which you try to force into 
their minds you plant a vice in the     
depths of their hearts2 foolish teachers
 think they are doing wonders when they 
are making their scholars wicked in     
order to teach them what goodness is1   
and then they tell us seriously1 ,such  
is man4 ,yes1 such is man1 as you have  
made him4 ,every means has been tried   

except one1 the very one which might    
succeed--well-regulated liberty4 ,do not
 undertake to bring up a child if you   
cannot guide him merely by the laws of  
what can or cannot be4 ,the limits of   
the possible and the impossible are     
alike unknown to him1 so they can be    
extended or contracted around him at    
your will4 ,without a murmur he is      
restrained1 urged on1 held back1 by the 
hands of necessity alone2 he is made    
adaptable and teachable by the mere     
force of things1 without any chance for 
vice to spring up in him2 for passions  
do not arise so long as they have       
accomplished nothing4  ,give your       
scholar no verbal lessons2 he should be 
taught by experience alone2 never punish
 him1 for he does not know what it is to
 do wrong2 never make him say1 ,forgive 
me1 for he does not know how to do you  
wrong4 ,wholly unmoral in his actions1  
he can do nothing morally wrong1 and he 
deserves neither punishment nor reproof4
  ,already ,i see the frightened reader 

comparing this child with those of our  
time2 he is mistaken4 ,the perpetual    
restraint imposed upon your scholars    
stimulates their activity2 the more     
subdued they are in your presence1 the  
more boisterous they are as soon as they
 are out of your sight4 ,they must make 
amends to themselves in some way or     
other for the harsh constraint to which 
you subject them4 ,two schoolboys from  
the town will do more damage in the     
country than all the children of the    
village4 ,shut up a young gentleman and 
a young peasant in a room2 the former   
will have upset and smashed everything  
before the latter has stirred from his  
place4 ,why is that1 unless that the one
 hastens to misuse a moment's licence1  
while the other1 always sure of freedom1
 does not use it rashly4 ,and yet the   
village children1 often flattered or    
constrained1 are still very far from the
 state in which ,i would have them kept4
  ,let us lay it down as an             
incontrovertible rule that the first    

impulses of nature are always right2    
there is no original sin in the human   
heart1 the how and why of the entrance  
of every vice can be traced4 ,the only  
natural passion is self-love or         
selfishness taken in a wider sense4     
,this selfishness is good in itself and 
in relation to ourselves2 and as the    
child has no necessary relations to     
other people he is naturally indifferent
 to them2 his self-love only becomes    
good or bad by the use made of it and   
the relations established by its means4 
,until the time is ripe for the         
appearance of reason1 that guide of     
selfishness1 the main thing is that the 
child shall do nothing because you are  
watching him or listening to him2 in a  
word1 nothing because of other people1  
but only what nature asks of him2 then  
he will never do wrong4  ,i do not mean 
to say that he will never do any        
mischief1 never hurt himself1 never     
break a costly ornament if you leave it 
within his reach4 ,he might do much     

damage without doing wrong1 since       
wrong-doing depends on the harmful      
intention which will never be his4 ,if  
once he meant to do harm1 his whole     
education would be ruined2 he would be  
almost hopelessly bad4  ,greed considers
 some things wrong which are not wrong  
in the eyes of reason4 ,when you leave  
free scope to a child's heedlessness1   
you must put anything he could spoil out
 of his way1 and leave nothing fragile  
or costly within his reach4 ,let the    
room be furnished with plain and solid  
furniture2 no mirrors1 china1 or useless
 ornaments4 ,my pupil ,emile1 who is    
brought up in the country1 shall have a 
room just like a peasant's4 ,why take   
such pains to adorn it when he will be  
so little in it8 ,i am mistaken1        
however2 he will ornament it for        
himself1 and we shall soon see how4     
,but if1 in spite of your precautions1  
the child contrives to do some damage1  
if he breaks some useful article1 do not
 punish him for your carelessness1 do   

not even scold him2 let him hear no word
 of reproval1 do not even let him see   
that he has vexed you2 behave just as if
 the thing had come to pieces of itself2
 you may consider you have done great   
things if you have managed to hold your 
tongue4  ,may ,i venture at this point  
to state the greatest1 the most         
important1 the most useful rule of      
education8 ,it is3 ,do not save time1   
but lose it4 ,i hope that every-day     
readers will excuse my paradoxes2 you   
cannot avoid paradox if you think for   
yourself1 and whatever you may say ,i   
would rather fall into paradox than into
 prejudice4 ,the most dangerous period  
in human life lies between birth and the
 age of twelve4 ,it is the time when    
errors and vices spring up1 while as yet
 there is no means to destroy them2 when
 the means of destruction are ready1 the
 roots have gone too deep to be pulled  
up4 ,if the infant sprang at one bound  
from its mother's breast to the age of  
reason1 the present type of education   

would be quite suitable1 but its natural
 growth calls for quite a different     
training4 ,the mind should be left      
undisturbed till its faculties have     
developed2 for while it is blind it     
cannot see the torch you offer it1 nor  
can it follow through the vast expanse  
of ideas a path so faintly traced by    
reason that the best eyes can scarcely  
follow it4  ,therefore the education of 
the earliest years should be merely     
negative4 ,it consists1 not in teaching 
virtue or truth1 but in preserving the  
heart from vice and from the spirit of  
error4 ,if only you could let well      
alone1 and get others to follow your    
example2 if you could bring your scholar
 to the age of twelve strong and        
healthy1 but unable to tell his right   
hand from his left1 the eyes of his     
understanding would be open to reason as
 soon as you began to teach him4 ,free  
from prejudices and free from habits1   
there would be nothing in him to        
counteract the effects of your labours4 

,in your hands he would soon become the 
wisest of men2 by doing nothing to begin
 with1 you would end with a prodigy of  
education4  ,reverse the usual practice 
and you will almost always do right4    
,fathers and teachers who want to make  
the child1 not a child but a man of     
learning1 think it never too soon to    
scold1 correct1 reprove1 threaten1      
bribe1 teach1 and reason4 ,do better    
than they2 be reasonable1 and do not    
reason with your pupil1 more especially 
do not try to make him approve what he  
dislikes2 for if reason is always       
connected with disagreeable matters1 you
 make it distasteful to him1 you        
discredit it at an early age in a mind  
not yet ready to understand it4         
,exercise his body1 his limbs1 his      
senses1 his strength1 but keep his mind 
idle as long as you can4 ,distrust all  
opinions which appear before the        
judgment to discriminate between them4  
,restrain and ward off strange          
impressions2 and to prevent the birth of

 evil do not hasten to do well1 for     
goodness is only possible when          
enlightened by reason4 ,regard all      
delays as so much time gained2 you have 
achieved much1 you approach the boundary
 without loss4 ,leave childhood to ripen
 in your children4 ,in a word1 beware of
 giving anything they need to-day if it 
can be deferred without danger to       
to-morrow4  ,there is another point to  
be considered which confirms the        
suitability of this method3 it is the   
child's individual bent1 which must be  
thoroughly known before we can choose   
the fittest moral training4 ,every mind 
has its own form1 in accordance with    
which it must be controlled2 and the    
success of the pains taken depends      
largely on the fact that he is          
controlled in this way and no other4    
,oh1 wise man1 take time to observe     
nature2 watch your scholar well before  
you say a word to him2 first leave the  
germ of his character free to show      
itself1 do not constrain him in         

anything1 the better to see him as he   
really is4 ,do you think this time of   
liberty is wasted8 ,on the contrary1    
your scholar will be the better         
employed1 for this is the way you       
yourself will learn not to lose a single
 moment when time is of more value4 ,if1
 however1 you begin to act before you   
know what to do1 you act at random2 you 
may make mistakes1 and must retrace your
 steps2 your haste to reach your goal   
will only take you further from it4 ,do 
not imitate the miser who loses much    
lest he should lose a little4 ,sacrifice
 a little time in early childhood1 and  
it will be repaid you with usury when   
your scholar is older4 ,the wise        
physician does not hastily give         
prescriptions at first sight1 but he    
studies the constitution of the sick man
 before he prescribes anything2 the     
treatment is begun later1 but the       
patient is cured1 while the hasty doctor
 kills him4  ,but where shall we find a 
place for our child so as to bring him  

up as a senseless being1 an automaton8  
,shall we keep him in the moon1 or on a 
desert island8 ,shall we remove him from
 human society8 ,will he not always have
 around him the sight and the pattern of
 the passions of other people8 ,will he 
never see children of his own age8      
,will he not see his parents1 his       
neighbours1 his nurse1 his governess1   
his man-servant1 his tutor himself1 who 
after all will not be an angel8 ,here we
 have a real and serious objection4 ,but
 did ,i tell you that an education      
according to nature would be an easy    
task8 ,oh1 men6 is it my fault that you 
have made all good things difficult8 ,i 
admit that ,i am aware of these         
difficulties2 perhaps they are          
insuperable2 but nevertheless it is     
certain that we do to some extent avoid 
them by trying to do so4 ,i am showing  
what we should try to attain1 ,i do not 
say we can attain it1 but ,i do say that
 whoever comes nearest to it is nearest 
to success4  ,remember you must be a man

 yourself before you try to train a man2
 you yourself must set the pattern he   
shall copy4 ,while the child is still   
unconscious there is time to prepare his
 surroundings1 so that nothing shall    
strike his eye but what is fit for his  
sight4 ,gain the respect of every one1  
begin to win their hearts1 so that they 
may try to please you4 ,you will not be 
master of the child if you cannot       
control every one about him2 and this   
authority will never suffice unless it  
rests upon respect for your goodness4   
,there is no question of squandering    
one's means and giving money right and  
left2 ,i never knew money win love4 ,you
 must neither be harsh nor niggardly1   
nor must you merely pity misery when you
 can relieve it2 but in vain will you   
open your purse if you do not open your 
heart along with it1 the hearts of      
others will always be closed to you4    
,you must give your own time1 attention1
 affection1 your very self2 for whatever
 you do1 people always perceive that    

your money is not you4 ,there are proofs
 of kindly interest which produce more  
results and are really more useful than 
any gift2 how many of the sick and      
wretched have more need of comfort than 
of charity2 how many of the oppressed   
need protection rather than money8      
,reconcile those who are at strife1     
prevent lawsuits2 incline children to   
duty1 fathers to kindness2 promote happy
 marriages2 prevent annoyances2 freely  
use the credit of your pupil's parents  
on behalf of the weak who cannot obtain 
justice1 the weak who are oppressed by  
the strong4 ,be just1 human1 kindly4 ,do
 not give alms alone1 give charity2     
works of mercy do more than money for   
the relief of suffering2 love others and
 they will love you2 serve them and they
 will serve you2 be their brother and   
they will be your children4  ,this is   
one reason why ,i want to bring up      
,emile in the country1 far from those   
miserable lacqueys1 the most degraded of
 men except their masters2 far from the 

vile morals of the town1 whose gilded   
surface makes them seductive and        
contagious to children2 while the vices 
of peasants1 unadorned and in their     
naked grossness1 are more fitted to     
repel than to seduce1 when there is no  
motive for imitating them4  ,in the     
village a tutor will have much more     
control over the things he wishes to    
show the child2 his reputation1 his     
words1 his example1 will have a weight  
they would never have in the town2 he is
 of use to every one1 so every one is   
eager to oblige him1 to win his esteem1 
to appeal before the disciple what the  
master would have him be2 if vice is not
 corrected1 public scandal is at least  
avoided1 which is all that our present  
purpose requires4  ,cease to blame      
others for your own faults2 children are
 corrupted less by what they see than by
 your own teaching4 ,with your endless  
preaching1 moralising1 and pedantry1 for
 one idea you give your scholars1       
believing it to be good1 you give them  

twenty more which are good for nothing2 
you are full of what is going on in your
 own minds1 and you fail to see the     
effect you produce on theirs4 ,in the   
continual flow of words with which you  
overwhelm them1 do you think there is   
none which they get hold of in a wrong  
sense8 ,do you suppose they do not make 
their own comments on your long-winded  
explanations1 that they do not find     
material for the construction of a      
system they can understand--one which   
they will use against you when they get 
the chance8  ,listen to a little fellow 
who has just been under instruction2 let
 him chatter freely1 ask questions1 and 
talk at his ease1 and you will be       
surprised to find the strange forms your
 arguments have assumed in his mind2 he 
confuses everything1 and turns          
everything topsy-turvy2 you are vexed   
and grieved by his unforeseen           
objections2 he reduces you to be silent 
yourself or to silence him3 and what can
 he think of silence in one who is so   

fond of talking8 ,if ever he gains this 
advantage and is aware of it1 farewell  
education2 from that moment all is lost2
 he is no longer trying to learn1 he is 
trying to refute you4  ,zealous         
teachers1 be simple1 sensible1 and      
reticent2 be in no hurry to act unless  
to prevent the actions of others4 ,again
 and again ,i say1 reject1 if it may be1
 a good lesson for fear of giving a bad 
one4 ,beware of playing the tempter in  
this world1 which nature intended as an 
earthly paradise for men1 and do not    
attempt to give the innocent child the  
knowledge of good and evil2 since you   
cannot prevent the child learning by    
what he sees outside himself1 restrict  
your own efforts to impressing those    
examples on his mind in the form best   
suited for him4  ,the explosive passions
 produce a great effect upon the child  
when he sees them2 their outward        
expression is very marked2 he is struck 
by this and his attention is arrested4  
,anger especially is so noisy in its    

rage that it is impossible not to       
perceive it if you are within reach4    
,you need not ask yourself whether this 
is an opportunity for a pedagogue to    
frame a fine disquisition4 ,what6 no    
fine disquisition1 nothing1 not a word6 
,let the child come to you2 impressed by
 what he has seen1 he will not fail to  
ask you questions4 ,the answer is easy2 
it is drawn from the very things which  
have appealed to his senses4 ,he sees a 
flushed face1 flashing eyes1 a          
threatening gesture1 he hears cries2    
everything shows that the body is ill at
 ease4 ,tell him plainly1 without       
affectation or mystery1 ,this poor man  
is ill1 he is in a fever4 ,you may take 
the opportunity of giving him in a few  
words some idea of disease and its      
effects2 for that too belongs to nature1
 and is one of the bonds of necessity   
which he must recognise4 ,by means of   
this idea1 which is not false in itself1
 may he not early acquire a certain     
aversion to giving way to excessive     

passions1 which he regards as diseases2 
and do you not think that such a notion1
 given at the right moment1 will produce
 a more wholesome effect than the most  
tedious sermon8  ,but consider the after
 effects of this idea2 you have         
authority1 if ever you find it          
necessary1 to treat the rebellious child
 as a sick child2 to keep him in his    
room1 in bed if need be1 to diet him1 to
 make him afraid of his growing vices1  
to make him hate and dread them without 
ever regarding as a punishment the      
strict measures you will perhaps have to
 use for his recovery4 ,if it happens   
that you yourself in a moment's heat    
depart from the calm and self-control   
which you should aim at1 do not try to  
conceal your fault1 but tell him        
frankly1 with a gentle reproach1 ,my    
dear1 you have hurt me4  ,moreover1 it  
is a matter of great importance that no 
notice should be taken in his presence  
of the quaint sayings which result from 
the simplicity of the ideas in which he 

is brought up1 nor should they be quoted
 in a way he can understand4 ,a foolish 
laugh may destroy six months' work and  
do irreparable damage for life4 ,i      
cannot repeat too often that to control 
the child one must often control        
oneself4  ,i picture my little ,emile at
 the height of a dispute between two    
neighbours going up to the fiercest of  
them and saying in a tone of pity1 ,you 
are ill1 ,i am very sorry for you4 ,this
 speech will no doubt have its effect on
 the spectators and perhaps on the      
disputants4 ,without laughter1 scolding1
 or praise ,i should take him away1     
willing or no1 before he could see this 
result1 or at least before he could     
think about it2 and ,i should make haste
 to turn his thoughts to other things1  
so that he would soon forget all about  
it4  ,i do not propose to enter into    
every detail1 but only to explain       
general rules and to give illustrations 
in cases of difficulty4 ,i think it is  
impossible to train a child up to the   

age of twelve in the midst of society1  
without giving him some idea of the     
relations between one man and another1  
and of the morality of human actions4   
,it is enough to delay the development  
of these ideas as long as possible1 and 
when they can no longer be avoided to   
limit them to present needs1 so that he 
may neither think himself master of     
everything nor do harm to others without
 knowing or caring4 ,there are calm and 
gentle characters which can be led a    
long way in their first innocence       
without any danger2 but there are also  
stormy dispositions whose passions      
develop early2 you must hasten to make  
men of them lest you should have to keep
 them in chains4  ,our first duties are 
to ourselves2 our first feelings are    
centred on self2 all our instincts are  
at first directed to our own            
preservation and our own welfare4 ,thus 
the first notion of justice springs not 
from what we owe to others1 but from    
what is due to us4  ,here is another    

error in popular methods of education4  
,if you talk to children of their       
duties1 and not of their rights1 you are
 beginning at the wrong end1 and telling
 them what they cannot understand1 what 
cannot be of any interest to them4  ,if 
,i had to train a child such as ,i have 
just described1 ,i should say to myself1
 ,a child never attacks people1         
,footnote3 ,a child should never be     
allowed to play with grown-up people as 
if they were his inferiors1 nor even as 
if they were only his equals4 ,if he    
ventured to strike any one in earnest1  
were it only the footman1 were it the   
hangman himself1 let the sufferer return
 his blows with interest1 so that he    
will not want to do it again4 ,i have   
seen silly women inciting children to   
rebellion1 encouraging them to hit      
people1 allowing themselves to be       
beaten1 and laughing at the harmless    
blows1 never thinking that those blows  
were in intention the blows of a        
murderer1 and that the child who desires

 to beat people now will desire to kill 
them when he is grown up4 only things2  
and he soon learns by experience to     
respect those older and stronger than   
himself4 ,things1 however1 do not defend
 themselves4 ,therefore the first idea  
he needs is not that of liberty but of  
property1 and that he may get this idea 
he must have something of his own4 ,it  
is useless to enumerate his clothes1    
furniture1 and playthings2 although he  
uses these he knows not how or why he   
has come by them4 ,to tell him they were
 given him is little better1 for giving 
implies having2 so here is property     
before his own1 and it is the principle 
of property that you want to teach him2 
moreover1 giving is a convention1 and   
the child as yet has no idea of         
conventions4 ,i hope my reader will     
note1 in this and many other cases1 how 
people think they have taught children  
thoroughly1 when they have only thrust  
on them words which have no intelligible
 meaning to them4 ,footnote3 ,this is   

why most children want to take back what
 they have given1 and cry if they cannot
 get it4 ,they do not do this when once 
they know what a gift is2 only they are 
more careful about giving things away4  
,we must therefore go back to the origin
 of property1 for that is where the     
first idea of it must begin4 ,the child1
 living in the country1 will have got   
some idea of field work2 eyes and       
leisure suffice for that1 and he will   
have both4 ,in every age1 and especially
 in childhood1 we want to create1 to    
copy1 to produce1 to give all the signs 
of power and activity4 ,he will hardly  
have seen the gardener at work twice1   
sowing1 planting1 and growing           
vegetables1 before he will want to      
garden himself4  ,according to the      
principles ,i have already laid down1 ,i
 shall not thwart him2 on the contrary1 
,i shall approve of his plan1 share his 
hobby1 and work with him1 not for his   
pleasure but my own2 at least1 so he    
thinks2 ,i shall be his under-gardener1 

and dig the ground for him till his arms
 are strong enough to do it2 he will    
take possession of it by planting a     
bean1 and this is surely a more sacred  
possession1 and one more worthy of      
respect1 than that of ,nunes ,balboa1   
who took possession of ,south ,america  
in the name of the ,king of ,spain1 by  
planting his banner on the coast of the 
,southern ,sea4  ,we water the beans    
every day1 we watch them coming up with 
the greatest delight4 ,day by day ,i    
increase this delight by saying1 ,those 
belong to you4 ,to explain what that    
word belong means1 ,i show him how he   
has given his time1 his labour1 and his 
trouble1 his very self to it2 that in   
this ground there is a part of himself  
which he can claim against all the      
world1 as he could withdraw his arm from
 the hand of another man who wanted to  
keep it against his will4  ,one fine day
 he hurries up with his watering-can in 
his hand4 ,what a scene of woe6 ,alas6  
all the beans are pulled up1 the soil is

 dug over1 you can scarcely find the    
place4 ,oh6 what has become of my       
labour1 my work1 the beloved fruits of  
my care and effort8 ,who has stolen my  
property6 ,who has taken my beans8 ,the 
young heart revolts2 the first feeling  
of injustice brings its sorrow and      
bitterness2 tears come in torrents1 the 
unhappy child fills the air with cries  
and groans1 ,i share his sorrow and     
anger2 we look around us1 we make       
inquiries4 ,at last we discover that the
 gardener did it4 ,we send for him4     
,but we are greatly mistaken4 ,the      
gardener1 hearing our complaint1 begins 
to complain louder than we3  ,what1     
gentlemen1 was it you who spoilt my     
work6 ,i had sown some ,maltese melons2 
the seed was given me as something quite
 out of the common1 and ,i meant to give
 you a treat when they were ripe2 but   
you have planted your miserable beans   
and destroyed my melons1 which were     
coming up so nicely1 and ,i can never   
get any more4 ,you have behaved very    

badly to me and you have deprived       
yourselves of the pleasure of eating    
most delicious melons4  ,,jean          
,,jacques4 ,my poor ,robert1 you must   
forgive us4 ,you had given your labour  
and your pains to it4 ,i see we were    
wrong to spoil your work1 but we will   
send to ,malta for some more seed for   
you1 and we will never dig the ground   
again without finding out if some one   
else has been beforehand with us4       
,,robert4 ,well1 gentlemen1 you need not
 trouble yourselves1 for there is no    
more waste ground4 ,i dig what my father
 tilled2 every one does the same1 and   
all the land you see has been occupied  
time out of mind4  ,,emile4 ,mr4        
,robert1 do people often lose the seed  
of ,maltese melons8  ,,robert4 ,no      
indeed1 sir2 we do not often find such  
silly little gentlemen as you4 ,no one  
meddles with his neighbour's garden2    
every one respects other people's work  
so that his own may be safe4  ,,emile4  
,but ,i have not got a garden4          

,,robert4 ,i don't care2 if you spoil   
mine ,i won't let you walk in it1 for   
you see ,i do not mean to lose my       
labour4  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,could not we
 suggest an arrangement with this kind  
,robert8 ,let him give my young friend  
and myself a corner of his garden to    
cultivate1 on condition that he has half
 the crop4  ,,robert4 ,you may have it  
free4 ,but remember ,i shall dig up your
 beans if you touch my melons4  ,in this
 attempt to show how a child may be     
taught certain primitive ideas we see   
how the notion of property goes back    
naturally to the right of the first     
occupier to the results of his work4    
,that is plain and simple1 and quite    
within the child's grasp4 ,from that to 
the rights of property and exchange     
there is but a step1 after which you    
must stop short4  ,you also see that an 
explanation which ,i can give in writing
 in a couple of pages may take a year in
 practice1 for in the course of moral   
ideas we cannot advance too slowly1 nor 

plant each step too firmly4 ,young      
teacher1 pray consider this example1 and
 remember that your lessons should      
always be in deeds rather than words1   
for children soon forget what they say  
or what is said to them1 but not what   
they have done nor what has been done to
 them4  ,such teaching should be given1 
as ,i have said1 sooner or later1 as the
 scholar's disposition1 gentle or       
turbulent1 requires it4 ,the way of     
using it is unmistakable2 but to omit no
 matter of importance in a difficult    
business let us take another example4   
,your ill-tempered child destroys       
everything he touches4 ,do not vex      
yourself2 put anything he can spoil out 
of his reach4 ,he breaks the things he  
is using2 do not be in a hurry to give  
him more2 let him feel the want of them4
 ,he breaks the windows of his room2 let
 the wind blow upon him night and day1  
and do not be afraid of his catching    
cold2 it is better to catch cold than to
 be reckless4 ,never complain of the    

inconvenience he causes you1 but let him
 feel it first4 ,at last you will have  
the windows mended without saying       
anything4 ,he breaks them again2 then   
change your plan2 tell him dryly and    
without anger1 ,the windows are mine1 ,i
 took pains to have them put in1 and ,i 
mean to keep them safe4 ,then you will  
shut him up in a dark place without a   
window4 ,at this unexpected proceeding  
he cries and howls2 no one heeds4 ,soon 
he gets tired and changes his tone2 he  
laments and sighs2 a servant appears1   
the rebel begs to be let out4 ,without  
seeking any excuse for refusing1 the    
servant merely says1 ,i1 too1 have      
windows to keep1 and goes away4 ,at     
last1 when the child has been there     
several hours1 long enough to get very  
tired of it1 long enough to make an     
impression on his memory1 some one      
suggests to him that he should offer to 
make terms with you1 so that you may set
 him free and he will never break       
windows again4  ,that is just what he   

wants4 ,he will send and ask you to come
 and see him2 you will come1 he will    
suggest his plan1 and you will agree to 
it at once1 saying1 ,that is a very good
 idea2 it will suit us both2 why didn't 
you think of it sooner8 ,then without   
asking for any affirmation or           
confirmation of his promise1 you will   
embrace him joyfully and take him back  
at once to his own room1 considering    
this agreement as sacred as if he had   
confirmed it by a formal oath4 ,what    
idea do you think he will form from     
these proceedings1 as to the fulfilment 
of a promise and its usefulness8 ,if ,i 
am not greatly mistaken1 there is not a 
child upon earth1 unless he is utterly  
spoilt already1 who could resist this   
treatment1 or one who would ever dream  
of breaking windows again on purpose4   
,follow out the whole train of thought4 
,the naughty little fellow hardly       
thought when he was making a hole for   
his beans that he was hewing out a cell 
in which his own knowledge would soon   

imprison him4 ,footnote3 ,moreover if   
the duty of keeping his word were not   
established in the child's mind by its  
own utility1 the child's growing        
consciousness would soon impress it on  
him as a law of conscience1 as an innate
 principle1 only requiring suitable     
experiences for its development4  ,this 
first outline is not sketched by man1 it
 is engraved on the heart by the author 
of all justice4 ,take away the primitive
 law of contract and the obligation     
imposed by contract and there is nothing
 left of human society but vanity and   
empty show4 ,he who only keeps his word 
because it is to his own profit is      
hardly more pledged than if he had given
 no promise at all4 ,this principle is  
of the utmost importance1 and deserves  
to be thoroughly studied1 for man is now
 beginning to be at war with himself4   
,we are now in the world of morals1 the 
door to vice is open4 ,deceit and       
falsehood are born along with           
conventions and duties4 ,as soon as we  

can do what we ought not to do1 we try  
to hide what we ought not to have done4 
,as soon as self-interest makes us give 
a promise1 a greater interest may make  
us break it2 it is merely a question of 
doing it with impunity2 we naturally    
take refuge in concealment and          
falsehood4 ,as we have not been able to 
prevent vice1 we must punish it4 ,the   
sorrows of life begin with its mistakes4
  ,i have already said enough to show   
that children should never receive      
punishment merely as such2 it should    
always come as the natural consequence  
of their fault4 ,thus you will not      
exclaim against their falsehood1 you    
will not exactly punish them for lying1 
but you will arrange that all the ill   
effects of lying1 such as not being     
believed when we speak the truth1 or    
being accused of what we have not done  
in spite of our protests1 shall fall on 
their heads when they have told a lie4  
,but let us explain what lying means to 
the child4  ,there are two kinds of     

lies2 one concerns an accomplished fact1
 the other concerns a future duty4 ,the 
first occurs when we falsely deny or    
assert that we did or did not do        
something1 or1 to put it in general     
terms1 when we knowingly say what is    
contrary to facts4 ,the other occurs    
when we promise what we do not mean to  
perform1 or1 in general terms1 when we  
profess an intention which we do not    
really mean to carry out4 ,these two    
kinds of lie are sometimes found in     
combination1 ,footnote3 ,thus the guilty
 person1 accused of some evil deed1     
defends himself by asserting that he is 
a good man4 ,his statement is false in  
itself and false in its application to  
the matter in hand4 but their           
differences are my present business4    
,he who feels the need of help from     
others1 he who is constantly            
experiencing their kindness1 has nothing
 to gain by deceiving them2 it is       
plainly to his advantage that they      
should see things as they are1 lest they

 should mistake his interests4 ,it is   
therefore plain that lying with regard  
to actual facts is not natural to       
children1 but lying is made necessary by
 the law of obedience2 since obedience  
is disagreeable1 children disobey as far
 as they can in secret1 and the present 
good of avoiding punishment or reproof  
outweighs the remoter good of speaking  
the truth4 ,under a free and natural    
education why should your child lie8    
,what has he to conceal from you8 ,you  
do not thwart him1 you do not punish    
him1 you demand nothing from him4 ,why  
should he not tell everything to you as 
simply as to his little playmate8 ,he   
cannot see anything more risky in the   
one course than in the other4  ,the lie 
concerning duty is even less natural1   
since promises to do or refrain from    
doing are conventional agreements which 
are outside the state of nature and     
detract from our liberty4 ,moreover1 all
 promises made by children are in       
themselves void2 when they pledge       

themselves they do not know what they   
are doing1 for their narrow vision      
cannot look beyond the present4 ,a child
 can hardly lie when he makes a promise2
 for he is only thinking how he can get 
out of the present difficulty1 any means
 which has not an immediate result is   
the same to him2 when he promises for   
the future he promises nothing1 and his 
imagination is as yet incapable of      
projecting him into the future while he 
lives in the present4 ,if he could      
escape a whipping or get a packet of    
sweets by promising to throw himself out
 of the window to-morrow1 he would      
promise on the spot4 ,this is why the   
law disregards all promises made by     
minors1 and when fathers and teachers   
are stricter and demand that promises   
shall be kept1 it is only when the      
promise refers to something the child   
ought to do even if he had made no      
promise4  ,the child cannot lie when he 
makes a promise1 for he does not know   
what he is doing when he makes his      

promise4 ,the case is different when he 
breaks his promise1 which is a sort of  
retrospective falsehood2 for he clearly 
remembers making the promise1 but he    
fails to see the importance of keeping  
it4 ,unable to look into the future1 he 
cannot foresee the results of things1   
and when he breaks his promises he does 
nothing contrary to his stage of        
reasoning4  ,children's lies are        
therefore entirely the work of their    
teachers1 and to teach them to speak the
 truth is nothing less than to teach    
them the art of lying4 ,in your zeal to 
rule1 control1 and teach them1 you never
 find sufficient means at your disposal4
 ,you wish to gain fresh influence over 
their minds by baseless maxims1 by      
unreasonable precepts2 and you would    
rather they knew their lessons and told 
lies1 than leave them ignorant and      
truthful4  ,we1 who only give our       
scholars lessons in practice1 who prefer
 to have them good rather than clever1  
never demand the truth lest they should 

conceal it1 and never claim any promise 
lest they should be tempted to break it4
 ,if some mischief has been done in my  
absence and ,i do not know who did it1  
,i shall take care not to accuse ,emile1
 nor to say1 ,did you do it8 ,footnote3 
,nothing could be more indiscreet than  
such a question1 especially if the child
 is guilty4 ,then if he thinks you know 
what he has done1 he will think you are 
setting a trap for him1 and this idea   
can only set him against you4 ,if he    
thinks you do not know1 he will say to  
himself1 ,why should ,i make my fault   
known8 ,and here we have the first      
temptation to falsehood as the direct   
result of your foolish question4 ,for in
 so doing what should ,i do but teach   
him to deny it8 ,if his difficult       
temperament compels me to make some     
agreement with him1 ,i will take good   
care that the suggestion always comes   
from him1 never from me2 that when he   
undertakes anything he has always a     
present and effective interest in       

fulfilling his promise1 and if he ever  
fails this lie will bring down on him   
all the unpleasant consequences which he
 sees arising from the natural order of 
things1 and not from his tutor's        
vengeance4 ,but far from having recourse
 to such cruel measures1 ,i feel almost 
certain that ,emile will not know for   
many years what it is to lie1 and that  
when he does find out1 he will be       
astonished and unable to understand what
 can be the use of it4 ,it is quite     
clear that the less ,i make his welfare 
dependent on the will or the opinions of
 others1 the less is it to his interest 
to lie4  ,when we are in no hurry to    
teach there is no hurry to demand1 and  
we can take our time1 so as to demand   
nothing except under fitting conditions4
 ,then the child is training himself1 in
 so far as he is not being spoilt4 ,but 
when a fool of a tutor1 who does not    
know how to set about his business1 is  
always making his pupil promise first   
this and then that1 without             

discrimination1 choice1 or proportion1  
the child is puzzled and overburdened   
with all these promises1 and neglects1  
forgets or even scorns them1 and        
considering them as so many empty       
phrases he makes a game of making and   
breaking promises4  ,would you have him 
keep his promise faithfully1 be moderate
 in your claims upon him4  ,the detailed
 treatment ,i have just given to lying  
may be applied in many respects to all  
the other duties imposed upon children1 
whereby these duties are made not only  
hateful but impracticable4 ,for the sake
 of a show of preaching virtue you make 
them love every vice2 you instil these  
vices by forbidding them4 ,would you    
have them pious1 you take them to church
 till they are sick of it2 you teach    
them to gabble prayers until they long  
for the happy time when they will not   
have to pray to ,god4 ,to teach them    
charity you make them give alms as if   
you scorned to give yourself4 ,it is not
 the child1 but the master1 who should  

give2 however much he loves his pupil he
 should vie with him for this honour2 he
 should make him think that he is too   
young to deserve it4 ,alms-giving is the
 deed of a man who can measure the worth
 of his gift and the needs of his       
fellow-men4  ,the child1 who knows      
nothing of these1 can have no merit in  
giving2 he gives without charity1       
without kindness2 he is almost ashamed  
to give1 for1 to judge by your practice 
and his own1 he thinks it is only       
children who give1 and that there is no 
need for charity when we are grown up4  
,observe that the only things children  
are set to give are things of which they
 do not know the value1 bits of metal   
carried in their pockets for which they 
have no further use4 ,a child would     
rather give a hundred coins than one    
cake4 ,but get this prodigal giver to   
distribute what is dear to him1 his     
toys1 his sweets1 his own lunch1 and we 
shall soon see if you have made him     
really generous4  ,people try yet       

another way2 they soon restore what he  
gave to the child1 so that he gets used 
to giving everything which he knows will
 come back to him4 ,i have scarcely seen
 generosity in children except of these 
two types1 giving what is of no use to  
them1 or what they expect to get back   
again4 ,arrange things1 says ,locke1 so 
that experience may convince them that  
the most generous giver gets the biggest
 share4 ,that is to make the child      
superficially generous but really       
greedy4 ,he adds that children will thus
 form the habit of liberality4 ,yes1 a  
usurer's liberality1 which expects cent4
 per cent4 ,but when it is a question of
 real giving1 good-bye to the habit2    
when they do not get things back1 they  
will not give4 ,it is the habit of the  
mind1 not of the hands1 that needs      
watching4 ,all the other virtues taught 
to children are like this1 and to preach
 these baseless virtues you waste their 
youth in sorrow4 ,what a sensible sort  
of education6  ,teachers1 have done with

 these shams2 be good and kind2 let your
 example sink into your scholars'       
memories till they are old enough to    
take it to heart4 ,rather than hasten to
 demand deeds of charity from my pupil  
,i prefer to perform such deeds in his  
presence1 even depriving him of the     
means of imitating me1 as an honour     
beyond his years2 for it is of the      
utmost importance that he should not    
regard a man's duties as merely those of
 a child4 ,if when he sees me help the  
poor he asks me about it1 and it is time
 to reply to his questions1 ,footnote3  
,it must be understood that ,i do not   
answer his questions when he wants2 that
 would be to subject myself to his will 
and to place myself in the most         
dangerous state of dependence that ever 
a tutor was in4 ,i shall say1 ,my dear  
boy1 the rich only exist1 through the   
good-will of the poor1 so they have     
promised to feed those who have not     
enough to live on1 either in goods or   
labour4 ,then you promised to do this8  

,certainly2 ,i am only master of the    
wealth that passes through my hands on  
the condition attached to its ownership4
  ,after this talk 7and we have seen how
 a child may be brought to understand   
it7 another than ,emile would be tempted
 to imitate me and behave like a rich   
man2 in such a case ,i should at least  
take care that it was done without      
ostentation2 ,i would rather he robbed  
me of my privilege and hid himself to   
give4 ,it is a fraud suitable to his    
age1 and the only one ,i could forgive  
in him4  ,i know that all these         
imitative virtues are only the virtues  
of a monkey1 and that a good action is  
only morally good when it is done as    
such and not because of others4 ,but at 
an age when the heart does not yet feel 
anything1 you must make children copy   
the deeds you wish to grow into habits1 
until they can do them with             
understanding and for the love of what  
is good4 ,man imitates1 as do the       
beasts4 ,the love of imitating is well  

regulated by nature2 in society it      
becomes a vice4 ,the monkey imitates    
man1 whom he fears1 and not the other   
beasts1 which he scorns2 he thinks what 
is done by his betters must be good4    
,among ourselves1 our harlequins imitate
 all that is good to degrade it and     
bring it into ridicule2 knowing their   
owners' baseness they try to equal what 
is better than they are1 or they strive 
to imitate what they admire1 and their  
bad taste appears in their choice of    
models1 they would rather deceive others
 or win applause for their own talents  
than become wiser or better4  ,imitation
 has its roots in our desire to escape  
from ourselves4 ,if ,i succeed in my    
undertaking1 ,emile will certainly have 
no such wish4  ,so we must dispense with
 any seeming good that might arise from 
it4  ,examine your rules of education2  
you will find them all topsy-turvy1     
especially in all that concerns virtue  
and morals4 ,the only moral lesson which
 is suited for a child--the most        

important lesson for every time of      
life--is this3 ,never hurt anybody4 ,the
 very rule of well-doing1 if not        
subordinated to this rule1 is dangerous1
 false1 and contradictory4 ,who is there
 who does no good8 ,every one does some 
good1 the wicked as well as the         
righteous2 he makes one happy at the    
cost of the misery of a hundred1 and    
hence spring all our misfortunes4 ,the  
noblest virtues are negative1 they are  
also the most difficult1 for they make  
little show1 and do not even make room  
for that pleasure so dear to the heart  
of man1 the thought that some one is    
pleased with us4 ,if there be a man who 
does no harm to his neighbours1 what    
good must he have accomplished6 ,what a 
bold heart1 what a strong character it  
needs6 ,it is not in talking about this 
maxim1 but in trying to practise it1    
that we discover both its greatness and 
its difficulty4 ,footnote3 ,the precept 
,never hurt anybody1 implies the        
greatest possible independence of human 

society2 for in the social state one    
man's good is another man's evil4 ,this 
relation is part of the nature of       
things2 it is inevitable4 ,you may apply
 this test to man in society and to the 
hermit to discover which is best4 ,a    
distinguished author says1 ,none but the
 wicked can live alone4 ,i say1 ,none   
but the good can live alone4 ,this      
proposition1 if less sententious1 is    
truer and more logical than the other4  
,if the wicked were alone1 what evil    
would he do8 ,it is among his fellows   
that he lays his snares for others4 ,if 
they wish to apply this argument to the 
man of property1 my answer is to be     
found in the passage to which this note 
is appended4  ,this will give you some  
slight idea of the precautions ,i would 
have you take in giving children        
instruction which cannot always be      
refused without risk to themselves or   
others1 or the far greater risk of the  
formation of bad habits1 which would be 
difficult to correct later on2 but be   

sure this necessity will not often arise
 with children who are properly brought 
up1 for they cannot possibly become     
rebellious1 spiteful1 untruthful1 or    
greedy1 unless the seeds of these vices 
are sown in their hearts4 ,what ,i have 
just said applies therefore rather to   
the exception than the rule4 ,but the   
oftener children have the opportunity of
 quitting their proper condition1 and   
contracting the vices of men1 the       
oftener will these exceptions arise4    
,those who are brought up in the world  
must receive more precocious instruction
 than those who are brought up in       
retirement4 ,so this solitary education 
would be preferable1 even if it did     
nothing more than leave childhood time  
to ripen4  ,there is quite another class
 of exceptions3 those so gifted by      
nature that they rise above the level of
 their age4 ,as there are men who never 
get beyond infancy1 so there are others 
who are never1 so to speak1 children1   
they are men almost from birth4 ,the    

difficulty is that these cases are very 
rare1 very difficult to distinguish2    
while every mother1 who knows that a    
child may be a prodigy1 is convinced    
that her child is that one4 ,they go    
further2 they mistake the common signs  
of growth for marks of exceptional      
talent4 ,liveliness1 sharp sayings1     
romping1 amusing simplicity1 these are  
the characteristic marks of this age1   
and show that the child is a child      
indeed4 ,is it strange that a child who 
is encouraged to chatter and allowed to 
say anything1 who is restrained neither 
by consideration nor convention1 should 
chance to say something clever8  ,were  
he never to hit the mark1 his case would
 be stranger than that of the astrologer
 who1 among a thousand errors1          
occasionally predicts the truth4 ,they  
lie so often1 said ,henry ,,iv41 that at
 last they say what is true4 ,if you    
want to say something clever1 you have  
only to talk long enough4 ,may          
,providence watch over those fine folk  

who have no other claim to social       
distinction4  ,the finest thoughts may  
spring from a child's brain1 or rather  
the best words may drop from his lips1  
just as diamonds of great worth may fall
 into his hands1 while neither the      
thoughts nor the diamonds are his own2  
at that age neither can be really his4  
,the child's sayings do not mean to him 
what they mean to us1 the ideas he      
attaches to them are different4 ,his    
ideas1 if indeed he has any ideas at    
all1 have neither order nor connection2 
there is nothing sure1 nothing certain1 
in his thoughts4 ,examine your so-called
 prodigy4 ,now and again you will       
discover in him extreme activity of mind
 and extraordinary clearness of thought4
 ,more often this same mind will seem   
slack and spiritless1 as if wrapped in  
mist4  ,sometimes he goes before you1   
sometimes he will not stir4 ,one moment 
you would call him a genius1 another a  
fool4 ,you would be mistaken in both2 he
 is a child1 an eaglet who soars aloft  

for a moment1 only to drop back into the
 nest4  ,treat him1 therefore1 according
 to his age1 in spite of appearances1   
and beware of exhausting his strength by
 over-much exercise4 ,if the young brain
 grows warm and begins to bubble1 let it
 work freely1 but do not heat it any    
further1 lest it lose its goodness1 and 
when the first gases have been given    
off1 collect and compress the rest so   
that in after years they may turn to    
life-giving heat and real energy4 ,if   
not1 your time and your pains will be   
wasted1 you will destroy your own work1 
and after foolishly intoxicating        
yourself with these heady fumes1 you    
will have nothing left but an insipid   
and worthless wine4  ,silly children    
grow into ordinary men4 ,i know no      
generalisation more certain than this4  
,it is the most difficult thing in the  
world to distinguish between genuine    
stupidity1 and that apparent and        
deceitful stupidity which is the sign of
 a strong character4 ,at first sight it 

seems strange that the two extremes     
should have the same outward signs2 and 
yet it may well be so1 for at an age    
when man has as yet no true ideas1 the  
whole difference between the genius and 
the rest consists in this3 the latter   
only take in false ideas1 while the     
former1 finding nothing but false ideas1
 receives no ideas at all4 ,in this he  
resembles the fool2 the one is fit for  
nothing1 the other finds nothing fit for
 him4 ,the only way of distinguishing   
between them depends upon chance1 which 
may offer the genius some idea which he 
can understand1 while the fool is always
 the same4 ,as a child1 the young ,cato 
was taken for an idiot by his parents2  
he was obstinate and silent1 and that   
was all they perceived in him2 it was   
only in ,sulla's ante-chamber that his  
uncle discovered what was in him4 ,had  
he never found his way there1 he might  
have passed for a fool till he reached  
the age of reason4 ,had ,caesar never   
lived1 perhaps this same ,cato1 who     

discerned his fatal genius1 and foretold
 his great schemes1 would have passed   
for a dreamer all his days4 ,those who  
judge children hastily are apt to be    
mistaken2 they are often more childish  
than the child himself4 ,i knew a       
middle-aged man1 ,footnote3 ,the ,abbe  
de ,condillac whose friendship ,i       
esteemed an honour1 who was reckoned a  
fool by his family4 ,all at once he made
 his name as a philosopher1 and ,i have 
no doubt posterity will give him a high 
place among the greatest thinkers and   
the profoundest metaphysicians of his   
day4  ,hold childhood in reverence1 and 
do not be in any hurry to judge it for  
good or ill4 ,leave exceptional cases to
 show themselves1 let their qualities be
 tested and confirmed1 before special   
methods are adopted4 ,give nature time  
to work before you take over her        
business1 lest you interfere with her   
dealings4 ,you assert that you know the 
value of time and are afraid to waste   
it4 ,you fail to perceive that it is a  

greater waste of time to use it ill than
 to do nothing1 and that a child ill    
taught is further from virtue than a    
child who has learnt nothing at all4    
,you are afraid to see him spending his 
early years doing nothing4 ,what6 is it 
nothing to be happy1 nothing to run and 
jump all day8 ,he will never be so busy 
again all his life long4  ,plato1 in his
 ,republic1 which is considered so      
stern1 teaches the children only through
 festivals1 games1 songs1 and           
amusements4 ,it seems as if he had      
accomplished his purpose when he had    
taught them to be happy2 and ,seneca1   
speaking of the ,roman lads in olden    
days1 says1 ,they were always on their  
feet1 they were never taught anything   
which kept them sitting4 ,were they any 
the worse for it in manhood8 ,do not be 
afraid1 therefore1 of this so-called    
idleness4  ,what would you think of a   
man who refused to sleep lest he should 
waste part of his life8 ,you would say1 
,he is mad2 he is not enjoying his life1

 he is robbing himself of part of it2 to
 avoid sleep he is hastening his death4 
,remember that these two cases are      
alike1 and that childhood is the sleep  
of reason4  ,the apparent ease with     
which children learn is their ruin4 ,you
 fail to see that this very facility    
proves that they are not learning4      
,their shining1 polished brain reflects1
 as in a mirror1 the things you show    
them1 but nothing sinks in4 ,the child  
remembers the words and the ideas are   
reflected back2 his hearers understand  
them1 but to him they are meaningless4  
,although memory and reason are wholly  
different faculties1 the one does not   
really develop apart from the other4    
,before the age of reason the child     
receives images1 not ideas2 and there is
 this difference between them3 images   
are merely the pictures of external     
objects1 while ideas are notions about  
those objects determined by their       
relations4 ,an image when it is recalled
 may exist by itself in the mind1 but   

every idea implies other ideas4 ,when we
 image we merely perceive1 when we      
reason we compare4 ,our sensations are  
merely passive1 our notions or ideas    
spring from an active principle which   
judges4 ,the proof of this will be given
 later4  ,i maintain1 therefore1 that as
 children are incapable of judging1 they
 have no true memory4 ,they retain      
sounds1 form1 sensation1 but rarely     
ideas1 and still more rarely relations4 
,you tell me they acquire some rudiments
 of geometry1 and you think you prove   
your case2 not so1 it is mine you prove2
 you show that far from being able to   
reason themselves1 children are unable  
to retain the reasoning of others2 for  
if you follow the method of these little
 geometricians you will see they only   
retain the exact impression of the      
figure and the terms of the             
demonstration4 ,they cannot meet the    
slightest new objection2 if the figure  
is reversed they can do nothing4 ,all   
their knowledge is on the               

sensation-level1 nothing has penetrated 
to their understanding4 ,their memory is
 little better than their other powers1 
for they always have to learn over      
again1 when they are grown up1 what they
 learnt as children4  ,i am far from    
thinking1 however1 that children have no
 sort of reason4 ,footnote3 ,i have     
noticed again and again that it is      
impossible in writing a lengthy work to 
use the same words always in the same   
sense4 ,there is no language rich enough
 to supply terms and expressions        
sufficient for the modifications of our 
ideas4 ,the method of defining every    
term and constantly substituting the    
definition for the term defined looks   
well1 but it is impracticable4  ,for how
 can we escape from our vicious circle8 
,definitions would be all very well if  
we did not use words in the making of   
them4 ,in spite of this ,i am convinced 
that even in our poor language we can   
make our meaning clear1 not by always   
using words in the same sense1 but by   

taking care that every time we use a    
word the sense in which we use it is    
sufficiently indicated by the sense of  
the context1 so that each sentence in   
which the word occurs acts as a sort of 
definition4 ,sometimes ,i say children  
are incapable of reasoning4 ,sometimes  
,i say they reason cleverly4 ,i must    
admit that my words are often           
contradictory1 but ,i do not think there
 is any contradiction in my ideas4 ,on  
the contrary1 ,i think they reason very 
well with regard to things that affect  
their actual and sensible well-being4   
,but people are mistaken as to the      
extent of their information1 and they   
attribute to them knowledge they do not 
possess1 and make them reason about     
things they cannot understand4 ,another 
mistake is to try to turn their         
attention to matters which do not       
concern them in the least1 such as their
 future interest1 their happiness when  
they are grown up1 the opinion people   
will have of them when they are         

men--terms which are absolutely         
meaningless when addressed to creatures 
who are entirely without foresight4 ,but
 all the forced studies of these poor   
little wretches are directed towards    
matters utterly remote from their minds4
 ,you may judge how much attention they 
can give to them4  ,the pedagogues1 who 
make a great display of the teaching    
they give their pupils1 are paid to say 
just the opposite2 yet their actions    
show that they think just as ,i do4 ,for
 what do they teach8 ,words6 words6     
words6 ,among the various sciences they 
boast of teaching their scholars1 they  
take good care never to choose those    
which might be really useful to them1   
for then they would be compelled to deal
 with things and would fail utterly2 the
 sciences they choose are those we seem 
to know when we know their technical    
terms--heraldry1 geography1 chronology1 
languages1 etc41 studies so remote from 
man1 and even more remote from the      
child1 that it is a wonder if he can    

ever make any use of any part of them4  
,you will be surprised to find that ,i  
reckon the study of languages among the 
useless lumber of education2 but you    
must remember that ,i am speaking of the
 studies of the earliest years1 and     
whatever you may say1 ,i do not believe 
any child under twelve or fifteen ever  
really acquired two languages4  ,if the 
study of languages were merely the study
 of words1 that is1 of the symbols by   
which language expresses itself1 then   
this might be a suitable study for      
children2 but languages1 as they change 
the symbols1 also modify the ideas which
 the symbols express4 ,minds are formed 
by language1 thoughts take their colour 
from its ideas4 ,reason alone is common 
to all4 ,every language has its own     
form1 a difference which may be partly  
cause and partly effect of differences  
in national character2 this conjecture  
appears to be confirmed by the fact that
 in every nation under the sun speech   
follows the changes of manners1 and is  

preserved or altered along with them4   
,by use the child acquires one of these 
different forms1 and it is the only     
language he retains till the age of     
reason4 ,to acquire two languages he    
must be able to compare their ideas1 and
 how can he compare ideas he can barely 
understand8 ,everything may have a      
thousand meanings to him1 but each idea 
can only have one form1 so he can only  
learn one language4 ,you assure me he   
learns several languages2 ,i deny it4 ,i
 have seen those little prodigies who   
are supposed to speak half a dozen      
languages4 ,i have heard them speak     
first in ,german1 then in ,latin1       
,french1 or ,italian2 true1 they used   
half a dozen different vocabularies1 but
 they always spoke ,german4 ,in a word1 
you may give children as many synonyms  
as you like2 it is not their language   
but their words that you change2 they   
will never have but one language4  ,to  
conceal their deficiencies teachers     
choose the dead languages1 in which we  

have no longer any judges whose         
authority is beyond dispute4 ,the       
familiar use of these tongues           
disappeared long ago1 so they are       
content to imitate what they find in    
books1 and they call that talking4 ,if  
the master's ,greek and ,latin is such  
poor stuff1 what about the children8    
,they have scarcely learnt their primer 
by heart1 without understanding a word  
of it1 when they are set to translate a 
,french speech into ,latin words2 then  
when they are more advanced they piece  
together a few phrases of ,cicero for   
prose or a few lines of ,vergil for     
verse4 ,then they think they can speak  
,latin1 and who will contradict them8   
,in any study whatsoever the symbols are
 of no value without the idea of the    
things symbolised4 ,yet the education of
 the child in confined to those symbols1
 while no one ever succeeds in making   
him understand the thing signified4 ,you
 think you are teaching him what the    
world is like2 he is only learning the  

map2 he is taught the names of towns1   
countries1 rivers1 which have no        
existence for him except on the paper   
before him4 ,i remember seeing a        
geography somewhere which began with3   
,what is the world8--,a sphere of       
cardboard4 ,that is the child's         
geography4 ,i maintain that after two   
years' work with the globe and          
cosmography1 there is not a single      
ten-year-old child who could find his   
way from ,paris to ,saint ,denis by the 
help of the rules he has learnt4 ,i     
maintain that not one of these children 
could find his way by the map about the 
paths on his father's estate without    
getting lost4 ,these are the young      
doctors who can tell us the position of 
,pekin1 ,ispahan1 ,mexico1 and every    
country in the world4  ,you tell me the 
child must be employed on studies which 
only need eyes4 ,that may be2 but if    
there are any such studies1 they are    
unknown to me4  ,it is a still more     
ridiculous error to set them to study   

history1 which is considered within     
their grasp because it is merely a      
collection of facts4 ,but what is meant 
by this word fact8 ,do you think the    
relations which determine the facts of  
history are so easy to grasp that the   
corresponding ideas are easily developed
 in the child's mind6 ,do you think that
 a real knowledge of events can exist   
apart from the knowledge of their causes
 and effects1 and that history has so   
little relation to words that the one   
can be learnt without the other8 ,if you
 perceive nothing in a man's actions    
beyond merely physical and external     
movements1 what do you learn from       
history8 ,absolutely nothing2 while this
 study1 robbed of all that makes it     
interesting1 gives you neither pleasure 
nor information4 ,if you want to judge  
actions by their moral bearings1 try to 
make these moral bearings intelligible  
to your scholars4 ,you will soon find   
out if they are old enough to learn     
history4  ,remember1 reader1 that he who

 speaks to you is neither a scholar nor 
a philosopher1 but a plain man and a    
lover of truth2 a man who is pledged to 
no one party or system1 a hermit1 who   
mixes little with other men1 and has    
less opportunity of imbibing their      
prejudices1 and more time to reflect on 
the things that strike him in his       
intercourse with them4 ,my arguments are
 based less on theories than on facts1  
and ,i think ,i can find no better way  
to bring the facts home to you than by  
quoting continually some example from   
the observations which suggested my     
arguments4  ,i had gone to spend a few  
days in the country with a worthy mother
 of a family who took great pains with  
her children and their education4 ,one  
morning ,i was present while the eldest 
boy had his lessons4 ,his tutor1 who had
 taken great pains to teach him ancient 
history1 began upon the story of        
,alexander and lighted on the well-known
 anecdote of ,philip the ,doctor4 ,there
 is a picture of it1 and the story is   

well worth study4 ,the tutor1 worthy    
man1 made several reflections which ,i  
did not like with regard to ,alexander's
 courage1 but ,i did not argue with him 
lest ,i should lower him in the eyes of 
his pupil4 ,at dinner they did not fail 
to get the little fellow talking1       
,french fashion4 ,the eager spirit of a 
child of his age1 and the confident     
expectation of applause1 made him say a 
number of silly things1 and among them  
from time to time there were things to  
the point1 and these made people forget 
the rest4 ,at last came the story of    
,philip the ,doctor4 ,he told it very   
distinctly and prettily4  ,after the    
usual meed of praise1 demanded by his   
mother and expected by the child        
himself1 they discussed what he had     
said4 ,most of them blamed ,alexander's 
rashness1 some of them1 following the   
tutor's example1 praised his resolution1
 which showed me that none of those     
present really saw the beauty of the    
story4 ,for my own part1 ,i said1 if    

there was any courage or any            
steadfastness at all in ,alexander's    
conduct ,i think it was only a piece of 
bravado4 ,then every one agreed that it 
was a piece of bravado4 ,i was getting  
angry1 and would have replied1 when a   
lady sitting beside me1 who had not     
hitherto spoken1 bent towards me and    
whispered in my ear4  ,jean ,jacques1   
said she1 say no more1 they will never  
understand you4 ,i looked at her1 ,i    
recognised the wisdom of her advice1 and
 ,i held my tongue4  ,several things    
made me suspect that our young professor
 had not in the least understood the    
story he told so prettily4 ,after dinner
 ,i took his hand in mine and we went   
for a walk in the park4 ,when ,i had    
questioned him quietly1 ,i discovered   
that he admired the vaunted courage of  
,alexander more than any one4 ,but in   
what do you suppose he thought this     
courage consisted8 ,merely in swallowing
 a disagreeable drink at a single       
draught without hesitation and without  

any signs of dislike4 ,not a fortnight  
before the poor child had been made to  
take some medicine which he could hardly
 swallow1 and the taste of it was still 
in his mouth4 ,death1 and death by      
poisoning1 were for him only            
disagreeable sensations1 and senna was  
his only idea of poison4 ,i must admit1 
however1 that ,alexander's resolution   
had made a great impression on his young
 mind1 and he was determined that next  
time he had to take medicine he would be
 an ,alexander4 ,without entering upon  
explanations which were clearly beyond  
his grasp1 ,i confirmed him in his      
praiseworthy intention1 and returned    
home smiling to myself over the great   
wisdom of parents and teachers who      
expect to teach history to children4    
,such words as king1 emperor1 war1      
conquest1 law1 and revolution are easily
 put into their mouths2 but when it is a
 question of attaching clear ideas to   
these words the explanations are very   
different from our talk with ,robert the

 gardener4  ,i feel sure some readers   
dissatisfied with that ,say no more1    
,jean ,jacques1 will ask what ,i really 
saw to admire in the conduct of         
,alexander4 ,poor things6 if you need   
telling1 how can you comprehend it8     
,alexander believed in virtue1 he staked
 his head1 he staked his own life on    
that faith1 his great soul was fitted to
 hold such a faith4 ,to swallow that    
draught was to make a noble profession  
of the faith that was in him4 ,never did
 mortal man recite a finer creed4 ,if   
there is an ,alexander in our own days1 
show me such deeds4  ,if children have  
no knowledge of words1 there is no study
 that is suitable for them4 ,if they    
have no real ideas they have no real    
memory1 for ,i do not call that a memory
 which only recalls sensations4 ,what is
 the use of inscribing on their brains a
 list of symbols which mean nothing to  
them8 ,they will learn the symbols when 
they learn the things signified2 why    
give them the useless trouble of        

learning them twice over8 ,and yet what 
dangerous prejudices are you implanting 
when you teach them to accept as        
knowledge words which have no meaning   
for them4 ,the first meaningless phrase1
 the first thing taken for granted on   
the word of another person without      
seeing its use for himself1 this is the 
beginning of the ruin of the child's    
judgment4 ,he may dazzle the eyes of    
fools long enough before he recovers    
from such a loss4 ,footnote3 ,the       
learning of most philosophers is like   
the learning of children4 ,vast         
erudition results less in the multitude 
of ideas than in a multitude of images4 
,dates1 names1 places1 all objects      
isolated or unconnected with ideas are  
merely retained in the memory for       
symbols1 and we rarely recall any of    
these without seeing the right or left  
page of the book in which we read it1 or
 the form in which we first saw it4     
,most science was of this kind till     
recently4 ,the science of our times is  

another matter2 study and observation   
are things of the past2 we dream and the
 dreams of a bad night are given to us  
as philosophy4 ,you will say ,i too am a
 dreamer2 ,i admit it1 but ,i do what   
the others fail to do1 ,i give my dreams
 as dreams1 and leave the reader to     
discover whether there is anything in   
them which may prove useful to those who
 are awake4  ,no1 if nature has given   
the child this plasticity of brain which
 fits him to receive every kind of      
impression1 it was not that you should  
imprint on it the names and dates of    
kings1 the jargon of heraldry1 the globe
 and geography1 all those words without 
present meaning or future use for the   
child1 which flood of words overwhelms  
his sad and barren childhood4 ,but by   
means of this plasticity all the ideas  
he can understand and use1 all that     
concern his happiness and will some day 
throw light upon his duties1 should be  
traced at an early age in indelible     
characters upon his brain1 to guide him 

to live in such a way as befits his     
nature and his powers4  ,without the    
study of books1 such a memory as the    
child may possess is not left idle2     
everything he sees and hears makes an   
impression on him1 he keeps a record of 
men's sayings and doings1 and his whole 
environment is the book from which he   
unconsciously enriches his memory1 till 
his judgment is able to profit by it4   
,to select these objects1 to take care  
to present him constantly with those he 
may know1 to conceal from him those he  
ought not to know1 this is the real way 
of training his early memory2 and in    
this way you must try to provide him    
with a storehouse of knowledge which    
will serve for his education in youth   
and his conduct throughout life4 ,true1 
this method does not produce infant     
prodigies1 nor will it reflect glory    
upon their tutors and governesses1 but  
it produces men1 strong1 right-thinking 
men1 vigorous both in mind and body1 men
 who do not win admiration as children1 

but honour as men4  ,emile will not     
learn anything by heart1 not even       
fables1 not even the fables of ,la      
,fontaine1 simple and delightful as they
 are1 for the words are no more the     
fable than the words of history are     
history4 ,how can people be so blind as 
to call fables the child's system of    
morals1 without considering that the    
child is not only amused by the apologue
 but misled by it8 ,he is attracted by  
what is false and he misses the truth1  
and the means adopted to make the       
teaching pleasant prevent him profiting 
by it4 ,men may be taught by fables2    
children require the naked truth4  ,all 
children learn ,la ,fontaine's fables1  
but not one of them understands them4   
,it is just as well that they do not    
understand1 for the morality of the     
fables is so mixed and so unsuitable for
 their age that it would be more likely 
to incline them to vice than to virtue4 
,more paradoxes6 you exclaim4 ,paradoxes
 they may be2 but let us see if there is

 not some truth in them4  ,i maintain   
that the child does not understand the  
fables he is taught1 for however you try
 to explain them1 the teaching you wish 
to extract from them demands ideas which
 he cannot grasp1 while the poetical    
form which makes it easier to remember  
makes it harder to understand1 so that  
clearness is sacrificed to facility4    
,without quoting the host of wholly     
unintelligible and useless fables which 
are taught to children because they     
happen to be in the same book as the    
others1 let us keep to those which the  
author seems to have written specially  
for children4  ,in the whole of ,la     
,fontaine's works ,i only know five or  
six fables conspicuous for child-like   
simplicity2 ,i will take the first of   
these as an example1 for it is one whose
 moral is most suitable for all ages1   
one which children get hold of with the 
least difficulty1 which they have most  
pleasure in learning1 one which for this
 very reason the author has placed at   

the beginning of his book4 ,if his      
object were really to delight and       
instruct children1 this fable is his    
masterpiece4 ,let us go through it and  
examine it briefly4  ,,the ,,fox ,,and  
,,the ,,crow  ,a ,,fable  ,maitre       
corbeau1 sur un arbre perche 7,mr4 ,crow
 perched on a tree74--,mr46 what does   
that word really mean8 ,what does it    
mean before a proper noun8 ,what is its 
meaning here8 ,what is a crow8 ,what is 
un arbre perche8 ,we do not say on a    
tree perched1 but perched on a tree4    
,so we must speak of poetical           
inversions1 we must distinguish between 
prose and verse4  ,tenait dans son bec  
un fromage 7,held a cheese in his       
beak7--,what sort of a cheese8 ,swiss1  
,brie1 or ,dutch8 ,if the child has     
never seen crows1 what is the good of   
talking about them8 ,if he has seen     
crows will he believe that they can hold
 a cheese in their beak8 ,your          
illustrations should always be taken    
from nature4  ,maitre renard1 par       

l'odeur alleche 7,mr4 ,fox1 attracted by
 the smell74--,another ,master6 ,but the
 title suits the fox1--who is master of 
all the tricks of his trade4 ,you must  
explain what a fox is1 and distinguish  
between the real fox and the            
conventional fox of the fables4         
,alleche4 ,the word is obsolete2 you    
will have to explain it4 ,you will say  
it is only used in verse4 ,perhaps the  
child will ask why people talk          
differently in verse4 ,how will you     
answer that question8  ,alleche1 par    
l'odeur d'un fromage4 ,the cheese was   
held in his beak by a crow perched on a 
tree2 it must indeed have smelt strong  
if the fox1 in his thicket or his earth1
 could smell it4 ,this is the way you   
train your pupil in that spirit of right
 judgment1 which rejects all but        
reasonable arguments1 and is able to    
distinguish between truth and falsehood 
in other tales4  ,lui tient a peu pres  
ce langage 7,spoke to him after this    
fashion74--,ce langage4 ,so foxes talk1 

do they6 ,they talk like crows6 ,mind   
what you are about1 oh1 wise tutor2     
weigh your answer before you give it1 it
 is more important than you suspect4    
,eh6 ,bonjour1 ,monsieur le ,corbeau6   
7,good-day1 ,mr4 ,crow67--,mr46 ,the    
child sees this title laughed to scorn  
before he knows it is a title of honour4
 ,those who say ,monsieur du ,corbeau   
will find their work cut out for them to
 explain that du4  ,que vous etes joli6 
,que vous me semblez beau6 7,how        
handsome you are1 how beautiful in my   
eyes67--,mere padding4 ,the child1      
finding the same thing repeated twice   
over in different words1 is learning to 
speak carelessly4 ,if you say this      
redundance is a device of the author1 a 
part of the fox's scheme to make his    
praise seem all the greater by his flow 
of words1 that is a valid excuse for me1
 but not for my pupil4  ,sans mentir1 si
 votre ramage 7,without lying1 if your  
song74--,without lying4 ,so people do   
tell lies sometimes4 ,what will the     

child think of you if you tell him the  
fox only says ,sans mentir because he is
 lying8  ,se rapporte a votre plumage   
7,answered to your fine                 
feathers74--,answered6 ,what does that  
mean8 ,try to make the child compare    
qualities so different as those of song 
and plumage2 you will see how much he   
understands4  ,vous seriez le phenix des
 hotes de ces bois6 7,you would be the  
phoenix of all the inhabitants of this  
wood67--,the phoenix6 ,what is a        
phoenix8 ,all of a sudden we are        
floundering in the lies of antiquity--we
 are on the edge of mythology4  ,the    
inhabitants of this wood4 ,what         
figurative language6 ,the flatterer     
adopts the grand style to add dignity to
 his speech1 to make it more attractive4
 ,will the child understand this        
cunning8 ,does he know1 how could he    
possibly know1 what is meant by grand   
style and simple style8  ,a ces mots le 
corbeau ne se sent pas de joie 7,at     
these words1 the crow is beside himself 

with delight74--,to realise the full    
force of this proverbial expression we  
must have experienced very strong       
feeling4  ,et1 pour montrer sa belle    
voix 7,and1 to show his fine            
voice74--,remember that the child1 to   
understand this line and the whole      
fable1 must know what is meant by the   
crow's fine voice4  ,il ouvre un large  
bec1 laisse tomber sa proie 7,he opens  
his wide beak and drops his             
prey74--,this is a splendid line2 its   
very sound suggests a picture4 ,i see   
the great big ugly gaping beak1 ,i hear 
the cheese crashing through the         
branches2 but this kind of beauty is    
thrown away upon children4  ,le renard  
s'en saisit1 et dit1 ',mon bon monsieur'
 7,the fox catches it1 and says1 ,my    
dear sir74--,so kindness is already     
folly4  ,you certainly waste no time in 
teaching your children4  ,apprenez que  
tout flatteur 7,you must learn that     
every flatterer74--,a general maxim4    
,the child can make neither head nor    

tail of it4  ,vit au depens de celui qui
 l'ecoute 7,lives at the expense of the 
person who listens to his               
flattery74--,no child of ten ever       
understood that4  ,ce lecon vaut bien un
 fromage1 sans doute 7,no doubt this    
lesson is well worth a cheese74--,this  
is intelligible and its meaning is very 
good4 ,yet there are few children who   
could compare a cheese and a lesson1 few
 who would not prefer the cheese4 ,you  
will therefore have to make them        
understand that this is said in mockery4
 ,what subtlety for a child6  ,le       
corbeau1 honteux et confus 7,the crow1  
ashamed and confused74--,a nothing      
pleonasm1 and there is no excuse for it 
this time4  ,jura1 mais un peu tard1    
qu'on ne l'y prendrait plus 7,swore1 but
 rather too late1 that he would not be  
caught in that way again74--,swore4     
,what master will be such a fool as to  
try to explain to a child the meaning of
 an oath8  ,what a host of details6 but 
much more would be needed for the       

analysis of all the ideas in this fable 
and their reduction to the simple and   
elementary ideas of which each is       
composed4 ,but who thinks this analysis 
necessary to make himself intelligible  
to children8 ,who of us is philosopher  
enough to be able to put himself in the 
child's place8 ,let us now proceed to   
the moral4  ,should we teach a          
six-year-old child that there are people
 who flatter and lie for the sake of    
gain8 ,one might perhaps teach them that
 there are people who make fools of     
little boys and laugh at their foolish  
vanity behind their backs4 ,but the     
whole thing is spoilt by the cheese4    
,you are teaching them how to make      
another drop his cheese rather than how 
to keep their own4 ,this is my second   
paradox1 and it is not less weighty than
 the former one4  ,watch children       
learning their fables and you will see  
that when they have a chance of applying
 them they almost always use them       
exactly contrary to the author's        

meaning2 instead of being on their guard
 against the fault which you would      
prevent or cure1 they are disposed to   
like the vice by which one takes        
advantage of another's defects4  ,in the
 above fable children laugh at the crow1
 but they all love the fox4 ,in the next
 fable you expect them to follow the    
example of the grasshopper4 ,not so1    
they will choose the ant4 ,they do not  
care to abase themselves1 they will     
always choose the principal part--this  
is the choice of self-love1 a very      
natural choice4 ,but what a dreadful    
lesson for children6 ,there could be no 
monster more detestable than a harsh and
 avaricious child1 who realised what he 
was asked to give and what he refused4  
,the ant does more2 she teaches him not 
merely to refuse but to revile4  ,in all
 the fables where the lion plays a part1
 usually the chief part1 the child      
pretends to be the lion1 and when he has
 to preside over some distribution of   
good things1 he takes care to keep      

everything for himself2 but when the    
lion is overthrown by the gnat1 the     
child is the gnat4 ,he learns how to    
sting to death those whom he dare not   
attack openly4  ,from the fable of the  
sleek dog and the starving wolf he      
learns a lesson of licence rather than  
the lesson of moderation which you      
profess to teach him4 ,i shall never    
forget seeing a little girl weeping     
bitterly over this tale1 which had been 
told her as a lesson in obedience4 ,the 
poor child hated to be chained up2 she  
felt the chain chafing her neck2 she was
 crying because she was not a wolf4  ,so
 from the first of these fables the     
child learns the basest flattery2 from  
the second1 cruelty2 from the third1    
injustice2 from the fourth1 satire2 from
 the fifth1 insubordination4 ,the last  
of these lessons is no more suitable for
 your pupils than for mine1 though he   
has no use for it4 ,what results do you 
expect to get from your teaching when it
 contradicts itself6 ,but perhaps the   

same system of morals which furnishes me
 with objections against the fables     
supplies you with as many reasons for   
keeping to them4 ,society requires a    
rule of morality in our words2 it also  
requires a rule of morality in our      
deeds2 and these two rules are quite    
different4 ,the former is contained in  
the ,catechism and it is left there2 the
 other is contained in ,la ,fontaine's  
fables for children and his tales for   
mothers4 ,the same author does for both4
  ,let us make a bargain1 ,m4 de la     
,fontaine4 ,for my own part1 ,i         
undertake to make your books my         
favourite study2 ,i undertake to love   
you1 and to learn from your fables1 for 
,i hope ,i shall not mistake their      
meaning4 ,as to my pupil1 permit me to  
prevent him studying any one of them    
till you have convinced me that it is   
good for him to learn things            
three-fourths of which are              
unintelligible to him1 and until you can
 convince me that in those fables he can

 understand he will never reverse the   
order and imitate the villain instead of
 taking warning from his dupe4  ,when ,i
 thus get rid of children's lessons1 ,i 
get rid of the chief cause of their     
sorrows1 namely their books4 ,reading is
 the curse of childhood1 yet it is      
almost the only occupation you can find 
for children4 ,emile1 at twelve years   
old1 will hardly know what a book is4   
,but1 you say1 he must1 at least1 know  
how to read4  ,when reading is of use to
 him1 ,i admit he must learn to read1   
but till then he will only find it a    
nuisance4  ,if children are not to be   
required to do anything as a matter of  
obedience1 it follows that they will    
only learn what they perceive to be of  
real and present value1 either for use  
or enjoyment2 what other motive could   
they have for learning8 ,the art of     
speaking to our absent friends1 of      
hearing their words2 the art of letting 
them know at first hand our feelings1   
our desires1 and our longings1 is an art

 whose usefulness can be made plain at  
any age4 ,how is it that this art1 so   
useful and pleasant in itself1 has      
become a terror to children8 ,because   
the child is compelled to acquire it    
against his will1 and to use it for     
purposes beyond his comprehension4 ,a   
child has no great wish to perfect      
himself in the use of an instrument of  
torture1 but make it a means to his     
pleasure1 and soon you will not be able 
to keep him from it4  ,people make a    
great fuss about discovering the beat   
way to teach children to read4 ,they    
invent bureaux ,footnote3 ,translator's 
note4--,the bureau was a sort of case   
containing letters to be put together to
 form words4 ,it was a favourite device 
for the teaching of reading and gave its
 name to a special method1 called the   
bureau-method1 of learning to read4 and 
cards1 they turn the nursery into a     
printer's shop4 ,locke would have them  
taught to read by means of dice4 ,what a
 fine idea6 ,and the pity of it6 ,there 

is a better way than any of those1 and  
one which is generally overlooked--it   
consists in the desire to learn4 ,arouse
 this desire in your scholar and have   
done with your bureaux and your         
dice--any method will serve4  ,present  
interest1 that is the motive power1 the 
only motive power that takes us far and 
safely4 ,sometimes ,emile receives notes
 of invitation from his father or       
mother1 his relations or friends2 he is 
invited to a dinner1 a walk1 a boating  
expedition1 to see some public          
entertainment4 ,these notes are short1  
clear1 plain1 and well written4 ,some   
one must read them to him1 and he cannot
 always find anybody when wanted2 no    
more consideration is shown to him than 
he himself showed to you yesterday4     
,time passes1 the chance is lost4 ,the  
note is read to him at last1 but it is  
too late4 ,oh6 if only he had known how 
to read6 ,he receives other notes1 so   
short1 so interesting1 he would like to 
try to read them4 ,sometimes he gets    

help1 sometimes none4 ,he does his best1
 and at last he makes out half the note2
 it is something about going to-morrow  
to drink cream--,where8 ,with whom8 ,he 
cannot tell--how hard he tries to make  
out the rest6 ,i do not think ,emile    
will need a bureau4 ,shall ,i proceed to
 the teaching of writing8 ,no1 ,i am    
ashamed to toy with these trifles in a  
treatise on education4  ,i will just add
 a few words which contain a principle  
of great importance4 ,it is this--,what 
we are in no hurry to get is usually    
obtained with speed and certainty4 ,i am
 pretty sure ,emile will learn to read  
and write before he is ten1 just because
 ,i care very little whether he can do  
so before he is fifteen2 but ,i would   
rather he never learnt to read at all1  
than that this art should be acquired at
 the price of all that makes reading    
useful4 ,what is the use of reading to  
him if he always hates it8 ,id imprimis 
cavere oportebit1 ne studia1 qui amare  
nondum potest1 oderit1 et amaritudinem  

semel perceptam etiam ultra rudes annos 
reformidet4--,quintil4  ,the more ,i    
urge my method of letting well alone1   
the more objections ,i perceive against 
it4 ,if your pupil learns nothing from  
you1 he will learn from others4 ,if you 
do not instil truth he will learn       
falsehoods2 the prejudices you fear to  
teach him he will acquire from those    
about him1 they will find their way     
through every one of his senses2 they   
will either corrupt his reason before it
 is fully developed or his mind will    
become torpid through inaction1 and will
 become engrossed in material things4   
,if we do not form the habit of thinking
 as children1 we shall lose the power of
 thinking for the rest of our life4  ,i 
fancy ,i could easily answer that       
objection1 but why should ,i answer     
every objection8 ,if my method itself   
answers your objections1 it is good2 if 
not1 it is good for nothing4 ,i continue
 my explanation4  ,if1 in accordance    
with the plan ,i have sketched1 you     

follow rules which are just the opposite
 of the established practice1 if instead
 of taking your scholar far afield1     
instead of wandering with him in distant
 places1 in far-off lands1 in remote    
centuries1 in the ends of the earth1 and
 in the very heavens themselves1 you try
 to keep him to himself1 to his own     
concerns1 you will then find him able to
 perceive1 to remember1 and even to     
reason2 this is nature's order4  ,as the
 sentient being becomes active his      
discernment develops along with his     
strength4 ,not till his strength is in  
excess of what is needed for            
self-preservation1 is the speculative   
faculty developed1 the faculty adapted  
for using this superfluous strength for 
other purposes4 ,would you cultivate    
your pupil's intelligence1 cultivate the
 strength it is meant to control4 ,give 
his body constant exercise1 make it     
strong and healthy1 in order to make him
 good and wise2 let him work1 let him do
 things1 let him run and shout1 let him 

be always on the go2 make a man of him  
in strength1 and he will soon be a man  
in reason4  ,of course by this method   
you will make him stupid if you are     
always giving him directions1 always    
saying come here1 go there1 stop1 do    
this1 don't do that4 ,if your head      
always guides his hands1 his own mind   
will become useless4 ,but remember the  
conditions we laid down2 if you are a   
mere pedant it is not worth your while  
to read my book4  ,it is a lamentable   
mistake to imagine that bodily activity 
hinders the working of the mind1 as if  
these two kinds of activity ought not to
 advance hand in hand1 and as if the one
 were not intended to act as guide to   
the other4  ,there are two classes of   
men who are constantly engaged in bodily
 activity1 peasants and savages1 and    
certainly neither of these pays the     
least attention to the cultivation of   
the mind4 ,peasants are rough1 coarse1  
and clumsy2 savages are noted1 not only 
for their keen senses1 but for great    

subtility of mind4 ,speaking generally1 
there is nothing duller than a peasant  
or sharper than a savage4 ,what is the  
cause of this difference8 ,the peasant  
has always done as he was told1 what his
 father did before him1 what he himself 
has always done2 he is the creature of  
habit1 he spends his life almost like an
 automaton on the same tasks2 habit and 
obedience have taken the place of       
reason4  ,the case of the savage is very
 different2 he is tied to no one place1 
he has no prescribed task1 no superior  
to obey1 he knows no law but his own    
will2 he is therefore forced to reason  
at every step he takes4 ,he can neither 
move nor walk without considering the   
consequences4 ,thus the more his body is
 exercised1 the more alert is his mind2 
his strength and his reason increase    
together1 and each helps to develop the 
other4  ,oh1 learned tutor1 let us see  
which of our two scholars is most like  
the savage and which is most like the   
peasant4 ,your scholar is subject to a  

power which is continually giving him   
instruction2 he acts only at the word of
 command2 he dare not eat when he is    
hungry1 nor laugh when he is merry1 nor 
weep when he is sad1 nor offer one hand 
rather than the other1 nor stir a foot  
unless he is told to do it2 before long 
he will not venture to breathe without  
orders4 ,what would you have him think  
about1 when you do all the thinking for 
him8 ,he rests securely on your         
foresight1 why should he think for      
himself8 ,he knows you have undertaken  
to take care of him1 to secure his      
welfare1 and he feels himself freed from
 this responsibility4  ,his judgment    
relies on yours2 what you have not      
forbidden that he does1 knowing that he 
runs no risk4 ,why should he learn the  
signs of rain8 ,he knows you watch the  
clouds for him4 ,why should he time his 
walk8 ,he knows there is no fear of your
 letting him miss his dinner hour4 ,he  
eats till you tell him to stop1 he stops
 when you tell him to do so2 he does not

 attend to the teaching of his own      
stomach1 but yours4 ,in vain do you make
 his body soft by inaction2 his         
understanding does not become subtle4   
,far from it1 you complete your task of 
discrediting reason in his eyes1 by     
making him use such reasoning power as  
he has on the things which seem of least
 importance to him4 ,as he never finds  
his reason any use to him1 he decides at
 last that it is useless4 ,if he reasons
 badly he will be found fault with2     
nothing worse will happen to him2 and he
 has been found fault with so often that
 he pays no attention to it1 such a     
common danger no longer alarms him4     
,yet you will find he has a mind4 ,he is
 quick enough to chatter with the women 
in the way ,i spoke of further back2 but
 if he is in danger1 if he must come to 
a decision in difficult circumstances1  
you will find him a hundredfold more    
stupid and silly than the son of the    
roughest labourer4  ,as for my pupil1 or
 rather ,nature's pupil1 he has been    

trained from the outset to be as        
self-reliant as possible1 he has not    
formed the habit of constantly seeking  
help from others1 still less of         
displaying his stores of learning4 ,on  
the other hand1 he exercises            
discrimination and forethought1 he      
reasons about everything that concerns  
himself4 ,he does not chatter1 he acts4 
,not a word does he know of what is     
going on in the world at large1 but he  
knows very thoroughly what affects      
himself4 ,as he is always stirring he is
 compelled to notice many things1 to    
recognise many effects2 he soon acquires
 a good deal of experience4 ,nature1 not
 man1 is his schoolmaster1 and he learns
 all the quicker because he is not aware
 that he has any lesson to learn4 ,so   
mind and body work together4 ,he is     
always carrying out his own ideas1 not  
those of other people1 and thus he      
unites thought and action2 as he grows  
in health and strength he grows in      
wisdom and discernment4 ,this is the way

 to attain later on to what is generally
 considered incompatible1 though most   
great men have achieved it1 strength of 
body and strength of mind1 the reason of
 the philosopher and the vigour of the  
athlete4  ,young teacher1 ,i am setting 
before you a difficult task1 the art of 
controlling without precepts1 and doing 
everything without doing anything at    
all4 ,this art is1 ,i confess1 beyond   
your years1 it is not calculated to     
display your talents nor to make your   
value known to your scholar's parents2  
but it is the only road to success4 ,you
 will never succeed in making wise men  
if you do not first make little imps of 
mischief4 ,this was the education of the
 ,spartans2 they were not taught to     
stick to their books1 they were set to  
steal their dinners4 ,were they any the 
worse for it in after life8 ,ever ready 
for victory1 they crushed their foes in 
every kind of warfare1 and the prating  
,athenians were as much afraid of their 
words as of their blows4  ,when         

education is most carefully attended to1
 the teacher issues his orders and      
thinks himself master1 but it is the    
child who is really master4 ,he uses the
 tasks you set him to obtain what he    
wants from you1 and he can always make  
you pay for an hour's industry by a     
week's complaisance4 ,you must always be
 making bargains with him4  ,these      
bargains1 suggested in your fashion1 but
 carried out in his1 always follow the  
direction of his own fancies1 especially
 when you are foolish enough to make the
 condition some advantage he is almost  
sure to obtain1 whether he fulfils his  
part of the bargain or not4  ,the child 
is usually much quicker to read the     
master's thoughts than the master to    
read the child's feelings4 ,and that is 
as it should be1 for all the sagacity   
which the child would have devoted to   
self-preservation1 had he been left to  
himself1 is now devoted to the rescue of
 his native freedom from the chains of  
his tyrant2 while the latter1 who has no

 such pressing need to understand the   
child1 sometimes finds that it pays him 
better to leave him in idleness or      
vanity4  ,take the opposite course with 
your pupil2 let him always think he is  
master while you are really master4     
,there is no subjection so complete as  
that which preserves the forms of       
freedom2 it is thus that the will itself
 is taken captive4 ,is not this poor    
child1 without knowledge1 strength1 or  
wisdom1 entirely at your mercy8 ,are you
 not master of his whole environment so 
far as it affects him8 ,cannot you make 
of him what you please8 ,his work and   
play1 his pleasure and pain1 are they   
not1 unknown to him1 under your control8
 ,no doubt he ought only to do what he  
wants1 but he ought to want to do       
nothing but what you want him to do4 ,he
 should never take a step you have not  
foreseen1 nor utter a word you could not
 foretell4  ,then he can devote himself 
to the bodily exercises adapted to his  
age without brutalising his mind2       

instead of developing his cunning to    
evade an unwelcome control1 you will    
then find him entirely occupied in      
getting the best he can out of his      
environment with a view to his present  
welfare1 and you will be surprised by   
the subtlety of the means he devises to 
get for himself such things as he can   
obtain1 and to really enjoy things      
without the aid of other people's ideas4
 ,you leave him master of his own       
wishes1 but you do not multiply his     
caprices4 ,when he only does what he    
wants1 he will soon only do what he     
ought1 and although his body is         
constantly in motion1 so far as his     
sensible and present interests are      
concerned1 you will find him developing 
all the reason of which he is capable1  
far better and in a manner much better  
fitted for him than in purely           
theoretical studies4  ,thus when he does
 not find you continually thwarting him1
 when he no longer distrusts you1 no    
longer has anything to conceal from you1

 he will neither tell you lies nor      
deceive you2 he will show himself       
fearlessly as he really is1 and you can 
study him at your ease1 and surround him
 with all the lessons you would have him
 learn1 without awaking his suspicions4 
,neither will he keep a curious and     
jealous eye on your own conduct1 nor    
take a secret delight in catching you at
 fault4 ,it is a great thing to avoid   
this4 ,one of the child's first objects 
is1 as ,i have said1 to find the weak   
spots in its rulers4 ,though this leads 
to spitefulness1 it does not arise from 
it1 but from the desire to evade a      
disagreeable control4 ,overburdened by  
the yoke laid upon him1 he tries to     
shake it off1 and the faults he finds in
 his master give him a good opportunity 
for this4 ,still the habit of spying out
 faults and delighting in them grows    
upon people4 ,clearly we have stopped   
another of the springs of vice in       
,emile's heart4 ,having nothing to gain 
from my faults1 he will not be on the   

watch for them1 nor will he be tempted  
to look out for the faults of others4   
,all these methods seem difficult       
because they are new to us1 but they    
ought not to be really difficult4 ,i    
have a right to assume that you have the
 knowledge required for the business you
 have chosen2 that you know the usual   
course of development of the human      
thought1 that you can study mankind and 
man1 that you know beforehand the effect
 on your pupil's will of the various    
objects suited to his age which you put 
before him4 ,you have the tools and the 
art to use them2 are you not master of  
your trade8  ,you speak of childish     
caprice2 you are mistaken4 ,children's  
caprices are never the work of nature1  
but of bad discipline2 they have either 
obeyed or given orders1 and ,i have said
 again and again1 they must do neither4 
,your pupil will have the caprices you  
have taught him2 it is fair you should  
bear the punishment of your own faults4 
,but how can ,i cure them8 do you say8  

,that may still be done by better       
conduct on your own part and great      
patience4 ,i once undertook the charge  
of a child for a few weeks2 he was      
accustomed not only to have his own way1
 but to make every one else do as he    
pleased2 he was therefore capricious4   
,the very first day he wanted to get up 
at midnight1 to try how far he could go 
with me4 ,when ,i was sound asleep he   
jumped out of bed1 got his              
dressing-gown1 and waked me up4  ,i got 
up and lighted the candle1 which was all
 he wanted4 ,after a quarter of an hour 
he became sleepy and went back to bed   
quite satisfied with his experiment4    
,two days later he repeated it1 with the
 same success and with no sign of       
impatience on my part4 ,when he kissed  
me as he lay down1 ,i said to him very  
quietly1 ,my little dear1 this is all   
very well1 but do not try it again4 ,his
 curiosity was aroused by this1 and the 
very next day he did not fail to get up 
at the same time and woke me to see     

whether ,i should dare to disobey him4  
,i asked what he wanted1 and he told me 
he could not sleep4 ,so much the worse  
for you1 ,i replied1 and ,i lay quiet4  
,he seemed perplexed by this way of     
speaking4 ,he felt his way to the flint 
and steel and tried to strike a light4  
,i could not help laughing when ,i heard
 him strike his fingers4 ,convinced at  
last that he could not manage it1 he    
brought the steel to my bed2 ,i told him
 ,i did not want it1 and ,i turned my   
back to him4 ,then he began to rush     
wildly about the room1 shouting1        
singing1 making a great noise1 knocking 
against chairs and tables1 but taking1  
however1 good care not to hurt himself  
seriously1 but screaming loudly in the  
hope of alarming me4  ,all this had no  
effect1 but ,i perceived that though he 
was prepared for scolding or anger1 he  
was quite unprepared for indifference4  
,however1 he was determined to overcome 
my patience with his own obstinacy1 and 
he continued his racket so successfully 

that at last ,i lost my temper4 ,i      
foresaw that ,i should spoil the whole  
business by an unseemly outburst of     
passion4 ,i determined on another       
course4 ,i got up quietly1 went to the  
tinder box1 but could not find it2 ,i   
asked him for it1 and he gave it me1    
delighted to have won the victory over  
me4 ,i struck a light1 lighted the      
candle1 took my young gentleman by the  
hand and led him quietly into an        
adjoining dressing-room with the        
shutters firmly fastened1 and nothing he
 could break4  ,i left him there without
 a light2 then locking him in ,i went   
back to my bed without a word4 ,what a  
noise there was6 ,that was what ,i      
expected1 and took no notice4 ,at last  
the noise ceased2 ,i listened1 heard him
 settling down1 and ,i was quite easy   
about him4 ,next morning ,i entered the 
room at daybreak1 and my little rebel   
was lying on a sofa enjoying a sound and
 much needed sleep after his exertions4 
,the matter did not end there4 ,his     

mother heard that the child had spent a 
great part of the night out of bed4     
,that spoilt the whole thing2 her child 
was as good as dead4 ,finding a good    
chance for revenge1 he pretended to be  
ill1 not seeing that he would gain      
nothing by it4 ,they sent for the       
doctor4 ,unluckily for the mother1 the  
doctor was a practical joker1 and to    
amuse himself with her terrors he did   
his best to increase them4 ,however1 he 
whispered to me1 ,leave it to me1 ,i    
promise to cure the child of wanting to 
be ill for some time to come4 ,as a     
matter of fact he prescribed bed and    
dieting1 and the child was handed over  
to the apothecary4 ,i sighed to see the 
mother cheated on every hand except by  
me1 whom she hated because ,i did not   
deceive her4  ,after pretty severe      
reproaches1 she told me her son was     
delicate1 that he was the sole heir of  
the family1 his life must be preserved  
at all costs1 and she would not have him
 contradicted4 ,in that ,i thoroughly   

agreed with her1 but what she meant by  
contradicting was not obeying him in    
everything4 ,i saw ,i should have to    
treat the mother as ,i had treated the  
son4 ,madam1 ,i said coldly1 ,i do not  
know how to educate the heir to a       
fortune1 and what is more1 ,i do not    
mean to study that art4 ,you can take   
that as settled4 ,i was wanted for some 
days longer1 and the father smoothed    
things over4  ,the mother wrote to the  
tutor to hasten his return1 and the     
child1 finding he got nothing by        
disturbing my rest1 nor yet by being    
ill1 decided at last to get better and  
to go to sleep4  ,you can form no idea  
of the number of similar caprices to    
which the little tyrant had subjected   
his unlucky tutor2 for his education was
 carried on under his mother's eye1 and 
she would not allow her son and heir to 
be disobeyed in anything4 ,whenever he  
wanted to go out1 you must be ready to  
take him1 or rather to follow him1 and  
he always took good care to choose the  

time when he knew his tutor was very    
busy4 ,he wished to exercise the same   
power over me and to avenge himself by  
day for having to leave me in peace at  
night4 ,i gladly agreed and began by    
showing plainly how pleased ,i was to   
give him pleasure2 after that when it   
was a matter of curing him of his       
fancies ,i set about it differently4    
,in the first place1 he must be shown   
that he was in the wrong4 ,this was not 
difficult2 knowing that children think  
only of the present1 ,i took the easy   
advantage which foresight gives2 ,i took
 care to provide him with some indoor   
amusement of which he was very fond4    
,just when he was most occupied with it1
 ,i went and suggested a short walk1 and
 he sent me away4 ,i insisted1 but he   
paid no attention4 ,i had to give in1   
and he took note of this sign of        
submission4  ,the next day it was my    
turn4 ,as ,i expected1 he got tired of  
his occupation2 ,i1 however1 pretended  
to be very busy4 ,that was enough to    

decide him4 ,he came to drag me from my 
work1 to take him at once for a walk4 ,i
 refused2 he persisted4 ,no1 ,i said1   
when ,i did what you wanted1 you taught 
me how to get my own way2 ,i shall not  
go out4 ,very well1 he replied eagerly1 
,i shall go out by myself4 ,as you      
please1 and ,i returned to my work4  ,he
 put on his things rather uneasily when 
he saw ,i did not follow his example4   
,when he was ready he came and made his 
bow2 ,i bowed too2 he tried to frighten 
me with stories of the expeditions he   
was going to make2 to hear him talk you 
would think he was going to the world's 
end4 ,quite unmoved1 ,i wished him a    
pleasant journey4 ,he became more and   
more perplexed4 ,however1 he put a good 
face on it1 and when he was ready to go 
out he told his foot man to follow him4 
,the footman1 who had his instructions1 
replied that he had no time1 and that he
 was busy carrying out my orders1 and he
 must obey me first4 ,for the moment the
 child was taken aback4 ,how could he   

think they would really let him go out  
alone1 him1 who1 in his own eyes1 was   
the most important person in the world1 
who thought that everything in heaven   
and earth was wrapped up in his welfare8
 ,however1 he was beginning to feel his 
weakness1 he perceived that he should   
find himself alone among people who knew
 nothing of him4 ,he saw beforehand the 
risks he would run2 obstinacy alone     
sustained him2 very slowly and          
unwillingly he went downstairs4 ,at last
 he went out into the street1 consoling 
himself a little for the harm that might
 happen to himself1 in the hope that ,i 
should be held responsible for it4      
,this was just what ,i expected4 ,all   
was arranged beforehand1 and as it meant
 some sort of public scene ,i had got   
his father's consent4 ,he had scarcely  
gone a few steps1 when he heard1 first  
on this side then on that1 all sorts of 
remarks about himself4 ,what a pretty   
little gentleman1 neighbour8 ,where is  
he going all alone8 ,he will get lost6  

,i will ask him into our house4 ,take   
care you don't4 ,don't you see he is a  
naughty little boy1 who has been turned 
out of his own house because he is good 
for nothing8 ,you must not stop naughty 
boys2 let him go where he likes4 ,well1 
well2 the good ,god take care of him4 ,i
 should be sorry if anything happened to
 him4 ,a little further on he met some  
young urchins of about his own age who  
teased him and made fun of him4 ,the    
further he got the more difficulties he 
found4 ,alone and unprotected he was at 
the mercy of everybody1 and he found to 
his great surprise that his shoulder    
knot and his gold lace commanded no     
respect4  ,however1 ,i had got a friend 
of mine1 who was a stranger to him1 to  
keep an eye on him4 ,unnoticed by him1  
this friend followed him step by step1  
and in due time he spoke to him4 ,the   
role1 like that of ,sbrigani in         
,pourceaugnac1 required an intelligent  
actor1 and it was played to perfection4 
,without making the child fearful and   

timid by inspiring excessive terror1 he 
made him realise so thoroughly the folly
 of his exploit that in half an hour's  
time he brought him home to me1 ashamed 
and humble1 and afraid to look me in the
 face4  ,to put the finishing touch to  
his discomfiture1 just as he was coming 
in his father came down on his way out  
and met him on the stairs4 ,he had to   
explain where he had been1 and why ,i   
was not with him4 ,footnote3 ,in a case 
like this there is no danger in asking a
 child to tell the truth1 for he knows  
very well that it cannot be hid1 and    
that if he ventured to tell a lie he    
would be found out at once4 ,the poor   
child would gladly have sunk into the   
earth4 ,his father did not take the     
trouble to scold him at length1 but said
 with more severity than ,i should have 
expected1 ,when you want to go out by   
yourself1 you can do so1 but ,i will not
 have a rebel in my house1 so when you  
go1 take good care that you never come  
back4  ,as for me1 ,i received him      

somewhat gravely1 but without blame and 
without mockery1 and for fear he should 
find out we had been playing with him1  
,i declined to take him out walking that
 day4 ,next day ,i was well pleased to  
find that he passed in triumph with me  
through the very same people who had    
mocked him the previous day1 when they  
met him out by himself4 ,you may be sure
 he never threatened to go out without  
me again4  ,by these means and other    
like them ,i succeeded during the short 
time ,i was with him in getting him to  
do everything ,i wanted without bidding 
him or forbidding him to do anything1   
without preaching or exhortation1       
without wearying him with unnecessary   
lessons4 ,so he was pleased when ,i     
spoke to him1 but when ,i was silent he 
was frightened1 for he knew there was   
something amiss1 and he always got his  
lesson from the thing itself4 ,but let  
us return to our subject4  ,the body is 
strengthened by this constant exercise  
under the guidance of nature herself1   

and far from brutalising the mind1 this 
exercise develops in it the only kind of
 reason of which young children are     
capable1 the kind of reason most        
necessary at every age4 ,it teaches us  
how to use our strength1 to perceive the
 relations between our own and          
neighbouring bodies1 to use the natural 
tools1 which are within our reach and   
adapted to our senses4  ,is there       
anything sillier than a child brought up
 indoors under his mother's eye1 who1 in
 his ignorance of weight and resistance1
 tries to uproot a tall tree or pick up 
a rock4 ,the first time ,i found myself 
outside ,geneva ,i tried to catch a     
galloping horse1 and ,i threw stones at 
,mont ,saleve1 two leagues away2 ,i was 
the laughing stock of the whole village1
 and was supposed to be a regular idiot4
  ,at eighteen we are taught in our     
natural philosophy the use of the lever2
 every village boy of twelve knows how  
to use a lever better than the cleverest
 mechanician in the academy4 ,the       

lessons the scholars learn from one     
another in the playground are worth a   
hundredfold more than what they learn in
 the class-room4  ,watch a cat when she 
comes into a room for the first time2   
she goes from place to place1 she sniffs
 about and examines everything1 she is  
never still for a moment2 she is        
suspicious of everything till she has   
examined it and found out what it is4   
,it is the same with the child when he  
begins to walk1 and enters1 so to speak1
 the room of the world around him4 ,the 
only difference is that1 while both use 
sight1 the child uses his hands and the 
cat that subtle sense of smell which    
nature has bestowed upon it4 ,it is this
 instinct1 rightly or wrongly educated1 
which makes children skilful or clumsy1 
quick or slow1 wise or foolish4  ,man's 
primary natural goals are1 therefore1 to
 measure himself against his            
environment1 to discover in every object
 he sees those sensible qualities which 
may concern himself1 so his first study 

is a kind of experimental physics for   
his own preservation4 ,he is turned away
 from this and sent to speculative      
studies before he has found his proper  
place in the world4 ,while his delicate 
and flexible limbs can adjust themselves
 to the bodies upon which they are      
intended to act1 while his senses are   
keen and as yet free from illusions1    
then is the time to exercise both limbs 
and senses in their proper business4    
,it is the time to learn to perceive the
 physical relations between ourselves   
and things4 ,since everything that comes
 into the human mind enters through the 
gates of sense1 man's first reason is a 
reason of sense-experience4 ,it is this 
that serves as a foundation for the     
reason of the intelligence2 our first   
teachers in natural philosophy are our  
feet1 hands1 and eyes4 ,to substitute   
books for them does not teach us to     
reason1 it teaches us to use the reason 
of others rather than our own2 it       
teaches us to believe much and know     

little4  ,before you can practise an art
 you must first get your tools2 and if  
you are to make good use of those tools1
 they must be fashioned sufficiently    
strong to stand use4 ,to learn to think 
we must therefore exercise our limbs1   
our senses1 and our bodily organs1 which
 are the tools of the intellect2 and to 
get the best use out of these tools1 the
 body which supplies us with them must  
be strong and healthy4 ,not only is it  
quite a mistake that true reason is     
developed apart from the body1 but it is
 a good bodily constitution which makes 
the workings of the mind easy and       
correct4  ,while ,i am showing how the  
child's long period of leisure should be
 spent1 ,i am entering into details     
which may seem absurd4 ,you will say1   
,this is a strange sort of education1   
and it is subject to your own criticism1
 for it only teaches what no one needs  
to learn4 ,why spend your time in       
teaching what will come of itself       
without care or trouble8 ,is there any  

child of twelve who is ignorant of all  
you wish to teach your pupil1 while he  
also knows what his master has taught   
him4  ,gentlemen1 you are mistaken4 ,i  
am teaching my pupil an art1 the        
acquirement of which demands much time  
and trouble1 an art which your scholars 
certainly do not possess2 it is the art 
of being ignorant2 for the knowledge of 
any one who only thinks he knows1 what  
he really does know is a very small     
matter4 ,you teach science2 well and    
good2 ,i am busy fashioning the         
necessary tools for its acquisition4    
,once upon a time1 they say the         
,venetians were displaying the treasures
 of the ,cathedral of ,saint ,mark to   
the ,spanish ambassador2 the only       
comment he made was1 ,qui non c'e la    
radice4 ,when ,i see a tutor showing off
 his pupil's learning1 ,i am always     
tempted to say the same to him4  ,every 
one who has considered the manner of    
life among the ancients1 attributes the 
strength of body and mind by which they 

are distinguished from the men of our   
own day to their gymnastic exercises4   
,the stress laid by ,montaigne upon this
 opinion1 shows that it had made a great
 impression on him2 he returns to it    
again and again4 ,speaking of a child's 
education he says1 ,to strengthen the   
mind you must harden the muscles2 by    
training the child to labour you train  
him to suffering2 he must be broken in  
to the hardships of gymnastic exercises 
to prepare him for the hardships of     
dislocations1 colics1 and other bodily  
ills4 ,the philosopher ,locke1 the      
worthy ,rollin1 the learned ,fleury1 the
 pedant ,de ,crouzas1 differing as they 
do so widely from one another1 are      
agreed in this one matter of sufficient 
bodily exercise for children4 ,this is  
the wisest of their precepts1 and the   
one which is certain to be neglected4 ,i
 have already dwelt sufficiently on its 
importance1 and as better reasons and   
more sensible rules cannot be found than
 those in ,locke's book1 ,i will content

 myself with referring to it1 after     
taking the liberty of adding a few      
remarks of my own4  ,the limbs of a     
growing child should be free to move    
easily in his clothing2 nothing should  
cramp their growth or movement2 there   
should be nothing tight1 nothing fitting
 closely to the body1 no belts of any   
kind4 ,the ,french style of dress1      
uncomfortable and unhealthy for a man1  
is especially bad for children4 ,the    
stagnant humours1 whose circulation is  
interrupted1 putrify in a state of      
inaction1 and this process proceeds more
 rapidly in an inactive and sedentary   
life2 they become corrupt and give rise 
to scurvy2 this disease1 which is       
continually on the increase among us1   
was almost unknown to the ancients1     
whose way of dressing and living        
protected them from it4 ,the hussar's   
dress1 far from correcting this fault1  
increases it1 and compresses the whole  
of the child's body1 by way of          
dispensing with a few bands4 ,the best  

plan is to keep children in frocks as   
long as possible and then to provide    
them with loose clothing1 without trying
 to define the shape which is only      
another way of deforming it4 ,their     
defects of body and mind may all be     
traced to the same source1 the desire to
 make men of them before their time4    
,there are bright colours and dull2     
children like the bright colours best1  
and they suit them better too4 ,i see no
 reason why such natural suitability    
should not be taken into consideration2 
but as soon as they prefer a material   
because it is rich1 their hearts are    
already given over to luxury1 to every  
caprice of fashion1 and this taste is   
certainly not their own4 ,it is         
impossible to say how much education is 
influenced by this choice of clothes1   
and the motives for this choice4 ,not   
only do short-sighted mothers offer     
ornaments as rewards to their children1 
but there are foolish tutors who        
threaten to make their pupils wear the  

plainest and coarsest clothes as a      
punishment4 ,if you do not do your      
lessons better1 if you do not take more 
care of your clothes1 you shall be      
dressed like that little peasant boy4   
,this is like saying to them1           
,understand that clothes make the man4  
,is it to be wondered at that our young 
people profit by such wise teaching1    
that they care for nothing but dress1   
and that they only judge of merit by its
 outside4  ,if ,i had to bring such a   
spoilt child to his senses1 ,i would    
take care that his smartest clothes were
 the most uncomfortable1 that he was    
always cramped1 constrained1 and        
embarrassed in every way2 freedom and   
mirth should flee before his splendour4 
,if he wanted to take part in the games 
of children more simply dressed1 they   
should cease their play and run away4   
,before long ,i should make him so tired
 and sick of his magnificence1 such a   
slave to his gold-laced coat1 that it   
would become the plague of his life1 and

 he would be less afraid to behold the  
darkest dungeon than to see the         
preparations for his adornment4 ,before 
the child is enslaved by our prejudices 
his first wish is always to be free and 
comfortable4 ,the plainest and most     
comfortable clothes1 those which leave  
him most liberty1 are what he always    
likes best4  ,there are habits of body  
suited for an active life and others for
 a sedentary life4 ,the latter leaves   
the humours an equable and uniform      
course1 and the body should be protected
 from changes in temperature2 the former
 is constantly passing from action to   
rest1 from heat to cold1 and the body   
should be inured to these changes4      
,hence people1 engaged in sedentary     
pursuits indoors1 should always be      
warmly dressed1 to keep their bodies as 
nearly as possible at the same          
temperature at all times and seasons4   
,those1 however1 who come and go in sun1
 wind1 and rain1 who take much exercise1
 and spend most of their time out of    

doors1 should always be lightly clad1 so
 as to get used to the changes in the   
air and to every degree of temperature  
without suffering inconvenience4 ,i     
would advise both never to change their 
clothes with the changing seasons1 and  
that would be the invariable habit of my
 pupil ,emile4 ,by this ,i do not mean  
that he should wear his winter clothes  
in summer like many people of sedentary 
habits1 but that he should wear his     
summer clothes in winter like           
hard-working folk4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton  
always did this1 and he lived to be     
eighty4  ,emile should wear little or   
nothing on his head all the year round4 
,the ancient ,egyptians always went     
bareheaded2 the ,persians used to wear  
heavy tiaras and still wear large       
turbans1 which according to ,chardin are
 required by their climate4 ,i have     
remarked elsewhere on the difference    
observed by ,herodotus on a battle-field
 between the skulls of the ,persians and
 those of the ,egyptians4 ,since it is  

desirable that the bones of the skull   
should grow harder and more substantial1
 less fragile and porous1 not only to   
protect the brain against injuries but  
against colds1 fever1 and every         
influence of the air1 you should        
therefore accustom your children to go  
bare-headed winter and summer1 day and  
night4 ,if you make them wear a         
night-cap to keep their hair clean and  
tidy1 let it be thin and transparent    
like the nets with which the ,basques   
cover their hair4 ,i am aware that most 
mothers will be more impressed by       
,chardin's observations than my         
arguments1 and will think that all      
climates are the climate of ,persia1 but
 ,i did not choose a ,european pupil to 
turn him into an ,asiatic4  ,children   
are generally too much wrapped up1      
particularly in infancy4 ,they should be
 accustomed to cold rather than heat2   
great cold never does them any harm1 if 
they are exposed to it soon enough2 but 
their skin is still too soft and tender 

and leaves too free a course for        
perspiration1 so that they are          
inevitably exhausted by excessive heat4 
,it has been observed that infant       
mortality is greatest in ,august4       
,moreover1 it seems certain from a      
comparison of northern and southern     
races that we become stronger by bearing
 extreme cold rather than excessive     
heat4 ,but as the child's body grows    
bigger and his muscles get stronger1    
train him gradually to bear the rays of 
the sun4 ,little by little you will     
harden him till he can face the burning 
heat of the tropics without danger4     
,locke1 in the midst of the manly and   
sensible advice he gives us1 falls into 
inconsistencies one would hardly expect 
in such a careful thinker4 ,the same man
 who would have children take an        
ice-cold bath summer and winter1 will   
not let them drink cold water when they 
are hot1 or lie on damp grass4 ,but he  
would never have their shoes            
water-tight2 and why should they let in 

more water when the child is hot than   
when he is cold1 and may we not draw the
 same inference with regard to the feet 
and body that he draws with regard to   
the hands and feet and the body and     
face8 ,if he would have a man all face1 
why blame me if ,i would have him all   
feet8  ,to prevent children drinking    
when they are hot1 he says they should  
be trained to eat a piece of bread      
first4 ,it is a strange thing to make a 
child eat because he is thirsty2 ,i     
would as soon give him a drink when he  
is hungry4 ,you will never convince me  
that our first instincts are so         
ill-regulated that we cannot satisfy    
them without endangering our lives4     
,were that so1 the man would have       
perished over and over again before he  
had learned how to keep himself alive4  
,whenever ,emile is thirsty let him have
 a drink1 and let him drink fresh water 
just as it is1 not even taking the chill
 off it in the depths of winter and when
 he is bathed in perspiration4 ,the only

 precaution ,i advise is to take care   
what sort of water you give him4  ,if   
the water comes from a river1 give it   
him just as it is2 if it is spring-water
 let it stand a little exposed to the   
air before he drinks it4 ,in warm       
weather rivers are warm2 it is not so   
with springs1 whose water has not been  
in contact with the air4 ,you must wait 
till the temperature of the water is the
 same as that of the air4 ,in winter1 on
 the other hand1 spring water is safer  
than river water4 ,it is1 however1      
unusual and unnatural to perspire       
greatly in winter1 especially in the    
open air1 for the cold air constantly   
strikes the skin and drives the         
perspiration inwards1 and prevents the  
pores opening enough to give it passage4
 ,now ,i do not intend ,emile to take   
his exercise by the fireside in winter1 
but in the open air and among the ice4  
,if he only gets warm with making and   
throwing snowballs1 let him drink when  
he is thirsty1 and go on with his game  

after drinking1 and you need not be     
afraid of any ill effects4 ,and if any  
other exercise makes him perspire let   
him drink cold water even in winter     
provided he is thirsty4 ,only take care 
to take him to get the water some little
 distance away4 ,in such cold as ,i am  
supposing1 he would have cooled down    
sufficiently when he got there to be    
able to drink without danger4 ,above    
all1 take care to conceal these         
precautions from him4 ,i would rather he
 were ill now and then1 than always     
thinking about his health4  ,since      
children take such violent exercise they
 need a great deal of sleep4 ,the one   
makes up for the other1 and this shows  
that both are necessary4 ,night is the  
time set apart by nature for rest4 ,it  
is an established fact that sleep is    
quieter and calmer when the sun is below
 the horizon1 and that our senses are   
less calm when the air is warmed by the 
rays of the sun4 ,so it is certainly the
 healthiest plan to rise with the sun   

and go to bed with the sun4 ,hence in   
our country man and all the other       
animals with him want more sleep in     
winter than in summer4 ,but town life is
 so complex1 so unnatural1 so subject to
 chances and changes1 that it is not    
wise to accustom a man to such          
uniformity that he cannot do without it4
 ,no doubt he must submit to rules2 but 
the chief rule is this--be able to break
 the rule if necessary4 ,so do not be so
 foolish as to soften your pupil by     
letting him always sleep his sleep out4 
,leave him at first to the law of nature
 without any hindrance1 but never forget
 that under our conditions he must rise 
above this law2 he must be able to go to
 bed late and rise early1 be awakened   
suddenly1 or sit up all night without   
ill effects4 ,begin early and proceed   
gently1 a step at a time1 and the       
constitution adapts itself to the very  
conditions which would destroy it if    
they were imposed for the first time on 
the grown man4  ,in the next place he   

must be accustomed to sleep in an       
uncomfortable bed1 which is the best way
 to find no bed uncomfortable4 ,speaking
 generally1 a hard life1 when once we   
have become used to it1 increases our   
pleasant experiences2 an easy life      
prepares the way for innumerable        
unpleasant experiences4 ,those who are  
too tenderly nurtured can only sleep on 
down2 those who are used to sleep on    
bare boards can find them anywhere4     
,there is no such thing as a hard bed   
for the man who falls asleep at once4   
,the body is1 so to speak1 melted and   
dissolved in a soft bed where one sinks 
into feathers and eider-down4 ,the reins
 when too warmly covered become         
inflamed4 ,stone and other diseases are 
often due to this1 and it invariably    
produces a delicate constitution1 which 
is the seed-ground of every ailment4    
,the best bed is that in which we get   
the best sleep4 ,emile and ,i will      
prepare such a bed for ourselves during 
the daytime4 ,we do not need ,persian   

slaves to make our beds2 when we are    
digging the soil we are turning our     
mattresses4 ,i know that a healthy child
 may be made to sleep or wake almost at 
will4 ,when the child is put to bed and 
his nurse grows weary of his chatter1   
she says to him1 ,go to sleep4 ,that is 
much like saying1 ,get well1 when he is 
ill4 ,the right way is to let him get   
tired of himself4 ,talk so much that he 
is compelled to hold his tongue1 and he 
will soon be asleep4 ,here is at least  
one use for sermons1 and you may as well
 preach to him as rock his cradle2 but  
if you use this narcotic at night1 do   
not use it by day4  ,i shall sometimes  
rouse ,emile1 not so much to prevent his
 sleeping too much1 as to accustom him  
to anything--even to waking with a      
start4 ,moreover1 ,i should be unfit for
 my business if ,i could not make him   
wake himself1 and get up1 so to speak1  
at my will1 without being called4  ,if  
he wakes too soon1 ,i shall let him look
 forward to a tedious morning1 so that  

he will count as gain any time he can   
give to sleep4 ,if he sleeps too late ,i
 shall show him some favourite toy when 
he wakes4 ,if ,i want him to wake at a  
given hour ,i shall say1 ,to-morrow at  
six ,i am going fishing1 or ,i shall    
take a walk to such and such a place4   
,would you like to come too8 ,he        
assents1 and begs me to wake him4 ,i    
promise1 or do not promise1 as the case 
requires4 ,if he wakes too late1 he     
finds me gone4 ,there is something amiss
 if he does not soon learn to wake      
himself4  ,moreover1 should it happen1  
though it rarely does1 that a sluggish  
child desires to stagnate in idleness1  
you must not give way to this tendency1 
which might stupefy him entirely1 but   
you must apply some stimulus to wake    
him4 ,you must understand that is no    
question of applying force1 but of      
arousing some appetite which leads to   
action1 and such an appetite1 carefully 
selected on the lines laid down by      
nature1 kills two birds with one stone4 

,if one has any sort of skill1 ,i can   
think of nothing for which a taste1 a   
very passion1 cannot be aroused in      
children1 and that without vanity1      
emulation1 or jealousy4 ,their keenness1
 their spirit of imitation1 is enough of
 itself2 above all1 there is their      
natural liveliness1 of which no teacher 
so far has contrived to take advantage4 
,in every game1 when they are quite sure
 it is only play1 they endure without   
complaint1 or even with laughter1       
hardships which they would not submit to
 otherwise without floods of tears4 ,the
 sports of the young savage involve long
 fasting1 blows1 burns1 and fatigue of  
every kind1 a proof that even pain has a
 charm of its own1 which may remove its 
bitterness4 ,it is not every master1    
however1 who knows how to season this   
dish1 nor can every scholar eat it      
without making faces4 ,however1 ,i must 
take care or ,i shall be wandering off  
again after exceptions4  ,it is not to  
be endured that man should become the   

slave of pain1 disease1 accident1 the   
perils of life1 or even death itself2   
the more familiar he becomes with these 
ideas the sooner he will be cured of    
that over-sensitiveness which adds to   
the pain by impatience in bearing it2   
the sooner he becomes used to the       
sufferings which may overtake him1 the  
sooner he shall1 as ,montaigne has put  
it1 rob those pains of the sting of     
unfamiliarity1 and so make his soul     
strong and invulnerable2 his body will  
be the coat of mail which stops all the 
darts which might otherwise find a vital
 part4 ,even the approach of death1     
which is not death itself1 will scarcely
 be felt as such2 he will not die1 he   
will be1 so to speak1 alive or dead and 
nothing more4 ,montaigne might say of   
him as he did of a certain king of      
,morocco1 ,no man ever prolonged his    
life so far into death4 ,a child serves 
his apprenticeship in courage and       
endurance as well as in other virtues2  
but you cannot teach children these     

virtues by name alone2 they must learn  
them unconsciously through experience4  
,but speaking of death1 what steps shall
 ,i take with regard to my pupil and the
 smallpox8 ,shall he be inoculated in   
infancy1 or shall ,i wait till he takes 
it in the natural course of things8 ,the
 former plan is more in accordance with 
our practice1 for it preserves his life 
at a time when it is of greater value1  
at the cost of some danger when his life
 is of less worth2 if indeed we can use 
the word danger with regard to          
inoculation when properly performed4    
,but the other plan is more in          
accordance with our general             
principles--to leave nature to take the 
precautions she delights in1 precautions
 she abandons whenever man interferes4  
,the natural man is always ready2 let   
nature inoculate him herself1 she will  
choose the fitting occasion better than 
we4  ,do not think ,i am finding fault  
with inoculation1 for my reasons for    
exempting my pupil from it do not in the

 least apply to yours4 ,your training   
does not prepare them to escape catching
 smallpox as soon as they are exposed to
 infection4 ,if you let them take it    
anyhow1 they will probably die4 ,i      
perceive that in different lands the    
resistance to inoculation is in         
proportion to the need for it2 and the  
reason is plain4 ,so ,i scarcely        
condescend to discuss this question with
 regard to ,emile4 ,he will be          
inoculated or not according to time1    
place1 and circumstances2 it is almost a
 matter of indifference1 as far as he is
 concerned4 ,if it gives him smallpox1  
there will be the advantage of knowing  
what to expect1 knowing what the disease
 is2 that is a good thing1 but if he    
catches it naturally it will have kept  
him out of the doctor's hands1 which is 
better4  ,an exclusive education1 which 
merely tends to keep those who have     
received it apart from the mass of      
mankind1 always selects such teaching as
 is costly rather than cheap1 even when 

the latter is of more use4 ,thus all    
carefully educated young men learn to   
ride1 because it is costly1 but scarcely
 any of them learn to swim1 as it costs 
nothing1 and an artisan can swim as well
 as any one4 ,yet without passing       
through the riding school1 the traveller
 learns to mount his horse1 to stick on 
it1 and to ride well enough for         
practical purposes2 but in the water if 
you cannot swim you will drown1 and we  
cannot swim unless we are taught4       
,again1 you are not forced to ride on   
pain of death1 while no one is sure of  
escaping such a common danger as        
drowning4 ,emile shall be as much at    
home in the water as on land4 ,why      
should he not be able to live in every  
element8 ,if he could learn to fly1 he  
should be an eagle2 ,i would make him a 
salamander1 if he could bear the heat4  
,people are afraid lest the child should
 be drowned while he is learning to     
swim2 if he dies while he is learning1  
or if he dies because he has not learnt1

 it will be your own fault4             
,foolhardiness is the result of vanity2 
we are not rash when no one is looking4 
,emile will not be foolhardy1 though all
 the world were watching him4  ,as the  
exercise does not depend on its danger1 
he will learn to swim the ,hellespont by
 swimming1 without any danger1 a stream 
in his father's park2 but he must get   
used to danger too1 so as not to be     
flustered by it4 ,this is an essential  
part of the apprenticeship ,i spoke of  
just now4 ,moreover1 ,i shall take care 
to proportion the danger to his         
strength1 and ,i shall always share it  
myself1 so that ,i need scarcely fear   
any imprudence if ,i take as much care  
for his life as for my own4  ,a child is
 smaller than a man2 he has not the     
man's strength or reason1 but he sees   
and hears as well or nearly as well2 his
 sense of taste is very good1 though he 
is less fastidious1 and he distinguishes
 scents as clearly though less          
sensuously4 ,the senses are the first of

 our faculties to mature2 they are those
 most frequently overlooked or          
neglected4  ,to train the senses it is  
not enough merely to use them2 we must  
learn to judge by their means1 to learn 
to feel1 so to speak2 for we cannot     
touch1 see1 or hear1 except as we have  
been taught4  ,there is a mere natural  
and mechanical use of the senses which  
strengthens the body without improving  
the judgment4 ,it is all very well to   
swim1 run1 jump1 whip a top1 throw      
stones2 but have we nothing but arms and
 legs8 ,have we not eyes and ears as    
well2 and are not these organs necessary
 for the use of the rest8 ,do not merely
 exercise the strength1 exercise all the
 senses by which it is guided2 make the 
best use of every one of them1 and check
 the results of one by the other4       
,measure1 count1 weigh1 compare4 ,do not
 use force till you have estimated the  
resistance2 let the estimation of the   
effect always precede the application of
 the means4 ,get the child interested in

 avoiding insufficient or superfluous   
efforts4 ,if in this way you train him  
to calculate the effects of all his     
movements1 and to correct his mistakes  
by experience1 is it not clear that the 
more he does the wiser he will become8  
,take the case of moving a heavy mass2  
if he takes too long a lever1 he will   
waste his strength2 if it is too short1 
he will not have strength enough2       
experience will teach him to use the    
very stick he needs4 ,this knowledge is 
not beyond his years4 ,take1 for        
example1 a load to be carried2 if he    
wants to carry as much as he can1 and   
not to take up more than he can carry1  
must he not calculate the weight by the 
appearance8 ,does he know how to compare
 masses of like substance and different 
size1 or to choose between masses of the
 same size and different substances8 ,he
 must set to work to compare their      
specific weights4 ,i have seen a young  
man1 very highly educated1 who could not
 be convinced1 till he had tried it1    

that a bucket full of blocks of oak     
weighed less than the same bucket full  
of water4  ,all our senses are not      
equally under our control4 ,one of them1
 touch1 is always busy during our waking
 hours2 it is spread over the whole     
surface of the body1 like a sentinel    
ever on the watch to warn us of anything
 which may do us harm4 ,whether we will 
or not1 we learn to use it first of all 
by experience1 by constant practice1 and
 therefore we have less need for special
 training for it4 ,yet we know that the 
blind have a surer and more delicate    
sense of touch than we1 for not being   
guided by the one sense1 they are forced
 to get from the touch what we get from 
sight4 ,why1 then1 are not we trained to
 walk as they do in the dark1 to        
recognise what we touch1 to distinguish 
things about us2 in a word1 to do at    
night and in the dark what they do in   
the daytime without sight8 ,we are      
better off than they while the sun      
shines2 in the dark it is their turn to 

be our guide4 ,we are blind half our    
time1 with this difference3 the really  
blind always know what to do1 while we  
are afraid to stir in the dark4 ,we have
 lights1 you say4 ,what always          
artificial aids4 ,who can insure that   
they will always be at hand when        
required4 ,i had rather ,emil's eyes    
were in his finger tips1 than in the    
chandler's shop4  ,if you are shut up in
 a building at night1 clap your hands1  
you will know from the sound whether the
 space is large or small1 if you are in 
the middle or in one corner4 ,half a    
foot from a wall the air1 which is      
refracted and does not circulate freely1
 produces a different effect on your    
face4 ,stand still in one place and turn
 this way and that2 a slight draught    
will tell you if there is a door open4  
,if you are on a boat you will perceive 
from the way the air strikes your face  
not merely the direction in which you   
are going1 but whether the current is   
bearing you slow or fast4 ,these        

observations and many others like them  
can only be properly made at night2     
however much attention we give to them  
by daylight1 we are always helped or    
hindered by sight1 so that the results  
escape us4  ,yet here we use neither    
hand nor stick4 ,how much may be learnt 
by touch1 without ever touching         
anything6  ,i would have plenty of games
 in the dark6 ,this suggestion is more  
valuable than it seems at first sight4  
,men are naturally afraid of the dark2  
so are some animals4 ,footnote3 ,this   
terror is very noticeable during great  
eclipses of the sun4 ,only a few men are
 freed from this burden by knowledge1   
determination1 and courage4 ,i have seen
 thinkers1 unbelievers1 philosophers1   
exceedingly brave by daylight1 tremble  
like women at the rustling of a leaf in 
the dark4  ,this terror is put down to  
nurses' tales2 this is a mistake2 it has
 a natural cause4 ,what is this cause8  
,what makes the deaf suspicious and the 
lower classes superstitious8 ,ignorance 

of the things about us1 and of what is  
taking place around us4 ,footnote3      
,another cause has been well explained  
by a philosopher1 often quoted in this  
work1 a philosopher to whose wide views 
,i am very greatly indebted4  ,when     
under special conditions we cannot form 
a fair idea of distance1 when we can    
only judge things by the size of the    
angle or rather of the image formed in  
our eyes1 we cannot avoid being deceived
 as to the size of these objects4 ,every
 one knows by experience how when we are
 travelling at night we take a bush near
 at hand for a great tree at a distance1
 and vice versa4 ,in the same way1 if   
the objects were of a shape unknown to  
us1 so that we could not tell their size
 in that way1 we should be equally      
mistaken with regard to it4 ,if a fly   
flew quickly past a few inches from our 
eyes1 we should think it was a distant  
bird2 a horse standing still at a       
distance from us in the midst of open   
country1 in a position somewhat like    

that of a sheep1 would be taken for a   
large sheep1 so long as we did not      
perceive that it was a horse2 but as    
soon as we recognise what it is1 it     
seems as large as a horse1 and we at    
once correct our former judgment4       
,whenever one finds oneself in unknown  
places at night where we cannot judge of
 distance1 and where we cannot recognise
 objects by their shape on account of   
the darkness1 we are in constant danger 
of forming mistaken judgments as to the 
objects which present themselves to our 
notice4 ,hence that terror1 that kind of
 inward fear experienced by most people 
on dark nights4 ,this is foundation for 
the supposed appearances of spectres1 or
 gigantic and terrible forms which so   
many people profess to have seen4 ,they 
are generally told that they imagined   
these things1 yet they may really have  
seen them1 and it is quite possible they
 really saw what they say they did see2 
for it will always be the case that when
 we can only estimate the size of an    

object by the angle it forms in the eye1
 that object will swell and grow as we  
approach it2 and if the spectator       
thought it several feet high when it was
 thirty or forty feet away1 it will seem
 very large indeed when it is a few feet
 off2 this must indeed astonish and     
alarm the spectator until he touches it 
and perceives what it is1 for as soon as
 he perceives what it is1 the object    
which seemed so gigantic will suddenly  
shrink and assume its real size1 but if 
we run away or are afraid to approach1  
we shall certainly form no other idea of
 the thing than the image formed in the 
eye1 and we shall have really seen a    
gigantic figure of alarming size and    
shape4 ,there is1 therefore1 a natural  
ground for the tendency to see ghosts1  
and these appearances are not merely the
 creation of the imagination1 as the men
 of science would have us               
think4--,buffon1 ,nat4 ,hist4  ,in the  
text ,i have tried to show that they are
 always partly the creation of the      

imagination1 and with regard to the     
cause explained in this quotation1 it is
 clear that the habit of walking by     
night should teach us to distinguish    
those appearances which similarity of   
form and diversity of distance lend to  
the objects seen in the dark4  ,for if  
the air is light enough for us to see   
the outlines there must be more air     
between us and them when they are       
further off1 so that we ought to see    
them less distinctly when further off1  
which should be enough1 when we are used
 to it1 to prevent the error described  
by ,m4 ,buffon4 ,whichever explanation  
you prefer1 my mode of procedure is     
still efficacious1 and experience       
entirely confirms it4 ,accustomed to    
perceive things from a distance and to  
calculate their effects1 how can ,i help
 supposing1 when ,i cannot see1 that    
there are hosts of creatures and all    
sorts of movements all about me which   
may do me harm1 and against which ,i    
cannot protect myself8 ,in vain do ,i   

know ,i am safe where ,i am2 ,i am never
 so sure of it as when ,i can actually  
see it1 so that ,i have always a cause  
for fear which did not exist in broad   
daylight4 ,i know1 indeed1 that a       
foreign body can scarcely act upon me   
without some slight sound1 and how      
intently ,i listen6 ,at the least sound 
which ,i cannot explain1 the desire of  
self-preservation makes me picture      
everything that would put me on my      
guard1 and therefore everything most    
calculated to alarm me4  ,i am just as  
uneasy if ,i hear no sound1 for ,i might
 be taken unawares without a sound4 ,i  
must picture things as they were before1
 as they ought to be2 ,i must see what  
,i do not see4 ,thus driven to exercise 
my imagination1 it soon becomes my      
master1 and what ,i did to reassure     
myself only alarms me more4 ,i hear a   
noise1 it is a robber2 ,i hear nothing1 
it is a ghost4 ,the watchfulness        
inspired by the instinct of             
self-preservation only makes me more    

afraid4  ,everything that ought to      
reassure me exists only for my reason1  
and the voice of instinct is louder than
 that of reason4 ,what is the good of   
thinking there is nothing to be afraid  
of1 since in that case there is nothing 
we can do8  ,the cause indicates the    
cure4 ,in everything habit overpowers   
imagination2 it is only aroused by what 
is new4 ,it is no longer imagination1   
but memory which is concerned with what 
we see every day1 and that is the reason
 of the maxim1 ,ab assuetis non fit     
passio1 for it is only at the flame of  
imagination that the passions are       
kindled4 ,therefore do not argue with   
any one whom you want to cure of the    
fear of darkness2 take him often into   
dark places and be assured this practice
 will be of more avail than all the     
arguments of philosophy4 ,the tiler on  
the roof does not know what it is to be 
dizzy1 and those who are used to the    
dark will not be afraid4  ,there is     
another advantage to be gained from our 

games in the dark4 ,but if these games  
are to be a success ,i cannot speak too 
strongly of the need for gaiety4        
,nothing is so gloomy as the dark3 do   
not shut your child up in a dungeon1 let
 him laugh when he goes1 into a dark    
place1 let him laugh when he comes out1 
so that the thought of the game he is   
leaving and the games he will play next 
may protect him from the fantastic      
imagination which might lay hold on him4
  ,there comes a stage in life beyond   
which we progress backwards4 ,i feel ,i 
have reached this stage4 ,i am1 so to   
speak1 returning to a past career4 ,the 
approach of age makes us recall the     
happy days of our childhood4 ,as ,i grow
 old ,i become a child again1 and ,i    
recall more readily what ,i did at ten  
than at thirty4 ,reader1 forgive me if  
,i sometimes draw my examples from my   
own experience4 ,if this book is to be  
well written1 ,i must enjoy writing it4 
,i was living in the country with a     
pastor called ,m4 ,lambercier4 ,my      

companion was a cousin richer than      
myself1 who was regarded as the heir to 
some property1 while ,i1 far from my    
father1 was but a poor orphan4 ,my big  
cousin ,bernard was unusually timid1    
especially at night4 ,i laughed at his  
fears1 till ,m4 ,lambercier was tired of
 my boasting1 and determined to put my  
courage to the proof4 ,one autumn       
evening1 when it was very dark1 he gave 
me the church key1 and told me to go and
 fetch a ,bible he had left in the      
pulpit4 ,to put me on my mettle he said 
something which made it impossible for  
me to refuse4  ,i set out without a     
light2 if ,i had had one1 it would      
perhaps have been even worse4 ,i had to 
pass through the graveyard2 ,i crossed  
it bravely1 for as long as ,i was in the
 open air ,i was never afraid of the    
dark4  ,as ,i opened the door ,i heard a
 sort of echo in the roof2 it sounded   
like voices and it began to shake my    
,roman courage4 ,having opened the door 
,i tried to enter1 but when ,i had gone 

a few steps ,i stopped4 ,at the sight of
 the profound darkness in which the vast
 building lay ,i was seized with terror 
and my hair stood on end4 ,i turned1 ,i 
went out through the door1 and took to  
my heels4 ,in the yard ,i found a little
 dog1 called ,sultan1 whose caresses    
reassured me4 ,ashamed of my fears1 ,i  
retraced my steps1 trying to take       
,sultan with me1 but he refused to      
follow4 ,hurriedly ,i opened the door   
and entered the church4 ,i was hardly   
inside when terror again got hold of me 
and so firmly that ,i lost my head1 and 
though the pulpit was on the right1 as  
,i very well knew1 ,i sought it on the  
left1 and entangling myself among the   
benches ,i was completely lost4 ,unable 
to find either pulpit or door1 ,i fell  
into an indescribable state of mind4 ,at
 last ,i found the door and managed to  
get out of the church and run away as ,i
 had done before1 quite determined never
 to enter the church again except in    
broad daylight4  ,i returned to the     

house2 on the doorstep ,i heard ,m4     
,lambercier laughing1 laughing1 as ,i   
supposed1 at me4 ,ashamed to face his   
laughter1 ,i was hesitating to open the 
door1 when ,i heard ,miss ,lambercier1  
who was anxious about me1 tell the maid 
to get the lantern1 and ,m4 ,lambercier 
got ready to come and look for me1      
escorted by my gallant cousin1 who would
 have got all the credit for the        
expedition4 ,all at once my fears       
departed1 and left me merely surprised  
at my terror4 ,i ran1 ,i fairly flew1 to
 the church2 without losing my way1     
without groping about1 ,i reached the   
pulpit1 took the ,bible1 and ran down   
the steps4 ,in three strides ,i was out 
of the church1 leaving the door open4   
,breathless1 ,i entered the room and    
threw the ,bible on the table1          
frightened indeed1 but throbbing with   
pride that ,i had done it without the   
proposed assistance4  ,you will ask if  
,i am giving this anecdote as an        
example1 and as an illustration1 of the 

mirth which ,i say should accompany     
these games4  ,not so1 but ,i give it as
 a proof that there is nothing so well  
calculated to reassure any one who is   
afraid in the dark as to hear sounds of 
laughter and talking in an adjoining    
room4 ,instead of playing alone with    
your pupil in the evening1 ,i would have
 you get together a number of merry     
children2 do not send them alone to     
begin with1 but several together1 and do
 not venture to send any one quite      
alone1 until you are quite certain      
beforehand that he will not be too      
frightened4  ,i can picture nothing more
 amusing and more profitable than such  
games1 considering how little skill is  
required to organise them4 ,in a large  
room ,i should arrange a sort of        
labyrinth of tables1 armchairs1 chairs1 
and screens4 ,in the inextricable       
windings of this labyrinth ,i should    
place some eight or ten sham boxes1 and 
one real box almost exactly like them1  
but well filled with sweets4 ,i should  

describe clearly and briefly the place  
where the right box would be found4 ,i  
should give instructions sufficient to  
enable people more attentive and less   
excitable than children to find it4     
,footnote3 ,to practise them in         
attention1 only tell them things which  
it is clearly to their present interest 
that they should understand thoroughly2 
above all be brief1 never say a word    
more than necessary4 ,but neither let   
your speech be obscure nor of doubtful  
meaning4 ,then having made the little   
competitors draw lots1 ,i should send   
first one and then another till the     
right box was found4  ,i should increase
 the difficulty of the task in          
proportion to their skill4  ,picture to 
yourself a youthful ,hercules returning1
 box in hand1 quite proud of his        
expedition4 ,the box is placed on the   
table and opened with great ceremony4 ,i
 can hear the bursts of laughter and the
 shouts of the merry party when1 instead
 of the looked-for sweets1 he finds1    

neatly arranged on moss or cotton-wool1 
a beetle1 a snail1 a bit of coal1 a few 
acorns1 a turnip1 or some such thing4   
,another time in a newly whitewashed    
room1 a toy or some small article of    
furniture would be hung on the wall and 
the children would have to fetch it     
without touching the wall4 ,when the    
child who fetches it comes back1 if he  
has failed ever so little to fulfil the 
conditions1 a dab of white on the brim  
of his cap1 the tip of his shoe1 the    
flap of his coat or his sleeve1 will    
betray his lack of skill4  ,this is     
enough1 or more than enough1 to show the
 spirit of these games4 ,do not read my 
book if you expect me to tell you       
everything4  ,what great advantages     
would be possessed by a man so educated1
 when compared with others4 ,his feet   
are accustomed to tread firmly in the   
dark1 and his hands to touch lightly2   
they will guide him safely in the       
thickest darkness4 ,his imagination is  
busy with the evening games of his      

childhood1 and will find it difficult to
 turn towards objects of alarm4 ,if he  
thinks he hears laughter1 it will be the
 laughter of his former playfellows1 not
 of frenzied spirits2 if he thinks there
 is a host of people1 it will not be the
 witches' sabbath1 but the party in his 
tutor's study4 ,night only recalls these
 cheerful memories1 and it will never   
alarm him2 it will inspire delight      
rather than fear4 ,he will be ready for 
a military expedition at any hour1 with 
or without his troop4 ,he will enter the
 camp of ,saul1 he will find his way1 he
 will reach the king's tent without     
waking any one1 and he will return      
unobserved4 ,are the steeds of ,rhesus  
to be stolen1 you may trust him4 ,you   
will scarcely find a ,ulysses among men 
educated in any other fashion4  ,i have 
known people who tried to train the     
children not to fear the dark by        
startling them4 ,this is a very bad     
plan2 its effects are just the opposite 
of those desired1 and it only makes     

children more timid4 ,neither reason nor
 habit can secure us from the fear of a 
present danger whose degree and kind are
 unknown1 nor from the fear of surprises
 which we have often experienced4 ,yet  
how will you make sure that you can     
preserve your pupil from such accidents8
 ,i consider this the best advice to    
give him beforehand4 ,i should say to   
,emile1 ,this is a matter of            
self-defence1 for the aggressor does not
 let you know whether he means to hurt  
or frighten you1 and as the advantage is
 on his side you cannot even take refuge
 in flight4  ,therefore seize boldly    
anything1 whether man or beast1 which   
takes you unawares in the dark4 ,grasp  
it1 squeeze it with all your might2 if  
it struggles1 strike1 and do not spare  
your blows2 and whatever he may say or  
do1 do not let him go till you know just
 who he is4  ,the event will probably   
prove that you had little to be afraid  
of1 but this way of treating practical  
jokers would naturally prevent their    

trying it again4  ,although touch is the
 sense oftenest used1 its discrimination
 remains1 as ,i have already pointed    
out1 coarser and more imperfect than    
that of any other sense1 because we     
always use sight along with it2 the eye 
perceives the thing first1 and the mind 
almost always judges without the hand4  
,on the other hand1 discrimination by   
touch is the surest just because of its 
limitations2 for extending only as far  
as our hands can reach1 it corrects the 
hasty judgments of the other senses1    
which pounce upon objects scarcely      
perceived1 while what we learn by touch 
is learnt thoroughly4 ,moreover1 touch1 
when required1 unites the force of our  
muscles to the action of the nerves2 we 
associate by simultaneous sensations our
 ideas of temperature1 size1 and shape1 
to those of weight and density4 ,thus   
touch is the sense which best teaches us
 the action of foreign bodies upon      
ourselves1 the sense which most directly
 supplies us with the knowledge required

 for self-preservation4  ,as the trained
 touch takes the place of sight1 why    
should it not1 to some extent1 take the 
place of hearing1 since sounds set up1  
in sonorous bodies1 vibrations          
perceptible by touch8 ,by placing the   
hand on the body of a 'cello one can    
distinguish without the use of eye or   
ear1 merely by the way in which the wood
 vibrates and trembles1 whether the     
sound given out is sharp or flat1       
whether it is drawn from the treble     
string or the bass4 ,if our touch were  
trained to note these differences1 no   
doubt we might in time become so        
sensitive as to hear a whole tune by    
means of our fingers4 ,but if we admit  
this1 it is clear that one could easily 
speak to the deaf by means of music2 for
 tone and measure are no less capable of
 regular combination than voice and     
articulation1 so that they might be used
 as the elements of speech4  ,there are 
exercises by which the sense of touch is
 blunted and deadened1 and others which 

sharpen it and make it delicate and     
discriminating4 ,the former1 which      
employ much movement and force for the  
continued impression of hard bodies1    
make the skin hard and thick1 and       
deprive it of its natural sensitiveness4
 ,the latter are those which give       
variety to this feeling1 by slight and  
repeated contact1 so that the mind is   
attentive to constantly recurring       
impressions1 and readily learns to      
discern their variations4 ,this         
difference is clear in the use of       
musical instruments4 ,the harsh and     
painful touch of the 'cello1 bass-viol1 
and even of the violin1 hardens the     
finger-tips1 although it gives          
flexibility to the fingers4 ,the soft   
and smooth touch of the harpsichord     
makes the fingers both flexible and     
sensitive4 ,in this respect the         
harpsichord is to be preferred4  ,the   
skin protects the rest of the body1 so  
it is very important to harden it to the
 effects of the air that it may be able 

to bear its changes4 ,with regard to    
this ,i may say ,i would not have the   
hand roughened by too servile           
application to the same kind of work1   
nor should the skin of the hand become  
hardened so as to lose its delicate     
sense of touch which keeps the body     
informed of what is going on1 and by the
 kind of contact sometimes makes us     
shudder in different ways even in the   
dark4  ,why should my pupil be always   
compelled to wear the skin of an ox     
under his foot8 ,what harm would come of
 it if his own skin could serve him at  
need as a sole4 ,it is clear that a     
delicate skin could never be of any use 
in this way1 and may often do harm4 ,the
 ,genevese1 aroused at midnight by their
 enemies in the depth of winter1 seized 
their guns rather than their shoes4 ,who
 can tell whether the town would have   
escaped capture if its citizens had not 
been able to go barefoot8  ,let a man be
 always fore-armed against the          
unforeseen4 ,let ,emile run about       

barefoot all the year round1 upstairs1  
downstairs1 and in the garden4 ,far from
 scolding him1 ,i shall follow his      
example2 only ,i shall be careful to    
remove any broken glass4 ,i shall soon  
proceed to speak of work and manual     
occupations4 ,meanwhile1 let him learn  
to perform every exercise which         
encourages agility of body2 let him     
learn to hold himself easily and        
steadily in any position1 let him       
practise jumping and leaping1 climbing  
trees and walls4 ,let him always find   
his balance1 and let his every movement 
and gesture be regulated by the laws of 
weight1 long before he learns to explain
 them by the science of statics4 ,by the
 way his foot is planted on the ground1 
and his body supported on his leg1 he   
ought to know if he is holding himself  
well or ill4 ,an easy carriage is always
 graceful1 and the steadiest positions  
are the most elegant4 ,if ,i were a     
dancing master ,i would refuse to play  
the monkey tricks of ,marcel1 which are 

only fit for the stage where they are   
performed2 but instead of keeping my    
pupil busy with fancy steps1 ,i would   
take him to the foot of a cliff4 ,there 
,i would show him how to hold himself1  
how to carry his body and head1 how to  
place first a foot then a hand1 to      
follow lightly the steep1 toilsome1 and 
rugged paths1 to leap from point to     
point1 either up or down4 ,he should    
emulate the mountain-goat1 not the      
ballet dancer4  ,as touch confines its  
operations to the man's immediate       
surroundings1 so sight extends its range
 beyond them2 it is this which makes it 
misleading2 man sees half his horizon at
 a glance4 ,in the midst of this host of
 simultaneous impressions and the       
thoughts excited by them1 how can he    
fail now and then to make mistakes8     
,thus sight is the least reliable of our
 senses1 just because it has the widest 
range2 it functions long before our     
other senses1 and its work is too hasty 
and on too large a scale to be corrected

 by the rest4 ,moreover1 the very       
illusions of perspective are necessary  
if we are to arrive at a knowledge of   
space and compare one part of space with
 another4 ,without false appearances we 
should never see anything at a distance2
 without the gradations of size and tone
 we could not judge of distance1 or     
rather distance would have no existence 
for us4 ,if two trees1 one of which was 
a hundred paces from us and the other   
ten1 looked equally large and distinct1 
we should think they were side by side4 
,if we perceived the real dimensions of 
things1 we should know nothing of space2
 everything would seem close to our     
eyes4  ,the angle formed between any    
objects and our eye is the only means by
 which our sight estimates their size   
and distance1 and as this angle is the  
simple effect of complex causes1 the    
judgment we form does not distinguish   
between the several causes2 we are      
compelled to be inaccurate4 ,for how can
 ,i tell1 by sight alone1 whether the   

angle at which an object appears to me  
smaller than another1 indicates that it 
is really smaller or that it is further 
off4  ,here we must just reverse our    
former plan4 ,instead of simplifying the
 sensation1 always reinforce it and     
verify it by means of another sense4    
,subject the eye to the hand1 and1 so to
 speak1 restrain the precipitation of   
the former sense by the slower and more 
reasoned pace of the latter4 ,for want  
of this sort of practice our sight      
measurements are very imperfect4 ,we    
cannot correctly1 and at a glance1      
estimate height1 length1 breadth1 and   
distance2 and the fact that engineers1  
surveyors1 architects1 masons1 and      
painters are generally quicker to see   
and better able to estimate distances   
correctly1 proves that the fault is not 
in our eyes1 but in our use of them4    
,their occupations give them the        
training we lack1 and they check the    
equivocal results of the angle of vision
 by its accompanying experiences1 which 

determine the relations of the two      
causes of this angle for their eyes4    
,children will always do anything that  
keeps them moving freely4 ,there are    
countless ways of rousing their interest
 in measuring1 perceiving1 and          
estimating distance4 ,there is a very   
tall cherry tree2 how shall we gather   
the cherries8 ,will the ladder in the   
barn be big enough8 ,there is a wide    
stream2 how shall we get to the other   
side8 ,would one of the wooden planks in
 the yard reach from bank to bank8 ,from
 our windows we want to fish in the     
moat2 how many yards of line are        
required8 ,i want to make a swing       
between two trees2 will two fathoms of  
cord be enough8 ,they tell me our room  
in the new house will be twenty-five    
feet square2 do you think it will be big
 enough for us8 ,will it be larger than 
this8 ,we are very hungry2 here are two 
villages1 which can we get to first for 
our dinner8  ,an idle1 lazy child was to
 be taught to run4 ,he had no liking for

 this or any other exercise1 though he  
was intended for the army4 ,somehow or  
other he had got it into his head that a
 man of his rank need know nothing and  
do nothing--that his birth would serve  
as a substitute for arms and legs1 as   
well as for every kind of virtue4 ,the  
skill of ,chiron himself would have     
failed to make a fleet-footed ,achilles 
of this young gentleman4 ,the difficulty
 was increased by my determination to   
give him no kind of orders4 ,i had      
renounced all right to direct him by    
preaching1 promises1 threats1 emulation1
 or the desire to show off4 ,how should 
,i make him want to run without saying  
anything8 ,i might run myself1 but he   
might not follow my example1 and this   
plan had other drawbacks4 ,moreover1 ,i 
must find some means of teaching him    
through this exercise1 so as to train   
mind and body to work together4 ,this is
 how ,i1 or rather how the teacher who  
supplied me with this illustration1 set 
about it4  ,when ,i took him a walk of  

an afternoon ,i sometimes put in my     
pocket a couple of cakes1 of a kind he  
was very fond of2 we each ate one while 
we were out1 and we came back well      
pleased with our outing4 ,one day he    
noticed ,i had three cakes2 he could    
have easily eaten six1 so he ate his    
cake quickly and asked for the other4   
,no1 said ,i1 ,i could eat it myself1 or
 we might divide it1 but ,i would rather
 see those two little boys run a race   
for it4 ,i called them to us1 showed    
them the cake1 and suggested that they  
should race for it4  ,they were         
delighted4 ,the cake was placed on a    
large stone which was to be the goal2   
the course was marked out1 we sat down1 
and at a given signal off flew the      
children6 ,the victor seized the cake   
and ate it without pity in the sight of 
the spectators and of his defeated      
rival4  ,the sport was better than the  
cake2 but the lesson did not take effect
 all at once1 and produced no result4 ,i
 was not discouraged1 nor did ,i hurry2 

teaching is a trade at which one must be
 able to lose time and save it4 ,our    
walks were continued1 sometimes we took 
three cakes1 sometimes four1 and from   
time to time there were one or two cakes
 for the racers4 ,if the prize was not  
great1 neither was the ambition of the  
competitors4 ,the winner was praised and
 petted1 and everything was done with   
much ceremony4 ,to give room to run and 
to add interest to the race ,i marked   
out a longer course and admitted several
 fresh competitors4 ,scarcely had they  
entered the lists than all the          
passers-by stopped to watch4 ,they were 
encouraged by shouting1 cheering1 and   
clapping4 ,i sometimes saw my little man
 trembling with excitement1 jumping up  
and shouting when one was about to reach
 or overtake another--to him these were 
the ,olympian games4  ,however1 the     
competitors did not always play fair1   
they got in each other's way1 or knocked
 one another down1 or put stones on the 
track4 ,that led us to separate them and

 make them start from different places  
at equal distances from the goal4 ,you  
will soon see the reason for this1 for  
,i must describe this important affair  
at length4  ,tired of seeing his        
favourite cakes devoured before his     
eyes1 the young lord began to suspect   
that there was some use in being a quick
 runner1 and seeing that he had two legs
 of his own1 he began to practise       
running on the quiet4 ,i took care to   
see nothing1 but ,i knew my stratagem   
had taken effect4 ,when he thought he   
was good enough 7and ,i thought so too71
 he pretended to tease me to give him   
the other cake4 ,i refused2 he          
persisted1 and at last he said angrily1 
,well1 put it on the stone and mark out 
the course1 and we shall see4 ,very     
good1 said ,i1 laughing1 ,you will get a
 good appetite1 but you will not get the
 cake4 ,stung by my mockery1 he took    
heart1 won the prize1 all the more      
easily because ,i had marked out a very 
short course and taken care that the    

best runner was out of the way4 ,it will
 be evident that1 after the first step1 
,i had no difficulty in keeping him in  
training4 ,soon he took such a fancy for
 this form of exercise that without any 
favour he was almost certain to beat the
 little peasant boys at running1 however
 long the course4  ,the advantage thus  
obtained led unexpectedly to another4   
,so long as he seldom won the prize1 he 
ate it himself like his rivals1 but as  
he got used to victory he grew generous1
 and often shared it with the defeated4 
,that taught me a lesson in morals and  
,i saw what was the real root of        
generosity4  ,while ,i continued to mark
 out a different starting place for each
 competitor1 he did not notice that ,i  
had made the distances unequal1 so that 
one of them1 having farther to run to   
reach the goal1 was clearly at a        
disadvantage4 ,but though ,i left the   
choice to my pupil he did not know how  
to take advantage of it4 ,without       
thinking of the distance1 he always     

chose the smoothest path1 so that ,i    
could easily predict his choice1 and    
could almost make him win or lose the   
cake at my pleasure4 ,i had more than   
one end in view in this stratagem2 but  
as my plan was to get him to notice the 
difference himself1 ,i tried to make him
 aware of it4 ,though he was generally  
lazy and easy going1 he was so eager in 
his sports and trusted me so completely 
that ,i had great difficulty in making  
him see that ,i was cheating him4 ,when 
at last ,i managed to make him see it in
 spite of his excitement1 he was angry  
with me4 ,what have you to complain of8 
said ,i4 ,in a gift which ,i propose to 
give of my own free will am not ,i      
master of the conditions8 ,who makes you
 run8 ,did ,i promise to make the       
courses equal8 ,is not the choice yours8
 ,do not you see that ,i am favouring   
you1 and that the inequality you        
complain of is all to your advantage1 if
 you knew how to use it8 ,that was plain
 to him2 and to choose he must observe  

more carefully4 ,at first he wanted to  
count the paces1 but a child measures   
paces slowly and inaccurately2 moreover1
 ,i decided to have several races on one
 day2 and the game having become a sort 
of passion with the child1 he was sorry 
to waste in measuring the portion of    
time intended for running4 ,such delays 
are not in accordance with a child's    
impatience2 he tried therefore to see   
better and to reckon the distance more  
accurately at sight4 ,it was now quite  
easy to extend and develop this power4  
,at length1 after some months' practice1
 and the correction of his errors1 ,i so
 trained his power of judging at sight  
that ,i had only to place an imaginary  
cake on any distant object and his      
glance was nearly as accurate as the    
surveyor's chain4  ,of all the senses1  
sight is that which we can least        
distinguish from the judgments of the   
mind2 as it takes a long time to learn  
to see4  ,it takes a long time to       
compare sight and touch1 and to train   

the former sense to give a true report  
of shape and distance4 ,without touch1  
without progressive motion1 the sharpest
 eyes in the world could give us no idea
 of space4 ,to the oyster the whole     
world must seem a point1 and it would   
seem nothing more to it even if it had a
 human mind4 ,it is only by walking1    
feeling1 counting1 measuring the        
dimensions of things1 that we learn to  
judge them rightly2 but1 on the other   
hand1 if we were always measuring1 our  
senses would trust to the instrument and
 would never gain confidence4 ,nor must 
the child pass abruptly from measurement
 to judgment2 he must continue to       
compare the parts when he could not     
compare the whole2 he must substitute   
his estimated aliquot parts for exact   
aliquot parts1 and instead of always    
applying the measure by hand he must get
 used to applying it by eye alone4 ,i   
would1 however1 have his first estimates
 tested by measurement1 so that he may  
correct his errors1 and if there is a   

false impression left upon the senses he
 may correct it by a better judgment4   
,the same natural standards of          
measurement are in use almost           
everywhere1 the man's foot1 the extent  
of his outstretched arms1 his height4   
,when the child wants to measure the    
height of a room1 his tutor may serve as
 a measuring rod2 if he is estimating   
the height of a steeple let him measure 
it by the house2 if he wants to know how
 many leagues of road there are1 let him
 count the hours spent in walking along 
it4 ,above all1 do not do this for him2 
let him do it himself4  ,one cannot     
learn to estimate the extent and size of
 bodies without at the same time        
learning to know and even to copy their 
shape2 for at bottom this copying       
depends entirely on the laws of         
perspective1 and one cannot estimate    
distance without some feeling for these 
laws4 ,all children in the course of    
their endless imitation try to draw2 and
 ,i would have ,emile cultivate this    

art2 not so much for art's sake1 as to  
give him exactness of eye and           
flexibility of hand4 ,generally         
speaking1 it matters little whether he  
is acquainted with this or that         
occupation1 provided he gains clearness 
of sense--perception and the good bodily
 habits which belong to the exercise in 
question4 ,so ,i shall take good care   
not to provide him with a drawing       
master1 who would only set him to copy  
copies and draw from drawings4 ,nature  
should be his only teacher1 and things  
his only models4 ,he should have the    
real thing before his eyes1 not its copy
 on paper4 ,let him draw a house from a 
house1 a tree from a tree1 a man from a 
man2 so that he may train himself to    
observe objects and their appearance    
accurately and not to take false and    
conventional copies for truth4 ,i would 
even train him to draw only from objects
 actually before him and not from       
memory1 so that1 by repeated            
observation1 their exact form may be    

impressed on his imagination1 for fear  
lest he should substitute absurd and    
fantastic forms for the real truth of   
things1 and lose his sense of proportion
 and his taste for the beauties of      
nature4  ,of course ,i know that in this
 way he will make any number of daubs   
before he produces anything             
recognisable1 that it will be long      
before he attains to the graceful       
outline and light touch of the          
draughtsman2 perhaps he will never have 
an eye for picturesque effect or a good 
taste in drawing4 ,on the other hand1 he
 will certainly get a truer eye1 a surer
 hand1 a knowledge of the real relations
 of form and size between animals1      
plants1 and natural objects1 together   
with a quicker sense of the effects of  
perspective4 ,that is just what ,i      
wanted1 and my purpose is rather that he
 should know things than copy them4 ,i  
would rather he showed me a plant of    
acanthus even if he drew a capital with 
less accuracy4  ,moreover1 in this      

occupation as in others1 ,i do not      
intend my pupil to play by himself2 ,i  
mean to make it pleasanter for him by   
always sharing it with him4 ,he shall   
have no other rival2 but mine will be a 
continual rivalry1 and there will be no 
risk attaching to it2 it will give      
interest to his pursuits without awaking
 jealousy between us4 ,i shall follow   
his example and take up a pencil2 at    
first ,i shall use it as unskilfully as 
he4 ,i should be an ,apelles if ,i did  
not set myself daubing4 ,to begin with1 
,i shall draw a man such as lads draw on
 walls1 a line for each arm1 another for
 each leg1 with the fingers longer than 
the arm4 ,long after1 one or other of us
 will notice this lack of proportion2 we
 shall observe that the leg is thick1   
that this thickness varies1 that the    
length of the arm is proportionate to   
the body4 ,in this improvement ,i shall 
either go side by side with my pupil1 or
 so little in advance that he will      
always overtake me easily and sometimes 

get ahead of me4 ,we shall get brushes  
and paints1 we shall try to copy the    
colours of things and their whole       
appearance1 not merely their shape4 ,we 
shall colour prints1 we shall paint1 we 
shall daub2 but in all our daubing we   
shall be searching out the secrets of   
nature1 and whatever we do shall be done
 under the eye of that master4  ,we     
badly needed ornaments for our room1 and
 now we have them ready to our hand4 ,i 
will have our drawings framed and       
covered with good glass1 so that no one 
will touch them1 and thus seeing them   
where we put them1 each of us has a     
motive for taking care of his own4 ,i   
arrange them in order round the room1   
each drawing repeated some twenty or    
thirty times1 thus showing the author's 
progress in each specimen1 from the time
 when the house is merely a rude square1
 till its front view1 its side view1 its
 proportions1 its light and shade are   
all exactly portrayed4 ,these           
graduations will certainly furnish us   

with pictures1 a source of interest to  
ourselves and of curiosity to others1   
which will spur us on to further        
emulation4 ,the first and roughest      
drawings ,i put in very smart gilt      
frames to show them off2 but as the copy
 becomes more accurate and the drawing  
really good1 ,i only give it a very     
plain dark frame2 it needs no other     
ornament than itself1 and it would be a 
pity if the frame distracted the        
attention which the picture itself      
deserves4 ,thus we each aspire to a     
plain frame1 and when we desire to pour 
scorn on each other's drawings1 we      
condemn them to a gilded frame4 ,some   
day perhaps the gilt frame will become a
 proverb among us1 and we shall be      
surprised to find how many people show  
what they are really made of by         
demanding a gilt frame4  ,i have said   
already that geometry is beyond the     
child's reach2 but that is our own      
fault4 ,we fail to perceive that their  
method is not ours1 that what is for us 

the art of reasoning1 should be for them
 the art of seeing4 ,instead of teaching
 them our way1 we should do better to   
adopt theirs1 for our way of learning   
geometry is quite as much a matter of   
imagination as of reasoning4 ,when a    
proposition is enunciated you must      
imagine the proof2 that is1 you must    
discover on what proposition already    
learnt it depends1 and of all the       
possible deductions from that           
proposition you must choose just the one
 required4  ,in this way the closest    
reasoner1 if he is not inventive1 may   
find himself at a loss4 ,what is the    
result8 ,instead of making us discover  
proofs1 they are dictated to us2 instead
 of teaching us to reason1 our memory   
only is employed4  ,draw accurate       
figures1 combine them together1 put them
 one upon another1 examine their        
relations1 and you will discover the    
whole of elementary geometry in passing 
from one observation to another1 without
 a word of definitions1 problems1 or any

 other form of demonstration but        
super-position4 ,i do not profess to    
teach ,emile geometry2 he will teach me2
 ,i shall seek for relations1 he will   
find them1 for ,i shall seek in such a  
fashion as to make him find4 ,for       
instance1 instead of using a pair of    
compasses to draw a circle1 ,i shall    
draw it with a pencil at the end of bit 
of string attached to a pivot4 ,after   
that1 when ,i want to compare the radii 
one with another1 ,emile will laugh at  
me and show me that the same thread at  
full stretch cannot have given distances
 of unequal length4 ,if ,i wish to      
measure an angle of #fj degrees ,i      
describe from the apex of the angle1 not
 an arc1 but a complete circle1 for with
 children nothing must be taken for     
granted4 ,i find that the part of the   
circle contained between the two lines  
of the angle is the sixth part of a     
circle4 ,then ,i describe another and   
larger circle from the same centre1 and 
,i find the second arc is again the     

sixth part of its circle4 ,i describe a 
third concentric circle with a similar  
result1 and ,i continue with more and   
more circles till ,emile1 shocked at my 
stupidity1 shows me that every arc1     
large or small1 contained by the same   
angle will always be the sixth part of  
its circle4 ,now we are ready to use the
 protractor4  ,to prove that two        
adjacent angles are equal to two right  
angles people describe a circle4 ,on the
 contrary ,i would have ,emile observe  
the fact in a circle1 and then ,i should
 say1 ,if we took away the circle and   
left the straight lines1 would the      
angles have changed their size1 etc48   
,exactness in the construction of       
figures is neglected2 it is taken for   
granted and stress is laid on the proof4
 ,with us1 on the other hand1 there will
 be no question of proof4 ,our chief    
business will be to draw very straight1 
accurate1 and even lines1 a perfect     
square1 a really round circle4 ,to      
verify the exactness of a figure we will

 test it by each of its sensible        
properties1 and that will give us a     
chance to discover fresh properties day 
by day4 ,we will fold the two           
semi-circles along the diameter1 the two
 halves of the square by the diagonal2  
he will compare our two figures to see  
who has got the edges to fit most       
exactly1 i4e41 who has done it best2 we 
should argue whether this equal division
 would always be possible in            
parallelograms1 trapezes1 etc4 ,we shall
 sometimes try to forecast the result of
 an experiment1 to find reasons1 etc4   
,geometry means to my scholar the       
successful use of the rule and compass2 
he must not confuse it with drawing1 in 
which these instruments are not used4   
,the rule and compass will be locked up1
 so that he will not get into the way of
 messing about with them1 but we may    
sometimes take our figures with us when 
we go for a walk1 and talk over what we 
have done1 or what we mean to do4  ,i   
shall never forget seeing a young man at

 ,turin1 who had learnt as a child the  
relations of contours and surfaces by   
having to choose every day isoperimetric
 cakes among cakes of every geometrical 
figure4 ,the greedy little fellow had   
exhausted the art of ,archimedes to find
 which were the biggest4  ,when the     
child flies a kite he is training eye   
and hand to accuracy2 when he whips a   
top1 he is increasing his strength by   
using it1 but without learning anything4
 ,i have sometimes asked why children   
are not given the same games of skill as
 men2 tennis1 mall1 billiards1 archery1 
football1 and musical instruments4 ,i   
was told that some of these are beyond  
their strength1 that the child's senses 
are not sufficiently developed for      
others4 ,these do not strike me as valid
 reasons2 a child is not as tall as a   
man1 but he wears the same sort of coat2
 ,i do not want him to play with our    
cues at a billiard-table three feet     
high2 ,i do not want him knocking about 
among our games1 nor carrying one of our

 racquets in his little hand2 but let   
him play in a room whose windows have   
been protected2 at first let him only   
use soft balls1 let his first racquets  
be of wood1 then of parchment1 and      
lastly of gut1 according to his         
progress4 ,you prefer the kite because  
it is less tiring and there is no       
danger4 ,you are doubly wrong4          
,kite-flying is a sport for women1 but  
every woman will run away from a swift  
ball4 ,their white skins were not meant 
to be hardened by blows and their faces 
were not made for bruises4 ,but we men  
are made for strength2 do you think we  
can attain it without hardship1 and what
 defence shall we be able to make if we 
are attacked8 ,people always play       
carelessly in games where there is no   
danger4 ,a falling kite hurts nobody1   
but nothing makes the arm so supple as  
protecting the head1 nothing makes the  
sight so accurate as having to guard the
 eye4 ,to dash from one end of the room 
to another1 to judge the rebound of a   

ball before it touches the ground1 to   
return it with strength and accuracy1   
such games are not so much sports fit   
for a man1 as sports fit to make a man  
of him4  ,the child's limbs1 you say1   
are too tender4 ,they are not so strong 
as those of a man1 but they are more    
supple4 ,his arm is weak1 still it is an
 arm1 and it should be used with due    
consideration as we use other tools4    
,children have no skill in the use of   
their hands4 ,that is just why ,i want  
them to acquire skill2 a man with as    
little practice would be just as clumsy4
 ,we can only learn the use of our limbs
 by using them4 ,it is only by long     
experience that we learn to make the    
best of ourselves1 and this experience  
is the real object of study to which we 
cannot apply ourselves too early4  ,what
 is done can be done4 ,now there is     
nothing commoner than to find nimble and
 skilful children whose limbs are as    
active as those of a man4 ,they may be  
seen at any fair1 swinging1 walking on  

their hands1 jumping1 dancing on the    
tight rope4 ,for many years past1 troops
 of children have attracted spectators  
to the ballets at the ,italian ,comedy  
,house4 ,who is there in ,germany and   
,italy who has not heard of the famous  
pantomime company of ,nicolini8 ,has it 
ever occurred to any one that the       
movements of these children were less   
finished1 their postures less graceful1 
their ears less true1 their dancing more
 clumsy than those of grown-up dancers8 
,if at first the fingers are thick1     
short1 and awkward1 the dimpled hands   
unable to grasp anything1 does this     
prevent many children from learning to  
read and write at an age when others    
cannot even hold a pen or pencil8 ,all  
,paris still recalls the little ,english
 girl of ten who did wonders on the     
harpsichord4 ,i once saw a little fellow
 of eight1 the son of a magistrate1 who 
was set like a statuette on the table   
among the dishes1 to play on a fiddle   
almost as big as himself1 and even      

artists were surprised at his execution4
  ,to my mind1 these and many more      
examples prove that the supposed        
incapacity of children for our games is 
imaginary1 and that if they are         
unsuccessful in some of them1 it is for 
want of practice4  ,you will tell me    
that with regard to the body ,i am      
falling into the same mistake of        
precocious development which ,i found   
fault with for the mind4 ,the cases are 
very different3 in the one1 progress is 
apparent only2 in the other it is real4 
,i have shown that children have not the
 mental development they appear to have1
 while they really do what they seem to 
do4 ,besides1 we must never forget that 
all this should be play1 the easy and   
voluntary control of the movements which
 nature demands of them1 the art of     
varying their games to make them        
pleasanter1 without the least bit of    
constraint to transform them into work2 
for what games do they play in which ,i 
cannot find material for instruction for

 them8 ,and even if ,i could not do so1 
so long as they are amusing themselves  
harmlessly and passing the time         
pleasantly1 their progress in learning  
is not yet of such great importance4    
,but if one must be teaching them this  
or that at every opportunity1 it cannot 
be done without constraint1 vexation1 or
 tedium4  ,what ,i have said about the  
use of the two senses whose use is most 
constant and most important1 may serve  
as an example of how to train the rest4 
,sight and touch are applied to bodies  
at rest and bodies in motion1 but as    
hearing is only affected by vibrations  
of the air1 only a body in motion can   
make a noise or sound2 if everything    
were at rest we should never hear4 ,at  
night1 when we ourselves only move as we
 choose1 we have nothing to fear but    
moving bodies2 hence we need a quick    
ear1 and power to judge from the        
sensations experienced whether the body 
which causes them is large or small1 far
 off or near1 whether its movements are 

gentle or violent4 ,when once the air is
 set in motion1 it is subject to        
repercussions which produce echoes1     
these renew the sensations and make us  
hear a loud or penetrating sound in     
another quarter4 ,if you put your ear to
 the ground you may hear the sound of   
men's voices or horses' feet in a plain 
or valley much further off than when you
 stand upright4  ,as we have made a     
comparison between sight and touch1 it  
will be as well to do the same for      
hearing1 and to find out which of the   
two impressions starting simultaneously 
from a given body first reaches the     
sense-organ4 ,when you see the flash of 
a cannon1 you have still time to take   
cover2 but when you hear the sound it is
 too late1 the ball is close to you4    
,one can reckon the distance of a       
thunderstorm by the interval between the
 lightning and the thunder4 ,let the    
child learn all these facts1 let him    
learn those that are within his reach by
 experiment1 and discover the rest by   

induction2 but ,i would far rather he   
knew nothing at all about them1 than    
that you should tell him4  ,in the voice
 we have an organ answering to hearing2 
we have no such organ answering to      
sight1 and we do not repeat colours as  
we repeat sounds4 ,this supplies an     
additional means of cultivating the ear 
by practising the active and passive    
organs one with the other4  ,man has    
three kinds of voice1 the speaking or   
articulate voice1 the singing or        
melodious voice1 and the pathetic or    
expressive voice1 which serves as the   
language of the passions1 and gives life
 to song and speech4 ,the child has     
these three voices1 just as the man has 
them1 but he does not know how to use   
them in combination4 ,like us1 he       
laughs1 cries1 laments1 shrieks1 and    
groans1 but he does not know how to     
combine these inflexions with speech or 
song4 ,these three voices find their    
best expression in perfect music4       
,children are incapable of such music1  

and their singing lacks feeling4 ,in the
 same way their spoken language lacks   
expression2 they shout1 but they do not 
speak with emphasis1 and there is as    
little power in their voice as there is 
emphasis in their speech4 ,our pupil's  
speech will be plainer and simpler      
still1 for his passions are still       
asleep1 and will not blend their tones  
with his4 ,do not1 therefore1 set him to
 recite tragedy or comedy1 nor try to   
teach declamation so-called4 ,he will   
have too much sense to give voice to    
things he cannot understand1 or         
expression to feelings he has never     
known4  ,teach him to speak plainly and 
distinctly1 to articulate clearly1 to   
pronounce correctly and without         
affectation1 to perceive and imitate the
 right accent in prose and verse1 and   
always to speak loud enough to be heard1
 but without speaking too loud--a common
 fault with school-children4 ,let there 
be no waste in anything4  ,the same     
method applies to singing2 make his     

voice smooth and true1 flexible and     
full1 his ear alive to time and tune1   
but nothing more4 ,descriptive and      
theatrical music is not suitable at his 
age----,i would rather he sang no words2
 if he must have words1 ,i would try to 
compose songs on purpose for him1 songs 
interesting to a child1 and as simple as
 his own thoughts4  ,you may perhaps    
suppose that as ,i am in no hurry to    
teach ,emile to read and write1 ,i shall
 not want to teach him to read music4   
,let us spare his brain the strain of   
excessive attention1 and let us be in no
 hurry to turn his mind towards         
conventional signs4 ,i grant you there  
seems to be a difficulty here1 for if at
 first sight the knowledge of notes     
seems no more necessary for singing than
 the knowledge of letters for speaking1 
there is really this difference between 
them3 ,when we speak1 we are expressing 
our own thoughts2 when we sing we are   
expressing the thoughts of others4 ,now 
in order to express them we must read   

them4  ,but at first we can listen to   
them instead of reading them1 and a song
 is better learnt by ear than by eye4   
,moreover1 to learn music thoroughly we 
must make songs as well as sing them1   
and the two processes must be studied   
together1 or we shall never have any    
real knowledge of music4 ,first give    
your young musician practice in very    
regular1 well-cadenced phrases2 then let
 him connect these phrases with the very
 simplest modulations2 then show him    
their relation one to another by correct
 accent1 which can be done by a fit     
choice of cadences and rests4 ,on no    
account give him anything unusual1 or   
anything that requires pathos or        
expression4 ,a simple1 tuneful air1     
always based on the common chords of the
 key1 with its bass so clearly indicated
 that it is easily felt and accompanied1
 for to train his voice and ear he      
should always sing with the harpsichord4
  ,we articulate the notes we sing the  
better to distinguish them2 hence the   

custom of sol-faing with certain        
syllables4 ,to tell the keys one from   
another they must have names and fixed  
intervals2 hence the names of the       
intervals1 and also the letters of the  
alphabet attached to the keys of the    
clavier and the notes of the scale4 ,c  
and ,a indicate fixed sounds1 invariable
 and always rendered by the same keys2  
,ut and ,la are different4 ,ut is always
 the dominant of a major scale1 or the  
leading-note of a minor scale4 ,la is   
always the dominant of a minor scale or 
the sixth of a major scale4 ,thus the   
letters indicate fixed terms in our     
system of music1 and the syllables      
indicate terms homologous to the similar
 relations in different keys4 ,the      
letters show the keys on the piano1 and 
the syllables the degrees in the scale4 
,french musicians have made a strange   
muddle of this4 ,they have confused the 
meaning of the syllables with that of   
the letters1 and while they have        
unnecessarily given us two sets of      

symbols for the keys of the piano1 they 
have left none for the chords of the    
scales2 so that ,ut and ,c are always   
the same for them2 this is not and ought
 not to be2 if so1 what is the use of   
,c8 ,their method of sol-faing is1      
therefore1 extremely and needlessly     
difficult1 neither does it give any     
clear idea to the mind2 since1 by this  
method1 ,ut and ,me1 for example1 may   
mean either a major third1 a minor      
third1 an augmented third1 or a         
diminished third4 ,what a strange thing 
that the country which produces the     
finest books about music should be the  
very country where it is hardest to     
learn music6  ,let us adopt a simpler   
and clearer plan with our pupil2 let him
 have only two scales whose relations   
remain unchanged1 and indicated by the  
same symbols4 ,whether he sings or      
plays1 let him learn to fix his scale on
 one of the twelve tones which may serve
 as a base1 and whether he modulates in 
,d1 ,c1 or ,g1 let the close be always  

,ut or ,la1 according to the scale4 ,in 
this way he will understand what you    
mean1 and the essential relations for   
correct singing and playing will always 
be present in his mind2 his execution   
will be better and his progress quicker4
 ,there is nothing funnier than what the
 ,french call natural sol-faing2 it     
consists in removing the real meaning of
 things and putting in their place other
 meanings which only distract us4 ,there
 is nothing more natural than sol-faing 
by transposition1 when the scale is     
transposed4 ,but ,i have said enough1   
and more than enough1 about music2 teach
 it as you please1 so long as it is     
nothing but play4  ,we are now          
thoroughly acquainted with the condition
 of foreign bodies in relation to our   
own1 their weight1 form1 colour1        
density1 size1 distance1 temperature1   
stability1 or motion4 ,we have learnt   
which of them to approach or avoid1 how 
to set about overcoming their resistance
 or to resist them so as to prevent     

ourselves from injury2 but this is not  
enough4 ,our own body is constantly     
wasting and as constantly requires to be
 renewed4 ,although we have the power of
 changing other substances into our own1
 our choice is not a matter of          
indifference4 ,everything is not food   
for man1 and what may be food for him is
 not all equally suitable2 it depends on
 his racial constitution1 the country he
 lives in1 his individual temperament1  
and the way of living which his         
condition demands4  ,if we had to wait  
till experience taught us to know and   
choose fit food for ourselves1 we should
 die of hunger or poison2 but a kindly  
providence which has made pleasure the  
means of self-preservation to sentient  
beings teaches us through our palate    
what is suitable for our stomach4 ,in a 
state of nature there is no better      
doctor than a man's own appetite1 and no
 doubt in a state of nature man could   
find the most palateable food the most  
wholesome4  ,nor is this all4 ,our      

,maker provides1 not only for those     
needs he has created1 but for those we  
create for ourselves2 and it is to keep 
the balance between our wants and our   
needs that he has caused our tastes to  
change and vary with our way of living4 
,the further we are from a state of     
nature1 the more we lose our natural    
tastes2 or rather1 habit becomes a      
second nature1 and so completely        
replaces our real nature1 that we have  
lost all knowledge of it4  ,from this it
 follows that the most natural tastes   
should be the simplest1 for those are   
more easily changed2 but when they are  
sharpened and stimulated by our fancies 
they assume a form which is incapable of
 modification4 ,the man who so far has  
not adapted himself to one country can  
learn the ways of any country           
whatsoever2 but the man who has adopted 
the habits of one particular country can
 never shake them off4  ,this seems to  
be true of all our senses1 especially of
 taste4 ,our first food is milk2 we only

 become accustomed by degrees to strong 
flavours2 at first we dislike them4     
,fruit1 vegetables1 herbs1 and then     
fried meat without salt or seasoning1   
formed the feasts of primitive man4     
,when the savage tastes wine for the    
first time1 he makes a grimace and spits
 it out2 and even among ourselves a man 
who has not tasted fermented liquors    
before twenty cannot get used to them2  
we should all be sober if we did not    
have wine when we were children4        
,indeed1 the simpler our tastes are1 the
 more general they are2 made dishes are 
those most frequently disliked4 ,did you
 ever meet with any one who disliked    
bread or water8 ,here is the finger of  
nature1 this then is our rule4 ,preserve
 the child's primitive tastes as long as
 possible2 let his food be plain and    
simple1 let strong flavours be unknown  
to his palate1 and do not let his diet  
be too uniform4  ,i am not asking1 for  
the present1 whether this way of living 
is healthier or no2 that is not what ,i 

have in view4 ,it is enough for me to   
know that my choice is more in          
accordance with nature1 and that it can 
be more readily adapted to other        
conditions4 ,in my opinion1 those who   
say children should be accustomed to the
 food they will have when they are grown
 up are mistaken4 ,why should their food
 be the same when their way of living is
 so different8 ,a man worn out by       
labour1 anxiety1 and pain needs tasty   
foods to give fresh vigour to his brain2
 a child fresh from his games1 a child  
whose body is growing1 needs plentiful  
food which will supply more chyle4      
,moreover the grown man has already a   
settled profession1 occupation1 and     
home1 but who can tell what ,fate holds 
in store for the child8 ,let us not give
 him so fixed a bent in any direction   
that he cannot change it if required    
without hardship4 ,do not bring him up  
so that he would die of hunger in a     
foreign land if he does not take a      
,french cook about with him2 do not let 

him say at some future time that ,france
 is the only country where the food is  
fit to eat4  ,by the way1 that is a     
strange way of praising one's country4  
,on the other hand1 ,i myself should say
 that the ,french are the only people   
who do not know what good food is1 since
 they require such a special art to make
 their dishes eatable4  ,of all our     
different senses1 we are usually most   
affected by taste4 ,thus it concerns us 
more nearly to judge aright of what will
 actually become part of ourselves1 than
 of that which will merely form part of 
our environment4 ,many things are       
matters of indifference to touch1       
hearing1 and sight2 but taste is        
affected by almost everything4 ,moreover
 the activity of this sense is wholly   
physical and material2 of all the       
senses1 it alone makes no appeal to the 
imagination1 or at least1 imagination   
plays a smaller part in its sensations2 
while imitation and imagination often   
bring morality into the impressions of  

the other senses4 ,thus1 speaking       
generally1 soft and pleasure-loving     
minds1 passionate and truly sensitive   
dispositions1 which are easily stirred  
by the other senses1 are usually        
indifferent to this4 ,from this very    
fact1 which apparently places taste     
below our other senses and makes our    
inclination towards it the more         
despicable1 ,i draw just the opposite   
conclusion--that the best way to lead   
children is by the mouth4 ,greediness is
 a better motive than vanity2 for the   
former is a natural appetite directly   
dependent on the senses1 while the      
latter is the outcome of convention1 it 
is the slave of human caprice and liable
 to every kind of abuse4 ,believe me the
 child will cease to care about his food
 only too soon1 and when his heart is   
too busy1 his palate will be idle4 ,when
 he is grown up greediness will be      
expelled by a host of stronger passions1
 while vanity will only be stimulated by
 them2 for this latter passion feeds    

upon the rest till at length they are   
all swallowed up in it4 ,i have         
sometimes studied those men who pay     
great attention to good eating1 men     
whose first waking thought is--,what    
shall we have to eat to-day8 men who    
describe their dinner with as much      
detail as ,polybius describes a combat4 
,i have found these so-called men were  
only children of forty1 without strength
 or vigour--fruges consumere nati4      
,gluttony is the vice of feeble minds4  
,the gourmand has his brains in his     
palate1 he can do nothing but eat2 he is
 so stupid and incapable that the table 
is the only place for him1 and dishes   
are the only things he knows anything   
about4 ,let us leave him to this        
business without regret2 it is better   
for him and for us4  ,it is a small mind
 that fears lest greediness should take 
root in the child who is fit for        
something better4 ,the child thinks of  
nothing but his food1 the youth pays no 
heed to it at all2 every kind of food is

 good1 and we have other things to      
attend to4 ,yet ,i would not have you   
use the low motive unwisely4 ,i would   
not have you trust to dainties rather   
than to the honour which is the reward  
of a good deed4 ,but childhood is1 or   
ought to be1 a time of play and merry   
sports1 and ,i do not see why the       
rewards of purely bodily exercises      
should not be material and sensible     
rewards4 ,if a little lad in ,majorca   
sees a basket on the tree-top and brings
 it down with his sling1 is it not fair 
that he should get something by this1   
and a good breakfast should repair the  
strength spent in getting it4 ,if a     
young ,spartan1 facing the risk of a    
hundred stripes1 slips skilfully into   
the kitchen1 and steals a live fox cub1 
carries it off in his garment1 and is   
scratched1 bitten till the blood comes1 
and for shame lest he should be caught  
the child allows his bowels to be torn  
out without a movement or a cry1 is it  
not fair that he should keep his spoils1

 that he should eat his prey after it   
has eaten him8 ,a good meal should never
 be a reward2 but why should it not be  
sometimes the result of efforts made to 
get it4 ,emile does not consider the    
cake ,i put on the stone as a reward for
 good running2 he knows that the only   
way to get the cake is to get there     
first4  ,this does not contradict my    
previous rules about simple food2 for to
 tempt a child's appetite you need not  
stimulate it1 you need only satisfy it2 
and the commonest things will do this if
 you do not attempt to refine children's
 taste4 ,their perpetual hunger1 the    
result of their need for growth1 will be
 the best sauce4 ,fruit1 milk1 a piece  
of cake just a little better than       
ordinary bread1 and above all the art of
 dispensing these things prudently1 by  
these means you may lead a host of      
children to the world's end1 without on 
the one hand giving them a taste for    
strong flavours1 nor on the other hand  
letting them get tired of their food4   

,the indifference of children towards   
meat is one proof that the taste for    
meat is unnatural2 their preference is  
for vegetable foods1 such as milk1      
pastry1 fruit1 etc4 ,beware of changing 
this natural taste and making children  
flesh-eaters1 if not for their health's 
sake1 for the sake of their character2  
for how can one explain away the fact   
that great meat-eaters are usually      
fiercer and more cruel than other men2  
this has been recognised at all times   
and in all places4 ,the ,english are    
noted for their cruelty ,footnote3 ,i am
 aware that the ,english make a boast of
 their humanity and of the kindly       
disposition of their race1 which they   
call good-natured people2 but in vain do
 they proclaim this fact2 no one else   
says it of them4 while the ,gaures are  
the gentlest of men4 ,footnote3 ,the    
,banians1 who abstain from flesh even   
more completely than the ,gaures1 are   
almost as gentle as the ,gaures         
themselves1 but as their morality is    

less pure and their form of worship less
 reasonable they are not such good men4 
,all savages are cruel1 and it is not   
their customs that tend in this         
direction2 their cruelty is the result  
of their food4 ,they go to war as to the
 chase1 and treat men as they would     
treat bears4 ,indeed in ,england        
butchers are not allowed to give        
evidence in a court of law1 no more can 
surgeons4 ,footnote3 ,one of the        
,english translators of my book has     
pointed out my mistake1 and both of them
 have corrected it4 ,butchers and       
surgeons are allowed to give evidence in
 the law courts1 but butchers may not   
serve on juries in criminal cases1      
though surgeons are allowed to do so4   
,great criminals prepare themselves for 
murder by drinking blood4 ,homer makes  
his flesh-eating ,cyclops a terrible    
man1 while his ,lotus-eaters are so     
delightful that those who went to trade 
with them forgot even their own country 
to dwell among them4  ,you ask me1 said 

,plutarch1 why ,pythagoras abstained    
from eating the flesh of beasts1 but ,i 
ask you1 what courage must have been    
needed by the first man who raised to   
his lips the flesh of the slain1 who    
broke with his teeth the bones of a     
dying beast1 who had dead bodies1       
corpses1 placed before him and swallowed
 down limbs which a few moments ago were
 bleating1 bellowing1 walking1 and      
seeing8 ,how could his hand plunge the  
knife into the heart of a sentient      
creature1 how could his eyes look on    
murder1 how could he behold a poor      
helpless animal bled to death1 scorched1
 and dismembered8 how can he bear the   
sight of this quivering flesh8 does not 
the very smell of it turn his stomach8  
is he not repelled1 disgusted1          
horror-struck1 when he has to handle the
 blood from these wounds1 and to cleanse
 his fingers from the dark and viscous  
bloodstains8       ,the scorched skins  
wriggled upon the ground1      ,the     
shrinking flesh bellowed upon the spit4 

,man cannot eat them without a shudder2 
,he seems to hear their cries within his
 breast4  ,thus must he have felt the   
first time he did despite to nature and 
made this horrible meal2 the first time 
he hungered for the living creature1 and
 desired to feed upon the beast which   
was still grazing2 when he bade them    
slay1 dismember1 and cut up the sheep   
which licked his hands4 ,it is those who
 began these cruel feasts1 not those who
 abandon them1 who should cause         
surprise1 and there were excuses for    
those primitive men1 excuses which we   
have not1 and the absence of such       
excuses multiplies our barbarity a      
hundredfold4  ',mortals1 beloved of the 
gods1' says this primitive man1 'compare
 our times with yours2 see how happy you
 are1 and how wretched were we4 ,the    
earth1 newly formed1 the air heavy with 
moisture1 were not yet subjected to the 
rule of the seasons4 ,three-fourths of  
the surface of the globe was flooded by 
the ever-shifting channels of rivers    

uncertain of their course1 and covered  
with pools1 lakes1 and bottomless       
morasses4 ,the remaining quarter was    
covered with woods and barren forests4  
,the earth yielded no good fruit1 we had
 no instruments of tillage1 we did not  
even know the use of them1 and the time 
of harvest never came for those who had 
sown nothing4 ,thus hunger was always in
 our midst4 ,in winter1 mosses and the  
bark of trees were our common food4 ,a  
few green roots of dogs-bit or heather  
were a feast1 and when men found        
beech-mast1 nuts1 or acorns1 they danced
 for joy round the beech or oak1 to the 
sound of some rude song1 while they     
called the earth their mother and their 
nurse4 ,this was their only festival1   
their only sport2 all the rest of man's 
life was spent in sorrow1 pain1 and     
hunger4  ',at length1 when the bare and 
naked earth no longer offered us any    
food1 we were compelled in self-defence 
to outrage nature1 and to feed upon our 
companions in distress1 rather than     

perish with them4 ,but you1 oh1 cruel   
men6 who forces you to shed blood8      
,behold the wealth of good things about 
you1 the fruits yielded by the earth1   
the wealth of field and vineyard2 the   
animals give their milk for your drink  
and their fleece for your clothing4     
,what more do you ask8  ,what madness   
compels you to commit such murders1 when
 you have already more than you can eat 
or drink8 ,why do you slander our mother
 earth1 and accuse her of denying you   
food8 ,why do you sin against ,ceres1   
the inventor of the sacred laws1 and    
against the gracious ,bacchus1 the      
comforter of man1 as if their lavish    
gifts were not enough to preserve       
mankind8 ,have you the heart to mingle  
their sweet fruits with the bones upon  
your table1 to eat with the milk the    
blood of the beasts which gave it8 ,the 
lions and panthers1 wild beasts as you  
call them1 are driven to follow their   
natural instinct1 and they kill other   
beasts that they may live4 ,but1 a      

hundredfold fiercer than they1 you fight
 against your instincts without cause1  
and abandon yourselves to the most cruel
 pleasures4 ,the animals you eat are not
 those who devour others2 you do not eat
 the carnivorous beasts1 you take them  
as your pattern4 ,you only hunger for   
the sweet and gentle creatures which    
harm no one1 which follow you1 serve    
you1 and are devoured by you as the     
reward of their service4  ',o unnatural 
murderer6 if you persist in the         
assertion that nature has made you to   
devour your fellow-creatures1 beings of 
flesh and blood1 living and feeling like
 yourself1 stifle if you can that horror
 with which nature makes you regard     
these horrible feasts2 slay the animals 
yourself1 slay them1 ,i say1 with your  
own hands1 without knife or mallet2 tear
 them with your nails like the lion and 
the bear1 take this ox and rend him in  
pieces1 plunge your claws into his hide2
 eat this lamb while it is yet alive1   
devour its warm flesh1 drink its soul   

with its blood4 ,you shudder6 you dare  
not feel the living throbbing flesh     
between your teeth8 ,ruthless man2 you  
begin by slaying the animal and then you
 devour it1 as if to slay it twice4 ,it 
is not enough4 ,you turn against the    
dead flesh1 it revolts you1 it must be  
transformed by fire1 boiled and roasted1
 seasoned and disguised with drugs2 you 
must have butchers1 cooks1 turnspits1   
men who will rid the murder of its      
horrors1 who will dress the dead bodies 
so that the taste deceived by these     
disguises will not reject what is       
strange to it1 and will feast on        
corpses1 the very sight of which would  
sicken you4'  ,although this quotation  
is irrelevant1 ,i cannot resist the     
temptation to transcribe it1 and ,i     
think few of my readers will resent it4 
,in conclusion1 whatever food you give  
your children1 provided you accustom    
them to nothing but plain and simple    
dishes1 let them eat and run and play as
 much as they want2 you may be sure they

 will never eat too much and will never 
have indigestion2 but if you keep them  
hungry half their time1 when they do    
contrive to evade your vigilance1 they  
will take advantage of it as far as they
 can2 they will eat till they are sick1 
they will gorge themselves till they can
 eat no more4 ,our appetite is only     
excessive because we try to impose on it
 rules other than those of nature1      
opposing1 controlling1 prescribing1     
adding1 or substracting2 the scales are 
always in our hands1 but the scales are 
the measure of our caprices not of our  
stomachs4 ,i return to my usual         
illustration2 among peasants the        
cupboard and the apple-loft are always  
left open1 and indigestion is unknown   
alike to children and grown-up people4  
,if1 however1 it happened that a child  
were too great an eater1 though1 under  
my system1 ,i think it is impossible1 he
 is so easily distracted by his         
favourite games that one might easily   
starve him without his knowing it4 ,how 

is it that teachers have failed to use  
such a safe and easy weapon4 ,herodotus 
records that the ,lydians1 ,footnote3   
,the ancient historians are full of     
opinions which may be useful1 even if   
the facts which they present are false4 
,but we do not know how to make any real
 use of history4 ,criticism and         
erudition are our only care2 as if it   
mattered more that a statement were true
 or false than that we should be able to
 get a useful lesson from it4 ,a wise   
man should consider history a tissue of 
fables whose morals are well adapted to 
the human heart4 under the pressure of  
great scarcity1 decided to invent sports
 and other amusements with which to     
cheat their hunger1 and they passed     
whole days without thought of food4     
,your learned teachers may have read    
this passage time after time without    
seeing how it might be applied to       
children4 ,one of these teachers will   
probably tell me that a child does not  
like to leave his dinner for his        

lessons4 ,you are right1 sir--,i was not
 thinking of that sort of sport4  ,the  
sense of smell is to taste what sight is
 to touch2 it goes before it and gives  
it warning that it will be affected by  
this or that substance2 and it inclines 
it to seek or shun this experience      
according to the impressions received   
beforehand4 ,i have been told that      
savages receive impressions quite       
different from ours1 and that they have 
quite different ideas with regard to    
pleasant or unpleasant odours4 ,i can   
well believe it4 ,odours alone are      
slight sensations2 they affect the      
imagination rather than the senses1 and 
they work mainly through the            
anticipations they arouse4 ,this being  
so1 and the tastes of savages being so  
unlike the taste of civilised men1 they 
should lead them to form very different 
ideas with regard to flavours and       
therefore with regard to the odours     
which announce them4 ,a ,tartar must    
enjoy the smell of a haunch of putrid   

horseflesh1 much as a sportsman enjoys a
 very high partridge4 ,our idle         
sensations1 such as the scents wafted   
from the flower beds1 must pass         
unnoticed among men who walk too much to
 care for strolling in a garden1 and do 
not work enough to find pleasure in     
repose4 ,hungry men would find little   
pleasure in scents which did not        
proclaim the approach of food4  ,smell  
is the sense of the imagination2 as it  
gives tone to the nerves it must have a 
great effect on the brain2 that is why  
it revives us for the time1 but         
eventually causes exhaustion4 ,its      
effects on love are pretty generally    
recognised4 ,the sweet perfumes of a    
dressing-room are not so slight a snare 
as you may fancy them1 and ,i hardly    
know whether to congratulate or condole 
with that wise and somewhat insensible  
person whose senses are never stirred by
 the scent of the flowers his mistress  
wears in her bosom4  ,hence the sense of
 smell should not be over-active in     

early childhood2 the imagination1 as yet
 unstirred by changing passions1 is     
scarcely susceptible of emotion1 and we 
have not enough experience to discern   
beforehand from one sense the promise of
 another4 ,this view is confirmed by    
observation1 and it is certain that the 
sense of smell is dull and almost       
blunted in most children4  ,not that    
their sensations are less acute than    
those of grown-up people1 but that there
 is no idea associated with them2 they  
do not easily experience pleasure or    
pain1 and are not flattered or hurt as  
we are4 ,without going beyond my system1
 and without recourse to comparative    
anatomy1 ,i think we can easily see why 
women are generally fonder of perfumes  
than men4  ,it is said that from early  
childhood the ,redskins of ,canada1     
train their sense of smell to such a    
degree of subtlety that1 although they  
have dogs1 they do not condescend to use
 them in hunting--they are their own    
dogs4 ,indeed ,i believe that if        

children were trained to scent their    
dinner as a dog scents game1 their sense
 of smell might be nearly as perfect2   
but ,i see no very real advantage to be 
derived from this sense1 except by      
teaching the child to observe the       
relation between smell and taste4       
,nature has taken care to compel us to  
learn these relations4 ,she has made the
 exercise of the latter sense           
practically inseparable from that of the
 former1 by placing their organs close  
together1 and by providing1 in the      
mouth1 a direct pathway between them1 so
 that we taste nothing without smelling 
it too4 ,only ,i would not have these   
natural relations disturbed in order to 
deceive the child1 e4g42 to conceal the 
taste of medicine with an aromatic      
odour1 for the discord between the      
senses is too great for deception1 the  
more active sense overpowers the other1 
the medicine is just as distasteful1 and
 this disagreeable association extends  
to every sensation experienced at the   

time2 so the slightest of these         
sensations recalls the rest to his      
imagination and a very pleasant perfume 
is for him only a nasty smell2 thus our 
foolish precautions increase the sum    
total of his unpleasant sensations at   
the cost of his pleasant sensations4    
,in the following books ,i have still to
 speak of the training of a sort of     
sixth sense1 called common-sense1 not so
 much because it is common to all men1  
but because it results from the         
well-regulated use of the other five1   
and teaches the nature of things by the 
sum-total of their external aspects4 ,so
 this sixth sense has no special organ1 
it has its seat in the brain1 and its   
sensations which are purely internal are
 called percepts or ideas4 ,the number  
of these ideas is the measure of our    
knowledge2 exactness of thought depends 
on their clearness and precision2 the   
art of comparing them one with another  
is called human reason4 ,thus what ,i   
call the reasoning of the senses1 or the

 reasoning of the child1 consists in the
 formation of simple ideas through the  
associated experience of several        
sensations2 what ,i call the reasoning  
of the intellect1 consists in the       
formation1 of complex ideas through the 
association of several simple ideas4    
,if my method is indeed that of nature1 
and if ,i am not mistaken in the        
application of that method1 we have led 
our pupil through the region of         
sensation to the bounds of the child's  
reasoning2 the first step we take beyond
 these bounds must be the step of a man4
 ,but before we make this fresh advance1
 let us glance back for a moment at the 
path we have hitherto followed4 ,every  
age1 every station in life1 has a       
perfection1 a ripeness1 of its own4 ,we 
have often heard the phrase a grown man2
 but we will consider a grown child4    
,this will be a new experience and none 
the less pleasing4  ,the life of finite 
creatures is so poor and narrow that the
 mere sight of what is arouses no       

emotion4 ,it is fancy which decks       
reality1 and if imagination does not    
lend its charm to that which touches our
 senses1 our barren pleasure is confined
 to the senses alone1 while the heart   
remains cold4 ,the earth adorned with   
the treasures of autumn displays a      
wealth of colour which the eye admires2 
but this admiration fails to move us1 it
 springs rather from thought than from  
feeling4 ,in spring the country is      
almost bare and leafless1 the trees give
 no shade1 the grass has hardly begun to
 grow1 yet the heart is touched by the  
sight4 ,in this new birth of nature1 we 
feel the revival of our own life2 the   
memories of past pleasures surround us2 
tears of delight1 those companions of   
pleasure ever ready to accompany a      
pleasing sentiment1 tremble on our      
eyelids4 ,animated1 lively1 and         
delightful though the vintage may be1 we
 behold it without a tear4  ,and why is 
this8 ,because imagination adds to the  
sight of spring the image of the seasons

 which are yet to come2 the eye sees the
 tender shoot1 the mind's eye beholds   
its flowers1 fruit1 and foliage1 and    
even the mysteries they may conceal4 ,it
 blends successive stages into one      
moment's experience2 we see things1 not 
so much as they will be1 but as we would
 have them be1 for imagination has only 
to take her choice4 ,in autumn1 on the  
other hand1 we only behold the present2 
if we wish to look forward to spring1   
winter bars the way1 and our shivering  
imagination dies away among its frost   
and snow4  ,this is the source of the   
charm we find in beholding the beauties 
of childhood1 rather than the perfection
 of manhood4 ,when do we really delight 
in beholding a man8 ,when the memory of 
his deeds leads us to look back over his
 life and his youth is renewed in our   
eyes4 ,if we are reduced to viewing him 
as he is1 or to picturing him as he will
 be in old age1 the thought of declining
 years destroys all our pleasure4 ,there
 is no pleasure in seeing a man         

hastening to his grave2 the image of    
death makes all hideous4  ,but when ,i  
think of a child of ten or twelve1      
strong1 healthy1 well-grown for his age1
 only pleasant thoughts are called up1  
whether of the present or the future4 ,i
 see him keen1 eager1 and full of life1 
free from gnawing cares and painful     
forebodings1 absorbed in this present   
state1 and delighting in a fullness of  
life which seems to extend beyond       
himself4 ,i look forward to a time when 
he will use his daily increasing sense1 
intelligence and vigour1 those growing  
powers of which he continually gives    
fresh proof4 ,i watch the child with    
delight1 ,i picture to myself the man   
with even greater pleasure4 ,his eager  
life seems to stir my own pulses1 ,i    
seem to live his life and in his vigour 
,i renew my own4  ,the hour strikes1 the
 scene is changed4 ,all of a sudden his 
eye grows dim1 his mirth has fled4      
,farewell mirth1 farewell untrammelled  
sports in which he delighted4 ,a stern1 

angry man takes him by the hand1 saying 
gravely1 ,come with me1 sir1 and he is  
led away4 ,as they are entering the     
room1 ,i catch a glimpse of books4      
,books1 what dull food for a child of   
his age6 ,the poor child allows himself 
to be dragged away2 he casts a sorrowful
 look on all about him1 and departs in  
silence1 his eyes swollen with the tears
 he dare not shed1 and his heart        
bursting with the sighs he dare not     
utter4  ,you who have no such cause for 
fear1 you for whom no period of life is 
a time of weariness and tedium1 you who 
welcome days without care and nights    
without impatience1 you who only reckon 
time by your pleasures1 come1 my happy  
kindly pupil1 and console us for the    
departure of that miserable creature4   
,come6 ,here he is and at his approach  
,i feel a thrill of delight which ,i see
 he shares4 ,it is his friend1 his      
comrade1 who meets him2 when he sees me 
he knows very well that he will not be  
long without amusement2 we are never    

dependent on each other1 but we are     
always on good terms1 and we are never  
so happy as when together4  ,his face1  
his bearing1 his expression1 speak of   
confidence and contentment2 health      
shines in his countenance1 his firm step
 speaks of strength2 his colour1        
delicate but not sickly1 has nothing of 
softness or effeminacy4 ,sun and wind   
have already set the honourable stamp of
 manhood on his countenance2 his rounded
 muscles already begin to show some     
signs of growing individuality2 his     
eyes1 as yet unlighted by the flame of  
feeling1 have at least all their native 
calm2 ,they have not been darkened by   
prolonged sorrow1 nor are his cheeks    
furrowed by ceaseless tears4 ,behold in 
his quick and certain movements the     
natural vigour of his age and the       
confidence of independence4 ,his manner 
is free and open1 but without a trace of
 insolence or vanity2 his head which has
 not been bent over books does not fall 
upon his breast2 there is no need to    

say1 ,hold your head up1 he will neither
 hang his head for shame or fear4  ,make
 room for him1 gentlemen1 in your midst2
 question him boldly2 have no fear of   
importunity1 chatter1 or impertinent    
questions4 ,you need not be afraid that 
he will take possession of you and      
expect you to devote yourself entirely  
to him1 so that you cannot get rid of   
him4  ,neither need you look for        
compliments from him2 nor will he tell  
you what ,i have taught him to say2     
expect nothing from him but the plain1  
simple truth1 without addition or       
ornament and without vanity4 ,he will   
tell you the wrong things he has done   
and thought as readily as the right1    
without troubling himself in the least  
as to the effect of his words upon you2 
he will use speech with all the         
simplicity of its first beginnings4  ,we
 love to augur well of our children1 and
 we are continually regretting the flood
 of folly which overwhelms the hopes we 
would fain have rested on some chance   

phrase4 ,if my scholar rarely gives me  
cause for such prophecies1 neither will 
he give me cause for such regrets1 for  
he never says a useless word1 and does  
not exhaust himself by chattering when  
he knows there is no one to listen to   
him4 ,his ideas are few but precise1 he 
knows nothing by rote but much by       
experience4 ,if he reads our books worse
 than other children1 he reads far      
better in the book of nature2 his       
thoughts are not in his tongue but in   
his brain2 he has less memory and more  
judgment2 he can only speak one         
language1 but he understands what he is 
saying1 and if his speech is not so good
 as that of other children his deeds are
 better4  ,he does not know the meaning 
of habit1 routine1 and custom2 what he  
did yesterday has no control over what  
he is doing to-day2 he follows no rule1 
submits to no authority1 copies no      
pattern1 and only acts or speaks as he  
pleases4 ,so do not expect set speeches 
or studied manners from him1 but just   

the faithful expression of his thoughts 
and the conduct that springs from his   
inclinations4 ,footnote3 ,habit owes its
 charm to man's natural idleness1 and   
this idleness grows upon us if indulged2
 it is easier to do what we have already
 done1 there is a beaten path which is  
easily followed4 ,thus we may observe   
that habit is very strong in the aged   
and in the indolent1 and very weak in   
the young and active4 ,the rule of habit
 is only good for feeble hearts1 and it 
makes them more and more feeble day by  
day4 ,the only useful habit for children
 is to be accustomed to submit without  
difficulty to necessity1 and the only   
useful habit for man is to submit       
without difficulty to the rule of       
reason4 ,every other habit is a vice4   
,you will find he has a few moral ideas 
concerning his present state and none   
concerning manhood2 what use could he   
make of them1 for the child is not1 as  
yet1 an active member of society4 ,speak
 to him of freedom1 of property1 or even

 of what is usually done2 he may        
understand you so far2 he knows why his 
things are his own1 and why other things
 are not his1 and nothing more4 ,speak  
to him of duty or obedience2 he will not
 know what you are talking about2 bid   
him do something and he will pay no     
attention2 but say to him1 ,if you will 
give me this pleasure1 ,i will repay it 
when required1 and he will hasten to    
give you satisfaction1 for he asks      
nothing better than to extend his       
domain1 to acquire rights over you1     
which will1 he knows1 be respected4     
,maybe he is not sorry to have a place  
of his own1 to be reckoned of some      
account2 but if he has formed this      
latter idea1 he has already left the    
realms of nature1 and you have failed to
 bar the gates of vanity4  ,for his own 
part1 should he need help1 he will ask  
it readily of the first person he meets4
 ,he will ask it of a king as readily as
 of his servant2 all men are equals in  
his eyes4 ,from his way of asking you   

will see he knows you owe him nothing1  
that he is asking a favour4  ,he knows  
too that humanity moves you to grant    
this favour2 his words are few and      
simple4 ,his voice1 his look1 his       
gesture are those of a being equally    
familiar with compliance and refusal4   
,it is neither the crawling1 servile    
submission of the slave1 nor the        
imperious tone of the master1 it is a   
modest confidence in mankind2 it is the 
noble and touching gentleness of a      
creature1 free1 yet sensitive and       
feeble1 who asks aid of a being1 free1  
but strong and kindly4 ,if you grant his
 request he will not thank you1 but he  
will feel he has incurred a debt4 ,if   
you refuse he will neither complain nor 
insist2 he knows it is useless2 he will 
not say1 ,they refused to help me1 but  
,it was impossible1 and as ,i have      
already said1 we do not rebel against   
necessity when once we have perceived   
it4  ,leave him to himself and watch his
 actions without speaking1 consider what

 he is doing and how he sets about it4  
,he does not require to convince himself
 that he is free1 so he never acts      
thoughtlessly and merely to show that he
 can do what he likes2 does he not know 
that he is always his own master8 ,he is
 quick1 alert1 and ready2 his movements 
are eager as befits his age1 but you    
will not find one which has no end in   
view4 ,whatever he wants1 he will never 
attempt what is beyond his powers1 for  
he has learnt by experience what those  
powers are2 his means will always be    
adapted to the end in view1 and he will 
rarely attempt anything without the     
certainty of success2 his eye is keen   
and true2 he will not be so stupid as to
 go and ask other people about what he  
sees2 he will examine it on his own     
account1 and before he asks he will try 
every means at his disposal to discover 
what he wants to know for himself4  ,if 
he lights upon some unexpected          
difficulty1 he will be less upset than  
others2 if there is danger he will be   

less afraid4 ,his imagination is still  
asleep and nothing has been done to     
arouse it2 he only sees what is really  
there1 and rates the danger at its true 
worth2 so he never loses his head4 ,he  
does not rebel against necessity1 her   
hand is too heavy upon him2 he has borne
 her yoke all his life long1 he is well 
used to it2 he is always ready for      
anything4  ,work or play are all one to 
him1 his games are his work2 he knows no
 difference4 ,he brings to everything   
the cheerfulness of interest1 the charm 
of freedom1 and he shows the bent of his
 own mind and the extent of his         
knowledge4 ,is there anything better    
worth seeing1 anything more touching or 
more delightful1 than a pretty child1   
with merry1 cheerful glance1 easy       
contented manner1 open smiling          
countenance1 playing at the most        
important things1 or working at the     
lightest amusements8  ,would you now    
judge him by comparison8 ,set him among 
other children and leave him to himself4

 ,you will soon see which has made most 
progress1 which comes nearer to the     
perfection of childhood4 ,among all the 
children in the town there is none more 
skilful and none so strong4 ,among young
 peasants he is their equal in strength 
and their superior in skill4 ,in        
everything within a child's grasp he    
judges1 reasons1 and shows a forethought
 beyond the rest4 ,is it a matter of    
action1 running1 jumping1 or shifting   
things1 raising weights or estimating   
distance1 inventing games1 carrying off 
prizes2 you might say1 ,nature obeys his
 word1 so easily does he bend all things
 to his will4 ,he is made to lead1 to   
rule his fellows2 talent and experience 
take the place of right and authority4  
,in any garb1 under any name1 he will   
still be first2 everywhere he will rule 
the rest1 they will always feel his     
superiority1 he will be master without  
knowing it1 and they will serve him     
unawares4  ,he has reached the          
perfection of childhood2 he has lived   

the life of a child2 his progress has   
not been bought at the price of his     
happiness1 he has gained both4 ,while he
 has acquired all the wisdom of a child1
 he has been as free and happy as his   
health permits4 ,if the ,reaper ,death  
should cut him off and rob us of our    
hopes1 we need not bewail alike his life
 and death1 we shall not have the added 
grief of knowing that we caused him     
pain2 we will say1 ,his childhood1 at   
least1 was happy2 we have robbed him of 
nothing that nature gave him4  ,the     
chief drawback to this early education  
is that it is only appreciated by the   
wise2 to vulgar eyes the child so       
carefully educated is nothing but a     
rough little boy4 ,a tutor thinks rather
 of the advantage to himself than to his
 pupil2 he makes a point of showing that
 there has been no time wasted2 he      
provides his pupil with goods which can 
be readily displayed in the shop window1
 accomplishments which can be shown off 
at will2 no matter whether they are     

useful1 provided they are easily seen4  
,without choice or discrimination he    
loads his memory with a pack of rubbish4
 ,if the child is to be examined he is  
set to display his wares2 he spreads    
them out1 satisfies those who behold    
them1 packs up his bundle and goes his  
way4 ,my pupil is poorer1 he has no     
bundle to display1 he has only himself  
to show4 ,now neither child nor man can 
be read at a glance4 ,where are the     
observers who can at once discern the   
characteristics of this child8 ,there   
are such people1 but they are few and   
far between2 among a thousand fathers   
you will scarcely find one4  ,too many  
questions are tedious and revolting to  
most of us and especially to children4  
,after a few minutes their attention    
flags1 they cease to listen to your     
everlasting questions and reply at      
random4 ,this way of testing them is    
pedantic and useless2 a chance word will
 often show their sense and intelligence
 better than much talking1 but take care

 that the answer is neither a matter of 
chance nor yet learnt by heart4 ,a man  
must needs have a good judgment if he is
 to estimate the judgment of a child4   
,i heard the late ,lord ,hyde tell the  
following story about one of his        
friends4 ,he had returned from ,italy   
after a three years' absence1 and was   
anxious to test the progress of his son1
 a child of nine or ten4 ,one evening he
 took a walk with the child and his     
tutor across a level space where the    
schoolboys were flying their kites4 ,as 
they went1 the father said to his son1  
,where is the kite that casts this      
shadow8 ,without hesitating and without 
glancing upwards the child replied1     
,over the high road4 ,and indeed1 said  
,lord ,hyde1 the high road was between  
us and the sun4 ,at these words1 the    
father kissed his child1 and having     
finished his examination he departed4   
,the next day he sent the tutor the     
papers settling an annuity on him in    
addition to his salary4  ,what a father6

 and what a promising child6 ,the       
question is exactly adapted to the      
child's age1 the answer is perfectly    
simple2 but see what precision it       
implies in the child's judgment4 ,thus  
did the pupil of ,aristotle master the  
famous steed which no squire had ever   
been able to tame4     ,,book ,,iii     
,the whole course of man's life up to   
adolescence is a period of weakness2 yet
 there comes a time during these early  
years when the child's strength         
overtakes the demands upon it1 when the 
growing creature1 though absolutely     
weak1 is relatively strong4 ,his needs  
are not fully developed and his present 
strength is more than enough for them4  
,he would be a very feeble man1 but he  
is a strong child4  ,what is the cause  
of man's weakness8 ,it is to be found in
 the disproportion between his strength 
and his desires4 ,it is our passions    
that make us weak1 for our natural      
strength is not enough for their        
satisfaction4 ,to limit our desires     

comes to the same thing1 therefore1 as  
to increase our strength4 ,when we can  
do more than we want1 we have strength  
enough and to spare1 we are really      
strong4 ,this is the third stage of     
childhood1 the stage with which ,i am   
about to deal4 ,i still speak of        
childhood for want of a better word2 for
 our scholar is approaching adolescence1
 though he has not yet reached the age  
of puberty4  ,about twelve or thirteen  
the child's strength increases far more 
rapidly than his needs4 ,the strongest  
and fiercest of the passions is still   
unknown1 his physical development is    
still imperfect and seems to await the  
call of the will4 ,he is scarcely aware 
of extremes of heat and cold and braves 
them with impunity4 ,he needs no coat1  
his blood is warm2 no spices1 hunger is 
his sauce1 no food comes amiss at this  
age2 if he is sleepy he stretches       
himself on the ground and goes to sleep2
 he finds all he needs within his reach2
 he is not tormented by any imaginary   

wants2 he cares nothing what others     
think2 his desires are not beyond his   
grasp2 not only is he self-sufficing1   
but for the first and last time in his  
life he has more strength than he needs4
  ,i know beforehand what you will say4 
,you will not assert that the child has 
more needs than ,i attribute to him1 but
 you will deny his strength4 ,you forget
 that ,i am speaking of my own pupil1   
not of those puppets who walk with      
difficulty from one room to another1 who
 toil indoors and carry bundles of      
paper4 ,manly strength1 you say1 appears
 only with manhood2 the vital spirits1  
distilled in their proper vessels and   
spreading through the whole body1 can   
alone make the muscles firm1 sensitive1 
tense1 and springy1 can alone cause real
 strength4 ,this is the philosophy of   
the study2 ,i appeal to that of         
experience4 ,in the country districts1  
,i see big lads hoeing1 digging1 guiding
 the plough1 filling the wine-cask1     
driving the cart1 like their fathers2   

you would take them for grown men if    
their voices did not betray them4 ,even 
in our towns1 iron-workers'1 tool       
makers'1 and blacksmiths' lads are      
almost as strong as their masters and   
would be scarcely less skilful had their
 training begun earlier4  ,if there is a
 difference1 and ,i do not deny that    
there is1 it is1 ,i repeat1 much less   
than the difference between the stormy  
passions of the man and the few wants of
 the child4 ,moreover1 it is not merely 
a question of bodily strength1 but more 
especially of strength of mind1 which   
reinforces and directs the bodily       
strength4  ,this interval in which the  
strength of the individual is in excess 
of his wants is1 as ,i have said1       
relatively though not absolutely the    
time of greatest strength4 ,it is the   
most precious time in his life2 it comes
 but once2 it is very short1 all too    
short1 as you will see when you consider
 the importance of using it aright4  ,he
 has1 therefore1 a surplus of strength  

and capacity which he will never have   
again4 ,what use shall he make of it8   
,he will strive to use it in tasks which
 will help at need4 ,he will1 so to     
speak1 cast his present surplus into the
 storehouse of the future2 the vigorous 
child will make provision for the feeble
 man2 but he will not store his goods   
where thieves may break in1 nor in barns
 which are not his own4 ,to store them  
aright1 they must be in the hands and   
the head1 they must be stored within    
himself4 ,this is the time for work1    
instruction1 and inquiry4 ,and note that
 this is no arbitrary choice of mine1 it
 is the way of nature herself4  ,human  
intelligence is finite1 and not only can
 no man know everything1 he cannot even 
acquire all the scanty knowledge of     
others4 ,since the contrary of every    
false proposition is a truth1 there are 
as many truths as falsehoods4 ,we must1 
therefore1 choose what to teach as well 
as when to teach it4 ,some of the       
information within our reach is false1  

some is useless1 some merely serves to  
puff up its possessor4 ,the small store 
which really contributes to our welfare 
alone deserves the study of a wise man1 
and therefore of a child whom one would 
have wise4 ,he must know not merely what
 is1 but what is useful4  ,from this    
small stock we must also deduct those   
truths which require a full grown mind  
for their understanding1 those which    
suppose a knowledge of man's relations  
to his fellow-men--a knowledge which no 
child can acquire2 these things1        
although in themselves true1 lead an    
inexperienced mind into mistakes with   
regard to other matters4  ,we are now   
confined to a circle1 small indeed      
compared with the whole of human        
thought1 but this circle is still a vast
 sphere when measured by the child's    
mind4 ,dark places of the human         
understanding1 what rash hand shall dare
 to raise your veil8 ,what pitfalls does
 our so-called science prepare for the  
miserable child4 ,would you guide him   

along this dangerous path and draw the  
veil from the face of nature8  ,stay    
your hand4 ,first make sure that neither
 he nor you will become dizzy4 ,beware  
of the specious charms of error and the 
intoxicating fumes of pride4 ,keep this 
truth ever before you--,ignorance never 
did any one any harm1 error alone is    
fatal1 and we do not lose our way       
through ignorance but through           
self-confidence4  ,his progress in      
geometry may serve as a test and a true 
measure of the growth of his            
intelligence1 but as soon as he can     
distinguish between what is useful and  
what is useless1 much skill and         
discretion are required to lead him     
towards theoretical studies4 ,for       
example1 would you have him find a mean 
proportional between two lines1 contrive
 that he should require to find a square
 equal to a given rectangle2 if two mean
 proportionals are required1 you must   
first contrive to interest him in the   
doubling of the cube4 ,see how we are   

gradually approaching the moral ideas   
which distinguish between good and evil4
 ,hitherto we have known no law but     
necessity1 now we are considering what  
is useful2 we shall soon come to what is
 fitting and right4  ,man's diverse     
powers are stirred by the same instinct4
 ,the bodily activity1 which seeks an   
outlet for its energies1 is succeeded by
 the mental activity which seeks for    
knowledge4 ,children are first restless1
 then curious2 and this curiosity1      
rightly directed1 is the means of       
development for the age with which we   
are dealing4 ,always distinguish between
 natural and acquired tendencies4 ,there
 is a zeal for learning which has no    
other foundation than a wish to appear  
learned1 and there is another which     
springs from man's natural curiosity    
about all things far or near which may  
affect himself4 ,the innate desire for  
comfort and the impossibility of its    
complete satisfaction impel him to the  
endless search for fresh means of       

contributing to its satisfaction4 ,this 
is the first principle of curiosity2 a  
principle natural to the human heart1   
though its growth is proportional to the
 development of our feeling and         
knowledge4 ,if a man of science were    
left on a desert island with his books  
and instruments and knowing that he must
 spend the rest of his life there1 he   
would scarcely trouble himself about the
 solar system1 the laws of attraction1  
or the differential calculus4 ,he might 
never even open a book again2 but he    
would never rest till he had explored   
the furthest corner of his island1      
however large it might be4 ,let us      
therefore omit from our early studies   
such knowledge as has no natural        
attraction for us1 and confine ourselves
 to such things as instinct impels us to
 study4  ,our island is this earth2 and 
the most striking object we behold is   
the sun4 ,as soon as we pass beyond our 
immediate surroundings1 one or both of  
these must meet our eye4 ,thus the      

philosophy of most savage races is      
mainly directed to imaginary divisions  
of the earth or to the divinity of the  
sun4  ,what a sudden change you will    
say4 ,just now we were concerned with   
what touches ourselves1 with our        
immediate environment1 and all at once  
we are exploring the round world and    
leaping to the bounds of the universe4  
,this change is the result of our       
growing strength and of the natural bent
 of the mind4 ,while we were weak and   
feeble1 self-preservation concentrated  
our attention on ourselves2 now that we 
are strong and powerful1 the desire for 
a wider sphere carries us beyond        
ourselves as far as our eyes can reach4 
,but as the intellectual world is still 
unknown to us1 our thoughts are bounded 
by the visible horizon1 and our         
understanding only develops within the  
limits of our vision4  ,let us transform
 our sensations into ideas1 but do not  
let us jump all at once from the objects
 of sense to objects of thought4 ,the   

latter are attained by means of the     
former4 ,let the senses be the only     
guide for the first workings of reason4 
,no book but the world1 no teaching but 
that of fact4 ,the child who reads      
ceases to think1 he only reads4 ,he is  
acquiring words not knowledge4  ,teach  
your scholar to observe the phenomena of
 nature2 you will soon rouse his        
curiosity1 but if you would have it     
grow1 do not be in too great a hurry to 
satisfy this curiosity4 ,put the        
problems before him and let him solve   
them himself4 ,let him know nothing     
because you have told him1 but because  
he has learnt it for himself4 ,let him  
not be taught science1 let him discover 
it4 ,if ever you substitute authority   
for reason he will cease to reason2 he  
will be a mere plaything of other       
people's thoughts4  ,you wish to teach  
this child geography and you provide him
 with globes1 spheres1 and maps4 ,what  
elaborate preparations6 ,what is the use
 of all these symbols2 why not begin by 

showing him the real thing so that he   
may at least know what you are talking  
about8  ,one fine evening we are walking
 in a suitable place where the wide     
horizon gives us a full view of the     
setting sun1 and we note the objects    
which mark the place where it sets4     
,next morning we return to the same     
place for a breath of fresh air before  
sun-rise4 ,we see the rays of light     
which announce the sun's approach2 the  
glow increases1 the east seems afire1   
and long before the sun appears the     
light leads us to expect its return4    
,every moment you expect to see it4     
,there it is at last6 ,a shining point  
appears like a flash of lightning and   
soon fills the whole space2 the veil of 
darkness rolls away1 man perceives his  
dwelling place in fresh beauty4 ,during 
the night the grass has assumed a       
fresher green2 in the light of early    
dawn1 and gilded by the first rays of   
the sun1 it seems covered with a shining
 network of dew reflecting the light and

 colour4 ,the birds raise their chorus  
of praise to greet the ,father of life1 
not one of them is mute2 their gentle   
warbling is softer than by day1 it      
expresses the langour of a peaceful     
waking4 ,all these produce an impression
 of freshness which seems to reach the  
very soul4 ,it is a brief hour of       
enchantment which no man can resist2 a  
sight so grand1 so fair1 so delicious1  
that none can behold it unmoved4  ,fired
 with this enthusiasm1 the master wishes
 to impart it to the child4 ,he expects 
to rouse his emotion by drawing         
attention to his own4 ,mere folly6 ,the 
splendour of nature lives in man's      
heart2 to be seen1 it must be felt4 ,the
 child sees the objects themselves1 but 
does not perceive their relations1 and  
cannot hear their harmony4 ,it needs    
knowledge he has not yet acquired1      
feelings he has not yet experienced1 to 
receive the complex impression which    
results from all these separate         
sensations4 ,if he has not wandered over

 arid plains1 if his feet have not been 
scorched by the burning sands of the    
desert1 if he has not breathed the hot  
and oppressive air reflected from the   
glowing rocks1 how shall he delight in  
the fresh air of a fine morning4 ,the   
scent of flowers1 the beauty of foliage1
 the moistness of the dew1 the soft turf
 beneath his feet1 how shall all these  
delight his senses4 ,how shall the song 
of the birds arouse voluptuous emotion  
if love and pleasure are still unknown  
to him8 ,how shall he behold with       
rapture the birth of this fair day1 if  
his imagination cannot paint the joys it
 may bring in its track8 ,how can he    
feel the beauty of nature1 while the    
hand that formed it is unknown8  ,never 
tell the child what he cannot           
understand3 no descriptions1 no         
eloquence1 no figures of speech1 no     
poetry4 ,the time has not come for      
feeling or taste4 ,continue to be clear 
and cold2 the time will come only too   
soon when you must adopt another tone4  

,brought up in the spirit of our maxims1
 accustomed to make his own tools and   
not to appeal to others until he has    
tried and failed1 he will examine       
everything he sees carefully and in     
silence4 ,he thinks rather than         
questions4 ,be content1 therefore1 to   
show him things at a fit season2 then1  
when you see that his curiosity is      
thoroughly aroused1 put some brief      
question which will set him trying to   
discover the answer4  ,on the present   
occasion when you and he have carefully 
observed the rising sun1 when you have  
called his attention to the mountains   
and other objects visible from the same 
spot1 after he has chattered freely     
about them1 keep quiet for a few minutes
 as if lost in thought and then say1 ,i 
think the sun set over there last night2
 it rose here this morning4 ,how can    
that be8 ,say no more2 if he asks       
questions1 do not answer them2 talk of  
something else4 ,let him alone1 and be  
sure he will think about it4  ,to train 

a child to be really attentive so that  
he may be really impressed by any truth 
of experience1 he must spend anxious    
days before he discovers that truth4 ,if
 he does not learn enough in this way1  
there is another way of drawing his     
attention to the matter4 ,turn the      
question about4 ,if he does not know how
 the sun gets from the place where it   
sets to where it rises1 he knows at     
least how it travels from sunrise to    
sunset1 his eyes teach him that4 ,use   
the second question to throw light on   
the first2 either your pupil is a       
regular dunce or the analogy is too     
clear to be missed4 ,this is his first  
lesson in cosmography4  ,as we always   
advance slowly from one sensible idea to
 another1 and as we give time enough to 
each for him to become really familiar  
with it before we go on to another1 and 
lastly as we never force our scholar's  
attention1 we are still a long way from 
a knowledge of the course of the sun or 
the shape of the earth2 but as all the  

apparent movements of the celestial     
bodies depend on the same principle1 and
 the first observation leads on to all  
the rest1 less effort is needed1 though 
more time1 to proceed from the diurnal  
revolution to the calculation of        
eclipses1 than to get a thorough        
understanding of day and night4  ,since 
the sun revolves round the earth it     
describes a circle1 and every circle    
must have a centre2 that we know        
already4 ,this centre is invisible1 it  
is in the middle of the earth1 but we   
can mark out two opposite points on the 
earth's surface which correspond to it4 
,a skewer passed through the three      
points and prolonged to the sky at      
either end would represent the earth's  
axis and the sun's daily course4 ,a     
round teetotum revolving on its point   
represents the sky turning on its axis1 
the two points of the teetotum are the  
two poles2 the child will be delighted  
to find one of them1 and ,i show him the
 tail of the ,little bear4 ,here is a   

another game for the dark4 ,little by   
little we get to know the stars1 and    
from this comes a wish to know the      
planets and observe the constellations4 
,we saw the sun rise at midsummer1 we   
shall see it rise at ,christmas or some 
other fine winter's day2 for you know we
 are no lie-a-beds and we enjoy the     
cold4 ,i take care to make this second  
observation in the same place as the    
first1 and if skilfully lead up to1 one 
or other will certainly exclaim1 ,what a
 funny thing6 ,the sun is not rising in 
the same place2 here are our landmarks1 
but it is rising over there4 ,so there  
is the summer east and the winter east1 
etc4 ,young teacher1 you are on the     
right track4 ,these examples should show
 you how to teach the sphere without any
 difficulty1 taking the earth for the   
earth and the sun for the sun4  ,as a   
general rule--never substitute the      
symbol for the thing signified1 unless  
it is impossible to show the thing      
itself2 for the child's attention is so 

taken up with the symbol that he will   
forget what it signifies4  ,i consider  
the armillary sphere a clumsy           
disproportioned bit of apparatus4 ,the  
confused circles and the strange figures
 described on it suggest witchcraft and 
frighten the child4 ,the earth is too   
small1 the circles too large and too    
numerous1 some of them1 the colures1 for
 instance1 are quite useless1 and the   
thickness of the pasteboard gives them  
an appearance of solidity so that they  
are taken for circular masses having a  
real existence1 and when you tell the   
child that these are imaginary circles1 
he does not know what he is looking at  
and is none the wiser4  ,we are unable  
to put ourselves in the child's place1  
we fail to enter into his thoughts1 we  
invest him with our own ideas1 and while
 we are following our own chain of      
reasoning1 we merely fill his head with 
errors and absurdities4  ,should the    
method of studying science be analytic  
or synthetic8 ,people dispute over this 

question1 but it is not always necessary
 to choose between them4 ,sometimes the 
same experiments allow one to use both  
analysis and synthesis1 and thus to     
guide the child by the method of        
instruction when he fancies he is only  
analysing4 ,then1 by using both at once1
 each method confirms the results of the
 other4  ,starting from opposite ends1  
without thinking of following the same  
road1 he will unexpectedly reach their  
meeting place and this will be a        
delightful surprise4 ,for example1 ,i   
would begin geography at both ends and  
add to the study of the earth's         
revolution the measurement of its       
divisions1 beginning at home4 ,while the
 child is studying the sphere and is    
thus transported to the heavens1 bring  
him back to the divisions of the globe  
and show him his own home4  ,his        
geography will begin with the town he   
lives in and his father's country house1
 then the places between them1 the      
rivers near them1 and then the sun's    

aspect and how to find one's way by its 
aid4 ,this is the meeting place4 ,let   
him make his own map1 a very simple map1
 at first containing only two places2   
others may be added from time to time1  
as he is able to estimate their distance
 and position4 ,you see at once what a  
good start we have given him by making  
his eye his compass4  ,no doubt he will 
require some guidance in spite of this1 
but very little1 and that little without
 his knowing it4 ,if he goes wrong let  
him alone1 do not correct his mistakes2 
hold your tongue till he finds them out 
for himself and corrects them1 or at    
most arrange something1 as opportunity  
offers1 which may show him his mistakes4
 ,if he never makes mistakes he will    
never learn anything thoroughly4        
,moreover1 what he needs is not an exact
 knowledge of local topography1 but how 
to find out for himself4 ,no matter     
whether he carries maps in his head     
provided he understands what they mean1 
and has a clear idea of the art of      

making them4 ,see what a difference     
there is already between the knowledge  
of your scholars and the ignorance of   
mine4 ,they learn maps1 he makes them4  
,here are fresh ornaments for his room4 
,remember that this is the essential    
point in my method--,do not teach the   
child many things1 but never to let him 
form inaccurate or confused ideas4 ,i   
care not if he knows nothing provided he
 is not mistaken1 and ,i only acquaint  
him with truths to guard him against the
 errors he might put in their place4    
,reason and judgment come slowly1       
prejudices flock to us in crowds1 and   
from these he must be protected4 ,but if
 you make science itself your object1   
you embark on an unfathomable and       
shoreless ocean1 an ocean strewn with   
reefs from which you will never return4 
,when ,i see a man in love with         
knowledge1 yielding to its charms and   
flitting from one branch to another     
unable to stay his steps1 he seems to me
 like a child gathering shells on the   

sea-shore1 now picking them up1 then    
throwing them aside for others which he 
sees beyond them1 then taking them      
again1 till overwhelmed by their number 
and unable to choose between them1 he   
flings them all away and returns empty  
handed4  ,time was long during early    
childhood2 we only tried to pass our    
time for fear of using it ill2 now it is
 the other way2 we have not time enough 
for all that would be of use4 ,the      
passions1 remember1 are drawing near1   
and when they knock at the door your    
scholar will have no ear for anything   
else4 ,the peaceful age of intelligence 
is so short1 it flies so swiftly1 there 
is so much to be done1 that it is       
madness to try to make your child       
learned4 ,it is not your business to    
teach him the various sciences1 but to  
give him a taste for them and methods of
 learning them when this taste is more  
mature4 ,that is assuredly a fundamental
 principle of all good education4  ,this
 is also the time to train him gradually

 to prolonged attention to a given      
object2 but this attention should never 
be the result of constraint1 but of     
interest or desire2 you must be very    
careful that it is not too much for his 
strength1 and that it is not carried to 
the point of tedium4 ,watch him1        
therefore1 and whatever happens1 stop   
before he is tired1 for it matters      
little what he learns2 it does matter   
that he should do nothing against his   
will4  ,if he asks questions let your   
answers be enough to whet his curiosity 
but not enough to satisfy it2 above all1
 when you find him talking at random and
 overwhelming you with silly questions  
instead of asking for information1 at   
once refuse to answer2 for it is clear  
that he no longer cares about the matter
 in hand1 but wants to make you a slave 
to his questions4 ,consider his motives 
rather than his words4 ,this warning1   
which was scarcely needed before1       
becomes of supreme importance when the  
child begins to reason4  ,there is a    

series of abstract truths by means of   
which all the sciences are related to   
common principles and are developed each
 in its turn4 ,this relationship is the 
method of the philosophers4 ,we are not 
concerned with it at present4 ,there is 
quite another method by which every     
concrete example suggests another and   
always points to the next in the series4
 ,this succession1 which stimulates the 
curiosity and so arouses the attention  
required by every object in turn1 is the
 order followed by most men1 and it is  
the right order for all children4 ,to   
take our bearings so as to make our maps
 we must find meridians4 ,two points of 
intersection between the equal shadows  
morning and evening supply an excellent 
meridian for a thirteen-year-old        
astronomer4 ,but these meridians        
disappear1 it takes time to trace them1 
and you are obliged to work in one      
place4  ,so much trouble and attention  
will at last become irksome4 ,we foresaw
 this and are ready for it4  ,again ,i  

must enter into minute and detailed     
explanations4 ,i hear my readers murmur1
 but ,i am prepared to meet their       
disapproval2 ,i will not sacrifice the  
most important part of this book to your
 impatience4 ,you may think me as       
long-winded as you please2 ,i have my   
own opinion as to your complaints4      
,long ago my pupil and ,i remarked that 
some substances such as amber1 glass1   
and wax1 when well rubbed1 attracted    
straws1 while others did not4 ,we       
accidentally discover a substance which 
has a more unusual property1 that of    
attracting filings or other small       
particles of iron from a distance and   
without rubbing4 ,how much time do we   
devote to this game to the exclusion of 
everything else6 ,at last we discover   
that this property is communicated to   
the iron itself1 which is1 so to speak1 
endowed with life4 ,we go to the fair   
one day ,footnote3 ,i could not help    
laughing when ,i read an elaborate      
criticism of this little tale by ,m4 de 

,formy4 ,this conjuror1 says he1 who is 
afraid of a child's competition and     
preaches to his tutor is the sort of    
person we meet with in the world in     
which ,emile and such as he are living4 
,this witty ,m4 de ,formy could not     
guess that this little scene was        
arranged beforehand1 and that the       
juggler was taught his part in it2      
indeed ,i did not state this fact4 ,but 
,i have said again and again that ,i was
 not writing for people who expected to 
be told everything4 and a conjuror has a
 wax duck floating in a basin of water1 
and he makes it follow a bit of bread4  
,we are greatly surprised1 but we do not
 call him a wizard1 never having heard  
of such persons4 ,as we are continually 
observing effects whose causes are      
unknown to us1 we are in no hurry to    
make up our minds1 and we remain in     
ignorance till we find an opportunity of
 learning4  ,when we get home we discuss
 the duck till we try to imitate it4 ,we
 take a needle thoroughly magnetised1 we

 imbed it in white wax1 shaped as far as
 possible like a duck1 with the needle  
running through the body1 so that its   
eye forms the beak4 ,we put the duck in 
water and put the end of a key near its 
beak1 and you will readily understand   
our delight when we find that our duck  
follows the key just as the duck at the 
fair followed the bit of bread4 ,another
 time we may note the direction assumed 
by the duck when left in the basin2 for 
the present we are wholly occupied with 
our work and we want nothing more4  ,the
 same evening we return to the fair with
 some bread specially prepared in our   
pockets1 and as soon as the conjuror has
 performed his trick1 my little doctor1 
who can scarcely sit still1 exclaims1   
,the trick is quite easy2 ,i can do it  
myself4 ,do it then4 ,he at once takes  
the bread with a bit of iron hidden in  
it from his pocket2 his heart throbs as 
he approaches the table and holds out   
the bread1 his hand trembles with       
excitement4 ,the duck approaches and    

follows his hand4 ,the child cries out  
and jumps for joy4 ,the applause1 the   
shouts of the crowd1 are too much for   
him1 he is beside himself4 ,the         
conjuror1 though disappointed1 embraces 
him1 congratulates him1 begs the honour 
of his company on the following day1 and
 promises to collect a still greater    
crowd to applaud his skill4 ,my young   
scientist is very proud of himself and  
is beginning to chatter1 but ,i check   
him at once and take him home           
overwhelmed with praise4  ,the child    
counts the minutes till to-morrow with  
absurd anxiety4 ,he invites every one he
 meets1 he wants all mankind to behold  
his glory2 he can scarcely wait till the
 appointed hour4 ,he hurries to the     
place2 the hall is full already2 as he  
enters his young heart swells with      
pride4 ,other tricks are to come first4 
,the conjuror surpasses himself and does
 the most surprising things4 ,the child 
sees none of these2 he wriggles1        
perspires1 and hardly breathes2 the time

 is spent in fingering with a trembling 
hand the bit of bread in his pocket4    
,his turn comes at last2 the master     
announces it to the audience with all   
ceremony2 he goes up looking somewhat   
shamefaced and takes out his bit of     
bread4 ,oh fleeting joys of human life6 
the duck1 so tame yesterday1 is quite   
wild to-day2 instead of offering its    
beak it turns tail and swims away2 it   
avoids the bread and the hand that holds
 it as carefully as it followed them    
yesterday4 ,after many vain attempts    
accompanied by derisive shouts from the 
audience the child complains that he is 
being cheated1 that is not the same     
duck1 and he defies the conjuror to     
attract it4  ,the conjuror1 without     
further words1 takes a bit of bread and 
offers it to the duck1 which at once    
follows it and comes to the hand which  
holds it4 ,the child takes the same bit 
of bread with no better success2 the    
duck mocks his efforts and swims round  
the basin4  ,overwhelmed with confusion 

he abandons the attempt1 ashamed to face
 the crowd any longer4 ,then the        
conjuror takes the bit of bread the     
child brought with him and uses it as   
successfully as his own4 ,he takes out  
the bit of iron before the              
audience--another laugh at our          
expense--then with this same bread he   
attracts the duck as before4  ,he       
repeats the experiment with a piece of  
bread cut by a third person in full view
 of the audience4 ,he does it with his  
glove1 with his finger-tip4 ,finally he 
goes into the middle of the room and in 
the emphatic tones used by such persons 
he declares that his duck will obey his 
voice as readily as his hand2 he speaks 
and the duck obeys2 he bids him go to   
the right and he goes1 to come back     
again and he comes4 ,the movement is as 
ready as the command4 ,the growing      
applause completes our discomfiture4 ,we
 slip away unnoticed and shut ourselves 
up in our room1 without relating our    
successes to everybody as we had        

expected4  ,next day there is a knock at
 the door4 ,when ,i open it there is the
 conjuror1 who makes a modest complaint 
with regard to our conduct4 ,what had he
 done that we should try to discredit   
his tricks and deprive him of his       
livelihood8 ,what is there so wonderful 
in attracting a duck that we should     
purchase this honour at the price of an 
honest man's living8 ,my word1          
gentlemen6 had ,i any other trade by    
which ,i could earn a living ,i would   
not pride myself on this4 ,you may well 
believe that a man who has spent his    
life at this miserable trade knows more 
about it than you who only give your    
spare time to it4 ,if ,i did not show   
you my best tricks at first1 it was     
because one must not be so foolish as to
 display all one knows at once4 ,i      
always take care to keep my best tricks 
for emergencies2 and ,i have plenty more
 to prevent young folks from meddling4  
,however1 ,i have come1 gentlemen1 in   
all kindness1 to show you the trick that

 gave you so much trouble2 ,i only beg  
you not to use it to my hurt1 and to be 
more discreet in future4 ,he then shows 
us his apparatus1 and to our great      
surprise we find it is merely a strong  
magnet in the hand of a boy concealed   
under the table4 ,the man puts up his   
things1 and after we have offered our   
thanks and apologies1 we try to give him
 something4 ,he refuses it4 ,no1        
gentlemen1 says he1 ,i owe you no       
gratitude and ,i will not accept your   
gift4 ,i leave you in my debt in spite  
of all1 and that is my only revenge4    
,generosity may be found among all sorts
 of people1 and ,i earn my pay by doing 
my tricks not by teaching them4  ,as he 
is going he blames me out-right4 ,i can 
make excuses for the child1 he says1 he 
sinned in ignorance4 ,but you1 sir1     
should know better4 ,why did you let him
 do it8 ,as you are living together and 
you are older than he1 you should look  
after him and give him good advice4     
,your experience should be his guide4   

,when he is grown up he will reproach1  
not only himself1 but you1 for the      
faults of his youth4  ,when he is gone  
we are greatly downcast4 ,i blame myself
 for my easy-going ways4 ,i promise the 
child that another time ,i will put his 
interests first and warn him against    
faults before he falls into them1 for   
the time is coming when our relations   
will be changed1 when the severity of   
the master must give way to the         
friendliness of the comrade2 this change
 must come gradually1 you must look     
ahead1 and very far ahead4  ,we go to   
the fair again the next day to see the  
trick whose secret we know4 ,we approach
 our ,socrates1 the conjuror1 with      
profound respect1 we scarcely dare to   
look him in the face4 ,he overwhelms us 
with politeness1 gives us the best      
places1 and heaps coals of fire on our  
heads4 ,he goes through his performance 
as usual1 but he lingers affectionately 
over the duck1 and often glances proudly
 in our direction4 ,we are in the       

secret1 but we do not tell4 ,if my pupil
 did but open his mouth he would be     
worthy of death4  ,there is more meaning
 than you suspect in this detailed      
illustration4 ,how many lessons in one6 
,how mortifying are the results of a    
first impulse towards vanity6 ,young    
tutor1 watch this first impulse         
carefully4 ,if you can use it to bring  
about shame and disgrace1 you may be    
sure it will not recur for many a day4  
,what a fuss you will say4 ,just so2 and
 all to provide a compass which will    
enable us to dispense with a meridian6  
,having learnt that a magnet acts       
through other bodies1 our next business 
is to construct a bit of apparatus      
similar to that shown us4 ,a bare table1
 a shallow bowl placed on it and filled 
with water1 a duck rather better        
finished than the first1 and so on4 ,we 
often watch the thing and at last we    
notice that the duck1 when at rest1     
always turns the same way4 ,we follow up
 this observation2 we examine the       

direction1 we find that it is from south
 to north4 ,enough6 we have found our   
compass or its equivalent2 the study of 
physics is begun4  ,there are various   
regions of the earth1 and these regions 
differ in temperature4 ,the variation is
 more evident as we approach the poles2 
all bodies expand with heat and contract
 with cold2 this is best measured in    
liquids and best of all in spirits2     
hence the thermometer4 ,the wind strikes
 the face1 then the air is a body1 a    
fluid2 we feel it though we cannot see  
it4 ,i invert a glass in water2 the     
water will not fill it unless you leave 
a passage for the escape of the air2 so 
air is capable of resistance4 ,plunge   
the glass further in the water2 the     
water will encroach on the air-space    
without filling it entirely2 so air     
yields somewhat to pressure4 ,a ball    
filled with compressed air bounces      
better than one filled with anything    
else2 so air is elastic4 ,raise your arm
 horizontally from the water when you   

are lying in your bath2 you will feel a 
terrible weight on it2 so air is a heavy
 body4 ,by establishing an equilibrium  
between air and other fluids its weight 
can be measured1 hence the barometer1   
the siphon1 the air-gun1 and the        
air-pump4 ,all the laws of statics and  
hydrostatics are discovered by such     
rough experiments4 ,for none of these   
would ,i take the child into a physical 
cabinet2 ,i dislike that array of       
instruments and apparatus4  ,the        
scientific atmosphere destroys science4 
,either the child is frightened by these
 instruments or his attention1 which    
should be fixed on their effects1 is    
distracted by their appearance4  ,we    
shall make all our apparatus ourselves1 
and ,i would not make it beforehand1 but
 having caught a glimpse of the         
experiment by chance we mean to invent  
step by step an instrument for its      
verification4 ,i would rather our       
apparatus was somewhat clumsy and       
imperfect1 but our ideas clear as to    

what the apparatus ought to be1 and the 
results to be obtained by means of it4  
,for my first lesson in statics1 instead
 of fetching a balance1 ,i lay a stick  
across the back of a chair1 ,i measure  
the two parts when it is balanced2 add  
equal or unequal weights to either end2 
by pulling or pushing it as required1 ,i
 find at last that equilibrium is the   
result of a reciprocal proportion       
between the amount of the weights and   
the length of the levers4 ,thus my      
little physicist is ready to rectify a  
balance before ever he sees one4        
,undoubtedly the notions of things thus 
acquired for oneself are clearer and    
much more convincing than those acquired
 from the teaching of others2 and not   
only is our reason not accustomed to a  
slavish submission to authority1 but we 
develop greater ingenuity in discovering
 relations1 connecting ideas and        
inventing apparatus1 than when we merely
 accept what is given us and allow our  
minds to be enfeebled by indifference1  

like the body of a man whose servants   
always wait on him1 dress him and put on
 his shoes1 whose horse carries him1    
till he loses the use of his limbs4     
,boileau used to boast that he had      
taught ,racine the art of rhyming with  
difficulty4 ,among the many short cuts  
to science1 we badly need some one to   
teach us the art of learning with       
difficulty4  ,the most obvious advantage
 of these slow and laborious inquiries  
is this3 the scholar1 while engaged in  
speculative studies1 is actively using  
his body1 gaining suppleness of limb1   
and training his hands to labour so that
 he will be able to make them useful    
when he is a man4 ,too much apparatus1  
designed to guide us in our experiments 
and to supplement the exactness of our  
senses1 makes us neglect to use those   
senses4 ,the theodolite makes it        
unnecessary to estimate the size of     
angles2 the eye which used to judge     
distances with much precision1 trusts to
 the chain for its measurements2 the    

steel yard dispenses with the need of   
judging weight by the hand as ,i used to
 do4 ,the more ingenious our apparatus1 
the coarser and more unskilful are our  
senses4 ,we surround ourselves with     
tools and fail to use those with which  
nature has provided every one of us4    
,but when we devote to the making of    
these instruments the skill which did   
instead of them1 when for their         
construction we use the intelligence    
which enabled us to dispense with them1 
this is gain not loss1 we add art to    
nature1 we gain ingenuity without loss  
of skill4 ,if instead of making a child 
stick to his books ,i employ him in a   
workshop1 his hands work for the        
development of his mind4 ,while he      
fancies himself a workman he is becoming
 a philosopher4 ,moreover1 this exercise
 has other advantages of which ,i shall 
speak later2 and you will see how1      
through philosophy in sport1 one may    
rise to the real duties of man4  ,i have
 said already that purely theoretical   

science is hardly suitable for children1
 even for children approaching          
adolescence2 but without going far into 
theoretical physics1 take care that all 
their experiments are connected together
 by some chain of reasoning1 so that    
they may follow an orderly sequence in  
the mind1 and may be recalled at need2  
for it is very difficult to remember    
isolated facts or arguments1 when there 
is no cue for their recall4  ,in your   
inquiry into the laws of nature always  
begin with the commonest and most       
conspicuous phenomena1 and train your   
scholar not to accept these phenomena as
 causes but as facts4 ,i take a stone   
and pretend to place it in the air2 ,i  
open my hand1 the stone falls4 ,i see   
,emile watching my action and ,i say1   
,why does this stone fall8  ,what child 
will hesitate over this question8 ,none1
 not even ,emile1 unless ,i have taken  
great pains to teach him not to answer4 
,every one will say1 ,the stone falls   
because it is heavy4 ,and what do you   

mean by heavy8 ,that which falls4 ,so   
the stone falls because it falls8 ,here 
is a poser for my little philosopher4   
,this is his first lesson in systematic 
physics1 and whether he learns physics  
or no it is a good lesson in            
common-sense4  ,as the child develops in
 intelligence other important           
considerations require us to be still   
more careful in our choice of his       
occupations4 ,as soon as he has         
sufficient self-knowledge to understand 
what constitutes his well-being1 as soon
 as he can grasp such far-reaching      
relations as to judge what is good for  
him and what is not1 then he is able to 
discern the difference between work and 
play1 and to consider the latter merely 
as relaxation4 ,the objects of real     
utility may be introduced into his      
studies and may lead him to more        
prolonged attention than he gave to his 
games4 ,the ever-recurring law of       
necessity soon teaches a man to do what 
he does not like1 so as to avert evils  

which he would dislike still more4 ,such
 is the use of foresight1 and this      
foresight1 well or ill used1 is the     
source of all the wisdom or the         
wretchedness of mankind4  ,every one    
desires happiness1 but to secure it he  
must know what happiness is4 ,for the   
natural man happiness is as simple as   
his life2 it consists in the absence of 
pain2 health1 freedom1 the necessaries  
of life are its elements4 ,the happiness
 of the moral man is another matter1 but
 it does not concern us at present4 ,i  
cannot repeat too often that it is only 
objects which can be perceived by the   
senses which can have any interest for  
children1 especially children whose     
vanity has not been stimulated nor their
 minds corrupted by social conventions4 
,as soon as they foresee their needs    
before they feel them1 their            
intelligence has made a great step      
forward1 they are beginning to know the 
value of time4 ,they must then be       
trained to devote this time to useful   

purposes1 but this usefulness should be 
such as they can readily perceive and   
should be within the reach of their age 
and experience4 ,what concerns the moral
 order and the customs of society should
 not yet be given them1 for they are not
 in a condition to understand it4 ,it is
 folly to expect them to attend to      
things vaguely described as good for    
them1 when they do not know what this   
good is1 things which they are assured  
will be to their advantage when they are
 grown up1 though for the present they  
take no interest in this so-called      
advantage1 which they are unable to     
understand4  ,let the child do nothing  
because he is told2 nothing is good for 
him but what he recognises as good4     
,when you are always urging him beyond  
his present understanding1 you think you
 are exercising a foresight which you   
really lack4 ,to provide him with       
useless tools which he may never        
require1 you deprive him of man's most  
useful tool--common-sense4 ,you would   

have him docile as a child2 he will be a
 credulous dupe when he grows up4 ,you  
are always saying1 ,what ,i ask is for  
your good1 though you cannot understand 
it4 ,what does it matter to me whether  
you do it or not2 my efforts are        
entirely on your account4 ,all these    
fine speeches with which you hope to    
make him good1 are preparing the way1 so
 that the visionary1 the tempter1 the   
charlatan1 the rascal1 and every kind of
 fool may catch him in his snare or draw
 him into his folly4  ,a man must know  
many things which seem useless to a     
child1 but need the child learn1 or can 
he indeed learn1 all that the man must  
know8  ,try to teach the child what is  
of use to a child and you will find that
 it takes all his time4 ,why urge him to
 the studies of an age he may never     
reach1 to the neglect of those studies  
which meet his present needs8 ,but1 you 
ask1 will it not be too late to learn   
what he ought to know when the time     
comes to use it8 ,i cannot tell2 but    

this ,i do know1 it is impossible to    
teach it sooner1 for our real teachers  
are experience and emotion1 and man will
 never learn what befits a man except   
under its own conditions4 ,a child knows
 he must become a man2 all the ideas he 
may have as to man's estate are so many 
opportunities for his instruction1 but  
he should remain in complete ignorance  
of those ideas which are beyond his     
grasp4 ,my whole book is one continued  
argument in support of this fundamental 
principle of education4  ,as soon as we 
have contrived to give our pupil an idea
 of the word ,useful1 we have got an    
additional means of controlling him1 for
 this word makes a great impression on  
him1 provided that its meaning for him  
is a meaning relative to his own age1   
and provided he clearly sees its        
relation to his own well-being4 ,this   
word makes no impression on your        
scholars because you have taken no pains
 to give it a meaning they can          
understand1 and because other people    

always undertake to supply their needs  
so that they never require to think for 
themselves1 and do not know what utility
 is4  ,what is the use of that8 ,in     
future this is the sacred formula1 the  
formula by which he and ,i test every   
action of our lives4 ,this is the       
question with which ,i invariably answer
 all his questions2 it serves to check  
the stream of foolish and tiresome      
questions with which children weary     
those about them4 ,these incessant      
questions produce no result1 and their  
object is rather to get a hold over you 
than to gain any real advantage4 ,a     
pupil1 who has been really taught only  
to want to know what is useful1         
questions like ,socrates2 he never asks 
a question without a reason for it1 for 
he knows he will be required to give his
 reason before he gets an answer4  ,see 
what a powerful instrument ,i have put  
into your hands for use with your pupil4
 ,as he does not know the reason for    
anything you can reduce him to silence  

almost at will2 and what advantages do  
your knowledge and experience give you  
to show him the usefulness of what you  
suggest4 ,for1 make no mistake about it1
 when you put this question to him1 you 
are teaching him to put it to you1 and  
you must expect that whatever you       
suggest to him in the future he will    
follow your own example and ask1 ,what  
is the use of this8  ,perhaps this is   
the greatest of the tutor's             
difficulties4 ,if you merely try to put 
the child off when he asks a question1  
and if you give him a single reason he  
is not able to understand1 if he finds  
that you reason according to your own   
ideas1 not his1 he will think what you  
tell him is good for you but not for    
him2 you will lose his confidence and   
all your labour is thrown away4 ,but    
what master will stop short and confess 
his faults to his pupil8 ,we all make it
 a rule never to own to the faults we   
really have4 ,now ,i would make it a    
rule to admit even the faults ,i have   

not1 if ,i could not make my reasons    
clear to him2 as my conduct will always 
be intelligible to him1 he will never   
doubt me and ,i shall gain more credit  
by confessing my imaginary faults than  
those who conceal their real defects4   
,in the first place do not forget that  
it is rarely your business to suggest   
what he ought to learn2 it is for him to
 want to learn1 to seek and to find it4 
,you should put it within his reach1 you
 should skilfully awaken the desire and 
supply him with means for its           
satisfaction4 ,so your questions should 
be few and well-chosen1 and as he will  
always have more questions to put to you
 than you to him1 you will always have  
the advantage and will be able to ask   
all the oftener1 ,what is the use of    
that question8 ,moreover1 as it matters 
little what he learns provided he       
understands it and knows how to use it1 
as soon as you cannot give him a        
suitable explanation give him none at   
all4 ,do not hesitate to say1 ,i have no

 good answer to give you2 ,i was wrong1 
let us drop the subject4 ,if your       
teaching was really ill-chosen there is 
no harm in dropping it altogether2 if it
 was not1 with a little care you will   
soon find an opportunity of making its  
use apparent to him4  ,i do not like    
verbal explanations4 ,young people pay  
little heed to them1 nor do they        
remember them4 ,things6 ,things6 ,i     
cannot repeat it too often4 ,we lay too 
much stress upon words2 we teachers     
babble1 and our scholars follow our     
example4  ,suppose we are studying the  
course of the sun and the way to find   
our bearings1 when all at once ,emile   
interrupts me with the question1 ,what  
is the use of that8 what a fine lecture 
,i might give1 how many things ,i might 
take occasion to teach him in reply to  
his question1 especially if there is any
 one there4 ,i might speak of the       
advantages of travel1 the value of      
commerce1 the special products of       
different lands and the peculiar customs

 of different nations1 the use of the   
calendar1 the way to reckon the seasons 
for agriculture1 the art of navigation1 
how to steer our course at sea1 how to  
find our way without knowing exactly    
where we are4 ,politics1 natural        
history1 astronomy1 even morals and     
international law are involved in my    
explanation1 so as to give my pupil some
 idea of all these sciences and a great 
wish to learn them4 ,when ,i have       
finished ,i shall have shown myself a   
regular pedant1 ,i shall have made a    
great display of learning1 and not one  
single idea has he understood4 ,he is   
longing to ask me again1 ,what is the   
use of taking one's bearings8 but he    
dare not for fear of vexing me4 ,he     
finds it pays best to pretend to listen 
to what he is forced to hear4 ,this is  
the practical result of our fine systems
 of education4  ,but ,emile is educated 
in a simpler fashion4 ,we take so much  
pains to teach him a difficult idea that
 he will have heard nothing of all this4

 ,at the first word he does not         
understand1 he will run away1 he will   
prance about the room1 and leave me to  
speechify by myself4 ,let us seek a more
 commonplace explanation2 my scientific 
learning is of no use to him4  ,we were 
observing the position of the forest to 
the north of ,montmorency when he       
interrupted me with the usual question1 
,what is the use of that8 ,you are      
right1 ,i said4 ,let us take time to    
think it over1 and if we find it is no  
use we will drop it1 for we only want   
useful games4 ,we find something else to
 do and geography is put aside for the  
day4  ,next morning ,i suggest a walk   
before breakfast2 there is nothing he   
would like better2 children are always  
ready to run about1 and he is a good    
walker4 ,we climb up to the forest1 we  
wander through its clearings and lose   
ourselves2 we have no idea where we are1
 and when we want to retrace our steps  
we cannot find the way4 ,time passes1 we
 are hot and hungry2 hurrying vainly    

this way and that we find nothing but   
woods1 quarries1 plains1 not a landmark 
to guide us4  ,very hot1 very tired1    
very hungry1 we only get further astray4
 ,at last we sit down to rest and to    
consider our position4 ,i assume that   
,emile has been educated like an        
ordinary child4 ,he does not think1 he  
begins to cry2 he has no idea we are    
close to ,montmorency1 which is hidden  
from our view by a mere thicket2 but    
this thicket is a forest to him1 a man  
of his size is buried among bushes4     
,after a few minutes' silence ,i begin  
anxiously----  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,my    
dear ,emile1 what shall we do get out8  
,,emile4 ,i am sure ,i do not know4 ,i  
am tired1 ,i am hungry1 ,i am thirsty4  
,i cannot go any further4  ,,jean       
,,jacques4 ,do you suppose ,i am any    
better off8 ,i would cry too if ,i could
 make my breakfast off tears4 ,crying is
 no use1 we must look about us4 ,let us 
see your watch2 what time is it8        
,,emile4 ,it is noon and ,i am so       

hungry6  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,just so2 it 
is noon and ,i am so hungry too4        
,,emile4 ,you must be very hungry       
indeed4  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,unluckily my
 dinner won't come to find me4 ,it is   
twelve o'clock4 ,this time yesterday we 
were observing the position of the      
forest from ,montmorency4 ,if only we   
could see the position of ,montmorency  
from the forest4  ,,emile4 ,but         
yesterday we could see the forest1 and  
here we cannot see the town4  ,,jean    
,,jacques4 ,that is just it4 ,if we     
could only find it without seeing it4   
,,emile4 ,oh6 my dear friend6  ,,jean   
,,jacques4 ,did not we say the forest   
was444  ,,emile4 ,north of ,montmorency4
  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,then ,montmorency  
must lie444  ,,emile4 ,south of the     
forest4  ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,we know how 
to find the north at midday4  ,,emile4  
,yes1 by the direction of the shadows4  
,,jean ,,jacques4 ,but the south8       
,,emile4 ,what shall we do8  ,,jean     
,,jacques4 ,the south is opposite the   

north4  ,,emile4 ,that is true2 we need 
only find the opposite of the shadows4  
,that is the south6 ,that is the south6 
,montmorency must be over there6 ,let us
 look for it there6  ,,jean ,,jacques4  
,perhaps you are right2 let us follow   
this path through the wood4  ,,emile4   
7,clapping his hands47 ,oh1 ,i can see  
,montmorency6 there it is1 quite plain1 
just in front of us6 ,come to luncheon1 
come to dinner1 make haste6 ,astronomy  
is some use after all4  ,be sure that he
 thinks this if he does not say it2 no  
matter which1 provided ,i do not say it 
myself4 ,he will certainly never forget 
this day's lesson as long as he lives1  
while if ,i had only led him to think of
 all this at home1 my lecture would have
 been forgotten the next day4 ,teach by 
doing whenever you can1 and only fall   
back upon words when doing is out of the
 question4  ,the reader will not expect 
me to have such a poor opinion of him as
 to supply him with an example of every 
kind of study2 but1 whatever is taught1 

,i cannot too strongly urge the tutor to
 adapt his instances to the capacity of 
his scholar2 for once more ,i repeat the
 risk is not in what he does not know1  
but in what he thinks he knows4  ,i     
remember how ,i once tried to give a    
child a taste for chemistry4 ,after     
showing him several metallic            
precipitates1 ,i explained how ink was  
made4 ,i told him how its blackness was 
merely the result of fine particles of  
iron separated from the vitriol and     
precipitated by an alkaline solution4   
,in the midst of my learned explanation 
the little rascal pulled me up short    
with the question ,i myself had taught  
him4  ,i was greatly puzzled4 ,after a  
few moments' thought ,i decided what to 
do4 ,i sent for some wine from the      
cellar of our landlord1 and some very   
cheap wine from a wine-merchant4 ,i took
 a small ,footnote3 ,before giving any  
explanation to a child a little bit of  
apparatus serves to fix his attention4  
flask of an alkaline solution1 and      

placing two glasses before me filled    
with the two sorts of wine1 ,i said4    
,food and drink are adulterated to make 
them seem better than they really are4  
,these adulterations deceive both the   
eye and the palate1 but they are        
unwholesome and make the adulterated    
article even worse than before in spite 
of its fine appearance4  ,all sorts of  
drinks are adulterated1 and wine more   
than others2 for the fraud is more      
difficult to detect1 and more profitable
 to the fraudulent person4  ,sour wine  
is adulterated with litharge2 litharge  
is a preparation of lead4 ,lead in      
combination with acids forms a sweet    
salt which corrects the harsh taste of  
the sour wine1 but it is poisonous4 ,so 
before we drink wine of doubtful quality
 we should be able to tell if there is  
lead in it4 ,this is how ,i should do   
it4  ,wine contains not merely an       
inflammable spirit as you have seen from
 the brandy made from it2 it also       
contains an acid as you know from the   

vinegar made from it4  ,this acid has an
 affinity for metals1 it combines with  
them and forms salts1 such as iron-rust1
 which is only iron dissolved by the    
acid in air or water1 or such as        
verdegris1 which is only copper         
dissolved in vinegar4  ,but this acid   
has a still greater affinity for alkalis
 than for metals1 so that when we add   
alkalis to the above-mentioned salts1   
the acid sets free the metal with which 
it had combined1 and combines with the  
alkali4  ,then the metal1 set free by   
the acid which held it in solution1 is  
precipitated and the liquid becomes     
opaque4  ,if then there is litharge in  
either of these glasses of wine1 the    
acid holds the litharge in solution4    
,when ,i pour into it an alkaline       
solution1 the acid will be forced to set
 the lead free in order to combine with 
the alkali4 ,the lead1 no longer held in
 solution1 will reappear1 the liquor    
will become thick1 and after a time the 
lead will be deposited at the bottom of 

the glass4  ,if there is no lead        
,footnote3 ,the wine sold by retail     
dealers in ,paris is rarely free from   
lead1 though some of it does not contain
 litharge1 for the counters are covered 
with lead and when the wine is poured   
into the measures and some of it spilt  
upon the counter and the measures left  
standing on the counter1 some of the    
lead is always dissolved4 ,it is strange
 that so obvious and dangerous an abuse 
should be tolerated by the police4 ,but 
indeed well-to-do people1 who rarely    
drink these wines1 are not likely to be 
poisoned by them4 nor other metal in the
 wine the alkali will slowly ,footnote3 
,the vegetable acid is very gentle in   
its action4 ,if it were a mineral acid  
and less diluted1 the combination would 
not take place without effervescence4   
combine with the acid1 all will remain  
clear and there will be no precipitate4 
,then ,i poured my alkaline solution    
first into one glass and then into the  
other4 ,the wine from our own house     

remained clear and unclouded1 the other 
at once became turbid1 and an hour later
 the lead might be plainly seen1        
precipitated at the bottom of the glass4
  ,this1 said ,i1 is a pure natural wine
 and fit to drink2 the other is         
adulterated and poisonous4 ,you wanted  
to know the use of knowing how to make  
ink4 ,if you can make ink you can find  
out what wines are adulterated4  ,i was 
very well pleased with my illustration1 
but ,i found it made little impression  
on my pupil4 ,when ,i had time to think 
about it ,i saw ,i had been a fool1 for 
not only was it impossible for a child  
of twelve to follow my explanations1 but
 the usefulness of the experiment did   
not appeal to him2 he had tasted both   
glasses of wine and found them both     
good1 so he attached no meaning to the  
word adulterated which ,i thought ,i had
 explained so nicely4 ,indeed1 the other
 words1 unwholesome and poison1 had no  
meaning whatever for him2 he was in the 
same condition as the boy who told the  

story of ,philip and his doctor4 ,it is 
the condition of all children4  ,the    
relation of causes and effects whose    
connection is unknown to us1 good and   
ill of which we have no idea1 the needs 
we have never felt1 have no existence   
for us4 ,it is impossible to interest   
ourselves in them sufficiently to make  
us do anything connected with them4 ,at 
fifteen we become aware of the happiness
 of a good man1 as at thirty we become  
aware of the glory of ,paradise4 ,if we 
had no clear idea of either we should   
make no effort for their attainment2 and
 even if we had a clear idea of them1 we
 should make little or no effort unless 
we desired them and unless we felt we   
were made for them4 ,it is easy to      
convince a child that what you wish to  
teach him is useful1 but it is useless  
to convince if you cannot also persuade4
 ,pure reason may lead us to approve or 
censure1 but it is feeling which leads  
to action1 and how shall we care about  
that which does not concern us8  ,never 

show a child what he cannot see4 ,since 
mankind is almost unknown to him1 and   
since you cannot make a man of him1     
bring the man down to the level of the  
child4 ,while you are thinking what will
 be useful to him when he is older1 talk
 to him of what he knows he can use now4
 ,moreover1 as soon as he begins to     
reason let there be no comparison with  
other children1 no rivalry1 no          
competition1 not even in running races4 
,i would far rather he did not learn    
anything than have him learn it through 
jealousy or self-conceit4 ,year by year 
,i shall just note the progress he had  
made1 ,i shall compare the results with 
those of the following year1 ,i shall   
say1 ,you have grown so much2 that is   
the ditch you jumped1 the weight you    
carried1 the distance you flung a       
pebble1 the race you ran without        
stopping to take breath1 etc42 let us   
see what you can do now4  ,in this way  
he is stimulated to further effort      
without jealousy4 ,he wants to excel    

himself as he ought to do2 ,i see no    
reason why he should not emulate his own
 performances4  ,i hate books2 they only
 teach us to talk about things we know  
nothing about4 ,hermes1 they say1       
engraved the elements of science on     
pillars lest a deluge should destroy    
them4 ,had he imprinted them on men's   
hearts they would have been preserved by
 tradition4 ,well-trained minds are the 
pillars on which human knowledge is most
 deeply engraved4  ,is there no way of  
correlating so many lessons scattered   
through so many books1 no way of        
focussing them on some common object1   
easy to see1 interesting to follow1 and 
stimulating even to a child8 ,could we  
but discover a state in which all man's 
needs appear in such a way as to appeal 
to the child's mind1 a state in which   
the ways of providing for these needs   
are as easily developed1 the simple and 
stirring portrayal of this state should 
form the earliest training of the       
child's imagination4  ,eager            

philosopher1 ,i see your own imagination
 at work4 ,spare yourself the trouble2  
this state is already known1 it is      
described1 with due respect to you1 far 
better than you could describe it1 at   
least with greater truth and simplicity4
 ,since we must have books1 there is one
 book which1 to my thinking1 supplies   
the best treatise on an education       
according to nature4 ,this is the first 
book ,emile will read2 for a long time  
it will form his whole library1 and it  
will always retain an honoured place4   
,it will be the text to which all our   
talks about natural science are but the 
commentary4 ,it will serve to test our  
progress towards a right judgment1 and  
it will always be read with delight1 so 
long as our taste is unspoilt4 ,what is 
this wonderful book8 ,is it ,aristotle8 
,pliny8 ,buffon8 ,no2 it is ,robinson   
,crusoe4  ,robinson ,crusoe on his      
island1 deprived of the help of his     
fellow-men1 without the means of        
carrying on the various arts1 yet       

finding food1 preserving his life1 and  
procuring a certain amount of comfort2  
this is the thing to interest people of 
all ages1 and it can be made attractive 
to children in all sorts of ways4 ,we   
shall thus make a reality of that desert
 island which formerly served as an     
illustration4 ,the condition1 ,i        
confess1 is not that of a social being1 
nor is it in all probability ,emile's   
own condition1 but he should use it as a
 standard of comparison for all other   
conditions4 ,the surest way to raise him
 above prejudice and to base his        
judgments on the true relations of      
things1 is to put him in the place of a 
solitary man1 and to judge all things as
 they would be judged by such a man in  
relation to their own utility4  ,this   
novel1 stripped of irrelevant matter1   
begins with ,robinson's shipwreck on his
 island1 and ends with the coming of the
 ship which bears him from it1 and it   
will furnish ,emile with material1 both 
for work and play1 during the whole     

period we are considering4 ,his head    
should be full of it1 he should always  
be busy with his castle1 his goats1 his 
plantations4 ,let him learn in detail1  
not from books but from things1 all that
 is necessary in such a case4 ,let him  
think he is ,robinson himself2 let him  
see himself clad in skins1 wearing a    
tall cap1 a great cutlass1 all the      
grotesque get-up of ,robinson ,crusoe1  
even to the umbrella which he will      
scarcely need4 ,he should anxiously     
consider what steps to take2 will this  
or that be wanting4  ,he should examine 
his hero's conduct2 has he omitted      
nothing2 is there nothing he could have 
done better8 ,he should carefully note  
his mistakes1 so as not to fall into    
them himself in similar circumstances1  
for you may be sure he will plan out    
just such a settlement for himself4     
,this is the genuine castle in the air  
of this happy age1 when the child knows 
no other happiness but food and freedom4
  ,what a motive will this infatuation  

supply in the hands of a skilful teacher
 who has aroused it for the purpose of  
using it4 ,the child who wants to build 
a storehouse on his desert island will  
be more eager to learn than the master  
to teach4 ,he will want to know all     
sorts of useful things and nothing else2
 you will need the curb as well as the  
spur4 ,make haste1 therefore1 to        
establish him on his island while this  
is all he needs to make him happy2 for  
the day is at hand1 when1 if he must    
still live on his island1 he will not be
 content to live alone1 when even the   
companionship of ,man ,friday1 who is   
almost disregarded now1 will not long   
suffice4  ,the exercise of the natural  
arts1 which may be carried on by one man
 alone1 leads on to the industrial arts 
which call for the cooperation of many  
hands4 ,the former may be carried on by 
hermits1 by savages1 but the others can 
only arise in a society1 and they make  
society necessary4 ,so long as only     
bodily needs are recognised man is      

self-sufficing2 with superfluity comes  
the need for division and distribution  
of labour1 for though one man working   
alone can earn a man's living1 one      
hundred men working together can earn   
the living of two hundred4 ,as soon as  
some men are idle1 others must work to  
make up for their idleness4  ,your main 
object should be to keep out of your    
scholar's way all idea of such social   
relations as he cannot understand1 but  
when the development of knowledge       
compels you to show him the mutual      
dependence of mankind1 instead of       
showing him its moral side1 turn all his
 attention at first towards industry and
 the mechanical arts which make men     
useful to one another4 ,while you take  
him from one workshop to another1 let   
him try his hand at every trade you show
 him1 and do not let him leave it till  
he has thoroughly learnt why everything 
is done1 or at least everything that has
 attracted his attention4 ,with this aim
 you should take a share in his work and

 set him an example4 ,be yourself the   
apprentice that he may become a master2 
you may expect him to learn more in one 
hour's work than he would retain after a
 whole day's explanation4  ,the value   
set by the general public on the various
 arts is in inverse ratio to their real 
utility4 ,they are even valued directly 
according to their uselessness4 ,this   
might be expected4 ,the most useful arts
 are the worst paid1 for the number of  
workmen is regulated by the demand1 and 
the work which everybody requires must  
necessarily be paid at a rate which puts
 it within the reach of the poor4 ,on   
the other hand1 those great people who  
are called artists1 not artisans1 who   
labour only for the rich and idle1 put a
 fancy price on their trifles2 and as   
the real value of this vain labour is   
purely imaginary1 the price itself adds 
to their market value1 and they are     
valued according to their costliness4   
,the rich think so much of these things1
 not because they are useful1 but       

because they are beyond the reach of the
 poor4 ,nolo habere bona1 nisi quibus   
populus inviderit4  ,what will become of
 your pupils if you let them acquire    
this foolish prejudice1 if you share it 
yourself8 ,if1 for instance1 they see   
you show more politeness in a jeweller's
 shop than in a locksmith's4 ,what idea 
will they form of the true worth of the 
arts and the real value of things when  
they see1 on the one hand1 a fancy price
 and1 on the other1 the price of real   
utility1 and that the more a thing costs
 the less it is worth8 ,as soon as you  
let them get hold of these ideas1 you   
may give up all attempt at further      
education2 in spite of you they will be 
like all the other scholars--you have   
wasted fourteen years4  ,emile1 bent on 
furnishing his island1 will look at     
things from another point of view4      
,robinson would have thought more of a  
toolmaker's shop than all ,saide's      
trifles put together4 ,he would have    
reckoned the toolmaker a very worthy    

man1 and ,saide little more than a      
charlatan4  ,my son will have to take   
the world as he finds it1 he will not   
live among the wise but among fools2 he 
must therefore be acquainted with their 
follies1 since they must be led by this 
means4 ,a real knowledge of things may  
be a good thing in itself1 but the      
knowledge of men and their opinions is  
better1 for in human society man is the 
chief tool of man1 and the wisest man is
 he who best knows the use of this tool4
 ,what is the good of teaching children 
an imaginary system1 just the opposite  
of the established order of things1     
among which they will have to live8     
,first teach them wisdom1 then show them
 the follies of mankind4  ,these are the
 specious maxims by which fathers1 who  
mistake them for prudence1 strive to    
make their children the slaves of the   
prejudices in which they are educated1  
and the puppets of the senseless crowd1 
which they hope to make subservient to  
their passions4 ,how much must be known 

before we attain to a knowledge of man4 
,this is the final study of the         
philosopher1 and you expect to make it  
the first lesson of the child6 ,before  
teaching him our sentiments1 first teach
 him to judge of their worth4 ,do you   
perceive folly when you mistake it for  
wisdom8 ,to be wise we must discern     
between good and evil4 ,how can your    
child know men1 when he can neither     
judge of their judgments nor unravel    
their mistakes8 ,it is a misfortune to  
know what they think1 without knowing   
whether their thoughts are true or      
false4  ,first teach him things as they 
really are1 afterwards you will teach   
him how they appear to us4 ,he will then
 be able to make a comparison between   
popular ideas and truth1 and be able to 
rise above the vulgar crowd2 for you are
 unaware of the prejudices you adopt1   
and you do not lead a nation when you   
are like it4 ,but if you begin to teach 
the opinions of other people before you 
teach how to judge of their worth1 of   

one thing you may be sure1 your pupil   
will adopt those opinions whatever you  
may do1 and you will not succeed in     
uprooting them4 ,i am therefore         
convinced that to make a young man judge
 rightly1 you must form his judgment    
rather than teach him your own4  ,so far
 you see ,i have not spoken to my pupil 
about men2 he would have too much sense 
to listen to me4 ,his relations to other
 people are as yet not sufficiently     
apparent to him to enable him to judge  
others by himself4 ,the only person he  
knows is himself1 and his knowledge of  
himself is very imperfect4 ,but if he   
forms few opinions about others1 those  
opinions are correct4 ,he knows nothing 
of another's place1 but he knows his own
 and keeps to it4 ,i have bound him with
 the strong cord of necessity1 instead  
of social laws1 which are beyond his    
knowledge4 ,he is still little more than
 a body2 let us treat him as such4      
,every substance in nature and every    
work of man must be judged in relation  

to his own use1 his own safety1 his own 
preservation1 his own comfort4 ,thus he 
should value iron far more than gold1   
and glass than diamonds2 in the same way
 he has far more respect for a shoemaker
 or a mason than for a ,lempereur1 a ,le
 ,blanc1 or all the jewellers in        
,europe4 ,in his eyes a confectioner is 
a really great man1 and he would give   
the whole academy of sciences for the   
smallest pastrycook in ,lombard ,street4
 ,goldsmiths1 engravers1 gilders1 and   
embroiderers1 he considers lazy people1 
who play at quite useless games4 ,he    
does not even think much of a           
clockmaker4  ,the happy child enjoys    
,time without being a slave to it2 he   
uses it1 but he does not know its value4
 ,the freedom from passion which makes  
every day alike to him1 makes any means 
of measuring time unnecessary4 ,when ,i 
assumed that ,emile had a watch1        
,footnote3 ,when our hearts are         
abandoned to the sway of passion1 then  
it is that we need a measure of time4   

,the wise man's watch is his equable    
temper and his peaceful heart4 ,he is   
always punctual1 and he always knows the
 time4 just as ,i assumed that he cried1
 it was a commonplace ,emile that ,i    
chose to serve my purpose and make      
myself understood4  ,the real ,emile1 a 
child so different from the rest1 would 
not serve as an illustration for        
anything4  ,there is an order no less   
natural and even more accurate1 by which
 the arts are valued according to bonds 
of necessity which connect them2 the    
highest class consists of the most      
independent1 the lowest of those most   
dependent on others4 ,this              
classification1 which suggests important
 considerations on the order of society 
in general1 is like the preceding one in
 that it is subject to the same         
inversion in popular estimation1 so that
 the use of raw material is the work of 
the lowest and worst paid trades1 while 
the oftener the material changes hands1 
the more the work rises in price and in 

honour4 ,i do not ask whether industry  
is really greater and more deserving of 
reward when engaged in the delicate arts
 which give the final shape to these    
materials1 than in the labour which     
first gave them to man's use2 but this  
,i say1 that in everything the art which
 is most generally useful and necessary1
 is undoubtedly that which most deserves
 esteem1 and that art which requires the
 least help from others1 is more worthy 
of honour than those which are dependent
 on other arts1 since it is freer and   
more nearly independent4 ,these are the 
true laws of value in the arts2 all     
others are arbitrary and dependent on   
popular prejudice4  ,agriculture is the 
earliest and most honourable of arts2   
metal work ,i put next1 then carpentry1 
and so on4 ,this is the order in which  
the child will put them1 if he has not  
been spoilt by vulgar prejudices4 ,what 
valuable considerations ,emile will     
derive from his ,robinson in such       
matters4 ,what will he think when he    

sees the arts only brought to perfection
 by sub-division1 by the infinite       
multiplication of tools4 ,he will say1  
,all those people are as silly as they  
are ingenious2 one would think they were
 afraid to use their eyes and their     
hands1 they invent so many tools        
instead4 ,to carry on one trade they    
become the slaves of many others2 every 
single workman needs a whole town4 ,my  
friend and ,i try to gain skill2 we only
 make tools we can take about with us2  
these people1 who are so proud of their 
talents in ,paris1 would be no use at   
all on our island2 they would have to   
become apprentices4  ,reader1 do not    
stay to watch the bodily exercises and  
manual skill of our pupil1 but consider 
the bent we are giving to his childish  
curiosity2 consider his common-sense1   
his inventive spirit1 his foresight2    
consider what a head he will have on his
 shoulders4 ,he will want to know all   
about everything he sees or does1 to    
learn the why and the wherefore of it2  

from tool to tool he will go back to the
 first beginning1 taking nothing for    
granted2 he will decline to learn       
anything that requires previous         
knowledge which he has not acquired4 ,if
 he sees a spring made he will want to  
know how they got the steel from the    
mine2 if he sees the pieces of a chest  
put together1 he will want to know how  
the tree was out down2 when at work he  
will say of each tool1 ,if ,i had not   
got this1 how could ,i make one like it1
 or how could ,i get along without it8  
,it is1 however1 difficult to avoid     
another error4 ,when the master is very 
fond of certain occupations1 he is apt  
to assume that the child shares his     
tastes2 beware lest you are carried away
 by the interest of your work1 while the
 child is bored by it1 but is afraid to 
show it4 ,the child must come first1 and
 you must devote yourself entirely to   
him4 ,watch him1 study him constantly1  
without his knowing it2 consider his    
feelings beforehand1 and provide against

 those which are undesirable1 keep him  
occupied in such a way that he not only 
feels the usefulness of the thing1 but  
takes a pleasure in understanding the   
purpose which his work will serve4  ,the
 solidarity of the arts consists in the 
exchange of industry1 that of commerce  
in the exchange of commodities1 that of 
banks in the exchange of money or       
securities4 ,all these ideas hang       
together1 and their foundation has      
already been laid in early childhood    
with the help of ,robert the gardener4  
,all we have now to do is to substitute 
general ideas for particular1 and to    
enlarge these ideas by means of numerous
 examples1 so as to make the child      
understand the game of business itself1 
brought home to him by means of         
particular instances of natural history 
with regard to the special products of  
each country1 by particular instances of
 the arts and sciences which concern    
navigation and the difficulties of      
transport1 greater or less in proportion

 to the distance between places1 the    
position of land1 seas1 rivers1 etc4    
,there can be no society without        
exchange1 no exchange without a common  
standard of measurement1 no common      
standard of measurement without         
equality4 ,hence the first law of every 
society is some conventional equality   
either in men or things4  ,conventional 
equality between men1 a very different  
thing from natural equality1 leads to   
the necessity for positive law1 i4e41   
government and kings4 ,a child's        
political knowledge should be clear and 
restricted2 he should know nothing of   
government in general1 beyond what      
concerns the rights of property1 of     
which he has already some idea4         
,conventional equality between things   
has led to the invention of money1 for  
money is only one term in a comparison  
between the values of different sorts of
 things2 and in this sense money is the 
real bond of society2 but anything may  
be money2 in former days it was cattle2 

shells are used among many tribes at the
 present day2 ,sparta used iron2        
,sweden1 leather2 while we use gold and 
silver4  ,metals1 being easier to carry1
 have generally been chosen as the      
middle term of every exchange1 and these
 metals have been made into coin to save
 the trouble of continual weighing and  
measuring1 for the stamp on the coin is 
merely evidence that the coin is of     
given weight2 and the sole right of     
coining money is vested in the ruler    
because he alone has the right to demand
 the recognition of his authority by the
 whole nation4  ,the stupidest person   
can perceive the use of money when it is
 explained in this way4 ,it is difficult
 to make a direct comparison between    
various things1 for instance1 between   
cloth and corn2 but when we find a      
common measure1 in money1 it is easy for
 the manufacturer and the farmer to     
estimate the value of the goods they    
wish to exchange in terms of this common
 measure4 ,if a given quantity of cloth 

is worth a given some of money1 and a   
given quantity of corn is worth the same
 sum of money1 then the seller1         
receiving the corn in exchange for his  
cloth1 makes a fair bargain4 ,thus by   
means of money it becomes possible to   
compare the values of goods of various  
kinds4  ,be content with this1 and do   
not touch upon the moral effects of this
 institution4 ,in everything you must   
show clearly the use before the abuse4  
,if you attempt to teach children how   
the sign has led to the neglect of the  
thing signified1 how money is the source
 of all the false ideas of society1 how 
countries rich in silver must be poor in
 everything else1 you will be treating  
these children as philosophers1 and not 
only as philosophers but as wise men1   
for you are professing to teach them    
what very few philosophers have grasped4
  ,what a wealth of interesting objects1
 towards which the curiosity of our     
pupil may be directed without ever      
quitting the real and material relations

 he can understand1 and without         
permitting the formation of a single    
idea beyond his grasp6 ,the teacher's   
art consists in this3 ,to turn the      
child's attention from trivial details  
and to guide his thoughts continually   
towards relations of importance which he
 will one day need to know1 that he may 
judge rightly of good and evil in human 
society4 ,the teacher must be able to   
adapt the conversation with which he    
amuses his pupil to the turn already    
given to his mind4 ,a problem which     
another child would never heed will     
torment ,emile half a year4  ,we are    
going to dine with wealthy people2 when 
we get there everything is ready for a  
feast1 many guests1 many servants1 many 
dishes1 dainty and elegant china4 ,there
 is something intoxicating in all these 
preparations for pleasure and festivity 
when you are not used to them4 ,i see   
how they will affect my young pupil4    
,while dinner is going on1 while course 
follows course1 and conversation is loud

 around us1 ,i whisper in his ear1 ,how 
many hands do you suppose the things on 
this table passed through before they   
got here8 ,what a crowd of ideas is     
called up by these few words4 ,in a     
moment the mists of excitement have     
rolled away4 ,he is thinking1           
considering1 calculating1 and anxious4  
,the child is philosophising1 while     
philosophers1 excited by wine or perhaps
 by female society1 are babbling like   
children4 ,if he asks questions ,i      
decline to answer and put him off to    
another day4 ,he becomes impatient1 he  
forgets to eat and drink1 he longs to   
get away from table and talk as he      
pleases4  ,what an object of curiosity1 
what a text for instruction4 ,nothing   
has so far succeeded in corrupting his  
healthy reason2 what will he think of   
luxury when he finds that every quarter 
of the globe has been ransacked1 that   
some #b1jjj1jjj men have laboured for   
years1 that many lives have perhaps been
 sacrificed1 and all to furnish him with

 fine clothes to be worn at midday and  
laid by in the wardrobe at night4  ,be  
sure you observe what private           
conclusions he draws from all his       
observations4 ,if you have watched him  
less carefully than ,i suppose1 his     
thoughts may be tempted in another      
direction2 he may consider himself a    
person of great importance in the world1
 when he sees so much labour            
concentrated on the preparation of his  
dinner4 ,if you suspect his thoughts    
will take this direction you can easily 
prevent it1 or at any rate promptly     
efface the false impression4 ,as yet he 
can only appropriate things by personal 
enjoyment1 he can only judge of their   
fitness or unfitness by their outward   
effects4 ,compare a plain rustic meal1  
preceded by exercise1 seasoned by       
hunger1 freedom1 and delight1 with this 
magnificent but tedious repast4 ,this   
will suffice to make him realise that he
 has got no real advantage from the     
splendour of the feast1 that his stomach

 was as well satisfied when he left the 
table of the peasant1 as when he left   
the table of the banker2 from neither   
had he gained anything he could really  
call his own4  ,just fancy what a tutor 
might say to him on such an occasion4   
,consider the two dinners and decide for
 yourself which gave you most pleasure1 
which seemed the merriest1 at which did 
you eat and drink most heartily1 which  
was the least tedious and required least
 change of courses8 ,yet note the       
difference--this black bread you so     
enjoy is made from the peasant's own    
harvest2 his wine is dark in colour and 
of a common kind1 but wholesome and     
refreshing2 it was made in his own      
vineyard2 the cloth is made of his own  
hemp1 spun and woven in the winter by   
his wife and daughters and the maid2 no 
hands but theirs have touched the food4 
,his world is bounded by the nearest    
mill and the next market4 ,how far did  
you enjoy all that the produce of       
distant lands and the service of many   

people had prepared for you at the other
 dinner8 ,if you did not get a better   
meal1 what good did this wealth do you8 
how much of it was made for you8 ,had   
you been the master of the house1 the   
tutor might say1 it would have been of  
still less use to you2 for the anxiety  
of displaying your enjoyment before the 
eyes of others would have robbed you of 
it2 the pains would be yours1 the       
pleasure theirs4  ,this may be a very   
fine speech1 but it would be thrown away
 upon ,emile1 as he cannot understand   
it1 and he does not accept second-hand  
opinions4 ,speak more simply to him4    
,after these two experiences1 say to him
 some day1 ,where shall we have our     
dinner to-day8 ,where that mountain of  
silver covered three quarters of the    
table and those beds of artificial      
flowers on looking glass were served    
with the dessert1 where those smart     
ladies treated you as a toy and         
pretended you said what you did not     
mean2 or in that village two leagues    

away1 with those good people who were so
 pleased to see us and gave us such     
delicious cream8 ,emile will not        
hesitate2 he is not vain and he is no   
chatterbox2 he cannot endure constraint1
 and he does not care for fine dishes2  
but he is always ready for a run in the 
country and is very fond of good fruit  
and vegetables1 sweet cream and kindly  
people4 ,footnote3 ,this taste1 which ,i
 assume my pupil to have acquired1 is a 
natural result of his education4        
,moreover1 he has nothing foppish or    
affected about him1 so that the ladies  
take little notice of him and he is less
 petted than other children2 therefore  
he does not care for them1 and is less  
spoilt by their company2 he is not yet  
of an age to feel its charm4 ,i have    
taken care not to teach him to kiss     
their hands1 to pay them compliments1 or
 even to be more polite to them than to 
men4 ,it is my constant rule to ask     
nothing from him but what he can        
understand1 and there is no good reason 

why a child should treat one sex        
differently from the other4 ,on our way1
 the thought will occur to him1 ,all    
those people who laboured to prepare    
that grand feast were either wasting    
their time or they have no idea how to  
enjoy themselves4  ,my example may be   
right for one child and wrong for the   
rest4 ,if you enter into their way of   
looking at things you will know how to  
vary your instances as required2 the    
choice depends on the study of the      
individual temperament1 and this study  
in turn depends on the opportunities    
which occur to show this temperament4   
,you will not suppose that1 in the three
 or four years at our disposal1 even the
 most gifted child can get an idea of   
all the arts and sciences1 sufficient to
 enable him to study them for himself   
when he is older2 but by bringing before
 him what he needs to know1 we enable   
him to develop his own tastes1 his own  
talents1 to take the first step towards 
the object which appeals to his         

individuality and to show us the road we
 must open up to aid the work of nature4
  ,there is another advantage of these  
trains of limited but exact bits of     
knowledge2 he learns by their connection
 and interdependence how to rank them in
 his own estimation and to be on his    
guard against those prejudices1 common  
to most men1 which draw them towards the
 gifts they themselves cultivate and    
away from those they have neglected4    
,the man who clearly sees the whole1    
sees where each part should be2 the man 
who sees one part clearly and knows it  
thoroughly may be a learned man1 but the
 former is a wise man1 and you remember 
it is wisdom rather than knowledge that 
we hope to acquire4  ,however that may  
be1 my method does not depend on my     
examples2 it depends on the amount of a 
man's powers at different ages1 and the 
choice of occupations adapted to those  
powers4 ,i think it would be easy to    
find a method which appeared to give    
better results1 but if it were less     

suited to the type1 sex1 and age of the 
scholar1 ,i doubt whether the results   
would really be as good4  ,at the       
beginning of this second period we took 
advantage of the fact that our strength 
was more than enough for our needs1 to  
enable us to get outside ourselves4 ,we 
have ranged the heavens and measured the
 earth2 we have sought out the laws of  
nature2 we have explored the whole of   
our island4 ,now let us return to       
ourselves1 let us unconsciously approach
 our own dwelling4 ,we are happy indeed 
if we do not find it already occupied by
 the dreaded foe1 who is preparing to   
seize it4  ,what remains to be done when
 we have observed all that lies around  
us8 ,we must turn to our own use all    
that we can get1 we must increase our   
comfort by means of our curiosity4      
,hitherto we have provided ourselves    
with tools of all kinds1 not knowing    
which we require4 ,perhaps those we do  
not want will be useful to others1 and  
perhaps we may need theirs4 ,thus we    

discover the use of exchange2 but for   
this we must know each other's needs1   
what tools other people use1 what they  
can offer in exchange4 ,given ten men1  
each of them has ten different          
requirements4 ,to get what he needs for 
himself each must work at ten different 
trades2 but considering our different   
talents1 one will do better at this     
trade1 another at that4 ,each of them1  
fitted for one thing1 will work at all1 
and will be badly served4 ,let us form  
these ten men into a society1 and let   
each devote himself to the trade for    
which he is best adapted1 and let him   
work at it for himself and for the rest4
 ,each will reap the advantage of the   
others' talents1 just as if they were   
his own2 by practice each will perfect  
his own talent1 and thus all the ten1   
well provided for1 will still have      
something to spare for others4 ,this is 
the plain foundation of all our         
institutions4 ,it is not my aim to      
examine its results here2 ,i have done  

so in another book 7,discours sur       
l'inegalite74  ,according to this       
principle1 any one who wanted to        
consider himself as an isolated         
individual1 self-sufficing and          
independent of others1 could only be    
utterly wretched4 ,he could not even    
continue to exist1 for finding the whole
 earth appropriated by others while he  
had only himself1 how could he get the  
means of subsistence8 ,when we leave the
 state of nature we compel others to do 
the same2 no one can remain in a state  
of nature in spite of his               
fellow-creatures1 and to try to remain  
in it when it is no longer practicable1 
would really be to leave it1 for        
self-preservation is nature's first law4
  ,thus the idea of social relations is 
gradually developed in the child's mind1
 before he can really be an active      
member of human society4 ,emile sees    
that to get tools for his own use1 other
 people must have theirs1 and that he   
can get in exchange what he needs and   

they possess4 ,i easily bring him to    
feel the need of such exchange and to   
take advantage of it4  ,sir1 ,i must    
live1 said a miserable writer of        
lampoons to the minister who reproved   
him for his infamous trade4 ,i do not   
see the necessity1 replied the great man
 coldly4 ,this answer1 excellent from   
the minister1 would have been barbarous 
and untrue in any other mouth4 ,every   
man must live2 this argument1 which     
appeals to every one with more or less  
force in proportion to his humanity1    
strikes me as unanswerable when applied 
to oneself4 ,since our dislike of death 
is the strongest of those aversions     
nature has implanted in us1 it follows  
that everything is permissible to the   
man who has no other means of living4   
,the principles1 which teach the good   
man to count his life a little thing and
 to sacrifice it at duty's call1 are far
 removed from this primitive simplicity4
 ,happy are those nations where one can 
be good without effort1 and just without

 conscious virtue4 ,if in this world    
there is any condition so miserable that
 one cannot live without wrong-doing1   
where the citizen is driven into evil1  
you should hang1 not the criminal1 but  
those who drove him into crime4  ,as    
soon as ,emile knows what life is1 my   
first care will be to teach him to      
preserve his life4 ,hitherto ,i have    
made no distinction of condition1 rank1 
station1 or fortune2 nor shall ,i       
distinguish between them in the future1 
since man is the same in every station2 
the rich man's stomach is no bigger than
 the poor man's1 nor is his digestion   
any better2 the master's arm is neither 
longer nor stronger than the slave's2 a 
great man is no taller than one of the  
people1 and indeed the natural needs are
 the same to all1 and the means of      
satisfying them should be equally within
 the reach of all4  ,fit a man's        
education to his real self1 not to what 
is no part of him4 ,do you not see that 
in striving to fit him merely for one   

station1 you are unfitting him for      
anything else1 so that some caprice of  
,fortune may make your work really      
harmful to him8 ,what could be more     
absurd than a nobleman in rags1 who     
carries with him into his poverty the   
prejudices of his birth8 ,what is more  
despicable than a rich man fallen into  
poverty1 who recalls the scorn with     
which he himself regarded the poor1 and 
feels that he has sunk to the lowest    
depth of degradation8 ,the one may      
become a professional thief1 the other a
 cringing servant1 with this fine       
saying1 ,i must live4  ,you reckon on   
the present order of society1 without   
considering that this order is itself   
subject to inscrutable changes1 and that
 you can neither foresee nor provide    
against the revolution which may affect 
your children4 ,the great become small1 
the rich poor1 the king a commoner4     
,does fate strike so seldom that you can
 count on immunity from her blows8 ,the 
crisis is approaching1 and we are on the

 edge of a revolution4 ,footnote3 ,in my
 opinion it is impossible that the great
 kingdoms of ,europe should last much   
longer4 ,each of them has had its period
 of splendour1 after which it must      
inevitably decline4 ,i have my own      
opinions as to the special applications 
of this general statement1 but this is  
not the place to enter into details1 and
 they are only too evident to everybody4
 ,who can answer for your fate8 ,what   
man has made1 man may destroy4 ,nature's
 characters alone are ineffaceable1 and 
nature makes neither the prince1 the    
rich man1 nor the nobleman4 ,this satrap
 whom you have educated for greatness1  
what will become of him in his          
degradation8 ,this farmer of the taxes  
who can only live on gold1 what will he 
do in poverty8 ,this haughty fool who   
cannot use his own hands1 who prides    
himself on what is not really his1 what 
will he do when he is stripped of all8  
,in that day1 happy will he be who can  
give up the rank which is no longer his1

 and be still a man in ,fate's despite4 
,let men praise as they will that       
conquered monarch who like a madman     
would be buried beneath the fragments of
 his throne2 ,i behold him with scorn2  
to me he is merely a crown1 and when    
that is gone he is nothing4 ,but he who 
loses his crown and lives without it1 is
 more than a king2 from the rank of a   
king1 which may be held by a coward1 a  
villain1 or madman1 he rises to the rank
 of a man1 a position few can fill4     
,thus he triumphs over ,fortune1 he     
dares to look her in the face2 he       
depends on himself alone1 and when he   
has nothing left to show but himself he 
is not a nonentity1 he is somebody4     
,better a thousandfold the king of      
,corinth a schoolmaster at ,syracuse1   
than a wretched ,tarquin1 unable to be  
anything but a king1 or the heir of the 
ruler of three kingdoms1 the sport of   
all who would scorn his poverty1        
wandering from court to court in search 
of help1 and finding nothing but        

insults1 for want of knowing any trade  
but one which he can no longer practise4
  ,the man and the citizen1 whoever he  
may be1 has no property to invest in    
society but himself1 all his other goods
 belong to society in spite of himself1 
and when a man is rich1 either he does  
not enjoy his wealth1 or the public     
enjoys it too2 in the first case he robs
 others as well as himself2 in the      
second he gives them nothing4 ,thus his 
debt to society is still unpaid1 while  
he only pays with his property4 ,but my 
father was serving society while he was 
acquiring his wealth4 ,just so2 he paid 
his own debt1 not yours4 ,you owe more  
to others than if you had been born with
 nothing1 since you were born under     
favourable conditions4 ,it is not fair  
that what one man has done for society  
should pay another's debt1 for since    
every man owes all that he is1 he can   
only pay his own debt1 and no father can
 transmit to his son any right to be of 
no use to mankind4 ,but1 you say1 this  

is just what he does when he leaves me  
his wealth1 the reward of his labour4   
,the man who eats in idleness what he   
has not himself earned1 is a thief1 and 
in my eyes1 the man who lives on an     
income paid him by the state for doing  
nothing1 differs little from a          
highwayman who lives on those who travel
 his way4 ,outside the pale of society1 
the solitary1 owing nothing to any man1 
may live as he pleases1 but in society  
either he lives at the cost of others1  
or he owes them in labour the cost of   
his keep2 there is no exception to this 
rule4 ,man in society is bound to work2 
rich or poor1 weak or strong1 every     
idler is a thief4  ,now of all the      
pursuits by which a man may earn his    
living1 the nearest to a state of nature
 is manual labour2 of all stations that 
of the artisan is least dependent on    
,fortune4 ,the artisan depends on his   
labour alone1 he is a free man while the
 ploughman is a slave2 for the latter   
depends on his field where the crops may

 be destroyed by others4 ,an enemy1 a   
prince1 a powerful neighbour1 or a      
law-suit may deprive him of his field2  
through this field he may be harassed in
 all sorts of ways4 ,but if the artisan 
is ill-treated his goods are soon packed
 and he takes himself off4 ,yet         
agriculture is the earliest1 the most   
honest of trades1 and more useful than  
all the rest1 and therefore more        
honourable for those who practise it4 ,i
 do not say to ,emile1 ,study           
agriculture1 he is already familiar with
 it4 ,he is acquainted with every kind  
of rural labour1 it was his first       
occupation1 and he returns to it        
continually4 ,so ,i say to him1         
,cultivate your father's lands1 but if  
you lose this inheritance1 or if you    
have none to lose1 what will you do8    
,learn a trade4  ,a trade for my son6   
,my son a working man6 ,what are you    
thinking of1 sir8 ,madam1 my thoughts   
are wiser than yours2 you want to make  
him fit for nothing but a lord1 a       

marquis1 or a prince2 and some day he   
may be less than nothing4 ,i want to    
give him a rank which he cannot lose1 a 
rank which will always do him honour2 ,i
 want to raise him to the status of a   
man1 and1 whatever you may say1 he will 
have fewer equals in that rank than in  
your own4  ,the letter killeth1 the     
spirit giveth life4 ,learning a trade   
matters less than overcoming the        
prejudices he despises4 ,you will never 
be reduced to earning your livelihood2  
so much the worse for you4 ,no matter2  
work for honour1 not for need3 stoop to 
the position of a working man1 to rise  
above your own4 ,to conquer ,fortune and
 everything else1 begin by independence4
 ,to rule through public opinion1 begin 
by ruling over it4  ,remember ,i demand 
no talent1 only a trade1 a genuine      
trade1 a mere mechanical art1 in which  
the hands work harder than the head1 a  
trade which does not lead to fortune but
 makes you independent of her4 ,in      
households far removed from all danger  

of want ,i have known fathers carry     
prudence to such a point as to provide  
their children not only with ordinary   
teaching but with knowledge by means of 
which they could get a living if        
anything happened4 ,these far-sighted   
parents thought they were doing a great 
thing4 ,it is nothing1 for the resources
 they fancy they have secured depend on 
that very fortune of which they would   
make their children independent2 so that
 unless they found themselves in        
circumstances fitted for the display of 
their talents1 they would die of hunger 
as if they had none4  ,as soon as it is 
a question of influence and intrigue you
 may as well use these means to keep    
yourself in plenty1 as to acquire1 in   
the depths of poverty1 the means of     
returning to your former position4 ,if  
you cultivate the arts which depend on  
the artist's reputation1 if you fit     
yourself for posts which are only       
obtained by favour1 how will that help  
you when1 rightly disgusted with the    

world1 you scorn the steps by which you 
must climb4 ,you have studied politics  
and state-craft1 so far so good2 but how
 will you use this knowledge1 if you    
cannot gain the ear of the ministers1   
the favourites1 or the officials8 if you
 have not the secret of winning their   
favour1 if they fail to find you a rogue
 to their taste8 ,you are an architect  
or a painter2 well and good2 but your   
talents must be displayed4 ,do you      
suppose you can exhibit in the salon    
without further ado8 ,that is not the   
way to set about it4 ,lay aside the rule
 and the pencil1 take a cab and drive   
from door to door2 there is the road to 
fame4 ,now you must know that the doors 
of the great are guarded by porters and 
flunkeys1 who only understand one       
language1 and their ears are in their   
palms4 ,if you wish to teach what you   
have learned1 geography1 mathematics1   
languages1 music1 drawing1 even to find 
pupils1 you must have friends who will  
sing your praises4 ,learning1 remember1 

gains more credit than skill1 and with  
no trade but your own none will believe 
in your skill4 ,see how little you can  
depend on these fine ,resources1 and how
 many other resources are required      
before you can use what you have got4   
,and what will become of you in your    
degradation8 ,misfortune will make you  
worse rather than better4 ,more than    
ever the sport of public opinion1 how   
will you rise above the prejudices on   
which your fate depends8 ,how will you  
despise the vices and the baseness from 
which you get your living8 ,you were    
dependent on wealth1 now you are        
dependent on the wealthy2 you are still 
a slave and a poor man into the bargain4
 ,poverty without freedom1 can a man    
sink lower than this6  ,but if instead  
of this recondite learning adapted to   
feed the mind1 not the body1 you have   
recourse1 at need1 to your hands and    
your handiwork1 there is no call for    
deceit1 your trade is ready when        
required4 ,honour and honesty will not  

stand in the way of your living4 ,you   
need no longer cringe and lie to the    
great1 nor creep and crawl before       
rogues1 a despicable flatterer of both1 
a borrower or a thief1 for there is     
little to choose between them when you  
are penniless4 ,other people's opinions 
are no concern of yours1 you need not   
pay court to any one1 there is no fool  
to flatter1 no flunkey to bribe1 no     
woman to win over4 ,let rogues conduct  
the affairs of state2 in your lowly rank
 you can still be an honest man and yet 
get a living4 ,you walk into the first  
workshop of your trade4 ,master1 ,i want
 work4 ,comrade1 take your place and    
work4 ,before dinner-time you have      
earned your dinner4 ,if you are sober   
and industrious1 before the week is out 
you will have earned your keep for      
another week2 you will have lived in    
freedom1 health1 truth1 industry1 and   
righteousness4 ,time is not wasted when 
it brings these returns4  ,emile shall  
learn a trade4 ,an honest trade1 at     

least1 you say4 ,what do you mean by    
honest8 ,is not every useful trade      
honest8 ,i would not make an            
embroiderer1 a gilder1 a polisher of    
him1 like ,locke's young gentleman4     
,neither would ,i make him a musician1  
an actor1 or an author4,footnote3 ,you  
are an author yourself1 you will reply4 
,yes1 for my sins2 and my ill deeds1    
which ,i think ,i have fully expiated1  
are no reason why others should be like 
me4 ,i do not write to excuse my faults1
 but to prevent my readers from copying 
them4 ,with the exception of these and  
others like them1 let him choose his own
 trade1 ,i do not mean to interfere with
 his choice4 ,i would rather have him a 
shoemaker than a poet1 ,i would rather  
he paved streets than painted flowers on
 china4 ,but1 you will say1 policemen1  
spies1 and hangmen are useful people4   
,there would be no use for them if it   
were not for the government4 ,but let   
that pass4 ,i was wrong4 ,it is not     
enough to choose an honest trade1 it    

must be a trade which does not develop  
detestable qualities in the mind1       
qualities incompatible with humanity4   
,to return to our original expression1  
,let us choose an honest trade1 but let 
us remember there can be no honesty     
without usefulness4  ,a famous writer of
 this century1 whose books are full of  
great schemes and narrow views1 was     
under a vow1 like the other priests of  
his communion1 not to take a wife4      
,finding himself more scrupulous than   
others with regard to his neighbour's   
wife1 he decided1 so they say1 to employ
 pretty servants1 and so did his best to
 repair the wrong done to the race by   
his rash promise4 ,he thought it the    
duty of a citizen to breed children for 
the state1 and he made his children     
artisans4 ,as soon as they were old     
enough they were taught whatever trade  
they chose2 only idle or useless trades 
were excluded1 such as that of the      
wigmaker who is never necessary1 and may
 any day cease to be required1 so long  

as nature does not get tired of         
providing us with hair4  ,this spirit   
shall guide our choice of trade for     
,emile1 or rather1 not our choice but   
his2 for the maxims he has imbibed make 
him despise useless things1 and he will 
never be content to waste his time on   
vain labours2 his trade must be of use  
to ,robinson on his island4  ,when we   
review with the child the productions of
 art and nature1 when we stimulate his  
curiosity and follow its lead1 we have  
great opportunities of studying his     
tastes and inclinations1 and perceiving 
the first spark of genius1 if he has any
 decided talent in any direction4 ,you  
must1 however1 be on your guard against 
the common error which mistakes the     
effects of environment for the ardour of
 genius1 or imagines there is a decided 
bent towards any one of the arts1 when  
there is nothing more than that spirit  
of emulation1 common to men and monkeys1
 which impels them instinctively to do  
what they see others doing1 without     

knowing why4  ,the world is full of     
artisans1 and still fuller of artists1  
who have no native gift for their       
calling1 into which they were driven in 
early childhood1 either through the     
conventional ideas of other people1 or  
because those about them were deceived  
by an appearance of zeal1 which would   
have led them to take to any other art  
they saw practised4 ,one hears a drum   
and fancies he is a general2 another    
sees a building and wants to be an      
architect4 ,every one is drawn towards  
the trade he sees before him if he      
thinks it is held in honour4  ,i once   
knew a footman who watched his master   
drawing and painting and took it into   
his head to become a designer and       
artist4 ,he seized a pencil which he    
only abandoned for a paint-brush1 to    
which he stuck for the rest of his days4
 ,without teaching or rules of art he   
began to draw everything he saw4 ,three 
whole years were devoted to these daubs1
 from which nothing but his duties could

 stir him1 nor was he discouraged by the
 small progress resulting from his very 
mediocre talents4 ,i have seen him spend
 the whole of a broiling summer in a    
little ante-room towards the south1 a   
room where one was suffocated merely    
passing through it2 there he was1 seated
 or rather nailed all day to his chair1 
before a globe1 drawing it again and    
again and yet again1 with invincible    
obstinacy till he had reproduced the    
rounded surface to his own satisfaction4
 ,at last with his master's help and    
under the guidance of an artist he got  
so far as to abandon his livery and live
 by his brush4 ,perseverance does       
instead of talent up to a certain point2
 he got so far1 but no further4 ,this   
honest lad's perseverance and ambition  
are praiseworthy2 he will always be     
respected for his industry and          
steadfastness of purpose1 but his       
paintings will always be third-rate4    
,who would not have been deceived by his
 zeal and taken it for real talent6     

,there is all the difference in the     
world between a liking and an aptitude4 
,to make sure of real genius or real    
taste in a child calls for more accurate
 observations than is generally         
suspected1 for the child displays his   
wishes not his capacity1 and we judge by
 the former instead of considering the  
latter4 ,i wish some trustworthy person 
would give us a treatise on the art of  
child-study4 ,this art is well worth    
studying1 but neither parents nor       
teachers have mastered its elements4    
,perhaps we are laying too much stress  
on the choice of a trade2 as it is a    
manual occupation1 ,emile's choice is no
 great matter1 and his apprenticeship is
 more than half accomplished already1   
through the exercises which have        
hitherto occupied him4 ,what would you  
have him do8 ,he is ready for anything4 
,he can handle the spade and hoe1 he can
 use the lathe1 hammer1 plane1 or file2 
he is already familiar with these tools 
which are common to many trades4 ,he    

only needs to acquire sufficient skill  
in the use of any one of them to rival  
the speed1 the familiarity1 and the     
diligence of good workmen1 and he will  
have a great advantage over them in     
suppleness of body and limb1 so that he 
can easily take any position and can    
continue any kind of movements without  
effort4 ,moreover his senses are acute  
and well-practised1 he knows the        
principles of the various trades2 to    
work like a master of his craft he only 
needs experience1 and experience comes  
with practice4 ,to which of these trades
 which are open to us will he give      
sufficient time to make himself master  
of it8 ,that is the whole question4     
,give a man a trade befitting his sex1  
to a young man a trade befitting his    
age4 ,sedentary indoor employments1     
which make the body tender and          
effeminate1 are neither pleasing nor    
suitable4 ,no lad ever wanted to be a   
tailor4 ,it takes some art to attract a 
man to this woman's work4,footnote3     

,there were no tailors among the        
ancients2 men's clothes were made at    
home by the women4 ,the same hand cannot
 hold the needle and the sword4 ,if ,i  
were king ,i would only allow needlework
 and dressmaking to be done by women and
 cripples who are obliged to work at    
such trades4 ,if eunuchs were required  
,i think the ,easterns were very foolish
 to make them on purpose4 ,why not take 
those provided by nature1 that crowd of 
base persons without natural feeling8   
,there would be enough and to spare4    
,the weak1 feeble1 timid man is         
condemned by nature to a sedentary life1
 he is fit to live among women or in    
their fashion4 ,let him adopt one of    
their trades if he likes2 and if there  
must be eunuchs let them take those men 
who dishonour their sex by adopting     
trades unworthy of it4 ,their choice    
proclaims a blunder on the part of      
nature2 correct it one way or other1 you
 will do no harm4  ,an unhealthy trade  
,i forbid to my pupil1 but not a        

difficult or dangerous one4 ,he will    
exercise himself in strength and        
courage2 such trades are for men not    
women1 who claim no share in them4 ,are 
not men ashamed to poach upon the       
women's trades8      ,luctantur paucae1 
comedunt coliphia paucae4      ,vos     
lanam trahitis1 calathisque peracta     
refertis      ,vellera4--,juven4 ,sat4  
,,ii4 ,v4 #ee4  ,women are not seen in  
shops in ,italy1 and to persons         
accustomed to the streets of ,england   
and ,france nothing could look gloomier4
 ,when ,i saw drapers selling ladies    
ribbons1 pompons1 net1 and chenille1 ,i 
thought these delicate ornaments very   
absurd in the coarse hands fit to blow  
the bellows and strike the anvil4 ,i    
said to myself1 ,in this country women  
should set up as steel-polishers and    
armourers4 ,let each make and sell the  
weapons of his or her own sex2 knowledge
 is acquired through use4  ,i know ,i   
have said too much for my agreeable     
contemporaries1 but ,i sometimes let    

myself be carried away by my argument4  
,if any one is ashamed to be seen       
wearing a leathern apron or handling a  
plane1 ,i think him a mere slave of     
public opinion1 ready to blush for what 
is right when people poke fun at it4    
,but let us yield to parents' prejudices
 so long as they do not hurt the        
children4 ,to honour trades we are not  
obliged to practise every one of them1  
so long as we do not think them beneath 
us4 ,when the choice is ours and we are 
under no compulsion1 why not choose the 
pleasanter1 more attractive and more    
suitable trade4 ,metal work is useful1  
more useful1 perhaps1 than the rest1 but
 unless for some special reason ,emile  
shall not be a blacksmith1 a locksmith  
nor an iron-worker4 ,i do not want to   
see him a ,cyclops at the forge4        
,neither would ,i have him a mason1     
still less a shoemaker4 ,all trades must
 be carried on1 but when the choice is  
ours1 cleanliness should be taken into  
account2 this is not a matter of class  

prejudice1 our senses are our guides4   
,in conclusion1 ,i do not like those    
stupid trades in which the workmen      
mechanically perform the same action    
without pause and almost without mental 
effort4 ,weaving1 stocking-knitting1    
stone-cutting2 why employ intelligent   
men on such work8 it is merely one      
machine employed on another4  ,all      
things considered1 the trade ,i should  
choose for my pupil1 among the trades he
 likes1 is that of a carpenter4 ,it is  
clean and useful2 it may be carried on  
at home2 it gives enough exercise2 it   
calls for skill and industry1 and while 
fashioning articles for everyday use1   
there is scope for elegance and taste4  
,if your pupil's talents happened to    
take a scientific turn1 ,i should not   
blame you if you gave him a trade in    
accordance with his tastes1 for         
instance1 he might learn to make        
mathematical instruments1 glasses1      
telescopes1 etc4  ,when ,emile learns   
his trade ,i shall learn it too4 ,i am  

convinced he will never learn anything  
thoroughly unless we learn it together4 
,so we shall both serve our             
apprenticeship1 and we do not mean to be
 treated as gentlemen1 but as real      
apprentices who are not there for fun2  
why should not we actually be           
apprenticed8 ,peter the ,great was a    
ship's carpenter and drummer to his own 
troops2 was not that prince at least    
your equal in birth and merit8 ,you     
understand this is addressed not to     
,emile but to you--to you1 whoever you  
may be4  ,unluckily we cannot spend the 
whole of our time at the workshop4 ,we  
are not only 'prentice-carpenters but   
'prentice-men--a trade whose            
apprenticeship is longer and more       
exacting than the rest4 ,what shall we  
do8 ,shall we take a master to teach us 
the use of the plane and engage him by  
the hour like the dancing-master8 ,in   
that case we should be not apprentices  
but students1 and our ambition is not   
merely to learn carpentry but to be     

carpenters4 ,once or twice a week ,i    
think we should spend the whole day at  
our master's2 we should get up when he  
does1 we should be at our work before   
him1 we should take our meals with him1 
work under his orders1 and after having 
had the honour of supping at his table  
we may if we please return to sleep upon
 our own hard beds4 ,this is the way to 
learn several trades at once1 to learn  
to do manual work without neglecting our
 apprenticeship to life4  ,let us do    
what is right without ostentation2 let  
us not fall into vanity through our     
efforts to resist it4 ,to pride         
ourselves on our victory over prejudice 
is to succumb to prejudice4 ,it is said 
that in accordance with an old custom of
 the ,ottomans1 the sultan is obliged to
 work with his hands1 and1 as every one 
knows1 the handiwork of a king is a     
masterpiece4 ,so he royally distributes 
his masterpieces among the great lords  
of the ,porte and the price paid is in  
accordance with the rank of the workman4

 ,it is not this so-called abuse to     
which ,i object2 on the contrary1 it is 
an advantage1 and by compelling the     
lords to share with him the spoils of   
the people it is so much the less       
necessary for the prince to plunder the 
people himself4 ,despotism needs some   
such relaxation1 and without it that    
hateful rule could not last4  ,the real 
evil in such a custom is the idea it    
gives that poor man of his own worth4   
,like ,king ,midas he sees all things   
turn to gold at his touch1 but he does  
not see the ass' ears growing4 ,let us  
keep ,emile's hands from money lest he  
should become an ass1 let him take the  
work but not the wages4 ,never let his  
work be judged by any standard but that 
of the work of a master4 ,let it be     
judged as work1 not because it is his4  
,if anything is well done1 ,i say1 ,that
 is a good piece of work1 but do not ask
 who did it4 ,if he is pleased and proud
 and says1 ,i did it1 answer            
indifferently1 ,no matter who did it1 it

 is well done4  ,good mother1 be on your
 guard against the deceptions prepared  
for you4 ,if your son knows many things1
 distrust his knowledge2 if he is       
unlucky enough to be rich and educated  
in ,paris he is ruined4 ,as long as     
there are clever artists he will have   
every talent1 but apart from his masters
 he will have none4 ,in ,paris a rich   
man knows everything1 it is the poor who
 are ignorant4 ,our capital is full of  
amateurs1 especially women1 who do their
 work as ,m4 ,gillaume invents his      
colours4 ,among the men ,i know three   
striking exceptions1 among the women ,i 
know no exceptions1 and ,i doubt if     
there are any4 ,in a general way a man  
becomes an artist and a judge of art as 
he becomes a ,doctor of ,laws and a     
magistrate4  ,if then it is once        
admitted that it is a fine thing to have
 a trade1 your children would soon have 
one without learning it4 ,they would    
become postmasters like the councillors 
of ,zurich4 ,let us have no such        

ceremonies for ,emile2 let it be the    
real thing not the sham4 ,do not say    
what he knows1 let him learn in silence4
 ,let him make his masterpiece1 but not 
be hailed as master2 let him be a       
workman not in name but in deed4  ,if ,i
 have made my meaning clear you ought to
 realise how bodily exercise and manual 
work unconsciously arouse thought and   
reflexion in my pupil1 and counteract   
the idleness which might result from his
 indifference to men's judgments1 and   
his freedom from passion4 ,he must work 
like a peasant and think like a         
philosopher1 if he is not to be as idle 
as a savage4 ,the great secret of       
education is to use exercise of mind and
 body as relaxation one to the other4   
,but beware of anticipating teaching    
which demands more maturity of mind4    
,emile will not long be a workman before
 he discovers those social inequalities 
he had not previously observed4 ,he will
 want to question me in turn on the     
maxims ,i have given him1 maxims he is  

able to understand4 ,when he derives    
everything from me1 when he is so nearly
 in the position of the poor1 he will   
want to know why ,i am so far removed   
from it4 ,all of a sudden he may put    
scathing questions to me4 ,you are rich1
 you tell me1 and ,i see you are4 ,a    
rich man owes his work to the community 
like the rest because he is a man4 ,what
 are you doing for the community8 ,what 
would a fine tutor say to that8 ,i do   
not know4 ,he would perhaps be foolish  
enough to talk to the child of the care 
he bestows upon him4 ,the workshop will 
get me out of the difficulty4 ,my dear  
,emile that is a very good question2 ,i 
will undertake to answer for myself1    
when you can answer for yourself to your
 own satisfaction4 ,meanwhile ,i will   
take care to give what ,i can spare to  
you and to the poor1 and to make a table
 or a bench every week1 so as not to be 
quite useless4  ,we have come back to   
ourselves4 ,having entered into         
possession of himself1 our child is now 

ready to cease to be a child4 ,he is    
more than ever conscious of the         
necessity which makes him dependent on  
things4 ,after exercising his body and  
his senses you have exercised his mind  
and his judgment4 ,finally we have      
joined together the use of his limbs and
 his faculties4 ,we have made him a     
worker and a thinker2 we have now to    
make him loving and tender-hearted1 to  
perfect reason through feeling4 ,but    
before we enter on this new order of    
things1 let us cast an eye over the     
stage we are leaving behind us1 and     
perceive as clearly as we can how far we
 have got4  ,at first our pupil had     
merely sensations1 now he has ideas2 he 
could only feel1 now he reasons4 ,for   
from the comparison of many successive  
or simultaneous sensations and the      
judgment arrived at with regard to them1
 there springs a sort of mixed or       
complex sensation which ,i call an idea4
  ,the way in which ideas are formed    
gives a character to the human mind4    

,the mind which derives its ideas from  
real relations is thorough2 the mind    
which relies on apparent relations is   
superficial4 ,he who sees relations as  
they are has an exact mind2 he who fails
 to estimate them aright has an         
inaccurate mind2 he who concocts        
imaginary relations1 which have no real 
existence1 is a madman2 he who does not 
perceive any relation at all is an      
imbecile4  ,clever men are distinguished
 from others by their greater or less   
aptitude for the comparison of ideas and
 the discovery of relations between     
them4  ,simple ideas consist merely of  
sensations compared one with another4   
,simple sensations involve judgments1 as
 do the complex sensations which ,i call
 simple ideas4 ,in the sensation the    
judgment is purely passive2 it affirms  
that ,i feel what ,i feel4 ,in the      
percept or idea the judgment is active2 
it connects1 compares1 it discriminates 
between relations not perceived by the  
senses4 ,that is the whole difference2  

but it is a great difference4 ,nature   
never deceives us2 we deceive ourselves4
  ,i see some one giving an ice-cream to
 an eight-year-old child2 he does not   
know what it is and puts the spoon in   
his mouth4 ,struck by the cold he cries 
out1 ,oh1 it burns6 ,he feels a very    
keen sensation1 and the heat of the fire
 is the keenest sensation he knows1 so  
he thinks that is what he feels4 ,yet he
 is mistaken2 cold hurts1 but it does   
not burn2 and these two sensations are  
different1 for persons with more        
experience do not confuse them4 ,so it  
is not the sensation that is wrong1 but 
the judgment formed with regard to it4  
,it is just the same with those who see 
a mirror or some optical instrument for 
the first time1 or enter a deep cellar  
in the depths of winter or at midsummer1
 or dip a very hot or cold hand into    
tepid water1 or roll a little ball      
between two crossed fingers4 ,if they   
are content to say what they really     
feel1 their judgment1 being purely      

passive1 cannot go wrong2 but when they 
judge according to appearances1 their   
judgment is active2 it compares and     
establishes by induction relations which
 are not really perceived4 ,then these  
inductions may or may not be mistaken4  
,experience is required to correct or   
prevent error4  ,show your pupil the    
clouds at night passing between himself 
and the moon2 he will think the moon is 
moving in the opposite direction and    
that the clouds are stationary4 ,he will
 think this through a hasty induction1  
because he generally sees small objects 
moving and larger ones at rest1 and the 
clouds seems larger than the moon1 whose
 distance is beyond his reckoning4 ,when
 he watches the shore from a moving boat
 he falls into the opposite mistake and 
thinks the earth is moving because he   
does not feel the motion of the boat and
 considers it along with the sea or     
river as one motionless whole1 of which 
the shore1 which appears to move1 forms 
no part4  ,the first time a child sees a

 stick half immersed in water he thinks 
he sees a broken stick2 the sensation is
 true and would not cease to be true    
even if he knew the reason of this      
appearance4 ,so if you ask him what he  
sees1 he replies1 ,a broken stick1 for  
he is quite sure he is experiencing this
 sensation4 ,but when deceived by his   
judgment he goes further and1 after     
saying he sees a broken stick1 he       
affirms that it really is broken he says
 what is not true4 ,why8 ,because he    
becomes active and judges no longer by  
observation but by induction1 he affirms
 what he does not perceive1 i4e41 that  
the judgment he receives through one of 
his senses would be confirmed by        
another4  ,since all our errors arise in
 our judgment1 it is clear1 that had we 
no need for judgment1 we should not need
 to learn2 we should never be liable to 
mistakes1 we should be happier in our   
ignorance than we can be in our         
knowledge4 ,who can deny that a vast    
number of things are known to the       

learned1 which the unlearned will never 
know8 ,are the learned any nearer truth8
 ,not so1 the further they go the       
further they get from truth1 for their  
pride in their judgment increases faster
 than their progress in knowledge1 so   
that for every truth they acquire they  
draw a hundred mistaken conclusions4    
,every one knows that the learned       
societies of ,europe are mere schools of
 falsehood1 and there are assuredly more
 mistaken notions in the ,academy of    
,sciences than in a whole tribe of      
,american ,indians4  ,the more we know1 
the more mistakes we make2 therefore    
ignorance is the only way to escape     
error4 ,form no judgments and you will  
never be mistaken4 ,this is the teaching
 both of nature and reason4 ,we come    
into direct contact with very few       
things1 and these are very readily      
perceived2 the rest we regard with      
profound indifference4 ,a savage will   
not turn his head to watch the working  
of the finest machinery or all the      

wonders of electricity4 ,what does that 
matter to me8 is the common saying of   
the ignorant2 it is the fittest phrase  
for the wise4  ,unluckily this phrase   
will no longer serve our turn4          
,everything matters to us1 as we are    
dependent on everything1 and our        
curiosity naturally increases with our  
needs4 ,this is why ,i attribute much   
curiosity to the man of science and none
 to the savage4 ,the latter needs no    
help from anybody2 the former requires  
every one1 and admirers most of all4    
,you will tell me ,i am going beyond    
nature4 ,i think not4 ,she chooses her  
instruments and orders them1 not        
according to fancy1 but necessity4 ,now 
a man's needs vary with his             
circumstances4 ,there is all the        
difference in the world between a       
natural man living in a state of nature1
 and a natural man living in society4   
,emile is no savage to be banished to   
the desert1 he is a savage who has to   
live in the town4 ,he must know how to  

get his living in a town1 how to use its
 inhabitants1 and how to live among     
them1 if not of them4  ,in the midst of 
so many new relations and dependent on  
them1 he must reason whether he wants to
 or no4 ,let us therefore teach him to  
reason correctly4  ,the best way of     
learning to reason aright is that which 
tends to simplify our experiences1 or to
 enable us to dispense with them        
altogether without falling into error4  
,hence it follows that we must learn to 
confirm the experiences of each sense by
 itself1 without recourse to any other1 
though we have been in the habit of     
verifying the experience of one sense by
 that of another4 ,then each of our     
sensations will become an idea1 and this
 idea will always correspond to the     
truth4 ,this is the sort of knowledge ,i
 have tried to accumulate during this   
third phase of man's life4  ,this method
 of procedure demands a patience and    
circumspection which few teachers       
possess2 without them the scholar will  

never learn to reason4 ,for example1 if 
you hasten to take the stick out of the 
water when the child is deceived by its 
appearance1 you may perhaps undeceive   
him1 but what have you taught him8      
,nothing more than he would soon have   
learnt for himself4 ,that is not the    
right thing to do4 ,you have not got to 
teach him truths so much as to show him 
how to set about discovering them for   
himself4 ,to teach him better you must  
not be in such a hurry to correct his   
mistakes4 ,let us take ,emile and myself
 as an illustration4  ,to begin with1   
any child educated in the usual way     
could not fail to answer the second of  
my imaginary questions in the           
affirmative4 ,he will say1 ,that is     
certainly a broken stick4 ,i very much  
doubt whether ,emile will give the same 
reply4 ,he sees no reason for knowing   
everything or pretending to know it2 he 
is never in a hurry to draw conclusions4
 ,he only reasons from evidence and on  
this occasion he has not got the        

evidence4 ,he knows how appearances     
deceive us1 if only through perspective4
  ,moreover1 he knows by experience that
 there is always a reason for my        
slightest questions1 though he may not  
see it at once2 so he has not got into  
the habit of giving silly answers2 on   
the contrary1 he is on his guard1 he    
considers things carefully and          
attentively before answering4 ,he never 
gives me an answer unless he is         
satisfied with it himself1 and he is    
hard to please4 ,lastly we neither of us
 take any pride in merely knowing a     
thing1 but only in avoiding mistakes4   
,we should be more ashamed to deceive   
ourselves with bad reasoning1 than to   
find no explanation at all4 ,there is no
 phrase so appropriate to us1 or so     
often on our lips1 as1 ,i do not know2  
neither of us are ashamed to use it4    
,but whether he gives the silly answer  
or whether he avoids it by our          
convenient phrase ,i do not know1 my    
answer is the same4 ,let us examine it4 

,this stick immersed half way in the    
water is fixed in an upright position4  
,to know if it is broken1 how many      
things must be done before we take it   
out of the water or even touch it4  #a4 
,first we walk round it1 and we see that
 the broken part follows us4 ,so it is  
only our eye that changes it2 looks do  
not make things move4  #b4 ,we look     
straight down on that end of the stick  
which is above the water1 the stick is  
no longer bent1 ,footnote3 ,i have since
 found by more exact experiment that    
this is not the case4 ,refraction acts  
in a circle1 and the stick appears      
larger at the end which is in the water1
 but this makes no difference to the    
strength of the argument1 and the       
conclusion is correct4 the end near our 
eye exactly hides the other end4 ,has   
our eye set the stick straight8  #c4 ,we
 stir the surface of the water2 we see  
the stick break into several pieces1 it 
moves in zigzags and follows the ripples
 of the water4 ,can the motion we gave  

the water suffice to break1 soften1 or  
melt the stick like this8  #d4 ,we draw 
the water off1 and little by little we  
see the stick straightening itself as   
the water sinks4 ,is not this more than 
enough to clear up the business and to  
discover refraction8 ,so it is not true 
that our eyes deceive us1 for nothing   
more has been required to correct the   
mistakes attributed to it4  ,suppose the
 child were stupid enough not to        
perceive the result of these            
experiments1 then you must call touch to
 the help of sight4 ,instead of taking  
the stick out of the water1 leave it    
where it is and let the child pass his  
hand along it from end to end2 he will  
feel no angle1 therefore the stick is   
not broken4  ,you will tell me this is  
not mere judgment but formal reasoning4 
,just so2 but do not you see that as    
soon as the mind has got any ideas at   
all1 every judgment is a process of     
reasoning8 ,so that as soon as we       
compare one sensation with another1 we  

are beginning to reason4 ,the art of    
judging and the art of reasoning are one
 and the same4  ,emile will never learn 
dioptrics unless he learns with this    
stick4 ,he will not have dissected      
insects nor counted the spots on the    
sun2 he will not know what you mean by a
 microscope or a telescope4 ,your       
learned pupils will laugh at his        
ignorance and rightly1 ,i intend him to 
invent these instruments before he uses 
them1 and you will expect that to take  
some time4  ,this is the spirit of my   
whole method at this stage4 ,if the     
child rolls a little ball between two   
crossed fingers and thinks he feels two 
balls1 ,i shall not let him look until  
he is convinced there is only one4      
,this explanation will suffice1 ,i hope1
 to show plainly the progress made by my
 pupil hitherto and the route followed  
by him4 ,but perhaps the number of      
things ,i have brought to his notice    
alarms you4 ,i shall crush his mind     
beneath this weight of knowledge4 ,not  

so1 ,i am rather teaching him to be     
ignorant of things than to know them4 ,i
 am showing him the path of science1    
easy indeed1 but long1 far-reaching and 
slow to follow4 ,i am taking him a few  
steps along this path1 but ,i do not    
allow him to go far4  ,compelled to     
learn for himself1 he uses his own      
reason not that of others1 for there    
must be no submission to authority if   
you would have no submission to         
convention4 ,most of our errors are due 
to others more than ourselves4 ,this    
continual exercise should develop a     
vigour of mind like that acquired by the
 body through labour and weariness4     
,another advantage is that his progress 
is in proportion to his strength1       
neither mind nor body carries more than 
it can bear4 ,when the understanding    
lays hold of things before they are     
stored in the memory1 what is drawn from
 that store is his own2 while we are in 
danger of never finding anything of our 
own in a memory over-burdened with      

undigested knowledge4  ,emile knows     
little1 but what he knows is really his 
own2 he has no half-knowledge4 ,among   
the few things he knows and knows       
thoroughly this is the most valuable1   
that there are many things he does not  
know now but may know some day1 many    
more that other men know but he will    
never know1 and an infinite number which
 nobody will ever know4  ,he is         
large-minded1 not through knowledge1 but
 through the power of acquiring it2 he  
is open-minded1 intelligent1 ready for  
anything1 and1 as ,montaigne says1      
capable of learning if not learned4 ,i  
am content if he knows the ,wherefore of
 his actions and the ,why of his        
beliefs4 ,for once more my object is not
 to supply him with exact knowledge1 but
 the means of getting it when required1 
to teach him to value it at its true    
worth1 and to love truth above all      
things4  ,by this method progress is    
slow but sure1 and we never need to     
retrace our steps4  ,emile's knowledge  

is confined to nature and things4 ,the  
very name of history is unknown to him1 
along with metaphysics and morals4 ,he  
knows the essential relations between   
men and things1 but nothing of the moral
 relations between man and man4 ,he has 
little power of generalisation1 he has  
no skill in abstraction4 ,he perceives  
that certain qualities are common to    
certain things1 without reasoning about 
these qualities themselves4 ,he is      
acquainted with the abstract idea of    
space by the help of his geometrical    
figures2 he is acquainted with the      
abstract idea of quantity by the help of
 his algebraical symbols4 ,these figures
 and signs are the supports on which    
these ideas may be said to rest1 the    
supports on which his senses repose4 ,he
 does not attempt to know the nature of 
things1 but only to know things in so   
far as they affect himself4 ,he only    
judges what is outside himself in       
relation to himself1 and his judgment is
 exact and certain4 ,caprice and        

prejudice have no part in it4 ,he values
 most the things which are of use to    
himself1 and as he never departs from   
this standard of values1 he owes nothing
 to prejudice4  ,emile is industrious1  
temperate1 patient1 stedfast1 and full  
of courage4 ,his imagination is still   
asleep1 so he has no exaggerated ideas  
of danger2 the few ills he feels he     
knows how to endure in patience1 because
 he has not learnt to rebel against     
fate4 ,as to death1 he knows not what it
 means2 but accustomed as he is to      
submit without resistance to the law of 
necessity1 he will die1 if die he must1 
without a groan and without a struggle2 
that is as much as we can demand of     
nature1 in that hour which we all abhor4
 ,to live in freedom1 and to be         
independent of human affairs1 is the    
best way to learn how to die4  ,in a    
word ,emile is possessed of all that    
portion of virtue which concerns        
himself4 ,to acquire the social virtues 
he only needs a knowledge of the        

relations which make those virtues      
necessary2 he only lacks knowledge which
 he is quite ready to receive4  ,he     
thinks not of others but of himself1 and
 prefers that others should do the same4
 ,he makes no claim upon them1 and      
acknowledges no debt to them4 ,he is    
alone in the midst of human society1 he 
depends on himself alone1 for he is all 
that a boy can be at his age4 ,he has no
 errors1 or at least only such as are   
inevitable2 he has no vices1 or only    
those from which no man can escape4 ,his
 body is healthy1 his limbs are supple1 
his mind is accurate and unprejudiced1  
his heart is free and untroubled by     
passion4 ,pride1 the earliest and the   
most natural of passions1 has scarcely  
shown itself4 ,without disturbing the   
peace of others1 he has passed his life 
contented1 happy1 and free1 so far as   
nature allows4 ,do you think that the   
earlier years of a child1 who has       
reached his fifteenth year in this      
condition1 have been wasted8     ,,book 

,,iv  ,how swiftly life passes here     
below6 ,the first quarter of it is gone 
before we know how to use it2 the last  
quarter finds us incapable of enjoying  
life4 ,at first we do not know how to   
live2 and when we know how to live it is
 too late4 ,in the interval between     
these two useless extremes we waste     
three-fourths of our time sleeping1     
working1 sorrowing1 enduring restraint  
and every kind of suffering4 ,life is   
short1 not so much because of the short 
time it lasts1 but because we are       
allowed scarcely any time to enjoy it4  
,in vain is there a long interval       
between the hour of death and that of   
birth2 life is still too short1 if this 
interval is not well spent4  ,we are    
born1 so to speak1 twice over2 born into
 existence1 and born into life2 born a  
human being1 and born a man4 ,those who 
regard woman as an imperfect man are no 
doubt mistaken1 but they have external  
resemblance on their side4 ,up to the   
age of puberty children of both sexes   

have little to distinguish them to the  
eye1 the same face and form1 the same   
complexion and voice1 everything is the 
same2 girls are children and boys are   
children2 one name is enough for        
creatures so closely resembling one     
another4 ,males whose development is    
arrested preserve this resemblance all  
their lives2 they are always big        
children2 and women who never lose this 
resemblance seem in many respects never 
to be more than children4  ,but1        
speaking generally1 man is not meant to 
remain a child4 ,he leaves childhood    
behind him at the time ordained by      
nature2 and this critical moment1 short 
enough in itself1 has far-reaching      
consequences4  ,as the roaring of the   
waves precedes the tempest1 so the      
murmur of rising passions announces this
 tumultuous change2 a suppressed        
excitement warns us of the approaching  
danger4 ,a change of temper1 frequent   
outbreaks of anger1 a perpetual stirring
 of the mind1 make the child almost     

ungovernable4 ,he becomes deaf to the   
voice he used to obey2 he is a lion in a
 fever2 he distrusts his keeper and     
refuses to be controlled4  ,with the    
moral symptoms of a changing temper     
there are perceptible changes in        
appearance4 ,his countenance develops   
and takes the stamp of his character2   
the soft and sparse down upon his cheeks
 becomes darker and stiffer4 ,his voice 
grows hoarse or rather he loses it      
altogether4 ,he is neither a child nor a
 man and cannot speak like either of    
them4 ,his eyes1 those organs of the    
soul which till now were dumb1 find     
speech and meaning2 a kindling fire     
illumines them1 there is still a sacred 
innocence in their ever brightening     
glance1 but they have lost their first  
meaningless expression2 he is already   
aware that they can say too much2 he is 
beginning to learn to lower his eyes and
 blush1 he is becoming sensitive1 though
 he does not know what it is that he    
feels2 he is uneasy without knowing why4

 ,all this may happen gradually and give
 you time enough2 but if his keenness   
becomes impatience1 his eagerness       
madness1 if he is angry and sorry all in
 a moment1 if he weeps without cause1 if
 in the presence of objects which are   
beginning to be a source of danger his  
pulse quickens and his eyes sparkle1 if 
he trembles when a woman's hand touches 
his1 if he is troubled or timid in her  
presence1 ,o ,ulysses1 wise ,ulysses6   
have a care6 ,the passages you closed   
with so much pains are open2 the winds  
are unloosed2 keep your hand upon the   
helm or all is lost4  ,this is the      
second birth ,i spoke of2 then it is    
that man really enters upon life2       
henceforth no human passion is a        
stranger to him4 ,our efforts so far    
have been child's play1 now they are of 
the greatest importance4 ,this period   
when education is usually finished is   
just the time to begin2 but to explain  
this new plan properly1 let us take up  
our story where we left it4  ,our       

passions are the chief means of         
self-preservation2 to try to destroy    
them is therefore as absurd as it is    
useless2 this would be to overcome      
nature1 to reshape ,god's handiwork4 ,if
 ,god bade man annihilate the passions  
he has given him1 ,god would bid him be 
and not be2 ,he would contradict        
himself4 ,he has never given such a     
foolish commandment1 there is nothing   
like it written on the heart of man1 and
 what ,god will have a man do1 ,he does 
not leave to the words of another man4  
,he speaks ,himself2 ,his words are     
written in the secret heart4  ,now ,i   
consider those who would prevent the    
birth of the passions almost as foolish 
as those who would destroy them1 and    
those who think this has been my object 
hitherto are greatly mistaken4  ,but    
should we reason rightly1 if from the   
fact that passions are natural to man1  
we inferred that all the passions we    
feel in ourselves and behold in others  
are natural8 ,their source1 indeed1 is  

natural2 but they have been swollen by a
 thousand other streams2 they are a     
great river which is constantly growing1
 one in which we can scarcely find a    
single drop of the original stream4 ,our
 natural passions are few in number2    
they are the means to freedom1 they tend
 to self-preservation4 ,all those which 
enslave and destroy us have another     
source2 nature does not bestow them on  
us2 we seize on them in her despite4    
,the origin of our passions1 the root   
and spring of all the rest1 the only one
 which is born with man1 which never    
leaves him as long as he lives1 is      
self-love2 this passion is primitive1   
instinctive1 it precedes all the rest1  
which are in a sense only modifications 
of it4 ,in this sense1 if you like1 they
 are all natural4 ,but most of these    
modifications are the result of external
 influences1 without which they would   
never occur1 and such modifications1 far
 from being advantageous to us1 are     
harmful4 ,they change the original      

purpose and work against its end2 then  
it is that man finds himself outside    
nature and at strife with himself4      
,self-love is always good1 always in    
accordance with the order of nature4    
,the preservation of our own life is    
specially entrusted to each one of us1  
and our first care is1 and must be1 to  
watch over our own life2 and how can we 
continually watch over it1 if we do not 
take the greatest interest in it8       
,self-preservation requires1 therefore1 
that we shall love ourselves2 we must   
love ourselves above everything1 and it 
follows directly from this that we love 
what contributes to our preservation4   
,every child becomes fond of its nurse2 
,romulus must have loved the she-wolf   
who suckled him4 ,at first this         
attachment is quite unconscious2 the    
individual is attracted to that which   
contributes to his welfare and repelled 
by that which is harmful2 this is merely
 blind instinct4 ,what transforms this  
instinct into feeling1 the liking into  

love1 the aversion into hatred1 is the  
evident intention of helping or hurting 
us4 ,we do not become passionately      
attached to objects without feeling1    
which only follow the direction given   
them2 but those from which we expect    
benefit or injury from their internal   
disposition1 from their will1 those we  
see acting freely for or against us1    
inspire us with like feelings to those  
they exhibit towards us4 ,something does
 us good1 we seek after it2 but we love 
the person who does us good2 something  
harms us and we shrink from it1 but we  
hate the person who tries to hurt us4   
,the child's first sentiment is         
self-love1 his second1 which is derived 
from it1 is love of those about him2 for
 in his present state of weakness he is 
only aware of people through the help   
and attention received from them4 ,at   
first his affection for his nurse and   
his governess is mere habit4 ,he seeks  
them because he needs them and because  
he is happy when they are there2 it is  

rather perception than kindly feeling4  
,it takes a long time to discover not   
merely that they are useful to him1 but 
that they desire to be useful to him1   
and then it is that he begins to love   
them4  ,so a child is naturally disposed
 to kindly feeling because he sees that 
every one about him is inclined to help 
him1 and from this experience he gets   
the habit of a kindly feeling towards   
his species2 but with the expansion of  
his relations1 his needs1 his           
dependence1 active or passive1 the      
consciousness of his relations to others
 is awakened1 and leads to the sense of 
duties and preferences4 ,then the child 
becomes masterful1 jealous1 deceitful1  
and vindictive4 ,if he is not compelled 
to obedience1 when he does not see the  
usefulness of what he is told to do1 he 
attributes it to caprice1 to an         
intention of tormenting him1 and he     
rebels4 ,if people give in to him1 as   
soon as anything opposes him he regards 
it as rebellion1 as a determination to  

resist him2 he beats the chair or table 
for disobeying him4 ,self-love1 which   
concerns itself only with ourselves1 is 
content to satisfy our own needs2 but   
selfishness1 which is always comparing  
self with others1 is never satisfied and
 never can be2 for this feeling1 which  
prefers ourselves to others1 requires   
that they should prefer us to           
themselves1 which is impossible4 ,thus  
the tender and gentle passions spring   
from self-love1 while the hateful and   
angry passions spring from selfishness4 
,so it is the fewness of his needs1 the 
narrow limits within which he can       
compare himself with others1 that makes 
a man really good2 what makes him really
 bad is a multiplicity of needs and     
dependence on the opinions of others4   
,it is easy to see how we can apply this
 principle and guide every passion of   
children and men towards good or evil4  
,true1 man cannot always live alone1 and
 it will be hard therefore to remain    
good2 and this difficulty will increase 

of necessity as his relations with      
others are extended4 ,for this reason1  
above all1 the dangers of social life   
demand that the necessary skill and care
 shall be devoted to guarding the human 
heart against the depravity which       
springs from fresh needs4  ,man's proper
 study is that of his relation to his   
environment4 ,so long as he only knows  
that environment through his physical   
nature1 he should study himself in      
relation to things2 this is the business
 of his childhood2 when he begins to be 
aware of his moral nature1 he should    
study himself in relation to his        
fellow-men2 this is the business of his 
whole life1 and we have now reached the 
time when that study should be begun4   
,as soon as a man needs a companion he  
is no longer an isolated creature1 his  
heart is no longer alone4 ,all his      
relations with his species1 all the     
affections of his heart1 come into being
 along with this4 ,his first passion    
soon arouses the rest4  ,the direction  

of the instinct is uncertain4 ,one sex  
is attracted by the other2 that is the  
impulse of nature4 ,choice1 preferences1
 individual likings1 are the work of    
reason1 prejudice1 and habit2 time and  
knowledge are required to make us       
capable of love2 we do not love without 
reasoning or prefer without comparison4 
,these judgments are none the less real1
 although they are formed unconsciously4
 ,true love1 whatever you may say1 will 
always be held in honour by mankind2 for
 although its impulses lead us astray1  
although it does not bar the door of the
 heart to certain detestable qualities1 
although it even gives rise to these1   
yet it always presupposes certain worthy
 characteristics1 without which we      
should be incapable of love4 ,this      
choice1 which is supposed to be contrary
 to reason1 really springs from reason4 
,we say ,love is blind because his eyes 
are better than ours1 and he perceives  
relations which we cannot discern4 ,all 
women would be alike to a man who had no

 idea of virtue or beauty1 and the first
 comer would always be the most         
charming4 ,love does not spring from    
nature1 far from it2 it is the curb and 
law of her desires2 it is love that     
makes one sex indifferent to the other1 
the loved one alone excepted4  ,we wish 
to inspire the preference we feel2 love 
must be mutual4 ,to be loved we must be 
worthy of love2 to be preferred we must 
be more worthy than the rest1 at least  
in the eyes of our beloved4 ,hence we   
begin to look around among our fellows2 
we begin to compare ourselves with them1
 there is emulation1 rivalry1 and       
jealousy4 ,a heart full to overflowing  
loves to make itself known2 from the    
need of a mistress there soon springs   
the need of a friend4 ,he who feels how 
sweet it is to be loved1 desires to be  
loved by everybody2 and there could be  
no preferences if there were not many   
that fail to find satisfaction4 ,with   
love and friendship there begin         
dissensions1 enmity1 and hatred4 ,i     

behold deference to other people's      
opinions enthroned among all these      
divers passions1 and foolish mortals1   
enslaved by her power1 base their very  
existence merely on what other people   
think4  ,expand these ideas and you will
 see where we get that form of          
selfishness which we call natural       
selfishness1 and how selfishness ceases 
to be a simple feeling and becomes pride
 in great minds1 vanity in little ones1 
and in both feeds continually at our    
neighbour's cost4 ,passions of this     
kind1 not having any germ in the child's
 heart1 cannot spring up in it of       
themselves2 it is we who sow the seeds1 
and they never take root unless by our  
fault4 ,not so with the young man2 they 
will find an entrance in spite of us4   
,it is therefore time to change our     
methods4  ,let us begin with some       
considerations of importance with regard
 to the critical stage under discussion4
 ,the change from childhood to puberty  
is not so clearly determined by nature  

but that it varies according to         
individual temperament and racial       
conditions4 ,everybody knows the        
differences which have been observed    
with regard to this between hot and cold
 countries1 and every one sees that     
ardent temperaments mature earlier than 
others2 but we may be mistaken as to the
 causes1 and we may often attribute to  
physical causes what is really due to   
moral3 this is one of the commonest     
errors in the philosophy of our times4  
,the teaching of nature comes slowly2   
man's lessons are mostly premature4 ,in 
the former case1 the senses kindle the  
imagination1 in the latter the          
imagination kindles the senses2 it gives
 them a precocious activity which cannot
 fail to enervate the individual and1 in
 the long run1 the race4 ,it is a more  
general and more trustworthy fact than  
that of climatic influences1 that       
puberty and sexual power is always more 
precocious among educated and civilised 
races1 than among the ignorant and      

barbarous4 ,footnote3 ,in towns1 says   
,m4 ,buffon1 and among the well-to-do   
classes1 children accustomed to         
plentiful and nourishing food sooner    
reach this state2 in the country and    
among the poor1 children are more       
backward1 because of their poor and     
scanty food4 ,i admit the fact but not  
the explanation1 for in the districts   
where the food of the villagers is      
plentiful and good1 as in the ,valais   
and even in some of the mountain        
districts of ,italy1 such as ,friuli1   
the age of puberty for both sexes is    
quite as much later than in the heart of
 the towns1 where1 in order to gratify  
their vanity1 people are often extremely
 parsimonious in the matter of food1 and
 where most people1 in the words of the 
proverb1 have a velvet coat and an empty
 belly4  ,it is astonishing to find in  
these mountainous regions big lads as   
strong as a man with shrill voices and  
smooth chins1 and tall girls1 well      
developed in other respects1 without any

 trace of the periodic functions of     
their sex4 ,this difference is1 in my   
opinion1 solely due to the fact that in 
the simplicity of their manners the     
imagination remains calm and peaceful1  
and does not stir the blood till much   
later1 and thus their temperament is    
much less precocious4 ,children are     
preternaturally quick to discern immoral
 habits under the cloak of decency with 
which they are concealed4 ,the prim     
speech imposed upon them1 the lessons in
 good behaviour1 the veil of mystery you
 profess to hang before their eyes1     
serve but to stimulate their curiosity4 
,it is plain1 from the way you set about
 it1 that they are meant to learn what  
you profess to conceal2 and of all you  
teach them this is most quickly         
assimilated4  ,consult experience and   
you will find how far this foolish      
method hastens the work of nature and   
ruins the character4 ,this is one of the
 chief causes of physical degeneration  
in our towns4 ,the young people1        

prematurely exhausted1 remain small1    
puny1 and misshapen1 they grow old      
instead of growing up1 like a vine      
forced to bear fruit in spring1 which   
fades and dies before autumn4  ,to know 
how far a happy ignorance may prolong   
the innocence of children1 you must live
 among rude and simple people4 ,it is a 
sight both touching and amusing to see  
both sexes1 left to the protection of   
their own hearts1 continuing the sports 
of childhood in the flower of youth and 
beauty1 showing by their very           
familiarity the purity of their         
pleasures4 ,when at length those        
delightful young people marry1 they     
bestow on each other the first fruits of
 their person1 and are all the dearer   
therefore4 ,swarms of strong and healthy
 children are the pledges of a union    
which nothing can change1 and the fruit 
of the virtue of their early years4  ,if
 the age at which a man becomes         
conscious of his sex is deferred as much
 by the effects of education as by the  

action of nature1 it follows that this  
age may be hastened or retarded         
according to the way in which the child 
is brought up2 and if the body gains or 
loses strength in proportion as its     
development is accelerated or retarded1 
it also follows that the more we try to 
retard it the stronger and more vigorous
 will the young man be4 ,i am still     
speaking of purely physical             
consequences2 you will soon see that    
this is not all4  ,from these           
considerations ,i arrive at the solution
 of the question so often               
discussed--,should we enlighten children
 at an early period as to the objects of
 their curiosity1 or is it better to put
 them off with decent shams8 ,i think we
 need do neither4 ,in the first place1  
this curiosity will not arise unless we 
give it a chance4 ,we must therefore    
take care not to give it an opportunity4
 ,in the next place1 questions one is   
not obliged to answer do not compel us  
to deceive those who ask them2 it is    

better to bid the child hold his tongue 
than to tell him a lie4 ,he will not be 
greatly surprised at this treatment if  
you have already accustomed him to it in
 matters of no importance4 ,lastly1 if  
you decide to answer his questions1 let 
it be with the greatest plainness1      
without mystery or confusion1 without a 
smile4 ,it is much less dangerous to    
satisfy a child's curiosity than to     
stimulate it4  ,let your answers be     
always grave1 brief1 decided1 and       
without trace of hesitation4 ,i need not
 add that they should be true4 ,we      
cannot teach children the danger of     
telling lies to men without realising1  
on the man's part1 the danger of telling
 lies to children4 ,a single untruth on 
the part of the master will destroy the 
results of his education4  ,complete    
ignorance with regard to certain matters
 is perhaps the best thing for children2
 but let them learn very early what it  
is impossible to conceal from them      
permanently4 ,either their curiosity    

must never be aroused1 or it must be    
satisfied before the age when it becomes
 a source of danger4 ,your conduct      
towards your pupil in this respect      
depends greatly on his individual       
circumstances1 the society in which he  
moves1 the position in which he may find
 himself1 etc4 ,nothing must be left to 
chance2 and if you are not sure of      
keeping him in ignorance of the         
difference between the sexes till he is 
sixteen1 take care you teach him before 
he is ten4  ,i do not like people to be 
too fastidious in speaking with         
children1 nor should they go out of     
their way to avoid calling a spade a    
spade2 they are always found out if they
 do4 ,good manners in this respect are  
always perfectly simple2 but an         
imagination soiled by vice makes the ear
 over-sensitive and compels us to be    
constantly refining our expressions4    
,plain words do not matter2 it is       
lascivious ideas which must be avoided4 
,although modesty is natural to man1 it 

is not natural to children4 ,modesty    
only begins with the knowledge of evil2 
and how should children without this    
knowledge of evil have the feeling which
 results from it8 ,to give them lessons 
in modesty and good conduct is to teach 
them that there are things shameful and 
wicked1 and to give them a secret wish  
to know what these things are4 ,sooner  
or later they will find out1 and the    
first spark which touches the           
imagination will certainly hasten the   
awakening of the senses4 ,blushes are   
the sign of guilt2 true innocence is    
ashamed of nothing4  ,children have not 
the same desires as men2 but they are   
subject like them to the same           
disagreeable needs which offend the     
senses1 and by this means they may      
receive the same lessons in propriety4  
,follow the mind of nature which has    
located in the same place the organs of 
secret pleasures and those of disgusting
 needs2 she teaches us the same         
precautions at different ages1 sometimes

 by means of one idea and sometimes by  
another2 to the man through modesty1 to 
the child through cleanliness4  ,i can  
only find one satisfactory way of       
preserving the child's innocence1 to    
surround him by those who respect and   
love him4 ,without this all our efforts 
to keep him in ignorance fail sooner or 
later2 a smile1 a wink1 a careless      
gesture tells him all we sought to hide2
 it is enough to teach him to perceive  
that there is something we want to hide 
from him4 ,the delicate phrases and     
expressions employed by persons of      
politeness assume a knowledge which     
children ought not to possess1 and they 
are quite out of place with them1 but   
when we truly respect the child's       
innocence we easily find in talking to  
him the simple phrases which befit him4 
,there is a certain directness of speech
 which is suitable and pleasing to      
innocence2 this is the right tone to    
adopt in order to turn the child from   
dangerous curiosity4 ,by speaking simply

 to him about everything you do not let 
him suspect there is anything left      
unsaid4  ,by connecting coarse words    
with the unpleasant ideas which belong  
to them1 you quench the first spark of  
imagination2 you do not forbid the child
 to say these words or to form these    
ideas2 but without his knowing it you   
make him unwilling to recall them4 ,and 
how much confusion is spared to those   
who speaking from the heart always say  
the right thing1 and say it as they     
themselves have felt it6  ,where do     
little children come from8 ,this is an  
embarrassing question1 which occurs very
 naturally to children1 one which       
foolishly or wisely answered may decide 
their health and their morals for life4 
,the quickest way for a mother to escape
 from it without deceiving her son is to
 tell him to hold his tongue4 ,that will
 serve its turn if he has always been   
accustomed to it in matters of no       
importance1 and if he does not suspect  
some mystery from this new way of       

speaking4 ,but the mother rarely stops  
there4  ,it is the married people's     
secret1 she will say1 little boys should
 not be so curious4 ,that is all very   
well so far as the mother is concerned1 
but she may be sure that the little boy1
 piqued by her scornful manner1 will not
 rest till he has found out the married 
people's secret1 which will very soon be
 the case4  ,let me tell you a very     
different answer which ,i heard given to
 the same question1 one which made all  
the more impression on me1 coming1 as it
 did1 from a woman1 modest in speech and
 behaviour1 but one who was able on     
occasion1 for the welfare of her child  
and for the cause of virtue1 to cast    
aside the false fear of blame and the   
silly jests of the foolish4 ,not long   
before the child had passed a small     
stone which had torn the passage1 but   
the trouble was over and forgotten4     
,mamma1 said the eager child1 where do  
little children come from8 ,my child1   
replied his mother without hesitation1  

women pass them with pains that         
sometimes cost their life4 ,let fools   
laugh and silly people be shocked2 but  
let the wise inquire if it is possible  
to find a wiser answer and one which    
would better serve its purpose4  ,in the
 first place the thought of a need of   
nature with which the child is well     
acquainted turns his thoughts from the  
idea of a mysterious process4 ,the      
accompanying ideas of pain and death    
cover it with a veil of sadness which   
deadens the imagination and suppresses  
curiosity2 everything leads the mind to 
the results1 not the causes1 of         
child-birth4 ,this is the information to
 which this answer leads4 ,if the       
repugnance inspired by this answer      
should permit the child to inquire      
further1 his thoughts are turned to the 
infirmities of human nature1 disgusting 
things1 images of pain4 ,what chance is 
there for any stimulation of desire in  
such a conversation8 ,and yet you see   
there is no departure from truth1 no    

need to deceive the scholar in order to 
teach him4  ,your children read2 in the 
course of their reading they meet with  
things they would never have known      
without reading4 ,are they students1    
their imagination is stimulated and     
quickened in the silence of the study4  
,do they move in the world of society1  
they hear a strange jargon1 they see    
conduct which makes a great impression  
on them2 they have been told so         
continually that they are men that in   
everything men do in their presence they
 at once try to find how that will suit 
themselves2 the conduct of others must  
indeed serve as their pattern when the  
opinions of others are their law4       
,servants1 dependent on them1 and       
therefore anxious to please them1       
flatter them at the expense of their    
morals2 giggling governesses say things 
to the four-year-old child which the    
most shameless woman would not dare to  
say to them at fifteen4 ,they soon      
forget what they said1 but the child has

 not forgotten what he heard4 ,loose    
conversation prepares the way for       
licentious conduct2 the child is        
debauched by the cunning lacquey1 and   
the secret of the one guarantees the    
secret of the other4  ,the child brought
 up in accordance with his age is alone4
 ,he knows no attachment but that of    
habit1 he loves his sister like his     
watch1 and his friend like his dog4 ,he 
is unconscious of his sex and his       
species2 men and women are alike        
unknown2 he does not connect their      
sayings and doings with himself1 he     
neither sees nor hears1 or he pays no   
heed to them2 he is no more concerned   
with their talk than their actions2 he  
has nothing to do with it4 ,this is no  
artificial error induced by our method1 
it is the ignorance of nature4 ,the time
 is at hand when that same nature will  
take care to enlighten her pupil1 and   
then only does she make him capable of  
profiting by the lessons without danger4
 ,this is our principle2 the details of 

its rules are outside my subject2 and   
the means ,i suggest with regard to     
other matters will still serve to       
illustrate this4  ,do you wish to       
establish law and order among the rising
 passions1 prolong the period of their  
development1 so that they may have time 
to find their proper place as they      
arise4 ,then they are controlled by     
nature herself1 not by man2 your task is
 merely to leave it in her hands4 ,if   
your pupil were alone1 you would have   
nothing to do2 but everything about him 
enflames his imagination4 ,he is swept  
along on the torrent of conventional    
ideas2 to rescue him you must urge him  
in the opposite direction4 ,imagination 
must be curbed by feeling and reason    
must silence the voice of               
conventionality4 ,sensibility is the    
source of all the passions1 imagination 
determines their course4  ,every        
creature who is aware of his relations  
must be disturbed by changes in these   
relations and when he imagines or       

fancies he imagines others better       
adapted to his nature4 ,it is the errors
 of the imagination which transmute into
 vices the passions of finite beings1 of
 angels even1 if indeed they have       
passions2 for they must needs know the  
nature of every creature to realise what
 relations are best adapted to          
themselves4  ,this is the sum of human  
wisdom with regard to the use of the    
passions4 ,first1 to be conscious of the
 true relations of man both in the      
species and the individual2 second1 to  
control all the affections in accordance
 with these relations4  ,but is man in a
 position to control his affections     
according to such and such relations8   
,no doubt he is1 if he is able to fix   
his imagination on this or that object1 
or to form this or that habit4          
,moreover1 we are not so much concerned 
with what a man can do for himself1 as  
with what we can do for our pupil       
through our choice of the circumstances 
in which he shall be placed4 ,to show   

the means by which he may be kept in the
 path of nature is to show plainly      
enough how he might stray from that     
path4  ,so long as his consciousness is 
confined to himself there is no morality
 in his actions2 it is only when it     
begins to extend beyond himself that he 
forms first the sentiments and then the 
ideas of good and ill1 which make him   
indeed a man1 and an integral part of   
his species4 ,to begin with we must     
therefore confine our observations to   
this point4  ,these observations are    
difficult to make1 for we must reject   
the examples before our eyes1 and seek  
out those in which the successive       
developments follow the order of nature4
  ,a child sophisticated1 polished1 and 
civilised1 who is only awaiting the     
power to put into practice the          
precocious instruction he has received1 
is never mistaken with regard to the    
time when this power is acquired4 ,far  
from awaiting it1 he accelerates it2 he 
stirs his blood to a premature ferment2 

he knows what should be the object of   
his desires long before those desires   
are experienced4 ,it is not nature which
 stimulates him2 it is he who forces the
 hand of nature2 she has nothing to     
teach him when he becomes a man2 he was 
a man in thought long before he was a   
man in reality4  ,the true course of    
nature is slower and more gradual4      
,little by little the blood grows       
warmer1 the faculties expand1 the       
character is formed4 ,the wise workman  
who directs the process is careful to   
perfect every tool before he puts it to 
use2 the first desires are preceded by a
 long period of unrest1 they are        
deceived by a prolonged ignorance1 they 
know not what they want4 ,the blood     
ferments and bubbles2 overflowing       
vitality seeks to extend its sphere4    
,the eye grows brighter and surveys     
others1 we begin to be interested in    
those about us1 we begin to feel that we
 are not meant to live alone2 thus the  
heart is thrown open to human affection1

 and becomes capable of attachment4     
,the first sentiment of which the       
well-trained youth is capable is not    
love but friendship4 ,the first work of 
his rising imagination is to make known 
to him his fellows2 the species affects 
him before the sex4 ,here is another    
advantage to be gained from prolonged   
innocence2 you may take advantage of his
 dawning sensibility to sow the first   
seeds of humanity in the heart of the   
young adolescent4 ,this advantage is all
 the greater because this is the only   
time in his life when such efforts may  
be really successful4  ,i have always   
observed that young men1 corrupted in   
early youth and addicted to women and   
debauchery1 are inhuman and cruel2 their
 passionate temperament makes them      
impatient1 vindictive1 and angry2 their 
imagination fixed on one object only1   
refuses all others2 mercy and pity are  
alike unknown to them2 they would have  
sacrificed father1 mother1 the whole    
world1 to the least of their pleasures4 

,a young man1 on the other hand1 brought
 up in happy innocence1 is drawn by the 
first stirrings of nature to the tender 
and affectionate passions2 his warm     
heart is touched by the sufferings of   
his fellow-creatures2 he trembles with  
delight when he meets his comrade1 his  
arms can embrace tenderly1 his eyes can 
shed tears of pity2 he learns to be     
sorry for offending others through his  
shame at causing annoyance4 ,if the     
eager warmth of his blood makes him     
quick1 hasty1 and passionate1 a moment  
later you see all his natural kindness  
of heart in the eagerness of his        
repentance2 he weeps1 he groans over the
 wound he has given2 he would atone for 
the blood he has shed with his own2 his 
anger dies away1 his pride abases itself
 before the consciousness of his        
wrong-doing4 ,is he the injured party1  
in the height of his fury an excuse1 a  
word1 disarms him2 he forgives the      
wrongs of others as whole-heartedly as  
he repairs his own4 ,adolescence is not 

the age of hatred or vengeance2 it is   
the age of pity1 mercy1 and generosity4 
,yes1 ,i maintain1 and ,i am not afraid 
of the testimony of experience1 a youth 
of good birth1 one who has preserved his
 innocence up to the age of twenty1 is  
at that age the best1 the most generous1
 the most loving1 and the most lovable  
of men4 ,you never heard such a thing2  
,i can well believe that philosophers   
such as you1 brought up among the       
corruption of the public schools1 are   
unaware of it4  ,man's weakness makes   
him sociable4 ,our common sufferings    
draw our hearts to our fellow-creatures2
 we should have no duties to mankind if 
we were not men4 ,every affection is a  
sign of insufficiency2 if each of us had
 no need of others1 we should hardly    
think of associating with them4 ,so our 
frail happiness has its roots in our    
weakness4 ,a really happy man is a      
hermit2 ,god only enjoys absolute       
happiness2 but which of us has any idea 
what that means8 ,if any imperfect      

creature were self-sufficing1 what would
 he have to enjoy8  ,to our thinking he 
would be wretched and alone4 ,i do not  
understand how one who has need of      
nothing could love anything1 nor do ,i  
understand how he who loves nothing can 
be happy4  ,hence it follows that we are
 drawn towards our fellow-creatures less
 by our feeling for their joys than for 
their sorrows2 for in them we discern   
more plainly a nature like our own1 and 
a pledge of their affection for us4 ,if 
our common needs create a bond of       
interest our common sufferings create a 
bond of affection4 ,the sight of a happy
 man arouses in others envy rather than 
love1 we are ready to accuse him of     
usurping a right which is not his1 of   
seeking happiness for himself alone1 and
 our selfishness suffers an additional  
pang in the thought that this man has no
 need of us4 ,but who does not pity the 
wretch when he beholds his sufferings8  
who would not deliver him from his woes 
if a wish could do it8 ,imagination puts

 us more readily in the place of the    
miserable man than of the happy man2 we 
feel that the one condition touches us  
more nearly than the other4  ,pity is   
sweet1 because1 when we put ourselves in
 the place of one who suffers1 we are   
aware1 nevertheless1 of the pleasure of 
not suffering like him4 ,envy is bitter1
 because the sight of a happy man1 far  
from putting the envious in his place1  
inspires him with regret that he is not 
there4 ,the one seems to exempt us from 
the pains he suffers1 the other seems to
 deprive us of the good things he       
enjoys4  ,do you desire to stimulate and
 nourish the first stirrings of         
awakening sensibility in the heart of a 
young man1 do you desire to incline his 
disposition towards kindly deed and     
thought1 do not cause the seeds of      
pride1 vanity1 and envy to spring up in 
him through the misleading picture of   
the happiness of mankind2 do not show   
him to begin with the pomp of courts1   
the pride of palaces1 the delights of   

pageants2 do not take him into society  
and into brilliant assemblies2 do not   
show him the outside of society till you
 have made him capable of estimating it 
at its true worth4 ,to show him the     
world before he is acquainted with men1 
is not to train him1 but to corrupt him2
 not to teach1 but to mislead4  ,by     
nature men are neither kings1 nobles1   
courtiers1 nor millionaires4 ,all men   
are born poor and naked1 all are liable 
to the sorrows of life1 its             
disappointments1 its ills1 its needs1   
its suffering of every kind2 and all are
 condemned at length to die4  ,this is  
what it really means to be a man1 this  
is what no mortal can escape4 ,begin    
then with the study of the essentials of
 humanity1 that which really constitutes
 mankind4  ,at sixteen the adolescent   
knows what it is to suffer1 for he      
himself has suffered2 but he scarcely   
realises that others suffer too2 to see 
without feeling is not knowledge1 and as
 ,i have said again and again the child 

who does not picture the feelings of    
others knows no ills but his own2 but   
when his imagination is kindled by the  
first beginnings of growing sensibility1
 he begins to perceive himself in his   
fellow-creatures1 to be touched by their
 cries1 to suffer in their sufferings4  
,it is at this time that the sorrowful  
picture of suffering humanity should    
stir his heart with the first touch of  
pity he has ever known4  ,if it is not  
easy to discover this opportunity in    
your scholars1 whose fault is it8 ,you  
taught them so soon to play at feeling1 
you taught them so early its language1  
that speaking continually in the same   
strain they turn your lessons against   
yourself1 and give you no chance of     
discovering when they cease to lie1 and 
begin to feel what they say4 ,but look  
at ,emile2 ,i have led him up to this   
age1 and he has neither felt nor        
pretended to feel4 ,he has never said1  
,i love you dearly1 till he knew what it
 was to love2 he has never been taught  

what expression to assume when he enters
 the room of his father1 his mother1 or 
his sick tutor2 he has not learnt the   
art of affecting a sorrow he does not   
feel4 ,he has never pretended to weep   
for the death of any one1 for he does   
not know what it is to die4  ,there is  
the same insensibility in his heart as  
in his manners4  ,indifferent1 like     
every child1 to every one but himself1  
he takes no interest in any one2 his    
only peculiarity is that he will not    
pretend to take such an interest2 he is 
less deceitful than others4  ,emile     
having thought little about creatures of
 feeling will be a long time before he  
knows what is meant by pain and death4  
,groans and cries will begin to stir his
 compassion1 he will turn away his eyes 
at the sight of blood2 the convulsions  
of a dying animal will cause him ,i know
 not what anguish before he knows the   
source of these impulses4 ,if he were   
still stupid and barbarous he would not 
feel them2 if he were more learned he   

would recognise their source2 he has    
compared ideas too frequently already to
 be insensible1 but not enough to know  
what he feels4  ,so pity is born1 the   
first relative sentiment which touches  
the human heart according to the order  
of nature4 ,to become sensitive and     
pitiful the child must know that he has 
fellow-creatures who suffer as he has   
suffered1 who feel the pains he has     
felt1 and others which he can form some 
idea of1 being capable of feeling them  
himself4 ,indeed1 how can we let        
ourselves be stirred by pity unless we  
go beyond ourselves1 and identify       
ourselves with the suffering animal1 by 
leaving1 so to speak1 our own nature and
 taking his4 ,we only suffer so far as  
we suppose he suffers2 the suffering is 
not ours but his4 ,so no one becomes    
sensitive till his imagination is       
aroused and begins to carry him outside 
himself4  ,what should we do to         
stimulate and nourish this growing      
sensibility1 to direct it1 and to follow

 its natural bent8 ,should we not       
present to the young man objects on     
which the expansive force of his heart  
may take effect1 objects which dilate   
it1 which extend it to other creatures1 
which take him outside himself8 should  
we not carefully remove everything that 
narrows1 concentrates1 and strengthens  
the power of the human self8 that is to 
say1 in other words1 we should arouse in
 him kindness1 goodness1 pity1 and      
beneficence1 all the gentle and         
attractive passions which are naturally 
pleasing to man2 those passions prevent 
the growth of envy1 covetousness1       
hatred1 all the repulsive and cruel     
passions which make our sensibility not 
merely a cipher but a minus quantity1   
passions which are the curse of those   
who feel them4  ,i think ,i can sum up  
the whole of the preceding reflections  
in two or three maxims1 definite1       
straightforward1 and easy to understand4
  ,,first ,,maxim4--,it is not in human 
nature to put ourselves in the place of 

those who are happier than ourselves1   
but only in the place of those who can  
claim our pity4  ,if you find exceptions
 to this rule1 they are more apparent   
than real4 ,thus we do not put ourselves
 in the place of the rich or great when 
we become fond of them2 even when our   
affection is real1 we only appropriate  
to ourselves a part of their welfare4   
,sometimes we love the rich man in the  
midst of misfortunes2 but so long as he 
prospers he has no real friend1 except  
the man who is not deceived by          
appearances1 who pities rather than     
envies him in spite of his prosperity4  
,the happiness belonging to certain     
states of life appeals to us2 take1 for 
instance1 the life of a shepherd in the 
country4 ,the charm of seeing these good
 people so happy is not poisoned by     
envy2 we are genuinely interested in    
them4 ,why is this8 ,because we feel we 
can descend into this state of peace and
 innocence and enjoy the same happiness2
 it is an alternative which only calls  

up pleasant thoughts1 so long as the    
wish is as good as the deed4 ,it is     
always pleasant to examine our stores1  
to contemplate our own wealth1 even when
 we do not mean to spend it4  ,from this
 we see that to incline a young man to  
humanity you must not make him admire   
the brilliant lot of others2 you must   
show him life in its sorrowful aspects  
and arouse his fears4 ,thus it becomes  
clear that he must force his own way to 
happiness1 without interfering with the 
happiness of others4  ,,second          
,,maxim4--,we never pity another's woes 
unless we know we may suffer in like    
manner ourselves4       ,non ignara     
mali1 miseris succurrere                
disco4--,virgil4  ,i know nothing go    
fine1 so full of meaning1 so touching1  
so true as these words4  ,why have kings
 no pity on their people8 ,because they 
never expect to be ordinary men4 ,why   
are the rich so hard on the poor8       
,because they have no fear of becoming  
poor4 ,why do the nobles look down upon 

the people8 ,because a nobleman will    
never be one of the lower classes4  ,why
 are the ,turks generally kinder and    
more hospitable than ourselves8         
,because1 under their wholly arbitrary  
system of government1 the rank and      
wealth of individuals are always        
uncertain and precarious1 so that they  
do not regard poverty and degradation as
 conditions with which they have no     
concern2 to-morrow1 any one may himself 
be in the same position as those on whom
 he bestows alms to-day4 ,this thought1 
which occurs again and again in eastern 
romances1 lends them a certain          
tenderness which is not to be found in  
our pretentious and harsh morality4  ,so
 do not train your pupil to look down   
from the height of his glory upon the   
sufferings of the unfortunate1 the      
labours of the wretched1 and do not hope
 to teach him to pity them while he     
considers them as far removed from      
himself4 ,make him thoroughly aware of  
the fact that the fate of these unhappy 

persons may one day be his own1 that his
 feet are standing on the edge of the   
abyss1 into which he may be plunged at  
any moment by a thousand unexpected     
irresistible misfortunes4 ,teach him to 
put no trust in birth1 health1 or       
riches2 show him all the changes of     
fortune2 find him examples--there are   
only too many of them--in which men of  
higher rank than himself have sunk below
 the condition of these wretched ones4  
,whether by their own fault or another's
 is for the present no concern of ours2 
does he indeed know the meaning of the  
word fault8 ,never interfere with the   
order in which he acquires knowledge1   
and teach him only through the means    
within his reach2 it needs no great     
learning to perceive that all the       
prudence of mankind cannot make certain 
whether he will be alive or dead in an  
hour's time1 whether before nightfall he
 will not be grinding his teeth in the  
pangs of nephritis1 whether a month     
hence he will be rich or poor1 whether  

in a year's time he may not be rowing an
 ,algerian galley under the lash of the 
slave-driver4  ,above all do not teach  
him this1 like his catechism1 in cold   
blood2 let him see and feel the         
calamities which overtake men2 surprise 
and startle his imagination with the    
perils which lurk continually about a   
man's path2 let him see the pitfalls all
 about him1 and when he hears you speak 
of them1 let him cling more closely to  
you for fear lest he should fall4 ,you  
will make him timid and cowardly1 do you
 say8 ,we shall see2 let us make him    
kindly to begin with1 that is what      
matters most4  ,,third ,,maxim4--,the   
pity we feel for others is              
proportionate1 not to the amount of the 
evil1 but to the feelings we attribute  
to the sufferers4  ,we only pity the    
wretched so far as we think they feel   
the need of pity4 ,the bodily effect of 
our sufferings is less than one would   
suppose2 it is memory that prolongs the 
pain1 imagination which projects it into

 the future1 and makes us really to be  
pitied4 ,this is1 ,i think1 one of the  
reasons why we are more callous to the  
sufferings of animals than of men1      
although a fellow-feeling ought to make 
us identify ourselves equally with      
either4 ,we scarcely pity the cart-horse
 in his shed1 for we do not suppose that
 while he is eating his hay he is       
thinking of the blows he has received   
and the labours in store for him4       
,neither do we pity the sheep grazing in
 the field1 though we know it is about  
to be slaughtered1 for we believe it    
knows nothing of the fate in store for  
it4 ,in this way we also become callous 
to the fate of our fellow-men1 and the  
rich console themselves for the harm    
done by them to the poor1 by the        
assumption that the poor are too stupid 
to feel4 ,i usually judge of the value  
any one puts on the welfare of his      
fellow-creatures by what he seems to    
think of them4 ,we naturally think      
lightly of the happiness of those we    

despise4 ,it need not surprise you that 
politicians speak so scornfully of the  
people1 and philosophers profess to     
think mankind so wicked4  ,the people   
are mankind2 those who do not belong to 
the people are so few in number that    
they are not worth counting4 ,man is the
 same in every station of life2 if that 
be so1 those ranks to which most men    
belong deserve most honour4 ,all        
distinctions of rank fade away before   
the eyes of a thoughtful person2 he sees
 the same passions1 the same feelings in
 the noble and the guttersnipe2 there is
 merely a slight difference in speech1  
and more or less artificiality of tone2 
and if there is indeed any essential    
difference between them1 the            
disadvantage is all on the side of those
 who are more sophisticated4 ,the people
 show themselves as they are1 and they  
are not attractive2 but the fashionable 
world is compelled to adopt a disguise2 
we should be horrified if we saw it as  
it really is4  ,there is1 so our        

wiseacres tell us1 the same amount of   
happiness and sorrow in every station4  
,this saying is as deadly in its effects
 as it is incapable of proof2 if all are
 equally happy why should ,i trouble    
myself about any one8 ,let every one    
stay where he is2 leave the slave to be 
ill-treated1 the sick man to suffer1 and
 the wretched to perish2 they have      
nothing to gain by any change in their  
condition4 ,you enumerate the sorrows of
 the rich1 and show the vanity of his   
empty pleasures2 what barefaced         
sophistry6 ,the rich man's sufferings do
 not come from his position1 but from   
himself alone when he abuses it4 ,he is 
not to be pitied were he indeed more    
miserable than the poor1 for his ills   
are of his own making1 and he could be  
happy if he chose4 ,but the sufferings  
of the poor man come from external      
things1 from the hardships fate has     
imposed upon him4  ,no amount of habit  
can accustom him to the bodily ills of  
fatigue1 exhaustion1 and hunger4        

,neither head nor heart can serve to    
free him from the sufferings of his     
condition4 ,how is ,epictetus the better
 for knowing beforehand that his master 
will break his leg for him2 does he do  
it any the less8 ,he has to endure not  
only the pain itself but the pains of   
anticipation4 ,if the people were as    
wise as we assume them to be stupid1 how
 could they be other than they are8     
,observe persons of this class2 you will
 see that1 with a different way of      
speaking1 they have as much intelligence
 and more common-sense than yourself4   
,have respect then for your species2    
remember that it consists essentially of
 the people1 that if all the kings and  
all the philosophers were removed they  
would scarcely be missed1 and things    
would go on none the worse4 ,in a word1 
teach your pupil to love all men1 even  
those who fail to appreciate him2 act in
 such way that he is not a member of any
 class1 but takes his place in all      
alike3 speak in his hearing of the human

 race with tenderness1 and even with    
pity1 but never with scorn4 ,you are a  
man2 do not dishonour mankind4  ,it is  
by these ways and others like them--how 
different from the beaten paths--that we
 must reach the heart of the young      
adolescent1 and stimulate in him the    
first impulses of nature2 we must       
develop that heart and open its doors to
 his fellow-creatures1 and there must be
 as little self-interest as possible    
mixed up with these impulses2 above all1
 no vanity1 no emulation1 no boasting1  
none of those sentiments which force us 
to compare ourselves with others2 for   
such comparisons are never made without 
arousing some measure of hatred against 
those who dispute our claim to the first
 place1 were it only in our own         
estimation4 ,then we must be either     
blind or angry1 a bad man or a fool2 let
 us try to avoid this dilemma4 ,sooner  
or later these dangerous passions will  
appear1 so you tell me1 in spite of us4 
,i do not deny it4 ,there is a time and 

place for everything2 ,i am only saying 
that we should not help to arouse these 
passions4  ,this is the spirit of the   
method to be laid down4 ,in this case   
examples and illustrations are useless1 
for here we find the beginning of the   
countless differences of character1 and 
every example ,i gave would possibly    
apply to only one case in a hundred     
thousand4 ,it is at this age that the   
clever teacher begins his real business1
 as a student and a philosopher who     
knows how to probe the heart and strives
 to guide it aright4 ,while the young   
man has not learnt to pretend1 while he 
does not even know the meaning of       
pretence1 you see by his look1 his      
manner1 his gestures1 the impression he 
has received from any object presented  
to him2 you read in his countenance     
every impulse of his heart2 by watching 
his expression you learn to protect his 
impulses and actually to control them4  
,it has been commonly observed that     
blood1 wounds1 cries and groans1 the    

preparations for painful operations1 and
 everything which directs the senses    
towards things connected with suffering1
 are usually the first to make an       
impression on all men4 ,the idea of     
destruction1 a more complex matter1 does
 not have so great an effect2 the       
thought of death affects us later and   
less forcibly1 for no one knows from his
 own experience what it is to die2 you  
must have seen corpses to feel the      
agonies of the dying4 ,but when once    
this idea is established in the mind1   
there is no spectacle more dreadful in  
our eyes1 whether because of the idea of
 complete destruction which it arouses  
through our senses1 or because we know  
that this moment must come for each one 
of us and we feel ourselves all the more
 keenly affected by a situation from    
which we know there is no escape4       
,these various impressions differ in    
manner and in degree1 according to the  
individual character of each one of us  
and his former habits1 but they are     

universal and no one is altogether free 
from them4 ,there are other impressions 
less universal and of a later growth1   
impressions most suited to sensitive    
souls1 such impressions as we receive   
from moral suffering1 inward grief1 the 
sufferings of the mind1 depression1 and 
sadness4 ,there are men who can be      
touched by nothing but groans and tears2
 the suppressed sobs of a heart         
labouring under sorrow would never win a
 sigh2 the sight of a downcast visage1 a
 pale and gloomy countenance1 eyes which
 can weep no longer1 would never draw a 
tear from them4 ,the sufferings of the  
mind are as nothing to them2 they weigh 
them1 their own mind feels nothing2     
expect nothing from such persons but    
inflexible severity1 harshness1 cruelty4
 ,they may be just and upright1 but not 
merciful1 generous1 or pitiful4 ,they   
may1 ,i say1 be just1 if a man can      
indeed be just without being merciful4  
,but do not be in a hurry to judge young
 people by this standard1 more          

especially those who have been educated 
rightly1 who have no idea of the moral  
sufferings they have never had to       
endure2 for once again they can only    
pity the ills they know1 and this       
apparent insensibility is soon          
transformed into pity when they begin to
 feel that there are in human life a    
thousand ills of which they know        
nothing4 ,as for ,emile1 if in childhood
 he was distinguished by simplicity and 
good sense1 in his youth he will show a 
warm and tender heart2 for the reality  
of the feelings depends to a great      
extent on the accuracy of the ideas4    
,but why call him hither8 ,more than one
 reader will reproach me no doubt for   
departing from my first intention and   
forgetting the lasting happiness ,i     
promised my pupil4 ,the sorrowful1 the  
dying1 such sights of pain and woe1 what
 happiness1 what delight is this for a  
young heart on the threshold of life8   
,his gloomy tutor1 who proposed to give 
him such a pleasant education1 only     

introduces him to life that he may      
suffer4 ,this is what they will say1 but
 what care ,i8 ,i promised to make him  
happy1 not to make him seem happy4 ,am  
,i to blame if1 deceived as usual by the
 outward appearances1 you take them for 
the reality8  ,let us take two young men
 at the close of their early education1 
and let them enter the world by opposite
 doors4 ,the one mounts at once to      
,olympus1 and moves in the smartest     
society2 he is taken to court1 he is    
presented in the houses of the great1 of
 the rich1 of the pretty women4 ,i      
assume that he is everywhere made much  
of1 and ,i do not regard too closely the
 effect of this reception on his reason2
 ,i assume it can stand it4 ,pleasures  
fly before him1 every day provides him  
with fresh amusements2 he flings himself
 into everything with an eagerness which
 carries you away4 ,you find him busy1  
eager1 and curious2 his first wonder    
makes a great impression on you2 you    
think him happy2 but behold the state of

 his heart2 you think he is rejoicing1  
,i think he suffers4  ,what does he see 
when first he opens his eyes8 all sorts 
of so-called pleasures1 hitherto        
unknown4 ,most of these pleasures are   
only for a moment within his reach1 and 
seem to show themselves only to inspire 
regret for their loss4 ,does he wander  
through a palace2 you see by his uneasy 
curiosity that he is asking why his     
father's house is not like it4 ,every   
question shows you that he is comparing 
himself all the time with the owner of  
this grand place4 ,and all the          
mortification arising from this         
comparison at once revolts and          
stimulates his vanity4 ,if he meets a   
young man better dressed than himself1  
,i find him secretly complaining of his 
parents' meanness4 ,if he is better     
dressed than another1 he suffers because
 the latter is his superior in birth or 
in intellect1 and all his gold lace is  
put to shame by a plain cloth coat4     
,does he shine unrivalled in some       

assembly1 does he stand on tiptoe that  
they may see him better1 who is there   
who does not secretly desire to humble  
the pride and vanity of the young fop8  
,everybody is in league against him2 the
 disquieting glances of a solemn man1   
the biting phrases of some satirical    
person1 do not fail to reach him1 and if
 it were only one man who despised him1 
the scorn of that one would poison in a 
moment the applause of the rest4  ,let  
us grant him everything1 let us not     
grudge him charm and worth2 let him be  
well-made1 witty1 and attractive2 the   
women will run after him2 but by        
pursuing him before he is in love with  
them1 they will inspire rage rather than
 love2 he will have successes1 but      
neither rapture nor passion to enjoy    
them4 ,as his desires are always        
anticipated2 they never have time to    
spring up among his pleasures1 so he    
only feels the tedium of restraint4     
,even before he knows it he is disgusted
 and satiated with the sex formed to be 

the delight of his own2 if he continues 
its pursuit it is only through vanity1  
and even should he really be devoted to 
women1 he will not be the only          
brilliant1 the only attractive young    
man1 nor will he always find his        
mistresses prodigies of fidelity4  ,i   
say nothing of the vexation1 the deceit1
 the crimes1 and the remorse of all     
kinds1 inseparable from such a life4 ,we
 know that experience of the world      
disgusts us with it2 ,i am speaking only
 of the drawbacks belonging to youthful 
illusions4  ,hitherto the young man has 
lived in the bosom of his family and his
 friends1 and has been the sole object  
of their care2 what a change to enter   
all at once into a region where he      
counts for so little2 to find himself   
plunged into another sphere1 he who has 
been so long the centre of his own4     
,what insults1 what humiliation1 must he
 endure1 before he loses among strangers
 the ideas of his own importance which  
have been formed and nourished among his

 own people6 ,as a child everything gave
 way to him1 everybody flocked to him2  
as a young man he must give place to    
every one1 or if he preserves ever so   
little of his former airs1 what harsh   
lessons will bring him to himself6      
,accustomed to get everything he wants  
without any difficulty1 his wants are   
many1 and he feels continual privations4
 ,he is tempted by everything that      
flatters him2 what others have1 he must 
have too2 he covets everything1 he      
envies every one1 he would always be    
master4 ,he is devoured by vanity1 his  
young heart is enflamed by unbridled    
passions1 jealousy and hatred among the 
rest2 all these violent passions burst  
out at once2 their sting rankles in him 
in the busy world1 they return with him 
at night1 he comes back dissatisfied    
with himself1 with others2 he falls     
asleep among a thousand foolish schemes 
disturbed by a thousand fancies1 and his
 pride shows him even in his dreams     
those fancied pleasures2 he is tormented

 by a desire which will never be        
satisfied4 ,so much for your pupil2 let 
us turn to mine4  ,if the first thing to
 make an impression on him is something 
sorrowful his first return to himself is
 a feeling of pleasure4 ,when he sees   
how many ills he has escaped he thinks  
he is happier than he fancied4 ,he      
shares the suffering of his             
fellow-creatures1 but he shares it of   
his own free will and finds pleasure in 
it4 ,he enjoys at once the pity he feels
 for their woes and the joy of being    
exempt from them2 he feels in himself   
that state of vigour which projects us  
beyond ourselves1 and bids us carry     
elsewhere the superfluous activity of   
our well-being4 ,to pity another's woes 
we must indeed know them1 but we need   
not feel them4 ,when we have suffered1  
when we are in fear of suffering1 we    
pity those who suffer2 but when we      
suffer ourselves1 we pity none but      
ourselves4 ,but if all of us1 being     
subject ourselves to the ills of life1  

only bestow upon others the sensibility 
we do not actually require for          
ourselves1 it follows that pity must be 
a very pleasant feeling1 since it speaks
 on our behalf2 and1 on the other hand1 
a hard-hearted man is always unhappy1   
since the state of his heart leaves him 
no superfluous sensibility to bestow on 
the sufferings of others4  ,we are too  
apt to judge of happiness by            
appearances2 we suppose it is to be     
found in the most unlikely places1 we   
seek for it where it cannot possibly be2
 mirth is a very doubtful indication of 
its presence4 ,a merry man is often a   
wretch who is trying to deceive others  
and distract himself4 ,the men who are  
jovial1 friendly1 and contented at their
 club are almost always gloomy grumblers
 at home1 and their servants have to pay
 for the amusement they give among their
 friends4 ,true contentment is neither  
merry nor noisy2 we are jealous of so   
sweet a sentiment1 when we enjoy it we  
think about it1 we delight in it for    

fear it should escape us4 ,a really     
happy man says little and laughs little2
 he hugs his happiness1 so to speak1 to 
his heart4 ,noisy games1 violent        
delight1 conceal the disappointment of  
satiety4 ,but melancholy is the friend  
of pleasure2 tears and pity attend our  
sweetest enjoyment1 and great joys call 
for tears rather than laughter4  ,if at 
first the number and variety of our     
amusements seem to contribute to our    
happiness1 if at first the even tenor of
 a quiet life seems tedious1 when we    
look at it more closely we discover that
 the pleasantest habit of mind consists 
in a moderate enjoyment which leaves    
little scope for desire and aversion4   
,the unrest of passion causes curiosity 
and fickleness2 the emptiness of noisy  
pleasures causes weariness4 ,we never   
weary of our state when we know none    
more delightful4 ,savages suffer less   
than other men from curiosity and from  
tedium2 everything is the same to       
them--themselves1 not their             

possessions--and they are never weary4  
,the man of the world almost always     
wears a mask4 ,he is scarcely ever      
himself and is almost a stranger to     
himself2 he is ill at ease when he is   
forced into his own company4 ,not what  
he is1 but what he seems1 is all he     
cares for4  ,i cannot help picturing in 
the countenance of the young man ,i have
 just spoken of an indefinable but      
unpleasant impertinence1 smoothness1 and
 affectation1 which is repulsive to a   
plain man1 and in the countenance of my 
own pupil a simple and interesting      
expression which indicates the real     
contentment and the calm of his mind2 an
 expression which inspires respect and  
confidence1 and seems only to await the 
establishment of friendly relations to  
bestow his own confidence in return4 ,it
 is thought that the expression is      
merely the development of certain       
features designed by nature4 ,for my own
 part ,i think that over and above this 
development a man's face is shaped1 all 

unconsciously1 by the frequent and      
habitual influence of certain affections
 of the heart4 ,these affections are    
shown on the face1 there is nothing more
 certain2 and when they become habitual1
 they must surely leave lasting traces4 
,this is why ,i think the expression    
shows the character1 and that we can    
sometimes read one another without      
seeking mysterious explanations in      
powers we do not possess4  ,a child has 
only two distinct feelings1 joy and     
sorrow2 he laughs or he cries2 he knows 
no middle course1 and he is constantly  
passing from one extreme to the other4  
,on account of these perpetual changes  
there is no lasting impression on the   
face1 and no expression2 but when the   
child is older and more sensitive1 his  
feelings are keener or more permanent1  
and these deeper impressions leave      
traces more difficult to erase2 and the 
habitual state of the feelings has an   
effect on the features which in course  
of time becomes ineffaceable4 ,still it 

is not uncommon to meet with men whose  
expression varies with their age4 ,i    
have met with several1 and ,i have      
always found that those whom ,i could   
observe and follow had also changed     
their habitual temper4 ,this one        
observation thoroughly confirmed would  
seem to me decisive1 and it is not out  
of place in a treatise on education1    
where it is a matter of importance1 that
 we should learn to judge the feelings  
of the heart by external signs4  ,i do  
not know whether my young man will be   
any the less amiable for not having     
learnt to copy conventional manners and 
to feign sentiments which are not his   
own2 that does not concern me at        
present1 ,i only know he will be more   
affectionate2 and ,i find it difficult  
to believe that he1 who cares for nobody
 but himself1 can so far disguise his   
true feelings as to please as readily as
 he who finds fresh happiness for       
himself in his affection for others4    
,but with regard to this feeling of     

happiness1 ,i think ,i have said enough 
already for the guidance of any sensible
 reader1 and to show that ,i have not   
contradicted myself4  ,i return to my   
system1 and ,i say1 when the critical   
age approaches1 present to young people 
spectacles which restrain rather than   
excite them2 put off their dawning      
imagination with objects which1 far from
 inflaming their senses1 put a check to 
their activity4 ,remove them from great 
cities1 where the flaunting attire and  
the boldness of the women hasten and    
anticipate the teaching of nature1 where
 everything presents to their view      
pleasures of which they should know     
nothing till they are of an age to      
choose for themselves4 ,bring them back 
to their early home1 where rural        
simplicity allows the passions of their 
age to develop more slowly2 or if their 
taste for the arts keeps them in town1  
guard them by means of this very taste  
from a dangerous idleness4 ,choose      
carefully their company1 their          

occupations1 and their pleasures2 show  
them nothing but modest and pathetic    
pictures which are touching but not     
seductive1 and nourish their sensibility
 without stimulating their senses4      
,remember also1 that the danger of      
excess is not confined to any one place1
 and that immoderate passions always do 
irreparable damage4 ,you need not make  
your pupil a sick-nurse or a ,brother of
 ,pity2 you need not distress him by the
 perpetual sight of pain and suffering2 
you need not take him from one hospital 
to another1 from the gallows to the     
prison4 ,he must be softened1 not       
hardened1 by the sight of human misery4 
,when we have seen a sight it ceases to 
impress us1 use is second nature1 what  
is always before our eyes no longer     
appeals to the imagination1 and it is   
only through the imagination that we can
 feel the sorrows of others2 this is why
 priests and doctors who are always     
beholding death and suffering become so 
hardened4 ,let your pupil therefore know

 something of the lot of man and the    
woes of his fellow-creatures1 but let   
him not see them too often4 ,a single   
thing1 carefully selected and shown at  
the right time1 will fill him with pity 
and set him thinking for a month4 ,his  
opinion about anything depends not so   
much on what he sees1 but on how it     
reacts on himself2 and his lasting      
impression of any object depends less on
 the object itself than on the point of 
view from which he regards it4 ,thus by 
a sparing use of examples1 lessons1 and 
pictures1 you may blunt the sting of    
sense and delay nature while following  
her own lead4  ,as he acquires          
knowledge1 choose what ideas he shall   
attach to it2 as his passions awake1    
select scenes calculated to repress     
them4 ,a veteran1 as distinguished for  
his character as for his courage1 once  
told me that in early youth his father1 
a sensible man but extremely pious1     
observed that through his growing       
sensibility he was attracted by women1  

and spared no pains to restrain him2 but
 at last when1 in spite of all his care1
 his son was about to escape from his   
control1 he decided to take him to a    
hospital1 and1 without telling him what 
to expect1 he introduced him into a room
 where a number of wretched creatures   
were expiating1 under a terrible        
treatment1 the vices which had brought  
them into this plight4 ,this hideous and
 revolting spectacle sickened the young 
man4 ,miserable libertine1 said his     
father vehemently1 begone2 follow your  
vile tastes2 you will soon be only too  
glad to be admitted to this ward1 and a 
victim to the most shameful sufferings1 
you will compel your father to thank    
,god when you are dead4  ,these few     
words1 together with the striking       
spectacle he beheld1 made an impression 
on the young man which could never be   
effaced4 ,compelled by his profession to
 pass his youth in garrison1 he         
preferred to face all the jests of his  
comrades rather than to share their evil

 ways4 ,i have been a man1 he said to   
me1 ,i have had my weaknesses1 but even 
to the present day the sight of a harlot
 inspires me with horror4 ,say little to
 your pupil1 but choose time1 place1 and
 people2 then rely on concrete examples 
for your teaching1 and be sure it will  
take effect4  ,the way childhood is     
spent is no great matter2 the evil which
 may find its way is not irremediable1  
and the good which may spring up might  
come later4 ,but it is not so in those  
early years when a youth really begins  
to live4 ,this time is never long enough
 for what there is to be done1 and its  
importance demands unceasing attention2 
this is why ,i lay so much stress on the
 art of prolonging it4 ,one of the best 
rules of good farming is to keep things 
back as much as possible4 ,let your     
progress also be slow and sure2 prevent 
the youth from becoming a man all at    
once4 ,while the body is growing the    
spirits destined to give vigour to the  
blood and strength to the muscles are in

 process of formation and elaboration4  
,if you turn them into another channel1 
and permit that strength which should   
have gone to the perfecting of one      
person to go to the making of another1  
both remain in a state of weakness and  
the work of nature is unfinished4 ,the  
workings of the mind1 in their turn1 are
 affected by this change1 and the mind1 
as sickly as the body1 functions        
languidly and feebly4 ,length and       
strength of limb are not the same thing 
as courage or genius1 and ,i grant that 
strength of mind does not always        
accompany strength of body1 when the    
means of connection between the two are 
otherwise faulty4 ,but however well     
planned they may be1 they will always   
work feebly if for motive power they    
depend upon an exhausted1 impoverished  
supply of blood1 deprived of the        
substance which gives strength and      
elasticity to all the springs of the    
machinery4 ,there is generally more     
vigour of mind to be found among men    

whose early years have been preserved   
from precocious vice1 than among those  
whose evil living has begun at the      
earliest opportunity2 and this is no    
doubt the reason why nations whose      
morals are pure are generally superior  
in sense and courage to those whose     
morals are bad4 ,the latter shine only  
through ,i know not what small and      
trifling qualities1 which they call wit1
 sagacity1 cunning2 but those great and 
noble features of goodness and reason1  
by which a man is distinguished and     
honoured through good deeds1 virtues1   
really useful efforts1 are scarcely to  
be found except among the nations whose 
morals are pure4  ,teachers complain    
that the energy of this age makes their 
pupils unruly2 ,i see that it is so1 but
 are not they themselves to blame8 ,when
 once they have let this energy flow    
through the channel of the senses1 do   
they not know that they cannot change   
its course8 ,will the long and dreary   
sermons of the pedant efface from the   

mind of his scholar the thoughts of     
pleasure when once they have found an   
entrance2 will they banish from his     
heart the desires by which it is        
tormented2 will they chill the heat of a
 passion whose meaning the scholar      
realises8 ,will not the pupil be roused 
to anger by the obstacles opposed to the
 only kind of happiness of which he has 
any notion8 ,and in the harsh law       
imposed upon him before he can          
understand it1 what will he see but the 
caprice and hatred of a man who is      
trying to torment him8 ,is it strange   
that he rebels and hates you too8  ,i   
know very well that if one is easy-going
 one may be tolerated1 and one may keep 
up a show of authority4 ,but ,i fail to 
see the use of an authority over the    
pupil which is only maintained by       
fomenting the vices it ought to repress2
 it is like attempting to soothe a fiery
 steed by making it leap over a         
precipice4  ,far from being a hindrance 
to education1 this enthusiasm of        

adolescence is its crown and            
coping-stone2 this it is that gives you 
a hold on the youth's heart when he is  
no longer weaker than you4  ,his first  
affections are the reins by which you   
control his movements2 he was free1 and 
now ,i behold him in your power4 ,so    
long as he loved nothing1 he was        
independent of everything but himself   
and his own necessities2 as soon as he  
loves1 he is dependent on his           
affections4 ,thus the first ties which  
unite him to his species are already    
formed4 ,when you direct his increasing 
sensibility in this direction1 do not   
expect that it will at once include all 
men1 and that the word mankind will have
 any meaning for him4 ,not so2 this     
sensibility will at first confine itself
 to those like himself1 and these will  
not be strangers to him1 but those he   
knows1 those whom habit has made dear to
 him or necessary to him1 those who are 
evidently thinking and feeling as he    
does1 those whom he perceives to be     

exposed to the pains he has endured1    
those who enjoy the pleasures he has    
enjoyed2 in a word1 those who are so    
like himself that he is the more        
disposed to self-love4 ,it is only after
 long training1 after much consideration
 as to his own feelings and the feelings
 he observes in others1 that he will be 
able to generalise his individual       
notions under the abstract idea of      
humanity1 and add to his individual     
affections those which may identify him 
with the race4  ,when he becomes capable
 of affection1 he becomes aware of the  
affection of others1 ,footnote3         
,affection may be unrequited2 not so    
friendship4 ,friendship is a bargain1 a 
contract like any other2 though a       
bargain more sacred than the rest4 ,the 
word friend has no other correlation4   
,any man who is not the friend of his   
friend is undoubtedly a rascal2 for one 
can only obtain friendship by giving it1
 or pretending to give it4 and he is on 
the lookout for the signs of that       

affection4 ,do you not see how you will 
acquire a fresh hold on him8 ,what bands
 have you bound about his heart while he
 was yet unaware of them6 ,what will he 
feel1 when he beholds himself and sees  
what you have done for him2 when he can 
compare himself with other youths1 and  
other tutors with you6 ,i say1 ,when he 
sees it1 but beware lest you tell him of
 it2 if you tell him he will not        
perceive it4 ,if you claim his obedience
 in return for the care bestowed upon   
him1 he will think you have over-reached
 him2 he will see that while you profess
 to have cared for him without reward1  
you meant to saddle him with a debt and 
to bind him to a bargain which he never 
made4 ,in vain you will add that what   
you demand is for his own good2 you     
demand it1 and you demand it in virtue  
of what you have done without his       
consent4 ,when a man down on his luck   
accepts the shilling which the sergeant 
professes to give him1 and finds he has 
enlisted without knowing what he was    

about1 you protest against the          
injustice2 is it not still more unjust  
to demand from your pupil the price of  
care which he has not even accepted6    
,ingratitude would be rarer if kindness 
were less often the investment of a     
usurer4 ,we love those who have done us 
a kindness2 what a natural feeling6     
,ingratitude is not to be found in the  
heart of man1 but self-interest is      
there2 those who are ungrateful for     
benefits received are fewer than those  
who do a kindness for their own ends4   
,if you sell me your gifts1 ,i will     
haggle over the price2 but if you       
pretend to give1 in order to sell later 
on at your own price1 you are guilty of 
fraud2 it is the free gift which is     
beyond price4 ,the heart is a law to    
itself2 if you try to bind it1 you lose 
it2 give it its liberty1 and you make it
 your own4  ,when the fisherman baits   
his line1 the fish come round him       
without suspicion2 but when they are    
caught on the hook concealed in the     

bait1 they feel the line tighten and    
they try to escape4 ,is the fisherman a 
benefactor8 ,is the fish ungrateful8 ,do
 we find a man forgotten by his         
benefactor1 unmindful of that           
benefactor8 ,on the contrary1 he        
delights to speak of him1 he cannot     
think of him without emotion2 if he gets
 a chance of showing him1 by some       
unexpected service1 that he remembers   
what he did for him1 how delighted he is
 to satisfy his gratitude2 what a       
pleasure it is to earn the gratitude of 
his benefactor4 ,how delightful to say1 
,it is my turn now4 ,this is indeed the 
teaching of nature2 a good deed never   
caused ingratitude4  ,if therefore      
gratitude is a natural feeling1 and you 
do not destroy its effects by your      
blunders1 be sure your pupil1 as he     
begins to understand the value of your  
care for him1 will be grateful for it1  
provided you have not put a price upon  
it2 and this will give you an authority 
over his heart which nothing can        

overthrow4 ,but beware of losing this   
advantage before it is really yours1    
beware of insisting on your own         
importance4 ,boast of your services and 
they become intolerable2 forget them and
 they will not be forgotten4 ,until the 
time comes to treat him as a man let    
there be no question of his duty to you1
 but his duty to himself4 ,let him have 
his freedom if you would make him       
docile2 hide yourself so that he may    
seek you2 raise his heart to the noble  
sentiment of gratitude by only speaking 
of his own interest4 ,until he was able 
to understand ,i would not have him told
 that what was done was for his good2 he
 would only have understood such words  
to mean that you were dependent on him  
and he would merely have made you his   
servant4 ,but now that he is beginning  
to feel what love is1 he also knows what
 a tender affection may bind a man to   
what he loves2 and in the zeal which    
keeps you busy on his account1 he now   
sees not the bonds of a slave1 but the  

affection of a friend4 ,now there is    
nothing which carries so much weight    
with the human heart as the voice of    
friendship recognised as such1 for we   
know that it never speaks but for our   
good4 ,we may think our friend is       
mistaken1 but we never believe he is    
deceiving us4 ,we may reject his advice 
now and then1 but we never scorn it4    
,we have reached the moral order at     
last2 we have just taken the second step
 towards manhood4 ,if this were the     
place for it1 ,i would try to show how  
the first impulses of the heart give    
rise to the first stirrings of          
conscience1 and how from the feelings of
 love and hatred spring the first       
notions of good and evil4 ,i would show 
that justice and kindness are no mere   
abstract terms1 no mere moral           
conceptions framed by the understanding1
 but true affections of the heart       
enlightened by reason1 the natural      
outcome of our primitive affections2    
that by reason alone1 unaided by        

conscience1 we cannot establish any     
natural law1 and that all natural right 
is a vain dream if it does not rest upon
 some instinctive need of the human     
heart4 ,footnote3 ,the precept ,do unto 
others as you would have them do unto   
you has no true foundation but that of  
conscience and feeling2 for what valid  
reason is there why ,i1 being myself1   
should do what ,i would do if ,i were   
some one else1 especially when ,i am    
morally certain ,i never shall find     
myself in exactly the same case2 and who
 will answer for it that if ,i          
faithfully follow out this maxim1 ,i    
shall get others to follow it with      
regard to me8 ,the wicked takes         
advantage both of the uprightness of the
 just and of his own injustice2 he will 
gladly have everybody just but himself4 
,this bargain1 whatever you may say1 is 
not greatly to the advantage of the     
just4 ,but if the enthusiasm of an      
overflowing heart identifies me with my 
fellow-creature1 if ,i feel1 so to      

speak1 that ,i will not let him suffer  
lest ,i should suffer too1 ,i care for  
him because ,i care for myself1 and the 
reason of the precept is found in nature
 herself1 which inspires me with the    
desire for my own welfare wherever ,i   
may be4 ,from this ,i conclude that it  
is false to say that the precepts of    
natural law are based on reason only2   
they have a firmer and more solid       
foundation4 ,the love of others         
springing from self-love1 is the source 
of human justice4 ,the whole of morality
 is summed up in the gospel in this     
summary of the law4 ,but ,i do not think
 it is my business at present to prepare
 treatises on metaphysics and morals1   
nor courses of study of any kind        
whatsoever2 it is enough if ,i indicate 
the order and development of our        
feelings and our knowledge in relation  
to our growth4 ,others will perhaps work
 out what ,i have here merely indicated4
  ,hitherto my ,emile has thought only  
of himself1 so his first glance at his  

equals leads him to compare himself with
 them2 and the first feeling excited by 
this comparison is the desire to be     
first4 ,it is here that self-love is    
transformed into selfishness1 and this  
is the starting point of all the        
passions which spring from selfishness4 
,but to determine whether the passions  
by which his life will be governed shall
 be humane and gentle or harsh and      
cruel1 whether they shall be the        
passions of benevolence and pity or     
those of envy and covetousness1 we must 
know what he believes his place among   
men to be1 and what sort of obstacles he
 expects to have to overcome in order to
 attain to the position he seeks4  ,to  
guide him in this inquiry1 after we have
 shown him men by means of the accidents
 common to the species1 we must now show
 him them by means of their differences4
 ,this is the time for estimating       
inequality natural and civil1 and for   
the scheme of the whole social order4   
,society must be studied in the         

individual and the individual in        
society2 those who desire to treat      
politics and morals apart from one      
another will never understand either4   
,by confining ourselves at first to the 
primitive relations1 we see how men     
should be influenced by them and what   
passions should spring from them2 we see
 that it is in proportion to the        
development of these passions that a    
man's relations with others expand or   
contract4 ,it is not so much strength of
 arm as moderation of spirit which makes
 men free and independent4 ,the man     
whose wants are few is dependent on but 
few people1 but those who constantly    
confound our vain desires with our      
bodily needs1 those who have made these 
needs the basis of human society1 are   
continually mistaking effects for       
causes1 and they have only confused     
themselves by their own reasoning4      
,since it is impossible in the state of 
nature that the difference between man  
and man should be great enough to make  

one dependent on another1 there is in   
fact in this state of nature an actual  
and indestructible equality4 ,in the    
civil state there is a vain and         
chimerical equality of right2 the means 
intended for its maintenance1 themselves
 serve to destroy it2 and the power of  
the community1 added to the power of the
 strongest for the oppression of the    
weak1 disturbs the sort of equilibrium  
which nature has established between    
them4 ,footnote3 ,the universal spirit  
of the laws of every country is always  
to take the part of the strong against  
the weak1 and the part of him who has   
against him who has not2 this defect is 
inevitable1 and there is no exception to
 it4 ,from this first contradiction     
spring all the other contradictions     
between the real and the apparent1 which
 are to be found in the civil order4    
,the many will always be sacrificed to  
the few1 the common weal to private     
interest2 those specious words--justice 
and subordination--will always serve as 

the tools of violence and the weapons of
 injustice2 hence it follows that the   
higher classes which claim to be useful 
to the rest are really only seeking     
their own welfare at the expense of     
others2 from this we may judge how much 
consideration is due to them according  
to right and justice4 ,it remains to be 
seen if the rank to which they have     
attained is more favourable to their own
 happiness to know what opinion each one
 of us should form with regard to his   
own lot4 ,this is the study with which  
we are now concerned2 but to do it      
thoroughly we must begin with a         
knowledge of the human heart4  ,if it   
were only a question of showing young   
people man in his mask1 there would be  
no need to point him out1 and he would  
always be before their eyes2 but since  
the mask is not the man1 and since they 
must not be led away by its specious    
appearance1 when you paint men for your 
scholar1 paint them as they are1 not    
that he may hate them1 but that he may  

pity them and have no wish to be like   
them4 ,in my opinion that is the most   
reasonable view a man can hold with     
regard to his fellow-men4  ,with this   
object in view we must take the opposite
 way from that hitherto followed1 and   
instruct the youth rather through the   
experience of others than through his   
own4 ,if men deceive him he will hate   
them2 but1 if1 while they treat him with
 respect1 he sees them deceiving each   
other1 he will pity them4 ,the spectacle
 of the world1 said ,pythagoras1 is like
 the ,olympic games2 some are buying and
 selling and think only of their gains2 
others take an active part and strive   
for glory2 others1 and these not the    
worst1 are content to be lookers-on4  ,i
 would have you so choose the company of
 a youth that he should think well of   
those among whom he lives1 and ,i would 
have you so teach him to know the world 
that he should think ill of all that    
takes place in it4 ,let him know that   
man is by nature good1 let him feel it1 

let him judge his neighbour by himself2 
but let him see how men are depraved and
 perverted by society2 let him find the 
source of all their vices in their      
preconceived opinions2 let him be       
disposed to respect the individual1 but 
to despise the multitude2 let him see   
that all men wear almost the same mask1 
but let him also know that some faces   
are fairer than the mask that conceals  
them4  ,it must be admitted that this   
method has its drawbacks1 and it is not 
easy to carry it out2 for if he becomes 
too soon engrossed in watching other    
people1 if you train him to mark too    
closely the actions of others1 you will 
make him spiteful and satirical1 quick  
and decided in his judgments of others2 
he will find a hateful pleasure in      
seeking bad motives1 and will fail to   
see the good even in that which is      
really good4 ,he will1 at least1 get    
used to the sight of vice1 he will      
behold the wicked without horror1 just  
as we get used to seeing the wretched   

without pity4 ,soon the perversity of   
mankind will be not so much a warning as
 an excuse2 he will say1 ,man is made   
so1 and he will have no wish to be      
different from the rest4  ,but if you   
wish to teach him theoretically to make 
him acquainted1 not only with the heart 
of man1 but also with the application of
 the external causes which turn our     
inclinations into vices2 when you thus  
transport him all at once from the      
objects of sense to the objects of      
reason1 you employ a system of          
metaphysics which he is not in a        
position to understand2 you fall back   
into the error1 so carefully avoided    
hitherto1 of giving him lessons which   
are like lessons1 of substituting in his
 mind the experience and the authority  
of the master for his own experience and
 the development of his own reason4  ,to
 remove these two obstacles at once1 and
 to bring the human heart within his    
reach without risk of spoiling his own1 
,i would show him men from afar1 in     

other times or in other places1 so that 
he may behold the scene but cannot take 
part in it4 ,this is the time for       
history2 with its help he will read the 
hearts of men without any lessons in    
philosophy2 with its help he will view  
them as a mere spectator1 dispassionate 
and without prejudice2 he will view them
 as their judge1 not as their accomplice
 or their accuser4  ,to know men you    
must behold their actions4 ,in society  
we hear them talk2 they show their words
 and hide their deeds2 but in history   
the veil is drawn aside1 and they are   
judged by their deeds4 ,their sayings   
even help us to understand them2 for    
comparing what they say and what they   
do1 we see not only what they are but   
what they would appear2 the more they   
disguise themselves the more thoroughly 
they stand revealed4  ,unluckily this   
study has its dangers1 its drawbacks of 
several kinds4 ,it is difficult to adopt
 a point of view which will enable one  
to judge one's fellow-creatures fairly4 

,it is one of the chief defects of      
history to paint men's evil deeds rather
 than their good ones2 it is revolutions
 and catastrophes that make history     
interesting2 so long as a nation grows  
and prospers quietly in the tranquillity
 of a peaceful government1 history says 
nothing2 she only begins to speak of    
nations when1 no longer able to be      
self-sufficing1 they interfere with     
their neighbours' business1 or allow    
their neighbours to interfere with their
 own2 history only makes them famous    
when they are on the downward path2 all 
our histories begin where they ought to 
end4 ,we have very accurate accounts of 
declining nations2 what we lack is the  
history of those nations which are      
multiplying2 they are so happy and so   
good that history has nothing to tell us
 of them2 and we see indeed in our own  
times that the most successful          
governments are least talked of4 ,we    
only hear what is bad2 the good is      
scarcely mentioned4 ,only the wicked    

become famous1 the good are forgotten or
 laughed to scorn1 and thus history1    
like philosophy1 is for ever slandering 
mankind4  ,moreover1 it is inevitable   
that the facts described in history     
should not give an exact picture of what
 really happened2 they are transformed  
in the brain of the historian1 they are 
moulded by his interests and coloured by
 his prejudices4 ,who can place the     
reader precisely in a position to see   
the event as it really happened8        
,ignorance or partiality disguises      
everything4 ,what a different impression
 may be given merely by expanding or    
contracting the circumstances of the    
case without altering a single          
historical incident4 ,the same object   
may be seen from several points of view1
 and it will hardly seem the same thing1
 yet there has been no change except in 
the eye that beholds it4 ,do you indeed 
do honour to truth when what you tell me
 is a genuine fact1 but you make it     
appear something quite different8 ,a    

tree more or less1 a rock to the right  
or to the left1 a cloud of dust raised  
by the wind1 how often have these       
decided the result of a battle without  
any one knowing it8  ,does that prevent 
history from telling you the cause of   
defeat or victory with as much assurance
 as if she had been on the spot8 ,but   
what are the facts to me1 while ,i am   
ignorant of their causes1 and what      
lessons can ,i draw from an event1 whose
 true cause is unknown to me8 ,the      
historian indeed gives me a reason1 but 
he invents it2 and criticism itself1 of 
which we hear so much1 is only the art  
of guessing1 the art of choosing from   
among several lies1 the lie that is most
 like truth4  ,have you ever read       
,cleopatra or ,cassandra or any books of
 the kind8 ,the author selects some     
well-known event1 he then adapts it to  
his purpose1 adorns it with details of  
his own invention1 with people who never
 existed1 with imaginary portraits2 thus
 he piles fiction on fiction to lend a  

charm to his story4 ,i see little       
difference between such romances and    
your histories1 unless it is that the   
novelist draws more on his own          
imagination1 while the historian        
slavishly copies what another has       
imagined2 ,i will also admit1 if you    
please1 that the novelist has some moral
 purpose good or bad1 about which the   
historian scarcely concerns himself4    
,you will tell me that accuracy in      
history is of less interest than a true 
picture of men and manners2 provided the
 human heart is truly portrayed1 it     
matters little that events should be    
accurately recorded2 for after all you  
say1 what does it matter to us what     
happened two thousand years ago8 ,you   
are right if the portraits are indeed   
truly given according to nature2 but if 
the model is to be found for the most   
part in the historian's imagination1 are
 you not falling into the very error you
 intended to avoid1 and surrendering to 
the authority of the historian what you 

would not yield to the authority of the 
teacher8 ,if my pupil is merely to see  
fancy pictures1 ,i would rather draw    
them myself2 they will1 at least1 be    
better suited to him4  ,the worst       
historians for a youth are those who    
give their opinions4 ,facts6 ,facts6 and
 let him decide for himself2 this is how
 he will learn to know mankind4 ,if he  
is always directed by the opinion of the
 author1 he is only seeing through the  
eyes of another person1 and when those  
ayes are no longer at his disposal he   
can see nothing4  ,i leave modern       
history on one side1 not only because it
 has no character and all our people are
 alike1 but because our historians1     
wholly taken up with effect1 think of   
nothing but highly coloured portraits1  
which often represent nothing4          
,footnote3 ,take1 for instance1         
,guicciardini1 ,streda1 ,solis1         
,machiavelli1 and sometimes even ,de    
,thou himself4 ,vertot is almost the    
only one who knows how to describe      

without giving fancy portraits4 ,the old
 historians generally give fewer        
portraits and bring more intelligence   
and common-sense to their judgments2 but
 even among them there is plenty of     
scope for choice1 and you must not begin
 with the wisest but with the simplest4 
,i would not put ,polybius or ,sallust  
into the hands of a youth2 ,tacitus is  
the author of the old1 young men cannot 
understand him2 you must learn to see in
 human actions the simplest features of 
the heart of man before you try to sound
 its depths4 ,you must be able to read  
facts clearly before you begin to study 
maxims4  ,philosophy in the form of     
maxims is only fit for the experienced4 
,youth should never deal with the       
general1 all its teaching should deal   
with individual instances4  ,to my mind 
,thucydides is the true model of        
historians4 ,he relates facts without   
giving his opinion2 but he omits no     
circumstance adapted to make us judge   
for ourselves4 ,he puts everything that 

he relates before his reader2 far from  
interposing between the facts and the   
readers1 he conceals himself2 we seem   
not to read but to see4 ,unfortunately  
he speaks of nothing but war1 and in his
 stories we only see the least          
instructive part of the world1 that is  
to say the battles4 ,the virtues and    
defects of the ,retreat of the ,ten     
,thousand and the ,commentaries of      
,caesar are almost the same4 ,the kindly
 ,herodotus1 without portraits1 without 
maxims1 yet flowing1 simple1 full of    
details calculated to delight and       
interest in the highest degree1 would be
 perhaps the best historian if these    
very details did not often degenerate   
into childish folly1 better adapted to  
spoil the taste of youth than to form   
it2 we need discretion before we can    
read him4 ,i say nothing of ,livy1 his  
turn will come2 but he is a statesman1 a
 rhetorician1 he is everything which is 
unsuitable for a youth4  ,history in    
general is lacking because it only takes

 note of striking and clearly marked    
facts which may be fixed by names1      
places1 and dates2 but the slow         
evolution of these facts1 which cannot  
be definitely noted in this way1 still  
remains unknown4 ,we often find in some 
battle1 lost or won1 the ostensible     
cause of a revolution which was         
inevitable before this battle took      
place4 ,war only makes manifest events  
already determined by moral causes1     
which few historians can perceive4  ,the
 philosophic spirit has turned the      
thoughts of many of the historians of   
our times in this direction2 but ,i     
doubt whether truth has profited by     
their labours4 ,the rage for systems has
 got possession of all alike1 no one    
seeks to see things as they are1 but    
only as they agree with his system4     
,add to all these considerations the    
fact that history shows us actions      
rather than men1 because she only seizes
 men at certain chosen times in full    
dress2 she only portrays the statesman  

when he is prepared to be seen2 she does
 not follow him to his home1 to his     
study1 among his family and his friends2
 she only shows him in state2 it is his 
clothes rather than himself that she    
describes4  ,i would prefer to begin the
 study of the human heart with reading  
the lives of individuals2 for then the  
man hides himself in vain1 the historian
 follows him everywhere2 he never gives 
him a moment's grace nor any corner     
where he can escape the piercing eye of 
the spectator2 and when he thinks he is 
concealing himself1 then it is that the 
writer shows him up most plainly4       
,those who write lives1 says ,montaigne1
 in so far as they delight more in ideas
 than in events1 more in that which     
comes from within than in that which    
comes from without1 these are the       
writers ,i prefer2 for this reason      
,plutarch is in every way the man for   
me4  ,it is true that the genius of men 
in groups or nations is very different  
from the character of the individual    

man1 and that we have a very imperfect  
knowledge of the human heart if we do   
not also examine it in crowds2 but it is
 none the less true that to judge of men
 we must study the individual man1 and  
that he who had a perfect knowledge of  
the inclinations of each individual     
might foresee all their combined effects
 in the body of the nation4  ,we must go
 back again to the ancients1 for the    
reasons already stated1 and also because
 all the details common and familiar1   
but true and characteristic1 are        
banished by modern stylists1 so that men
 are as much tricked out by our modern  
authors in their private life as in     
public4 ,propriety1 no less strict in   
literature than in life1 no longer      
permits us to say anything in public    
which we might not do in public2 and as 
we may only show the man dressed up for 
his part1 we never see a man in our     
books any more than we do on the stage4 
,the lives of kings may be written a    
hundred times1 but to no purpose2 we    

shall never have another ,suetonius4    
,the excellence of ,plutarch consists in
 these very details which we are no     
longer permitted to describe4 ,with     
inimitable grace he paints the great man
 in little things2 and he is so happy in
 the choice of his instances that a     
word1 a smile1 a gesture1 will often    
suffice to indicate the nature of his   
hero4 ,with a jest ,hannibal cheers his 
frightened soldiers1 and leads them     
laughing to the battle which will lay   
,italy at his feet2 ,agesilaus riding on
 a stick makes me love the conqueror of 
the great king2 ,caesar passing through 
a poor village and chatting with his    
friends unconsciously betrays the       
traitor who professed that he only      
wished to be ,pompey's equal4           
,alexander swallows a draught without a 
word--it is the finest moment in his    
life2 ,aristides writes his own name on 
the shell and so justifies his title2   
,philopoemen1 his mantle laid aside1    
chops firewood in the kitchen of his    

host4 ,this is the true art of          
portraiture4 ,our disposition does not  
show itself in our features1 nor our    
character in our great deeds2 it is     
trifles that show what we really are4   
,what is done in public is either too   
commonplace or too artificial1 and our  
modern authors are almost too grand to  
tell us anything else4  ,m4 de ,turenne 
was undoubtedly one of the greatest men 
of the last century4 ,they have had the 
courage to make his life interesting by 
the little details which make us know   
and love him2 but how many details have 
they felt obliged to omit which might   
have made us know and love him better   
still8 ,i will only quote one which ,i  
have on good authority1 one which       
,plutarch would never have omitted1 and 
one which ,ramsai would never have      
inserted had he been acquainted with it4
  ,on a hot summer's day ,viscount      
,turenne in a little white vest and     
nightcap was standing at the window of  
his antechamber2 one of his men came up 

and1 misled by the dress1 took him for  
one of the kitchen lads whom he knew4   
,he crept up behind him and smacked him 
with no light hand4 ,the man he struck  
turned round hastily4 ,the valet saw it 
was his master and trembled at the sight
 of his face4  ,he fell on his knees in 
desperation4 ,sir1 ,i thought it was    
,george4 ,well1 even if it was ,george1 
exclaimed ,turenne rubbing the injured  
part1 you need not have struck so hard4 
,you do not dare to say this1 you       
miserable writers6 ,remain for ever     
without humanity and without feeling2   
steel your hard hearts in your vile     
propriety1 make yourselves contemptible 
through your high-mightiness4 ,but as   
for you1 dear youth1 when you read this 
anecdote1 when you are touched by all   
the kindliness displayed even on the    
impulse of the moment1 read also the    
littleness of this great man when it was
 a question of his name and birth4      
,remember it was this very ,turenne who 
always professed to yield precedence to 

his nephew1 so that all men might see   
that this child was the head of a royal 
house4 ,look on this picture and on     
that1 love nature1 despise popular      
prejudice1 and know the man as he was4  
,there are few people able to realise   
what an effect such reading1 carefully  
directed1 will have upon the unspoilt   
mind of a youth4 ,weighed down by books 
from our earliest childhood1 accustomed 
to read without thinking1 what we read  
strikes us even less1 because we already
 bear in ourselves the passions and     
prejudices with which history and the   
lives of men are filled2 all that they  
do strikes us as only natural1 for we   
ourselves are unnatural and we judge    
others by ourselves4 ,but imagine my    
,emile1 who has been carefully guarded  
for eighteen years with the sole object 
of preserving a right judgment and a    
healthy heart1 imagine him when the     
curtain goes up casting his eyes for the
 first time upon the world's stage2 or  
rather picture him behind the scenes    

watching the actors don their costumes1 
and counting the cords and pulleys which
 deceive with their feigned shows the   
eyes of the spectators4 ,his first      
surprise will soon give place to        
feelings of shame and scorn of his      
fellow-man2 he will be indignant at the 
sight of the whole human race deceiving 
itself and stooping to this childish    
folly2 he will grieve to see his        
brothers tearing each other limb from   
limb for a mere dream1 and transforming 
themselves into wild beasts because they
 could not be content to be men4  ,given
 the natural disposition of the pupil1  
there is no doubt that if the master    
exercises any sort of prudence or       
discretion in his choice of reading1    
however little he may put him in the way
 of reflecting on the subject-matter1   
this exercise will serve as a course in 
practical philosophy1 a philosophy      
better understood and more thoroughly   
mastered than all the empty speculations
 with which the brains of lads are      

muddled in our schools4 ,after following
 the romantic schemes of ,pyrrhus1      
,cineas asks him what real good he would
 gain by the conquest of the world1     
which he can never enjoy without such   
great sufferings2 this only arouses in  
us a passing interest as a smart saying2
 but ,emile will think it a very wise   
thought1 one which had already occurred 
to himself1 and one which he will never 
forget1 because there is no hostile     
prejudice in his mind to prevent it     
sinking in4 ,when he reads more of the  
life of this madman1 he will find that  
all his great plans resulted in his     
death at the hands of a woman1 and      
instead of admiring this pinchbeck      
heroism1 what will he see in the        
exploits of this great captain and the  
schemes of this great statesman but so  
many steps towards that unlucky tile    
which was to bring life and schemes     
alike to a shameful death8  ,all        
conquerors have not been killed2 all    
usurpers have not failed in their plans2

 to minds imbued with vulgar prejudices 
many of them will seem happy1 but he who
 looks below the surface and reckons    
men's happiness by the condition of     
their hearts will perceive their        
wretchedness even in the midst of their 
successes2 he will see them panting     
after advancement and never attaining   
their prize1 he will find them like     
those inexperienced travellers among the
 ,alps1 who think that every height they
 see is the last1 who reach its summit  
only to find to their disappointment    
there are loftier peaks beyond4         
,augustus1 when he had subdued his      
fellow-citizens and destroyed his       
rivals1 reigned for forty years over the
 greatest empire that ever existed2 but 
all this vast power could not hinder him
 from beating his head against the      
walls1 and filling his palace with his  
groans as he cried to ,varus to restore 
his slaughtered legions4 ,if he had     
conquered all his foes what good would  
his empty triumphs have done him1 when  

troubles of every kind beset his path1  
when his life was threatened by his     
dearest friends1 and when he had to     
mourn the disgrace or death of all near 
and dear to him8 ,the wretched man      
desired to rule the world and failed to 
rule his own household4 ,what was the   
result of this neglect8 ,he beheld his  
nephew1 his adopted child1 his          
son-in-law1 perish in the flower of     
youth1 his grandson reduced to eat the  
stuffing of his mattress to prolong his 
wretched existence for a few hours2 his 
daughter and his granddaughter1 after   
they had covered him with infamy1 died1 
the one of hunger and want on a desert  
island1 the other in prison by the hand 
of a common archer4 ,he himself1 the    
last survivor of his unhappy house1     
found himself compelled by his own wife 
to acknowledge a monster as his heir4   
,such was the fate of the master of the 
world1 so famous for his glory and his  
good fortune4 ,i cannot believe that any
 one of those who admire his glory and  

fortune would accept them at the same   
price4  ,i have taken ambition as my    
example1 but the play of every human    
passion offers similar lessons to any   
one who will study history to make      
himself wise and good at the expense of 
those who went before4  ,the time is    
drawing near when the teaching of the   
life of ,anthony will appeal more       
forcibly to the youth than the life of  
,augustus4  ,emile will scarcely know   
where he is among the many strange      
sights in his new studies2 but he will  
know beforehand how to avoid the        
illusion of passions before they arise1 
and seeing how in all ages they have    
blinded men's eyes1 he will be          
forewarned of the way in which they may 
one day blind his own should he abandon 
himself to them4 ,footnote3 ,it is      
always prejudice which stirs up passion 
in our heart4 ,he who only sees what    
really exists and only values what he   
knows1 rarely becomes angry4 ,the errors
 of our judgment produce the warmth of  

our desires4 ,these lessons1 ,i know1   
are unsuited to him1 perhaps at need    
they may prove scanty and ill-timed2 but
 remember they are not the lessons ,i   
wished to draw from this study4  ,to    
begin with1 ,i had quite another end in 
view2 and indeed1 if this purpose is    
unfulfilled1 the teacher will be to     
blame4  ,remember that1 as soon as      
selfishness has developed1 the self in  
its relations to others is always with  
us1 and the youth never observes others 
without coming back to himself and      
comparing himself with them4 ,from the  
way young men are taught to study       
history ,i see that they are            
transformed1 so to speak1 into the      
people they behold1 that you strive to  
make a ,cicero1 a ,trajan1 or an        
,alexander of them1 to discourage them  
when they are themselves again1 to make 
every one regret that he is merely      
himself4 ,there are certain advantages  
in this plan which ,i do not deny2 but1 
so far as ,emile is concerned1 should it

 happen at any time when he is making   
these comparisons that he wishes to be  
any one but himself--were it ,socrates  
or ,cato--,i have failed entirely2 he   
who begins to regard himself as a       
stranger will soon forget himself       
altogether4  ,it is not philosophers who
 know most about men2 they only view    
them through the preconceived ideas of  
philosophy1 and ,i know no one so       
prejudiced as philosophers4 ,a savage   
would judge us more sanely4 ,the        
philosopher is aware of his own vices1  
he is indignant at ours1 and he says to 
himself1 ,we are all bad alike2 the     
savage beholds us unmoved and says1 ,you
 are mad4 ,he is right1 for no one does 
evil for evil's sake4 ,my pupil is that 
savage1 with this difference3 ,emile has
 thought more1 he has compared ideas1   
seen our errors at close quarters1 he is
 more on his guard against himself1 and 
only judges of what he knows4  ,it is   
our own passions that excite us against 
the passions of others2 it is our       

self-interest which makes us hate the   
wicked2 if they did us no harm we should
 pity rather than hate them4 ,we should 
readily forgive their vices if we could 
perceive how their own heart punishes   
those vices4 ,we are aware of the       
offence1 but we do not see the          
punishment2 the advantages are plain1   
the penalty is hidden4 ,the man who     
thinks he is enjoying the fruits of his 
vices is no less tormented by them than 
if they had not been successful2 the    
object is different1 the anxiety is the 
same2 in vain he displays his good      
fortune and hides his heart2 in spite of
 himself his conduct betrays him2 but to
 discern this1 our own heart must be    
utterly unlike his4  ,we are led astray 
by those passions which we share2 we are
 disgusted by those that militate       
against our own interests2 and with a   
want of logic due to these very         
passions1 we blame in others what we    
fain would imitate4 ,aversion and       
self-deception are inevitable when we   

are forced to endure at another's hands 
what we ourselves would do in his place4
  ,what then is required for the proper 
study of men8 ,a great wish to know men1
 great impartiality of judgment1 a heart
 sufficiently sensitive to understand   
every human passion1 and calm enough to 
be free from passion4 ,if there is any  
time in our life when this study is     
likely to be appreciated1 it is this    
that ,i have chosen for ,emile2 before  
this time men would have been strangers 
to him2 later on he would have been like
 them4 ,convention1 the effects of which
 he already perceives1 has not yet made 
him its slave1 the passions1 whose      
consequences he realises1 have not yet  
stirred his heart4 ,he is a man2 he     
takes an interest in his brethren2 he is
 a just man and he judges his peers4    
,now it is certain that if he judges    
them rightly he will not want to change 
places with any one of them1 for the    
goal of all their anxious efforts is the
 result of prejudices which he does not 

share1 and that goal seems to him a mere
 dream4  ,for his own part1 he has all  
he wants within his reach4 ,how should  
he be dependent on any one when he is   
self-sufficing and free from prejudice8 
,strong arms1 good health1 ,footnote3 ,i
 think ,i may fairly reckon health and  
strength among the advantages he has    
obtained by his education1 or rather    
among the gifts of nature which his     
education has preserved for him4        
moderation1 few needs1 together with the
 means to satisfy those needs1 are his4 
,he has been brought up in complete     
liberty and servitude is the greatest   
ill he understands4 ,he pities these    
miserable kings1 the slaves of all who  
obey them2 he pities these false        
prophets fettered by their empty fame2  
he pities these rich fools1 martyrs to  
their own pomp2 he pities these         
ostentatious voluptuaries1 who spend    
their life in deadly dullness that they 
may seem to enjoy its pleasures4 ,he    
would pity the very foe who harmed him1 

for he would discern his wretchedness   
beneath his cloak of spite4 ,he would   
say to himself1 ,this man has yielded to
 his desire to hurt me1 and this need of
 his places him at my mercy4  ,one step 
more and our goal is attained4          
,selfishness is a dangerous tool though 
a useful one2 it often wounds the hand  
that uses it1 and it rarely does good   
unmixed with evil4 ,when ,emile         
considers his place among men1 when he  
finds himself so fortunately situated1  
he will be tempted to give credit to his
 own reason for the work of yours1 and  
to attribute to his own deserts what is 
really the result of his good fortune4  
,he will say to himself1 ,i am wise and 
other men are fools4 ,he will pity and  
despise them and will congratulate      
himself all the more heartily2 and as he
 knows he is happier than they1 he will 
think his deserts are greater4 ,this is 
the fault we have most to fear1 for it  
is the most difficult to eradicate4 ,if 
he remained in this state of mind1 he   

would have profited little by all our   
care2 and if ,i had to choose1 ,i hardly
 know whether ,i would not rather choose
 the illusions of prejudice than those  
of pride4  ,great men are under no      
illusion with respect to their          
superiority2 they see it and know it1   
but they are none the less modest4 ,the 
more they have1 the better they know    
what they lack4 ,they are less vain of  
their superiority over us than ashamed  
by the consciousness of their weakness1 
and among the good things they really   
possess1 they are too wise to pride     
themselves on a gift which is none of   
their getting4 ,the good man may be     
proud of his virtue for it is his own1  
but what cause for pride has the man of 
intellect8 ,what has ,racine done that  
he is not ,pradon1 and ,boileau that he 
is not ,cotin8  ,the circumstances with 
which we are concerned are quite        
different4 ,let us keep to the common   
level4 ,i assumed that my pupil had     
neither surpassing genius nor a         

defective understanding4 ,i chose him of
 an ordinary mind to show what education
 could do for man4 ,exceptions defy all 
rules4 ,if1 therefore1 as a result of my
 care1 ,emile prefers his way of living1
 seeing1 and feeling to that of others1 
he is right2 but if he thinks because of
 this that he is nobler and better born 
than they1 he is wrong2 he is deceiving 
himself2 he must be undeceived1 or      
rather let us prevent the mistake1 lest 
it be too late to correct it4  ,provided
 a man is not mad1 he can be cured of   
any folly but vanity2 there is no cure  
for this but experience1 if indeed there
 is any cure for it at all2 when it     
first appears we can at least prevent   
its further growth4 ,but do not on this 
account waste your breath on empty      
arguments to prove to the youth that he 
is like other men and subject to the    
same weaknesses4 ,make him feel it or he
 will never know it4 ,this is another   
instance of an exception to my own      
rules2 ,i must voluntarily expose my    

pupil to every accident which may       
convince him that he is no wiser than   
we4 ,the adventure with the conjurer    
will be repeated again and again in     
different ways2 ,i shall let flatterers 
take advantage of him2 if rash comrades 
draw him into some perilous adventure1  
,i will let him run the risk2 if he     
falls into the hands of sharpers at the 
card-table1 ,i will abandon him to them 
as their dupe4,footnote3 ,moreover our  
pupil will be little tempted by this    
snare2 he has so many amusements about  
him1 he has never been bored in his     
life1 and he scarcely knows the use of  
money4 ,as children have been led by    
these two motives1 self-interest and    
vanity1 rogues and courtesans use the   
same means to get hold of them later4   
,when you see their greediness          
encouraged by prizes and rewards1 when  
you find their public performances at   
ten years old applauded at school or    
college1 you see too how at twenty they 
will be induced to leave their purse in 

a gambling hell and their health in a   
worse place4 ,you may safely wager that 
the sharpest boy in the class will      
become the greatest gambler and         
debauchee4 ,now the means which have not
 been employed in childhood have not the
 same effect in youth4 ,but we must bear
 in mind my constant plan and take the  
thing at its worst4 ,first ,i try to    
prevent the vice2 then ,i assume its    
existence in order to correct it4 ,i    
will let them flatter him1 pluck him1   
and rob him2 and when having sucked him 
dry they turn and mock him1 ,i will even
 thank them to his face for the lessons 
they have been good enough to give him4 
,the only snares from which ,i will     
guard him with my utmost care are the   
wiles of wanton women4 ,the only        
precaution ,i shall take will be to     
share all the dangers ,i let him run1   
and all the insults ,i let him receive4 
,i will bear everything in silence1     
without a murmur or reproach1 without a 
word to him1 and be sure that if this   

wise conduct is faithfully adhered to1  
what he sees me endure on his account   
will make more impression on his heart  
than what he himself suffers4  ,i cannot
 refrain at this point from drawing     
attention to the sham dignity of tutors1
 who foolishly pretend to be wise1 who  
discourage their pupils by always       
professing to treat them as children1   
and by emphasising the difference       
between themselves and their scholars in
 everything they do4 ,far from damping  
their youthful spirits in this fashion1 
spare no effort to stimulate their      
courage2 that they may become your      
equals1 treat them as such already1 and 
if they cannot rise to your level1 do   
not scruple to come down to theirs      
without being ashamed of it4 ,remember  
that your honour is no longer in your   
own keeping but in your pupil's4 ,share 
his faults that you may correct them1   
bear his disgrace that you may wipe it  
out2 follow the example of that brave   
,roman who1 unable to rally his fleeing 

soldiers1 placed himself at their head1 
exclaiming1 ,they do not flee1 they     
follow their captain6 ,did this         
dishonour him8 ,not so2 by sacrificing  
his glory he increased it4 ,the power of
 duty1 the beauty of virtue1 compel our 
respect in spite of all our foolish     
prejudices4 ,if ,i received a blow in   
the course of my duties to ,emile1 far  
from avenging it ,i would boast of it2  
and ,i doubt whether there is in the    
whole world a man so vile as to respect 
me any the less on this account4  ,i do 
not intend the pupil to suppose his     
master to be as ignorant1 or as liable  
to be led astray1 as he is himself4     
,this idea is all very well for a child 
who can neither see nor compare things1 
who thinks everything is within his     
reach1 and only bestows his confidence  
on those who know how to come down to   
his level4 ,but a youth of ,emile's age 
and sense is no longer so foolish as to 
make this mistake1 and it would not be  
desirable that he should4 ,the          

confidence he ought to have in his tutor
 is of another kind2 it should rest on  
the authority of reason1 and on superior
 knowledge1 advantages which the young  
man is capable of appreciating while he 
perceives how useful they are to        
himself4 ,long experience has convinced 
him that his tutor loves him1 that he is
 a wise and good man who desires his    
happiness and knows how to procure it4  
,he ought to know that it is to his own 
advantage to listen to his advice4 ,but 
if the master lets himself be taken in  
like the disciple1 he will lose his     
right to expect deference from him1 and 
to give him instruction4 ,still less    
should the pupil suppose that his master
 is purposely letting him fall into     
snares or preparing pitfalls for his    
inexperience4 ,how can we avoid these   
two difficulties8 ,choose the best and  
most natural means2 be frank and        
straightforward like himself2 warn him  
of the dangers to which he is exposed1  
point them out plainly and sensibly1    

without exaggeration1 without temper1   
without pedantic display1 and above all 
without giving your opinions in the form
 of orders1 until they have become such1
 and until this imperious tone is       
absolutely necessary4 ,should he still  
be obstinate as he often will be1 leave 
him free to follow his own choice1      
follow him1 copy his example1 and that  
cheerfully and frankly2 if possible     
fling yourself into things1 amuse       
yourself as much as he does4 ,if the    
consequences become too serious1 you are
 at hand to prevent them2 and yet when  
this young man has beheld your foresight
 and your kindliness1 will he not be at 
once struck by the one and touched by   
the other8 ,all his faults are but so   
many hands with which he himself        
provides you to restrain him at need4   
,now under these circumstances the great
 art of the master consists in          
controlling events and directing his    
exhortations so that he may know        
beforehand when the youth will give in1 

and when he will refuse to do so1 so    
that all around him he may encompass him
 with the lessons of experience1 and yet
 never let him run too great a risk4    
,warn him of his faults before he       
commits them2 do not blame him when once
 they are committed2 you would only stir
 his self-love to mutiny4 ,we learn     
nothing from a lesson we detest4 ,i know
 nothing more foolish than the phrase1  
,i told you so4 ,the best way to make   
him remember what you told him is to    
seem to have forgotten it4 ,go further  
than this1 and when you find him ashamed
 of having refused to believe you1      
gently smooth away the shame with kindly
 words4 ,he will indeed hold you dear   
when he sees how you forget yourself on 
his account1 and how you console him    
instead of reproaching him4 ,but if you 
increase his annoyance by your          
reproaches he will hate you1 and will   
make it a rule never to heed you1 as if 
to show you that he does not agree with 
you as to the value of your opinion4    

,the turn you give to your consolation  
may itself be a lesson to him1 and all  
the more because he does not suspect it4
 ,when you tell him1 for example1 that  
many other people have made the same    
mistakes1 this is not what he was       
expecting2 you are administering        
correction under the guise of pity2 for 
when one thinks oneself better than     
other people it is a very mortifying    
excuse to console oneself by their      
example2 it means that we must realise  
that the most we can say is that they   
are no better than we4  ,the time of    
faults is the time for fables4 ,when we 
blame the guilty under the cover of a   
story we instruct without offending him2
 and he then understands that the story 
is not untrue by means of the truth he  
finds in its application to himself4    
,the child who has never been deceived  
by flattery understands nothing of the  
fable ,i recently examined2 but the rash
 youth who has just become the dupe of a
 flatterer perceives only too readily   

that the crow was a fool4 ,thus he      
acquires a maxim from the fact1 and the 
experience he would soon have forgotten 
is engraved on his mind by means of the 
fable4 ,there is no knowledge of morals 
which cannot be acquired through our own
 experience or that of others4 ,when    
there is danger1 instead of letting him 
try the experiment himself1 we have     
recourse to history4 ,when the risk is  
comparatively slight1 it is just as well
 that the youth should be exposed to it2
 then by means of the apologue the      
special cases with which the young man  
is now acquainted are transformed into  
maxims4  ,it is not1 however1 my        
intention that these maxims should be   
explained1 nor even formulated4 ,nothing
 is so foolish and unwise as the moral  
at the end of most of the fables2 as if 
the moral was not1 or ought not to be so
 clear in the fable itself that the     
reader cannot fail to perceive it4 ,why 
then add the moral at the end1 and go   
deprive him of the pleasure of          

discovering it for himself4 ,the art of 
teaching consists in making the pupil   
wish to learn4 ,but if the pupil is to  
wish to learn1 his mind must not remain 
in such a passive state with regard to  
what you tell him that there is really  
nothing for him to do but listen to you4
 ,the master's vanity must always give  
way to the scholars2 he must be able to 
say1 ,i understand1 ,i see it1 ,i am    
getting at it1 ,i am learning something4
  ,one of the things which makes the    
,pantaloon in the ,italian comedies so  
wearisome is the pains taken by him to  
explain to the audience the platitudes  
they understand only too well already4  
,we must always be intelligible1 but we 
need not say all there is to be said4   
,if you talk much you will say little1  
for at last no one will listen to you4  
,what is the sense of the four lines at 
the end of ,la ,fontaine's fable of the 
frog who puffed herself up4 ,is he      
afraid we should not understand it8     
,does this great painter need to write  

the names beneath the things he has     
painted8 ,his morals1 far from          
generalising1 restrict the lesson to    
some extent to the examples given1 and  
prevent our applying them to others4    
,before ,i put the fables of this       
inimitable author into the hands of a   
youth1 ,i should like to cut out all the
 conclusions with which he strives to   
explain what he has just said so clearly
 and pleasantly4 ,if your pupil does not
 understand the fable without the       
explanation1 he will not understand it  
with it4  ,moreover1 the fables would   
require to be arranged in a more        
didactic order1 one more in agreement   
with the feelings and knowledge of the  
young adolescent4 ,can you imagine      
anything so foolish as to follow the    
mere numerical order of the book without
 regard to our requirements or our      
opportunities4 ,first the grasshopper1  
then the crow1 then the frog1 then the  
two mules1 etc4 ,i am sick of these two 
mules2 ,i remember seeing a child who   

was being educated for finance2 they    
never let him alone1 but were always    
insisting on the profession he was to   
follow2 they made him read this fable1  
learn it1 say it1 repeat it again and   
again without finding in it the         
slightest argument against his future   
calling4 ,not only have ,i never found  
children make any real use of the fables
 they learn1 but ,i have never found    
anybody who took the trouble to see that
 they made such a use of them4 ,the     
study claims to be instruction in       
morals2 but the real aim of mother and  
child is nothing but to set a whole     
party watching the child while he       
recites his fables2 when he is too old  
to recite them and old enough to make   
use of them1 they are altogether        
forgotten4 ,only men1 ,i repeat1 can    
learn from fables1 and ,emile is now old
 enough to begin4  ,i do not mean to    
tell you everything1 so ,i only indicate
 the paths which diverge from the right 
way1 so that you may know how to avoid  

them4 ,if you follow the road ,i have   
marked out for you1 ,i think your pupil 
will buy his knowledge of mankind and   
his knowledge of himself in the cheapest
 market2 you will enable him to behold  
the tricks of fortune without envying   
the lot of her favourites1 and to be    
content with himself without thinking   
himself better than others4 ,you have   
begun by making him an actor that he may
 learn to be one of the audience2 you   
must continue your task1 for from the   
theatre things are what they seem1 from 
the stage they seem what they are4 ,for 
the general effect we must get a distant
 view1 for the details we must observe  
more closely4 ,but how can a young man  
take part in the business of life8 ,what
 right has he to be initiated into its  
dark secrets8 ,his interests are        
confined within the limits of his own   
pleasures1 he has no power over others1 
it is much the same as if he had no     
power at all4 ,man is the cheapest      
commodity on the market1 and among all  

our important rights of property1 the   
rights of the individual are always     
considered last of all4  ,when ,i see   
the studies of young men at the period  
of their greatest activity confined to  
purely speculative matters1 while later 
on they are suddenly plunged1 without   
any sort of experience1 into the world  
of men and affairs1 it strikes me as    
contrary alike to reason and to nature1 
and ,i cease to be surprised that so few
 men know what to do4  ,how strange a   
choice to teach us so many useless      
things1 while the art of doing is never 
touched upon6 ,they profess to fit us   
for society1 and we are taught as if    
each of us were to live a life of       
contemplation in a solitary cell1 or to 
discuss theories with persons whom they 
did not concern4 ,you think you are     
teaching your scholars how to live1 and 
you teach them certain bodily           
contortions and certain forms of words  
without meaning4 ,i1 too1 have taught   
,emile how to live2 for ,i have taught  

him to enjoy his own society and1 more  
than that1 to earn his own bread4 ,but  
this is not enough4  ,to live in the    
world he must know how to get on with   
other people1 he must know what forces  
move them1 he must calculate the action 
and re-action of self-interest in civil 
society1 he must estimate the results so
 accurately that he will rarely fail in 
his undertakings1 or he will at least   
have tried in the best possible way4    
,the law does not allow young people to 
manage their own affairs nor to dispose 
of their own property2 but what would be
 the use of these precautions if they   
never gained any experience until they  
were of age4 ,they would have gained    
nothing by the delay1 and would have no 
more experience at five-and-twenty than 
at fifteen4 ,no doubt we must take      
precautions1 so that a youth1 blinded by
 ignorance or misled by passion1 may not
 hurt himself2 but at any age there are 
opportunities when deeds of kindness and
 of care for the weak may be performed  

under the direction of a wise man1 on   
behalf of the unfortunate who need help4
  ,mothers and nurses grow fond of      
children because of the care they lavish
 on them2 the practice of social virtues
 touches the very heart with the love of
 humanity2 by doing good we become good2
 and ,i know no surer way to this end4  
,keep your pupil busy with the good     
deeds that are within his power1 let the
 cause of the poor be his own1 let him  
help them not merely with his money1 but
 with his service2 let him work for     
them1 protect them1 let his person and  
his time be at their disposal2 let him  
be their agent2 he will never all his   
life long have a more honourable office4
 ,how many of the oppressed1 who have   
never got a hearing1 will obtain justice
 when he demands it for them with that  
courage and firmness which the practice 
of virtue inspires2 when he makes his   
way into the presence of the rich and   
great1 when he goes1 if need be1 to the 
footstool of the king himself1 to plead 

the cause of the wretched1 the cause of 
those who find all doors closed to them 
by their poverty1 those who are so      
afraid of being punished for their      
misfortunes that they do not dare to    
complain8  ,but shall we make of ,emile 
a knight-errant1 a redresser of wrongs1 
a paladin8 ,shall he thrust himself into
 public life1 play the sage and the     
defender of the laws before the great1  
before the magistrates1 before the king8
 ,shall he lay petitions before the     
judges and plead in the law courts8     
,that ,i cannot say4 ,the nature of     
things is not changed by terms of       
mockery and scorn4 ,he will do all that 
he knows to be useful and good4 ,he will
 do nothing more1 and he knows that     
nothing is useful and good for him which
 is unbefitting his age4 ,he knows that 
his first duty is to himself2 that young
 men should distrust themselves2 that   
they should act circumspectly2 that they
 should show respect to those older than
 themselves1 reticence and discretion in

 talking without cause1 modesty in      
things indifferent1 but courage in well 
doing1 and boldness to speak the truth4 
,such were those illustrious ,romans    
who1 having been admitted into public   
life1 spent their days in bringing      
criminals to justice and in protecting  
the innocent1 without any motives beyond
 those of learning1 and of the          
furtherance of justice and of the       
protection of right conduct4  ,emile is 
not fond of noise or quarrelling1 not   
only among men1 but among animals4      
,footnote3 ,but what will he do if any  
one seeks a quarrel with him8 ,my answer
 is that no one will ever quarrel with  
him1 he will never lend himself to such 
a thing4 ,but1 indeed1 you continue1 who
 can be safe from a blow1 or an insult  
from a bully1 a drunkard1 a bravo1 who  
for the joy of killing his man begins by
 dishonouring him8 ,that is another     
matter4 ,the life and honour of the     
citizens should not be at the mercy of a
 bully1 a drunkard1 or a bravo1 and one 

can no more insure oneself against such 
an accident than against a falling tile4
 ,a blow given1 or a lie in the teeth1  
if he submit to them1 have social       
consequences which no wisdom can prevent
 and no tribunal can avenge4 ,the       
weakness of the laws1 therefore1 so far 
restores a man's independence2 he is the
 sole magistrate and judge between the  
offender and himself1 the sole          
interpreter and administrator of natural
 law4 ,justice is his due1 and he alone 
can obtain it1 and in such a case there 
is no government on earth so foolish as 
to punish him for so doing4 ,i do not   
say he must fight2 that is absurd2 ,i   
say justice is his due1 and he alone can
 dispense it4 ,if ,i were king1 ,i      
promise you that in my kingdom no one   
would ever strike a man or call him a   
liar1 and yet ,i would do without all   
those useless laws against duels2 the   
means are simple and require no law     
courts4 ,however that may be1 ,emile    
knows what is due to himself in such a  

case1 and the example due from him to   
the safety of men of honour4 ,the       
strongest of men cannot prevent insult1 
but he can take good care that his      
adversary has no opportunity to boast of
 that insult4 ,he will never set two    
dogs to fight1 he will never set a dog  
to chase a cat4 ,this peaceful spirit is
 one of the results of his education1   
which has never stimulated self-love or 
a high opinion of himself1 and so has   
not encouraged him to seek his pleasure 
in domination and in the sufferings of  
others4 ,the sight of suffering makes   
him suffer too2 this is a natural       
feeling4 ,it is one of the after effects
 of vanity that hardens a young man and 
makes him take a delight in seeing the  
torments of a living and feeling        
creature2 it makes him consider himself 
beyond the reach of similar sufferings  
through his superior wisdom or virtue4  
,he who is beyond the reach of vanity   
cannot fall into the vice which results 
from vanity4 ,so ,emile loves peace4 ,he

 is delighted at the sight of happiness1
 and if he can help to bring it about1  
this is an additional reason for sharing
 it4 ,i do not assume that when he sees 
the unhappy he will merely feel for them
 that barren and cruel pity which is    
content to pity the ills it can heal4   
,his kindness is active and teaches him 
much he would have learnt far more      
slowly1 or he would never have learnt at
 all1 if his heart had been harder4 ,if 
he finds his comrades at strife1 he     
tries to reconcile them2 if he sees the 
afflicted1 he inquires as to the cause  
of their sufferings2 if he meets two men
 who hate each other1 he wants to know  
the reason of their enmity2 if he finds 
one who is down-trodden groaning under  
the oppression of the rich and powerful1
 he tries to discover by what means he  
can counteract this oppression1 and in  
the interest he takes with regard to all
 these unhappy persons1 the means of    
removing their sufferings are never out 
of his sight4 ,what use shall we make of

 this disposition so that it may re-act 
in a way suited to his age8 ,let us     
direct his efforts and his knowledge1   
and use his zeal to increase them4  ,i  
am never weary of repeating3 let all the
 lessons of young people take the form  
of doing rather than talking2 let them  
learn nothing from books which they can 
learn from experience4 ,how absurd to   
attempt to give them practice in        
speaking when they have nothing to say1 
to expect to make them feel1 at their   
school desks1 the vigour of the language
 of passion and all the force of the    
arts of persuasion when they have       
nothing and nobody to persuade6 ,all the
 rules of rhetoric are mere waste of    
words to those who do not know how to   
use them for their own purposes4 ,how   
does it concern a schoolboy to know how 
,hannibal encouraged his soldiers to    
cross the ,alps8 ,if instead of these   
grand speeches you showed him how to    
induce his prefect to give him a        
holiday1 you may be sure he would pay   

more attention to your rules4  ,if ,i   
wanted to teach rhetoric to a youth     
whose passions were as yet undeveloped1 
,i would draw his attention continually 
to things that would stir his passions1 
and ,i would discuss with him how he    
should talk to people so as to get them 
to regard his wishes favourably4  ,but  
,emile is not in a condition so         
favourable to the art of oratory4       
,concerned mainly with his physical     
well-being1 he has less need of others  
than they of him2 and having nothing to 
ask of others on his own account1 what  
he wants to persuade them to do does not
 affect him sufficiently to awake any   
very strong feeling4 ,from this it      
follows that his language will be on the
 whole simple and literal4  ,he usually 
speaks to the point and only to make    
himself understood4  ,he is not         
sententious1 for he has not learnt to   
generalise2 he does not speak in        
figures1 for he is rarely impassioned4  
,yet this is not because he is          

altogether cold and phlegmatic1 neither 
his age1 his character1 nor his tastes  
permit of this4 ,in the fire of         
adolescence the life-giving spirits1    
retained in the blood and distilled     
again and again1 inspire his young heart
 with a warmth which glows in his eye1 a
 warmth which is felt in his words and  
perceived in his actions4 ,the lofty    
feeling with which he is inspired gives 
him strength and nobility2 imbued with  
tender love for mankind his words betray
 the thoughts of his heart2 ,i know not 
how it is1 but there is more charm in   
his open-hearted generosity than in the 
artificial eloquence of others2 or      
rather this eloquence of his is the only
 true eloquence1 for he has only to show
 what he feels to make others share his 
feelings4  ,the more ,i think of it the 
more convinced ,i am that by thus       
translating our kindly impulses into    
action1 by drawing from our good or ill 
success conclusions as to their cause1  
we shall find that there is little      

useful knowledge that cannot be imparted
 to a youth2 and that together with such
 true learning as may be got at college 
he will learn a science of more         
importance than all the rest together1  
the application of what he has learned  
to the purposes of life4 ,taking such an
 interest in his fellow-creatures1 it is
 impossible that he should fail to learn
 very quickly how to note and weigh     
their actions1 their tastes1 their      
pleasures1 and to estimate generally at 
their true value what may increase or   
diminish the happiness of men2 he should
 do this better than those who care for 
nobody and never do anything for any    
one4 ,the feelings of those who are     
always occupied with their own concerns 
are too keenly affected for them to     
judge wisely of things4 ,they consider  
everything as it affects themselves1    
they form their ideas of good and ill   
solely on their own experience1 their   
minds are filled with all sorts of      
absurd prejudices1 and anything which   

affects their own advantage ever so     
little1 seems an upheaval of the        
universe4  ,extend self-love to others  
and it is transformed into virtue1 a    
virtue which has its root in the heart  
of every one of us4 ,the less the object
 of our care is directly dependent on   
ourselves1 the less we have to fear from
 the illusion of self-interest2 the more
 general this interest becomes1 the     
juster it is2 and the love of the human 
race is nothing but the love of justice 
within us4 ,if therefore we desire      
,emile to be a lover of truth1 if we    
desire that he should indeed perceive   
it1 let us keep him far from            
self-interest in all his business4 ,the 
more care he bestows upon the happiness 
of others the wiser and better he is1   
and the fewer mistakes he will make     
between good and evil2 but never allow  
him any blind preference founded merely 
on personal predilection or unfair      
prejudice4 ,why should he harm one      
person to serve another8 ,what does it  

matter to him who has the greater share 
of happiness1 providing he promotes the 
happiness of all8 ,apart from           
self-interest this care for the general 
well-being is the first concern of the  
wise man1 for each of us forms part of  
the human race and not part of any      
individual member of that race4  ,to    
prevent pity degenerating into weakness 
we must generalise it and extend it to  
mankind4 ,then we only yield to it when 
it is in accordance with justice1 since 
justice is of all the virtues that which
 contributes most to the common good4   
,reason and self-love compel us to love 
mankind even more than our neighbour1   
and to pity the wicked is to be very    
cruel to other men4  ,moreover1 you must
 bear in mind that all these means      
employed to project my pupil beyond     
himself have also a distinct relation to
 himself2 since they not only cause him 
inward delight1 but ,i am also          
endeavouring to instruct him1 while ,i  
am making him kindly disposed towards   

others4  ,first ,i showed the means     
employed1 now ,i will show the result4  
,what wide prospects do ,i perceive     
unfolding themselves before his mind6   
,what noble feelings stifle the lesser  
passions in his heart6 ,what clearness  
of judgment1 what accuracy in reasoning1
 do ,i see developing from the          
inclinations we have cultivated1 from   
the experience which concentrates the   
desires of a great heart within the     
narrow bounds of possibility1 so that a 
man superior to others can come down to 
their level if he cannot raise them to  
his own6  ,true principles of justice1  
true types of beauty1 all moral         
relations between man and man1 all ideas
 of order1 these are engraved on his    
understanding2 he sees the right place  
for everything and the causes which     
drive it from that place2 he sees what  
may do good1 and what hinders it4       
,without having felt the passions of    
mankind1 he knows the illusions they    
produce and their mode of action4  ,i   

proceed along the path which the force  
of circumstances compels me to tread1   
but ,i do not insist that my readers    
shall follow me4 ,long ago they have    
made up their minds that ,i am wandering
 in the land of chimeras1 while for my  
part ,i think they are dwelling in the  
country of prejudice4 ,when ,i wander so
 far from popular beliefs ,i do not     
cease to bear them in mind2 ,i examine  
them1 ,i consider them1 not that ,i may 
follow them or shun them1 but that ,i   
may weigh them in the balance of reason4
 ,whenever reason compels me to abandon 
these popular beliefs1 ,i know by       
experience that my readers will not     
follow my example2 ,i know that they    
will persist in refusing to go beyond   
what they can see1 and that they will   
take the youth ,i am describing for the 
creation of my fanciful imagination1    
merely because he is unlike the youths  
with whom they compare him2 they forget 
that he must needs be different1 because
 he has been brought up in a totally    

different fashion2 he has been          
influenced by wholly different feelings1
 instructed in a wholly different       
manner1 so that it would be far stranger
 if he were like your pupils than if he 
were what ,i have supposed4 ,he is a man
 of nature's making1 not man's4 ,no     
wonder men find him strange4  ,when ,i  
began this work ,i took for granted     
nothing but what could be observed as   
readily by others as by myself2 for our 
starting-point1 the birth of man1 is the
 same for all2 but the further we go1   
while ,i am seeking to cultivate nature 
and you are seeking to deprave it1 the  
further apart we find ourselves4 ,at six
 years old my pupil was not so very     
unlike yours1 whom you had not yet had  
time to disfigure2 now there is nothing 
in common between them2 and when they   
reach the age of manhood1 which is now  
approaching1 they will show themselves  
utterly different from each other1      
unless all my pains have been thrown    
away4 ,there may not be so very great a 

difference in the amount of knowledge   
they possess1 but there is all the      
difference in the world in the kind of  
knowledge4 ,you are amazed to find that 
the one has noble sentiments of which   
the others have not the smallest germ1  
but remember that the latter are already
 philosophers and theologians while     
,emile does not even know what is meant 
by a philosopher and has scarcely heard 
the name of ,god4  ,but if you come and 
tell me1 ,there are no such young men1  
young people are not made that way2 they
 have this passion or that1 they do this
 or that1 it is as if you denied that a 
pear tree could ever be a tall tree     
because the pear trees in our gardens   
are all dwarfs4  ,i beg these critics   
who are so ready with their blame to    
consider that ,i am as well acquainted  
as they are with everything they say1   
that ,i have probably given more thought
 to it1 and that1 as ,i have no private 
end to serve in getting them to agree   
with me1 ,i have a right to demand that 

they should at least take time to find  
out where ,i am mistaken4 ,let them     
thoroughly examine the nature of man1   
let them follow the earliest growth of  
the heart in any given circumstances1 so
 as to see what a difference education  
may make in the individual2 then let    
them compare my method of education with
 the results ,i ascribe to it2 and let  
them tell me where my reasoning is      
unsound1 and ,i shall have no answer to 
give them4  ,it is this that makes me   
speak so strongly1 and as ,i think with 
good excuse3 ,i have not pledged myself 
to any system1 ,i depend as little as   
possible on arguments1 and ,i trust to  
what ,i myself have observed4 ,i do not 
base my ideas on what ,i have imagined1 
but on what ,i have seen4 ,it is true   
that ,i have not confined my            
observations within the walls of any one
 town1 nor to a single class of people2 
but having compared men of every class  
and every nation which ,i have been able
 to observe in the course of a life     

spent in this pursuit1 ,i have discarded
 as artificial what belonged to one     
nation and not to another1 to one rank  
and not to another2 and ,i have regarded
 as proper to mankind what was common to
 all1 at any age1 in any station1 and in
 any nation whatsoever4  ,now if in     
accordance with this method you follow  
from infancy the course of a youth who  
has not been shaped to any special      
mould1 one who depends as little as     
possible on authority and the opinions  
of others1 which will he most resemble1 
my pupil or yours8 ,it seems to me that 
this is the question you must answer if 
you would know if ,i am mistaken4  ,it  
is not easy for a man to begin to think2
 but when once he has begun he will     
never leave off4 ,once a thinker1 always
 a thinker1 and the understanding once  
practised in reflection will never rest4
 ,you may therefore think that ,i do too
 much or too little2 that the human mind
 is not by nature so quick to unfold2   
and that after having given it          

opportunities it has not got1 ,i keep it
 too long confined within a circle of   
ideas which it ought to have outgrown4  
,but remember1 in the first place1 that 
when ,i want to train a natural man1 ,i 
do not want to make him a savage and to 
send him back to the woods1 but that    
living in the whirl of social life it is
 enough that he should not let himself  
be carried away by the passions and     
prejudices of men2 let him see with his 
eyes and feel with his heart1 let him   
own no sway but that of reason4 ,under  
these conditions it is plain that many  
things will strike him2 the             
oft-recurring feelings which affect him1
 the different ways of satisfying his   
real needs1 must give him many ideas he 
would not otherwise have acquired or    
would only have acquired much later4    
,the natural progress of the mind is    
quickened but not reversed4 ,the same   
man who would remain stupid in the      
forests should become wise and          
reasonable in towns1 if he were merely a

 spectator in them4 ,nothing is better  
fitted to make one wise than the sight  
of follies we do not share1 and even if 
we share them1 we still learn1 provided 
we are not the dupe of our follies and  
provided we do not bring to them the    
same mistakes as the others4  ,consider 
also that while our faculties are       
confined to the things of sense1 we     
offer scarcely any hold to the          
abstractions of philosophy or to purely 
intellectual ideas4 ,to attain to these 
we require either to free ourselves from
 the body to which we are so strongly   
bound1 or to proceed step by step in a  
slow and gradual course1 or else to leap
 across the intervening space with a    
gigantic bound of which no child is     
capable1 one for which grown men even   
require many steps hewn on purpose for  
them2 but ,i find it very difficult to  
see how you propose to construct such   
steps4  ,the ,incomprehensible embraces 
all1 he gives its motion to the earth1  
and shapes the system of all creatures1 

but our eyes cannot see him nor can our 
hands search him out1 he evades the     
efforts of our senses2 we behold the    
work1 but the workman is hidden from our
 eyes4  ,it is no small matter to know  
that he exists1 and when we have got so 
far1 and when we ask4 ,what is he8      
,where is he8 our mind is overwhelmed1  
we lose ourselves1 we know not what to  
think4  ,locke would have us begin with 
the study of spirits and go on to that  
of bodies4 ,this is the method of       
superstition1 prejudice1 and error2 it  
is not the method of nature1 nor even   
that of well-ordered reason2 it is to   
learn to see by shutting our eyes4 ,we  
must have studied bodies long enough    
before we can form any true idea of     
spirits1 or even suspect that there are 
such beings4 ,the contrary practice     
merely puts materialism on a firmer     
footing4  ,since our senses are the     
first instruments to our learning1      
corporeal and sensible bodies are the   
only bodies we directly apprehend4 ,the 

word spirit has no meaning for any one  
who has not philosophised4 ,to the      
unlearned and to the child a spirit is  
merely a body4 ,do they not fancy that  
spirits groan1 speak1 fight1 and make   
noises8 ,now you must own that spirits  
with arms and voices are very like      
bodies4 ,this is why every nation on the
 face of the earth1 not even excepting  
the ,jews1 have made to themselves      
idols4 ,we1 ourselves1 with our words1  
,spirit1 ,trinity1 ,persons1 are for the
 most part quite anthropomorphic4 ,i    
admit that we are taught that ,god is   
everywhere2 but we also believe that    
there is air everywhere1 at least in our
 atmosphere2 and the word ,spirit meant 
originally nothing more than breath and 
wind4 ,once you teach people to say what
 they do not understand1 it is easy     
enough to get them to say anything you  
like4  ,the perception of our action    
upon other bodies must have first       
induced us to suppose that their action 
upon us was effected in like manner4    

,thus man began by thinking that all    
things whose action affected him were   
alive4 ,he did not recognise the limits 
of their powers1 and he therefore       
supposed that they were boundless2 as   
soon as he had supplied them with bodies
 they became his gods4 ,in the earliest 
times men went in terror of everything  
and everything in nature seemed alive4  
,the idea of matter was developed as    
slowly as that of spirit1 for the former
 is itself an abstraction4  ,thus the   
universe was peopled with gods like     
themselves4 ,the stars1 the winds and   
the mountains1 rivers1 trees1 and towns1
 their very dwellings1 each had its     
soul1 its god1 its life4 ,the teraphim  
of ,laban1 the manitos of savages1 the  
fetishes of the negroes1 every work of  
nature and of man1 were the first gods  
of mortals2 polytheism was their first  
religion and idolatry their earliest    
form of worship4 ,the idea of one ,god  
was beyond their grasp1 till little by  
little they formed general ideas1 and   

they rose to the idea of a first cause  
and gave meaning to the word substance1 
which is at bottom the greatest of      
abstractions4 ,so every child who       
believes in ,god is of necessity an     
idolater or at least he regards the     
,deity as a man1 and when once the      
imagination has perceived ,god1 it is   
very seldom that the understanding      
conceives him4 ,locke's order leads us  
into this same mistake4  ,having        
arrived1 ,i know not how1 at the idea of
 substance1 it is clear that to allow of
 a single substance it must be assumed  
that this substance is endowed with     
incompatible and mutually exclusive     
properties1 such as thought and size1   
one of which is by its nature divisible 
and the other wholly incapable of       
division4 ,moreover it is assumed that  
thought or1 if you prefer it1 feeling is
 a primitive quality inseparable from   
the substance to which it belongs1 that 
its relation to the substance is like   
the relation between substance and size4

 ,hence it is inferred that beings who  
lose one of these attributes lose the   
substance to which it belongs1 and that 
death is1 therefore1 but a separation of
 substances1 and that those beings in   
whom the two attributes are found are   
composed of the two substances to which 
those two qualities belong4  ,but       
consider what a gulf there still is     
between the idea of two substances and  
that of the divine nature1 between the  
incomprehensible idea of the influence  
of our soul upon our body and the idea  
of the influence of ,god upon every     
living creature4 ,the ideas of creation1
 destruction1 ubiquity1 eternity1       
almighty power1 those of the divine     
attributes--these are all ideas so      
confused and obscure that few men       
succeed in grasping them2 yet there is  
nothing obscure about them to the common
 people1 because they do not understand 
them in the least2 how then should they 
present themselves in full force1 that  
is to say in all their obscurity1 to the

 young mind which is still occupied with
 the first working of the senses1 and   
fails to realise anything but what it   
handles8 ,in vain do the abysses of the 
,infinite open around us1 a child does  
not know the meaning of fear2 his weak  
eyes cannot gauge their depths4 ,to     
children everything is infinite1 they   
cannot assign limits to anything2 not   
that their measure is so large1 but     
because their understanding is so small4
 ,i have even noticed that they place   
the infinite rather below than above the
 dimensions known to them4 ,they judge a
 distance to be immense rather by their 
feet than by their eyes2 infinity is    
bounded for them1 not so much by what   
they can see1 but how far they can go4  
,if you talk to them of the power of    
,god1 they will think he is nearly as   
strong as their father4 ,as their own   
knowledge is in everything the standard 
by which they judge of what is possible1
 they always picture what is described  
to them as rather smaller than what they

 know4 ,such are the natural reasonings 
of an ignorant and feeble mind4 ,ajax   
was afraid to measure his strength      
against ,achilles1 yet he challenged    
,jupiter to combat1 for he knew         
,achilles and did not know ,jupiter4 ,a 
,swiss peasant thought himself the      
richest man alive2 when they tried to   
explain to him what a king was1 he asked
 with pride1 ,has the king got a hundred
 cows on the high pastures8  ,i am aware
 that many of my readers will be        
surprised to find me tracing the course 
of my scholar through his early years   
without speaking to him of religion4 ,at
 fifteen he will not even know that he  
has a soul1 at eighteen even he may not 
be ready to learn about it4 ,for if he  
learns about it too soon1 there is the  
risk of his never really knowing        
anything about it4  ,if ,i had to depict
 the most heart-breaking stupidity1 ,i  
would paint a pedant teaching children  
the catechism2 if ,i wanted to drive a  
child crazy ,i would set him to explain 

what he learned in his catechism4 ,you  
will reply that as most of the          
,christian doctrines are mysteries1 you 
must wait1 not merely till the child is 
a man1 but till the man is dead1 before 
the human mind will understand those    
doctrines4 ,to that ,i reply1 that there
 are mysteries which the heart of man   
can neither conceive nor believe1 and ,i
 see no use in teaching them to         
children1 unless you want to make liars 
of them4  ,moreover1 ,i assert that to  
admit that there are mysteries1 you must
 at least realise that they are         
incomprehensible1 and children are not  
even capable of this conception6 ,at an 
age when everything is mysterious1 there
 are no mysteries properly so-called4   
,we must believe in ,god if we would be 
saved4 ,this doctrine wrongly understood
 is the root of bloodthirsty intolerance
 and the cause of all the futile        
teaching which strikes a deadly blow at 
human reason by training it to cheat    
itself with mere words4 ,no doubt there 

is not a moment to be lost if we would  
deserve eternal salvation2 but if the   
repetition of certain words suffices to 
obtain it1 ,i do not see why we should  
not people heaven with starlings and    
magpies as well as with children4  ,the 
obligation of faith assumes the         
possibility of belief4 ,the philosopher 
who does not believe is wrong1 for he   
misuses the reason he has cultivated1   
and he is able to understand the truths 
he rejects4 ,but the child who professes
 the ,christian faith--what does he     
believe8 ,just what he understands2 and 
he understands so little of what he is  
made to repeat that if you tell him to  
say just the opposite he will be quite  
ready to do it4 ,the faith of children  
and the faith of many men is a matter of
 geography4 ,will they be rewarded for  
having been born in ,rome rather than in
 ,mecca8 ,one is told that ,mahomet is  
the prophet of ,god and he says1        
,mahomet is the prophet of ,god4 ,the   
other is told that ,mahomet is a rogue  

and he says1 ,mahomet is a rogue4       
,either of them would have said just the
 opposite had he stood in the other's   
shoes4 ,when they are so much alike to  
begin with1 can the one be consigned to 
,paradise and the other to ,hell8 ,when 
a child says he believes in ,god1 it is 
not ,god he believes in1 but ,peter or  
,james who told him that there is       
something called ,god1 and he believes  
it after the fashion of ,euripides--  ,o
 ,jupiter1 of whom ,i know nothing but  
thy name4  ,footnote3 ,plutarch4 ,it is 
thus that the tragedy of ,menalippus    
originally began1 but the clamour of the
 ,athenians compelled ,euripides to     
change these opening lines4  ,we hold   
that no child who dies before the age of
 reason will be deprived of everlasting 
happiness2 the ,catholics believe the   
same of all children who have been      
baptised1 even though they have never   
heard of ,god4 ,there are1 therefore1   
circumstances in which one can be saved 
without belief in ,god1 and these       

circumstances occur in the case of      
children or madmen when the human mind  
is incapable of the operations necessary
 to perceive the ,godhead4 ,the only    
difference ,i see between you and me is 
that you profess that children of seven 
years old are able to do this and ,i do 
not think them ready for it at fifteen4 
,whether ,i am right or wrong depends1  
not on an article of the creed1 but on a
 simple observation in natural history4 
,from the same principle it is plain    
that any man having reached old age     
without faith in ,god will not1         
therefore1 be deprived of ,god's        
presence in another life if his         
blindness was not wilful2 and ,i        
maintain that it is not always wilful4  
,you admit that it is so in the case of 
lunatics deprived by disease of their   
spiritual faculties1 but not of their   
manhood1 and therefore still entitled to
 the goodness of their ,creator4 ,why   
then should we not admit it in the case 
of those brought up from infancy in     

seclusion1 those who have led the life  
of a savage and are without the         
knowledge that comes from intercourse   
with other men4 ,footnote3 ,for the     
natural condition of the human mind and 
its slow development1 cf4 the first part
 of the ,discours sur ,inegalite4 ,for  
it is clearly impossible that such a    
savage could ever raise his thoughts to 
the knowledge of the true ,god4 ,reason 
tells that man should only be punished  
for his wilful faults1 and that         
invincible ignorance can never be       
imputed to him as a crime4 ,hence it    
follows that in the sight of the        
,eternal ,justice every man who would   
believe if he had the necessary         
knowledge is counted a believer1 and    
that there will be no unbelievers to be 
punished except those who have closed   
their hearts against the truth4  ,let us
 beware of proclaiming the truth to     
those who cannot as yet comprehend it1  
for to do so is to try to inculcate     
error4 ,it would be better to have no   

idea at all of the ,divinity than to    
have mean1 grotesque1 harmful1 and      
unworthy ideas2 to fail to perceive the 
,divine is a lesser evil than to insult 
it4 ,the worthy ,plutarch says1 ,i would
 rather men said1 ',there is no such    
person as ,plutarch1' than that they    
should say1 ',plutarch is unjust1       
envious1 jealous1 and such a tyrant that
 he demands more than can be performed4'
  ,the chief harm which results from the
 monstrous ideas of ,god which are      
instilled into the minds of children is 
that they last all their life long1 and 
as men they understand no more of ,god  
than they did as children4 ,in          
,switzerland ,i once saw a good and     
pious mother who was so convinced of the
 truth of this maxim that she refused to
 teach her son religion when he was a   
little child for fear lest he should be 
satisfied with this crude teaching and  
neglect a better teaching when he       
reached the age of reason4 ,this child  
never heard the name of ,god pronounced 

except with reverence and devotion1 and 
as soon as he attempted to say the word 
he was told to hold his tongue1 as if   
the subject were too sublime and great  
for him4 ,this reticence aroused his    
curiosity and his self-love2 he looked  
forward to the time when he would know  
this mystery so carefully hidden from   
him4 ,the less they spoke of ,god to    
him1 the less he was himself permitted  
to speak of ,god1 the more he thought   
about ,him2 this child beheld ,god      
everywhere4 ,what ,i should most dread  
as the result of this unwise affectation
 of mystery is this3 by over-stimulating
 the youth's imagination you may turn   
his head1 and make him at the best a    
fanatic rather than a believer4  ,but we
 need fear nothing of the sort for      
,emile1 who always declines to pay      
attention to what is beyond his reach1  
and listens with profound indifference  
to things he does not understand4 ,there
 are so many things of which he is      
accustomed to say1 ,that is no concern  

of mine1 that one more or less makes    
little difference to him2 and when he   
does begin to perplex himself with these
 great matters1 it is because the       
natural growth of his knowledge is      
turning his thoughts that way4  ,we have
 seen the road by which the cultivated  
human mind approaches these mysteries1  
and ,i am ready to admit that it would  
not attain to them naturally1 even in   
the bosom of society1 till a much later 
age4  ,but as there are in this same    
society inevitable causes which hasten  
the development of the passions1 if we  
did not also hasten the development of  
the knowledge which controls these      
passions we should indeed depart from   
the path of nature and disturb her      
equilibrium4  ,when we can no longer    
restrain a precocious development in one
 direction we must promote a            
corresponding development in another    
direction1 so that the order of nature  
may not be inverted1 and so that things 
should progress together1 not           

separately1 so that the man1 complete at
 every moment of his life1 may never    
find himself at one stage in one of his 
faculties and at another stage in       
another faculty4  ,what a difficulty do 
,i see before me6 ,a difficulty all the 
greater because it depends less on      
actual facts than on the cowardice of   
those who dare not look the difficulty  
in the face4 ,let us at least venture to
 state our problem4 ,a child should     
always be brought up in his father's    
religion2 he is always given plain      
proofs that this religion1 whatever it  
may be1 is the only true religion1 that 
all others are ridiculous and absurd4   
,the force of the argument depends      
entirely on the country in which it is  
put forward4 ,let a ,turk1 who thinks   
,christianity so absurd at              
,constantinople1 come to ,paris and see 
what they think of ,mahomet4 ,it is in  
matters of religion more than in        
anything else that prejudice is         
triumphant4 ,but when we who profess to 

shake off its yoke entirely1 we who     
refuse to yield any homage to authority1
 decline to teach ,emile anything which 
he could not learn for himself in any   
country1 what religion shall we give    
him1 to what sect shall this child of   
nature belong8 ,the answer strikes me as
 quite easy4 ,we will not attach him to 
any sect1 but we will give him the means
 to choose for himself according to the 
right use of his own reason4            
,incedo per ignes      ,suppositos      
cineri doloso4--,horace1 lib4 ii4 ode   
,i4  ,no matter6 ,thus far zeal and     
prudence have taken the place of        
caution4 ,i hope that these guardians   
will not fail me now4 ,reader1 do not   
fear lest ,i should take precautions    
unworthy of a lover of truth2 ,i shall  
never forget my motto1 but ,i distrust  
my own judgment all too easily4 ,instead
 of telling you what ,i think myself1 ,i
 will tell you the thoughts of one whose
 opinions carry more weight than mine4  
,i guarantee the truth of the facts ,i  

am about to relate2 they actually       
happened to the author whose writings ,i
 am about to transcribe2 it is for you  
to judge whether we can draw from them  
any considerations bearing on the matter
 in hand4 ,i do not offer you my own    
idea or another's as your rule2 ,i      
merely present them for your            
examination4  ,thirty years ago there   
was a young man in an ,italian town2 he 
was an exile from his native land and   
found himself reduced to the depths of  
poverty4 ,he had been born a ,calvinist1
 but the consequences of his own folly  
had made him a fugitive in a strange    
land2 he had no money and he changed his
 religion for a morsel of bread4 ,there 
was a hostel for proselytes in that town
 to which he gained admission4 ,the     
study of controversy inspired doubts he 
had never felt before1 and he made      
acquaintance with evil hitherto         
unsuspected by him2 he heard strange    
doctrines and he met with morals still  
stranger to him2 he beheld this evil    

conduct and nearly fell a victim to it4 
,he longed to escape1 but he was locked 
up2 he complained1 but his complaints   
were unheeded2 at the mercy of his      
tyrants1 he found himself treated as a  
criminal because he would not share     
their crimes4 ,the anger kindled in a   
young and untried heart by the first    
experience of violence and injustice may
 be realised by those who have          
themselves experienced it4 ,tears of    
anger flowed from his eyes1 he was wild 
with rage2 he prayed to heaven and to   
man1 and his prayers were unheard2 he   
spoke to every one and no one listened  
to him4 ,he saw no one but the vilest   
servants under the control of the wretch
 who insulted him1 or accomplices in the
 same crime who laughed at his          
resistance and encouraged him to follow 
their example4 ,he would have been      
ruined had not a worthy priest visited  
the hostel on some matter of business4  
,he found an opportunity of consulting  
him secretly4 ,the priest was poor and  

in need of help himself1 but the victim 
had more need of his assistance1 and he 
did not hesitate to help him to escape  
at the risk of making a dangerous enemy4
  ,having escaped from vice to return to
 poverty1 the young man struggled vainly
 against fate3 for a moment he thought  
he had gained the victory4 ,at the first
 gleam of good fortune his woes and his 
protector were alike forgotten4 ,he was 
soon punished for this ingratitude2 all 
his hopes vanished2 youth indeed was on 
his side1 but his romantic ideas spoiled
 everything4 ,he had neither talent nor 
skill to make his way easily1 he could  
neither be commonplace nor wicked1 he   
expected so much that he got nothing4   
,when he had sunk to his former poverty1
 when he was without food or shelter and
 ready to die of hunger1 he remembered  
his benefactor4  ,he went back to him1  
found him1 and was kindly welcomed2 the 
sight of him reminded the priest of a   
good deed he had done2 such a memory    
always rejoices the heart4 ,this man was

 by nature humane and pitiful2 he felt  
the sufferings of others through his    
own1 and his heart had not been hardened
 by prosperity2 in a word1 the lessons  
of wisdom and an enlightened virtue had 
reinforced his natural kindness of      
heart4 ,he welcomed the young man1 found
 him a lodging1 and recommended him2 he 
shared with him his living which was    
barely enough for two4 ,he did more1 he 
instructed him1 consoled him1 and taught
 him the difficult art of bearing       
adversity in patience4 ,you prejudiced  
people1 would you have expected to find 
all this in a priest and in ,italy8     
,this worthy priest was a poor ,savoyard
 clergyman who had offended his bishop  
by some youthful fault2 he had crossed  
the ,alps to find a position which he   
could not obtain in his own country4 ,he
 lacked neither wit nor learning1 and   
with his interesting countenance he had 
met with patrons who found him a place  
in the household of one of the          
ministers1 as tutor to his son4 ,he     

preferred poverty to dependence1 and he 
did not know how to get on with the     
great4 ,he did not stay long with this  
minister1 and when he departed he took  
with him his good opinion2 and as he    
lived a good life and gained the hearts 
of everybody1 he was glad to be forgiven
 by his bishop and to obtain from him a 
small parish among the mountains1 where 
he might pass the rest of his life4     
,this was the limit of his ambition4    
,he was attracted by the young fugitive 
and he questioned him closely4 ,he saw  
that ill-fortune had already seared his 
heart1 that scorn and disgrace had      
overthrown his courage1 and that his    
pride1 transformed into bitterness and  
spite1 led him to see nothing in the    
harshness and injustice of men but their
 evil disposition and the vanity of all 
virtue4 ,he had seen that religion was  
but a mask for selfishness1 and its holy
 services but a screen for hypocrisy2 he
 had found in the subtleties of empty   
disputations heaven and hell awarded as 

prizes for mere words2 he had seen the  
sublime and primitive idea of ,divinity 
disfigured by the vain fancies of men2  
and when1 as he thought1 faith in ,god  
required him to renounce the reason ,god
 himself had given him1 he held in equal
 scorn our foolish imaginings and the   
object with which they are concerned4   
,with no knowledge of things as they    
are1 without any idea of their origins1 
he was immersed in his stubborn         
ignorance and utterly despised those who
 thought they knew more than himself4   
,the neglect of all religion soon leads 
to the neglect of a man's duties4 ,the  
heart of this young libertine was       
already far on this road4 ,yet his was  
not a bad nature1 though incredulity and
 misery were gradually stifling his     
natural disposition and dragging him    
down to ruin2 they were leading him into
 the conduct of a rascal and the morals 
of an atheist4  ,the almost inevitable  
evil was not actually consummated4 ,the 
young man was not ignorant1 his         

education had not been neglected4 ,he   
was at that happy age when the pulse    
beats strongly and the heart is warm1   
but is not yet enslaved by the madness  
of the senses4 ,his heart had not lost  
its elasticity4 ,a native modesty1 a    
timid disposition restrained him1 and   
prolonged for him that period during    
which you watch your pupil so carefully4
 ,the hateful example of brutal         
depravity1 of vice without any charm1   
had not merely failed to quicken his    
imagination1 it had deadened it4 ,for a 
long time disgust rather than virtue    
preserved his innocence1 which would    
only succumb to more seductive charms4  
,the priest saw the danger and the way  
of escape4 ,he was not discouraged by   
difficulties1 he took a pleasure in his 
task2 he determined to complete it and  
to restore to virtue the victim he had  
snatched from vice4 ,he set about it    
cautiously2 the beauty of the motive    
gave him courage and inspired him with  
means worthy of his zeal4 ,whatever     

might be the result1 his pains would not
 be wasted4  ,we are always successful  
when our sole aim is to do good4  ,he   
began to win the confidence of the      
proselyte by not asking any price for   
his kindness1 by not intruding himself  
upon him1 by not preaching at him1 by   
always coming down to his level1 and    
treating him as an equal4 ,it was1 so ,i
 think1 a touching sight to see a       
serious person becoming the comrade of a
 young scamp1 and virtue putting up with
 the speech of licence in order to      
triumph over it more completely4 ,when  
the young fool came to him with his     
silly confidences and opened his heart  
to him1 the priest listened and set him 
at his ease2 without giving his approval
 to what was bad1 he took an interest in
 everything2 no tactless reproof checked
 his chatter or closed his heart2 the   
pleasure which he thought was given by  
his conversation increased his pleasure 
in telling everything2 thus he made his 
general confession without knowing he   

was confessing anything4  ,after he had 
made a thorough study of his feelings   
and disposition1 the priest saw plainly 
that1 although he was not ignorant for  
his age1 he had forgotten everything    
that he most needed to know1 and that   
the disgrace which fortune had brought  
upon him had stifled in him all real    
sense of good and evil4 ,there is a     
stage of degradation which robs the soul
 of its life2 and the inner voice cannot
 be heard by one whose whole mind is    
bent on getting food4 ,to protect the   
unlucky youth from the moral death which
 threatened him1 he began to revive his 
self-love and his good opinion of       
himself4 ,he showed him a happier future
 in the right use of his talents2 he    
revived the generous warmth of his heart
 by stories of the noble deeds of       
others2 by rousing his admiration for   
the doers of these deeds he revived his 
desire to do like deeds himself4 ,to    
draw him gradually from his idle and    
wandering life1 he made him copy out    

extracts from well-chosen books2 he     
pretended to want these extracts1 and so
 nourished in him the noble feeling of  
gratitude4 ,he taught him indirectly    
through these books1 and thus he made   
him sufficiently regain his good opinion
 of himself so that he would no longer  
think himself good for nothing1 and     
would not make himself despicable in his
 own eyes4  ,a trifling incident will   
show how this kindly man tried1 unknown 
to him1 to raise the heart of his       
disciple out of its degradation1 without
 seeming to think of teaching4 ,the     
priest was so well known for his        
uprightness and his discretion1 that    
many people preferred to entrust their  
alms to him1 rather than to the wealthy 
clergy of the town4 ,one day some one   
had given him some money to distribute  
among the poor1 and the young man was   
mean enough to ask for some of it on the
 score of poverty4 ,no1 said he1 we are 
brothers1 you belong to me and ,i must  
not touch the money entrusted to me4    

,then he gave him the sum he had asked  
for out of his own pocket4 ,lessons of  
this sort seldom fail to make an        
impression on the heart of young people 
who are not wholly corrupt4  ,i am weary
 of speaking in the third person1 and   
the precaution is unnecessary2 for you  
are well aware1 my dear friend1 that ,i 
myself was this unhappy fugitive2 ,i    
think ,i am so far removed from the     
disorders of my youth that ,i may       
venture to confess them1 and the hand   
which rescued me well deserves that ,i  
should at least do honour to its        
goodness at the cost of some slight     
shame4  ,what struck me most was to see 
in the private life of my worthy master1
 virtue without hypocrisy1 humanity     
without weakness1 speech always plain   
and straightforward1 and conduct in     
accordance with this speech4 ,i never   
saw him trouble himself whether those   
whom he assisted went to vespers or     
confession1 whether they fasted at the  
appointed seasons and went without meat2

 nor did he impose upon them any other  
like conditions1 without which you might
 die of hunger before you could hope for
 any help from the devout4  ,far from   
displaying before him the zeal of a new 
convert1 ,i was encouraged by these     
observations and ,i made no secret of my
 way of thinking1 nor did he seem to be 
shocked by it4 ,sometimes ,i would say  
to myself1 he overlooks my indifference 
to the religion ,i have adopted because 
he sees ,i am equally indifferent to the
 religion in which ,i was brought up2 he
 knows that my scorn for religion is not
 confined to one sect4 ,but what could  
,i think when ,i sometimes heard him    
give his approval to doctrines contrary 
to those of the ,roman ,catholic        
,church1 and apparently having but a    
poor opinion of its ceremonies4 ,i      
should have thought him a ,protestant in
 disguise if ,i had not beheld him so   
faithful to those very customs which he 
seemed to value so lightly2 but ,i knew 
he fulfilled his priestly duties as     

carefully in private as in public1 and  
,i knew not what to think of these      
apparent contradictions4 ,except for the
 fault which had formerly brought about 
his disgrace1 a fault which he had only 
partially overcome1 his life was        
exemplary1 his conduct beyond reproach1 
his conversation honest and discreet4   
,while ,i lived on very friendly terms  
with him1 ,i learnt day by day to       
respect him more2 and when he had       
completely won my heart by such great   
kindness1 ,i awaited with eager         
curiosity the time when ,i should learn 
what was the principle on which the     
uniformity of this strange life was     
based4  ,this opportunity was a long    
time coming4 ,before taking his disciple
 into his confidence1 he tried to get   
the seeds of reason and kindness which  
he had sown in my heart to germinate4   
,the most difficult fault to overcome in
 me was a certain haughty misanthropy1 a
 certain bitterness against the rich and
 successful1 as if their wealth and     

happiness had been gained at my own     
expense1 and as if their supposed       
happiness had been unjustly taken from  
my own4 ,the foolish vanity of youth1   
which kicks against the pricks of       
humiliation1 made me only too much      
inclined to this angry temper2 and the  
self-respect1 which my mentor strove to 
revive1 led to pride1 which made men    
still more vile in my eyes1 and only    
added scorn to my hatred4  ,without     
directly attacking this pride1 he       
prevented it from developing into       
hardness of heart2 and without depriving
 me of my self-esteem1 he made me less  
scornful of my neighbours4 ,by          
continually drawing my attention from   
the empty show1 and directing it to the 
genuine sufferings concealed by it1 he  
taught me to deplore the faults of my   
fellows and feel for their sufferings1  
to pity rather than envy them4 ,touched 
with compassion towards human weaknesses
 through the profound conviction of his 
own failings1 he viewed all men as the  

victims of their own vices and those of 
others2 he beheld the poor groaning     
under the tyranny of the rich1 and the  
rich under the tyranny of their own     
prejudices4 ,believe me1 said he1 our   
illusions1 far from concealing our woes1
 only increase them by giving value to  
what is in itself valueless1 in making  
us aware of all sorts of fancied        
privations which we should not otherwise
 feel4 ,peace of heart consists in      
despising everything that might disturb 
that peace2 the man who clings most     
closely to life is the man who can least
 enjoy it2 and the man who most eagerly 
desires happiness is always most        
miserable4  ,what gloomy ideas6 ,i      
exclaimed bitterly4 ,if we must deny    
ourselves everything1 we might as well  
never have been born2 and if we must    
despise even happiness itself who can be
 happy8 ,i am1 replied the priest one   
day1 in a tone which made a great       
impression on me4 ,you happy6 ,so little
 favoured by fortune1 so poor1 an exile 

and persecuted1 you are happy6 ,how have
 you contrived to be happy8 ,my child1  
he answered1 ,i will gladly tell you4   
,thereupon he explained that1 having    
heard my confessions1 he would confess  
to me4 ,i will open my whole heart to   
yours1 he said1 embracing me4 ,you will 
see me1 if not as ,i am1 at least as ,i 
seem to myself4 ,when you have heard my 
whole confession of faith1 when you     
really know the condition of my heart1  
you will know why ,i think myself happy1
 and if you think as ,i do1 you will    
know how to be happy too4 ,but these    
explanations are not the affair of a    
moment1 it will take time to show you   
all my ideas about the lot of man and   
the true value of life2 let us choose a 
fitting time and a place where we may   
continue this conversation without      
interruption4  ,i showed him how eager  
,i was to hear him4 ,the meeting was    
fixed for the very next morning4 ,it was
 summer time2 we rose at daybreak4 ,he  
took me out of the town on to a high    

hill above the river ,po1 whose course  
we beheld as it flowed between its      
fertile banks2 in the distance the      
landscape was crowned by the vast chain 
of the ,alps2 the beams of the rising   
sun already touched the plains and cast 
across the fields long shadows of trees1
 hillocks1 and houses1 and enriched with
 a thousand gleams of light the fairest 
picture which the human eye can see4    
,you would have thought that nature was 
displaying all her splendour before our 
eyes to furnish a text for our          
conversation4 ,after contemplating this 
scene for a space in silence1 the man of
 peace spoke to me4  ,,the ,,creed ,,of 
,a ,,savoyard ,,priest  ,my child1 do   
not look to me for learned speeches or  
profound arguments4 ,i am no great      
philosopher1 nor do ,i desire to be one4
 ,i have1 however1 a certain amount of  
common-sense and a constant devotion to 
truth4 ,i have no wish to argue with you
 nor even to convince you2 it is enough 
for me to show you1 in all simplicity of

 heart1 what ,i really think4 ,consult  
your own heart while ,i speak2 that is  
all ,i ask4 ,if ,i am mistaken1 ,i am   
honestly mistaken1 and therefore my     
error will not be counted to me as a    
crime2 if you1 too1 are honestly        
mistaken1 there is no great harm done4  
,if ,i am right1 we are both endowed    
with reason1 we have both the same      
motive for listening to the voice of    
reason4 ,why should not you think as ,i 
do8  ,by birth ,i was a peasant and     
poor2 to till the ground was my portion2
 but my parents thought it a finer thing
 that ,i should learn to get my living  
as a priest and they found means to send
 me to college4 ,i am quite sure that   
neither my parents nor ,i had any idea  
of seeking after what was good1 useful1 
or true2 we only sought what was wanted 
to get me ordained4 ,i learned what was 
taught me1 ,i said what ,i was told to  
say1 ,i promised all that was required1 
and ,i became a priest4 ,but ,i soon    
discovered that when ,i promised not to 

be a man1 ,i had promised more than ,i  
could perform4  ,conscience1 they tell  
us1 is the creature of prejudice1 but ,i
 know from experience that conscience   
persists in following the order of      
nature in spite of all the laws of man4 
,in vain is this or that forbidden2     
remorse makes her voice heard but feebly
 when what we do is permitted by        
well-ordered nature1 and still more when
 we are doing her bidding4 ,my good     
youth1 nature has not yet appealed to   
your senses2 may you long remain in this
 happy state when her voice is the voice
 of innocence4 ,remember that to        
anticipate her teaching is to offend    
more deeply against her than to resist  
her teaching2 you must first learn to   
resist1 that you may know when to yield 
without wrong-doing4  ,from my youth up 
,i had reverenced the married state as  
the first and most sacred institution of
 nature4 ,having renounced the right to 
marry1 ,i was resolved not to profane   
the sanctity of marriage2 for in spite  

of my education and reading ,i had      
always led a simple and regular life1   
and my mind had preserved the innocence 
of its natural instincts2 these         
instincts had not been obscured by      
worldly wisdom1 while my poverty kept me
 remote from the temptations dictated by
 the sophistry of vice4  ,this very     
resolution proved my ruin4 ,my respect  
for marriage led to the discovery of my 
misconduct4 ,the scandal must be        
expiated2 ,i was arrested1 suspended1   
and dismissed2 ,i was the victim of my  
scruples rather than of my incontinence1
 and ,i had reason to believe1 from the 
reproaches which accompanied my         
disgrace1 that one can often escape     
punishment by being guilty of a worse   
fault4  ,a thoughtful mind soon learns  
from such experiences4 ,i found my      
former ideas of justice1 honesty1 and   
every duty of man overturned by these   
painful events1 and day by day ,i was   
losing my hold on one or another of the 
opinions ,i had accepted4 ,what was left

 was not enough to form a body of ideas 
which could stand alone1 and ,i felt    
that the evidence on which my principles
 rested was being weakened2 at last ,i  
knew not what to think1 and ,i came to  
the same conclusion as yourself1 but    
with this difference3 ,my lack of faith 
was the slow growth of manhood1 attained
 with great difficulty1 and all the     
harder to uproot4  ,i was in that state 
of doubt and uncertainty which          
,descartes considers essential to the   
search for truth4 ,it is a state which  
cannot continue1 it is disquieting and  
painful2 only vicious tendencies and an 
idle heart can keep us in that state4   
,my heart was not so corrupt as to      
delight in it1 and there is nothing     
which so maintains the habit of thinking
 as being better pleased with oneself   
than with one's lot4  ,i pondered1      
therefore1 on the sad fate of mortals1  
adrift upon this sea of human opinions1 
without compass or rudder1 and abandoned
 to their stormy passions with no guide 

but an inexperienced pilot who does not 
know whence he comes or whither he is   
going4 ,i said to myself1 ,i love truth1
 ,i seek her1 and cannot find her4 ,show
 me truth and ,i will hold her fast2 why
 does she hide her face from the eager  
heart that would fain worship her8      
,although ,i have often experienced     
worse sufferings1 ,i have never led a   
life so uniformly distressing as this   
period of unrest and anxiety1 when ,i   
wandered incessantly from one doubt to  
another1 gaining nothing from my        
prolonged meditations but uncertainty1  
darkness1 and contradiction with regard 
to the source of my being and the rule  
of my duties4  ,i cannot understand how 
any one can be a sceptic sincerely and  
on principle4 ,either such philosophers 
do not exist or they are the most       
miserable of men4 ,doubt with regard to 
what we ought to know is a condition too
 violent for the human mind2 it cannot  
long be endured2 in spite of itself the 
mind decides one way or another1 and it 

prefers to be deceived rather than to   
believe nothing4  ,my perplexity was    
increased by the fact that ,i had been  
brought up in a church which decides    
everything and permits no doubts1 so    
that having rejected one article of     
faith ,i was forced to reject the rest2 
as ,i could not accept absurd decisions1
 ,i was deprived of those which were not
 absurd4 ,when ,i was told to believe   
everything1 ,i could believe nothing1   
and ,i knew not where to stop4  ,i      
consulted the philosophers1 ,i searched 
their books and examined their various  
theories2 ,i found them all alike proud1
 assertive1 dogmatic1 professing1 even  
in their so-called scepticism1 to know  
everything1 proving nothing1 scoffing at
 each other4 ,this last trait1 which was
 common to all of them1 struck me as the
 only point in which they were right4   
,braggarts in attack1 they are weaklings
 in defence4 ,weigh their arguments1    
they are all destructive2 count their   
voices1 every one speaks for himself2   

they are only agreed in arguing with    
each other4 ,i could find no way out of 
my uncertainty by listening to them4  ,i
 suppose this prodigious diversity of   
opinion is caused1 in the first place1  
by the weakness of the human intellect2 
and1 in the second1 by pride4 ,we have  
no means of measuring this vast machine1
 we are unable to calculate its         
workings2 we know neither its guiding   
principles nor its final purpose2 we do 
not know ourselves1 we know neither our 
nature nor the spirit that moves us2 we 
scarcely know whether man is one or     
many2 we are surrounded by impenetrable 
mysteries4 ,these mysteries are beyond  
the region of sense1 we think we can    
penetrate them by the light of reason1  
but we fall back on our imagination4    
,through this imagined world each forces
 a way for himself which he holds to be 
right2 none can tell whether his path   
will lead him to the goal4 ,yet we long 
to know and understand it all4 ,the one 
thing we do not know is the limit of the

 knowable4 ,we prefer to trust to chance
 and to believe what is not true1 rather
 than to own that not one of us can see 
what really is4 ,a fragment of some vast
 whole whose bounds are beyond our gaze1
 a fragment abandoned by its ,creator to
 our foolish quarrels1 we are vain      
enough to want to determine the nature  
of that whole and our own relations with
 regard to it4  ,if the philosophers    
were in a position to declare the truth1
 which of them would care to do so8     
,every one of them knows that his own   
system rests on no surer foundations    
than the rest1 but he maintains it      
because it is his own4 ,there is not one
 of them who1 if he chanced to discover 
the difference between truth and        
falsehood1 would not prefer his own lie 
to the truth which another had          
discovered4 ,where is the philosopher   
who would not deceive the whole world   
for his own glory8 ,if he can rise above
 the crowd1 if he can excel his rivals1 
what more does he want8 ,among believers

 he is an atheist2 among atheists he    
would be a believer4  ,the first thing  
,i learned from these considerations was
 to restrict my inquiries to what       
directly concerned myself1 to rest in   
profound ignorance of everything else1  
and not even to trouble myself to doubt 
anything beyond what ,i required to     
know4  ,i also realised that the        
philosophers1 far from ridding me of my 
vain doubts1 only multiplied the doubts 
that tormented me and failed to remove  
any one of them4 ,so ,i chose another   
guide and said1 ,let me follow the      
,inner ,light2 it will not lead me so   
far astray as others have done1 or if it
 does it will be my own fault1 and ,i   
shall not go so far wrong if ,i follow  
my own illusions as if ,i trusted to    
their deceits4  ,i then went over in my 
mind the various opinions which ,i had  
held in the course of my life1 and ,i   
saw that although no one of them was    
plain enough to gain immediate belief1  
some were more probable than others1 and

 my inward consent was given or withheld
 in proportion to this improbability4   
,having discovered this1 ,i made an     
unprejudiced comparison of all these    
different ideas1 and ,i perceived that  
the first and most general of them was  
also the simplest and the most          
reasonable1 and that it would have been 
accepted by every one if only it had    
been last instead of first4 ,imagine all
 your philosophers1 ancient and modern1 
having exhausted their strange systems  
of force1 chance1 fate1 necessity1      
atoms1 a living world1 animated matter1 
and every variety of materialism4 ,then 
comes the illustrious ,clarke who gives 
light to the world and proclaims the    
,being of beings and the ,giver of      
things4 ,what universal admiration1 what
 unanimous applause would have greeted  
this new system--a system so great1 so  
illuminating1 and so simple4 ,other     
systems are full of absurdities2 this   
system seems to me to contain fewer     
things which are beyond the             

understanding of the human mind4 ,i said
 to myself1 ,every system has its       
insoluble problems1 for the finite mind 
of man is too small to deal with them2  
these difficulties are therefore no     
final arguments1 against any system4    
,but what a difference there is between 
the direct evidence on which these      
systems are based6 ,should we not prefer
 that theory which alone explains all   
the facts1 when it is no more difficult 
than the rest8  ,bearing thus within my 
heart the love of truth as my only      
philosophy1 and as my only method a     
clear and simple rule which dispensed   
with the need for vain and subtle       
arguments1 ,i returned with the help of 
this rule to the examination of such    
knowledge as concerned myself2 ,i was   
resolved to admit as self-evident all   
that ,i could not honestly refuse to    
believe1 and to admit as true all that  
seemed to follow directly from this2 all
 the rest ,i determined to leave        
undecided1 neither accepting nor        

rejecting it1 nor yet troubling myself  
to clear up difficulties which did not  
lead to any practical ends4  ,but who am
 ,i8 ,what right have ,i to decide8     
,what is it that determines my          
judgments8 ,if they are inevitable1 if  
they are the results of the impressions 
,i receive1 ,i am wasting my strength in
 such inquiries2 they would be made or  
not without any interference of mine4 ,i
 must therefore first turn my eyes upon 
myself to acquaint myself with the      
instrument ,i desire to use1 and to     
discover how far it is reliable4  ,i    
exist1 and ,i have senses through which 
,i receive impressions4 ,this is the    
first truth that strikes me and ,i am   
forced to accept it4  ,have ,i any      
independent knowledge of my existence1  
or am ,i only aware of it through my    
sensations8 ,this is my first           
difficulty1 and so far ,i cannot solve  
it4 ,for ,i continually experience      
sensations1 either directly or          
indirectly through memory1 so how can ,i

 know if the feeling of self is         
something beyond these sensations or if 
it can exist independently of them8  ,my
 sensations take place in myself1 for   
they make me aware of my own existence2 
but their cause is outside me1 for they 
affect me whether ,i have any reason for
 them or not1 and they are produced or  
destroyed independently of me4 ,so ,i   
clearly perceive that my sensation1     
which is within me1 and its cause or its
 object1 which is outside me1 are       
different things4  ,thus1 not only do ,i
 exist1 but other entities exist also1  
that is to say1 the objects of my       
sensations2 and even if these objects   
are merely ideas1 still these ideas are 
not me4  ,but everything outside myself1
 everything which acts upon my senses1  
,i call matter1 and all the particles of
 matter which ,i suppose to be united   
into separate entities ,i call bodies4  
,thus all the disputes of the idealists 
and the realists have no meaning for me2
 their distinctions between the         

appearance and the reality of bodies are
 wholly fanciful4  ,i am now as         
convinced of the existence of the       
universe as of my own4  ,i next consider
 the objects of my sensations1 and ,i   
find that ,i have the power of comparing
 them1 so ,i perceive that ,i am endowed
 with an active force of which ,i was   
not previously aware4  ,to perceive is  
to feel2 to compare is to judge2 to     
judge and to feel are not the same4     
,through sensation objects present      
themselves to me separately and singly  
as they are in nature2 by comparing them
 ,i rearrange them1 ,i shift them so to 
speak1 ,i place one upon another to     
decide whether they are alike or        
different1 or more generally to find out
 their relations4 ,to my mind1 the      
distinctive faculty of an active or     
intelligent being is the power of       
understanding this word is4 ,i seek in  
vain in the merely sensitive entity that
 intelligent force which compares and   
judges2 ,i can find no trace of it in   

its nature4 ,this passive entity will be
 aware of each object separately1 it    
will even be aware of the whole formed  
by the two together1 but having no power
 to place them side by side it can never
 compare them1 it can never form a      
judgment with regard to them4  ,to see  
two things at once is not to see their  
relations nor to judge of their         
differences2 to perceive several        
objects1 one beyond the other1 is not to
 relate them4 ,i may have at the same   
moment an idea of a big stick and a     
little stick without comparing them1    
without judging that one is less than   
the other1 just as ,i can see my whole  
hand without counting my fingers4       
,footnote3 ,m4 de le ,cordamines'       
narratives tell of a people who only    
know how to count up to three4 ,yet the 
men of this nation1 having hands1 have  
often seen their fingers without        
learning to count up to five4 ,these    
comparative ideas1 'greater'1 'smaller'1
 together with number ideas of 'one'1   

'two'1 etc4 are certainly not           
sensations1 although my mind only       
produces them when my sensations occur4 
,we are told that a sensitive being     
distinguishes sensations from each other
 by the inherent differences in the     
sensations2 this requires explanation4  
,when the sensations are different1 the 
sensitive being distinguishes them by   
their differences2 when they are alike1 
he distinguishes them because he is     
aware of them one beyond the other4     
,otherwise1 how could he distinguish    
between two equal objects simultaneously
 experienced8 ,he would necessarily     
confound the two objects and take them  
for one object1 especially under a      
system which professed that the         
representative sensations of space have 
no extension4  ,when we become aware of 
the two sensations to be compared1 their
 impression is made1 each object is     
perceived1 both are perceived1 but for  
all that their relation is not          
perceived4 ,if the judgment of this     

relation were merely a sensation1 and   
came to me solely from the object       
itself1 my judgments would never be     
mistaken1 for it is never untrue that ,i
 feel what ,i feel4  ,why then am ,i    
mistaken as to the relation between     
these two sticks1 especially when they  
are not parallel8 ,why1 for example1 do 
,i say the small stick is a third of the
 large1 when it is only a quarter8 ,why 
is the picture1 which is the sensation1 
unlike its model which is the object8   
,it is because ,i am active when ,i     
judge1 because the operation of         
comparison is at fault2 because my      
understanding1 which judges of          
relations1 mingles its errors with the  
truth of sensations1 which only reveal  
to me things4  ,add to this a           
consideration which will1 ,i feel sure1 
appeal to you when you have thought     
about it3 it is this--,if we were purely
 passive in the use of our senses1 there
 would be no communication between them2
 it would be impossible to know that the

 body we are touching and the thing we  
are looking at is the same4 ,either we  
should never perceive anything outside  
ourselves1 or there would be for us five
 substances perceptible by the senses1  
whose identity we should have no means  
of perceiving4  ,this power of my mind  
which brings my sensations together and 
compares them may be called by any name2
 let it be called attention1 meditation1
 reflection1 or what you will2 it is    
still true that it is in me and not in  
things1 that it is ,i alone who produce 
it1 though ,i only produce it when ,i   
receive an impression from things4      
,though ,i am compelled to feel or not  
to feel1 ,i am free to examine more or  
less what ,i feel4  ,being now1 so to   
speak1 sure of myself1 ,i begin to look 
at things outside myself1 and ,i behold 
myself with a sort of shudder flung at  
random into this vast universe1 plunged 
as it were into the vast number of      
entities1 knowing nothing of what they  
are in themselves or in relation to me4 

,i study them1 ,i observe them2 and the 
first object which suggests itself for  
comparison with them is myself4  ,all   
that ,i perceive through the senses is  
matter1 and ,i deduce all the essential 
properties of matter from the sensible  
qualities which make me perceive it1    
qualities which are inseparable from it4
 ,i see it sometimes in motion1         
sometimes at rest1 ,footnote3 ,this     
repose is1 if you prefer it1 merely     
relative2 but as we perceive more or    
less of motion1 we may plainly conceive 
one of two extremes1 which is rest2 and 
we conceive it so clearly that we are   
even disposed to take for absolute rest 
what is only relative4 ,but it is not   
true that motion is of the essence of   
matter1 if matter may be conceived of as
 at rest4 hence ,i infer that neither   
motion nor rest is essential to it1 but 
motion1 being an action1 is the result  
of a cause of which rest is only the    
absence4 ,when1 therefore1 there is     
nothing acting upon matter it does not  

move1 and for the very reason that rest 
and motion are indifferent to it1 its   
natural state is a state of rest4  ,i   
perceive two sorts of motions of bodies1
 acquired motion and spontaneous or     
voluntary motion4 ,in the first the     
cause is external to the body moved1 in 
the second it is within4 ,i shall not   
conclude from that that the motion1 say 
of a watch1 is spontaneous1 for if no   
external cause operated upon the spring 
it would run down and the watch would   
cease to go4 ,for the same reason ,i    
should not admit that the movements of  
fluids are spontaneous1 neither should  
,i attribute spontaneous motion to fire 
which causes their fluidity4 ,footnote3 
,chemists regard phlogiston or the      
element of fire as diffused1 motionless1
 and stagnant in the compounds of which 
it forms part1 until external forces set
 it free1 collect it and set it in      
motion1 and change it into fire4  ,you  
ask me if the movements of animals are  
spontaneous2 my answer is1 ,i cannot    

tell1 but analogy points that way4 ,you 
ask me again1 how do ,i know that there 
are spontaneous movements8 ,i tell you1 
,i know it because ,i feel them4 ,i want
 to move my arm and ,i move it without  
any other immediate cause of the        
movement but my own will4 ,in vain would
 any one try to argue me out of this    
feeling1 it is stronger than any proofs2
 you might as well try to convince me   
that ,i do not exist4  ,if there were no
 spontaneity in men's actions1 nor in   
anything that happens on this earth1 it 
would be all the more difficult to      
imagine a first cause for all motion4   
,for my own part1 ,i feel myself so     
thoroughly convinced that the natural   
state of matter is a state of rest1 and 
that it has no power of action in       
itself1 that when ,i see a body in      
motion ,i at once assume that it is     
either a living body or that this motion
 has been imparted to it4 ,my mind      
declines to accept in any way the idea  
of inorganic matter moving of its own   

accord1 or giving rise to any action4   
,yet this visible universe consists of  
matter1 matter diffused and dead1       
,footnote3 ,i have tried hard to grasp  
the idea of a living molecule1 but in   
vain4 ,the idea of matter feeling       
without any senses seems to me          
unintelligible and self-contradictory4  
,to accept or reject this idea one must 
first understand it1 and ,i confess that
 so far ,i have not succeeded4 matter   
which has none of the cohesion1 the     
organisation1 the common feeling of the 
parts of a living body1 for it is       
certain that we who are parts have no   
consciousness of the whole4 ,this same  
universe is in motion1 and in its       
movements1 ordered1 uniform1 and subject
 to fixed laws1 it has none of that     
freedom which appears in the spontaneous
 movements of men and animals4 ,so the  
world is not some huge animal which     
moves of its own accord2 its movements  
are therefore due to some external      
cause1 a cause which ,i cannot perceive1

 but the inner voice makes this cause so
 apparent to me that ,i cannot watch the
 course of the sun without imagining a  
force which drives it1 and when the     
earth revolves ,i think ,i see the hand 
that sets it in motion4  ,if ,i must    
accept general laws whose essential     
relation to matter is unperceived by me1
 how much further have ,i got8 ,these   
laws1 not being real things1 not being  
substances1 have therefore some other   
basis unknown to me4 ,experiment and    
observation have acquainted us with the 
laws of motion2 these laws determine the
 results without showing their causes2  
they are quite inadequate to explain the
 system of the world and the course of  
the universe4 ,with the help of dice    
,descartes made heaven and earth2 but he
 could not set his dice in motion1 nor  
start the action of his centrifugal     
force without the help of rotation4     
,newton discovered the law of           
gravitation2 but gravitation alone would
 soon reduce the universe to a          

motionless mass2 he was compelled to add
 a projectile force to account for the  
elliptical course of the celestial      
bodies2 let ,newton show us the hand    
that launched the planets in the tangent
 of their orbits4  ,the first causes of 
motion are not to be found in matter2   
matter receives and transmits motion1   
but does not produce it4 ,the more ,i   
observe the action and reaction of the  
forces of nature playing on one another1
 the more ,i see that we must always go 
back from one effect to another1 till we
 arrive at a first cause in some will2  
for to assume an infinite succession of 
causes is to assume that there is no    
first cause4 ,in a word1 no motion which
 is not caused by another motion can    
take place1 except by a spontaneous1    
voluntary action2 inanimate bodies have 
no action but motion1 and there is no   
real action without will4 ,this is my   
first principle4 ,i believe1 therefore1 
that there is a will which sets the     
universe in motion and gives life to    

nature4 ,this is my first dogma1 or the 
first article of my creed4  ,how does a 
will produce a physical and corporeal   
action8 ,i cannot tell1 but ,i perceive 
that it does so in myself2 ,i will to do
 something and ,i do it2 ,i will to move
 my body and it moves1 but if an        
inanimate body1 when at rest1 should    
begin to move itself1 the thing is      
incomprehensible and without precedent4 
,the will is known to me in its action1 
not in its nature4 ,i know this will as 
a cause of motion1 but to conceive of   
matter as producing motion is clearly to
 conceive of an effect without a cause1 
which is not to conceive at all4  ,it is
 no more possible for me to conceive how
 my will moves my body than to conceive 
how my sensations affect my mind4 ,i do 
not even know why one of these mysteries
 has seemed less inexplicable than the  
other4 ,for my own part1 whether ,i am  
active or passive1 the means of union of
 the two substances seem to me          
absolutely incomprehensible4 ,it is very

 strange that people make this very     
incomprehensibility a step towards the  
compounding of the two substances1 as if
 operations so different in kind were   
more easily explained in one case than  
in two4  ,the doctrine ,i have just laid
 down is indeed obscure2 but at least it
 suggests a meaning and there is nothing
 in it repugnant to reason or           
experience2 can we say as much of       
materialism8 ,is it not plain that if   
motion is essential to matter it would  
be inseparable from it1 it would always 
be present in it in the same degree1    
always present in every particle of     
matter1 always the same in each particle
 of matter1 it would not be capable of  
transmission1 it could neither increase 
nor diminish1 nor could we ever conceive
 of matter at rest4 ,when you tell me   
that motion is not essential to matter  
but necessary to it1 you try to cheat me
 with words which would be easier to    
refute if there was a little more sense 
in them4 ,for either the motion of      

matter arises from the matter itself and
 is therefore essential to it2 or it    
arises from an external cause and is not
 necessary to the matter1 because the   
motive cause acts upon it2 we have got  
back to our original difficulty4  ,the  
chief source of human error is to be    
found in general and abstract ideas2 the
 jargon of metaphysics has never led to 
the discovery of any single truth1 and  
it has filled philosophy with           
absurdities of which we are ashamed as  
soon as we strip them of their long     
words4 ,tell me1 my friend1 when they   
talk to you of a blind force diffused   
throughout nature1 do they present any  
real idea to your mind8 ,they think they
 are saying something by these vague    
expressions--universal force1 essential 
motion--but they are saying nothing at  
all4 ,the idea of motion is nothing more
 than the idea of transference from     
place to place2 there is no motion      
without direction2 for no individual can
 move all ways at once4 ,in what        

direction then does matter move of      
necessity8 ,has the whole body of matter
 a uniform motion1 or has each atom its 
own motion8 ,according to the first idea
 the whole universe must form a solid   
and indivisible mass2 according to the  
second it can only form a diffused and  
incoherent fluid1 which would make the  
union of any two atoms impossible4 ,what
 direction shall be taken by this motion
 common to all matter8 ,shall it be in a
 straight line1 in a circle1 or from    
above downwards1 to the right or to the 
left8 ,if each molecule has its own     
direction1 what are the causes of all   
these directions and all these          
differences8 ,if every molecule or atom 
only revolved on its own axis1 nothing  
would ever leave its place and there    
would be no transmitted motion1 and even
 then this circular movement would      
require to follow some direction4 ,to   
set matter in motion by an abstraction  
is to utter words without meaning1 and  
to attribute to matter a given direction

 is to assume a determining cause4 ,the 
more examples ,i take1 the more causes  
,i have to explain1 without ever finding
 a common agent which controls them4    
,far from being able to picture to      
myself an entire absence of order in the
 fortuitous concurrence of elements1 ,i 
cannot even imagine such a strife1 and  
the chaos of the universe is less       
conceivable to me than its harmony4 ,i  
can understand that the mechanism of the
 universe may not be intelligible to the
 human mind1 but when a man sets to work
 to explain it1 he must say what men can
 understand4  ,if matter in motion      
points me to a will1 matter in motion   
according to fixed laws points me to an 
intelligence2 that is the second article
 of my creed4 ,to act1 to compare1 to   
choose1 are the operations of an active1
 thinking being2 so this being exists4  
,where do you find him existing1 you    
will say8 ,not merely in the revolving  
heavens1 nor in the sun which gives us  
light1 not in myself alone1 but in the  

sheep that grazes1 the bird that flies1 
the stone that falls1 and the leaf blown
 by the wind4  ,i judge of the order of 
the world1 although ,i know nothing of  
its purpose1 for to judge of this order 
it is enough for me to compare the parts
 one with another1 to study their       
co-operation1 their relations1 and to   
observe their united action4 ,i know not
 why the universe exists1 but ,i see    
continually how it is changed2 ,i never 
fail to perceive the close connection by
 which the entities of which it consists
 lend their aid one to another4 ,i am   
like a man who sees the works of a watch
 for the first time2 he is never weary  
of admiring the mechanism1 though he    
does not know the use of the instrument 
and has never seen its face4 ,i do not  
know what this is for1 says he1 but ,i  
see that each part of it is fitted to   
the rest1 ,i admire the workman in the  
details of his work1 and ,i am quite    
certain that all these wheels only work 
together in this fashion for some common

 end which ,i cannot perceive4  ,let us 
compare the special ends1 the means1 the
 ordered relations of every kind1 then  
let us listen to the inner voice of     
feeling2 what healthy mind can reject   
its evidence8 ,unless the eyes are      
blinded by prejudices1 can they fail to 
see that the visible order of the       
universe proclaims a supreme            
intelligence8 ,what sophisms must be    
brought together before we fail to      
understand the harmony of existence and 
the wonderful co-operation of every part
 for the maintenance of the rest8 ,say  
what you will of combinations and       
probabilities2 what do you gain by      
reducing me to silence if you cannot    
gain my consent8 ,and how can you rob me
 of the spontaneous feeling which1 in   
spite of myself1 continually gives you  
the lie8 ,if organised bodies had come  
together fortuitously in all sorts of   
ways before assuming settled forms1 if  
stomachs are made without mouths1 feet  
without heads1 hands without arms1      

imperfect organs of every kind which    
died because they could not preserve    
their life1 why do none of these        
imperfect attempts now meet our eyes2   
why has nature at length prescribed laws
 to herself which she did not at first  
recognise8 ,i must not be surprised if  
that which is possible should happen1   
and if the improbability of the event is
 compensated for by the number of the   
attempts4 ,i grant this2 yet if any one 
told me that printed characters         
scattered broadcast had produced the    
,aeneid all complete1 ,i would not      
condescend to take a single step to     
verify this falsehood4 ,you will tell me
 ,i am forgetting the multitude of      
attempts4 ,but how many such attempts   
must ,i assume to bring the combination 
within the bounds of probability8 ,for  
my own part the only possible assumption
 is that the chances are infinity to one
 that the product is not the work of    
chance4 ,in addition to this1 chance    
combinations yield nothing but products 

of the same nature as the elements      
combined1 so that life and organisation 
will not be produced by a flow of atoms1
 and a chemist when making his compounds
 will never give them thought and       
feeling in his crucible4 ,footnote3     
,could one believe1 if one had not seen 
it1 that human absurdity could go so    
far8 ,amatus ,lusitanus asserts that he 
saw a little man an inch long enclosed  
in a glass1 which ,julius ,camillus1    
like a second ,prometheus1 had made by  
alchemy4 ,paracelsis 7,de natura rerum7 
teaches the method of making these tiny 
men1 and he maintains that the pygmies1 
fauns1 satyrs1 and nymphs have been made
 by chemistry4  ,indeed ,i cannot see   
that there is anything more to be done1 
to establish the possibility of these   
facts1 unless it is to assert that      
organic matter resists the heat of fire 
and that its molecules can preserve     
their life in the hottest furnace4  ,i  
was surprised and almost shocked when ,i
 read ,neuwentit4 ,how could this man   

desire to make a book out of the wonders
 of nature1 wonders which show the      
wisdom of the author of nature8 ,his    
book would have been as large as the    
world itself before he had exhausted his
 subject1 and as soon as we attempt to  
give details1 that greatest wonder of   
all1 the concord and harmony of the     
whole1 escapes us4 ,the mere generation 
of living organic bodies is the despair 
of the human mind2 the insurmountable   
barrier raised by nature between the    
various species1 so that they should not
 mix with one another1 is the clearest  
proof of her intention4 ,she is not     
content to have established order1 she  
has taken adequate measures to prevent  
the disturbance of that order4  ,there  
is not a being in the universe which may
 not be regarded as in some respects the
 common centre of all1 around which they
 are grouped1 so that they are all      
reciprocally end and means in relation  
to each other4 ,the mind is confused and
 lost amid these innumerable relations1 

not one of which is itself confused or  
lost in the crowd4  ,what absurd        
assumptions are required to deduce all  
this harmony from the blind mechanism of
 matter set in motion by chance6 ,in    
vain do those who deny the unity of     
intention manifested in the relations of
 all the parts of this great whole1 in  
vain do they conceal their nonsense     
under abstractions1 co-ordinations1     
general principles1 symbolic            
expressions2 whatever they do ,i find it
 impossible to conceive of a system of  
entities so firmly ordered unless ,i    
believe in an intelligence that orders  
them4 ,it is not in my power to believe 
that passive and dead matter can have   
brought forth living and feeling beings1
 that blind chance has brought forth    
intelligent beings1 that that which does
 not think has brought forth thinking   
beings4  ,i believe1 therefore1 that the
 world is governed by a wise and        
powerful will2 ,i see it or rather ,i   
feel it1 and it is a great thing to know

 this4 ,but has this same world always  
existed1 or has it been created8 ,is    
there one source of all things8 ,are    
there two or many8  ,what is their      
nature8 ,i know not2 and what concern is
 it of mine8  ,when these things become 
of importance to me ,i will try to learn
 them2 till then ,i abjure these idle   
speculations1 which may trouble my      
peace1 but cannot affect my conduct nor 
be comprehended by my reason4           
,recollect that ,i am not preaching my  
own opinion but explaining it4  ,whether
 matter is eternal or created1 whether  
its origin is passive or not1 it is     
still certain that the whole is one1 and
 that it proclaims a single             
intelligence2 for ,i see nothing that is
 not part of the same ordered system1   
nothing which does not co-operate to the
 same end1 namely1 the conservation of  
all within the established order4 ,this 
being who wills and can perform his     
will1 this being active through his own 
power1 this being1 whoever he may be1   

who moves the universe and orders all   
things1 is what ,i call ,god4 ,to this  
name ,i add the ideas of intelligence1  
power1 will1 which ,i have brought      
together1 and that of kindness which is 
their necessary consequence2 but for all
 this ,i know no more of the being to   
which ,i ascribe them4 ,he hides himself
 alike from my senses and my            
understanding2 the more ,i think of him1
 the more perplexed ,i am2 ,i know full 
well that he exists1 and that he exists 
of himself alone2 ,i know that my       
existence depends on his1 and that      
everything ,i know depends upon him     
also4 ,i see ,god everywhere in his     
works2 ,i feel him within myself2 ,i    
behold him all around me2 but if ,i try 
to ponder him himself1 if ,i try to find
 out where he is1 what he is1 what is   
his substance1 he escapes me and my     
troubled spirit finds nothing4          
,convinced of my unfitness1 ,i shall    
never argue about the nature of ,god    
unless ,i am driven to it by the feeling

 of his relations with myself4 ,such    
reasonings are always rash2 a wise man  
should venture on them with trembling1  
he should be certain that he can never  
sound their abysses2 for the most       
insolent attitude towards ,god is not to
 abstain from thinking of him1 but to   
think evil of him4  ,after the discovery
 of such of his attributes as enable me 
to conceive of his existence1 ,i return 
to myself1 and ,i try to discover what  
is my place in the order of things which
 he governs1 and ,i can myself examine4 
,at once1 and beyond possibility of     
doubt1 ,i discover my species2 for by my
 own will and the instruments ,i can    
control to carry out my will1 ,i have   
more power to act upon all bodies about 
me1 either to make use of or to avoid   
their action at my pleasure1 than any of
 them has power to act upon me against  
my will by mere physical impulsion2 and 
through my intelligence ,i am the only  
one who can examine all the rest4 ,what 
being here below1 except man1 can       

observe others1 measure1 calculate1     
forecast their motions1 their effects1  
and unite1 so to speak1 the feeling of a
 common existence with that of his      
individual existence8 ,what is there so 
absurd in the thought that all things   
are made for me1 when ,i alone can      
relate all things to myself8  ,it is    
true1 therefore1 that man is lord of the
 earth on which he dwells2 for not only 
does he tame all the beasts1 not only   
does he control its elements through his
 industry2 but he alone knows how to    
control it2 by contemplation he takes   
possession of the stars which he cannot 
approach4 ,show me any other creature on
 earth who can make a fire and who can  
behold with admiration the sun4 ,what6  
can ,i observe and know all creatures   
and their relations2 can ,i feel what is
 meant by order1 beauty1 and virtue2 can
 ,i consider the universe and raise     
myself towards the hand that guides it2 
can ,i love good and perform it2 and    
should ,i then liken myself to the      

beasts8  ,wretched soul1 it is your     
gloomy philosophy which makes you like  
the beasts2 or rather in vain do you    
seek to degrade yourself2 your genius   
belies your principles1 your kindly     
heart belies your doctrines1 and even   
the abuse of your powers proves their   
excellence in your own despite4  ,for   
myself1 ,i am not pledged to the support
 of any system4 ,i am a plain and honest
 man1 one who is not carried away by    
party spirit1 one who has no ambition to
 be head of a sect2 ,i am content with  
the place where ,god has set me2 ,i see 
nothing1 next to ,god himself1 which is 
better than my species2 and if ,i had to
 choose my place in the order of        
creation1 what more could ,i choose than
 to be a man6  ,i am not puffed up by   
this thought1 ,i am deeply moved by it2 
for this state was no choice of mine1 it
 was not due to the deserts of a        
creature who as yet did not exist4 ,can 
,i behold myself thus distinguished     
without congratulating myself on this   

post of honour1 without blessing the    
hand which bestowed it8 ,the first      
return to self has given birth to a     
feeling of gratitude and thankfulness to
 the author of my species1 and this     
feeling calls forth my first homage to  
the beneficent ,godhead4 ,i worship his 
,almighty power and my heart            
acknowledges his mercies4 ,is it not a  
natural consequence of our self-love to 
honour our protector and to love our    
benefactor8  ,but when1 in my desire to 
discover my own place within my species1
 ,i consider its different ranks and the
 men who fill them1 where am ,i now8    
,what a sight meets my eyes6 ,where is  
now the order ,i perceived8 ,nature     
showed me a scene of harmony and        
proportion2 the human race shows me     
nothing but confusion and disorder4 ,the
 elements agree together2 men are in a  
state of chaos4 ,the beasts are happy2  
their king alone is wretched4 ,o        
,wisdom1 where are thy laws8 ,o         
,providence1 is this thy rule over the  

world8 ,merciful ,god1 where is thy     
,power8 ,i behold the earth1 and there  
is evil upon it4  ,would you believe it1
 dear friend1 from these gloomy thoughts
 and apparent contradictions1 there was 
shaped in my mind the sublime idea of   
the soul1 which all my seeking had      
hitherto failed to discover8 ,while ,i  
meditated upon man's nature1 ,i seemed  
to discover two distinct principles in  
it2 one of them raised him to the study 
of the eternal truths1 to the love of   
justice1 and of true morality1 to the   
regions of the world of thought1 which  
the wise delight to contemplate2 the    
other led him downwards to himself1 made
 him the slave of his senses1 of the    
passions which are their instruments1   
and thus opposed everything suggested to
 him by the former principle4 ,when ,i  
felt myself carried away1 distracted by 
these conflicting motives1 ,i said1 ,no2
 man is not one2 ,i will and ,i will    
not2 ,i feel myself at once a slave and 
a free man2 ,i perceive what is right1  

,i love it1 and ,i do what is wrong2 ,i 
am active when ,i listen to the voice of
 reason2 ,i am passive when ,i am       
carried away by my passions2 and when ,i
 yield1 my worst suffering is the       
knowledge that ,i might have resisted4  
,young man1 hear me with confidence4 ,i 
will always be honest with you4 ,if     
conscience is the creature of prejudice1
 ,i am certainly wrong1 and there is no 
such thing as a proof of morality2 but  
if to put oneself first is an           
inclination natural to man1 and if the  
first sentiment of justice is moreover  
inborn in the human heart1 let those who
 say man is a simple creature remove    
these contradictions and ,i will grant  
that there is but one substance4  ,you  
will note that by this term 'substance' 
,i understand generally the being       
endowed with some primitive quality1    
apart from all special and secondary    
modifications4 ,if then all the         
primitive qualities which are known to  
us can be united in one and the same    

being1 we should only acknowledge one   
substance2 but if there are qualities   
which are mutually exclusive1 there are 
as many different substances as there   
are such exclusions4 ,you will think    
this over2 for my own part1 whatever    
,locke may say1 it is enough for me to  
recognise matter as having merely       
extension and divisibility to convince  
myself that it cannot think1 and if a   
philosopher tells me that trees feel and
 rocks think ,footnote3 ,it seems to me 
that modern philosophy1 far from saying 
that rocks think1 has discovered that   
men do not think4 ,it perceives nothing 
more in nature than sensitive beings2   
and the only difference it finds between
 a man and a stone is that a man is a   
sensitive being which experiences       
sensations1 and a stone is a sensitive  
being which does not experience         
sensations4 ,but if it is true that all 
matter feels1 where shall ,i find the   
sensitive unit1 the individual ego8     
,shall it be in each molecule of matter 

or in bodies as aggregates of molecules8
 ,shall ,i place this unity in fluids   
and solids alike1 in compounds and in   
elements8 ,you tell me nature consists  
of individuals4 ,but what are these     
individuals8 ,is that stone an          
individual or an aggregate of           
individuals8 ,is it a single sensitive  
being1 or are there as many beings in it
 as there are grains of sand8 ,if every 
elementary atom is a sensitive being1   
how shall ,i conceive of that intimate  
communication by which one feels within 
the other1 so that their two egos are   
blended in one8 ,attraction may be a law
 of nature whose mystery is unknown to  
us2 but at least we conceive that there 
is nothing in attraction acting in      
proportion to mass which is contrary to 
extension and divisibility4 ,can you    
conceive of sensation in the same way8  
,the sensitive parts have extension1 but
 the sensitive being is one and         
indivisible2 he cannot be cut in two1 he
 is a whole or he is nothing2 therefore 

the sensitive being is not a material   
body4 ,i know not how our materialists  
understand it1 but it seems to me that  
the same difficulties which have led    
them to reject thought1 should have made
 them also reject feeling2 and ,i see no
 reason why1 when the first step has    
been taken1 they should not take the    
second too2 what more would it cost     
them8 ,since they are certain they do   
not think1 why do they dare to affirm   
that they feel8 in vain will he perplex 
me with his cunning arguments2 ,i merely
 regard him as a dishonest sophist1 who 
prefers to say that stones have feeling 
rather than that men have souls4        
,suppose a deaf man denies the existence
 of sounds because he has never heard   
them4 ,i put before his eyes a stringed 
instrument and cause it to sound in     
unison by means of another instrument   
concealed from him2 the deaf man sees   
the chord vibrate4 ,i tell him1 ,the    
sound makes it do that4 ,not at all1    
says he1 the string itself is the cause 

of the vibration2 to vibrate in that way
 is a quality common to all bodies4     
,then show me this vibration in other   
bodies1 ,i answer1 or at least show me  
its cause in this string4 ,i cannot1    
replies the deaf man2 but because ,i do 
not understand how that string vibrates 
why should ,i try to explain it by means
 of your sounds1 of which ,i have not   
the least idea8 ,it is explaining one   
obscure fact by means of a cause still  
more obscure4 ,make me perceive your    
sounds2 or ,i say there are no such     
things4  ,the more ,i consider thought  
and the nature of the human mind1 the   
more likeness ,i find between the       
arguments of the materialists and those 
of the deaf man4 ,indeed1 they are deaf 
to the inner voice which cries aloud to 
them1 in a tone which can hardly be     
mistaken4 ,a machine does not think1    
there is neither movement nor form which
 can produce reflection2 something      
within thee tries to break the bands    
which confine it2 space is not thy      

measure1 the whole universe does not    
suffice to contain thee2 thy sentiments1
 thy desires1 thy anxiety1 thy pride    
itself1 have another origin than this   
small body in which thou art imprisoned4
  ,no material creature is in itself    
active1 and ,i am active4 ,in vain do   
you argue this point with me2 ,i feel   
it1 and it is this feeling which speaks 
to me more forcibly than the reason     
which disputes it4 ,i have a body which 
is acted upon by other bodies1 and it   
acts in turn upon them2 there is no     
doubt about this reciprocal action2 but 
my will is independent of my senses2 ,i 
consent or ,i resist2 ,i yield or ,i win
 the victory1 and ,i know very well in  
myself when ,i have done what ,i wanted 
and when ,i have merely given way to my 
passions4  ,i have always the power to  
will1 but not always the strength to do 
what ,i will4 ,when ,i yield to         
temptation ,i surrender myself to the   
action of external objects4 ,when ,i    
blame myself for this weakness1 ,i      

listen to my own will alone2 ,i am a    
slave in my vices1 a free man in my     
remorse2 the feeling of freedom is never
 effaced in me but when ,i myself do    
wrong1 and when ,i at length prevent the
 voice of the soul from protesting      
against the authority of the body4  ,i  
am only aware of will through the       
consciousness of my own will1 and       
intelligence is no better known to me4  
,when you ask me what is the cause which
 determines my will1 it is my turn to   
ask what cause determines my judgment2  
for it is plain that these two causes   
are but one2 and if you understand      
clearly that man is active in his       
judgments1 that his intelligence is only
 the power to compare and judge1 you    
will see that his freedom is only a     
similar power or one derived from this2 
he chooses between good and evil as he  
judges between truth and falsehood2 if  
his judgment is at fault1 he chooses    
amiss4 ,what then is the cause that     
determines his will8 ,it is his         

judgment4 ,and what is the cause that   
determines his judgment8 ,it is his     
intelligence1 his power of judging2 the 
determining cause is in himself4 ,beyond
 that1 ,i understand nothing4  ,no doubt
 ,i am not free not to desire my own    
welfare1 ,i am not free to desire my own
 hurt2 but my freedom consists in this  
very thing1 that ,i can will what is for
 my own good1 or what ,i esteem as such1
 without any external compulsion4 ,does 
it follow that ,i am not my own master  
because ,i cannot be other than myself8 
,the motive power of all action is in   
the will of a free creature2 we can go  
no farther4 ,it is not the word freedom 
that is meaningless1 but the word       
necessity4 ,to suppose some action which
 is not the effect of an active motive  
power is indeed to suppose effects      
without cause1 to reason in a vicious   
circle4 ,either there is no original    
impulse1 or every original impulse has  
no antecedent cause1 and there is no    
will properly so-called without freedom4

 ,man is therefore free to act1 and as  
such he is animated by an immaterial    
substance2 that is the third article of 
my creed4 ,from these three you will    
easily deduce the rest1 so that ,i need 
not enumerate them4  ,if man is at once 
active and free1 he acts of his own     
accord2 what he does freely is no part  
of the system marked out by ,providence 
and it cannot be imputed to ,providence4
 ,providence does not will the evil that
 man does when he misuses the freedom   
given to him2 neither does ,providence  
prevent him doing it1 either because the
 wrong done by so feeble a creature is  
as nothing in its eyes1 or because it   
could not prevent it without doing a    
greater wrong and degrading his nature4 
,providence has made him free that he   
may choose the good and refuse the evil4
 ,it has made him capable of this choice
 if he uses rightly the faculties       
bestowed upon him1 but it has so        
strictly limited his powers that the    
misuse of his freedom cannot disturb the

 general order4 ,the evil that man does 
reacts upon himself without affecting   
the system of the world1 without        
preventing the preservation of the human
 species in spite of itself4 ,to        
complain that ,god does not prevent us  
from doing wrong is to complain because 
he has made man of so excellent a       
nature1 that he has endowed his actions 
with that morality by which they are    
ennobled1 that he has made virtue man's 
birthright4 ,supreme happiness consists 
in self-content2 that we may gain this  
self-content we are placed upon this    
earth and endowed with freedom1 we are  
tempted by our passions and restrained  
by conscience4 ,what more could divine  
power itself have done on our behalf8   
,could it have made our nature a        
contradiction1 and have given the prize 
of well-doing to one who was incapable  
of evil8 ,to prevent a man from         
wickedness1 should ,providence have     
restricted him to instinct and made him 
a fool8 ,not so1 ,o ,god of my soul1 ,i 

will never reproach thee that thou hast 
created me in thine own image1 that ,i  
may be free and good and happy like my  
,maker6  ,it is the abuse of our powers 
that makes us unhappy and wicked4 ,our  
cares1 our sorrows1 our sufferings are  
of our own making4 ,moral ills are      
undoubtedly the work of man1 and        
physical ills would be nothing but for  
our vices which have made us liable to  
them4 ,has not nature made us feel our  
needs as a means to our preservation6   
,is not bodily suffering a sign that the
 machine is out of order and needs      
attention8 ,death4444 ,do not the wicked
 poison their own life and ours8 ,who   
would wish to live for ever8 ,death is  
the cure for the evils you bring upon   
yourself2 nature would not have you     
suffer perpetually4 ,how few sufferings 
are felt by man living in a state of    
primitive simplicity6 ,his life is      
almost entirely free from suffering and 
from passion2 he neither fears nor feels
 death2 if he feels it1 his sufferings  

make him desire it2 henceforth it is no 
evil in his eyes4 ,if we were but       
content to be ourselves we should have  
no cause to complain of our lot2 but in 
the search for an imaginary good we find
 a thousand real ills4 ,he who cannot   
bear a little pain must expect to suffer
 greatly4 ,if a man injures his         
constitution by dissipation1 you try to 
cure him with medicine2 the ill he fears
 is added to the ill he feels2 the      
thought of death makes it horrible and  
hastens its approach2 the more we seek  
to escape from it1 the more we are aware
 of it2 and we go through life in the   
fear of death1 blaming nature for the   
evils we have inflicted on ourselves by 
our neglect of her laws4  ,o ,man6 seek 
no further for the author of evil2 thou 
art he4 ,there is no evil but the evil  
you do or the evil you suffer1 and both 
come from yourself4 ,evil in general can
 only spring from disorder1 and in the  
order of the world ,i find a never      
failing system4 ,evil in particular     

cases exists only in the mind of those  
who experience it2 and this feeling is  
not the gift of nature1 but the work of 
man himself4 ,pain has little power over
 those who1 having thought little1 look 
neither before nor after4 ,take away our
 fatal progress1 take away our faults   
and our vices1 take away man's          
handiwork1 and all is well4  ,where all 
is well1 there is no such thing as      
injustice4 ,justice and goodness are    
inseparable2 now goodness is the        
necessary result of boundless power and 
of that self-love which is innate in all
 sentient beings4 ,the omnipotent       
projects himself1 so to speak1 into the 
being of his creatures4 ,creation and   
preservation are the everlasting work of
 power2 it does not act on that which   
has no existence2 ,god is not the ,god  
of the dead2 he could not harm and      
destroy without injury to himself4 ,the 
omnipotent can only will what is good4  
,footnote3 ,the ancients were right when
 they called the supreme ,god ,optimus  

,maximus1 but it would have been better 
to say ,maximus ,optimus1 for his       
goodness springs from his power1 he is  
good because he is great4 ,therefore he 
who is supremely good1 because he is    
supremely powerful1 must also be        
supremely just1 otherwise he would      
contradict himself2 for that love of    
order which creates order we call       
goodness and that love of order which   
preserves order we call justice4  ,men  
say ,god owes nothing to his creatures4 
,i think he owes them all he promised   
when he gave them their being4 ,now to  
give them the idea of something good and
 to make them feel the need of it1 is to
 promise it to them4 ,the more closely  
,i study myself1 the more carefully ,i  
consider1 the more plainly do ,i read   
these words1 ,be just and you will be   
happy4 ,it is not so1 however1 in the   
present condition of things1 the wicked 
prospers and the oppression of the      
righteous continues4 ,observe how angry 
we are when this expectation is         

disappointed4 ,conscience revolts and   
murmurs against her ,creator2 she       
exclaims with cries and groans1 ,thou   
hast deceived me4  ,i have deceived     
thee1 rash soul6 ,who told thee this8   
,is thy soul destroyed8 ,hast thou      
ceased to exist8 ,o ,brutus6 ,o my son6 
let there be no stain upon the close of 
thy noble life2 do not abandon thy hope 
and thy glory with thy corpse upon the  
plains of ,philippi4 ,why dost thou say1
 ',virtue is naught1' when thou art     
about to enjoy the reward of virtue8    
,thou art about to die6 ,nay1 thou shalt
 live1 and thus my promise is fulfilled4
  ,one might judge from the complaints  
of impatient men that ,god owes them the
 reward before they have deserved it1   
that he is bound to pay for virtue in   
advance4 ,oh6 let us first be good and  
then we shall be happy4 ,let us not     
claim the prize before we have won it1  
nor demand our wages before we have     
finished our work4 ,it is not in the    
lists that we crown the victors in the  

sacred games1 says ,plutarch1 it is when
 they have finished their course4  ,if  
the soul is immaterial1 it may survive  
the body2 and if it so survives1        
,providence is justified4 ,had ,i no    
other proof of the immaterial nature of 
the soul1 the triumph of the wicked and 
the oppression of the righteous in this 
world would be enough to convince me4 ,i
 should seek to resolve so appalling a  
discord in the universal harmony4 ,i    
should say to myself1 ,all is not over  
with life1 everything finds its place at
 death4 ,i should still have to answer  
the question1 ,what becomes of man when 
all we know of him through our senses   
has vanished8 ,this question no longer  
presents any difficulty to me when ,i   
admit the two substances4 ,it is easy to
 understand that what is imperceptible  
to those senses escapes me1 during my   
bodily life1 when ,i perceive through my
 senses only4 ,when the union of soul   
and body is destroyed1 ,i think one may 
be dissolved and the other may be       

preserved4 ,why should the destruction  
of the one imply the destruction of the 
other8 ,on the contrary1 so unlike in   
their nature1 they were during their    
union in a highly unstable condition1   
and when this union comes to an end they
 both return to their natural state2 the
 active vital substance regains all the 
force which it expended to set in motion
 the passive dead substance4 ,alas6 my  
vices make me only too well aware that  
man is but half alive during this life2 
the life of the soul only begins with   
the death of the body4  ,but what is    
that life8 ,is the soul of man in its   
nature immortal8 ,i know not4 ,my finite
 understanding cannot hold the infinite2
 what is called eternity eludes my      
grasp4 ,what can ,i assert or deny1 how 
can ,i reason with regard to what ,i    
cannot conceive8 ,i believe that the    
soul survives the body for the          
maintenance of order2 who knows if this 
is enough to make it eternal8 ,however1 
,i know that the body is worn out and   

destroyed by the division of its parts1 
but ,i cannot conceive a similar        
destruction of the conscious nature1 and
 as ,i cannot imagine how it can die1 ,i
 presume that it does not die4 ,as this 
assumption is consoling and in itself   
not unreasonable1 why should ,i fear to 
accept it8  ,i am aware of my soul2 it  
is known to me in feeling and in        
thought2 ,i know what it is without     
knowing its essence2 ,i cannot reason   
about ideas which are unknown to me4    
,what ,i do know is this1 that my       
personal identity depends upon memory1  
and that to be indeed the same self ,i  
must remember that ,i have existed4 ,now
 after death ,i could not recall what ,i
 was when alive unless ,i also          
remembered what ,i felt and therefore   
what ,i did2 and ,i have no doubt that  
this remembrance will one day form the  
happiness of the good and the torment of
 the bad4 ,in this world our inner      
consciousness is absorbed by the crowd  
of eager passions which cheat remorse4  

,the humiliation and disgrace involved  
in the practice of virtue do not permit 
us to realise its charm4 ,but when1     
freed from the illusions of the bodily  
senses1 we behold with joy the supreme  
,being and the eternal truths which flow
 from him2 when all the powers of our   
soul are alive to the beauty of order   
and we are wholly occupied in comparing 
what we have done with what we ought to 
have done1 then it is that the voice of 
conscience will regain its strength and 
sway2 then it is that the pure delight  
which springs from self-content1 and the
 sharp regret for our own degradation of
 that self1 will decide by means of     
overpowering feeling what shall be the  
fate which each has prepared for        
himself4 ,my good friend1 do not ask me 
whether there are other sources of      
happiness or suffering2 ,i cannot tell2 
that which my fancy pictures is enough  
to console me in this life and to bid me
 look for a life to come4 ,i do not say 
the good will be rewarded1 for what     

greater good can a truly good being     
expect than to exist in accordance with 
his nature8 ,but ,i do assert that the  
good will be happy1 because their maker1
 the author of all justice1 who has made
 them capable of feeling1 has not made  
them that they may suffer2 moreover1    
they have not abused their freedom upon 
earth and they have not changed their   
fate through any fault of their own2 yet
 they have suffered in this life and it 
will be made up to them in the life to  
come4 ,this feeling relies not so much  
on man's deserts as on the idea of good 
which seems to me inseparable from the  
divine essence4 ,i only assume that the 
laws of order are constant and that ,god
 is true to himself4  ,do not ask me    
whether the torments of the wicked will 
endure for ever1 whether the goodness of
 their creator can condemn them to the  
eternal suffering2 again1 ,i cannot     
tell1 and ,i have no empty curiosity for
 the investigation of useless problems4 
,how does the fate of the wicked concern

 me8 ,i take little interest in it4 ,all
 the same ,i find it hard to believe    
that they will be condemned to          
everlasting torments4 ,if the supreme   
justice calls for vengeance1 it claims  
it in this life4 ,the nations of the    
world with their errors are its         
ministers4 ,justice uses self-inflicted 
ills to punish the crimes which have    
deserved them4 ,it is in your own       
insatiable souls1 devoured by envy1     
greed1 and ambition1 it is in the midst 
of your false prosperity1 that the      
avenging passions find the due reward of
 your crimes4 ,what need to seek a hell 
in the future life8 ,it is here in the  
breast of the wicked4  ,when our        
fleeting needs are over1 and our mad    
desires are at rest1 there should also  
be an end of our passions and our       
crimes4 ,can pure spirits be capable of 
any perversity8 ,having need of nothing1
 why should they be wicked8 ,if they are
 free from our gross senses1 if their   
happiness consists in the contemplation 

of other beings1 they can only desire   
what is good2 and he who ceases to be   
bad can never be miserable4 ,this is    
what ,i am inclined to think though ,i  
have not been at the pains to come to   
any decision4 ,o ,god1 merciful and     
good1 whatever thy decrees may be ,i    
adore them2 if thou shouldst commit the 
wicked to everlasting punishment1 ,i    
abandon my feeble reason to thy justice2
 but if the remorse of these wretched   
beings should in the course of time be  
extinguished1 if their sufferings should
 come to an end1 and if the same peace  
shall one day be the lot of all mankind1
 ,i give thanks to thee for this4 ,is   
not the wicked my brother8 ,how often   
have ,i been tempted to be like him8    
,let him be delivered from his misery   
and freed from the spirit of hatred that
 accompanied it2 let him be as happy as 
,i myself2 his happiness1 far from      
arousing my jealousy1 will only increase
 my own4  ,thus it is that1 in the      
contemplation of ,god in his works1 and 

in the study of such of his attributes  
as it concerned me to know1 ,i have     
slowly grasped and developed the idea1  
at first partial and imperfect1 which ,i
 have formed of this ,infinite ,being4  
,but if this idea has become nobler and 
greater it is also more suited to the   
human reason4 ,as ,i approach in spirit 
the eternal light1 ,i am confused and   
dazzled by its glory1 and compelled to  
abandon all the earthly notions which   
helped me to picture it to myself4 ,god 
is no longer corporeal and sensible2 the
 supreme mind which rules the world is  
no longer the world itself2 in vain do  
,i strive to grasp his inconceivable    
essence4 ,when ,i think that it is he   
that gives life and movement to the     
living and moving substance which       
controls all living bodies2 when ,i hear
 it said that my soul is spiritual and  
that ,god is a spirit1 ,i revolt against
 this abasement of the divine essence2  
as if ,god and my soul were of one and  
the same nature6 ,as if ,god were not   

the one and only absolute being1 the    
only really active1 feeling1 thinking1  
willing being1 from whom we derive our  
thought1 feeling1 motion1 will1 our     
freedom and our very existence6  ,we are
 free because he wills our freedom1 and 
his inexplicable substance is to our    
souls what our souls are to our bodies4 
,i know not whether he has created      
matter1 body1 soul1 the world itself4   
,the idea of creation confounds me and  
eludes my grasp2 so far as ,i can       
conceive of it ,i believe it2 but ,i    
know that he has formed the universe and
 all that is1 that he has made and      
ordered all things4  ,no doubt ,god is  
eternal2 but can my mind grasp the idea 
of eternity8  ,why should ,i cheat      
myself with meaningless words8 ,this is 
what ,i do understand2 before things    
were--,god was2 he will be when they are
 no more1 and if all things come to an  
end he will still endure4 ,that a being 
beyond my comprehension should give life
 to other beings1 this is merely        

difficult and beyond my understanding2  
but that ,being and ,nothing should be  
convertible terms1 this is indeed a     
palpable contradiction1 an evident      
absurdity4  ,god is intelligent1 but    
how8 ,man is intelligent when he        
reasons1 but the ,supreme ,intelligence 
does not need to reason2 there is       
neither premise nor conclusion for him1 
there is not even a proposition4 ,the   
,supreme ,intelligence is wholly        
intuitive1 it sees what is and what     
shall be2 all truths are one for it1 as 
all places are but one point and all    
time but one moment4 ,man's power makes 
use of means1 the divine power is       
self-active4 ,god can because he wills2 
his will is his power4 ,god is good2    
this is certain2 but man finds his      
happiness in the welfare of his kind4   
,god's happiness consists in the love of
 order2 for it is through order that he 
maintains what is1 and unites each part 
in the whole4 ,god is just2 of this ,i  
am sure1 it is a consequence of his     

goodness2 man's injustice is not ,god's 
work1 but his own2 that moral justice   
which seems to the philosophers a       
presumption against ,providence1 is to  
me a proof of its existence4  ,but man's
 justice consists in giving to each his 
due2 ,god's justice consists in         
demanding from each of us an account of 
that which he has given us4  ,if ,i have
 succeeded in discerning these          
attributes of which ,i have no absolute 
idea1 it is in the form of unavoidable  
deductions1 and by the right use of my  
reason2 but ,i affirm them without      
understanding them1 and at bottom that  
is no affirmation at all4 ,in vain do ,i
 say1 ,god is thus1 ,i feel it1 ,i      
experience it1 none the more do ,i      
understand how ,god can be thus4  ,in a 
word3 the more ,i strive to envisage his
 infinite essence the less do ,i        
comprehend it2 but it is1 and that is   
enough for me2 the less ,i understand1  
the more ,i adore4 ,i abase myself1     
saying1 ,being of beings1 ,i am because 

thou art2 to fix my thoughts on thee is 
to ascend to the source of my being4    
,the best use ,i can make of my reason  
is to resign it before thee2 my mind    
delights1 my weakness rejoices1 to feel 
myself overwhelmed by thy greatness4    
,having thus deduced from the perception
 of objects of sense and from my inner  
consciousness1 which leads me to judge  
of causes by my native reason1 the      
principal truths which ,i require to    
know1 ,i must now seek such principles  
of conduct as ,i can draw from them1 and
 such rules as ,i must lay down for my  
guidance in the fulfilment of my destiny
 in this world1 according to the purpose
 of my ,maker4 ,still following the same
 method1 ,i do not derive these rules   
from the principles of the higher       
philosophy1 ,i find them in the depths  
of my heart1 traced by nature in        
characters which nothing can efface4 ,i 
need only consult myself with regard to 
what ,i wish to do2 what ,i feel to be  
right is right1 what ,i feel to be wrong

 is wrong2 conscience is the best       
casuist2 and it is only when we haggle  
with conscience that we have recourse to
 the subtleties of argument4 ,our first 
duty is towards ourself2 yet how often  
does the voice of others tell us that in
 seeking our good at the expense of     
others we are doing ill8 ,we think we   
are following the guidance of nature1   
and we are resisting it2 we listen to   
what she says to our senses1 and we     
neglect what she says to our heart2 the 
active being obeys1 the passive         
commands4 ,conscience is the voice of   
the soul1 the passions are the voice of 
the body4 ,it is strange that these     
voices often contradict each other8 ,and
 then to which should we give heed8 ,too
 often does reason deceive us2 we have  
only too good a right to doubt her2 but 
conscience never deceives us2 she is the
 true guide of man2 it is to the soul   
what instinct is to the body1 ,footnote3
 ,modern philosophy1 which only admits  
what it can understand1 is careful not  

to admit this obscure power called      
instinct which seems to guide the       
animals to some end without any acquired
 experience4 ,instinct1 according to    
some of our wise philosophers1 is only a
 secret habit of reflection1 acquired by
 reflection2 and from the way in which  
they explain this development one ought 
to suppose that children reflect more   
than grown-up people3 a paradox strange 
enough to be worth examining4 ,without  
entering upon this discussion ,i must   
ask what name ,i shall give to the      
eagerness with which my dog makes war on
 the moles he does not eat1 or to the   
patience with which he sometimes watches
 them for hours and the skill with which
 he seizes them1 throws them to a       
distance from their earth as soon as    
they emerge1 and then kills them and    
leaves them4 ,yet no one has trained him
 to this sport1 nor even told him there 
were such things as moles4 ,again1 ,i   
ask1 and this is a more important       
question1 why1 when ,i threatened this  

same dog for the first time1 why did he 
throw himself on the ground with his    
paws folded1 in such a suppliant        
attitude 44444calculated to touch me1 a 
position which he would have maintained 
if1 without being touched by it1 ,i had 
continued to beat him in that position8 
,what6 ,had my dog1 little more than a  
puppy1 acquired moral ideas8 ,did he    
know the meaning of mercy and           
generosity8 ,by what acquired knowledge 
did he seek to appease my wrath by      
yielding to my discretion8 ,every dog in
 the world does almost the same thing in
 similar circumstances1 and ,i am       
asserting nothing but what any one can  
verify for himself4 ,will the           
philosophers1 who so scornfully reject  
instinct1 kindly explain this fact by   
the mere play of sensations and         
experience which they assume we have    
acquired8 ,let them give an account of  
it which will satisfy any sensible man2 
in that case ,i have nothing further to 
urge1 and ,i will say no more of        

instinct4 he who obeys his conscience is
 following nature and he need not fear  
that he will go astray4 ,this is a      
matter of great importance1 continued my
 benefactor1 seeing that ,i was about to
 interrupt him2 let me stop awhile to   
explain it more fully4  ,the morality of
 our actions consists entirely in the   
judgments we ourselves form with regard 
to them4 ,if good is good1 it must be   
good in the depth of our heart as well  
as in our actions2 and the first reward 
of justice is the consciousness that we 
are acting justly4 ,if moral goodness is
 in accordance with our nature1 man can 
only be healthy in mind and body when he
 is good4 ,if it is not so1 and if man  
is by nature evil1 he cannot cease to be
 evil without corrupting his nature1 and
 goodness in him is a crime against     
nature4 ,if he is made to do harm to his
 fellow-creatures1 as the wolf is made  
to devour his prey1 a humane man would  
be as depraved a creature as a pitiful  
wolf2 and virtue alone would cause      

remorse4  ,my young friend1 let us look 
within1 let us set aside all personal   
prejudices and see whither our          
inclinations lead us4 ,do we take more  
pleasure in the sight of the sufferings 
of others or their joys8 ,is it         
pleasanter to do a kind action or an    
unkind action1 and which leaves the more
 delightful memory behind it8 ,why do   
you enjoy the theatre8 ,do you delight  
in the crimes you behold8 ,do you weep  
over the punishment which overtakes the 
criminal8 ,they say we are indifferent  
to everything but self-interest2 yet we 
find our consolation in our sufferings  
in the charms of friendship and         
humanity1 and even in our pleasures we  
should be too lonely and miserable if we
 had no one to share them with us4 ,if  
there is no such thing as morality in   
man's heart1 what is the source of his  
rapturous admiration of noble deeds1 his
 passionate devotion to great men8 ,what
 connection is there between            
self-interest and this enthusiasm for   

virtue8 ,why should ,i choose to be     
,cato dying by his own hand1 rather than
 ,caesar in his triumphs8 ,take from our
 hearts this love of what is noble and  
you rob us of the joy of life4 ,the     
mean-spirited man in whom these         
delicious feelings have been stifled    
among vile passions1 who by thinking of 
no one but himself comes at last to love
 no one but himself1 this man feels no  
raptures1 his cold heart no longer      
throbs with joy1 and his eyes no longer 
fill with the sweet tears of sympathy1  
he delights in nothing2 the wretch has  
neither life nor feeling1 he is already 
dead4  ,there are many bad men in this  
world1 but there are few of these dead  
souls1 alive only to self-interest1 and 
insensible to all that is right and     
good4 ,we only delight in injustice so  
long as it is to our own advantage2 in  
every other case we wish the innocent to
 be protected4 ,if we see some act of   
violence or injustice in town or        
country1 our hearts are at once stirred 

to their depths by an instinctive anger 
and wrath1 which bids us go to the help 
of the oppressed2 but we are restrained 
by a stronger duty1 and the law deprives
 us of our right to protect the         
innocent4 ,on the other hand1 if some   
deed of mercy or generosity meets our   
eye1 what reverence and love does it    
inspire6 ,do we not say to ourselves1 ,i
 should like to have done that myself8  
,what does it matter to us that two     
thousand years ago a man was just or    
unjust8 and yet we take the same        
interest in ancient history as if it    
happened yesterday4 ,what are the crimes
 of ,cataline to me8 ,i shall not be his
 victim4 ,why then have ,i the same     
horror of his crimes as if he were      
living now8  ,we do not hate the wicked 
merely because of the harm they do to   
ourselves1 but because they are wicked4 
,not only do we wish to be happy        
ourselves1 we wish others to be happy   
too1 and if this happiness does not     
interfere with our own happiness1 it    

increases it4 ,in conclusion1 whether we
 will or not1 we pity the unfortunate2  
when we see their suffering we suffer   
too4 ,even the most depraved are not    
wholly without this instinct1 and it    
often leads them to self-contradiction4 
,the highwayman who robs the traveller1 
clothes the nakedness of the poor2 the  
fiercest murderer supports a fainting   
man4  ,men speak of the voice of        
remorse1 the secret punishment of hidden
 crimes1 by which such are often brought
 to light4 ,alas6 who does not know its 
unwelcome voice8 ,we speak from         
experience1 and we would gladly stifle  
this imperious feeling which causes us  
such agony4 ,let us obey the call of    
nature2 we shall see that her yoke is   
easy and that when we give heed to her  
voice we find a joy in the answer of a  
good conscience4 ,the wicked fears and  
flees from her2 he delights to escape   
from himself2 his anxious eyes look     
around him for some object of diversion2
 without bitter satire and rude mockery 

he would always be sorrowful2 the       
scornful laugh is his one pleasure4 ,not
 so the just man1 who finds his peace   
within himself2 there is joy not malice 
in his laughter1 a joy which springs    
from his own heart2 he is as cheerful   
alone as in company1 his satisfaction   
does not depend on those who approach   
him2 it includes them4  ,cast your eyes 
over every nation of the world2 peruse  
every volume of its history2 in the     
midst of all these strange and cruel    
forms of worship1 among this amazing    
variety of manners and customs1 you will
 everywhere find the same ideas of right
 and justice2 everywhere the same       
principles of morality1 the same ideas  
of good and evil4 ,the old paganism gave
 birth to abominable gods who would have
 been punished as scoundrels here below1
 gods who merely offered1 as a picture  
of supreme happiness1 crimes to be      
committed and lust to be gratified4 ,but
 in vain did vice descend from the abode
 of the gods armed with their sacred    

authority2 the moral instinct refused to
 admit it into the heart of man4 ,while 
the debaucheries of ,jupiter were       
celebrated1 the continence of           
,xenocrates was revered2 the chaste     
,lucrece adored the shameless ,venus2   
the bold ,roman offered sacrifices to   
,fear2 he invoked the god who mutilated 
his father1 and he died without a murmur
 at the hand of his own father4 ,the    
most unworthy gods were worshipped by   
the noblest men4 ,the sacred voice of   
nature was stronger than the voice of   
the gods1 and won reverence upon earth2 
it seemed to relegate guilt and the     
guilty alike to heaven4  ,there is      
therefore at the bottom of our hearts an
 innate principle of justice and virtue1
 by which1 in spite of our maxims1 we   
judge our own actions or those of others
 to be good or evil2 and it is this     
principle that ,i call conscience4  ,but
 at this word ,i hear the murmurs of all
 the wise men so-called4 ,childish      
errors1 prejudices of our upbringing1   

they exclaim in concert6 ,there is      
nothing in the human mind but what it   
has gained by experience2 and we judge  
everything solely by means of the ideas 
we have acquired4 ,they go further2 they
 even venture to reject the clear and   
universal agreement of all peoples1 and 
to set against this striking unanimity  
in the judgment of mankind1 they seek   
out some obscure exception known to     
themselves alone2 as if the whole trend 
of nature were rendered null by the     
depravity of a single nation1 and as if 
the existence of monstrosities made an  
end of species4 ,but to what purpose    
does the sceptic ,montaigne strive      
himself to unearth in some obscure      
corner of the world a custom which is   
contrary to the ideas of justice8 ,to   
what purpose does he credit the most    
untrustworthy travellers1 while he      
refuses to believe the greatest writers8
 ,a few strange and doubtful customs1   
based on local causes1 unknown to us2   
shall these destroy a general inference 

based on the agreement of all the       
nations of the earth1 differing from    
each other in all else1 but agreed in   
this8 ,o ,montaigne1 you pride yourself 
on your truth and honesty2 be sincere   
and truthful1 if a philosopher can be   
so1 and tell me if there is any country 
upon earth where it is a crime to keep  
one's plighted word1 to be merciful1    
helpful1 and generous1 where the good   
man is scorned1 and the traitor is held 
in honour4  ,self-interest1 so they say1
 induces each of us to agree for the    
common good4 ,but how is it that the    
good man consents to this to his own    
hurt8 ,does a man go to death from      
self-interest8 ,no doubt each man acts  
for his own good1 but if there is no    
such thing as moral good to be taken    
into consideration1 self-interest will  
only enable you to account for the deeds
 of the wicked2 possibly you will not   
attempt to do more4 ,a philosophy which 
could find no place for good deeds would
 be too detestable2 you would find      

yourself compelled either to find some  
mean purpose1 some wicked motive1 or to 
abuse ,socrates and slander ,regulus4   
,if such doctrines ever took root among 
us1 the voice of nature1 together with  
the voice of reason1 would constantly   
protest against them1 till no adherent  
of such teaching could plead an honest  
excuse for his partisanship4  ,it is no 
part of my scheme to enter at present   
into metaphysical discussions which     
neither you nor ,i can understand1      
discussions which really lead nowhere4  
,i have told you already that ,i do not 
wish to philosophise with you1 but to   
help you to consult your own heart4 ,if 
all the philosophers in the world should
 prove that ,i am wrong1 and you feel   
that ,i am right1 that is all ,i ask4   
,for this purpose it is enough to lead  
you to distinguish between our acquired 
ideas and our natural feelings2 for     
feeling precedes knowledge2 and since we
 do not learn to seek what is good for  
us and avoid what is bad for us1 but get

 this desire from nature1 in the same   
way the love of good and the hatred of  
evil are as natural to us as our        
self-love4 ,the decrees of conscience   
are not judgments but feelings4         
,although all our ideas come from       
without1 the feelings by which they are 
weighed are within us1 and it is by     
these feelings alone that we perceive   
fitness or unfitness of things in       
relation to ourselves1 which leads us to
 seek or shun these things4  ,to exist  
is to feel2 our feeling is undoubtedly  
earlier than our intelligence1 and we   
had feelings before we had              
ideas4,footnote3 ,in some respects ideas
 are feelings and feelings are ideas4   
,both terms are appropriate to any      
perception with which we are concerned1 
appropriate both to the object of that  
perception and to ourselves who are     
affected by it2 it is merely the order  
in which we are affected which decides  
the appropriate term4 ,when we are      
chiefly concerned with the object and   

only think of ourselves as it were by   
reflection1 that is an idea2 when1 on   
the other hand1 the impression received 
excites our chief attention and we only 
think in the second place of the object 
which caused it1 it is a feeling4       
,whatever may be the cause of our being1
 it has provided for our preservation by
 giving us feelings suited to our       
nature2 and no one can deny that these  
at least are innate4 ,these feelings1 so
 far as the individual is concerned1 are
 self-love1 fear1 pain1 the dread of    
death1 the desire for comfort4 ,again1  
if1 as it is impossible to doubt1 man is
 by nature sociable1 or at least fitted 
to become sociable1 he can only be so by
 means of other innate feelings1        
relative to his kind2 for if only       
physical well-being were considered1 men
 would certainly be scattered rather    
than brought together4 ,but the motive  
power of conscience is derived from the 
moral system formed through this twofold
 relation to himself and to his         

fellow-men4 ,to know good is not to love
 it2 this knowledge is not innate in    
man2 but as soon as his reason leads him
 to perceive it1 his conscience impels  
him to love it2 it is this feeling which
 is innate4  ,so ,i do not think1 my    
young friend1 that it is impossible to  
explain the immediate force of          
conscience as a result of our own       
nature1 independent of reason itself4   
,and even should it be impossible1 it is
 unnecessary2 for those who deny this   
principle1 admitted and received by     
everybody else in the world1 do not     
prove that there is no such thing2 they 
are content to affirm1 and when we      
affirm its existence we have quite as   
good grounds as they1 while we have     
moreover the witness within us1 the     
voice of conscience1 which speaks on its
 own behalf4 ,if the first beams of     
judgment dazzle us and confuse the      
objects we behold1 let us wait till our 
feeble sight grows clear and strong1 and
 in the light of reason we shall soon   

behold these very objects as nature has 
already showed them to us4  ,or rather  
let us be simpler and less pretentious2 
let us be content with the first        
feelings we experience in ourselves1    
since science always brings us back to  
these1 unless it has led us astray4     
,conscience6 ,conscience6 ,divine       
instinct1 immortal voice from heaven2   
sure guide for a creature ignorant and  
finite indeed1 yet intelligent and free2
 infallible judge of good and evil1     
making man like to ,god6 ,in thee       
consists the excellence of man's nature 
and the morality of his actions2 apart  
from thee1 ,i find nothing in myself to 
raise me above the beasts--nothing but  
the sad privilege of wandering from one 
error to another1 by the help of an     
unbridled understanding and a reason    
which knows no principle4  ,thank heaven
 we have now got rid of all that        
alarming show of philosophy2 we may be  
men without being scholars2 now that we 
need not spend our life in the study of 

morality1 we have found a less costly   
and surer guide through this vast       
labyrinth of human thought4 ,but it is  
not enough to be aware that there is    
such a guide2 we must know her and      
follow her4 ,if she speaks to all       
hearts1 how is it that so few give heed 
to her voice8 ,she speaks to us in the  
language of nature1 and everything leads
 us to forget that tongue4 ,conscience  
is timid1 she loves peace and           
retirement2 she is startled by noise and
 numbers2 the prejudices from which she 
is said to arise are her worst enemies4 
,she flees before them or she is silent2
 their noisy voices drown her words1 so 
that she cannot get a hearing2          
fanaticism dares to counterfeit her     
voice and to inspire crimes in her name4
  ,she is discouraged by ill-treatment2 
she no longer speaks to us1 no longer   
answers to our call2 when she has been  
scorned so long1 it is as hard to recall
 her as it was to banish her4  ,how     
often in the course of my inquiries have

 ,i grown weary of my own coldness of   
heart6 ,how often have grief and        
weariness poured their poison into my   
first meditations and made them hateful 
to me6 ,my barren heart yielded nothing 
but a feeble zeal and a lukewarm love of
 truth4 ,i said to myself3 ,why should  
,i strive to find what does not exist8  
,moral good is a dream1 the pleasures of
 sense are the only real good4 ,when    
once we have lost the taste for the     
pleasures of the soul1 how hard it is to
 recover it6 ,how much more difficult to
 acquire it if we have never possessed  
it6 ,if there were any man so wretched  
as never to have done anything all his  
life long which he could remember with  
pleasure1 and which would make him glad 
to have lived1 that man would be        
incapable of self-knowledge1 and for    
want of knowledge of goodness1 of which 
his nature is capable1 he would be      
constrained to remain in his wickedness 
and would be for ever miserable4 ,but do
 you think there is any one man upon    

earth so depraved that he has never     
yielded to the temptation of well-doing8
  ,this temptation is so natural1 so    
pleasant1 that it is impossible always  
to resist it2 and the thought of the    
pleasure it has once afforded is enough 
to recall it constantly to our memory4  
,unluckily it is hard at first to find  
satisfaction for it2 we have any number 
of reasons for refusing to follow the   
inclinations of our heart2 prudence1 so 
called1 restricts the heart within the  
limits of the self2 a thousand efforts  
are needed to break these bonds4 ,the   
joy of well-doing is the prize of having
 done well1 and we must deserve the     
prize before we win it4 ,there is       
nothing sweeter than virtue2 but we do  
not know this till we have tried it4    
,like ,proteus in the fable1 she first  
assumes a thousand terrible shapes when 
we would embrace her1 and only shows her
 true self to those who refuse to let   
her go4  ,ever at strife between my     
natural feelings1 which spoke of the    

common weal1 and my reason1 which spoke 
of self1 ,i should have drifted through 
life in perpetual uncertainty1 hating   
evil1 loving good1 and always at war    
with myself1 if my heart had not        
received further light1 if that truth   
which determined my opinions had not    
also settled my conduct1 and set me at  
peace with myself4 ,reason alone is not 
a sufficient foundation for virtue2 what
 solid ground can be found8 ,virtue we  
are told is love of order4 ,but can this
 love prevail over my love for my own   
well-being1 and ought it so to prevail8 
,let them give me clear and sufficient  
reason for this preference4 ,their      
so-called principle is in truth a mere  
playing with words2 for ,i also say that
 vice is love of order1 differently     
understood4 ,wherever there is feeling  
and intelligence1 there is some sort of 
moral order4 ,the difference is this3   
the good man orders his life with regard
 to all men2 the wicked orders it for   
self alone4 ,the latter centres all     

things round himself2 the other measures
 his radius and remains on the          
circumference4 ,thus his place depends  
on the common centre1 which is ,god1 and
 on all the concentric circles which are
 ,his creatures4 ,if there is no ,god1  
the wicked is right and the good man is 
nothing but a fool4  ,my child6 ,may you
 one day feel what a burden is removed  
when1 having fathomed the vanity of     
human thoughts and tasted the bitterness
 of passion1 you find at length near at 
hand the path of wisdom1 the prize of   
this life's labours1 the source of that 
happiness which you despaired of4 ,every
 duty of natural law1 which man's       
injustice had almost effaced from my    
heart1 is engraven there1 for the second
 time in the name of that eternal       
justice which lays these duties upon me 
and beholds my fulfilment of them4 ,i   
feel myself merely the instrument of the
 ,omnipotent1 who wills what is good1   
who performs it1 who will bring about my
 own good through the co-operation of my

 will with his own1 and by the right use
 of my liberty4 ,i acquiesce in the     
order he establishes1 certain that one  
day ,i shall enjoy that order and find  
my happiness in it2 for what sweeter joy
 is there than this1 to feel oneself a  
part of a system where all is good8 ,a  
prey to pain1 ,i bear it in patience1   
remembering that it will soon be over1  
and that it results from a body which is
 not mine4 ,if ,i do a good deed in     
secret1 ,i know that it is seen1 and my 
conduct in this life is a pledge of the 
life to come4 ,when ,i suffer injustice1
 ,i say to myself1 the ,almighty who    
does all things well will reward me3 my 
bodily needs1 my poverty1 make the idea 
of death less intolerable4 ,there will  
be all the fewer bonds to be broken when
 my hour comes4  ,why is my soul        
subjected to my senses1 and imprisoned  
in this body by which it is enslaved and
 thwarted8 ,i know not2 have ,i entered 
into the counsels of the ,almighty8 ,but
 ,i may1 without rashness1 venture on a 

modest conjecture4 ,i say to myself3 ,if
 man's soul had remained in a state of  
freedom and innocence1 what merit would 
there have been in loving and obeying   
the order he found established1 an order
 which it would not have been to his    
advantage to disturb8 ,he would be      
happy1 no doubt1 but his happiness would
 not attain to the highest point1 the   
pride of virtue1 and the witness of a   
good conscience within him2 he would be 
but as the angels are1 and no doubt the 
good man will be more than they4 ,bound 
to a mortal body1 by bonds as strange as
 they are powerful1 his care for the    
preservation of this body tempts the    
soul to think only of self1 and gives it
 an interest opposed to the general     
order of things1 which it is still      
capable of knowing and loving2 then it  
is that the right use of his freedom    
becomes at once the merit and the       
reward2 then it is that it prepares for 
itself unending happiness1 by resisting 
its earthly passions and following its  

original direction4  ,if even in the    
lowly position in which we are placed   
during our present life our first       
impulses are always good1 if all our    
vices are of our own making1 why should 
we complain that they are our masters8  
,why should we blame the ,creator for   
the ills we have ourselves created1 and 
the enemies we ourselves have armed     
against us8 ,oh1 let us leave man       
unspoilt2 he will always find it easy to
 be good and he will always be happy    
without remorse4 ,the guilty1 who assert
 that they are driven to crime1 are     
liars as well as evil-doers2 how is it  
that they fail to perceive that the     
weakness they bewail is of their own    
making2 that their earliest depravity   
was the result of their own will2 that  
by dint of wishing to yield to          
temptations1 they at length yield to    
them whether they will or no and make   
them irresistible8 ,no doubt they can no
 longer avoid being weak and wicked1 but
 they need not have become weak and     

wicked4 ,oh1 how easy would it be to    
preserve control of ourselves and of our
 passions1 even in this life1 if with   
habits still unformed1 with a mind      
beginning to expand1 we were able to    
keep to such things as we ought to know1
 in order to value rightly what is      
unknown2 if we really wished to learn1  
not that we might shine before the eyes 
of others1 but that we might be wise and
 good in accordance with our nature1    
that we might be happy in the           
performance of our duty4 ,this study    
seems tedious and painful to us1 for we 
do not attempt it till we are already   
corrupted by vice and enslaved by our   
passions4 ,our judgments and our        
standards of worth are determined before
 we have the knowledge of good and evil2
 and then we measure all things by this 
false standard1 and give nothing its    
true worth4  ,there is an age when the  
heart is still free1 but eager1 unquiet1
 greedy of a happiness which is still   
unknown1 a happiness which it seeks in  

curiosity and doubt2 deceived by the    
senses it settles at length upon the    
empty show of happiness and thinks it   
has found it where it is not4 ,in my own
 case these illusions endured for a long
 time4 ,alas6 too late did ,i become    
aware of them1 and ,i have not succeeded
 in overcoming them altogether2 they    
will last as long as this mortal body   
from which they arise4 ,if they lead me 
astray1 ,i am at least no longer        
deceived by them2 ,i know them for what 
they are1 and even when ,i give way to  
them1 ,i despise myself2 far from       
regarding them as the goal of my        
happiness1 ,i behold in them an obstacle
 to it4 ,i long for the time when1 freed
 from the fetters of the body1 ,i shall 
be myself1 at one with myself1 no longer
 torn in two1 when ,i myself shall      
suffice for my own happiness4 ,meanwhile
 ,i am happy even in this life1 for ,i  
make small account of all its evils1 in 
which ,i regard myself as having little 
or no part1 while all the real good that

 ,i can get out of this life depends on 
myself alone4  ,to raise myself so far  
as may be even now to this state of     
happiness1 strength1 and freedom1 ,i    
exercise myself in lofty contemplation4 
,i consider the order of the universe1  
not to explain it by any futile system1 
but to revere it without ceasing1 to    
adore the wise ,author who reveals      
himself in it4 ,i hold intercourse with 
him2 ,i immerse all my powers in his    
divine essence2 ,i am overwhelmed by his
 kindness1 ,i bless him and his gifts1  
but ,i do not pray to him4 ,what should 
,i ask of him--to change the order of   
nature1 to work miracles on my behalf8  
,should ,i1 who am bound to love above  
all things the order which he has       
established in his wisdom and maintained
 by his providence1 should ,i desire the
 disturbance of that order on my own    
account8 ,no1 that rash prayer would    
deserve to be punished rather than to be
 granted4 ,neither do ,i ask of him the 
power to do right2 why should ,i ask    

what he has given me already8  ,has he  
not given me conscience that ,i may love
 the right1 reason that ,i may perceive 
it1 and freedom that ,i may choose it8  
,if ,i do evil1 ,i have no excuse2 ,i do
 it of my own free will2 to ask him to  
change my will is to ask him to do what 
he asks of me2 it is to want him to do  
the work while ,i get the wages2 to be  
dissatisfied with my lot is to wish to  
be no longer a man1 to wish to be other 
than what ,i am1 to wish for disorder   
and evil4 ,thou source of justice and   
truth1 merciful and gracious ,god1 in   
thee do ,i trust1 and the desire of my  
heart is--,thy will be done4 ,when ,i   
unite my will with thine1 ,i do what    
thou doest2 ,i have a share in thy      
goodness2 ,i believe that ,i enjoy      
beforehand the supreme happiness which  
is the reward of goodness4  ,in my      
well-founded self-distrust the only     
thing that ,i ask of ,god1 or rather    
expect from his justice1 is to correct  
my error if ,i go astray1 if that error 

is dangerous to me4 ,to be honest ,i    
need not think myself infallible2 my    
opinions1 which seem to me true1 may be 
so many lies2 for what man is there who 
does not cling to his own beliefs2 and  
how many men are agreed in everything8  
,the illusion which deceives me may     
indeed have its source in myself1 but it
 is ,god alone who can remove it4 ,i    
have done all ,i can to attain to truth2
 but its source is beyond my reach2 is  
it my fault if my strength fails me and 
,i can go no further2 it is for ,truth  
to draw near to me4  ,the good priest   
had spoken with passion2 he and ,i were 
overcome with emotion4 ,it seemed to me 
as if ,i were listening to the divine   
,orpheus when he sang the earliest hymns
 and taught men the worship of the gods4
 ,i saw any number of objections which  
might be raised2 yet ,i raised none1 for
 ,i perceived that they were more       
perplexing than serious1 and that my    
inclination took his part4 ,when he     
spoke to me according to his conscience1

 my own seemed to confirm what he said4 
,the novelty of the sentiments you have 
made known to me1 said ,i1 strikes me   
all the more because of what you confess
 you do not know1 than because of what  
you say you believe4 ,they seem to be   
very like that theism or natural        
religion1 which ,christians profess to  
confound with atheism or irreligion     
which is their exact opposite4 ,but in  
the present state of my faith ,i should 
have to ascend rather than descend to   
accept your views1 and ,i find it       
difficult to remain just where you are  
unless ,i were as wise as you4 ,that ,i 
may be at least as honest1 ,i want time 
to take counsel with myself4 ,by your   
own showing1 the inner voice must be my 
guide1 and you have yourself told me    
that when it has long been silenced it  
cannot be recalled in a moment4 ,i take 
what you have said to heart1 and ,i must
 consider it4 ,if after ,i have thought 
things out1 ,i am as convinced as you   
are1 you will be my final teacher1 and  

,i will be your disciple till death4    
,continue your teaching however2 you    
have only told me half what ,i must     
know4 ,speak to me of revelation1 of the
 ,scriptures1 of those difficult        
doctrines among which ,i have strayed   
ever since ,i was a child1 incapable    
either of understanding or believing    
them1 unable to adopt or reject them4   
,yes1 my child1 said he1 embracing me1  
,i will tell you all ,i think2 ,i will  
not open my heart to you by halves2 but 
the desire you express was necessary    
before ,i could cast aside all reserve4 
,so far ,i have told you nothing but    
what ,i thought would be of service to  
you1 nothing but what ,i was quite      
convinced of4 ,the inquiry which remains
 to be made is very difficult4 ,it seems
 to me full of perplexity1 mystery1 and 
darkness2 ,i bring to it only doubt and 
distrust4 ,i make up my mind with       
trembling1 and ,i tell you my doubts    
rather than my convictions4 ,if your own
 opinions were more settled ,i should   

hesitate to show you mine2 but in your  
present condition1 to think like me     
would be gain4 ,footnote3 ,i think the  
worthy clergyman might say this at the  
present time to the general public4     
,moreover1 give to my words only the    
authority of reason2 ,i know not whether
 ,i am mistaken4 ,it is difficult in    
discussion to avoid assuming sometimes a
 dogmatic tone2 but remember in this    
respect that all my assertions are but  
reasons to doubt me4 ,seek truth for    
yourself1 for my own part ,i only       
promise you sincerity4  ,in my          
exposition you find nothing but natural 
religion2 strange that we should need   
more6 ,how shall ,i become aware of this
 need8 ,what guilt can be mine so long  
as ,i serve ,god according to the       
knowledge he has given to my mind1 and  
the feelings he has put into my heart8  
,what purity of morals1 what dogma      
useful to man and worthy of its author1 
can ,i derive from a positive doctrine  
which cannot be derived without the aid 

of this doctrine by the right use of my 
faculties8 ,show me what you can add to 
the duties of the natural law1 for the  
glory of ,god1 for the good of mankind1 
and for my own welfare2 and what virtue 
you will get from the new form of       
religion which does not result from     
mine4 ,the grandest ideas of the ,divine
 nature come to us from reason only4    
,behold the spectacle of nature2 listen 
to the inner voice4 ,has not ,god spoken
 it all to our eyes1 to our conscience1 
to our reason8 ,what more can man tell  
us8 ,their revelations do but degrade   
,god1 by investing him with passions    
like our own4 ,far from throwing light  
upon the ideas of the ,supreme ,being1  
special doctrines seem to me to confuse 
these ideas2 far from ennobling them1   
they degrade them2 to the inconceivable 
mysteries which surround the ,almighty1 
they add absurd contradictions1 they    
make man proud1 intolerant1 and cruel2  
instead of bringing peace upon earth1   
they bring fire and sword4 ,i ask myself

 what is the use of it all1 and ,i find 
no answer4 ,i see nothing but the crimes
 of men and the misery of mankind4      
,they tell me a revelation was required 
to teach men how ,god would be served2  
as a proof of this they point to the    
many strange rites which men have       
instituted1 and they do not perceive    
that this very diversity springs from   
the fanciful nature of the revelations4 
,as soon as the nations took to making  
,god speak1 every one made him speak in 
his own fashion1 and made him say what  
he himself wanted4 ,had they listened   
only to what ,god says in the heart of  
man1 there would have been but one      
religion upon earth4  ,one form of      
worship was required2 just so1 but was  
this a matter of such importance as to  
require all the power of the ,godhead to
 establish it8 ,do not let us confuse   
the outward forms of religion with      
religion itself4 ,the service ,god      
requires is of the heart2 and when the  
heart is sincere that is ever the same4 

,it is a strange sort of conceit which  
fancies that ,god takes such an interest
 in the shape of the priest's vestments1
 the form of words he utters1 the       
gestures he makes before the altar and  
all his genuflections4 ,oh1 my friend1  
stand upright1 you will still be too    
near the earth4 ,god desires to be      
worshipped in spirit and in truth2 this 
duty belongs to every religion1 every   
country1 every individual4 ,as to the   
form of worship1 if order demands       
uniformity1 that is only a matter of    
discipline and needs no revelation4     
,these thoughts did not come to me to   
begin with4 ,carried away by the        
prejudices of my education1 and by that 
dangerous vanity which always strives to
 lift man out of his proper sphere1 when
 ,i could not raise my feeble thoughts  
up to the great ,being1 ,i tried to     
bring him down to my own level4 ,i tried
 to reduce the distance he has placed   
between his nature and mine4 ,i desired 
more immediate relations1 more          

individual instruction2 not content to  
make ,god in the image of man that ,i   
might be favoured above my fellows1 ,i  
desired supernatural knowledge2 ,i      
required a special form of worship2 ,i  
wanted ,god to tell me what he had not  
told others1 or what others had not     
understood like myself4  ,considering   
the point ,i had now reached as the     
common centre from which all believers  
set out on the quest for a more         
enlightened form of religion1 ,i merely 
found in natural religion the elements  
of all religion4 ,i beheld the multitude
 of diverse sects which hold sway upon  
earth1 each of which accuses the other  
of falsehood and error2 which of these1 
,i asked1 is the right8 ,every one      
replied1 ',my own2' every one said1 ',i 
alone and those who agree with me think 
rightly1 all the others are mistaken4'  
,and how do you know that your sect is  
in the right8 ,because ,god said so4    
,and how do you know ,god said so8      
,footnote3 ,all men1 said a wise and    

good priest1 maintain that they hold and
 believe their religion 7and all use the
 same jargon71 not of man1 nor of any   
creature1 but of ,god4 ,but to speak    
truly1 without pretence or flattery1    
none of them do so2 whatever they may   
say1 religions are taught by human hands
 and means2 take1 for example1 the way  
in which religions have been received by
 the world1 the way in which they are   
still received every day by individuals2
 the nation1 the country1 the locality  
gives the religion2 we belong to the    
religion of the place where we are born 
and brought up2 we are baptised or      
circumcised1 we are ,christians1 ,jews1 
,mohametans before we know that we are  
men2 we do not pick and choose our      
religion for see how ill the life and   
conduct agree with the religion1 see for
 what slight and human causes men go    
against the teaching of their           
religion4--,charron1 ,de la             
,sagesse4--,it seems clear that the     
honest creed of the holy theologian of  

,condom would not have differed greatly 
from that of the ,savoyard priest4 ,and 
who told you that ,god said it8 ,my     
pastor1 who knows all about it4 ,my     
pastor tells me what to believe and ,i  
believe it2 he assures me that any one  
who says anything else is mistaken1 and 
,i give not heed to them4  ,what6       
thought ,i1 is not truth one2 can that  
which is true for me be false for you8  
,if those who follow the right path and 
those who go astray have the same       
method1 what merit or what blame can be 
assigned to one more than to the other8 
,their choice is the result of chance2  
it is unjust to hold them responsible   
for it1 to reward or punish them for    
being born in one country or another4   
,to dare to say that ,god judges us in  
this manner is an outrage on his        
justice4  ,either all religions are good
 and pleasing to ,god1 or if there is   
one which he prescribes for men1 if they
 will be punished for despising it1 he  
will have distinguished it by plain and 

certain signs by which it can be known  
as the only true religion2 these signs  
are alike in every time and place1      
equally plain to all men1 great or      
small1 learned or unlearned1 ,europeans1
 ,indians1 ,africans1 savages4 ,if there
 were but one religion upon earth1 and  
if all beyond its pale were condemned to
 eternal punishment1 and if there were  
in any corner of the world one single   
honest man who was not convinced by this
 evidence1 the ,god of that religion    
would be the most unjust and cruel of   
tyrants4  ,let us therefore seek        
honestly after truth2 let us yield      
nothing to the claims of birth1 to the  
authority of parents and pastors1 but   
let us summon to the bar of conscience  
and of reason all that they have taught 
us from our childhood4 ,in vain do they 
exclaim1 ',submit your reason2' a       
deceiver might say as much2 ,i must have
 reasons for submitting my reason4  ,all
 the theology ,i can get for myself by  
observation of the universe and by the  

use of my faculties is contained in what
 ,i have already told you4 ,to know more
 one must have recourse to strange      
means4 ,these means cannot be the       
authority of men1 for every man is of   
the same species as myself1 and all that
 a man knows by nature ,i am capable of 
knowing1 and another may be deceived as 
much as ,i2 when ,i believe what he     
says1 it is not because he says it but  
because he proves its truth4 ,the       
witness of man is therefore nothing more
 than the witness of my own reason1 and 
it adds nothing to the natural means    
which ,god has given me for the         
knowledge of truth4  ,apostle of truth1 
what have you to tell me of which ,i am 
not the sole judge8 ,god himself has    
spoken2 give heed to his revelation4    
,that is another matter4 ,god has       
spoken1 these are indeed words which    
demand attention4 ,to whom has he       
spoken8 ,he has spoken to men4 ,why then
 have ,i heard nothing8 ,he has         
instructed others to make known his     

words to you4 ,i understand2 it is men  
who come and tell me what ,god has said4
 ,i would rather have heard the words of
 ,god himself2 it would have been as    
easy for him and ,i should have been    
secure from fraud4 ,he protects you from
 fraud by showing that his envoys come  
from him4 ,how does he show this8 ,by   
miracles4 ,where are these miracles8 ,in
 the books4 ,and who wrote the books8   
,men4 ,and who saw the miracles8 ,the   
men who bear witness to them4 ,what6    
,nothing but human testimony6 ,nothing  
but men who tell me what others told    
them6  ,how many men between ,god and   
me6 ,let us see1 however1 let us        
examine1 compare1 and verify4 ,oh6 if   
,god had but deigned to free me from all
 this labour1 ,i would have served him  
with all my heart4  ,consider1 my       
friend1 the terrible controversy in     
which ,i am now engaged2 what vast      
learning is required to go back to the  
remotest antiquity1 to examine1 weigh1  
confront prophecies1 revelations1 facts1

 all the monuments of faith set forth   
throughout the world1 to assign their   
date1 place1 authorship1 and occasion4  
,what exactness of critical judgment is 
needed to distinguish genuine documents 
from forgeries1 to compare objections   
with their answers1 translations with   
their originals2 to decide as to the    
impartiality of witnesses1 their        
common-sense1 their knowledge2 to make  
sure that nothing has been omitted1     
nothing added1 nothing transposed1      
altered1 or falsified2 to point out any 
remaining contradictions1 to determine  
what weight should be given to the      
silence of our adversaries with regard  
to the charges brought against them2 how
 far were they aware of those charges2  
did they think them sufficiently serious
 to require an answer2 were books       
sufficiently well known for our books to
 reach them2 have we been honest enough 
to allow their books to circulate among 
ourselves and to leave their strongest  
objections unaltered8  ,when the        

authenticity of all these documents is  
accepted1 we must now pass to the       
evidence of their authors' mission2 we  
must know the laws of chance1 and       
probability1 to decide which prophecy   
cannot be fulfilled without a miracle2  
we must know the spirit of the original 
languages1 to distinguish between       
prophecy and figures of speech2 we must 
know what facts are in accordance with  
nature and what facts are not1 so that  
we may say how far a clever man may     
deceive the eyes of the simple and may  
even astonish the learned2 we must      
discover what are the characteristics of
 a prodigy and how its authenticity may 
be established1 not only so far as to   
gain credence1 but so that doubt may be 
deserving of punishment2 we must compare
 the evidence for true and false        
miracles1 and find sure tests to        
distinguish between them2 lastly we must
 say why ,god chose as a witness to his 
words means which themselves require so 
much evidence on their behalf1 as if he 

were playing with human credulity1 and  
avoiding of set purpose the true means  
of persuasion4  ,assuming that the      
divine majesty condescends so far as to 
make a man the channel of his sacred    
will1 is it reasonable1 is it fair1 to  
demand that the whole of mankind should 
obey the voice of this minister without 
making him known as such8 ,is it just to
 give him as his sole credentials       
certain private signs1 performed in the 
presence of a few obscure persons1 signs
 which everybody else can only know by  
hearsay8 ,if one were to believe all the
 miracles that the uneducated and       
credulous profess to have seen in every 
country upon earth1 every sect would be 
in the right2 there would be more       
miracles than ordinary events2 and it   
would be the greatest miracle if there  
were no miracles wherever there were    
persecuted fanatics4 ,the unchangeable  
order of nature is the chief witness to 
the wise hand that guides it2 if there  
were many exceptions1 ,i should hardly  

know what to think2 for my own part ,i  
have too great a faith in ,god to       
believe in so many miracles which are so
 little worthy of him4  ,let a man come 
and say to us3 ,mortals1 ,i proclaim to 
you the will of the ,most ,highest2     
accept my words as those of him who has 
sent me2 ,i bid the sun to change his   
course1 the stars to range themselves in
 a fresh order1 the high places to      
become smooth1 the floods to rise up1   
the earth to change her face4 ,by these 
miracles who will not recognise the     
master of nature8 ,she does not obey    
impostors1 their miracles are wrought in
 holes and corners1 in deserts1 within  
closed doors1 where they find easy dupes
 among a small company of spectators    
already disposed to believe them4 ,who  
will venture to tell me how many        
eye-witnesses are required to make a    
miracle credible6 ,what use are your    
miracles1 performed if proof of your    
doctrine1 if they themselves require so 
much proof6 ,you might as well have let 

them alone4  ,there still remains the   
most important inquiry of all with      
regard to the doctrine proclaimed2 for  
since those who tell us ,god works      
miracles in this world1 profess that the
 devil sometimes imitates them1 when we 
have found the best attested miracles we
 have got very little further2 and since
 the magicians of ,pharaoh dared in the 
presence of ,moses to counterfeit the   
very signs he wrought at ,god's command1
 why should they not1 behind his back1  
claim a like authority8 ,so when we have
 proved our doctrine by means of        
miracles1 we must prove our miracles by 
means of doctrine1 ,footnote3 ,this is  
expressly stated in many passages of    
,scripture1 among others in ,deuteronomy
 xiii41 where it is said that when a    
prophet preaching strange gods confirms 
his words by means of miracles and what 
he foretells comes to pass1 far from    
giving heed to him1 this prophet must be
 put to death4 ,if then the heathen put 
the apostles to death when they preached

 a strange god and confirmed their words
 by miracles which came to pass ,i      
cannot see what grounds we have for     
complaint which they could not at once  
turn against us4 ,now1 what should be   
done in such a case8 ,there is only one 
course2 to return to argument and let   
the miracles alone4 ,it would have been 
better not to have had recourse to them 
at all4 ,that is plain common-sense     
which can only be obscured by great     
subtlety of distinction4  ,subtleties in
 ,christianity6 ,so ,jesus ,christ was  
mistaken when he promised the kingdom of
 heaven to the simple1 he was mistaken  
when he began his finest discourse with 
the praise of the poor in spirit1 if so 
much wit is needed to understand his    
teaching and to get others to believe in
 him4 ,when you have convinced me that  
submission is my duty1 all will be well2
 but to convince me of this1 come down  
to my level2 adapt your arguments to a  
lowly mind1 or ,i shall not recognise   
you as a true disciple of your master1  

and it is not his doctrine that you are 
teaching me4 for fear lest we should    
take the devil's doings for the         
handiwork of ,god4 ,what think you of   
this dilemma8  ,this doctrine1 if it    
comes from ,god1 should bear the sacred 
stamp of the godhead2 not only should it
 illumine the troubled thoughts which   
reason imprints on our minds1 but it    
should also offer us a form of worship1 
a morality1 and rules of conduct in     
accordance with the attributes by means 
of which we alone conceive of ,god's    
essence4  ,if then it teaches us what is
 absurd and unreasonable1 if it inspires
 us with feelings of aversion for our   
fellows and terror for ourselves1 if it 
paints us a ,god1 angry1 jealous1       
revengeful1 partial1 hating men1 a ,god 
of war and battles1 ever ready to strike
 and to destroy1 ever speaking of       
punishment and torment1 boasting even of
 the punishment of the innocent1 my     
heart would not be drawn towards this   
terrible ,god1 ,i would take good care  

not to quit the realm of natural        
religion to embrace such a religion as  
that2 for you see plainly ,i must choose
 between them4 ,your ,god is not ours4  
,he who begins by selecting a chosen    
people1 and proscribing the rest of     
mankind1 is not our common father2 he   
who consigns to eternal punishment the  
greater part of his creatures1 is not   
the merciful and gracious ,god revealed 
to me by my reason4  ,reason tells me   
that dogmas should be plain1 clear1 and 
striking in their simplicity4 ,if there 
is something lacking in natural         
religion1 it is with respect to the     
obscurity in which it leaves the great  
truths it teaches2 revelation should    
teach us these truths in a way which the
 mind of man can understand2 it should  
bring them within his reach1 make him   
comprehend them1 so that he may believe 
them4  ,faith is confirmed and          
strengthened by understanding2 the best 
religion is of necessity the simplest4  
,he who hides beneath mysteries and     

contradictions the religion that he     
preaches to me1 teaches me at the same  
time to distrust that religion4 ,the    
,god whom ,i adore is not the ,god of   
darkness1 he has not given me           
understanding in order to forbid me to  
use it2 to tell me to submit my reason  
is to insult the giver of reason4 ,the  
minister of truth does not tyrannise    
over my reason1 he enlightens it4  ,we  
have set aside all human authority1 and 
without it ,i do not see how any man can
 convince another by preaching a        
doctrine contrary to reason4 ,let them  
fight it out1 and let us see what they  
have to say with that harshness of      
speech which is common to both4         
,,inspiration3 ,reason tells you that   
the whole is greater than the part2 but 
,i tell you1 in ,god's name1 that the   
part is greater than the whole4         
,,reason3 ,and who are you to dare to   
tell me that ,god contradicts himself8  
,and which shall ,i choose to believe4  
,god who teaches me1 through my reason1 

the eternal truth1 or you who1 in his   
name1 proclaim an absurdity8            
,,inspiration3 ,believe me1 for my      
teaching is more positive2 and ,i will  
prove to you beyond all manner of doubt 
that he has sent me4  ,,reason3 ,what6  
you will convince me that ,god has sent 
you to bear witness against himself8    
,what sort of proofs will you adduce to 
convince me that ,god speaks more surely
 by your mouth than through the         
understanding he has given me8          
,,inspiration3 ,the understanding he has
 given you6 ,petty1 conceited creature6 
,as if you were the first impious person
 who had been led astray through his    
reason corrupted by sin4  ,,reason3 ,man
 of ,god1 you would not be the first    
scoundrel who asserts his arrogance as a
 proof of his mission4  ,,inspiration3  
,what6 do even philosophers call names8 
,,reason3 ,sometimes1 when the saints   
set them the example4  ,,inspiration3   
,oh1 but ,i have a right to do it1 for  
,i am speaking on ,god's behalf4        

,,reason3 ,you would do well to show    
your credentials before you make use of 
your privileges4  ,,inspiration3 ,my    
credentials are authentic1 earth and    
heaven will bear witness on my behalf4  
,follow my arguments carefully1 if you  
please4  ,,reason3 ,your arguments6 ,you
 forget what you are saying4 ,when you  
teach me that my reason misleads me1 do 
you not refute what it might have said  
on your behalf8 ,he who denies the right
 of reason1 must convince me without    
recourse to her aid4 ,for suppose you   
have convinced me by reason1 how am ,i  
to know that it is not my reason1       
corrupted by sin1 which makes me accept 
what you say8 besides1 what proof1 what 
demonstration1 can you advance1 more    
self-evident than the axiom it is to    
destroy8 ,it is more credible that a    
good syllogism is a lie1 than that the  
part is greater than the whole4         
,,inspiration3 ,what a difference6      
,there is no answer to my evidence2 it  
is of a supernatural kind4  ,,reason3   

,supernatural6 ,what do you mean by the 
word8 ,i do not understand it4          
,,inspiration3 ,i mean changes in the   
order of nature1 prophecies1 signs1 and 
wonders of every kind4  ,,reason3 ,signs
 and wonders6 ,i have never seen        
anything of the kind4  ,,inspiration3   
,others have seen them for you4 ,clouds 
of witnesses--the witness of whole      
nations4444  ,,reason3 ,is the witness  
of nations supernatural8  ,,inspiration3
 ,no2 but when it is unanimous1 it is   
incontestable4  ,,reason3 ,there is     
nothing so incontestable as the         
principles of reason1 and one cannot    
accept an absurdity on human evidence4  
,once more1 let us see your supernatural
 evidence1 for the consent of mankind is
 not supernatural4  ,,inspiration3 ,oh1 
hardened heart1 grace does not speak to 
you4  ,,reason3 ,that is not my fault2  
for by your own showing1 one must have  
already received grace before one is    
able to ask for it4 ,begin by speaking  
to me in its stead4  ,,inspiration3 ,but

 that is just what ,i am doing1 and you 
will not listen4 ,but what do you say to
 prophecy8  ,,reason3 ,in the first     
place1 ,i say ,i have no more heard a   
prophet than ,i have seen a miracle4 ,in
 the next1 ,i say that no prophet could 
claim authority over me4  ,,inspiration3
 ,follower of the devil6 ,why should not
 the words of the prophets have         
authority over you8  ,,reason3 ,because 
three things are required1 three things 
which will never happen3 firstly1 ,i    
must have heard the prophecy2 secondly1 
,i must have seen its fulfilment2 and   
thirdly1 it must be clearly proved that 
the fulfilment of the prophecy could not
 by any possibility have been a mere    
coincidence2 for even if it was as      
precise1 as plain1 and clear as an axiom
 of geometry1 since the clearness of a  
chance prediction does not make its     
fulfilment impossible1 this fulfilment  
when it does take place does not1       
strictly speaking1 prove what was       
foretold4  ,see what your so-called     

supernatural proofs1 your miracles1 your
 prophecies come to3 believe all this   
upon the word of another4 ,submit to the
 authority of men the authority of ,god 
which speaks to my reason4 ,if the      
eternal truths which my mind conceives  
of could suffer any shock1 there would  
be no sort of certainty for me2 and far 
from being sure that you speak to me on 
,god's behalf1 ,i should not even be    
sure that there is a ,god4  ,my child1  
here are difficulties enough1 but these 
are not all4 ,among so many religions1  
mutually excluding and proscribing each 
other1 one only is true1 if indeed any  
one of them is true4 ,to recognise the  
true religion we must inquire into1 not 
one1 but all2 and in any question       
whatsoever we have no right to condemn  
unheard4 ,footnote3 ,on the other hand1 
,plutarch relates that the ,stoics      
maintained1 among other strange         
paradoxes1 that it was no use hearing   
both sides2 for1 said they1 the first   
either proves his point or he does not  

prove it2 if he has proved it1 there is 
an end of it1 and the other should be   
condemned3 if he has not proved it1 he  
himself is in the wrong and judgment    
should be given against him4 ,i consider
 the method of those who accept an      
exclusive revelation very much like that
 of these ,stoics4 ,when each of them   
claims to be the sole guardian of truth1
 we must hear them all before we can    
choose between them without injustice4  
,the objections must be compared with   
the evidence2 we must know what         
accusation each brings against the      
other1 and what answers they receive4   
,the plainer any feeling appears to us1 
the more we must try to discover why so 
many other people refuse to accept it4  
,we should be simple1 indeed1 if we     
thought it enough to hear the doctors on
 our own side1 in order to acquaint     
ourselves with the arguments of the     
other4 ,where can you find theologians  
who pride themselves on their honesty8  
,where are those who1 to refute the     

arguments of their opponents1 do not    
begin by making out that they are of    
little importance8 ,a man may make a    
good show among his own friends1 and be 
very proud of his arguments1 who would  
cut a very poor figure with those same  
arguments among those who are on the    
other side4 ,would you find out for     
yourself from books8 ,what learning you 
will need6 ,what languages you must     
learn2 what libraries you must ransack2 
what an amount of reading must be got   
through6 ,who will guide me in such a   
choice8 ,it will be hard to find the    
best books on the opposite side in any  
one country1 and all the harder to find 
those on all sides2 when found they     
would be easily answered4 ,the absent   
are always in the wrong1 and bad        
arguments boldly asserted easily efface 
good arguments put forward with scorn4  
,besides books are often very           
misleading1 and scarcely express the    
opinions of their authors4 ,if you think
 you can judge the ,catholic faith from 

the writings of ,bossuet1 you will find 
yourself greatly mistaken when you have 
lived among us4 ,you will see that the  
doctrines with which ,protestants are   
answered are quite different from those 
of the pulpit4 ,to judge a religion     
rightly1 you must not study it in the   
books of its partisans1 you must learn  
it in their lives2 this is quite another
 matter4 ,each religion has its own     
traditions1 meaning1 customs1           
prejudices1 which form the spirit of its
 creed1 and must be taken in connection 
with it4  ,how many great nations       
neither print books of their own nor    
read ours6 ,how shall they judge of our 
opinions1 or we of theirs8 ,we laugh at 
them1 they despise us2 and if our       
travellers turn them into ridicule1 they
 need only travel among us to pay us    
back in our own coin4 ,are there not1 in
 every country1 men of common-sense1    
honesty1 and good faith1 lovers of      
truth1 who only seek to know what truth 
is that they may profess it8 ,yet every 

one finds truth in his own religion1 and
 thinks the religion of other nations   
absurd2 so all these foreign religions  
are not so absurd as they seem to us1 or
 else the reason we find for our own    
proves nothing4  ,we have three         
principal forms of religion in ,europe4 
,one accepts one revelation1 another    
two1 and another three4 ,each hates the 
others1 showers curses on them1 accuses 
them of blindness1 obstinacy1 hardness  
of heart1 and falsehood4 ,what          
fair-minded man will dare to decide     
between them without first carefully    
weighing their evidence1 without        
listening attentively to their          
arguments8  ,that which accepts only one
 revelation is the oldest and seems the 
best established2 that which accepts    
three is the newest and seems the most  
consistent2 that which accepts two      
revelations and rejects the third may   
perhaps be the best1 but prejudice is   
certainly against it2 its inconsistency 
is glaring4  ,in all three revelations  

the sacred books are written in         
languages unknown to the people who     
believe in them4 ,the ,jews no longer   
understand ,hebrew1 the ,christians     
understand neither ,hebrew nor ,greek2  
the ,turks and ,persians do not         
understand ,arabic1 and the ,arabs of   
our time do not speak the language of   
,mahomet4 ,is not it a very foolish way 
of teaching1 to teach people in an      
unknown tongue8  ,these books are       
translated1 you say4 ,what an answer6   
,how am ,i to know that the translations
 are correct1 or how am ,i to make sure 
that such a thing as a correct          
translation is possible8 ,if ,god has   
gone so far as to speak to men1 why     
should he require an interpreter8  ,i   
can never believe that every man is     
obliged to know what is contained in    
books1 and that he who is out of reach  
of these books1 and of those who        
understand them1 will be punished for an
 ignorance which is no fault of his4    
,books upon books6 ,what madness6 ,as   

all ,europe is full of books1 ,europeans
 regard them as necessary1 forgetting   
that they are unknown throughout        
three-quarters of the globe4 ,were not  
all these books written by men8 ,why    
then should a man need them to teach him
 his duty1 and how did he learn his duty
 before these books were in existence8  
,either he must have learnt his duties  
for himself1 or his ignorance must have 
been excused4  ,our ,catholics talk     
loudly of the authority of the ,church2 
but what is the use of it all1 if they  
also need just as great an array of     
proofs to establish that authority as   
the other seeks to establish their      
doctrine8 ,the ,church decides that the 
,church has a right to decide4 ,what a  
well-founded authority6 ,go beyond it1  
and you are back again in our           
discussions4  ,do you know many         
,christians who have taken the trouble  
to inquire what the ,jews allege against
 them8 ,if any one knows anything at all
 about it1 it is from the writings of   

,christians4 ,what a way of ascertaining
 the arguments of our adversaries6 ,but 
what is to be done8 ,if any one dared to
 publish in our day books which were    
openly in favour of the ,jewish         
religion1 we should punish the author1  
publisher1 and bookseller4 ,this        
regulation is a sure and certain plan   
for always being in the right4 ,it is   
easy to refute those who dare not       
venture to speak4  ,those among us who  
have the opportunity of talking with    
,jews are little better off4 ,these     
unhappy people feel that they are in our
 power2 the tyranny they have suffered  
makes them timid2 they know that        
,christian charity thinks nothing of    
injustice and cruelty2 will they dare to
 run the risk of an outcry against      
blasphemy8 ,our greed inspires us with  
zeal1 and they are so rich that they    
must be in the wrong4 ,the more learned1
 the more enlightened they are1 the more
 cautious4 ,you may convert some poor   
wretch whom you have paid to slander his

 religion2 you get some wretched        
old-clothes-man to speak1 and he says   
what you want2 you may triumph over     
their ignorance and cowardice1 while all
 the time their men of learning are     
laughing at your stupidity4 ,but do you 
think you would get off so easily in any
 place where they knew they were safe6  
,at the ,sorbonne it is plain that the  
,messianic prophecies refer to ,jesus   
,christ4 ,among the rabbis of ,amsterdam
 it is just as clear that they have     
nothing to do with him4 ,i do not think 
,i have ever heard the arguments of the 
,jews as to why they should not have a  
free state1 schools and universities1   
where they can speak and argue without  
danger4 ,then alone can we know what    
they have to say4  ,at ,constantinople  
the ,turks state their arguments1 but we
 dare not give ours2 then it is our turn
 to cringe4 ,can we blame the ,turks if 
they require us to show the same respect
 for ,mahomet1 in whom we do not        
believe1 as we demand from the ,jews    

with regard to ,jesus ,christ in whom   
they do not believe8 ,are we right8 ,on 
what grounds of justice can we answer   
this question8  ,two-thirds of mankind  
are neither ,jews1 ,mahometans1 nor     
,christians2 and how many millions of   
men have never heard the name of ,moses1
 ,jesus ,christ1 or ,mahomet8 ,they deny
 it2 they maintain that our missionaries
 go everywhere4 ,that is easily said4   
,but do they go into the heart of       
,africa1 still undiscovered1 where as   
yet no ,european has ever ventured8 ,do 
they go to ,eastern ,tartary to follow  
on horseback the wandering tribes1 whom 
no stranger approaches1 who not only    
know nothing of the pope1 but have      
scarcely heard tell of the ,grand ,lama6
 ,do they penetrate into the vast       
continents of ,america1 where there are 
still whole nations unaware that the    
people of another world have set foot on
 their shores8 ,do they go to ,japan1   
where their intrigues have led to their 
perpetual banishment1 where their       

predecessors are only known to the      
rising generation as skilful plotters   
who came with feigned zeal to take      
possession in secret of the empire8 ,do 
they reach the harems of the ,asiatic   
princes to preach the gospel to those   
thousands of poor slaves8 ,what have the
 women of those countries done that no  
missionary may preach the faith to them8
 ,will they all go to hell because of   
their seclusion8  ,if it were true that 
the gospel is preached throughout the   
world1 what advantage would there be8   
,the day before the first missionary set
 foot in any country1 no doubt somebody 
died who could not hear him4 ,now tell  
me what we shall do with him8 ,if there 
were a single soul in the whole world1  
to whom ,jesus ,christ had never been   
preached1 this objection would be as    
strong for that man as for a quarter of 
the human race4  ,if the ministers of   
the gospel have made themselves heard   
among far-off nations1 what have they   
told them which might reasonably be     

accepted on their word1 without further 
and more exact verification8 ,you preach
 to me ,god1 born and dying1 two        
thousand years ago1 at the other end of 
the world1 in some small town ,i know   
not where2 and you tell me that all who 
have not believed this mystery are      
damned4  ,these are strange things to be
 believed so quickly on the authority of
 an unknown person4 ,why did your ,god  
make these things happen so far off1 if 
he would compel me to know about them8  
,is it a crime to be unaware of what is 
happening half a world away8 ,could ,i  
guess that in another hemisphere there  
was a ,hebrew nation and a town called  
,jerusalem8 ,you might as well expect me
 to know what was happening in the moon4
 ,you say you have come to teach me2 but
 why did you not come and teach my      
father1 or why do you consign that good 
old man to damnation because he knew    
nothing of all this8 ,must he be        
punished everlastingly for your         
laziness1 he who was so kind and        

helpful1 he who sought only for truth8  
,be honest2 put yourself in my place2   
see if ,i ought to believe1 on your word
 alone1 all these incredible things     
which you have told me1 and reconcile   
all this injustice with the just ,god   
you proclaim to me4 ,at least allow me  
to go and see this distant land where   
such wonders1 unheard of in my own      
country1 took place2 let me go and see  
why the inhabitants of ,jerusalem put   
their ,god to death as a robber4 ,you   
tell me they did not know he was ,god4  
,what then shall ,i do1 ,i who have only
 heard of him from you8 ,you say they   
have been punished1 dispersed1          
oppressed1 enslaved2 that none of them  
dare approach that town4 ,indeed they   
richly deserved it2 but what do its     
present inhabitants say of their crime  
in slaying their ,god6 ,they deny him2  
they too refuse to recognise ,god as    
,god4 ,they are no better than the      
children of the original inhabitants4   
,what6 ,in the very town where ,god was 

put to death1 neither the former nor the
 latter inhabitants knew him1 and you   
expect that ,i should know him1 ,i who  
was born two thousand years after his   
time1 and two thousand leagues away8 ,do
 you not see that before ,i can believe 
this book which you call sacred1 but    
which ,i do not in the least understand1
 ,i must know from others than yourself 
when and by whom it was written1 how it 
has been preserved1 how it came into    
your possession1 what they say about it 
in those lands where it is rejected1 and
 what are their reasons for rejecting   
it1 though they know as well as you what
 you are telling me8 ,you perceive ,i   
must go to ,europe1 ,asia1 ,palestine1  
to examine these things for myself2 it  
would be madness to listen to you before
 that4  ,not only does this seem        
reasonable to me1 but ,i maintain that  
it is what every wise man ought to say  
in similar circumstances2 that he ought 
to banish to a great distance the       
missionary who wants to instruct and    

baptise him all of a sudden before the  
evidence is verified4 ,now ,i maintain  
that there is no revelation against     
which these or similar objections cannot
 be made1 and with more force than      
against ,christianity4 ,hence it follows
 that if there is but one true religion 
and if every man is bound to follow it  
under pain of damnation1 he must spend  
his whole life in studying1 testing1    
comparing all these religions1 in       
travelling through the countries in     
which they are established4 ,no man is  
free from a man's first duty2 no one has
 a right to depend on another's         
judgment4 ,the artisan who earns his    
bread by his daily toil1 the ploughboy  
who cannot read1 the delicate and timid 
maiden1 the invalid who can scarcely    
leave his bed1 all without exception    
must study1 consider1 argue1 travel over
 the whole world2 there will be no more 
fixed and settled nations2 the whole    
earth will swarm with pilgrims on their 
way1 at great cost of time and trouble1 

to verify1 compare1 and examine for     
themselves the various religions to be  
found4 ,then farewell to the trades1 the
 arts1 the sciences of mankind1 farewell
 to all peaceful occupations2 there can 
be no study but that of religion1 even  
the strongest1 the most industrious1 the
 most intelligent1 the oldest1 will     
hardly be able in his last years to know
 where he is2 and it will be a wonder if
 he manages to find out what religion he
 ought to live by1 before the hour of   
his death4  ,hard pressed by these      
arguments1 some prefer to make ,god     
unjust and to punish the innocent for   
the sins of their fathers1 rather than  
to renounce their barbarous dogmas4     
,others get out of the difficulty by    
kindly sending an angel to instruct all 
those who in invincible ignorance have  
lived a righteous life4 ,a good idea1   
that angel6 ,not content to be the      
slaves of their own inventions they     
expect ,god to make use of them also6   
,behold1 my son1 the absurdities to     

which pride and intolerance bring us1   
when everybody wants others to think as 
he does1 and everybody fancies that he  
has an exclusive claim upon the rest of 
mankind4 ,i call to witness the ,god of 
,peace whom ,i adore1 and whom ,i       
proclaim to you1 that my inquiries were 
honestly made2 but when ,i discovered   
that they were and always would be      
unsuccessful1 and that ,i was embarked  
upon a boundless ocean1 ,i turned back1 
and restricted my faith within the      
limits of my primitive ideas4 ,i could  
never convince myself that ,god would   
require such learning of me under pain  
of hell4 ,so ,i closed all my books4    
,there is one book which is open to     
every one--the book of nature4 ,in this 
good and great volume ,i learn to serve 
and adore its ,author4 ,there is no     
excuse for not reading this book1 for it
 speaks to all in a language they can   
understand4 ,suppose ,i had been born in
 a desert island1 suppose ,i had never  
seen any man but myself1 suppose ,i had 

never heard what took place in olden    
days in a remote corner of the world2   
yet if ,i use my reason1 if ,i cultivate
 it1 if ,i employ rightly the innate    
faculties which ,god bestows upon me1 ,i
 shall learn by myself to know and love 
him1 to love his works1 to will what he 
wills1 and to fulfil all my duties upon 
earth1 that ,i may do his pleasure4     
,what more can all human learning teach 
me8  ,with regard to revelation1 if ,i  
were a more accomplished disputant1 or a
 more learned person1 perhaps ,i should 
feel its truth1 its usefulness for those
 who are happy enough to perceive it2   
but if ,i find evidence for it which ,i 
cannot combat1 ,i also find objections  
against it which ,i cannot overcome4    
,there are so many weighty reasons for  
and against that ,i do not know what to 
decide1 so that ,i neither accept nor   
reject it4 ,i only reject all obligation
 to be convinced of its truth2 for this 
so-called obligation is incompatible    
with ,god's justice1 and far from       

removing objections in this way it would
 multiply them1 and would make them     
insurmountable for the greater part of  
mankind4 ,in this respect ,i maintain an
 attitude of reverent doubt4 ,i do not  
presume to think myself infallible2     
other men may have been able to make up 
their minds though the matter seems     
doubtful to myself2 ,i am speaking for  
myself1 not for them2 ,i neither blame  
them nor follow in their steps2 their   
judgment may be superior to mine1 but it
 is no fault of mine that my judgment   
does not agree with it4  ,i own also    
that the holiness of the gospel speaks  
to my heart1 and that this is an        
argument which ,i should be sorry to    
refute4 ,consider the books of the      
philosophers with all their outward     
show2 how petty they are in comparison6 
,can a book at once so grand and so     
simple be the work of men8 ,is it       
possible that he whose history is       
contained in this book is no more than  
man8 ,is the tone of this book1 the tone

 of the enthusiast or the ambitious     
sectary8 ,what gentleness and purity in 
his actions1 what a touching grace in   
his teaching1 how lofty are his sayings1
 how profoundly wise are his sermons1   
how ready1 how discriminating1 and how  
just are his answers6 ,what man1 what   
sage1 can live1 suffer1 and die without 
weakness or ostentation8 ,when ,plato   
describes his imaginary good man1       
overwhelmed with the disgrace of crime1 
and deserving of all the rewards of     
virtue1 every feature of the portrait is
 that of ,christ2 the resemblance is so 
striking that it has been noticed by all
 the ,fathers1 and there can be no doubt
 about it4 ,what prejudices and         
blindness must there be before we dare  
to compare the son of ,sophronisca with 
the son of ,mary4 ,how far apart they   
are6 ,socrates dies a painless death1 he
 is not put to open shame1 and he plays 
his part easily to the last2 and if this
 easy death had not done honour to his  
life1 we might have doubted whether     

,socrates1 with all his intellect1 was  
more than a mere sophist4 ,he invented  
morality1 so they say2 others before him
 had practised it2 he only said what    
they had done1 and made use of their    
example in his teaching4 ,aristides was 
just before ,socrates defined justice2  
,leonidas died for his country before   
,socrates declared that patriotism was a
 virtue2 ,sparta was sober before       
,socrates extolled sobriety2 there were 
plenty of virtuous men in ,greece before
 he defined virtue4 ,but among the men  
of his own time where did ,jesus find   
that pure and lofty morality of which he
 is both the teacher and pattern8       
,footnote3 ,cf4  in the ,sermon on the  
,mount the parallel he himself draws    
between the teaching of ,moses and his  
own4--,matt4 v4 ,the voice of loftiest  
wisdom arose among the fiercest         
fanaticism1 the simplicity of the most  
heroic virtues did honour to the most   
degraded of nations4 ,one could wish no 
easier death than that of ,socrates1    

calmly discussing philosophy with his   
friends2 one could fear nothing worse   
than that of ,jesus1 dying in torment1  
among the insults1 the mockery1 the     
curses of the whole nation4 ,in the     
midst of these terrible sufferings1     
,jesus prays for his cruel murderers4   
,yes1 if the life and death of ,socrates
 are those of a philosopher1 the life   
and death of ,christ are those of a     
,god4 ,shall we say that the gospel     
story is the work of the imagination8   
,my friend1 such things are not         
imagined2 and the doings of ,socrates1  
which no one doubts1 are less well      
attested than those of ,jesus ,christ4  
,at best1 you only put the difficulty   
from you2 it would be still more        
incredible that several persons should  
have agreed together to invent such a   
book1 than that there was one man who   
supplied its subject matter4 ,the tone  
and morality of this story are not those
 of any ,jewish authors1 and the gospel 
indeed contains characters so great1 so 

striking1 so entirely inimitable1 that  
their invention would be more           
astonishing than their hero4 ,with all  
this the same gospel is full of         
incredible things1 things repugnant to  
reason1 things which no natural man can 
understand or accept4 ,what can you do  
among so many contradictions8  ,you can 
be modest and wary1 my child2 respect in
 silence what you can neither reject nor
 understand1 and humble yourself in the 
sight of the ,divine ,being who alone   
knows the truth4  ,this is the unwilling
 scepticism in which ,i rest2 but this  
scepticism is in no way painful to me1  
for it does not extend to matters of    
practice1 and ,i am well assured as to  
the principles underlying all my duties4
 ,i serve ,god in the simplicity of my  
heart2 ,i only seek to know what affects
 my conduct4 ,as to those dogmas which  
have no effect upon action or morality1 
dogmas about which so many men torment  
themselves1 ,i give no heed to them4 ,i 
regard all individual religions as so   

many wholesome institutions which       
prescribe a uniform method by which each
 country may do honour to ,god in public
 worship2 institutions which may each   
have its reason in the country1 the     
government1 the genius of the people1 or
 in other local causes which make one   
preferable to another in a given time or
 place4 ,i think them all good alike1   
when ,god is served in a fitting manner4
 ,true worship is of the heart4 ,god    
rejects no homage1 however offered1     
provided it is sincere4 ,called to the  
service of the ,church in my own        
religion1 ,i fulfil as scrupulously as  
,i can all the duties prescribed to me1 
and my conscience would reproach me if  
,i were knowingly wanting with regard to
 any point4 ,you are aware that after   
being suspended for a long time1 ,i     
have1 through the influence of ,m4      
,mellarede1 obtained permission to      
resume my priestly duties1 as a means of
 livelihood4 ,i used to say ,mass with  
the levity that comes from long         

experience even of the most serious     
matters when they are too familiar to   
us2 with my new principles ,i now       
celebrate it with more reverence2 ,i    
dwell upon the majesty of the ,supreme  
,being1 his presence1 the insufficiency 
of the human mind1 which so little      
realises what concerns its ,creator4    
,when ,i consider how ,i present before 
him the prayers of all the people in a  
form laid down for me1 ,i carry out the 
whole ritual exactly2 ,i give heed to   
what ,i say1 ,i am careful not to omit  
the least word1 the least ceremony2 when
 the moment of the consecration         
approaches1 ,i collect my powers1 that  
,i may do all things as required by the 
,church and by the greatness of this    
sacrament2 ,i strive to annihilate my   
own reason before the ,supreme ,mind2 ,i
 say to myself1 ,who art thou to measure
 infinite power8 ,i reverently pronounce
 the sacramental words1 and ,i give to  
their effect all the faith ,i can       
bestow4  ,whatever may be this mystery  

which passes understanding1 ,i am not   
afraid that at the day of judgment ,i   
shall be punished for having profaned it
 in my heart4  ,honoured with the sacred
 ministry1 though in its lowest ranks1  
,i will never do or say anything which  
may make me unworthy to fulfil these    
sublime duties4 ,i will always preach   
virtue and exhort men to well-doing2 and
 so far as ,i can ,i will set them a    
good example4 ,it will be my business to
 make religion attractive2 it will be my
 business to strengthen their faith in  
those doctrines which are really useful1
 those which every man must believe2    
but1 please ,god1 ,i shall never teach  
them to hate their neighbour1 to say to 
other men1 ,you will be damned2 to say1 
,no salvation outside the ,church4      
,footnote3 ,the duty of following and   
loving the religion of our country does 
not go so far as to require us to accept
 doctrines contrary to good morals1 such
 as intolerance4 ,this horrible doctrine
 sets men in arms against their         

fellow-men1 and makes them all enemies  
of mankind4 ,the distinction between    
civil toleration and theological        
toleration is vain and childish4 ,these 
two kinds of toleration are inseparable1
 and we cannot accept one without the   
other4 ,even the angels could not live  
at peace with men whom they regarded as 
the enemies of ,god4 ,if ,i were in a   
more conspicuous position1 this         
reticence might get me into trouble2 but
 ,i am too obscure to have much to fear1
 and ,i could hardly sink lower than ,i 
am4 ,come what may1 ,i will never       
blaspheme the justice of ,god1 nor lie  
against the ,holy ,ghost4  ,i have long 
desired to have a parish of my own2 it  
is still my ambition1 but ,i no longer  
hope to attain it4 ,my dear friend1 ,i  
think there is nothing so delightful as 
to be a parish priest4 ,a good clergyman
 is a minister of mercy1 as a good      
magistrate is a minister of justice4 ,a 
clergyman is never called upon to do    
evil2 if he cannot always do good       

himself1 it is never out of place for   
him to beg for others1 and he often gets
 what he asks if he knows how to gain   
respect4 ,oh6 if ,i should ever have    
some poor mountain parish where ,i might
 minister to kindly folk1 ,i should be  
happy indeed2 for it seems to me that ,i
 should make my parishioners happy4 ,i  
should not bring them riches1 but ,i    
should share their poverty2 ,i should   
remove from them the scorn and          
opprobrium which are harder to bear than
 poverty4 ,i should make them love peace
 and equality1 which often remove       
poverty1 and always make it tolerable4  
,when they saw that ,i was in no way    
better off than themselves1 and that yet
 ,i was content with my lot1 they would 
learn to put up with their fate and to  
be content like me4 ,in my sermons ,i   
would lay more stress on the spirit of  
the gospel than on the spirit of the    
church2 its teaching is simple1 its     
morality sublime2 there is little in it 
about the practices of religion1 but    

much about works of charity4 ,before ,i 
teach them what they ought to do1 ,i    
would try to practise it myself1 that   
they might see that at least ,i think   
what ,i say4 ,if there were ,protestants
 in the neighbourhood or in my parish1  
,i would make no difference between them
 and my own congregation so far as      
concerns ,christian charity2 ,i would   
get them to love one another1 to        
consider themselves brethren1 to respect
 all religions1 and each to live        
peaceably in his own religion4 ,to ask  
any one to abandon the religion in which
 he was born is1 ,i consider1 to ask him
 to do wrong1 and therefore to do wrong 
oneself4 ,while we await further        
knowledge1 let us respect public order2 
in every country let us respect the     
laws1 let us not disturb the form of    
worship prescribed by law2 let us not   
lead its citizens into disobedience2 for
 we have no certain knowledge that it is
 good for them to abandon their own     
opinions for others1 and on the other   

hand we are quite certain that it is a  
bad thing to disobey the law4  ,my young
 friend1 ,i have now repeated to you my 
creed as ,god reads it in my heart2 you 
are the first to whom ,i have told it2  
perhaps you will be the last4 ,as long  
as there is any true faith left among   
men1 we must not trouble quiet souls1   
nor scare the faith of the ignorant with
 problems they cannot solve1 with       
difficulties which cause them           
uneasiness1 but do not give them any    
guidance4 ,but when once everything is  
shaken1 the trunk must be preserved at  
the cost of the branches4 ,consciences1 
restless1 uncertain1 and almost quenched
 like yours1 require to be strengthened 
and aroused2 to set the feet again upon 
the foundation of eternal truth1 we must
 remove the trembling supports on which 
they think they rest4  ,you are at that 
critical age when the mind is open to   
conviction1 when the heart receives its 
form and character1 when we decide our  
own fate for life1 either for good or   

evil4 ,at a later date1 the material has
 hardened and fresh impressions leave no
 trace4 ,young man1 take the stamp of   
truth upon your heart which is not yet  
hardened1 if ,i were more certain of    
myself1 ,i should have adopted a more   
decided and dogmatic tone2 but ,i am a  
man ignorant and liable to error2 what  
could ,i do8 ,i have opened my heart    
fully to you2 and ,i have told what ,i  
myself hold for certain and sure2 ,i    
have told you my doubts as doubts1 my   
opinions as opinions2 ,i have given you 
my reasons both for faith and doubt4 ,it
 is now your turn to judge2 you have    
asked for time2 that is a wise          
precaution and it makes me think well of
 you4 ,begin by bringing your conscience
 into that state in which it desires to 
see clearly2 be honest with yourself4   
,take to yourself such of my opinions as
 convince you1 reject the rest4 ,you are
 not yet so depraved by vice as to run  
the risk of choosing amiss4 ,i would    
offer to argue with you1 but as soon as 

men dispute they lose their temper2     
pride and obstinacy come in1 and there  
is an end of honesty4 ,my friend1 never 
argue2 for by arguing we gain no light  
for ourselves or for others4 ,so far as 
,i myself am concerned1 ,i have only    
made up my mind after many years of     
meditation2 here ,i rest1 my conscience 
is at peace1 my heart is satisfied4 ,if 
,i wanted to begin afresh the           
examination of my feelings1 ,i should   
not bring to the task a purer love of   
truth2 and my mind1 which is already    
less active1 would be less able to      
perceive the truth4 ,here ,i shall rest1
 lest the love of contemplation1        
developing step by step into an idle    
passion1 should make me lukewarm in the 
performance of my duties1 lest ,i should
 fall into my former scepticism without 
strength to struggle out of it4 ,more   
than half my life is spent2 ,i have     
barely time to make good use of what is 
left1 to blot out my faults by my       
virtues4 ,if ,i am mistaken1 it is      

against my will4 ,he who reads my inmost
 heart knows that ,i have no love for my
 blindness4 ,as my own knowledge is     
powerless to free me from this          
blindness1 my only way out of it is by a
 good life2 and if ,god from the very   
stones can raise up children to         
,abraham1 every man has a right to hope 
that he may be taught the truth1 if he  
makes himself worthy of it4  ,if my     
reflections lead you to think as ,i do1 
if you share my feelings1 if we have the
 same creed1 ,i give you this advice3   
,do not continue to expose your life to 
the temptations of poverty and despair1 
nor waste it in degradation and at the  
mercy of strangers2 no longer eat the   
shameful bread of charity4 ,return to   
your own country1 go back to the        
religion of your fathers1 and follow it 
in sincerity of heart1 and never forsake
 it2 it is very simple and very holy2 ,i
 think there is no other religion upon  
earth whose morality is purer1 no other 
more satisfying to the reason4 ,do not  

trouble about the cost of the journey1  
that will be provided for you4 ,neither 
do you fear the false shame of a        
humiliating return2 we should blush to  
commit a fault1 not to repair it4 ,you  
are still at an age when all is         
forgiven1 but when we cannot go on      
sinning with impunity4 ,if you desire to
 listen to your conscience1 a thousand  
empty objections will disappear at her  
voice4 ,you will feel that1 in our      
present state of uncertainty1 it is an  
inexcusable presumption to profess any  
faith but that we were born into1 while 
it is treachery not to practise honestly
 the faith we profess4 ,if we go astray1
 we deprive ourselves of a great excuse 
before the tribunal of the sovereign    
judge4 ,will he not pardon the errors in
 which we were brought up1 rather than  
those of our own choosing8  ,my son1    
keep your soul in such a state that you 
always desire that there should be a    
,god and you will never doubt it4       
,moreover1 whatever decision you come   

to1 remember that the real duties of    
religion are independent of human       
institutions2 that a righteous heart is 
the true temple of the ,godhead2 that in
 every land1 in every sect1 to love ,god
 above all things and to love our       
neighbour as ourself is the whole law2  
remember there is no religion which     
absolves us from our moral duties2 that 
these alone are really essential1 that  
the service of the heart is the first of
 these duties1 and that without faith   
there is no such thing as true virtue4  
,shun those who1 under the pretence of  
explaining nature1 sow destructive      
doctrines in the heart of men1 those    
whose apparent scepticism is a          
hundredfold more self-assertive and     
dogmatic than the firm tone of their    
opponents4 ,under the arrogant claim1   
that they alone are enlightened1 true1  
honest1 they subject us imperiously to  
their far-reaching decisions1 and       
profess to give us1 as the true         
principles of all things1 the           

unintelligible systems framed by their  
imagination4 ,moreover1 they overthrow1 
destroy1 and trample under foot all that
 men reverence2 they rob the afflicted  
of their last consolation in their      
misery2 they deprive the rich and       
powerful of the sole bridle of their    
passions2 they tear from the very depths
 of man's heart all remorse for crime1  
and all hope of virtue2 and they boast1 
moreover1 that they are the benefactors 
of the human race4 ,truth1 they say1 can
 never do a man harm4 ,i think so too1  
and to my mind that is strong evidence  
that what they teach is not true4       
,footnote3 ,the rival parties attack    
each other with so many sophistries that
 it would be a rash and overwhelming    
enterprise to attempt to deal with all  
of them2 it is difficult enough to note 
some of them as they occur4 ,one of the 
commonest errors among the partisans of 
philosophy is to contrast a nation of   
good philosophers with a nation of bad  
,christians2 as if it were easier to    

make a nation of good philosophers than 
a nation of good ,christians4 ,i know   
not whether in individual cases it is   
easier to discover one rather than the  
other2 but ,i am quite certain that1 as 
far as nations are concerned1 we must   
assume that there will be those who     
misuse their philosophy without         
religion1 just as our people misuse     
their religion without philosophy1 and  
that seems to put quite a different face
 upon the matter4--,bayle has proved    
very satisfactorily that fanaticism is  
more harmful than atheism1 and that     
cannot be denied2 but what he has not   
taken the trouble to say1 though it is  
none the less true1 is this3            
,fanaticism1 though cruel and           
bloodthirsty1 is still a great and      
powerful passion1 which stirs the heart 
of man1 teaching him to despise death1  
and giving him an enormous motive power1
 which only needs to be guided rightly  
to produce the noblest virtues2 while   
irreligion1 and the argumentative       

philosophic spirit generally1 on the    
other hand1 assaults the life and       
enfeebles it1 degrades the soul1        
concentrates all the passions in the    
basest self-interest1 in the meanness of
 the human self2 thus it saps unnoticed 
the very foundations of all society1 for
 what is common to all these private    
interests is so small that it will never
 outweigh their opposing interests4--,if
 atheism does not lead to bloodshed1 it 
is less from love of peace than from    
indifference to what is good2 as if it  
mattered little what happened to others1
 provided the sage remained undisturbed 
in his study4 ,his principles do not    
kill men1 but they prevent their birth1 
by destroying the morals by which they  
were multiplied1 by detaching them from 
their fellows1 by reducing all their    
affections to a secret selfishness1 as  
fatal to population as to virtue4 ,the  
indifference of the philosopher is like 
the peace in a despotic state2 it is the
 repose of death2 war itself is not more

 destructive4--,thus fanaticism though  
its immediate results are more fatal    
than those of what is now called the    
philosophic mind1 is much less fatal in 
its after effects4 ,moreover1 it is an  
easy matter to exhibit fine maxims in   
books2 but the real question is--,are   
they really in accordance with your     
teaching1 are they the necessary        
consequences of it8 and this has not    
been clearly proved so far4 ,it remains 
to be seen whether philosophy1 safely   
enthroned1 could control successfully   
man's petty vanity1 his self-interest1  
his ambition1 all the lesser passions of
 mankind1 and whether it would practise 
that sweet humanity which it boasts of1 
pen in hand4--,in theory1 there is no   
good which philosophy can bring about   
which is not equally secured by         
religion1 while religion secures much   
that philosophy cannot secure4--,in     
practice1 it is another matter2 but     
still we must put it to the proof4 ,no  
man follows his religion in all things1 

even if his religion is true2 most      
people have hardly any religion1 and    
they do not in the least follow what    
they have2 that is still more true2 but 
still there are some people who have a  
religion and follow it1 at least to some
 extent2 and beyond doubt religious     
motives do prevent them from            
wrong-doing1 and win from them virtues1 
praiseworthy actions1 which would not   
have existed but for these motives4--,a 
monk denies that money was entrusted to 
him2 what of that8 ,it only proves that 
the man who entrusted the money to him  
was a fool4 ,if ,pascal had done the    
same1 that would have proved that       
,pascal was a hypocrite4 ,but a monk6   
,are those who make a trade of religion 
religious people8 ,all the crimes       
committed by the clergy1 as by other    
men1 do not prove that religion is      
useless1 but that very few people are   
religious4--,most certainly our modern  
governments owe to ,christianity their  
more stable authority1 their less       

frequent revolutions2 it has made those 
governments less bloodthirsty2 this can 
be shown by comparing them with the     
governments of former times4 ,apart from
 fanaticism1 the best known religion has
 given greater gentleness to ,christian 
conduct4 ,this change is not the result 
of learning2 for wherever learning has  
been most illustrious humanity has been 
no more respected on that account2 the  
cruelties of the ,athenians1 the        
,egyptians1 the ,roman emperors1 the    
,chinese bear witness to this4 ,what    
works of mercy spring from the gospel6  
,how many acts of restitution1          
reparation1 confession does the gospel  
lead to among ,catholics6 ,among        
ourselves1 as the times of communion    
draw near1 do they not lead us to       
reconciliation and to alms-giving8 ,did 
not the ,hebrew ,jubilee make the       
grasping less greedy1 did it not prevent
 much poverty8 ,the brotherhood of the  
,law made the nation one2 no beggar was 
found among them4 ,neither are there    

beggars among the ,turks1 where there   
are countless pious institutions2 from  
motives of religion they even show      
hospitality to the foes of their        
religion4--,the ,mahometans say1        
according to ,chardin1 that after the   
interrogation which will follow the     
general resurrection1 all bodies will   
traverse a bridge called ,poul-,serrho1 
which is thrown across the eternal      
fires1 a bridge which may be called the 
third and last test of the great        
,judgment1 because it is there that the 
good and bad will be separated1         
etc4--,the ,persians1 continues         
,chardin1 make a great point of this    
bridge2 and when any one suffers a wrong
 which he can never hope to wipe out by 
any means or at any time1 he finds his  
last consolation in these words3 ',by   
the living ,god1 you will pay me double 
at the last day2 you will never get     
across the ,poul-,serrho if you do not  
first do me justice2 ,i will hold the   
hem of your garment1 ,i will cling about

 your knees4' ,i have seen many eminent 
men1 of every profession1 who for fear  
lest this hue and cry should be raised  
against them as they cross that fearful 
bridge1 beg pardon of those who         
complained against them2 it has happened
 to me myself on many occasions4 ,men of
 rank1 who had compelled me by their    
importunity to do what ,i did not wish  
to do1 have come to me when they thought
 my anger had had time to cool1 and have
 said to me2 ,i pray you ,halal becon   
antchisra1 that is1 ,make this matter   
lawful and right4 ,some of them have    
even sent gifts and done me service1 so 
that ,i might forgive them and say ,i   
did it willingly2 the cause of this is  
nothing else but this belief that they  
will not be able to get across the      
bridge of hell until they have paid the 
uttermost farthing to the               
oppressed4--,must ,i think that the idea
 of this bridge where so many iniquities
 are made good is of no avail8 ,if the  
,persians were deprived of this idea1 if

 they were persuaded that there was no  
,poul-,serrho1 nor anything of the kind1
 where the oppressed were avenged of    
their tyrants after death1 is it not    
clear that they would be very much at   
their ease1 and they would be freed from
 the care of appeasing the wretched8    
,but it is false to say that this       
doctrine is hurtful2 yet it would not be
 true4--,o ,philosopher1 your moral laws
 are all very fine2 but kindly show me  
their sanction4 ,cease to shirk the     
question1 and tell me plainly what you  
would put in the place of ,poul-,serrho4
  ,my good youth1 be honest and humble2 
learn how to be ignorant1 then you will 
never deceive yourself or others4 ,if   
ever your talents are so far cultivated 
as to enable you to speak to other men1 
always speak according to your          
conscience1 without caring for their    
applause4 ,the abuse of knowledge causes
 incredulity4 ,the learned always       
despise the opinions of the crowd2 each 
of them must have his own opinion4 ,a   

haughty philosophy leads to atheism just
 as blind devotion leads to fanaticism4 
,avoid these extremes2 keep steadfastly 
to the path of truth1 or what seems to  
you truth1 in simplicity of heart1 and  
never let yourself be turned aside by   
pride or weakness4 ,dare to confess ,god
 before the philosophers2 dare to preach
 humanity to the intolerant4 ,it may be 
you will stand alone1 but you will bear 
within you a witness which will make the
 witness of men of no account with you4 
,let them love or hate1 let them read   
your writings or despise them2 no       
matter4 ,speak the truth and do the     
right2 the one thing that really matters
 is to do one's duty in this world2 and 
when we forget ourselves we are really  
working for ourselves4 ,my child1       
self-interest misleads us2 the hope of  
the just is the only sure guide4  ,i    
have transcribed this document not as a 
rule for the sentiments we should adopt 
in matters of religion1 but as an       
example of the way in which we may      

reason with our pupil without forsaking 
the method ,i have tried to establish4  
,so long as we yield nothing to human   
authority1 nor to the prejudices of our 
native land1 the light of reason alone1 
in a state of nature1 can lead us no    
further than to natural religion2 and   
this is as far as ,i should go with     
,emile4 ,if he must have any other      
religion1 ,i have no right to be his    
guide2 he must choose for himself4  ,we 
are working in agreement with nature1   
and while she is shaping the physical   
man1 we are striving to shape his moral 
being1 but we do not make the same      
progress4 ,the body is already strong   
and vigorous1 the soul is still frail   
and delicate1 and whatever can be done  
by human art1 the body is always ahead  
of the mind4 ,hitherto all our care has 
been devoted to restrain the one and    
stimulate the other1 so that the man    
might be as far as possible at one with 
himself4 ,by developing his             
individuality1 we have kept his growing 

susceptibilities in check2 we have      
controlled it by cultivating his reason4
 ,objects of thought moderate the       
influence of objects of sense4 ,by going
 back to the causes of things1 we have  
withdrawn him from the sway of the      
senses2 it is an easy thing to raise him
 from the study of nature to the search 
for the author of nature4  ,when we have
 reached this point1 what a fresh hold  
we have got over our pupil2 what fresh  
ways of speaking to his heart6 ,then    
alone does he find a real motive for    
being good1 for doing right when he is  
far from every human eye1 and when he is
 not driven to it by law4 ,to be just in
 his own eyes and in the sight of ,god1 
to do his duty1 even at the cost of life
 itself1 and to bear in his heart       
virtue1 not only for the love of order  
which we all subordinate to the love of 
self1 but for the love of the ,author of
 his being1 a love which mingles with   
that self-love1 so that he may at length
 enjoy the lasting happiness which the  

peace of a good conscience and the      
contemplation of that supreme being     
promise him in another life1 after he   
has used this life aright4 ,go beyond   
this1 and ,i see nothing but injustice1 
hypocrisy1 and falsehood among men2     
private interest1 which in competition  
necessarily prevails over everything    
else1 teaches all things to adorn vice  
with the outward show of virtue4 ,let   
all men do what is good for me at the   
cost of what is good for themselves2 let
 everything depend on me alone2 let the 
whole human race perish1 if needs be1 in
 suffering and want1 to spare me a      
moment's pain or hunger4 ,yes1 ,i shall 
always maintain that whoso says in his  
heart1 ,there is no ,god1 while he takes
 the name of ,god upon his lips1 is     
either a liar or a madman4  ,reader1 it 
is all in vain2 ,i perceive that you and
 ,i shall never see ,emile with the same
 eyes2 you will always fancy him like   
your own young people1 hasty1 impetuous1
 flighty1 wandering from fete to fete1  

from amusement to amusement1 never able 
to settle to anything4 ,you smile when  
,i expect to make a thinker1 a          
philosopher1 a young theologian1 of an  
ardent1 lively1 eager1 and fiery young  
man1 at the most impulsive period of    
youth4 ,this dreamer1 you say1 is always
 in pursuit of his fancy2 when he gives 
us a pupil of his own making1 he does   
not merely form him1 he creates him1 he 
makes him up out of his own head2 and   
while he thinks he is treading in the   
steps of nature1 he is getting further  
and further from her4 ,as for me1 when  
,i compare my pupil with yours1 ,i can  
scarcely find anything in common between
 them4 ,so differently brought up1 it is
 almost a miracle if they are alike in  
any respect4 ,as his childhood was      
passed in the freedom they assume in    
youth1 in his youth he begins to bear   
the yoke they bore as children2 this    
yoke becomes hateful to them1 they are  
sick of it1 and they see in it nothing  
but their masters' tyranny2 when they   

escape from childhood1 they think they  
must shake off all control1 they make up
 for the prolonged restraint imposed    
upon them1 as a prisoner1 freed from his
 fetters1 moves and stretches and shakes
 his limbs4 ,footnote3 ,there is no one 
who looks down upon childhood with such 
lofty scorn as those who are barely     
grown-up2 just as there is no country   
where rank is more strictly regarded    
than that where there is little real    
inequality2 everybody is afraid of being
 confounded with his inferiors4 ,emile1 
however1 is proud to be a man1 and to   
submit to the yoke of his growing       
reason2 his body1 already well grown1 no
 longer needs so much action1 and begins
 to control itself1 while his           
half-fledged mind tries its wings on    
every occasion4 ,thus the age of reason 
becomes for the one the age of licence2 
for the other1 the age of reasoning4    
,would you know which of the two is     
nearer to the order of nature6 ,consider
 the differences between those who are  

more or less removed from a state of    
nature4 ,observe young villagers and see
 if they are as undisciplined as your   
scholars4 ,the ,sieur de ,beau says that
 savages in childhood are always active1
 and ever busy with sports that keep the
 body in motion2 but scarcely do they   
reach adolescence than they become quiet
 and dreamy2 they no longer devote      
themselves to games of skill or chance4 
,emile1 who has been brought up in full 
freedom like young peasants and savages1
 should behave like them and change as  
he grows up4 ,the whole difference is in
 this1 that instead of merely being     
active in sport or for food1 he has1 in 
the course of his sports1 learned to    
think4 ,having reached this stage1 and  
by this road1 he is quite ready to enter
 upon the next stage to which ,i        
introduce him2 the subjects ,i suggest  
for his consideration rouse his         
curiosity1 because they are fine in     
themselves1 because they are quite new  
to him1 and because he is able to       

understand them4 ,your young people1 on 
the other hand1 are weary and overdone  
with your stupid lessons1 your long     
sermons1 and your tedious catechisms2   
why should they not refuse to devote    
their minds to what has made them sad1  
to the burdensome precepts which have   
been continually piled upon them1 to the
 thought of the ,author of their being1 
who has been represented as the enemy of
 their pleasures8 ,all this has only    
inspired in them aversion1 disgust1 and 
weariness2 constraint has set them      
against it2 why then should they devote 
themselves to it when they are beginning
 to choose for themselves8 ,they require
 novelty1 you must not repeat what they 
learned as children4 ,just so with my   
own pupil1 when he is a man ,i speak to 
him as a man1 and only tell him what is 
new to him2 it is just because they are 
tedious to your pupils that he will find
 them to his taste4  ,this is how ,i    
doubly gain time for him by retarding   
nature to the advantage of reason4 ,but 

have ,i indeed retarded the progress of 
nature8 ,no1 ,i have only prevented the 
imagination from hastening it2 ,i have  
employed another sort of teaching to    
counterbalance the precocious           
instruction which the young man receives
 from other sources4 ,when he is carried
 away by the flood of existing customs  
and ,i draw him in the opposite         
direction by means of other customs1    
this is not to remove him from his      
place1 but to keep him in it4  ,nature's
 due time comes at length1 as come it   
must4 ,since man must die1 he must      
reproduce himself1 so that the species  
may endure and the order of the world   
continue4 ,when by the signs ,i have    
spoken of you perceive that the critical
 moment is at hand1 at once abandon for 
ever your former tone4 ,he is still your
 disciple1 but not your scholar4 ,he is 
a man and your friend2 henceforth you   
must treat him as such4  ,what6 ,must ,i
 abdicate my authority when most ,i need
 it8 ,must ,i abandon the adult to      

himself just when he least knows how to 
control himself1 when he may fall into  
the gravest errors6 ,must ,i renounce my
 rights when it matters most that ,i    
should use them on his behalf8 ,who bids
 you renounce them2 he is only just     
becoming conscious of them4 ,hitherto   
all you have gained has been won by     
force or guile2 authority1 the law of   
duty1 were unknown to him1 you had to   
constrain or deceive him to gain his    
obedience4 ,but see what fresh chains   
you have bound about his heart4 ,reason1
 friendship1 affection1 gratitude1 a    
thousand bonds of affection1 speak to   
him in a voice he cannot fail to hear4  
,his ears are not yet dulled by vice1 he
 is still sensitive only to the passions
 of nature4 ,self-love1 the first of    
these1 delivers him into your hands2    
habit confirms this4 ,if a passing      
transport tears him from you1 regret    
restores him to you without delay2 the  
sentiment which attaches him to you is  
the only lasting sentiment1 all the rest

 are fleeting and self-effacing4 ,do not
 let him become corrupt1 and he will    
always be docile2 he will not begin to  
rebel till he is already perverted4  ,i 
grant you1 indeed1 that if you directly 
oppose his growing desires and foolishly
 treat as crimes the fresh needs which  
are beginning to make themselves felt in
 him1 he will not listen to you for     
long2 but as soon as you abandon my     
method ,i cannot be answerable for the  
consequences4 ,remember that you are    
nature's minister2 you will never be her
 foe4  ,but what shall we decide to do8 
,you see no alternative but either to   
favour his inclinations or to resist    
them2 to tyrannise or to wink at his    
misconduct2 and both of these may lead  
to such dangerous results that one must 
indeed hesitate between them4  ,the     
first way out of the difficulty is a    
very early marriage2 this is undoubtedly
 the safest and most natural plan4 ,i   
doubt1 however1 whether it is the best  
or the most useful4 ,i will give my     

reasons later2 meanwhile ,i admit that  
young men should marry when they reach a
 marriageable age4 ,but this age comes  
too soon2 we have made them precocious2 
marriage should be postponed to         
maturity4  ,if it were merely a case of 
listening to their wishes and following 
their lead it would be an easy matter2  
but there are so many contradictions    
between the rights of nature and the    
laws of society that to conciliate them 
we must continually contradict          
ourselves4 ,much art is required to     
prevent man in society from being       
altogether artificial4  ,for the reasons
 just stated1 ,i consider that by the   
means ,i have indicated and others like 
them the young man's desires may be kept
 in ignorance and his senses pure up to 
the age of twenty4 ,this is so true that
 among the ,germans a young man who lost
 his virginity before that age was      
considered dishonoured2 and the writers 
justly attribute the vigour of          
constitution and the number of children 

among the ,germans to the continence of 
these nations during youth4  ,this      
period may be prolonged still further1  
and a few centuries ago nothing was more
 common even in ,france4 ,among other   
well-known examples1 ,montaigne's       
father1 a man no less scrupulously      
truthful than strong and healthy1 swore 
that his was a virgin marriage at three 
and thirty1 and he had served for a long
 time in the ,italian wars4 ,we may see 
in the writings of his son what strength
 and spirit were shown by the father    
when he was over sixty4 ,certainly the  
contrary opinion depends rather on our  
own morals and our own prejudices than  
on the experience of the race as a      
whole4  ,i may1 therefore1 leave on one 
side the experience of our young people2
 it proves nothing for those who have   
been educated in another fashion4       
,considering that nature has fixed no   
exact limits which cannot be advanced or
 postponed1 ,i think ,i may1 without    
going beyond the law of nature1 assume  

that under my care ,emil has so far     
remained in his first innocence1 but ,i 
see that this happy period is drawing to
 a close4 ,surrounded by ever-increasing
 perils1 he will escape me at the first 
opportunity in spite of all my efforts1 
and this opportunity will not long be   
delayed2 he will follow the blind       
instinct of his senses2 the chances are 
a thousand to one on his ruin4 ,i have  
considered the morals of mankind too    
profoundly not to be aware of the       
irrevocable influence of this first     
moment on all the rest of his life4 ,if 
,i dissimulate and pretend to see       
nothing1 he will take advantage of my   
weakness2 if he thinks he can deceive   
me1 he will despise me1 and ,i become an
 accomplice in his destruction4 ,if ,i  
try to recall him1 the time is past1 he 
no longer heeds me1 he finds me         
tiresome1 hateful1 intolerable2 it will 
not be long before he is rid of me4     
,there is therefore only one reasonable 
course open to me2 ,i must make him     

accountable for his own actions1 ,i must
 at least preserve him from being taken 
unawares1 and ,i must show him plainly  
the dangers which beset his path4 ,i    
have restrained him so far through his  
ignorance2 henceforward his restraint   
must be his own knowledge4  ,this new   
teaching is of great importance1 and we 
will take up our story where we left it4
 ,this is the time to present my        
accounts1 to show him how his time and  
mine have been spent1 to make known to  
him what he is and what ,i am2 what ,i  
have done1 and what he has done2 what we
 owe to each other2 all his moral       
relations1 all the undertakings to which
 he is pledged1 all those to which      
others have pledged themselves in       
respect to him2 the stage he has reached
 in the development of his faculties1   
the road that remains to be travelled1  
the difficulties he will meet1 and the  
way to overcome them2 how ,i can still  
help him and how he must henceforward   
help himself2 in a word1 the critical   

time which he has reached1 the new      
dangers round about him1 and all the    
valid reasons which should induce him to
 keep a close watch upon himself before 
giving heed to his growing desires4     
,remember that to guide a grown man you 
must reverse all that you did to guide  
the child4 ,do not hesitate to speak to 
him of those dangerous mysteries which  
you have so carefully concealed from him
 hitherto4 ,since he must become aware  
of them1 let him not learn them from    
another1 nor from himself1 but from you 
alone2 since he must henceforth fight   
against them1 let him know his enemy1   
that he may not be taken unawares4      
,young people who are found to be aware 
of these matters1 without our knowing   
how they obtained their knowledge1 have 
not obtained it with impunity4 ,this    
unwise teaching1 which can have no      
honourable object1 stains the           
imagination of those who receive it if  
it does nothing worse1 and it inclines  
them to the vices of their instructors4 

,this is not all2 servants1 by this     
means1 ingratiate themselves with a     
child1 gain his confidence1 make him    
regard his tutor as a gloomy and        
tiresome person2 and one of the         
favourite subjects of their secret      
colloquies is to slander him4 ,when the 
pupil has got so far1 the master may    
abandon his task2 he can do no good4    
,but why does the child choose special  
confidants8 ,because of the tyranny of  
those who control him4 ,why should he   
hide himself from them if he were not   
driven to it8 ,why should he complain if
 he had nothing to complain of8         
,naturally those who control him are his
 first confidants2 you can see from his 
eagerness to tell them what he thinks   
that he feels he has only half thought  
till he has told his thoughts to them4  
,you may be sure that when the child    
knows you will neither preach nor scold1
 he will always tell you everything1 and
 that no one will dare to tell him      
anything he must conceal from you1 for  

they will know very well that he will   
tell you everything4  ,what makes me    
most confident in my method is this3    
when ,i follow it out as closely as     
possible1 ,i find no situation in the   
life of my scholar which does not leave 
me some pleasing memory of him4 ,even   
when he is carried away by his ardent   
temperament or when he revolts against  
the hand that guides him1 when he       
struggles and is on the point of        
escaping from me1 ,i still find his     
first simplicity in his agitation and   
his anger2 his heart as pure as his     
body1 he has no more knowledge of       
pretence than of vice2 reproach and     
scorn have not made a coward of him2    
base fears have never taught him the art
 of concealment4 ,he has all the        
indiscretion of innocence2 he is        
absolutely out-spoken2 he does not even 
know the use of deceit4  ,every impulse 
of his heart is betrayed either by word 
or look1 and ,i often know what he is   
feeling before he is aware of it        

himself4  ,so long as his heart is thus 
freely opened to me1 so long as he      
delights to tell me what he feels1 ,i   
have nothing to fear2 the danger is not 
yet at hand2 but if he becomes more     
timid1 more reserved1 if ,i perceive in 
his conversation the first signs of     
confusion and shame1 his instincts are  
beginning to develop1 he is beginning to
 connect the idea of evil with these    
instincts1 there is not a moment to     
lose1 and if ,i do not hasten to        
instruct him1 he will learn in spite of 
me4  ,some of my readers1 even of those 
who agree with me1 will think that it is
 only a question of a conversation with 
the young man at any time4 ,oh1 this is 
not the way to control the human heart4 
,what we say has no meaning unless the  
opportunity has been carefully chosen4  
,before we sow we must till the ground2 
the seed of virtue is hard to grow2 and 
a long period of preparation is required
 before it will take root4 ,one reason  
why sermons have so little effect is    

that they are offered to everybody      
alike1 without discrimination or choice4
  ,how can any one imagine that the same
 sermon could be suitable for so many   
hearers1 with their different           
dispositions1 so unlike in mind1 temper1
 age1 sex1 station1 and opinion4        
,perhaps there are not two among those  
to whom what is addressed to all is     
really suitable2 and all our affections 
are so transitory that perhaps there are
 not even two occasions in the life of  
any man when the same speech would have 
the same effect on him4 ,judge for      
yourself whether the time when the eager
 senses disturb the understanding and   
tyrannise over the will1 is the time to 
listen to the solemn lessons of wisdom4 
,therefore never reason with young men1 
even when they have reached the age of  
reason1 unless you have first prepared  
the way4 ,most lectures miss their mark 
more through the master's fault than the
 disciple's4 ,the pedant and the teacher
 say much the same2 but the former says 

it at random1 and the latter only when  
he is sure of its effect4  ,as a        
somnambulist1 wandering in his sleep1   
walks along the edge of a precipice1    
over which he would fall if he were     
awake1 so my ,emile1 in the sleep of    
ignorance1 escapes the perils which he  
does not see2 were ,i to wake him with a
 start1 he might fall4 ,let us first try
 to withdraw him from the edge of the   
precipice1 and then we will awake him to
 show him it from a distance4  ,reading1
 solitude1 idleness1 a soft and         
sedentary life1 intercourse with women  
and young people1 these are perilous    
paths for a young man1 and these lead   
him constantly into danger4 ,i divert   
his senses by other objects of sense2 ,i
 trace another course for his spirits by
 which ,i distract them from the course 
they would have taken2 it is by bodily  
exercise and hard work that ,i check the
 activity of the imagination1 which was 
leading him astray4 ,when the arms are  
hard at work1 the imagination is quiet2 

when the body is very weary1 the        
passions are not easily inflamed4 ,the  
quickest and easiest precaution is to   
remove him from immediate danger4 ,at   
once ,i take him away from towns1 away  
from things which might lead him into   
temptation4 ,but that is not enough2 in 
what desert1 in what wilds1 shall he    
escape from the thoughts which pursue   
him8 ,it is not enough to remove        
dangerous objects2 if ,i fail to remove 
the memory of them1 if ,i fail to find a
 way to detach him from everything1 if  
,i fail to distract him from himself1 ,i
 might as well have left him where he   
was4  ,emile has learned a trade1 but we
 do not have recourse to it2 he is fond 
of farming and understands it1 but      
farming is not enough2 the occupations  
he is acquainted with degenerate into   
routine2 when he is engaged in them he  
is not really occupied2 he is thinking  
of other things2 head and hand are at   
work on different subjects4 ,he must    
have some fresh occupation which has the

 interest of novelty--an occupation     
which keeps him busy1 diligent1 and hard
 at work1 an occupation which he may    
become passionately fond of1 one to     
which he will devote himself entirely4  
,now the only one which seems to possess
 all these characteristics is the chase4
 ,if hunting is ever an innocent        
pleasure1 if it is ever worthy of a man1
 now is the time to betake ourselves to 
it4 ,emile is well-fitted to succeed in 
it4 ,he is strong1 skilful1 patient1    
unwearied4 ,he is sure to take a fancy  
to this sport2 he will bring to it all  
the ardour of youth2 in it he will lose1
 at least for a time1 the dangerous     
inclinations which spring from softness4
 ,the chase hardens the heart a well as 
the body2 we get used to the sight of   
blood and cruelty4 ,diana is represented
 as the enemy of love2 and the allegory 
is true to life2 the languors of love   
are born of soft repose1 and tender     
feelings are stifled by violent         
exercise4 ,in the woods and fields1 the 

lover and the sportsman are so diversely
 affected that they receive very        
different impressions4 ,the fresh shade1
 the arbours1 the pleasant              
resting-places of the one1 to the other 
are but feeding grounds1 or places where
 the quarry will hide or turn to bay4   
,where the lover hears the flute and the
 nightingale1 the hunter hears the horn 
and the hounds2 one pictures to himself 
the nymphs and dryads1 the other sees   
the horses1 the huntsman1 and the pack4 
,take a country walk with one or other  
of these men2 their different           
conversation will soon show you that    
they behold the earth with other eyes1  
and that the direction of their thoughts
 is as different as their favourite     
pursuit4  ,i understand how these tastes
 may be combined1 and that at last men  
find time for both4 ,but the passions of
 youth cannot be divided in this way4   
,give the youth a single occupation     
which he loves1 and the rest will soon  
be forgotten4 ,varied desires come with 

varied knowledge1 and the first         
pleasures we know are the only ones we  
desire for long enough4 ,i would not    
have the whole of ,emile's youth spent  
in killing creatures1 and ,i do not even
 profess to justify this cruel passion2 
it is enough for me that it serves to   
delay a more dangerous passion1 so that 
he may listen to me calmly when ,i speak
 of it1 and give me time to describe it 
without stimulating it4  ,there are     
moments in human life which can never be
 forgotten4 ,such is the time when      
,emile receives the instruction of which
 ,i have spoken2 its influence should   
endure all his life through4 ,let us try
 to engrave it on his memory so that it 
may never fade away4 ,it is one of the  
faults of our age to rely too much on   
cold reason1 as if men were all mind4   
,by neglecting the language of          
expression we have lost the most        
forcible mode of speech4 ,the spoken    
word is always weak1 and we speak to the
 heart rather through the eyes than the 

ears4 ,in our attempt to appeal to      
reason only1 we have reduced our        
precepts to words1 we have not embodied 
them in deed4 ,mere reason is not       
active2 occasionally she restrains1 more
 rarely she stimulates1 but she never   
does any great thing4 ,small minds have 
a mania for reasoning4 ,strong souls    
speak a very different language1 and it 
is by this language that men are        
persuaded and driven to action4  ,i     
observe that in modern times men only   
get a hold over others by force or      
self-interest1 while the ancients did   
more by persuasion1 by the affections of
 the heart2 because they did not neglect
 the language2 of symbolic expression4  
,all agreements were drawn up solemnly1 
so that they might be more inviolable2  
before the reign of force1 the gods were
 the judges of mankind2 in their        
presence1 individuals made their        
treaties and alliances1 and pledged     
themselves to perform their promises2   
the face of the earth was the book in   

which the archives were preserved4 ,the 
leaves of this book were rocks1 trees1  
piles of stones1 made sacred by these   
transactions1 and regarded with         
reverence by barbarous men2 and these   
pages were always open before their     
eyes4 ,the well of the oath1 the well of
 the living and seeing one2 the ancient 
oak of ,mamre1 the stones of witness1   
such were the simple but stately        
monuments of the sanctity of contracts2 
none dared to lay a sacrilegious hand on
 these monuments1 and man's faith was   
more secure under the warrant of these  
dumb witnesses than it is to-day upon   
all the rigour of the law4  ,in         
government the people were over-awed by 
the pomp and splendour of royal power4  
,the symbols of greatness1 a throne1 a  
sceptre1 a purple robe1 a crown1 a      
fillet1 these were sacred in their      
sight4 ,these symbols1 and the respect  
which they inspired1 led them to        
reverence the venerable man whom they   
beheld adorned with them2 without       

soldiers and without threats1 he spoke  
and was obeyed4 ,footnote3 ,the ,roman  
,catholic clergy have very wisely       
retained these symbols1 and certain     
republics1 such as ,venice1 have        
followed their example4  ,thus the      
,venetian government1 despite the fallen
 condition of the state1 still enjoys1  
under the trappings of its former       
greatness1 all the affection1 all the   
reverence of the people2 and next to the
 pope in his triple crown1 there is     
perhaps no king1 no potentate1 no person
 in the world so much respected as the  
,doge of ,venice2 he has no power1 no   
authority1 but he is rendered sacred by 
his pomp1 and he wears beneath his ducal
 coronet a woman's flowing locks4 ,that 
ceremony of the ,bucentaurius1 which    
stirs the laughter of fools1 stirs the  
,venetian populace to shed its          
life-blood for the maintenance of this  
tyrannical government4 ,in our own day  
men profess to do away with these       
symbols4 ,what are the consequences of  

this contempt8 ,the kingly majesty makes
 no impression on all hearts1 kings can 
only gain obedience by the help of      
troops1 and the respect of their        
subjects is based only on the fear of   
punishment4 ,kings are spared the       
trouble of wearing their crowns1 and our
 nobles escape from the outward signs of
 their station1 but they must have a    
hundred thousand men at their command if
 their orders are to be obeyed4 ,though 
this may seem a finer thing1 it is easy 
to see that in the long run they will   
gain nothing4  ,it is amazing what the  
ancients accomplished with the aid of   
eloquence2 but this eloquence did not   
merely consist in fine speeches         
carefully prepared2 and it was most     
effective when the orator said least4   
,the most startling speeches were       
expressed not in words but in signs2    
they were not uttered but shown4 ,a     
thing beheld by the eyes kindles the    
imagination1 stirs the curiosity1 and   
keeps the mind on the alert for what we 

are about to say1 and often enough the  
thing tells the whole story4            
,thrasybulus and ,tarquin cutting off   
the heads of the poppies1 ,alexander    
placing his seal on the lips of his     
favourite1 ,diogenes marching before    
,zeno1 do not these speak more plainly  
than if they had uttered long orations8 
,what flow of words could have expressed
 the ideas as clearly8 ,darius1 in the  
course of the ,scythian war1 received   
from the king of the ,scythians a bird1 
a frog1 a mouse1 and five arrows4 ,the  
ambassador deposited this gift and      
retired without a word4 ,in our days he 
would have been taken for a madman4     
,this terrible speech was understood1   
and ,darius withdrew to his own country 
with what speed he could4 ,substitute a 
letter for these symbols and the more   
threatening it was the less terror it   
would inspire2 it would have been merely
 a piece of bluff1 to which ,darius     
would have paid no attention4  ,what    
heed the ,romans gave to the language of

 signs6 ,different ages and different   
ranks had their appropriate garments1   
toga1 tunic1 patrician robes1 fringes   
and borders1 seats of honour1 lictors1  
rods and axes1 crowns of gold1 crowns of
 leaves1 crowns of flowers1 ovations1   
triumphs1 everything had its pomp1 its  
observances1 its ceremonial1 and all    
these spoke to the heart of the         
citizens4 ,the state regarded it as a   
matter of importance that the populace  
should assemble in one place rather than
 another1 that they should or should not
 behold the ,capitol1 that they should  
or should not turn towards the ,senate1 
that this day or that should be chosen  
for their deliberations4 ,the accused   
wore a special dress1 so did the        
candidates for election2 warriors did   
not boast of their exploits1 they showed
 their scars4 ,i can fancy one of our   
orators at the death of ,caesar         
exhausting all the commonplaces of      
rhetoric to give a pathetic description 
of his wounds1 his blood1 his dead body2

 ,anthony was an orator1 but he said    
none of this2 he showed the murdered    
,caesar4 ,what rhetoric was this6  ,but 
this digression1 like many others1 is   
drawing me unawares away from my        
subject2 and my digressions are too     
frequent to be borne with patience4 ,i  
therefore return to the point4  ,do not 
reason coldly with youth4 ,clothe your  
reason with a body1 if you would make it
 felt4 ,let the mind speak the language 
of the heart1 that it may be understood4
 ,i say again our opinions1 not our     
actions1 may be influenced by cold      
argument2 they set us thinking1 not     
doing2 they show us what we ought to    
think1 not what we ought to do4 ,if this
 is true of men1 it is all the truer of 
young people who are still enwrapped in 
their senses and cannot think otherwise 
than they imagine4  ,even after the     
preparations of which ,i have spoken1 ,i
 shall take good care not to go all of a
 sudden to ,emile's room and preach a   
long and heavy sermon on the subject in 

which he is to be instructed4 ,i shall  
begin by rousing his imagination2 ,i    
shall choose the time1 place1 and       
surroundings most favourable to the     
impression ,i wish to make2 ,i shall1 so
 to speak1 summon all nature as witness 
to our conversations2 ,i shall call upon
 the eternal ,god1 the ,creator of      
nature1 to bear witness to the truth of 
what ,i say4 ,he shall judge between    
,emile and myself2 ,i will make the     
rocks1 the woods1 the mountains round   
about us1 the monuments of his promises 
and mine2 eyes1 voice1 and gesture shall
 show the enthusiasm ,i desire to       
inspire4 ,then ,i will speak and he will
 listen1 and his emotion will be stirred
 by my own4 ,the more impressed ,i am by
 the sanctity of my duties1 the more    
sacred he will regard his own4 ,i will  
enforce the voice of reason with images 
and figures1 ,i will not give him       
long-winded speeches or cold precepts1  
but my overflowing feelings will break  
their bounds2 my reason shall be grave  

and serious1 but my heart cannot speak  
too warmly4 ,then when ,i have shown him
 all that ,i have done for him1 ,i will 
show him how he is made for me2 he will 
see in my tender affection the cause of 
all my care4 ,how greatly shall ,i      
surprise and disturb him when ,i change 
my tone4 ,instead of shrivelling up his 
soul by always talking of his own       
interests1 ,i shall henceforth speak of 
my own2 he will be more deeply touched  
by this4 ,i will kindle in his young    
heart all the sentiments of affection1  
generosity1 and gratitude which ,i have 
already called into being1 and it will  
indeed be sweet to watch their growth4  
,i will press him to my bosom1 and weep 
over him in my emotion2 ,i will say to  
him3 ,you are my wealth1 my child1 my   
handiwork2 my happiness is bound up in  
yours2 if you frustrate my hopes1 you   
rob me of twenty years of my life1 and  
you bring my grey hairs with sorrow to  
the grave4 ,this is the way to gain a   
hearing and to impress what is said upon

 the heart and memory of the young man4 
,hitherto ,i have tried to give examples
 of the way in which a tutor should     
instruct his pupil in cases of          
difficulty4 ,i have tried to do so in   
this instance2 but after many attempts  
,i have abandoned the task1 convinced   
that the ,french language is too        
artificial to permit in print the       
plainness of speech required for the    
first lessons in certain subjects4      
,they say ,french is more chaste than   
other languages2 for my own part ,i     
think it more obscene2 for it seems to  
me that the purity of a language does   
not consist in avoiding coarse          
expressions but in having none4 ,indeed1
 if we are to avoid them1 they must be  
in our thoughts1 and there is no        
language in which it is so difficult to 
speak with purity on every subject than 
,french4 ,the reader is always quicker  
to detect than the author to avoid a    
gross meaning1 and he is shocked and    
startled by everything4 ,how can what is

 heard by impure ears avoid coarseness8 
,on the other hand1 a nation whose      
morals are pure has fit terms for       
everything1 and these terms are always  
right because they are rightly used4    
,one could not imagine more modest      
language than that of the ,bible1 just  
because of its plainness of speech4 ,the
 same things translated into ,french    
would become immodest4 ,what ,i ought to
 say to ,emile will sound pure and      
honourable to him2 but to make the same 
impression in print would demand a like 
purity of heart in the reader4  ,i      
should even think that reflections on   
true purity of speech and the sham      
delicacy of vice might find a useful    
place in the conversations as to        
morality to which this subject brings   
us2 for when he learns the language of  
plain-spoken goodness1 he must also     
learn the language of decency1 and he   
must know why the two are so different4 
,however this may be1 ,i maintain that  
if instead of the empty precepts which  

are prematurely dinned into the ears of 
children1 only to be scoffed at when the
 time comes when they might prove       
useful1 if instead of this we bide our  
time1 if we prepare the way for a       
hearing1 if we then show him the laws of
 nature in all their truth1 if we show  
him the sanction of these laws in the   
physical and moral evils which overtake 
those who neglect them1 if while we     
speak to him of this great mystery of   
generation1 we join to the idea of the  
pleasure which the ,author of nature has
 given to this act the idea of the      
exclusive affection which makes it      
delightful1 the idea of the duties of   
faithfulness and modesty which surround 
it1 and redouble its charm while        
fulfilling its purpose2 if we paint to  
him marriage1 not only as the sweetest  
form of society1 but also as the most   
sacred and inviolable of contracts1 if  
we tell him plainly all the reasons     
which lead men to respect this sacred   
bond1 and to pour hatred and curses upon

 him who dares to dishonour it2 if we   
give him a true and terrible picture of 
the horrors of debauch1 of its stupid   
brutality1 of the downward road by which
 a first act of misconduct leads from   
bad to worse1 and at last drags the     
sinner to his ruin2 if1 ,i say1 we give 
him proofs that on a desire for chastity
 depends health1 strength1 courage1     
virtue1 love itself1 and all that is    
truly good for man--,i maintain that    
this chastity will be so dear and so    
desirable in his eyes1 that his mind    
will be ready to receive our teaching as
 to the way to preserve it2 for so long 
as we are chaste we respect chastity2 it
 is only when we have lost this virtue  
that we scorn it4  ,it is not true that 
the inclination to evil is beyond our   
control1 and that we cannot overcome it 
until we have acquired the habit of     
yielding to it4 ,aurelius ,victor says  
that many men were mad enough to        
purchase a night with ,cleopatra at the 
price of their life1 and this is not    

incredible in the madness of passion4   
,but let us suppose the maddest of men1 
the man who has his senses least under  
control2 let him see the preparations   
for his death1 let him realise that he  
will certainly die in torment a quarter 
of an hour later2 not only would that   
man1 from that time forward1 become able
 to resist temptation1 he would even    
find it easy to do so2 the terrible     
picture with which they are associated  
will soon distract his attention from   
these temptations1 and when they are    
continually put aside they will cease to
 recur4 ,the sole cause of our weakness 
is the feebleness of our will1 and we   
have always strength to perform what we 
strongly desire4 ,volenti nihil         
difficile6 ,oh6 if only we hated vice as
 much as we love life1 we should abstain
 as easily from a pleasant sin as from a
 deadly poison in a delicious dish4     
,how is it that you fail to perceive    
that if all the lessons given to a young
 man on this subject have no effect1 it 

is because they are not adapted to his  
age1 and that at every age reason must  
be presented in a shape which will win  
his affection8 ,speak seriously to him  
if required1 but let what you say to him
 always have a charm which will compel  
him to listen4 ,do not coldly oppose his
 wishes2 do not stifle his imagination1 
but direct it lest it should bring forth
 monsters4 ,speak to him of love1 of    
women1 of pleasure2 let him find in your
 conversation a charm which delights his
 youthful heart2 spare no pains to make 
yourself his confidant2 under this name 
alone will you really be his master4    
,then you need not fear he will find    
your conversation tedious2 he will make 
you talk more than you desire4  ,if ,i  
have managed to take all the requisite  
precautions in accordance with these    
maxims1 and have said the right things  
to ,emile at the age he has now reached1
 ,i am quite convinced that he will come
 of his own accord to the point to which
 ,i would lead him1 and will eagerly    

confide himself to my care4 ,when he    
sees the dangers by which he is         
surrounded1 he will say to me with all  
the warmth of youth1 ,oh1 my friend1 my 
protector1 my master6 resume the        
authority you desire to lay aside at the
 very time when ,i most need it2        
hitherto my weakness has given you this 
power4 ,i now place it in your hands of 
my own free-will1 and it will be all the
 more sacred in my eyes4 ,protect me    
from all the foes which are attacking   
me1 and above all from the traitors     
within the citadel2 watch over your     
work1 that it may still be worthy of    
you4 ,i mean to obey your laws1 ,i shall
 ever do so1 that is my steadfast       
purpose2 if ,i ever disobey you1 it will
 be against my will2 make me free by    
guarding me against the passions which  
do me violence2 do not let me become    
their slave2 compel me to be my own     
master and to obey1 not my senses1 but  
my reason4  ,when you have led your     
pupil so far 7and it will be your own   

fault if you fail to do so71 beware of  
taking him too readily at his word1 lest
 your rule should seem too strict to    
him1 and lest he should think he has a  
right to escape from it1 by accusing you
 of taking him by surprise4 ,this is the
 time for reserve and seriousness2 and  
this attitude will have all the more    
effect upon him seeing that it is the   
first time you have adopted it towards  
him4  ,you will say to him therefore3   
,young man1 you readily make promises   
which are hard to keep2 you must        
understand what they mean before you    
have a right to make them2 you do not   
know how your fellows are drawn by their
 passions into the whirlpool of vice    
masquerading as pleasure4 ,you are      
honourable1 ,i know2 you will never     
break your word1 but how often will you 
repent of having given it8 ,how often   
will you curse your friend1 when1 in    
order to guard you from the ills which  
threaten you1 he finds himself compelled
 to do violence to your heart4 ,like    

,ulysses who1 hearing the song of the   
,sirens1 cried aloud to his rowers to   
unbind him1 you will break your chains  
at the call of pleasure2 you will       
importune me with your lamentations1 you
 will reproach me as a tyrant when ,i   
have your welfare most at heart2 when ,i
 am trying to make you happy1 ,i shall  
incur your hatred4 ,oh1 ,emile1 ,i can  
never bear to be hateful in your eyes2  
this is too heavy a price to pay even   
for your happiness4 ,my dear young man1 
do you not see that when you undertake  
to obey me1 you compel me to promise to 
be your guide1 to forget myself in my   
devotion to you1 to refuse to listen to 
your murmurs and complaints1 to wage    
unceasing war against your wishes and my
 own4 ,before we either of us undertake 
such a task1 let us count our resources2
 take your time1 give me time to        
consider1 and be sure that the slower we
 are to promise1 the more faithfully    
will our promises be kept4  ,you may be 
sure that the more difficulty he finds  

in getting your promise1 the easier you 
will find it to carry it out4 ,the young
 man must learn that he is promising a  
great deal1 and that you are promising  
still more4 ,when the time is come1 when
 he has1 so to say1 signed the contract1
 then change your tone1 and make your   
rule as gentle as you said it would be  
severe4 ,say to him1 ,my young friend1  
it is experience that you lack2 but ,i  
have taken care that you do not lack    
reason4 ,you are ready to see the       
motives of my conduct in every respect2 
to do this you need only wait till you  
are free from excitement4 ,always obey  
me first1 and then ask the reasons for  
my commands2 ,i am always ready to give 
my reasons so soon as you are ready to  
listen to them1 and ,i shall never be   
afraid to make you the judge between us4
 ,you promise to follow my teaching1 and
 ,i promise only to use your obedience  
to make you the happiest of men4 ,for   
proof of this ,i have the life you have 
lived hitherto4 ,show me any one of your

 age who has led as happy a life as     
yours1 and ,i promise you nothing more4 
,when my authority is firmly            
established1 my first care will be to   
avoid the necessity of using it4 ,i     
shall spare no pains to become more and 
more firmly established in his          
confidence1 to make myself the confidant
 of his heart and the arbiter of his    
pleasures4 ,far from combating his      
youthful tastes1 ,i shall consult them  
that ,i may be their master2 ,i will    
look at things from his point of view   
that ,i may be his guide2 ,i will not   
seek a remote distant good at the cost  
of his present happiness4 ,i would      
always have him happy always if that may
 be4  ,those who desire to guide young  
people rightly and to preserve them from
 the snares of sense give them a disgust
 for love1 and would willingly make the 
very thought of it a crime1 as if love  
were for the old4 ,all these mistaken   
lessons have no effect2 the heart gives 
the lie to them4 ,the young man1 guided 

by a surer instinct1 laughs to himself  
over the gloomy maxims which he pretends
 to accept1 and only awaits the chance  
of disregarding them4 ,all that is      
contrary to nature4 ,by following the   
opposite course ,i reach the same end   
more safely4 ,i am not afraid to        
encourage in him the tender feeling for 
which he is so eager1 ,i shall paint it 
as the supreme joy of life1 as indeed it
 is2 when ,i picture it to him1 ,i      
desire that he shall give himself up to 
it2 by making him feel the charm which  
the union of hearts adds to the delights
 of sense1 ,i shall inspire him with a  
disgust for debauchery2 ,i shall make   
him a lover and a good man4  ,how       
narrow-minded to see nothing in the     
rising desires of a young heart but     
obstacles to the teaching of reason4 ,in
 my eyes1 these are the right means to  
make him obedient to that very teaching4
 ,only through passion can we gain the  
mastery over passions2 their tyranny    
must be controlled by their legitimate  

power1 and nature herself must furnish  
us with the means to control her4       
,emile is not made to live alone1 he is 
a member of society1 and must fulfil his
 duties as such4 ,he is made to live    
among his fellow-men and he must get to 
know them4 ,he knows mankind in general2
 he has still to learn to know          
individual men4 ,he knows what goes on  
in the world2 he has now to learn how   
men live in the world4 ,it is time to   
show him the front of that vast stage1  
of which he already knows the hidden    
workings4 ,it will not arouse in him the
 foolish admiration of a giddy youth1   
but the discrimination of an exact and  
upright spirit4 ,he may no doubt be     
deceived by his passions2 who is there  
who yields to his passions without being
 led astray by them8 ,at least he will  
not be deceived by the passions of other
 people4 ,if he sees them1 he will      
regard them with the eye of the wise1   
and will neither be led away by their   
example nor seduced by their prejudices4

  ,as there is a fitting age for the    
study of the sciences1 so there is a    
fitting age for the study of the ways of
 the world4 ,those who learn these too  
soon1 follow them throughout life1      
without choice or consideration1 and    
although they follow them fairly well   
they never really know what they are    
about4 ,but he who studies the ways of  
the world and sees the reason for them1 
follows them with more insight1 and     
therefore more exactly and gracefully4  
,give me a child of twelve who knows    
nothing at all2 at fifteen ,i will      
restore him to you knowing as much as   
those who have been under instruction   
from infancy2 with this difference1 that
 your scholars only know things by      
heart1 while mine knows how to use his  
knowledge4 ,in the same way plunge a    
young man of twenty into society2 under 
good guidance1 in a year's time1 he will
 be more charming and more truly polite 
than one brought up in society from     
childhood4 ,for the former is able to   

perceive the reasons for all the        
proceedings relating to age1 position1  
and sex1 on which the customs of society
 depend1 and can reduce them to general 
principles1 and apply them to unforeseen
 emergencies2 while the latter1 who is  
guided solely by habit1 is at a loss    
when habit fails him4  ,young ,french   
ladies are all brought up in convents   
till they are married4 ,do they seem to 
find any difficulty in acquiring the    
ways which are so new to them1 and is it
 possible to accuse the ladies of ,paris
 of awkward and embarrassed manners or  
of ignorance of the ways of society1    
because they have not acquired them in  
infancy6 ,this is the prejudice of men  
of the world1 who know nothing of more  
importance than this trifling science1  
and wrongly imagine that you cannot     
begin to acquire it too soon4  ,on the  
other hand1 it is quite true that we    
must not wait too long4 ,any one who has
 spent the whole of his youth far from  
the great world is all his life long    

awkward1 constrained1 out of place2 his 
manners will be heavy and clumsy1 no    
amount of practice will get rid of this1
 and he will only make himself more     
ridiculous by trying to do so4 ,there is
 a time for every kind of teaching and  
we ought to recognise it1 and each has  
its own dangers to be avoided4 ,at this 
age there are more dangers than at any  
other2 but ,i do not expose my pupil to 
them without safeguards4  ,when my      
method succeeds completely in attaining 
one object1 and when in avoiding one    
difficulty it also provides against     
another1 ,i then consider that it is a  
good method1 and that ,i am on the right
 track4  ,this seems to be the case with
 regard to the expedient suggested by me
 in the present case4 ,if ,i desire to  
be stern and cold towards my pupil1 ,i  
shall lose his confidence1 and he will  
soon conceal himself from me4 ,if ,i    
wish to be easy and complaisant1 to shut
 my eyes1 what good does it do him to be
 under my care8 ,i only give my         

authority to his excesses1 and relieve  
his conscience at the expense of my own4
  ,if ,i introduce him into society with
 no object but to teach him1 he will    
learn more than ,i want4 ,if ,i keep him
 apart from society1 what will he have  
learnt from me8 ,everything perhaps1    
except the one art absolutely necessary 
to a civilised man1 the art of living   
among his fellow-men4 ,if ,i try to     
attend to this at a distance1 it will be
 of no avail2 he is only concerned with 
the present4 ,if ,i am content to supply
 him with amusement1 he will acquire    
habits of luxury and will learn nothing4
  ,we will have none of this4 ,my plan  
provides for everything4 ,your heart1 ,i
 say to the young man1 requires a       
companion2 let us go in search of a     
fitting one2 perhaps we shall not easily
 find such a one1 true worth is always  
rare1 but we will be in no hurry1 nor   
will we be easily discouraged4 ,no doubt
 there is such a one1 and we shall find 
her at last1 or at least we shall find  

some one like her4 ,with an end so      
attractive to himself1 ,i introduce him 
into society4 ,what more need ,i say8   
,have ,i not achieved my purpose8  ,by  
describing to him his future mistress1  
you may imagine whether ,i shall gain a 
hearing1 whether ,i shall succeed in    
making the qualities he ought to love   
pleasing and dear to him1 whether ,i    
shall sway his feelings to seek or shun 
what is good or bad for him4 ,i shall be
 the stupidest of men if ,i fail to make
 him in love with he knows not whom4 ,no
 matter that the person ,i describe is  
imaginary1 it is enough to disgust him  
with those who might have attracted him2
 it is enough if it is continually      
suggesting comparisons which make him   
prefer his fancy to the real people he  
sees2 and is not love itself a fancy1 a 
falsehood1 an illusion8 ,we are far more
 in love with our own fancy than with   
the object of it4 ,if we saw the object 
of our affections as it is1 there would 
be no such thing as love4  ,when we     

cease to love1 the person we used to    
love remains unchanged1 but we no longer
 see with the same eyes2 the magic veil 
is drawn aside1 and love disappears4    
,but when ,i supply the object of       
imagination1 ,i have control over       
comparisons1 and ,i am able easily to   
prevent illusion with regard to         
realities4  ,for all that ,i would not  
mislead a young man by describing a     
model of perfection which could never   
exist2 but ,i would so choose the faults
 of his mistress that they will suit    
him1 that he will be pleased by them1   
and they may serve to correct his own4  
,neither would ,i lie to him and affirm 
that there really is such a person2 let 
him delight in the portrait1 he will    
soon desire to find the original4 ,from 
desire to belief the transition is easy2
 it is a matter of a little skilful     
description1 which under more           
perceptible features will give to this  
imaginary object an air of greater      
reality4 ,i would go so far as to give  

her a name2 ,i would say1 smiling4 ,let 
us call your future mistress ,sophy2    
,sophy is a name of good omen2 if it is 
not the name of the lady of your choice 
at least she will be worthy of the name2
 we may honour her with it meanwhile4   
,if after all these details1 without    
affirming or denying1 we excuse         
ourselves from giving an answer1 his    
suspicions will become certainty2 he    
will think that his destined bride is   
purposely concealed from him1 and that  
he will see her in good time4 ,if once  
he has arrived at this conclusion and if
 the characteristics to be shown to him 
have been well chosen1 the rest is easy2
 there will be little risk in exposing  
him to the world2 protect him from his  
senses1 and his heart is safe4  ,but    
whether or no he personifies the model  
,i have contrived to make so attractive 
to him1 this model1 if well done1 will  
attach him none the less to everything  
that resembles itself1 and will give him
 as great a distaste for all that is    

unlike it as if ,sophy really existed4  
,what a means to preserve his heart from
 the dangers to which his appearance    
would expose him1 to repress his senses 
by means of his imagination1 to rescue  
him from the hands of those women who   
profess to educate young men1 and make  
them pay so dear for their teaching1 and
 only teach a young man manners by      
making him utterly shameless4 ,sophy is 
so modest8 ,what would she think of     
their advances6 ,sophy is so simple6    
,how would she like their airs8 ,they   
are too far from his thoughts and his   
observations to be dangerous4  ,every   
one who deals with the control of       
children follows the same prejudices and
 the same maxima1 for their observation 
is at fault1 and their reflection still 
more so4 ,a young man is led astray in  
the first place neither by temperament  
nor by the senses1 but by popular       
opinion4 ,if we were concerned with boys
 brought up in boarding schools or girls
 in convents1 ,i would show that this   

applies even to them2 for the first     
lessons they learn from each other1 the 
only lessons that bear fruit1 are those 
of vice2 and it is not nature that      
corrupts them but example4 ,but let us  
leave the boarders in schools and       
convents to their bad morals2 there is  
no cure for them4 ,i am dealing only    
with home training4 ,take a young man   
carefully educated in his father's      
country house1 and examine him when he  
reaches ,paris and makes his entrance   
into society2 you will find him thinking
 clearly about honest matters1 and you  
will find his will as wholesome as his  
reason4 ,you will find scorn of vice and
 disgust for debauchery2 his face will  
betray his innocent horror at the very  
mention of a prostitute4 ,i maintain    
that no young man could make up his mind
 to enter the gloomy abodes of these    
unfortunates by himself1 if indeed he   
were aware of their purpose and felt    
their necessity4  ,see the same young   
man six months later1 you will not know 

him2 from his bold conversation1 his    
fashionable maxims1 his easy air1 you   
would take him for another man1 if his  
jests over his former simplicity and his
 shame when any one recalls it did not  
show that it is he indeed and that he is
 ashamed of himself4 ,how greatly has he
 changed in so short a time6 ,what has  
brought about so sudden and complete a  
change8 ,his physical development8      
,would not that have taken place in his 
father's house1 and certainly he would  
not have acquired these maxims and this 
tone at home8 ,the first charms of      
sense8 ,on the contrary2 those who are  
beginning to abandon themselves to these
 pleasures are timid and anxious1 they  
shun the light and noise4 ,the first    
pleasures are always mysterious1 modesty
 gives them their savour1 and modesty   
conceals them2 the first mistress does  
not make a man bold but timid4 ,wholly  
absorbed in a situation so novel to him1
 the young man retires into himself to  
enjoy it1 and trembles for fear it      

should escape him4 ,if he is noisy he   
knows neither passion nor love2 however 
he may boast1 he has not enjoyed4       
,these changes are merely the result of 
changed ideas4 ,his heart is the same1  
but his opinions have altered4 ,his     
feelings1 which change more slowly1 will
 at length yield to his opinions and it 
is then that he is indeed corrupted4 ,he
 has scarcely made his entrance into    
society before he receives a second     
education quite unlike the first1 which 
teaches him to despise what he esteemed1
 and esteem what he despised2 he learns 
to consider the teaching of his parents 
and masters as the jargon of pedants1   
and the duties they have instilled into 
him as a childish morality1 to be       
scorned now that he is grown up4 ,he    
thinks he is bound in honour to change  
his conduct2 he becomes forward without 
desire1 and he talks foolishly from     
false shame4 ,he rails against morality 
before he has any taste for vice1 and   
prides himself on debauchery without    

knowing how to set about it4 ,i shall   
never forget the confession of a young  
officer in the ,swiss ,guards1 who was  
utterly sick of the noisy pleasures of  
his comrades1 but dared not refuse to   
take part in them lest he should be     
laughed at4 ,i am getting used to it1 he
 said1 as ,i am getting used to taking  
snuff2 the taste will come with         
practice2 it will not do to be a child  
for ever4  ,so a young man when he      
enters society must be preserved from   
vanity rather than from sensibility2 he 
succumbs rather to the tastes of others 
than to his own1 and self-love is       
responsible for more libertines than    
love4  ,this being granted1 ,i ask you4 
,is there any one on earth better armed 
than my pupil against all that may      
attack his morals1 his sentiments1 his  
principles2 is there any one more able  
to resist the flood8 ,what seduction is 
there against which he is not forearmed8
 ,if his desires attract him towards    
women1 he fails to find what he seeks1  

and his heart1 already occupied1 holds  
him back4 ,if he is disturbed and urged 
onward by his senses1 where will he find
 satisfaction8 ,his horror of adultery  
and debauch keeps him at a distance from
 prostitutes and married women1 and the 
disorders of youth may always be traced 
to one or other of these4 ,a maiden may 
be a coquette1 but she will not be      
shameless1 she will not fling herself at
 the head of a young man who may marry  
her if he believes in her virtue2       
besides she is always under supervision4
 ,emile1 too1 will not be left entirely 
to himself2 both of them will be under  
the guardianship of fear and shame1 the 
constant companions of a first passion2 
they will not proceed at once to        
misconduct1 and they will not have time 
to come to it gradually without         
hindrance4 ,if he behaves otherwise1 he 
must have taken lessons from his        
comrades1 he must have learned from them
 to despise his self-control1 and to    
imitate their boldness4 ,but there is no

 one in the whole world so little given 
to imitation as ,emile4 ,what man is    
there who is so little influenced by    
mockery as one who has no prejudices    
himself and yields nothing to the       
prejudices of others4 ,i have laboured  
twenty years to arm him against mockery2
 they will not make him their dupe in a 
day2 for in his eyes ridicule is the    
argument of fools1 and nothing makes one
 less susceptible to raillery than to be
 beyond the influence of prejudice4     
,instead of jests he must have          
arguments1 and while he is in this frame
 of mind1 ,i am not afraid that he will 
be carried away by young fools2         
conscience and truth are on my side4 ,if
 prejudice is to enter into the matter  
at all1 an affection of twenty years'   
standing counts for something2 no one   
will ever convince him that ,i have     
wearied him with vain lessons2 and in a 
heart so upright and so sensitive the   
voice of a tried and trusted friend will
 soon efface the shouts of twenty       

libertines4 ,as it is therefore merely a
 question of showing him that he is     
deceived1 that while they pretend to    
treat him as a man they are really      
treating him as a child1 ,i shall choose
 to be always simple but serious and    
plain in my arguments1 so that he may   
feel that ,i do indeed treat him as a   
man4 ,i will say to him1 ,you will see  
that your welfare1 in which my own is   
bound up1 compels me to speak2 ,i can do
 nothing else4 ,but why do these young  
men want to persuade you8  ,because they
 desire to seduce you2 they do not care 
for you1 they take no real interest in  
you2 their only motive is a secret spite
 because they see you are better than   
they2 they want to drag you down to     
their own level1 and they only reproach 
you with submitting to control that they
 may themselves control you4 ,do you    
think you have anything to gain by this8
 ,are they so much wiser than ,i1 is the
 affection of a day stronger than mine8 
,to give any weight to their jests they 

must give weight to their authority2 and
 by what experience do they support     
their maxima above ours8 ,they have only
 followed the example of other giddy    
youths1 as they would have you follow   
theirs4 ,to escape from the so-called   
prejudices of their fathers1 they yield 
to those of their comrades4 ,i cannot   
see that they are any the better off2   
but ,i see that they lose two things of 
value--the affection of their parents1  
whose advice is that of tenderness and  
truth1 and the wisdom of experience     
which teaches us to judge by what we    
know2 for their fathers have once been  
young1 but the young men have never been
 fathers4  ,but you think they are at   
least sincere in their foolish precepts4
 ,not so1 dear ,emile2 they deceive     
themselves in order to deceive you2 they
 are not in agreement with themselves2  
their heart continually revolts1 and    
their very words often contradict       
themselves4 ,this man who mocks at      
everything good would be in despair if  

his wife held the same views4 ,another  
extends his indifference to good morals 
even to his future wife1 or he sinks to 
such depths of infamy as to be          
indifferent to his wife's conduct2 but  
go a step further2 speak to him of his  
mother2 is he willing to be treated as  
the child of an adulteress and the son  
of a woman of bad character1 is he ready
 to assume the name of a family1 to     
steal the patrimony of the true heir1 in
 a word will he bear being treated as a 
bastard8 ,which of them will permit his 
daughter to be dishonoured as he        
dishonours the daughter of another8     
,there is not one of them who would not 
kill you if you adopted in your conduct 
towards him all the principles he tries 
to teach you4 ,thus they prove their    
inconsistency1 and we know they do not  
believe what they say4 ,here are        
reasons1 dear ,emile2 weigh their       
arguments if they have any1 and compare 
them with mine4  ,if ,i wished to have  
recourse like them to scorn and mockery1

 you would see that they lend themselves
 to ridicule as much or more than       
myself4 ,but ,i am not afraid of serious
 inquiry4 ,the triumph of mockers is    
soon over2 truth endures1 and their     
foolish laughter dies away4  ,you do not
 think that ,emile1 at twenty1 can      
possibly be docile4 ,how differently we 
think6 ,i cannot understand how he could
 be docile at ten1 for what hold have ,i
 on him at that age8 ,it took me fifteen
 years of careful preparation to secure 
that hold4 ,i was not educating him1 but
 preparing him for education4 ,he is now
 sufficiently educated to be docile2 he 
recognises the voice of friendship and  
he knows how to obey reason4 ,it is true
 ,i allow him a show of freedom1 but he 
was never more completely under control1
 because he obeys of his own free will4 
,so long as ,i could not get the mastery
 over his will1 ,i retained my control  
over his person2 ,i never left him for a
 moment4 ,now ,i sometimes leave him to 
himself because ,i control him          

continually4 ,when ,i leave him ,i      
embrace him and ,i say with confidence3 
,emile1 ,i trust you to my friend1 ,i   
leave you to his honour2 he will answer 
for you4  ,to corrupt healthy affections
 which have not been previously         
depraved1 to efface principles which are
 directly derived from our own          
reasoning1 is not the work of a moment4 
,if any change takes place during my    
absence1 that absence will not be long1 
he will never be able to conceal himself
 from me1 so that ,i shall perceive the 
danger before any harm comes of it1 and 
,i shall be in time to provide a remedy4
 ,as we do not become depraved all at   
once1 neither do we learn to deceive all
 at once2 and if ever there was a man   
unskilled in the art of deception it is 
,emile1 who has never had any occasion  
for deceit4  ,by means of these         
precautions and others like them1 ,i    
expect to guard him so completely       
against strange sights and vulgar       
precepts that ,i would rather see him in

 the worst company in ,paris than alone 
in his room or in a park left to all the
 restlessness of his age4 ,whatever we  
may do1 a young man's worst enemy is    
himself1 and this is an enemy we cannot 
avoid4 ,yet this is an enemy of our own 
making1 for1 as ,i have said again and  
again1 it is the imagination which stirs
 the senses4 ,desire is not a physical  
need2 it is not true that it is a need  
at all4 ,if no lascivious object had met
 our eye1 if no unclean thought had     
entered our mind1 this so-called need   
might never have made itself felt1 and  
we should have remained chaste1 without 
temptation1 effort1 or merit4 ,we do not
 know how the blood of youth is stirred 
by certain situations and certain       
sights1 while the youth himself does not
 understand the cause of his            
uneasiness-an uneasiness difficult to   
subdue and certain to recur4 ,for my own
 part1 the more ,i consider this serious
 crisis and its causes1 immediate and   
remote1 the more convinced ,i am that a 

solitary brought up in some desert1     
apart from books1 teaching1 and women1  
would die a virgin1 however long he     
lived4  ,but we are not concerned with a
 savage of this sort4 ,when we educate a
 man among his fellow-men and for social
 life1 we cannot1 and indeed we ought   
not to1 bring him up in this wholesome  
ignorance1 and half knowledge is worse  
than none4 ,the memory of things we have
 observed1 the ideas we have acquired1  
follow us into retirement and people it1
 against our will1 with images more     
seductive than the things themselves1   
and these make solitude as fatal to     
those who bring such ideas with them as 
it is wholesome for those who have never
 left it4  ,therefore1 watch carefully  
over the young man2 he can protect      
himself from all other foes1 but it is  
for you to protect him against himself4 
,never leave him night or day1 or at    
least share his room2 never let him go  
to bed till he is sleepy1 and let him   
rise as soon as he wakes4 ,distrust     

instinct as soon as you cease to rely   
altogether upon it4 ,instinct was good  
while he acted under its guidance only2 
now that he is in the midst of human    
institutions1 instinct is not to be     
trusted2 it must not be destroyed1 it   
must be controlled1 which is perhaps a  
more difficult matter4 ,it would be a   
dangerous matter if instinct taught your
 pupil to abuse his senses2 if once he  
acquires this dangerous habit he is     
ruined4 ,from that time forward1 body   
and soul will be enervated2 he will     
carry to the grave the sad effects of   
this habit1 the most fatal habit which a
 young man can acquire4 ,if you cannot  
attain to the mastery of your passions1 
dear ,emile1 ,i pity you2 but ,i shall  
not hesitate for a moment1 ,i will not  
permit the purposes of nature to be     
evaded4 ,if you must be a slave1 ,i     
prefer to surrender you to a tyrant from
 whom ,i may deliver you2 whatever      
happens1 ,i can free you more easily    
from the slavery of women than from     

yourself4  ,up to the age of twenty1 the
 body is still growing and requires all 
its strength2 till that age continence  
is the law of nature1 and this law is   
rarely violated without injury to the   
constitution4 ,after twenty1 continence 
is a moral duty2 it is an important     
duty1 for it teaches us to control      
ourselves1 to be masters of our own     
appetites4 ,but moral duties have their 
modifications1 their exceptions1 their  
rules4 ,when human weakness makes an    
alternative inevitable1 of two evils    
choose the least2 in any case it is     
better to commit a misdeed than to      
contract a vicious habit4  ,remember1 ,i
 am not talking of my pupil now1 but of 
yours4 ,his passions1 to which you have 
given way1 are your master2 yield to    
them openly and without concealing his  
victory4 ,if you are able to show him it
 in its true light1 he will be ashamed  
rather than proud of it1 and you will   
secure the right to guide him in his    
wanderings1 at least so as to avoid     

precipices4 ,the disciple must do       
nothing1 not even evil1 without the     
knowledge and consent of his master2 it 
is a hundredfold better that the tutor  
should approve of a misdeed than that he
 should deceive himself or be deceived  
by his pupil1 and the wrong should be   
done without his knowledge4 ,he who     
thinks he must shut his eyes to one     
thing1 must soon shut them altogether2  
the first abuse which is permitted leads
 to others1 and this chain of           
consequences only ends in the complete  
overthrow of all order and contempt for 
every law4  ,there is another mistake   
which ,i have already dealt with1 a     
mistake continually made by             
narrow-minded persons2 they constantly  
affect the dignity of a master1 and wish
 to be regarded by their disciples as   
perfect4 ,this method is just the       
contrary of what should be done4  ,how  
is it that they fail to perceive that   
when they try to strengthen their       
authority they are really destroying it2

 that to gain a hearing one must put    
oneself in the place of our hearers1 and
 that to speak to the human heart1 one  
must be a man4 ,all these perfect people
 neither touch nor persuade2 people     
always say1 ,it is easy for them to     
fight against passions they do not feel4
 ,show your pupil your own weaknesses if
 you want to cure his2 let him see in   
you struggles like his own2 let him     
learn by your example to master himself 
and let him not say like other young    
men1 ,these old people1 who are vexed   
because they are no longer young1 want  
to treat all young people as if they    
were old2 and they make a crime of our  
passions because their own passions are 
dead4  ,montaigne tells us that he once 
asked ,seigneur de ,langey how often1 in
 his negotiations with ,germany1 he had 
got drunk in his king's service4 ,i     
would willingly ask the tutor of a      
certain young man how often he has      
entered a house of ill-fame for his     
pupil's sake4 ,how often8 ,i am wrong4  

,if the first time has not cured the    
young libertine of all desire to go     
there again1 if he does not return      
penitent and ashamed1 if he does not    
shed torrents of tears upon your bosom1 
leave him on the spot2 either he is a   
monster or you are a fool2 you will     
never do him any good4 ,but let us have 
done with these last expedients1 which  
are as distressing as they are          
dangerous2 our kind of education has no 
need of them4  ,what precautions we must
 take with a young man of good birth    
before exposing him to the scandalous   
manners of our age6 ,these precautions  
are painful but necessary2 negligence in
 this matter is the ruin of all our     
young men2 degeneracy is the result of  
youthful excesses1 and it is these      
excesses which make men what they are4  
,old and base in their vices1 their     
hearts are shrivelled1 because their    
worn-out bodies were corrupted at an    
early age2 they have scarcely strength  
to stir4 ,the subtlety of their thoughts

 betrays a mind lacking in substance2   
they are incapable of any great or noble
 feeling1 they have neither simplicity  
nor vigour2 altogether abject and meanly
 wicked1 they are merely frivolous1     
deceitful1 and false2 they have not even
 courage enough to be distinguished     
criminals4 ,such are the despicable men 
produced by early debauchery2 if there  
were but one among them who knew how to 
be sober and temperate1 to guard his    
heart1 his body1 his morals from the    
contagion of bad example1 at the age of 
thirty he would crush all these insects1
 and would become their master with far 
less trouble than it cost him to become 
master of himself4  ,however little     
,emile owes to birth and fortune1 he    
might be this man if he chose2 but he   
despises such people too much to        
condescend to make them his slaves4 ,let
 us now watch him in their midst1 as he 
enters into society1 not to claim the   
first place1 but to acquaint himself    
with it and to seek a helpmeet worthy of

 himself4  ,whatever his rank or birth1 
whatever the society into which he is   
introduced1 his entrance into that      
society will be simple and unaffected2  
,god grant he may not be unlucky enough 
to shine in society2 the qualities which
 make a good impression at the first    
glance are not his1 he neither possesses
 them1 nor desires to possess them4 ,he 
cares too little for the opinions of    
other people to value their prejudices1 
and he is indifferent whether people    
esteem him or not until they know him4  
,his address is neither shy nor         
conceited1 but natural and sincere1 he  
knows nothing of constraint or          
concealment1 and he is just the same    
among a group of people as he is when he
 is alone4 ,will this make him rude1    
scornful1 and careless of others8 ,on   
the contrary2 if he were not heedless of
 others when he lived alone1 why should 
he be heedless of them now that he is   
living among them8 ,he does not prefer  
them to himself in his manners1 because 

he does not prefer them to himself in   
his heart1 but neither does he show them
 an indifference which he is far from   
feeling2 if he is unacquainted with the 
forms of politeness1 he is not          
unacquainted with the attentions        
dictated by humanity4 ,he cannot bear to
 see any one suffer2 he will not give up
 his place to another from mere external
 politeness1 but he will willingly yield
 it to him out of kindness if he sees   
that he is being neglected and that this
 neglect hurts him2 for it will be less 
disagreeable to ,emile to remain        
standing of his own accord than to see  
another compelled to stand4  ,although  
,emile has no very high opinion of      
people in general1 he does not show any 
scorn of them1 because he pities them   
and is sorry for them4 ,as he cannot    
give them a taste for what is truly     
good1 he leaves them the imaginary good 
with which they are satisfied1 lest by  
robbing them of this he should leave    
them worse off than before4 ,so he      

neither argues nor contradicts2 neither 
does he flatter nor agree2 he states his
 opinion without arguing with others1   
because he loves liberty above all      
things1 and freedom is one of the       
fairest gifts of liberty4  ,he says     
little1 for he is not anxious to attract
 attention2 for the same reason he only 
says what is to the point2 who could    
induce him to speak otherwise8 ,emile is
 too well informed to be a chatter-box4 
,a great flow of words comes either from
 a pretentious spirit1 of which ,i shall
 speak presently1 or from the value laid
 upon trifles which we foolishly think  
to be as important in the eyes of others
 as in our own4 ,he who knows enough of 
things to value them at their true worth
 never says too much2 for he can also   
judge of the attention bestowed on him  
and the interest aroused by what he     
says4 ,people who know little are       
usually great talkers1 while men who    
know much say little4 ,it is plain that 
an ignorant person thinks everything he 

does know important1 and he tells it to 
everybody4 ,but a well-educated man is  
not so ready to display his learning2 he
 would have too much to say1 and he sees
 that there is much more to be said1 so 
he holds his peace4  ,far from          
disregarding the ways of other people1  
,emile conforms to them readily enough2 
not that he may appear to know all about
 them1 nor yet to affect the airs of a  
man of fashion1 but on the contrary for 
fear lest he should attract attention1  
and in order to pass unnoticed2 he is   
most at his ease when no one pays any   
attention to him4  ,although when he    
makes his entrance into society he knows
 nothing of its customs1 this does not  
make him shy or timid2 if he keeps in   
the background1 it is not because he is 
embarrassed1 but because1 if you want to
 see1 you must not be seen2 for he      
scarcely troubles himself at all about  
what people think of him1 and he is not 
the least afraid of ridicule4 ,hence he 
is always quiet and self-possessed and  

is not troubled with shyness4 ,all he   
has to do is done as well as he knows   
how to do it1 whether people are looking
 at him or not2 and as he is always on  
the alert to observe other people1 he   
acquires their ways with an ease        
impossible to the slaves of other       
people's opinions4 ,we might say that he
 acquires the ways of society just      
because he cares so little about them4  
,but do not make any mistake as to his  
bearing2 it is not to be compared with  
that of your young dandies4 ,it is      
self-possessed1 not conceited2 his      
manners are easy1 not haughty2 an       
insolent look is the mark of a slave1   
there is nothing affected in            
independence4 ,i never saw a man of     
lofty soul who showed it in his bearing2
 this affectation is more suited to vile
 and frivolous souls1 who have no other 
means of asserting themselves4 ,i read  
somewhere that a foreigner appeared one 
day in the presence of the famous       
,marcel1 who asked him what country he  

came from4 ,i am an ,englishman1 replied
 the stranger4 ,you are an ,englishman6 
replied the dancer1 ,you come from that 
island where the citizens have a share  
in the government1 and form part of the 
sovereign power8 ,footnote3 ,as if there
 were citizens who were not part of the 
city and had not1 as such1 a share in   
sovereign power6 ,but the ,french1 who  
have thought fit to usurp the honourable
 name of citizen which was formerly the 
right of the members of the ,gallic     
cities1 have degraded the idea till it  
has no longer any sort of meaning4 ,a   
man who recently wrote a number of silly
 criticisms on the ,nouvelle ,heloise   
added to his signature the title        
,citizen of ,paimboeuf1 and he thought  
it a capital joke4 ,no1 sir1 that modest
 bearing1 that timid glance1 that       
hesitating manner1 proclaim only a slave
 adorned with the title of an elector4  
,i cannot say whether this saying shows 
much knowledge of the true relation     
between a man's character and his       

appearance4 ,i have not the honour of   
being a dancing master1 and ,i should   
have thought just the opposite4 ,i      
should have said1 ,this ,englishman is  
no courtier2 ,i never heard that        
courtiers have a timid bearing and a    
hesitating manner4 ,a man whose         
appearance is timid in the presence of a
 dancer might not be timid in the ,house
 of ,commons4 ,surely this ,m4 ,marcel  
must take his fellow-countrymen for so  
many ,romans4  ,he who loves desires to 
be loved1 ,emile loves his fellows and  
desires to please them4 ,even more does 
he wish to please the women2 his age1   
his character1 the object he has in     
view1 all increase this desire4 ,i say  
his character1 for this has a great     
effect2 men of good character are those 
who really adore women4 ,they have not  
the mocking jargon of gallantry like the
 rest1 but their eagerness is more      
genuinely tender1 because it comes from 
the heart4 ,in the presence of a young  
woman1 ,i could pick out a young man of 

character and self-control from among a 
hundred thousand libertines4 ,consider  
what ,emile must be1 with all the       
eagerness of early youth and so many    
reasons for resistance6 ,for in the     
presence of women ,i think he will      
sometimes be shy and timid2 but this    
shyness will certainly not be           
displeasing1 and the least foolish of   
them will only too often find a way to  
enjoy it and augment it4 ,moreover1 his 
eagerness will take a different shape   
according to those he has to do with4   
,he will be more modest and respectful  
to married women1 more eager and tender 
towards young girls4 ,he never loses    
sight of his purpose1 and it is always  
those who most recall it to him who     
receive the greater share of his        
attentions4  ,no one could be more      
attentive to every consideration based  
upon the laws of nature1 and even on the
 laws of good society2 but the former   
are always preferred before the latter1 
and ,emile will show more respect to an 

elderly person in private life than to a
 young magistrate of his own age4 ,as he
 is generally one of the youngest in the
 company1 he will always be one of the  
most modest1 not from the vanity which  
apes humility1 but from a natural       
feeling founded upon reason4 ,he will   
not have the effrontery of the young    
fop1 who speaks louder than the wise and
 interrupts the old in order to amuse   
the company4 ,he will never give any    
cause for the reply given to ,louis ,,xv
 by an old gentleman who was asked      
whether he preferred this century or the
 last3 ,sire1 ,i spent my youth in      
reverence towards the old2 ,i find      
myself compelled to spend my old age in 
reverence towards the young4  ,his heart
 is tender and sensitive1 but he cares  
nothing for the weight of popular       
opinion1 though he loves to give        
pleasure to others2 so he will care     
little to be thought a person of        
importance4 ,hence he will be           
affectionate rather than polite1 he will

 never be pompous or affected1 and he   
will be always more touched by a caress 
than by much praise4 ,for the same      
reasons he will never be careless of his
 manners or his clothes2 perhaps he will
 be rather particular about his dress1  
not that he may show himself a man of   
taste1 but to make his appearance more  
pleasing2 he will never require a gilt  
frame1 and he will never spoil his style
 by a display of wealth4  ,all this     
demands1 as you see1 no stock of        
precepts from me2 it is all the result  
of his early education4 ,people make a  
great mystery of the ways of society1 as
 if1 at the age when these ways are     
acquired1 we did not take to them quite 
naturally1 and as if the first laws of  
politeness were not to be found in a    
kindly heart4 ,true politeness consists 
in showing our goodwill towards men2 it 
shows its presence without any          
difficulty2 those only who lack this    
goodwill are compelled to reduce the    
outward signs of it to an art4  ,the    

worst effect of artificial politeness is
 that it teaches us how to dispense with
 the virtues it imitates4 ,if our       
education teaches us kindness and       
humanity1 we shall be polite1 or we     
shall have no need of politeness4  ,if  
we have not those qualities which       
display themselves gracefully we shall  
have those which proclaim the honest man
 and the citizen2 we shall have no need 
for falsehood4  ,instead of seeking to  
please by artificiality1 it will suffice
 that we are kindly2 instead of         
flattering the weaknesses of others by  
falsehood1 it will suffice to tolerate  
them4  ,those with whom we have to do   
will neither be puffed up nor corrupted 
by such intercourse2 they will only be  
grateful and will be informed by it4    
,footnote3 ,considerations sur les      
moeurs de ce siecle1 par ,m4 ,duclos4   
,it seems to me that if any education is
 calculated to produce the sort of      
politeness required by ,m4 ,duclos in   
this passage1 it is the education ,i    

have already described4  ,yet ,i admit  
that with such different teaching ,emile
 will not be just like everybody else1  
and heaven preserve him from such a     
fate6 ,but where he is unlike other     
people1 he will neither cause annoyance 
nor will he be absurd2 the difference   
will be perceptible but not unpleasant4 
,emile will be1 if you like1 an         
agreeable foreigner4 ,at first his      
peculiarities will be excused with the  
phrase1 ,he will learn4 ,after a time   
people will get used to his ways1 and   
seeing that he does not change they will
 still make excuses for him and say1 ,he
 is made that way4  ,he will not be     
feted as a charming man1 but every one  
will like him without knowing why2 no   
one will praise his intellect1 but every
 one will be ready to make him the judge
 between men of intellect2 his own      
intelligence will be clear and limited1 
his mind will be accurate1 and his      
judgment sane4 ,as he never runs after  
new ideas1 he cannot pride himself on   

his wit4 ,i have convinced him that all 
wholesome ideas1 ideas which are really 
useful to mankind1 were among the       
earliest known1 that in all times they  
have formed the true bonds of society1  
and that there is nothing left for      
ambitious minds but to seek distinction 
for themselves by means of ideas which  
are injurious and fatal to mankind4     
,this way of winning admiration scarcely
 appeals to him2 he knows how he ought  
to seek his own happiness in life1 and  
how he can contribute to the happiness  
of others4 ,the sphere of his knowledge 
is restricted to what is profitable4    
,his path is narrow and clearly defined2
 as he has no temptation to leave it1 he
 is lost in the crowd2 he will neither  
distinguish himself nor will he lose his
 way4 ,emile is a man of common sense   
and he has no desire to be anything     
more2 you may try in vain to insult him 
by applying this phrase to him2 he will 
always consider it a title of honour4   
,although from his wish to please he is 

no longer wholly indifferent to the     
opinion of others1 he only considers    
that opinion so far as he himself is    
directly concerned1 without troubling   
himself about arbitrary values1 which   
are subject to no law but that of       
fashion or conventionality4 ,he will    
have pride enough to wish to do well in 
everything that he undertakes1 and even 
to wish to do it better than others2 he 
will want to be the swiftest runner1 the
 strongest wrestler1 the cleverest      
workman1 the readiest in games of skill2
 but he will not seek advantages which  
are not in themselves clear gain1 but   
need to be supported by the opinion of  
others1 such as to be thought wittier   
than another1 a better speaker1 more    
learned1 etc42 still less will he       
trouble himself with those which have   
nothing to do with the man himself1 such
 as higher birth1 a greater reputation  
for wealth1 credit1 or public           
estimation1 or the impression created by
 a showy exterior4  ,as he loves his    

fellows because they are like himself1  
he will prefer him who is most like     
himself1 because he will feel that he is
 good2 and as he will judge of this     
resemblance by similarity of taste in   
morals1 in all that belongs to a good   
character1 he will be delighted to win  
approval4 ,he will not say to himself in
 so many words1 ,i am delighted to gain 
approval1 but ,i am delighted because   
they say ,i have done right2 ,i am      
delighted because the men who honour me 
are worthy of honour2 while they judge  
so wisely1 it is a fine thing to win    
their respect4  ,as he studies men in   
their conduct in society1 just as he    
formerly studied them through their     
passions in history1 he will often have 
occasion to consider what it is that    
pleases or offends the human heart4 ,he 
is now busy with the philosophy of the  
principles of taste1 and this is the    
most suitable subject for his present   
study4  ,the further we seek our        
definitions of taste1 the further we go 

astray2 taste is merely the power of    
judging what is pleasing or displeasing 
to most people4 ,go beyond this1 and you
 cannot say what taste is4 ,it does not 
follow that the men of taste are in the 
majority2 for though the majority judges
 wisely with regard to each individual  
thing1 there are few men who follow the 
judgment of the majority in everything2 
and though the most general agreement in
 taste constitutes good taste1 there are
 few men of good taste just as there are
 few beautiful people1 although beauty  
consists in the sum of the most usual   
features4  ,it must be observed that we 
are not here concerned with what we like
 because it is serviceable1 or hate     
because it is harmful to us4 ,taste     
deals only with things that are         
indifferent to us1 or which affect at   
most our amusements1 not those which    
relate to our needs2 taste is not       
required to judge of these1 appetite    
only is sufficient4 ,it is this which   
makes mere decisions of taste so        

difficult and as it seems so arbitrary2 
for beyond the instinct they follow     
there appears to be no reason whatever  
for them4 ,we must also make a          
distinction between the laws of good    
taste in morals and its laws in physical
 matters4 ,in the latter the laws of    
taste appear to be absolutely           
inexplicable4 ,but it must be observed  
that there is a moral element in        
everything which involves               
imitation4,footnote3 ,this is           
demonstrated in an ,essay on the ,origin
 of ,languages which will be found in my
 collected works4 ,this is the          
explanation of beauties which seem to be
 physical1 but are not so in reality4 ,i
 may add that taste has local rules     
which make it dependent in many respects
 on the country we are in1 its manners1 
government1 institutions2 it has other  
rules which depend upon age1 sex1 and   
character1 and it is in this sense that 
we must not dispute over matters of     
taste4  ,taste is natural to men2 but   

all do not possess it in the same       
degree1 it is not developed to the same 
extent in every one2 and in every one it
 is liable to be modified by a variety  
of causes4 ,such taste as we may possess
 depends on our native sensibility2 its 
cultivation and its form depend upon the
 society in which we have lived4 ,in the
 first place we must live in societies  
of many different kinds1 so as to       
compare much4 ,in the next place1 there 
must be societies for amusement and     
idleness1 for in business relations1    
interest1 not pleasure1 is our rule4    
,lastly1 there must be societies in     
which people are fairly equal1 where the
 tyranny of public opinion may be       
moderate1 where pleasure rather than    
vanity is queen2 where this is not so1  
fashion stifles taste1 and we seek what 
gives distinction rather than delight4  
,in the latter case it is no longer true
 that good taste is the taste of the    
majority4 ,why is this8 ,because the    
purpose is different4 ,then the crowd   

has no longer any opinion of its own1 it
 only follows the judgment of those who 
are supposed to know more about it2 its 
approval is bestowed not on what is     
good1 but on what they have already     
approved4 ,at any time let every man    
have his own opinion1 and what is most  
pleasing in itself will always secure   
most votes4  ,every beauty that is to be
 found in the works of man is imitated4 
,all the true models of taste are to be 
found in nature4 ,the further we get    
from the master1 the worse are our      
pictures4 ,then it is that we find our  
models in what we ourselves like1 and   
the beauty of fancy1 subject to caprice 
and to authority1 is nothing but what is
 pleasing to our leaders4  ,those       
leaders are the artists1 the wealthy1   
and the great1 and they themselves      
follow the lead of self-interest or     
pride4 ,some to display their wealth1   
others to profit by it1 they seek       
eagerly for new ways of spending it4    
,this is how luxury acquires its power  

and makes us love what is rare and      
costly2 this so-called beauty consists1 
not in following nature1 but in         
disobeying her4 ,hence luxury and bad   
taste are inseparable4 ,wherever taste  
is lavish1 it is bad4  ,taste1 good or  
bad1 takes its shape especially in the  
intercourse between the two sexes2 the  
cultivation of taste is a necessary     
consequence of this form of society4    
,but when enjoyment is easily obtained1 
and the desire to please becomes        
lukewarm1 taste must degenerate2 and    
this is1 in my opinion1 one of the best 
reasons why good taste implies good     
morals4  ,consult the women's opinions  
in bodily matters1 in all that concerns 
the senses2 consult the men in matters  
of morality and all that concerns the   
understanding4 ,when women are what they
 ought to be1 they will keep to what    
they can understand1 and their judgment 
will be right2 but since they have set  
themselves up as judges of literature1  
since they have begun to criticise books

 and to make them with might and main1  
they are altogether astray4 ,authors who
 take the advice of blue-stockings will 
always be ill-advised2 gallants who     
consult them about their clothes will   
always be absurdly dressed4 ,i shall    
presently have an opportunity of        
speaking of the real talents of the     
female sex1 the way to cultivate these  
talents1 and the matters in regard to   
which their decisions should receive    
attention4  ,these are the elementary   
considerations which ,i shall lay down  
as principles when ,i discuss with      
,emile this matter which is by no means 
indifferent to him in his present       
inquiries4 ,and to whom should it be a  
matter of indifference8 ,to know what   
people may find pleasant or unpleasant  
is not only necessary to any one who    
requires their help1 it is still more   
necessary to any one who would help     
them2 you must please them if you would 
do them service2 and the art of writing 
is no idle pursuit if it is used to make

 men hear the truth4  ,if in order to   
cultivate my pupil's taste1 ,i were     
compelled to choose between a country   
where this form of culture has not yet  
arisen and those in which it has already
 degenerated1 ,i would progress         
backwards2 ,i would begin his survey    
with the latter and end with the former4
 ,my reason for this choice is1 that    
taste becomes corrupted through         
excessive delicacy1 which makes it      
sensitive to things which most men do   
not perceive2 this delicacy leads to a  
spirit of discussion1 for the more      
subtle is our discrimination of things  
the more things there are for us4 ,this 
subtlety increases the delicacy and     
decreases the uniformity of our touch4  
,so there are as many tastes as there   
are people4 ,in disputes as to our      
preferences1 philosophy and knowledge   
are enlarged1 and thus we learn to      
think4 ,it is only men accustomed to    
plenty of society who are capable of    
very delicate observations1 for these   

observations do not occur to us till the
 last1 and people who are unused to all 
sorts of society exhaust their attention
 in the consideration of the more       
conspicuous features4 ,there is perhaps 
no civilised place upon earth where the 
common taste is so bad as in ,paris4    
,yet it is in this capital that good    
taste is cultivated1 and it seems that  
few books make any impression in ,europe
 whose authors have not studied in      
,paris4 ,those who think it is enough to
 read our books are mistaken2 there is  
more to be learnt from the conversation 
of authors than from their books2 and it
 is not from the authors that we learn  
most4 ,it is the spirit of social life  
which develops a thinking mind1 and     
carries the eye as far as it can reach4 
,if you have a spark of genius1 go and  
spend a year in ,paris2 you will soon be
 all that you are capable of becoming1  
or you will never be good for anything  
at all4  ,one may learn to think in     
places where bad taste rules supreme2   

but we must not think like those whose  
taste is bad1 and it is very difficult  
to avoid this if we spend much time     
among them4 ,we must use their efforts  
to perfect the machinery of judgment1   
but we must be careful not to make the  
same use of it4 ,i shall take care not  
to polish ,emile's judgment so far as to
 transform it1 and when he has acquired 
discernment enough to feel and compare  
the varied tastes of men1 ,i shall lead 
him to fix his own taste upon simpler   
matters4  ,i will go still further in   
order to keep his taste pure and        
wholesome4 ,in the tumult of dissipation
 ,i shall find opportunities for useful 
conversation with him2 and while these  
conversations are always about things in
 which he takes a delight1 ,i shall take
 care to make them as amusing as they   
are instructive4 ,now is the time to    
read pleasant books2 now is the time to 
teach him to analyse speech and to      
appreciate all the beauties of eloquence
 and diction4 ,it is a small matter to  

learn languages1 they are less useful   
than people think2 but the study of     
languages leads us on to that of grammar
 in general4 ,we must learn ,latin if we
 would have a thorough knowledge of     
,french2 these two languages must be    
studied and compared if we would        
understand the rules of the art of      
speaking4  ,there is1 moreover1 a       
certain simplicity of taste which goes  
straight to the heart2 and this is only 
to be found in the classics4  ,in       
oratory1 poetry1 and every kind of      
literature1 ,emile will find the        
classical authors as he found them in   
history1 full of matter and sober in    
their judgment4 ,the authors of our own 
time1 on the contrary1 say little and   
talk much4 ,to take their judgment as   
our constant law is not the way to form 
our own judgment4 ,these differences of 
taste make themselves felt in all that  
is left of classical times and even on  
their tombs4 ,our monuments are covered 
with praises1 theirs recorded facts4    

,sta1 viator2 heroem calcas4  ,if ,i had
 found this epitaph on an ancient       
monument1 ,i should at once have guessed
 it was modern2 for there is nothing so 
common among us as heroes1 but among the
 ancients they were rare4 ,instead of   
saying a man was a hero1 they would have
 said what he had done to gain that     
name4 ,with the epitaph of this hero    
compare that of the effeminate          
,sardanapalus--       ,tarsus and       
,anchiales ,i built in a day1 and now ,i
 am dead4  ,which do you think says     
most8 ,our inflated monumental style is 
only fit to trumpet forth the praises of
 pygmies4 ,the ancients showed men as   
they were1 and it was plain that they   
were men indeed4 ,xenophon did honour to
 the memory of some warriors who were   
slain by treason during the retreat of  
the ,ten ,thousand4 ,they died1 said he1
 without stain in war and in love4 ,that
 is all1 but think how full was the     
heart of the author of this short and   
simple elegy4 ,woe to him who fails to  

perceive its charm4 ,the following words
 were engraved on a tomb at             
,thermopylae--  ,go1 ,traveller1 tell   
,sparta that here we fell in obedience  
to her laws4  ,it is pretty clear that  
this was not the work of the ,academy of
 ,inscriptions4  ,if ,i am not mistaken1
 the attention of my pupil1 who sets so 
small value upon words1 will be directed
 in the first place to these            
differences1 and they will affect his   
choice in his reading4 ,he will be      
carried away by the manly eloquence of  
,demosthenes1 and will say1 ,this is an 
orator2 but when he reads ,cicero1 he   
will say1 ,this is a lawyer4  ,speaking 
generally ,emile will have more taste   
for the books of the ancients than for  
our own1 just because they were the     
first1 and therefore the ancients are   
nearer to nature and their genius is    
more distinct4 ,whatever ,la ,motte and 
the ,abbe ,terrasson may say1 there is  
no real advance in human reason1 for    
what we gain in one direction we lose in

 another2 for all minds start from the  
same point1 and as the time spent in    
learning what others have thought is so 
much time lost in learning to think for 
ourselves1 we have more acquired        
knowledge and less vigour of mind4 ,our 
minds like our arms are accustomed to   
use tools for everything1 and to do     
nothing for themselves4 ,fontenelle used
 to say that all these disputes as to   
the ancients and the moderns came to    
this--,were the trees in former times   
taller than they are now4 ,if           
agriculture had changed1 it would be    
worth our while to ask this question4   
,after ,i have led ,emile to the sources
 of pure literature1 ,i will also show  
him the channels into the reservoirs of 
modern compilers2 journals1             
translations1 dictionaries1 he shall    
cast a glance at them all1 and then     
leave them for ever4 ,to amuse him he   
shall hear the chatter of the academies2
 ,i will draw his attention to the fast 
that every member of them is worth more 

by himself than he is as a member of the
 society2 he will then draw his own     
conclusions as to the utility of these  
fine institutions4  ,i take him to the  
theatre to study taste1 not morals2 for 
in the theatre above all taste is       
revealed to those who can think4 ,lay   
aside precepts and morality1 ,i should  
say2 this is not the place to study     
them4 ,the stage is not made for truth2 
its object is to flatter and amuse3     
there is no place where one can learn so
 completely the art of pleasing and of  
interesting the human heart4  ,the study
 of plays leads to the study of poetry2 
both have the same end in view4 ,if he  
has the least glimmering of taste for   
poetry1 how eagerly will he study the   
languages of the poets1 ,greek1 ,latin1 
and ,italian6 ,these studies will afford
 him unlimited amusement and will be    
none the less valuable2 they will be a  
delight to him at an age and in         
circumstances when the heart finds so   
great a charm in every kind of beauty   

which affects it4 ,picture to yourself  
on the one hand ,emile1 on the other    
some young rascal from college1 reading 
the fourth book of the ,aeneid1 or      
,tibollus1 or the ,banquet of ,plato3   
what a difference between them6 ,what   
stirs the heart of ,emile to its depths1
 makes not the least impression on the  
other6 ,oh1 good youth1 stay1 make a    
pause in your reading1 you are too      
deeply moved2 ,i would have you find    
pleasure in the language of love1 but ,i
 would not have you carried away by it2 
be a wise man1 but be a good man too4   
,if you are only one of these1 you are  
nothing4 ,after this let him win fame or
 not in dead languages1 in literature1  
in poetry1 ,i care little4 ,he will be  
none the worse if he knows nothing of   
them1 and his education is not concerned
 with these mere words4  ,my main object
 in teaching him to feel and love beauty
 of every kind is to fix his affections 
and his taste on these1 to prevent the  
corruption of his natural appetites1    

lest he should have to seek some day in 
the midst of his wealth for the means of
 happiness which should be found close  
at hand4 ,i have said elsewhere that    
taste is only the art of being a        
connoisseur in matters of little        
importance1 and this is quite true2 but 
since the charm of life depends on a    
tissue of these matters of little       
importance1 such efforts are no small   
thing2 through their means we learn how 
to fill our life with the good things   
within our reach1 with as much truth as 
they may hold for us4 ,i do not refer to
 the morally good which depends on a    
good disposition of the heart1 but only 
to that which depends on the body1 on   
real delight1 apart from the prejudices 
of public opinion4  ,the better to      
unfold my idea1 allow me for a moment to
 leave ,emile1 whose pure and wholesome 
heart cannot be taken as a rule for     
others1 and to seek in my own memory for
 an illustration better suited to the   
reader and more in accordance with his  

own manners4  ,there are professions    
which seem to change a man's nature1 to 
recast1 either for better or worse1 the 
men who adopt them4 ,a coward becomes a 
brave man in the regiment of ,navarre4  
,it is not only in the army that esprit 
de corps is acquired1 and its effects   
are not always for good4 ,i have thought
 again and again with terror that if ,i 
had the misfortune to fill a certain    
post ,i am thinking of in a certain     
country1 before to-morrow ,i should     
certainly be a tyrant1 an extortioner1 a
 destroyer of the people1 harmful to my 
king1 and a professed enemy of mankind1 
a foe to justice and every kind of      
virtue4  ,in the same way1 if ,i were   
rich1 ,i should have done all that is   
required to gain riches2 ,i should      
therefore be insolent and degraded1     
sensitive and feeling only on my own    
behalf1 harsh and pitiless to all       
besides1 a scornful spectator of the    
sufferings of the lower classes2 for    
that is what ,i should call the poor1 to

 make people forget that ,i was once    
poor myself4 ,lastly ,i should make my  
fortune a means to my own pleasures with
 which ,i should be wholly occupied2 and
 so far ,i should be just like other    
people4  ,but in one respect ,i should  
be very unlike them2 ,i should be       
sensual and voluptuous rather than proud
 and vain1 and ,i should give myself up 
to the luxury of comfort rather than to 
that of ostentation4 ,i should even be  
somewhat ashamed to make too great a    
show of my wealth1 and if ,i overwhelmed
 the envious with my pomp ,i should     
always fancy ,i heard him saying1 ,here 
is a rascal who is greatly afraid lest  
we should take him for anything but what
 he is4  ,in the vast profusion of good 
things upon this earth ,i should seek   
what ,i like best1 and what ,i can best 
appropriate to myself4  ,to this end1   
the first use ,i should make of my      
wealth would be to purchase leisure and 
freedom1 to which ,i would add health1  
if it were to be purchased2 but health  

can only be bought by temperance1 and as
 there is no real pleasure without      
health1 ,i should be temperate from     
sensual motives4  ,i should also keep as
 close as possible to nature1 to gratify
 the senses given me by nature1 being   
quite convinced that1 the greater her   
share in my pleasures1 the more real ,i 
shall find them4 ,in the choice of      
models for imitation ,i shall always    
choose nature as my pattern2 in my      
appetites ,i will give her the          
preference2 in my tastes she shall      
always be consulted2 in my food ,i will 
always choose what most owes its charm  
to her1 and what has passed through the 
fewest possible hands on its way to     
table4 ,i will be on my guard against   
fraudulent shams2 ,i will go out to meet
 pleasure4 ,no cook shall grow rich on  
my gross and foolish greediness2 he     
shall not poison me with fish which cost
 its weight in gold1 my table shall not 
be decked with fetid splendour or putrid
 flesh from far-off lands4 ,i will take 

any amount of trouble to gratify my     
sensibility1 since this trouble has a   
pleasure of its own1 a pleasure more    
than we expect4 ,if ,i wished to taste a
 food from the ends of the earth1 ,i    
would go1 like ,apicius1 in search of   
it1 rather than send for it2 for the    
daintiest dishes always lack a charm    
which cannot be brought along with them1
 a flavour which no cook can give       
them--the air of the country where they 
are produced4  ,for the same reason ,i  
would not follow the example of those   
who are never well off where they are1  
but are always setting the seasons at   
nought1 and confusing countries and     
their seasons2 those who seek winter in 
summer and summer in winter1 and go to  
,italy to be cold and to the north to be
 warm1 do not consider that when they   
think they are escaping from the        
severity of the seasons1 they are going 
to meet that severity in places where   
people are not prepared for it4 ,i shall
 stay in one place1 or ,i shall adopt   

just the opposite course2 ,i should like
 to get all possible enjoyment out of   
one season to discover what is peculiar 
to any given country4 ,i would have a   
variety of pleasures1 and habits quite  
unlike one another1 but each according  
to nature2 ,i would spend the summer at 
,naples and the winter in ,st4          
,petersburg2 sometimes ,i would breathe 
the soft zephyr lying in the cool       
grottoes of ,tarentum1 and again ,i     
would enjoy the illuminations of an ice 
palace1 breathless and wearied with the 
pleasures of the dance4  ,in the service
 of my table and the adornment of my    
dwelling ,i would imitate in the        
simplest ornaments the variety of the   
seasons1 and draw from each its charm   
without anticipating its successor4     
,there is no taste but only difficulty  
to be found in thus disturbing the order
 of nature2 to snatch from her unwilling
 gifts1 which she yields regretfully1   
with her curse upon them2 gifts which   
have neither strength nor flavour1 which

 can neither nourish the body nor tickle
 the palate4 ,nothing is more insipid   
than forced fruits4 ,a wealthy man in   
,paris1 with all his stoves and         
hot-houses1 only succeeds in getting all
 the year round poor fruit and poor     
vegetables for his table at a very high 
price4 ,if ,i had cherries in frost1 and
 golden melons in the depths of winter1 
what pleasure should ,i find in them    
when my palate did not need moisture or 
refreshment4 ,would the heavy chestnut  
be very pleasant in the heat of the     
dog-days2 should ,i prefer to have it   
hot from the stove1 rather than the     
gooseberry1 the strawberry1 the         
refreshing fruits which the earth takes 
care to provide for me4 ,a mantelpiece  
covered in ,january with forced         
vegetation1 with pale and scentless     
flowers1 is not winter adorned1 but     
spring robbed of its beauty2 we deprive 
ourselves of the pleasure of seeking the
 first violet in the woods1 of noting   
the earliest buds1 and exclaiming in a  

rapture of delight1 ,mortals1 you are   
not forsaken1 nature is living still4   
,to be well served ,i would have few    
servants2 this has been said before1 but
 it is worth saying again4 ,a tradesman 
gets more real service from his one man 
than a duke from the ten gentlemen round
 about him4 ,it has often struck me when
 ,i am sitting at table with my glass   
beside me that ,i can drink whenever ,i 
please2 whereas1 if ,i were dining in   
state1 twenty men would have to call for
 ,wine before ,i could quench my thirst4
 ,you may be sure that whatever is done 
for you by other people is ill done4 ,i 
would not send to the shops1 ,i would go
 myself2 ,i would go so that my servants
 should not make their own terms with   
the shopkeepers1 and to get a better    
choice and cheaper prices2 ,i would go  
for the sake of pleasant exercise and to
 get a glimpse of what was going on out 
of doors2 this is amusing and sometimes 
instructive2 lastly ,i would go for the 
sake of the walk2 there is always       

something in that4 ,a sedentary life is 
the source of tedium2 when we walk a    
good deal we are never dull4 ,a porter  
and footmen are poor interpreters1 ,i   
should never wish to have such people   
between the world and myself1 nor would 
,i travel with all the fuss of a coach1 
as if ,i were afraid people would speak 
to me4 ,shanks' mare is always ready2 if
 she is tired or ill1 her owner is the  
first to know it2 he need not be afraid 
of being kept at home while his coachman
 is on the spree2 on the road he will   
not have to submit to all sorts of      
delays1 nor will he be consumed with    
impatience1 nor compelled to stay in one
 place a moment longer than he chooses4 
,lastly1 since no one serves us so well 
as we serve ourselves1 had we the power 
of ,alexander and the wealth of ,croesus
 we should accept no services from      
others1 except those we cannot perform  
for ourselves4  ,i would not live in a  
palace2 for even in a palace ,i should  
only occupy one room2 every room which  

is common property belongs to nobody1   
and the rooms of each of my servants    
would be as strange to me as my         
neighbour's4 ,the ,orientals1 although  
very voluptuous1 are lodged in plain and
 simply furnished dwellings4 ,they      
consider life as a journey1 and their   
house as an inn4 ,this reason scarcely  
appeals to us rich people who propose to
 live for ever2 but ,i should find      
another reason which would have the same
 effect4 ,it would seem to me that if ,i
 settled myself in one place in the     
midst of such splendour1 ,i should      
banish myself from every other place1   
and imprison myself1 so to speak1 in my 
palace4 ,the world is a palace fair     
enough for any one2 and is not          
everything at the disposal of the rich  
man when he seeks enjoyment8 ,ubi bene1 
ibi patria1 that is his motto2 his home 
is anywhere where money will carry him1 
his country is anywhere where there is  
room for his strong-box1 as ,philip     
considered as his own any place where a 

mule laden with silver could enter4     
,footnote3 ,a stranger1 splendidly clad1
 was asked in ,athens what country he   
belonged to4 ,i am one of the rich1 was 
his answer2 and a very good answer in my
 opinion4 ,why then should we shut      
ourselves up within walls and gates as  
if we never meant to leave them8 ,if    
pestilence1 war1 or rebellion drive me  
from one place1 ,i go to another1 and ,i
 find my hotel there before me4 ,why    
should ,i build a mansion for myself    
when the world is already at my         
disposal8 ,why should ,i be in such a   
hurry to live1 to bring from afar       
delights which ,i can find on the spot8 
,it is impossible to make a pleasant    
life for oneself when one is always at  
war with oneself4  ,thus ,empedocles    
reproached the men of ,agrigentum with  
heaping up pleasures as if they had but 
one day to live1 and building as if they
 would live for ever4  ,and what use    
have ,i for so large a dwelling1 as ,i  
have so few people to live in it1 and   

still fewer goods to fill it8 ,my       
furniture would be as simple as my      
tastes2 ,i would have neither           
picture-gallery nor library1 especially 
if ,i was fond of reading and knew      
something about pictures4 ,i should then
 know that such collections are never   
complete1 and that the lack of that     
which is wanting causes more annoyance  
than if one had nothing at all4 ,in this
 respect abundance is the cause of want1
 as every collector knows to his cost4  
,if you are an expert1 do not make a    
collection2 if you know how to use your 
cabinets1 you will not have any to show4
  ,gambling is no sport for the rich1 it
 is the resource of those who have      
nothing to do2 ,i shall be so busy with 
my pleasures that ,i shall have no time 
to waste4 ,i am poor and lonely and ,i  
never play1 unless it is a game of chess
 now and then1 and that is more than    
enough4 ,if ,i were rich ,i would play  
even less1 and for very low stakes1 so  
that ,i should not be disappointed      

myself1 nor see the disappointment of   
others4 ,the wealthy man has no motive  
for play1 and the love of play will not 
degenerate into the passion for gambling
 unless the disposition is evil4 ,the   
rich man is always more keenly aware of 
his losses than his gains1 and as in    
games where the stakes are not high the 
winnings are generally exhausted in the 
long run1 he will usually lose more than
 he gains1 so that if we reason rightly 
we shall scarcely take a great fancy to 
games where the odds are against us4 ,he
 who flatters his vanity so far as to   
believe that ,fortune favours him can   
seek her favour in more exciting ways2  
and her favours are just as clearly     
shown when the stakes are low as when   
they are high4 ,the taste for play1 the 
result of greed and dullness1 only lays 
hold of empty hearts and heads2 and ,i  
think ,i should have enough feeling and 
knowledge to dispense with its help4    
,thinkers are seldom gamblers2 gambling 
interrupts the habit of thought and     

turns it towards barren combinations2   
thus one good result1 perhaps the only  
good result of the taste for science1 is
 that it deadens to some extent this    
vulgar passion2 people will prefer to   
try to discover the uses of play rather 
than to devote themselves to it4 ,i     
should argue with the gamblers against  
gambling1 and ,i should find more       
delight in scoffing at their losses than
 in winning their money4  ,i should be  
the same in private life as in my social
 intercourse4 ,i should wish my fortune 
to bring comfort in its train1 and never
 to make people conscious of            
inequalities of wealth4 ,showy dress is 
inconvenient in many ways4 ,to preserve 
as much freedom as possible among other 
men1 ,i should like to be dressed in    
such a way that ,i should not seem out  
of place among all classes1 and should  
not attract attention in any2 so that   
without affectation or change ,i might  
mingle with the crowd at the inn or with
 the nobility at the ,palais ,royal4 ,in

 this way ,i should be more than ever my
 own master1 and should be free to enjoy
 the pleasures of all sorts and         
conditions of men4 ,there are women1 so 
they say1 whose doors are closed to     
embroidered cuffs1 women who will only  
receive guests who wear lace ruffles2 ,i
 should spend my days elsewhere2 though 
if these women were young and pretty ,i 
might sometimes put on lace ruffles to  
spend an evening or so in their company4
  ,mutual affection1 similarity of      
tastes1 suitability of character2 these 
are the only bonds between my companions
 and myself2 among them ,i would be a   
man1 not a person of wealth2 the charm  
of their society should never be        
embittered by self-seeking4 ,if my      
wealth had not robbed me of all         
humanity1 ,i would scatter my benefits  
and my services broadcast1 but ,i should
 want companions about me1 not          
courtiers1 friends1 not proteges2 ,i    
should wish my friends to regard me as  
their host1 not their patron4           

,independence and equality would leave  
to my relations with my friends the     
sincerity of goodwill2 while duty and   
self-seeking would have no place among  
us1 and we should know no law but that  
of pleasure and friendship4  ,neither a 
friend nor a mistress can be bought4    
,women may be got for money1 but that   
road will never lead to love4 ,love is  
not only not for sale2 money strikes it 
dead4 ,if a man pays1 were he indeed the
 most lovable of men1 the mere fact of  
payment would prevent any lasting       
affection4 ,he will soon be paying for  
some one else1 or rather some one else  
will get his money2 and in this double  
connection based on self-seeking and    
debauchery1 without love1 honour1 or    
true pleasure1 the woman is grasping1   
faithless1 and unhappy1 and she is      
treated by the wretch to whom she gives 
her money as she treats the fool who    
gives his money to her2 she has no love 
for either4 ,it would be sweet to lie   
generous towards one we love1 if that   

did not make a bargain of love4 ,i know 
only one way of gratifying this desire  
with the woman one loves without        
embittering love2 it is to bestow our   
all upon her and to live at her expense4
  ,it remains to be seen whether there  
is any woman with regard to whom such   
conduct would not be unwise4  ,he who   
said1 ,lais is mine1 but ,i am not hers1
 was talking nonsense4 ,possession which
 is not mutual is nothing at all2 at    
most it is the possession of the sex not
 of the individual4 ,but where there is 
no morality in love1 why make such ado  
about the rest8  ,nothing is so easy to 
find4 ,a muleteer is in this respect as 
near to happiness as a millionaire4     
,oh1 if we could thus trace out the     
unreasonableness of vice1 how often     
should we find that1 when it has        
attained its object1 it discovers it is 
not what it seemed6 ,why is there this  
cruel haste to corrupt innocence1 to    
make1 a victim of a young creature whom 
we ought to protect1 one who is dragged 

by this first false step into a gulf of 
misery from which only death can release
 her8 ,brutality1 vanity1 folly1 error1 
and nothing more4 ,this pleasure itself 
is unnatural2 it rests on popular       
opinion1 and popular opinion at its     
worst1 since it depends on scorn of     
self4 ,he who knows he is the basest of 
men fears comparison with others1 and   
would be the first that he may be less  
hateful4 ,see if those who are most     
greedy in pursuit of such fancied       
pleasures are ever attractive young     
men--men worthy of pleasing1 men who    
might have some excuse if they were hard
 to please4 ,not so2 any one with good  
looks1 merit1 and feeling has little    
fear of his mistress' experience2 with  
well-placed confidence he says to her1  
,you know what pleasure is1 what is that
 to me8 my heart assures me that this is
 not so4  ,but an aged satyr1 worn out  
with debauchery1 with no charm1 no      
consideration1 no thought for any but   
himself1 with no shred of honour1       

incapable and unworthy of finding favour
 in the eyes of any woman who knows     
anything of men deserving of love1      
expects to make up for all this with an 
innocent girl by trading on her         
inexperience and stirring her emotions  
for the first time4 ,his last hope is to
 find favour as a novelty2 no doubt this
 is the secret motive of this desire2   
but he is mistaken1 the horror he       
excites is just as natural as the       
desires he wishes to arouse4 ,he is also
 mistaken in his foolish attempt2 that  
very nature takes care to assert her    
rights2 every girl who sells herself is 
no longer a maid2 she has given herself 
to the man of her choice1 and she is    
making the very comparison he dreads4   
,the pleasure purchased is imaginary1   
but none the less hateful4  ,for my own 
part1 however riches may change me1     
there is one matter in which ,i shall   
never change4 ,if ,i have neither morals
 nor virtue1 ,i shall not be wholly     
without taste1 without sense1 without   

delicacy2 and this will prevent me from 
spending my fortune in the pursuit of   
empty dreams1 from wasting my money and 
my strength in teaching children to     
betray me and mock at me4 ,if ,i were   
young1 ,i would seek the pleasures of   
youth2 and as ,i would have them at     
their best ,i would not seek them in the
 guise of a rich man4 ,if ,i were at my 
present age1 it would be another matter2
 ,i would wisely confine myself to the  
pleasures of my age2 ,i would form      
tastes which ,i could enjoy1 and ,i     
would stifle those which could only     
cause suffering4 ,i would not go and    
offer my grey beard to the scornful     
jests of young girls2 ,i could never    
bear to sicken them with my disgusting  
caresses1 to furnish them at my expense 
with the most absurd stories1 to imagine
 them describing the vile pleasures of  
the old ape1 so as to avenge themselves 
for what they had endured4 ,but if      
habits unresisted had changed my former 
desires into needs1 ,i would perhaps    

satisfy those needs1 but with shame and 
blushes4 ,i would distinguish between   
passion and necessity1 ,i would find a  
suitable mistress and would keep to her4
 ,i would not make a business of my     
weakness1 and above all ,i would only   
have one person aware of it4 ,life has  
other pleasures when these fail us2 by  
hastening in vain after those that fly  
us1 we deprive ourselves of those that  
remain4 ,let our tastes change with our 
years1 let us no more meddle with age   
than with the seasons4 ,we should be    
ourselves at all times1 instead of      
struggling against nature2 such vain    
attempts exhaust our strength and       
prevent the right use of life4  ,the    
lower classes are seldom dull1 their    
life is full of activity2 if there is   
little variety in their amusements they 
do not recur frequently2 many days of   
labour teach them to enjoy their rare   
holidays4 ,short intervals of leisure   
between long periods of labour give a   
spice to the pleasures of their station4

 ,the chief curse of the rich is        
dullness2 in the midst of costly        
amusements1 among so many men striving  
to give them pleasure1 they are devoured
 and slain by dullness2 their life is   
spent in fleeing from it and in being   
overtaken by it2 they are overwhelmed by
 the intolerable burden2 women more     
especially1 who do not know how to work 
or play1 are a prey to tedium under the 
name of the vapours2 with them it takes 
the shape of a dreadful disease1 which  
robs them of their reason and even of   
their life4 ,for my own part ,i know no 
more terrible fate than that of a pretty
 woman in ,paris1 unless it is that of  
the pretty manikin who devotes himself  
to her1 who becomes idle and effeminate 
like her1 and so deprives himself twice 
over of his manhood1 while he prides    
himself on his successes and for their  
sake endures the longest and dullest    
days which human being ever put up with4
  ,proprieties1 fashions1 customs which 
depend on luxury and breeding1 confine  

the course of life within the limits of 
the most miserable uniformity4 ,the     
pleasure we desire to display to others 
is a pleasure lost2 we neither enjoy it 
ourselves1 nor do others enjoy it4      
,footnote3 ,two ladies of fashion1 who  
wished to seem to be enjoying themselves
 greatly1 decided never to go to bed    
before five o'clock in the morning4 ,in 
the depths of winter their servants     
spent the night in the street waiting   
for them1 and with great difficulty kept
 themselves from freezing4 ,one night1  
or rather one morning1 some one entered 
the room where these merry people spent 
their hours without knowing how time    
passed4 ,he found them quite alone2 each
 of them was asleep in her arm-chair4   
,ridicule1 which public opinion dreads  
more than anything1 is ever at hand to  
tyrannise1 and punish4  ,it is only     
ceremony that makes us ridiculous2 if we
 can vary our place and our pleasures1  
to-day's impressions can efface those of
 yesterday2 in the mind of men they are 

as if they had never been2 but we enjoy 
ourselves for we throw ourselves into   
every hour and everything4 ,my only set 
rule would be this3 wherever ,i was ,i  
would pay no heed to anything else4 ,i  
would take each day as it came1 as if   
there were neither yesterday nor        
to-morrow4 ,as ,i should be a man of the
 people1 with the populace1 ,i should be
 a countryman in the fields2 and if ,i  
spoke of farming1 the peasant should not
 laugh at my expense4 ,i would not go   
and build a town in the country nor     
erect the ,tuileries at the door of my  
lodgings4 ,on some pleasant shady       
hill-side ,i would have a little        
cottage1 a white house with green       
shutters1 and though a thatched roof is 
the best all the year round1 ,i would be
 grand enough to have1 not those gloomy 
slates1 but tiles1 because they look    
brighter and more cheerful than thatch1 
and the houses in my own country are    
always roofed with them1 and so they    
would recall to me something of the     

happy days of my youth4 ,for my         
courtyard ,i would have a poultry-yard1 
and for my stables a cowshed for the    
sake of the milk which ,i love4 ,my     
garden should be a kitchen-garden1 and  
my park an orchard1 like the one        
described further on4 ,the fruit would  
be free to those who walked in the      
orchard1 my gardener should neither     
count it nor gather it2 ,i would not1   
with greedy show1 display before your   
eyes superb espaliers which one scarcely
 dare touch4 ,but this small            
extravagance would not be costly1 for ,i
 would choose my abode in some remote   
province where silver is scarce and food
 plentiful1 where plenty and poverty    
have their seat4  ,there ,i would gather
 round me a company1 select rather than 
numerous1 a band of friends who know    
what pleasure is1 and how to enjoy it1  
women who can leave their arm-chairs and
 betake themselves to outdoor sports1   
women who can exchange the shuttle or   
the cards for the fishing line or the   

bird-trap1 the gleaner's rake or        
grape-gatherer's basket4 ,there all the 
pretensions of the town will be         
forgotten1 and we shall be villagers in 
a village2 we shall find all sorts of   
different sports and we shall hardly    
know how to choose the morrow's         
occupation4 ,exercise and an active life
 will improve our digestion and modify  
our tastes4 ,every meal will be a feast1
 where plenty will be more pleasing than
 any delicacies4 ,there are no such     
cooks in the world as mirth1 rural      
pursuits1 and merry games2 and the      
finest made dishes are quite ridiculous 
in the eyes of people who have been on  
foot since early dawn4 ,our meals will  
be served without regard to order or    
elegance2 we shall make our dining-room 
anywhere1 in the garden1 on a boat1     
beneath a tree2 sometimes at a distance 
from the house on the banks of a running
 stream1 on the fresh green grass1 among
 the clumps of willow and hazel2 a long 
procession of guests will carry the     

material for the feast with laughter and
 singing2 the turf will be our chairs   
and table1 the banks of the stream our  
side-board1 and our dessert is hanging  
on the trees2 the dishes will be served 
in any order1 appetite needs no         
ceremony2 each one of us1 openly putting
 himself first1 would gladly see every  
one else do the same2 from this         
warm-hearted and temperate familiarity  
there would arise1 without coarseness1  
pretence1 or constraint1 a laughing     
conflict a hundredfold more delightful  
than politeness1 and more likely to     
cement our friendship4 ,no tedious      
flunkeys to listen to our words1 to     
whisper criticisms on our behaviour1 to 
count every mouthful with greedy eyes1  
to amuse themselves by keeping us       
waiting for our wine1 to complain of the
 length of our dinner4 ,we will be our  
own servants1 in order to be our own    
masters4 ,time will fly unheeded1 our   
meal will be an interval of rest during 
the heat of the day4 ,if some peasant   

comes our way1 returning from his work  
with his tools over his shoulder1 ,i    
will cheer his heart with kindly words1 
and a glass or two of good wine1 which  
will help him to bear his poverty more  
cheerfully2 and ,i too shall have the   
joy of feeling my heart stirred within  
me1 and ,i should say to myself--,i too 
am a man4  ,if the inhabitants of the   
district assembled for some rustic      
feast1 ,i and my friends would be there 
among the first2 if there were          
marriages1 more blessed than those of   
towns1 celebrated near my home1 every   
one would know how ,i love to see people
 happy1 and ,i should be invited4 ,i    
would take these good folks some gift as
 simple as themselves1 a gift which     
would be my share of the feast2 and in  
exchange ,i should obtain gifts beyond  
price1 gifts so little known among my   
equals1 the gifts of freedom and true   
pleasure4 ,i should sup gaily at the    
head of their long table2 ,i should join
 in the chorus of some rustic song and  

,i should dance in the barn more merrily
 than at a ball in the ,opera ,house4   
,this is all very well so far1 you will 
say1 but what about the shooting6 ,one  
must have some sport in the country4    
,just so2 ,i only wanted a farm1 but ,i 
was wrong4 ,i assume ,i am rich1 ,i must
 keep my pleasures to myself1 ,i must be
 free to kill something2 this is quite  
another matter4 ,i must have estates1   
woods1 keepers1 rents1 seignorial       
rights1 particularly incense and holy   
water4  ,well and good4 ,but ,i shall   
have neighbours about my estate who are 
jealous of their rights and anxious to  
encroach on those of others2 our keepers
 will quarrel1 and possibly their       
masters will quarrel too2 this means    
altercations1 disputes1 ill-will1 or    
law-suits at the least2 this in itself  
is not very pleasant4 ,my tenants will  
not enjoy finding my hares at work upon 
their corn1 or my wild boars among their
 beans4 ,as they dare not kill the      
enemy1 every one of them will try to    

drive him from their fields2 when the   
day has been spent in cultivating the   
ground1 they will be compelled to sit up
 at night to watch it2 they will have   
watch-dogs1 drums1 horns1 and bells2 my 
sleep will be disturbed by their racket4
 ,do what ,i will1 ,i cannot help       
thinking of the misery of these poor    
people1 and ,i cannot help blaming      
myself for it4 ,if ,i had the honour of 
being a prince1 this would make little  
impression on me2 but as ,i am a        
self-made man who has only just come    
into his property1 ,i am still rather   
vulgar at heart4  ,that is not all2     
abundance of game attracts trespassers2 
,i shall soon have poachers to punish2  
,i shall require prisons1 gaolers1      
guards1 and galleys2 all this strikes me
 as cruel4 ,the wives of those miserable
 creatures will besiege my door and     
disturb me with their crying2 they must 
either be driven away or roughly        
handled4 ,the poor people who are not   
poachers1 whose harvest has been        

destroyed by my game1 will come next    
with their complaints4 ,some people will
 be put to death for killing the game1  
the rest will be punished for having    
spared it2 what a choice of evils6 ,on  
every side ,i shall find nothing but    
misery and hear nothing but groans4 ,so 
far as ,i can see this must greatly     
disturb the pleasure of slaying at one's
 ease heaps of partridges and hares     
which are tame enough to run about one's
 feet4  ,if you would have pleasure     
without pain let there be no monopoly2  
the more you leave it free to everybody1
 the purer will be your own enjoyment4  
,therefore ,i should not do what ,i have
 just described1 but without change of  
tastes ,i would follow those which seem 
likely to cause me least pain4 ,i would 
fix my rustic abode in a district where 
game is not preserved1 and where ,i can 
have my sport without hindrance4 ,game  
will be less plentiful1 but there will  
be more skill in finding it1 and more   
pleasure in securing it4 ,i remember the

 start of delight with which my father  
watched the rise of his first partridge 
and the rapture with which he found the 
hare he had sought all day long4 ,yes1  
,i declare1 that alone with his dog1    
carrying his own gun1 cartridges1 and   
game bag together with his hare1 he came
 home at nightfall1 worn out with       
fatigue and torn to pieces by brambles1 
but better pleased with his day's sport 
than all your ordinary sportsmen1 who on
 a good horse1 with twenty guns ready   
for them1 merely take one gun after     
another1 and shoot and kill everything  
that comes their way1 without skill1    
without glory1 and almost without       
exercise4 ,the pleasure is none the     
less1 and the difficulties are removed2 
there is no estate to be preserved1 no  
poacher to be punished1 and no wretches 
to be tormented2 here are solid grounds 
for preference4 ,whatever you do1 you   
cannot torment men for ever without     
experiencing some amount of discomfort2 
and sooner or later the muttered curses 

of the people will spoil the flavour of 
your game4  ,again1 monopoly destroys   
pleasure4 ,real pleasures are those     
which we share with the crowd2 we lose  
what we try to keep to ourselves alone4 
,if the walls ,i build round my park    
transform it into a gloomy prison1 ,i   
have only deprived myself1 at great     
expense1 of the pleasure of a walk2 ,i  
must now seek that pleasure at a        
distance4 ,the demon of property spoils 
everything he lays hands upon4 ,a rich  
man wants to be master everywhere1 and  
he is never happy where he is2 he is    
continually driven to flee from himself4
 ,i shall therefore continue to do in my
 prosperity what ,i did in my poverty4  
,henceforward1 richer in the wealth of  
others than ,i ever shall be in my own  
wealth1 ,i will take possession of      
everything in my neighbourhood that     
takes my fancy2 no conqueror is so      
determined as ,i2 ,i even usurp the     
rights of princes2 ,i take possession of
 every open place that pleases me1 ,i   

give them names2 this is my park1 chat  
is my terrace1 and ,i am their owner2   
henceforward ,i wander among them at    
will2 ,i often return to maintain my    
proprietary rights2 ,i make what use ,i 
choose of the ground to walk upon1 and  
you will never convince me that the     
nominal owner of the property which ,i  
have appropriated gets better value out 
of the money it yields him than ,i do   
out of his land4 ,no matter if ,i am    
interrupted by hedges and ditches1 ,i   
take my park on my back1 and ,i carry it
 elsewhere2 there will be space enough  
for it near at hand1 and ,i may plunder 
my neighbours long enough before ,i     
outstay my welcome4  ,this is an attempt
 to show what is meant by good taste in 
the choice of pleasant occupations for  
our leisure hours2 this is the spirit of
 enjoyment2 all else is illusion1 fancy1
 and foolish pride4 ,he who disobeys    
these rules1 however rich he may be1    
will devour his gold on a dung-hill1 and
 will never know what it is to live4    

,you will say1 no doubt1 that such      
amusements lie within the reach of all1 
that we need not be rich to enjoy them4 
,that is the very point ,i was coming   
to4 ,pleasure is ours when we want it2  
it is only social prejudice which makes 
everything hard to obtain1 and drives   
pleasure before us4 ,to be happy is a   
hundredfold easier than it seems4 ,if he
 really desires to enjoy himself the man
 of taste has no need of riches2 all he 
wants is to be free and to be his own   
master4 ,with health and daily bread we 
are rich enough1 if we will but get rid 
of our prejudices2 this is the ,golden  
,mean of ,horace4 ,you folks with your  
strong-boxes may find some other use for
 your wealth1 for it cannot buy you     
pleasure4 ,emile knows this as well as  
,i1 but his heart is purer and more     
healthy1 so he will feel it more        
strongly1 and all that he has beheld in 
society will only serve to confirm him  
in this opinion4  ,while our time is    
thus employed1 we are ever on the       

look-out for ,sophy1 and we have not yet
 found her4 ,it was not desirable that  
she should be found too easily1 and ,i  
have taken care to look for her where ,i
 knew we should not find her4  ,the time
 is come2 we must now seek her in       
earnest1 lest ,emile should mistake some
 one else for ,sophy1 and only discover 
his error when it is too late4 ,then    
farewell ,paris1 far-famed ,paris1 with 
all your noise and smoke and dirt1 where
 the women have ceased to believe in    
honour and the men in virtue4 ,we are in
 search of love1 happiness1 innocence2  
the further we go from ,paris the       
better4     ,,book ,v  ,we have reached 
the last act of youth's drama2 we are   
approaching its closing scene4  ,it is  
not good that man should be alone4      
,emile is now a man1 and we must give   
him his promised helpmeet4 ,that        
helpmeet is ,sophy4 ,where is her       
dwelling-place1 where shall she be      
found8 ,we must know beforehand what she
 is1 and then we can decide where to    

look for her4 ,and when she is found1   
our task is not ended4 ,since our young 
gentleman1 says ,locke1 is about to     
marry1 it is time to leave him with his 
mistress4 ,and with these words he ends 
his book4 ,as ,i have not the honour of 
educating ,a young gentleman1 ,i shall  
take care not to follow his example4    
,,sophy1 ,,or ,,woman  ,sophy should be 
as truly a woman as ,emile is a man1    
i4e41 she must possess all those        
characters of her sex which are required
 to enable her to play her part in the  
physical and moral order4 ,let us       
inquire to begin with in what respects  
her sex differs from our own4  ,but for 
her sex1 a woman is a man2 she has the  
same organs1 the same needs1 the same   
faculties4 ,the machine is the same in  
its construction2 its parts1 its        
working1 and its appearance are similar4
 ,regard it as you will the difference  
is only in degree4  ,yet where sex is   
concerned man and woman are unlike2 each
 is the complement of the other2 the    

difficulty in comparing them lies in our
 inability to decide1 in either case1   
what is a matter of sex1 and what is    
not4 ,general differences present       
themselves to the comparative anatomist 
and even to the superficial observer2   
they seem not to be a matter of sex2 yet
 they are really sex differences1 though
 the connection eludes our observation4 
,how far such differences may extend we 
cannot tell2 all we know for certain is 
that where man and woman are alike we   
have to do with the characteristics of  
the species2 where they are unlike1 we  
have to do with the characteristics of  
sex4 ,considered from these two         
standpoints1 we find so many instances  
of likeness and unlikeness that it is   
perhaps one of the greatest of marvels  
how nature has contrived to make two    
beings so like and yet so different4    
,these resemblances and differences must
 have an influence on the moral nature2 
this inference is obvious1 and it is    
confirmed by experience2 it shows the   

vanity of the disputes as to the        
superiority or the equality of the      
sexes2 as if each sex1 pursuing the path
 marked out for it by nature1 were not  
more perfect in that very divergence    
than if it more closely resembled the   
other4 ,a perfect man and a perfect     
woman should no more be alike in mind   
than in face1 and perfection admits of  
neither less nor more4  ,in the union of
 the sexes each alike contributes to the
 common end1 but in different ways4     
,from this diversity springs the first  
difference which may be observed between
 man and woman in their moral relations4
 ,the man should be strong and active2  
the woman should be weak and passive2   
the one must have both the power and the
 will2 it is enough that the other      
should offer little resistance4  ,when  
this principle is admitted1 it follows  
that woman is specially made for man's  
delight4 ,if man in his turn ought to be
 pleasing in her eyes1 the necessity is 
less urgent1 his virtue is in his       

strength1 he pleases because he is      
strong4 ,i grant you this is not the law
 of love1 but it is the law of nature1  
which is older than love itself4  ,if   
woman is made to please and to be in    
subjection to man1 she ought to make    
herself pleasing in his eyes and not    
provoke him to anger2 her strength is in
 her charms1 by their means she should  
compel him to discover and use his      
strength4 ,the surest way of arousing   
this strength is to make it necessary by
 resistance4 ,thus pride comes to the   
help of desire and each exults in the   
other's victory4 ,this is the origin of 
attack and defence1 of the boldness of  
one sex and the timidity of the other1  
and even of the shame and modesty with  
which nature has armed the weak for the 
conquest of the strong4  ,who can       
possibly suppose that nature has        
prescribed the same advances to the one 
sex as to the other1 or that the first  
to feel desire should be the first to   
show it8 ,what strange depravity of     

judgment6 ,the consequences of the act  
being so different for the two sexes1 is
 it natural that they should enter upon 
it with equal boldness8 ,how can any one
 fail to see that when the share of each
 is so unequal1 if the one were not     
controlled by modesty as the other is   
controlled by nature1 the result would  
be the destruction of both1 and the     
human race would perish through the very
 means ordained for its continuance8    
,women so easily stir a man's senses and
 fan the ashes of a dying passion1 that 
if philosophy ever succeeded in         
introducing this custom into any unlucky
 country1 especially if it were a warm  
country where more women are born than  
men1 the men1 tyrannised over by the    
women1 would at last become their       
victims1 and would be dragged to their  
death without the least chance of       
escape4  ,female animals are without    
this sense of shame1 but what of that8  
,are their desires as boundless as those
 of women1 which are curbed by this     

shame8 ,the desires of the animals are  
the result of necessity1 and when the   
need is satisfied1 the desire ceases2   
they no longer make a feint of repulsing
 the male1 they do it in earnest4       
,their seasons of complaisance are short
 and soon over4 ,impulse and restraint  
are alike the work of nature4 ,but what 
would take the place of this negative   
instinct in women if you rob them of    
their modesty8  ,the ,most ,high has    
deigned to do honour to mankind2 he has 
endowed man with boundless passions1    
together with a law to guide them1 so   
that man may be alike free and          
self-controlled2 though swayed by these 
passions man is endowed with reason by  
which to control them4 ,woman is also   
endowed with boundless passions2 ,god   
has given her modesty to restrain them4 
,moreover1 he has given to both a       
present reward for the right use of     
their powers1 in the delight which      
springs from that right use of them1    
i4e41 the taste for right conduct       

established as the law of our behaviour4
 ,to my mind this is far higher than the
 instinct of the beasts4  ,whether the  
woman shares the man's passion or not1  
whether she is willing or unwilling to  
satisfy it1 she always repulses him and 
defends herself1 though not always with 
the same vigour1 and therefore not      
always with the same success4 ,if the   
siege is to be successful1 the besieged 
must permit or direct the attack4 ,how  
skilfully can she stimulate the efforts 
of the aggressor4 ,the freest and most  
delightful of activities does not permit
 of any real violence2 reason and nature
 are alike against it2 nature1 in that  
she has given the weaker party strength 
enough to resist if she chooses2 reason1
 in that actual violence is not only    
most brutal in itself1 but it defeats   
its own ends1 not only because the man  
thus declares war against his companion 
and thus gives her a right to defend her
 person and her liberty even at the cost
 of the enemy's life1 but also because  

the woman alone is the judge of her     
condition1 and a child would have no    
father if any man might usurp a father's
 rights4  ,thus the different           
constitution of the two sexes leads us  
to a third conclusion1 that the stronger
 party seems to be master1 but is as a  
matter of fact dependent on the weaker1 
and that1 not by any foolish custom of  
gallantry1 nor yet by the magnanimity of
 the protector1 but by an inexorable law
 of nature4 ,for nature has endowed     
woman with a power of stimulating man's 
passions in excess of man's power of    
satisfying those passions1 and has thus 
made him dependent on her goodwill1 and 
compelled him in his turn to endeavour  
to please her1 so that she may be       
willing to yield to his superior        
strength4 ,is it weakness which yields  
to force1 or is it voluntary            
self-surrender8 ,this uncertainty       
constitutes the chief charm of the man's
 victory1 and the woman is usually      
cunning enough to leave him in doubt4   

,in this respect the woman's mind       
exactly resembles her body2 far from    
being ashamed of her weakness1 she is   
proud of it2 her soft muscles offer no  
resistance1 she professes that she      
cannot lift the lightest weight2 she    
would be ashamed to be strong4 ,and why8
 ,not only to gain an appearance of     
refinement2 she is too clever for that2 
she is providing herself beforehand with
 excuses1 with the right to be weak if  
she chooses4  ,the experience we have   
gained through our vices has            
considerably modified the views held in 
older times2 we rarely hear of violence 
for which there is so little occasion   
that it would hardly be credited4 ,yet  
such stories are common enough among the
 ,jews and ancient ,greeks2 for such    
views belong to the simplicity of       
nature1 and have only been uprooted by  
our profligacy4 ,if fewer deeds of      
violence are quoted in our days1 it is  
not that men are more temperate1 but    
because they are less credulous1 and a  

complaint which would have been believed
 among a simple people would only excite
 laughter among ourselves2 therefore    
silence is the better course4 ,there is 
a law in ,deuteronomy1 under which the  
outraged maiden was punished1 along with
 her assailant1 if the crime were       
committed in a town2 but if in the      
country or in a lonely place1 the latter
 alone was punished4 ,for1 says the law1
 the maiden cried for help1 and there   
was none to hear4 ,from this merciful   
interpretation of the law1 girls learnt 
not to let themselves be surprised in   
lonely places4  ,this change in public  
opinion has had a perceptible effect on 
our morals4 ,it has produced our modern 
gallantry4 ,men have found that their   
pleasures depend1 more than they        
expected1 on the goodwill of the fair   
sex1 and have secured this goodwill by  
attentions which have had their reward4 
,see how we find ourselves led          
unconsciously from the physical to the  
moral constitution1 how from the grosser

 union of the sexes spring the sweet    
laws of love4 ,woman reigns1 not by the 
will of man1 but by the decrees of      
nature herself2 she had the power long  
before she showed it4 ,that same        
,hercules who proposed to violate all   
the fifty daughters of ,thespis was     
compelled to spin at the feet of        
,omphale1 and ,samson1 the strong man1  
was less strong than ,delilah4 ,this    
power cannot be taken from woman2 it is 
hers by right2 she would have lost it   
long ago1 were it possible4  ,the       
consequences of sex are wholly unlike   
for man and woman4 ,the male is only a  
male now and again1 the female is always
 a female1 or at least all her youth2   
everything reminds her of her sex2 the  
performance of her functions requires a 
special constitution4 ,she needs care   
during pregnancy and freedom from work  
when her child is born2 she must have a 
quiet1 easy life while she nurses her   
children2 their education calls for     
patience and gentleness1 for a zeal and 

love which nothing can dismay2 she forms
 a bond between father and child1 she   
alone can win the father's love for his 
children and convince him that they are 
indeed his own4 ,what loving care is    
required to preserve a united family6   
,and there should be no question of     
virtue in all this1 it must be a labour 
of love1 without which the human race   
would be doomed to extinction4  ,the    
mutual duties of the two sexes are not1 
and cannot be1 equally binding on both4 
,women do wrong to complain of the      
inequality of man-made laws2 this       
inequality is not of man's making1 or at
 any rate it is not the result of mere  
prejudice1 but of reason4 ,she to whom  
nature has entrusted the care of the    
children must hold herself responsible  
for them to their father4 ,no doubt     
every breach of faith is wrong1 and     
every faithless husband1 who robs his   
wife of the sole reward of the stern    
duties of her sex1 is cruel and unjust2 
but the faithless wife is worse2 she    

destroys the family and breaks the bonds
 of nature2 when she gives her husband  
children who are not his own1 she is    
false both to him and them1 her crime is
 not infidelity but treason4 ,to my     
mind1 it is the source of dissension and
 of crime of every kind4 ,can any       
position be more wretched than that of  
the unhappy father who1 when he clasps  
his child to his breast1 is haunted by  
the suspicion that this is the child of 
another1 the badge of his own dishonour1
 a thief who is robbing his own children
 of their inheritance4 ,under such      
circumstances the family is little more 
than a group of secret enemies1 armed   
against each other by a guilty woman1   
who compels them to pretend to love one 
another4  ,thus it is not enough that a 
wife should be faithful2 her husband1   
along with his friends and neighbours1  
must believe in her fidelity2 she must  
be modest1 devoted1 retiring2 she should
 have the witness not only of a good    
conscience1 but of a good reputation4   

,in a word1 if a father must love his   
children1 he must be able to respect    
their mother4 ,for these reasons it is  
not enough that the woman should be     
chaste1 she must preserve her reputation
 and her good name4 ,from these         
principles there arises not only a moral
 difference between the sexes1 but also 
a fresh motive for duty and propriety1  
which prescribes to women in particular 
the most scrupulous attention to their  
conduct1 their manners1 their behaviour4
 ,vague assertions as to the equality of
 the sexes and the similarity of their  
duties are only empty words2 they are no
 answer to my argument4  ,it is a poor  
sort of logic to quote isolated         
exceptions against laws so firmly       
established4 ,women1 you say1 are not   
always bearing children4 ,granted2 yet  
that is their proper business4 ,because 
there are a hundred or so of large towns
 in the world where women live          
licentiously and have few children1 will
 you maintain that it is their business 

to have few children8 ,and what would   
become of your towns if the remote      
country districts1 with their simpler   
and purer women1 did not make up for the
 barrenness of your fine ladies8 ,there 
are plenty of country places where women
 with only four or five children are    
reckoned unfruitful4 ,in conclusion1    
although here and there a woman may have
 few children1 what difference does it  
make8  ,footnote3 ,without this the race
 would necessarily diminish2 all things 
considered1 for its preservation each   
woman ought to have about four children1
 for about half the children born die   
before they can become parents1 and two 
must survive to replace the father and  
mother4 ,see whether the towns will     
supply them8 ,is it any the less a      
woman's business to be a mother8 ,and to
 not the general laws of nature and     
morality make provision for this state  
of things8  ,even if there were these   
long intervals1 which you assume1       
between the periods of pregnancy1 can a 

woman suddenly change her way of life   
without danger8 ,can she be a nursing   
mother to-day and a soldier to-morrow8  
,will she change her tastes and her     
feelings as a chameleon changes his     
colour8 ,will she pass at once from the 
privacy of household duties and indoor  
occupations to the buffeting of the     
winds1 the toils1 the labours1 the      
perils of war8 ,will she be now timid1  
,footnote3 ,women's timidity is yet     
another instinct of nature against the  
double risk she runs during pregnancy4  
now brave1 now fragile1 now robust8 ,if 
the young men of ,paris find a soldier's
 life too hard for them1 how would a    
woman put up with it1 a woman who has   
hardly ventured out of doors without a  
parasol and who has scarcely put a foot 
to the ground8 ,will she make a good    
soldier at an age when even men are     
retiring from this arduous business8    
,there are countries1 ,i grant you1     
where women bear and rear children with 
little or no difficulty1 but in those   

lands the men go half-naked in all      
weathers1 they strike down the wild     
beasts1 they carry a canoe as easily as 
a knapsack1 they pursue the chase for   
#gjj or #hjj leagues1 they sleep in the 
open on the bare ground1 they bear      
incredible fatigues and go many days    
without food4 ,when women become strong1
 men become still stronger2 when men    
become soft1 women become softer2 change
 both the terms and the ratio remains   
unaltered4  ,i am quite aware that      
,plato1 in the ,republic1 assigns the   
same gymnastics to women and men4       
,having got rid of the family there is  
no place for women in his system of     
government1 so he is forced to turn them
 into men4 ,that great genius has worked
 out his plans in detail and has        
provided for every contingency2 he has  
even provided against a difficulty which
 in all likelihood no one would ever    
have raised2 but he has not succeeded in
 meeting the real difficulty4 ,i am not 
speaking of the alleged community of    

wives which has often been laid to his  
charge2 this assertion only shows that  
his detractors have never read his      
works4 ,i refer to that political       
promiscuity under which the same        
occupations are assigned to both sexes  
alike1 a scheme which could only lead to
 intolerable evils2 ,i refer to that    
subversion of all the tenderest of our  
natural feelings1 which he sacrificed to
 an artificial sentiment which can only 
exist by their aid4 ,will the bonds of  
convention hold firm without some       
foundation in nature8 ,can devotion to  
the state exist apart from the love of  
those near and dear to us8 ,can         
patriotism thrive except in the soil of 
that miniature fatherland1 the home8 ,is
 it not the good son1 the good husband1 
the good father1 who makes the good     
citizen8  ,when once it is proved that  
men and women are and ought to be unlike
 in constitution and in temperament1 it 
follows that their education must be    
different4 ,nature teaches us that they 

should work together1 but that each has 
its own share of the work2 the end is   
the same1 but the means are different1  
as are also the feelings which direct   
them4 ,we have attempted to paint a     
natural man1 let us try to paint a      
helpmeet for him4  ,you must follow     
nature's guidance if you would walk     
aright4 ,the native characters of sex   
should be respected as nature's         
handiwork4 ,you are always saying1      
,women have such and such faults1 from  
which we are free4 ,you are misled by   
your vanity2 what would be faults in you
 are virtues in them2 and things would  
go worse1 if they were without these    
so-called faults4 ,take care that they  
do not degenerate into evil1 but beware 
of destroying them4  ,on the other hand1
 women are always exclaiming that we    
educate them for nothing but vanity and 
coquetry1 that we keep them amused with 
trifles that we may be their masters2 we
 are responsible1 so they say1 for the  
faults we attribute to them4 ,how silly6

 ,what have men to do with the education
 of girls8 ,what is there to hinder     
their mothers educating them as they    
please8 ,there are no colleges for      
girls2 so much the better for them6     
,would ,god there were none for the     
boys1 their education would be more     
sensible and more wholesome4 ,who is it 
that compels a girl to waste her time on
 foolish trifles8 ,are they forced1     
against their will1 to spend half their 
time over their toilet1 following the   
example set them by you8 ,who prevents  
you teaching them1 or having them       
taught1 whatever seems good in your     
eyes8 ,is it our fault that we are      
charmed by their beauty and delighted by
 their airs and graces1 if we are       
attracted and flattered by the arts they
 learn from you1 if we love to see them 
prettily dressed1 if we let them display
 at leisure the weapons by which we are 
subjugated8 ,well then1 educate them    
like men4 ,the more women are like men1 
the less influence they will have over  

men1 and then men will be masters       
indeed4  ,all the faculties common to   
both sexes are not equally shared       
between them1 but taken as a whole they 
are fairly divided4 ,woman is worth more
 as a woman and less as a man2 when she 
makes a good use of her own rights1 she 
has the best of it2 when she tries to   
usurp our rights1 she is our inferior4  
,it is impossible to controvert this1   
except by quoting exceptions after the  
usual fashion of the partisans of the   
fair sex4  ,to cultivate the masculine  
virtues in women and to neglect their   
own is evidently to do them an injury4  
,women are too clear-sighted to be thus 
deceived2 when they try to usurp our    
privileges they do not abandon their    
own2 with this result3 they are unable  
to make use of two incompatible things1 
so they fall below their own level as   
women1 instead of rising to the level of
 men4 ,if you are a sensible mother you 
will take my advice4 ,do not try to make
 your daughter a good man in defiance of

 nature4 ,make her a good woman1 and be 
sure it will be better both for her and 
us4  ,does this mean that she must be   
brought up in ignorance and kept to     
housework only8 ,is she to be man's     
handmaid or his help-meet8 ,will he     
dispense with her greatest charm1 her   
companionship8 ,to keep her a slave will
 he prevent her knowing and feeling8    
,will he make an automaton of her8 ,no1 
indeed1 that is not the teaching of     
nature1 who has given women such a      
pleasant easy wit4 ,on the contrary1    
nature means them to think1 to will1 to 
love1 to cultivate their minds as well  
as their persons2 she puts these weapons
 in their hands to make up for their    
lack of strength and to enable them to  
direct the strength of men4 ,they should
 learn many things1 but only such things
 as are suitable4  ,when ,i consider the
 special purpose of woman1 when ,i      
observe her inclinations or reckon up   
her duties1 everything combines to      
indicate the mode of education she      

requires4 ,men and women are made for   
each other1 but their mutual dependence 
differs in degree2 man is dependent on  
woman through his desires2 woman is     
dependent on man through her desires and
 also through her needs2 he could do    
without her better than she can do      
without him4 ,she cannot fulfil her     
purpose in life without his aid1 without
 his goodwill1 without his respect2 she 
is dependent on our feelings1 on the    
price we put upon her virtue1 and the   
opinion we have of her charms and her   
deserts4  ,nature herself has decreed   
that woman1 both for herself and her    
children1 should be at the mercy of     
man's judgment4  ,worth alone will not  
suffice1 a woman must be thought worthy2
 nor beauty1 she must be admired2 nor   
virtue1 she must be respected4 ,a       
woman's honour does not depend on her   
conduct alone1 but on her reputation1   
and no woman who permits herself to be  
considered vile is really virtuous4 ,a  
man has no one but himself to consider1 

and so long as he does right he may defy
 public opinion2 but when a woman does  
right her task is only half finished1   
and what people think of her matters as 
much as what she really is4 ,hence her  
education must1 in this respect1 be     
different from man's education4 ,what   
will people think is the grave of a     
man's virtue and the throne of a        
woman's4  ,the children's health depends
 in the first place on the mother's1 and
 the early education of man is also in a
 woman's hands2 his morals1 his         
passions1 his tastes1 his pleasures1 his
 happiness itself1 depend on her4 ,a    
woman's education must therefore be     
planned in relation to man4 ,to be      
pleasing in his sight1 to win his       
respect and love1 to train him in       
childhood1 to tend him in manhood1 to   
counsel and console1 to make his life   
pleasant and happy1 these are the duties
 of woman for all time1 and this is what
 she should be taught while she is      
young4 ,the further we depart from this 

principle1 the further we shall be from 
our goal1 and all our precepts will fail
 to secure her happiness or our own4    
,every woman desires to be pleasing in  
men's eyes1 and this is right2 but there
 is a great difference between wishing  
to please a man of worth1 a really      
lovable man1 and seeking to please those
 foppish manikins who are a disgrace to 
their own sex and to the sex which they 
imitate4 ,neither nature nor reason can 
induce a woman to love an effeminate    
person1 nor will she win love by        
imitating such a person4  ,if a woman   
discards the quiet modest bearing of her
 sex1 and adopts the airs of such       
foolish creatures1 she is not following 
her vocation1 she is forsaking it2 she  
is robbing herself of the rights to     
which she lays claim4 ,if we were       
different1 she says1 the men would not  
like us4 ,she is mistaken4 ,only a fool 
likes folly2 to wish to attract such men
 only shows her own foolishness4 ,if    
there were no frivolous men1 women would

 soon make them1 and women are more     
responsible for men's follies than men  
are for theirs4 ,the woman who loves    
true manhood and seeks to find favour in
 its sight will adopt means adapted to  
her ends4 ,woman is a coquette by       
profession1 but her coquetry varies with
 her aims2 let these aims be in         
accordance with those of nature1 and a  
woman will receive a fitting education4 
,even the tiniest little girls love     
finery2 they are not content to be      
pretty1 they must be admired2 their     
little airs and graces show that their  
heads are full of this idea1 and as soon
 as they can understand they are        
controlled by ,what will people think of
 you8 ,if you are foolish enough to try 
this way with little boys1 it will not  
have the same effect2 give them their   
freedom and their sports1 and they care 
very little what people think2 it is a  
work of time to bring them under the    
control of this law4  ,however acquired1
 this early education of little girls is

 an excellent thing in itself4 ,as the  
birth of the body must precede the birth
 of the mind1 so the training of the    
body must precede the cultivation of the
 mind4 ,this is true of both sexes2 but 
the aim of physical training for boys   
and girls is not the same2 in the one   
case it is the development of strength1 
in the other of grace2 not that these   
qualities should be peculiar to either  
sex1 but that their relative values     
should be different4 ,women should be   
strong enough to do anything gracefully2
 men should be skilful enough to do     
anything easily4  ,the exaggeration of  
feminine delicacy leads to effeminacy in
 men4 ,women should not be strong like  
men but for them1 so that their sons may
 be strong4 ,convents and               
boarding-schools1 with their plain food 
and ample opportunities for amusements1 
races1 and games in the open air and in 
the garden1 are better in this respect  
than the home1 where the little girl is 
fed on delicacies1 continually          

encouraged or reproved1 where she is    
kept sitting in a stuffy room1 always   
under her mother's eye1 afraid to stand 
or walk or speak or breathe1 without a  
moment's freedom to play or jump or run 
or shout1 or to be her natural1 lively1 
little self2 there is either harmful    
indulgence or misguided severity1 and no
 trace of reason4 ,in this fashion heart
 and body are alike destroyed4  ,in     
,sparta the girls used to take part in  
military sports just like the boys1 not 
that they might go to war1 but that they
 might bear sons who could endure       
hardship4 ,that is not what ,i desire4  
,to provide the state with soldiers it  
is not necessary that the mother should 
carry a musket and master the ,prussian 
drill4 ,yet1 on the whole1 ,i think the 
,greeks were very wise in this matter of
 physical training4 ,young girls        
frequently appeared in public1 not with 
the boys1 but in groups apart4 ,there   
was scarcely a festival1 a sacrifice1 or
 a procession without its bands of      

maidens1 the daughters of the chief     
citizens4 ,crowned with flowers1        
chanting hymns1 forming the chorus of   
the dance1 bearing baskets1 vases1      
offerings1 they presented a charming    
spectacle to the depraved senses of the 
,greeks1 a spectacle well fitted to     
efface the evil effects of their        
unseemly gymnastics4 ,whatever this     
custom may have done for the ,greek men1
 it was well fitted to develop in the   
,greek women a sound constitution by    
means of pleasant1 moderate1 and healthy
 exercise2 while the desire to please   
would develop a keen and cultivated     
taste without risk to character4  ,when 
the ,greek women married1 they          
disappeared from public life2 within the
 four walls of their home they devoted  
themselves to the care of their         
household and family4 ,this is the mode 
of life prescribed for women alike by   
nature and reason4 ,these women gave    
birth to the healthiest1 strongest1 and 
best proportioned men who ever lived1   

and except in certain islands of ill    
repute1 no women in the whole world1 not
 even the ,roman matrons1 were ever at  
once so wise and so charming1 so        
beautiful and so virtuous1 as the women 
of ancient ,greece4  ,it is admitted    
that their flowing garments1 which did  
not cramp the figure1 preserved in men  
and women alike the fine proportions    
which are seen in their statues4 ,these 
are still the models of art1 although   
nature is so disfigured that they are no
 longer to be found among us4 ,the      
,gothic trammels1 the innumerable bands 
which confine our limbs as in a press1  
were quite unknown4 ,the ,greek women   
were wholly unacquainted with those     
frames of whalebone in which our women  
distort rather than display their       
figures4 ,it seems to me that this      
abuse1 which is carried to an incredible
 degree of folly in ,england1 must      
sooner or later lead to the production  
of a degenerate race4 ,moreover1 ,i     
maintain that the charm which these     

corsets are supposed to produce is in   
the worst possible taste2 it is not a   
pleasant thing to see a woman cut in two
 like a wasp--it offends both the eye   
and the imagination4 ,a slender waist   
has its limits1 like everything else1 in
 proportion and suitability1 and beyond 
these limits it becomes a defect4 ,this 
defect would be a glaring one in the    
nude2 why should it be beautiful under  
the costume8  ,i will not venture upon  
the reasons which induce women to incase
 themselves in these coats of mail4 ,a  
clumsy figure1 a large waist1 are no    
doubt very ugly at twenty1 but at thirty
 they cease to offend the eye1 and as we
 are bound to be what nature has made us
 at any given age1 and as there is no   
deceiving the eye of man1 such defects  
are less offensive at any age than the  
foolish affectations of a young thing of
 forty4  ,everything which cramps and   
confines nature is in bad taste2 this is
 as true of the adornments of the person
 as of the ornaments of the mind4 ,life1

 health1 common-sense1 and comfort must 
come first2 there is no grace in        
discomfort1 languor is not refinement1  
there is no charm in ill-health2        
suffering may excite pity1 but pleasure 
and delight demand the freshness of     
health4  ,boys and girls have many games
 in common1 and this is as it should be2
 do they not play together when they are
 grown up8 ,they have also special      
tastes of their own4 ,boys want movement
 and noise1 drums1 tops1 toy-carts2     
girls prefer things which appeal to the 
eye1 and can be used for                
dressing-up--mirrors1 jewellery1 finery1
 and specially dolls4 ,the doll is the  
girl's special plaything2 this shows her
 instinctive bent towards her life's    
work4 ,the art of pleasing finds its    
physical basis in personal adornment1   
and this physical side of the art is the
 only one which the child can cultivate4
  ,here is a little girl busy all day   
with her doll2 she is always changing   
its clothes1 dressing and undressing it1

 trying new combinations of trimmings   
well or ill matched2 her fingers are    
clumsy1 her taste is crude1 but there is
 no mistaking her bent2 in this endless 
occupation time flies unheeded1 the     
hours slip away unnoticed1 even meals   
are forgotten4 ,she is more eager for   
adornment than for food4 ,but she is    
dressing her doll1 not herself1 you will
 say4 ,just so2 she sees her doll1 she  
cannot see herself2 she cannot do       
anything for herself1 she has neither   
the training1 nor the talent1 nor the   
strength2 as yet she herself is nothing1
 she is engrossed in her doll and all   
her coquetry is devoted to it4 ,this    
will not always be so2 in due time she  
will be her own doll4  ,we have here a  
very early and clearly-marked bent2 you 
have only to follow it and train it4    
,what the little girl most clearly      
desires is to dress her doll1 to make   
its bows1 its tippets1 its sashes1 and  
its tuckers2 she is dependent on other  
people's kindness in all this1 and it   

would be much pleasanter to be able to  
do it herself4 ,here is a motive for her
 earliest lessons1 they are not tasks   
prescribed1 but favours bestowed4       
,little girls always dislike learning to
 read and write1 but they are always    
ready to learn to sew4 ,they think they 
are grown up1 and in imagination they   
are using their knowledge for their own 
adornment4  ,the way is open and it is  
easy to follow it2 cutting out1         
embroidery1 lace-making follow          
naturally4 ,tapestry is not popular2    
furniture is too remote from the child's
 interests1 it has nothing to do with   
the person1 it depends on conventional  
tastes4 ,tapestry is a woman's          
amusement2 young girls never care for   
it4  ,this voluntary course is easily   
extended to include drawing1 an art     
which is closely connected with taste in
 dress2 but ,i would not have them      
taught landscape and still less figure  
painting4 ,leaves1 fruit1 flowers1      
draperies1 anything that will make an   

elegant trimming for the accessories of 
the toilet1 and enable the girl to      
design her own embroidery if she cannot 
find a pattern to her taste2 that will  
be quite enough4 ,speaking generally1 if
 it is desirable to restrict a man's    
studies to what is useful1 this is even 
more necessary for women1 whose life1   
though less laborious1 should be even   
more industrious and more uniformly     
employed in a variety of duties1 so that
 one talent should not be encouraged at 
the expense of others4  ,whatever may be
 said by the scornful1 good sense       
belongs to both sexes alike4 ,girls are 
usually more docile than boys1 and they 
should be subjected to more authority1  
as ,i shall show later on1 but that is  
no reason why they should be required to
 do things in which they can see neither
 rhyme nor reason4 ,the mother's art    
consists in showing the use of          
everything they are set to do1 and this 
is all the easier as the girl's         
intelligence is more precocious than the

 boy's4 ,this principle banishes1 both  
for boys and girls1 not only those      
pursuits which never lead to any        
appreciable results1 not even increasing
 the charms of those who have pursued   
them1 but also those studies whose      
utility is beyond the scholar's present 
age and can only be appreciated in later
 years4 ,if ,i object to little boys    
being made to learn to read1 still more 
do ,i object to it for little girls     
until they are able to see the use of   
reading2 we generally think more of our 
own ideas than theirs in our attempts to
 convince them of the utility of this   
art4 ,after all1 why should a little    
girl know how to read and write6 ,has   
she a house to manage8 ,most of them    
make a bad use of this fatal knowledge1 
and girls are so full of curiosity that 
few of them will fail to learn without  
compulsion4  ,possibly cyphering should 
come first2 there is nothing so         
obviously useful1 nothing which needs so
 much practice or gives so much         

opportunity for error as reckoning4 ,if 
the little girl does not get the        
cherries for her lunch without an       
arithmetical exercise1 she will soon    
learn to count4  ,i once knew a little  
girl who learnt to write before she     
could read1 and she began to write with 
her needle4 ,to begin with1 she would   
write nothing but ,o's2 she was always  
making ,o's1 large and small1 of all    
kinds and one within another1 but always
 drawn backwards4 ,unluckily one day she
 caught a glimpse of herself in the     
glass while she was at this useful work1
 and thinking that the cramped attitude 
was not pretty1 like another ,minerva   
she flung away her pen and declined to  
make any more ,o's4 ,her brother was no 
fonder of writing1 but what he disliked 
was the constraint1 not the look of the 
thing4  ,she was induced to go on with  
her writing in this way4 ,the child was 
fastidious and vain2 she could not bear 
her sisters to wear her clothes4 ,her   
things had been marked1 they declined to

 mark them any more1 she must learn to  
mark them herself2 there is no need to  
continue the story4  ,show the sense of 
the tasks you set your little girls1 but
 keep them busy4 ,idleness and          
insubordination are two very dangerous  
faults1 and very hard to cure when once 
established4 ,girls should be attentive 
and industrious1 but this is not enough 
by itself2 they should early be         
accustomed to restraint4 ,this          
misfortune1 if such it be1 is inherent  
in their sex1 and they will never escape
 from it1 unless to endure more cruel   
sufferings4 ,all their life long1 they  
will have to submit to the strictest and
 most enduring restraints1 those of     
propriety4 ,they must be trained to bear
 the yoke from the first1 so that they  
may not feel it1 to master their own    
caprices and to submit themselves to the
 will of others4 ,if they were always   
eager to be at work1 they should        
sometimes be compelled to do nothing4   
,their childish faults1 unchecked and   

unheeded1 may easily lead to            
dissipation1 frivolity1 and inconstancy4
 ,to guard against this1 teach them     
above all things self-control4 ,under   
our senseless conditions1 the life of a 
good woman is a perpetual struggle      
against self2 it is only fair that woman
 should bear her share of the ills she  
has brought upon man4  ,beware lest your
 girls become weary of their tasks and  
infatuated with their amusements2 this  
often happens under our ordinary methods
 of education1 where1 as ,fenelon says1 
all the tedium is on one side and all   
the pleasure on the other4 ,if the rules
 already laid down are followed1 the    
first of these dangers will be avoided1 
unless the child dislikes those about   
her4 ,a little girl who is fond of her  
mother or her friend will work by her   
side all day without getting tired2 the 
chatter alone will make up for any loss 
of liberty4 ,but if her companion is    
distasteful to her1 everything done     
under her direction will be distasteful 

too4 ,children who take no delight in   
their mother's company are not likely to
 turn out well2 but to judge of their   
real feelings you must watch them and   
not trust to their words alone1 for they
 are flatterers and deceitful and soon  
learn to conceal their thoughts4        
,neither should they be told that they  
ought to love their mother4 ,affection  
is not the result of duty1 and in this  
respect constraint is out of place4     
,continual intercourse1 constant care1  
habit itself1 all these will lead a     
child to love her mother1 if the mother 
does nothing to deserve the child's     
ill-will4  ,the very control she        
exercises over the child1 if well       
directed1 will increase rather than     
diminish the affection1 for women being 
made for dependence1 girls feel         
themselves made to obey4  ,just because 
they have1 or ought to have1 little     
freedom1 they are apt to indulge        
themselves too fully with regard to such
 freedom as they have2 they carry       

everything to extremes1 and they devote 
themselves to their games with an       
enthusiasm even greater than that of    
boys4 ,this is the second difficulty to 
which ,i referred4 ,this enthusiasm must
 be kept in check1 for it is the source 
of several vices commonly found among   
women1 caprice and that extravagant     
admiration which leads a woman to regard
 a thing with rapture to-day and to be  
quite indifferent to it to-morrow4 ,this
 fickleness of taste is as dangerous as 
exaggeration2 and both spring from the  
same cause4 ,do not deprive them of     
mirth1 laughter1 noise1 and romping     
games1 but do not let them tire of one  
game and go off to another2 do not leave
 them for a moment without restraint4   
,train them to break off their games and
 return to their other occupations      
without a murmur4 ,habit is all that is 
needed1 as you have nature on your side4
  ,this habitual restraint produces a   
docility which woman requires all her   
life long1 for she will always be in    

subjection to a man1 or to man's        
judgment1 and she will never be free to 
set her own opinion above his4 ,what is 
most wanted in a woman is gentleness2   
formed to obey a creature so imperfect  
as man1 a creature often vicious and    
always faulty1 she should early learn to
 submit to injustice and to suffer the  
wrongs inflicted on her by her husband  
without complaint2 she must be gentle   
for her own sake1 not his4 ,bitterness  
and obstinacy only multiply the         
sufferings of the wife and the misdeeds 
of the husband2 the man feels that these
 are not the weapons to be used against 
him4 ,heaven did not make women         
attractive and persuasive that they     
might degenerate into bitterness1 or    
meek that they should desire the        
mastery2 their soft voice was not meant 
for hard words1 nor their delicate      
features for the frowns of anger4  ,when
 they lose their temper they forget     
themselves2 often enough they have just 
cause of complaint2 but when they scold 

they always put themselves in the wrong4
 ,we should each adopt the tone which   
befits our sex2 a soft-hearted husband  
may make an overbearing wife1 but a man1
 unless he is a perfect monster1 will   
sooner or later yield to his wife's     
gentleness1 and the victory will be     
hers4  ,daughters must always be        
obedient1 but mothers need not always be
 harsh4 ,to make a girl docile you need 
not make her miserable2 to make her     
modest you need not terrify her2 on the 
contrary1 ,i should not be sorry to see 
her allowed occasionally to exercise a  
little ingenuity1 not to escape         
punishment for her disobedience1 but to 
evade the necessity for obedience4 ,her 
dependence need not be made unpleasant1 
it is enough that she should realise    
that she is dependent4 ,cunning is a    
natural gift of woman1 and so convinced 
am ,i that all our natural inclinations 
are right1 that ,i would cultivate this 
among others1 only guarding against its 
abuse4  ,for the truth of this ,i appeal

 to every honest observer4 ,i do not ask
 you to question women themselves1 our  
cramping institutions may compel them to
 sharpen their wits2 ,i would have you  
examine girls1 little girls1 newly-born 
so to speak2 compare them with boys of  
the same age1 and ,i am greatly mistaken
 if you do not find the little boys     
heavy1 silly1 and foolish1 in           
comparison4 ,let me give one            
illustration in all its childish        
simplicity4  ,children are commonly     
forbidden to ask for anything at table1 
for people think they can do nothing    
better in the way of education than to  
burden them with useless precepts2 as if
 a little bit of this or that were not  
readily given or refused without leaving
 a poor child dying of greediness       
intensified by hope4 ,every one knows   
how cunningly a little boy brought up in
 this way asked for salt when he had    
been overlooked at table4 ,i do not     
suppose any one will blame him for      
asking directly for salt and indirectly 

for meat2 the neglect was so cruel that 
,i hardly think he would have been      
punished had he broken the rule and said
 plainly that he was hungry4 ,but this  
is what ,i saw done by a little girl of 
six2 the circumstances were much more   
difficult1 for not only was she strictly
 forbidden to ask for anything directly 
or indirectly1 but disobedience would   
have been unpardonable1 for she had     
eaten of every dish2 one only had been  
overlooked1 and on this she had set her 
heart4 ,this is what she did to repair  
the omission without laying herself open
 to the charge of disobedience2 she     
pointed to every dish in turn1 saying1  
,i've had some of this2 ,i've had some  
of this2 however she omitted the one    
dish so markedly that some one noticed  
it and said1 ,have not you had some of  
this8 ,oh1 no1 replied the greedy little
 girl with soft voice and downcast eyes4
 ,these instances are typical of the    
cunning of the little boy and girl4     
,what is1 is good1 and no general law   

can be bad4 ,this special skill with    
which the female sex is endowed is a    
fair equivalent for its lack of         
strength2 without it woman would be     
man's slave1 not his helpmeet4 ,by her  
superiority in this respect she         
maintains her equality with man1 and    
rules in obedience4 ,she has everything 
against her1 our faults and her own     
weakness and timidity2 her beauty and   
her wiles are all that she has4 ,should 
she not cultivate both8 ,yet beauty is  
not universal2 it may be destroyed by   
all sorts of accidents1 it will         
disappear with years1 and habit will    
destroy its influence4 ,a woman's real  
resource is her wit2 not that foolish   
wit which is so greatly admired in      
society1 a wit which does nothing to    
make life happier2 but that wit which is
 adapted to her condition1 the art of   
taking advantage of our position and    
controlling us through our own strength4
 ,words cannot tell how beneficial this 
is to man1 what a charm it gives to the 

society of men and women1 how it checks 
the petulant child and restrains the    
brutal husband2 without it the home     
would be a scene of strife2 with it1 it 
is the abode of happiness4 ,i know that 
this power is abused by the sly and the 
spiteful2 but what is there that is not 
liable to abuse8 ,do not destroy the    
means of happiness because the wicked   
use them to our hurt4  ,the toilet may  
attract notice1 but it is the person    
that wins our hearts4 ,our finery is not
 us2 its very artificiality often       
offends1 and that which is least        
noticeable in itself often wins the most
 attention4 ,the education of our girls 
is1 in this respect1 absolutely         
topsy-turvy4 ,ornaments are promised    
them as rewards1 and they are taught to 
delight in elaborate finery4 ,how lovely
 she is6 people say when she is most    
dressed up4 ,on the contrary1 they      
should be taught that so much finery is 
only required to hide their defects1 and
 that beauty's real triumph is to shine 

alone4 ,the love of fashion is contrary 
to good taste1 for faces do not change  
with the fashion1 and while the person  
remains unchanged1 what suits it at one 
time will suit it always4  ,if ,i saw a 
young girl decked out like a little     
peacock1 ,i should show myself anxious  
about her figure so disguised1 and      
anxious what people would think of her2 
,i should say1 ,she is over-dressed with
 all those ornaments2 what a pity6 ,do  
you think she could do with something   
simpler8 ,is she pretty enough to do    
without this or that8 ,possibly she     
herself would be the first to ask that  
her finery might be taken off and that  
we should see how she looked without it4
 ,in that case her beauty should receive
 such praise as it deserves4 ,i should  
never praise her unless simply dressed4 
,if she only regards fine clothes as an 
aid to personal beauty1 and as a tacit  
confession that she needs their aid1 she
 will not be proud of her finery1 she   
will be humbled by it2 and if she hears 

some one say1 ,how pretty she is1 when  
she is smarter than usual1 she will     
blush for shame4  ,moreover1 though     
there are figures that require adornment
 there are none that require expensive  
clothes4 ,extravagance in dress is the  
folly of the class rather than the      
individual1 it is merely conventional4  
,genuine coquetry is sometimes carefully
 thought out1 but never sumptuous1 and  
,juno dressed herself more magnificently
 than ,venus4 ,as you cannot make her   
beautiful you are making her fine1 said 
,apelles to an unskilful artist who was 
painting ,helen loaded with jewellery4  
,i have also noticed that the smartest  
clothes proclaim the plainest women2 no 
folly could be more misguided4 ,if a    
young girl has good taste and a contempt
 for fashion1 give her a few yards of   
ribbon1 muslin1 and gauze1 and a handful
 of flowers1 without any diamonds1      
fringes1 or lace1 and she will make     
herself a dress a hundredfold more      
becoming than all the smart clothes of  

,la ,duchapt4  ,good is always good1 and
 as you should always look your best1   
the women who know what they are about  
select a good style and keep to it1 and 
as they are not always changing their   
style they think less about dress than  
those who can never settle to any one   
style4 ,a genuine desire to dress       
becomingly does not require an elaborate
 toilet4 ,young girls rarely give much  
time to dress2 needlework and lessons   
are the business of the day2 yet1 except
 for the rouge1 they are generally as   
carefully dressed as older women and    
often in better taste4 ,contrary to the 
usual opinion1 the real cause of the    
abuse of the toilet is not vanity but   
lack of occupation4 ,the woman who      
devotes six hours to her toilet is well 
aware that she is no better dressed than
 the woman who took half an hour1 but   
she has got rid of so many of the       
tedious hours and it is better to amuse 
oneself with one's clothes than to be   
sick of everything4 ,without the toilet 

how would she spend the time between    
dinner and supper4  ,with a crowd of    
women about her1 she can at least cause 
them annoyance1 which is amusement of a 
kind2 better still she avoids a         
tete-a-tete with the husband whom she   
never sees at any other time2 then there
 are the tradespeople1 the dealers in   
bric-a-brac1 the fine gentlemen1 the    
minor poets with their songs1 their     
verses1 and their pamphlets2 how could  
you get them together but for the       
toilet4  ,its only real advantage is the
 chance of a little more display than is
 permitted by full dress1 and perhaps   
this is less than it seems and a woman  
gains less than she thinks4 ,do not be  
afraid to educate your women as women2  
teach them a woman's business1 that they
 be modest1 that they may know how to   
manage their house and look after their 
family2 the grand toilet will soon      
disappear1 and they will be more        
tastefully dressed4  ,growing girls     
perceive at once that all this outside  

adornment is not enough unless they have
 charms of their own4 ,they cannot make 
themselves beautiful1 they are too young
 for coquetry1 but they are not too     
young to acquire graceful gestures1 a   
pleasing voice1 a self-possessed manner1
 a light step1 a graceful bearing1 to   
choose whatever advantages are within   
their reach4 ,the voice extends its     
range1 it grows stronger and more       
resonant1 the arms become plumper1 the  
bearing more assured1 and they perceive 
that it is easy to attract attention    
however dressed4 ,needlework and        
industry suffice no longer1 fresh gifts 
are developing and their usefulness is  
already recognised4  ,i know that stern 
teachers would have us refuse to teach  
little girls to sing or dance1 or to    
acquire any of the pleasing arts4 ,this 
strikes me as absurd4 ,who should learn 
these arts--our boys8 ,are these to be  
the favourite accomplishments of men or 
women8 ,of neither1 say they2 profane   
songs are simply so many crimes1 dancing

 is an invention of the ,evil ,one2 her 
tasks and her prayers we all the        
amusement a young girl should have4     
,what strange amusements for a child of 
ten6 ,i fear that these little saints   
who have been forced to spend their     
childhood in prayers to ,god will pass  
their youth in another fashion2 when    
they are married they will try to make  
up for lost time4 ,i think we must      
consider age as well as sex2 a young    
girl should not live like her           
grandmother2 she should be lively1      
merry1 and eager2 she should sing and   
dance to her heart's content1 and enjoy 
all the innocent pleasures of youth2 the
 time will come1 all too soon1 when she 
must settle down and adopt a more       
serious tone4  ,but is this change in   
itself really necessary8 ,is it not     
merely another result of our own        
prejudices8 ,by making good women the   
slaves of dismal duties1 we have        
deprived marriage of its charm for men4 
,can we wonder that the gloomy silence  

they find at home drives them elsewhere1
 or inspires little desire to enter a   
state which offers so few attractions8  
,christianity1 by exaggerating every    
duty1 has made our duties impracticable 
and useless2 by forbidding singing1     
dancing1 and amusements of every kind1  
it renders women sulky1 fault-finding1  
and intolerable at home4 ,there is no   
religion which imposes such strict      
duties upon married life1 and none in   
which such a sacred engagement is so    
often profaned4 ,such pains has been    
taken to prevent wives being amiable1   
that their husbands have become         
indifferent to them4 ,this should not   
be1 ,i grant you1 but it will be1 since 
husbands are but men4 ,i would have an  
,english maiden cultivate the talents   
which will delight her husband as       
zealously as the ,circassian cultivates 
the accomplishments of an ,eastern      
harem4  ,husbands1 you say1 care little 
for such accomplishments4 ,so ,i should 
suppose1 when they are employed1 not for

 the husband1 but to attract the young  
rakes who dishonour the home4 ,but      
imagine a virtuous and charming wife1   
adorned with such accomplishments and   
devoting them to her husband's          
amusement2 will she not add to his      
happiness8 ,when he leaves his office   
worn out with the day's work1 will she  
not prevent him seeking recreation      
elsewhere8 ,have we not all beheld happy
 families gathered together1 each       
contributing to the general amusement8  
,are not the confidence and familiarity 
thus established1 the innocence and the 
charm of the pleasures thus enjoyed1    
more than enough to make up for the more
 riotous pleasures of public            
entertainments8  ,pleasant              
accomplishments have been made too      
formal an affair of rules and precepts1 
so that young people find them very     
tedious instead of a mere amusement or a
 merry game as they ought to be4        
,nothing can be more absurd than an     
elderly singing or dancing master       

frowning upon young people1 whose one   
desire is to laugh1 and adopting a more 
pedantic and magisterial manner in      
teaching his frivolous art than if he   
were teaching the catechism4 ,take the  
case of singing2 does this art depend on
 reading music2 cannot the voice be made
 true and flexible1 can we not learn to 
sing with taste and even to play an     
accompaniment without knowing a note8   
,does the same kind of singing suit all 
voices alike8 ,is the same method       
adapted to every mind8 ,you will never  
persuade me that the same attitudes1 the
 same steps1 the same movements1 the    
same gestures1 the same dances will suit
 a lively little brunette and a tall    
fair maiden with languishing eyes4 ,so  
when ,i find a master giving the same   
lessons to all his pupils ,i say1 ,he   
has his own routine1 but he knows       
nothing of his art6  ,should young girls
 have masters or mistresses8 ,i cannot  
say2 ,i wish they could dispense with   
both2 ,i wish they could learn of their 

own accord what they are already so     
willing to learn4 ,i wish there were    
fewer of these dressed-up old ballet    
masters promenading our streets4 ,i fear
 our young people will get more harm    
from intercourse with such people than  
profit from their instruction1 and that 
their jargon1 their tone1 their airs and
 graces1 will instil a precocious taste 
for the frivolities which the teacher   
thinks so important1 and to which the   
scholars are only too likely to devote  
themselves4  ,where pleasure is the only
 end in view1 any one may serve as      
teacher--father1 mother1 brother1       
sister1 friend1 governess1 the girl's   
mirror1 and above all her own taste4 ,do
 not offer to teach1 let her ask2 do not
 make a task of what should be a reward1
 and in these studies above all remember
 that the wish to succeed is the first  
step4 ,if formal instruction is required
 ,i leave it to you to choose between a 
master and a mistress4 ,how can ,i tell 
whether a dancing master should take a  

young pupil by her soft white hand1 make
 her lift her skirt and raise her eyes1 
open her arms and advance her throbbing 
bosom8 but this ,i know1 nothing on     
earth would induce me to be that master4
  ,taste is formed partly by industry   
and partly by talent1 and by its means  
the mind is unconsciously opened to the 
idea of beauty of every kind1 till at   
length it attains to those moral ideas  
which are so closely related to beauty4 
,perhaps this is one reason why ideas of
 propriety and modesty are acquired     
earlier by girls than by boys1 for to   
suppose that this early feeling is due  
to the teaching of the governesses would
 show little knowledge of their style of
 teaching and of the natural development
 of the human mind4 ,the art of speaking
 stands first among the pleasing arts2  
it alone can add fresh charms to those  
which have been blunted by habit4 ,it is
 the mind which not only gives life to  
the body1 but renews1 so to speak1 its  
youth2 the flow of feelings and ideas   

give life and variety to the            
countenance1 and the conversation to    
which it gives rise arouses and sustains
 attention1 and fixes it continuously on
 one object4 ,i suppose this is why     
little girls so soon learn to prattle   
prettily1 and why men enjoy listening to
 them even before the child can         
understand them2 they are watching for  
the first gleam of intelligence and     
sentiment4  ,women have ready tongues2  
they talk earlier1 more easily1 and more
 pleasantly than men4 ,they are also    
said to talk more2 this may be true1 but
 ,i am prepared to reckon it to their   
credit2 eyes and mouth are equally busy 
and for the same cause4 ,a man says what
 he knows1 a woman says what will       
please2 the one needs knowledge1 the    
other taste2 utility should be the man's
 object2 the woman speaks to give       
pleasure4 ,there should be nothing in   
common but truth4  ,you should not check
 a girl's prattle like a boy's by the   
harsh question1 ,what is the use of     

that8 but by another question at least  
as difficult to answer1 ,what effect    
will that have8 ,at this early age when 
they know neither good nor evil1 and are
 incapable of judging others1 they      
should make this their rule and never   
say anything which is unpleasant to     
those about them2 this rule is all the  
more difficult to apply because it must 
always be subordinated to our first     
rule1 ,never tell a lie4  ,i can see    
many other difficulties1 but they belong
 to a later stage4 ,for the present it  
is enough for your little girls to speak
 the truth without grossness1 and as    
they are naturally averse to what is    
gross1 education easily teaches them to 
avoid it4 ,in social intercourse ,i     
observe that a man's politeness is      
usually more helpful and a woman's more 
caressing4 ,this distinction is natural1
 not artificial4 ,a man seeks to serve1 
a woman seeks to please4 ,hence a       
woman's politeness is less insincere    
than ours1 whatever we may think of her 

character2 for she is only acting upon a
 fundamental instinct2 but when a man   
professes to put my interests before his
 own1 ,i detect the falsehood1 however  
disguised4 ,hence it is easy for women  
to be polite1 and easy to teach little  
girls politeness4 ,the first lessons    
come by nature2 art only supplements    
them and determines the conventional    
form which politeness shall take4 ,the  
courtesy of woman to woman is another   
matter2 their manner is so constrained1 
their attentions so chilly1 they find   
each other so wearisome1 that they take 
little pains to conceal the fact1 and   
seem sincere even in their falsehood1   
since they take so little pains to      
conceal it4 ,still young girls do       
sometimes become sincerely attached to  
one another4 ,at their age good spirits 
take the place of a good disposition1   
and they are so pleased with themselves 
that they are pleased with every one    
else4 ,moreover1 it is certain that they
 kiss each other more affectionately and

 caress each other more gracefully in   
the presence of men1 for they are proud 
to be able to arouse their envy without 
danger to themselves by the sight of    
favours which they know will arouse that
 envy4  ,if young boys must not be      
allowed to ask unsuitable questions1    
much more must they be forbidden to     
little girls2 if their curiosity is     
satisfied or unskilfully evaded it is a 
much more serious matter1 for they are  
so keen to guess the mysteries concealed
 from them and so skilful to discover   
them4 ,but while ,i would not permit    
them to ask questions1 ,i would have    
them questioned frequently1 and pains   
should be taken to make them talk2 let  
them be teased to make them speak       
freely1 to make them answer readily1 to 
loosen mind and tongue while it can be  
done without danger4 ,such conversation 
always leading to merriment1 yet        
skilfully controlled and directed1 would
 form a delightful amusement at this age
 and might instil into these youthful   

hearts the first and perhaps the most   
helpful lessons in morals which they    
will ever receive1 by teaching them in  
the guise of pleasure and fun what      
qualities are esteemed by men and what  
is the true glory and happiness of a    
good woman4  ,if boys are incapable of  
forming any true idea of religion1 much 
more is it beyond the grasp of girls2   
and for this reason ,i would speak of it
 all the sooner to little girls1 for if 
we wait till they are ready for a       
serious discussion of these deep        
subjects we should be in danger of never
 speaking of religion at all4 ,a woman's
 reason is practical1 and therefore she 
soon arrives at a given conclusion1 but 
she fails to discover it for herself4   
,the social relation of the sexes is a  
wonderful thing4 ,this relation produces
 a moral person of which woman is the   
eye and man the hand1 but the two are so
 dependent on one another that the man  
teaches the woman what to see1 while she
 teaches him what to do4 ,if women could

 discover principles and if men had as  
good heads for detail1 they would be    
mutually independent1 they would live in
 perpetual strife1 and there would be an
 end to all society4 ,but in their      
mutual harmony each contributes to a    
common purpose2 each follows the other's
 lead1 each commands and each obeys4    
,as a woman's conduct is controlled by  
public opinion1 so is her religion ruled
 by authority4 ,the daughter should     
follow her mother's religion1 the wife  
her husband's4 ,were that religion      
false1 the docility which leads mother  
and daughter to submit to nature's laws 
would blot out the sin of error in the  
sight of ,god4 ,unable to judge for     
themselves they should accept the       
judgment of father and husband as that  
of the church4  ,while women unaided    
cannot deduce the rules of their faith1 
neither can they assign limits to that  
faith by the evidence of reason2 they   
allow themselves to be driven hither and
 thither by all sorts of external       

influences1 they are ever above or below
 the truth4 ,extreme in everything1 they
 are either altogether reckless or      
altogether pious2 you never find them   
able to combine virtue and piety4 ,their
 natural exaggeration is not wholly to  
blame2 the ill-regulated control        
exercised over them by men is partly    
responsible4 ,loose morals bring        
religion into contempt2 the terrors of  
remorse make it a tyrant2 this is why   
women have always too much or too little
 religion4  ,as a woman's religion is   
controlled by authority it is more      
important to show her plainly what to   
believe than to explain the reasons for 
belief2 for faith attached to ideas     
half-understood is the main source of   
fanaticism1 and faith demanded on behalf
 of what is absurd leads to madness or  
unbelief4 ,whether our catechisms tend  
to produce impiety rather than          
fanaticism ,i cannot say1 but ,i do know
 that they lead to one or other4  ,in   
the first place1 when you teach religion

 to little girls never make it gloomy or
 tiresome1 never make it a task or a    
duty1 and therefore never give them     
anything to learn by heart1 not even    
their prayers4 ,be content to say your  
own prayers regularly in their presence1
 but do not compel them to join you4    
,let their prayers be short1 as ,christ 
himself has taught us4 ,let them always 
be said with becoming reverence and     
respect2 remember that if we ask the    
,almighty to give heed to our words1 we 
should at least give heed to what we    
mean to say4  ,it does not much matter  
that a girl should learn her religion   
young1 but it does matter that she      
should learn it thoroughly1 and still   
more that she should learn to love it4  
,if you make religion a burden to her1  
if you always speak of ,god's anger1 if 
in the name of religion you impose all  
sorts of disagreeable duties1 duties    
which she never sees you perform1 what  
can she suppose but that to learn one's 
catechism and to say one's prayers is   

only the duty of a little girl1 and she 
will long to be grown-up to escape1 like
 you1 from these duties4 ,example6      
,example6 ,without it you will never    
succeed in teaching children anything4  
,when you explain the ,articles of      
,faith let it be by direct teaching1 not
 by question and answer4 ,children      
should only answer what they think1 not 
what has been drilled into them4 ,all   
the answers in the catechism are the    
wrong way about2 it is the scholar who  
instructs the teacher2 in the child's   
mouth they are a downright lie1 since   
they explain what he does not           
understand1 and affirm what he cannot   
believe4 ,find me1 if you can1 an       
intelligent man who could honestly say  
his catechism4 ,the first question ,i   
find in our catechism is as follows3    
,who created you and brought you into   
the world8 ,to which the girl1 who      
thinks it was her mother1 replies       
without hesitation1 ,it was ,god4 ,all  
she knows is that she is asked a        

question which she only half understands
 and she gives an answer she does not   
understand at all4  ,i wish some one who
 really understands the development of  
children's minds would write a catechism
 for them4 ,it might be the most useful 
book ever written1 and1 in my opinion1  
it would do its author no little honour4
 ,this at least is certain--if it were a
 good book it would be very unlike our  
catechisms4  ,such a catechism will not 
be satisfactory unless the child can    
answer the questions of its own accord  
without having to learn the answers2    
indeed the child will often ask the     
questions itself4 ,an example is        
required to make my meaning plain and ,i
 feel how ill equipped ,i am to furnish 
such an example4 ,i will try to give    
some sort of outline of my meaning4  ,to
 get to the first question in our       
catechism ,i suppose we must begin      
somewhat after the following fashion4   
,,nurse3 ,do you remember when your     
mother was a little girl8  ,,child3 ,no1

 nurse4  ,,nurse3 ,why not1 when you    
have such a good memory8  ,,child3 ,i   
was not alive4  ,,nurse3 ,then you were 
not always alive6  ,,child3 ,no4        
,,nurse3 ,will you live for ever6       
,,child3 ,yes4  ,,nurse3 ,are you young 
or old8  ,,child3 ,i am young4  ,,nurse3
 ,is your grandmamma old or young8      
,,child3 ,she is old4  ,,nurse3 ,was she
 ever young8  ,,child3 ,yes4  ,,nurse3  
,why is she not young now8  ,,child3    
,she has grown old4  ,,nurse3 ,will you 
grow old too8  ,,child3 ,i don't know4  
,,nurse3 ,where are your last year's    
frocks8  ,,child3 ,they have been       
unpicked4  ,,nurse3 ,why6  ,,child3     
,because they were too small for me4    
,,nurse3 ,why were they too small8      
,,child3 ,i have grown bigger4  ,,nurse3
 ,will you grow any more6  ,,child3 ,oh1
 yes4  ,,nurse3 ,and what becomes of big
 girls8  ,,child3 ,they grow into women4
  ,,nurse3 ,and what becomes of women6  
,,child3 ,they are mothers4  ,,nurse3   
,and what becomes of mothers8  ,,child3 

,they grow old4  ,,nurse3 ,will you grow
 old8  ,,child3 ,when ,i am a mother4   
,,nurse3 ,and what becomes of old       
people8  ,,child3 ,i don't know4        
,,nurse3 ,what became of your           
grandfather8  ,,child3 ,he died4        
,footnote3 ,the child will say this     
because she has heard it said2 but you  
must make sure she knows what death is1 
for the idea is not so simple and within
 the child's grasp as people think4 ,in 
that little poem ,abel you will find an 
example of the way to teach them4 ,this 
charming work breathes a delightful     
simplicity with which one should feed   
one's own mind so as to talk with       
children4  ,,nurse3 ,why did he die8    
,,child3 ,because he was so old4        
,,nurse3 ,what becomes of old people6   
,,child3 ,they die4  ,,nurse3 ,and when 
you are old----8  ,,child3 ,oh nurse6 ,i
 don't want to die6  ,,nurse3 ,my dear1 
no one wants to die1 and everybody dies4
  ,,child3 ,why1 will mamma die too6    
,,nurse3 ,yes1 like everybody else4     

,women grow old as well as men1 and old 
age ends in death4  ,,child3 ,what must 
,i do to grow old very1 very slowly8    
,,nurse3 ,be good while you are little4 
,,child3 ,i will always be good1 nurse4 
,,nurse3 ,so much the better4 ,but do   
you suppose you will live for ever8     
,,child3 ,when ,i am very1 very old---- 
,,nurse3 ,well8  ,,child3 ,when we are  
so very old you say we must die8        
,,nurse3 ,you must die some day4        
,,child3 ,oh dear6 ,i suppose ,i must4  
,,nurse3 ,who lived before you8         
,,child3 ,my father and mother4         
,,nurse3 ,and before them8  ,,child3    
,their father and mother4  ,,nurse3 ,who
 will live after you8  ,,child3 ,my     
children4  ,,nurse3 ,who will live after
 them8  ,,child3 ,their children4  ,in  
this way1 by concrete examples1 you will
 find a beginning and end for the human 
race like everything else--that is to   
say1 a father and mother who never had a
 father and mother1 and children who    
will never have children of their own4  

,it is only after a long course of      
similar questions that we are ready for 
the first question in the catechism2    
then alone can we put the question and  
the child may be able to understand it4 
,but what a gap there is between the    
first and the second question which is  
concerned with the definitions of the   
divine nature4 ,when will this chasm be 
bridged8 ,god is a spirit4 ,and what is 
a spirit8 ,shall ,i start the child upon
 this difficult question of metaphysics 
which grown men find so hard to         
understand8 ,these are no questions for 
a little girl to answer2 if she asks    
them1 it is as much or more than we can 
expect4 ,in that case ,i should tell her
 quite simply1 ,you ask me what ,god is2
 it is not easy to say2 we can neither  
hear nor see nor handle ,god2 we can    
only know ,him by ,his works4 ,to learn 
what ,he is1 you must wait till you know
 what ,he has done4  ,if our dogmas are 
all equally true1 they are not equally  
important4 ,it makes little difference  

to the glory of ,god that we should     
perceive it everywhere1 but it does make
 a difference to human society1 and to  
every member of that society1 that a man
 should know and do the duties which are
 laid upon him by the law of ,god1 his  
duty to his neighbour and to himself4   
,this is what we should always be       
teaching one another1 and it is this    
which fathers and mothers are specially 
bound to teach their little ones4       
,whether a virgin became the mother of  
her ,creator1 whether she gave birth to 
,god1 or merely to a man into whom ,god 
has entered1 whether the ,father and the
 ,son are of the same substance or of   
like substance only1 whether the ,spirit
 proceeded from one or both of these who
 are but one1 or from both together1    
however important these questions may   
seem1 ,i cannot see that it is any more 
necessary for the human race to come to 
a decision with regard to them than to  
know what day to keep ,easter1 or       
whether we should tell our beads1 fast1 

and refuse to eat meat1 speak ,latin or 
,french in church1 adorn the walls with 
statues1 hear or say mass1 and have no  
wife of our own4 ,let each think as he  
pleases2 ,i cannot see that it matters  
to any one but himself2 for my own part 
it is no concern of mine4 ,but what does
 concern my fellow-creatures and myself 
alike is to know that there is indeed a 
judge of human fate1 that we are all    
,his children1 that ,he bids us all be  
just1 ,he bids us love one another1 ,he 
bids us be kindly and merciful1 ,he bids
 us keep our word with all men1 even    
with our own enemies and ,his2 we must  
know that the apparent happiness of this
 world is naught2 that there is another 
life to come1 in which this ,supreme    
,being will be the rewarder of the just 
and the judge of the unjust4 ,children  
need to be taught these doctrines and   
others like them and all citizens       
require to be persuaded of their truth4 
,whoever sets his face against these    
doctrines is indeed guilty2 he is the   

disturber of the peace1 the enemy of    
society4 ,whoever goes beyond these     
doctrines and seeks to make us the      
slaves of his private opinions1 reaches 
the same goal by another way2 to        
establish his own kind of order he      
disturbs the peace2 in his rash pride he
 makes himself the interpreter of the   
,divine1 and in ,his name demands the   
homage and the reverence of mankind2 so 
far as may be1 he sets himself in ,god's
 place2 he should receive the punishment
 of sacrilege if he is not punished for 
his intolerance4  ,give no heed1        
therefore1 to all those mysterious      
doctrines which are words without ideas 
for us1 all those strange teachings1 the
 study of which is too often offered as 
a substitute for virtue1 a study which  
more often makes men mad rather than    
good4 ,keep your children ever within   
the little circle of dogmas which are   
related to morality4 ,convince them that
 the only useful learning is that which 
teaches us to act rightly4 ,do not make 

your daughters theologians and casuists2
 only teach them such things of heaven  
as conduce to human goodness2 train them
 to feel that they are always in the    
presence of ,god1 who sees their        
thoughts and deeds1 their virtue and    
their pleasures2 teach them to do good  
without ostentation and because they    
love it1 to suffer evil without a       
murmur1 because ,god will reward them2  
in a word to be all their life long what
 they will be glad to have been when    
they appear in ,his presence4 ,this is  
true religion2 this alone is incapable  
of abuse1 impiety1 or fanaticism4  ,let 
those who will1 teach a religion more   
sublime1 but this is the only religion  
,i know4  ,moreover1 it is as well to   
observe that1 until the age when the    
reason becomes enlightened1 when growing
 emotion gives a voice to conscience1   
what is wrong for young people is what  
those about have decided to be wrong4   
,what they are told to do is good2 what 
they are forbidden to do is bad2 that is

 all they ought to know3 this shows how 
important it is for girls1 even more    
than for boys1 that the right people    
should be chosen to be with them and to 
have authority over them4 ,at last there
 comes a time when they begin to judge  
things for themselves1 and that is the  
time to change your method of education4
  ,perhaps ,i have said too much        
already4 ,to what shall we reduce the   
education of our women if we give them  
no law but that of conventional         
prejudice8 ,let us not degrade so far   
the set which rules over us1 and which  
does us honour when we have not made it 
vile4 ,for all mankind there is a law   
anterior to that of public opinion4 ,all
 other laws should bend before the      
inflexible control of this law2 it is   
the judge of public opinion1 and only in
 so far as the esteem of men is in      
accordance with this law has it any     
claim on our obedience4  ,this law is   
our individual conscience4 ,i will not  
repeat what has been said already2 it is

 enough to point out that if these two  
laws clash1 the education of women will 
always be imperfect4 ,right feeling     
without respect for public opinion will 
not give them that delicacy of soul     
which lends to right conduct the charm  
of social approval2 while respect for   
public opinion without right feeling    
will only make false and wicked women   
who put appearances in the place of     
virtue4  ,it is1 therefore1 important to
 cultivate a faculty which serves as    
judge between the two guides1 which does
 not permit conscience to go astray and 
corrects the errors of prejudice4 ,that 
faculty is reason4  ,but what a crowd of
 questions arise at this word4 ,are     
women capable of solid reason2 should   
they cultivate it1 can they cultivate it
 successfully8 ,is this culture useful  
in relation to the functions laid upon  
them8 ,is it compatible with becoming   
simplicity8  ,the different ways of     
envisaging and answering these questions
 lead to two extremes2 some would have  

us keep women indoors sewing and        
spinning with their maids2 thus they    
make them nothing more than the chief   
servant of their master4 ,others1 not   
content to secure their rights1 lead    
them to usurp ours2 for to make woman   
our superior in all the qualities proper
 to her sex1 and to make her our equal  
in all the rest1 what is this but to    
transfer to the woman the superiority   
which nature has given to her husband8  
,the reason which teaches a man his     
duties is not very complex2 the reason  
which teaches a woman hers is even      
simpler4 ,the obedience and fidelity    
which she owes to her husband1 the      
tenderness and care due to her children1
 are such natural and self-evident      
consequences of her position that she   
cannot honestly refuse her consent to   
the inner voice which is her guide1 nor 
fail to discern her duty in her natural 
inclination4  ,i would not altogether   
blame those who would restrict a woman  
to the labours of her sex and would     

leave her in profound ignorance of      
everything else2 but that would require 
a standard of morality at once very     
simple and very healthy1 or a life      
withdrawn from the world4 ,in great     
towns1 among immoral men1 such a woman  
would be too easily led astray2 her     
virtue would too often be at the mercy  
of circumstances2 in this age of        
philosophy1 virtue must be able to      
resist temptation2 she must know        
beforehand what she may hear and what   
she should think of it4  ,moreover1 in  
submission to man's judgment she should 
deserve his esteem2 above all she should
 obtain the esteem of her husband2 she  
should not only make him love her       
person1 she should make him approve her 
conduct2 she should justify his choice  
before the world1 and do honour to her  
husband through the honour given to the 
wife4 ,but how can she set about this   
task if she is ignorant of our          
institutions1 our customs1 our notions  
of propriety1 if she knows nothing of   

the source of man's judgment1 nor the   
passions by which it is swayed6 ,since  
she depends both on her own conscience  
and on public opinion1 she must learn to
 know and reconcile these two laws1 and 
to put her own conscience first only    
when the two are opposed to each other4 
,she becomes the judge of her own       
judges1 she decides when she should obey
 and when she should refuse her         
obedience4 ,she weighs their prejudices 
before she accepts or rejects them2 she 
learns to trace them to their source1 to
 foresee what they will be1 and to turn 
them in her own favour2 she is careful  
never to give cause for blame if duty   
allows her to avoid it4 ,this cannot be 
properly done without cultivating her   
mind and reason4  ,i always come back to
 my first principle and it supplies the 
solution of all my difficulties4 ,i     
study what is1 ,i seek its cause1 and ,i
 discover in the end that what is1 is   
good4 ,i go to houses where the master  
and mistress do the honours together4   

,they are equally well educated1 equally
 polite1 equally well equipped with wit 
and good taste1 both of them are        
inspired with the same desire to give   
their guests a good reception and to    
send every one away satisfied4 ,the     
husband omits no pains to be attentive  
to every one2 he comes and goes and sees
 to every one and takes all sorts of    
trouble2 he is attention itself4 ,the   
wife remains in her place2 a little     
circle gathers round her and apparently 
conceals the rest of the company from   
her2 yet she sees everything that goes  
on1 no one goes without a word with her2
 she has omitted nothing which might    
interest anybody1 she has said nothing  
unpleasant to any one1 and without any  
fuss the least is no more overlooked    
than the greatest4  ,dinner is          
announced1 they take their places2 the  
man knowing the assembled guests will   
place them according to his knowledge2  
the wife1 without previous acquaintance1
 never makes a mistake2 their looks and 

bearing have already shown her what is  
wanted and every one will find himself  
where he wishes to be4 ,i do not assert 
that the servants forget no one4 ,the   
master of the house may have omitted no 
one1 but the mistress perceives what you
 like and sees that you get it2 while   
she is talking to her neighbour she has 
one eye on the other end of the table2  
she sees who is not eating because he is
 not hungry and who is afraid to help   
himself because he is clumsy and timid4 
,when the guests leave the table every  
one thinks she has had no thought but   
for him1 everybody thinks she has had no
 time to eat anything1 but she has      
really eaten more than anybody4  ,when  
the guests are gone1 husband and wife   
tails over the events of the evening4   
,he relates what was said to him1 what  
was said and done by those with whom he 
conversed4 ,if the lady is not always   
quite exact in this respect1 yet on the 
other hand she perceived what was       
whispered at the other end of the room2 

she knows what so-and-so thought1 and   
what was the meaning of this speech or  
that gesture2 there is scarcely a change
 of expression for which she has not an 
explanation in readiness1 and she is    
almost always right4  ,the same turn of 
mind which makes a woman of the world   
such an excellent hostess1 enables a    
flirt to excel in the art of amusing a  
number of suitors4 ,coquetry1 cleverly  
carried out1 demands an even finer      
discernment than courtesy2 provided a   
polite lady is civil to everybody1 she  
has done fairly well in any case2 but   
the flirt would soon lose her hold by   
such clumsy uniformity2 if she tries to 
be pleasant to all her lovers alike1 she
 will disgust them all4 ,in ordinary    
social intercourse the manners adopted  
towards everybody are good enough for   
all2 no question is asked as to private 
likes or dislikes provided all are alike
 well received4 ,but in love1 a favour  
shared with others is an insult4 ,a man 
of feeling would rather be singled out  

for ill-treatment than be caressed with 
the crowd1 and the worst that can befall
 him is to be treated like every one    
else4  ,so a woman who wants to keep    
several lovers at her feet must persuade
 every one of them that she prefers him1
 and she must contrive to do this in the
 sight of all the rest1 each of whom is 
equally convinced that he is her        
favourite4  ,if you want to see a man in
 a quandary1 place him between two women
 with each of whom he has a secret      
understanding1 and see what a fool he   
looks4 ,but put a woman in similar      
circumstances between two men1 and the  
results will be even more remarkable2   
you will be astonished at the skill with
 which she cheats them both1 and makes  
them laugh at each other4 ,now if that  
woman were to show the same confidence  
in both1 if she were to be equally      
familiar with both1 how could they be   
deceived for a moment8 ,if she treated  
them alike1 would she not show that they
 both had the same claims upon her8 ,oh1

 she is far too clever for that2 so far 
from treating them just alike1 she makes
 a marked difference between them1 and  
she does it so skilfully that the man   
she flatters thinks it is affection1 and
 the man she ill uses think it is spite4
 ,so that each of them believes she is  
thinking of him1 when she is thinking of
 no one but herself4  ,a general desire 
to please suggests similar measures2    
people would be disgusted with a woman's
 whims if they were not skilfully       
managed1 and when they are artistically 
distributed her servants are more than  
ever enslaved4       ,usa ogn'arte la   
donna1 onde sia colto      ,nella sua   
rete alcun novello amante2      ,ne con 
tutti1 ne sempre un stesso volto        
,serba2 ma cangia a tempo atto e        
sembiante4           ,tasso1 ,jerus4    
,del41 c4 iv41 v4 #hg4  ,what is the    
secret of this art8 ,is it not the      
result of a delicate and continuous     
observation which shows her what is     
taking place in a man's heart1 so that  

she is able to encourage or to check    
every hidden impulse8 ,can this art be  
acquired8 ,no2 it is born with women2 it
 is common to them all1 and men never   
show it to the same degree4 ,it is one  
of the distinctive characters of the    
sex4 ,self-possession1 penetration1     
delicate observation1 this is a woman's 
science2 the skill to make use of it is 
her chief accomplishment4  ,this is what
 is1 and we have seen why it is so4 ,it 
is said that women are false4 ,they     
become false4 ,they are really endowed  
with skill not duplicity2 in the genuine
 inclinations of their sex they are not 
false even when they tell a lie4 ,why do
 you consult their words when it is not 
their mouths that speak8 ,consult their 
eyes1 their colour1 their breathing1    
their timid manner1 their slight        
resistance1 that is the language nature 
gave them for your answer4 ,the lips    
always say ,no1 and rightly so2 but the 
tone is not always the same1 and that   
cannot lie4 ,has not a woman the same   

needs as a man1 but without the same    
right to make them known8 ,her fate     
would be too cruel if she had no        
language in which to express her        
legitimate desires except the words     
which she dare not utter4 ,must her     
modesty condemn her to misery8 ,does she
 not require a means of indicating her  
inclinations without open expression8   
,what skill is needed to hide from her  
lover what she would fain reveal6 ,is it
 not of vital importance that she should
 learn to touch his heart without       
showing that she cares for him8 ,it is a
 pretty story that tale of ,galatea with
 her apple and her clumsy flight4 ,what 
more is needed8  ,will she tell the     
shepherd who pursues her among the      
willows that she only flees that he may 
follow8 ,if she did1 it would be a lie2 
for she would no longer attract him4    
,the more modest a woman is1 the more   
art she needs1 even with her husband4   
,yes1 ,i maintain that coquetry1 kept   
within bounds1 becomes modest and true1 

and out of it springs a law of right    
conduct4  ,one of my opponents has very 
truly asserted that virtue is one2 you  
cannot disintegrate it and choose this  
and reject the other4 ,if you love      
virtue1 you love it in its entirety1 and
 you close your heart when you can1 and 
you always close your lips to the       
feelings which you ought not to allow4  
,moral truth is not only what is1 but   
what is good2 what is bad ought not to  
be1 and ought not to be confessed1      
especially when that confession produces
 results which might have been avoided4 
,if ,i were tempted to steal1 and in    
confessing it ,i tempted another to     
become my accomplice1 the very          
confession of my temptation would amount
 to a yielding to that temptation4 ,why 
do you say that modesty makes women     
false8 ,are those who lose their modesty
 more sincere than the rest8 ,not so1   
they are a thousandfold more deceitful4 
,this degree of depravity is due to many
 vices1 none of which is rejected1 vices

 which owe their power to intrigue and  
falsehood4 ,footnote3 ,i know that women
 who have openly decided on a certain   
course of conduct profess that their    
lack of concealment is a virtue in      
itself1 and swear that1 with one        
exception1 they are possessed of all the
 virtues2 but ,i am sure they never     
persuaded any but fools to believe them4
 ,when the natural curb is removed from 
their sex1 what is there left to        
restrain them8 ,what honour will they   
prize when they have rejected the honour
 of their sex8 ,having once given the   
rein to passion they have no longer any 
reason for self-control4 ,nec femina1   
amissa pudicitia1 alia abnuerit4 ,no    
author ever understood more thoroughly  
the heart of both sexes than ,tacitus   
when he wrote those words4  ,on the     
other hand1 those who are not utterly   
shameless1 who take no pride in their   
faults1 who are able to conceal their   
desires even from those who inspire     
them1 those who confess their passion   

most reluctantly1 these are the truest  
and most sincere1 these are they on     
whose fidelity you may generally rely4  
,the only example ,i know which might be
 quoted as a recognised exception to    
these remarks is ,mlle4 de ,l',enclos2  
and she was considered a prodigy4 ,in   
her scorn for the virtues of women1 she 
practised1 so they say1 the virtues of a
 man4 ,she is praised for her frankness 
and uprightness2 she was a trustworthy  
acquaintance and a faithful friend4 ,to 
complete the picture of her glory it is 
said that she became a man4 ,that may   
be1 but in spite of her high reputation 
,i should no more desire that man as my 
friend than as my mistress4  ,this is   
not so irrelevant as it seems4 ,i am    
aware of the tendencies of our modern   
philosophy which make a jest of female  
modesty and its so-called insincerity2  
,i also perceive that the most certain  
result of this philosophy will be to    
deprive the women of this century of    
such shreds of honour as they still     

possess4  ,on these grounds ,i think we 
may decide in general terms what sort of
 education is suited to the female mind1
 and the objects to which we should turn
 its attention in early youth4  ,as ,i  
have already said1 the duties of their  
sex are more easily recognised than     
performed4 ,they must learn in the first
 place to love those duties by          
considering the advantages to be derived
 from them--that is the only way to make
 duty easy4 ,every age and condition has
 its own duties4 ,we are quick to see   
our duty if we love it4 ,honour your    
position as a woman1 and in whatever    
station of life to which it shall please
 heaven to call you1 you will be well   
off4 ,the essential thing is to be what 
nature has made you2 women are only too 
ready to be what men would have them4   
,the search for abstract and speculative
 truths1 for principles and axioms in   
science1 for all that tends to wide     
generalisation1 is beyond a woman's     
grasp2 their studies should be          

thoroughly practical4 ,it is their      
business to apply the principles        
discovered by men1 it is their place to 
make the observations which lead men to 
discover those principles4 ,a woman's   
thoughts1 beyond the range of her       
immediate duties1 should be directed to 
the study of men1 or the acquirement of 
that agreeable learning whose sole end  
is the formation of taste2 for the works
 of genius are beyond her reach1 and she
 has neither the accuracy nor the       
attention for success in the exact      
sciences2 as for the physical sciences1 
to decide the relations between living  
creatures and the laws of nature is the 
task of that sex which is more active   
and enterprising1 which sees more       
things1 that sex which is possessed of  
greater strength and is more accustomed 
to the exercise of that strength4       
,woman1 weak as she is and limited in   
her range of observation1 perceives and 
judges the forces at her disposal to    
supplement her weakness1 and those      

forces are the passions of man4 ,her own
 mechanism is more powerful than ours2  
she has many levers which may set the   
human heart in motion4  ,she must find a
 way to make us desire what she cannot  
achieve unaided and what she considers  
necessary or pleasing2 therefore she    
must have a thorough knowledge of man's 
mind2 not an abstract knowledge of the  
mind of man in general1 but the mind of 
those men who are about her1 the mind of
 those men who have authority over her1 
either by law or custom4 ,she must learn
 to divine their feelings from speech   
and action1 look and gesture4 ,by her   
own speech and action1 look and gesture1
 she must be able to inspire them with  
the feelings she desires1 without       
seeming to have any such purpose4  ,the 
men will have a better philosophy of the
 human heart1 but she will read more    
accurately in the heart of men4 ,woman  
should discover1 so to speak1 an        
experimental morality1 man should reduce
 it to a system4 ,woman has more wit1   

man more genius2 woman observes1 man    
reasons2 together they provide the      
clearest light and the profoundest      
knowledge which is possible to the      
unaided human mind2 in a word1 the      
surest knowledge of self and of others  
of which the human race is capable4 ,in 
this way art may constantly tend to the 
perfection of the instrument which      
nature has given us4  ,the world is     
woman's book2 if she reads it ill1 it is
 either her own fault or she is blinded 
by passion4 ,yet the genuine mother of a
 family is no woman of the world1 she is
 almost as much of a recluse as the nun 
in her convent4 ,those who have         
marriageable daughters should do what is
 or ought to be done for those who are  
entering the cloisters3 they should show
 them the pleasures they forsake before 
they are allowed to renounce them1 lest 
the deceitful picture of unknown        
pleasures should creep in to disturb the
 happiness of their retreat4 ,in ,france
 it is the girls who live in convents   

and the wives who flaunt in society4    
,among the ancients it was quite        
otherwise2 girls enjoyed1 as ,i have    
said already1 many games and public     
festivals2 the married women lived in   
retirement4 ,this was a more reasonable 
custom and more conducive to morality4  
,a girl may be allowed a certain amount 
of coquetry1 and she may be mainly      
occupied at amusement4 ,a wife has other
 responsibilities at home1 and she is no
 longer on the look-out for a husband2  
but women would not appreciate the      
change1 and unluckily it is they who set
 the fashion4  ,mothers1 let your       
daughters be your companions4 ,give them
 good sense and an honest heart1 and    
then conceal from them nothing that a   
pure eye may behold4 ,balls1 assemblies1
 sports1 the theatre itself2 everything 
which viewed amiss delights imprudent   
youth may be safely displayed to a      
healthy mind4 ,the more they know of    
these noisy pleasures1 the sooner they  
will cease to desire them4  ,i can fancy

 the outcry with which this will be     
received4 ,what girl will resist such an
 example8 ,their heads are turned by the
 first glimpse of the world2 not one of 
them is ready to give it up4 ,that may  
be2 but before you showed them this     
deceitful prospect1 did you prepare them
 to behold it without emotion8 ,did you 
tell them plainly what it was they would
 see8 ,did you show it in its true      
light8 ,did you arm them against the    
illusions of vanity8 ,did you inspire   
their young hearts with a taste for the 
true pleasures which are not to be met  
with in this tumult8 ,what precautions1 
what steps1 did you take to preserve    
them from the false taste which leads   
them astray8 ,not only have you done    
nothing to preserve their minds from the
 tyranny of prejudice1 you have fostered
 that prejudice2 you have taught them to
 desire every foolish amusement they can
 get4 ,your own example is their        
teacher4 ,young people on their entrance
 into society have no guide but their   

mother1 who is often just as silly as   
they are themselves1 and quite unable to
 show them things except as she sees    
them herself4 ,her example is stronger  
than reason2 it justifies them in their 
own eyes1 and the mother's authority is 
an unanswerable excuse for the daughter4
 ,if ,i ask a mother to bring her       
daughter into society1 ,i assume that   
she will show it in its true light4     
,the evil begins still earlier2 the     
convents are regular schools of         
coquetry2 not that honest coquetry which
 ,i have described1 but a coquetry the  
source of every kind of misconduct1 a   
coquetry which turns out girls who are  
the most ridiculous little madams4 ,when
 they leave the convent to take their   
place in smart society1 young women find
 themselves quite at home4 ,they have   
been educated for such a life2 is it    
strange that they like it8 ,i am afraid 
what ,i am going to say may be based on 
prejudice rather than observation1 but  
so far as ,i can see1 one finds more    

family affection1 more good wives and   
loving mothers in ,protestant than in   
,catholic countries2 if that is so1 we  
cannot fail to suspect that the         
difference is partly due to the convent 
schools4  ,the charms of a peaceful     
family life must be known to be enjoyed2
 their delights should be tasted in     
childhood4 ,it is only in our father's  
home that we learn to love our own1 and 
a woman whose mother did not educate her
 herself will not be willing to educate 
her own children4 ,unfortunately1 there 
is no such thing as home education in   
our large towns4 ,society is so general 
and so mixed there is no place left for 
retirement1 and even in the home we live
 in public4 ,we live in company till we 
have no family1 and we scarcely know our
 own relations1 we see them as          
strangers2 and the simplicity of home   
life disappears together with the sweet 
familiarity which was its charm4 ,in    
this wise do we draw with our mother's  
milk a taste for the pleasures of the   

age and the maxims by which it is       
controlled4  ,girls are compelled to    
assume an air of propriety so that men  
may be deceived into marrying them by   
their appearance4 ,but watch these young
 people for a moment2 under a pretence  
of coyness they barely conceal the      
passion which devours them1 and already 
you may read in their eager eyes their  
desire to imitate their mothers4 ,it is 
not a husband they want1 but the licence
 of a married woman4 ,what need of a    
husband when there are so many other    
resources2 but a husband there must be  
to act as a screen4 ,footnote3 ,the way 
of a man in his youth was one of the    
four things that the sage could not     
understand2 the fifth was the           
shamelessness of an adulteress4 ,quae   
comedit1 et tergens os suum dicit2 non  
sum operata malum4 ,prov4 xxx4 #bj4     
,there is modesty on the brow1 but vice 
in the heart2 this sham modesty is one  
of its outward signs2 they affect it    
that they may be rid of it once for all4

 ,women of ,paris and ,london1 forgive  
me6 ,there may be miracles everywhere1  
but ,i am not aware of them2 and if     
there is even one among you who is      
really pure in heart1 ,i know nothing of
 our institutions4  ,all these different
 methods of education lead alike to a   
taste for the pleasures of the great    
world1 and to the passions which this   
taste so soon kindles4 ,in our great    
towns depravity begins at birth2 in the 
smaller towns it begins with reason4    
,young women brought up in the country  
are soon taught to despise the happy    
simplicity of their lives1 and hasten to
 ,paris to share the corruption of ours4
 ,vices1 cloaked under the fair name of 
accomplishments1 are the sole object of 
their journey2 ashamed to find          
themselves so much behind the noble     
licence of the ,parisian ladies1 they   
hasten to become worthy of the name of  
,parisian4 ,which is responsible for the
 evil--the place where it begins1 or the
 place where it is accomplished8  ,i    

would not have a sensible mother bring  
her girl to ,paris to show her these    
sights so harmful to others2 but ,i     
assert that if she did so1 either the   
girl has been badly brought up1 or such 
sights have little danger for her4 ,with
 good taste1 good sense1 and a love of  
what is right1 these things are less    
attractive than to those who abandon    
themselves to their charm4 ,in ,paris   
you may see giddy young things hastening
 to adopt the tone and fashions of the  
town for some six months1 so that they  
may spend the rest of their life in     
disgrace2 but who gives any heed to     
those who1 disgusted with the rout1     
return to their distant home and are    
contented with their lot when they have 
compared it with that which others      
desire4 ,how many young wives have ,i   
seen whose good-natured husbands have   
taken them to ,paris where they might   
live if they pleased2 but they have     
shrunk from it and returned home more   
willingly than they went1 saying        

tenderly1 ,ah1 let us go back to our    
cottage1 life is happier there than in  
these palaces4 ,we do not know how many 
there are who have not bowed the knee to
 ,baal1 who scorn his senseless worship4
 ,fools make a stir2 good women pass    
unnoticed4  ,if so many women preserve a
 judgment which is proof against        
temptation1 in spite of universal       
prejudice1 in spite of the bad education
 of girls1 what would their judgment    
have been1 had it been strengthened by  
suitable instruction1 or rather left    
unaffected by evil teaching1 for to     
preserve or restore the natural feelings
 is our main business8 ,you can do this 
without preaching endless sermons to    
your daughters1 without crediting them  
with your harsh morality4  ,the only    
effect of such teaching is to inspire a 
dislike for the teacher and the lessons4
 ,in talking to a young girl you need   
not make her afraid of her duties1 nor  
need you increase the burden laid upon  
her by nature4 ,when you explain her    

duties speak plainly and pleasantly2 do 
not let her suppose that the performance
 of these duties is a dismal thing--away
 with every affectation of disgust or   
pride4 ,every thought which we desire to
 arouse should find its expression in   
our pupils1 their catechism of conduct  
should be as brief and plain as their   
catechism of religion1 but it need not  
be so serious4 ,show them that these    
same duties are the source of their     
pleasures and the basis of their rights4
 ,is it so hard to win love by love1    
happiness by an amiable disposition1    
obedience by worth1 and honour by       
self-respect8 ,how fair are these       
woman's rights1 how worthy of reverence1
 how dear to the heart of man when a    
woman is able to show their worth6      
,these rights are no privilege of years2
 a woman's empire begins with her       
virtues2 her charms are only in the bud1
 yet she reigns already by the          
gentleness of her character and the     
dignity of her modesty4 ,is there any   

man so hard-hearted and uncivilised that
 he does not abate his pride and take   
heed to his manners with a sweet and    
virtuous girl of sixteen1 who listens   
but says little2 her bearing is modest1 
her conversation honest1 her beauty does
 not lead her to forget her sex and her 
youth1 her very timidity arouses        
interest1 while she wins for herself the
 respect which she shows to others8     
,these external signs are not devoid of 
meaning2 they do not rest entirely upon 
the charms of sense2 they arise from    
that conviction that we all feel that   
women are the natural judges of a man's 
worth4  ,who would be scorned by women8 
not even he who has ceased to desire    
their love4 ,and do you suppose that ,i1
 who tell them such harsh truths1 am    
indifferent to their verdict8 ,reader1  
,i care more for their approval than for
 yours2 you are often more effeminate   
than they4 ,while ,i scorn their morals1
 ,i will revere their justice2 ,i care  
not though they hate me1 if ,i can      

compel their esteem4  ,what great things
 might be accomplished by their         
influence if only we could bring it to  
bear6 ,alas for the age whose women lose
 their ascendancy1 and fail to make men 
respect their judgment6 ,this is the    
last stage of degradation4 ,every       
virtuous nation has shown respect to    
women4 ,consider ,sparta1 ,germany1 and 
,rome2 ,rome the throne of glory and    
virtue1 if ever they were enthroned on  
earth4 ,the ,roman women awarded honour 
to the deeds of great generals1 they    
mourned in public for the fathers of the
 country1 their awards and their tears  
were alike held sacred as the most      
solemn utterance of the ,republic4      
,every great revolution began with the  
women4 ,through a woman ,rome gained her
 liberty1 through a woman the plebeians 
won the consulate1 through a woman the  
tyranny of the decemvirs was overthrown2
 it was the women who saved ,rome when  
besieged by ,coriolanus4 ,what would you
 have said at the sight of this         

procession1 you ,frenchmen who pride    
yourselves on your gallantry1 would you 
not have followed it with shouts of     
laughter8 ,you and ,i see things with   
such different eyes1 and perhaps we are 
both right4 ,such a procession formed of
 the fairest beauties of ,france would  
be an indecent spectacle2 but let it    
consist of ,roman ladies1 you will all  
gaze with the eyes of the ,volscians and
 feel with the heart of ,coriolanus4  ,i
 will go further and maintain that      
virtue is no less favourable to love    
than to other rights of nature1 and that
 it adds as much to the power of the    
beloved as to that of the wife or       
mother4 ,there is no real love without  
enthusiasm1 and no enthusiasm without an
 object of perfection real or supposed1 
but always present in the imagination4  
,what is there to kindle the hearts of  
lovers for whom this perfection is      
nothing1 for whom the loved one is      
merely the means to sensual pleasure8   
,nay1 not thus is the heart kindled1 not

 thus does it abandon itself to those   
sublime transports which form the       
rapture of lovers and the charm of love4
 ,love is an illusion1 ,i grant you1 but
 its reality consists in the feelings it
 awakes1 in the love of true beauty     
which it inspires4 ,that beauty is not  
to be found in the object of our        
affections1 it is the creation of our   
illusions4 ,what matter6 do we not still
 sacrifice all those baser feelings to  
the imaginary model8 and we still feed  
our hearts on the virtues we attribute  
to the beloved1 we still withdraw       
ourselves from the baseness of human    
nature4 ,what lover is there who would  
not give his life for his mistress8     
,what gross and sensual passion is there
 in a man who is willing to die8 ,we    
scoff at the knights of old2 they knew  
the meaning of love2 we know nothing but
 debauchery4 ,when the teachings of     
romance began to seem ridiculous1 it was
 not so much the work of reason as of   
immorality4  ,natural relations remain  

the same throughout the centuries1 their
 good or evil effects are unchanged2    
prejudices1 masquerading as reason1 can 
but change their outward seeming2       
self-mastery1 even at the behest of     
fantastic opinions1 will not cease to be
 great and good4 ,and the true motives  
of honour will not fail to appeal to the
 heart of every woman who is able to    
seek happiness in life in her woman's   
duties4 ,to a high-souled woman chastity
 above all must be a delightful virtue4 
,she sees all the kingdoms of the world 
before her and she triumphs over herself
 and them2 she sits enthroned in her own
 soul and all men do her homage2 a few  
passing struggles are crowned with      
perpetual glory2 she secures the        
affection1 or it may be the envy1 she   
secures in any case the esteem of both  
sexes and the universal respect of her  
own4 ,the loss is fleeting1 the gain is 
permanent4 ,what a joy for a noble      
heart--the pride of virtue combined with
 beauty4 ,let her be a heroine of       

romance2 she will taste delights more   
exquisite than those of ,lais and       
,cleopatra2 and when her beauty is fled1
 her glory and her joys remain2 she     
alone can enjoy the past4  ,the harder  
and more important the duties1 the      
stronger and clearer must be the reasons
 on which they are based4 ,there is a   
sort of pious talk about the most       
serious subjects which is dinned in vain
 into the ears of young people4 ,this   
talk1 quite unsuited to their ideas and 
the small importance they attach to it  
in secret1 inclines them to yield       
readily to their inclinations1 for lack 
of any reasons for resistance drawn from
 the facts themselves4 ,no doubt a girl 
brought up to goodness and piety has    
strong weapons against temptation2 but  
one whose heart1 or rather her ears1 are
 merely filled with the jargon of piety1
 will certainly fall a prey to the first
 skilful seducer who attacks her4 ,a    
young and beautiful girl will never     
despise her body1 she will never really 

deplore sins which her beauty leads men 
to commit1 she will never lament        
earnestly in the sight of ,god that she 
is an object of desire1 she will never  
be convinced that the tenderest feeling 
is an invention of the ,evil ,one4 ,give
 her other and more pertinent reasons   
for her own sake1 for these will have no
 effect4 ,it will be worse to instil1 as
 is often done1 ideas which contradict  
each other1 and after having humbled and
 degraded her person and her charms as  
the stain of sin1 to bid her reverence  
that same vile body as the temple of    
,jesus ,christ4 ,ideas too sublime and  
too humble are equally ineffective and  
they cannot both be true4 ,a reason     
adapted to her age and sex is what is   
needed4 ,considerations of duty are of  
no effect unless they are combined with 
some motive for the performance of our  
duty4       ,quae quia non liceat non   
facit1 illa facit4           ,,ovid1    
,amor4 ,i4 iii4 eleg4 iv4  ,one would   
not suspect ,ovid of such a harsh       

judgment4  ,if you would inspire young  
people with a love of good conduct avoid
 saying1 ,be good2 make it their        
interest to be good2 make them feel the 
value of goodness and they will love it4
 ,it is not enough to show this effect  
in the distant future1 show it now1 in  
the relations of the present1 in the    
character of their lovers4 ,describe a  
good man1 a man of worth1 teach them to 
recognise him when they see him1 to love
 him for their own sake2 convince them  
that such a man alone can make them     
happy as friend1 wife1 or mistress4 ,let
 reason lead the way to virtue2 make    
them feel that the empire of their sex  
and all the advantages derived from it  
depend not merely on the right conduct1 
the morality1 of women1 but also on that
 of men2 that they have little hold over
 the vile and base1 and that the lover  
is incapable of serving his mistress    
unless he can do homage to virtue4 ,you 
may then be sure that when you describe 
the manners of our age you will inspire 

them with a genuine disgust2 when you   
show them men of fashion they will      
despise them2 you will give them a      
distaste for their maxims1 an aversion  
to their sentiments1 and a scorn for    
their empty gallantry2 you will arouse a
 nobler ambition1 to reign over great   
and strong souls1 the ambition of the   
,spartan women to rule over men4 ,a     
bold1 shameless1 intriguing woman1 who  
can only attract her lovers by coquetry 
and retain them by her favours1 wins a  
servile obedience in common things2 in  
weighty and important matters she has no
 influence over them4 ,but the woman who
 is both virtuous1 wise1 and charming1  
she who1 in a word1 combines love and   
esteem1 can send them at her bidding to 
the end of the world1 to war1 to glory1 
and to death at her behest4 ,this is a  
fine kingdom and worth the winning4     
,this is the spirit in which ,sophy has 
been educated1 she has been trained     
carefully rather than strictly1 and her 
taste has been followed rather than     

thwarted4 ,let us say just a word about 
her person1 according to the description
 ,i have given to ,emile and the picture
 he himself has formed of the wife in   
whom he hopes to find happiness4  ,i    
cannot repeat too often that ,i am not  
dealing with prodigies4 ,emile is no    
prodigy1 neither is ,sophy4 ,he is a man
 and she is a woman2 this is all they   
have to boast of4 ,in the present       
confusion between the sexes it is almost
 a miracle to belong to one's own sex4  
,sophy is well born and she has a good  
disposition2 she is very warm-hearted1  
and this warmth of heart sometimes makes
 her imagination run away with her4 ,her
 mind is keen rather than accurate1 her 
temper is pleasant but variable1 her    
person pleasing though nothing out of   
the common1 her countenance bespeaks a  
soul and it speaks true2 you may meet   
her with indifference1 but you will not 
leave her without emotion4 ,others      
possess good qualities which she lacks2 
others possess her good qualities in a  

higher degree1 but in no one are these  
qualities better blended to form a happy
 disposition4 ,she knows how to make the
 best of her very faults1 and if she    
were more perfect she would be less     
pleasing4  ,sophy is not beautiful2 but 
in her presence men forget the fairer   
women1 and the latter are dissatisfied  
with themselves4 ,at first sight she is 
hardly pretty2 but the more we see her  
the prettier she is2 she wins where so  
many lose1 and what she wins she keeps4 
,her eyes might be finer1 her mouth more
 beautiful1 her stature more imposing2  
but no one could have a more graceful   
figure1 a finer complexion1 a whiter    
hand1 a daintier foot1 a sweeter look1  
and a more expressive countenance4 ,she 
does not dazzle2 she arouses interest2  
she delights us1 we know not why4       
,sophy is fond of dress1 and she knows  
how to dress2 her mother has no other   
maid2 she has taste enough to dress     
herself well2 but she hates rich        
clothes2 her own are always simple but  

elegant4 ,she does not like showy but   
becoming things4 ,she does not know what
 colours are fashionable1 but she makes 
no mistake about those that suit her4   
,no girl seems more simply dressed1 but 
no one could take more pains over her   
toilet2 no article is selected at       
random1 and yet there is no trace of    
artificiality4 ,her dress is very modest
 in appearance and very coquettish in   
reality2 she does not display her       
charms1 she conceals them1 but in such a
 way as to enhance them4 ,when you see  
her you say1 ,that is a good modest     
girl1 but while you are with her1 you   
cannot take your eyes or your thoughts  
off her and one might say that this very
 simple adornment is only put on to be  
removed bit by bit by the imagination4  
,sophy has natural gifts2 she is aware  
of them1 and they have not been         
neglected2 but never having had a chance
 of much training she is content to use 
her pretty voice to sing tastefully and 
truly2 her little feet step lightly1    

easily1 and gracefully1 she can always  
make an easy graceful courtesy4 ,she has
 had no singing master but her father1  
no dancing mistress but her mother2 a   
neighbouring organist has given her a   
few lessons in playing accompaniments on
 the spinet1 and she has improved       
herself by practice4 ,at first she only 
wished to show off her hand on the dark 
keys2 then she discovered that the thin 
clear tone of the spinet made her voice 
sound sweeter2 little by little she     
recognised the charms of harmony2 as she
 grew older she at last began to enjoy  
the charms of expression1 to love music 
for its own sake4 ,but she has taste    
rather than talent2 she cannot read a   
simple air from notes4  ,needlework is  
what ,sophy likes best2 and the feminine
 arts have been taught her most         
carefully1 even those you would not     
expect1 such as cutting out and         
dressmaking4 ,there is nothing she      
cannot do with her needle1 and nothing  
that she does not take a delight in     

doing2 but lace-making is her favourite 
occupation1 because there is nothing    
which requires such a pleasing attitude1
 nothing which calls for such grace and 
dexterity of finger4 ,she has also      
studied all the details of housekeeping2
 she understands cooking and cleaning2  
she knows the prices of food1 and also  
how to choose it2 she can keep accounts 
accurately1 she is her mother's         
housekeeper4 ,some day she will be the  
mother of a family2 by managing her     
father's house she is preparing to      
manage her own2 she can take the place  
of any of the servants and she is always
 ready to do so4 ,you cannot give orders
 unless you can do the work yourself2   
that is why her mother sets her to do   
it4 ,sophy does not think of that2 her  
first duty is to be a good daughter1 and
 that is all she thinks about for the   
present4 ,her one idea is to help her   
mother and relieve her of some of her   
anxieties4 ,however1 she does not like  
them all equally well4 ,for instance1   

she likes dainty food1 but she does not 
like cooking2 the details of cookery    
offend her1 and things are never clean  
enough for her4 ,she is extremely       
sensitive in this respect and carries   
her sensitiveness to a fault2 she would 
let the whole dinner boil over into the 
fire rather than soil her cuffs4 ,she   
has always disliked inspecting the      
kitchen-garden for the same reason4 ,the
 soil is dirty1 and as soon as she sees 
the manure heap she fancies there is a  
disagreeable smell4  ,this defect is the
 result of her mother's teaching4       
,according to her1 cleanliness is one of
 the most necessary of a woman's duties1
 a special duty1 of the highest         
importance and a duty imposed by nature4
 ,nothing could be more revolting than a
 dirty woman1 and a husband who tires of
 her is not to blame4 ,she insisted so  
strongly on this duty when ,sophy was   
little1 she required such absolute      
cleanliness in her person1 clothing1    
room1 work1 and toilet1 that use has    

become habit1 till it absorbs one half  
of her time and controls the other2 so  
that she thinks less of how to do a     
thing than of how to do it without      
getting dirty4  ,yet this has not       
degenerated into mere affectation and   
softness2 there is none of the over     
refinement of luxury4 ,nothing but clean
 water enters her room2 she knows no    
perfumes but the scent of flowers1 and  
her husband will never find anything    
sweeter than her breath4 ,in conclusion1
 the attention she pays to the outside  
does not blind her to the fact that time
 and strength are meant for greater     
tasks2 either she does not know or she  
despises that exaggerated cleanliness of
 body which degrades the soul4 ,sophy is
 more than clean1 she is pure4  ,i said 
that ,sophy was fond of good things4    
,she was so by nature2 but she became   
temperate by habit and now she is       
temperate by virtue4 ,little girls are  
not to be controlled1 as little boys    
are1 to some extent1 through their      

greediness4 ,this tendency may have ill 
effects on women and it is too dangerous
 to be left unchecked4 ,when ,sophy was 
little1 she did not always return empty 
handed if she was sent to her mother's  
cupboard1 and she was not quite to be   
trusted with sweets and sugar-almonds4  
,her mother caught her1 took them from  
her1 punished her1 and made her go      
without her dinner4 ,at last she managed
 to persuade her that sweets were bad   
for the teeth1 and that over-eating     
spoiled the figure4 ,thus ,sophy        
overcame her faults2 and when she grew  
older other tastes distracted her from  
this low kind of self-indulgence4 ,with 
awakening feeling greediness ceases to  
be the ruling passion1 both with men and
 women4 ,sophy has preserved her        
feminine tastes2 she likes milk and     
sweets2 she likes pastry and            
made-dishes1 but not much meat4 ,she has
 never tasted wine or spirits2 moreover1
 she eats sparingly2 women1 who do not  
work so hard as men1 have less waste to 

repair4 ,in all things she likes what is
 good1 and knows how to appreciate it2  
but she can also put up with what is not
 so good1 or can go without it4         
,sophy's mind is pleasing but not       
brilliant1 and thorough but not deep2 it
 is the sort of mind which calls for no 
remark1 as she never seems cleverer or  
stupider than oneself4 ,when people talk
 to her they always find what she says  
attractive1 though it may not be highly 
ornamental according to modern ideas of 
an educated woman2 her mind has been    
formed not only by reading1 but by      
conversation with her father and mother1
 by her own reflections1 and by her own 
observations in the little world in     
which she has lived4 ,sophy is naturally
 merry2 as a child she was even giddy2  
but her mother cured her of her silly   
ways1 little by little1 lest too sudden 
a change should make her self-conscious4
 ,thus she became modest and retiring   
while still a child1 and now that she is
 a child no longer1 she finds it easier 

to continue this conduct than it would  
have been to acquire it without knowing 
why4 ,it is amusing to see her          
occasionally return to her old ways and 
indulge in childish mirth and then      
suddenly check herself1 with silent     
lips1 downcast eyes1 and rosy blushes2  
neither child nor woman1 she may well   
partake of both4  ,sophy is too         
sensitive to be always good humoured1   
but too gentle to let this be really    
disagreeable to other people2 it is only
 herself who suffers4 ,if you say       
anything that hurts her she does not    
sulk1 but her heart swells2 she tries to
 run away and cry4 ,in the midst of her 
tears1 at a word from her father or     
mother she returns at once laughing and 
playing1 secretly wiping her eyes and   
trying to stifle her sobs4  ,yet she has
 her whims2 if her temper is too much   
indulged it degenerates into rebellion1 
and then she forgets herself4 ,but give 
her time to come round and her way of   
making you forget her wrong-doing is    

almost a virtue4 ,if you punish her she 
is gentle and submissive1 and you see   
that she is more ashamed of the fault   
than the punishment4 ,if you say        
nothing1 she never fails to make amends1
 and she does it so frankly and so      
readily that you cannot be angry with   
her4 ,she would kiss the ground before  
the lowest servant and would make no    
fuss about it2 and as soon as she is    
forgiven1 you can see by her delight and
 her caresses that a load is taken off  
her heart4 ,in a word1 she endures      
patiently the wrong-doing of others1 and
 she is eager to atone for her own4     
,this amiability is natural to her sex  
when unspoiled4 ,woman is made to submit
 to man and to endure even injustice at 
his hands4 ,you will never bring young  
lads to this2 their feelings rise in    
revolt against injustice2 nature has not
 fitted them to put up with it4         
,gravem ,pelidae stomachum cedere       
nescii4           ,,horace1 lib4 i4 ode 
vi4  ,sophy's religion is reasonable and

 simple1 with few doctrines and fewer   
observances2 or rather as she knows no  
course of conduct but the right her     
whole life is devoted to the service of 
,god and to doing good4 ,in all her     
parents' teaching of religion she has   
been trained to a reverent submission2  
they have often said1 ,my little girl1  
this is too hard for you2 your husband  
will teach you when you are grown up4   
,instead of long sermons about piety1   
they have been content to preach by     
their example1 and this example is      
engraved on her heart4  ,sophy loves    
virtue2 this love has come to be her    
ruling passion2 she loves virtue because
 there is nothing fairer in itself1 she 
loves it because it is a woman's glory  
and because a virtuous woman is little  
lower than the angels2 she loves virtue 
as the only road to real happiness1     
because she sees nothing but poverty1   
neglect1 unhappiness1 shame1 and        
disgrace in the life of a bad woman2 she
 loves virtue because it is dear to her 

revered father and to her tender and    
worthy mother2 they are not content to  
be happy in their own virtue1 they      
desire hers2 and she finds her chief    
happiness in the hope of making them    
happy4 ,all these feelings inspire an   
enthusiasm which stirs her heart and    
keeps all its budding passions in       
subjection to this noble enthusiasm4    
,sophy will be chaste and good till her 
dying day2 she has vowed it in her      
secret heart1 and not before she knew   
how hard it would be to keep her vow2   
she made this vow at a time when she    
would have revoked it had she been the  
slave of her senses4  ,sophy is not so  
fortunate as to be a charming ,french   
woman1 cold-hearted and vain1 who would 
rather attract attention than give      
pleasure1 who seeks amusement rather    
than delight4 ,she suffers from a       
consuming desire for love2 it even      
disturbs and troubles her heart in the  
midst of festivities2 she has lost her  
former liveliness1 and her taste for    

merry games2 far from being afraid of   
the tedium of solitude she desires it4  
,her thoughts go out to him who will    
make solitude sweet to her4 ,she finds  
strangers tedious1 she wants a lover1   
not a circle of admirers4 ,she would    
rather give pleasure to one good man    
than be a general favourite1 or win that
 applause of society which lasts but a  
day and to-morrow is turned to scorn4   
,a woman's judgment develops sooner than
 a man's2 being on the defensive from   
her childhood up1 and intrusted with a  
treasure so hard to keep1 she is earlier
 acquainted with good and evil4 ,sophy  
is precocious by temperament in         
everything1 and her judgment is more    
formed than that of most girls of her   
age4 ,there is nothing strange in that1 
maturity is not always reached at the   
same age4  ,sophy has been taught the   
duties and rights of her own sex and of 
ours4 ,she knows men's faults and       
women's vices2 she also knows their     
corresponding good qualities and        

virtues1 and has them by heart4 ,no one 
can have a higher ideal of a virtuous   
woman1 but she would rather think of a  
virtuous man1 a man of true worth2 she  
knows that she is made for such a man1  
that she is worthy of him1 that she can 
make him as happy as he will make her2  
she is sure she will know him when she  
sees him2 the difficulty is to find him4
  ,women are by nature judges of a man's
 worth1 as he is of theirs2 this right  
is reciprocal1 and it is recognised as  
such both by men and women4 ,sophy      
recognises this right and exercises it1 
but with the modesty becoming her youth1
 her inexperience1 and her position2 she
 confines her judgment to what she      
knows1 and she only forms an opinion    
when it may help to illustrate some     
useful precept4 ,she is extremely       
careful what she says about those who   
are absent1 particularly if they are    
women4 ,she thinks that talking about   
each other makes women spiteful and     
satirical2 so long as they only talk    

about men they are merely just4 ,so     
,sophy stops there4 ,as to women she    
never says anything at all about them1  
except to tell the good she knows2 she  
thinks this is only fair to her sex2 and
 if she knows no good of any woman1 she 
says nothing1 and that is enough4       
,sophy has little knowledge of society1 
but she is observant and obliging1 and  
all that she does is full of grace4 ,a  
happy disposition does more for her than
 much art4 ,she has a certain courtesy  
of her own1 which is not dependent on   
fashion1 and does not change with its   
changes2 it is not a matter of custom1  
but it arises from a feminine desire to 
please4 ,she is unacquainted with the   
language of empty compliment1 nor does  
she invent more elaborate compliments of
 her own2 she does not say that she is  
greatly obliged1 that you do her too    
much honour1 that you should not take so
 much trouble1 etc4 ,still less does she
 try to make phrases of her own4 ,she   
responds to an attention or a customary 

piece of politeness by a courtesy or a  
mere ,thank you2 but this phrase in her 
mouth is quite enough4 ,if you do her a 
real service1 she lets her heart speak1 
and its words are no empty compliment4  
,she has never allowed ,french manners  
to make her a slave to appearances2 when
 she goes from one room to another she  
does not take the arm of an old         
gentleman1 whom she would much rather   
help4 ,when a scented fop offers her    
this empty attention1 she leaves him on 
the staircase and rushes into the room  
saying that she is not lame4 ,indeed1   
she will never wear high heels though   
she is not tall2 her feet are small     
enough to dispense with them4  ,not only
 does she adopt a silent and respectful 
attitude towards women1 but also towards
 married men1 or those who are much     
older than herself2 she will never take 
her place above them1 unless compelled  
to do so2 and she will return to her own
 lower place as soon as she can2 for she
 knows that the rights of age take      

precedence of those of sex1 as age is   
presumably wiser than youth1 and wisdom 
should be held in the greatest honour4  
,with young folks of her own age it is  
another matter2 she requires a different
 manner to gain their respect1 and she  
knows how to adopt it without dropping  
the modest ways which become her4 ,if   
they themselves are shy and modest1 she 
will gladly preserve the friendly       
familiarity of youth2 their innocent    
conversation will be merry but suitable2
 if they become serious they must say   
something useful2 if they become silly1 
she soon puts a stop to it1 for she has 
an utter contempt for the jargon of     
gallantry1 which she considers an insult
 to her sex4 ,she feels sure that the   
man she seeks does not speak that       
jargon1 and she will never permit in    
another what would be displeasing to her
 in him whose character is engraved on  
her heart4  ,her high opinion of the    
rights of women1 her pride in the purity
 of her feelings1 that active virtue    

which is the basis of her self-respect1 
make her indignant at the sentimental   
speeches intended for her amusement4    
,she does not receive them with open    
anger1 but with a disconcerting irony or
 an unexpected iciness4 ,if a fair      
,apollo displays his charms1 and makes  
use of his wit in the praise of her wit1
 her beauty1 and her grace2 at the risk 
of offending him she is quite capable of
 saying politely1 ,sir1 ,i am afraid ,i 
know that better than you2 if we have   
nothing more interesting to talk about1 
,i think we may put an end to this      
conversation4 ,to say this with a deep  
courtesy1 and then to withdraw to a     
considerable distance1 is the work of a 
moment4 ,ask your lady-killers if it is 
easy to continue to babble to such1 an  
unsympathetic ear4  ,it is not that she 
is not fond of praise if it is really   
sincere1 and if she thinks you believe  
what you say4 ,you must show that you   
appreciate her merit if you would have  
her believe you4 ,her proud spirit may  

take pleasure in homage which is based  
upon esteem1 but empty compliments are  
always rejected2 ,sophy was not meant to
 practise the small arts of the         
dancing-girl4  ,with a judgment so      
mature1 and a mind like that of a woman 
of twenty1 ,sophy1 at fifteen1 is no    
longer treated as a child by her        
parents4 ,no sooner do they perceive the
 first signs of youthful disquiet than  
they hasten to anticipate its           
development1 their conversations with   
her are wise and tender4 ,these wise and
 tender conversations are in keeping    
with her age and disposition4 ,if her   
disposition is what ,i fancy why should 
not her father speak to her somewhat    
after this fashion8  ,you are a big girl
 now1 ,sophy1 you will soon be a woman4 
,we want you to be happy1 for our own   
sakes as well as yours1 for our         
happiness depends on yours4 ,a good girl
 finds her own happiness in the         
happiness of a good man1 so we must     
consider your marriage2 we must think of

 it in good time1 for marriage makes or 
mars our whole life1 and we cannot have 
too much time to consider it4  ,there is
 nothing so hard to choose as a good    
husband1 unless it is a good wife4 ,you 
will be that rare creature1 ,sophy1 you 
will be the crown of our life and the   
blessing of our declining years2 but    
however worthy you are1 there are       
worthier people upon earth4 ,there is no
 one who would not do himself honour by 
marriage with you2 there are many who   
would do you even greater honour than   
themselves4  ,among these we must try to
 find one who suits you1 we must get to 
know him and introduce you to him4  ,the
 greatest possible happiness in marriage
 depends on so many points of agreement 
that it is folly to expect to secure    
them all4 ,we must first consider the   
more important matters2 if others are to
 be found along with them1 so much the  
better2 if not we must do without them4 
,perfect happiness is not to be found in
 this world1 but we can1 at least1 avoid

 the worst form of unhappiness1 that for
 which ourselves are to blame4  ,there  
is a natural suitability1 there is a    
suitability of established usage1 and a 
suitability which is merely             
conventional4  ,parents should decide as
 to the two latters1 and the children   
themselves should decide as to the      
former4 ,marriages arranged by parents  
only depend on a suitability of custom  
and convention2 it is not two people who
 are united1 but two positions and two  
properties2 but these things may change1
 the people remain1 they are always     
there2 and in spite of fortune it is the
 personal relation that makes a happy or
 an unhappy marriage4  ,your mother had 
rank1 ,i had wealth2 this was all that  
our parents considered in arranging our 
marriage4 ,i lost my money1 she lost her
 position2 forgotten by her family1 what
 good did it do her to be a lady born8  
,in the midst of our misfortunes1 the   
union of our hearts has outweighed them 
all2 the similarity of our tastes led us

 to choose this retreat2 we live happily
 in our poverty1 we are all in all to   
each other4 ,sophy is a treasure we hold
 in common1 and we thank ,heaven which  
has bestowed this treasure and deprived 
us of all others4 ,you see1 my child1   
whither we have been led by ,providence2
 the conventional motives which brought 
about our marriage no longer exist1 our 
happiness consists in that natural      
suitability which was held of no        
account4  ,husband and wife should      
choose each other4 ,a mutual liking     
should be the first bond between them4  
,they should follow the guidance of     
their own eyes and hearts2 when they are
 married their first duty will be to    
love one another1 and as love and hatred
 do not depend on ourselves1 this duty  
brings another with it1 and they must   
begin to love each other before         
marriage4 ,that is the law of nature1   
and no power can abrogate it2 those who 
have fettered it by so many legal       
restrictions have given heed rather to  

the outward show of order than to the   
happiness of marriage or the morals of  
the citizen4 ,you see1 my dear ,sophy1  
we do not preach a harsh morality4 ,it  
tends to make you your own mistress and 
to make us leave the choice of your     
husband to yourself4  ,when we have told
 you our reasons for giving you full    
liberty1 it is only fair to speak of    
your reasons for making a wise use of   
that liberty4 ,my child1 you are good   
and sensible1 upright and pious1 you    
have the accomplishments of a good woman
 and you are not altogether without     
charms2 but you are poor2 you have the  
gifts most worthy of esteem1 but not    
those which are most esteemed4 ,do not  
seek what is beyond your reach1 and let 
your ambition be controlled1 not by your
 ideas or ours1 but by the opinion of   
others4 ,if it were merely a question of
 equal merits1 ,i know not what limits  
to impose on your hopes2 but do not let 
your ambitions outrun your fortune1 and 
remember it is very small4 ,although a  

man worthy of you would not consider    
this inequality an obstacle1 you must do
 what he would not do2 ,sophy must      
follow her mother's example and only    
enter a family which counts it an honour
 to receive her4 ,you never saw our     
wealth1 you were born in our poverty2   
you make it sweet for us1 and you share 
it without hardship4 ,believe me1       
,sophy1 do not seek those good things we
 indeed thank heaven for having taken   
from us2 we did not know what happiness 
was till we lost our money4  ,you are so
 amiable that you will win affection1   
and you are not go poor as to be a      
burden4 ,you will be sought in marriage1
 it may be by those who are unworthy of 
you4 ,if they showed themselves in their
 true colours1 you would rate them at   
their real value2 all their outward show
 would not long deceive you2 but though 
your judgment is good and you know what 
merit is when you see it1 you are       
inexperienced and you do not know how   
people can conceal their real selves4 ,a

 skilful knave might study your tastes  
in order to seduce you1 and make a      
pretence of those virtues which he does 
not possess4  ,you would be ruined1     
,sophy1 before you knew what you were   
doing1 and you would only perceive your 
error when you had cause to lament it4  
,the most dangerous snare1 the only     
snare which reason cannot avoid1 is that
 of the senses2 if ever you have the    
misfortune to fall into its toils1 you  
will perceive nothing but fancies and   
illusions2 your eyes will be fascinated1
 your judgment troubled1 your will      
corrupted1 your very error will be dear 
to you1 and even if you were able to    
perceive it you would not be willing to 
escape from it4 ,my child1 ,i trust you 
to ,sophy's own reason2 ,i do not trust 
you to the fancies of your own heart4   
,judge for yourself so long as your     
heart is untouched1 but when you love   
betake yourself to your mother's care4  
,i propose a treaty between us which    
shows our esteem for you1 and restores  

the order of nature between us4 ,parents
 choose a husband for their daughter and
 she is only consulted as a matter of   
form2 that is the custom4 ,we shall do  
just the opposite2 you will choose1 and 
we shall be consulted4 ,use your right1 
,sophy1 use it freely and wisely4 ,the  
husband suitable for you should be      
chosen by you not us4  ,but it is for us
 to judge whether he is really suitable1
 or whether1 without knowing it1 you are
 only following your own wishes4 ,birth1
 wealth1 position1 conventional opinions
 will count for nothing with us4 ,choose
 a good man whose person and character  
suit you2 whatever he may be in other   
respects1 we will accept him as our     
son-in-law4  ,he will be rich enough if 
he has bodily strength1 a good          
character1 and family affection4 ,his   
position will be good enough if it is   
ennobled by virtue4 ,if everybody blames
 us1 we do not care4 ,we do not seek the
 approbation of men1 but your happiness4
  ,i cannot tell my readers what effect 

such words would have upon girls brought
 up in their fashion4 ,as for ,sophy1   
she will have no words to reply2 shame  
and emotion will not permit her to      
express herself easily2 but ,i am sure  
that what was said will remain engraved 
upon her heart as long as she lives1 and
 that if any human resolution may be    
trusted1 we may rely on her             
determination to deserve her parent's   
esteem4  ,at worst let us suppose her   
endowed with an ardent disposition which
 will make her impatient of long delays2
 ,i maintain that her judgment1 her     
knowledge1 her taste1 her refinement1   
and1 above all1 the sentiments in which 
she has been brought up from childhood1 
will outweigh the impetuosity of the    
senses1 and enable her to offer a       
prolonged resistance1 if not to overcome
 them altogether4 ,she would rather die 
a virgin martyr than distress her       
parents by marrying a worthless man and 
exposing herself to the unhappiness of  
an ill-assorted marriage4 ,ardent as an 

,italian and sentimental as an          
,englishwoman1 she has a curb upon heart
 and sense in the pride of a ,spaniard1 
who even when she seeks a lover does not
 easily discover one worthy of her4     
,not every one can realise the motive   
power to be found in a love of what is  
right1 nor the inner strength which     
results from a genuine love of virtue4  
,there are men who think that all       
greatness is a figment of the brain1 men
 who with their vile and degraded reason
 will never recognise the power over    
human passions which is wielded by the  
very madness of virtue4 ,you can only   
teach such men by examples2 if they     
persist in denying their existence1 so  
much the worse for them4 ,if ,i told    
them that ,sophy is no imaginary person1
 that her name alone is my invention1   
that her education1 her conduct1 her    
character1 her very features1 really    
existed1 and that her loss is still     
mourned by a very worthy family1 they   
would1 no doubt1 refuse to believe me2  

but indeed why should ,i not venture to 
relate word for word the story of a girl
 so like ,sophy that this story might be
 hers without surprising any one4       
,believe it or no1 it is all the same to
 me2 call my history fiction if you     
will2 in any case ,i have explained my  
method and furthered my purpose4  ,this 
young girl with the temperament which ,i
 have attributed to ,sophy was so like  
her in other respects that she was      
worthy of the name1 and so we will      
continue to use it4 ,after the          
conversation related above1 her father  
and mother thought that suitable        
husbands would not be likely to offer   
themselves in the hamlet where they     
lived2 so they decided to send her to   
spend the winter in town1 under the care
 of an aunt who was privately acquainted
 with the object of the journey2 for    
,sophy's heart throbbed with noble pride
 at the thought of her self-control2 and
 however much she might want to marry1  
she would rather have died a maid than  

have brought herself to go in search of 
a husband4  ,in response to her parents'
 wishes her aunt introduced her to her  
friends1 took her into company1 both    
private and public1 showed her society1 
or rather showed her in society1 for    
,sophy paid little heed to its bustle4  
,yet it was plain that she did not      
shrink from young men of pleasing       
appearance and modest seemly behaviour4 
,her very shyness had a charm of its    
own1 which was very much like coquetry2 
but after talking to them once or twice 
she repulsed them4 ,she soon exchanged  
that air of authority which seems to    
accept men's homage for a humbler       
bearing and a still more chilling       
politeness4 ,always watchful over her   
conduct1 she gave them no chance of     
doing her the least service2 it was     
perfectly plain that she was determined 
not to accept any one of them4  ,never  
did sensitive heart take pleasure in    
noisy amusements1 the empty and barren  
delights of those who have no feelings1 

those who think that a merry life is a  
happy life4 ,sophy did not find what she
 sought1 and she felt sure she never    
would1 so she got tired of the town4    
,she loved her parents dearly and       
nothing made up for their absence1      
nothing could make her forget them2 she 
went home long before the time fixed for
 the end of her visit4  ,scarcely had   
she resumed her home duties when they   
perceived that her temper had changed   
though her conduct was unaltered1 she   
was forgetful1 impatient1 sad1 and      
dreamy2 she wept in secret4 ,at first   
they thought she was in love and was    
ashamed to own it2 they spoke to her1   
but she repudiated the idea4 ,she       
protested she had seen no one who could 
touch her heart1 and ,sophy always spoke
 the truth4  ,yet her languor steadily  
increased1 and her health began to give 
way4 ,her mother was anxious about her1 
and determined to know the reason for   
this change4 ,she took her aside1 and   
with the winning speech and the         

irresistible caresses which only a      
mother can employ1 she said1 ,my child1 
whom ,i have borne beneath my heart1    
whom ,i bear ever in my affection1      
confide your secret to your mother's    
bosom4 ,what secrets are these which a  
mother may not know8 ,who pities your   
sufferings1 who shares them1 who would  
gladly relieve them1 if not your father 
and myself8 ,ah1 my child6 would you    
have me die of grief for your sorrow    
without letting me share it8  ,far from 
hiding her griefs from her mother1 the  
young girl asked nothing better than to 
have her as friend and comforter2 but   
she could not speak for shame1 her      
modesty could find no words to describe 
a condition so unworthy of her1 as the  
emotion which disturbed her senses in   
spite of all her efforts4 ,at length her
 very shame gave her mother a clue to   
her difficulty1 and she drew from her   
the humiliating confession4 ,far from   
distressing her with reproaches or      
unjust blame1 she consoled her1 pitied  

her1 wept over her2 she was too wise to 
make a crime of an evil which virtue    
alone made so cruel4 ,but why put up    
with such an evil when there was no     
necessity to do so1 when the remedy was 
so easy and so legitimate8  ,why did she
 not use the freedom they had granted   
her8 ,why did she not take a husband8   
,why did she not make her choice8 ,did  
she not know that she was perfectly     
independent in this matter1 that        
whatever her choice1 it would be        
approved1 for it was sure to be good8   
,they had sent her to town1 but she     
would not stay2 many suitors had offered
 themselves1 but she would have none of 
them4  ,what did she expect8 ,what did  
she want8 ,what an inexplicable         
contradiction8  ,the reply was simple4  
,if it were only a question of the      
partner of her youth1 her choice would  
soon be made2 but a master for life is  
not so easily chosen2 and since the two 
cannot be separated1 people must often  
wait and sacrifice their youth before   

they find the man with whom they could  
spend their life4 ,such was ,sophy's    
case2 she wanted a lover1 but this lover
 must be her husband2 and to discover a 
heart such as she required1 a lover and 
husband were equally difficult to find4 
,all these dashing young men were only  
her equals in age1 in everything else   
they were found lacking2 their empty    
wit1 their vanity1 their affectations of
 speech1 their ill-regulated conduct1   
their frivolous imitations alike        
disgusted her4 ,she sought a man and she
 found monkeys2 she sought a soul and   
there was none to be found4  ,how       
unhappy ,i am6 said she to her mother2  
,i am compelled to love and yet ,i am   
dissatisfied with every one4 ,my heart  
rejects every one who appeals to my     
senses4 ,every one of them stirs my     
passions and all alike revolt them2 a   
liking unaccompanied by respect cannot  
last4 ,that is not the sort of man for  
your ,sophy2 the delightful image of her
 ideal is too deeply graven in her      

heart4 ,she can love no other2 she can  
make no one happy but him1 and she      
cannot be happy without him4 ,she would 
rather consume herself in ceaseless     
conflicts1 she would rather die free and
 wretched1 than driven desperate by the 
company of a man she did not love1 a man
 she would make as unhappy as herself2  
she would rather die than live to       
suffer4  ,amazed at these strange ideas1
 her mother found them so peculiar that 
she could not fail to suspect some      
mystery4 ,sophy was neither affected nor
 absurd4 ,how could such exaggerated    
delicacy exist in one who had been so   
carefully taught from her childhood to  
adapt herself to those with whom she    
must live1 and to make a virtue of      
necessity8 ,this ideal of the delightful
 man with which she was so enchanted1   
who appeared so often in her            
conversation1 made her mother suspect   
that there was some foundation for her  
caprices which was still unknown to her1
 and that ,sophy had not told her all4  

,the unhappy girl1 overwhelmed with her 
secret grief1 was only too eager to     
confide it to another4 ,her mother urged
 her to speak2 she hesitated1 she       
yielded1 and leaving the room without a 
word1 she presently returned with a book
 in her hand4 ,have pity on your unhappy
 daughter1 there is no remedy for her   
grief1 her tears cannot be dried4 ,you  
would know the cause3 well1 here it is1 
said she1 flinging the book on the      
table4 ,her mother took the book and    
opened it2 it was ,the ,adventures of   
,telemachus4 ,at first she could make   
nothing of this riddle2 by dint of      
questions and vague replies1 she        
discovered to her great surprise that   
her daughter was the rival of ,eucharis4
  ,sophy was in love with ,telemachus1  
and loved him with a passion which      
nothing could cure4 ,when her father and
 mother became aware of her infatuation1
 they laughed at it and tried to cure   
her by reasoning with her4 ,they were   
mistaken1 reason was not altogether on  

their side2 ,sophy had her own reason   
and knew how to use it4 ,many a time did
 she reduce them to silence by turning  
their own arguments against them1 by    
showing them that it was all their own  
fault for not having trained her to suit
 the men of that century2 that she would
 be compelled to adopt her husband's way
 of thinking or he must adopt hers1 that
 they had made the former course        
impossible by the way she had been      
brought up1 and that the latter was just
 what she wanted4 ,give me1 said she1 a 
man who holds the same opinions as ,i   
do1 or one who will be willing to learn 
them from me1 and ,i will marry him2 but
 until then1 why do you scold me8 ,pity 
me2 ,i am miserable1 but not mad4 ,is   
the heart controlled by the will8 ,did  
my father not ask that very question8   
,is it my fault if ,i love what has no  
existence8 ,i am no visionary2 ,i desire
 no prince1 ,i seek no ,telemachus1 ,i  
know he is only an imaginary person2 ,i 
seek some one like him4 ,and why should 

there be no such person1 since there is 
such a person as ,i1 ,i who feel that my
 heart is like his8 ,no1 let us not     
wrong humanity so greatly1 let us not   
think that an amiable and virtuous man  
is a figment of the imagination4 ,he    
exists1 he lives1 perhaps he is seeking 
me2 he is seeking a soul which is       
capable of love for him4 ,but who is he1
 where is he8 ,i know not2 he is not    
among those ,i have seen2 and no doubt  
,i shall never see him4 ,oh6  mother1   
why did you make virtue too attractive8 
,if ,i can love nothing less1 you are   
more to blame than ,i4  ,must ,i        
continue this sad story to its close8   
,must ,i describe the long struggles    
which preceded it8 ,must ,i show an     
impatient mother exchanging her former  
caresses for severity8 ,must ,i paint an
 angry father forgetting his former     
promises1 and treating the most virtuous
 of daughters as a mad woman8 ,must ,i  
portray the unhappy girl1 more than ever
 devoted to her imaginary hero1 because 

of the persecution brought upon her by  
that devotion1 drawing nearer step by   
step to her death1 and descending into  
the grave when they were about to force 
her to the altar8 ,no2 ,i will not dwell
 upon these gloomy scenes2 ,i have no   
need to go so far to show1 by what ,i   
consider a sufficiently striking        
example1 that in spite of the prejudices
 arising from the manners of our age1   
the enthusiasm for the good and the     
beautiful is no more foreign to women   
than to men1 and that there is nothing  
which1 under nature's guidance1 cannot  
be obtained from them as well as from   
us4  ,you stop me here to inquire       
whether it is nature which teaches us to
 take such pains to repress our         
immoderate desires4 ,no1 ,i reply1 but  
neither is it nature who gives us these 
immoderate desires4 ,now1 all that is   
not from nature is contrary to nature1  
as ,i have proved again and again4  ,let
 us give ,emile his ,sophy2 let us      
restore this sweet girl to life and     

provide her with a less vivid           
imagination and a happier fate4 ,i      
desired to paint an ordinary woman1 but 
by endowing her with a great soul1 ,i   
have disturbed her reason4 ,i have gone 
astray4 ,let us retrace our steps4      
,sophy has only a good disposition and  
an ordinary heart2 her education is     
responsible for everything in which she 
excels other women4  ,in this book ,i   
intended to describe all that might be  
done and to leave every one free to     
choose what he could out of all the good
 things ,i described4 ,i meant to train 
a helpmeet for ,emile1 from the very    
first1 and to educate them for each     
other and with each other4 ,but on      
consideration ,i thought all these      
premature arrangements undesirable1 for 
it was absurd to plan the marriage of   
two children before ,i could tell       
whether this union was in accordance    
with nature and whether they were really
 suited to each other4 ,we must not     
confuse what is suitable in a state of  

savagery with what is suitable in       
civilised life4 ,in the former1 any     
woman will suit any man1 for both are   
still in their primitive and            
undifferentiated condition2 in the      
latter1 all their characteristics have  
been developed by social institutions1  
and each mind1 having taken its own     
settled form1 not from education alone1 
but by the co-operation1 more or less   
well-regulated1 of natural disposition  
and education1 we can only make a match 
by introducing them to each other to see
 if they suit each other in every       
respect1 or at least we can let them    
make that choice which gives the most   
promise of mutual suitability4  ,the    
difficulty is this3 while social life   
develops character it differentiates    
classes1 and these two classifications  
do not correspond1 so that the greater  
the social distinctions1 the greater the
 difficulty of finding the corresponding
 character4 ,hence we have ill-assorted 
marriages and all their accompanying    

evils2 and we find that it follows      
logically that the further we get from  
equality1 the greater the change in our 
natural feelings2 the wider the distance
 between great and small1 the looser the
 marriage tie2 the deeper the gulf      
between rich and poor the fewer husbands
 and fathers4 ,neither master nor slave 
belongs to a family1 but only to a      
class4  ,if you would guard against     
these abuses1 and secure happy          
marriages1 you must stifle your         
prejudices1 forget human institutions1  
and consult nature4 ,do not join        
together those who are only alike in one
 given condition1 those who will not    
suit one another if that condition is   
changed2 but those who are adapted to   
one another in every situation1 in every
 country1 and in every rank in which    
they may be placed4 ,i do not say that  
conventional considerations are of no   
importance in marriage1 but ,i do say   
that the influence of natural relations 
is so much more important1 that our fate

 in life is decided by them alone1 and  
that there is such an agreement of      
taste1 temper1 feeling1 and disposition 
as should induce a wise father1 though  
he were a prince1 to marry his son1     
without a moment's hesitation1 to the   
woman so adapted to him1 were she born  
in a bad home1 were she even the        
hangman's daughter4 ,i maintain indeed  
that every possible misfortune may      
overtake husband and wife if they are   
thus united1 yet they will enjoy more   
real happiness while they mingle their  
tears1 than if they possessed all the   
riches of the world1 poisoned by divided
 hearts4  ,instead of providing a wife  
for ,emile in childhood1 ,i have waited 
till ,i knew what would suit him4 ,it is
 not for me to decide1 but for nature2  
my task is to discover the choice she   
has made4 ,my business1 mine ,i repeat1 
not his father's2 for when he entrusted 
his son to my care1 he gave up his place
 to me4 ,he gave me his rights2 it is ,i
 who am really ,emile's father2 it is ,i

 who have made a man of him4 ,i would   
have refused to educate him if ,i were  
not free to marry him according to his  
own choice1 which is mine4 ,nothing but 
the pleasure of bestowing happiness on a
 man can repay me for the cost of making
 him capable of happiness4  ,do not     
suppose1 however1 that ,i have delayed  
to find a wife for ,emile till ,i sent  
him in search of her4 ,this search is   
only a pretext for acquainting him with 
women1 so that he may perceive the value
 of a suitable wife4 ,sophy was         
discovered long since2 ,emile may even  
have seen her already1 but he will not  
recognise her till the time is come4    
,although equality of rank is not       
essential in marriage1 yet this equality
 along with other kinds of suitability  
increases their value2 it is not to be  
weighed against any one of them1 but1   
other things being equal1 it turns the  
scale4  ,a man1 unless he is a king1    
cannot seek a wife in any and every     
class2 if he himself is free from       

prejudices1 he will find them in others2
 and this girl or that might perhaps    
suit him and yet she would be beyond his
 reach4 ,a wise father will therefore   
restrict his inquiries within the bounds
 of prudence4 ,he should not wish to    
marry his pupil into a family above his 
own1 for that is not within his power4  
,if he could do so he ought not desire  
it2 for what difference does rank make  
to a young man1 at least to my pupil8   
,yet1 if he rises he is exposed to all  
sorts of real evils which he will feel  
all his life long4 ,i even say that he  
should not try to adjust the balance    
between different gifts1 such as rank   
and money2 for each of these adds less  
to the value of the other than the      
amount deducted from its own value in   
the process of adjustment2 moreover1 we 
can never agree as to a common          
denominator2 and finally the preference1
 which each feels for his own           
surroundings1 paves the way for discord 
between the two families and often to   

difficulties between husband and wife4  
,it makes a considerable difference as  
to the suitability of a marriage whether
 a man marries above or beneath him4    
,the former case is quite contrary to   
reason1 the latter is more in conformity
 with reason4 ,as the family is only    
connected with society through its head1
 it is the rank of that head which      
decides that of the family as a whole4  
,when he marries into a lower rank1 a   
man does not lower himself1 he raises   
his wife2 if1 on the other hand1 he     
marries above his position1 he lowers   
his wife and does not raise himself4    
,thus there is in the first case good   
unmixed with evil1 in the other evil    
unmixed with good4 ,moreover1 the law of
 nature bids the woman obey the man4 ,if
 he takes a wife from a lower class1    
natural and civil law are in accordance 
and all goes well4 ,when he marries a   
woman of higher rank it is just the     
opposite case2 the man must choose      
between diminished rights or imperfect  

gratitude2 he must be ungrateful or     
despised4 ,then the wife1 laying claim  
to authority1 makes herself a tyrant    
over her lawful head2 and the master1   
who has become a slave1 is the most     
ridiculous and miserable of creatures4  
,such are the unhappy favourites whom   
the sovereigns of ,asia honour and      
torment with their alliance2 people tell
 us that if they desire to sleep with   
their wife they must enter by the foot  
of the bed4  ,i expect that many of my  
readers will remember that ,i think     
women have a natural gift for managing  
men1 and will accuse me of contradicting
 myself2 yet they are mistaken4 ,there  
is a vast difference between claiming   
the right to command1 and managing him  
who commands4 ,woman's reign is a reign 
of gentleness1 tact1 and kindness2 her  
commands are caresses1 her threats are  
tears4 ,she should reign in the home as 
a minister reigns in the state1 by      
contriving to be ordered to do what she 
wants4 ,in this sense1 ,i grant you1    

that the best managed homes are those   
where the wife has most power4 ,but when
 she despises the voice of her head1    
when she desires to usurp his rights and
 take the command upon herself1 this    
inversion of the proper order of things 
leads only to misery1 scandal1 and      
dishonour4  ,there remains the choice   
between our equals and our inferiors2   
and ,i think we ought also to make      
certain restrictions with regard to the 
latter2 for it is hard to find in the   
lowest stratum of society a woman who is
 able to make a good man happy2 not that
 the lower classes are more vicious than
 the higher1 but because they have so   
little idea of what is good and         
beautiful1 and because the injustice of 
other classes makes its very vices seem 
right in the eyes of this class4  ,by   
nature man thinks but seldom4 ,he learns
 to think as he acquires the other arts1
 but with even greater difficulty4 ,in  
both sexes alike ,i am only aware of two
 really distinct classes1 those who     

think and those who do not2 and this    
difference is almost entirely one of    
education4 ,a man who thinks should not 
ally himself with a woman who does not  
think1 for he loses the chief delight of
 social life if he has a wife who cannot
 share his thoughts4 ,people who spend  
their whole life in working for a living
 have no ideas beyond their work and    
their own interests1 and their mind     
seems to reside in their arms4 ,this    
ignorance is not necessarily            
unfavourable either to their honesty or 
their morals2 it is often favourable2 we
 often content ourselves with thinking  
about our duties1 and in the end we     
substitute words for things4 ,conscience
 is the most enlightened philosopher2 to
 be an honest man we need not read      
,cicero's ,de ,officiis1 and the most   
virtuous woman in the world is probably 
she who knows least about virtue4 ,but  
it is none the less true that a         
cultivated mind alone makes intercourse 
pleasant1 and it is a sad thing for a   

father of a family1 who delights in his 
home1 to be forced to shut himself up in
 himself and to be unable to make       
himself understood4  ,moreover1 if a    
woman is quite unaccustomed to think1   
how can she bring up her children8 ,how 
will she know what is good for them8    
,how can she incline them to virtues of 
which she is ignorant1 to merit of which
 she has no conception8 ,she can only   
flatter or threaten1 she can only make  
them insolent or timid2 she will make   
them performing monkeys or noisy little 
rascals2 she will never make them       
intelligent or pleasing children4       
,therefore it is not fitting that a man 
of education should choose a wife who   
has none1 or take her from a class where
 she cannot be expected to have any     
education4 ,but ,i would a thousand     
times rather have a homely girl1 simply 
brought up1 than a learned lady and a   
wit who would make a literary circle of 
my house and install herself as its     
president4 ,a female wit is a scourge to

 her husband1 her children1 her friends1
 her servants1 to everybody4 ,from the  
lofty height of her genius she scorns   
every womanly duty1 and she is always   
trying to make a man of herself after   
the fashion of ,mlle4 de ,l',enclos4    
,outside her home she always makes      
herself ridiculous and she is very      
rightly a butt for criticism1 as we     
always are when we try to escape from   
our own position into one for which we  
are unfitted4 ,these highly talented    
women only get a hold over fools4 ,we   
can always tell what artist or friend   
holds the pen or pencil when they are at
 work2 we know what discreet man of     
letters dictates their oracles in       
private4 ,this trickery is unworthy of a
 decent woman4 ,if she really had       
talents1 her pretentiousness would      
degrade them4 ,her honour is to be      
unknown2 her glory is the respect of her
 husband2 her joys the happiness of her 
family4 ,i appeal to my readers to give 
me an honest answer2 when you enter a   

woman's room what makes you think more  
highly of her1 what makes you address   
her with more respect--to see her busy  
with feminine occupations1 with her     
household duties1 with her children's   
clothes about her1 or to find her       
writing verses at her toilet table      
surrounded with pamphlets of every kind 
and with notes on tinted paper8 ,if     
there were none but wise men upon earth 
such a woman would die an old maid4     
,quaeris cur nolim te ducere1 galla8    
diserta es4           ,martial xi4 #bj4 
,looks must next be considered2 they are
 the first thing that strikes us and    
they ought to be the last1 still they   
should not count for nothing4 ,i think  
that great beauty is rather to be       
shunned than sought after in marriage4  
,possession soon exhausts our           
appreciation of beauty2 in six weeks'   
time we think no more about it1 but its 
dangers endure as long as life itself4  
,unless a beautiful woman is an angel1  
her husband is the most miserable of    

men2 and even if she were an angel he   
would still be the centre of a hostile  
crowd and she could not prevent it4 ,if 
extreme ugliness were not repulsive ,i  
should prefer it to extreme beauty2 for 
before very long the husband would cease
 to notice either1 but beauty would     
still have its disadvantages and        
ugliness its advantages4 ,but ugliness  
which is actually repulsive is the worst
 misfortune2 repulsion increases rather 
than diminishes1 and it turns to hatred4
 ,such a union is a hell upon earth2    
better death than such a marriage4      
,desire mediocrity in all things1 even  
in beauty4 ,a pleasant attractive       
countenance1 which inspires kindly      
feelings rather than love1 is what we   
should prefer2 the husband runs no risk1
 and the advantages are common to       
husband and wife2 charm is less         
perishable than beauty2 it is a living  
thing1 which constantly renews itself1  
and after thirty years of married life1 
the charms of a good woman delight her  

husband even as they did on the         
wedding-day4  ,such are the             
considerations which decided my choice  
of ,sophy4 ,brought up1 like ,emile1 by 
,nature1 she is better suited to him    
than any other2 she will be his true    
mate4 ,she is his equal in birth and    
character1 his inferior in fortune4 ,she
 makes no great impression at first     
sight1 but day by day reveals fresh     
charms4 ,her chief influence only takes 
effect gradually1 it is only discovered 
in friendly intercourse2 and her husband
 will feel it more than any one4 ,her   
education is neither showy nor          
neglected2 she has taste without deep   
study1 talent without art1 judgment     
without learning4 ,her mind knows       
little1 but it is trained to learn2 it  
is well-tilled soil ready for the sower4
 ,she has read no book but ,bareme and  
,telemachus which happened to fall into 
her hands2 but no girl who can feel so  
passionately towards ,telemachus can    
have a heart without feeling or a mind  

without discernment4 ,what charming     
ignorance6 ,happy is he who is destined 
to be her tutor4 ,she will not be her   
husband's teacher but his scholar2 far  
from seeking to control his tastes1 she 
will share them4 ,she will suit him far 
better than a blue-stocking and he will 
have the pleasure of teaching her       
everything4 ,it is time they made       
acquaintance2 let us try to plan a      
meeting4  ,when we left ,paris we were  
sorrowful and wrapped in thought4 ,this 
,babel is not our home4 ,emile casts a  
scornful glance towards the great city1 
saying angrily1 ,what a time we have    
wasted2 the bride of my heart is not    
there4 ,my friend1 you knew it1 but you 
think nothing of my time1 and you pay no
 heed to my sufferings4 ,with steady    
look and firm voice ,i reply1 ,emile1 do
 you mean what you say8 ,at once he     
flings his arms round my neck and clasps
 me to his breast without speaking4     
,that is his answer when he knows he is 
in the wrong4  ,and now we are wandering

 through the country like true          
knights-errant2 yet we are not seeking  
adventures when we leave ,paris2 we are 
escaping from them2 now fast now slow1  
we wander through the country like      
knights-errants4 ,by following my usual 
practice the taste for it has become    
established2 and ,i do not suppose any  
of my readers are such slaves of custom 
as to picture us dozing in a post-chaise
 with closed windows1 travelling1 yet   
seeing nothing1 observing nothing1      
making the time between our start and   
our arrival a mere blank1 and losing in 
the speed of our journey1 the time we   
meant to save4  ,men say life is short1 
and ,i see them doing their best to     
shorten it4 ,as they do not know how to 
spend their time they lament the        
swiftness of its flight1 and ,i perceive
 that for them it goes only too slowly4 
,intent merely on the object of their   
pursuit1 they behold unwillingly the    
space between them and it2 one desires  
to-morrow1 another looks a month ahead1 

another ten years beyond that4  ,no one 
wants to live to-day1 no one contents   
himself with the present hour1 all      
complain that it passes slowly4 ,when   
they complain that time flies1 they lie2
 they would gladly purchase the power to
 hasten it2 they would gladly spend     
their fortune to get rid of their whole 
life2 and there is probably not a single
 one who would not have reduced his life
 to a few hours if he had been free to  
get rid of those hours he found tedious1
 and those which separated him from the 
desired moment4 ,a man spends his whole 
life rushing from ,paris to ,versailles1
 from ,versailles to ,paris1 from town  
to country1 from country to town1 from  
one district of the town to another2 but
 he would not know what to do with his  
time if he had not discovered this way  
of wasting it1 by leaving his business  
on purpose to find something to do in   
coming back to it2 he thinks he is      
saving the time he spends1 which would  
otherwise be unoccupied2 or maybe he    

rushes for the sake of rushing1 and     
travels post in order to return in the  
same fashion4 ,when will mankind cease  
to slander nature8 ,why do you complain 
that life is short when it is never     
short enough for you8 ,if there were but
 one of you1 able to moderate his       
desires1 so that he did not desire the  
flight of time1 he would never find life
 too short2 for him life and the joy of 
life would be one and the same2 should  
he die young1 he would still die full of
 days4  ,if this were the only advantage
 of my way of travelling it would be    
enough4 ,i have brought ,emile up       
neither to desire nor to wait1 but to   
enjoy2 and when his desires are bent    
upon the future1 their ardour is not so 
great as to make time seem tedious4 ,he 
will not only enjoy the delights of     
longing1 but the delights of approaching
 the object of his desires2 and his     
passions are under such restraint that  
he lives to a great extent in the       
present4  ,so we do not travel like     

couriers but like explorers4 ,we do not 
merely consider the beginning and the   
end1 but the space between4 ,the journey
 itself is a delight4 ,we do not travel 
sitting1 dismally imprisoned1 so to     
speak1 in a tightly closed cage4 ,we do 
not travel with the ease and comfort of 
ladies4 ,we do not deprive ourselves of 
the fresh air1 nor the sight of the     
things about us1 nor the opportunity of 
examining them at our pleasure4 ,emile  
will never enter a post-chaise1 nor will
 he ride post unless in a great hurry4  
,but what cause has ,emile for haste8   
,none but the joy of life4 ,shall ,i add
 to this the desire to do good when he  
can8 ,no1 for that is itself one of the 
joys of life4  ,i can only think of one 
way of travelling pleasanter than       
travelling on horseback1 and that is to 
travel on foot4 ,you start at your own  
time1 you stop when you will1 you do as 
much or as little as you choose4 ,you   
see the country1 you turn off to the    
right or left2 you examine anything     

which interests you1 you stop to admire 
every view4  ,do ,i see a stream1 ,i    
wander by its banks2 a leafy wood1 ,i   
seek its shade2 a cave1 ,i enter it2 a  
quarry1 ,i study its geology4 ,if ,i    
like a place1 ,i stop there4 ,as soon as
 ,i am weary of it1 ,i go on4 ,i am     
independent of horses and postillions2  
,i need not stick to regular routes or  
good roads2 ,i go anywhere where a man  
can go2 ,i see all that a man can see2  
and as ,i am quite independent of       
everybody1 ,i enjoy all the freedom man 
can enjoy4 ,if ,i am stopped by bad     
weather and ,i find myself getting      
bored1 then ,i take horses4 ,if ,i am   
tired--but ,emile is hardly ever tired2 
he is strong2 why should he get tired8  
,there is no hurry8 ,if he stops1 why   
should he be bored8 ,he always finds    
some amusement4 ,he works at a trade2 he
 uses his arms to rest his feet4  ,to   
travel on foot is to travel in the      
fashion of ,thales1 ,plato1 and         
,pythagoras4 ,i find it hard to         

understand how a philosopher can bring  
himself to travel in any other way2 how 
he can tear himself from the study of   
the wealth which lies before his eyes   
and beneath his feet4  ,is there any one
 with an interest in agriculture1 who   
does not want to know the special       
products of the district through which  
he is passing1 and their method of      
cultivation8 ,is there any one with a   
taste for natural history1 who can pass 
a piece of ground without examining it1 
a rock without breaking off a piece of  
it1 hills without looking for plants1   
and stones without seeking for fossils8 
,your town-bred scientists study natural
 history in cabinets2 they have small   
specimens2 they know their names but    
nothing of their nature4 ,emile's museum
 is richer than that of kings2 it is the
 whole world4 ,everything is in its     
right place2 the ,naturalist who is its 
curator has taken care to arrange it in 
the fairest order2 ,dauberton could do  
no better4  ,what varied pleasures we   

enjoy in this delightful way of         
travelling1 not to speak of increasing  
health and a cheerful spirit4 ,i notice 
that those who ride in nice1 well-padded
 carriages are always wrapped in        
thought1 gloomy1 fault-finding1 or sick2
 while those who go on foot are always  
merry1 light-hearted1 and delighted with
 everything4 ,how cheerful we are when  
we get near our lodging for the night6  
,how savoury is the coarse food6 ,how we
 linger at table enjoying our rest6 ,how
 soundly we sleep on a hard bed6 ,if you
 only want to get to a place you may    
ride in a post-chaise2 if you want to   
travel you must go on foot4  ,if ,sophy 
is not forgotten before we have gone    
fifty leagues in the way ,i propose1    
either ,i am a bungler or ,emile lacks  
curiosity2 for with an elementary       
knowledge of so many things1 it is      
hardly to be supposed that he will not  
be tempted to extend his knowledge4 ,it 
is knowledge that makes us curious2 and 
,emile knows just enough to want to know

 more4  ,one thing leads on to another1 
and we make our way forward4 ,if ,i     
chose a distant object for the end of   
our first journey1 it is not difficult  
to find an excuse for it2 when we leave 
,paris we must seek a wife at a         
distance4  ,a few days later we had     
wandered further than usual among hills 
and valleys where no road was to be seen
 and we lost our way completely4 ,no    
matter1 all roads are alike if they     
bring you to your journey's end1 but if 
you are hungry they must lead somewhere4
 ,luckily we came across a peasant who  
took up to his cottage2 we enjoyed his  
poor dinner with a hearty appetite4     
,when he saw how hungry and tired we    
were he said1 ,if the ,lord had led you 
to the other side of the hill you would 
have had a better welcome1 you would    
have found a good resting place1 such   
good1 kindly people6 ,they could not    
wish to do more for you than ,i1 but    
they are richer1 though folks say they  
used to be much better off4 ,still they 

are not reduced to poverty1 and the     
whole country-side is the better for    
what they have4  ,when ,emile heard of  
these good people his heart warmed to   
them4 ,my friend1 said he1 looking at   
me1 let us visit this house1 whose      
owners are a blessing to the district2  
,i shall be very glad to see them2      
perhaps they will be pleased to see us  
too2 ,i am sure we shall be welcome2 we 
shall just suit each other4  ,our host  
told us how to find our way to the house
 and we set off1 but lost our way in the
 woods4 ,we were caught in a heavy      
rainstorm1 which delayed us further4 ,at
 last we found the right path and in the
 evening we reached the house1 which had
 been described to us4 ,it was the only 
house among the cottages of the little  
hamlet1 and though plain it had an air  
of dignity4 ,we went up to the door and 
asked for hospitality4 ,we were taken to
 the owner of the house1 who questioned 
us courteously2 without telling him the 
object of our journey1 we told him why  

we had left our path4 ,his former wealth
 enabled him to judge a man's position  
by his manners2 those who have lived in 
society are rarely mistaken2 with this  
passport we were admitted4  ,the room we
 were shown into was very small1 but    
clean and comfortable2 a fire was       
lighted1 and we found linen1 clothes1   
and everything we needed4 ,why1 said    
,emile1 in astonishment1 one would think
 they were expecting us4 ,the peasant   
was quite right2 how kind and attentive1
 how considerate1 and for strangers too6
 ,i shall think ,i am living in the     
times of ,homer4 ,i am glad you feel    
this1 said ,i1 but you need not be      
surprised2 where strangers are scarce1  
they are welcome2 nothing makes people  
more hospitable than the fact that calls
 upon their hospitality are rare2 when  
guests are frequent there is an end to  
hospitality4 ,in ,homer's time1 people  
rarely travelled1 and travellers were   
everywhere welcome4 ,very likely we are 
the only people who have passed this way

 this year4 ,never mind1 said he1 to    
know how to do without guests and yet to
 give them a kind welcome1 is its own   
praise4  ,having dried ourselves and    
changed our clothes1 we rejoined the    
master of the house1 who introduced us  
to his wife2 she received us not merely 
with courtesy but with kindness4 ,her   
glance rested on ,emile4 ,a mother1 in  
her position1 rarely receives a young   
man into her house without some anxiety 
or some curiosity at least4  ,supper was
 hurried forward on our account4 ,when  
we went into the dining-room there were 
five places laid2 we took our seats and 
the fifth chair remained empty4         
,presently a young girl entered1 made a 
deep courtesy1 and modestly took her    
place without a word4 ,emile was busy   
with his supper or considering how to   
reply to what was said to him2 he bowed 
to her and continued talking and eating4
 ,the main object of his journey was as 
far from his thoughts as he believed    
himself to be from the end of his       

journey4 ,the conversation turned upon  
our losing our way4 ,sir1 said the      
master of the house to ,emile1 you seem 
to be a pleasant well-behaved young     
gentleman1 and that reminds me that your
 tutor and you arrived wet and weary    
like ,telemachus and ,mentor in the     
island of ,calypso4 ,indeed1 said       
,emile1 we have found the hospitality of
 ,calypso4 ,his ,mentor added1 ,and the 
charms of ,eucharis4 ,but ,emile knew   
the ,odyssey and he had not read        
,telemachus1 so he knew nothing of      
,eucharis4 ,as for the young girl1 ,i   
saw she blushed up to her eyebrows1     
fixed her eyes on her plate1 and hardly 
dared to breathe4 ,her mother1 noticing 
her confusion1 made a sign to her father
 to turn the conversation4 ,when he     
talked of his lonely life1 he           
unconsciously began to relate the       
circumstances which brought him into it2
 his misfortunes1 his wife's fidelity1  
the consolations they found in their    
marriage1 their quiet1 peaceful life in 

their retirement1 and all this without a
 word of the young girl2 it is a        
pleasing and a touching story1 which    
cannot fail to interest4 ,emile1        
interested and sympathetic1 leaves off  
eating and listens4 ,when finally this  
best of men discourses with delight of  
the affection of the best of women1 the 
young traveller1 carried away by his    
feelings1 stretches one hand to the     
husband1 and taking the wife's hand with
 the other1 he kisses it rapturously and
 bathes it with his tears4 ,everybody is
 charmed with the simple enthusiasm of  
the young man2 but the daughter1 more   
deeply touched than the rest by this    
evidence of his kindly heart1 is        
reminded of ,telemachus weeping for the 
woes of ,philoctetus4 ,she looks at him 
shyly1 the better to study his          
countenance2 there is nothing in it to  
give the lie to her comparison4  ,his   
easy bearing shows freedom without      
pride2 his manners are lively but not   
boisterous2 sympathy makes his glance   

softer and his expression more pleasing2
 the young girl1 seeing him weep1 is    
ready to mingle her tears with his4     
,with so good an excuse for tears1 she  
is restrained by a secret shame2 she    
blames herself already for the tears    
which tremble on her eyelids1 as though 
it were wrong to weep for one's family4 
,her mother1 who has been watching her  
ever since she sat down to supper1 sees 
her distress1 and to relieve it she     
sends her on some errand4 ,the daughter 
returns directly1 but so little         
recovered that her distress is apparent 
to all4 ,her mother says gently1 ,sophy1
 control yourself2 will you never cease 
to weep for the misfortunes of your     
parents8 ,why should you1 who are their 
chief comfort1 be more sensitive than   
they are themselves8  ,at the name of   
,sophy you would have seen ,emile give a
 start4 ,his attention is arrested by   
this dear name1 and he awakes all at    
once and looks eagerly at one who dares 
to bear it4 ,sophy6 ,are you the ,sophy 

whom my heart is seeking8 ,is it you    
that ,i love8 ,he looks at her2 he      
watches her with a sort of fear and     
self-distrust4 ,the face is not quite   
what he pictured2 he cannot tell whether
 he likes it more or less4 ,he studies  
every feature1 he watches every         
movement1 every gesture2 he has a       
hundred fleeting interpretations for    
them all2 he would give half his life if
 she would but speak4 ,he looks at me   
anxiously and uneasily2 his eyes are    
full of questions and reproaches4 ,his  
every glance seems to say1 ,guide me    
while there is yet time2 if my heart    
yields itself and is deceived1 ,i shall 
never get over it4  ,there is no one in 
the world less able to conceal his      
feelings than ,emile4 ,how should he    
conceal them1 in the midst of the       
greatest disturbance he has ever        
experienced1 and under the eyes of four 
spectators who are all watching him1    
while she who seems to heed him least is
 really most occupied with him4 ,his    

uneasiness does not escape the keen eyes
 of ,sophy2 his own eyes tell her that  
she is its cause2 she sees that this    
uneasiness is not yet love2 what matter8
  ,he is thinking of her1 and that is   
enough2 she will be very unlucky if he  
thinks of her with impunity4  ,mothers1 
like daughters1 have eyes2 and they have
 experience too4 ,sophy's mother smiles 
at the success of our schemes4 ,she     
reads the hearts of the young people2   
she sees that the time has come to      
secure the heart of this new            
,telemachus2 she makes her daughter     
speak4 ,her daughter1 with her native   
sweetness1 replies in a timid tone which
 makes all the more impression4 ,at the 
first sound of her voice1 ,emile        
surrenders2 it is ,sophy herself2 there 
can be no doubt about it4 ,if it were   
not so1 it would be too late to deny it4
  ,the charms of this maiden enchantress
 rush like torrents through his heart1  
and he begins to drain the draughts of  
poison with which he is intoxicated4 ,he

 says nothing2 questions pass unheeded2 
he sees only ,sophy1 he hears only      
,sophy2 if she says a word1 he opens his
 mouth2 if her eyes are cast down1 so   
are his2 if he sees her sigh1 he sighs  
too2 it is ,sophy's heart which seems to
 speak in his4 ,what a change have these
 few moments wrought in her heart6 ,it  
is no longer her turn to tremble1 it is 
,emile's4 ,farewell liberty1 simplicity1
 frankness4 ,confused1 embarrassed1     
fearful1 he dare not look about him for 
fear he should see that we are watching 
him4 ,ashamed that we should read his   
secret1 he would fain become invisible  
to every one1 that he might feed in     
secret on the sight of ,sophy4 ,sophy1  
on the other hand1 regains her          
confidence at the sight of ,emile's     
fear2 she sees her triumph and rejoices 
in it4       ,no'l mostra gia1 ben che  
in suo cor ne rida4           ,tasso1   
,jerus4 ,del41 c4 iv4 v4 #cc4  ,her     
expression remains unchanged2 but in    
spite of her modest look and downcast   

eyes1 her tender heart is throbbing with
 joy1 and it tells her that she has     
found ,telemachus4  ,if ,i relate the   
plain and simple tale of their innocent 
affections you will accuse me of        
frivolity1 but you will be mistaken4    
,sufficient attention is not given to   
the effect which the first connection   
between man and woman is bound to       
produce on the future life of both4     
,people do not see that a first         
impression so vivid as that of love1 or 
the liking which takes the place of     
love1 produces lasting effects whose    
influence continues till death4 ,works  
on education are crammed with wordy and 
unnecessary accounts of the imaginary   
duties of children2 but there is not a  
word about the most important and most  
difficult part of their education1 the  
crisis which forms the bridge between   
the child and the man4 ,if any part of  
this work is really useful1 it will be  
because ,i have dwelt at great length on
 this matter1 so essential in itself and

 so neglected by other authors1 and     
because ,i have not allowed myself to be
 discouraged either by false delicacy or
 by the difficulties of expression4 ,the
 story of human nature is a fair        
romance4 ,am ,i to blame if it is not   
found elsewhere8 ,i am trying to write  
the history of mankind4 ,if my book is a
 romance1 the fault lies with those who 
deprave mankind4  ,this is supported by 
another reason2 we are not dealing with 
a youth given over from childhood to    
fear1 greed1 envy1 pride1 and all those 
passions which are the common tools of  
the schoolmaster2 we have to do with a  
youth who is not only in love for the   
first time1 but with one who is also    
experiencing his first passion of any   
kind2 very likely it will be the only   
strong passion he will ever know1 and   
upon it depends the final formation of  
his character4 ,his mode of thought1 his
 feelings1 his tastes1 determined by a  
lasting passion1 are about to become so 
fixed that they will be incapable of    

further change4  ,you will easily       
understand that ,emile and ,i do not    
spend the whole of the night which      
follows after such an evening in sleep4 
,why6 ,do you mean to tell me that a    
wise man should be so much affected by a
 mere coincidence of name6 ,is there    
only one ,sophy in the world8 ,are they 
all alike in heart and in name8 ,is     
every ,sophy he meets his ,sophy8 ,is he
 mad to fall in love with a person of   
whom he knows so little1 with whom he   
has scarcely exchanged a couple of      
words8 ,wait1 young man2 examine1       
observe4 ,you do not even know who our  
hosts may be1 and to hear you talk one  
would think the house was your own4     
,this is no time for teaching1 and what 
,i say will receive scant attention4 ,it
 only serves to stimulate ,emile to     
further interest in ,sophy1 through his 
desire to find reasons for his fancy4   
,the unexpected coincidence in the name1
 the meeting which1 so far as he knows1 
was quite accidental1 my very caution   

itself1 only serve as fuel to the fire4 
,he is so convinced already of ,sophy's 
excellence1 that he feels sure he can   
make me fond of her4  ,next morning ,i  
have no doubt ,emile will make himself  
as smart as his old travelling suit     
permits4 ,i am not mistaken2 but ,i am  
amused to see how eager he is to wear   
the clean linen put out for us4 ,i know 
his thoughts1 and ,i am delighted to see
 that he is trying to establish a means 
of intercourse1 through the return and  
exchange of the linen2 so that he may   
have a right to return it and so pay    
another visit to the house4  ,i expected
 to find ,sophy rather more carefully   
dressed too2 but ,i was mistaken4 ,such 
common coquetry is all very well for    
those who merely desire to please4 ,the 
coquetry of true love is a more delicate
 matter2 it has quite another end in    
view4 ,sophy is dressed1 if possible1   
more simply than last night1 though as  
usual her frock is exquisitely clean4   
,the only sign of coquetry is her       

self-consciousness4 ,she knows that an  
elaborate toilet is a sign of love1 but 
she does not know that a careless toilet
 is another of its signs2 it shows a    
desire to be like not merely for one's  
clothes but for oneself4 ,what does a   
lover care for her clothes if he knows  
she is thinking of him8 ,sophy is       
already sure of her power over ,emile1  
and she is not content to delight his   
eyes if his heart is not hers also2 he  
must not only perceive her charms1 he   
must divine them2 has he not seen enough
 to guess the rest8  ,we may take it for
 granted that while ,emile and ,i were  
talking last night1 ,sophy and her      
mother were not silent2 a confession was
 made and instructions given4 ,the      
morning's meeting is not unprepared4    
,twelve hours ago our young people had  
never met2 they have never said a word  
to each other2 but it is clear that     
there is already an understanding       
between them4 ,their greeting is formal1
 confused1 timid2 they say nothing1     

their downcast eyes seem to avoid each  
other1 but that is in itself a sign that
 they understand1 they avoid each other 
with one consent2 they already feel the 
need of concealment1 though not a word  
has been uttered4 ,when we depart we ask
 leave to come again to return the      
borrowed clothes in person1 ,emile's    
words are addressed to the father and   
mother1 but his eyes seek ,sophy's1 and 
his looks are more eloquent than his    
words4 ,sophy says nothing by word or   
gesture2 she seems deaf and blind1 but  
she blushes1 and that blush is an answer
 even plainer than that of her parents4 
,we receive permission to come again1   
though we are not invited to stay4 ,this
 is only fitting2 you offer shelter to  
benighted travellers1 but a lover does  
not sleep in the house of his mistress4 
,we have hardly left the beloved abode  
before ,emile is thinking of taking     
rooms in the neighbourhood2 the nearest 
cottage seems too far2 he would like to 
sleep in the next ditch4 ,you young     

fool6 ,i said in a tone of pity1 are you
 already blinded by passion8 ,have you  
no regard for manners or for reason8    
,wretched youth1 you call yourself a    
lover and you would bring disgrace upon 
her you love6 ,what would people say of 
her if they knew that a young man who   
has been staying at her house was       
sleeping close by8 ,you say you love    
her6 ,would you ruin her reputation8 ,is
 that the price you offer for her       
parents' hospitality8 ,would you bring  
disgrace on her who will one day make   
you the happiest of men8 ,why should we 
trouble ourselves about the empty words 
and unjust suspicions of other people8  
said he eagerly4 ,have you not taught me
 yourself to make light of them8 ,who   
knows better than ,i how greatly ,i     
honour ,sophy1 what respect ,i desire to
 show her8 ,my attachment will not cause
 her shame1 it will be her glory1 it    
shall be worthy of her4 ,if my heart and
 my actions continually give her the    
homage she deserves1 what harm can ,i do

 her8 ,dear ,emile1 ,i said1 as ,i      
clasped him to my heart1 you are        
thinking of yourself alone2 learn to    
think for her too4 ,do not compare the  
honour of one sex with that of the      
other1 they rest on different           
foundations4 ,these foundations are     
equally firm and right1 because they are
 both laid by nature1 and that same     
virtue which makes you scorn what men   
say about yourself1 binds you to respect
 what they say of her you love4 ,your   
honour is in your own keeping1 her      
honour depends on others4 ,to neglect it
 is to wound your own honour1 and you   
fail in what is due to yourself if you  
do not give her the respect she         
deserves4  ,then while ,i explain the   
reasons for this difference1 ,i make him
 realise how wrong it would be to pay no
 attention to it4 ,who can say if he    
will really be ,sophy's husband8 ,he    
does not know how she feels towards him2
 her own heart or her parents' will may 
already have formed other engagements2  

he knows nothing of her1 perhaps there  
are none of those grounds of suitability
 which make a happy marriage4 ,is he not
 aware that the least breath of scandal 
with regard to a young girl is an       
indelible stain1 which not even marriage
 with him who has caused the scandal can
 efface8 ,what man of feeling would ruin
 the woman he loves8 ,what man of honour
 would desire that a miserable woman    
should for ever lament the misfortune of
 having found favour in his eyes8       
,always prone to extremes1 the youth    
takes alarm at the consequences which ,i
 have compelled him to consider1 and now
 he thinks that he cannot be too far    
from ,sophy's home2 he hastens his steps
 to get further from it2 he glances     
round to make sure that no one is       
listening2 he would sacrifice his own   
happiness a thousand times to the honour
 of her whom he loves2 he would rather  
never see her again than cause her the  
least unpleasantness4 ,this is the first
 result of the pains ,i have taken ever 

since he was a child to make him capable
 of affection4  ,we must therefore seek 
a lodging at a distance1 but not too    
far4 ,we look about us1 we make         
inquiries2 we find that there is a town 
at least two leagues away4 ,we try and  
find lodgings in this town1 rather than 
in the nearer villages1 where our       
presence might give rise to suspicion4  
,it is there that the new lover takes up
 his abode1 full of love1 hope1 joy1    
above all full of right feeling4 ,in    
this way1 ,i guide his rising passion   
towards all that is honourable and good1
 so that his inclinations unconsciously 
follow the same bent4  ,my course is    
drawing to a close2 the end is in view4 
,all the chief difficulties are         
vanquished1 the chief obstacles         
overcome2 the hardest thing left to do  
is to refrain from spoiling my work by  
undue haste to complete it4 ,amid the   
uncertainty of human life1 let us shun  
that false prudence which seeks to      
sacrifice the present to the future2    

what is1 is too often sacrificed to what
 will never be4  ,let us make man happy 
at every age lest in spite of our care  
he should die without knowing the       
meaning of happiness4 ,now if there is a
 time to enjoy life1 it is undoubtedly  
the close of adolescence1 when the      
powers of mind and body have reached    
their greatest strength1 and when man in
 the midst of his course is furthest    
from those two extremes which tell him  
,life is short4 ,if the imprudence of   
youth deceives itself it is not in its  
desire for enjoyment1 but because it    
seeks enjoyment where it is not to be   
found1 and lays up misery for the       
future1 while unable to enjoy the       
present4  ,consider my ,emile over      
twenty years of age1 well formed1 well  
developed in mind and body1 strong1     
healthy1 active1 skilful1 robust1 full  
of sense1 reason1 kindness1 humanity1   
possessed of good morals and good taste1
 loving what is beautiful1 doing what is
 good1 free from the sway of fierce     

passions1 released from the tyranny of  
popular prejudices1 but subject to the  
law of wisdom1 and easily guided by the 
voice of a friend2 gifted with so many  
useful and pleasant accomplishments1    
caring little for wealth1 able to earn a
 living with his own hands1 and not     
afraid of want1 whatever may come4      
,behold him in the intoxication of a    
growing passion2 his heart opens to the 
first beams of love2 its pleasant       
fancies reveal to him a whole world of  
new delights and enjoyments2 he loves a 
sweet woman1 whose character is even    
more delightful than her person2 he     
hopes1 he expects the reward which he   
deserves4  ,their first attachment took 
its rise in mutual affection1 in        
community of honourable feelings2       
therefore this affection is lasting4 ,it
 abandons itself1 with confidence1 with 
reason1 to the most delightful madness1 
without fear1 regret1 remorse1 or any   
other disturbing thought1 but that which
 is inseparable from all happiness4     

,what lacks there yet8 ,behold1 inquire1
 imagine what still is lacking1 that can
 be combined with present joys4 ,every  
happiness which can exist in combination
 is already present2 nothing could be   
added without taking away from what     
there is2 he is as happy as man can be4 
,shall ,i choose this time to cut short 
so sweet a period8  ,shall ,i disturb   
such pure enjoyment8 ,the happiness he  
enjoys is my life's reward4 ,what could 
,i give that could outweigh what ,i     
should take away8 ,even if ,i set the   
crown to his happiness ,i should destroy
 its greatest charm4 ,that supreme joy  
is a hundredfold greater in anticipation
 than in possession2 its savour is      
greater while we wait for it than when  
it is ours4 ,o worthy ,emile6 love and  
be loved6 prolong your enjoyment before 
it is yours2 rejoice in your love and in
 your innocence1 find your paradise upon
 earth1 while you await your heaven4 ,i 
shall not cut short this happy period of
 life4 ,i will draw out its             

enchantments1 ,i will prolong them as   
far as possible4 ,alas6 it must come to 
an end and that soon2 but it shall at   
least linger in your memory1 and you    
will never repent of its joys4  ,emile  
has not forgotten that we have something
 to return4 ,as soon as the things are  
ready1 we take horse and set off at a   
great pace1 for on this occasion he is  
anxious to get there4 ,when the heart   
opens the door to passion1 it becomes   
conscious of the slow flight of time4   
,if my time has not been wasted he will 
not spend his life like this4           
,unluckily the road is intricate and the
 country difficult4 ,we lose our way2 he
 is the first to notice it1 and without 
losing his temper1 and without          
grumbling1 he devotes his whole         
attention to discovering the path2 he   
wanders for a long time before he knows 
where he is and always with the same    
self-control4 ,you think nothing of     
that2 but ,i think it a matter of great 
importance1 for ,i know how eager he is2

 ,i see the results of the care ,i have 
taken from his infancy to harden him to 
endure the blows of necessity4  ,we are 
there at last6 ,our reception is much   
simpler and more friendly than on the   
previous occasion2 we are already old   
acquaintances4 ,emile and ,sophy bow    
shyly and say nothing2 what can they say
 in our presence8 ,what they wish to say
 requires no spectators4 ,we walk in the
 garden2 a well-kept kitchen-garden     
takes the place of flower-beds1 the park
 is an orchard full of fine tall fruit  
trees of every kind1 divided by pretty  
streams and borders full of flowers4    
,what a lovely place6 exclaims ,emile1  
still thinking of his ,homer1 and still 
full of enthusiasm1 ,i could fancy      
myself in the garden of ,alcinous4 ,the 
daughter wishes she knew who ,alcinous  
was2 her mother asks4 ,alcinous1 ,i tell
 them1 was a king of ,coreyra4 ,homer   
describes his garden and the critics    
think it too simple and unadorned4      
,footnote3 ',when you leave the palace  

you enter a vast garden1 four acres in  
extent1 walled in on every side1 planted
 with tall trees in blossom1 and        
yielding pears1 pomegranates1 and other 
goodly fruits1 fig-trees with their     
luscious burden and green olives4 ,all  
the year round these fair trees are     
heavy with fruit2 summer and winter the 
soft breath of the west wind sways the  
trees and ripens the fruit4 ,pears and  
apples wither on the branches1 the fig  
on the fig-tree1 and the clusters of    
grapes on the vine4 ,the inexhaustible  
stock bears fresh grapes1 some are      
baked1 some are spread out on the       
threshing floor to dry1 others are made 
into wine1 while flowers1 sour grapes1  
and those which are beginning to wither 
are left upon the tree4 ,at either end  
is a square garden filled with flowers  
which bloom throughout the year1 these  
gardens are adorned by two fountains1   
one of these streams waters the garden1 
the other passes through the palace and 
is then taken to a lofty tower in the   

town to provide drinking water for its  
citizens4' ,such is the description of  
the royal garden of ,alcinous in the    
#gth book of the ,odyssey1 a garden in  
which1 to the lasting disgrace of that  
old dreamer ,homer and the princes of   
his day1 there were neither trellises1  
statues1 cascades1 nor bowling-greens4  
,this ,alcinous had a charming daughter 
who dreamed the night before her father 
received a stranger at his board that   
she would soon have a husband4 ,sophy1  
taken unawares1 blushed1 hung her head1 
and bit her lips2 no one could be more  
confused4 ,her father1 who was enjoying 
her confusion1 added that the young     
princess bent herself to wash the linen 
in the river4 ,do you think1 said he1   
she would have scorned to touch the     
dirty clothes1 saying1 that they smelt  
of grease8 ,sophy1 touched to the quick1
 forgot her natural timidity and        
defended herself eagerly4 ,her papa knew
 very well all the smaller things would 
have had no other laundress if she had  

been allowed to wash them1 and she would
 gladly have done more had she been set 
to do it4 ,footnote3 ,i own ,i feel     
grateful to ,sophy's mother for not     
letting her spoil such pretty hands with
 soap1 hands which ,emile will kiss so  
often4 ,meanwhile she watched me        
secretly with such anxiety that ,i could
 not suppress a smile1 while ,i read the
 terrors of her simple heart which urged
 her to speak4 ,her father was cruel    
enough to continue this foolish sport1  
by asking her1 in jest1 why she spoke on
 her own behalf and what had she in     
common with the daughter of ,alcinous4  
,trembling and ashamed she dared hardly 
breathe or look at us4 ,charming girl6  
,this is no time for feigning1 you have 
shown your true feelings in spite of    
yourself4  ,to all appearance this      
little scene is soon forgotten2 luckily 
for ,sophy1 ,emile1 at least1 is unaware
 of it4 ,we continue our walk1 the young
 people at first keeping close beside   
us2 but they find it hard to adapt      

themselves to our slower pace1 and      
presently they are a little in front of 
us1 they are walking side by side1 they 
begin to talk1 and before long they are 
a good way ahead4 ,sophy seems to be    
listening quietly1 ,emile is talking and
 gesticulating vigorously2 they seem to 
find their conversation interesting4    
,when we turn homewards a full hour     
later1 we call them to us and they      
return slowly enough now1 and we can see
 they are making good use of their time4
 ,their conversation ceases suddenly    
before they come within earshot1 and    
they hurry up to us4 ,emile meets us    
with a frank affectionate expression2   
his eyes are sparkling with joy2 yet he 
looks anxiously at ,sophy's mother to   
see how she takes it4 ,sophy is not     
nearly so much at her ease2 as she      
approaches us she seems covered with    
confusion at finding herself tete-a-tete
 with a young man1 though she has met so
 many other young men frankly enough1   
and without being found fault with for  

it4 ,she runs up to her mother1 somewhat
 out of breath1 and makes some trivial  
remark1 as if to pretend she had been   
with her for some time4  ,from the happy
 expression of these dear children we   
see that this conversation has taken a  
load off their hearts4 ,they are no less
 reticent in their intercourse1 but     
their reticence is less embarrassing1 it
 is only due to ,emile's reverence and  
,sophy's modesty1 to the goodness of    
both4 ,emile ventures to say a few words
 to her1 she ventures to reply1 but she 
always looks at her mother before she   
dares to answer4 ,the most remarkable   
change is in her attitude towards me4   
,she shows me the greatest respect1 she 
watches me with interest1 she takes     
pains to please me2 ,i see that ,i am   
honoured with her esteem1 and that she  
is not indifferent to mine4 ,i          
understand that ,emile has been talking 
to her about me2 you might say they have
 been scheming to win me over to their  
side2 yet it is not so1 and ,sophy      

herself is not so easily won4 ,perhaps  
,emile will have more need of my        
influence with her than of hers with me4
 ,what a charming pair6 ,when ,i        
consider that the tender love of my     
young friend has brought my name so     
prominently into his first conversation 
with his lady-love1 ,i enjoy the reward 
of all my trouble2 his affection is a   
sufficient recompense4  ,our visit is   
repeated4 ,there are frequent           
conversations between the young people4 
,emile is madly in love and thinks that 
his happiness is within his grasp4 ,yet 
he does not succeed in winning any      
formal avowal from ,sophy2 she listens  
to what he says and answers nothing4    
,emile knows how modest she is1 and is  
not surprised at her reticence2 he feels
 sure that she likes him2 he knows that 
parents decide whom their daughters     
shall marry2 he supposes that ,sophy is 
awaiting her parents' commands2 he asks 
her permission to speak to them1 and she
 makes no objection4 ,he talks to me and

 ,i speak on his behalf and in his      
presence4 ,he is immensely surprised to 
hear that ,sophy is her own mistress1   
that his happiness depends on her alone4
  ,he begins to be puzzled by her       
conduct4 ,he is less self-confident1 he 
takes alarm1 he sees that he has not    
made so much progress as he expected1   
and then it is that his love appeals to 
her in the tenderest and most moving    
language4  ,emile is not the sort of man
 to guess what is the matter2 if no one 
told him he would never discover it as  
long as he lived1 and ,sophy is too     
proud to tell him4 ,what she considers  
obstacles1 others would call advantages4
 ,she has not forgotten her parents'    
teaching4 ,she is poor2 ,emile is rich2 
so much she knows4 ,he must win her     
esteem2 his deserts must be great indeed
 to remove this inequality4 ,but how    
should he perceive these obstacles8 ,is 
,emile aware that he is rich8  ,has he  
ever condescended to inquire8 ,thank    
heaven1 he has no need of riches1 he can

 do good without their aid4 ,the good he
 does comes from his heart1 not his     
purse4 ,he gives the wretched his time1 
his care1 his affection1 himself2 and   
when he reckons up what he has done1 he 
hardly dares to mention the money spent 
on the poor4  ,as he does not know what 
to make of his disgrace1 he thinks it is
 his own fault2 for who would venture to
 accuse the adored one of caprice4 ,the 
shame of humiliation adds to the pangs  
of disappointed love4 ,he no longer     
approaches ,sophy with that pleasant    
confidence of his own worth2 he is shy  
and timid in her presence4 ,he no longer
 hopes to win her affections1 but to    
gain her pity4 ,sometimes he loses      
patience and is almost angry with her4  
,sophy seems to guess his angry feelings
 and she looks at him4 ,her glance is   
enough to disarm and terrify him2 he is 
more submissive than he used to be4     
,disturbed by this stubborn resistance1 
this invincible silence1 he pours out   
his heart to his friend4 ,he shares with

 him the pangs of a heart devoured by   
sorrow2 he implores his help and        
counsel4 ,how mysterious it is1 how hard
 to understand6 ,she takes an interest  
in me1 that ,i am sure2 far from        
avoiding me she is pleased to see me2   
when ,i come she shows signs of         
pleasure1 when ,i go she shows regret2  
she receives my attentions kindly1 my   
services seem to give her pleasure1 she 
condescends to give me her advice and   
even her commands4 ,yet she rejects my  
requests and my prayers4 ,when ,i       
venture to speak of marriage1 she bids  
me be silent2 if ,i say a word1 she     
leaves me at once4 ,why on earth should 
she wish me to be hers but refuse to be 
mine8 ,she respects and loves you1 and  
she will not dare to refuse to listen to
 you4 ,speak to her1 make her answer4   
,come to your friend's help1 and put the
 coping stone to all you have done for  
him2 do not let him fall a victim to    
your care6 ,if you fail to secure his   
happiness1 your own teaching will have  

been the cause of his misery4  ,i speak 
to ,sophy1 and have no difficulty in    
getting her to confide her secret to me1
 a secret which was known to me already4
 ,it is not so easy to get permission to
 tell ,emile2 but at last she gives me  
leave and ,i tell him what is the       
matter4 ,he cannot get over his surprise
 at this explanation4 ,he cannot        
understand this delicacy2 he cannot see 
how a few pounds more or less can affect
 his character or his deserts4 ,when ,i 
get him to see their effect on people's 
prejudices he begins to laugh2 he is so 
wild with delight that he wants to be   
off at once to tear up his title deeds  
and renounce his money1 so as to have   
the honour of being as poor as ,sophy1  
and to return worthy to be her husband4 
,why1 said ,i1 trying to check him1 and 
laughing in my turn at his impetuosity1 
will this young head never grow any     
older8 ,having dabbled all your life in 
philosophy1 will you never learn to     
reason8 ,do not you see that your wild  

scheme would only make things worse1 and
 ,sophy more obstinate8 ,it is a small  
superiority to be rather richer than    
she1 but to give up all for her would be
 a very great superiority2 if her pride 
cannot bear to be under the small       
obligation1 how will she make up her    
mind to the greater8 ,if she cannot bear
 to think that her husband might taunt  
her with the fact that he has enriched  
her1 would she permit him to blame her  
for having brought him to poverty8      
,wretched boy1 beware lest she suspects 
you of such a plan6 ,on the contrary1 be
 careful and economical for her sake1   
lest she should accuse you of trying to 
gain her by cunning1 by sacrificing of  
your own free will what you are really  
wasting through carelessness4  ,do you  
really think that she is afraid of      
wealth1 and that she is opposed to great
 possessions in themselves8 ,no1 dear   
,emile2 there are more serious and      
substantial grounds for her opinion1 in 
the effect produced by wealth on its    

possessor4 ,she knows that those who are
 possessed of fortune's gifts are apt to
 place them first4 ,the rich always put 
wealth before merit4 ,when services are 
reckoned against silver1 the latter     
always outweighs the former1 and those  
who have spent their life in their      
master's service are considered his     
debtors for the very bread they eat4    
,what must you do1 ,emile1 to calm her  
fears8 ,let her get to know you better2 
that is not done in a day4 ,show her the
 treasures of your heart1 to            
counterbalance the wealth which is      
unfortunately yours4 ,time and constancy
 will overcome her resistance2 let your 
great and noble feelings make her forget
 your wealth4 ,love her1 serve her1     
serve her worthy parents4 ,convince her 
that these attentions are not the result
 of a foolish fleeting passion1 but of  
settled principles engraved upon your   
heart4 ,show them the honour deserved by
 worth when exposed to the buffets of   
,fortune2 that is the only way to       

reconcile it with that worth which basks
 in her smiles4  ,the transports of joy 
experienced by the young man at these   
words may easily be imagined2 they      
restore confidence and hope1 his good   
heart rejoices to do something to please
 ,sophy1 which he would have done if    
there had been no such person1 or if he 
had not been in love with her4 ,however 
little his character has been           
understood1 anybody can see how he would
 behave under such circumstances4  ,here
 am ,i1 the confidant of these two young
 people and the mediator of their       
affection4 ,what a fine task for a      
tutor6 ,so fine that never in all my    
life have ,i stood so high in my own    
eyes1 nor felt so pleased with myself4  
,moreover1 this duty is not without its 
charms4  ,i am not unwelcome in the     
home2 it is my business to see that the 
lovers behave themselves2 ,emile1 ever  
afraid of offending me1 was never so    
docile4 ,the little lady herself        
overwhelms me with a kindness which does

 not deceive me1 and of which ,i only   
take my proper share4 ,this is her way  
of making up for her severity towards   
,emile4 ,for his sake she bestows on me 
a hundred tender caresses1 though she   
would die rather than bestow them on    
him2 and he1 knowing that ,i would never
 stand in his way1 is delighted that ,i 
should get on so well with her4 ,if she 
refuses his arm when we are out walking1
 he consoles himself with the thought   
that she has taken mine4 ,he makes way  
for me without a murmur1 he clasps my   
hand1 and voice and look alike whisper1 
,my friend1 plead for me6 and his eyes  
follow us with interest2 he tries to    
read our feelings in our faces1 and to  
interpret our conversation by our       
gestures2 he knows that everything we   
are saying concerns him4 ,dear ,sophy1  
how frank and easy you are when you can 
talk to ,mentor without being overheard 
by ,telemachus4  ,how freely and        
delightfully you permit him to read what
 is passing in your tender little heart6

 ,how delighted you are to show him how 
you esteem his pupil6 ,how cunningly and
 appealingly you allow him to divine    
still tenderer sentiments4 ,with what a 
pretence of anger you dismiss ,emile    
when his impatience leads him to        
interrupt you8 ,with what pretty        
vexation you reproach his indiscretion  
when he comes and prevents you saying   
something to his credit1 or listening to
 what ,i say about him1 or finding in my
 words some new excuse to love him6     
,having got so far as to be tolerated as
 an acknowledged lover1 ,emile takes    
full advantage of his position2 he      
speaks1 he urges1 he implores1 he       
demands4 ,hard words or ill treatment   
make no difference1 provided he gets a  
hearing4 ,at length ,sophy is persuaded1
 though with some difficulty1 to assume 
the authority of a betrothed1 to decide 
what he shall do1 to command instead of 
to ask1 to accept instead of to thank1  
to control the frequency and the hours  
of his visits1 to forbid him to come    

till such a day or to stay beyond such  
an hour4 ,this is not done in play1 but 
in earnest1 and if it was hard to induce
 her to accept these rights1 she uses   
them so sternly that ,emile is often    
ready to regret that he gave them to    
her4 ,but whatever her commands1 they   
are obeyed without question1 and often  
when at her bidding he is about to leave
 her1 he glances at me his eyes full of 
delight1 as if to say1 ,you see she has 
taken possession of me4 ,yet unknown to 
him1 ,sophy1 with all her pride1 is     
observing him closely1 and she is       
smiling to herself at the pride of her  
slave4  ,oh that ,i had the brush of an 
,alban or a ,raphael to paint their     
bliss1 or the pen of the divine ,milton 
to describe the pleasures of love and   
innocence6 ,not so2 let such hollow arts
 shrink back before the sacred truth of 
nature4 ,in tenderness and pureness of  
heart let your imagination freely trace 
the raptures of these young lovers1 who 
under the eyes of parents and tutor1    

abandon themselves to their blissful    
illusions2 in the intoxication of       
passion they are advancing step by step 
to its consummation2 with flowers and   
garlands they are weaving the bonds     
which are to bind them till death do    
part4 ,i am carried away by this        
succession of pictures1 ,i am so happy  
that ,i cannot group them in any sort of
 order or scheme2 any one with a heart  
in his breast can paint the charming    
picture for himself and realise the     
different experiences of father1 mother1
 daughter1 tutor1 and pupil1 and the    
part played by each and all in the union
 of the most delightful couple whom love
 and virtue have ever led to happiness4 
,now that he is really eager to please1 
,emile begins to feel the value of the  
accomplishments he has acquired4 ,sophy 
is fond of singing1 he sings with her2  
he does more1 he teaches her music4 ,she
 is lively and light of foot1 she loves 
skipping2 he dances with her1 he        
perfects and develops her untrained     

movements into the steps of the dance4  
,these lessons1 enlivened by the gayest 
mirth1 are quite delightful1 they melt  
the timid respect of love2 a lover may  
enjoy teaching his betrothed--he has a  
right to be her teacher4  ,there is an  
old spinet quite out of order4 ,emile   
mends and tunes it2 he is a maker and   
mender of musical instruments as well as
 a carpenter2 it has always been his    
rule to learn to do everything he can   
for himself4 ,the house is picturesquely
 situated and he makes several sketches 
of it1 in some of which ,sophy does her 
share1 and she hangs them in her        
father's study4 ,the frames are not     
gilded1 nor do they require gilding4    
,when she sees ,emile drawing1 she draws
 too1 and improves her own drawing2 she 
cultivates all her talents1 and her     
grace gives a charm to all she does4    
,her father and mother recall the days  
of their wealth1 when they find         
themselves surrounded by the works of   
art which alone gave value to wealth2   

the whole house is adorned by love2 love
 alone has enthroned among them1 without
 cost or effort1 the very same pleasures
 which were gathered together in former 
days by dint of toil and money4  ,as the
 idolater gives what he loves best to   
the shrine of the object of his worship1
 so the lover is not content to see     
perfection in his mistress1 he must be  
ever trying to add to her adornment4    
,she does not need it for his pleasure1 
it is he who needs the pleasure of      
giving1 it is a fresh homage to be      
rendered to her1 a fresh pleasure in the
 joy of beholding her4 ,everything of   
beauty seems to find its place only as  
an accessory to the supreme beauty4 ,it 
is both touching and amusing to see     
,emile eager to teach ,sophy everything 
he knows1 without asking whether she    
wants to learn it or whether it is      
suitable for her4 ,he talks about all   
sorts of things and explains them to her
 with boyish eagerness2 he thinks he has
 only to speak and she will understand2 

he looks forward to arguing1 and        
discussing philosophy with her2         
everything he cannot display before her 
is so much useless learning2 he is quite
 ashamed of knowing more than she4  ,so 
he gives her lessons in philosophy1     
physics1 mathematics1 history1 and      
everything else4 ,sophy is delighted to 
share his enthusiasm and to try and     
profit by it4 ,how pleased ,emile is    
when he can get leave to give these     
lessons on his knees before her6 ,he    
thinks the heavens are open4 ,yet this  
position1 more trying to pupil than to  
teacher1 is hardly favourable to study4 
,it is not easy to know where to look1  
to avoid meeting the eyes which follow  
our own1 and if they meet so much the   
worse for the lesson4  ,women are no    
strangers to the art of thinking1 but   
they should only skim the surface of    
logic and metaphysics4 ,sophy           
understands readily1 but she soon       
forgets4 ,she makes most progress in the
 moral sciences and aesthetics2 as to   

physical science she retains some vague 
idea of the general laws and order of   
this world4 ,sometimes in the course of 
their walks1 the spectacle of the       
wonders of nature bids them not fear to 
raise their pure and innocent hearts to 
nature's ,god2 they are not afraid of   
,his presence1 and they pour out their  
hearts before him4  ,what6 ,two young   
lovers spending their time together     
talking of religion6 ,have they nothing 
better to do than to say their          
catechism6 ,what profit is there in the 
attempt to degrade what is noble8 ,yes1 
no doubt they are saying their catechism
 in their delightful land of romance2   
they are perfect in each other's eyes2  
they love one another1 they talk eagerly
 of all that makes virtue worth having4 
,their sacrifices to virtue make her all
 the dearer to them4 ,their struggles   
after self-control draw from them tears 
purer than the dew of heaven1 and these 
sweet tears are the joy of life2 no     
human heart has ever experienced a      

sweeter intoxication4 ,their very       
renunciation adds to their happiness1   
and their sacrifices increase their     
self-respect4 ,sensual men1 bodies      
without souls1 some day they will know  
your pleasures1 and all their life long 
they will recall with regret the happy  
days when they refused the cup of       
pleasure4  ,in spite of this good       
understanding1 differences and even     
quarrels occur from time to time2 the   
lady has her whims1 the lover has a hot 
temper2 but these passing showers are   
soon over and only serve to strengthen  
their union4 ,emile learns by experience
 not to attach too much importance to   
them1 he always gains more by the       
reconciliation than he lost by the      
quarrel4 ,the results of the first      
difference made him expect a like result
 from all2 he was mistaken1 but even if 
he does not make any appreciable step   
forward1 he has always the satisfaction 
of finding ,sophy's genuine concern for 
his affection more firmly established4  

,what advantage is this to him8 you     
would ask4 ,i will gladly tell you2 all 
the more gladly because it will give me 
an opportunity to establish clearly a   
very important principle1 and to combat 
a very deadly one4  ,emile is in love1  
but he is not presuming2 and you will   
easily understand that the dignified    
,sophy is not the sort of girl to allow 
any kind of familiarity4 ,yet virtue has
 its bounds like everything else1 and   
she is rather to be blamed for her      
severity than for indulgence2 even her  
father himself is sometimes afraid lest 
her lofty pride should degenerate into a
 haughty spirit4 ,when most alone1      
,emile dare not ask for the slightest   
favour1 he must not even seem to desire 
it2 and if she is gracious enough to    
take his arm when they are out walking1 
a favour which she will never permit him
 to claim as a right1 it is only        
occasionally that he dare venture with a
 sigh to press her hand to his heart4   
,however1 after a long period of        

self-restraint1 he ventured secretly to 
kiss the hem of her dress1 and several  
times he was lucky enough to find her   
willing at least to pretend she was not 
aware of it4 ,one day he attempts to    
take the same privilege rather more     
openly1 and ,sophy takes it into her    
head to be greatly offended4 ,he        
persists1 she gets angry and speaks     
sharply to him2 ,emile will not put up  
with this without reply2 the rest of the
 day is given over to sulks1 and they   
part in a very ill temper4  ,sophy is   
ill at ease2 her mother is her confidant
 in all things1 how can she keep this   
from her8 ,it is their first            
misunderstanding1 and the               
misunderstanding of an hour is such a   
serious business4 ,she is sorry for what
 she has done1 she has her mother's     
permission and her father's commands to 
make reparation4  ,the next day ,emile  
returns somewhat earlier than usual and 
in a state of some anxiety4 ,sophy is in
 her mother's dressing-room and her     

father is also present4 ,emile enters   
respectfully but gloomily4 ,scarcely    
have her parents greeted him than ,sophy
 turns round and holding out her hand   
asks him in an affectionate tone how he 
is4 ,that pretty hand is clearly held   
out to be kissed2 he takes it but does  
not kiss it4 ,sophy1 rather ashamed of  
herself1 withdraws her hand as best she 
may4 ,emile1 who is not used to a       
woman's whims1 and does not know how far
 caprice may be carried1 does not forget
 so easily or make friends again all at 
once4 ,sophy's father1 seeing her       
confusion1 completes her discomfiture by
 his jokes4 ,the poor girl1 confused and
 ashamed1 does not know what to do with 
herself and would gladly have a good    
cry4 ,the more she tries to control     
herself the worse she feels2 at last a  
tear escapes in spite of all she can do 
to prevent it4 ,emile1 seeing this tear1
 rushes towards her1 falls on his knees1
 takes her hand and kisses it again and 
again with the greatest devotion4 ,my   

word1 you are too kind to her1 says her 
father1 laughing2 if ,i were you1 ,i    
should deal more severely with these    
follies1 ,i should punish the mouth that
 wronged me4 ,emboldened by these words1
 ,emile turns a suppliant eye towards   
her mother1 and thinking she is not     
unwilling1 he tremblingly approaches    
,sophy's face2 she turns away her head1 
and to save her mouth she exposes a     
blushing cheek4 ,the daring young man is
 not content with this2 there is no     
great resistance4 ,what a kiss1 if it   
were not taken under her mother's eyes4 
,have a care1 ,sophy1 in your severity2 
he will be ready enough to try to kiss  
your dress if only you will sometimes   
say ,no4  ,after this exemplary         
punishment1 ,sophy's father goes about  
his business1 and her mother makes some 
excuse for sending her out of the room2 
then she speaks to ,emile very          
seriously4 ,sir1 she says1 ,i think a   
young man so well born and well bred as 
yourself1 a man of feeling and          

character1 would never reward with      
dishonour the confidence reposed in him 
by the friendship of this family4 ,i am 
neither prudish nor over strict2 ,i know
 how to make excuses for youthful folly1
 and what ,i have permitted in my own   
presence is sufficient proof of this4   
,consult your friend as to your own     
duty1 he will tell you there is all the 
difference in the world between the     
playful kisses sanctioned by the        
presence of father and mother1 and the  
same freedom taken in their absence and 
in betrayal of their confidence1 a      
freedom which makes a snare of the very 
favours which in the parents' presence  
were wholly innocent4 ,he will tell you1
 sir1 that my daughter is only to blame 
for not having perceived from the first 
what she ought never to have permitted2 
he will tell you that every favour1     
taken as such1 is a favour1 and that it 
is unworthy of a man of honour to take  
advantage of a young girl's innocence1  
to usurp in private the same freedom    

which she may permit in the presence of 
others4 ,for good manners teach us what 
is permitted in public2 but we do not   
know what a man will permit to himself  
in private1 if he makes himself the sole
 judge of his conduct4  ,after this     
well-deserved rebuke1 addressed rather  
to me than to my pupil1 the good mother 
leaves us1 and ,i am amazed by her rare 
prudence1 in thinking it a little thing 
that ,emile should kiss her daughter's  
lips in her presence1 while fearing lest
 he should venture to kiss her dress    
when they are alone4 ,when ,i consider  
the folly of worldly maxims1 whereby    
real purity is continually sacrificed to
 a show of propriety1 ,i understand why 
speech becomes more refined while the   
heart becomes more corrupt1 and why     
etiquette is stricter while those who   
conform to it are most immoral4  ,while 
,i am trying to convince ,emile's heart 
with regard to these duties which ,i    
ought to have instilled into him sooner1
 a new idea occurs to me1 an idea which 

perhaps does ,sophy all the more credit1
 though ,i shall take care not to tell  
her lover2 this so-called pride1 for    
which she has been censured1 is clearly 
only a very wise precaution to protect  
her from herself4 ,being aware that1    
unfortunately1 her own temperament is   
inflammable1 she dreads the least spark1
 and keeps out of reach so far as she   
can4 ,her sternness is due not to pride 
but to humility4 ,she assumes a control 
over ,emile because she doubts her      
control of herself2 she turns the one   
against the other4 ,if she had more     
confidence in herself she would be much 
less haughty4 ,with this exception is   
there anywhere on earth a gentler1      
sweeter girl8 ,is there any who endures 
an affront with greater patience1 any   
who is more afraid of annoying others8  
,is there any with less pretension1     
except in the matter of virtue8         
,moreover1 she is not proud of her      
virtue1 she is only proud in order to   
preserve her virtue1 and if she can     

follow the guidance of her heart without
 danger1 she caresses her lover himself4
 ,but her wise mother does not confide  
all this even to her father2 men should 
not hear everything4  ,far from seeming 
proud of her conquest1 ,sophy has grown 
more friendly and less exacting towards 
everybody1 except perhaps the one person
 who has wrought this change4 ,her noble
 heart no longer swells with the feeling
 of independence4 ,she triumphs modestly
 over a victory gained at the price of  
her freedom4 ,her bearing is more       
restrained1 her speech more timid1 since
 she has begun to blush at the word     
lover2 but contentment may be seen      
beneath her outward confusion and this  
very shame is not painful4 ,this change 
is most noticeable in her behaviour     
towards the young men she meets4 ,now   
that she has ceased to be afraid of     
them1 much of her extreme reserve has   
disappeared4 ,now that her choice is    
made1 she does not hesitate to be       
gracious to those to whom she is quite  

indifferent2 taking no more interest in 
them1 she is less difficult to please1  
and she always finds them pleasant      
enough for people who are of no         
importance to her4  ,if true love were  
capable of coquetry1 ,i should fancy ,i 
saw traces of it in the way ,sophy      
behaves towards other young men in her  
lover's presence4 ,one would say that   
not content with the ardent passion she 
inspires by a mixture of shyness and    
caresses1 she is not sorry to rouse this
 passion by a little anxiety2 one would 
say that when she is purposely amusing  
her young guests she means to torment   
,emile by the charms of a freedom she   
will not allow herself with him2 but    
,sophy is too considerate1 too kindly1  
too wise to really torment him4 ,love   
and honour take the place of prudence   
and control the use of this dangerous   
weapon4 ,she can alarm and reassure him 
just as he needs it2 and if she         
sometimes makes him uneasy she never    
really gives him pain4 ,the anxiety she 

causes to her beloved may be forgiven   
because of her fear that he is not      
sufficiently her own4  ,but what effect 
will this little performance have upon  
,emile8 ,will he be jealous or not8     
,that is what we must discover2 for such
 digressions form part of the purpose of
 my book1 and they do not lead me far   
from my main subject4  ,i have already  
shown how this passion of jealousy in   
matters of convention finds its way into
 the heart of man4 ,in love it is       
another matter2 then jealousy is so near
 akin to nature1 that it is hard to     
believe that it is not her work2 and the
 example of the very beasts1 many of    
whom are madly jealous1 seems to prove  
this point beyond reply4 ,is it man's   
influence that has taught cooks to tear 
each other to pieces or bulls to fight  
to the death8  ,no one can deny that the
 aversion to everything which may       
disturb or interfere with our pleasures 
is a natural impulse4 ,up to a certain  
point the desire for the exclusive      

possession of that which ministers to   
our pleasure is in the same case4 ,but  
when this desire has become a passion1  
when it is transformed into madness1 or 
into a bitter and suspicious fancy known
 as jealousy1 that is quite another     
matter2 such a passion may be natural or
 it may not2 we must distinguish between
 these different cases4  ,i have already
 analysed the example of the animal     
world in my ,discourse on ,inequality1  
and on further consideration ,i think ,i
 may refer my readers to that analysis  
as sufficiently thorough4 ,i will only  
add this further point to those already 
made in that work1 that the jealousy    
which springs from nature depends       
greatly on sexual power1 and that when  
sexual power is or appears to be        
boundless1 that jealousy is at its      
height2 for then the male1 measuring his
 rights by his needs1 can never see     
another male except as an unwelcome     
rival4 ,in such species the females     
always submit to the first comer1 they  

only belong to the male by right of     
conquest1 and they are the cause of     
unending strife4  ,among the monogamous 
species1 where intercourse seems to give
 rise to some sort of moral bond1 a kind
 of marriage1 the female who belongs by 
choice to the male on whom she has      
bestowed herself usually denies herself 
to all others2 and the male1 having this
 preference of affection as a pledge of 
her fidelity1 is less uneasy at the     
sight of other males and lives more     
peaceably with them4 ,among these       
species the male shares the care of the 
little ones2 and by one of those        
touching laws of nature it seems as if  
the female rewards the father for his   
love for his children4  ,now consider   
the human species in its primitive      
simplicity2 it is easy to see1 from the 
limited powers of the male1 and the     
moderation of his desires1 that nature  
meant him to be content with one female2
 this is confirmed by the numerical     
equality of the two sexes1 at any rate  

in our part of the world2 an equality   
which does not exist in anything like   
the same degree among those species in  
which several females are collected     
around one male4 ,though a man does not 
brood like a pigeon1 and though he has  
no milk to suckle the young1 and must in
 this respect be classed with the       
quadrupeds1 his children are feeble and 
helpless for so long a time1 that mother
 and children could ill dispense with   
the father's affection1 and the care    
which results from it4  ,all these      
observations combine to prove that the  
jealous fury of the males of certain    
animals proves nothing with regard to   
man2 and the exceptional case of those  
southern regions were polygamy is the   
established custom1 only confirms the   
rule1 since it is the plurality of wives
 that gives rise to the tyrannical      
precautions of the husband1 and the     
consciousness of his own weakness makes 
the man resort to constraint to evade   
the laws of nature4  ,among ourselves   

where these same laws are less          
frequently evaded in this respect1 but  
are more frequently evaded in another   
and even more detestable manner1        
jealousy finds its motives in the       
passions of society rather than in those
 of primitive instinct4 ,in most        
irregular connections the hatred of the 
lover for his rivals far exceeds his    
love for his mistress2 if he fears a    
rival in her affections it is the effect
 of that self-love whose origin ,i have 
already traced out1 and he is moved by  
vanity rather than affection4           
,moreover1 our clumsy systems of        
education have made women so deceitful1 
,footnote3 ,the kind of deceit referred 
to here is just the opposite of that    
deceit becoming in a woman1 and taught  
her by nature2 the latter consists in   
concealing her real feelings1 the former
 in feigning what she does not feel4    
,every society lady spends her life in  
boasting of her supposed sensibility1   
when in reality she cares for no one but

 herself4 and have so over-stimulated   
their appetites1 that you cannot rely   
even on the most clearly proved         
affection2 they can no longer display a 
preference which secures you against the
 fear of a rival4  ,true love is another
 matter4 ,i have shown1 in the work     
already referred to1 that this sentiment
 is not so natural as men think1 and    
that there is a great difference between
 the gentle habit which binds a man with
 cords of love to his helpmeet1 and the 
unbridled passion which is intoxicated  
by the fancied charms of an object which
 he no longer sees in its true light4   
,this passion which is full of          
exclusions and preferences1 only differs
 from vanity in this respect1 that      
vanity demands all and gives nothing1 so
 that it is always harmful1 while love1 
bestowing as much as it demands1 is in  
itself a sentiment full of equity4      
,moreover1 the more exacting it is1 the 
more credulous2 that very illusion which
 gave rise to it1 makes it easy to      

persuade4 ,if love is suspicious1 esteem
 is trustful2 and love will never exist 
in an honest heart without esteem1 for  
every one loves in another the qualities
 which he himself holds in honour4      
,when once this is clearly understood1  
we can predict with confidence the kind 
of jealousy which ,emile will be capable
 of experiencing2 as there is only the  
smallest germ of this passion in the    
human heart1 the form it takes must     
depend solely upon education3 ,emile1   
full of love and jealousy1 will not be  
angry1 sullen1 suspicious1 but delicate1
 sensitive1 and timid2 he will be more  
alarmed than vexed2 he will think more  
of securing his lady-love than of       
threatening his rival2 he will treat him
 as an obstacle to be removed if        
possible from his path1 rather than as a
 rival to be hated2 if he hates him1 it 
is not because he presumes to compete   
with him for ,sophy's affection1 but    
because ,emile feels that there is a    
real danger of losing that affection2 he

 will not be so unjust and foolish as to
 take offence at the rivalry itself2 he 
understands that the law of preference  
rests upon merit only1 and that honour  
depends upon success2 he will redouble  
his efforts to make himself acceptable1 
and he will probably succeed4 ,his      
generous ,sophy1 though she has given   
alarm to his love1 is well able to allay
 that fear1 to atone for it2 and the    
rivals who were only suffered to put him
 to the proof are speedily dismissed4   
,but whither am ,i going8 ,o ,emile6    
what art thou now8 ,is this my pupil8   
,how art thou fallen6 ,where is that    
young man so sternly fashioned1 who     
braved all weathers1 who devoted his    
body to the hardest tasks and his soul  
to the laws of wisdom2 untouched by     
prejudice or passion1 a lover of truth1 
swayed by reason only1 unheeding all    
that was not hers8 ,living in softness  
and idleness he now lets himself be     
ruled by women2 their amusements are the
 business of his life1 their wishes are 

his laws2 a young girl is the arbiter of
 his fate1 he cringes and grovels before
 her2 the earnest ,emile is the         
plaything of a child4  ,so shift the    
scenes of life2 each age is swayed by   
its own motives1 but the man is the     
same4 ,at ten his mind was set upon     
cakes1 at twenty it is set upon his     
mistress2 at thirty it will be set upon 
pleasure2 at forty on ambition1 at fifty
 on avarice2 when will he seek after    
wisdom only8 ,happy is he who is        
compelled to follow her against his     
will6 ,what matter who is the guide1 if 
the end is attained4 ,heroes and sages  
have themselves paid tribute to this    
human weakness2 and those who handled   
the distaff with clumsy fingers were    
none the less great men4  ,if you would 
prolong the influence of a good         
education through life itself1 the good 
habits acquired in childhood must be    
carried forward into adolescence1 and   
when your pupil is what he ought to be  
you must manage to keep him what he     

ought to be4 ,this is the coping-stone  
of your work4 ,this is why it is of the 
first importance that the tutor should  
remain with young men2 otherwise there  
is little doubt they will learn to make 
love without him4 ,the great mistake of 
tutors and still more of fathers is to  
think that one way of living makes      
another impossible1 and that as soon as 
the child is grown up1 you must abandon 
everything you used to do when he was   
little4 ,if that were so1 why should we 
take such pains in childhood1 since the 
good or bad use we make of it will      
vanish with childhood itself2 if another
 way of life were necessarily           
accompanied by other ways of thinking8  
,the stream of memory is only           
interrupted by great illnesses1 and the 
stream of conduct1 by great passions4   
,our tastes and inclinations may change1
 but this change1 though it may be      
sudden enough1 is rendered less abrupt  
by our habits4 ,the skilful artist1 in a
 good colour scheme1 contrives so to    

mingle and blend his tints that the     
transitions are imperceptible2 and      
certain colour washes are spread over   
the whole picture so that there may be  
no sudden breaks4 ,so should it be with 
our likings4 ,unbalanced characters are 
always changing their affections1 their 
tastes1 their sentiments2 the only      
constant factor is the habit of change2 
but the man of settled character always 
returns to his former habits and        
preserves to old age the tastes and the 
pleasures of his childhood4  ,if you    
contrive that young people passing from 
one stage of life to another do not     
despise what has gone before1 that when 
they form new habits1 they do not       
forsake the old1 and that they always   
love to do what is right1 in things new 
and old2 then only are the fruits of    
your toil secure1 and you are sure of   
your scholars as long as they live2 for 
the revolution most to be dreaded is    
that of the age over which you are now  
watching4 ,as men always look back to   

this period with regret so the tastes   
carried forward into it from childhood  
are not easily destroyed2 but if once   
interrupted they are never resumed4     
,most of the habits you think you have  
instilled into children and young people
 are not really habits at all2 they have
 only been acquired under compulsion1   
and being followed reluctantly they will
 be cast off at the first opportunity4  
,however long you remain in prison you  
never get a taste for prison life2 so   
aversion is increased rather than       
diminished by habit4 ,not so with       
,emile2 as a child he only did what he  
could do willingly and with pleasure1   
and as a man he will do the same1 and   
the force of habit will only lend its   
help to the joys of freedom4 ,an active 
life1 bodily labour1 exercise1 movement1
 have become so essential to him that he
 could not relinquish them without      
suffering4 ,reduce him all at once to a 
soft and sedentary life and you condemn 
him to chains and imprisonment1 you keep

 him in a condition of thraldom and     
constraint2 he would suffer1 no doubt1  
both in health and temper4 ,he can      
scarcely breathe in a stuffy room1 he   
requires open air1 movement1 fatigue4   
,even at ,sophy's feet he cannot help   
casting a glance at the country and     
longing to explore it in her company4   
,yet he remains if he must2 but he is   
anxious and ill at ease2 he seems to be 
struggling with himself2 he remains     
because he is a captive4  ,yes1 you will
 say1 these are necessities to which you
 have subjected him1 a yoke which you   
have laid upon him4 ,you speak truly1 ,i
 have subjected him to the yoke of      
manhood4  ,emile loves ,sophy2 but what 
were the charms by which he was first   
attracted8 ,sensibility1 virtue1 and    
love for things pure and honest4 ,when  
he loves this love in ,sophy1 will he   
cease to feel it himself8 ,and what     
price did she put upon herself8 ,she    
required all her lover's natural        
feelings--esteem of what is really good1

 frugality1 simplicity1 generous        
unselfishness1 a scorn of pomp and      
riches4 ,these virtues were ,emile's    
before love claimed them of him4 ,is he 
really changed8 ,he has all the more    
reason to be himself2 that is the only  
difference4 ,the careful reader will not
 suppose that all the circumstances in  
which he is placed are the work of      
chance4 ,there were many charming girls 
in the town2 is it chance that his      
choice is discovered in a distant       
retreat8 ,is their meeting the work of  
chance8 ,is it chance that makes them so
 suited to each other8 ,is it chance    
that they cannot live in the same place1
 that he is compelled to find a lodging 
so far from her8 ,is it chance that he  
can see her so seldom and must purchase 
the pleasure of seeing her at the price 
of such fatigue8 ,you say he is becoming
 effeminate4 ,not so1 he is growing     
stronger2 he must be fairly robust to   
stand the fatigue he endures on ,sophy's
 account4  ,he lives more than two      

leagues away4 ,that distance serves to  
temper the shafts of love4 ,if they     
lived next door to each other1 or if he 
could drive to see her in a comfortable 
carriage1 he would love at his ease in  
the ,paris fashion4 ,would ,leander have
 braved death for the sake of ,hero if  
the sea had not lain between them8 ,need
 ,i say more2 if my reader is able to   
take my meaning1 he will be able to     
follow out my principles in detail4     
,the first time we went to see ,sophy1  
we went on horseback1 so as to get there
 more quickly4 ,we continue this        
convenient plan until our fifth visit4  
,we were expected2 and more than half a 
league from the house we see people on  
the road4 ,emile watches them1 his pulse
 quickens as he gets nearer1 he         
recognises ,sophy and dismounts quickly2
 he hastens to join the charming family4
 ,emile is fond of good horses2 his     
horse is fresh1 he feels he is free1 and
 gallops off across the fields2 ,i      
follow and with some difficulty ,i      

succeed in catching him and bringing him
 back4 ,unluckily ,sophy is afraid of   
horses1 and ,i dare not approach her4   
,emile has not seen what happened1 but  
,sophy whispers to him that he is giving
 his friend a great deal of trouble4 ,he
 hurries up quite ashamed of himself1   
takes the horses1 and follows after the 
party4 ,it is only fair that each should
 take his turn and he rides on to get   
rid of our mounts4 ,he has to leave     
,sophy behind him1 and he no longer     
thinks riding a convenient mode of      
travelling4 ,he returns out of breath   
and meets us half-way4  ,the next time1 
,emile will not hear of horses4 ,why1   
say ,i1 we need only take a servant to  
look after them4 ,shall we put our      
worthy friends to such expense8 he      
replies4 ,you see they would insist on  
feeding man and horse4 ,that is true1 ,i
 reply2 theirs is the generous          
hospitality of the poor4 ,the rich man  
in his niggardly pride only welcomes his
 friends1 but the poor find room for    

their friends' horses4 ,let us go on    
foot1 says he2 won't you venture on the 
walk1 when you are always so ready to   
share the toilsome pleasures of your    
child8 ,i will gladly go with you1 ,i   
reply at once1 and it seems to me that  
love does not desire so much show4  ,as 
we draw near1 we meet the mother and    
daughter even further from home than on 
the last occasion4 ,we have come at a   
great pace4 ,emile is very warm2 his    
beloved condescends to pass her         
handkerchief over his cheeks4 ,it would 
take a good many horses to make us ride 
there after this4  ,but it is rather    
hard never to be able to spend an       
evening together4 ,midsummer is long    
past and the days are growing shorter4  
,whatever we say1 we are not allowed to 
return home in the dark1 and unless we  
make a very early start1 we have to go  
back almost as soon as we get there4    
,the mother is sorry for us and uneasy  
on our account1 and it occurs to her    
that1 though it would not be proper for 

us to stay in the house1 beds might be  
found for us in the village1 if we liked
 to stay there occasionally4 ,emile     
claps his hands at this idea and        
trembles with joy2 ,sophy1 unwittingly1 
kisses her mother rather oftener than   
usual on the day this idea occurs to    
her4  ,little by little the charm of    
friendship and the familiarity of       
innocence take root and grow among us4  
,i generally accompany my young friend  
on the days appointed by ,sophy or her  
mother1 but sometimes ,i let him go     
alone4 ,the heart thrives in the        
sunshine of confidence1 and a man must  
not be treated as a child2 and what have
 ,i accomplished so far1 if my pupil is 
unworthy of my esteem8 ,now and then ,i 
go without him2 he is sorry1 but he does
 not complain2 what use would it be8    
,and then he knows ,i shall not         
interfere with his interests4 ,however1 
whether we go together or separately you
 will understand that we are not stopped
 by the weather2 we are only too proud  

to arrive in a condition which calls for
 pity4 ,unluckily ,sophy deprives us of 
this honour and forbids us to come in   
bad weather4  ,this is the only occasion
 on which she rebels against the rules  
which ,i laid down for her in private4  
,one day ,emile had gone alone and ,i   
did not expect him back till the        
following day1 but he returned the same 
evening4 ,my dear ,emile1 said ,i1 have 
you come back to your old friend        
already8 ,but instead of responding to  
my caresses he replied with some show of
 temper1 ,you need not suppose ,i came  
back so soon of my own accord2 she      
insisted on it2 it is for her sake not  
yours that ,i am here4 ,touched by his  
frankness ,i renewed my caresses1       
saying1 ,truthful heart and faithful    
friend1 do not conceal from me anything 
,i ought to know4 ,if you came back for 
her sake1 you told me so for my own2    
your return is her doing1 your frankness
 is mine4 ,continue to preserve the     
noble candour of great souls2 strangers 

may think what they will1 but it is a   
crime to let our friends think us better
 than we are4  ,i take care not to let  
him underrate the cost of his confession
 by assuming that there is more love    
than generosity in it1 and by telling   
him that he would rather deprive himself
 of the honour of this return1 than give
 it to ,sophy4 ,but this is how he      
revealed to me1 all unconsciously1 what 
were his real feelings2 if he had       
returned slowly and comfortably1        
dreaming of his sweetheart1 ,i should   
know he was merely her lover2 when he   
hurried back1 even if he was a little   
out of temper1 he was the friend of his 
,mentor4  ,you see that the young man is
 very far from spending his days with   
,sophy1 and seeing as much of her as he 
wants4 ,one or two visits a week are all
 that is permitted1 and these visits are
 often only for the afternoon and are   
rarely extended to the next day4 ,he    
spends much more of his time in longing 
to see her1 or in rejoicing that he has 

seen her1 than he actually spends in her
 presence4 ,even when he goes to see    
her1 more time is spent in going and    
returning than by her side4 ,his        
pleasures1 genuine1 pure1 delicious1 but
 more imaginary than real1 serve to     
kindle his love but not to make him     
effeminate4  ,on the days when he does  
not see ,sophy he is not sitting idle at
 home4 ,he is ,emile himself and quite  
unchanged4 ,he usually scours the       
country round in pursuit of its natural 
history2 he observes and studies the    
soil1 its products1 and their mode of   
cultivation2 he compares the methods he 
sees with those with which he is already
 familiar2 he tries to find the reasons 
for any differences2 if he thinks other 
methods better than those of the        
locality1 he introduces them to the     
farmers' notice2 if he suggests a better
 kind of plough1 he has one made from   
his own drawings2 if he finds a lime pit
 he teaches them how to use the lime on 
the land1 a process new to them2 he     

often lends a hand himself2 they are    
surprised to find him handling all      
manner of tools more easily than they   
can themselves2 his furrows are deeper  
and straighter than theirs1 he is a more
 skilful sower1 and his beds for early  
produce are more cleverly planned4 ,they
 do not scoff at him as a fine talker1  
they see he knows what he is talking    
about4 ,in a word1 his zeal and         
attention are bestowed on everything    
that is really useful to everybody2 nor 
does he stop there4 ,he visits the      
peasants in their homes2 inquires into  
their circumstances1 their families1 the
 number of their children1 the extent of
 their holdings1 the nature of their    
produce1 their markets1 their rights1   
their burdens1 their debts1 etc4 ,he    
gives away very little money1 for he    
knows it is usually ill spent2 but he   
himself directs the use of his money1   
and makes it helpful to them without    
distributing it among them4 ,he supplies
 them with labourers1 and often pays    

them for work done by themselves1 on    
tasks for their own benefit4 ,for one he
 has the falling thatch repaired or     
renewed2 for another he clears a piece  
of land which had gone out of           
cultivation for lack of means2 to       
another he gives a cow1 a horse1 or     
stock of any kind to replace a loss2 two
 neighbours are ready to go to law1 he  
wins them over1 and makes them friends  
again2 a peasant falls ill1 he has him  
cared for1 he looks after him himself2  
,footnote3 ,to look after a sick peasant
 is not merely to give him a pill1 or   
medicine1 or to send a surgeon to him4  
,that is not what these poor folk       
require in sickness2 what they want is  
more and better food4 ,when you have    
fever1 you will do well to fast1 but    
when your peasants have it1 give them   
meat and wine2 illness1 in their case1  
is nearly always due to poverty and     
exhaustion2 your cellar will supply the 
best draught1 your butchers will be the 
best apothecary4 another is harassed by 

a rich and powerful neighbor1 he        
protects him and speaks on his behalf2  
young people are fond of one another1 he
 helps forward their marriage2 a good   
woman has lost her beloved child1 he    
goes to see her1 he speaks words of     
comfort and sits a while with her2 he   
does not despise the poor1 he is in no  
hurry to avoid the unfortunate2 he often
 takes his dinner with some peasant he  
is helping1 and he will even accept a   
meal from those who have no need of his 
help2 though he is the benefactor of    
some and the friend of all1 he is none  
the less their equal4 ,in conclusion1 he
 always does as much good by his        
personal efforts as by his money4       
,sometimes his steps are turned in the  
direction of the happy abode2 he may    
hope to see ,sophy without her knowing1 
to see her out walking without being    
seen4 ,but ,emile is always quite open  
in everything he does2 he neither can   
nor would deceive4 ,his delicacy is of  
that pleasing type in which pride rests 

on the foundation of a good conscience4 
,he keeps strictly within bounds1 and   
never comes near enough to gain from    
chance what he only desires to win from 
,sophy herself4 ,on the other hand1 he  
delights to roam about the              
neighbourhood1 looking for the trace of 
,sophy's steps1 feeling what pains she  
has taken and what a distance she has   
walked to please him4  ,the day before  
his visit1 he will go to some           
neighbouring farm and order a little    
feast for the morrow4 ,we shall take our
 walk in that direction without any     
special object1 we shall turn in        
apparently by chance2 fruit1 cakes1 and 
cream are waiting for us4 ,sophy likes  
sweets1 so is not insensible to these   
attentions1 and she is quite ready to do
 honour to what we have provided2 for ,i
 always have my share of the credit even
 if ,i have had no part in the trouble2 
it is a girl's way of returning thanks  
more easily4 ,her father and ,i have    
cakes and wine2 ,emile keeps the ladies 

company and is always on the look-out to
 secure a dish of cream in which ,sophy 
has dipped her spoon4  ,the cakes lead  
me to talk of the races ,emile used to  
run4 ,every one wants to hear about     
them2 ,i explain amid much laughter2    
they ask him if he can run as well as   
ever4 ,better1 says he2 ,i should be    
sorry to forget how to run4 ,one member 
of the company is dying to see him run1 
but she dare not say so2 some one else  
undertakes to suggest it2 he agrees and 
we send for two or three young men of   
the neighbourhood2 a prize is offered1  
and in imitation of our earlier games a 
cake is placed on the goal4 ,every one  
is ready1 ,sophy's father gives the     
signal by clapping his hands4 ,the      
nimble ,emile flies like lightning and  
reaches the goal almost before the      
others have started4 ,he receives his   
prize at ,sophy's hands1 and no less    
generous than ,aeneas1 he gives gifts to
 all the vanquished4  ,in the midst of  
his triumph1 ,sophy dares to challenge  

the victor1 and to assert that she can  
run as fast as he4 ,he does not refuse  
to enter the lists with her1 and while  
she is getting ready to start1 while she
 is tucking up her skirt at each side1  
more eager to show ,emile a pretty ankle
 than to vanquish him in the race1 while
 she is seeing if her petticoats are    
short enough1 he whispers a word to her 
mother who smiles and nods approval4    
,then he takes his place by his         
competitor2 no sooner is the signal     
given than she is off like a bird4      
,women were not meant to run2 they flee 
that they may be overtaken4 ,running is 
not the only thing they do ill1 but it  
is the only thing they do awkwardly2    
their elbows glued to their sides and   
pointed backwards look ridiculous1 and  
the high heels on which they are perched
 make them look like so many            
grasshoppers trying to run instead of to
 jump4  ,emile1 supposing that ,sophy   
runs no better than other women1 does   
not deign to stir from his place and    

watches her start with a smile of       
mockery4 ,but ,sophy is light of foot   
and she wears low heels2 she needs no   
pretence to make her foot look smaller2 
she runs so quickly that he has only    
just time to overtake this new ,atalanta
 when he sees her so far ahead4 ,then he
 starts like an eagle dashing upon its  
prey2 he pursues her1 clutches her1     
grasps her at last quite out of breath1 
and gently placing his left arm about   
her1 he lifts her like a feather1 and   
pressing his sweet burden to his heart1 
he finishes the race1 makes her touch   
the goal first1 and then exclaiming1    
,sophy wins6 he sinks on one knee before
 her and owns himself beaten4  ,along   
with such occupations there is also the 
trade we learnt4 ,one day a week at     
least1 and every day when the weather is
 too bad for country pursuits1 ,emile   
and ,i go to work under a master-joiner4
 ,we do not work for show1 like people  
above our trade2 we work in earnest like
 regular workmen4 ,once when ,sophy's   

father came to see us1 he found us at   
work1 and did not fail to report his    
wonder to his wife and daughter4 ,go and
 see that young man in the workshop1    
said he1 and you will soon see if he    
despises the condition of the poor4 ,you
 may fancy how pleased ,sophy was at    
this6 ,they talk it over1 and they      
decide to surprise him at his work4     
,they question me1 apparently without   
any special object1 and having made sure
 of the time1 mother and daughter take a
 little carriage and come to town on    
that very day4  ,on her arrival1 ,sophy 
sees1 at the other end of the shop1 a   
young man in his shirt sleeves1 with his
 hair all untidy1 so hard at work that  
he does not see her2 she makes a sign to
 her mother4 ,emile1 a chisel in one    
hand and a hammer in the other1 is just 
finishing a mortise2 then he saws a     
piece of wood and places it in the vice 
in order to polish it4 ,the sight of    
this does not set ,sophy laughing2 it   
affects her greatly2 it wins her        

respect4 ,woman1 honour your master2 he 
it is who works for you1 he it is who   
gives you bread to eat2 this is he6     
,while they are busy watching him1 ,i   
perceive them and pull ,emile by the    
sleeve2 he turns round1 drops his tools1
 and hastens to them with an exclamation
 of delight4 ,after he has given way to 
his first raptures1 he makes them take a
 seat and he goes back to his work4 ,but
 ,sophy cannot keep quiet2 she gets up  
hastily1 runs about the workshop1 looks 
at the tools1 feels the polish of the   
boards1 picks up shavings1 looks at our 
hands1 and says she likes this trade1 it
 is so clean4 ,the merry girl tries to  
copy ,emile4 ,with her delicate white   
hand she passes a plane over a bit of   
wood2 the plane slips and makes no      
impression4 ,it seems to me that ,love  
himself is hovering over us and beating 
his wings2 ,i think ,i can hear his     
joyous cries1 ,hercules is avenged4     
,yet ,sophy's mother questions the      
master4 ,sir1 how much do you pay these 

two men a day8 ,i give them each        
tenpence a day and their food2 but if   
that young fellow wanted he could earn  
much more1 for he is the best workman in
 the country4 ,tenpence a day and their 
food1 said she looking at us tenderly4  
,that is so1 madam1 replied the master4 
,at these words she hurries up to       
,emile1 kisses him1 and clasps him to   
her breast with tears2 unable to say    
more she repeats again and again1 ,my   
son1 my son6  ,when they had spent some 
time chatting with us1 but without      
interrupting our work1 ,we must be going
 now1 said the mother to her daughter1  
it is getting late and we must not keep 
your father waiting4 ,then approaching  
,emile she tapped him playfully on the  
cheek1 saying1 ,well1 my good workman1  
won't you come with us8 ,he replied     
sadly1 ,i am at work1 ask the master4   
,the master is asked if he can spare us4
 ,he replies that he cannot4 ,i have    
work on hand1 said he1 which is wanted  
the day after to-morrow1 so there is not

 much time4 ,counting on these gentlemen
 ,i refused other workmen who came2 if  
they fail me ,i don't know how to       
replace them and ,i shall not be able to
 send the work home at the time         
promised4 ,the mother said nothing1 she 
was waiting to hear what ,emile would   
say4 ,emile hung his head in silence4   
,sir1 she said1 somewhat surprised at   
this1 have you nothing to say to that8  
,emile looked tenderly at her daughter  
and merely said1 ,you see ,i am bound to
 stay4 ,then the ladies left us4 ,emile 
went with them to the door1 gazed after 
them as long as they were in sight1 and 
returned to his work without a word4    
,on the way home1 the mother1 somewhat  
vexed at his conduct1 spoke to her      
daughter of the strange way in which he 
had behaved4 ,why1 said she1 was it so  
difficult to arrange matters with the   
master without being obliged to stay4   
,the young man is generous enough and   
ready to spend money when there is no   
need for it1 could not he spend a little

 on such a fitting occasion8 ,oh1 mamma1
 replied ,sophy1 ,i trust ,emile will   
never rely so much on money as to use it
 to break an engagement1 to fail to keep
 his own word1 and to make another break
 his6 ,i know he could easily give the  
master a trifle to make up for the      
slight inconvenience caused by his      
absence2 but his soul would become the  
slave of riches1 he would become        
accustomed to place wealth before duty1 
and he would think that any duty might  
be neglected provided he was ready to   
pay4 ,that is not ,emile's way of       
thinking1 and ,i hope he will never     
change on my account4 ,do you think it  
cost him nothing to stay8 ,you are quite
 wrong1 mamma2 it was for my sake that  
he stayed2 ,i saw it in his eyes4  ,it  
is not that ,sophy is indifferent to    
genuine proofs of love2 on the contrary 
she is imperious and exacting2 she would
 rather not be loved at all than be     
loved half-heartedly4 ,hers is the noble
 pride of worth1 conscious of its own   

value1 self-respecting and claiming a   
like honour from others4 ,she would     
scorn a heart that did not recognise the
 full worth of her own2 that did not    
love her for her virtues as much and    
more than for her charms2 a heart which 
did not put duty first1 and prefer it to
 everything4 ,she did not desire a lover
 who knew no will but hers4 ,she wished 
to reign over a man whom she had not    
spoilt4 ,thus ,circe1 having changed    
into swine the comrades of ,ulysses1    
bestowed herself on him over whom she   
had no power4  ,except for this sacred  
and inviolable right1 ,sophy is very    
jealous of her own rights2 she observes 
how carefully ,emile respects them1 how 
zealously he does her will2 how cleverly
 he guesses her wishes1 how exactly he  
arrives at the appointed time2 she will 
have him neither late nor early2 he must
 arrive to the moment4 ,to come early is
 to think more of himself than of her2  
to come late is to neglect her4 ,to     
neglect ,sophy1 that could not happen   

twice4 ,an unfounded suspicion on her   
part nearly ruined everything1 but      
,sophy is really just and knows how to  
atone for her faults4  ,they were       
expecting us one evening2 ,emile had    
received his orders4 ,they came to meet 
us1 but we were not there4 ,what has    
become of us8 ,what accident have we met
 with8 ,no message from us6 ,the evening
 is spent in expectation of our arrival4
 ,sophy thinks we are dead2 she is      
miserable and in an agony of distress2  
she cries all the night through4 ,in the
 course of the evening a messenger was  
despatched to inquire after us and bring
 back news in the morning4 ,the         
messenger returns together with another 
messenger sent by us1 who makes our     
excuses verbally and says we are quite  
well4 ,then the scene is changed2 ,sophy
 dries her tears1 or if she still weeps 
it is for anger4 ,it is small           
consolation to her proud spirit to know 
that we are alive2 ,emile lives and he  
has kept her waiting4  ,when we arrive  

she tries to escape to her own room2 her
 parents desire her to remain1 so she is
 obliged to do so2 but deciding at once 
what course she will take she assumes a 
calm and contented expression which     
would deceive most people4 ,her father  
comes forward to receive us saying1 ,you
 have made your friends very uneasy2    
there are people here who will not      
forgive you very readily4 ,who are they1
 papa1 said ,sophy with the most        
gracious smile she could assume4 ,what  
business is that of yours1 said her     
father1 if it is not you8 ,sophy bent   
over her work without reply4 ,her mother
 received us coldly and formally4 ,emile
 was so confused he dared not speak to  
,sophy4 ,she spoke first1 inquired how  
he was1 asked him to take a chair1 and  
pretended so cleverly that the poor     
young fellow1 who as yet knew nothing of
 the language of angry passions1 was    
quite deceived by her apparent          
indifference1 and ready to take offence 
on his own account4  ,to undeceive him  

,i was going to take ,sophy's hand and  
raise it to my lips as ,i sometimes did2
 she drew it back so hastily1 with the  
word1 ,sir1 uttered in such a strange   
manner that ,emile's eyes were opened at
 once by this involuntary movement4     
,sophy herself1 seeing that she had     
betrayed herself1 exercised less control
 over herself4 ,her apparent            
indifference was succeeded by scornful  
irony4 ,she replied to everything he    
said in monosyllables uttered slowly and
 hesitatingly as if she were afraid her 
anger should show itself too plainly4   
,emile half dead with terror stared at  
her full of sorrow1 and tried to get her
 to look at him so that his eyes might  
read in hers her real feelings4 ,sophy1 
still more angry at his boldness1 gave  
him one look which removed all wish for 
another4 ,luckily for himself1 ,emile1  
trembling and dumbfounded1 dared neither
 look at her nor speak to her again2 for
 had he not been guilty1 had he been    
able to endure her wrath1 she would     

never have forgiven him4  ,seeing that  
it was my turn now1 and that the time   
was ripe for explanation1 ,i returned to
 ,sophy4 ,i took her hand and this time 
she did not snatch it away2 she was     
ready to faint4 ,i said gently1 ,dear   
,sophy1 we are the victims of           
misfortune2 but you are just and        
reasonable2 you will not judge us       
unheard2 listen to what we have to say4 
,she said nothing and ,i proceeded--    
,we set out yesterday at four o'clock2  
we were told to be here at seven1 and we
 always allow ourselves rather more time
 than we need1 so as to rest a little   
before we get here4 ,we were more than  
half way here when we heard lamentable  
groans1 which came from a little valley 
in the hillside1 some distance off4 ,we 
hurried towards the place and found an  
unlucky peasant who had taken rather    
more wine than was good for him2 on his 
way home he had fallen heavily from his 
horse and broken his leg4 ,we shouted   
and called for help2 there was no       

answer2 we tried to lift the injured man
 on his horse1 but without success2 the 
least movement caused intense agony4 ,we
 decided to tie up the horse in a quiet 
part of the wood2 then we made a chair  
of our crossed arms and carried the man 
as gently as possible1 following his    
directions till we got him home4 ,the   
way was long1 and we were constantly    
obliged to stop and rest4 ,at last we   
got there1 but thoroughly exhausted4 ,we
 were surprised and sorry to find that  
it was a house we knew already and that 
the wretched creature we had carried    
with such difficulty was the very man   
who received us so kindly when first we 
came4 ,we had all been so upset that    
until that moment we had not recognised 
each other4  ,there were only two little
 children4 ,his wife was about to       
present him with another1 and she was so
 overwhelmed at the sight of him brought
 home in such a condition1 that she was 
taken ill and a few hours later gave    
birth to another little one4 ,what was  

to be done under such circumstances in a
 lonely cottage far from any help8      
,emile decided to fetch the horse we had
 left in the wood1 to ride as fast as he
 could into the town and fetch a        
surgeon4 ,he let the surgeon have the   
horse1 and not succeeding in finding a  
nurse all at once1 he returned on foot  
with a servant1 after having sent a     
messenger to you2 meanwhile ,i hardly   
knew what to do between a man with a    
broken leg and a woman in travail1 but  
,i got ready as well as ,i could such   
things in the house as ,i thought would 
be needed for the relief of both4  ,i   
will pass over the rest of the details2 
they are not to the point4 ,it was two  
o'clock in the morning before we got a  
moment's rest4 ,at last we returned     
before daybreak to our lodging close at 
hand1 where we waited till you were up  
to let you know what had happened to us4
  ,that was all ,i said4 ,but before any
 one could speak ,emile1 approaching    
,sophy1 raised his voice and said with  

greater firmness than ,i expected1      
,sophy1 my fate is in your hands1 as you
 very well know4 ,you may condemn me to 
die of grief2 but do not hope to make me
 forget the rights of humanity2 they are
 even more sacred in my eyes than your  
own rights2 ,i will never renounce them 
for you4  ,for all answer1 ,sophy rose1 
put her arm round his neck1 and kissed  
him on the cheek2 then offering him her 
hand with inimitable grace she said to  
him1 ,emile1 take this hand2 it is      
yours4 ,when you will1 you shall be my  
husband and my master2 ,i will try to be
 worthy of that honour4  ,scarcely had  
she kissed him1 when her delighted      
father clapped his hands calling1       
,encore1 encore1 and ,sophy without     
further ado1 kissed him twice on the    
other cheek2 but afraid of what she had 
done she took refuge at once in her     
mother's arms and hid her blushing face 
on the maternal bosom4  ,i will not     
describe our happiness2 everybody will  
feel with us4 ,after dinner ,sophy asked

 if it were too far to go and see the   
poor invalids4 ,it was her wish and it  
was a work of mercy4 ,when we got there 
we found them both in bed--,emile had   
sent for a second bedstead2 there were  
people there to look after them--,emile 
had seen to it4 ,but in spite of this   
everything was so untidy that they      
suffered almost as much from discomfort 
as from their condition4 ,sophy asked   
for one of the good wife's aprons and   
set to work to make her more comfortable
 in her bed2 then she did as much for   
the man2 her soft and gentle hand seemed
 to find out what was hurting them and  
how to settle them into less painful    
positions4 ,her very presence seemed to 
make them more comfortable2 she seemed  
to guess what was the matter4 ,this     
fastidious girl was not disgusted by the
 dirt or smells1 and she managed to get 
rid of both without disturbing the sick 
people4 ,she who had always appeared so 
modest and sometimes so disdainful1 she 
who would not for all the world have    

touched a man's bed with her little     
finger1 lifted the sick man and changed 
his linen without any fuss1 and placed  
him to rest in a more comfortable       
position4 ,the zeal of charity is of    
more value than modesty4 ,what she did  
was done so skilfully and with such a   
light touch that he felt better almost  
without knowing she had touched him4    
,husband and wife mingled their         
blessings upon the kindly girl who      
tended1 pitied1 and consoled them4 ,she 
was an angel from heaven come to visit  
them2 she was an angel in face and      
manner1 in gentleness and goodness4     
,emile was greatly touched by all this  
and he watched her without speaking4 ,o 
man1 love thy helpmeet4 ,god gave her to
 relieve thy sufferings1 to comfort thee
 in thy troubles4 ,this is she6  ,the   
new-born baby was baptised4 ,the two    
lovers were its god-parents1 and as they
 held it at the font they were longing1 
at the bottom of their hearts1 for the  
time when they should have a child of   

their own to be baptised4 ,they longed  
for their wedding day2 they thought it  
was close at hand2 all ,sophy's scruples
 had vanished1 but mine remained4 ,they 
had not got so far as they expected2    
every one must have his turn4  ,one     
morning when they had not seen each     
other for two whole days1 ,i entered    
,emile's room with a letter in my hands1
 and looking fixedly at him ,i said to  
him1 ,what would you do if some one told
 you ,sophy were dead8 ,he uttered a    
loud cry1 got up and struck his hands   
together1 and without saying a single   
word1 he looked at me with eyes of      
desperation4 ,answer me1 ,i continued   
with the same calmness4 ,vexed at my    
composure1 he then approached me with   
eyes blazing with anger2 and checking   
himself in an almost threatening        
attitude1 ,what would ,i do8 ,i know    
not2 but this ,i do know1 ,i would never
 set eyes again upon the person who     
brought me such news4 ,comfort yourself1
 said ,i1 smiling1 she lives1 she is    

well1 and they are expecting us this    
evening4 ,but let us go for a short walk
 and we can talk things over4  ,the     
passion which engrosses him will no     
longer permit him to devote himself as  
in former days to discussions of pure   
reason2 this very passion must be called
 to our aid if his attention is to be   
given to my teaching4 ,that is why ,i   
made use of this terrible preface2 ,i am
 quite sure he will listen to me now4   
,we must be happy1 dear ,emile2 it is   
the end of every feeling creature2 it is
 the first desire taught us by nature1  
and the only one which never leaves us4 
,but where is happiness8 ,who knows8    
,every one seeks it1 and no one finds   
it4 ,we spend our lives in the search   
and we die before the end is attained4  
,my young friend1 when ,i took you1 a   
new-born infant1 in my arms1 and called 
,god himself to witness to the vow ,i   
dared to make that ,i would devote my   
life to the happiness of your life1 did 
,i know myself what ,i was undertaking8 

,no2 ,i only knew that in making you    
happy1 ,i was sure of my own happiness4 
,by making this useful inquiry on your  
account1 ,i made it for us both4  ,so   
long as we do not know what to do1      
wisdom consists in doing nothing4 ,of   
all rules there is none so greatly      
needed by man1 and none which he is less
 able to obey4 ,in seeking happiness    
when we know not where it is1 we are    
perhaps getting further and further from
 it1 we are running as many risks as    
there are roads to choose from4 ,but it 
is not every one that can keep still4   
,our passion for our own well-being     
makes us so uneasy1 that we would rather
 deceive ourselves in the search for    
happiness than sit still and do nothing2
 and when once we have left the place   
where we might have known happiness1 we 
can never return4  ,in ignorance like   
this ,i tried to avoid a similar fault4 
,when ,i took charge of you ,i decided  
to take no useless steps and to prevent 
you from doing so too4 ,i kept to the   

path of nature1 until she should show me
 the path of happiness4 ,and lo6 their  
paths were the same1 and without knowing
 it this was the path ,i trod4  ,be at  
once my witness and my judge2 ,i will   
never refuse to accept your decision4   
,your early years have not been         
sacrificed to those that were to follow1
 you have enjoyed all the good gifts    
which nature bestowed upon you4 ,of the 
ills to which you were by nature        
subject1 and from which ,i could shelter
 you1 you have only experienced such as 
would harden you to bear others4 ,you   
have never suffered any evil1 except to 
escape a greater4 ,you have known       
neither hatred nor servitude4 ,free and 
happy1 you have remained just and       
kindly2 for suffering and vice are      
inseparable1 and no man ever became bad 
until he was unhappy4 ,may the memory of
 your childhood remain with you to old  
age6 ,i am not afraid that your kind    
heart will ever recall the hand that    
trained it without a blessing upon it4  

,when you reached the age of reason1 ,i 
secured you from the influence of human 
prejudice2 when your heart awoke ,i     
preserved you from the sway of passion4 
,had ,i been able to prolong this inner 
tranquillity till your life's end1 my   
work would have been secure1 and you    
would have been as happy as man can be2 
but1 my dear ,emile1 in vain did ,i dip 
you in the waters of ,styx1 ,i could not
 make you everywhere invulnerable2 a    
fresh enemy has appeared1 whom you have 
not yet learnt to conquer1 and from whom
 ,i cannot save you4 ,that enemy is     
yourself4 ,nature and fortune had left  
you free4 ,you could face poverty1 you  
could bear bodily pain2 the sufferings  
of the heart were unknown to you2 you   
were then dependent on nothing but your 
position as a human being2 now you      
depend on all the ties you have formed  
for yourself2 you have learnt to desire1
 and you are now the slave of your      
desires4 ,without any change in         
yourself1 without any insult1 any injury

 to yourself1 what sorrows may attack   
your soul1 what pains may you suffer    
without sickness1 how many deaths may   
you die and yet live6 ,a lie1 an error1 
a suspicion1 may plunge you in despair4 
,at the theatre you used to see heroes1 
abandoned to depths of woe1 making the  
stage re-echo with their wild cries1    
lamenting like women1 weeping like      
children1 and thus securing the applause
 of the audience4 ,do you remember how  
shocked you were by those lamentations1 
cries1 and groans1 in men from whom one 
would only expect deeds of constancy and
 heroism4 ',why1' said you1 'are those  
the patterns we are to follow1 the      
models set for our imitation6 ,are they 
afraid man will not be small enough1    
unhappy enough1 weak enough1 if his     
weakness is not enshrined under a false 
show of virtue4' ,my young friend1      
henceforward you must be more merciful  
to the stage2 you have become one of    
those heroes4  ,you know how to suffer  
and to die2 you know how to bear the    

heavy yoke of necessity in ills of the  
body1 but you have not yet learnt to    
give a law to the desires of your heart2
 and the difficulties of life arise     
rather from our affections than from our
 needs4 ,our desires are vast1 our      
strength is little better than nothing4 
,in his wishes man is dependent on many 
things2 in himself he is dependent on   
nothing1 not even on his own life2 the  
more his connections are multiplied1 the
 greater his sufferings4 ,everything    
upon earth has an end2 sooner or later  
all that we love escapes from our       
fingers1 and we behave as if it would   
last for ever4 ,what was your terror at 
the mere suspicion of ,sophy's death8   
,do you suppose she will live for ever8 
,do not young people of her age die8    
,she must die1 my son1 and perhaps      
before you4 ,who knows if she is alive  
at this moment8 ,nature meant you to die
 but once2 you have prepared a second   
death for yourself4  ,a slave to your   
unbridled passions1 how greatly are you 

to be pitied6 ,ever privations1 losses1 
alarms2 you will not even enjoy what is 
left4 ,you will possess nothing because 
of the fear of losing it2 you will never
 be able to satisfy your passions1      
because you desired to follow them      
continually4 ,you will ever be seeking  
that which will fly before you2 you will
 be miserable and you will become       
wicked4 ,how can you be otherwise1      
having no care but your unbridled       
passions6 ,if you cannot put up with    
involuntary privations how will you     
voluntarily deprive yourself8 ,how can  
you sacrifice desire to duty1 and resist
 your heart in order to listen to your  
reason8 ,you would never see that man   
again who dared to bring you word of the
 death of your mistress2 how would you  
behold him who would deprive you of her 
living self1 him who would dare to tell 
you1 ',she is dead to you1 virtue puts a
 gulf between you'8 ,if you must live   
with her whatever happens1 whether      
,sophy is married or single1 whether you

 are free or not1 whether she loves or  
hates you1 whether she is given or      
refused to you1 no matter1 it is your   
will and you must have her at any price4
 ,tell me then what crime will stop a   
man who has no law but his heart's      
desires1 who knows not how to resist his
 own passions4  ,my son1 there is no    
happiness without courage1 nor virtue   
without a struggle4 ,the word virtue is 
derived from a word signifying strength1
 and strength is the foundation of all  
virtue4 ,virtue is the heritage of a    
creature weak by nature but strong by   
will2 that is the whole merit of the    
righteous man2 and though we call ,god  
good we do not call ,him virtuous1      
because ,he does good without effort4 ,i
 waited to explain the meaning of this  
word1 so often profaned1 until you were 
ready to understand me4 ,as long as     
virtue is quite easy to practise1 there 
is little need to know it4 ,this need   
arises with the awakening of the        
passions2 your time has come4  ,when ,i 

brought you up in all the simplicity of 
nature1 instead of preaching            
disagreeable duties1 ,i secured for you 
immunity from the vices which make such 
duties disagreeable2 ,i made lying not  
so much hateful as unnecessary in your  
sight2 ,i taught you not so much to give
 others their due1 as to care little    
about your own rights2 ,i made you      
kindly rather than virtuous4 ,but the   
kindly man is only kind so long as he   
finds it pleasant2 kindness falls to    
pieces at the shook of human passions2  
the kindly man is only kind to himself4 
,what is meant by a virtuous man8 ,he   
who can conquer his affections2 for then
 he follows his reason1 his conscience2 
he does his duty2 he is his own master  
and nothing can turn him from the right 
way4 ,so far you have had only the      
semblance of liberty1 the precarious    
liberty of the slave who has not        
received his orders4 ,now is the time   
for real freedom2 learn to be your own  
master2 control your heart1 my ,emile1  

and you will be virtuous4  ,there is    
another apprenticeship before you1 an   
apprenticeship more difficult than the  
former2 for nature delivers us from the 
evils she lays upon us1 or else she     
teaches us to submit to them2 but she   
has no message for us with regard to our
 self-imposed evils2 she leaves us to   
ourselves2 she leaves us1 victims of our
 own passions1 to succumb to our vain   
sorrows1 to pride ourselves on the tears
 of which we should be ashamed4  ,this  
is your first passion4 ,perhaps it is   
the only passion worthy of you4 ,if you 
can control it like a man1 it will be   
the last2 you will be master of all the 
rest1 and you will obey nothing but the 
passion for virtue4  ,there is nothing  
criminal in this passion2 ,i know it2 it
 is as pure as the hearts which         
experience it4 ,it was born of honour   
and nursed by innocence4 ,happy lovers6 
for you the charms of virtue do but add 
to those of love2 and the blessed union 
to which you are looking forward is less

 the reward of your goodness than of    
your affection4  ,but tell me1 ,o       
truthful man1 though this passion is    
pure1 is it any the less your master8   
,are you the less its slave8 ,and if    
to-morrow it should cease to be         
innocent1 would you strangle it on the  
spot8  ,now is the time to try your     
strength2 there is no time for that in  
hours of danger4 ,these perilous efforts
 should be made when danger is still    
afar4 ,we do not practise the use of our
 weapons when we are face to face with  
the enemy1 we do that before the war2 we
 come to the battle-field ready         
prepared4  ,it is a mistake to classify 
the passions as lawful and unlawful1 so 
as to yield to the one and refuse the   
other4 ,all alike are good if we are    
their masters2 all alike are bad if we  
abandon ourselves to them4 ,nature      
forbids us to extend our relations      
beyond the limits of our strength2      
reason forbids us to want what we cannot
 get1 conscience forbids us1 not to be  

tempted1 but to yield to temptation4 ,to
 feel or not to feel a passion is beyond
 our control1 but we can control        
ourselves4 ,every sentiment under our   
own control is lawful2 those which      
control us are criminal4 ,a man is not  
guilty if he loves his neighbour's wife1
 provided he keeps this unhappy passion 
under the control of the law of duty2 he
 is guilty if he loves his own wife so  
greatly as to sacrifice everything to   
that love4  ,do not expect me to supply 
you with lengthy precepts of morality1  
,i have only one rule to give you which 
sums up all the rest4 ,be a man2        
restrain your heart within the limits of
 your manhood4 ,study and know these    
limits2 however narrow they may be1 we  
are not unhappy within them2 it is only 
when we wish to go beyond them that we  
are unhappy1 only when1 in our mad      
passions1 we try to attain the          
impossible2 we are unhappy when we      
forget our manhood to make an imaginary 
world for ourselves1 from which we are  

always slipping back into our own4 ,the 
only good things1 whose loss really     
affects us1 are those which we claim as 
our rights4 ,if it is clear that we     
cannot obtain what we want1 our mind    
turns away from it2 wishes without hope 
cease to torture us4 ,a beggar is not   
tormented by a desire to be a king2 a   
king only wishes to be a god when he    
thinks himself more than man4  ,the     
illusions of pride are the source of our
 greatest ills2 but the contemplation of
 human suffering keeps the wise humble4 
,he keeps to his proper place and makes 
no attempt to depart from it2 he does   
not waste his strength in getting what  
he cannot keep2 and his whole strength  
being devoted to the right employment of
 what he has1 he is in reality richer   
and more powerful in proportion as he   
desires less than we4 ,a man1 subject to
 death and change1 shall ,i forge for   
myself lasting chains upon this earth1  
where everything changes and disappears1
 whence ,i myself shall shortly vanish6 

,oh1 ,emile6 my son6  if ,i were to lose
 you1 what would be left of myself8 ,and
 yet ,i must learn to lose you1 for who 
knows when you may be taken from me8    
,would you live in wisdom and happiness1
 fix your heart on the beauty that is   
eternal2 let your desires be limited by 
your position1 let your duties take     
precedence of your wishes2 extend the   
law of necessity into the region of     
morals2 learn to lose what may be taken 
from you2 learn to forsake all things at
 the command of virtue1 to set yourself 
above the chances of life1 to detach    
your heart before it is torn in pieces1 
to be brave in adversity so that you may
 never be wretched1 to be steadfast in  
duty that you may never be guilty of a  
crime4 ,then you will be happy in spite 
of fortune1 and good in spite of your   
passions4 ,you will find a pleasure that
 cannot be destroyed1 even in the       
possession of the most fragile things2  
you will possess them1 they will not    
possess you1 and you will realise that  

the man who loses everything1 only      
enjoys what he knows how to resign4 ,it 
is true you will not enjoy the illusions
 of imaginary pleasures1 neither will   
you feel the sufferings which are their 
result4 ,you will profit greatly by this
 exchange1 for the sufferings are real  
and frequent1 the pleasures are rare and
 empty4 ,victor over so many deceitful  
ideas1 you will also vanquish the idea  
that attaches such an excessive value to
 life4 ,you will spend your life in     
peace1 and you will leave it without    
terror2 you will detach yourself from   
life as from other things4 ,let others1 
horror-struck1 believe that when this   
life is ended they cease to be2         
conscious of the nothingness of life1   
you will think that you are but entering
 upon the true life4 ,to the wicked1    
death is the close of life2 to the just 
it is its dawn4  ,emile heard me with   
attention not unmixed with anxiety4     
,after such a startling preface he      
feared some gloomy conclusion4 ,he      

foresaw that when ,i showed him how     
necessary it is to practise the strength
 of the soul1 ,i desired to subject him 
to this stern discipline2 he was like a 
wounded man who shrinks from the        
surgeon1 and fancies he already feels   
the painful but healing touch which will
 cure the deadly wound4  ,uncertain1    
anxious1 eager to know what ,i am       
driving at1 he does not answer1 he      
questions me but timidly4 ,what must ,i 
do8 says he almost trembling1 not daring
 to raise his eyes4 ,what must you do8  
,i reply firmly4 ,you must leave ,sophy4
 ,what are you saying8 he exclaimed     
angrily4 ,leave ,sophy1 leave ,sophy1   
deceive her1 become a traitor1 a        
villain1 a perjurer6 ,why6 ,i continue1 
interrupting him2 does ,emile suppose ,i
 shall teach him to deserve such titles8
 ,no1 he continued with the same vigour4
 ,neither you nor any one else2 ,i am   
capable of preserving your work2 ,i     
shall not deserve such reproaches4  ,i  
was prepared for this first outburst2 ,i

 let it pass unheeded4 ,if ,i had not   
the moderation ,i preach it would not be
 much use preaching it6 ,emile knows me 
too well to believe me capable of       
demanding any wrong action from him1 and
 he knows that it would be wrong to     
leave ,sophy1 in the sense he attaches  
to the phrase4 ,so he waits for an      
explanation4 ,then ,i resume my speech4 
,my dear ,emile1 do you think any man   
whatsoever can be happier than you have 
been for the last three months8 ,if you 
think so1 undeceive yourself4 ,before   
tasting the pleasures of life you have  
plumbed the depths of its happiness4    
,there is nothing more than you have    
already experienced4 ,the joys of sense 
are soon over2 habit invariably destroys
 them4 ,you have tasted greater joys    
through hope than you will ever enjoy in
 reality4 ,the imagination which adorns 
what we long for1 deserts its           
possession4 ,with the exception of the  
one self-existing ,being1 there is      
nothing beautiful except that which is  

not4 ,if that state could have lasted   
for ever1 you would have found perfect  
happiness4 ,but all that is related to  
man shares his decline2 all is finite1  
all is fleeting in human life1 and even 
if the conditions which make us happy   
could be prolonged for ever1 habit would
 deprive us of all taste for that       
happiness4 ,if external circumstances   
remain unchanged1 the heart changes2    
either happiness forsakes us1 or we     
forsake her4  ,during your infatuation  
time has passed unheeded4 ,summer is    
over1 winter is at hand4 ,even if our   
expeditions were possible1 at such a    
time of year they would not be          
permitted4 ,whether we wish it or no1 we
 shall have to change our way of life2  
it cannot continue4 ,i read in your     
eager eyes that this does not disturb   
you greatly2 ,sophy's confession and    
your own wishes suggest a simple plan   
for avoiding the snow and escaping the  
journey4 ,the plan has its advantages1  
no doubt2 but when spring returns1 the  

snow will melt and the marriage will    
remain2 you must reckon for all seasons4
  ,you wish to marry ,sophy and you have
 only known her five months6 ,you wish  
to marry her1 not because she is a fit  
wife for you1 but because she pleases   
you2 as if love were never mistaken as  
to fitness1 as if those1 who begin with 
love1 never ended with hatred6 ,i know  
she is virtuous2 but is that enough8 ,is
 fitness merely a matter of honour8 ,it 
is not her virtue ,i misdoubt1 it is her
 disposition4 ,does a woman show her    
real character in a day8 ,do you know   
how often you must have seen her and    
under what varying conditions to really 
know her temper8 ,is four months of     
liking a sufficient pledge for the rest 
of your life8 ,a couple of months hence 
you may have forgotten her2 as soon as  
you are gone another may efface your    
image in her heart2 on your return you  
may find her as indifferent as you have 
hitherto found her affectionate4        
,sentiments are not a matter of         

principle2 she may be perfectly virtuous
 and yet cease to love you4 ,i am       
inclined to think she will be faithful  
and true2 but who will answer for her1  
and who will answer for you if you are  
not put to the proof8 ,will you postpone
 this trial till it is too late1 will   
you wait to know your true selves till  
parting is no longer possible8  ,sophy  
is not eighteen1 and you are barely     
twenty-two2 this is the age for love1   
but not for marriage4 ,what a father and
 mother for a family6 ,if you want to   
know how to bring up children1 you      
should at least wait till you yourselves
 are children no longer4 ,do you not    
know that too early motherhood has      
weakened the constitution1 destroyed the
 health1 and shortened the life of many 
young women8 ,do you not know that many 
children have always been weak and      
sickly because their mother was little  
more than a child herself8 ,when mother 
and child are both growing1 the strength
 required for their growth is divided1  

and neither gets all that nature        
intended2 are not both sure to suffer8  
,either ,i know very little of ,emile1  
or he would rather wait and have a      
healthy wife and children1 than satisfy 
his impatience at the price of their    
life and health4  ,let us speak of      
yourself4 ,you hope to be a husband and 
a father2 have you seriously considered 
your duties8 ,when you become the head  
of a family you will become a citizen of
 your country4 ,and what is a citizen of
 the state8 ,what do you know about it8 
,you have studied your duties as a man1 
but what do you know of the duties of a 
citizen8 ,do you know the meaning of    
such terms as government1 laws1 country8
 ,do you know the price you must pay for
 life1 and for what you must be prepared
 to die8 ,you think you know everything1
 when you really know nothing at all4   
,before you take your place in the civil
 order1 learn to perceive and know what 
is your proper place4  ,emile1 you must 
leave ,sophy2 ,i do not bid you forsake 

her2 if you were capable of such        
conduct1 she would be only too happy not
 to have married you2 you must leave her
 in order to return worthy of her4 ,do  
not be vain enough to think yourself    
already worthy4 ,how much remains to be 
done6 ,come and fulfil this splendid    
task2 come and learn to submit to       
absence2 come and earn the prize of     
fidelity1 so that when you return you   
may indeed deserve some honour1 and may 
ask her hand not as a favour but as a   
reward4  ,unaccustomed to struggle with 
himself1 untrained to desire one thing  
and to will another1 the young man will 
not give way2 he resists1 he argues4    
,why should he refuse the happiness     
which awaits him8 ,would he not despise 
the hand which is offered him if he     
hesitated to accept it8 ,why need he    
leave her to learn what he ought to     
know8 ,and if it were necessary to leave
 her why not leave her as his wife with 
a certain pledge of his return8 ,let him
 be her husband1 and he is ready to     

follow me2 let them be married and he   
will leave her without fear4 ,marry her 
in order to leave her1 dear ,emile6 what
 a contradiction6 ,a lover who can leave
 his mistress shows himself capable of  
great things2 a husband should never    
leave his wife unless through necessity4
 ,to cure your scruples1 ,i see the     
delay must be involuntary on your part2 
you must be able to tell ,sophy you     
leave her against your will4 ,very well1
 be content1 and since you will not     
follow the commands of reason1 you must 
submit to another master4 ,you have not 
forgotten your promise4 ,emile1 you must
 leave ,sophy2 ,i will have it4  ,for a 
moment or two he was downcast1 silent1  
and thoughtful1 then looking me full in 
the face he said1 ,when do we start8 ,in
 a week's time1 ,i replied2 ,sophy must 
be prepared for our going4 ,women are   
weaker than we are1 and we must show    
consideration for them2 and this parting
 is not a duty for her as it is for you1
 so she may be allowed to bear it less  

bravely4  ,the temptation to continue   
the daily history of their love up to   
the time of their separation is very    
great2 but ,i have already presumed too 
much upon the good nature of my readers2
 let us abridge the story so as to bring
 it to an end4 ,will ,emile face the    
situation as bravely at his mistress'   
feet as he has done in conversation with
 his friend8 ,i think he will2 his      
confidence is rooted in the sincerity of
 his love4 ,he would be more at a loss  
with her1 if it cost him less to leave  
her2 he would leave her feeling himself 
to blame1 and that is a difficult part  
for a man of honour to play2 but the    
greater the sacrifice1 the more credit  
he demands for it in the sight of her   
who makes it so difficult4 ,he has no   
fear that she will misunderstand his    
motives4 ,every look seems to say1 ,oh1 
,sophy1 read my heart and be faithful to
 me2 your lover is not without virtue4  
,sophy tries to bear the unforeseen blow
 with her usual pride and dignity4 ,she 

tries to seem as if she did not care1   
but as the honours of war are not hers1 
but ,emile's1 her strength is less equal
 to the task4 ,she weeps1 she sighs     
against her will1 and the fear of being 
forgotten embitters the pain of parting4
 ,she does not weep in her lover's      
sight1 she does not let him see her     
terror2 she would die rather than utter 
a sigh in his presence4 ,i am the       
recipient of her lamentations1 ,i behold
 her tears1 it is ,i who am supposed to 
be her confidant4 ,women are very clever
 and know how to conceal their          
cleverness2 the more she frets in       
private1 the more pains she takes to    
please me2 she feels that her fate is in
 my hands4  ,i console and comfort her2 
,i make myself answerable for her lover1
 or rather for her husband2 let her be  
as true to him as he to her and ,i      
promise they shall be married in two    
years' time4 ,she respects me enough to 
believe that ,i do not want to deceive  
her4 ,i am guarantor to each for the    

other4 ,their hearts1 their virtue1 my  
honesty1 the confidence of their        
parents1 all combine to reassure them4  
,but what can reason avail against      
weakness8 ,they part as if they were    
never to meet again4  ,then it is that  
,sophy recalls the regrets of ,eucharis1
 and fancies herself in her place4 ,do  
not let us revive that fantastic        
affection during his absence ,sophy1 say
 ,i one day1 exchange books with ,emile2
 let him have your ,telemachus that he  
may learn to be like him1 and let him   
give you his ,spectator which you enjoy 
reading4 ,study the duties of good wives
 in it1 and remember that in two years' 
time you will undertake those duties4   
,the exchange gave pleasure to both and 
inspired them with confidence4 ,at last 
the sad day arrived and they must part4 
,sophy's worthy father1 with whom ,i had
 arranged the whole business1 took      
affectionate leave of me1 and taking me 
aside1 he spoke seriously and somewhat  
emphatically1 saying1 ,i have done      

everything to please you2 ,i knew ,i had
 to do with a man of honour2 ,i have    
only one word to say4 ,remembering your 
pupil has signed his contract of        
marriage on my daughter's lips4  ,what a
 difference in the behaviour of the two 
lovers6 ,emile1 impetuous1 eager1       
excited1 almost beside himself1 cries   
aloud and sheds torrents of tears upon  
the hands of father1 mother1 and        
daughter2 with sobs he embraces every   
one in the house and repeats the same   
thing over and over again in a way that 
would be ludicrous at any other time4   
,sophy1 pale1 sorrowful1 doleful1 and   
heavy-eyed1 remains quiet without a word
 or a tear1 she sees no one1 not even   
,emile4 ,in vain he takes her hand1 and 
clasps her in his arms2 she remains     
motionless1 unheeding his tears1 his    
caresses1 and everything he does2 so far
 as she is concerned1 he is gone        
already4  ,a sight more moving than the 
prolonged lamentations and noisy regrets
 of her lover6 ,he sees1 he feels1 he is

 heartbroken4 ,i drag him reluctantly   
away2 if ,i left him another minute1 he 
would never go4 ,i am delighted that he 
should carry this touching picture with 
him4 ,if he should ever be tempted to   
forget what is due to ,sophy1 his heart 
must have strayed very far indeed if ,i 
cannot bring it back to her by recalling
 her as he saw her last4  ,,of ,,travel 
,is it good for young people to travel8 
,the question is often asked and as     
often hotly disputed4 ,if it were stated
 otherwise--,are men the better for     
having travelled8--perhaps there would  
be less difference of opinion4  ,the    
misuse of books is the death of sound   
learning4 ,people think they know what  
they have read1 and take no pains to    
learn4 ,too much reading only produces a
 pretentious ignoramus4 ,there was never
 so much reading in any age as the      
present1 and never was there less       
learning2 in no country of ,europe are  
so many histories and books of travel   
printed as in ,france1 and nowhere is   

there less knowledge of the mind and    
manners of other nations4 ,so many books
 lead us to neglect the book of the     
world2 if we read it at all1 we keep    
each to our own page4 ,if the phrase1   
,can one become a ,persian1 were unknown
 to me1 ,i should suspect on hearing it 
that it came from the country where     
national prejudice is most prevalent and
 from the sex which does most to        
increase it4  ,a ,parisian thinks he has
 a knowledge of men and he knows only   
,frenchmen2 his town is always full of  
foreigners1 but he considers every      
foreigner as a strange phenomenon which 
has no equal in the universe4 ,you must 
have a close acquaintance with the      
middle classes of that great city1 you  
must have lived among them1 before you  
can believe that people could be at once
 so witty and so stupid4 ,the strangest 
thing about it is that probably every   
one of them has read a dozen times a    
description of the country whose        
inhabitants inspire him with such       

wonder4  ,to discover the truth amidst  
our own prejudices and those of the     
authors is too hard a task4 ,i have been
 reading books of travels all my life1  
but ,i never found two that gave me the 
same idea of the same nation4 ,on       
comparing my own scanty observations    
with what ,i have read1 ,i have decided 
to abandon the travellers and ,i regret 
the time wasted in trying to learn from 
their books2 for ,i am quite convinced  
that for that sort of study1 seeing not 
reading is required4 ,that would be true
 enough if every traveller were honest1 
if he only said what he saw and         
believed1 and if truth were not tinged  
with false colours from his own eyes4   
,what must it be when we have to        
disentangle the truth from the web of   
lies and ill-faith8  ,let us leave the  
boasted resources of books to those who 
are content to use them4 ,like the art  
of ,raymond ,lully they are able to set 
people chattering about things they do  
not know4 ,they are able to set         

fifteen-year-old ,platos discussing     
philosophy in the clubs1 and teaching   
people the customs of ,egypt and the    
,indies on the word of ,paul ,lucas or  
,tavernier4  ,i maintain that it is     
beyond dispute that any one who has only
 seen one nation does not know men2 he  
only knows those men among whom he has  
lived4 ,hence there is another way of   
stating the question about travel3 ,is  
it enough for a well-educated man to    
know his fellow-countrymen1 or ought he 
to know mankind in general8 ,then there 
is no place for argument or uncertainty4
 ,see how greatly the solution of a     
difficult problem may depend on the way 
in which it is stated4  ,but is it      
necessary to travel the whole globe to  
study mankind8 ,need we go to ,japan to 
study ,europeans8 ,need we know every   
individual before we know the species8  
,no1 there are men so much alike that it
 is not worth while to study them       
individually4 ,when you have seen a     
dozen ,frenchmen you have seen them all4

 ,though one cannot say as much of the  
,english and other nations1 it is1      
however1 certain that every nation has  
its own specific character1 which is    
derived by induction from the study1 not
 of one1 but many of its members4 ,he   
who has compared a dozen nations knows  
men1 just he who has compared a dozen   
,frenchmen knows the ,french4  ,to      
acquire knowledge it is not enough to   
travel hastily through a country4       
,observation demands eyes1 and the power
 of directing them towards the object we
 desire to know4 ,there are plenty of   
people who learn no more from their     
travels than from their books1 because  
they do not know how to think2 because  
in reading their mind is at least under 
the guidance of the author1 and in their
 travels they do not know how to see for
 themselves4 ,others learn nothing1     
because they have no desire to learn4   
,their object is so entirely different1 
that this never occurs to them2 it is   
very unlikely that you will see clearly 

what you take no trouble to look for4   
,the ,french travel more than any other 
nation1 but they are so taken up with   
their own customs1 that everything else 
is confused together4 ,there are        
,frenchmen in every corner of the globe4
 ,in no country of the world do you find
 more people who have travelled than in 
,france4 ,and yet of all the nations of 
,europe1 that which has seen most1 knows
 least4  ,the ,english are also         
travellers1 but they travel in another  
fashion2 these two nations must always  
be at opposite extremes4 ,the ,english  
nobility travels1 the ,french stays at  
home2 the ,french people travel1 the    
,english stay at home4 ,this difference 
does credit1 ,i think1 to the ,english4 
,the ,french almost always travel for   
their own ends2 the ,english do not seek
 their fortune in other lands1 unless in
 the way of commerce and with their     
hands full2 when they travel it is to   
spend their money1 not to live by their 
wits2 they are too proud to cringe      

before strangers4 ,this is why they     
learn more abroad than the ,french who  
have other fish to fry4 ,yet the        
,english have their national prejudices2
 but these prejudices are not so much   
the result of ignorance as of feeling4  
,the ,englishman's prejudices are the   
result of pride1 the ,frenchman's are   
due to vanity4  ,just as the least      
cultivated nations are usually the best1
 so those travel best who travel least2 
they have made less progress than we in 
our frivolous pursuits1 they are less   
concerned with the objects of our empty 
curiosity1 so that they give their      
attention to what is really useful4 ,i  
hardly know any but the ,spaniards who  
travel in this fashion4 ,while the      
,frenchman is running after all the     
artists of the country1 while the       
,englishman is getting a copy of some   
antique1 while the ,german is taking his
 album to every man of science1 the     
,spaniard is silently studying the      
government1 the manners of the country1 

its police1 and he is the only one of   
the four who from all that he has seen  
will carry home any observation useful  
to his own country4  ,the ancients      
travelled little1 read little1 and wrote
 few books2 yet we see in those books   
that remain to us1 that they observed   
each other more thoroughly than we      
observe our contemporaries4 ,without    
going back to the days of ,homer1 the   
only poet who transports us to the      
country he describes1 we cannot deny to 
,herodotus the glory of having painted  
manners in his history1 though he does  
it rather by narrative than by comment2 
still he does it better than all our    
historians whose books are overladen    
with portraits and characters4 ,tacitus 
has described the ,germans of his time  
better than any author has described the
 ,germans of to-day4 ,there can be no   
doubt that those who have devoted       
themselves to ancient history know more 
about the ,greeks1 ,carthaginians1      
,romans1 ,gauls1 and ,persians than any 

nation of to-day knows about its        
neighbours4  ,it must also be admitted  
that the original characteristics of    
different nations are changing day by   
day1 and are therefore more difficult to
 grasp4 ,as races blend and nations     
intermingle1 those national differences 
which formerly struck the observer at   
first sight gradually disappear4 ,before
 our time every nation remained more or 
less cut off from the rest2 the means of
 communication were fewer2 there was    
less travelling1 less of mutual or      
conflicting interests1 less political   
and civil intercourse between nation and
 nation2 those intricate schemes of     
royalty1 miscalled diplomacy1 were less 
frequent2 there were no permanent       
ambassadors resident at foreign courts2 
long voyages were rare1 there was little
 foreign trade1 and what little there   
was1 was either the work of princes1 who
 employed foreigners1 or of people of no
 account who had no influence on others 
and did nothing to bring the nations    

together4 ,the relations between ,europe
 and ,asia in the present century are a 
hundredfold more numerous than those    
between ,gaul and ,spain in the past2   
,europe alone was less accessible than  
the whole world is now4  ,moreover1 the 
peoples of antiquity usually considered 
themselves as the original inhabitants  
of their country2 they had dwelt there  
so long that all record was lost of the 
far-off times when their ancestors      
settled there2 they had been there so   
long that the place had made a lasting  
impression on them2 but in modern       
,europe the invasions of the barbarians1
 following upon the ,roman conquests1   
have caused an extraordinary confusion4 
,the ,frenchmen of to-day are no longer 
the big fair men of old2 the ,greeks are
 no longer beautiful enough to serve as 
a sculptor's model2 the very face of the
 ,romans has changed as well as their   
character2 the ,persians1 originally    
from ,tartary1 are daily losing their   
native ugliness through the intermixture

 of ,circassian blood4 ,europeans are no
 longer ,gauls1 ,germans1 ,iberians1    
,allobroges2 they are all ,scythians1   
more or less degenerate in countenance1 
and still more so in conduct4  ,this is 
why the ancient distinctions of race1   
the effect of soil and climate1 made a  
greater difference between nation and   
nation in respect of temperament1 looks1
 manners1 and character than can be     
distinguished in our own time1 when the 
fickleness of ,europe leaves no time for
 natural causes to work1 when the       
forests are cut down and the marshes    
drained1 when the earth is more         
generally1 though less thoroughly1      
tilled1 so that the same differences    
between country and country can no      
longer be detected even in purely       
physical features4  ,if they considered 
these facts perhaps people would not be 
in such a hurry to ridicule ,herodotus1 
,ctesias1 ,pliny for having described   
the inhabitants of different countries  
each with its own peculiarities and with

 striking differences which we no longer
 see4 ,to recognise such types of face  
we should need to see the men           
themselves2 no change must have passed  
over them1 if they are to remain the    
same4 ,if we could behold all the people
 who have ever lived1 who can doubt that
 we should find greater variations      
between one century and another1 than   
are now found between nation and nation4
  ,at the same time1 while observation  
becomes more difficult1 it is more      
carelessly and badly done2 this is      
another reason for the small success of 
our researches into the natural history 
of the human race4 ,the information     
acquired by travel depends upon the     
object of the journey4 ,if this object  
is a system of philosophy1 the traveller
 only sees what he desires to see2 if it
 is self-interest1 it engrosses the     
whole attention of those concerned4     
,commerce and the arts which blend and  
mingle the nations at the same time     
prevent them from studying each other4  

,if they know how to make a profit out  
of their neighbours1 what more do they  
need to know8  ,it is a good thing to   
know all the places where we might live1
 so as to choose those where we can live
 most comfortably4 ,if every one lived  
by his own efforts1 all he would need to
 know would be how much land would keep 
him in food4 ,the savage1 who has need  
of no one1 and envies no one1 neither   
knows nor seeks to know any other       
country but his own4 ,if he requires    
more land for his subsistence he shuns  
inhabited places2 he makes war upon the 
wild beasts and feeds on them4 ,but for 
us1 to whom civilised life has become a 
necessity1 for us who must needs devour 
our fellow-creatures1 self-interest     
prompts each one of us to frequent those
 districts where there are most people  
to be devoured4 ,this is why we all     
flock to ,rome1 ,paris1 and ,london4    
,human flesh and blood are always       
cheapest in the capital cities4 ,thus we
 only know the great nations1 which are 

just like one another4  ,they say that  
men of learning travel to obtain        
information2 not so1 they travel like   
other people from interested motives4   
,philosophers like ,plato and           
,pythagoras are no longer to be found1  
or if they are1 it must be in far-off   
lands4 ,our men of learning only travel 
at the king's command2 they are sent    
out1 their expenses are paid1 they      
receive a salary for seeing such and    
such things1 and the object of that     
journey is certainly not the study of   
any question of morals4  ,their whole   
time is required for the object of their
 journey1 and they are too honest not to
 earn their pay4 ,if in any country     
whatsoever there are people travelling  
at their own expense1 you may be sure it
 is not to study men but to teach them4 
,it is not knowledge they desire but    
ostentation4 ,how should their travels  
teach them to shake off the yoke of     
prejudice8 ,it is prejudice that sends  
them on their travels4  ,to travel to   

see foreign lands or to see foreign     
nations are two very different things4  
,the former is the usual aim of the     
curious1 the latter is merely           
subordinate to it4 ,if you wish to      
travel as a philosopher you should      
reverse this order4 ,the child observes 
things till he is old enough to study   
men4 ,man should begin by studying his  
fellows2 he can study things later if   
time permits4  ,it is therefore         
illogical to conclude that travel is    
useless because we travel ill4 ,but     
granting the usefulness of travel1 does 
it follow that it is good for all of us8
 ,far from it2 there are very few people
 who are really fit to travel2 it is    
only good for those who are strong      
enough in themselves to listen to the   
voice of error without being deceived1  
strong enough to see the example of vice
 without being led away by it4          
,travelling accelerates the progress of 
nature1 and completes the man for good  
or evil4 ,when a man returns from       

travelling about the world1 he is what  
he will be all his life2 there are more 
who return bad than good1 because there 
are more who start with an inclination  
towards evil4 ,in the course of their   
travels1 young people1 ill-educated and 
ill-behaved1 pick up all the vices of   
the nations among whom they have        
sojourned1 and none of the virtues with 
which those vices are associated2 but   
those who1 happily for themselves1 are  
well-born1 those whose good disposition 
has been well cultivated1 those who     
travel with a real desire to learn1 all 
such return better and wiser than they  
went4 ,emile will travel in this        
fashion2 in this fashion there travelled
 another young man1 worthy of a nobler  
age2 one whose worth was the admiration 
of ,europe1 one who died for his country
 in the flower of his manhood2 he       
deserved to live1 and his tomb1 ennobled
 by his virtues only1 received no honour
 till a stranger's hand adorned it with 
flowers4  ,everything that is done in   

reason should have its rules4 ,travel1  
undertaken as a part of education1      
should therefore have its rules4 ,to    
travel for travelling's sake is to      
wander1 to be a vagabond2 to travel to  
learn is still too vague2 learning      
without some definite aim is worthless4 
,i would give a young man a personal    
interest in learning1 and that interest1
 well-chosen1 will also decide the      
nature of the instruction4 ,this is     
merely the continuation of the method ,i
 have hitherto practised4  ,now after he
 has considered himself in his physical 
relations to other creatures1 in his    
moral relations with other men1 there   
remains to be considered his civil      
relations with his fellow-citizens4 ,to 
do this he must first study the nature  
of government in general1 then the      
different forms of government1 and      
lastly the particular government under  
which he was born1 to know if it suits  
him to live under it2 for by a right    
which nothing can abrogate1 every man1  

when he comes of age1 becomes his own   
master1 free to renounce the contract by
 which he forms part of the community1  
by leaving the country in which that    
contract holds good4 ,it is only by     
sojourning in that country1 after he has
 come to years of discretion1 that he is
 supposed to have tacitly confirmed the 
pledge given by his ancestors4 ,he      
acquires the right to renounce his      
country1 just as he has the right to    
renounce all claim to his father's      
lands2 yet his place of birth was a gift
 of nature1 and in renouncing it1 he    
renounces what is his own4 ,strictly    
speaking1 every man remains in the land 
of his birth at his own risk unless he  
voluntarily submits to its laws in order
 to acquire a right to their protection4
  ,for example1 ,i should say to ,emile1
 ,hitherto you have lived under my      
guidance1 you were unable to rule       
yourself4 ,but now you are approaching  
the age when the law1 giving you the    
control over your property1 makes you   

master of your person4 ,you are about to
 find yourself alone in society1        
dependent on everything1 even on your   
patrimony4 ,you mean to marry2 that is a
 praiseworthy intention1 it is one of   
the duties of man2 but before you marry 
you must know what sort of man you want 
to be1 how you wish to spend your life1 
what steps you mean to take to secure a 
living for your family and for yourself2
 for although we should not make this   
our main business1 it must be definitely
 considered4 ,do you wish to be         
dependent on men whom you despise8 ,do  
you wish to establish your fortune and  
determine your position by means of     
civil relations which will make you     
always dependent on the choice of       
others1 which will compel you1 if you   
would escape from knaves1 to become a   
knave yourself8  ,in the next place ,i  
would show him every possible way of    
using his money in trade1 in the civil  
service1 in finance1 and ,i shall show  
him that in every one of these there are

 risks to be taken1 every one of them   
places him in a precarious and dependent
 position1 and compels him to adapt his 
morals1 his sentiments1 his conduct to  
the example and the prejudices of       
others4  ,there is yet another way of   
spending your time and money2 you may   
join the army2 that is to say1 you may  
hire yourself out at very high wages to 
go and kill men who never did you any   
harm4 ,this trade is held in great      
honour among men1 and they cannot think 
too highly of those who are fit for     
nothing better4 ,moreover1 this         
profession1 far from making you         
independent of other resources1 makes   
them all the more necessary2 for it is a
 point of honour in this profession to  
ruin those who have adopted it4 ,it is  
true they are not all ruined2 it is even
 becoming fashionable to grow rich in   
this as in other professions2 but if ,i 
told you how people manage to do it1 ,i 
doubt whether you would desire to follow
 their example4  ,moreover1 you must    

know that1 even in this trade1 it is no 
longer a question of courage or valour1 
unless with regard to the ladies2 on the
 contrary1 the more cringing1 mean1 and 
degraded you are1 the more honour you   
obtain2 if you have decided to take your
 profession seriously1 you will be      
despised1 you will be hated1 you will   
very possibly be driven out of the      
service1 or at least you will fall a    
victim to favouritism and be supplanted 
by your comrades1 because you have been 
doing your duty in the trenches1 while  
they have been attending to their       
toilet4  ,we can hardly suppose that any
 of these occupations will be much to   
,emile's taste4 ,why1 he will exclaim1  
have ,i forgotten the amusements of my  
childhood8 ,have ,i lost the use of my  
arms8 ,is my strength failing me8 ,do ,i
 not know how to work8 ,what do ,i care 
about all your fine professions and all 
the silly prejudices of others8 ,i know 
no other pride than to be kindly and    
just2 no other happiness than to live in

 independence with her ,i love1 gaining 
health and a good appetite by the day's 
work4 ,all these difficulties you speak 
of do not concern me4 ,the only property
 ,i desire is a little farm in some     
quiet corner4 ,i will devote all my     
efforts after wealth to making it pay1  
and ,i will live without a care4 ,give  
me ,sophy and my land1 and ,i shall be  
rich4  ,yes1 my dear friend1 that is all
 a wise man requires1 a wife and land of
 his own2 but these treasures are       
scarcer than you think4 ,the rarest you 
have found already2 let us discuss the  
other4  ,a field of your own1 dear      
,emile6 ,where will you find it1 in what
 remote corner of the earth can you say1
 ',here am ,i master of myself and of   
this estate which belongs to me8' ,we   
know where a man may grow rich2 who     
knows where he can do without riches8   
,who knows where to live free and       
independent1 without ill-treating others
 and without fear of being ill-treated  
himself6 ,do you think it is so easy to 

find a place where you can always live  
like an honest man8 ,if there is any    
safe and lawful way of living without   
intrigues1 without lawsuits1 without    
dependence on others1 it is1 ,i admit1  
to live by the labour of our hands1 by  
the cultivation of our own land2 but    
where is the state in which a man can   
say1 ',the earth which ,i dig is my     
own8' ,before choosing this happy spot1 
be sure that you will find the peace you
 desire2 beware lest an unjust          
government1 a persecuting religion1 and 
evil habits should disturb you in your  
home4 ,secure yourself against the      
excessive taxes which devour the fruits 
of your labours1 and the endless        
lawsuits which consume your capital4    
,take care that you can live rightly    
without having to pay court to          
intendents1 to their deputies1 to       
judges1 to priests1 to powerful         
neighbours1 and to knaves of every kind1
 who are always ready to annoy you if   
you neglect them4 ,above all1 secure    

yourself from annoyance on the part of  
the rich and great2 remember that their 
estates may anywhere adjoin your        
,naboth's vineyard4 ,if unluckily for   
you some great man buys or builds a     
house near your cottage1 make sure that 
he will not find a way1 under some      
pretence or other1 to encroach on your  
lands to round off his estate1 or that  
you do not find him at once absorbing   
all your resources to make a wide       
highroad4 ,if you keep sufficient credit
 to ward off all these disagreeables1   
you might as well keep your money1 for  
it will cost you no more to keep it4    
,riches and credit lean upon each other1
 the one can hardly stand without the   
other4  ,i have more experience than    
you1 dear ,emile2 ,i see more clearly   
the difficulties in the way of your     
scheme4 ,yet it is a fine scheme and    
honourable2 it would make you happy     
indeed4 ,let us try to carry it out4 ,i 
have a suggestion to make2 let us devote
 the two years from now till the time of

 your return to choosing a place in     
,europe where you could live happily    
with your family1 secure from all the   
dangers ,i have just described4 ,if we  
succeed1 you will have discovered that  
true happiness1 so often sought for in  
vain2 and you will not have to regret   
the time spent in its search4 ,if we    
fail1 you will be cured of a mistaken   
idea2 you will console yourself for an  
inevitable ill1 and you will bow to the 
law of necessity4  ,i do not know       
whether all my readers will see whither 
this suggested inquiry will lead us2 but
 this ,i do know1 if ,emile returns from
 his travels1 begun and continued with  
this end in view1 without a full        
knowledge of questions of government1   
public morality1 and political          
philosophy of every kind1 we are greatly
 lacking1 he in intelligence and ,i in  
judgment4  ,the science of politics is  
and probably always will be unknown4    
,grotius1 our leader in this branch of  
learning1 is only a child1 and what is  

worse an untruthful child4 ,when ,i hear
 ,grotius praised to the skies and      
,hobbes overwhelmed with abuse1 ,i      
perceive how little sensible men have   
read or understood these authors4 ,as a 
matter of fact1 their principles are    
exactly alike1 they only differ in their
 mode of expression4 ,their methods are 
also different3 ,hobbes relies on       
sophism2 ,grotius relies on the poets2  
they are agreed in everything else4 ,in 
modern times the only man who could have
 created this vast and useless science  
was the illustrious ,montesquieu4 ,but  
he was not concerned with the principles
 of political law2 he was content to    
deal with the positive laws of settled  
governments2 and nothing could be more  
different than these two branches of    
study4  ,yet he who would judge wisely  
in matters of actual government is      
forced to combine the two2 he must know 
what ought to be in order to judge what 
is4 ,the chief difficulty in the way of 
throwing light upon this important      

matter is to induce an individual to    
discuss and to answer these two         
questions4 ,how does it concern me2 and 
what can ,i do8 ,emile is in a position 
to answer both4  ,the next difficulty is
 due to the prejudices of childhood1 the
 principles in which we were brought up2
 it is due above all to the partiality  
of authors1 who are always talking about
 truth1 though they care very little    
about it2 it is only their own interests
 that they care for1 and of these they  
say nothing4 ,now the nation has neither
 professorships1 nor pensions1 nor      
membership of the academies to bestow4  
,how then shall its rights be           
established by men of that type8 ,the   
education ,i have given him has removed 
this difficulty also from ,emile's path4
 ,he scarcely knows what is meant by    
government2 his business is to find the 
best2 he does not want to write books2  
if ever he did so1 it would not be to   
pay court to those in authority1 but to 
establish the rights of humanity4       

,there is a third difficulty1 more      
specious than real2 a difficulty which  
,i neither desire to solve nor even to  
state2 enough that ,i am not afraid of  
it2 sure ,i am that in inquiries of this
 kind1 great talents are less necessary 
than a genuine love of justice and a    
sincere reverence for truth4 ,if matters
 of government can ever be fairly       
discussed1 now or never is our chance4  
,before beginning our observations we   
must lay down rules of procedure2 we    
must find a scale with which to compare 
our measurements4 ,our principles of    
political law are our scale4 ,our actual
 measurements are the civil law of each 
country4  ,our elementary notions are   
plain and simple1 being taken directly  
from the nature of things4 ,they will   
take the form of problems discussed     
between us1 and they will not be        
formulated into principles1 until we    
have found a satisfactory solution of   
our problems4  ,for example1 we shall   
begin with the state of nature1 we shall

 see whether men are born slaves or     
free1 in a community or independent2 is 
their association the result of free    
will or of force8 ,can the force which  
compels them to united action ever form 
a permanent law1 by which this original 
force becomes binding1 even when another
 has been imposed upon it1 so that since
 the power of ,king ,nimrod1 who is said
 to have been the first conqueror1 every
 other power which has overthrown the   
original power is unjust and usurping1  
so that there are no lawful kings but   
the descendants of ,nimrod or their     
representatives2 or if this original    
power has ceased1 has the power which   
succeeded it any right over us1 and does
 it destroy the binding force of the    
former power1 so that we are not bound  
to obey except under compulsion1 and we 
are free to rebel as soon as we are     
capable of resistance8 ,such a right is 
not very different from might2 it is    
little more than a play upon words4  ,we
 shall inquire whether man might not say

 that all sickness comes from ,god1 and 
that it is therefore a crime to send for
 the doctor4  ,again1 we shall inquire  
whether we are bound by our conscience  
to give our purse to a highwayman when  
we might conceal it from him1 for the   
pistol in his hand is also a power4     
,does this word power in this context   
mean something different from a power   
which is lawful and therefore subject to
 the laws to which it owes its being8   
,suppose we reject this theory that     
might is right and admit the right of   
nature1 or the authority of the father1 
as the foundation of society2 we shall  
inquire into the extent of this         
authority2 what is its foundation in    
nature8 ,has it any other grounds but   
that of its usefulness to the child1 his
 weakness1 and the natural love which   
his father feels towards him8 ,when the 
child is no longer feeble1 when he is   
grown-up in mind as well as in body1    
does not he become the sole judge of    
what is necessary for his preservation8 

,is he not therefore his own master1    
independent of all men1 even of his     
father himself8 ,for is it not still    
more certain that the son loves himself1
 than that the father loves the son8    
,the father being dead1 should the      
children obey the eldest brother1 or    
some other person who has not the       
natural affection of a father8 ,should  
there always be1 from family to family1 
one single head to whom all the family  
owe obedience8 ,if so1 how has power    
ever come to be divided1 and how is it  
that there is more than one head to     
govern the human race throughout the    
world8  ,suppose the nations to have    
been formed each by its own choice2 we  
shall then distinguish between right and
 fact2 being thus subjected to their    
brothers1 uncles1 or other relations1   
not because they were obliged1 but      
because they choose1 we shall inquire   
whether this kind of society is not a   
sort of free and voluntary association8 
,taking next the law of slavery1 we     

shall inquire whether a man can make    
over to another his right to himself1   
without restriction1 without reserve1   
without any kind of conditions2 that is 
to say1 can he renounce his person1 his 
life1 his reason1 his very self1 can he 
renounce all morality in his actions2 in
 a word1 can he cease to exist before   
his death1 in spite of nature who places
 him directly in charge of his own      
preservation1 in spite of reason and    
conscience which tell him what to do and
 what to leave undone8  ,if there is any
 reservation or restriction in the deed 
of slavery1 we shall discuss whether    
this deed does not then become a true   
contract1 in which both the contracting 
powers1 having in this respect no common
 master1 ,footnote3 ,if they had such a 
common master1 he would be no other than
 the sovereign1 and then the right of   
slavery resting on the right of         
sovereignty would not be its origin4    
remain their own judge as to the        
conditions of the contract1 and         

therefore free to this extent1 and able 
to break the contract as soon as it     
becomes hurtful4  ,if then a slave      
cannot convey himself altogether to his 
master1 how can a nation convey itself  
altogether to its head8 ,if a slave is  
to judge whether his master is          
fulfilling his contract1 is not the     
nation to judge whether its head is     
fulfilling his contract8  ,thus we are  
compelled to retrace our steps1 and when
 we consider the meaning of this        
collective nation we shall inquire      
whether some contract1 a tacit contract 
at the least1 is not required to make a 
nation1 a contract anterior to that     
which we are assuming4  ,since the      
nation was a nation before it chose a   
king1 what made it a nation1 except the 
social contract8 ,therefore the social  
contract is the foundation of all civil 
society1 and it is in the nature of this
 contract that we must seek the nature  
of the society formed by it4  ,we will  
inquire into the meaning of this        

contract2 may it not be fairly well     
expressed in this formula8 ,as an       
individual every one of us contributes  
his goods1 his person1 his life1 to the 
common stock1 under the supreme         
direction of the general will2 while as 
a body we receive each member as an     
indivisible part of the whole4          
,assuming this1 in order to define the  
terms we require1 we shall observe that1
 instead of the individual person of    
each contracting party1 this deed of    
association produces a moral and        
collective body1 consisting of as many  
members as there are votes in the       
,assembly4 ,this public personality is  
usually called the body politic1 which  
is called by its members the ,state when
 it is passive1 and the ,sovereign when 
it is active1 and a ,power when compared
 with its equals4 ,with regard to the   
members themselves1 collectively they   
are known as the nation1 and            
individually as citizens as members of  
the city or partakers in the sovereign  

power1 and subjects as obedient to the  
same authority4  ,we shall note that    
this contract of association includes a 
mutual pledge on the part of the public 
and the individual2 and that each       
individual1 entering1 so to speak1 into 
a contract with himself1 finds himself  
in a twofold capacity1 i4e41 as a member
 of the sovereign with regard to others1
 as member of the state with regard to  
the sovereign4  ,we shall also note that
 while no one is bound by any engagement
 to which he was not himself a party1   
the general deliberation which may be   
binding on all the subjects with regard 
to the sovereign1 because of the two    
different relations under which each of 
them is envisaged1 cannot be binding on 
the state with regard to itself4 ,hence 
we see that there is not1 and cannot be1
 any other fundamental law1 properly so 
called1 except the social contract only4
 ,this does not mean that the body      
politic cannot1 in certain respects1    
pledge itself to others2 for in regard  

to the foreigner1 it then becomes a     
simple creature1 an individual4  ,thus  
the two contracting parties1 i4e41 each 
individual and the public1 have no      
common superior to decide their         
differences2 so we will inquire if each 
of them remains free to break the       
contract at will1 that is to repudiate  
it on his side as soon as he considers  
it hurtful4  ,to clear up this          
difficulty1 we shall observe that1      
according to the social pact1 the       
sovereign power is only able to act     
through the common1 general will2 so its
 decrees can only have a general or     
common aim2 hence it follows that a     
private individual cannot be directly   
injured by the sovereign1 unless all are
 injured1 which is impossible1 for that 
would be to want to harm oneself4 ,thus 
the social contract has no need of any  
warrant but the general power1 for it   
can only be broken by individuals1 and  
they are not therefore freed from their 
engagement1 but punished for having     

broken it4  ,to decide all such         
questions rightly1 we must always bear  
in mind that the nature of the social   
pact is private and peculiar to itself1 
in that the nation only contracts with  
itself1 i4e41 the people as a whole as  
sovereign1 with the individuals as      
subjects2 this condition is essential to
 the construction and working of the    
political machine1 it alone makes       
pledges lawful1 reasonable1 and secure1 
without which it would be absurd1       
tyrannical1 and liable to the grossest  
abuse4  ,individuals having only        
submitted themselves to the sovereign1  
and the sovereign power being only the  
general will1 we shall see that every   
man in obeying the sovereign only obeys 
himself1 and how much freer are we under
 the social part than in the state of   
nature4  ,having compared natural and   
civil liberty with regard to persons1 we
 will compare them as to property1 the  
rights of ownership and the rights of   
sovereignty1 the private and the common 

domain4 ,if the sovereign power rests   
upon the right of ownership1 there is no
 right more worthy of respect2 it is    
inviolable and sacred for the sovereign 
power1 so long as it remains a private  
individual right2 as soon as it is      
viewed as common to all the citizens1 it
 is subject to the common will1 and this
 will may destroy it4 ,thus the         
sovereign has no right to touch the     
property of one or many2 but he may     
lawfully take possession of the property
 of all1 as was done in ,sparta in the  
time of ,lycurgus2 while the abolition  
of debts by ,solon was an unlawful deed4
  ,since nothing is binding on the      
subjects except the general will1 let us
 inquire how this will is made manifest1
 by what signs we may recognise it with 
certainty1 what is a law1 and what are  
the true characters of the law8 ,this is
 quite a fresh subject2 we have still to
 define the term law4  ,as soon as the  
nation considers one or more of its     
members1 the nation is divided4 ,a      

relation is established between the     
whole and its part which makes of them  
two separate entities1 of which the part
 is one1 and the whole1 minus that part1
 is the other4 ,but the whole minus the 
part is not the whole2 as long as this  
relation exists1 there is no longer a   
whole1 but two unequal parts4  ,on the  
other hand1 if the whole nation makes a 
law for the whole nation1 it is only    
considering itself2 and if a relation is
 set up1 it is between the whole        
community regarded from one point of    
view1 and the whole community regarded  
from another point of view1 without any 
division of that whole4 ,then the object
 of the statute is general1 and the will
 which makes that statute is general    
too4 ,let us see if there is any other  
kind of decree which may bear the name  
of law4  ,if the sovereign can only     
speak through laws1 and if the law can  
never have any but a general purpose1   
concerning all the members of the state1
 it follows that the sovereign never has

 the power to make any law with regard  
to particular cases2 and yet it is      
necessary for the preservation of the   
state that particular cases should also 
be dealt with2 let us see how this can  
be done4  ,the decrees of the sovereign 
can only be decrees of the general will1
 that is laws2 there must also be       
determining decrees1 decrees of power or
 government1 for the execution of those 
laws2 and these1 on the other hand1 can 
only have particular aims4 ,thus the    
decrees by which the sovereign decides  
that a chief shall be elected is a law2 
the decree by which that chief is       
elected1 in pursuance of the law1 is    
only a decree of government4  ,this is a
 third relation in which the assembled  
people may be considered1 i4e41 as      
magistrates or executors of the law     
which it has passed in its capacity as  
sovereign4 ,footnote3 ,these problems   
and theorems are mostly taken from the  
,treatise on the ,social ,contract1     
itself a summary of a larger work1      

undertaken without due consideration of 
my own powers1 and long since abandoned4
  ,we will now inquire whether it is    
possible for the nation to deprive      
itself of its right of sovereignty1 to  
bestow it on one or more persons2 for   
the decree of election not being a law1 
and the people in this decree not being 
themselves sovereign1 we do not see how 
they can transfer a right which they do 
not possess4  ,the essence of           
sovereignty consisting in the general   
will1 it is equally hard to see how we  
can be certain that an individual will  
shall always be in agreement with the   
general will4 ,we should rather assume  
that it will often be opposed to it2 for
 individual interest always tends to    
privileges1 while the common interest   
always tends to equality1 and if such an
 agreement were possible1 no sovereign  
right could exist1 unless the agreement 
were either necessary or indestructible4
  ,we will inquire if1 without violating
 the social pact1 the heads of the      

nation1 under whatever name they are    
chosen1 can ever be more than the       
officers of the people1 entrusted by    
them with the duty of carrying the law  
into execution4 ,are not these chiefs   
themselves accountable for their        
administration1 and are not they        
themselves subject to the laws which it 
is their business to see carried out8   
,if the nation cannot alienate its      
supreme right1 can it entrust it to     
others for a time8 ,cannot it give      
itself a master1 cannot it find         
representatives8 ,this is an important  
question and deserves discussion4  ,if  
the nation can have neither sovereign   
nor representatives we will inquire how 
it can pass its own laws2 must there be 
many laws2 must they be often altered2  
is it easy for a great nation to be its 
own lawgiver8  ,was not the ,roman      
people a great nation8  ,is it a good   
thing that there should be great        
nations8  ,it follows from              
considerations already established that 

there is an intermediate body in the    
state between subjects and sovereign2   
and this intermediate body1 consisting  
of one or more members1 is entrusted    
with the public administration1 the     
carrying out of the laws1 and the       
maintenance of civil and political      
liberty4  ,the members of this body are 
called magistrates or kings1 that is to 
say1 rulers4 ,this body1 as a whole1    
considered in relation to its members1  
is called the prince1 and considered in 
its actions it is called the government4
  ,if we consider the action of the     
whole body upon itself1 that is to say1 
the relation of the whole to the whole1 
of the sovereign to the state1 we can   
compare this relation to that of the    
extremes in a proportion of which the   
government is the middle term4 ,the     
magistrate receives from the sovereign  
the commands which he gives to the      
nation1 and when it is reckoned up his  
product or his power is in the same     
degree as the product or power of the   

citizens who are subjects on one side of
 the proportion and sovereigns on the   
other4 ,none of the three terms can be  
varied without at once destroying this  
proportion4 ,if the sovereign tries to  
govern1 and if the prince wants to make 
the laws1 or if the subject refuses to  
obey them1 disorder takes the place of  
order1 and the state falls to pieces    
under despotism or anarchy4  ,let us    
suppose that this state consists of ten 
thousand citizens4 ,the sovereign can   
only be considered collectively and as a
 body1 but each individual1 as a        
subject1 has his private and independent
 existence4 ,thus the sovereign is as   
ten thousand to one2 that is to say1    
every member of the state has1 as his   
own share1 only one ten-thousandth part 
of the sovereign power1 although he is  
subject to the whole4 ,let the nation be
 composed of one hundred thousand men1  
the position of the subjects is         
unchanged1 and each continues to bear   
the whole weight of the laws1 while his 

vote1 reduced to the one                
hundred-thousandth part1 has ten times  
less influence in the making of the     
laws4 ,thus the subject being always    
one1 the sovereign is relatively greater
 as the number of the citizens is       
increased4 ,hence it follows that the   
larger the state the less liberty4  ,now
 the greater the disproportion between  
private wishes and the general will1    
i4e41 between manners and laws1 the     
greater must be the power of repression4
 ,on the other side1 the greatness of   
the state gives the depositaries of     
public authority greater temptations and
 additional means of abusing that       
authority1 so that the more power is    
required by the government to control   
the people1 the more power should there 
be in the sovereign to control the      
government4  ,from this twofold relation
 it follows that the continued          
proportion between the sovereign1 the   
prince1 and the people is not an        
arbitrary idea1 but a consequence of the

 nature of the state4  ,moreover1 it    
follows that one of the extremes1 i4e41 
the nation1 being constant1 every time  
the double ratio increases or decreases1
 the simple ratio increases or          
diminishes in its turn2 which cannot be 
unless the middle term is as often      
changed4 ,from this we may conclude that
 there is no single absolute form of    
government1 but there must be as many   
different forms of government as there  
are states of different size4  ,if the  
greater the numbers of the nation the   
less the ratio between its manners and  
its laws1 by a fairly clear analogy1 we 
may also say1 the more numerous the     
magistrates1 the weaker the government4 
,to make this principle clearer we will 
distinguish three essentially different 
wills in the person of each magistrate2 
first1 his own will as an individual1   
which looks to his own advantage only2  
secondly1 the common will of the        
magistrates1 which is concerned only    
with the advantage of the prince1 a will

 which may be called corporate1 and one 
which is general in relation to the     
government and particular in relation to
 the state of which the government forms
 part2 thirdly1 the will of the people1 
or the sovereign will1 which is general1
 as much in relation to the state viewed
 as the whole as in relation to the     
government viewed as a part of the      
whole4 ,in a perfect legislature the    
private individual will should be almost
 nothing2 the corporate will belonging  
to the government should be quite       
subordinate1 and therefore the general  
and sovereign will is the master of all 
the others4 ,on the other hand1 in the  
natural order1 these different wills    
become more and more active in          
proportion as they become centralised2  
the general will is always weak1 the    
corporate will takes the second place1  
the individual will is preferred to all2
 so that every one is himself first1    
then a magistrate1 and then a citizen2 a
 series just the opposite of that       

required by the social order4  ,having  
laid down this principle1 let us assume 
that the government is in the hands of  
one man4 ,in this case the individual   
and the corporate will are absolutely   
one1 and therefore this will has reached
 the greatest possible degree of        
intensity4 ,now the use of power depends
 on the degree of this intensity1 and as
 the absolute power of the government is
 always that of the people1 and         
therefore invariable1 it follows that   
the rule of one man is the most active  
form of government4  ,if1 on the other  
hand1 we unite the government with the  
supreme power1 and make the prince the  
sovereign and the citizens so many      
magistrates1 then the corporate will is 
completely lost in the general will1 and
 will have no more activity than the    
general will1 and it will leave the     
individual will in full vigour4 ,thus   
the government1 though its absolute     
force is constant1 will have the minimum
 of activity4  ,these rules are         

incontestable in themselves1 and other  
considerations only serve to confirm    
them4 ,for example1 we see the          
magistrates as a body far more active   
than the citizens as a body1 so that the
 individual will always counts for more4
 ,for each magistrate usually has charge
 of some particular duty of government2 
while each citizen1 in himself1 has no  
particular duty of sovereignty4         
,moreover1 the greater the state the    
greater its real power1 although its    
power does not increase because of the  
increase in territory2 but the state    
remaining unchanged1 the magistrates are
 multiplied in vain1 the government     
acquires no further real strength1      
because it is the depositary of that of 
the state1 which ,i have assumed to be  
constant4 ,thus1 this plurality of      
magistrates decreases the activity of   
the government without increasing its   
power4  ,having found that the power of 
the government is relaxed in proportion 
as the number of magistrates is         

multiplied1 and that the more numerous  
the people1 the more the controlling    
power must be increased1 we shall infer 
that the ratio between the magistrates  
and the government should be inverse to 
that between subjects and sovereign1    
that is to say1 that the greater the    
state1 the smaller the government1 and  
that in like manner the number of chiefs
 should be diminished because of the    
increased numbers of the people4  ,in   
order to make this diversity of forms   
clearer1 and to assign them their       
different names1 we shall observe in the
 first place that the sovereign may     
entrust the care of the government to   
the whole nation or to the greater part 
of the nation1 so that there are more   
citizen magistrates than private        
citizens4 ,this form of government is   
called ,democracy4  ,or the sovereign   
may restrict the government in the hands
 of a lesser number1 so that there are  
more plain citizens than magistrates2   
and this form of government is called   

,aristocracy4  ,finally1 the sovereign  
may concentrate the whole government in 
the hands of one man4 ,this is the third
 and commonest form of government1 and  
is called ,monarchy or royal government4
  ,we shall observe that all these      
forms1 or the first and second at least1
 may be less or more1 and that within   
tolerably wide limits4 ,for the         
democracy may include the whole nation1 
or may be confined to one half of it4   
,the aristocracy1 in its turn1 may      
shrink from the half of the nation to   
the smallest number4 ,even royalty may  
be shared1 either between father and    
son1 between two brothers1 or in some   
other fashion4 ,there were always two   
kings in ,sparta1 and in the ,roman     
empire there were as many as eight      
emperors at once1 and yet it cannot be  
said that the empire was divided4 ,there
 is a point where each form of          
government blends with the next2 and    
under the three specific forms there may
 be really as many forms of government  

as there are citizens in the state4     
,nor is this all4 ,in certain respects  
each of these governments is capable of 
subdivision into different parts1 each  
administered in one of these three ways4
 ,from these forms in combination there 
may arise a multitude of mixed forms1   
since each may be multiplied by all the 
simple forms4  ,in all ages there have  
been great disputes as to which is the  
best form of government1 and people have
 failed to consider that each is the    
best in some cases and the worst in     
others4 ,for ourselves1 if the number of
 magistrates ,footnote3 ,you will       
remember that ,i mean1 in this context1 
the supreme magistrates or heads of the 
nation1 the others being only their     
deputies in this or that respect4 in the
 various states is to be in inverse     
ratio to the number of the citizens1 we 
infer that generally a democratic       
government is adapted to small states1  
an aristocratic government to those of  
moderate size1 and a monarchy to large  

states4  ,these inquiries furnish us    
with a clue by which we may discover    
what are the duties and rights of       
citizens1 and whether they can be       
separated one from the other2 what is   
our country1 in what does it really     
consist1 and how can each of us         
ascertain whether he has a country or   
no8  ,having thus considered every kind 
of civil society in itself1 we shall    
compare them1 so as to note their       
relations one with another2 great and   
small1 strong and weak1 attacking one   
another1 insulting one another1         
destroying one another2 and in this     
perpetual action and reaction causing   
more misery and loss of life than if men
 had preserved their original freedom4  
,we shall inquire whether too much or   
too little has not been accomplished in 
the matter of social institutions2      
whether individuals who are subject to  
law and to men1 while societies preserve
 the independence of nature1 are not    
exposed to the ills of both conditions  

without the advantages of either1 and   
whether it would not be better to have  
no civil society in the world rather    
than to have many such societies4 ,is it
 not that mixed condition which partakes
 of both and secures neither8      ,per 
quem neutrum licet1 nec tanquam in bello
 paratum esse1 nec      tanquam in pace 
securum4--,seneca ,de ,trang3 ,animi1   
cap4 ,i4  ,is it not this partial and   
imperfect association which gives rise  
to tyranny and war8 ,and are not tyranny
 and war the worst scourges of humanity8
  ,finally we will inquire how men seek 
to get rid of these difficulties by     
means of leagues and confederations1    
which leave each state its own master in
 internal affairs1 while they arm it    
against any unjust aggression4 ,we will 
inquire how a good federal association  
may be established1 what can make it    
lasting1 and how far the rights of the  
federation may be stretched without     
destroying the right of sovereignty4    
,the ,abbe de ,saint-,pierre suggested  

an association of all the states of     
,europe to maintain perpetual peace     
among themselves4 ,is this association  
practicable1 and supposing that it were 
established1 would it be likely to last8
 ,these inquiries lead us straight to   
all the questions of international law  
which may clear up the remaining        
difficulties of political law4 ,finally 
we shall lay down the real principles of
 the laws of war1 and we shall see why  
,grotius and others have only stated    
false principles4  ,i should not be     
surprised if my pupil1 who is a sensible
 young man1 should interrupt me saying1 
,one would think we were building our   
edifice of wood and not of men2 we are  
putting everything so exactly in its    
place6 ,that is true2 but remember that 
the law does not bow to the passions of 
men1 and that we have first to establish
 the true principles of political law4  
,now that our foundations are laid1 come
 and see what men have built upon them2 
and you will see some strange sights6   

,then ,i set him to read ,telemachus1   
and we pursue our journey2 we are       
seeking that happy ,salentum and the    
good ,idomeneus made wise by            
misfortunes4 ,by the way we find many   
like ,protesilas and no ,philocles1     
neither can ,adrastes1 ,king of the     
,daunians1 be found4 ,but let our       
readers picture our travels for         
themselves1 or take the same journeys   
with ,telemachus in their hand2 and let 
us not suggest to them painful          
applications which the author himself   
avoids or makes in spite of himself4    
,moreover1 ,emile is not a king1 nor am 
,i a god1 so that we are not distressed 
that we cannot imitate ,telemachus and  
,mentor in the good they did2 none know 
better than we how to keep to our own   
place1 none have less desire to leave   
it4 ,we know that the same task is      
allotted to all2 that whoever loves what
 is right with all his heart1 and does  
the right so far as it is in his power1 
has fulfilled that task4 ,we know that  

,telemachus and ,mentor are creatures of
 the imagination4 ,emile does not travel
 in idleness and he does more good than 
if he were a prince4 ,if we were kings  
we should be no greater benefactors4 ,if
 we were kings and benefactors we should
 cause any number of real evils for     
every apparent good we supposed we were 
doing4 ,if we were kings and sages1 the 
first good deed we should desire to     
perform1 for ourselves and for others1  
would be to abdicate our kingship and   
return to our present position4  ,i have
 said why travel does so little for     
every one4 ,what makes it still more    
barren for the young is the way in which
 they are sent on their travels4        
,tutors1 more concerned to amuse than to
 instruct1 take them from town to town1 
from palace to palace1 where if they are
 men of learning and letters1 they make 
them spend their time in libraries1 or  
visiting antiquaries1 or rummaging among
 old buildings transcribing ancient     
inscriptions4 ,in every country they are

 busy over some other century1 as if    
they were living in another country2 so 
that after they have travelled all over 
,europe at great expense1 a prey to     
frivolity or tedium1 they return1 having
 seen nothing to interest them1 and     
having learnt nothing that could be of  
any possible use to them4  ,all capitals
 are just alike1 they are a mixture of  
all nations and all ways of living2 they
 are not the place in which to study the
 nations4 ,paris and ,london seem to me 
the same town4 ,their inhabitants have a
 few prejudices of their own1 but each  
has as many as the other1 and all their 
rules of conduct are the same4 ,we know 
the kind of people who will throng the  
court4 ,we know the way of living which 
the crowds of people and the unequal    
distribution of wealth will produce4 ,as
 soon as any one tells me of a town with
 two hundred thousand people1 ,i know   
its life already4 ,what ,i do not know  
about it is not worth going there to    
learn4  ,to study the genius and        

character of a nation you should go to  
the more remote provinces1 where there  
is less stir1 less commerce1 where      
strangers seldom travel1 where the      
inhabitants stay in one place1 where    
there are fewer changes of wealth and   
position4 ,take a look at the capital on
 your way1 but go and study the country 
far away from that capital4 ,the ,french
 are not in ,paris1 but in ,touraine2   
the ,english are more ,english in       
,mercia than in ,london1 and the        
,spaniards more ,spanish in ,galicia    
than in ,madrid4 ,in these remoter      
provinces a nation assumes its true     
character and shows what it really is2  
there the good or ill effects of the    
government are best perceived1 just as  
you can measure the arc more exactly at 
a greater radius4  ,the necessary       
relations between character and         
government have been so clearly pointed 
out in the book of ,l',esprit des ,lois1
 that one cannot do better than have    
recourse to that work for the study of  

those relations4 ,but speaking          
generally1 there are two plain and      
simple standards by which to decide     
whether governments are good or bad4    
,one is the population4 ,every country  
in which the population is decreasing is
 on its way to ruin2 and the countries  
in which the population increases most  
rapidly1 even were they the poorest     
countries in the world1 are certainly   
the best governed4 ,footnote3 ,i only   
know one exception to this rule--it is  
,china4 ,but this population must be the
 natural result of the government and   
the national character1 for if it is    
caused by colonisation or any other     
temporary and accidental cause1 then the
 remedy itself is evidence of the       
disease4 ,when ,augustus passed laws    
against celibacy1 those laws showed that
 the ,roman empire was already beginning
 to decline4 ,citizens must be induced  
to marry by the goodness of the         
government1 not compelled to marry by   
law2 you must not examine the effects of

 force1 for the law which strives       
against the constitution has little or  
no effect2 you should study what is done
 by the influence of public morals and  
by the natural inclination of the       
government1 for these alone produce a   
lasting effect4 ,it was the policy of   
the worthy ,abbe de ,saint-,pierre      
always to look for a little remedy for  
every individual ill1 instead of tracing
 them to their common source and seeing 
if they could not all be cured together4
 ,you do not need to treat separately   
every sore on a rich man's body2 you    
should purify the blood which produces  
them4 ,they say that in ,england there  
are prizes for agriculture2 that is     
enough for me2 that is proof enough that
 agriculture will not flourish there    
much longer4  ,the second sign of the   
goodness or badness of the government   
and the laws is also to be found in the 
population1 but it is to be found not in
 its numbers but in its distribution4   
,two states equal in size and population

 may be very unequal in strength2 and   
the more powerful is always that in     
which the people are more evenly        
distributed over its territory2 the     
country which has fewer large towns1 and
 makes less show on this account1 will  
always defeat the other4 ,it is the     
great towns which exhaust the state and 
are the cause of its weakness2 the      
wealth which they produce is a sham     
wealth1 there is much money and few     
goods4 ,they say the town of ,paris is  
worth a whole province to the ,king of  
,france2 for my own part ,i believe it  
costs him more than several provinces4  
,i believe that ,paris is fed by the    
provinces in more senses than one1 and  
that the greater part of their revenues 
is poured into that town and stays      
there1 without ever returning to the    
people or to the king4 ,it is           
inconceivable that in this age of       
calculators there is no one to see that 
,france would be much more powerful if  
,paris were destroyed4  ,not only is    

this ill-distributed population not     
advantageous to the state1 it is more   
ruinous than depopulation itself1       
because depopulation only gives as      
produce nought1 and the ill-regulated   
addition of still more people gives a   
negative result4 ,when ,i hear an       
,englishman and a ,frenchman so proud of
 the size of their capitals1 and        
disputing whether ,london or ,paris has 
more inhabitants1 it seems to me that   
they are quarrelling as to which nation 
can claim the honour of being the worst 
governed4  ,study the nation outside its
 towns2 thus only will you really get to
 know it4 ,it is nothing to see the     
apparent form of a government1 overladen
 with the machinery of administration   
and the jargon of the administrators1 if
 you have not also studied its nature as
 seen in the effects it has upon the    
people1 and in every degree of          
administration4 ,the difference of form 
is really shared by every degree of the 
administration1 and it is only by       

including every degree that you really  
know the difference4 ,in one country you
 begin to feel the spirit of the        
minister in the manoeuvres of his       
underlings2 in another you must see the 
election of members of parliament to see
 if the nation is really free2 in each  
and every country1 he who has only seen 
the towns cannot possibly know what the 
government is like1 as its spirit is    
never the same in town and country4 ,now
 it is the agricultural districts which 
form the country1 and the country people
 who make the nation4  ,this study of   
different nations in their remoter      
provinces1 and in the simplicity of     
their native genius1 gives a general    
result which is very satisfactory1 to my
 thinking1 and very consoling to the    
human heart2 it is this3 ,all the       
nations1 if you observe them in this    
fashion1 seem much better worth         
observing2 the nearer they are to       
nature1 the more does kindness hold sway
 in their character2 it is only when    

they are cooped up in towns1 it is only 
when they are changed by cultivation1   
that they become depraved1 that certain 
faults which were rather coarse than    
injurious are exchanged for pleasant but
 pernicious vices4  ,from this          
observation we see another advantage in 
the mode of travel ,i suggest2 for young
 men1 sojourning less in the big towns  
which are horribly corrupt1 are less    
likely to catch the infection of vice2  
among simpler people and less numerous  
company1 they will preserve a surer     
judgment1 a healthier taste1 and better 
morals4 ,besides this contagion of vice 
is hardly to be feared for ,emile2 he   
has everything to protect him from it4  
,among all the precautions ,i have      
taken1 ,i reckon much on the love he    
bears in his heart4  ,we do not know the
 power of true love over youthful       
desires1 because we are ourselves as    
ignorant of it as they are1 and those   
who have control over the young turn    
them from true love4 ,yet a young man   

must either love or fall into bad ways4 
,it is easy to be deceived by           
appearances4 ,you will quote any number 
of young men who are said to live very  
chastely without love2 but show me one  
grown man1 a real man1 who can truly say
 that his youth was thus spent8 ,in all 
our virtues1 all our duties1 people are 
content with appearances2 for my own    
part ,i want the reality1 and ,i am much
 mistaken if there is any other way of  
securing it beyond the means ,i have    
suggested4  ,the idea of letting ,emile 
fall in love before taking him on his   
travels is not my own4 ,it was suggested
 to me by the following incident4  ,i   
was in ,venice calling on the tutor of a
 young ,englishman4 ,it was winter and  
we were sitting round the fire4 ,the    
tutor's letters were brought from the   
post office4 ,he glanced at them1 and   
then read them aloud to his pupil4 ,they
 were in ,english2 ,i understood not a  
word1 but while he was reading ,i saw   
the young man tear some fine point lace 

ruffles which he was wearing1 and throw 
them in the fire one after another1 as  
quietly as he could1 so that no one     
should see it4  ,surprised at this whim1
 ,i looked at his face and thought ,i   
perceived some emotion2 but the external
 signs of passion1 though much alike in 
all men1 have national differences which
 may easily lead one astray4 ,nations   
have a different language of facial     
expression as well as of speech4 ,i     
waited till the letters were finished   
and then showing the tutor the bare     
wrists of his pupil1 which he did his   
best to hide1 ,i said1 ,may ,i ask the  
meaning of this8  ,the tutor seeing what
 had happened began to laugh2 he        
embraced his pupil with an air of       
satisfaction and1 with his consent1 he  
gave me the desired explanation4  ,the  
ruffles1 said he1 which ,mr4 ,john has  
just torn to pieces1 were a present from
 a lady in this town1 who made them for 
him not long ago4 ,now you must know    
that ,mr4 ,john is engaged to a young   

lady in his own country1 with whom he is
 greatly in love1 and she well deserves 
it4 ,this letter is from the lady's     
mother1 and ,i will translate the       
passage which caused the destruction you
 beheld4  ',lucy is always at work upon 
,mr4 ,john's ruffles4 ,yesterday ,miss  
,betty ,roldham came to spend the       
afternoon and insisted on doing some of 
her work4 ,i knew that ,lucy was up very
 early this morning and ,i wanted to see
 what she was doing2 ,i found her busy  
unpicking what ,miss ,betty had done4   
,she would not have a single stitch in  
her present done by any hand but her    
own4'  ,mr4 ,john went to fetch another 
pair of ruffles1 and ,i said to his     
tutor3 ,your pupil has a very good      
disposition2 but tell me is not the     
letter from ,miss ,lucy's mother a put  
up job8 ,is it not an expedient of your 
designing against the lady of the       
ruffles8 ,no1 said he1 it is quite      
genuine2 ,i am not so artful as that2 ,i
 have made use of simplicity and zeal1  

and ,god has blessed my efforts4  ,this 
incident with regard to the young man   
stuck in my mind2 it was sure to set a  
dreamer like me thinking4  ,but it is   
time we finished4 ,let us take ,mr4     
,john back to ,miss ,lucy1 or rather    
,emile to ,sophy4 ,he brings her a heart
 as tender as ever1 and a more          
enlightened mind1 and he returns to his 
native land all the bettor for having   
made acquaintance with foreign          
governments through their vices and     
foreign nations through their virtues4  
,i have even taken care that he should  
associate himself with some man of worth
 in every nation1 by means of a treaty  
of hospitality after the fashion of the 
ancients1 and ,i shall not be sorry if  
this acquaintance is kept up by means of
 letters4 ,not only may this be useful1 
not only is it always pleasant to have a
 correspondent in foreign lands1 it is  
also an excellent antidote against the  
sway of patriotic prejudices1 to which  
we are liable all through our life1 and 

to which sooner or later we are more or 
less enslaved4 ,nothing is better       
calculated to lessen the hold of such   
prejudices than a friendly interchange  
of opinions with sensible people whom we
 respect2 they are free from our        
prejudices and we find ourselves face to
 face with theirs1 and so we can set the
 one set of prejudices against the other
 and be safe from both4 ,it is not the  
same thing to have to do with strangers 
in our own country and in theirs4 ,in   
the former case there is always a       
certain amount of politeness which      
either makes them conceal their real    
opinions1 or makes them think more      
favourably of our country while they are
 with us2 when they get home again this 
disappears1 and they merely do us       
justice4 ,i should be very glad if the  
foreigner ,i consult has seen my        
country1 but ,i shall not ask what he   
thinks of it till he is at home again4  
,when we have spent nearly two years    
travelling in a few of the great        

countries and many of the smaller       
countries of ,europe1 when we have      
learnt two or three of the chief        
languages1 when we have seen what is    
really interesting in natural history1  
government1 arts1 or men1 ,emile1       
devoured by impatience1 reminds me that 
our time is almost up4 ,then ,i say1    
,well1 my friend1 you remember the main 
object of our journey2 you have seen and
 observed2 what is the final result of  
your observations8 ,what decision have  
you come to8 ,either my method is wrong1
 or he will answer me somewhat after    
this fashion--  ,what decision have ,i  
come to8 ,i have decided to be what you 
made me2 of my own free will ,i will add
 no fetters to those imposed upon me by 
nature and the laws4 ,the more ,i study 
the works of men in their institutions1 
the more clearly ,i see that1 in their  
efforts after independence1 they become 
slaves1 and that their very freedom is  
wasted in vain attempts to assure its   
continuance4 ,that they may not be      

carried away by the flood of things1    
they form all sorts of attachments2 then
 as soon as they wish to move forward   
they are surprised to find that         
everything drags them back4 ,it seems to
 me that to set oneself free we need do 
nothing1 we need only continue to desire
 freedom4 ,my master1 you have made me  
free by teaching me to yield to         
necessity4 ,let her come when she will1 
,i follow her without compulsion2 ,i lay
 hold of nothing to keep me back4 ,in   
our travels ,i have sought for some     
corner of the earth where ,i might be   
absolutely my own2 but where can one    
dwell among men without being dependent 
on their passions8 ,on further          
consideration ,i have discovered that my
 desire contradicted itself2 for were ,i
 to hold to nothing else1 ,i should at  
least hold to the spot on which ,i had  
settled2 my life would be attached to   
that spot1 as the dryads were attached  
to their trees4 ,i have discovered that 
the words liberty and empire are        

incompatible2 ,i can only be master of a
 cottage by ceasing to be master of     
myself4       ',hoc erat in votis1 modus
 agri non ita magnus4'                  
,horace1 lib4 ii41 sat4 vi4  ,i remember
 that my property was the origin of our 
inquiries4 ,you argued very forcibly    
that ,i could not keep both my wealth   
and my liberty2 but when you wished me  
to be free and at the same time without 
needs1 you desired two incompatible     
things1 for ,i could only be independent
 of men by returning to dependence on   
nature4 ,what then shall ,i do with the 
fortune bequeathed to me by my parents8 
,to begin with1 ,i will not be dependent
 on it2 ,i will cut myself loose from   
all the ties which bind me to it2 if it 
is left in my hands1 ,i shall keep it2  
if ,i am deprived of it1 ,i shall not be
 dragged away with it4 ,i shall not     
trouble myself to keep it1 but ,i shall 
keep steadfastly to my own place4 ,rich 
or poor1 ,i shall be free4 ,i shall be  
free not merely in this country or in   

that2 ,i shall be free in any part of   
the world4 ,all the chains of prejudice 
are broken2 as far as ,i am concerned ,i
 know only the bonds of necessity4 ,i   
have been trained to endure them from my
 childhood1 and ,i shall endure them    
until death1 for ,i am a man2 and why   
should ,i not wear those chains as a    
free man1 for ,i should have to wear    
them even if ,i were a slave1 together  
with the additional fetters of slavery8 
,what matters my place in the world8    
,what matters it where ,i am8 ,wherever 
there are men1 ,i am among my brethren2 
wherever there are none1 ,i am in my own
 home4 ,so long as ,i may be independent
 and rich1 and have wherewithal to live1
 and ,i shall live4 ,if my wealth makes 
a slave of me1 ,i shall find it easy to 
renounce it4 ,i have hands to work1 and 
,i shall get a living4 ,if my hands fail
 me1 ,i shall live if others will       
support me2 if they forsake me ,i shall 
die2 ,i shall die even if ,i am not     
forsaken1 for death is not the penalty  

of poverty1 it is a law of nature4      
,whensoever death comes ,i defy it2 it  
shall never find me making preparations 
for life2 it shall never prevent me     
having lived4  ,my father1 this is my   
decision4 ,but for my passions1 ,i      
should be in my manhood independent as  
,god himself1 for ,i only desire what is
 and ,i should never fight against fate4
 ,at least1 there is only one chain1 a  
chain which ,i shall ever wear1 a chain 
of which ,i may be justly proud4 ,come  
then1 give me my ,sophy1 and ,i am free4
  ,dear ,emile1 ,i am glad indeed to    
hear you speak like a man1 and to behold
 the feelings of your heart4 ,at your   
age this exaggerated unselfishness is   
not unpleasing4 ,it will decrease when  
you have children of your own1 and then 
you will be just what a good father and 
a wise man ought to be4 ,i knew what the
 result would be before our travels2 ,i 
knew that when you saw our institutions 
you would be far from reposing a        
confidence in them which they do not    

deserve4 ,in vain do we seek freedom    
under the power of the laws4 ,the laws6 
,where is there any law8 ,where is there
 any respect for law8 ,under the name of
 law you have everywhere seen the rule  
of self-interest and human passion4 ,but
 the eternal laws of nature and of order
 exist4 ,for the wise man they take the 
place of positive law2 they are written 
in the depths of his heart by conscience
 and reason2 let him obey these laws and
 be free2 for there is no slave but the 
evil-doer1 for he always does evil      
against his will4 ,liberty is not to be 
found in any form of government1 she is 
in the heart of the free man1 he bears  
her with him everywhere4 ,the vile man  
bears his slavery in himself2 the one   
would be a slave in ,geneva1 the other  
free in ,paris4  ,if ,i spoke to you of 
the duties of a citizen1 you would      
perhaps ask me1 ',which is my country8' 
,and you would think you had put me to  
confusion4 ,yet you would be mistaken1  
dear ,emile1 for he who has no country  

has1 at least1 the land in which he     
lives4 ,there is always a government and
 certain so-called laws under which he  
has lived in peace4 ,what matter though 
the social contract has not been        
observed1 if he has been protected by   
private interest against the general    
will1 if he has been secured by public  
violence against private aggressions1 if
 the evil he has beheld has taught him  
to love the good1 and if our            
institutions themselves have made him   
perceive and hate their own iniquities8 
,oh1 ,emile1 where is the man who owes  
nothing to the land in which he lives8  
,whatever that land may be1 he owes to  
it the most precious thing possessed by 
man1 the morality of his actions and the
 love of virtue4 ,born in the depths of 
a forest he would have lived in greater 
happiness and freedom2 but being able to
 follow his inclinations without a      
struggle there would have been no merit 
in his goodness1 he would not have been 
virtuous1 as he may be now1 in spite of 

his passions4 ,the mere sight of order  
teaches him to know and love it4 ,the   
public good1 which to others is a mere  
pretext1 is a real motive for him4 ,he  
learns to fight against himself and to  
prevail1 to sacrifice his own interest  
to the common weal4 ,it is not true that
 he gains nothing from the laws2 they   
give him courage to be just1 even in the
 midst of the wicked4 ,it is not true   
that they have failed to make him free2 
they have taught him to rule himself4   
,do not say therefore1 ',what matter    
where ,i am8' ,it does matter that you  
should be where you can best do your    
duty2 and one of these duties is to love
 your native land4 ,your                
fellow-countrymen protected you in      
childhood2 you should love them in your 
manhood4 ,you should live among them1 or
 at least you should live where you can 
serve them to the best of your power1   
and where they know where to find you if
 ever they are in need of you4 ,there   
are circumstances in which a man may be 

of more use to his fellow-countrymen    
outside his country than within it4     
,then he should listen only to his own  
zeal and should bear his exile without a
 murmur2 that exile is one of his       
duties4 ,but you1 dear ,emile1 you have 
not undertaken the painful task of      
telling men the truth1 you must live in 
the midst of your fellow-creatures1     
cultivating their friendship in pleasant
 intercourse2 you must be their         
benefactor1 their pattern2 your example 
will do more than all our books1 and the
 good they see you do will touch them   
more deeply than all our empty words4   
,yet ,i do not exhort you to live in a  
town2 on the contrary1 one of the       
examples which the good should give to  
others is that of a patriarchal1 rural  
life1 the earliest life of man1 the most
 peaceful1 the most natural1 and the    
most attractive to the uncorrupted      
heart4 ,happy is the land1 my young     
friend1 where one need not seek peace in
 the wilderness6 ,but where is that     

country8 ,a man of good will finds it   
hard to satisfy his inclinations in the 
midst of towns1 where he can find few   
but frauds and rogues to work for4 ,the 
welcome given by the towns to those     
idlers who flock to them to seek their  
fortunes only completes the ruin of the 
country1 when the country ought really  
to be repopulated at the cost of the    
towns4 ,all the men who withdraw from   
high society are useful just because of 
their withdrawal1 since its vices are   
the result of its numbers4 ,they are    
also useful when they can bring with    
them into the desert places life1       
culture1 and the love of their first    
condition4  ,i like to think what       
benefits ,emile and ,sophy1 in their    
simple home1 may spread about them1 what
 a stimulus they may give to the        
country1 how they may revive the zeal of
 the unlucky villagers4  ,in fancy ,i   
see the population increasing1 the land 
coming under cultivation1 the earth     
clothed with fresh beauty4 ,many workers

 and plenteous crops transform the      
labours of the fields into holidays2 ,i 
see the young couple in the midst of the
 rustic sports which they have revived1 
and ,i hear the shouts of joy and the   
blessings of those about them4 ,men say 
the golden age is a fable2 it always    
will be for those whose feelings and    
taste are depraved4 ,people do not      
really regret the golden age1 for they  
do nothing to restore it4 ,what is      
needed for its restoration8 ,one thing  
only1 and that is an impossibility2 we  
must love the golden age4  ,already it  
seems to be reviving around ,sophy's    
home2 together you will only complete   
what her worthy parents have begun4     
,but1 dear ,emile1 you must not let so  
pleasant a life give you a distaste for 
sterner duties1 if every they are laid  
upon you2 remember that the ,romans     
sometimes left the plough to become     
consul4 ,if the prince or the state     
calls you to the service of your        
country1 leave all to fulfil the        

honourable duties of a citizen in the   
post assigned to you4 ,if you find that 
duty onerous1 there is a sure and       
honourable means of escaping from it2 do
 your duty so honestly that it will not 
long be left in your hands4 ,moreover1  
you need not fear the difficulties of   
such a test2 while there are men of our 
own time1 they will not summon you to   
serve the state4  ,why may ,i not paint 
the return of ,emile to ,sophy and the  
end of their love1 or rather the        
beginning of their wedded love6 ,a love 
founded on esteem which will last with  
life itself1 on virtues which will not  
fade with fading beauty1 on fitness of  
character which gives a charm to        
intercourse1 and prolongs to old age the
 delights of early love4 ,but all such  
details would be pleasing but not       
useful1 and so far ,i have not permitted
 myself to give attractive details      
unless ,i thought they would be useful4 
,shall ,i abandon this rule when my task
 is nearly ended8 ,no1 ,i feel that my  

pen is weary4  ,too feeble for such     
prolonged labours1 ,i should abandon    
this if it were not so nearly completed2
 if it is not to be left imperfect it is
 time it were finished4  ,at last ,i see
 the happy day approaching1 the happiest
 day of ,emile's life and my own2 ,i see
 the crown of my labours1 ,i begin to   
appreciate their results4 ,the noble    
pair are united till death do part2     
heart and lips confirm no empty vows2   
they are man and wife4 ,when they return
 from the church1 they follow where they
 are led2 they know not where they are1 
whither they are going1 or what is      
happening around them4 ,they heed       
nothing1 they answer at random2 their   
eyes are troubled and they see nothing4 
,oh1 rapture6 ,oh1 human weakness6 ,man 
is overwhelmed by the feeling of        
happiness1 he is not strong enough to   
bear it4  ,there are few people who know
 how to talk to the newly-married       
couple4 ,the gloomy propriety of some   
and the light conversation of others    

seem to me equally out of place4 ,i     
would rather their young hearts were    
left to themselves1 to abandon          
themselves to an agitation which is not 
without its charm1 rather than that they
 should be so cruelly distressed by a   
false modesty1 or annoyed by coarse     
witticisms which1 even if they appealed 
to them at other times1 are surely out  
of place on such a day4  ,i behold our  
young people1 wrapped in a pleasant     
languor1 giving no heed to what is said4
 ,shall ,i1 who desire that they should 
enjoy all the days of their life1 shall 
,i let them lose this precious day8 ,no1
 ,i desire that they shall taste its    
pleasures and enjoy them4 ,i rescue them
 from the foolish crowd1 and walk with  
them in some quiet place2 ,i recall them
 to themselves by speaking of them ,i   
wish to speak1 not merely to their ears1
 but to their hearts1 and ,i know that  
there is only one subject of which they 
can think to-day4  ,my children1 say ,i1
 taking a hand of each1 it is three     

years since ,i beheld the birth of the  
pure and vigorous passion which is your 
happiness to-day4 ,it has gone on       
growing2 your eyes tell me that it has  
reached its highest point2 it must      
inevitably decline4 ,my readers can     
fancy the raptures1 the anger1 the vows 
of ,emile1 and the scornful air with    
which ,sophy withdraws her hand from    
mine2 how their eyes protest that they  
will adore each other till their latest 
breath4 ,i let them have their way2 then
 ,i continue3  ,i have often thought    
that if the happiness of love could     
continue in marriage1 we should find a  
,paradise upon earth4 ,so far this has  
never been4 ,but if it were not quite   
impossible1 you two are quite worthy to 
set an example you have not received1 an
 example which few married couples could
 follow4 ,my children1 shall ,i tell you
 what ,i think is the way1 and the only 
way1 to do it8  ,they look at one       
another and smile at my simplicity4     
,emile thanks me curtly for my          

prescription1 saying that he thinks     
,sophy has a better1 at any rate it is  
good enough for him4 ,sophy agrees with 
him and seems just as certain4 ,yet in  
spite of her mockery1 ,i think ,i see a 
trace of curiosity4 ,i study ,emile2 his
 eager eyes are fixed upon his wife's   
beauty2 he has no curiosity for anything
 else2 and he pays little heed to what  
,i say4 ,it is my turn to smile1 and ,i 
say to myself1 ,i will soon get your    
attention4  ,the almost imperceptible   
difference between these two hidden     
impulses is characteristic of a real    
difference between the two sexes2 it is 
that men are generally less constant    
than women1 and are sooner weary of     
success in love4 ,a woman foresees man's
 future inconstancy1 and is anxious2 it 
is this which makes her more jealous4   
,footnote3 ,in ,france it is the wives  
who first emancipate themselves2 and    
necessarily so1 for having very little  
heart1 and only desiring attention1 when
 a husband ceases to pay them attention 

they care very little for himself4 ,in  
other countries it is not so2 it is the 
husband who first emancipates himself2  
and necessarily so1 for women1 faithful1
 but foolish1 importune men with their  
desires and only disgust them4 ,there   
may be plenty of exceptions to these    
general truths2 but ,i still think they 
are truths4 ,when his passion begins to 
cool she is compelled to pay him the    
attentions he used to bestow on her for 
her pleasure2 she weeps1 it is her turn 
to humiliate herself1 and she is rarely 
successful4 ,affection and kind deeds   
rarely win hearts1 and they hardly ever 
win them back4 ,i return to my          
prescription against the cooling of love
 in marriage4  ,it is plain and simple1 
,i continue4 ,it consists in remaining  
lovers when you are husband and wife4   
,indeed1 said ,emile1 laughing at my    
secret1 we shall not find that hard4    
,perhaps you will find it harder than   
you think4 ,pray give me time to        
explain4  ,cords too tightly stretched  

are soon broken4 ,this is what happens  
when the marriage bond is subjected to  
too great a strain4 ,the fidelity       
imposed by it upon husband and wife is  
the most sacred of all rights2 but it   
gives to each too great a power over the
 other4 ,constraint and love do not     
agree together1 and pleasure is not to  
be had for the asking4 ,do not blush1   
,sophy1 and do not try to run away4     
,god forbid that ,i should offend your  
modesty6 ,but your fate for life is at  
stake4 ,for so great a cause1 permit a  
conversation between your husband and   
your father which you would not permit  
elsewhere4  ,it is not so much          
possession as mastery of which people   
tire1 and affection is often more       
prolonged with regard to a mistress than
 a wife4 ,how can people make a duty of 
the tenderest caresses1 and a right of  
the sweetest pledges of love8 ,it is    
mutual desire which gives the right1 and
 nature knows no other4 ,the law may    
restrict this right1 it cannot extend   

it4 ,the pleasure is so sweet in itself6
 ,should it owe to sad constraint the   
power which it cannot gain from its own 
charms8 ,no1 my children1 in marriage   
the hearts are bound1 but the bodies are
 not enslaved4 ,you owe one another     
fidelity1 but not complaisance4 ,neither
 of you may give yourself to another1   
but neither of you belongs to the other 
except at your own will4  ,if it is     
true1 dear ,emile1 that you would always
 be your wife's lover1 that she should  
always be your mistress and her own1 be 
a happy but respectful lover2 obtain all
 from love and nothing from duty1 and   
let the slightest favours never be of   
right but of grace4 ,i know that modesty
 shuns formal confessions and requires  
to be overcome2 but with delicacy and   
true love1 will the lover ever be       
mistaken as to the real will8 ,will not 
he know when heart and eyes grant what  
the lips refuse8 ,let both for ever be  
master of their person and their        
caresses1 let them have the right to    

bestow them only at their own will4     
,remember that even in marriage this    
pleasure is only lawful when the desire 
is mutual4 ,do not be afraid1 my        
children1 that this law will keep you   
apart2 on the contrary1 it will make    
both more eager to please1 and will     
prevent satiety4 ,true to one another1  
nature and love will draw you to each   
other4  ,emile is angry and cries out   
against these and similar suggestions4  
,sophy is ashamed1 she hides her face   
behind her fan and says nothing4        
,perhaps while she is saying nothing1   
she is the most annoyed4 ,yet ,i insist1
 without mercy2 ,i make ,emile blush for
 his lack of delicacy2 ,i undertake to  
be surety for ,sophy that she will      
undertake her share of the treaty4 ,i   
incite her to speak1 you may guess she  
will not dare to say ,i am mistaken4    
,emile anxiously consults the eyes of   
his young wife2 he beholds them1 through
 all her confusion1 filled with a1      
voluptuous anxiety which reassures him  

against the dangers of trusting her4 ,he
 flings himself at her feet1 kisses with
 rapture the hand extended to him1 and  
swears that beyond the fidelity he has  
already promised1 he will renounce all  
other rights over her4 ,my dear wife1   
said he1 be the arbiter of my pleasures 
as you are already the arbiter of my    
life and fate4 ,should your cruelty cost
 me life itself ,i would yield to you my
 most cherished rights4 ,i will owe     
nothing to your complaisance1 but all to
 your heart4  ,dear ,emile1 be          
comforted2 ,sophy herself is too        
generous to let you fall a victim to    
your generosity4  ,in the evening1 when 
,i am about to leave them1 ,i say in the
 most solemn tone1 ,remember both of    
you1 that you are free1 that there is no
 question of marital rights2 believe me1
 no false deference4 ,emile will you    
come home with me8 ,sophy permits it4   
,emile is ready to strike me in his     
anger4 ,and you1 ,sophy1 what do you    
say8 ,shall ,i take him away8 ,the      

little liar1 blushing1 answers1 ,yes4 ,a
 tender and delightful falsehood1 better
 than truth itself6  ,the next day4 444 
,men no longer delight in the picture of
 bliss2 their taste is as much depraved 
by the corruption of vice as their      
hearts4 ,they can no longer feel what is
 touching or perceive what is truly     
delightful4 ,you who1 as a picture of   
voluptuous joys1 see only the happy     
lovers immersed in pleasure1 your       
picture is very imperfect2 you have only
 its grosser part1 the sweetest charms  
of pleasure are not there4 ,which of you
 has seen a young couple1 happily       
married1 on the morrow of their         
marriage8 their chaste yet languid looks
 betray the intoxication of the bliss   
they have enjoyed1 the blessed security 
of innocence1 and the delightful        
certainty that they will spend the rest 
of their life together4 ,the heart of   
man can behold no more rapturous sight2 
this is the real picture of happiness2  
you have beheld it a hundred times      

without heeding it2 your hearts are so  
hard that you cannot love it4 ,sophy1   
peaceful and happy1 spends the day in   
the arms of her tender mother2 a        
pleasant resting place1 after a night   
spent in the arms of her husband4  ,the 
day after ,i am aware of a slight       
change4 ,emile tries to look somewhat   
vexed2 but through this pretence ,i     
notice such a tender eagerness1 and     
indeed so much submission1 that ,i do   
not think there is much amiss4 ,as for  
,sophy she is merrier than she was      
yesterday2 her eyes are sparkling and   
she looks very well pleased with        
herself2 she is charming to ,emile2 she 
ventures to tease him a little and vexes
 him still more4  ,these changes are    
almost imperceptible1 but they do not   
escape me2 ,i am anxious and ,i question
 ,emile in private1 and ,i learn that1  
to his great regret1 and in spite of all
 entreaties1 he was not permitted last  
night to share ,sophy's bed4 ,that      
haughty lady had made haste to assert   

her right4 ,an explanation takes place4 
,emile complains bitterly1 ,sophy       
laughs2 but at last1 seeing that ,emile 
is really getting angry1 she looks at   
him with eyes full of tenderness and    
love1 and pressing my hand1 she only    
says these two words1 but in a tone that
 goes to his heart1 ,ungrateful man6    
,emile is too stupid to understand4 ,but
 ,i understand1 and ,i send ,emile away 
and speak to ,sophy privately in her    
turn4  ,i see1 said ,i1 the reason for  
this whim4 ,no one could be more        
delicate1 and no one could use that     
delicacy so ill4 ,dear ,sophy1 do not be
 anxious1 ,i have given you a man2 do   
not be afraid to treat him as such4 ,you
 have had the first fruits of his youth2
 he has not squandered his manhood and  
it will endure for you4 ,my dear child1 
,i must explain to you why ,i said what 
,i did in our conversation of the day   
before yesterday4 ,perhaps you only     
understood it as a way of restraining   
your pleasures to secure their          

continuance4 ,oh1 ,sophy1 there was     
another object1 more worthy of my care4 
,when ,emile became your husband1 he    
became your head1 it is yours to obey2  
this is the will of nature4 ,when the   
wife is like ,sophy1 it is1 however1    
good for the man to be led by her2 that 
is another of nature's laws1 and it is  
to give you as much authority over his  
heart1 as his sex gives him over your   
person1 that ,i have made you the       
arbiter of his pleasures4 ,it will be   
hard for you1 but you will control him  
if you can control yourself1 and what   
has already happened shows me that this 
difficult art is not beyond your        
courage4 ,you will long rule him by love
 if you make your favours scarce and    
precious1 if you know how to use them   
aright4 ,if you want to have your       
husband always in your power1 keep him  
at a distance4 ,but let your sternness  
be the result of modesty not caprice2   
let him find you modest not capricious2 
beware lest in controlling his love you 

make him doubt your own4 ,be all the    
dearer for your favours and all the more
 respected when you refuse them2 let him
 honour his wife's chastity1 without    
having to complain of her coldness4     
,thus1 my child1 he will give you his   
confidence1 he will listen to your      
opinion1 will consult you in his        
business1 and will decide nothing       
without you4 ,thus you may recall him to
 wisdom1 if he strays1 and bring him    
back by a gentle persuasion1 you may    
make yourself lovable in order to be    
useful1 you may employ coquetry on      
behalf of virtue1 and love on behalf of 
reason4  ,do not think that with all    
this1 your art will always serve your   
purpose4 ,in spite of every precaution  
pleasures are destroyed by possession1  
and love above all others4 ,but when    
love has lasted long enough1 a gentle   
habit takes its place and the charm of  
confidence succeeds the raptures of     
passion4 ,children form a bond between  
their parents1 a bond no less tender and

 a bond which is sometimes stronger than
 love itself4 ,when you cease to be     
,emile's mistress you will be his friend
 and wife2 you will be the mother of his
 children4 ,then instead of your first  
reticence let there be the fullest      
intimacy between you2 no more separate  
beds1 no more refusals1 no more         
caprices4 ,become so truly his better   
half that he can no longer do without   
you1 and if he must leave you1 let him  
feel that he is far from himself4 ,you  
have made the charms of home life so    
powerful in your father's home1 let them
 prevail in your own4 ,every man who is 
happy at home loves his wife4 ,remember 
that if your husband is happy in his    
home1 you will be a happy wife4  ,for   
the present1 do not be too hard on your 
lover2 he deserves more consideration2  
he will be offended by your fears2 do   
not care for his health at the cost of  
his happiness1 and enjoy your own       
happiness4 ,you must neither wait for   
disgust nor repulse desire2 you must not

 refuse for the sake of refusing1 but   
only to add to the value of your        
favours4  ,then1 taking her back to     
,emile1 ,i say to her young husband1    
,one must bear the yoke voluntarily     
imposed upon oneself4 ,let your deserts 
be such that the yoke may be lightened4 
,above all1 sacrifice to the graces1 and
 do not think that sulkiness will make  
you more amiable4 ,peace is soon made1  
and everybody can guess its terms4 ,the 
treaty is signed with a kiss1 after     
which ,i say to my pupil1 ,dear ,emile1 
all his life through a man needs a guide
 and counsellor4 ,so far ,i have done my
 best to fulfil that duty2 my lengthy   
task is now ended1 and another will     
undertake this duty4 ,to-day ,i abdicate
 the authority which you gave me2       
henceforward ,sophy is your guardian4   
,little by little the first raptures    
subside and they can peacefully enjoy   
the delights of their new condition4    
,happy lovers1 worthy husband and wife6 
,to do honour to their virtues1 to paint

 their felicity1 would require the      
history of their lives4 ,how often does 
my heart throb with rapture when ,i     
behold in them the crown of my life's   
work6 ,how often do ,i take their hands 
in mine blessing ,god with all my heart6
 ,how often do ,i kiss their clasped    
hands6 ,how often do their tears of joy 
fall upon mine6 ,they are touched by my 
joy and they share my raptures4 ,their  
worthy parents see their own youth      
renewed in that of their children2 they 
begin to live1 as it were1 afresh in    
them2 or rather they perceive1 for the  
first time1 the true value of life2 they
 curse their former wealth1 which       
prevented them from enjoying so         
delightful a lot when they were young4  
,if there is such a thing as happiness  
upon earth1 you must seek it in our     
abode4  ,one morning a few months later 
,emile enters my room and embraces me1  
saying1 ,my master1 congratulate your   
son2 he hopes soon to have the honour of
 being a father4 ,what a responsibility 

will be ours1 how much we shall need    
you6 ,yet ,god forbid that ,i should let
 you educate the son as you educated the
 father4 ,god forbid that so sweet and  
holy a task should be fulfilled by any  
but myself1 even though ,i should make  
as good a choice for my child as was    
made for me6 ,but continue to be the    
teacher of the young teachers4 ,advise  
and control us2 we shall be easily led2 
as long as ,i live ,i shall need you4 ,i
 need you more than ever now that ,i am 
taking up the duties of manhood4 ,you   
have done your own duty2 teach me to    
follow your example1 while you enjoy    
your well-earned leisure4  ,,the ,,end