,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,by ,d4 ,,m5del,,eff ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,russian 7,,six? ,,edition7 ,,by ,,george ,,kam5sky1 ,a4,r4,s4,m4 ,,( ,,! ,,imp]ial ,,m9t1 ,,/ ,,pet]sburg3 ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,russian ,,physico-,,*emical ,,society ,,edit$ ,,by ,t4 ,a4 ,,lawson1 ,b4,sc4 ,,ph4,d4 ,,exam9] ,,9 ,,coal-,,t> ,,products ,,to ,,! ,,city ,,& ,,guilds ,,( ,,london ,,in/itute ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,& ,,co #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,bombay #ahig ,all rights res]v$ 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,iii4 ,! p]iodic dep5d5ce ( ! composition ( ! simple/ comp\nds & prop]ties ( ! simple bodies ^u ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,molecul> composition ( ! high] hydrog5 & ,atomic weights ( ! elem5ts metallo-organic comp\nds ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,e,,*#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 c4 #a #b #c #d #e #f ,,hh ,h #a1jje 7mean7 ,li #gjb 7,/as7 ,be #ia 7,nilson ,pett]sson7 ,,be#c -- -- ,b #aaj 7,ramsay ,a%ton7 ,,*#d ,c#b;,h#f ,c#b;,h#d ,c#b;,h#b ,c #abjj 7,roscoe7 ,,nh#c ,n#b;,h#d -- ,n #adjd 7,/as7 ,,oh#b -- ,o #af 7conv5tional7 ,,fh ,f #aij 7,*ri/ians57 ,na,e ,na #bcjd 7,/as7 ,mg,e#b -- ,mg #bdc 7,burton7 ,al,e#c -- -- ,al #bga 7,mallet7 ,si,h#d ,si#b;,e#f -- -- ,si #bhd 7,?orpe ,"y7 ,,ph#c ,p#b;,h#d -- ,p #caj 7v4 d4 ,plaats7 ,,%#b -- ,s #cbjf 7,/as7 ,cl,h ,cl #cede 7,/as7 ,k #ciae 7,/as7 ,ca #djj 7,dumas7 ,sc #ddj 7,nilson7 ,ti #dha 7,?orpe7 ,v #eab 7,roscoe7 ,cr #eba 7,rawson7 ,mn #eea 7,m>ignac7 ,fe #efj 7,dumas7 ,co #ehi 7,zimm]mann7 ,ni #eid 7,w9kl]7 ,cu #fc4f 7,ri*>ds7 ,zn,e#b -- ,zn #fec 7,m>ignac7 ,ga,e#c -- -- ,ga #fii 7,boisbaudran7 ,ge,e#d -- -- -- ,ge #gbc 7,w9kl]7 ,as,h#c -- -- ,z #gej 7,dumas7 ,se,h#b -- ,se #gij;,a 7,pett]sson7 ,br,h ,br #giie 7,/as7 ,rb #hee 7,godeffroy7 ,sr #hgf 7,dumas7 ,y #hi 7,clve7 ,zr #ijf 7,bailey7 ,nb #id 7,m>ignac7 ,mo #ifa 7,maas7 ,unkn[n metal ,ru #ajag 7,joly7 ,rh #ajbg 7,seub]t7 ,pd #ajfd 7,kell] ,smi?7 ,ag #ajgib 7,/as7 ,cd,e#b -- ,cd #aaba 7,lorim] ,smi?7 ,in,e#c -- -- ,9 #aacf 7,w9kl]7 ,sn,e#d -- -- -- ,sn #aaia 7,class57 ,sb,h#c -- -- ,sb #abjd 7,s*neid]7 ,te,h#b -- ,te #abea 7,braun]7 ,cs #acbg 7,godeffroy7 ,ba #acgd 7,ri*>ds7 ,la #achb 7,braun]7 ,ce #adjb 7,braun]7 ,ta #ahbg 7,m>ignac7 ,w #ahdj 7,waddel7 ,unkn[n elem5t4 ,ir #aicc 7,joly7 ,pt #aifj 7,dittm> ,mc,arthur7 ,au #aige 7,mallet7 ,hg,e#b -- ,hg #bjje 7,erdmann ,m>47 ,tl,e#c -- -- ,tl #bjda 7,crookes7 ,pb,e#d -- -- -- ,pb #bjfij 7,/as7 ,bi,e#c -- -- ,bi #bjhi 7,class57 ,five unkn[n elem5ts4 ,? #bcbd 7,krss ,nilson7 ,unkn[n elem5t4 ,u #bcic 7,zimm]mann7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,composition ( ! sal9e comp\nds1 ,x ,cl ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,br1 7,,no#c71 #a_/b ,o1 #a_/b 7,,s#d71 ,,oh1 7,,om7 ,z1 :]e ,m ,k1 #a_/b ,ca1 #a_/c ,al1 c4 ,=m ,,rx ,,rx#b ,,rx#c ,,rx#d ,,rx#e ,,rx#f ,,rx#g ,,rx#h ,oxi- ,r#b,o ,,ro ,r#b,o#c ,,ro#b ,r#b,o#e ,,ro#c ,r#b,o#g ,,ro#d des #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad ,x or ,h#b,o i,x -- ,be,x#b -- -- ,,bx#c -- ,,co -- ,,coz#b ,n#b,o ,,no ,,noz ,,no#b ,,no#b,z -- ,,ox#b ,,fz ,na,x -- ,mg,x#b -- -- ,al,x#c -- -- -- ,si,o,z#b -- -- ,,px#c -- ,,poz#c -- ,,sx#b -- ,,soz#b -- ,,s#b,z#b ,cl,z -- ,cl,o,z -- ,cl,o#b,z -- ,cl,o#c,z ,,kx -- ,ca,x#b -- -- ,sc,x#c -- ,ti,x#b ,ti,x#c ,ti,x#d -- ,,vo ,,vox -- ,,voz#c -- ,cr,x#b ,cr,x#c ,cr,o#b -- ,cr,o#b,z#b -- ,mn,x#b ,mn,x#c ,mn,o#b -- ,mn,o#b,z#b ,mn,o#c,z -- ,fe,x#b ,fe,x#c -- -- ,fe,o#b,z#b -- ,co,x#b ,co,x#c ,co,o#b -- ,ni,x#b ,ni,x#c ,cu,x ,cu,x#b -- ,zn,x#b -- -- ,ga,x#c -- ,ge,x#b -- ,ge,x#d -- ,as,s ,as,x#c ,as,s#b ,as,o#b,z -- -- -- ,se,o,z#b -- ,se,o#b,z#b ,br,z -- ,br,o,z -- ,br,o#b,z -- ,br,o#c,z ,rb,x -- ,sr,x#b -- -- ,,yx#c -- -- -- ,zr,x#d -- -- ,nb,x#c -- ,nb,o#b,z -- -- ,mo,x#c ,mo,x#d -- ,mo,o#b,z#b 7eka-manganese1 ,em #ii74 ,em,o#c,z ,ru,o#d -- ,ru,x#b ,ru,x#c ,ru,x#d -- ,ru,o#b,z#b ,ru,o#c,z -- ,rh,x#b ,rh,x#c ,rh,x#d -- ,rh,o#b,z#b ,pd,x ,pd,x#b -- ,pd,x#d ,ag,x -- ,cd,x#b -- ,in,x#b ,in,x#c -- ,sn,x#b -- ,sn,x#d -- -- ,sb,x#c -- ,sb,o#b,z -- -- -- ,te,o,z#b -- ,te,o#b,z#b ,,iz -- ,,iz#c -- ,,io#b,z -- ,,io#c,z ,cs,x -- ,ba,x#b -- -- ,la,x#c -- -- ,ce,x#c ,ce,x#d ,little kn[n ,di #adb4a & ,yb #agc4b1 & ov] #ae unkn[n elem5ts4 -- -- -- -- ,ta,o#b,z -- -- -- ,,wx#d -- ,,wo#b,z#b ,os,o#d -- -- ,os,x#c ,os,x#d -- ,os,o#b,z#b -- -- -- ,ir,x#c ,ir,x#d -- ,ir,o#b,z#b -- ,pt,x#b -- ,pt,x#d ,au,x -- ,au,x#c ,hg,x ,hg,x#b ,tl,x -- ,tl,x#c -- ,pb,x#b -- ,pb,o,z#b -- -- ,bi,x#c -- ,bi,o#b,z -- -- -- ,th,x#d -- -- -- ,,uo#b -- ,,uo#b,x#b ,,uo#d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,l[] ,simple bodies ,molecul> composition ( hydrog5 ------------------- ! high] hydrog5 & ,p]oxides com- ,sp4 ,sp4 ,melt+ metallo-organic comp\nds p\nds gr vol4 po9t ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,e,,*#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 c4 #a #b #c #d #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ,,hh,h#b,o#b -- 99#jje #bj -#bej8 -- -- #jei #aai #ahj -- ,be,h #afd #ee #ijj8 ,,be#c -- -- -- -- #be #dd #a1cjj8 ,,*#d ,c#b;,h#f ,c#b;,h#d ,c#b;,h#b ,c#b,o#e99 -- 99#ai #fc #b1fjj8 ,,nh#c ,n#b;,h#d --,n#b,o#f99 ,n#c;,h 99#jf #bc -#bjc ,,oh#b --,o#c -- 99#ji #ah -#bcj8 ,,fh -- -- 8#aj #ai 8 ,na,e,na,o ,na#b;,h #jih #bce #if ,mg,e#b -- -- ,mg,h #agd #ad #ejj ,al,e#c -- -- -- -- #bf #aa #fjj ,si,h#d ,si#b;,e#f -- -- -- -- #bc #ab #a1cjj8 ,,ph#c ,p#b;,h#d -- -- ,p#b;,h #bb #ad #dd ,,%#b --,s#b,o#g -- #bjg #ae #aad ,cl,h -- -- 99#ac #bg -#ge ,,ko#b ,k#b;,h #jhg #de #eh ,ca,o#b ,ca,h #aef #bf #hjj -- -- 8#be 8#ah #a1bjj8 ,ti,o#c -- #cf #ac #b1ejj8 -- -- #ee #i #c1jjj8 ,cr#b,o#g -- #fg #gg #b1jjj8 -- -- #ge #gc #a1ejj -- ,fen,h99 #gh #gb #a1dej -- -- #hf #fh #a1djj -- ,nin,h #hg #fh #a1cej ,cu#b,o#e99 ,cu,h #hh #gb #a1jed ,zn,e#b --,zn,o#b -- #ga #ib #dah ,ga,e#c -- -- -- -- #eif #aag #cj ,ge,e#d -- -- -- -- -- #edg #acb #ijj ,as,h#c -- -- -- ,z#d;,h99 #efe #acc #ejj ,se,h#b -- -- -- #dh #af #bag ,br,h -- -- #ca #bf -#g ,rb,o ,rb#b;,h99 #ae #eg #ci ,sr,o#b ,sr,h #be #ce #fjj8 -- -- 99#cd 99#bf #a1jjj8 -- ,zr#dn,h99 #da #bb #a1ejj8 -- ,nbn,h99 #ga #ac #a1hjj8 ,mo#b,o#g -- #hf #aa #b1bjj8 -- -- -- -- -- -- ,run,h99 #abb #hd #b1jjj8 -- ,rhn,h99 #aba #hf #a1ijj8 -- ,pd#b;,h #aad #hc #a1ejj ,ag,o -- #aje #ajc #iej ,cd,e#b --,cd,o#b -- #hf #ac #cbj ,in,e#c -- -- -- -- #gd #ad #agf ,sn,e#d -- -- --,sn,o#c -- #gb #af #bcb ,sb,h#c -- -- -- -- #fg #ah #dcb ,te,h#b -- -- -- #fd #bj #dee ,,ih -- -- #di #bf #aad -- ,cs#b;,h99 #bcg #ef #bg ,ba,o#b ,ba,h #cge #cf 8 -- -- #fa #bc 8 -- -- #ff #ba #gjj8 -- ,tan,h99 #ajd #ah 8 ,w#b,o#g -- #aia #if #b1fjj -- -- #bbe #he #b1gjj8 -- ,irn,h99 #bbd #hf #b1jjj -- ,ptn,h99 #bad #ib #a1gge -- -- #aic #aj #a1jde ,hg,e#b -- -- -- #acf #ae -#ci ,tl,e#c -- -- -- -- #aah #ag #bid ,pb,e#d -- -- -- -- -- #aac #ah #cbh ,bi,e#c -- -- -- -- #ih #ba #bfi -- -- #aaa #ba 8 -- -- #ahg #ac #b1djj8 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a ,f analogy !re is reason = ?9k+ t ! atomic weight ( sel5ium is really slightly less ?an #gij4 ,columns #a1 #b1 #c1 & #d give ! molecul> composition ( ! hydrog5 & metallo-organic comp\nds1 exhibit+ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic =ms assum$ by ! elem5ts4 ,! fir/ column conta9s only ^? :i* correspond to ! =m ,,rx#d1 ! second column ^? ( ! =m ,,rx#c1 ! ?ird ( ! =m ,,rx#b1 & ! f\r? ( ! =m ,,rx1 s t ! p]iodicity /&s out cle>ly 7see ,column #af74 ,column #e conta9s ! symbols ( all ! m or less well-kn[n elem5ts1 plac$ accord+ to ! ord] ( ! magnitude ( _! atomic weights4 ,column #f conta9s ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts accord+ to ! mo/ tru/wor?y det]m9ations4 ,! names ( ! inve/igators are giv5 9 p>5!sis4 ,! atomic weight ( oxyg51 tak5 z #af1 =ms ! basis ^u :i* ^! atomic weights 7 calculat$4 ,"s ( ^! h be5 recalculat$ by me on ! basis ( ,/as's mo/ tru/wor?y data 7see ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 & ! numb]s giv5 by ,/as 9 ! table1 :]e !y are tak5 accord+ to van d] ,plaats & ,?oms5's calculations74 ,columns #g-ad conta9 ! composition ( ! sal9e comp\nds ( ! elem5ts1 plac$ accord+ to _! =ms1 ,,rx1 ,,rx#b to ,,rx#h 79 ! #ad? column74 ,if ! elem5t ,r has a metallic "* l ,h1 ,li1 ,be1 c41 !n ,x repres5ts ,cl1 ,,no#c1 #a_/b ,,s#d1 c41 haloid radicles1 or 7,,oh7 if a p]fect hydrate is =m$ 7alkali1 aque\s base71 or #a_/b ,o1 #a_/b ,s1 c4 :5 an anhydr\s oxide1 sulphide1 c4 is =m$4 ,= in/ance1 ,na,cl1 ,mg7,,no#c7b1 ,al#b7,,s#d7c1 correspond to ,na,x1 ,mg,x#b1 & ,al,x#c2 s also ,na7,,oh71 ,mg7,,oh7#b1 ,al7,,oh7#c1 ,na#b,o1 ,mg,o1 ,al#b,o#c1 c4 ,b if ! elem5t1 l ,c or ,n1 be ( a metalloid or acid "*1 ,x mu/ be reg>d$ z 7,,oh7 9 ! =mation ( hydrates2 7,,om7 9 ! =mation ( salts1 :]e ,m is ! equival5t ( a metal1 #a_/b ,o 9 ! =mation ( an anhydride1 & ,cl 9 ! =mation ( a *loranhydride2 & 9 ?is case 7i4e4 9 ! acid comp\nds7 ,z is put 9 ! place ( ,x2 = example1 ! =mul ,,coz#b1 ,,no#b,z1 ,,mno#b,z1 ,fe,o#b,z#b1 & ,,iz#c correspond to ,,co7,na,o7#b ,na#b;,,co#c1 ,c,o,cl#b1 ,,co#b1 ,,no#b7,na,o7 ,na,n,o#c1 ,,no#b;,cl1 ,,no#b7,,oh7 ,,hno#c2 ,mn,o#c7,,ok7 ,k,mn,o#d1 ,i,cl1 c4 ,! #ae? column gives ! compositions ( ! p]oxides ( ! elem5ts1 tak+ !m z anhydr\s4 ,an a/]isk 7997 is atta*$ to ^? ( :i* ! composition has n be5 well e/abli%$1 & a da% 7--7 %[s t = a giv5 elem5t no p]oxides h yet be5 obta9$4 ,! p]oxides conta9 m oxyg5 ?an ! high] sal9e oxides ( ! same elem5ts1 are p[]fully oxidis+1 & easily give p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,?is latt] circum/ance necessitates _! be+ ref]r$ to ! type ( p]oxide ( hydrog51 if bases & acids are ref]r$ to ! type ( wat] 7see ,*apt] ,,xv41 ,note #g & #aa bis74 ,! #af? column gives ! composition ( ! l[] hydrog5 comp\nds l ,n#c;,h & ,na#b;,h4 ,!y may (t5 be reg>d$ z alloys ( hydrog51 :i* is frequ5tly dis5gag$ by !m at a comp>atively mod]ate temp]ature4 ,!y diff] greatly 9 _! nature f ! hydrog5 comp\nds giv5 9 columns #a-d 7see ,note #ab74 ,column #ag gives ! specific gravity ( ! elem5ts 9 a solid & a liquid /ate4 ,an a/]isk 7997 is plac$ by ^? :i* c ei!r only be assum$ f analogy 7= example1 ! sp4 gr4 ( fluor9e & hydrog51 :i* h n be5 obta9$ 9 a liquid /ate71 or :i* v>y v rapidly ) a v>iation ( temp]ature & pressure 7l oxyg5 & nitrog571 or physical /ate 7= in/ance1 c>bon 9 pass+ f ! /ate ( *>coal to graphite & diamond74 ,b z ! sp4 gr4 9 g5]al v>ies ) ! temp]ature1 me*anical condition1 c41 ! figures giv51 al?\gh *os5 f ! mo/ tru/wor?y s\rces1 c only be reg>d$ z approximate1 & n z absolutely true4 ,!y cle>ly %[ a c]ta9 p]iodicity2 = in/ance1 ! sp4 gr4 dim9i%es f ,al on bo? sides 7,al1 ,mg1 ,na1 ) decreas+ atomic weight2 & ,al1 ,si1 ,p1 ,s1 ,cl1 ) increas+ atomic weight1 x also dim9i%es on bo? sides f ,cu1 ,ru1 & ,os47 ,! same rem>ks ref] to ! figures 9 ! #ah? column1 :i* gives ! s-call$ atomic volumes ( ! simple bodies1 or ! quoti5t ( _! atomic weight & specific gravity4 ,= ,na1 ,k1 ,rb1 & ,cs ! atomic volume is greate/ among ! neighb\r+ elem5ts4 ,= ,ni1 ,pd1 & ,os x is lea/1 & ?is indicates ! p]iodicity ( ?is prop]ty ( ! simple bodies4 ,! la/ 7#ai?7 column gives ! melt+ po9ts ( ! simple bodies4 ,"h also a p]iodicity is se51 i4e4 a maximum & m9imum value betwe5 :i* !re are int]m$iate values1 z we see1 = in/ance1 9 ! s]ies ,cl1 ,k1 ,ca1 ,sc1 & ,ti1 or 9 ! s]ies ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 ,zn1 ,ga1 & ,ge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,gr\p+ ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,& ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,law ,x is se5 f ! examples giv5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s t ! sum ( ! data conc]n+ ! *emical trans=mations prop] to ! elem5ts 7= in/ance1 ) respect to ! =mation ( acids1 salts1 & o!r comp\nds hav+ def9ite prop]ties7 is insuffici5t = accurately det]m9+ ! relation%ip ( ! elem5ts1 inasmu* z ?is may be _m-sid$4 ,?us1 li?ium & b>ium are 9 "s respects analog\s to sodium & potassium1 & 9 o!rs to magnesium & calcium4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t = a complete judgm5t x is necess>y to h1 n only qualitative1 b also quantitative1 exact & measurable1 data4 ,:5 a prop]ty c be measur$ x ceases to be vague1 & becomes quantitative in/ead ( m]ely qualitative4 ,among ^! measurable prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 or ( _! correspond+ comp\nds1 are3 7a7 isomorphism1 or ! analogy ( cry/all9e =ms2 &1 connect$ ) x1 ! p[] to =m cry/all9e mixtures :i* are isomorph\s2 7b7 ! relation ( ! volumes ( analog\s comp\nds ( ! elem5ts2 7c7 ! composition ( _! sal9e comp\nds2 & 7d7 ! relation ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all briefly consid] ^! f\r aspects ( ! matt]1 :i* are exce$+ly important = a natural & fruitful gr\p+ ( ! elem5ts1 facilitat+1 n only a g5]al acqua9tance ) !m1 b also _! detail$ /udy4 ,hi/orically ! fir/1 & an important & conv9c+1 me?od = f9d+ a relation%ip betwe5 ! comp\nds ( two diff]5t elem5ts is by isomorphism4 ,?is conception 0 introduc$ into *emi/ry by ,mits*]li* 79 #ahbj71 :o demon/rat$ t ! correspond+ salts ( ars5ic acid1 ,h#c;,as,o#d1 & phosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d1 cry/allise ) an equal quantity ( wat]1 %[ an exce$+ly close resemblance 9 cry/all9e =m 7z reg>ds ! angles ( _! faces & axes71 & are able to cry/allise toge!r f solutions1 =m+ cry/als conta9+ a mixture ( ! isomorph\s comp\nds4 ,isomorph\s sub/ances are ^? :i*1 ) an equal numb] ( atoms 9 _! molecules1 pres5t an analogy 9 _! *emical reactions1 a close resemblance 9 _! prop]ties1 & a simil> or v ne>ly simil> cry/all9e =m3 !y (t5 conta9 c]ta9 elem5ts 9 common1 f :i* x is to be conclud$ t ! rema9+ elem5ts 7z 9 ! prec$+ example ( ,z & ,p7 are analog\s to ea* o!r4 ,& inasmu* z cry/all9e =ms are capable ( exact measurem5t1 ! ext]nal =m1 or ! relation ( ! molecules :i* causes _! gr\p+ into a cry/all9e =m1 is evid5tly z great a help 9 judg+ ( ! int]nal =ces act+ betwe5 ! atoms z a comp>ison ( reactions1 vap\r d5sities1 & o!r l relations4 ,we h already se5 examples ( ?is 9 ! prec$+ pages4#a ,x w be suffici5t to call to m9d t ! comp\nds ( ! alkali metals ) ! halog5s ,,rx1 9 a cry/all9e =m1 all belong to ! cubic sy/em & cry/allise 9 octah$ra or cubes--= example1 sodium *loride1 potassium *loride1 potassium iodide1 rubidium *loride1 c4 ,! nitrates ( rubidium & csium appe> 9 anhydr\s cry/als ( ! same =m z potassium nitrate4 ,! c>bonates ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are isomorph\s ) calcium c>bonate--t is1 !y ei!r appe> 9 =ms l calc sp> or 9 ! rhombic sy/em 9 cry/als analog\s to aragonite4#a bis ,fur!rmore1 sodium nitrate cry/allises 9 rhomboh$ra1 closely resembl+ ! rhomboh$ra ( calc sp> 7calcium c>bonate71 ,ca,c,o#c1 :il/ potassium nitrate appe>s 9 ! same =m z aragonite1 ,ca,c,o#c1 & ! numb] ( atoms 9 bo? k9ds ( salts is ! same3 !y all conta9 "o atom ( a metal 7,k1 ,na1 ,ca71 "o atom ( a non-metal 7,c1 ,n71 & ?ree atoms ( oxyg54 ,! analogy ( =m evid5tly co9cides ) an analogy ( atomic composition4 ,b1 z we h le>nt f ! previ\s description ( ^! salts1 !re is n any close resemblance 9 _! prop]ties4 ,x is evid5t t calcium c>bonate approa*es m ne>ly to magnesium c>bonate ?an to sodium nitrate1 al?\gh _! cry/all9e =ms are all equally alike4 ,isomorph\s sub/ances :i* are p]fectly analog\s to ea* o!r are n only *>act]is$ by a close resemblance ( =m 7homeomorphism71 b also by ! faculty ( ent]+ into analog\s reactions1 :i* is n ! case ) ,,rno#c & ,,rco#c4 ,! mo/ important & direct me?od ( recognis+ p]fect isomorphism--t is1 ! absolute analogy ( two comp\nds--is giv5 by t prop]ty ( analog\s comp\nds ( sep>at+ f solutions 9 homog5e\s cry/als1 conta9+ ! mo/ v>i$ proportions ( ! analog\s sub/ances :i* ent] into _! composition4 ,^! quantities d n seem to be 9 dep5d5ce on ! molecul> or atomic weights1 & if !y are gov]n$ by any laws !y mu/ be analog\s to ^? :i* apply to indef9ite *emical comp\nds4#b ,?is w be cle> f ! foll[+ examples4 ,potassium *loride & potassium nitrate are n isomorph\s ) ea* o!r1 & are 9 an atomic s5se compos$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,if ^! salts be mix$ 9 a solution & ! solution be evaporat$1 indep5d5t cry/als ( ! two salts w sep>ate1 ea* 9 t cry/all9e =m :i* is prop] to x4 ,! cry/als w n conta9 a mixture ( ! two salts4 ,b if we mix ! solutions ( two isomorph\s salts toge!r1 !n1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 cry/als w be obta9$ :i* conta9 bo? ^! sub/ances4 ,h[ev]1 ?is _c be tak5 z an absolute rule1 = if we take a solution saturat$ at a high temp]ature ) a mixture ( potassium & sodium *lorides1 !n on evaporation sodium *loride only w sep>ate1 & on cool+ only potassium *loride4 ,! fir/ w conta9 v little potassium *loride1 & ! latt] v little sodium *loride4#c ,b if we take1 = example1 a mixture ( solutions ( magnesium sulphate & z9c sulphate1 !y _c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by evaporat+ ! mixture1 not)/&+ ! r consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! solubility ( ^! salts4 ,aga91 ! isomorph\s salts1 magnesium c>bonate1 & calcium c>bonate are f\nd toge!r--t is1 9 "o cry/al--9 nature4 ,! angle ( ! rhomboh$ron ( ^! magnesia-lime sp>s is int]m$iate betwe5 ! angles prop] to ! two sp>s individually 7= calcium c>bonate1 ! angle ( ! rhomboh$ron is #aje #h2 magnesium c>bonate1 #ajg #cj2 ,ca,mg7,,co#c7b1 #ajf #aj74 ,c]ta9 ( ^! isomorph\s mixtures ( calc & magnesia sp>s appe> 9 well-=m$ cry/als1 & 9 ?is case !re n unfrequ5tly exi/s a simple molecul> proportion ( /rictly def9ite *emical comb9ation betwe5 ! compon5t salts--= in/ance1 ,ca,c,o#c1,mg,c,o#c--:il/ 9 o!r cases1 especially 9 ! abs5ce ( di/9ct cry/allisation 79 dolomites71 no su* simple molecul> proportion is obs]vable3 ?is is also ! case 9 _m artificially prep>$ isomorph\s mixtures4 ,! microscopical & cry/allo-optical rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,ino/rantz(f & o!rs %[ t 9 _m cases !re is really a me*anical1 al?\gh microscopically m9ute1 juxtaposition 9 "o :ole ( ! het]og5e\s cry/als ( calcium c>bonate 7d\ble refract+7 & ( ! comp\nd ,ca,mg,c#b,o#f4 ,if we suppose ! adjac5t p>ts to be microscopically small 7on ! basis ( ! rese>*es ( ,mall>d1 ,w]ub(f1 & o!rs71 we obta9 an idea ( isomorph\s mixtures4 ,a =mula ( ! foll[+ k9d is giv5 to isomorph\s mixtures3 = in/ance1 = sp>s1 ,,rco#c1 :]e ,r ,mg1 ,ca1 & :]e x may be ,fe1,mn 4441 c4 ,?is means t ! ,ca is p>tially replac$ by ,mg or ano!r metal4 ,alums =m a common example ( ! sep>ation ( isomorph\s mixtures f solutions4 ,!y are d\ble sulphates 7or sel5iates7 ( alum9a 7or oxides isomorph\s ) x7 & ! alkalis1 :i* cry/allise 9 well-=m$ cry/als4 ,if alum9ium sulphate be mix$ ) potassium sulphate1 an alum sep>ates1 hav+ ! composition ,k,al,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o4 ,if sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate1 or rubidium 7or ?allium7 sulphate be us$1 we obta9 alums hav+ ! composition ,r,al,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o4 ,n only d !y all cry/allise 9 ! cubic sy/em1 b !y also conta9 an equal atomic quantity ( wat] ( cry/allisation 7#ab;,h#b,o74 ,besides :i*1 if we mix solutions ( ! potassium & ammonium 7,,nh#d;,al,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o7 alums toge!r1 !n ! cry/als :i* sep>ate w conta9 v>i\s proportions ( ! alkalis tak51 & sep>ate cry/als ( ! alums ( "o or ! o!r k9d w n be obta9$1 b ea* sep>ate cry/al w conta9 bo? potassium & ammonium4 ,nor is ?is all2 if we take a cry/al ( a potassium alum & imm]se x 9 a solution capable ( yield+ ammonia alum1 ! cry/al ( ! pota% alum w cont9ue to gr[ & increase 9 size 9 ?is solution--t is1 a lay] ( ! ammonia or o!r alum w deposit itself ^u ! planes b\nd+ ! cry/al ( ! pota% alum4 ,?is is v di/9ctly se5 if a col\rless cry/al ( a common alum be imm]s$ 9 a saturat$ violet solution ( *rome alum1 ,k,cr,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o1 :i* !n deposits itself 9 a violet lay] ov] ! col\rless cry/al ( ! alum9a alum1 z 0 obs]v$ ev5 be=e ,mits*]li* notic$ x4 ,if ?is cry/al be !n imm]s$ 9 a solution ( an alum9a alum1 a lay] ( ?is salt w =m ov] ! lay] ( *rome alum1 s t "o alum is able to incite ! gr[? ( ! o!r4 ,if ! deposition proce$ simultane\sly1 ! resultant int]mixture may be m9ute & insep>able1 b its nature is und]/ood f ! prec$+ exp]im5ts2 ! attractive =ce ( cry/allisation ( isomorph\s sub/ances is s ne>ly equal t ! attractive p[] ( an isomorph\s sub/ance induces a cry/all9e sup]/ructure exactly ! same z w\ld be produc$ by ! attractive =ce ( l cry/all9e p>ticles4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t "o isomorph\s sub/ance may induce ! cry/allisation#d ( ano!r4 ,su* a ph5om5on expla9s1 on ! "o h&1 ! aggregation ( diff]5t isomorph\s sub/ances 9 "o cry/al1 :il/1 on ! o!r h&1 x s]ves z a mo/ exact indication ( ! ne>ness bo? ( ! molecul> composition ( isomorph\s sub/ances & ( ^? =ces :i* are prop] to ! elem5ts :i* di/+ui% ! isomorph\s sub/ances4 ,?us1 = example1 f]r\s sulphate or gre5 vitriol cry/allises 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em & conta9s sev5 molecules ( wat]1 ,fe,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 :il/ copp] vitriol cry/allises ) five molecules ( wat] 9 ! tricl9ic sy/em1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o2 nev]!less1 x may be easily prov$ t bo? salts are p]fectly isomorph\s2 t !y are able to appe> 9 id5tically ! same =ms & ) an equal molecul> am\nt ( wat]4 ,= in/ance1 ,m>ignac1 by evaporat+ a mixture ( sulphuric acid & f]r\s sulphate "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 fir/ obta9$ cry/als ( ! hepta-hydrat$ salt1 & !n ( ! p5ta-hydrat$ salt ,fe,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 :i* 7 p]fectly simil> to ! cry/als ( copp] sulphate4 ,fur!rmore1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 by imm]s+ cry/als ( ,fe,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o 9 a sup]saturat$ solution ( copp] sulphate1 caus$ ! latt] to deposit 9 ! same =m z f]r\s sulphate1 9 cry/als ( ! monocl9ic sy/em1 ,cu,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o4 #a ,= in/ance ! analogy ( ! sulphates ( ,k1 ,rb1 & ,cs 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #a74 #a bis ,! cry/all9e =ms ( aragonite1 /rontianite1 & )]ite belong to ! rhombic sy/em2 ! angle ( ! prism ( ,ca,c,o#c is #aaf #aj1 ( ,sr,c,o#c #aag #ai1 & ( ,ba,c,o#c #aah #cj4 ,on ! o!r h& ! cry/all9e =ms ( calc sp>1 magnesite1 & calam9e1 :i* resemble ea* o!r q z closely1 belong to ! rhomboh$ral sy/em1 ) ! angle ( ! rhomboh$ra = ,ca,c,o#c #aje #h1 ,mg,c,o#c #ajg #aj1 & ,zn,c,o#c #ajg #dj4 ,f ?is comp>ison x is at once evid5t t z9c is m closely alli$ to magnesium ?an magnesium to calcium4 #b ,solutions furni% ! commone/ examples ( indef9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,b ! isomorph\s mixtures :i* are s common among ! cry/all9e comp\nds ( silica =m+ ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 z well z alloys1 :i* are s important 9 ! application ( metals to ! arts1 are also in/ances ( indef9ite comp\nds4 ,& if 9 ,*apt] ,i41 & 9 _m o!r portions ( ?is "w1 x has be5 necess>y to admit ! pres5ce ( def9ite comp\nds 79 a /ate ( dissociation7 9 solutions1 ! same applies ) ev5 great] =ce to isomorph\s mixtures & alloys4 ,= ?is reason 9 _m places 9 ?is "w ,i ref] to facts :i* compel u to recognise ! exi/5ce ( def9ite *emical comp\nds 9 all isomorph\s mixtures & alloys4 ,?is view ( m9e 7:i* dates f ! sixties7 ^u isomorph\s mixtures f9ds a p>ticul>ly cle> confirmation 9 ,b4 ,roozeboom's rese>*es 7#ahib7 ^u ! solubility & cry/allis+ capacity ( mixtures ( ! *lorates ( potassium & ?allium1 ,k,cl,o#c & ,tl,cl,o#c4 ,he %[$ t :5 a solution conta9s diff]5t am\nts ( ^! salts1 x deposits cry/als conta9+ ei!r an excess ( ! fir/ salt1 f #ih p4c4 to #ajj p4c41 or an excess ( ! second salt1 f #fcg to #ajj p4c42 t is1 9 ! cry/all9e =m1 ei!r ! fir/ salt saturates ! second or ! second ! fir/1 j z 9 ! solution ( e!r 9 wat] 7,*apt] ,i472 moreov]1 ! solubility ( ! mixtures conta9+ #cfc & #ih p4c4 ,k,cl,o#c is simil>1 j z ! vap\r t5sion ( a saturat$ solution ( wat] 9 e!r is equal to t ( a saturat$ solution ( e!r 9 wat] 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #dg74 ,b j z !re are solutions miscible 9 all proportions1 s also c]ta9 isomorph\s bodies c be pres5t 9 cry/als 9 all possible proportions ( _! compon5t p>ts4 ,van 't ,h(f calls su* sy/ems 'solid solutions4' ,^! views 7 subsequ5tly elaborat$ by ,n]n/ 7#ahib71 & ,witt 7#ahia7 appli$ !m 9 expla9+ ! ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! coloration ( tissues4 #c ,! cause ( ! diff]5ce :i* is obs]v$ 9 diff]5t comp\nds ( ! same type1 ) respect to _! prop]ty ( =m+ isomorph\s mixtures1 mu/ n be look$ = 9 ! diff]5ce ( _! volumetric composition1 z _m inve/igators1 includ+ ,kopp1 affirm4 ,! molecul> volumes 7f\nd by divid+ ! molecul> weight by ! d5sity7 ( ^? isomorph\s sub/ances :i* d give int]mixtures are n ne>] to ea* o!r ?an ! volumes ( ^? :i* d n give mixtures2 = example1 = magnesium c>bonate ! comb9+ weight is #hd1 d5sity #cjf1 & volume !re=e #bg2 = calcium c>bonate 9 ! =m ( calc sp> ! volume is #cg1 & 9 ! =m ( aragonite #cc2 = /rontium c>bonate #da1 = b>ium c>bonate #df2 t is1 ! volume ( ^! closely alli$ isomorph\s sub/ances increases ) ! comb9+ weight4 ,! same is obs]v$ if we comp>e sodium *loride 7molecul> volume #bg7 ) potassium *loride 7volume #cg71 or sodium sulphate 7volume #ee7 ) potassium sulphate 7volume #ff71 or sodium nitrate #ci ) potassium nitrate #dh1 al?\gh ! latt] are less capable ( giv+ isomorph\s mixtures ?an ! =m]4 ,x is evid5t t ! cause ( isomorphism _c be expla9$ by an approximation 9 molecul> volumes4 ,x is m likely t1 giv5 a simil>ity 9 =m & composition1 ! faculty to give isomorph\s mixtures is connect$ ) ! laws & degree ( solubility4 #d ,a ph5om5on ( a simil> k9d is %[n = magnesium sulphate 9 ,note #bg ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,9 ! same example we see :at a complication ! ph5om5a ( dimorphism may introduce :5 ! =ms ( analog\s comp\nds are comp>$4 ,h5ce x is evid5t t isomorphism--t is1 ! analogy ( =ms & ! prop]ty ( induc+ cry/allisation--may s]ve z a means = ! discov]y ( analogies 9 molecul> composition4 ,we w take an example 9 ord] to r5d] ?is cle>4 ,if1 in/ead ( alum9ium sulphate1 we add magnesium sulphate to potassium sulphate1 !n1 on evaporat+ ! solution1 ! d\ble salt ,k#b,mg,s#b,o#h1f;,h#b,o 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #bh7 sep>ates in/ead ( an alum1 & ! ratio ( ! compon5t p>ts 79 alums "o atom ( potassium p] #b,,s#d1 & "h two atoms7 & ! am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation 79 alums #ab1 & "h #f equival5ts p] #b,,s#d7 are q diff]5t2 nor is ?is d\ble salt 9 any way isomorph\s ) ! alums1 nor capable ( =m+ an isomorph\s cry/all9e mixture ) !m1 nor does ! "o salt provoke ! cry/allisation ( ! o!r4 ,f ?is we mu/ conclude t al?\gh alum9a & magnesia1 or alum9ium & magnesium1 resemble ea* o!r1 !y are n isomorph\s1 & t al?\gh !y give p>tially simil> d\ble salts1 ^! salts are n analog\s to ea* o!r4 ,& ?is is express$ 9 _! *emical =mul by ! fact t ! numb] ( atoms 9 alum9a or alum9ium oxide1 ,al#b,o#c1 is diff]5t f ! numb] 9 magnesia1 ,mg,o4 ,alum9ium is trival5t & magnesium bival5t4 ,?us1 hav+ obta9$ a d\ble salt f a giv5 metal1 x is possible to judge ( ! analogy ( ! giv5 metal ) alum9ium or ) magnesium1 or ( ! abs5ce ( su* an analogy1 f ! composition & =m ( ?is salt4 ,?us z9c1 = example1 does n =m alums1 b =ms a d\ble salt ) potassium sulphate1 :i* has a composition exactly l t ( ! correspond+ salt ( magnesium4 ,x is (t5 possible to di/+ui% ! bival5t metals analog\s to magnesium or calcium f ! trival5t metals1 l alum9ium1 by su* a me?od4 ,fur!rmore1 ! specific heat & vap\r d5sity s]ve z guides4 ,!re are also indirect pro(s4 ,?us iron gives f]r\s comp\nds1 ,fe,x#b1 :i* are isomorph\s ) ! comp\nds ( magnesium1 & f]ric comp\nds1 ,fe,x#c1 :i* are isomorph\s ) ! comp\nds ( alum9ium2 9 ?is in/ance ! relative composition is directly det]m9$ by analysis1 because1 = a giv5 am\nt ( iron1 ,fe,cl#b only conta9s two-?irds ( ! am\nt ( *lor9e :i* occurs 9 ,fe,cl#c1 & ! composition ( ! correspond+ oxyg5 comp\nds1 i4e4 ( f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 & f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 cle>ly indicates ! analogy ( ! f]r\s oxide ) ,mg,o & ( ! f]ric oxide ) ,al#b,o#c4 ,?us 9 ! build+ up ( simil> molecules 9 cry/all9e =ms we see "o ( ! num]\s means = judg+ ( ! int]nal _w ( molecules & atoms1 & "o ( ! weapons = conque/s 9 ! invisible _w ( molecul> me*anics :i* =ms ! ma9 object ( physico-*emical k4 ,?is me?od#e has m ?an once be5 employ$ = discov]+ ! analogy ( elem5ts & ( _! comp\nds2 & z cry/als are measurable1 & ! capacity to =m cry/all9e mixtures c be exp]im5tally v]ifi$1 ?is me?od is a num]ical & measurable "o1 & 9 no s5se arbitr>y4 #e ,! prop]ty ( solids ( occurr+ 9 regul> cry/all9e =ms--! occurr5ce ( _m sub/ances 9 ! e>?'s cru/ 9 ^! =ms--& ^? geometrical & simple laws :i* gov]n ! =mation ( cry/als long ago attract$ ! att5tion ( ! naturali/ to cry/als4 ,! cry/all9e =m is1 )\t d\bt1 ! expression ( ! relation 9 :i* ! atoms occur 9 ! molecules1 & 9 :i* ! molecules occur 9 ! mass1 ( a sub/ance4 ,cry/allisation is det]m9$ by ! di/ribution ( ! molecules along ! direction ( greate/ cohesion1 & !re=e ^? =ces mu/ take "p 9 ! cry/all9e di/ribution ( matt] :i* act betwe5 ! molecules2 &1 z !y dep5d on ! =ces b9d+ ! atoms toge!r 9 ! molecules1 a v close connection mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! atomic composition & ! di/ribution ( ! atoms 9 ! molecule on ! "o h&1 & ! cry/all9e =m ( a sub/ance on ! o!r h&2 & h5ce an insight into ! composition may be arriv$ at f ! cry/all9e =m4 ,su* is ! elem5t>y & a priori idea :i* lies at ! base ( all rese>*es into ! connection betwe5 composition & cry/all9e =m4 ,hay 9 #ahaa e/abli%$ ! foll[+ fundam5tal law1 :i* has be5 work$ out by lat] inve/igators3 ,t ! fundam5tal cry/all9e =m = a giv5 *emical comp\nd is con/ant 7only ! comb9ations v>y71 & t ) a *ange ( composition ! cry/all9e =m also *anges1 naturally ) ! exception ( su* limit+ =ms z ! cube1 regul> octah$ron1 c41 :i* may belong to v>i\s sub/ances ( ! regul> sy/em4 ,! fundam5tal =m is det]m9$ by ! angles ( c]ta9 fundam5tal geometric =ms 7prisms1 pyramids1 rhomboh$ra71 or ! ratio ( ! cry/all9e axes1 & is connect$ ) ! optical & _m o!r prop]ties ( cry/als4 ,s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is law ! description ( def9ite comp\nds 9 a solid /ate is accompani$ by a description 7measurem5t7 ( its cry/als1 :i* =ms an inv>iable1 def9ite1 & measurable "*4 ,! mo/ important epo*s 9 ! fur!r hi/ory ( ?is "q 7 made by ! foll[+ discov]ies3--,klapro?1 ,vauquel91 & o!rs %[$ t aragonite has ! same composition z calc sp>1 :il/ ! =m] belongs to ! rhombic & ! latt] to ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,hay at fir/ consid]$ t ! composition1 & aft] t ! arrangem5t1 ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules 0 diff]5t4 ,?is is dimorphism 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #df74 ,beudant1 ,frank5heim1 ,laur5t1 & o!rs f\nd t ! =ms ( ! two nitres1 ,,kno#c & ,na,n,o#c1 exactly correspond ) ! =ms ( aragonite & calc sp>2 t !y are able1 moreov]1 to pass f "o =m into ano!r2 & t ! diff]5ce ( ! =ms is accompani$ by a small alt]ation ( ! angles1 = ! angle ( ! prisms ( potassium nitrate & aragonite is #aai1 & ( sodium nitrate & calc sp>1 #abj2 & !re=e dimorphism1 or ! cry/allisation ( "o sub/ance 9 diff]5t =ms1 does n necess>ily imply a great diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( ! molecules1 al?\gh "s diff]5ce cle>ly exi/s4 ,! rese>*es ( ,mits*]li* 7#ahbb7 on ! dimorphism ( sulphur confirm$ ?is conclusion1 al?\gh x _c yet be affirm$ t 9 dimorphism ! arrangem5t ( ! atoms rema9s unalt]$1 & t only ! molecules are di/ribut$ diff]5tly4 ,leblanc1 ,b]?i]1 ,wolla/on1 & o!rs already knew t _m sub/ances ( diff]5t composition appe> 9 ! same =ms1 & cry/allise toge!r 9 "o cry/al4 ,gay-,lussac 7#ahaf7 %[$ t cry/als ( pota% alum cont9ue to gr[ 9 a solution ( ammonia alum4 ,beudant 7#ahag7 expla9$ ?is ph5om5on z ! assimilation ( a =eign sub/ance by a sub/ance hav+ a great =ce ( cry/allisation1 :i* he illu/rat$ by _m natural & artificial examples4 ,b ,mits*]li*1 & aft]w>ds ,b]zelius & ,h5ry ,rose & o!rs1 %[$ t su* an assimilation only exi/s ) a simil>ity or approximate simil>ity ( ! =ms ( ! individual sub/ances & ) a c]ta9 degree ( *emical analogy4 ,?us 0 e/abli%$ ! idea ( isomorphism z an analogy ( =ms by reason ( a resemblance ( atomic composition1 & by x 0 expla9$ ! v>iability ( ! composition ( a numb] ( m9]als z isomorph\s mixtures4 ,?us all ! g>nets are express$ by ! g5]al =mula3 7,,ro7#c,m#b,o#c7,si,o#b7c1 :]e ,r ,ca1 ,mg1 ,fe1 ,mn1 & ,m ,fe1 ,al1 & :]e we may h ei!r ,r & ,m sep>ately1 or _! equival5t comp\nds1 or _! mixtures 9 all possible proportions4 ,b o!r facts1 :i* r5d] ! correlation ( =m & composition /ill m complex1 h accumulat$ side by side ) a mass ( data :i* may be acc\nt$ = by admitt+ ! conceptions ( isomorphism & dimorphism4 ,=emo/ among ! =m] /& ! ph5om5a ( homeomorphism--t is1 a ne>ness ( =ms ) a diff]5ce ( composition--& !n ! cases ( polymorphism & hemimorphism--t is1 a ne>ness ( ! fundam5tal =ms or only ( c]ta9 angles = sub/ances :i* are ne> or analog\s 9 _! composition4 ,in/ances ( homeomorphism are v num]\s4 ,_m ( ^!1 h[ev]1 may be r$uc$ to a resemblance ( atomic composition1 al?\gh !y d n correspond to an isomorphism ( ! compon5t elem5ts2 = example1 ,cd,s 7gre5ockite7 & ,ag,i1 ,ca,c,o#c 7aragonite7 & ,,kno#c1 ,ca,c,o#c 7calc sp>7 & ,na,n,o#c1 ,ba,s,o#d 7heavy sp>71 ,k,mn,o#d 7potassium p]manganate71 & ,k,cl,o#d 7potassium p]*lorate71 ,al#b,o#c 7corundum7 & ,fe,ti,o#c 7titanic iron ore71 ,fe,s#b 7m>casite1 rhombic sy/em7 & ,fe,s,as 7ars5ical pyrites71 ,ni,s & ,ni,as1 c4 ,b besides ^! in/ances !re are homeomorph\s sub/ances ) an absolute dissimil>ity ( composition4 ,_m su* in/ances 7 po9t$ out by ,dana4 ,c9nab>1 ,hg,s1 & susannite1 ,pb,s,o#dc,pb,c,o#c appe> 9 v analog\s cry/all9e =ms2 ! acid potassium sulphate cry/allises 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em 9 cry/als analog\s to felsp>1 ,k,al,si#c,o#h2 glaub]ite1 ,na#b;,ca7,,s#d7b1 augite1 ,r,si,o#c 7,r ,ca1 ,mg71 sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1aj;,h#b,o1 ,glaub]'s salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o1 & borax1 ,na#b;,br,o#g1aj;,h#b,o1 n only belong to ! same sy/em 7monocl9ic71 b exhibit an analogy ( comb9ations & a ne>ness ( correspond+ angles4 ,^! & _m o!r simil> cases might appe> to be p]fectly arbitr>y 7especially z a ne>ness ( angles & fundam5tal =ms is a relative idea7 7 !re n o!r cases :]e a resemblance ( prop]ties & a di/9ct relation 9 ! v>iation ( composition is connect$ ) a resemblance ( =m4 ,?us1 = example1 alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o1 are frequ5tly f\nd 9 _m pyrox5es & amphiboles :i* only conta9 silica & magnesia 7,mg,o1 ,ca,o1 ,fe,o1 ,mn,o74 ,s*e]] & ,h]mann1 & _m o!rs1 endeav\r$ to expla9 su* in/ances by polymetric isomorphism1 /at+ t ,mg,o may be replac$ by #c;,h#b,o 7= example1 oliv9e & s]p5t9e71 ,si,o#b by ,al#b,o#c 79 ! amphiboles1 talcs71 & s on4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( ! in/ances ( ?is ord] are subject to d\bt1 because _m ( ! natural m9]als :i* s]v$ z ! basis = ! e/abli%m5t ( polym]ic isomorphism 9 all probability no long] pres5t _! orig9al composition1 b "o :i* has be5 alt]$ "u ! influ5ce ( solutions :i* h come into contact ) !m2 !y !re=e belong to ! class ( pseudomorphs1 or false cry/als4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( a :ole s]ies ( natural & artificial homeomorphs1 :i* diff] f ea* o!r by atomic am\nts ( wat]1 silica1 & "s o!r compon5t p>ts4 ,?us1 ,?oms5 7#ahgd7 %[$ a v /rik+ in/ance4 ,! metallic *lorides1 ,r,cl#b1 (t5 cry/allise ) wat]1 & !y d n !n conta9 less ?an "o molecule ( wat] p] atom ( *lor9e4 ,! mo/ famili> repres5tative ( ! ord] ,r,cl#b1b;,h#b,o is ,ba,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 :i* cry/allises 9 ! rhombic sy/em4 ,b>ium bromide1 ,ba,br#b1b;,h#b,o1 & copp] *loride1 ,cu,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 h ne>ly ! same =ms3 potassium iodate1 ,,kio#d2 potassium *lorate1 ,k,cl,o#d2 potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d2 b>ium sulphate1 ,ba,s,o#d2 calcium sulphate1 ,ca,s,o#d2 sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d2 b>ium =mate1 ,ba,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 & o!rs h almo/ ! same cry/all9e =m 7( ! rhombic sy/em74 ,p>allel ) ?is s]ies is t ( ! metallic *lorides conta9+ ,r,cl#b1d;,h#b,o1 ( ! sulphates ( ! composition ,,rso#d1b;,h#b,o1 & ! =mates ,,rc#b;,h#b,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,^! comp\nds belong to ! monocl9ic sy/em1 h a close resemblance ( =m1 & diff] f ! fir/ s]ies by conta9+ two m molecules ( wat]4 ,! addition ( two m molecules ( wat] 9 all ! above s]ies also gives =ms ( ! monocl9ic sy/em closely resembl+ ea* o!r2 = example1 ,ni,cl#b1f;,h#b,o & ,mn,s,o#d1d;,h#b,o4 ,h5ce we see t n only is ,r,cl#b1b;,h#b,o analog\s 9 =m to ,,rso#d & ,,rc#b;,h#b,o#d1 b t _! comp\nds ) #b;,h#b,o & ) #d;,h#b,o also exhibit closely analog\s =ms4 ,f ^! examples x is evid5t t ! conditions :i* det]m9e a giv5 =m may be repeat$ n only 9 ! pres5ce ( an isomorph\s ex*ange--t is1 ) an equal numb] ( atoms 9 ! molecule--b also 9 ! pres5ce ( an unequal numb] :5 !re are peculi> & z yet ung5]alis$ relations 9 composition4 ,?us ,zn,o & ,al#b,o#c exhibit a close analogy ( =m4 ,bo? oxides belong to ! rhomboh$ral sy/em1 & ! angle betwe5 ! pyramid & ! t]m9al plane ( ! fir/ is #aah #g1 & ( ! second #aah #di4 ,alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 is also analog\s 9 =m to ,si,o#b1 & we %all see t ^! analogies ( =m are conjo9$ ) a c]ta9 analogy 9 prop]ties4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t 9 ! complex molecule ( a silice\s comp\nd x is sometimes possible to replace ,si,o#b by means ( ,al#b,o#c1 z ,s*e]] admits4 ,! oxides ,cu#b,o1 ,mg,o1 ,ni,o1 ,fe#c,o#d1 ,ce,o#b1 cry/allise 9 ! regul> sy/em1 al?\gh !y are ( v diff]5t atomic /ructure4 ,m>ignac demon/rat$ ! p]fect analogy ( ! =ms ( ,k#b,zr,f#f & ,ca,c,o#c1 & ! =m] is ev5 dimorph\s1 l ! calcium c>bonate4 ,! same salt is isomorph\s ) ,r#b,nb,o,f#e & ,r#b,,wo#b;,f#d1 :]e ,r is an alkali metal4 ,!re is an equival5cy betwe5 ,ca,c,o#c & ,k#b,zr,f#f1 because ,k#b is equival5t to ,ca1 ,c to ,zr1 & ,f#f to ,o#c1 & ) ! isomorphism ( ! o!r two salts we f9d besides an equal cont5ts ( ! alkali metal--an equal numb] ( atoms on ! "o h& & an analogy to ! prop]ties ( ,k#b,zr,f#f on ! o!r4 ,! long-kn[n isomorphism ( ! correspond+ comp\nds ( potassium & ammonium1 ,,kx & ,,nh#d,x1 may be tak5 z ! simple/ example ( ! fact t an analogy ( =m %[s itself ) an analogy ( *emical reaction ev5 )\t an equality 9 atomic composition4 ,!re=e ! ultimate progress ( ! entire doctr9e ( ! correlation ( composition & cry/all9e =ms w only be arriv$ at ) ! accumulation ( a suffici5t numb] ( facts collect$ on a plan correspond+ ) ! problems :i* "h pres5t !mselves4 ,! fir/ /eps h already be5 made4 ,! rese>*es ( ! ,g5eva savant1 ,m>ignac1 on ! cry/all9e =m & composition ( _m ( ! d\ble fluorides1 & ! "w ( ,wyrub(f on ! f]ricyanides & o!r comp\nds1 are p>ticul>ly important 9 ?is respect4 ,x is already evid5t t1 ) a def9ite *ange ( composition1 c]ta9 angles rema9 con/ant1 not)/&+ t o!rs are subject to alt]ation4 ,su* an in/ance ( ! relation ( =ms 0 obs]v$ by ,laur5t1 & nam$ by him hemimorphism 7an anomal\s t]m7 :5 ! analogy is limit$ to c]ta9 angles1 & p>amorphism :5 ! =ms 9 g5]al approa* ea* o!r1 b belong to diff]5t sy/ems4 ,s1 = example1 ! angle ( ! planes ( a rhomboh$ron may be great] or less ?an #ij1 & !re=e su* acute & obtuse rhomboh$ra may closely approximate to ! cube4 ,hausmannite1 ,mn#c,o#d1 belongs to ! tetragonal sy/em1 & ! planes ( its pyramid are incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #aah1 :il/ magnetic iron ore1 ,fe#c,o#d1 :i* resembles hausmannite 9 _m respects1 appe>s 9 regul> octah$ra--t is1 ! pyramidal planes are incl9$ at an angle ( #aji #bh4 ,?is is an example ( p>amorphism2 ! sy/ems are diff]5t1 ! compositions are analog\s1 & !re is a c]ta9 resemblance 9 =m4 ,hemimorphism has be5 f\nd 9 _m in/ances ( sal9e & o!r sub/itutions4 ,?us1 ,laur5t demon/rat$1 & ,h9tze confirm$ 7#ahgc71 t naph?al5e d]ivatives ( analog\s composition are hemimorph\s4 ,nickls 7#ahdi7 %[$ t 9 e?yl5e sulphate ! angle ( ! prism is #abe #bf1 & 9 ! nitrate ( ! same radicle #abf #ie4 ,! angle ( ! prism ( me?ylam9e oxalate is #aca #bj1 & ( fluoride1 :i* is v diff]5t 9 composition f ! =m]1 ! angle is #acb4 ,gro? 7#ahgj7 endeav\r$ to indicate 9 g5]al :at k9ds ( *ange ( =m proce$ ) ! sub/itution ( hydrog5 by v>i\s o!r elem5ts & gr\ps1 & he obs]v$ a regul>ity :i* he t]m$ morphotropy4 ,! foll[+ examples %[ t morphotropy recalls ! hemimorphism ( ,laur5t4 ,b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 rhombic sy/em1 ratio ( ! axes #jhia 3 #a 3 #jgii4 ,ph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#e7,,oh71 & resorc9ol1 ,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b1 also rhombic sy/em1 b ! ratio ( "o axis is *ang$--?us1 9 resorc9ol1 #jiaj 3 #a 3 #jedj2 t is1 a portion ( ! cry/all9e /ructure 9 "o direction is ! same1 b 9 ! o!r direction x is *ang$1 :il/ 9 ! rhombic sy/em d9itroph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#c7,,no#b7b7,,oh7 ,o#hcc 3 #a 3 #jgec2 tr9itroph5ol 7picric acid71 ,c#f;,h#b7,,no7#c7,,oh7 #jicg 3 #a 3 #jigd2 & ! potassium salt #jidb 3 #a 3 #aced4 ,"h ! ratio ( ! fir/ axis is pres]v$--t is1 c]ta9 angles rema9 con/ant1 & ! *emical proximity ( ! composition ( ^! bodies is und\bt$4 ,laur5t comp>es hemimorphism ) ar*itectural /yle4 ,?us1 ,go?ic ca!drals diff] 9 _m respects1 b !re is an analogy express$ bo? 9 ! sum total ( _! common relations & 9 c]ta9 details--= example1 9 ! w9d[s4 ,x is evid5t t we may expect _m fruitful results = molecul> me*anics 7:i* =ms a problem common to _m prov9ces ( natural sci5ce7 f ! fur!r elaboration ( ! data conc]n+ ^? v>iations :i* take place 9 cry/all9e =m :5 ! composition ( a sub/ance is subject$ to a kn[n *ange1 & !re=e ,i consid] x useful to po9t out to ! /ud5t ( sci5ce seek+ = matt] = indep5d5t sci5tific rese>* ?is va/ field = "w :i* is pres5t$ by ! correlation ( =m & composition4 ,! geometrical regul>ity & v>i$ beauty ( cry/all9e =ms (f] no small attraction to rese>* ( ?is k9d4 ,! regul>ity & simplicity express$ by ! exact laws ( cry/all9e =m repeat !mselves 9 ! aggregation ( ! atoms to =m molecules4 ,"h1 z !re1 !re are b few =ms :i* are ess5tially diff]5t1 & _! app>5t div]sity r$uces itself to a few fundam5tal diff]5ces ( type4 ,!re ! molecules aggregate !mselves into cry/all9e =ms2 "h1 ! atoms aggregate !mselves into molecul> =ms or into ! types ( comp\nds4 ,9 bo? cases ! fundam5tal cry/all9e or molecul> =ms are liable to v>iations1 conjunctions1 & comb9ations4 ,if we "k t potassium gives comp\nds ( ! fundam5tal type ,,kx1 :]e ,x is a unival5t elem5t 7:i* comb9es ) "o atom ( hydrog51 & is1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 able to replace x71 !n we "k ! composition ( its comp\nds3 ,k#b,o1 ,,kho1 ,k,cl1 ,,nh#b,k1 ,,kno#c1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,,khso#d1 ,k#b,mg7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o1 c4 ,all ! possible d]ivative cry/all9e =ms are n kn[n4 ,s also all ! atomic comb9ations are n kn[n = e elem5t4 ,?us 9 ! case ( potassium1 ,,k*#c1 ,k#c,p1 ,k#b,pt1 & o!r l comp\nds :i* exi/ = hydrog5 or *lor9e1 are unkn[n4 ,only a few fundam5tal types exi/ = ! build+ up ( atoms into molecules1 & ! majority ( !m are already kn[n to u4 ,if ,x /& = a unival5t elem5t1 & ,r = an elem5t comb9$ ) x1 !n eight atomic types may be obs]v$3-- ,,rx1 ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 ,,rx#d1 ,,rx#e1 ,,rx#f1 ,,rx#g1 ,,rx#h4 ,let ,x be *lor9e or hydrog54 ,!n z examples ( ! fir/ type we h3 ,h#b1 ,cl#b1 ,h,cl1 ,k,cl1 ,na,cl1 c4 ,! comp\nds ( oxyg5 or calcium may s]ve z examples ( ! type ,,rx#b3 ,,oh#b1 ,o,cl#b1 ,o,h,cl1 ,ca,o1 ,ca7,,oh7#b1 ,ca,cl#b1 c4 ,= ! ?ird type ,,rx#c we "k ! repres5tative ,,nh#c & ! correspond+ comp\nds ,n#b,o#c1 ,,no7,,oh71 ,,no7,,ok71 ,p,cl#c1 ,p#b,o#c1 ,,ph#c1 ,sb,h#c1 ,sb#b,o#c1 ,b#b,o#c1 ,b,cl#c1 ,al#b,o#c1 c4 ,! type ,,rx#d is kn[n among ! hydrog5 comp\nds4 ,m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 & its correspond+ saturat$ hydroc>bons1 ,cn,h#bn #b1 are ! be/ repres5tatives4 ,also ,,*#c;,cl1 ,c,cl#d1 ,si,cl#d1 ,sn,cl#d1 ,sn,o#b1 ,,co#b1 ,si,o#b1 & a :ole s]ies ( o!r comp\nds come "u ?is class4 ,! type ,,rx#e is also already famili> to u1 b !re are no purely hydrog5 comp\nds among its repres5tatives4 ,sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 & ! correspond+ ,,nh#d7,,oh71 ,,no#b7,,oh71 ,cl,o#b7,,ok71 z well z ,p,cl#e1 ,p,o,cl#c1 c41 are repres5tatives ( ?is type4 ,9 ! high] types also !re are no hydrog5 comp\nds1 b 9 ! type ,,rx#f !re is ! *lor9e comp\nd ,w,cl#f4 ,h[ev]1 !re are _m oxyg5 comp\nds1 & among !m ,,s#c is ! be/ kn[n repres5tative4 ,to ?is class also belong ,,s#b7,,oh7#b1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 ,,s#b7,,oh7,cl1 ,cr,o#c1 c41 all ( an acid "*4 ,( ! high] types !re are 9 g5]al only oxyg5 & acid repres5tatives4 ,! type ,,rx#g we "k 9 p]*loric acid1 ,cl,o#c7,,oh71 & potassium p]manganate1 ,mn,o#c7,,ok71 is also a memb]4 ,! type ,,rx#h 9 a free /ate is v r>e2 osmic anhydride1 ,os,o#d1 is ! be/ kn[n repres5tative ( x4#f #f ,! /ill m complex comb9ations--:i* are s cle>ly express$ 9 ! cry/allo-hydrates1 d\ble salts1 & simil> comp\nds--al?\gh !y may be reg>d$ z indep5d5t1 are1 h[ev]1 mo/ easily und]/ood ) our pres5t k z aggregations ( :ole molecules to :i* !re are no correspond+ d\ble comp\nds1 conta9+ "o atom ( an elem5t ,r & _m atoms ( o!r elem5ts ,,rxn4 ,! above types embrace all cases ( direct comb9ations ( atoms1 & ! =mula ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o _c1 )\t violat+ kn[n facts1 be directly d$uc$ f ! types ,mg,xn or ,,sxn1 :il/ ! =mula ,mg,s,o#d corresponds bo? ) ! type ( ! magnesium comp\nds ,mg,x#b & ) ! type ( ! sulphur comp\nds ,,s#b,x#b1 or 9 g5]al ,,sx#f1 :]e ,x#b is replac$ by 7,,oh7#b1 ) ! sub/itution 9 ?is case ( ,h#b by ! atom ,mg1 :i* always replaces ,h#b4 ,h[ev]1 x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! sodium cry/allo-hydrates (t5 conta9 #aj;,h#b,o1 ! magnesium cry/allo-hydrates #f & #g;,h#b,o1 & t ! type ,pt,m#b,x#f is prop] to ! d\ble salts ( plat9um1 c4 ,) ! fur!r developm5t ( our k conc]n+ cry/allo-hydrates1 d\ble salts1 alloys1 solutions1 c41 9 ! *emical s5se ( feeble comp\nds 7t is1 su* z are easily de/roy$ by feeble *emical influ5ces7 x w probably be possible to arrive at a p]fect g5]alisation = !m4 ,= a long "t ^! subjects 7 only /udi$ by ! way or by *ance2 our k ( !m is accid5tal & de/itute ( sy/em1 & !re=e x is impossible to expect z yet any g5]alisation z to _! nature4 ,! days ( ,g]h>dt are n long pa/ :5 only ?ree types 7 recognis$3 ,,rx1 ,,rx#b1 & ,,rx#c2 ! type ,,rx#d 0 aft]w>ds add$ 7by ,coop]1 ,kekul1 ,butl](f1 & o!rs71 ma9ly = ! purpose ( g5]alis+ ! data respect+ ! c>bon comp\nds4 ,& inde$ _m are /ill satisfi$ ) ^! types1 & d]ive ! high] types f !m2 = in/ance1 ,,rx#e f ,,rx#c--;z1 = example1 ,p,o,cl#c f ,p,cl#c1 consid]+ ! oxyg5 to be b\nd bo? to ! *lor9e 7z 9 ,h,cl,o7 & to ! phosphorus4 ,b ! "t has n[ arriv$ :5 x is cle>ly se5 t ! =ms ,,rx1 ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 & ,,rx#d d n exhau/ ! :ole v>iety ( ph5om5a4 ,! revolution became evid5t :5 ,wrtz %[$ t ,p,cl#e is n a comp\nd ( ,p,cl#c ,cl#b 7al?\gh x may decompose into !m71 b a :ole molecule capable ( pass+ into vap\r1 ,p,cl#e l ,,pf#e & ,si,f#d4 ,! "t = ! recognition ( types ev5 high] ?an ,,rx#h is 9 my op9ion 9 ! future2 t x w come1 we c already see 9 ! fact t oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 gives a cry/allo-hydrate ) #b;,h#b,o2 b x may be ref]r$ to ! type ,,*#d1 or r to ! type ( e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 9 :i* all ! atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by hydroxyl1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#db;,h#b,o ,c#b7,,oh7#f 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce74 ,! f\r l[] types ,,rx1 ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 & ,,rx#d are met ) 9 comp\nds ( ! elem5ts ,r ) *lor9e & oxyg51 & also 9 _! comp\nds ) hydrog51 :il/ ! f\r high] types only appe> = su* acid comp\nds z are =m$ by *lor9e1 oxyg51 & simil> elem5ts4 ,among ! oxyg5 comp\nds ! sal9e oxides :i* are capable ( =m+ salts ei!r ?r\gh ! function ( a base or ?r\gh ! function ( an acid anhydride attract ! greate/ int]e/ 9 e respect4 ,c]ta9 elem5ts1 l calcium & magnesium1 only give "o sal9e oxide--= example1 ,mg,o1 correspond+ ) ! type ,mg,x#b4 ,b ! majority ( ! elem5ts appe> 9 sev]al su* =ms4 ,?us copp] gives ,cu,x & ,cu,x#b1 or ,cu#b,o & ,cu,o4 ,if an elem5t ,r gives a high] type ,,rxn1 !n !re (t5 also exi/1 z if by symmetry1 l[] types1 ,,rxn-#b1 ,,rxn-#d1 & 9 g5]al su* types z diff] f ,,rxn by an ev5 numb] ( ,x4 ,?us 9 ! case ( sulphur ! types ,,sx#b1 ,,sx#d1 & ,,sx#f are kn[n--= example ,,%#b1 ,,s#b1 & ,,s#c4 ,! la/ type is ! highe/1 ,,sx#f4 ,! types ,,sx#e & ,,sx#c d n exi/4 ,b ev5 & unev5 types sometimes appe> = "o & ! same elem5t4 ,?us ! types ,,rx & ,,rx#b are kn[n = copp] & m]cury4 ,among ! sal9e oxides only ! eight types enum]at$ bel[ are kn[n to exi/4 ,!y det]m9e ! possible =mul ( ! comp\nds ( ! elem5ts1 if x be tak5 into consid]ation t an elem5t :i* gives a c]ta9 type ( comb9ation may also give l[] types4 ,= ?is reason ! r>e type ( ! suboxides or quat]n>y oxides ,r#d,o 7= in/ance1 ,ag#d,o1 ,ag#b;,cl7 is n *>act]i/ic2 x is always accompani$ by "o ( ! high] grades ( oxidation1 & ! comp\nds ( ?is type are di/+ui%$ by _! great *emical in/ability1 & split up into an elem5t & ! high] comp\nd 7= in/ance1 ,ag#d,o #b;,ag ,ag#b,o74 ,_m elem5ts1 moreov]1 =m transition oxides ^: composition is int]m$iate1 :i* are able1 l ,n#b,o#d1 to split up into ! l[] & high] oxides4 ,?us iron gives magnetic oxide1 ,fe#c,o#d1 :i* is 9 all respects 7by its reactions7 a comp\nd ( ! suboxide ,fe,o ) ! oxide ,fe#b,o#c4 ,! indep5d5t & m or less /able sal9e comp\nds correspond ) ! foll[+ eight types3-- ,r#b,o2 salts ,,rx1 hydroxides ,,roh4 ,g5]ally basic l ,k#b,o1 ,na#b,o1 ,hg#b,o1 ,ag#b,o1 ,cu#b,o2 if !re are acid oxides ( ?is composition !y are v r>e1 are only =m$ by di/9ctly acid elem5ts1 & ev5 !n h only feeble acid prop]ties2 = example1 ,cl#b,o & ,n#b,o4 ,r#b,o#b or ,,ro2 salts ,,rx#b1 hydroxides ,r7,,oh7#b4 ,! mo/ simple basic salts ,r#b,,ox#b or ,r7,,oh7,x2 = in/ance1 ! *loride ,zn#b,o,cl#b2 also an almo/ exclusively basic type2 b ! basic prop]ties are m feebly develop$ ?an 9 ! prec$+ type4 ,= example1 ,ca,o1 ,mg,o1 ,ba,o1 ,pb,o1 ,fe,o1 ,mn,o1 c4 ,r#b,o#c2 salts ,,rx#c1 hydroxides ,r7,,oh7#c1 ,,ro7,,oh71 ! mo/ simple basic salts ,,rox1 ,r7,,oh7,x#c4 ,! bases are feeble1 l ,al#b,o#c1 ,fe#b,o#c1 ,tl#b,o#c1 ,sb#b,o#c4 ,! acid prop]ties are also feebly develop$2 = in/ance1 9 ,b#b,o#c2 b ) ! non-metals ! prop]ties ( acids are already cle>2 = in/ance1 ,p#b,o#c1 ,p7,,oh7#c4 ,r#b,o#d or ,,ro#b2 salts ,,rx#d or ,,rox#b1 hydroxides ,r7,,oh7#d1 ,,ro7,,oh7#b4 ,r>ely bases 7feeble71 l ,zr,o#b1 ,pt,o#b2 m (t5 acid oxides2 b ! acid prop]ties are 9 g5]al feeble1 z 9 ,,co#b1 ,,s#b1 ,sn,o#b4 ,_m int]m$iate oxides appe> 9 ?is & ! prec$+ & foll[+ types4 ,r#b,o#e2 salts pr9cipally ( ! types ,,rox#c1 ,,ro#b,x1 ,,ro7,,oh7#c1 ,,ro#b7,,oh71 r>ely ,,rx#e4 ,! basic "* 7,x1 a halog51 simple or complex2 = in/ance1 ,,no#c1 ,cl1 c47 is feeble2 ! acid "* pr$om9ates1 z is se5 9 ,n#b,o#e1 ,p#b,o#e1 ,cl#b,o#e2 !n ,x ,,oh1 ,,ok1 c41 = example ,,no#b7,,ok74 ,r#b,o#f or ,,ro#c2 salts & hydroxides g5]ally ( ! type ,,ro#b,x#b1 ,,ro#b7,,oh7#b4 ,oxides ( an acid "*1 z ,,s#c1 ,cr,o#c1 ,mn,o#c4 ,basic prop]ties r>e & feebly develop$ z 9 ,,uo#c4 ,r#b,o#g2 salts ( ! =m ,,ro#c,x1 ,,ro#c7,,oh71 acid oxides2 = in/ance1 ,cl#b,o#g1 ,mn#b,o#g4 ,basic prop]ties z feebly develop$ z ! acid prop]ties 9 ! oxides ,r#b,o4 ,r#b,o#h or ,,ro#d4 ,a v r>e type1 & only kn[n 9 ,os,o#d & ,ru,o#d4 ,x is evid5t f ! circum/ance t 9 all ! high] types ! acid hydroxides 7= example1 ,h,cl,o#d1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,h#c,,po#d7 & salts ) a s+le atom ( "o elem5t conta91 l ! high] sal9e type ,,ro#d1 n m ?an f\r atoms ( oxyg52 t ! =mation ( ! sal9e oxides is gov]n$ by a c]ta9 common pr9ciple :i* is be/ look$ = 9 ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( oxyg51 & 9 g5]al ( ! mo/ simple comp\nds4 ,! hydrate ( ! oxide ,,ro#b is ( ! high] type ,,ro#bb;,h#b,o ,,rh#d,o#d ,r7,,ho7#d4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! hydrate ( silica & ! salts 7or?osilicates7 correspond+ ) x1 ,si7,,mo7#d4 ,! oxide ,r#b,o#e1 corresponds ) ! hydrate ,r#b,o#ec;,h#b,o #b,,rh#c,o#d #b,,ro7,,oh7#c4 ,su* is or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,ph#c,o#c4 ,! hydrate ( ! oxide ,,ro#c is ,,ro#c;,h#b,o ,,rh#b,o#d ,,ro#b7,,oh7#b--;= in/ance1 sulphuric acid4 ,! hydrate correspond+ to ,r#b,o#g is evid5tly ,,rho ,,ro#c7,,oh7--= example1 p]*loric acid4 ,"h1 besides conta9+ ,o#d1 x mu/ fur!r be rem>k$ t ! am\nt ( hydrog5 9 ! hydrate is equal to ! am\nt ( hydrog5 9 ! hydrog5 comp\nd4 ,?us silicon gives ,si,h#d & ,si,h#d,o#d1 phosphorus ,,ph#c & ,,ph#c,o#d1 sulphur ,,%#b & ,,%#b,o#d1 *lor9e ,cl,h & ,cl,h,o#d4 ,?is1 if x does n expla91 at lea/ connects 9 a h>moni\s & g5]al sy/em ! fact t ! elem5ts are capable ( comb9+ ) a great] am\nt ( oxyg51 ! less ! am\nt ( hydrog5 :i* !y are able to reta94 ,9 ?is ! key to ! compreh5sion ( all fur!r d$uctions mu/ be look$ =1 & we w !re=e =mulate ?is rule 9 g5]al t]ms4 ,an elem5t ,r gives a hydrog5 comp\nd ,,rhn1 ! hydrate ( its high] oxide w be ,,rhn,o#d1 & !re=e ! high] oxide w conta9 #b,,rhn,o#d - n,h#b,o ,r#b,o#h - n4 ,= example1 *lor9e gives ,cl,h1 hydrate ,cl,h,o#d1 & ! high] oxide ,cl#b,o#g4 ,c>bon gives ,,*#d & ,,co#b4 ,s also1 ,si,o#b & ,si,h#d are ! high] comp\nds ( silicon ) hydrog5 & oxyg51 l ,,co#b & ,,*#d4 ,"h ! am\nts ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 are equival5t4 ,nitrog5 comb9es ) a l>ge am\nt ( oxyg51 =m+ ,n#b,o#e1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ) a small quantity ( hydrog5 9 ,,nh#c4 ,! sum ( ! equival5ts ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 occurr+ 9 comb9ation ) an atom ( nitrog51 is1 z always 9 ! high] types1 equal to eight4 ,x is ! same ) ! o!r elem5ts :i* comb9e ) hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,?us sulphur gives ,,s#c2 consequ5tly1 six equival5ts ( oxyg5 fall to an atom ( sulphur1 & 9 ,,%#b two equival5ts ( hydrog54 ,! sum is aga9 equal to eight4 ,! relation betwe5 ,cl#b,o#g & ,cl,h is ! same4 ,?is %[s t ! prop]ty ( elem5ts ( comb9+ ) su* diff]5t elem5ts z oxyg5 & hydrog5 is subject to "o common law1 :i* is also =mulat$ 9 ! sy/em ( ! elem5ts pres5tly to be describ$4#g #g ,! hydrog5 comp\nds1 ,r#b;,h1 9 equival5cy correspond ) ! type ( ! suboxides1 ,r#d,o4 ,palladium1 sodium1 & potassium give su* hydrog5 comp\nds1 & x is wor?y ( rem>k t accord+ to ! p]iodic sy/em ^! elem5ts /& ne> to ea* o!r1 & t 9 ^? gr\ps :]e ! hydrog5 comp\nds ,r#b;,h appe>1 ! quat]n>y oxides ,r#d,o are also pres5t4 ,n wi%+ to complicate ! explanation1 ,i "h only t\* on ! g5]al features ( ! relation betwe5 ! hydrates & oxides & ( ! oxides among !mselves4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! conception ( ! or?o-acids & ( ! normal acids w be consid]$ 9 speak+ ( phosphoric & phosphor\s acids4 ,z 9 ! fur!r explanation ( ! p]iodic law only ^? oxides :i* give salts w be consid]$1 ,i ?9k x w n be sup]flu\s to m5tion "h ! foll[+ facts relative to ! p]oxides4 ,( ! p]oxides correspond+ ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! foll[+ are at pres5t kn[n3 ,h#b,o#b1 ,na#b,o#b1 ,s#b,o#g 7z ,,hso#d871 ,k#b,o#d1 ,k#b,o#b1 ,ca,o#b1 ,ti,o#c1 ,cr#b,o#g1 ,cu,o#b7871 ,zn,o#b1 ,rb#b,o#b1 ,sr,o#b1 ,ag#b,o#b1 ,cd,o#b1 ,cs,o#b1 ,cs#b,o#b1 ,ba,o#b1 ,mo#b,o#g1 ,sn,o#c1 ,w#b,o#g1 ,,uo#d4 ,x is probable t ! numb] ( p]oxides w increase ) fur!r inve/igation4 ,a p]iodicity is se5 9 ^? n[ kn[n1 = ! elem5ts 7except+ ,li7 ( ! fir/ gr\p1 :i* give ,r#b,o1 =m p]oxides1 & !n ! elem5ts ( ! six? gr\p seem also to be p>ticul>ly incl9$ to =m p]oxides1 ,r#b,o#g2 b at pres5t x is too e>ly1 9 my op9ion1 to ent] ^u a g5]alisation ( ?is subject1 n only because x is a new & b little /udi$ matt] 7n inve/igat$ = all ! elem5ts71 b also1 & m especially1 because 9 _m in/ances only ! hydrates are kn[n--= in/ance1 ,mo#b;,h#b,o#h--;& !y p]haps are only comp\nds ( p]oxide ( hydrog5--= example1 ,mo#b;,h#b,o#h #b,mo,o#c ,h#b,o#b--s9ce ,pr(4 ,s*ne has %[n t ,h#b,o#b & ,ba,o#b possess ! prop]ty ( comb9+ toge!r & ) o!r oxides4 ,nev]!less1 ,i h1 9 ! g5]al table express+ ! p]iodic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 endeav\r$ to sum up ! data respect+ all ! kn[n p]oxide comp\nds ^: *>act]i/ic prop]ty is se5 9 _! capability to =m p]oxide ( hydrog5 "u _m circum/ances4 ,9 ! prec$+ we see n only ! regul>ity & simplicity :i* gov]n ! =mation & prop]ties ( ! oxides & ( all ! comp\nds ( ! elem5ts1 b also a fre% & exact means = recognis+ ! analogy ( elem5ts4 ,analog\s elem5ts give comp\nds ( analog\s types1 bo? high] & l[]4 ,if ,,co#b & ,,s#b are two gases :i* closely resemble ea* o!r bo? 9 _! physical & *emical prop]ties1 ! reason ( ?is mu/ be look$ = n 9 an analogy ( sulphur & c>bon1 b 9 t id5tity ( ! type ( comb9ation1 ,,rx#d1 :i* bo? oxides assume1 & 9 t influ5ce :i* a l>ge mass ( oxyg5 always ex]ts on ! prop]ties ( its comp\nds4 ,9 fact1 !re is little resemblance betwe5 c>bon & sulphur1 z is se5 n only f ! fact t ,,co#b is ! high] =m ( oxidation1 :il/ ,,s#b is able to fur!r oxidise into ,,s#c1 b also f ! fact t all ! o!r comp\nds--= example1 ,,%#b & ,,*#d1 ,s,cl#b & ,c,cl#d1 c4--are entirely unlike bo? 9 type & 9 *emical prop]ties4 ,?is abs5ce ( analogy 9 c>bon & sulphur is especially cle>ly se5 9 ! fact t ! highe/ sal9e oxides are ( diff]5t composition1 ,,co#b = c>bon1 & ,,s#c = sulphur4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 we consid]$ ! limit to :i* c>bon t5ds 9 its comp\nds1 & 9 a simil> mann] !re is = e elem5t 9 its comp\nds a t5d5cy to atta9 a c]ta9 highe/ limit ,,rxn4 ,?is view 0 p>ticul>ly develop$ 9 ! middle ( ! pres5t c5tury by ,frankl& 9 /udy+ ! metallo-organic comp\nds1 i4e4 ^? 9 :i* ,x is :olly or p>tially a hydroc>bon radicle2 = in/ance1 ,x ,,*#c or ,c#b;,h#e c4 ,?us1 = example1 antimony1 ,sb 7,*apt] ,,xix47 gives1 ) *lor9e1 comp\nds ,sb,cl#c & ,sb,cl#e & correspond+ oxyg5 comp\nds ,sb#b,o#c & ,sb#b,o#e1 :il/ "u ! action ( ,,*#c;,i1 ,c#b;,h#e;,i1 or 9 g5]al ,,ei 7:]e ,e is a hydroc>bon radicle ( ! p>aff9 s]ies71 ^u antimony or its alloy ) sodium !re are =m$ ,sb,e#c 7= example1 ,sb7,,*#c7c1 boil+ at ab\t #ha71 :i*1 correspond+ to ! l[] =m ( comb9ation ,sb,x#c1 are able to comb9e fur!r ) ,,ei1 or ,cl#b1 or ,o1 & to =m comp\nds ( ! limit+ type ,sb,x#e2 = example1 ,sb,e#d;,cl correspond+ to ,,nh#d;,cl ) ! sub/itution ( nitrog5 by antimony1 & ( hydrog5 by ! hydroc>bon radicle4 ,! elem5ts :i* are mo/ *emically analog\s are *>act]is$ by ! fact ( _! giv+ comp\nds ( simil> =m ,,rxn4 ,! halog5s :i* are analog\s give bo? high] & l[] comp\nds4 ,s also d ! metals ( ! alkalis & ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,& we saw t ?is analogy ext5ds to ! composition & prop]ties ( ! nitrog5 & hydrog5 comp\nds ( ^! metals1 :i* is be/ se5 9 ! salts4 ,_m su* gr\ps ( analog\s elem5ts h long be5 kn[n4 ,?us !re are analogues ( oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bon1 & we %all meet ) _m su* gr\ps4 ,b an acqua9tance ) !m inevitably leads to ! que/ions1 :at is ! cause ( analogy & :at is ! relation ( "o gr\p to ano!r8 ,if ^! que/ions rema9 unansw]$1 x is easy to fall into error 9 ! =mation ( ! gr\ps1 because ! notions ( ! degree ( analogy w always be relative1 & w n pres5t any accuracy or di/9ctness ,?us li?ium is analog\s 9 "s respects to potassium & 9 o!rs to magnesium2 b]yllium is analog\s to bo? alum9ium & magnesium4 ,?allium1 z we %all aft]w>ds see & z 0 obs]v$ on its discov]y1 has mu* k9%ip ) lead & m]cury1 b "s ( its prop]ties app]ta9 to li?ium & potassium4 ,naturally1 :]e x is impossible to make measurem5ts "o is reluctantly oblig$ to limit oneself to approximate comp>isons1 f\nd$ on app>5t signs :i* are n di/9ct & are want+ 9 exactitude4 ,b 9 ! elem5ts !re is "o accurately measurable prop]ty1 :i* is subject to no d\bt--namely1 t prop]ty :i* is express$ 9 _! atomic weights4 ,its magnitude indicates ! relative mass ( ! atom1 or1 if we avoid ! conception ( ! atom1 its magnitude %[s ! relation betwe5 ! masses =m+ ! *emical & indep5d5t individuals or elem5ts4 ,& accord+ to ! tea*+ ( all exact data ab\t ! ph5om5a ( nature1 ! mass ( a sub/ance is t prop]ty on :i* all its rema9+ prop]ties mu/ be dep5d5t1 because !y are all det]m9$ by simil> conditions or by ^? =ces :i* act 9 ! weight ( a sub/ance1 & ?is is directly proportional to its mass4 ,!re=e x is mo/ natural to seek = a dep5d5ce betwe5 ! prop]ties & analogies ( ! elem5ts on ! "o h& & _! atomic weights on ! o!r4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal idea :i* leads to arrang+ all ! elem5ts accord+ to _! atomic weights4 ,a p]iodic repetition ( prop]ties is !n imm$iately obs]v$ 9 ! elem5ts4 ,we are already famili> ) examples ( ?is3-- ,f #ai1 ,cl #cee1 ,br #hj1 ,i #abg1 ,na #bc1 ,k #ci1 ,rb #he1 ,cs #acc1 ,mg #bd1 ,ca #dj1 ,sr #hg1 ,ba #acg4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] is se5 9 ^! gr\ps4 ,! halog5s h small] atomic weights ?an ! alkali metals1 & ! latt] ?an ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,!re=e1 if all ! elem5ts be arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights1 a p]iodic repetition ( prop]ties is obta9$4 ,?is is express$ by ! law ( p]iodicity1 ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 z well z ! =ms & prop]ties ( _! comp\nds1 are 9 p]iodic dep5d5ce or 7express+ ourselves algebraically7 =m a p]iodic function ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts4#h ,table ,i4 ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 :i* is plac$ at ! v beg9n+ ( ?is book1 is design$ to illu/rate ?is law4 ,x is arrang$ 9 con=mity ) ! eight types ( oxides describ$ 9 ! prec$+ pages1 & ^? elem5ts :i* give ! oxides1 ,r#b,o & consequ5tly salts ,,rx1 =m ! #a/ gr\p2 ! elem5ts giv+ ,r#b,o#b or ,,ro z _! highe/ grade ( oxidation belong to ! #bnd gr\p2 ^? giv+ ,r#b,o#c z _! highe/ oxides =m ! #crd gr\p1 & s on2 :il/ ! elem5ts ( all ! gr\ps :i* are ne>e/ 9 _! atomic weights are arrang$ 9 s]ies f #a to #ab4 ,! ev5 & unev5 s]ies ( ! same gr\ps pres5t ! same =ms & limits1 b diff] 9 _! prop]ties1 & !re=e two contigu\s s]ies1 "o ev5 & ! o!r unev5--= in/ance1 ! #d? & #e?--=m a p]iod4 ,h5ce ! elem5ts ( ! #d?1 #f?1 #h?1 #aj?1 & #ab?1 or ( ! #crd1 #e?1 #g?1 #i?1 & #aa?1 s]ies =m analogues1 l ! halog5s1 ! alkali metals1 c4 ,! conjunction ( two s]ies1 "o ev5 & "o contigu\s unev5 s]ies1 ?us =ms "o l>ge p]iod4 ,^! p]iods1 beg9n+ ) ! alkali metals1 end ) ! halog5s4 ,! elem5ts ( ! fir/ two s]ies h ! l[e/ atomic weights1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ?is v circum/ance1 al?\gh !y be> ! g5]al prop]ties ( a gr\p1 !y /ill %[ _m peculi> & indep5d5t prop]ties4#i ,?us fluor9e1 z we "k1 diff]s 9 _m po9ts f ! o!r halog5s1 & li?ium f ! o!r alkali metals1 & s on4 ,^! lighte/ elem5ts may be t]m$ typical elem5ts4 ,!y include-- ,h4 ,li1 ,be1 ,b1 ,c1 ,n1 ,o1 ,f4 ,na1 ,mg4444 ,9 ! annex$ table all ! rema9+ elem5ts are arrang$1 n 9 gr\ps & s]ies1 b accord+ to p]iods4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! ess5ce ( ! matt]1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t "h ! atomic weight gradually increases along a giv5 l9e2 = in/ance1 9 ! l9e comm5c+ ) ,k #ci & end+ ) ,br #hj1 ! int]m$iate elem5ts h int]m$iate atomic weights1 z is cle>ly se5 9 ,table ,,iii41 :]e ! elem5ts /& 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,ev5 ,s]ies4 ,mg ,al ,si ,p ,s ,cl ,k ,ca ,sc ,ti ,v ,cr ,mn ,fe ,co ,ni ,cu ,zn ,ga ,ge ,z ,se ,br ,rb ,sr ,y ,zr ,nb ,mo -- ,ru ,rh ,pd ,ag ,cd ,9 ,sn ,sb ,te ,i ,cs ,ba ,la ,ce ,di8 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,yb -- ,ta ,w -- ,os ,ir ,pt ,au ,hg ,tl ,pb ,bi -- -- -- -- -- ,? -- ,u ,unev5 ,s]ies ,! same degree ( analogy t we "k to exi/ betwe5 potassium1 rubidium1 & csium2 or *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e2 or calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium1 also exi/s betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! o!r v]tical columns4 ,?us1 = example1 z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury1 :i* are describ$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 pres5t a v close analogy ) magnesium4 ,= a true compreh5sion ( ! matt]#aj x is v important to see t all ! aspects ( ! di/ribution ( ! elem5ts accord+ to _! atomic weights ess5tially express "o & ! same fundam5tal dep5d5ce--p]iodic prop]ties4#aa ,! foll[+ po9ts !n mu/ be rem>k$ 9 x4 #h ,! p]iodic law & ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts appe>$ 9 ! same =m z "h giv5 9 ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w1 begun 9 #ahfh & f9i%$ 9 #ahga4 ,9 lay+ out ! accumulat$ in=mation respect+ ! elem5ts1 ,i _h occasion to reflect on _! mutual relations4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( #ahfi ,i di/ribut$ among _m *emi/s a pamphlet entitl$ ',an ,attempt$ ,sy/em ( ! ,elem5ts1 bas$ on _! ,atomic ,weights & ,*emical ,analogies1' & at ! ,m>* meet+ ( ! ,russian ,*emical ,society1 #ahfi1 ,i communicat$ a pap] ',on ! ,correlation ( ! ,prop]ties & ,atomic ,weights ( ! ,elem5ts4' ,! sub/ance ( ?is pap] is embrac$ 9 ! foll[+ conclusions3 7#a7 ,! elem5ts1 if arrang$ accord+ to _! atomic weights1 exhibit an evid5t p]iodicity ( prop]ties4 7#b7 ,elem5ts :i* are simil> z reg>ds _! *emical prop]ties h atomic weights :i* are ei!r ( ne>ly ! same value 7plat9um1 iridium1 osmium7 or :i* increase regul>ly 7e4g4 potassium1 rubidium1 csium74 7#c7 ,! arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts or ( gr\ps ( elem5ts 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights corresponds ) _! s-call$ val5cies4 7#d7 ,! elem5ts1 :i* are ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 h small atomic weights1 & all ! elem5ts ( small atomic weight are *>act]is$ by %>ply def9$ prop]ties4 ,!y are !re=e typical elem5ts4 7#e7 ,! magnitude ( ! atomic weight det]m9es ! "* ( an elem5t4 7#f7 ,! discov]y ( _m yet unkn[n elem5ts may be expect$4 ,= in/ance1 elem5ts analog\s to alum9ium & silicon1 ^: atomic weights w\ld be betwe5 #fe & #ge4 7#g7 ,! atomic weight ( an elem5t may sometimes be correct$ by aid ( a k ( ^? ( ! adjac5t elem5ts4 ,?us ! comb9+ weight ( tellurium mu/ lie betwe5 #abc & #abf1 & _c be #abh4 7#h7 ,c]ta9 *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts c be =etold f _! atomic weights4 ,! entire p]iodic law is includ$ 9 ^! l9es4 ,9 ! s]ies ( subsequ5t pap]s 7#ahgj-gb1 = example1 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,russian ,*emical ,society1 ( ! ,mosc[ ,meet+ ( ,naturali/s1 ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy1 & ,liebig's ,annal57 on ! same subject we only f9d applications ( ! same pr9ciples1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ! lab\rs ( ,roscoe1 ,c>nelley1 ,?orpe1 & o!rs 9 ,engl&2 ( ,rammelsb]g 7c]ium & uranium71 ,l4 ,mey] 7! specific volumes ( ! elem5ts71 ,zimm]mann 7uranium71 & m especially ( ,c4 ,w9kl] 7:o discov]$ g]manium1 & %[$ its id5tity ) ekasilicon71 & o!rs 9 ,g]many2 ( ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran 9 ,france 7! discov]] ( gallium ekaalum9ium72 ( ,clve 7! atomic weights ( ! c]ium metals71 ,nilson 7discov]] ( sc&ium ekaboron71 & ,nilson & ,pett]sson 7det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity ( b]yllium *loride7 9 ,sw$52 & ( ,braun] 7:o inve/igat$ c]ium1 & det]m9$ ! comb9+ weight ( tellurium #abe7 9 ,au/ria1 & ,picc9i 9 ,italy4 ,i consid] x necess>y to /ate t1 9 arrang+ ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 ,i made use ( ! previ\s rese>*es ( ,dumas1 ,glad/one1 ,pett5k(]1 ,krem]s1 & ,l5ss5 on ! atomic weights ( relat$ elem5ts1 b ,i 0 n acqua9t$ ) ! works prec$+ m9e ( ,de ,*anc\rtois 7vis tellurique1 or ! spiral ( ! elem5ts accord+ to _! prop]ties & equival5ts7 9 ,france1 & ( ,j4 ,newl&s 7,law ( ,octaves--= in/ance1 ,h1 ,f1 ,cl1 ,co1 ,br1 ,pd1 ,i1 ,pt =m ! fir/ octave1 & ,o1 ,s1 ,fe1 ,se1 ,rh1 ,te1 ,au1 ,? ! la/7 9 ,engl&1 al?\gh c]ta9 g]ms ( ! p]iodic law are to be se5 9 ^! works4 ,) reg>d to ! "w ( ,pr(4 ,lo?> ,mey] respect+ ! p]iodic law 7,notes #ab & #ac71 x is evid5t1 judg+ f ! me?od ( inve/igation1 & f 8 /atem5t 7,liebig's ,annal51 ,supt4 ,b& #g1 #ahgj1 #ced71 at ! v comm5cem5t ( :i* he cites my pap] ( #ahfi above m5tion$1 t he accept$ ! p]iodic law 9 ! =m :i* ,i propos$4 ,9 conclud+ ?is hi/orical /atem5t ,i consid] x well to obs]ve t no law ( nature1 h[ev] g5]al1 has be5 e/abli%$ all at once2 its recognition is always prec$$ by _m h9ts2 ! e/abli%m5t ( a law1 h[ev]1 does n take place :5 its significance is recognis$1 b only :5 x has be5 confirm$ by exp]im5t1 :i* ! man ( sci5ce mu/ consid] z ! only pro( ( ! correctness ( 8 conjectures & op9ions4 ,i !re=e1 = my "p1 look ^u ,roscoe1 ,de ,boisbaudran1 ,nilson1 ,w9kl]1 ,braun]1 ,c>nelley1 ,?orpe1 & o!rs :o v]ifi$ ! adaptability ( ! p]iodic law to *emical facts1 z ! true f\nd]s ( ! p]iodic law1 ! fur!r developm5t ( :i* /ill awaits fre% work]s4 #i ,?is resembles ! fact1 well kn[n to ^? hav+ an acqua9tance ) organic *emi/ry1 t 9 a s]ies ( homologues 7,*apt] ,,viii47 ! fir/ memb]s1 9 :i* !re is ! lea/ c>bon1 al?\gh %[+ ! g5]al prop]ties ( ! homolog\s s]ies1 /ill pres5t c]ta9 di/9ct peculi>ities4 #aj ,besides arrang+ ! elem5ts 7a7 9 a successive ord] accord+ to _! atomic weights1 ) indication ( _! analogies by %[+ "s ( ! prop]ties--= in/ance1 _! p[] ( giv+ "o or ano!r =m ( comb9ation--bo? ( ! elem5ts & ( _! comp\nds 7z is done 9 ,table ,,iii4 & 9 ! table on p4 #cf71 7b7 accord+ to p]iods 7z 9 ,table ,i4 at ! comm5cem5t ( volume ,i4 aft] ! preface71 & 7c7 accord+ to gr\ps & s]ies or small p]iods 7z 9 ! same tables71 ,i am acqua9t$ ) ! foll[+ me?ods ( express+ ! p]iodic relations ( ! elem5ts3 7#a7 ,by a curve drawn ?r\gh po9ts obta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! elem5ts are arrang$ along ! horizontal axis z absciss at di/ances f z]o proportional to _! atomic weights1 :il/ ! values = all ! elem5ts ( "s prop]ty--= example1 ! specific volumes or ! melt+ po9ts1 are express$ by ! ord9ates4 ,?is me?od1 al?\gh graphic1 has ! !oretical disadvantage t x does n 9 any way indicate ! exi/5ce ( a limit$ & def9ite numb] ( elem5ts 9 ea* p]iod4 ,!re is no?+1 = in/ance1 9 ?is me?od ( express+ ! law ( p]iodicity to %[ t betwe5 magnesium & alum9ium !re c be no o!r elem5t ) an atomic weight (1 say1 #be1 atomic volume #ac1 & 9 g5]al hav+ prop]ties int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ^! two elem5ts4 ,! actual p]iodic law does n correspond ) a cont9u\s *ange ( prop]ties1 ) a cont9u\s v>iation ( atomic weight--9 a ^w1 x does n express an un9t]rupt$ function--& z ! law is purely *emical1 />t+ f ! conception ( atoms & molecules :i* comb9e 9 multiple proportions1 ) int]vals 7n cont9u\sly71 x above all dep5ds on !re be+ b few types ( comp\nds1 :i* are ari?metically simple1 repeat !mselves1 & (f] no un9t]rupt$ transitions1 s t ea* p]iod c only conta9 a def9ite numb] ( memb]s4 ,= ?is reason !re c be no o!r elem5ts betwe5 magnesium1 :i* gives ! *loride ,mg,cl#b1 & alum9ium1 :i* =ms ,al,x#c2 !re is a break 9 ! cont9uity1 accord+ to ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,! p]iodic law ought n1 !re=e1 to be express$ by geometrical figures 9 :i* cont9uity is always und]/ood4 ,ow+ to ^! consid]ations ,i nev] h & nev] w express ! p]iodic relations ( ! elem5ts by any geometrical figures4 7#b7 ,by a plane spiral4 ,radii are trac$ f a c5tre1 proportional to ! atomic weights2 analog\s elem5ts lie along "o radius1 & ! po9ts ( int]section are arrang$ 9 a spiral4 ,?is me?od1 adopt$ by ,de ,*anc\rtois1 ,baumgau]1 ,e4 ,hu?1 & o!rs1 has _m ( ! imp]fections ( ! prec$+1 al?\gh x removes ! indef9it5ess z to ! numb] ( elem5ts 9 a p]iod4 ,x is m]ely an attempt to r$uce ! complex relations to a simple graphic repres5tation1 s9ce ! equation to ! spiral & ! numb] ( radii are n dep5d5t ^u any?+4 7#c7 ,by ! l9es ( atomicity1 ei!r p>allel1 z 9 ,reynolds's & ! ,rev4 ,s4 ,haughton's me?od1 or z 9 ,crookes's me?od1 arrang$ to ! "r & left ( an axis1 along :i* ! magnitudes ( ! atomic weights are c\nt$1 & ! position ( ! elem5ts m>k$ (f1 on ! "o side ! memb]s ( ! ev5 s]ies 7p>amagnetic1 l oxyg51 potassium1 iron71 & on ! o!r side ! memb]s ( ! unev5 s]ies 7diamagnetic1 l sulphur1 *lor9e1 z9c1 & m]cury74 ,on jo9+ up ^! po9ts a p]iodic curve is obta9$1 comp>$ by ,crookes to ! oscillations ( a p5dulum1 &1 accord+ to ,haughton1 repres5t+ a cubical curve4 ,?is me?od w\ld be v graphic did x n require1 = in/ance1 t sulphur %\ld be consid]$ z bival5t & manganese z unival5t1 al?\gh nei!r ( ^! elem5ts gives /able d]ivatives ( ^! natures1 & al?\gh ! "o is tak5 on ! basis ( ! l[e/ possible comp\nd ,,sx#b1 & ! o!r ( ! highe/1 because manganese c be ref]r$ to ! unival5t elem5ts only by ! analogy ( ,k,mn,o#d to ,k,cl,o#d4 ,fur!rmore1 ,reynolds & ,crookes place hydrog51 iron1 nickel1 cobalt1 & o!rs outside ! axis ( atomicity1 & consid] uranium z bival5t )\t ! lea/ f\ndation4 7#d7 ,rant%eff endeav\r$ to classify ! elem5ts 9 _! p]iodic relations by a sy/em dep5d5t on solid geometry4 ,he communicat$ ?is mode ( expression to ! ,russian ,*emical ,society1 b 8 communication1 :i* is app>5tly n void ( int]e/1 has n yet appe>$ 9 pr9t4 7#e7 ,by algebraic =mul3 = example1 ,e4 ,j4 ,mills 7#ahhf7 endeav\rs to express all ! atomic weights by ! log>i?mic function ,a #ae7n - #jicget71 9 :i* ! v>iables n & t are :ole numb]s4 ,= in/ance1 = oxyg5 n #b1 t #a2 h5ce ,a #aeid2 = antimony n #i1 t #j2 :5ce ,a #abj1 & s on4 n v>ies f #a to #af & t f #j to #ei4 ,! analogues are h>dly di/+ui%able by ?is me?od3 ?us = *lor9e ! magnitudes ( n & t are #c & #g2 = brom9e #f & #f2 = iod9e #i & #i2 = potassium #c & #ad2 = rubidium #f & #ah2 = csium #i & #bj2 b a c]ta9 regul>ity seems to be %[n4 7#f7 ,a m natural me?od ( express+ ! dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties ( elem5ts on _! atomic weights is obta9$ by trigonometrical functions1 because ?is dep5d5ce is p]iodic l ! functions ( trigonometrical l9es1 & !re=e ,ridb]g 9 ,sw$5 7,lund1 #ahhe7 & ,f4 ,flavitzky 9 ,russia 7,kazan1 #ahhg7 h adopt$ a simil> me?od ( expression1 :i* mu/ be consid]$ z wor?y ( be+ work$ out1 al?\gh x does n express ! abs5ce ( int]m$iate elem5ts--= in/ance1 betwe5 magnesium & alum9ium1 :i* is ess5tially ! mo/ important "p ( ! matt]4 7#g7 ,! inve/igations ( ,b4 ,n4 ,t*it*r9 7#ahhh1 ,j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,physical & ,*emical ,society7 =m ! fir/ ef=t 9 ! latt] direction4 ,he c>efully /udi$ ! alkali metals1 & discov]$ ! foll[+ simple relation betwe5 _! atomic volumes3 !y c all be express$ by ,a7#b - #jjdbh;,an71 :]e ,a is ! atomic weight & n #a = li?ium & sodium1 #d_/h = potassium1 #c_/h = rubidium1 & #b_/h = csium4 ,if n always #a1 !n ! volume ( ! atom w\ld become z]o at ,a #df-b_/c1 & w\ld rea* its maximum :5 ,a #bc-a_/c1 & ! d5sity increases ) ! gr[? ( ,a4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! v>iation ( n1 & ! relation ( ! atomic weights ( ! alkali metals to ^? ( ! o!r elem5ts1 z also ! atomicity itself1 ,t*it*r9 supposes all atoms to be built up ( a prim>y matt]2 he consid]s ! relation ( ! c5tral to ! p]iph]ic mass1 &1 guid$ by me*anical pr9ciples1 d$uces _m ( ! prop]ties ( ! atoms f ! reaction ( ! int]nal & p]iph]ic p>ts ( ea* atom4 ,?is endeav\r (f]s _m int]e/+ po9ts1 b x admits ! hypo!sis ( ! build+ up ( all ! elem5ts f "o prim>y matt]1 & at ! pres5t "t su* an hypo!sis has n ! lea/ support ei!r 9 !ory or 9 fact4 ,besides :i* ! />t+-po9t ( ! !ory is ! specific gravity ( ! metals at a def9ite temp]ature 7x is n kn[n h[ ! above relation w\ld appe> at o!r temp]atures71 & ! specific gravity v>ies ev5 "u me*anical influ5ces4 ,l4 ,hugo 7#ahhd7 endeav\r$ to repres5t ! atomic weights ( ,li1 ,na1 ,k1 ,rb1 & ,cs by geometrical figures--= in/ance1 ,li #g repres5ts a c5tral atom #a & six atoms on ! six t]m9als ( an octah$ron2 ,na1 is obta9$ by apply+ two su* atoms on ea* edge ( an octah$ron1 & s on4 ,x is evid5t t su* me?ods c add no?+ new to our data respect+ ! atomic weights ( analog\s elem5ts4 #aa ,_m natural ph5om5a exhibit a dep5d5ce ( a p]iodic "*4 ,?us ! ph5om5a ( day & night & ( ! seasons ( ! ye>1 & vibrations ( all k9ds1 exhibit v>iations ( a p]iodic "* 9 dep5d5ce on "t & space4 ,b 9 ord9>y p]iodic functions "o v>iable v>ies cont9u\sly1 :il/ ! o!r increases to a limit1 !n a p]iod ( decrease beg9s1 & hav+ 9 turn rea*$ its limit a p]iod ( increase aga9 beg9s4 ,x is o!rwise 9 ! p]iodic function ( ! elem5ts4 ,"h ! mass ( ! elem5ts does n increase cont9u\sly1 b abruptly1 by /eps1 z f magnesium to alum9ium4 ,s also ! val5cy or atomicity leaps directly f #a to #b to #c1 c41 )\t int]m$iate quantities1 & 9 my op9ion x is ^! prop]ties :i* are ! mo/ important1 & x is _! p]iodicity :i* =ms ! sub/ance ( ! p]iodic law4 ,x expresses ! prop]ties ( ! real elem5ts1 & n ( :at may be t]m$ _! manife/ations visually kn[n to u4 ,! ext]nal prop]ties ( elem5ts & comp\nds are 9 p]iodic dep5d5ce on ! atomic weight ( ! elem5ts only because ^! ext]nal prop]ties are !mselves ! result ( ! prop]ties ( ! real elem5ts :i* unite to =m ! 'free' elem5ts & ! comp\nds4 ,to expla9 & express ! p]iodic law is to expla9 & express ! cause ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 ( ! diff]5ce ( ! elem5ts1 & ! v>iation ( _! atomicity1 & at ! same "t to und]/& :at mass & gravitation are4 ,9 my op9ion ?is is /ill premature4 ,b j z )\t kn[+ ! cause ( gravitation x is possible to make use ( ! law ( gravity1 s = ! aims ( *emi/ry x is possible to take advantage ( ! laws discov]$ by *emi/ry )\t be+ able to expla9 _! causes4 ,! above-m5tion$ peculi>ity ( ! laws ( *emi/ry respect+ def9ite comp\nds & ! atomic weights leads "o to ?9k t ! "t has n yet come = _! full explanation1 & ,i d n ?9k t x w come be=e ! explanation ( su* a prim>y law ( nature z ! law ( gravity4 ,x w n be out ( place "h to turn our att5tion to ! _m-sid$ correlation exi/+ betwe5 ! undecomposable elem5ts & ! comp\nd c>bon radicles1 :i* has long be5 rem>k$ 7,pett5k(]1 ,dumas1 & o!rs71 & reconsid]$ 9 rec5t times by ,c>nelley 7#ahhf71 & mo/ orig9ally 9 ,pelopidas's "w 7#ahhc7 on ! pr9ciples ( ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,pelopidas comp>es ! s]ies conta9+ eight hydroc>bon radicles1 ,cn,h#bn #a1 ,cn,h#bn c41 = in/ance1 ,c#f;,h#ac1 ,c#f;,h#ab1 ,c#f;,h#aa1 ,c#f;,h#aj1 ,c#f;,h#i1 ,c#f;,h#h1 ,c#f;,h#g1 & ,c#f;,h#f--) ! s]ies ( ! elem5ts arrang$ 9 eight gr\ps4 ,! analogy is p>ticul>ly cle> ow+ to ! prop]ty ( ,cn,h#bn#a to comb9e ) ,x1 ?us rea*+ saturation1 & ( ! foll[+ memb]s ) ,x#b1 ,x#c 444 ,x#h1 & especially because ^! are foll[$ by an aromatic radicle--= example1 ,c#f;,h#e--;9 :i*1 z is well kn[n1 _m ( ! prop]ties ( ! saturat$ radicle ,c#f;,h#ac are repeat$1 & 9 p>ticul> ! p[] ( =m+ a unival5t radicle aga9 appe>s4 ,pelopidas %[s a confirmation ( ! p>allel 9 ! prop]ty ( ! above radicles ( giv+ oxyg5 comp\nds correspond+ ) ! gr\ps 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,?us ! hydroc>bon radicles ( ! fir/ gr\p--= in/ance1 ,c#f;,h#ac or ,c#f;,h#e--;give oxides ( ! =m ,r#b,o & hydroxides ,,rho1 l ! metals ( ! alkalis2 & 9 ! ?ird gr\p !y =m oxides ,r#b,o#c & hydrates ,,ro#b;,h4 ,= example1 9 ! s]ies ,,*#c ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! ?ird gr\p w be ! oxide 7,,*7#b,o#c or ,c#b;,h#b,o#c--t is1 =mic anhydride & hydrate1 ,,*o#b;,h1 or =mic acid4 ,9 ! six? gr\p1 ) a composition ( ,c#b1 ! oxide ,,ro#c w be ,c#b,o#c1 & hydrate ,c#b;,h#b,o#d--t is1 also a bibasic acid 7oxalic7 resembl+ sulphuric1 among ! inorganic acids4 ,aft] apply+ 8 views to a numb] ( organic comp\nds1 ,pelopidas dwells m p>ticul>ly on ! radicles correspond+ ) ammonium4 ,) respect to ?is rem>kable p>allelism1 x mu/ above all be obs]v$ t 9 ! elem5ts ! atomic weight increases 9 pass+ to contigu\s memb]s ( a high] val5cy1 :il/ "h x decreases1 :i* %\ld indicate t ! p]iodic v>iability ( elem5ts & comp\nds is subject to "s high] law ^: nature1 & /ill m ^: cause1 _c at pres5t be det]m9$4 ,x is probably bas$ on ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! int]nal me*anics ( ! atoms & molecules1 & z ! p]iodic law has only be5 g5]ally recognis$ = a few ye>s x is n surpris+ t any fur!r progress t[>ds its explanation c only be look$ = 9 ! developm5t ( facts t\*+ on ?is subject4 #a4 ,! composition ( ! high] oxyg5 comp\nds is det]m9$ by ! gr\ps3 ! fir/ gr\p gives ,r#b,o1 ! second ,r#b,o#b or ,,ro1 ! ?ird ,r#b,o#c1 c4 ,!re are eight types ( oxides & !re=e eight gr\ps4 ,two gr\ps give a p]iod1 & ! same type ( oxide is met ) twice 9 a p]iod4 ,= example1 9 ! p]iod beg9n+ ) potassium1 oxides ( ! composition ,,ro are =m$ by calcium & z9c1 & ( ! composition ,,ro#c by molybd5um & tellurium4 ,! oxides ( ! ev5 s]ies1 ( ! same type1 h /rong] basic prop]ties ?an ! oxides ( ! unev5 s]ies1 & ! latt] z a rule are end[$ ) an acid "*4 ,!re=e ! elem5ts :i* exclusively give bases1 l ! alkali metals1 w be f\nd at ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]iod1 :il/ su* purely acid elem5ts z ! halog5s w be at ! end ( ! p]iod4 ,! int]val w be occupi$ by int]m$iate elem5ts1 ^: "* & prop]ties we %all aft]w>ds describe4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! acid "* is *iefly prop] to ! elem5ts ) small atomic weights 9 ! unev5 s]ies1 :il/ ! basic "* is exhibit$ by ! heavi] elem5ts 9 ! ev5 s]ies4 ,h5ce elem5ts :i* give acids *iefly pr$om9ate among ! lighte/ 7typical7 elem5ts1 especially 9 ! la/ gr\ps2 :il/ ! heavie/ elem5ts1 ev5 9 ! la/ gr\ps 7= in/ance1 ?allium1 uranium7 h a basic "*4 ,?us ! basic & acid *>act]s ( ! high] oxides are det]m9$ 7a7 by ! type ( oxide1 7b7 by ! ev5 or unev5 s]ies1 & 7c7 by ! atomic weight4#aa bis ,! gr\ps are indicat$ by ,roman num]als f ,i4 to ,,viii4 #b4 ,! hydrog5 comp\nds be+ volatile or gase\s sub/ances :i* are prone to reaction--su* z ,h,cl1 ,h#b,o1 ,h#c,n1 & ,h#d;,c#ab--;are only =m$ by ! elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies & high] gr\ps giv+ oxides ( ! =ms ,r#b,on1 ,,ro#c1 ,r#b,o#e1 & ,,ro#b4 #c4 ,if an elem5t gives a hydrog5 comp\nd1 ,,rxm1 x =ms an organo-metallic comp\nd ( ! same composition1 :]e ,x ,cn,h#bn #a2 t is1 ,x is ! radicle ( a saturat$ hydroc>bon4 ,! elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies1 :i* are incapable ( giv+ hydrog5 comp\nds1 & give oxides ( ! =ms ,,rx1 ,,rx#b1 ,r,x#c1 also give organo-metallic comp\nds ( ?is =m prop] to ! high] oxides4 ,?us z9c =ms ! oxide ,zn,o1 salts ,zn,x#b & z9c e?yl ,zn7,c#b;,h#e7b4 ,! elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies d n seem to =m organo-metallic comp\nds at all2 at lea/ all ef=ts = _! prep>ation h z yet be5 fruitless--= in/ance1 9 ! case ( titanium1 zirconium1 or iron4 #d4 ,! atomic weights ( elem5ts belong+ to contigu\s p]iods diff] approximately by #de2 = example1 ,k,rb1 ,cr,mo1 ,br,i4 ,b ! elem5ts ( ! typical s]ies %[ mu* small] diff]5ces4 ,?us ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! atomic weights ( ,li1 ,na1 & ,k1 betwe5 ,ca1 ,mg1 & ,be1 betwe5 ,si & ,c1 betwe5 ,s & ,o1 & betwe5 ,cl & ,f1 is #af4 ,z a rule1 !re is a great] diff]5ce betwe5 ! atomic weights ( two elem5ts ( "o gr\p & belong+ to two neighb\r+ s]ies 7,ti-,si ,v-,p ,cr-,s ,mn-,cl ,nb-,z1 c4 #bj72 & ?is diff]5ce atta9s a maximum ) ! heavie/ elem5ts 7= example1 ,?-,pb #bf1 ,bi-,ta #bf1 ,ba-,cd #be1 c474 ,fur!rmore1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts ( ev5 & unev5 s]ies also increases4 ,9 fact1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,na & ,k1 ,mg & ,ca1 ,si & ,ti1 are less abrupt ?an ^? betwe5 ,pb & ,?1 ,ta & ,bi1 ,cd & ,ba1 c4 ,?us ev5 9 ! magnitude ( ! diff]5ces ( ! atomic weights ( analog\s elem5ts !re is obs]vable a c]ta9 connection ) ! gradation ( _! prop]ties4#ab bis #e4 ,accord+ to ! p]iodic sy/em e elem5t occupies a c]ta9 position1 det]m9$ by ! gr\p 7indicat$ 9 ,roman num]als7 & s]ies 7,arabic num]als7 9 :i* x occurs4 ,^! indicate ! atomic weight1 ! analogues1 prop]ties1 & type ( ! high] oxide1 & ( ! hydrog5 & o!r comp\nds--9 a ^w1 all ! *ief quantitative & qualitative features ( an elem5t1 al?\gh !re yet rema9 a :ole s]ies ( fur!r details & peculi>ities ^: cause %\ld p]haps be look$ = 9 small diff]5ces ( ! atomic weights4 ,if 9 a c]ta9 gr\p !re occur elem5ts1 ,r#a1 ,r#b1 ,r#c1 & if 9 t s]ies :i* conta9s "o ( ^! elem5ts1 = in/ance ,r#b1 an elem5t ,q#b prec$es x & an elem5t ,t#b succe$s x1 !n ! prop]ties ( ,r#b are det]m9$ by ! prop]ties ( ,r#a1 ,r#c1 ,q#b1 & ,t#b4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! atomic weight ( ,r#b #a_/d7,r#a ,r#c ,q#b ,t#b74 ,= example1 sel5ium occurs 9 ! same gr\p z sulphur1 ,s #cb1 & tellurium1 ,te #abe1 &1 9 ! #g? s]ies ,z #ge /&s be=e x & ,br #hj aft] x4 ,h5ce ! atomic weight ( sel5ium %\ld be #a_/d7cb #abe #ge #hj7 #gh1 :i* is ne> to ! tru?4 ,o!r prop]ties ( sel5ium may also be det]m9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,= example1 ars5ic =ms ,h#c;,z1 brom9e gives ,h,br1 & x is evid5t t sel5ium1 :i* /&s betwe5 !m1 %\ld =m ,h#b,se1 ) prop]ties int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ,h#c;,z & ,h,br4 ,ev5 ! physical prop]ties ( sel5ium & its comp\nds1 n to speak ( _! composition1 be+ det]m9$ by ! gr\p 9 :i* x occurs1 may be =ese5 ) a close approa* to reality f ! prop]ties ( sulphur1 tellurium1 ars5ic1 & brom9e4 ,9 ?is mann] x is possible to =etell ! prop]ties ( /ill unkn[n elem5ts4 ,= in/ance 9 ! position ,,iv1 #e--t is1 9 ! ,i,vth gr\p & #e? s]ies--an elem5t is /ill want+4 ,^! unkn[n elem5ts may be nam$ aft] ! prec$+ kn[n elem5t ( ! same gr\p by add+ to ! fir/ syllable ! prefix eka-1 :i* means "o 9 ,sanskrit4 ,! elem5t ,,iv1 #e1 foll[s aft] ,,iv1 #c1 & ?is latt] position be+ occupi$ by silicon1 we call ! unkn[n elem5t ekasilicon & its symbol ,es4 ,! foll[+ are ! prop]ties :i* ?is elem5t %\ld h on ! basis ( ! kn[n prop]ties ( silicon1 t91 z9c1 & ars5ic4 ,its atomic weight is ne>ly #gb1 high] oxide ,es,o#b1 l[] oxide ,es,o1 comp\nds ( ! g5]al =m ,es,x#d1 & *emically un/able l[] comp\nds ( ! =m ,es,x#b4 ,es gives volatile organo-metallic comp\nds--= in/ance1 ,es7,,*#c7d1 ,es7,,*#c7c;,cl1 & ,es7,c#b;,h#e7d1 :i* boil at ab\t #afj1 c42 also a volatile & liquid *loride1 ,es,cl#d1 boil+ at ab\t #ij & ( specific gravity ab\t #ai4 ,es,o#b w be ! anhydride ( a feeble colloidal acid1 metallic ,es w be r easily obta9able f ! oxides & f ,k#b;,es,f#f by r$uction1 ,es,s#b w resemble ,sn,s#b & ,si,s#b1 & w probably be soluble 9 ammonium sulphide2 ! specific gravity ( ,es w be ab\t #ee1 ,es,o#b w h a d5sity ( ab\t #dg1 c4 ,su* a pr$iction ( ! prop]ties ( ekasilicon 0 made by me 9 #ahga1 on ! basis ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts analog\s to x3 ,,iv1 #c1 ,si1 ,,iv1 #g ,sn1 & also ,,ii1 #e ,zn & ,v1 #e ,z4 ,& n[ t ?is elem5t has be5 discov]$ by ,c4 ,w9kl]1 ( ,freib]g1 x has be5 f\nd t its actual prop]ties entirely correspond ) ^? :i* 7 =etold4#ac ,9 ?is we see a mo/ important confirmation ( ! tru? ( ! p]iodic law4 ,?is elem5t is n[ call$ g]manium1 ,ge 7see ,*apt] ,,xviii474 ,x is n ! only "o t has be5 pr$ict$ by ! p]iodic law4#ad ,we %all see 9 describ+ ! elem5ts ( ! ?ird gr\p t prop]ties 7 =etold ( an elem5t ekaalum9ium1 ,,iii1 #e1 ,el #fh1 & 7 aft]w>ds v]ifi$ :5 ! metal t]m$ 'gallium' 0 discov]$ by ,de ,boisbaudran4 ,s also ! prop]ties ( sc&ium correspond$ ) ^? pr$ict$ = ekaboron1 accord+ to ,nilson4#ae #aa bis ,true p]oxides 7see ,note #g71 l ,h#b,o#b1 ,ba,o#b1 ,s#b,o#g 7,*apt] ,,xx471 mu/ n be confus$ ) true sal9e oxides ev5 if ! latt] conta9 mu* oxyg5 7= in/ance1 ,n#b,o#e1 ,cr,o#c1 c47 al?\gh "o & ! o!r easily oxidise4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is se5 9 _! fundam5tal prop]ties3 ! sal9e oxides correspond to wat]1 :ile ! p]oxides correspond 9 _! reactions & orig9 to p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,?is is cle>ly se5 9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,na#b,o & ,na#b,o#b 7,*apt] ,,xii474 ,!re=e ! p]oxides %\ld also h _! p]iodicity4 ,an elem5t ,r1 giv+ a highe/ degree ( oxidation1 ,r#b,on1 may give bo? a l[] degree ( oxidation1 ,r#b,on - m 7:]e m is evid5tly less ?an n71 & p]oxides1 ,r#b,on #a1 ,r#b,on #b1 or ev5 m oxyg54 ,?is class ( oxides1 to :i* att5tion has only rec5tly be5 turn$ 7,b]!lot1 ,picc9i1 c471 may p]haps on fur!r /udy give ! possibility ( g5]alis+ ! capability ( ! elem5ts to give un/able complex high] =ms ( comb9ation1 su* z d\ble salts1 & 9 my op9ion %\ld 9 ! ne> future be ! field ( new & important discov]ies4 ,& 9 contempor>y *emi/ry1 salts1 sal9e oxides1 hydrog5 comp\nds1 & o!r comb9ations ( ! elem5ts correspond+ to !m con/itute an important & v complex problem = g5]alisation1 :i* is satisfi$ by ! p]iodic law 9 its pres5t =m1 to :i* x has ris5 f its fir/ /ate1 9 :i* x gave ! means ( =esee+ 7see lat] on7 ! exi/5ce ( unkn[n elem5ts 7,ga1 ,sc1 & ,ge71 _! prop]ties1 & _m details respect+ _! comp\nds4 ,until ^? improvem5ts 9 ! p]iodic sy/em :i* h be5 propos$ by ,pr(4 ,flavitzky 7( ,kazan7 & ,pr(4 ,h>p]a? 7( ,cordoba1 9 ! ,arg5t9e ,republic71 ,ugo ,alvisi 7,italy71 & o!rs give simil> practical results1 ,i ?9k x unnecess>y to discuss !m fur!r4 #ab ,! hydrides g5]alis$ by ! p]iodic law are ^? to :i* metallo-organic comp\nds correspond1 & !y are !mselves ei!r volatile or gase\s4 ,! hydrog5 comp\nds l ,na#b;,h1 ,ba,h1 c4 are di/+ui%$ by o!r signs4 ,!y resemble alloys4 ,!y %[ 7see end ( la/ *apt]7 a sy/ematic h>mony1 b !y evid5tly %\ld n be confus$ ) true hydrides1 any m ?an p]oxides ) sal9e oxides4 ,moreov]1 su* hydrides h1 l ! p]oxides1 only rec5tly be5 subject$ to rese>*1 & h be5 b little /udi$4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! comp\nds are giv5 9 ! #af? column ( ,table ,,iii41 & x w be se5 t !y already exhibit a p]iodicity ( prop]ties & composition4 #ab bis ,! relation betwe5 ! atomic weights1 & especially ! diff]5ce #af1 0 obs]v$ 9 ! six? & sev5? decades ( ?is c5tury by ,dumas1 ,pett5k(]1 ,l4 ,mey]1 & o!rs4 ,?us ,lo?> ,mey] 9 #ahfd1 foll[+ ,dumas & o!rs1 gr\p$ toge!r ! tetraval5t elem5ts c>bon & silicon2 ! trival5t elem5ts nitrog51 phosphorus1 ars5ic1 antimony1 & bismu?2 ! bival5t oxyg51 sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium2 ! unival5t fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e2 ! unival5t metals li?ium1 sodium1 potassium1 rubidium1 csium1 & ?allium1 & ! bival5t metals b]yllium1 magnesium1 /rontium & b>ium--obs]v+ t 9 ! fir/ ! diff]5ce is1 9 g5]al #af1 9 ! second ab\t #df1 & ! la/ ab\t #hg-ij4 ,! fir/ g]ms ( ! p]iodic law are visible 9 su* obs]vations z ^!4 ,s9ce its e/abli%m5t ?is subject has be5 mo/ fully work$ out by ,ridb]g 7,note #aj71 :o obs]v$ a p]iodicity 9 ! v>iation ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! atomic weights ( two contigu\s elem5ts1 & its relation to _! atomicity4 ,a4 ,baz>(f 7#ahhg7 inve/igat$ ! same subject1 tak+1 n ! ari?metical diff]5ces ( contigu\s & analog\s elem5ts1 b ! ratio ( _! atomic weights2 & he also obs]v$ t ?is ratio alt]nately rises & falls ) ! rise ( ! atomic weights4 ,i w "h rem>k t ! relation ( ! eigh? gr\p to ! o!rs w be consid]$ at ! end ( ?is "w 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 #ac ,! laws ( nature admit ( no exceptions1 & 9 ?is !y cle>ly diff] f su* rules & maxims z are f\nd 9 gramm>1 & o!r inv5tions1 me?ods1 & relations ( man's creation4 ,! confirmation ( a law is only possible by d$uc+ consequ5ces f x1 su* z c\ld n possibly be =ese5 )\t x1 & by v]ify+ ^? consequ5ces by exp]im5t & fur!r pro(s4 ,!re=e1 :5 ,i conceiv$ ! p]iodic law1 ,i 7#ahfi-ahga1 ,note #i7 d$uc$ su* logical consequ5ces f x z c\ld s]ve to %[ :e!r x 7 true or n4 ,among !m 0 ! pr$iction ( ! prop]ties ( undiscov]$ elem5ts & ! correction ( ! atomic weights ( _m1 & at t "t little kn[n1 elem5ts4 ,?us uranium 0 consid]$ z trival5t1 ,u #abj2 b z su* x did n correspond ) ! p]iodic law4 ,i !re=e propos$ to d\ble its atomic weight--,u #bdj1 & ! rese>*es ( ,roscoe1 ,zimm]mann1 & o!rs ju/ifi$ ?is alt]ation 7,*apt] ,,xxi474 ,x 0 ! same ) c]ium 7,*apt] ,,xviii47 ^: atomic weight x 0 necess>y to *ange accord+ to ! p]iodic law4 ,i !re=e det]m9$ its specific heat1 & ! result ,i obta9$ 0 v]ifi$ by ! new det]m9ations ( ,hillebr&4 ,i !n correct$ c]ta9 =mul ( ! c]ium comp\nds1 & ! rese>*es ( ,rammelsb]g1 ,braun]1 ,clve1 & o!rs v]ifi$ ! propos$ alt]ation4 ,x 0 necess>y to d "o or ! o!r--ei!r to consid] ! p]iodic law z completely true1 & z =m+ a new in/rum5t 9 *emical rese>*1 or to refute x4 ,ackn[l$g+ ! me?od ( exp]im5t to be ! only true "o1 ,i myself v]ifi$ :at ,i c\ld1 & gave e "o ! possibility ( prov+ or confirm+ ! law1 & did n ?9k1 l ,l4 ,mey] 7,liebig's ,annal51 ,supt4 ,b& #g1 #ahgj1 #cfd71 :5 writ+ ab\t ! p]iodic law t 'x w\ld be ra% to *ange ! accept$ atomic weights on ! basis ( s unc]ta9 a />t+-po9t4' 7',es wrde voreilig se91 auf s unsi*]e ,anhaltspunkte h9 e9e ,a5d]ung d] bi%] ang5omm55 ,atomgewi*te vorzunehm54'7 ,9 my op9ion1 ! basis (f]$ by ! p]iodic law _h to be v]ifi$ or refut$1 & exp]im5t 9 e case v]ifi$ x4 ,! />t+-po9t !n became g5]al4 ,no law ( nature c be e/abli%$ )\t su* a me?od ( te/+ x4 ,nei!r ,de ,*anc\rtois1 to :om ! ,fr5* ascribe ! discov]y ( ! p]iodic law1 nor ,newl&s1 :o is put =w>d by ! ,engli%1 nor ,l4 ,mey]1 :o is n[ cit$ by _m z its f\nd]1 v5tur$ to =etell ! prop]ties ( undiscov]$ elem5ts1 or to alt] ! 'accept$ atomic weights1' or1 9 g5]al1 to reg>d ! p]iodic law z a new1 /rictly e/abli%$ law ( nature1 z ,i did f ! v beg9n+ 7#ahfi74 #ad ,:5 9 #ahga ,i wrote a pap] on ! application ( ! p]iodic law to ! det]m9ation ( ! prop]ties ( hi!rto undiscov]$ elem5ts1 ,i did n ?9k ,i %\ld live to see ! v]ification ( ?is consequ5ce ( ! law1 b su* 0 to be ! case4 ,?ree elem5ts 7 describ$--ekaboron1 ekaalum9ium1 & ekasilicon--& n[1 aft] ! lapse ( tw5ty ye>s1 ,i h _h ! great pleasure ( see+ !m discov]$ & nam$ ,gallium1 ,sc&ium1 & ,g]manium1 aft] ^? ?ree c\ntries :]e ! r>e m9]als conta9+ !m are f\nd1 & :]e !y 7 discov]$4 ,= my "p ,i reg>d ,l4 de ,boisbaudran1 ,nilson1 & ,w9kl]1 :o discov]$ ^! elem5ts1 z ! true corroborators ( ! p]iodic law4 ,)\t !m x w\ld n h be5 accept$ to ! ext5t x n[ is4 #ae ,tak+ indium1 :i* occurs toge!r ) z9c1 z our example1 we w %[ ! pr9ciple ( ! me?od employ$4 ,! equival5t ( indium to hydrog5 9 its oxide is #cgg--t is1 if we suppose its composition to be l t ( wat]2 !n ,9 #cgg1 & ! oxide ( indium is ,9#b,o4 ,! atomic weight ( indium 0 tak5 z d\ble ! equival5t--t is1 indium 0 consid]$ to be a bival5t elem5t--& ,9 #b #cgg #ged4 ,if indium only =m$ an oxide1 ,,ro1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 gr\p ,,ii4 ,b 9 ?is case x appe>s t !re w\ld be no place = indium 9 ! sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 because ! positions ,,ii41 #e ,zn #fe & ,,ii41 #f ,sr #hg 7 already occupi$ by kn[n elem5ts1 & accord+ to ! p]iodic law an elem5t ) an atomic weight #ge c\ld n be bival5t4 ,z nei!r ! vap\r d5sity nor ! specific heat1 nor ev5 ! isomorphism 7! salts ( indium cry/allise ) great difficulty7 ( ! comp\nds ( indium 7 kn[n1 !re 0 no reason = consid]+ x to be a bival5t metal1 & !re=e x might be reg>d$ z trival5t1 quadrival5t1 c4 ,if x be trival5t1 !n ,9 #c #cgg #aac1 & ! composition ( ! oxide is ,9#b,o#c1 & ( its salts ,in,x#c4 ,9 ?is case x at once falls into its place 9 ! sy/em1 namely1 9 gr\p ,,iii4 & #g? s]ies1 betwe5 ,cd #aab & ,sn #aah1 z an analogue ( alum9ium or dvialum9ium 7dvi #b 9 ,sanskrit74 ,all ! prop]ties obs]v$ 9 indium correspond ) ?is position2 = example1 ! d5sity1 cadmium #hf1 indium #gd1 t9 #gb2 ! basic prop]ties ( ! oxides ,cd,o1 ,9#b,o#c1 ,sn,o#b1 successively v>y1 s t ! prop]ties ( ,9#b,o#c are int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ,cd,o & ,sn,o#b or ,cd#b,o#b & ,sn#b,o#d4 ,t indium belongs to gr\p ,,iii4 has be5 confirm$ by ! det]m9ation ( its specific heat1 7#jjeg accord+ to ,buns51 & #jjee accord+ to me7 & also by ! fact t indium =ms alums l alum9ium1 & !re=e belongs to ! same gr\p4 ,! same k9d ( consid]ations necessitat$ tak+ ! atomic weight ( titanium z ne>ly #dh1 & n z #eb1 ! figure d]iv$ f _m analyses4 ,& bo? ^! corrections1 made on ! basis ( ! law1 h n[ be5 confirm$1 = ,?orpe f\nd1 by a s]ies ( c>eful exp]im5ts1 ! atomic weight ( titanium to be t =ese5 by ! p]iodic law4 ,not)/&+ t previ\s analyses gave ,os #aiig1 ,ir #aih1 & ,pt #ahg1 ! p]iodic law %[s1 z ,i rem>k$ 9 #ahga1 t ! atomic weights %\ld rise f osmium to plat9um & gold1 & n fall4 ,_m rec5t rese>*es1 & especially ^? ( ,seub]t1 h fully v]ifi$ ?is /atem5t1 bas$ on ! law4 ,?us a true law ( nature anticipates facts1 =etells magnitudes1 gives a hold on nature1 & leads to improvem5ts 9 ! me?ods ( rese>*1 c4 #f4 ,z a true law ( nature is "o to :i* !re are no exceptions1 ! p]iodic dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties on ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts gives a new means = det]m9+ by ! equival5t ! atomic weight or atomicity ( imp]fectly inve/igat$ b kn[n elem5ts1 = :i* no o!r means c\ld z yet be appli$ = det]m9+ ! true atomic weight4 ,at ! "t 7#ahfi7 :5 ! p]iodic law 0 fir/ propos$ !re 7 sev]al su* elem5ts4 ,x ?us became possible to le>n _! true atomic weights1 & ^! 7 v]ifi$ by lat] rese>*es4 ,among ! elem5ts ?us conc]n$ 7 indium1 uranium1 c]ium1 yttrium1 & o!rs4 #g4 ,! p]iodic v>iability ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts 9 dep5d5ce on _! masses pres5ts a di/9ction f o!r k9ds ( p]iodic dep5d5ce 7z1 = example1 ! s9es ( angles v>y p]iodically & successively ) ! gr[? ( ! angles1 or ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e ) ! c\rse ( "t71 9 t ! weights ( ! atoms d n increase gradually1 b by leaps2 t is1 accord+ to ,dalton's law ( multiple proportions1 !re n only are n1 b !re _c be1 any transitive or int]m$iate elem5ts betwe5 two neighb\r+ ones 7= example1 betwe5 ,k #ci & ,ca #dj1 or ,al #bg & ,si #bh1 or ,c #ab & ,n #ad1 c47 ,z 9 a molecule ( a hydrog5 comp\nd !re may be ei!r "o1 z 9 ,,hf1 or two1 z 9 ,h#b,o1 or ?ree1 z 9 ,,nh#c1 c41 atoms ( hydrog52 b z !re _c be molecules conta9+ #b-a_/b atoms ( hydrog5 to "o atom ( ano!r elem5t1 s !re _c be any elem5t int]m$iate betwe5 ,n & ,o1 ) an atomic weight great] ?an #ad or less ?an #af1 or betwe5 ,k & ,ca4 ,h5ce ! p]iodic dep5d5ce ( ! elem5ts _c be express$ by any algebraical cont9u\s function 9 ! same way t x is possible1 = in/ance1 to express ! v>iation ( ! temp]ature dur+ ! c\rse ( a day or ye>4 #h4 ,! ess5ce ( ! notions giv+ rise to ! p]iodic law consi/s 9 a g5]al physico-me*anical pr9ciple :i* recognises ! correlation1 transmutability1 & equival5ce ( ! =ces ( nature4 ,gravitation1 attraction at small di/ances1 & _m o!r ph5om5a are 9 direct dep5d5ce on ! mass ( matt]4 ,x might !re=e h be5 expect$ t *emical =ces w\ld also dep5d on mass4 ,a dep5d5ce is 9 fact %[n1 ! prop]ties ( elem5ts & comp\nds be+ det]m9$ by ! masses ( ! atoms ( :i* !y are =m$4 ,! weight ( a molecule1 or its mass1 det]m9es1 z we h se51 7,*apt] ,,vii4 & else:]e7 _m ( its prop]ties indep5d5tly ( its composition4 ,?us c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 & nitrog51 ,n#b1 are two gases hav+ ! same molecul> weight1 & _m ( _! prop]ties 7d5sity1 liquefaction1 specific heat1 c47 are simil> or ne>ly simil>4 ,! diff]5ces dep5d5t on ! nature ( a sub/ance play ano!r "p1 & =m magnitudes ( ano!r ord]4 ,b ! prop]ties ( atoms are ma9ly det]m9$ by _! mass or weight1 & are 9 dep5d5ce ^u x4 ,only 9 ?is case !re is a peculi>ity 9 ! dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties on ! mass1 = ?is dep5d5ce is det]m9$ by a p]iodic law4 ,z ! mass increases ! prop]ties v>y1 at fir/ successively & regul>ly1 & !n return to _! orig9al magnitude & recomm5ce a fre% p]iod ( v>iation l ! fir/4 ,nev]!less "h z 9 o!r cases a small v>iation ( ! mass ( ! atom g5]ally leads to a small v>iation ( prop]ties1 & det]m9es diff]5ces ( a second ord]4 ,! atomic weights ( cobalt & nickel1 ( rhodium1 ru!nium1 & palladium1 & ( osmium1 iridium1 & plat9um1 are v close to ea* o!r1 & _! prop]ties are also v mu* alike--! diff]5ces are n v p]ceptible4 ,& if ! prop]ties ( atoms are a function ( _! weight1 _m ideas :i* h m or less root$ !mselves 9 *emi/ry mu/ suff] *ange & be develop$ & work$ out 9 ! s5se ( ?is d$uction4 ,al?\gh at fir/ sight x appe>s t ! *emical elem5ts are p]fectly indep5d5t & individual1 in/ead ( ?is idea ( ! nature ( ! elem5ts1 ! notion ( ! dep5d5ce ( _! prop]ties ^u _! mass mu/ n[ be e/abli%$2 t is to say1 ! subjection ( ! individuality ( ! elem5ts to a common high] pr9ciple :i* ev9ces itself 9 gravity & 9 all physico-*emical ph5om5a4 ,_m *emical d$uctions !n acquire a new s5se & significance1 & a regul>ity is obs]v$ :]e x w\ld o!rwise escape att5tion4 ,?is is m p>ticul>ly app>5t 9 ! physical prop]ties1 to ! consid]ation ( :i* we %all aft]w>ds turn1 & we w n[ po9t out t ,gu/avson fir/ 7,*apt] ,x41 ,note #bh7 & subsequ5tly ,potilitz9 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #ff7 demon/rat$ ! direct dep5d5ce ( ! reactive p[] on ! atomic weight & t fundam5tal prop]ty :i* is express$ 9 ! =ms ( _! comp\nds1 :il/ 9 a numb] ( o!r cases ! purely *emical relations ( elem5ts prov$ to be 9 connection ) _! p]iodic prop]ties4 ,z a case 9 po9t1 x may be m5tion$ t ,c>nelley rem>k$ a dep5d5ce ( ! decomposability ( ! hydrates on ! position ( ! elem5ts 9 ! p]iodic sy/em2 :il/ ,l4 ,mey]1 ,willg]odt1 & o!rs e/abli%$ a connection betwe5 ! atomic weight or ! position ( ! elem5ts 9 ! p]iodic sy/em & _! prop]ty ( s]v+ z m$ia 9 ! transf]5ce ( ! halog5s to ! hydroc>bons4#af ,bailey po9t$ out a p]iodicity 9 ! /ability 7"u ! action ( heat7 ( ! oxides1 namely3 7a7 9 ! ev5 s]ies 7= in/ance1 ,cr,o#c1 ,mo,o#c1 ,,wo#c1 & ,,uo#c7 ! high] oxides ( a giv5 gr\p decompose ) great] ease ! small] ! atomic weight1 :ile 9 ! unev5 s]ies 7= example1 ,,co#b1 ,ge,o#b1 ,sn,o#b1 & ,pb,o#b7 ! contr>y is ! case2 & 7b7 ! /ability ( ! high] sal9e oxides 9 ! ev5 s]ies 7z 9 ! f\r? s]ies f ,k#b,o to ,mn#b,o#g7 decreases 9 pass+ f ! l[] to ! high] gr\ps1 :ile 9 ! unev5 s]ies x increases f ! ,i/ to ! ,i,vth gr\p1 & !n falls f ! ,i,vth to ! ,v,i,ith2 = in/ance1 9 ! s]ies ,ag#b,o1 ,cd,o1 ,9#b,o#c1 ,sn,o#b1 & !n ,sn,o#b1 ,sb#b,o#e1 ,te,o#c1 ,i#b,o#g4 ,k4 ,w9kl] look$ = & actually f\nd 7#ahij7 a dep5d5ce betwe5 ! r$ucibility ( ! metals by magnesium & _! position 9 ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts4 ,! great] ! att5tion paid to ?is field ! m (t5 is a di/9ct connection f\nd betwe5 ! v>iation ( purely *emical prop]ties ( analog\s sub/ances & ! v>iation ( ! atomic weights ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts & _! position 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,besides1 s9ce ! p]iodic sy/em has become m firmly e/abli%$1 _m facts h be5 ga!r$1 %[+ t !re are _m simil>ities betwe5 ,sn & ,pb1 ,b & ,al1 ,cd & ,hg1 c41 :i* _h n be5 previ\sly obs]v$1 al?\gh =ese5 9 "s cases1 & a consequ5ce ( ! p]iodic law4 ,keep+ our att5tion 9 ! same direction1 we see t ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ elem5ts 9 nature are ^? ) small atomic weights1 :il/ 9 organisms ! lighte/ elem5ts exclusively pr$om9ate 7hydrog51 c>bon1 nitrog51 oxyg571 ^: small mass facilitates ^? trans=mations :i* are prop] to organisms4 ,poluta 7( ,kh>k(f71 ,c4 ,c4 ,botk91 ,blake1 ,br5ton1 & o!rs ev5 discov]$ a correlation betwe5 ! physiological action ( salts & o!r reag5ts on organisms & ! positions occupi$ 9 ! p]iodic sy/em by ! metals conta9$ 9 !m4#ag #af ,mey]1 ,willg]odt1 & o!rs1 guid$ by ! fact t ,gu/avson & ,fri$el _h rem>k$ t metalepsis rapidly proce$s 9 ! pres5ce ( alum9ium1 inve/igat$ ! action ( ne>ly all ! elem5ts 9 ?is respect4 ,= example1 !y took b5z5e1 add$ ! metals to be exp]im5t$ on to x1 & pass$ *lor9e ?r\gh ! liquid 9 diffus$ light4 ,:51 = in/ance1 sodium1 potassium1 b>ium1 c4 are tak51 !re is no action on ! b5z5e2 t is1 hydro*loric acid is n dis5gag$2 b if alum9ium1 gold1 or1 9 g5]al1 any metal hav+ ?is p[] ( aid+ *lor9ation 7,halog5-b]trg]7 is employ$1 !n ! action is cle>ly se5 f ! volumes ( hydro*loric acid evolv$ 7especially if ! metallic *loride =m$ is soluble 9 b5z5e74 ,?us1 9 gr\p ,i41 & 9 g5]al among ! ev5 & light elem5ts1 !re are none capable ( s]v+ z ag5ts ( metalepsis2 b alum9ium1 gallium1 indium1 antimony1 tellurium1 & iod9e1 :i* are contigu\s memb]s 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 are excell5t transmitt]s 7c>ri]s7 ( ! halog5s4 #ag ,! p]iodic relations enum]at$ above app]ta9 to ! real elem5ts1 & n to ! elem5ts 9 ! free /ate z we "k !m2 & x is v important to note ?is1 because ! p]iodic law ref]s to ! real elem5ts1 inasmu* z ! atomic weight is prop] to ! real elem5t1 & n to ! 'free' elem5t1 to :i*1 z to a comp\nd1 a molecul> weight is prop]4 ,physical prop]ties are *iefly det]m9$ by ! prop]ties ( molecules1 & only indirectly dep5d on ! prop]ties ( ! atoms =m+ ! molecules4 ,= ?is reason ! p]iods1 :i* are cle>ly & q di/9ctly express$--= in/ance1 9 ! =ms ( comb9ation--become to "s ext5t involv$ 7complicat$7 9 ! physical prop]ties ( _! memb]s4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 besides ! maxima & m9ima correspond+ ) ! p]iods & gr\ps1 new molecules appe>2 ?us1 z reg>ds ! melt+-po9t ( g]manium1 a local maximum appe>s1 :i* 01 h[ev]1 =ese5 by ! p]iodic law :5 ! prop]ties ( g]manium 7ekasilicon7 7 =eca/4 ,z1 f ! necessity ( ! case1 ! physical prop]ties mu/ be 9 dep5d5ce on ! composition ( a sub/ance1 i4e4 on ! quality & quantity ( ! elem5ts =m+ x1 s = !m also a dep5d5ce on ! atomic weight ( ! compon5t elem5ts mu/ be expect$1 & consequ5tly also on _! p]iodic di/ribution4 ,we %all meet ) repeat$ pro(s ( ?is 9 ! fur!r exposition ( our treatise1 & = ! pres5t w cont5t ourselves ) cit+ ! discov]y by ,c>nelley 9 #ahgi ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! magnetic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts on ! position occupi$ by !m 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,c>nelley %[$ t all ! elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies 7beg9n+ ) li?ium1 potassium1 rubidium1 csium7 belong to ! numb] ( magnetic 7p>amagnetic7 sub/ances2 = example1 accord+ to ,f>aday & o!rs1#ag bis ,c1 ,n1 ,o1 ,k1 ,ti1 ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,ce1 are magnetic2 & ! elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies are diamagnetic1 ,h1 ,na1 ,si1 ,p1 ,s1 ,cl1 ,cu1 ,zn1 ,z1 ,se1 ,br1 ,ag1 ,cd1 ,sn1 ,sb1 ,i1 ,au1 ,hg1 ,tl1 ,pb1 ,bi4 #ag bis ,! relation ( c]ta9 elem5ts 7= in/ance1 ! analogues ( ,pt7 among diamagnetic & p>amagnetic bodies is sometimes d\btful 7probably p>tly ow+ to ! imp]fect purity ( ! reag5ts "u inve/igation74 ,?is subject has be5 /udi$ 9 "s detail by ,ba*metieff 9 #ahhi4 ,c>nelley also %[$ t ! melt+-po9t ( elem5ts v>ies p]iodically1 z is se5 by ! figures 9 ,table ,,iii4 7n9ete5? column71#ah :]e all ! mo/ tru/wor?y data are collect$1 & pr$om9ance is giv5 to ^? hav+ maximum & m9imum values4#ai #ah ,x is evid5t t _m ( ! figures1 especially ^? exce$+ #ajjj1 h be5 det]m9$ ) b little exactitude1 & "s1 plac$ 9 ,table ,,iii4 ) ! sign 7871 ,i h only giv5 on ! basis ( r\gh & comp>ative det]m9ations1 calculat$ f ! melt+-po9ts ( silv] & plat9um1 n[ e/abli%$ by _m obs]v]s4 ,9 ,table ,,iii41 besides ! l>ge p]iods ^: maxima correspond ) c>bon1 silicon1 titanium1 ru!nium 7871 & osmium 7871 !re are also small p]iods 9 ! melt+-po9ts1 & _! maxima correspond ) sulphur1 ars5ic1 antimony4 ,! m9ima correspond ) ! halog5s & metals ( ! alkalis4 ,a di/9ct p]iodicity is also se5 9 tak+ ! coeffici5ts ( l9e> expansion 7*iefly accord+ to ,fizeau72 = in/ance1 9 ! v]tical s]ies 7accord+ to ! magnitude ( ! atomic weight71 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 ! l9e> expansion 9 million?s ( an in* #ab1 #ac1 #ag1 & #bi2 = ,rh1 ,pd1 ,ag1 ,cd1 ,91 ,sn1 & ,sb ! coeffici5ts are #h1 #ab1 #ai1 #ca1 #df1 #bf1 & #ab1 s t a maximum is rea*$ at ,94 ,9 ! s]ies ,ir 7#g71 ,pt 7#e71 ,au 7#ad71 ,hg 7#fj71 ,tl 7#ca71 ,pb 7#bi71 & ,bi 7#ad71 ! maximum is at ,hg & ! m9imum at ,pt4 ,ra\l ,pictet express$ ?is connection by ! fact t he f\nd ! product alpha7t #bgc7croot7,a_/d7 to be ne>ly con/ant = all elem5ts 9 ! free /ate1 & ne>ly equal to #jjde1 & be+ ! coeffici5t ( l9e> expansion1 t #bgc1 ! melt+-po9t calculat$ f ! absolute z]o 7-#bgc71 & #croot7,a_/d71 ! mean di/ance betwe5 ! atoms1 if ,a is ! atomic weight & d ! sp4 gr4 ( an elem5t4 ,al?\gh ! above product is n /rictly con/ant1 nev]!less ,pictet's rule gives an idea ( ! bond betwe5 magnitudes :i* ought to h a c]ta9 connection ) ea* o!r4 ,de ,he51 ,nades*d91 & o!rs also /udi$ ?is dep5d5ce1 b _! d$uctions d n give a g5]al & exact law4 #ai ,c>nelley f\nd a simil> dep5d5ce 9 comp>+ ! melt+-po9ts ( ! metallic *lorides1 _m ( :i* he r$et]m9$ = ?is purpose4 ,! melt+-po9ts 7& boil+-po9ts1 9 brackets7 ( ! foll[+ *lorides are kn[n1 & a c]ta9 regul>ity is se5 to exi/ 9 !m1 al?\gh ! numb] 7& degree ( accuracy7 ( ! data is insuffici5t = a g5]alisation3-- ,li,cl #eih ,be,cl#b #fjj ,b,cl#c -#bj ,na,cl #ggb ,mg,cl#b #gjh ,al,cl#c #ahg ,k,cl #gcd ,ca,cl#b #gai ,sc,cl#c 8 ,cu,cl #dcd ,zn,cl#b #bfb ,ga,cl#c #gf 7#iic7 7#fhj7 7#bag7 ,ag,cl #dea ,cd,cl#b #eda ,in,cl#c 8 ,tl,cl #dbg ,pb,cl#b #dih ,bi,cl#c #bbg 7#gac7 7#ijh7 ,we w also enum]ate ! foll[+ data giv5 by ,c>nelley1 :i* are int]e/+ = comp>ison3 ,h,cl -#aab 7-#ajb72 ,rb,cl #gaj1 ,sr,cl#b #hbe1 ,cs,cl #fca1 ,ba,cl#b #hfj1 ,sb,cl#c #gc 7#bbc71 ,te,cl#b #bji 7#cbg71 ,i,cl #bg1 ,hg,cl#b #bgf 7#cjc71 ,fe,cl#c #cjf1 ,nb,cl#e #aid 7#bdj71 ,ta,cl#c #baa 7#bdb71 ,w,cl#f #aij4 ,! melt+-po9ts ( ! bromides & iodides are high] or l[] ?an ^? ( ! correspond+ *lorides1 accord+ to ! atomic weight ( ! elem5t & numb] ( atoms ( ! halog51 z is se5 f ! foll[+ examples3--#a4 ,k,cl #gcd1 ,k,br #fii1 ,,ki #fcd2 #b4 ,ag,cl #ded1 ,ag,br #dbg ,ag,i #ebg2 #c4 ,pb,cl#b #dih 7#ijj71 ,pb,br#b #dii 7#hfa71 ,pb,i#b #chc 7#ijf72 #d4 ,sn,cl#d bel[ -#bj 7#aad71 ,sn,br#b #cj 7#bja71 ,sn,i#d #adf 7#bie7 7see ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,note #bg1 & ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,note #dg;bis1 c47 ,laurie 7#ahhb7 also obs]v$ a p]iodicity 9 ! quantity ( heat develop$ 9 ! =mation ( ! *lorides1 bromides1 & iodides 7fig4 #gi71 z is se5 f ! foll[+ figures1 :]e ! heat develop$ is express$ 9 ?\s&s ( calories1 & ref]r$ to a molecule ( *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 s t ! heat ( =mation ( ,k,cl is d\bl$1 & t ( ,sn,cl#d halv$1 c43 ,na #aie 7,ag #ei1 ,au #ab71 ,mg #aea 7,zn #ig1 ,cd #ic1 ,hg #fc71 ,al #aag1 ,si #gi 7,sn #fd71 ,k #baa 7,li #ahg71 ,ca #agj 7,sr #ahe1 ,ba #aid71 :5ce x is se5 t ! greate/ am\nt ( heat is evolv$ by ! metals ( ! alkalis1 & t 9 ea* p]iod x falls f !m to ! halog5s1 :i* evolve v little heat 9 comb9+ toge!r4 ,ri*>dson1 by comp>+ ! heats ( =mation ( ! fluorides also came to ! conclusion t !y are 9 p]iodic dep5d5ce ^u ! atomic weights ( ! comb9$ elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,laurie's diagram = express+ ! p]iodic v>iation ( ! heat ( =mation ( ! *lorides4 ,! absciss give ! atomic weights f #j to #baj1 & ! ord9ates ! am\nts ( heat f #j to #bbj ?\s& calories evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation ) ,cl#b1 7i4e4 ) #ga p>ts ( *lor9e74 ,! apices ( ! curve correspond to ,li1 ,na1 ,k1 ,rb1 ,cs1 & ! l[] extremities to ,f1 ,cl1 ,br1 & ,i4 ,9 ?is respect x may n be sup]flu\s to rem>k 7#a7 t ,?oms51 ^: results ,i h employ$ above1 obs]v$ a correlation 9 ! calorific equival5ts ( analog\s elem5ts1 al?\gh he did n rem>k _! p]iodic v>iation2 7#b7 t ! uni=mity ( _m !rmo*emical d$uctions mu/ ga9 consid]ably by ! application ( ! p]iodic law1 :i* evid5tly repeats itself 9 calorimetric data2 & if ^! data frequ5tly lead to true =eca/s1 ?is is due to ! p]iodicity ( ! !rmal z well z ( _m o!r prop]ties1 z ,laurie rem>k$2 & 7#c7 t ! heat ( =mation ( ! oxides is also subject to a p]iodic dep5d5ce :i* diff]s f t ( ! heat ( =mation ( ! *lorides1 9 t ! greate/ quantity corresponds ) ! bival5t metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s 7magnesium1 calcium1 /rontium1 b>ium71 & n ) ! unival5t metals ( ! alkalis1 z is ! case ) *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,?is circum/ance is probably connect$ ) ! fact t *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e are unival5t elem5ts1 & oxyg5 bival5t 7comp>e1 = in/ance1 ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #ac1 ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #dj1 ,*apt] ,,xxiv41 ,note #bh;bis1 c47 ,keys] 7#ahib71 9 inve/igat+ ! spectra ( ! alkali metals & metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 came to ! conclusion t 9 ?is respect also !re is a regul>ity ( a p]iodic "* 9 dep5d5ce ^u ! atomic weights4 ,probably a clos] & sy/ematic /udy ( _m ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts & ( complex & simple bodies =m$ by !m w m & m frequ5tly lead to simil> conclusions1 & to ext5d+ ! range ( application ( ! p]iodic law4 ,!re is no d\bt t _m o!r physical prop]ties w1 :5 fur!r /udi$1 also prove to be 9 p]iodic dep5d5ce on ! atomic weights1#ai bis b at pres5t only a few are kn[n ) any complet5ess1 & we w only ref] to ! "o :i* is ! mo/ easily & frequ5tly det]m9$--namely1 ! specific gravity 9 a solid & liquid /ate1 ! m especially z its connection ) ! *emical prop]ties & relations ( sub/ances is %[n at e /ep4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ( all ! metals ^? ( ! alkalis1 & ( all ! non-metals ! halog5s1 are ! mo/ en]getic 9 _! reactions1 & !y h ! l[e/ specific gravity among ! adjac5t elem5ts1 z is se5 9 ,table ,,iii41 column #ag4 ,su* are sodium1 potassium1 rubidium1 csium among ! metals1 & *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e among ! non-metals2 & z su* less en]getic metals z iridium1 plat9um1 & gold 7& ev5 *>coal or ! diamond7 h ! highe/ specific gravity among ! elem5ts ne> to !m 9 atomic weight2 !re=e ! degree ( ! cond5sation ( matt] evid5tly influ5ces ! c\rse ( ! trans=mations prop] to a sub/ance1 & fur!rmore ?is dep5d5ce on ! atomic weight1 al?\gh v complex1 is ( a cle>ly p]iodic "*4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ?is to "s ext5t1 x may be imag9$ t ! lighte/ elem5ts are por\s1 &1 l a sponge1 are easily p5etrat$ by o!r sub/ances1 :il/ ! heavi] elem5ts are m compress$1 & give way ) difficulty to ! ins]tion ( o!r elem5ts4 ,^! relations are be/ und]/ood :51 in/ead ( ! specific gravities ref]r+ to a unit ( volume1#bj ! atomic volumes ( ! elem5ts--t is1 ! quoti5t ,a_/d ( ! atomic weight ,a by ! specific gravity d--are tak5 = comp>ison4 ,z1 accord+ to ! entire s5se ( ! atomic !ory1 ! actual matt] ( a sub/ance does n fill up its :ole cubical cont5ts1 b is surr\nd$ by a m$ium 7e!real1 z is g5]ally imag9$71 l ! />s & planets :i* travel 9 ! space ( ! heav5s & fill x1 ) great] or less int]vals1 s ! quoti5t ,a_/d only expresses ! mean volume correspond+ to ! sph]e ( ! atoms1 & !re=e #croot,a_/d is ! mean di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! atoms4 ,= comp\nds ^: molecules weigh ,m1 ! mean magnitude ( ! atomic volume is obta9$ by divid+ ! mean molecul> volume ,m_/d by ! numb] ( atoms n 9 ! molecule4#ba ,! above relations may easily be express$ f ?is po9t ( view by comp>+ ! atomic volumes4 ,^? comp>atively light elem5ts :i* easily & frequ5tly ent] into reaction h ! greate/ atomic volumes3 sodium #bc1 potassium #de1 rubidium #eg1 csium #ga1 & ! halog5s ab\t #bg2 :il/ ) ^? elem5ts :i* ent] into reaction ) difficulty1 ! mean atomic volume is small2 = c>bon 9 ! =m ( a diamond x is less ?an #d1 z *>coal ab\t #f1 = nickel & cobalt less ?an #g1 = iridium & plat9um ab\t #i4 ,! rema9+ elem5ts hav+ atomic weights & prop]ties int]m$iate betwe5 ^? elem5ts m5tion$ above h also int]m$iate atomic volumes4 ,!re=e ! specific gravities & specific volumes ( solids & liquids /& 9 p]iodic dep5d5ce on ! atomic weights1 z is se5 9 ,table ,,iii41 :]e bo? ,a 7! atomic weight7 & d 7! specific gravity71 & ,a_/d 7specific volumes ( ! atoms7 are giv5 7column #ah74 #ai bis ,probably1 besides !rmo-*emical data 7,note #ai71 ! refractive index1 cohesion1 ductility1 & simil> prop]ties ( correspond+ comp\nds or ( ! elem5ts !mselves w be f\nd to exhibit a dep5d5ce ( ! magnitude ( ! atomic weight ^u ! p]iodic law4 #bj ,hav+ occupi$ myself s9ce ! fifties 7my diss]tation = ! degree ( ,m4,a4 conc]n$ ! specific volumes1 & is pr9t$ 9 "p 9 ! ,russian ,m9+ ,j\rnal = #ahef7 ) ! problems conc]n+ ! relations betwe5 ! specific gravities & volumes1 & ! *emical compositions ( sub/ances1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ! direct inve/igation ( specific gravities gives ess5tially ! same results z ! inve/igation ( specific volumes1 only t ! latt] are m graphic4 ,table ,,iii4 ( ! p]iodic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts cle>ly illu/rates ?is4 ,?us1 = ^? memb]s ^: volume is ! greate/ among ! contigu\s elem5ts1 ! specific gravity is lea/--t is1 ! p]iodic v>iation ( bo? prop]ties is equally evid5t4 ,9 pass+1 = in/ance1 f silv] to iod9e we h a successive decrease ( specific gravity & successive increase ( specific volume4 ,! p]iodic alt]nation ( ! rise & fall ( ! specific gravity & specific volume ( ! free elem5ts 0 communicat$ by me 9 ,augu/ #ahfi to ! ,mosc[ ,meet+ ( ,russian ,naturali/s4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> 7#ahgj7 ,l4 ,mey]'s pap] appe>$1 :i* also dealt ) ! specific volume ( ! elem5ts4 #ba ,9 my op9ion ! mean volume ( ! atoms ( comp\nds des]ves m att5tion ?an has yet be5 paid to x4 ,i may po9t out1 = in/ance1 t = feebly en]getic oxides ! mean volume ( ! atom is g5]ally ne>ly #g2 = example1 ! oxides ,si,o#b1 ,sc#b,o#c1 ,ti,o#b1 ,v#b,o#e1 z well z ,zn,o1 ,ga#b,o#c1 ,ge,o#b1 ,zr,o#b1 ,9#b,o#c1 ,sn,o#b1 ,sb#b,o#e1 c41 :il/ ! mean volume ( ! atom ( ! alkali & acid oxides is great] ?an #g4 ,?us we f9d 9 ! magnitudes ( ! mean volumes ( ! atom 9 oxides & salts bo? a p]iodic v>iation & a connection ) _! en]gy ( ess5tially ! same "* z occurs 9 ! case ( ! free elem5ts4 ,?us we f9d t 9 ! l>ge p]iods beg9n+ ) li?ium1 sodium1 potassium1 rubidium1 csium1 & end+ ) fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 ! extreme memb]s 7en]getic elem5ts7 h a small d5sity & l>ge volume1 :il/ ! int]m$iate sub/ances gradually increase 9 d5sity & decrease 9 volume--t is1 z ! atomic weight increases ! d5sity rises & falls1 aga9 rises & falls1 & s on4 ,fur!rmore1 ! en]gy decreases z ! d5sity rises1 & ! greate/ d5sity is prop] to ! atomically heavie/ & lea/ en]getic elem5ts2 = example1 ,os1 ,ir1 ,pt1 ,au1 ,u4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! relation betwe5 ! volumes ( ! elem5ts & ( _! comp\nds1 ! d5sities 7column ,s7 & volumes 7column ,m_/s7 ( "s ( ! high] sal9e oxides arrang$ 9 ! same ord] z 9 ! case ( ! elem5ts are giv5 on p4 #cf4 ,= conv5i5ce ( comp>ison ! volumes ( ! oxides are all calculat$ p] two atoms ( an elem5t comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,= example1 ! d5sity ( ,al#b,o#c #dj1 weight ,al#b,o#c #ajb1 volume ,al#b,o#c #bee4 ,:5ce1 kn[+ ! volume ( alum9ium to be #aa1 x is at once se5 t 9 ! =mation ( alum9ium oxide1 #bb volumes ( x give #bee volumes ( oxide4 ,a di/9ct p]iodicity may also be obs]v$ ) respect to ! specific gravities & volumes ( ! high] sal9e oxides4 ,?us 9 ea* p]iod1 beg9n+ ) ! alkali metals1 ! specific gravity ( ! oxides fir/ rises1 rea*es a maximum1 & !n falls on pass+ to ! acid oxides1 & aga9 becomes a m9imum ab\t ! halog5s4 ,b x is especially important to call att5tion to ! fact t ! volume ( ! alkali oxides is less ?an t ( ! metal conta9$ 9 !m1 :i* is also express$ 9 ! la/ column1 giv+ ?is diff]5ce = ea* atom ( oxyg54#bb ,?us #b atoms ( sodium1 or #df volumes1 give #bd volumes ( ,na#b,o1 & ab\t #cg volumes ( #b,na,h,o--t is1 ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 di/ribut+ !mselves 9 ! m$ium ( sodium h n only n increas$ ! di/ance betwe5 its atoms1 b h br\ght !m ne>] toge!r1 h drawn !m toge!r by ! =ce ( _! great aff9ity1 by reason1 x may be presum$1 ( ! small mutual attraction ( ! atoms ( sodium4 ,su* metals z alum9ium & z9c1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 & =m+ oxides ( feeble salt-=m+ capacity1 h>dly v>y 9 volume1 b ! common metals & non-metals1 & especially ^? =m+ acid oxides1 always give an increas$ volume :5 oxidis$--t is1 ! atoms are set fur!r ap>t 9 ord] to make room = ! oxyg54 ,! oxyg5 9 !m does n compress ! molecule z 9 ! alkalis2 x is !re=e comp>atively easily dis5gag$4 #bb ,! volume ( oxyg5 7judg+ by ! table on p4 #cf7 is evid5tly a v>iable quantity1 =m+ a di/9ctly p]iodic function ( ! atomic weight & type ( ! oxide1 & !re=e ! ef=ts :i* 7 =m]ly made to f9d ! volume ( ! atom ( oxyg5 9 ! volumes ( its comp\nds may be consid]$ to be futile4 ,b s9ce a di/9ct contraction takes place 9 ! =mation ( oxides1 & ! volume ( an oxide is frequ5tly less ?an ! volume 9 ! free /ate ( ! elem5t conta9$ 9 x1 x might be surmis$ t ! volume ( oxyg5 9 a free /ate is ab\t #ae1 & !re=e ! specific gravity ( solid oxyg5 9 a free /ate w\ld be ab\t ,o#i4 ,s ,m_/s ,volume ( ,oxyg5 ,h#b,o #aj #ah 8- #bb ,li#b,o #bj #ae - #i ,be#b,o#b #cjf #af #bf ,b#b,o#c #ah #ci #ajj ,c#b,o#d #af #ee #ajf ,n#b,o#e #afd #ff 8 #d ,na#b,o #bf #bd - #bb ,mg#b,o#b #ce #bc - #de ,al#b,o#c #dj #bf #ac ,si#b,o#d #bfe #de #eb ,p#b,o#e #bci #ei #fb ,s#b,o#f #aif #hb #hg ,cl#b,o#g 8#aib #ie #f ,k#b,o #bg #ce - #ce ,ca#b,o#b #cbe #cd - #h ,sc#b,o#c #chf #ce 8 #j ,ti#b,o#d #db #ch #c ,v#b,o#e #cdi #eb #fg ,cr#b,o#f #bgd #gc #ie ,cu#b,o #ei #bd #if ,zn#b,o#b #eg #bc #dh ,ga#b,o#c 8#ea #cf #d ,ge#b,o#d #dg #dd #de ,z#b,o#e #da #ef #fj ,sr#b,o#b #dg #dd - #ac ,y#b,o#c #ej #de 8- #b ,zr#b,o#d #ee #dd #j ,nb#b,o#e #dg #eg #f ,mo,o#f #dd #fe #fh ,ag#b,o #ge #ca #aa ,cd#b,o#c #hj #cb #c ,9#b,o#c #gah #ch #bg ,sn#b,o#d #g,o #dc #bg ,sb#b,o#e #fe #di #bf ,te,o#f #ea #fh #dg ,ba#b,o#b #eg #eb - #aj ,la#b,o#c #fe #ej #a ,ce#b,o#d #fgd #ej #b ,ta#b,o#e #ge #ei #df ,w#b,o#f #fh #fh #hb ,hg#b,o#b #aaa #ci #de ,pb#b,o#d #hi #ec #db ,?#b,o#d #ihf #ed #b ,z ! volumes ( ! *lorides1 organo-metallic & all o!r correspond+ comp\nds1 also v>y 9 a l p]iodic succession ) a *ange ( elem5ts1 x is evid5tly possible to indicate ! prop]ties ( sub/ances yet un9ve/igat$ by exp]im5tal means1 & ev5 ^? ( yet undiscov]$ elem5ts4 ,x 0 possible by foll[+ ?is me?od to =etell1 on ! basis ( ! p]iodic law1 _m ( ! prop]ties ( sc&ium1 gallium1 & g]manium1 :i* 7 v]ifi$ ) great accuracy aft] ^! metals _h be5 discov]$4#bc ,! p]iodic law1 !re=e1 has n only embrac$ ! mutual relations ( ! elem5ts & express$ _! analogy1 b has also to a c]ta9 ext5t subject$ to law ! doctr9e ( ! types ( ! comp\nds =m$ by ! elem5ts3 x has enabl$ u to see a regul>ity 9 ! v>iation ( all *emical & physical prop]ties ( elem5ts & comp\nds1 & has r5d]$ x possible to =etell ! prop]ties ( elem5ts & comp\nds yet un9ve/igat$ by exp]im5tal means2 ?us x has prep>$ ! gr\nd = ! build+ up ( atomic & molecul> me*anics4#bd #bc ,z an example we w take indium oxide1 ,9#b,o#c4 ,its sp4 gr4 & sp4 vol4 %\ld be ! mean ( ^? ( cadmium oxide1 ,cd#b,o#b1 & /annic oxide1 ,sn#b,o#d1 z indium /&s betwe5 cadmium & t94 ,?us 9 ! sev5ties x 0 already evid5t t ! volume ( indium oxide %\ld be ab\t #ch1 & its sp4 gr4 ab\t #gb1 :i* 0 confirm$ by ! det]m9ations ( ,nilson & ,pett]sson 7#gagi7 made 9 #ahhj4 #bd ,z ! di/ance betwe51 & ! volumes (1 ! molecules & atoms ( solids & liquids c]ta9ly ent] into ! data = ! solution ( ! problems ( molecul> me*anics1 :i* z yet h only be5 work$ out to any ext5t = ! gase\s /ate1 ! /udy ( ! specific gravity ( solids1 & especially ( liquids1 has long _h an ext5sive lit]ature4 ,) respect to solids1 h[ev]1 a great difficulty is met )1 ow+ to ! specific gravity v>y+ n only ) a *ange ( isom]ic /ate 7= example1 = silica 9 ! =m ( qu>tz #bfe1 & 9 tridymite #bb7 b also directly "u me*anical pressure 7= example1 9 a cry/all9e1 ca/1 & =g$ metal71 & ev5 ) ! ext5t to :i* !y are p[d]$1 c41 :i* influ5ces are imp]ceptible 9 liquids4 ,comp>e ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ee;bis4 ,)\t go+ into fur!r details1 we may add to :at has be5 said above t ! conception ( specific volumes & atomic di/ances has =m$ ! subject ( a l>ge numb] ( rese>*es1 b z yet x is only possible to lay d[n a few g5]alisations giv5 by ,dumas1 ,kopp1 & o!rs1 :i* are m5tion$ & amplifi$ by me 9 my "w cit$ 9 ,note #bj1 & 9 my memoirs on ?is subject4 #a4 ,analog\s comp\nds & _! isomorphs h frequ5tly approximately ! same molecul> volumes4 #b4 ,o!r comp\nds1 analog\s 9 _! prop]ties1 exhibit molecul> volumes :i* increase ) ! molecul> weight4 #c4 ,:5 a contraction takes place 9 comb9ation 9 a gase\s /ate1 !n contraction is 9 ! majority ( in/ances also to be obs]v$ 9 ! solid or liquid /ate--t is1 ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! react+ sub/ances is great] ?an ! volume ( ! resultant sub/ance or sub/ances4 #d4 ,9 decomposition ! rev]se takes place to t :i* occurs 9 comb9ation4 #e4 ,9 sub/itution 7:5 ! volumes 9 a /ate ( vap\r d n v>y7 a v small *ange ( volume g5]ally takes place--t is1 ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! react+ sub/ances is almo/ equal to ! sum ( ! resultant sub/ances4 #f4 ,h5ce x is impossible to judge ! volume ( ! compon5t sub/ances f ! volume ( a comp\nd1 al?\gh x is possible to d s f ! product ( sub/itution4 #g4 ,! replacem5t ( ,h#b by sodium1 ,na#b1 & by b>ium1 ,ba1 z well z ! replacem5t ( ,,s#d by ,cl#b1 sc>cely *anges ! volume1 b ! volume increases ) ! replacem5t ( ,na by ,k1 & decreases ) ! replacem5t ( ,h#b1 by ,li#b ,cu1 & ,mg4 #h4 ,!re is no ne$ = comp>+ volumes 9 a solid & liquid /ate at ! s-call$ correspond+ temp]atures--t is at temp]atures at :i* vap\r t5sion is equal 9 ea* case4 ,! comp>ison ( volumes at ! ord9>y temp]ature is suffici5t = f9d+ a regul>ity 9 ! relations ( volumes 7?is d$uction 0 develop$ ) p>ticul> detail by me 9 #ahef74 #i4 ,_m inve/igators 7,p]seau1 ,s*rd]1 ,lwig1 ,playfair & ,j\le1 ,baudrimont1 ,e9h>dt7 h s\ght 9 va9 = a multiple proportion 9 ! specific volumes ( solids & liquids4 #aj4 ,! tru? ( ! above is se5 v cle>ly 9 comp>+ ! volumes ( polym]ic sub/ances4 ,! volumes ( _! molecules are equal 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 b are v diff]5t 9 a solid & liquid /ate1 z is se5 f ! close resemblance ( ! specific gravities ( polym]ic sub/ances4 ,b z a rule ! m complex polym]ides are d5s] ?an ! simpl]4 #aa4 ,we "k t ! hydroxides ( light metals h g5]ally a small] volume ?an ! metals1 :il/ t ( magnesium hydroxide is consid]ably great]1 :i* is expla9$ by ! /ability ( ! =m] & in/ability ( ! latt]4 ,9 pro( ( ?is we may cite1 besides ! volumes ( ! true alkali metals1 ! volume ( b>ium 7#cf7 :i* is great] ?an t ( its /able hydroxide 7sp4 gr4 #de1 sp4 vol4 #cj74 ,! volumes ( ! salts ( magnesium & calcium are great] ?an ! volume ( ! metal1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! fluoride ( calcium4 ,) ! heavy metals ! volume ( ! comp\nd is always great] ?an ! volume ( ! metal1 &1 moreov]1 = su* comp\nds z silv] iodide1 ,ag,i 7d #eg71 & m]curic iodide1 ,hg,i#b 7d #fb1 & ! volumes ( ! comp\nds #da & #gc71 ! volume ( ! comp\nd is great] ?an ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! compon5t elem5ts4 ,?us ! sum ( ! volumes ,ag ,i #cf1 & ! volume ( ,ag,i #da4 ,?is /&s out ) p>ticul> cle>ness on comp>+ ! volumes ,k ,i #ga ) ! volume ( ,,ki1 :i* is equal to #ed1 because its d5sity #cjf4 #ab4 ,9 su* comb9ations1 betwe5 solids & liquids1 z solutions1 alloys1 isomorph\s mixtures1 & simil> feeble *emical comp\nds1 ! sum ( ! react+ sub/ances is always v ne>ly t ( ! result+ sub/ance1 b "h ! volume is ei!r slightly l>g] or small] ?an ! orig9al2 speak+ g5]ally1 ! am\nt ( contraction dep5ds on ! =ce ( aff9ity act+ betwe5 ! comb9+ sub/ances4 ,i may "h obs]ve t ! pres5t data respect+ ! specific volumes ( solid & liquid bodies des]ve a fre% & full elaboration to expla9 _m contradictory /atem5ts :i* h accumulat$ on ?is subject4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,z9c1 ,,cadmium1 ,,& ,,m]cury ,^! ?ree metals give1 l magnesium1 oxides ,,ro1 :i* =m feebly en]getic bases1 & l magnesium !y are volatile4 ,! volatility increases ) ! atomic weight4 ,magnesium c be di/ill$ at a :ite heat1 z9c at a temp]ature ( ab\t #icj1 cadmium ab\t #ggj1 & m]cury ab\t #cea4 ,_! oxides1 ,,ro1 are m easily r$ucible ?an magnesia1 & m]curic oxide is ! mo/ easily r$ucible4 ,! prop]ties ( _! salts ,,rx#b are v simil> to ! prop]ties ( ,mg,x#b4 ,_! solubility1 p[] ( =m+ d\ble & basic salts1 & _m o!r qualities are 9 _m respects id5tical ) ^? ( ,mg,x#b4 ,! great] or less ease ) :i* !y are oxidis$1 ! in/ability ( _! comp\nds1 ! d5sity ( ! metals & _! comp\nds1 _! sc>city 9 nature1 & _m o!r prop]ties gradually *ange ) ! increase ( atomic weight1 z might be expect$ f ! p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts4 ,_! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics1 z contra/$ ) magnesium1 f9d a g5]al expression 9 ! fact t z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury are heavy metals4 ,z9c /&s ne>e/ to magnesium 9 atomic weight & 9 prop]ties4 ,?us z9c sulphate1 or :ite vitriol1 easily cry/allises ) sev5 molecules ( wat]1 ,zn,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o4 ,x is isomorph\s ) ,epsom salts1 & p>ts ) difficulty ) ! la/ molecule ( wat]2 x =ms d\ble salts--= in/ance1 ,zn,k#b7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o--exactly z magnesium sulphate does4#a ,z9c oxide1 ,zn,o1 is a :ite p[d]1 almo/ insoluble 9 wat]1#b l magnesia1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 x is di/+ui%$ by its solubility 9 solutions ( sodium & potassium hydroxides4#c ,z9c *loride#d is decompos$ by wat]1 comb9es ) ammonium *loride1 potassium *loride1 c41 j l magnesium *loride1 =ms an oxy*loride1 & also comb9es ) z9c oxide4#d bis #a ,z9c sulphate is (t5 obta9$ z a by-product--= in/ance1 9 ! action ( galvanic batt]ies conta9+ z9c & sulphuric acid4 ,:5 ! anhydr\s salt is heat$ x =ms z9c oxide1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & oxyg54 ,! solubility 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at ,o #dc1 #bj #ec1 #dj #fc-a_/b1 #fj #gd1 #hj #hd-a_/b1 #ajj #ie p>ts ( anhydr\s z9c sulphate--t is to say1 x is closely express$ by ! =mula #dc #jebt4 ,an admixture ( iron is (t5 f\nd 9 ord9>y sulphate ( z9c 9 ! =m ( f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d1 isomorph\s ) ! z9c sulphate4 ,9 ord] to sep>ate x1 *lor9e is pass$ ?r\gh ! solution ( ! impure salt 7:5 ! f]r\s salt is conv]t$ into f]ric71 ! solution is !n boil$1 & z9c oxide is aft]w>ds add$1 :i*1 aft] "s "t has elaps$1 precipitates all ! f]ric oxide4 ,f]ric oxide ( ! =m ,r#b,o#c is displac$ by z9c oxide ( ! =m ,,ro4 #b ,z9c oxide is obta9$ bo? by ! combu/ion & oxidation ( z9c1 & by ! ignition ( "s ( its salts--= in/ance1 ^? ( c>bonic & nitric acids2 x is likewise precipitat$ by alkalis f a solution ( ,zn,x#b 9 ! =m ( a gelat9\s hydroxide4 ,! oxide produc$ by roa/+ z9c bl5de 7by burn+ 9 ! air1 :5 ! sulphur is conv]t$ into sulphur\s anhydride7 conta9s v>i\s impurities4 ,= purification1 ! oxide is mix$ ) wat]1 & ! sulphur\s anhydride =m$ by roa/+ ! bl5de is pass$ ?r\gh x4 ,z9c bisulphite1 ,zn,s,o#c1;,h#b,,s#c1 !n passes into solution4 ,if a solution ( ?is salt be evaporat$1 & ! residue ignit$1 z9c oxide1 free f _m ( its impurities1 w rema94 ,z9c oxide is a light :ite p[d]1 us$ z a pa9t in/ead ( :ite lead2 ! basic salt1 correspond+ ) magnesia alba1 is us$ = ! same purpose4 ,v4 ,k\ril(f 7#ahij7 by boil+ ! hydrate ( ! oxide ) a #c p4c4 solution ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 obta9$ ,zn#b;,h#b,o#d or ! hydrate ( ! p]oxide 7 ,zn,o#b,zn,h#b,o#b or a comp\nd ( #b,zn,o ) ,h#b,o#b71 :i* did n "p ) its oxyg5 at #ajj1 b only above #abj4 ,cadmium gives a simil> comp\nd ( a yell[ col\r4 ,magnesium1 al?\gh x does =m su* a comp\nd1 does s ) great difficulty4 #c ,= ! solution ( "o "p ( ! oxide #ee1djj p>ts ( wat] are requir$4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 9 su* a weak solution1 z9c oxide 7hydroxide1 ,zn,h#b,o#b7 *anges ! col\r ( r$ litmus pap]4 ,z9c oxide is obta9$ 9 ! wet way by add+ an alkali hydroxide to a solution ( a z9c salt--= in/ance3 ,zn,s,o#d #b;,,hko ,k#b,,s#d ,zn,h#b,o#b4 ,! gelat9\s precipitate ( z9c hydroxide is soluble 9 an excess ( alkali1 :i* cle>ly di/+ui%es x f magnesia4 ,?is solubility ( z9c hydroxide 9 alkalis is due to ! p[] ( z9c oxide to =m a comp\nd1 al?\gh an un/able "o1 ) alkalis--t is to say1 po9ts to ! fact t z9c oxide already p>tly belongs to ! int]m$iate oxides4 ,! oxides ( ! metals above m5tion$ 7except ,be,o7 d n %[ ?is prop]ty4 ,! prop]ty :i* metallic z9c itself has ( dissolv+ 9 cau/ic alkali ) ! dis5gagem5t ( hydrog5 7! solution is facilitat$ by contact ) plat9um or iron7 dep5ds on ! =mation ( su* a comp\nd ( ! oxides ( z9c & ! alkali metals4 ,! solution ( z9c hydroxide1 ,zn,h#b,o#b1 9 pota% 79 a /rong solution71 proce$s :5 ^! hydrates are tak5 9 proportion to ,zn,h#b,o#b ,,kho4 ,if su* a solution be evaporat$ to dryness1 wat] extracts only cau/ic pota% f ! fus$ residue4 ,:5 a solution ( z9c hydroxide 9 /rong alkali is mix$ ) a l>ge mass ( wat]1 ne>ly all ! oxide ( z9c is precipitat$2 &1 !re=e1 9 weak solutions1 a l>ge quantity ( ! alkali is requir$ to effect solution1 :i* po9ts to ! decomposition ( ! z9c-alkali comp\nds by wat]4 ,if /rong alcohol be add$ to a solution ( z9c oxide 9 sodium hydroxide1 ! cry/allo-hydrate1 #b,zn7,,oh77,o,na71#g;,h#b,o1 sep>ates4 #d ,z9c *loride1 ,zn,cl#b1 is g5]ally employ$ 9 ! arts 9 ! =m ( a solution obta9$ by dissolv+ z9c 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,?is solution is us$ = sold]+ metals1 impregnat+ wood1 c4 ,! reason :y x is ?us employ$ may be und]/ood f its prop]ties4 ,:5 evaporat$ x fir/ p>ts ) its wat] ( cry/allisation2 on be+ fur!r heat$1 h[ev]1 x loses all traces ( wat]1 & =ms an oily mass ( anhydr\s salt :i* solidifies on cool+4 ,?is sub/ance melts at #bej1 comm5ces to volatilise at ab\t #djj1 & boils at #gcj4 ,! sold]+ ( metals--t is1 ! introduction ( an easily fusible metal betwe5 two contigu\s metallic objects--is h9d]$ by any film ( oxide ^u !m2 &1 z heat$ metals easily oxidise1 !y are naturally difficult to sold]4 ,z9c *loride is us$ to prev5t ! oxidation4 ,x fuses on be+ heat$1 &1 cov]+ ! metal ) an oily coat+1 prev5ts contact ) ! air2 b ev5 if any oxide has =m$1 ! free hydro*loric acid g5]ally exi/+ 9 ! z9c *loride solution dissolves x1 & 9 ?is way ! metallic surface ( ! metals to be sold]$ is pres]v$ fit = ! adhesion ( ! liquid sold]1 :i*1 on cool+1 b9ds ! objects toge!r4 ,mu* z9c *loride is us$ also = /eep+ wood 7telegraph-po/s & railway-sleep]s7 9 ord] to pres]ve x f decay+ quickly2 ?is pres]vative action is 9 all probability ma9ly due to ! poison\s "* ( z9c salts 7corrosive sublimate is /ill m poison\s1 & a /ill bett] ag5t to pres]ve wood f decay71 s9ce decay is due to ! action ( l[] organisms4 ,! specific gravity ( solutions conta9+ p p] c5t4 ( z9c *loride1 ,zn,cl#b1 is z foll[s3 p #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #ae_/d #ajic #aahd #abic #adaa #aeed ds_/dt -#c -#e -#g -#h -#i ,! la/ l9e %[s ! *ange ( specific gravity = #a 9 t5-?\s&? p>ts = temp]atures ne> #ae4 ,m accurate det]m9ations ( ,*eltz(f1 p]sonally communicat$ by him1 l$ him to conclude t solutions ( z9c *loride foll[ ! same laws z ! solutions ( sulphuric acid1 :i* w be consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx43 7#a7 f ,h#b,o to ,zn,cl#b1abj;,h#b,o s ,s#j #ibhep #jagdhp#b2 7#b7 f !nce to ,zn,cl#b1dj;,h#b,o s ,s#j #icifp - #jjabfp#b2 7#c7 !nce to ,zn,cl#b1be;,h#b,o s #aadhae #ifde7p - #aehi7 #jdefg7p - #aehi7b2 7#d7 !nce to ,zn,cl#b1aj;,h#b,o s #abbaba #ajdhb7p - #bcba7 #jgiib7p - #bcba7b2 7#e7 !nce to p #fe p4c4 s #adfjfc #adjif7p - #dcje7 #adije7p - #dcje7b1 :]e s is ! specific gravity ( ! solution at #ae1 conta9+ p p4c4 ( ,zn,cl#b by weight1 tak+ wat] at #d #ajjjj1 & :]e ,s#j #iiiaf 7specific gravity ( wat] at #ae74 ,! comp\nd ( z9c *loride ) hydro*loric acid has be5 m5tion$ 9 ,vol4 ,i4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,z9c *loride has a great aff9ity = wat]2 x is n only soluble 9 x1 b 9 alcohol1 & on be+ dissolv$ 9 wat] becomes consid]ably heat$1 l magnesium & calcium *lorides4 ,z9c *loride is capable ( tak+ up wat]1 n only 9 a free /ate1 b also 9 *emical comb9ation ) _m sub/ances4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 x is us$ 9 organic rese>*es = remov+ ! elem5ts ( wat] f _m ( ! organic comp\nds4 #d bis ,:5 mix$ ) z9c oxide x =ms1 ) rem>kable ease1 a v h>d mass ( z9c oxy*loride1 :i* is appli$ 9 ! arts2 = in/ance1 9 pa9t+1 to resi/ ! action ( wat]1 or = cem5t+ su* objects z are de/9$ to rema9 9 wat]4 ,z9c oxy*loride1 ,zn,cl#b1c,zn,o1#b;,h#b,o 7 ,zn#b,o,cl#b1b,zn,h#b,o#b71 is also =m$ f a solution ( z9c *loride by ! action ( a small quantity ( ammonia on x aft] heat+ ! precipitate obta9$ ) ! liquid = a consid]able "t2 ! admixture ( ammonium salts ) a mixture ( a /rong solution ( z9c *loride ) its oxide makes a simil> mass1 :i* does n solidify s rapidly1 & is !re=e m useful = "s purposes4 ,moi/ure & cold d n *ange ! h>d5$ mass ( oxy*loride1 & x also resi/s ! action ( _m acids1 & a temp]ature ( #cjj1 :i* makes x a useful cem5t = _m purposes4 ,a solution ( magnesium *loride ) magnesium oxide =ms a simil> oxy*loride4 ,! mass solidifies be/ :5 !re are equal quantities by weight ( z9c 9 ! *loride & oxide1 & !re=e :5 x has ! composition ,zn#b,o,cl#b ,9 prep>+ su* a cem5t1 naturally z9c oxide alone may be tak51 & ! requisite quantity ( hydro*loric acid add$ to x4 ,! capacity ( ,zn,cl#b to comb9e ) wat]1 ,zn,o1 & ,h,cl 7& also ) o!r metallic *lorides7 indicates its prop]ty to comb9e ) molecules ( o!r sub/ances1 & !re=e its comp\nds ) ,,nh#c1 & especially a comp\nd1 ,zn,cl#bb,,nh#c1 simil> to sal-ammoniac1 might be expect$ 7i4e4 #b,,nh#d;,cl1 9 :i* ,h#b is replac$ by ,zn74 ,& inde$ x has long be5 kn[n t ,zn,cl#b absorbs ammonia & gives solid sub/ances capable ( dissociat+ ) ! dis5gagem5t ( ,,nh#c4 ,among ^! comp\nds ,isamb]t & ,v4 ,k\ril(f 7#ahid7 obta9$ ,zn,cl#bf,,nh#c1 ,zn,cl#bd,,nh#c1 ,zn,cl#bb,,nh#c1 & ,zn,cl#b,,nh#c4 ,! dissociation t5sion ( ! two la/-m5tion$ comp\nds at #bah is equal to #dcf mm4 & #fg mm4 ,cd,cl#b also =ms simil> comp\nds ) ,,nh#c 7,k\ril(f1 #ahid74 ,z9c1 l _m heavy metals1 is (t5 f\nd 9 nature 9 comb9ation ) sulphur1 =m+ ! s-call$ z9c bl5de1#e ,zn,s4 ,x sometimes occurs 9 l>ge masses1 (t5 cry/allis$ 9 cubes2 x is frequ5tly transluc5t1 & has a metallic lu/re1 al?\gh ?is is n s cle>ly develop$ z 9 _m o!r metallic sulphides ) :i* we %all h]eaft] become acqua9t$4 ,! ores ( z9c also comprise ! c>bonate1 calam9e1 & silicate1 silice\s calam9e4 #e ,?is m9]al has be5 giv5 ! "n ( 'mock-ore1' on acc\nt ( its hav+ ! appe>ance 7consid]able d5sity1 #djf1 c47 ( ord9>y metallic ores2 x deceiv$ ! fir/ m9]s1 because x did n1 l o!r ores1 give metal :5 simply roa/$ 9 air & fus$ ) *>coal4 ,! :ite z9c oxide1 =m$ by burn+ ! vap\rs ( z9c1 0 also call$ 'nihil album1' or ':ite no?+1' on acc\nt ( its lightness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,di/illation ( z9c 9 a crucible plac$ 9 a furnace4 o c1 tube along :i* ! vap\r passes & cond5ses4 ,metallic z9c 7spelt]7 is mo/ frequ5tly obta9$ f ! ores conta9+ ! c>bonate#f--t is1 f calam9e1 :i* is sometimes f\nd 9 ?ick ve9s3 = in/ance1 9 ,pol&1 ,galicia1 9 "s places on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e1 & 9 consid]able masses 9 ,belgium & ,engl&4 ,9 ,russia b$s ( z9c ore are met ) 9 ,pol& & ! ,caucasus1 b ! output is small4 ,9 ,sw$51 z e>ly z ! fifte5? c5tury1 calam9e 0 work$ up into an alloy ( z9c & copp] 7brass71 & ,p>acelsus produc$ z9c f calam9e2 b ! te*nical production ( ! metal itself1 long ago practis$ 9 ,*9a1 only comm5c$ 9 ,europe 9 #ahjg--;9 ,belgium1 :5 ! ,abb ,donnet discov]$ t z9c 0 volatile4 ,f t "t ! production increas$ until x is n[ ab\t #aej million kilograms 9 ,g]many alone4 #f ,x may be "h m5tion$ t by ! ^w ore is meant a h>d1 heavy sub/ance dug out ( ! e>?1 :i* is us$ 9 metallurgical works = obta9+ ! usual heavy metals long kn[n & us$4 ,! natural comp\nds ( sodium1 or magnesium1 are n call$ ores1 because magnesium & sodium h n be5 long obta9able 9 quantity4 ,! heavy metals1 ^? :i* are easily r$uc$ & d n easily oxidise1 are exclusively ^? :i* are directly appli$ 9 manufactures4 ,ores ei!r conta9 ! metals !mselves 7= in/ance1 ores ( silv] or bismu?71 & ! metals are !n said to be 9 a native /ate1 or else _! sulphur comp\nds 7bl5de1 mock-ore1 pyrites--z1 = example1 gal5a1 ,pb,s2 z9c bl5de1 ,zn,s2 copp] pyrites1 ,cu,fe,s7 or oxides 7z ! ores ( iron71 or salts 7calam9e1 = in/ance74 ,z9c is incomp>ably r>] ?an magnesium1 & is only well kn[n because x is trans=m$ f its ores into a metal :i* f9ds direct use 9 _m bran*es ( indu/ry4 ,! r$uction ( metallic z9c f its ores is bas$ on ! fact t z9c oxide#g is easily r$uc$ by *>coal at a r$ heat3 ,zn,o ,c ,zn ,,co4 ,! z9c ?us obta9$ is 9 a f9ely divid$ /ate & impure1 be+ mix$ ) o!r metals r$uc$ ) x1 b ! great] portion is conv]t$ into vap\r1 f :i* x easily passes into a liquid or solid /ate4 ,! r$uction & di/illation are c>ri$ on 9 e>!nw>e retorts1 fill$ ) a mixture ( ! divid$ ore & *>coal4 ,! vap\rs ( z9c & gases =m$ dur+ ! reaction escape by means ( a pipe lead+ d[nw>ds1 & are l$ to a *amb] :]e ! vap\rs are cool$4 ,by ?is means !y d n come into contact ) ! air1 because ! neck ( ! retort is fill$ ) gase\s c>bonic oxide1 & !re=e ! z9c does n oxidise2 o!rwise its vap\r w\ld burn 9 ! air4#g bis ,! vap\rs ( z9c1 ent]+ into ! cool+ *amb]1 cond5se into :ite z9c p[d] or z9c du/4 ,:5 ! neck ( ! retort is heat$ ! z9c is obta9$ 9 a liquid /ate1 & is ca/ into plates1 9 :i* =m x is g5]ally sold4 #g ,ores1 :5 extract$ f ! e>? by ! m9]s1 are (t5 enri*$ by sort+1 wa%+1 & o!r me*anical op]ations4 ,! sulphur\s ores 7& likewise o!rs7 are !n g5]ally roa/$4 ,roa/+ an ore means heat+ x to r$ness 9 air4 ,! sulphur !n burns1 & passes (f 9 ! =m ( sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 & ! metal oxidises4 ,! roa/+ is c>ri$ on 9 ord] to obta9 an oxide in/ead ( a sulphur comp\nd1 ! oxide be+ r$ucible by *>coal4 ,^! me?ods1 introduc$ ages ago1 are met ) 9 ne>ly all metallurgical works = practically all ores4 ,= ?is reason ! prep>atory treatm5t ( z9c bl5de furni%es z9c oxide3 ?is is already conta9$ 9 calam9e4 #g bis ) v impure ores1 especially su* z conta9 lead 7,pb,s (t5 accompanies z9c71 ! vap\r ( ! r$uc$ z9c is all[$ to pass directly into ! air4 ,x burns & gives ,zn,o1 :i* is us$ z a pigm5t4 ,comm]cial z9c is g5]ally impure1 conta9+ a mixture ( lead1 p>ticles ( c>bon1 iron1 & o!r metals c>ri$ ov] ) ! vap\rs1 al?\gh !y are n volatile at a temp]ature approa*+ #ajjj4 ,if x be requir$ to obta9 pure z9c f ! comm]cial article1 x is subject$ to a fur!r di/illation 9 a crucible ) a pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! bottom1 ! vap\rs =m$ by ! heat$ z9c only hav+ exit ?r\gh ! pipe cem5t$ into ! bottom ( ! crucible4 ,pass+ ?r\gh ?is pipe1 ! vap\rs cond5se to a liquid1 :i* is collect$ 9 a receiv]4 ,z9c ?us purifi$ is g5]ally re-melt$ & ca/ into rods1 & 9 ?is =m is (t5 us$ = physical & *emical rese>*es :]e a pure article is requir$4#h #h ,?is z9c1 al?\gh homog5e\s1 /ill conta9s c]ta9 impurities1 to remove :i* x is necess>y to prep>e "s salt ( z9c 9 a pure /ate & trans=m x into c>bonate1 :i* latt] is !n di/ill$ ) *>coal2 &1 z ?9 %eets ( z9c c only be obta9$ f v pure metal1 !y are frequ5tly made use ( 9 cases :]e pure z9c is requir$4 ,9 ord] to remove ! ars5ic f z9c1 x 0 propos$ to melt x & mix x ) anhydr\s magnesium *loride1 by :i* means vap\rs ( z9c *loride & ars5ic *loride are =m$4 ,p]fectly pure z9c is made 7,v4 ,mey] & o!rs7 by decompos+1 by means ( ! galvanic curr5t1 a solution ( z9c sulphate to :i* an excess ( ammonia has be5 add$4 ,! z9c us$ = ,m>%'s ars5ic te/ 7,*apt] ,,xix47 is purifi$ f ,z by fus+ x ) ,,kno#c & !n ) ,zn,cl#b4 ,metallic z9c has a blui%-:ite col\r2 its lu/re1 comp>$ ) _m o!r metals1 is insignificant4 ,:5 ca/ x exhibits a cry/all9e /ructure4 ,its specific gravity is ab\t #g--t is1 v>ies f #fh to #gb1 accord+ to ! degree ( compression 7by =g+1 roll+1 c47 to :i* x has be5 subject$4 ,x is v ductile1 consid]+ its h>dness4 ,= ?is reason x *okes up files :5 be+ work$4 ,its malleability is consid]able :5 pure1 b 9 ! ord9>y impure condition 9 :i* x is sold1 x is impossible to roll x at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 z x easily breaks4 ,at a temp]ature ( #ajj1 h[ev]1 x easily und]goes su* op]ations1 & c !n be drawn into wire or roll$ into %eets4 ,if heat$ fur!r x aga9 becomes brittle1 & at #bjj may be ev5 cru%$ into p[d]1 s completely does x lose its molecul> cohesion4 ,x melts at #dah1 & di/ils at #icj4 ,z9c does n und]go any *ange 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,ev5 9 v damp air x only becomes sl[ly coat$ ) a v ?9 :ite coat+ ( oxide4 ,= ?is reason x is available = all objects :i* are only 9 contact ) air4 ,!re=e %eet z9c may be us$ = ro(+ & _m o!r purposes4#i ,?is great un*angeability ( z9c 9 ! air %[s its slight en]gy ) reg>d to oxyg5 comp>$ ) ! metals already m5tion$1 :i* are capable ( r$uc+ z9c f solutions4 ,b z9c plays ?is "p ) reg>d to ! rema9+ metals--= example1 x r$uces salts ( lead1 copp]1 m]cury1 c4 ,al?\gh z9c is an almo/ unoxidisable metal at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x burns 9 ! air on be+ heat$1 p>ticul>ly :5 9 ! =m ( %av+s or 9 ! condition ( vap\r4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature z9c does n decompose wat]--at any rate1 if ! metal be 9 a d5se mass4 ,b ev5 at a temp]ature ( #ajj z9c beg9s little by little to decompose wat]2 x easily displaces ! hydrog5 ( acids at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ( alkalis on be+ heat$4 #i ,cornices & o!r ar*itectural ornam5ts1 rem>kable = _! lightness & beauty1 are /amp$ out ( %eet z9c4 ,z9c-ro(+ does n require pa9t+1 b x melts dur+ a conflagration1 & ev5 burns at a /rong heat4 ,_m iron vessels1 c41 are cov]$ ) z9c 7'galvanis$'7 9 ord] to prev5t !m f ru/+4 ,9 ?is respect ! action ( z9c v>ies a great deal ) ! degree ( its purity4 ,weak sulphuric acid 7correspond+ ) ! composition ,h#b,,s#d1h;,h#b,o7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature does n act at all on *emically pure z9c1 & ev5 a /rong] solution acts v sl[ly4 ,if ! temp]ature be rais$1 & p>ticul>ly if ! z9c be previ\sly slightly heat$1 s z to cov] ! surface ) a film ( oxide1 *emically pure z9c acts on sulphuric acid4 ,?us1 = example1 "o cubic c5timetre ( z9c 9 sulphuric acid hav+ a composition ,h#b,,s#d1f;,h#b,o at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 two h\rs only dissolves to ! ext5t ( #jjah gram1 & at a temp]ature ( #ajj ab\t #ce grams4 ,if we comp>e ?is sl[ action ) t rapid evolution ( hydrog5 :i* occurs 9 ! case ( comm]cial z9c1 we see t ! influ5ce ( ^? impurities 9 ! z9c is v great4 ,e p>ticle ( *>coal or iron introduc$ into ! mass ( ! z9c1 & likewise ! connection ( ! z9c ) a piece ( ano!r electro-negative metal1 assi/s su* a dissolution4 ,! sl[ness ( ! action ( sulphuric acid on pure z9c 7& likewise on amalgamat$ z9c7 may also be expla9$ by ! fact t a lay] ( hydrog5#aj collects on ! surface ( ! metal1 prev5t+ contact betwe5 ! acid & ! metal4#aj bis #aj ,ve]5 7#ahia7 prov$ ?is by simple exp]im5ts1 f9d+ t 9 vacuo ! solution proce$s f> m rapidly = bo? pure & comm]cial z9c1 & /ill m rapidly 9 ! pres5ce ( oxidis+ ag5ts 7:i* absorb ! hydrog57 l ,cr,o#c & ,h#b,o#b4 #aj bis ,! addition ( cupric sulphate1 or1 bett] /ill1 a few drops ( plat9ic *loride 7! metals become r$uc$71 to ! sulphuric acid greatly accel]ates ! evolution ( ! hydrog51 because 9 ?is case1 z ) comm]cial z9c1 galvanic c\ples are =m$ locally by ! copp] or plat9um & ! z9c1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* ! z9c rapidly dissolves4 ,! action ( acids on metallic z9c ( v>i\s degrees ( purity has be5 ! subject ( _m inve/igations1 p>ticul>ly important ) ref]5ce to ! application ( z9c 9 galvanic batt]ies1 :il/ "s inve/igations h direct significance = *emical me*anics1 al?\gh f _m po9ts ( view ! matt] is n cle>4 ,i consid] x useful to m5tion c]ta9 ( ^! inve/igations4 ,calv]t & ,johnson made ! foll[+ s]ies ( obs]vations on ! action ( sulphuric acid ( v>i\s degrees ( conc5tration on #b grams ( pure z9c dur+ two h\rs4 ,9 ! cold ! conc5trat$ acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 does n act1 ,h#b,,s#d1b;,h#b,o dissolves ab\t #jjjb gram1 b pr9cipally =ms hydrog5 sulphide1 :i* is obta9$ also :5 ! dilution rea*es ,h#b,,s#d1g;,h#b,o1 :5 #jjce gram ( z9c is dissolv$4 ,:5 l>gely dilut$ ) wat]1 pure hydrog5 beg9s to be dis5gag$4 ,h#b,,s#d1b;,h#b,o at #acj gives a mixture ( hydrog5 sulphide & sulphur\s anhydride dissolv+ #jaef gram ( z9c4 ,b\*>dat %[$ t if 9 a vessel made ( glass or sulphur dilute sulphuric acid act+ on a piece ( z9c lib]ates "o "p ( hydrog51 !n ! same acid ) ! same piece ( z9c 9 ! same "t w lib]ate #d p>ts ( hydrog5 if ! vessel be made ( t9--t is1 z9c =ms a galvanic c\ple ) t92 9 a lead5 vessel #i p>ts ( hydrog5 are set free1 ) a vessel ( antimony or bismu? #ac p>ts1 silv] or plat9um #ch p>ts1 copp] #ej p>ts1 iron #dc p>ts4 ,if a salt ( plat9um be add$ to ! dilute sulphuric acid 7#a "p ( acid & #ab p>ts ( wat]71 ,millon det]m9$ t ! rapidity ( ! action on ! z9c is increas$ #adi times1 & by ! addition ( copp] sulphate is r5d]$ #de times great] ?an ! action ( pure sulphuric acid4 ,! salts :i* are add$ are r$uc$ to metals by ! z9c1 _! contact s]v+ to promote ! reaction because !y =m local galvanic curr5ts4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,cailletet1 if1 at ! ord9>y pressure1 sulphuric acid ) z9c lib]ates #ajj p>ts ( hydrog51 !n ) a pressure ( #fj atmosph]es #dg p>ts w be lib]at$ & #a "p at a pressure ( #abj atmosph]es4 ,) a r$uc$ pressure "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump #afh p>ts are lib]at$4 ,helmholtz %[$ t a r$uc$ pressure also ex]cises its influ5ce on galvanic elem5ts4 ,debray1 ,lwel1 & o!rs %[$ t z9c lib]ates hydrog5 & =ms basic salts & z9c oxide ) solutions ( _m salts--= in/ance1 ,m,cln1 alum9ium sulphate1 & alum1 ,sodium & potassium c>bonates sc>cely act1 because !y =m c>bonates4 ,! salts ( ammonia act m /rongly ?an ! salts ( potassium & sodium2 ! z9c rema9s bright4 ,x is evid5t t ?is action is f\nd$ on ! =mation ( d\ble salts & basic salts4 ,! v>iation ) conc5tration 9 ! rate ( ! action ( sulphuric acid on z9c 7conta9+ impurities7 "u o!rwise uni=m conditions is 9 evid5t connection ) ! electrical conductivity ( ! solution & its viscosity1 al?\gh1 :5 l>gely dilut$1 ! action is almo/ proportional to ! am\nt ( acid 9 a kn[n volume ( ! solution4 ,=g+1 ca/+ ! molt5 metal1 & simil> me*anical influ5ces *ange ! d5sity & h>dness ( z9c1 & also /rongly influ5ce its p[] ( lib]at+ hydrog5 f acids4 ,kay&] %[$ 7#ahha7 t :5 magnesium is submitt$ to ! action ( acids3 7a7 ! action dep5ds1 n on ! nature ( ! acid1 b on its basicity2 7b7 ! increase ( ! action is m rapid ?an ! gr[? ( ! conc5tration2 & 7c7 !re is a decrease ( action ) ! increase ( ! coeffici5t ( int]nal friction & electrical conductivity4 ,spr+ & ,aubel 7#ahhg7 measur$ ! volume ( hydrog5 dis5gag$ by an alloy ( z9c & a small quantity ( lead 7#jf p4c471 because ! action ( acids is !n uni=m4 ,9 ord] to deal ) a kn[n surface1 sph]es 7 tak5 7#ie millimetres diamet]7 & cyl9d]s 7#ag mm4 dia471 ! sides ( :i* 7 cov]$ ) wax 9 ord] to limit ! action to ! end surfaces4 ,dur+ ! comm5cem5t ( ! action ( a def9ite quantity ( acid ! rapidity increases1 atta9s a maximum1 & !n decl9es z ! acid becomes exhau/$4 ,! results = #e1 #aj1 & #ae p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid are giv5 bel[4 ,h d5otes ! numb] ( cubic c5timetres ( hydrog51 ,d ! "t 9 seconds elaps+ aft] ! z9c sph]es h be5 plung$ into ! acid4 ,at #ae 7 obta9$3 ,h #ej #ajj #bjj #djj #fjj #hjj #ajjj #e p4c4 ,d #gad #aaeb #agee #bgca #cijh #fbcd #aedfb #aj p4c4 ,d #cja #dee #fdi #iie #aegc #bgdf #fgdh #ae p4c4 ,d #ajf #aea #bcc #ddj #hbf #afjd #dbhi ,at #ce3 #e p4c4 ,d #dfb #gje #ajeh #agjj #bebe #dacb #hdii #aj p4c4 ,d #if #adh #bci #dfj #hce #aeid #cgce #ae p4c4 ,d #dd #fd #aab #bee #eje #ajaa #bdeg ,at #ee3 #e p4c4 ,d #agh #bgf #djh #fii #aafd #baje #ejic #aj p4c4 ,d #cd #fj #aac #beh #dia #igj #bdeg #ae p4c4 ,d #bd #ce #eh #acf #bci #faj #aeic ,9 consequ5ce ( ! complex "* ( ! ph5om5on1 ! au?ors !mselves d n consid] _! det]m9ations z be+ conclusive1 & only give !m a relative significance2 & 9 ?is connection x is rem>kable t hydrobromic acid "u simil> conditions 7) an equival5t /r5g?7 gives a great] 7f #b to #e times7 rapidity ( action ?an hydro*loric acid1 b sulphuric acid a f> small] velocity 7ne>ly #be times small]74 ,x is also rem>kable t dur+ ! reaction ! metal becomes mu* m heat$ ?an ! acid4 ,x may be m5tion$ t z9c du/ & z9c itself1 :5 heat$ ) hydrat$ lime & simil> hydrates1 dis5gages hydrog53 ?is me?od has ev5 be5 propos$ = obta9+ hydrog5 = fill+ w> balloons4 ,! action ( z9c on acids1 & ! consequ5t =mation ( z9c salts1 int]f]es ) its application 9 _m cases1 p>ticul>ly = ! pres]vation ( liquids ei!r conta9+ or capable ( develop+ acid4 ,= ?is reason z9c vessels ought n to be us$ = ! prep>ation or pres]vation ( food1 z ?is (t5 conta9s acids :i* =m poison\s salts ) ! z9c4 ,ev5 ord9>y wat]1 conta9+ c>bonic acid1 sl[ly attacks z9c4 ,f9ely divid$ z9c1 or z9c du/1 obta9$ 9 ! di/illation ( ! metal :5 ! receiv] is n heat$ up to ! melt+ po9t1 on acc\nt ( its pres5t+ a l>ge surface ( contact & conta9+ =eign matt] 7p>ticul>ly z9c oxide71 has 9 ! highe/ degree ! prop]ty ( decompos+ acids1 & ev5 wat]1 :i* x easily decomposes1 p>ticul>ly if slightly heat$4 ,on ?is acc\nt z9c du/ is (t5 us$ 9 laboratories & factories z a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,a simil> influ5ce ( ! f9ely divid$ /ate is also notic$ 9 o!r metals--= in/ance1 copp] & silv]--:i* aga9 %[s ! close connection betwe5 *emical & physico-me*anical ph5om5a4 ,we mu/ fir/ ( all turn to ?is close connection = an explanation ( ! widely spread application ( z9c 9 galvanic batt]ies1 :]e ! *emical 7lat5t1 pot5tial7 en]gy ( ! act+ sub/ances is trans=m$ into 7evid5t1 k9etic7 galvanic en]gy1 & ?r\gh ?is latt] into heat1 light1 or me*anical "w4 ,h]mann & ,/romey]1 9 #ahai1 %[$ t cadmium is almo/ always f\nd ) z9c1 & 9 _m respects resembles x4 ,:5 di/ill$ ! cadmium volatilises soon]1 because x has a l[] boil+ po9t4 ,sometimes ! z9c du/ obta9$ by ! fir/ di/illation ( z9c conta9s z mu* z #e p] c5t4 ( cadmium4 ,:5 z9c bl5de1 conta9+ cadmium1 is roa/$1 ! z9c passes into ! /ate ( oxide1 & ! cadmium sulphide 9 ! ore oxidises into cadmium sulphate1 ,cd,s,o#d1 :i* resi/s tol]ably well ! action ( heat2 !re=e if roa/$ z9c bl5de be wa%$ ) wat]1 a solution ( cadmium sulphate w be obta9$1 f :i* x is v easy to prep>e metallic cadmium4 ,hydrog5 sulphide may be us$ = sep>at+ cadmium f its solutions2 x gives a yell[ precipitate ( cadmium sulphide1 ,cd,s 7accord+ to ! equation ,cd,s,o#d ,h#b,s ,h#b,,s#d ,cd,s71#aa :i*1 on acc\nt ( its *>act]i/ic col\r1 is us$ z a pigm5t4#aa bis ,cadmium sulphide1 :5 /rongly heat$ 9 air1 leaves cadmium oxide1 f :i* ! metal may be obta9$ 9 precisely ! same way z 9 ! case ( z9c4 #aa ,x may be "h rem>k$ t sulphate ( z9c 7especially 9 ! pres5ce ( m9]al acids7 does n give a precipitate ( sulphide ( z9c1 or is only slightly precipitat$ by sulphurett$ hydrog54 #aa bis ,sulphide ( cadmium appe>s 9 two v>ieties ( a simil> *emical b diff]5t physical "*3 "o is ( a lemon col\r1 & ! o!r bright r$4 ,klob\k(f 7#ahij7 /udi$ ! physical prop]ties ( ^! v>ieties m closely4 ,! sp4 gr4 ( ! =m] is #cijf1 & ( ! latt] #deac4 ,!y belong to diff]5t cry/allographic sy/ems4 ,! fir/ v>iety may be conv]t$ into ! second by friction or pressure1 b ! second _c be conv]t$ into ! fir/ v>iety by ^! means4 ,cadmium is a :ite metal1 & :5 fre%ly cut is almo/ z :ite & lu/r\s z t94 ,x is s s(t t x may be easily cut ) a knife1 & s malleable t x c be easily drawn into wire1 roll$ into %eets1 c4 ,its specific gravity is #hfg1 melt+ po9t #cbj1 boil+ po9t #ggj2 its vap\rs burn1 =m+ a br[n p[d] ( ! oxide4#ab ,next to m]cury x is ! mo/ volatile metal2 h5ce ,deville det]m9$ ! d5sity ( its vap\rs comp>$ ) hydrog51 & f\nd x to be equal to #ega2 !re=e ! molecule conta9s "o atom ^: weight #aab4 ,v4 ,mey] f\nd ! l = z9c2 ! molecule ( m]cury also conta9s "o atom4 #ab ,among/ ! comp\nds ( cadmium v closely alli$ to ! comp\nds ( z9c1 we mu/ m5tion cadmium iodide1 ,cd,i#b1 :i* is us$ 9 m$ic9e & photography4 ,?is salt cry/allises v well3 x is prep>$ by ! direct action ( iod9e1 mix$ ) wat]1 on metallic cadmium4 ,"o "p ( cadmium iodide at #bj requires = its solution #ajh "p ( wat]4 ,x may be rem>k$ t cadmium *loride at ! same temp]ature requires #jga "p ( wat] to dissolve x1 s t ! iod9e comp\nd ( ?is metal is less soluble ?an ! *loride1 :il/ ! rev]se relation holds 9 ! case ( ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! alkali or alkal9e e>?y metals4 ,cadmium sulphate cry/allises well1 & has ! composition #c;,cd,s,o#d1h;,h#b,o1 ?us diff]+ f z9c sulphate4 ,cadmium oxide is soluble1 al?\gh sp>+ly1 9 alkalis1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( t>t>ic & c]ta9 o!r acids ! alkal9e solution ( cadmium oxide does n *ange :5 boil$1 :il/ a dilut$ solution 9 t case deposits cadmium oxide3 ?is may also s]ve = sep>at+ z9c comp\nds f ^? ( cadmium4 ,cadmium is precipitat$ f its salts by z9c1 :i* fact may also be tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ cadmium2 = ?is reason1 9 an alloy ( z9c & cadmium1 acids fir/ ( all extract ! z9c4 ,cadmium is 9 all respects less en]getic ?an z9c4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 x decomposes wat] ) difficulty1 & ?is only :5 /rongly heat$4 ,x ev5 acts b sl[ly on acids1 b !n displaces hydrog5 f !m4 ,x is necess>y "h to call att5tion to ! fact t = alkali & alkal9e e>?y metals 7( ! ev5 s]ies7 ! highe/ atomic weight det]m9es ! greate/ en]gy2 b cadmium 7( ! unev5 s]ies71 :il/ hav+ a l>g] atomic weight ?an z9c1 is less en]getic4 ,! salts ( cadmium are col\rless1 l ^? ( z9c4 ,de ,s*ult5 obta9$ a cry/all9e oxy*loride1 ,cd7,,oh7,cl by heat+ m>ble ) a solution ( cadmium *loride 9 a seal$ tube at #bjj4 ,m]cury resembles z9c & cadmium 9 _m respects1 b pres5ts t di/9ction f !m :i* is always notic$ 9 all ! heavie/ metals 7) reg>d to atomic weight & d5sity7 comp>$ ) ! light] ones--namely1 t x oxidises ) m difficulty1 & its comp\nds are m easily decompos$4#ab bis ,besides comp\nds ( ! usual type ,,rx#b1 x also gives ^? ( ! l[] type1 ,,rx1 :i* are unkn[n = z9c & cadmium4#ac ,m]cury !re=e gives salts ( ! composition ,hg,x 7m]cur\s salts7 & ,hg,x#b 7m]curic salts71 ! oxides hav+ ! =mul ,hg#b,o & ,hg,o respectively4 #ab bis ,accord+ to its atomic weight1 m]cury foll[s gold 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 j z cadmium foll[s silv] & z9c foll[s copp]3-- ,ni #ei ,cu #fc ,zn #fe ,pd #ajf ,ag #ajh ,cd #aab ,pt #aif ,au #aih ,hg #bjj ,ev5tually we %all see ! ne> relation ( plat9um1 palladium1 & nickel1 & also ( gold1 silv]1 & copp]1 b we w n[ po9t out ! p>allelism betwe5 ^! ?ree gr\ps4 ,! relation betwe5 ! physical & also *emical prop]ties is "h /rik+ly simil>4 ,nickel1 palladium1 & plat9um are v difficult to fuse 7f> m s ?an iron1 ru!nium1 & osmium1 :i* /& be=e !m74 ,copp]1 silv]1 & gold melt f> m easily 9 a /rong heat ?an ! ?ree prec$+ metals1 & z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury melt /ill m easily4 ,nickel1 palladium1 & plat9um are v slightly volatile2 copp]1 silv]1 & gold are m volatile2 & z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury are among ! mo/ volatile metals4 ,z9c oxidises m easily ?an copp]1 & is r$uc$ ) m difficulty1 & ! same is true = m]cury z comp>$ ) gold4 ,^! prop]ties = cadmium & silv] are int]m$iate 9 ! respective gr\ps4 ,relations ( ?is k9d cle>ly %[ ! nature ( ! p]iodic law4 #ac ,?us ?allium1 lead1 & bismu?1 foll[+ m]cury accord+ to _! atomic weights1 =m1 besides comp\nds ( ! highe/ types1 ,tl,x#c1 ,pb,x#d1 & ,bi,x#e1 also ! l[] ones ,tl,x1 ,pb,x#b1 & ,bi,x#c4 ,m]cury is f\nd 9 nature almo/ exclusively 9 comb9ation ) sulphur 7l z9c & cadmium1 b is /ill r>] ?an !m7 9 ! =m kn[n z c9nab>1 ,hg,s 7,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #bi74 ,x is f> m r>ely met ) 9 ! native or metallic condition1 & ?is 9 all probability has be5 d]iv$ f c9nab>4 ,m]cury ore is f\nd only 9 a few places--namely1 9 ,spa9 79 ,almad571 9 ,idria1 ,japan1 ,p]u1 & ,cali=nia4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahhj ,m95k(f discov]$ a ri* b$ ( c9nab> 9 ! ,bahm\t di/rict 7ne> ! /ation ( ,nikitovka71 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,ekat]9oslav1 s t n[ ,russia ev5 exports m]cury to o!r c\ntries4 ,c9nab> is n[ be+ work$ 9 ,daghe/an 9 ! ,caucasus4 ,m]cury ores are easily r$uc$ to metallic m]cury1 because ! comb9ation betwe5 ! metal & ! sulphur is "o ( b little /ability4 ,oxyg51 iron1 lime1 & _m o!r sub/ances1 :5 heat$1 easily de/roy ! comb9ation4 ,if iron is heat$ ) c9nab>1 iron sulphide is =m$2 if c9nab> is heat$ ) lime1 m]cury & calcium sulphide & sulphate are =m$1 #d;,hg,s #d;,ca,o #d;,hg #c;,ca,s ,ca,s,o#d4 ,on be+ heat$ 9 ! air1 or roa/$1 ! sulphur burns1 oxidises1 =m+ sulphur\s anhydride1 & vap\rs ( metallic m]cury are =m$4 ,m]cury is m easily di/ill$ ?an all o!r metals1 its boil+ po9t be+ ab\t #cea1 & !re=e its sep>ation f natural admixtures1 decompos$ by "o ( ! above-m5tion$ me?ods1 is effect$ at ! exp5se ( a comp>atively small am\nt ( heat4 ,! mixture ( m]cury vap\r1 air1 & products ( combu/ion obta9$ is cool$ 9 tubes 7by wat] or air71 & ! m]cury cond5ses z liquid metal4#ad #ad ,dur+ ! cond5sation ( ! vap\rs ( m]cury 9 works1 a "p =ms a black mass ( f9ely-divid$ p>ticles1 :i* gives metallic m]cury :5 work$ up 9 c5trifugal ma*9es1 or on pressure1 or on re-di/illation4 ,9 m]cury we obs]ve a t5d5cy to easily split up into ! f9e/ drops1 :i* are difficult to unite into a d5se mass4 ,x is suffici5t to %ake up m]cury ) nitric & sulphuric acids 9 ord] to produce su* a m]cury p[d]4 ,! m]cury sep>at$ 7= in/ance1 r$uc$ by sub/ances l sulphur\s anhydride7 f solutions1 =ms su* a p[d]4 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,n]n/1 ?is dis9tegrat$ m]cury :5 ent]+ into reactions develops m heat ?an ! d5se liquid metal--t is to say1 ! "w ( dis9tegration reappe>s 9 ! =m ( heat4 ,?is example is in/ructive 9 consid]+ !rmo*emical d$uctions4 ,m]cury1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 is a liquid metal at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,9 its lu/re & :it5ess x resembles silv]4#ae ,at -#ci m]cury is trans=m$ into a malleable cry/all9e metal2 at #j its specific gravity is #aceif1 & 9 ! solid /ate at -#dj x is #adci4af ,m]cury does n *ange 9 ! air--t is to say1 x does n oxidise at ! ord9>y temp]ature--b at a temp]ature approa*+ ! boil+-po9t1 z 0 /at$ 9 ! ,introduction1 x oxidises1 =m+ m]curic oxide4 ,bo? metallic m]cury & its comp\nds 9 g5]al produce salivation1 trembl+ ( ! h&s1 & o!r unheal?y symptoms :i* are f\nd 9 ! workm5 expos$ to ! influ5ce ( m]curial vap\rs or ! du/ ( its comp\nds4 #ae ,m]cury may sometimes be obta9$ 9 a p]fectly pure /ate f works 79 iron bottles hold+ ab\t #ce kilos71 b aft] be+ us$ 9 laboratories 7= ba?s1 calibration1 c47 x conta9s impurities4 ,x may be purifi$ me*anically 9 ! foll[+ way3 a pap] filt] ) a f9e hole 7prick$ ) a ne$le7 is plac$ 9 a glass funnel & m]cury is p\r$ into x1 :i* sl[ly trickles ?r\gh ! hole1 leav+ ! impurities ^u ! filt]4 ,sometimes x is squeez$ ?r\gh *amois lea!r or ?r\gh a block ( wood 7z 9 ! well-kn[n exp]im5t ) ! air-pump74 ,x may be purifi$ f _m metals by contact ) dilute nitric acid1 if small drops ( m]cury are all[$ to pass ?r\gh a long column ( x 7f ! f9e end ( a funnel72 or by %ak+ x up ) sulphuric acid 9 air4 ,m]cury may be purifi$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t1 if x be cov]$ ) a solution ( ,hg,n,o#c4 ,b ! complete purification ( m]cury = b>omet]s & !rmomet]s c only be atta9$ by di/illation1 be/ 9 a vacuum 7! vap\r-t5sion ( m]cury is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bg74 ,= ?is purpose ,we9hold's app>atus is mo/ (t5 us$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is app>atus is v +5i\s1 ! di/illation be+ effect$ 9 a ,torricellian vacuum cont9u\sly suppli$ ) fre% m]cury1 :il/ ! cond5s$ m]cury is cont9u\sly remov$4 ,?is process ( di/illation requires v little att5tion1 & gives ab\t "o kilo ( pure m]cury p] h\r4 #af ,if ! volume ( liquid m]cury at #j be tak5 z #ajjjjjj1 !n1 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,regnault 7recalculat$ by me 9 #ahge71 at t x w be #ajjjjjj #ahjat #jjbt#b4 ,z _m ( ! comp\nds ( m]cury decompose on be+ heat$--= in/ance1 ! oxide or c>bonate#ag--;& z z9c1 cadmium1 copp]1 iron1 & o!r metals sep>ate m]cury f its salts1#ah x is evid5t t m]cury has less *emical en]gy ?an ! metals already describ$1 ev5 ?an z9c & cadmium4 ,nitric acid1 :5 act+ on an excess ( m]cury at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 gives m]cur\s nitrate1 ,hg,n,o#c4ai ,! same acid1 "u ! influ5ce ( heat & :5 9 excess 7nitric oxide be+ lib]at$71 =ms m]curic nitrate1 ,hg7,,no#c7b4 ,?is1#bj bo? 9 its composition & prop]ties1 resembles ! salts ( z9c & cadmium4 ,dilute sulphuric acid does n act on m]cury1 b /rong sulphuric acid dissolves x1 ) evolution ( sulphur\s anhydride 7n hydrog571 & on be+ slightly heat$ ) an excess ( m]cury x =ms ! sp>+ly soluble m]cur\s sulphate1 ,hg#b,,s#d2 b if m]cury be /rongly heat$ ) an excess ( ! acid1 ! m]curic salt1 ,hg,s,o#d1ba is =m$4 ,alkalis d n act on m]cury1 b ! non-metals *lor9e1 brom9e1 sulphur1 & phosphorus easily comb9e ) x4 ,!y =m1 l ! acids1 two s]ies ( comp\nds1 ,hg,x & ,hg,x#b4 ,! oxyg5 comp\nd ( ! fir/ s]ies is ! suboxide ( m]cury1 or m]cur\s oxide1 ,hg#b,o1 & ( ! second ord] ! oxide ,hg,o1 m]curic oxide4 ,! *lor9e comp\nd correspond+ ) ! suboxide is ,hg,cl 7calomel71 & ) ! oxide ,hg,cl#b 7corrosive sublimate or m]curic *loride74 ,9 ! comp\nds ,hg,x1 m]cury resembles ! metals ( ! fir/ gr\p1 & m especially silv]4 ,9 ! m]curic comp\nds !re is an evid5t resemblance to ^? ( magnesium1 cadmium1 c4 ,"h ! atom ( m]cury is bival5t1 z 9 ! type ,,rx#b4bb ,e soluble m]cur\s comp\nd 7correspond+ ) ! type ( ! suboxide ( m]cury71 ,hg,x1 =ms a :ite precipitate ( calomel1 ,hg,cl1 ) hydro*loric acid or a metallic *loride1 because ,hg,cl is v slightly soluble 9 wat]1 ,hg,x ,m,cl ,hg,cl ,,mx4 ,9 soluble m]curic comp\nds1 ,hg,x#b1 hydro*loric acid & metallic *lorides d n =m a precipitate1 because corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b1 is soluble 9 wat]4 ,alkali hydroxides precipitate ! yell[ m]curic oxide f a solution ( ,hg,x#b1 & ! black m]cur\s oxide f ,hg,x4 ,potassium iodide =ms a dirty gre5i% precipitate1 ,hg,i1 ) m]cur\s salts1 ,hg,x1 & a r$ precipitate1 ,hg,i#b1 ) ! m]curic salts1 ,hg,x#b4 ,^! reactions di/+ui% ! m]curic f ! m]cur\s salts1 :i* latt] repres5t ! transition f ! m]curic salts to m]cury itself1 #b;,hg,x ,hg ,hg,x#b4 ,! salts1 ,hg,x1 z well z ,hg,x#b1 are r$uc$ by nasc5t hydrog5 7e4g4 f ,zn ,h#b,,s#d71 by su* metals z z9c & copp]1 & also by _m r$uc+ ag5ts--= example1 hypophosphor\s acid1 ! l[e/ grade ( oxidation ( phosphorus1 by sulphur\s anhydride1 /ann\s *loride1 c4 ,"u ! action ( ^! reag5ts ! m]curic salts are fir/ trans=m$ into ! m]cur\s salts1 & ! latt] are !n r$uc$ to metallic m]cury4 ,?is reaction is s delicate t x s]ves to detect ! smalle/ quantity ( m]cury2 = in/ance1 9 cases ( poison+1 ! m]cury is detect$ by imm]s+ a copp] plate 9 ! solution to be te/$1 ! m]cury be+ !n deposit$ ^u x 7m readily on pass+ a galvanic curr5t74 ,! copp] plate1 on be+ rubb$1 %[s a silv]y :ite col\r2 on be+ heat$1 x yields vap\rs ( m]cury1 & !n aga9 assumes its orig9al r$ col\r 7if x does n oxidise74 ,! m]cur\s comp\nds1 ,hg,x1 "u ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts1 ev5 air1 pass into m]curic comp\nds1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( acids 7o!rwise a basic salt is produc$71 #b;,hg,x #b;,,hx ,o #b;,hg,x#b ,h#b,o2 b ! m]curic comp\nds1 :5 9 contact ) m]cury1 *ange m or less readily1 & turn into m]cur\s comp\nds1 ,hg,x#b ,hg #b;,hg,x4 ,= ?is reason1 9 ord] to pres]ve solutions ( m]cur\s salts1 a little m]cury is g5]ally add$ to !m4 #ag ,all salts ( m]cury1 :5 mix$ ) sodium c>bonate & heat$1 give m]cur\s or m]curic c>bonates2 ^! decompose on be+ heat$1 =m+ c>bonic anhydride1 oxyg51 & vap\rs ( m]cury4 #ah ,spr+ 7#ahhh7 %[$ t1 solid dry ,hg,cl is gradually decompos$ 9 contact ) metallic copp]4 ,accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,?oms51 ! =mation ( a gram ( m]curial comp\nds f _! elem5ts develops ! foll[+ am\nts ( heat 79 ?\s&s ( units73 ,hg#b ,o1 #db2 ,hg ,o1 #ca2 ,hg ,s1 #ag2 ,hg ,cl1 #da2 ,hg ,br1 #cd2 ,hg ,i1 #bd2 ,hg ,cl#b1 #fc2 ,hg ,br#b1 #ea2 ,hg ,i#b1 #cd2 ,hg ,c#b,n#b1 #ai4 ,^! numb]s are less ?an ! correspond+ ones = potassium1 sodium1 calcium1 b>ium1 & = z9c & cadmium--= in/ance1 ,zn ,o1 #he2 ,zn ,cl#b1 #ig2 ,zn ,br#b1 #gf2 ,zn ,i#b1 #di2 ,cd ,cl#b1 #ic2 ,cd ,br#b1 #ge2 ,cd ,i#b1 #di4 #ai ,?is salt easily =ms ! cry/allo-hydrate ,hg,n,o#c1;,h#b,o1 correspond+ ) or?o-nitric acid1 ,h#c,,no#d 7! t]ms or?o-1 pyro-1 & meta-acids are expla9$ 9 ! *apt] on ,phosphorus71 ) ! sub/itution ( ,hg = ,h4 ,9 an aque\s solution ?is salt c only be pres]v$ 9 ! pres5ce ( free m]cury1 o!rwise x =ms basic salts1 :i* w be m5tion$ h]eaft] 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #ei74 #bj ,m]curic nitrate1 ,hg7,,no#c7b1h;,h#b,o1 cry/allises f a conc5trat$ solution ( m]cury 9 an excess ( boil+ nitric acid4 ,wat] decomposes ?is salt2 at ! ord9>y temp]ature cry/als ( a basic salt ( ! composition ,hg7,,no#c7b1;,hg,o1#b;,h#b,o are =m$1 & ) an excess ( wat] ! insoluble yell[ basic salt ,hg7,,no#c7b1;,h#b,o1#b;,hg,o4 ,^! ?ree salts correspond ) ! type ( or?o-nitric acid1 7,h#c,,no#d7b1 9 :i* m]cury is sub/itut$ = #a1 #b & #c times ,h#b4 ,z all ^! salts /ill conta9 wat]1 x is possible t !y correspond ) ! tetrahydrate ,n#b,o#e #d;,h#b,o ,n#b,o7,,oh7#h if or?o-nitric acid ,n#b,o#e #c;,h#b,o #b,,no7,,oh7#c4 #ba ,to obta9 ! m]curic salt a l>ge excess ( /rong sulphuric acid mu/ be tak5 & /rongly heat$4 ,) a small quantity ( wat] col\rless cry/als ( ,hg,s,o#d1;,h#b,o may be obta9$4 ,an excess ( wat]1 especially :5 heat$1 =ms ! basic salt 7z 9 ,note #bj71 ,hg,s,o#d1b;,hg,o1 :i* corresponds ) trihydrat$ sulphuric acid1 ,,s#c #c;,h#b,o ,s7,,oh7#f1 ) ! sub/itution ( ,h#f by #c;,hg1 :i* 9 m]curic salts is equival5t to ,h#f4 ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahhh7 gives ! foll[+ ratio betwe5 ! am\nts ( equival5ts p] litre3 ,hg,s,o#d #jcah #jhij #ahj #bjb ,,s#c #jgeb #adb #baj #bdj --t is1 ! relative am\nt ( free acid decreases z ! /r5g? ( ! solution increases4 #bb ,! "q ( ! molecul> weight ( calomel--t is1 :e!r ! m]cury 9 ! salts ( ! suboxide is monatomic or diatomic--long occupi$ ! m9ds ( *emi/s1 al?\gh x is n ( v great importance4 ,x is only rec5tly 7#ahid7 t ?is "q c be consid]$ z answ]$1 ?anks to ! rese>*es ( ,v4 ,mey] & ,h>ris1 9 fav\r ( diatomicity--t is1 t calomel is analog\s to p]oxide ( hydrog5 & conta9s ,hg#b;,cl#b 7l ,o#b;,h#b7 9 its molecule if corrosive sublimate conta9s ,hg,cl#b 7l wat] ,,oh#b74 ,z a matt] ( fact1 direct exp]im5t gives ! vap\r d5sity ( calomel z ab\t #aah--t is1 indicates t its molecule conta9s ,hg,cl1 :il/ ! molecule ( ! sublimate1 judg+ also by ! vap\r d5sity 7ne>ly #acf71 conta9s ,hg,cl#b2 x might !re=e be conclud$ t ! m]cury 9 ! suboxide is n only monoval5t 7correspond+ to ,h7 b also monatomic1 :il/ 9 ! oxide x is dival5t & diatomic4 ,in/ances ( a v>iable atomicity1 z %[n by ! vap\r d5sity1 are kn[n 9 ,n#b,o1 ,,no1 & ,,nh#c1 ,,co & ,,co#b1 ,p,cl#c & ,p,cl#e1 & x might !re=e be suppos$ t ! pres5t 0 a simil> in/ance4 ,b !re are also in/ances ( a v>iable equival5cy :i* d n correspond to a v>iation ( atomicity--= example1 ,,oh#b 7wat]7 & ,,oh 7p]oxide ( hydrog571 ,,*#d 7me?ane71 ,c#b;,h#e 7e?yl71 & ,,*#b 7e?yl5e71 c4 ,"h1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 ! residues ( ,,oh#b & ,,*#d comb9e toge!r & give molecules2 ,,ohoh ,o#b;,h#b 7p]oxide ( hydrog57 & ,,*#c;,,*#c ,c#b;,h#f 7e?ane71 c4 ,! same may be assum$ also to be ! relation ( calomel to sublimate2 ! residue ,hg,cl1 :i* is comb9$ ) ,cl 9 sublimate1 corresponds to ,hg,cl#b1 & 9 calomel x may be suppos$ t ?is residue is comb9$ ) itself1 =m+ ! molecule ,hg#b;,cl#b4 ,on ?is view ( ! composition ( ! molecule ( calomel x w\ld foll[ t 9 ! /ate ( vap\r x breaks up into two molecules1 ,hg,cl#b & ,hg1 :5 ! vap\r d5sity w\ld be ab\t #aah 7because t ( sublimate is ab\t #acf & t ( m]cury ab\t #ajj71 & t 9 cool+ ?is mixture 7l a mixture ( ,h,cl & ,,nh#c7 aga9 gives ,hg#b;,cl#b4 ,x 0 !re=e necess>y to prove t calomel is decompos$ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r4 ,?is 0 n effect$ = a long "t1 al?\gh ,odl+1 z f> back z ! ?irties1 %[$ t gold becomes amalgamat$ 7i4e4 absorbs metallic m]cury7 9 ! vap\r ( calomel1 b n 9 ! vap\r ( sublimate4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 ,v4 ,mey] & ,h>ris 7#ahid7 h %[n t a great] am\nt ( ! vap\r ( m]cury ?an ( calomel passes 7at ab\t #dfe7 ?r\gh a por\s clay cell1 conta9+ calomel4 ,?is proves t ! vap\r ( calomel conta9s a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( ,hg & ,hg,cl#b1 z w\ld foll[ f ! second hypo!sis4 ,moreov]1 on introduc+ a heat$ piece ( ,,kho into ! vap\r ( calomel1 ,mey] obs]v$ ! =mation1 n ( suboxide 7black71 b ( oxide ( m]cury 7yell[74 ,!re=e ! molecul> =mula ( calomel mu/ be tak5 z ,hg#b;,cl#b 7& n ,hg,cl74 ,! l[e/ oxyg5 comp\nd ( m]cury--t is1 m]cur\s oxide1 ,hg#b,o--does n seem to exi/1 = ! sub/ance precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( a black mass by ! action ( alkalis on a solution ( m]cur\s salts gradually sep>ates on keep+ into ! yell[ m]curic oxide & metallic m]cury1 z does also a simple me*anical mixture ( oxide1 ,hg,o1 ) m]cury 7,guib\rt1 ,b>fo$74 ,! o!r comp\nd ( m]cury ) oxyg5 is already kn[n to u z m]curic oxide1 ,hg,o1 obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a r$ cry/all9e sub/ance by ! oxidation ( m]cury 9 ! air1 & precipitat$ z a yell[ p[d] by ! action ( sodium hydroxide on solutions ( salts ( ! type ,hg,x#b4 ,9 ?is case x is amorph\s & m am5able to ! action ( v>i\s reag5ts 7,*ap4 ,,xi41 ,note #cb7 ?an :5 x is 9 ! cry/all9e /ate4 ,inde$1 on trituration1 ! r$ oxide is *ang$ into a p[d] ( a yell[ col\r4 ,x is v sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 & =ms an alkal9e solution :i* precipitates magnesia f ! solution ( its salts4 ,m]cury comb9es directly ) *lor9e1 & ! fir/ product ( comb9ation is calomel or m]cur\s *loride1 ,hg#b;,cl#b4 ,?is is obta9$1 z above /at$1 9 ! =m ( a :ite precipitate by mix+ solutions ( m]cur\s salts ) hydro*loric acid or ) metallic *lorides4 ,a precipitate ( calomel is also obta9$ by r$uc+ a boil+ aque\s solution ( corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b1 ) sulphur\s anhydride4 ,x is likewise produc$ by heat+ corrosive sublimate ) m]cury4#bb bis ,calomel may be di/ill$ 7al?\gh 9 s do+ x decomposes & recomb9es on cool+ f a /ate ( vap\r72 its vap\r d5sity equals #aah comp>$ ) hydrog5 7 #a7 7see ,note #bc74 ,9 ! solid /ate its specific gravity is #gj2 x cry/allises 9 rhombic prisms1 is col\rless1 b has a yell[i% t9t1 turns br[n f ! action ( light1 & :5 boil$ ) hydro*loric acid decomposes into m]cury & corrosive sublimate4 ,x is us$ z a /rong purgative4 ,corrosive sublimate or m]curic *loride1 ,hg,cl#b1 c be obta9$ f or conv]t$ into calomel by _m me?ods4#bc ,an excess ( *lor9e 7= in/ance1 aqua regia7 conv]ts calomel & also m]cury into corrosive sublimate4 ,x owes its "n corrosive sublimate to its volatility1 &1 9 m$ic9e up to ! pres5t day1 x is t]m$ ,m]curius sublimatus seu corrosivus4 ,! vap\r d5sity1 comp>$ ) hydrog5 7 #a7 is #ace2 !re=e its molecule conta9s ,hg,cl#b4 ,x =ms col\rless prismatic cry/als ( ! rhombic sy/em1 boils at #cjg1 & is soluble 9 alcohol4 ,x is usually prep>$ by sublim+ a mixture ( m]curic sulphate ) common salt1 ,hg,s,o#d #b,na,cl ,na#b,,s#d ,hg,cl#b4 ,corrosive sublimate comb9es ) m]curic oxide1 =m+ an oxy*loride or basic salt1#bc bis ( ! composition ,hg,cl#b1b;,hg,o 7magnesium & z9c =m simil> comp\nds74 ,?is comp\nd is obta9$ by mix+ a solution ( corrosive sublimate ) m]curic oxide or ) a solution ( sodium bic>bonate4 ,9 g5]al1 ) bo? m]cur\s & m]curic salts1 !re is a m>k$ t5d5cy to =m basic salts4#bd #bb bis ,calomel 79 ,japanese ',keyfun'7 has be5 prep>$ 9 ,japan 7& ,*9a7 = _m c5turies1 by heat+ m]cury 9 clay crucibles ) sea salt1 :i* conta9s ,mg,cl#b & gives ,h,cl4 ,! vap\r ( ! m]cury reacts ) ?is ,h,cl & ! oxyg5 ( ! air & =ms calomel3 #b;,hg #b;,h,cl ,o ,hg#b;,cl#b ,h#b,o4 ,! calomel collects on ! lid ( ! crucible 9 ! =m ( a sublimate 7,div]s1 #ahid74 #bc ,hg,cl#b is p>tially conv]t$ into calomel ev5 9 ! act ( dissolv+ 9 ord9>y wat]1 especially "u ! action ( light4 #bc bis ,z feebly en]getic bases 7= in/ance1 ! oxides ,mg,o1 ,zn,o1 ,pb,o1 ,cu,o1 ,al#b,o#c1 ,bi#b,o#c1 c471 m]curic oxide 7see ,notes #bj1 #ba7 & m]cur\s oxide easily give basic salts1 :i* are usually directly =m$ by ! action ( wat] on ! normal salt1 accord+ to ! g5]al equation 7= m]curic comp\nds1 ,,rx#b73 n,,rx#b m,h#b,o #bm,,hx 7n-m7,,rx#bm,,ro neutral salt wat] acid basic salt or else are produc$ directly f ! normal salt & ! oxide or its hydroxide4 ,?us m]cur\s nitrate1 :5 treat$ ) wat]1 =ms basic salts ( ! composition #f7;,hg,n,o#c71;,hg#b,o1,h#b,o1 #b7;,hg,n,o#c71;,hg#b,o1,h#b,o1 & #c7;,hg,n,o#c71;,hg#b,o1,h#b,o1 ! fir/ two ( :i* cry/allise well4 ,naturally x is possible ei!r to ref] simil> salts to ! type ( hydrates--= in/ance1 ! second salt to ! hydrate ,n#b,o#e1d;,h#b,o--or to view x z a comp\nd1 ,hg,n,o#c1;,hg,h,o1 b our pres5t k ( basic salts is n suffici5tly complete to admit ( g5]alisations4 ,h[ev]1 x is already possible to view ! subject 9 ! foll[+ aspects3 7#a7 basic salts are pr9cipally =m$ f feeble bases2 7#b7 c]ta9 metals 7m5tion$ above7 =m !m ) p>ticul> ease1 s t "o ( ! causes ( ! =mation ( _m basic salts mu/ dep5d on ! prop]ty ( ! metal itself2 7#c7 ^? bases :i* readily =m basic salts z a rule also readily =m d\ble salts2 7#d7 9 ! =mation ( basic salts1 z also ev]y:]e 9 *emi/ry1 :]e suffici5t facts h accumulat$1 we cle>ly see ! conditions ( equally balanc$ het]og5e\s sy/ems1 su* z we saw1 = in/ance1 9 ! =mation ( d\ble salts1 cry/allo-hydrates1 c4 ,! m]curic salts (t5 =m d\ble salts 7confirm+ ! ?ird !sis71 & m]curic *loride easily comb9es ) ammonia1 =m+ ,hg7,,nh#d7b;,cl#d1 or 9 g5]al ,hg,cl#bn,m,cl4 ,if a mixture ( m]cur\s & potassium sulphates be dissolv$ 9 dilute sulphuric acid1 ! solution easily yields l>ge col\rless cry/als ( a d\ble salt ( ! composition ,k#b,,s#d1c;,hg,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,b\llay obta9$ cry/all9e comp\nds ( m]curic *loride ) hydro*loric acid1 & m]curic iodide ) hydriodic acid2 & ,?oms5 describes ! comp\nd ,hg,br#b1;,h,br1#d;,h#b,o z a well-cry/allis$ salt1 melt+ at #ac1 & hav+1 9 a molt5 /ate1 a specific gravity #cag & a high index ( refraction4 ,moreov]1 ! capacity ( salts = =m+ basic comp\nds has be5 consid]ably cle>$ up s9ce ! inve/igation 7by ,wrtz1 ,lor5z1 & o!rs7 ( glycol1 ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b 7& ( polyatomic alcohols resembl+ x71 because ! e!rs ,c#b;,h#d,x#b1 correspond+ ) x1 are capable ( =m+ comp\nds conta9+ ,c#b;,h#d,x#bn,c#b;,h#d,o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is reason to ?9k t ! prop]ty ( =m+ basic salts is connect$ ) ! polym]isation ( bases1 especially colloidal ones 7see ! *apt] on ,silica1 ,lead ,salts1 & ,tung/ic ,acid74 #bd ,m]curic iodide1 ,hg,i#b1 is obta9$ fir/ z a yell[1 & !n z a r$1 precipitate on mix+ solutions ( m]curic salts & potassium iodide1 & is soluble 9 an excess ( ! latt] 79 consequ5ce ( ! =mation ( ! d\ble salt1 ,hg,k,i#c72 ( ammonium *loride 7= a simil> reason71 c4 ,x cry/allises at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 squ>e prisms ( a r$ col\r4 ,on be+ heat$1 ^! *ange into yell[ rhombic cry/als1 isomorph\s ) m]curic *loride4 ,?is yell[ =m ( m]curic iodide is v un/able1 & :5 cool$ & triturat$ easily aga9 assumes ! m /able r$ =m4 ,:5 fus$1 a yell[ liquid is obta9$4 ,m]curic cyanide1 ,hg7,,cn7#b1 =ms "o ( ! mo/ /able metallic cyanides4 ,x is obta9$ by dissolv+ m]curic oxide 9 prussic acid1 & by boil+ ,prussian blue ) wat] & m]curic oxide1 f]ric oxide be+ !n obta9$ 9 ! precipitate4 ,m]curic cyanide is a col\rless cry/all9e sub/ance1 soluble 9 wat]1 & di/+ui%$ by its great /ability2 sulphuric acid does n lib]ate prussic acid f x1 & ev5 cau/ic pota% does n remove ! cyanog5 7a complex salt is probably produc$71 b ! halog5 acids dis5gage ,,hcn4 ,l ! *loride1 x comb9es ) m]curic oxide1 =m+ ! oxycyanide1 ,hg#b,o7,,cn7#b1 & x %[s a v m>k$ t5d5cy to =m d\ble comp\nds--= example1 ,k#b;,hg7,,cn7#d4 ,! alkali *lorides & iodides =m simil> comp\nds--= in/ance1 ! salt ,hg,k,i7,,cn7#b cry/allises v well1 & is produc$ by directly mix+ solutions ( potassium iodide & m]curic cyanide4 ,wells 7#ahhi7 & ,v>e obta9$ & inve/igat$ _m su* d\ble salts1 & %[$ ! possibility ( ! =mation1 n only ( ,hg,cl#b,m,cl & ,hg,cl#bb,m,cl :]e ,m is a metal ( ! alkalis--= example1 ,cs--b also ( ,hg,cl#bc,m,cl1#b7;,hg,cl#b7,m,cl1 & 9 g5]al n,hg,x#bm,,mx1 :]e ,x /&s = v>i\s haloids4 ,m]cury has a rem>kable p[] ( =m+ v un/able comp\nds ) ammonia1 9 :i* ! m]cury replaces ! hydrog51 &1 if a m]curic comp\nd be tak51 its atom occupies ! place ( two atoms ( ! hydrog5 9 ! ammonia4 ,?us ,plantam\r & ,hirtzel %[$ t precipitat$ m]curic oxide dri$ at a g5tle heat1 :5 cont9u\sly heat$ 7up to #ajj-aej7 9 a /ream ( dry ammonia1 leaves a br[n p[d] ( m]curic nitride1 ,n#b;,hg#c1 accord+ to ! equation #c;,hg,o #b,,nh#c ,n#b;,hg#c #c;,h#b,o4#bd bis ,?is sub/ance1 :i* is attack$ by wat]1 acids1 & alkalis 7giv+ a :ite p[d]71 is v explosive :5 /ruck or rubb$1 evolv+ nitrog51 prov+ t ! bond betwe5 ! m]cury & ! nitrog5 is v feeble4#be ,by ! action ( liquefi$ ammonia on yell[ m]curic oxide ,weitz also obta9$ an explosive comp\nd1 dim]curammonium hydroxide1 ,n#b;,hg#d,o1 :i* corresponds ) an ammonium oxide1 7,,nh#d7b,o1 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! hydrog5 is replac$ by m]cury4 ,a solution ( ammonia reacts ) m]curic oxide1 =m+ ! hydroxide1 ,n,hg#b4,,oh1 to :i* a :ole s]ies ( salts1 ,n,hg#b,x1 correspond2 ^! are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat] & capable ( decompos+ ) an explosion4 ,b salts ( ! same type1 b ) "o atom ( m]cury1 ,,nh#b;,hg,x1 are m frequ5tly & m easily =m$2 !y 7 pr9cipally /udi$ by ,kane1 al?\gh kn[n mu* e>li]4 ,?us1 if ammonia be add$ to a solution ( corrosive sublimate 7or1 /ill bett]1 9 rev]se ord]71 a precipitate is obta9$ kn[n z :ite precipitate 7,m]curius prcipitatus albus7 or m]curammonium *loride1 ,,nh#b;,hg,cl1 :i* may also be reg>d$ n only z sal-ammoniac ) ! sub/itution ( ,h#b by m]cury1 b also z ,hg,x#b1 :]e "o ,x repres5ts ,cl & ! o!r ,x repres5ts ! ammonia radicle1 ,hg,cl#b #b,,nh#c ,,nh#b4;,hg,cl ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,:5 heat$1 m]curammonium *loride decomposes1 yield+ m]cur\s *loride2 :5 heat$ ) dry hydro*loric acid x =ms ammonium *loride & m]curic *loride4 ,o!r simple & d\ble salts ( m]curammonium1 ,,nh#b;,hg,x1 are also kn[n4 ,pici 7#ahij7 %[$ t all ! comp\nds ,hg,h#b,,nx may be reg>d$ z comp\nds ( ! above-nam$ ,hg#b,,nx ) ,,nh#d,x because _! sum equals #b;,hg,h#b,x4#be bis #bd bis ,see ,*apt] ,,xix41 ,note #f bis3 ,hg#c,p#b4 ,9 /udy+ ! metallic nitrides x is necess>y to keep ! correspond+ phosphides 9 m9d4 #be ,hg#c,n#b is simil> 9 composition to ,mg#c,n#b1 c4 7,*apt] ,,xiv47 ,! read9ess ) :i* m]curic nitride explodes %[s t ! connection betwe5 ! nitrog5 & ! m]cury is v un/able1 & expla9s ! circum/ance t ! s-call$ m]cury fulm9ate1 or fulm9at+ m]cury1 is an exce$+ly explosive sub/ance4 ,?is sub/ance is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities = explosive mixtures2 x ent]s into ! composition ( p]cussion caps1 :i* explode :5 /ruck1 & ignite gunp[d]4 ,m]cury fulm9ate 0 discov]$ by ,h[>d1 & f t "t has be5 prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ way3 "o "p ( m]cury is dissolv$ 9 twelve p>ts ( nitric acid1 ( sp4 gr4 #acf1 & :5 ! :ole ( ! m]cury is dissolv$1 #ee p>ts ( #ij p4c4 alcohol are add$1 & ! mass is %ak54 ,a reaction !n comm5ces1 accompani$ by a rise 9 temp]ature due to ! oxidation ( ! alcohol4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 _m oxidation products are produc$ dur+ ! action ( ! nitric acid on ! alcohol 7glycolic acid1 e!rs1 c47 ,:5 ! reaction becomes tol]ably vigor\s1 ! same quantity ( alcohol is add$ z at ! comm5cem5t1 :5 a grey precipitate ( ! fulm9ate sep>ates4 ,?is salt has ! composition ,c#b;,hg7,,no#b7,n4 ,x explodes :5 /ruck or heat$4 ,! m]cury 9 x may be replac$ by o!r metals--= in/ance1 copp] or z9c1 & also silv]4 ,! silv] salt1 ,c#b;,ag#b7,,no#b7,n1 is obta9$ 9 a precisely analog\s mann]1 & is ev5 m explosive4 ,"u ! action ( alkali *lorides1 only half ! silv] is replac$ by ! alkali metal1 b if ! :ole ( ! silv] be replac$ by an alkali metal1 !n ! salt decomposes4 ,?is is evid5tly because comb9ations ( ?is k9d proce$ 9 virtue ( ! =mation ( sub/ances 9 :i* m]cury1 & metals ak9 to x1 are connect$ 9 an un/able way ) nitrog54 ,potassium & o!r light metals are incapable ( ent]+ into su* connection & !re=e1 ! sub/itution ( potassium = m]cury entails ! splitt+-up ( ! comb9ation4 ,inve/igations ( ! fulm9ates 7 c>ri$ on by ,gay-,lussac & ,liebig1 b only ! inve/igations ( ,l4 ,n4 ,%i%k(f fully cle>$ up ! composition & relation ( ^! sub/ances to ! o!r c>bon comp\nds4 ,%i%k(f %[$ t fulm9ates correspond ) ! nitro-acid1 ,c#b;,h#b7,,no#b7,n4 ,! explosiv5ess ( ! gr\p dep5ds p>tly on its conta9+ at ! same "t ,,no#b & c>bon2 we already "k t all su* nitrog5 comp\nds are explosive4 ,if we imag9e t ! ,,no#b is replac$ by hydrog51 we %all h a sub/ance ( ! composition ,c#b;,h#c,n4 ,?is is acetonitrile--t is1 acetic acid ,,nh#c - #b;,h#b,o1 or e!nyl nitrile1 z %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! =mation ( an acetic comp\nd by ! action ( nitric acid on alcohol is easily und]/ood1 because acetic acid is produc$ by ! oxidation ( alcohol1 & ! production ( ! elem5ts ( ammonia1 indisp5sable = ! =mation ( a nitrile1 is acc\nt$ = by ! fact t nitric acid "u ! action ( r$uc+ sub/ances 9 _m cases =ms ammonia4 ,moreov] a c]ta9 analogy has be5 f\nd betwe5 fulm9at+ acid & hydroxylam9e1 b details ^u ?is subject mu/ be look$ = 9 works on organic *emi/ry4 ,! explosiv5ess ( fulm9at+ m]cury1 ! rapidity ( its decomposition 7gunp[d]1 & ev5 guncotton1 burn m sl[ly & explode less viol5tly71 & ! =ce ( its explosion1 are su* t a small quantity 7loosely cov]$7 w %att] massive objects4 ,! inve/igations ( ,abel on ! communication ( explosion f "o sub/ance to ano!r are rem>kable4 ,if guncotton be ignit$ 9 an op5 space1 x burns quietly2 b if fulm9at+ m]cury be explod$ by ! side ( x1 ! decomposition ( ! guncotton is effect$ in/antane\sly1 & x !n %att]s ! objects ^u :i* x lies1 s rapid is ! decomposition4 ,abel expla9s ?is by suppos+ t ! explosion ( ! fulm9at+ salt br+s ! molecules ( guncotton into a uni=m or z x 7 h>moni\s /ate ( vibration1 :i* causes ! rapid decomposition ( ! :ole mass4 ,?is rapid decomposition ( explosive sub/ances def9es ! di/9ction betwe5 explosion & combu/ion4 ,besides ?is1 ,b]!lot %[$ t f t =m ( p[]ful molecul> concussion :i* takes place dur+ ! explosion ( fulm9at+ m]cury1 ! /ate ( /ra9 & /ability ( equilibrium ( sub/ances :i* are endo!rmal1 or capable ( decompos+ ) ! dis5gagem5t ( heat--= in/ance1 cyanog51 nitro comp\nds1 nitr\s oxide1 c4--is g5]ally de/roy$4 ,?orpe %[$ t c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 also an endo!rmal sub/ance1 decomposes into sulphur & *>coal1 :5 fulm9at+ m]cury is explod$ 9 contact ) x4 #be bis ,! capacity = replac+ hydrog5 9 *loride ( ammonium by metals also belongs to ,zn & ,cd4 ,kvasnik 7#ahib71 by ! action ( ammonia ^u alcoholic solutions ( ,cd,cl#b & ,zn,cl#b1 obta9$ sub/ances ( ! g5]al =mula ,m7,,nh#c;,cl7#b1 =m$ z x 7 f two molecules ( sal-ammoniac by ! sub/itution ( two atoms ( hydrog5 by a diatomic metal4 ,^! sub/ances appe> z :ite1 f9ely cry/all9e p[d]s4 ,"u ! action ( heat half ! ammonia passes (f1 & a comp\nd ( ! composition ,m,cl,n,h#c;,cl is =m$4 ,! comp\nds ( cadmium & z9c are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ! =m] be+ m volatile ?an ! latt]4 ,we may fur!r rem>k t 9 ! s]ies ,mg1 ,zn1 ,cd1 & ,hg ! capacity to =m d\ble salts ( div]se composition increases ) ! atomic weight4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,wells & ,wald5's obs]vations 7#ahic71 ! ratio n 3 m = ! type n,m,clm,r,cl#b 7,m ,k1 ,li1 ,na 444 ,r ,mg1 ,zn 4447 is = ,mg #a 3 #a1 = ,zn #c 3 #a1 #b 3 #a1 & #a 3 #a2 = ,cd1 besides ?is1 salts are kn[n ) ! ratio #d 3 #a1 & = ,hg #c 3 #a1 #b 3 #a1 #a 3 #a1 #b 3 #c1 #a 3 #b1 & #a 3 #e4 ,m]cury z a liquid metal is capable ( dissolv+ o!r metals & =m+ metallic solutions4 ,^! are g5]ally call$ 'amalgams4' ,! =mation ( ^! solutions is (t5 accompani$ by ! developm5t ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat--= in/ance1 :5 potassium & sodium are dissolv$ 7,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #ci72 b sometimes heat is absorb$1 z1 = in/ance1 :5 lead is dissolv$4 ,x is evid5t t ph5om5a ( ?is k9d are exce$+ly simil> to ! ph5om5a accompany+ ! dissolution ( salts & o!r sub/ances 9 wat]1 b "h x is easy to demon/rate t :i* is f> m difficult to obs]ve 9 ! case ( salts3 ! solution ( metals 9 m]cury is accompani$ by ! =mation ( def9ite *emical comp\nds ( ! m]cury ) ! metals dissolv$4 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t :5 press$ 7be/ ( all 9 *amois lea!r7 su* solutions leave solid1 def9ite comp\nds ( m]cury ) metals4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 v difficult to obta9 !m 9 a pure /ate1 on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ( sep>at+ ! la/ traces ( m]cury1 :i* is me*anically di/ribut$ betwe5 ! cry/als ( ! comp\nds4 ,nev]!less1 9 _m cases su* comp\nds h und\bt$ly be5 obta9$1 & _! exi/5ce is cle>ly %[n by ! evid5t cry/all9e /ructure & *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( _m amalgams4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if ab\t #b-a_/b p4c4 ( sodium be dissolv$ 9 m]cury1 a h>d1 cry/all9e amalgam is obta9$1 v friable & little *angeable 9 air4 ,x conta9s ! comp\nd ,na,hg#e 7,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #ci74 ,wat] decomposes x1 ) ! evolution ( hydrog51 b m sl[ly ?an o!r sodium amalgams1 & ?is action ( wat] only %[s t ! bond betwe5 ! sodium & ! m]cury is weak1 j l ! connection betwe5 m]cury & _m o!r elem5ts--= in/ance1 nitrog54 ,m]cury directly & easily dissolves potassium1 sodium1 z9c1 cadmium1 t91 gold1 bismu?1 lead1 c41 & f su* solutions or alloys x is 9 mo/ cases easy to extract def9ite comp\nds--?us1 = in/ance1 ! comp\nds ( m]cury & silv] h ! compositions ,hg,ag & ,ag#b;,hg#c4 ,objects made ( copp] :5 rubb$ ) m]cury become cov]$ ) a :ite coat+ ( t metal1 :i* sl[ly =ms an amalgam2 silv] acts 9 ! same way1 b m sl[ly1 & plat9um comb9es ) m]cury ) /ill great] difficulty4 ,?is metal only readily =ms an amalgam :5 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d]4 ,if salts ( plat9um 9 solution are p\r$ on to an amalgam ( sodium1 ! latt] elem5t r$uces ! plat9um1 & ! plat9um sep>at$ is dissolv$ by ! m]cury4 ,almo/ all metals readily =m amalgams if _! solutions are decompos$ by a galvanic curr5t1 :]e m]cury =ms ! negative pole4 ,9 ?is way an amalgam may ev5 be made ) iron1 al?\gh iron 9 a mass does n dissolve 9 m]cury4 ,"s amalgams are f\nd 9 nature--= in/ance1 silv] amalgams4 ,amalgams are us$ 9 consid]able quantities 9 ! arts4 ,?us ! solubility ( silv] 9 m]cury is tak5 advantage ( = extract+ t metal f ! ore by means ( amalgamation1 & = silv]+ by fire4 ,! same is ! case ) gold4 ,t9 amalgam1 :i* is incapable ( cry/allis+ & is obta9$ by dissolv+ t9 9 m]cury1 composes ! brilliant coat+ ( ord9>y look+-glasses1 :i* is made to adh]e to ! surface ( ! poli%$ glass by simply press+ by me*anical means %eets ( t9 foil ba!d 9 m]cury on to ! cleans$ surface ( ! glass4#bf 7,see ',! ,nature ( ,amalgams1' by ,w4 ,l4 ,dudley2 ,toronto1 #ahhi47 #bf ,i consid] x appropriate "h to call att5tion to ! want ( an elem5t 7ekacadmium7 betwe5 cadmium & m]cury 9 ! p]iodic sy/em 7,*apt] ,,xv47 ,b z 9 ! n9? s]ies !re is n a s+le kn[n elem5t1 x may be t ?is s]ies is entirely compos$ ( elem5ts incapable ( exi/+ "u pres5t conditions4 ,h[ev]1 until ?is is prov$ 9 "o way or ano!r1 x may be conclud$ t ! prop]ties ( ekacadmium w be betwe5 ^? ( cadmium & m]cury4 ,x ought to h an atomic weight ( ab\t #aee1 to =m an oxide ,ec,o1 a slightly /able oxide ,ec#b,o4 ,bo? ought to be feeble bases1 easily =m+ d\ble & basic salts4 ,! volume ( ! oxide w be ne>ly #age1 because ! volume ( cadmium oxide is ab\t #af1 & t ( m]curic oxide #ai4 ,!re=e ! d5sity ( ! oxide w approa* #aga #age #ig4 ,! metal ought to be easily fusible1 oxidis+ :5 heat$1 ( a grey col\r1 ) a specific volume1 ab\t #ad 7cadmium #ac1 m]cury #ae71 &1 !re=e1 its specific gravity 7#aee #ad7 w ne>ly #aa4 ,su* a metal is unkn[n4 ,b 9 #ahgi ,dahl1 9 ,norway1 discov]$ 9 ! isl& ( ,ot]1 n f> f ,krag]1 9 a ve9 ( ,icel& sp> 9 a nickel m9e1 traces ( a new metal :i* he call$ norwegium1 & :i* pres5t$ a c]ta9 resemblance to ekacadmium4 ,p]fect purity ( ! metal 0 n atta9$1 & !re=e ! prop]ties ascrib$ to norwegium mu/ be reg>d$ z approximate1 & likely to und]go consid]able alt]ation on fur!r /udy4 ,a solution ( ! roa/$ m9]al 9 acid 0 twice precipitat$ by sulphurett$ hydrog51 & aga9 ignit$2 ! oxide obta9$ 0 easily r$uc$4 ,:5 ! metal 0 dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid l>gely dilut$ ) wat]1 & ! solution boil$1 ! basic salt 0 precipitat$1 & ?us fre$ f ! copp] :i* rema9$ 9 ! solution4 ,! r$uc$ metal _h a d5sity #idd1 & easily oxidis$4 ,if ! composition ,ng,o be assign$ to ! oxide1 !n ,ng #adei4 ,x fus$ at #bed2 ! hydroxide 0 soluble 9 alkalis & potassium c>bonate4 ,9 any case1 if norwegium is n a mixture ( o!r metals1 x belongs to ! unev5 s]ies1 because ! heavy metals ( ! ev5 s]ies are n easily r$ucible4 ,braun] ?9ks t norwegium oxide is ,ng#b,o#c1 ! atom ,ng #bai1 & places x 9 ,gr\p ,,vi41 s]ies #aa1 b !n ! feebly acid high] oxide1 ,ng,o#c1 ought to be =m$4 ,among/ ! metals accompany+ z9c :i* h be5 nam$1 b n au!ntically sep>at$1 mu/ be includ$ ! act9ium ( ,phipson 7#ahha74 ,he rem>k$ t c]ta9 sorts ( z9c give a :ite precipitate ( z9c sulphide :i* black5s on exposure to light & !n becomes :ite 9 ! d>k aga94 ,its oxide1 closely resembl+ 9 _m ways cadmium oxide1 is insoluble 9 alkalis1 & x =ms a :ite metallic sulphide1 black5+ on exposure to light4 ,z no fur!r m5tion has be5 made ( x s9ce #ahhb1 its exi/5ce mu/ be reg>d$ z d\btful4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,boron1 ,,alum9ium1 ,,& ,,! ,,analog\s ,,metals ,,( ,,! ,,?ird ,,gr\p ,if ! elem5ts ( small atomic weight :i* we h hi!rto discuss$ be plac$ 9 ord]1 x w be cle>ly se5 t1 judg+ by ! =mul ( _! high] comp\nds1 "o elem5t is want+ betwe5 b]yllium & c>bon4 ,= li?ium gives ,li,x1 b]yllium =ms ,be,x#b1 & !n comes c>bon giv+ ,,cx#d4 ,evid5tly to complete ! s]ies we mu/ look = an elem5t =m+ ,,rx#c1 & hav+ an atomic weight great] ?an #i & less ?an #ab4 ,& boron is su* a "o2 its atomic weight is #aa1 & its comp\nds are express$ by ,,bx#c4 ,li?ium & b]yllium are metals2 c>bon has no metallic prop]ties2 boron appe>s 9 a free /ate 9 sev]al =ms :i* are int]m$iate betwe5 ! metals & non-metals4 ,li?ium gives an en]getic cau/ic oxide1 b]yllium =ms a v feeble base2 h5ce "o w\ld expect to f9d t ! oxide ( boron1 ,b#b,o#c1 has /ill m feeble basic prop]ties & "s acid prop]ties1 all ! m z ,,co#b & ,n#b,o#e1 :i* foll[ aft] ,b#b,o#c 9 _! composition & 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 are acid oxides4 ,&1 inde$1 ! only kn[n oxide ( boron exhibits a feeble basic "*1 toge!r ) ! prop]ties ( a feeble acid oxide4 ,?is is ev5 se5 f ! fact t a solution ( boron oxide r$d5s blue litmus & acts on turm]ic pap] z an alkali1 & ^! reactions may be us$ = det]m9+ ! pres5ce ( ,b#b,o#c 9 solutions4 ,by !mselves ! alkali borates h an alkal9e reaction1 :i* cle>ly indicates ! feeble acid "* ( boric acid4 ,if !y are mix$ 9 solution ) hydro*loric acid1 boric acid is lib]at$1 & if a piece ( turm]ic pap] be imm]s$ 9 ?is solution & !n dri$1 ! excess ( hydro*loric acid volatilises1 :ile ! boric acid rema9s on ! pap] & communicates a br[n coloration to x1 j l alkalis4 ,boron trioxide or boric anhydride ent]s into ! composition ( _m m9]als1 9 ! majority ( cases 9 small quantities z an isomorph\s admixture1 n replac+ acids b bases1 & mo/ frequ5tly alum9a 7,al#b,o#c71 = z a rule ! am\nt ( alum9a decreases z t ( ! boric anhydride increases 9 !m4 ,?is sub/itution is expla9$ by ! simil>ity betwe5 ! atomic composition ( ! oxides ( alum9ium 7alum9a7 & boron4 ,! subdivision ( oxides into basic & acid c 9 no way be %>ply def9$1 & "h we meet ) ! mo/ conclusive pro( ( ! fact1 = ! oxides ( boron & alum9ium belong to ! numb] ( int]m$iate oxides1 closely approa*+ ! limit sep>at+ ! basic f ! acid oxides4 ,_! type 7,*apt] ,,xv47 ,r#b,o#c is int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! basic oxides ,r#b,o & ,,ro & ^? ( ! acid oxides ,r#b,o#e & ,,ro#c4 ,if we turn our att5tion to ! *lorides1 we rem>k t li?ium *loride is soluble 9 wat]1 is n volatile1 & is n decompos$ by wat]2 ! *lorides ( b]yllium & magnesium are m volatile1 & al?\gh n entirely1 /ill are decompos$ by wat]2 :il/ ! *lorides ( boron & alum9ium are /ill m volatile & are decompos$ by wat]4 ,?us ! position ( boron & alum9ium 9 ! s]ies ( ! o!r elem5ts is cle>ly def9$ by _! atomic weights1 & %[s u t we mu/ n expect any new & di/9ct functions 9 ^! elem5ts4 ,boron 0 orig9ally kn[n 9 ! =m ( sodium borate1 ,na#b;,b#d,o#g1aj;,h#b,o1 or borax1 or t9cal1 :i* 0 export$ f ,asia1 :]e x is met ) 9 solution 9 c]ta9 lakes ( ,?ibet2 x has also be5 discov]$ 9 ,cali=nia & ,nevada1 ,u4,s4,a4#a ,boric acid 0 aft]w>ds f\nd 9 sea-wat] & 9 c]ta9 m9]al spr+s4#b ,its pres5ce may be discov]$ by means ( ! gre5 coloration :i* x communicates to ! flame ( alcohol1 :i* is capable ( dissolv+ free boric acid4#c ,_m ( ! boron comp\nds employ$ 9 ! arts are obta9$ f ! impure boric acid :i* is extract$ 9 ,tuscany f ! s-call$ suffioni4 ,9 ^! localities1 :i* pres5t ! rema9s ( volcanic action1 /eam mix$ ) nitrog51 hydrog5 sulphide1 small quantities ( boric acid1 ammonia1 & o!r sub/ances1 issue f ! e>?4#c bis ,! boric acid p>tially volatilises ) ! /eam1 = if a solution ( boric acid be boil$1 ! di/illate w always conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ?is sub/ance4#d #a ,borax is ei!r directly obta9$ f lakes 7! ,am]ican lakes give ab\t #b1jjj tons & ! lakes ( ,?ibet ab\t #a1jjj tons p] annum71 or by heat+ native calcium borate 7see ,note #b7 ) sodium c>bonate 7ab\t #d1jjj tons p] annum71 or x is obta9$ 7up to #b1jjj tons7 f ! ,tuscan impure boric acid & sodium c>bonate 7c>bonic anhydride is evolv$74 ,borax gives sup]saturat$ solutions ) comp>ative ease 7,g]nez71 f :i* x cry/allises1 bo? at ! ord9>y & high] temp]atures1 9 octah$ra1 conta9+ ,na#b;,b#d,o#g1e;,h#b,o4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #aha4 ,b if ! cry/allisation proce$s 9 op5 vessels1 !n at temp]atures bel[ #ef1 ! ord9>y prismatic cry/allo-hydrate ,b#d,na#b,o#g1aj;,h#b,o is obta9$4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #aga1 x effloresces 9 dry air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & at #j #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve ab\t #h p>ts ( ?is cry/allo-hydrate1 at #ej #bg p>ts1 & at #ajj #bja p>ts4 ,borax fuses :5 heat$1 loses its wat] & gives an anhydr\s salt :i* at a r$ heat fuses into a mobile liquid & solidifies into a transp>5t amorph\s glass 7sp4 gr4 #bcg71 :i* be=e h>d5+ acquires ! pa/y condition peculi> to common molt5 glass4 ,molt5 borax dissolves _m oxides & on solidify+ acquires *>act]i/ic t9ts ) ! diff]5t oxides2 ?us oxide ( cobalt gives a d>k blue glass1 nickel a yell[1 *romium a gre51 manganese an ame?y/1 uranium a bright yell[1 c4 ,ow+ to its fusibility & prop]ty ( dissolv+ oxides1 borax is employ$ 9 sold]+ & braz+ metals4 ,borax frequ5tly ent]s into ! composition ( /rass & fusible glasses4 #b ,we may m5tion ! foll[+ among ! m9]als :i* conta9 boron3 calcium borate1 7,ca,o7#c7;,b#b,o#c77;,h#b,o7#f1 f\nd & extract$ 9 ,asia ,m9or1 ne> ,brusa2 boracite 7/assfurtite71 7,mg,o7#f7;,b#b,o#c7h1,mg,cl#b1 at ,/assfurt1 9 ! regul> sy/em1 l>ge cry/als & amorph\s masses 7specific gravity #bie71 us$ 9 ! arts2 eremeffite 7,dam\r71 ,al,b,o#c or ,al#b,o#c;,b#b,o#c1 f\nd 9 ! ,adul*alonsk m\nta9s 9 col\rless1 transp>5t prisms 7specific gravity #cbh7 resembl+ apatite2 da?olite1 7,ca,o7#b7,si,o#b7b;,b#b,o#c1;,h#b,o2 & ulksite1 or ! boron-sodium c>bonate f :i* a l>ge quantity ( borax is n[ extract$ 9 ,am]ica 7,note #a74 ,z mu* z #aj p4c4 ( boric anhydride sometimes ent]s into ! composition ( t\rmal9 & ax9ite4 #c ,?is gre5 coloration is be/ se5 by tak+ an alcoholic solution ( volatile e?yl borate1 :i* is easily obta9$ by ! action ( boron *loride on alcohol4 #c bis ,p4 ,*igeffsky %[$ 9 #ahhd 7at ,g5eva7 t 9 ! evaporation ( sal9e solutions _m salts are c>ri$ (f by ! vap\r--= in/ance1 if a solution ( pota% conta9+ ab\t #ag-bj grams ( ,k#b;,,co#c p] litre be boil$1 ab\t #e milligrams ( salt are c>ri$ (f = e litre ( wat] evaporat$4 ,) ,li#b;,,co#c ! am\nt ( salt c>ri$ ov] is inf9itesimal1 & ) ,na#b;,,co#c x is half t giv5 by ,k#b;,,co#c4 ,! volatilisation ( ,b#b,o#c "u ^! circum/ances is incomp>ably great]--= in/ance1 :5 a solution conta9+ #ad grams ( ,b#b,o#c p] litre is boil$1 e litre ( wat] evaporat$ c>ries ov] ab\t #cej milligrams ( ,b#b,o#c4 ,:5 ,*igeffsky pass$ /eam ?r\gh a tube conta9+ ,b#b,o#c at #djj1 x c>ri$ ov] s mu* ( ?is sub/ance t ! flame ( a ,buns5's burn] into :i* ! /eam 0 l$ gave a di/9ct gre5 coloration2 b :51 in/ead ( /eam1 air 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! tube !re 0 no coloration :atev]4 ,by plac+ a tube ) a cold surface 9 /eam conta9+ ,b#b,o#c1 ,*igeffsky obta9$ a cry/all9e deposit ( ! hydrate ,b7,,oh7#c on ! surface ( ! tube4 ,besides ?is1 he f\nd t ! am\nt ( ,b#b,o#c c>ri$ ov] by /eam increases ) ! temp]ature1 & t cry/als ( ,b7,,oh7#c plac$ 9 an atmosph]e ( /eam 7al?\gh p]fectly /ill7 volatilise1 :i* %[s t ?is is n a matt] ( me*anical transf]1 b is bas$ on ! capacity ( ,b#b,o#c & ,b7,,oh7#c to pass into a /ate ( vap\r 9 an atmosph]e ( /eam4 #d ,h[ x is t ^! vap\rs conta9+ boric acid are =m$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? is at pres5t unkn[n4 ,dumas supposes t x dep5ds on ! pres5ce ( boron sulphide1 ,b#b,s#c 7o!rs ?9k boron nitride71 at a c]ta9 dep? 9 ! e>?4 ,?is sub/ance may be artificially prep>$ by heat+ a mixture ( boric acid & *>coal 9 a /ream ( c>bon bisulphide vap\r1 & by ! direct comb9ation ( boron & ! vap\r ( sulphur at a :ite heat4 ,! almo/ non-cry/all9e comp\nd ,b#b,s#c1 sp4 gr4 #aee1 ?us obta9$ is some:at volatile1 has an unpleasant smell1 & is v easily decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ boric acid & hydrog5 sulphide1 ,b#b,s#c #c;,h#b,o ,b#b,o#c #c;,h#b,s4 ,x is suppos$ t a b$ ( boron sulphide ly+ at a c]ta9 dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? comes into contact ) sea wat] :i* has p]colat$ ?r\gh ! upp] /rata1 becomes v hot1 & gives /eam1 hydrog5 sulphide1 & boric acid4 ,?is also expla9s ! pres5ce ( ammonia 9 ! vap\rs1 because ! sea wat] c]ta9ly passes ?r\gh crevices conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( animal matt]1 :i* is decompos$ by ! action ( heat & evolves ammonia4 ,!re are sev]al o!r hypo!ses = expla9+ ! pres5ce ( ! vap\rs ( boric acid1 b ow+ to ! want ( o!r kn[n localities ! comp>ison ( ^! hypo!ses is at pres5t h>dly possible4 ,! am\nt ( boric anhydride 9 ! vap\rs :i* escape f ! ,tuscan fum]olles & suffioni is v inconsid]able1 less ?an "o-t5? p] c5t41 & !re=e ! direct extraction ( ! acid w\ld be v uneconomical1 h5ce ! heat conta9$ 9 ! dis*>g$ vap\rs is made use ( = evaporat+ ! wat]4 ,?is is done 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,res]voirs are con/ruct$ ov] ! crevices evolv+ ! vap\rs1 & ! wat] ( "s neighb\r+ spr+ is pass$ into !m4 ,! vap\rs are caus$ to pass ?r\gh ^! res]voirs1 & 9 s do+ !y give up all _! boric acid to ! wat] & heat x1 s t aft] ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs x ev5 boils2 /ill ?is wat] only =ms a v weak solution ( boric acid4 ,?is solution is !n pass$ into l[] bas9s & aga9 saturat$ by ! vap\rs dis*>g$ f ! e>?1 by :i* means a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! wat] is evaporat$ & a fre% quantity ( boric acid absorb$2 ! same process is repeat$ 9 ano!r res]voir1 & s on until ! wat] has collect$ a some:at consid]able am\nt ( boric acid4 ,! solution is drawn f ! la/ res]voir ,a into settl+ vessels ,b ,d1 & !n into a s]ies ( vessels a1 b1 c4 ,9 ^! vessels1 :i* are made ( lead1 ! solution is also evaporat$ by ! vap\rs escap+ f ! e>?1 & atta9s a d5sity ( #aj to #aa ,baum4 ,x is all[$ to settle 9 ! vessel ,c1 9 :i* x cools & cry/allises1 yield+ 7n q pure7 cry/all9e boric acid4 ,at temp]atures above #ajj1 = in/ance1 ) sup]heat$ /eam1 boric acid volatilises ) /eam v easily4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,extraction ( boric acid 9 ,tuscany4 ,if boric acid be introduc$ into an excess ( a /rong hot solution ( sodium hydroxide1 !n1 on sl[ly cool+1 ! salt ,na,b,o#b1d;,h#b,o cry/allises out4 ,?is salt conta9s an equival5t ( ,na#b,o to "o equival5t ,b#b,o#c4 ,x might be t]m$ a neutral salt did x n possess /rongly alkal9e reactions & easily split up into ! alkali & ! m /able borax or biborate ( sodium m5tion$ above1 :i* conta9s #b;,b#b,o#c to ,na#b,o4#e ,?is salt is prep>$ by ! action ( boric acid on a solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,borax may be p]fectly purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,if a saturat$ & hot solution ( borax be mix$ ) /rong hydro*loric acid1 common salt & a normal cry/all9e hydrate ( boric acid are =m$4 ,! composition ( ?is hydrate is ,b7,,ho7#c1 accord+ to ! =m ,,bx#c--t is1 ( ! composition ,b#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o4 ,?is is ! easie/ me?od ( obta9+ pure boric acid4 ,! wat] is easily expell$ f ?is hydrate2 x loses half at #ajj & ! rema9d] on fur!r heat+1 & ! rema9+ ,b#b,o#c or boric anhydride fuses at #ehj 7accord+ to ,c>nelley71 =m+ at fir/ a ductile 7easily drawn out into ?reads71 t5aci\s mass & !n a col\rless liquid solidify+ to a transp>5t glass1 :i* absorbs moi/ure f ! atmosph]e & !n becomes cl\dy4#f ,only ! alkal9e salts ( boric acid are soluble 9 wat]1 b all borates are soluble 9 acids1 ow+ to _! easy decomposability & ! solubility ( boric acid itself4 ,al?\gh boric anhydride1 ,b#b,o#c1 absorbs #c;,h#b,o f damp air1 /ill 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] x always#g comb9es ) a less quantity ( bases 7borax only conta9s #a_/f74 ,h[ev]1 fus$ boric anhydride =ms a cry/all9e comp\nd ) magnesium ( ! same type z ! hydrate 7,mg,o7#c;,b#b,o#c 7,ebelmann71 & ev5 ) sodium x =ms 7,na#b,o7#c;,b#b,o#c or ,na#c;,,bo#c 7,b5$ict74 ,z a rule1 ! salts ( boric acid conta9 less base1 al?\gh !y are all able to =m sal9e comp\nds ) bases :5 fus$4 ,g5]ally1 vitre\s fluxes are =m$ by ?is means1#h :i* :5 fus$ recall ord9>y aque\s solutions 9 _m respects4 ,"s ( !m cry/allise on solidify+1 & !n !y h1 l salts1 a def9ite composition4 ,! prop]ty ( boric anhydride ( =m+ high] grades ( comb9ation ) basic oxides :5 fus$ expla9s ! p[] ( fus$ borax to dissolve metallic oxides1 & ! exp]im5ts ( ,ebelmann on ! prep>ation ( artificial cry/als ( ! preci\s /ones by means ( boric anhydride4 ,boric anhydride is1 al?\gh ) difficulty1 volatile at a high temp]ature1 & !re=e if x dissolves an oxide1 x may be p>tially driv5 (f f su* a solution by prolong$ & p[]ful ignition2 9 :i* case ! oxides previ\sly 9 solution sep>ate out 9 a cry/all9e =m1 & frequ5tly 9 ! same =ms z ^? 9 :i* !y occur 9 nature--= example1 cry/als ( alum9a1 :i* by itself fuses ) difficulty1 h be5 obta9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,x dissolves 9 molt5 boric anhydride1 & sep>ates out 9 natural rhomboh$ric cry/als4 ,9 ?is way ,ebelmann also obta9$ sp9el--t is1 a comp\nd ( magnesium & alum9ium oxides :i* occurs 9 nature4#i #e ,metals1 l ,na1 ,k1 ,li1 give salts ( ! type ( borax1 ,,mbo#b or ,,mh#b;,,bo#c4 ,a solution ( borax1 ,na#b;,b#d,o#g1 has an alkal9e reaction1 decomposes ammonia salts ) ! lib]ation ( ammonia 7,bolley71 absorbs c>bonic anhydride l an alkali1 dissolves iod9e l an alkali 7,georgiewics71 & seems to be decompos$ by wat]4 ,?us ,rose %[$ t /rong solutions ( borax give a precipitate ( silv] borate ) silv] nitrate1 :il/ dilute solutions precipitate silv] oxide1 l an alkali4 ,georgiewics ev5 supposes 7#ahhh7 boric anhydride to be entirely void ( acid prop]ties2 = all acids1 on act+ on a mixture ( solutions ( potassium iodide & iodate1 evolve iod9e1 b boric acid does n d ?is4 ,) dilute solutions ( sodium hydroxide ,b]!lot obta9$ a developm5t ( heat equal to #aa-a_/b ?\s& calories p] equival5t ( alkali 7#dj grams sodium hydroxide7 :5 ! ratio ,na#b,o 3 #b;,b#b,o#c 7z 9 borax7 0 tak51 & only #d ?\s& calories :5 ! ratio 0 ,na#b,o 3 ,b#b,o#c1 :5ce he concludes t wat] p[]fully decomposes ^? sodium borates 9 :i* !re is m alkali ?an 9 borax4 ,laur5t 7#ahdi7 obta9$ a sodium comp\nd1 ,na#b,o1#d;,b#b,o#c1aj;,h#b,o1 conta9+ twice z mu* boric anhydride z borax1 by boil+ a mixture ( borax ) an equival5t quantity ( sal-ammoniac until ! evolution ( ammonia entirely ceas$4 ,h5ce x is evid5t t feeble acids are z prone to1 & z easily1 =m acid salts 7t is1 salts conta9+ mu* acid oxide7 z feeble bases are to give basic salts4 ,^! relations become /ill cle>] on an acqua9tance ) su* feeble acids z silicic1 molybdic1 c4 ,?is v>iety ( ! proportions 9 :i* bases are able to =m salts recalls exactly ! v>iety ( ! proportions 9 :i* wat] comb9es ) cry/allo-hydrates4 ,b ! want ( suffici5t data 9 ! /udy ( ^! relations does n yet p]mit ( _! be+ g5]alis$ "u any common laws4 ,) respect to ! feeble acid en]gy ( boric anhydride ,i ?9k x useful to add ! foll[+ rem>ks4 ,c>bonic anhydride is absorb$ by a solution ( borax1 & displaces boric anhydride2 b x is also displac$ by x1 n only on fusion1 b also on solution1 z ! prep>ation ( borax itself %[s4 ,sulphuric anhydride is absorb$ by boric acid1 =m+ a comp\nd ,b7,,hso#d7c1 :]e ,,hso#d is ! radicle ( sulphuric acid 7,d',ally74 ,) phosphoric acid1 boric acid =ms a /able comp\nd1 ,,bpo#d1 or ,b#b,o#c,p#b,o#e1 undecomposable by wat]1 z ,gu/avson & o!rs h %[n4 ,) respect to t>t>ic acid1 boric anhydride is able to play ! same "p z antimoni\s oxide4 ,mannitol1 glyc]ol1 & simil> polyhydric alcohols also seem able to =m p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic comp\nds ) boric anhydride4 ,all ^! aspects ( ! subject require /ill fur!r explanation by a me?od ( fre% & detail$ rese>*4 #f ,ditte det]m9$ ! sp4 gr43-- #j #ab #hj ,b#b,o#c #ahgff #ahdgj #afihh ,b7,,oh7#c #aedfc #aeagb #achbh ,solubility #aie #bib #afhb ,! la/ l9e gives ! solubility1 9 grams1 ( boric acid1 ,b7,,oh7#c1 p] #ajj c4c4 ( wat]1 also accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,ditte4 #g ,x is evid5t t1 9 ! pres5ce ( basic oxides1 wat] competes ) !m1 :i* fact 9 all probability det]m9es bo? ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! salts ( boric acid z well z _! decomposition by an excess ( wat]4 ,9 confirmation ( ! above-m5tion$ compet+ action betwe5 wat] & bases1 ,i ?9k x useful to po9t out t ! cry/allo-hydrate ( borax conta9+ #e;,h#b,o may be repres5t$ z ,b7,,ho7#c1 or r z ,b#b7,,oh7#f1 ) ! sub/itution ( "o atom ( hydrog5 by sodium1 s9ce ,na#b;,b#d,o#g1e;,h#b,o #b;,b#b7,,oh7#e7,o,na74 ,! composition ( ! acid boric salts is v v>i$1 z is se5 f ! fact t ,rey*l] 7#ahic7 obta9$ 7,cs#b,o7#c;,b#b,o#c1 7,rb#b,o7#b;,b#b,o#c 7correspond+ to borax7 & 7,li#b,o7,b#b,o#c1 & t ,le ,*ateli] & ,ditte obta9$1 = ,ca,o1 ,mg,o1 c41 7,,ro7,b#b,o#c1 7,,ro7#bc;,b#b,o#c1 7,,ro7#b;,b#b,o#c1 7,,ro7#b;,b#b,o#c1 & ev5 7,,ro7#c;,b#b,o#c4 #h ,a glass c only be =m$ by ^? slightly volatile oxides :i* correspond ) feeble acids1 l silica1 phosphoric & boric anhydrides1 c41 :i* !mselves give glassy masses1 l qu>tz1 glacial phosphoric acid1 & boric anhydride4 ,!y are able1 l aque\s solutions & l metallic alloys1 to solidify ei!r 9 an amorph\s =m or to yield 7or ev5 be :olly conv]t$ into7 def9ite cry/all9e comp\nds4 ,?is view illu/rates ! position ( solutions among/ ! o!r *emical comp\nds1 & all[s all alloys to be reg>d$ f ! aspect ( ! common laws ( *emical reactions4 ,i h !re=e frequ5tly recurr$ to x 9 ?is "w1 & h s9ce ! ye> #ahej introduc$ x into v>i\s prov9ces ( *emi/ry4 #i ,if boric acid 9 its aque\s solutions proves to be exce$+ly feeble1 un5]getic1 & easily displac$ f its salts by o!r acids1 yet 9 an anhydr\s /ate1 z anhydride1 x exhibits ! prop]ties ( an en]getic acid oxide1 & x displaces ! anhydrides ( o!r acids4 ,?is ( c\rse does n mean t ! acid !n acquires new *emical prop]ties1 b only dep5ds on ! fact t ! anhydrides ( ! majority ( acids are mu* m volatile ?an boric anhydride1 & !re=e ! salts ( _m acids--ev5 ( sulphuric acid--are decompos$ :5 fus$ ) boric anhydride4 ,by itself boric acid is us$ 9 ! arts 9 small quantity1 *iefly = ! pres]vation ( meat & fi% 7:i* mu/ be aft]w>ds well wa%$ 9 wat]7 & ( milk1 & = soak+ ! wicks ( /e>9 c&les2 ! latt] application is bas$ on ! fact t ! wicks1 :i* are made ( cotton twi/1 conta9 an a% :i* is infusible by itself b :i* fuses :5 mix$ ) boric acid4 ,free boron 0 obta9$ 7#ahji7 by ,davy1 ,gay-,lussac1 & ,?n>d :5 !y obta9$ ! metals ( ! alkalis1 = boric anhydride :5 fus$ ) sodium gives up its oxyg5 to ! sodium1 & free boron is lib]at$ z an amorph\s p[d] l *>coal4#aj ,x is ( a br[n col\r1 specific gravity #bde 7,moissan71 & :5 dry does n alt] 9 ! air at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 b x burns :5 ignit$ to #gjj1 & 9 s do+ comb9es n only ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 b also ) ! nitrog54 ,h[ev]1 ! combu/ion is nev] complete1 because ! boric anhydride =m$ on ! surface cov]s ! rema9+ mass ( ! boron1 & s pres]ves x f ! action ( ! oxyg54 ,acids1 ev5 sulphuric 7=m+ ,,s#b7 & phosphoric 7=m+ phosphorus71 easily oxidise amorph\s boron1 especially :5 heat$1 conv]t+ x into boric acid4 ,alkalis h ! same action on x1 only 9 ?is case hydrog5 is evolv$4 ,boron decomposes /eam at a r$ heat1 also ) evolution ( hydrog54 #aj ,amorph\s boron is prep>$ by mix+ #ajj p>ts ( p[d]$ boric anhydride ) #ej p>ts ( sodium 9 small lumps2 ?is mixture is ?r[n into a p[]fully heat$ ca/-iron crucible1 cov]$ ) a lay] ( ignit$ salt1 & ! crucible cov]$4 ,reaction proce$s rapidly2 ! mass is /irr$ ) an iron rod1 & p\r$ directly into wat] conta9+ hydro*loric acid4 ,! action is naturally accompani$ by ! =mation ( sodium borate1 :i* is dissolv$1 toge!r ) ! salt1 by ! wat]1 :il/ ! boron settles at ! bottom ( ! vessel z an insoluble p[d]4 ,x is wa%$ 9 wat]1 & dri$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,magnesium1 & ev5 *>coal & phosphorus1 are also able to r$uce boron f its oxide4 ,boron1 9 ! =m ( an amorph\s p[d]1 v easily passes ?r\gh filt]-pap]1 rema9s susp5d$ 9 wat]1 & col\rs x br[n1 s t x appe>s to be soluble 9 wat]4 ,sulphur precipitat$ f solutions %[s ! same 7colloidal7 prop]ty4 ,:5 borax is fus$ ) magnesium p[d]1 x gives a br[n p[d] ( a comp\nd ( boron & magnesium1 ,mg#b;,b 7,w9kl]1 #ahij71 b :5 a mixture ( #a "p ( magnesium & #c p>ts ( ,b#b,o#c is heat$ to r$ness 7,moissan1 #ahib71 x =ms amorph\s boron 9 ! =m ( a *e/nut-col\r$ p[d]1 :i*1 aft] be+ wa%$ ) wat]1 hydro*loric & hydr(luoric acids1 is fus$ aga9 ) ,b#b,o#c 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog5 9 ord] to prev5t ! access ( ! nitrog5 ( ! air1 :i* is easily absorb$ by inc&esc5t amorph\s boron4 ,sabati] 7#ahia7 consid]s t a c]ta9 am\nt ( gase\s hydride ( boron is evolv$ 9 ! action ( hydro*loric acid ^u ! alloys ( magnesium & boron1 because ! gas dis5gag$ burns ) a gre5 flame4 ,/ill1 ! exi/5ce ( hydride ( boron _c be reg>d$ z c]ta94 ,"u ! action ( ! heat ( ! electric furnace boron =ms ) c>bon a c>bide1 ,,bc1 z ,mhlhus] & ,moissan %[$ 9 #ahic4 ,amorph\s boron1 l *>coal1 dissolves 9 c]ta9 molt5 metals4 ,! prop]ty ( fus$ alum9ium ( dissolv+ boron 9 consid]able quantity is v /rik+2 on cool+ su* a solution1 ! boron p>tially comb9$ ) ! alum9ium sep>ates out 9 a cry/all9e =m1 & its prop]ties are !n exce$+ly rem>kable4 ,! cry/all9e boron may be obta9$ by heat+ 7to #a1cjj7 ! pulv]ul5t boron ) alum9ium 9 a well-clos$ crucible1 ! access ( air be+ prev5t$ z f> z possible4 ,aft] cool+1 cry/als are obs]v$ on ! surface ( ! alum9ium1 & may easily be sep>at$ by dissolv+ ! latt] 9 hydro*loric acid1 :i* does n act on ! cry/als4 ,! specific gravity ( ! cry/als is #bfh2 !y are p>tially transp>5t1 b are = ! mo/ "p col\r$ d>k br[n2 !y conta9 ab\t #d p4c4 ( c>bon & up to #g p4c4 ( alum9ium1 s t !y _c be consid]$ z pure boron4 ,nev]!less1 ! prop]ties ( ?is cry/all9e sub/ance1 :i* 0 obta9$ by ,whl] & ,deville1 are v rem>kable4 ,x mo/ closely resembles ! diamond 9 its prop]ties--9 fact1 ^! cry/als h ! lu/re & high refract+ p[] prop] to ! diamond only1 :il/ _! h>dness competes ) t ( ! diamond4 ,_! p[d] poli%es ev5 ! diamond1 & l ! diamond scrat*es ! sapphire & corundum4 ,cry/all9e boron is mu* m /able ) respect to *emical reag5ts ?an ! amorph\s v>iety1 & z x resembles ! diamond1 s amorph\s boron1 on ! o!r h&1 di/9ctly recalls c]ta9 ( ! prop]ties ( *>coal2 ?us a c]ta9 resemblance exi/s betwe5 boron & c>bon 9 a free /ate1 :i* is fur!r ju/ifi$ by ! proximity ( _! positions 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,among ! o!r comp\nds ( boron1 ^? ) nitrog5 & ! halog5s are ! mo/ rem>kable4 ,z already m5tion$ above1 amorph\s boron comb9es directly ) nitrog5 at a r$ heat4 ,if x be heat$ 9 a glass tube 9 a /ream ( nitric oxide1 p]fect combu/ion takes place1 #e;,b #c,,no ,b#b,o#c #c;,,bn4 ,if ! residue be treat$ ) nitric acid1 ! boric anhydride dissolves1 :il/ ! boron nitride rema9s#aa z an extremely light :ite p[d]1 :i* is sometimes p>tially cry/all9e & greasy to ! t\*1 l talc4 ,x is infusible & un*ang$1 ev5 at ! melt+-po9t ( nickel4 ,9 g5]al1 x is rem>kable = its great /ability ) respect to *emical reag5ts4 ,nitric & hydro*loric acids1 z well z alkal9e solutions1 & hydrog5 & *lor9e at a r$ heat1 h no action on x4 ,:5 fus$ ) pota%1 x evolves ammonia1 & :5 ignit$ 9 /eam x also yields ammonia3 #b;,,bn #c;,h#b,o ,b#b,o#c #b,,nh#c4ab #aa ,at fir/ boron nitride 0 obta9$ by heat+ boric acid ) potassium cyanide or o!r cyanog5 comp\nds4 ,x may be m simply prep>$ by heat+ anhydr\s borax ) potassium f]rocyanide1 or by heat+ borax ) ammonium *loride4 ,= ?is purpose "o "p ( borax is intimately mix$ ) two p>ts ( dry ammonium *loride1 & ! mixture heat$ 9 a plat9um crucible4 ,a por\s mass is =m$1 :i* aft] cru%+ & treat+ ) wat] & hydro*loric acid1 leaves boron nitride4 ,boron fluoride1 ,,bf1 is kn[n1 correspond+ to ,,bn2 ?is body 0 obta9$ by ,besson & ,moissan 7#ahia74 ,! action ( phosphorus ^u iodide ( boron1 ,,bi#c1 =ms ,,pbi#b1 & :5 heat$ to #ejj 9 hydrog5 x =ms ,,bp1 :i* gives ,,ph#c ) fus$ ,,kho4 #ab ,:5 fus$ ) potassium c>bonate x =ms potassium cyanate1 ,,bn ,k#b;,,co#c ,,kbo#b ,,kcno4 ,all ?is %[s t boron nitride is a nitrile ( boric acid1 ,,bo7,,oh7 ,,nh#c - #b;,h#b,o ,,bn4 ,! same is express$ by say+ t boron nitride is a comp\nd ( ! type ( ! boron comp\nds ,,bx#c1 ) ! sub/itution ( ,x#c by nitrog51 z ! trival5t radicle ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c4 ,no less rem>kable is ! comp\nd ( boron ) fluor9e--boron fluoride1 ,,bf#c4 ,x is produc$ 9 _m in/ances :5 comp\nds ( boron & ( fluor9e are br\ght toge!r4#ac ,! mo/ conv5i5t me?od ( prep>+ x is by heat+ a mixture ( calcium fluoride ) boric anhydride & sulphuric acid1 #c;,ca,f#b ,b#b,o#c #c;,h#b,,s#d #c;,ca,s,o#d #c;,h#b,o #b;,,bf#c4ad ,x is a col\rless liquefiable gas 7! liquid boils at -#ajj71 :i* on com+ into contact ) damp air =ms :ite fumes1 ow+ to its comb9+ ) wat]4 ,"o volume ( wat] dissolves z mu* z #a1jej volumes ( ?is gas 7,baz>(f71 =m+ a liquid :i* dis5gages boron fluoride :5 heat$1 & di/ils ov] unalt]$4 ,boron fluoride *>s organic matt]1 ow+ to its tak+ up ! wat] f x1 & 9 ?is respect x acts l sulphuric acid4 ,! behavi\r ( boron fluoride ) wat] mu/ be und]/ood z a rev]sible reaction1 s9ce ) wat] x yields hydr(luoric & boric acids1 :il/ !y1 act+ on "o ano!r1 re-=m boron fluoride & wat]4 ,a /ate ( equilibrium is set up betwe5 ^! f\r sub/ances 7& betwe5 two rev]sible reactions7 :i* is di/9ctly dep5d5t on ! mass ( ! wat]4#ad bis ,:5 boron fluoride is 9 great excess1 ! equilibrat$ sy/em1 :i* is capable ( di/ill+ ov] 7sp4 gr4 ( ! liquid #agg71 has a composition ,,bf#c1b;,h#b,o 7or ,b#b,o#c1;,h#b,o1#f;,,hf74 ,x has also its correspond+ salts4#ae ,x is a cau/ic liquid1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( a p[]ful acid2 b x does n act on glass1 :i* %[s t !re is no free hydr(luoric acid pres5t4 ,"u ! action ( wat] ?is sy/em *anges1 ) ! =mation ( boric acid & hydrobor(luoric acid 7,,hbf#d7 accord+ to ! equation #d;,,bf#c;,h#d,o#b #c;,,hbf#d ,,bh#c,o#c #e;,h#b,o4#af ,?is hydrobor(luoric acid has its correspond+ salts--= in/ance1 ,,kbf#d4 ,on evaporat+ ! aque\s solution ?is free acid decomposes1 ) ! evolution ( hydr(luoric acid1 & a /able sy/em is aga9 obta9$3 #b;,,hbf#d #e;,h#b,o ,b#b;,f#f;,h#aj,o#e #b;,,hf4 ,! resultant solution 7conta9+ #b;,,bf#c1e;,h#b,o1 sp4 gr4 #aeh71 :i* is id5tical ) t =m$ by ! evaporation ( a solution ( boric acid ) hydr(luoric acid1 aga9 only conta9s a comp\nd ( boron fluoride ) wat]4 ,probably !re are v>i\s o!r possible & m or less /able /ates ( equilibrium & def9ite comp\nds ( boron fluoride1 hydr(luoric acid1 & wat]4 #ac ,boron fluoride is frequ5tly evolv$ on heat+ c]ta9 comp\nds occurr+ 9 nature conta9+ bo? boron & fluor9e4 ,if calcium fluoride is heat$ ) boric anhydride1 calcium borate & boron fluoride are =m$1 & ! latt]1 z a gas1 is volatilis$3 #b;,b#b,o#c #c;,ca,f#b #b;,,bf#c ,ca#c;,b#b,o#f4 ,! calcium borate1 h[ev]1 reta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( calcium fluoride4 #ad ,9 ord] to avoid ! =mation ( silicon fluoride ! decomposition %\ld n be c>ri$ on 9 glass vessels1 :i* conta9 silica1 b 9 lead or plat9um vessels4 ,boron fluoride by itself does n corrode glass1 b ! hydr(luoric acid lib]at$ 9 ! reaction may br+ a "p ( ! silica into reaction4 ,boron fluoride %\ld be collect$ ov] m]cury1 z wat] acts on x1 z we %all see aft]w>ds4 #ad bis ,x appe>s to me t f ?is po9t ( view x is possible to und]/& ! app>5tly contradictory results ( diff]5t inve/igators1 especially ^? ( ,gay-,lussac 7& ,?n>d71 ,davy1 ,b]zelius1 & ,baz>(f4 ,9 ! =m 9 :i* ! reaction ( ,,bf#c on wat] is giv5 "h1 x is evid5t t ! act ( solution 9 wat] is accompani$ by complex b direct *emical trans=mations1 & ,i ?9k t ?is example %\ld prove ! ju/ness ( ^? obs]vations ^u ! nature ( solutions :i* are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,i4 #ae ,!y are call$ fluoborates4 ,!y may be prep>$ directly f fluorides & borates4 ,su* comp\nds ( halog5s ) oxyg5 salts are kn[n 9 nature 7= in/ance1 apatite & boracite71 & may be artificially prep>$4 ,! composition ( ! fluoborates--= example1 ,k#d;,,bf#c,o#b--may be express$ z t ( a d\ble salt1 ,,bo7,,ok71#c,,kf4 ,if an excess ( wat] decomposes !m 7,baz>(f71 ?is does n prove t !y d n exi/ z su*1 = _m d\ble salts are decompos$ by wat]4 #af ,fluoboric acid conta9s boron fluoride & wat]1 hydr(luoboric acid1 boron fluoride1 & hydr(luoric acid4 ,x is evid5t t on ! "o side ! competition betwe5 wat] & hydr(luoric acid1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 _! p[] to comb9e1 are among ! =ces :i* act "h4 ,f ! fact t hydrobor(luoric acid1 ,,hbf#d1 c only exi/ 9 an aque\s solution1 x mu/ be assum$ t x =ms a some:at /able sy/em only 9 ! pres5ce ( #c;,h#b,o4 ,no?+ ( ?is k9d occurs ) boron *loride1 because hydro*loric acid does n act on boric acid4 ,h[ev]1 amorph\s boron at #djj burns 9 *lor9e1 & at #daj =ms boron *loride1 ,b,cl#c4 ,! boron burns 9 ! *lor9e1 =m+ a gas :i*1 9 a freez+ mixture1 cond5ses into a liquid boil+ at #ag1 & gives up its excess ( *lor9e1 if !re be any1 to m]cury4 ,! specific gravity ( ?is liquid is #adb at #f4 ,boron *loride may also be directly obta9$ f boric anhydride by ! simultane\s action ( *>coal & *lor9e at a high temp]ature3 ,b#b,o#c #c;,c #c;,cl#b #b;,b,cl#c #c;,,co4 ,x is also obta9$ by ! action ( phosphoric *loride on boric anhydride 9 a clos$ tube at #bjj ,x is completely decompos$ by wat]1 l ! *loranhydride ( an acid1 boric acid be+ =m$2 h5ce x fumes 9 ! air3 #b;,b,cl#c #f;,h#b,o #b;,,bh#c,o#c #f;,h,cl4 ,boron =ms ) brom9e a simil> comp\nd1 ,b,br#c1 specific gravity at #f #bfd1 boil+ at #ij4 ,! vap\r d5sities ( ! fluoride1 *loride1 & bromide ( boron %[ t !y conta9 ?ree atoms ( ! halog5 9 ! molecule--t is1 t boron is a trival5t elem5t =m+ ,,bx#c4af bis #af bis ,iodide ( boron1 ,,bi#c1 0 obta9$ by ,moissan 7#ahia71 by heat+ a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( ,,hi & ,b,cl#c 9 a tube1 or by ! action ( iod9e vap\r 7at #gej7 or ,,hi ^u amorph\s boron4 ,,bi#c is a solid sub/ance :i* dissolves 9 b5zol & ,,cs#b1 reacts ) wat]1 melts at #dc1 boils at #baj1 has a d5sity #cc at #ej1 & p>tially decomposes 9 ! light4 ,besson 7#ahia7 obta9$ ,b,i,br#b 7boil+ at #abe71 & ,,bi#b;,br 7boil+ at #ahj7 by heat+ 7#cjj-djj7 a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( ,,hi & ,b,br#c1 & %[$ t ,,nh#c comb9es ) ,b,br#c & ,,bi#c 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,z 9 ! fir/ gr\p li?ium is foll[$ by sodium1 giv+ a m basic oxide1 s 9 ! second gr\p b]yllium is foll[$ by magnesium1 & s also 9 ! ?ird gr\p !re is1 besides ! lighte/ elem5t1 boron1 ^: basic "* is sc>cely def9$1 alum9ium1 ,al #bg1 ^: oxide1 alum9a1 has some:at di/9ct basic prop]ties1 :i*1 al?\gh n s p[]ful z 9 magnesium oxide1 are m di/9ct ?an 9 boric anhydride4 ,among ! elem5ts ( ! ?ird gr\p1 alum9ium is ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ 9 nature2 x w be suffici5t to m5tion t x ent]s into ! composition ( clay to demon/rate ! univ]sal di/ribution ( alum9ium 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,alum9a is s nam$ f its be+ ! metal ( alums 7alum574 ,clay1 :i* is s widely di/ribut$ & famili> to ev]ybody1 is ! insoluble residue obta9$ aft] ! action ( wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid on _m rocks1 & especially on ! felsp>s conta9$ 9 "s ( !m4 ,felsp> is a comp\nd conta9+ pota% or soda1 alum9a1 & silica4 ,! prim>y rocks1 l granite1 conta9 _m simil> comp\nds 7see ,*apt] ,,xviii43 ,felsp>s74 ,felsp> is act$ on by wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid1 all ! alkalis 7pota% & soda71 & a portion ( ! silica pass+ into ! wat] z sub/ances :i* are soluble & c>ri$ away by x1 :il/ ! alum9a & silica left f ! felsp> rema9 on ! spot :]e ! solution has tak5 place4 ,?is is ! orig9al me?od ( ! =mation ( clay 9 its prim>y deposits among rocks along ^: crevices ! atmosph]ic wat] has p]meat$4 ,su* prim>y deposits (t5 conta9 a :ite pure clay1 t]m$ kaol9 or porcela9 clay4 ,b su* clay is a r>ity1 because ! conditions = its =mation are r>ely met )4 ,! wat]1 :il/ act+ *emically on rocks1 at ! same "t de/roys !m me*anically1 & c>ries (f ! f9ely divid$ residues ( dis9tegration ) x4 ,clay is mo/ easily subject$ to ?is me*anical action ( wat]1 because x is compos$ ( gra9s ( exce$+ly small size & void ( any visible cry/all9e /ructure1 :i* easily rema9 susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,! cl\dy wat] ( runn+ m\nta9 /reams g5]ally conta9s p>ticles ( clay 9 susp5sion1 ow+ to ! above-describ$ *emical & me*anical action ( ! wat] on ! m9]als conta9$ 9 ! m\nta9 rocks4 ,toge!r ) ^! m9ute p>ticles ( clay ! wat] c>ries away ! co>s] compon5ts on :i* x is n able to act--= example1 spl9t]s ( rock1 gra9s ( mica1 qu>tz1 c4 ,!y 7 orig9ally held toge!r by ^? m9]als :i* =m clay4 ,:5 ! wat] acts on ^! b9d+ m9]als1 a s&y mass is =m$ :i* wat] be>s away4 ,! cl\dy wat] 9 :i* ! p>ticles ( clay & s& are held 9 susp5sion c>ries !m to1 & deposits !m at1 ! e/u>ies ( riv]s1 lakes1 seas1 & oceans4 ,! co>s] p>ticles are fir/ deposit$ & =m s& & simil> dis9tegrat$ rocky matt]1 :il/ ! clay1 ow+ to its f9ely divid$ /ate1 is c>ri$ on fur!r1 & is only deposit$ 9 ! /ill p>ts ( ! riv]s1 lakes1 c4 ,su* dis9tegrations ( rocks & sep>ations ( clay f s& h be5 gradually go+ on dur+ ! millions ( ye>s ( ! e>?'s exi/5ce1 & are n[ proce$+1 & h be5 ! cause ( ! =mation ( ! imm5se deposits ( s&/one & clay n[ =m+ a "p ( ! e>?'s /rata4 ,su* b$s ( clay may h be5 transf]r$ by curr5ts & /reams f "o locality to ano!r1 s t we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 prim>y & second>y deposits ( clay4 ,9 places ^! b$s ( clay h1 ow+ to long exposure "u wat]1 & p]haps p>tially ow+ to ! action ( heat1 und]gone compression1 & h =m$ ! rocky masses kn[n z clay slates & s*i/s1 :i* sometimes =m entire m\nta9s4 ,ro(+ slates belong to ?is class ( rocks4 ,f :at has be5 said above x w be evid5t t ^! deposits c nev] consi/ ( a *emically pure & homog5e\s sub/ance1 b w conta9 all k9ds ( extrane\s insoluble f9ely divid$ matt]1 & especially s&--t is1 fragm5ts ( rock1 *iefly qu>tz 7,si,o#b74 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible to consid]ably purify clay f ^! impurities1 ow+ to ! fact t !y are ! result ( me*anical dis9tegration1 :il/ ! clay has be5 =m$ z a residue ( ! *emical alt]ation ( rocky matt]1 & !re=e its p>ticles are incomp>ably m m9ute ?an ! p>ticles ( s& & o!r rock fragm5ts mix$ ) x4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 ! size ( ! gra9s causes ! clay to rema9 long] 9 susp5sion :5 %ak5 up 9 wat] ?an ! co>s] gra9s ( s&4 ,if clay be %ak5 up 9 wat]1 & especially if x be previ\sly boil$ 9 x1 & if aft] ! fir/ portion has settl$ ! cl\dy wat] be decant$1 x w give a deposit ( a v mu* pur] clay ?an ! orig9al4 ,?is me?od is employ$ = purify+ kaol9 design$ = ! manufacture ( ! be/ k9ds ( *9a1 e>!nw>e1 c4 ,a simil> me?od is also employ$ 9 ! inve/igation ( e>?s = det]m9+ ! composition ( soils *iefly compos$ ( a mixture ( s&1 clay1 lime/one1 & m\ld4 ,! lime/one is soluble 9 dilute acids1 b nei!r ! clay nor s& passes into solution by ?is means1 & !re=e ! lime/one is easily sep>at$ 9 ! inve/igation ( soils4 ,! clay is sep>at$ f ! s& by a me*anical me?od simil> to t describ$ above1 & t]m$ levigation4#ag #ag ,! process ( levigation is bas$ on ! diff]5ce 9 ! diamet]s ( ! p>ticles ( clay & s&4 ,9 d5sity ^! p>ticles diff] b little f ea* o!r1 & !re=e a /ream ( wat] ( a c]ta9 velocity c only c>ry away ! p>ticles ( a c]ta9 diamet]1 :il/ ! p>ticles ( a l>g] diamet] _c be borne away by x4 ,?is is due to ! resi/ance to fall+ (f]$ by ! wat]4 ,?is resi/ance to sub/ances mov+ 9 x increases ) ! velocity1 & !re=e a sub/ance fall+ into wat] w only move ) an increas+ velocity until its weight equals ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! wat]1 & !n ! velocity w be uni=m4 ,& z ! weight ( ! m9ute p>ticles ( clay is small1 ! maximum velocity atta9$ by !m 9 fall+ is also small4 ,a detail$ acc\nt ( ! !ory ( fall+ bodies 9 liquid1 & ( ! exp]im5ts be>+ on ?is subject1 may be f\nd 9 my "w1 ,conc]n+ ! ,resi/ance ( ,liquids & ,a]onautics1 #ahhj4 ,! m9ute p>ticles ( clay rema9 susp5d$ long] 9 wat]1 & take long] to fall to ! bottom4 ,heavy p>ticles1 al?\gh ( small dim5sions1 fall m quickly1 & are borne away by wat] ) great] difficulty ?an ! light]4 ,9 ?is way gold & o!r heavy ores are wa%$ free f s& & clay1 & ! co>s] portions & heavi] p>ticles are left beh9d4 ,a curr5t ( wat] ( a c]ta9 velocity _c c>ry away ) x p>ticles ( m ?an a def9ite diamet] & d5sity1 b by increas+ ! velocity ( ! curr5t a po9t may be arriv$ at :5 x w be> away l>g] p>ticles4 ,a description ( app>atus = ! obs]vation ( ph5om5a ( ?is k9d is giv5 by ,s*ne 9 8 memoir 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,mosc[ ,society ( ,natural ,sci5ces = #ahfg4 ,9 ord] to be able accurately to v>y ! velocity ( ! curr5t ( wat]1 a cyl9d] is employ$ 9 :i* ! e>? to be exp]im5t$ on is plac$1 & wat] is introduc$ ?r\gh ! conical bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! rate at :i* ! wat] rises 9 ! cyl9d] w v>y accord+ to ! quantity ( wat] fl[+ p] unit ( "t into ! vessel1 & consequ5tly p>ticles ( v>i\s sizes w be c>ri$ away by ! wat] fl[+ ov] ! upp] edges ( ! vessel4 ,s*ne %[$ by direct exp]im5t t a curr5t ( wat] hav+ a velocity ( #ja mm4 p] second w c>ry away p>ticles hav+ a diamet] ( n m ?an #jjjge mm41 t is1 only ! mo/ m9ute2 ) a velocity v #jb mm4 p] second1 p>ticles hav+ a diamet] d #jjaa mm4 are c>ri$ away2 ) v #jc mm41 d #jjadf mm42 ) v #jd mm41 d #jjag mm42 ) v #je mm41 d #jjb mm42 ) v #a mm41 d #jjc mm42 ) v #d mm41 d #jjg mm42 ) v #aj mm41 d #jacg mm42 ) v #ab mm41 d #jae mm42 & !re=e if ! curr5t does n exce$ "o ( ^! velocities1 x w only c>ry away or wa% away p>ticles hav+ a diamet] less ?an t indicat$4 ,! s& & o!r p>ticles mix$ ) ! clay w !n rema9 9 ! vessel4 ,! v m9ute p>ticles obta9$ aft] levigation are all consid]$ z clay1 al?\gh n only clay b o!r rock residue may also exi/ 9 x z v f9e p>ticles4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is v seldom ! case1 & ! f9e mud sep>at$ f all clays has practically ! same composition z ! pure/ k9ds ( kaol94 ,! relation betwe5 ! am\nts ( clay & s& 9 soils us$ = ! cultivation ( plants is v important1 because a soil ri* 9 clay is d5s]1 heavi]1 %r9ks up "u ! action ( heat1 & does n readily yield to ! pl\gh 9 dry or wet wea!r1 :il/ a soil ri* 9 s& is friable1 crumbl+1 easily p>ts ) its moi/ure & dries rapidly1 b is comp>atively easily work$4 ,nei!r crumbl+ s& nor pure clay c be reg>d$ z a good cultivat+ soil4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nts ( clay & s& 9 a soil has also a purely *emical signification4 ,s& is easily p]meat$ by ! air1 because its p>ticles are n closely pack$ toge!r4 ,h5ce ! *emical *ange ( manures proce$s v easily 9 s&y soils4 ,b on ! o!r h& su* soils d n reta9 ! nutriti\s pr9ciples conta9$ 9 ! manure1 nor ! wat] necess>y = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants by means ( _! roots4 ,solutions ( nutriti\s sub/ances1 conta9+ salts ( potassium1 phosphoric acid1 c41 :5 pass$ ?r\gh s& only leave a portion moi/5+ ! surface ( its p>ticles4 ,! s& has only to be wa%$ ) pure wat] & all ! adh]+ films ( solution are wa%$ away4 ,x is n s ) clay4 ,if ! above solutions be pass$ ?r\gh a lay] ( clay ! ret5tion ( ! nutritive sub/ances ( ^! solutions w be v m>k$2 ?is is p>tly because ( ! v l>ge surface :i* ! m9ute p>ticles ( clay expose4 ,! nutritive elem5ts dissolv$ 9 wat] are reta9$ by ! p>ticles ( clay 9 a peculi> mann]--t is1 ! absorptive p[] ( clay is v great comp>$ to t ( s&--& ?is has a great significance 9 ! economy ( nature 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 p4 #edg74 ,x is evid5t t = cultivation ! mo/ conv5i5t soils 9 e respect w be ^? conta9+ a def9ite mixture ( clay & s&1 & inde$ ! mo/ f]tile soils h ?is composition4 ,! /udy ( f]tile soils1 :i* is s important = a k ( ! natural conditions = ! application ( f]tilis]s1 belongs1 /rictly speak+1 to ! prov9ce ( agriculture4 ,9 ,russia ! fir/ f\ndation ( a sci5tific f]tilisation has be5 laid by ,doku*aeff4 ,z an example only1 we w give ! composition ( f\r soils2 7#a7 ,! black e>? ( ! ,simbirsk ,gov]nm5t2 7#b7 a clay soil f ! ,smol5sk ,gov]nm5t2 7#c7 a m s&y soil f ! ,mosc[ ,gov]nm5t2 & 7#d7 a peaty soil f ne> ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,^! analyses 7 made 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,univ]sity ab\t #ahfj1 9 connection ) exp]im5ts on f]tilisation 7conduct$ by me7 by ! ,imp]ial ,free ,economical ,society4 #aj1jjj grams ( air-dri$ soil conta9 ! foll[+ quantities 79 grams7 ( sub/ances capable ( dissolv+ 9 acids1 & ( s]v+ = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants4 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 ,na#b,o #aa #e #d #d ,k#b,o #eh #aj #g #e ,mg,o #ib #cc #ai #g ,ca,o #acd #ag #ad #aa ,p#b,o#e #g #a #g #c ,n #dd #aa #ac #af ,s #ac #g #g #f ,fe#b,o#c #cda #aee #aaa #df ,by *emical & me*anical analysis1 ! *ief compon5t p>ts p] #ajj p>ts ( air-dri$ soil are ,clay #df #bi #ab #aj ,s& #dj #fg #hf #hd ,organic matt] #cg #ag #jf #da ,hygroscopic wat] #fc #ac #jh #ai ,weight ( a litre 9 grams #aaej #abgj #acej #ifj ,! black e>? excels ! o!r soils 9 _m respects1 b naturally its /ores are also exhau/$ by cultivation if no?+ be return$ to x 9 ! =m ( f]tilis]s2 & ! improvem5t ( a soil 7= in/ance1 by ! addition ( m>l or peat1 & by dra9age & wat]+71 & its f]tilisation1 if c>ri$ on 9 con=mity ) its composition & ) ! prop]ties ( ! plants to be cultivat$1 are capable ( r5d]+ n only e soil fit = cultivation1 b also ( improv+ its value1 s t 9 ! c\rse ( "t :ole c\ntries 7l ,holl&7 may cle>ly improve _! agricultural position1 :il/ "u ! ord9>y rgime ( cont9u$ exhau/ion ( ! soil1 entire regions 7z1 = in/ance1 _m p>ts ( ,c5tral ,asia7 may be r5d]$ unfit = any agriculture4 ,by treat+ clay ) /rong sulphuric acid1 :i* dissolves ! alum9a 9 x1 & !n 7by means ( an alkal9e c>bonate7 dissolv+ ! silica :i* 0 comb9$ ) ! alum9a 9 ! clay 7b n t occurr+ 9 ! =m ( s&1 c41 :i* is h>dly dissolv$ by c>bonate ( soda solution at all ev5 on boil+71 we may =m an idea ( ! proportion betwe5 ! compon5t p>ts ( a clay2 & by ignit+ x at a high temp]ature1 we may det]m9e ! am\nt ( wat] held 9 x4 ,9 ! pur] sorts ( clay dri$ at #ajj 7sp4 gr4 ( pure kaol9 is ab\t #be7 ?is proportion is ab\t #b,si,o#b 3 #b;,h#b,o 3 ,al#b,o#c4 ,9 ?is case ! conv]sion ( felsp> into kaol9 is express$ by ! equation3-- ,k#b,o1,al#b,o#c1f,si,o#b ,al#b,o#c1b,si,o#b ,k#b,o1#d,si,o#b2 ,felsp> ,kaol9 ! comp\nd ,k#b,o1#d,si,o#b passes into solution4 ,b z a rule clays conta9 f #de to #fj p4c4 ( silica1 f #bj to #cj p4c4 ( alum9a1 & ab\t #ab p4c4 ( wat]2 & x _c be suppos$ t clays are always homog5e\s1 because !y are an aggregation ( residues 7( silico-alum9\s comp\nds7 :i* are unact$ on by wat]4 ,nev]!less1 clays always conta9 a hydr\s comp\nd ( alum9a & silica1 :i* is able to give up ! alum9a conta9$ by x z a base to /rong sulphuric acid1 =m+ alum9ium sulphate1 :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 ,aft] ?is treatm5t ! silica rema9s1 & is soluble 9 a solution ( an alkal9e c>bonate4#ah #ah ,ev]yone kn[s t a mixture ( clay & wat] is end[$ ) ! prop]ty ( tak+ a giv5 =m :5 subject$ to a mod]ate pressure4 ,?is pla/icity ( clay r5d]s x an invaluable mat]ial = practical purposes4 ,f clay are m\ld$ & manufactur$ a v>iety ( objects1 beg9n+ ) ! common brick & end+ ) ! mo/ delicate *9a works ( art4 ,?is pla/icity ( clay increases ) its purity4 ,:5 articles made ( clay are dri$1 ! well-kn[n h>d mass is obta9$2 b wat] wa%es x away1 & fur!rmore1 ! cohesion ( its p>ticles is n suffici5tly great = x to resi/ ! impression ( bl[s1 %ocks1 c4 ,if su* an article be subject$ to ! action ( heat1 its volume fir/ decreases1 !n x beg9s to lose wat]1 & x %r9ks /ill fur!r 79 ! case ( a compact mass approximately by #a_/e ( its l9e> measurem5t74 ,on ! o!r h&1 a great coh]5ce ( p>ticles is obta9$1 & ?us burnt clay has ! h>dness ( /one4 ,pure clay1 h[ev]1 %r9ks s consid]ably :5 burnt t ! =m giv5 to x is de/roy$ & cracks easily =m2 su* vessels are also por\s1 s t !y w n hold wat]4 ,! addition ( s&--t is1 silica 9 f9e p>ticles--or ( *amotte--t is1 already burnt & cru%$ clay--r5d]s ! mass mu* m d5se & incapable ( crack+ 9 ! furnace4 ,nev]!less1 su* clay articles 7bricks1 e>!nw>e vessels1 c47 are /ill por\s to liquids aft] be+ burnt1 because ! clay 9 ! furnace is only bak$ & does n fuse4 ,9 ord] to obta9 articles imp]vi\s to wat] ! clay mu/ ei!r be mix$ ) sub/ances :i* =m a glassy mass 9 ! furnace1 p]meat+ ! clay & fill+ up its pores1 or else only ! surface ( ! article is cov]$ ) su* a glassy fusible sub/ance4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! pure/ k9ds ( clay give :at is kn[n z *9a1 9 ! second case porcela9 or 'faence4' ,s1 = in/ance1 by cov]+ ! surface ( clay articles ) a lay] ( ! oxides ( lead & t91 ! well-kn[n :ite glaze is obta9$1 because ! oxides ( ^! metals give a :ite gloss :5 fus$ ) silica & clay4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( *9a1 fluor sp> & f9ely gr\nd silica is mix$ up into ! clay2 ^! +r$i5ts give a mass :i* is infusible b s(t5s 9 ! furnace1 s t all ! p>ticles ( ! clay coh]e 9 ?is s(t5$ mass1 :i* h>d5s on cool+4 ,a glaze compos$ ( glassy sub/ances1 :i* only fuse at a high temp]ature1 is also appli$ to ! surface ( *9a articles4 ,clay is ! s\rce f :i* alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 & ! majority ( ! comp\nds ( alum9ium are prep>$4 ,among ^! comp\nds ! mo/ important are ! alums--t is1 ! d\ble sulphates ( potassium 7& alli$ metals7 & alum9ium1 ,al,k7,,s#d7b1ab;,h#b,o4 ,:5 clay is treat$ ) sulphuric acid dilut$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]1 alum9ium sulphate1 ,al#b7,,s#d7c1 is =m$2 & if potassium c>bonate or sulphate be add$ to ?is solution1 a d\ble salt or alum is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,! alums cry/allise easily1 & are prep>$ on a v l>ge manufactur+ scale ow+ to _! be+ employ$ 9 ! process ( dye+4 ,alums are soluble 9 wat]1 &1 on ! addition ( ammonia to _! solutions1 !y give hydr\s alum9a1 or alum9ium hydroxide1 z a :ite gelat9\s precipitate1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] b easily soluble 9 acids1 ev5 :5 dilute1 & 9 aque\s soda or pota%4 ,! solubility ( alum9a 9 acids indicates ! basic "* ( ! oxide1 & its solubility 9 alkalis & its p[] ( =m+ comp\nds ) !m %[s ! weakness ( ?is basic "*4 ,h[ev]1 ! feeble/ acids1 ev5 c>bonic acid1 take up ! alkali f su* a solution1 & ! alum9a !n sep>ates out 9 a precipitate z ! hydroxide4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! salt-=m+ prop]ties ( alum9a t x does n comb9e ) su* feeble acids z c>bonic1 sulphur\s1 or hypo*lor\s1 c4--t is1 its comp\nds ) ^! acids are decompos$ by wat]4 ,x is also important to obs]ve t ! hydroxide is n soluble 9 aque\s ammonia4 ,alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c--t is1 ! anhydr\s alum9ium oxide--is met ) 9 nature1 sometimes 9 a some:at pure /ate1 hav+ cry/allis$ 9 transp>5t cry/als1 :i* are (t5 col\r$ by impurities 7*romic1 cobaltic1 & f]ric comp\nds74 ,su* are ! ruby & sapphire1 ! =m] r$ & ! latt] blue4 ,!y h a specific gravity #dj1 are di/+ui%$ by _! v great h>dness1 :i* is second only to t ( ! diamond1 & !y repres5t ! pure/ =m ( alum9a4 ,!y are f\nd 9 ,ceylon & o!r isl&s ( ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 emb$d$ 9 a rock matrix4#ah bis ,corundum is ! same cry/allis$ anhydr\s alum9a col\r$ br[n by a trace ( oxide ( iron4 ,a v mu* l>g] portion ( ?is impurity occurs 9 em]y1 :i* is f\nd 9 cry/all9e masses 9 ,asia ,m9or & 9 ,massa*usetts1 & ow+ to its extreme h>dness is employ$ = poli%+ /ones & metals4 ,9 ?is anhydr\s & cry/all9e /ate ! alum9ium oxide is a sub/ance :i* v p[]fully resi/s ! action ( reag5ts1 & is insoluble bo? 9 solutions ( ! alkalis & 9 /rong acids4 ,x is only capable ( pass+ into solution aft] be+ fus$ ) alkalis4#ai ,alum9a may be obta9$ 9 ?is =m by artificial means if ! hydroxide be ignit$ & !n fus$ 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame4#bj ,alum9a also occurs 9 nature 9 comb9ation ) wat]--z1 = in/ance1 9 ! r r>e m9]als hydr>gillite 7sp4 gr4 #bc71 ,al#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o #b;,al7,,ho7#c1 & diaspore1 ,al#b,o#c1;,h#b,o #b;,al,o7,,ho7 7sp4 gr4 #cd74 ,a less pure hydrate1 mix$ ) f]ric oxide1 sometimes occurs 9 masses 7at ,baux 9 ! s\? ( ,france7 & is t]m$ bauxite2 x conta9s ,al#b,o#c1b;,h#b,o ,al#b,o7,,ho7#d 7sp4 gr4 #bf74 ,:5 bauxite is ignit$ ) sodium c>bonate1 c>bonic anhydride is lib]at$ & ! alum9a !n comb9es ) ! sodium oxide1 =m+ a sal9e alum9ate ( ! oxides ( alum9ium & sodium4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 practice = ! prep>ation ( pure alum9a comp\nds on a l>ge scale1 = bauxite is f\nd 9 l>ge masses 79 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 9 ,au/ria1 & 9 ,c>ol9a 9 ,s\? ,am]ica71 & ! resultant comp\nd ( alum9a & sodium is soluble 9 wat] & does n conta9 f]ric oxide4 ,?is solution :5 subject$ to ! action ( c>bonic anhydride gives a precipitate ( alum9ium hydroxide1#ba :i* ) acids =ms alum9ium salts4 ,if aque\s ammonia be add$ to a solution ( alum9ium sulphate a gelat9\s precipitate is =m$1 :i* at fir/ rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! liquid & !n on settl+ =ms a gelat9\s mass1 :i* itself indicates ! colloidal prop]ty ( alum9ium hydroxide4 ,! foll[+ po9ts are *>act]i/ic ( ?is colloidal /ate3 7#a7 9 an anhydr\s /ate su* a colloidal sub/ance is insoluble 9 wat]1 z alum9a is2 7#b7 9 ! hydrat$ /ate1 x is gelat9\s & insoluble 9 wat]2 & 7#c7 x is also capable ( exi/+ 9 solutions1 f :i* x sep>ates out 9 a non-cry/all9e /ate1 =m+ a sub/ance resembl+ glue4 ,^! diff]5t /ates ( colloids 7 di/+ui%$ by ,graham1 :o gave !m ! foll[+ v *>act]i/ic names4 ,he call$ ! gelat9\s =m ( ! hydrate hydrogel1 i4e4 a gelat9\s hydrate1 & ! soluble =m ( ! aque\s comp\nd1 hydrosol1 f ! ,lat9 = a soluble hydrate4 ,alum9a readily & frequ5tly assumes ^! /ates4 ,! gelat9\s hydrate ( alum9a is its hydrogel4 ,x is1 z has be5 already m5tion$1 insoluble 9 wat]1 &1 l all simil> hydrogels1 %[s n ! fa9te/ sign ( cry/allisation2 x is apt to v>y 9 _m ( its prop]ties ) ! am\nt ( wat] x conta9s1 & loses its wat] on ignition1 leav+ a :ite p[d] ( ! anhydr\s oxide4 ,! hydrogel ( alum9a is soluble bo? 9 acids & alkalis4 ,x may also be obta9$ by ! evaporation ( its solutions 9 su* feebly en]getic acids z volatile acetic acid4 ,^! prop]ties are v frequ5tly made use ( 9 ! arts1 & especially 9 ! processes ( dye+1 because ! hydrogel ( alum9a 9 precipitat+ attracts a numb] ( col\r+ matt]s f _! solutions1 ! precipitate be+ ?us col\r$ by ! dyes attract$4#bb ,! prep>ation ( fix$ dyes & ! employm5t ( alum9\s comp\nds 7mordants7 9 ! processes ( dye+ are f\nd$ on ?is fact4#bc ,:5 precipitat$ ^u ! fibres ( tissues 7calicoes1 l95s1 c47 ! alum9ium hydroxide r5d]s !m imp]meable to wat]2 ?is may be tak5 advantage ( = ! prep>ation ( wat]pro( tissues4 #ah bis ,frmy 7#ahij7 obta9$ transp>5t rubies1 :i* cry/allis$ 9 rhomboh$ra1 & resembl$ natural rubies 9 _! h>dness1 col\r1 size1 & o!r prop]ties4 ,he heat$ toge!r a mixture ( anhydr\s alum9a conta9+ m or less cau/ic pota%1 ) b>ium fluoride & bi*romate ( potassium4 ,! latt] is add$ to give ! ruby its col\r1 & is tak5 9 small quantity 7n m ?an #d p>ts by weight to #ajj p>ts ( alum9a74 ,! mixture is put into a clay crucible1 & heat$ 7= f #ajj h\rs to #h days7 9 a rev]b]atory furnace at a temp]ature approa*+ #a1ejj4 ,at ! end ( ! exp]im5t ! crucible 0 f\nd to conta9 a cry/all9e mass1 & ! walls 7 cov]$ ) cry/als ( ! ruby ( a beautiful rose col\r4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! access ( moi/ air 0 indisp5sable = ! reaction4 ,accord+ to ,frmy1 ! =mation ( ! ruby may be "h expla9$ by ! =mation ( fluoride ( alum9ium :i* "u ! action ( ! moi/ air at ! high temp]ature ( ! furnace gives ! ruby & hydr(luoric acid gas4 #ai ,! effects ( purely me*anical subdivision on ! solubility ( alum9a are evid5t f ! fact t native anhydr\s alum9a1 :5 conv]t$ into an exce$+ly f9e p[d] by means ( levigation1 dissolves 9 a mixture ( /rong sulphuric acid & a small quantity ( wat]1 especially :5 heat$ 9 a clos$ tube at #bjj1 or :5 fus$ ) acid sulphate ( potassium 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #i74 #bj ,! prep>ation ( cry/allis$ alum9a is giv5 on p4 #fe1 & 9 ,note #ah bis4 ,:5 alum9a1 moi/5$ ) a solution ( cobalt salt1 is ignit$1 x =ms a blue mass call$ ,?n>d's salt4 ,?is coloration is tak5 advantage ( n only 9 ! arts1 b also = di/+ui%+ alum9a f o!r e>?y sub/ances resembl+ x4 #ba ,! treatm5t ( bauxite is c>ri$ on on a l>ge scale1 *iefly 9 ord] to obta9 alum9a f alkal9e solutions1 free f f]ric oxide1 because 9 dye+ x is necess>y to h salts ( alum9ium :i* d n conta9 iron4 ,b ?is end1 x w\ld seem1 may also be obta9$ by ignit+ alum9a conta9+ f]ric oxide 9 a /ream ( *lor9e mix$ ) hydroc>bon vap\rs1 z f]ric *loride !n volatilises4 ,k4 ,bay] obs]v$ t 9 ! treatm5t ( bauxite ) soda1 ab\t #d molecules ( sodium hydroxide pass into solution to #a molecule ( alum9a1 & t on agitat+ ?is solution 7especially 9 ! pres5ce ( "s already precipitat$ alum9ium hydroxide71 ab\t two-?irds ( ! alum9a is precipitat$1 s t only #a molecule ( alum9a to #ab molecules ( sodium hydroxide rema9s 9 solution4 ,?is solution is evaporat$ directly1 & us$ aga94 ,he !re=e treats bauxite directly ) a solution ( ,na,h,o at #agj 9 a clos$ boil]1 & on cool+ adds hydrat$ alum9a to ! resultant solution4 ,! great] "p ( ! dissolv$ alum9a !n precipitates on ?is hydrat$ alum9a1 & ! solution is us$ ov] aga94 ,! hydroxide :i* sep>ates f ! alkal9e solution conta9s ,al7,,oh7#c4 ,all ^! prop]ties be> a great resemblance to ^? ( boric acid4 ,x may be tak5 = grant$ t ! relation betwe5 sodium hydroxide & alum9a 9 solution v>ies ) ! mass ( wat]4 ,if lime be add$ to a solution ( alum9a 9 alkali 7sodium alum9ate7 calcium alum9ate is precipitat$1 f :i* acids fir/ extract ! lime1 leav+ alum9ium hydroxide1 :i* is easily soluble 9 acids 7,loewig74 ,:5 sodium alum9ate is mix$ ) a solution ( sodium bic>bonate1 a d\ble c>bonate ( ! alkali & alum9ium is precipitat$1 :i* is easily soluble 9 acids4 #bb ,^! col\r$ precipitates ( alum9a are t]m$ lakes1 & are employ$ 9 dye+ tissues & 9 ! =mation ( v>i\s pigm5ts--su* z pa/els1 oil col\rs1 c4 ,?us1 if organic col\r+ matt]s1 su* z logwood1 madd]1 c41 are add$ to a solution ( any alum9ium salt1 & !n an alkali is add$1 s t alum9a may be precipitat$1 ^! pigm5ts1 :i* are by !mselves soluble 9 wat]1 w come d[n ) ! precipitate4 ,?is %[s t alum9a is able to comb9e ) ! col\r+ matt]1 & t ?is comp\nd is n decompos$ by wat]4 ,! dyes !n become insoluble 9 wat]4 ,if a dye be mix$ ) />* pa/e & alum9ium acetate1 & !n1 by means ( engrav$ blocks hav+ a design 9 relief1 we transf] ?is mixture to a fabric :i* is !n heat$1 ! alum9ium acetate w leave ! hydrogel ( alum9a :i* b9ds ! col\r+ matt]1 & wat] w no long] be able to wa% ! pigm5t f ! mat]ial--t is1 a s-call$ 'fix$' dye is obta9$4 ,9 ! case ( dye+ a fabric a uni=m t9t1 x is fir/ soak$ 9 a solution ( alum9ium acetate & !n dri$1 by :i* means ! acetic acid is driv5 (f1 :ile ! hydrogel ( alum9a adh]es to ! fibres ( ! mat]ial4 ,if ! latt] be !n pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( a dye 9 wat]1 ! =m] w be attract$ to ! portions cov]$ ) alum9a1 & closely adh]e to !m4 ,if c]ta9 p>ts ( ! mat]ial be protect$ by ! application ( an acid1 su* z t>t>ic1 ,c#d;,h#f,o#f1 oxalic1 citric1 c4 7^! acids be+ non-volatile71 ! alum9a w be dissolv$ 9 ^? p>ts1 & ! pigm5t w n adh]e1 s t aft] wa%+1 a :ite design w be obta9$ on ^? p>ts :i* h be5 s protect$4 ,9 dye-works ! alum9ium acetate is g5]ally obta9$ 9 solution by tak+ a solution ( alum1 & mix+ x ) a solution ( lead acetate4 ,9 ?is case lead sulphate is precipitat$ & alum9ium acetate rema9s 9 solution1 toge!r ) ei!r acetate or sulphate ( potassium1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( acetate ( lead fir/ tak54 ,! complete decomposition w be z foll[s3 ,k,al7,,s#d7b #b,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b ,,kc#b;,h#c,o#b ,al7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c #b,pb,s,o#d1 or ! less complete decomposition1 #b,k,al7,,s#d7b #c,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b #b;,al7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c ,k#b,,s#d #c,pb,s,o#d4 ,if ! resultant solution ( alum9ium acetate be evaporat$ or fur!r boil$1 ! acetic acid passes (f & ! hydrogel ( alum9a rema9s4 ,z ! salt ( potassium obta9$ 9 ! solution passes away ) ! wat] us$ = wa%+1 & ! salt ( lead precipitat$ has no practical use1 ?is me?od = ! prep>ation ( alum9ium acetate _c be consid]$ economical2 x is reta9$ 9 ! process ( dye+ ma9ly because bo? ! salts employ$1 alum & sug> ( lead1 easily cry/allise1 & x is easy to judge ( _! degree ( purity 9 ?is =m4 ,inde$1 x is v important to employ pure reag5ts 9 dye+1 because if impurity is pres5t--su* z a small quantity ( an iron comp\nd--! t9t ( ! dye *anges2 ?us madd]s give a r$ col\r ) alum9a1 b if oxide ( iron be pres5t ! r$ *anges into a violet t9t4 ,! alum9ium hydroxide is soluble 9 alkalis1 :il/ f]ric oxide is n4 ,!re=e sodium alum9ate--t is1 ! dissolv$ comp\nd ( alum9a & cau/ic soda--obta9$1 z already describ$1 f bauxite1 is sometimes employ$ 9 dye+4 ,e alum9ium salt gives a solution conta9+ sodium alum9ate free f iron1 :5 x is mix$ ) excess ( cau/ic soda4 ,?is solution1 :5 mix$ ) a solution ( ammonium *loride1 gives a precipitate ( ! hydrogel ( alum9a3 ,al7,,oh7#c #c,na,h,o #c,,nh#d;,cl ,al7,,oh7#c #c,na,cl #c,,nh#d,,oh4 ,!re 0 orig9ally free soda1 & on ! addition ( sal-ammoniac !re is free ammonia1 & ?is does n dissolve alum9a1 !re=e ! hydrogel ( ! latt] is precipitat$4 #bc ,ano!r direct me?od = ! prep>ation ( pure alum9ium comp\nds consi/s 9 ! treatm5t ( cryolite conta9+ alum9ium fluoride toge!r ) sodium fluoride1 ,al,na#c;,f#f4 ,?is m9]al is export$ f ,gre5l&1 & is also f\nd 9 ! ,urals4 ,x is cru%$ & heat$ 9 rev]b]atory furnaces ) lime1 & ! resultant mass is treat$ ) wat]2 sodium alum9ate is !n obta9$ 9 solution1 & calcium fluoride 9 ! precipitate ,al,na#c;,f#f #c;,ca,o #c;,ca,f#b ,al,na#c,o#c4 ,! hydrosol ( alum9a--i4e4 ! soluble alum9ium hydroxide--is m difficult to obta94#bd ,9 ord] to obta9 ?is soluble v>iety ( alum9a1 ,graham took a solution ( its hydrogel 9 hydro*loric acid--t is1 a solution ( alum9ium *loride1 :i* is able to dissolve a /ill fur!r quantity ( ! hydrogel ( alum9a1 =m+ a basic salt hav+ probably "o ( ! compositions ,al7,,ho7,cl#b or ,al7,,ho7#b;,cl4 ,:5 su* a solution1 consid]ably dilut$ ) wat]1 is subject$ to dialysis--t is1 to diffusion ?r\gh a membrane#be--! hydro*loric acid diffuses ?r\gh ! membrane & leaves ! alum9a 9 ! =m ( hydrosol4 ,! resultant solution1 ev5 :5 only conta9+ two or ?ree p] c5t4 ( alum9a1 passes into ! hydrogel /ate ) su* facility t x is suffici5t to transf] x f "o vessel to ano!r :i* has n be5 previ\sly wa%$ ) wat]1 = ! entire mass to solidify into a jelly4 ,b a solution conta9+ n m ?an "o-half p] c5t4 ( alum9a may ev5 be boil$ )\t coagulat+2 h[ev]1 aft] ! lapse ( sev]al days ?is solution w ( its own accord yield ! hydrogel ( alum9a4#be bis #bd ,crum fir/ prep>$ a solution ( basic acetate ( alum9a--t is1 a salt conta9+ z l>ge z possible an excess ( alum9ium hydroxide ) z small z possible a quantity ( acetic acid4 ,! solution mu/ be dilute--t is1 n conta9 m ?an "o "p ( alum9a p] #bjj ( wat]--& if ?is solution be heat$ 9 a clos$ vessel 7s t ! acetic acid _c evaporate7 to ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 = "o & a half to two days1 !n ! solution1 :i* app>5tly rema9s unalt]$1 loses its orig9al a/r+5t ta/e1 prop] to solutions ( all ! salts ( alum9a1 & has in/ead ! purely acid ta/e ( v9eg>4 ,! solution !n no long] conta9s ! salt1 b acetic acid & ! hydrosol ( alum9a 9 an uncomb9$ /ate2 !y may be isolat$ f ea* o!r by evaporat+ ! acetic acid 9 %all[ vessels at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ) a ?9 lay] ( liquid ! alum9a does n sep>ate z a precipitate4 ,:5 ! acid vap\rs cease to come (f !re rema9s a solution ( ! hydrosol ( alum9a1 :i* is ta/eless & has no action on litmus pap]4 ,:5 conc5trat$1 ?is solution acquires a m & m gluey consi/5cy1 & :5 completely evaporat$ ov] a wat]-ba? x leaves a non-cry/all9e glue-l hydrate1 ^: composition is ,al#b;,h#d,o#e ,al#b,o#c1b;,h#b,o4 ,! smalle/ quantity ( alkalis1 & ( _m acids & salts1 w conv]t ! hydrosol into ! hydrogel ( alum9a--t is1 conv]t ! alum9ium hydroxide f a soluble into an insoluble =m1 or1 z x is said1 cause ! hydrate to coagulate or gelat9ise4 ,! smalle/ am\nt ( sulphuric acid & its salts w cause ! alum9a to gelat9ise--t is1 cause ! hydrogel to sep>ate4 ,_m su* colloidal solutions are kn[n 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ih1 ,note #eg74 #be ,9 a dialys]1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #fc1 ,note #ah4 #be bis ,! diff]5t /ates 9 :i* ! hydrates ( alum9a occur & are prep>$ resemble simil> v>ieties ( ! hydrates ( ! oxides ( iron & *romium1 ( molybdic & tung/ic acids1 z well z ( phosphoric & silicic acids1 ( _m sulphides1 proteid sub/ances1 c4 ,we %all !re=e h occasion to recur to ?is subject 9 ! fur!r c\rse ( ?is "w4 ,! mo/ rem>kable peculi>ity ( ,graham's solution is t x solidifies on litmus pap]1 & leaves a blue r+ on x1 :i* %[s ! alkal9e--t is1 basic--"* ( ! alum9a 9 su* a solution4 ,if 9 ! dialysis ! basic hydro*loric acid salt be replac$ by a simil> acetic acid salt1 a hydrosol ( alum9a is obta9$ :i* does n act ^u litmus4 ,) respect to alum9a z a base1 x is v important to obs]ve t x is n only capable ( comb9+ ) o!r bases#bf b t x does n give salts ) feeble volatile acids 7l c>bonic & hypo*lor\s72 x =ms salts :i* are easily decompos$ by wat]1 especially :5 heat$1#bg z well z d\ble & basic salts1#bh s t x =ms a cle> example ( a feeble base4#bi ,to ^! *>act]i/ics ( alum9a we mu/ add t x n only gives comp\nds ( ! type ,al,x#c1 b also ! polym]ic type ,al#b,x#f1 ev5 :5 ,x is a simple unival5t haloid l *lor9e4 ,deville & ,troo/ %[$ 7#aheg7 t ! vap\r d5sity ( alum9ium *loride 7at ab\t #djj7 is #icg ) respect to air--t is1 ne>ly #ace ) respect to hydrog51 & !re=e ! =mula ( its molecule is express$ by ,al#b;,cl#f1 & n ,al,cl#c1cj al?\gh 9 ! case ( boron1 ars5ic1 & antimony1 :i* give oxides ,r#b,o#c ( ! same composition z ,al#b,o#c1 ! *lor9e comp\nds =m non-polym]ic molecules1 ,b,cl#c1 ,as,cl#c1 ,sb,cl#c4ca ,?is duplication 7polym]isation7 ( ! =m ,al,x#c is connect$ ) ! facility ) :i* ! salts ( alum9ium comb9e ) o!r salts to =m d\ble salts & ) alum9ium hydroxide itself to =m basic salts4 #bf ,comp\nds ( alum9a ) bases 7alum9ates1 see ,note #ba7 are sometimes met ) 9 nature4 ,su* are sp9el 7see p4 #fe71 ,mg,o1,al#b,o#c ,mg,al#b,o#d1 *rysob]yl1 ,be,al#b,o#d1 & o!rs4 ,magnetic oxide ( iron1 ,fe,o1,fe#b,o#c ,fe#c,o#d1 & comp\nds l x1 belong to ! same class4 ,"h we evid5tly h a case ( comb9ation 'by analogy1' z 9 solutions & alloys1 accompani$ by ! =mation ( /rictly def9ite sal9e comp\nds1 & su* in/ances =m a cle> transition f s-call$ solutions & c]ta9 mixtures to ! type ( true salts4 #bg ,n only alum9ium acetate 7,note #bd71 b also e o!r alum9ium salt ) a volatile acid1 p>ts ) its acid on heat+ an aque\s solution--t is1 is decompos$ by wat]1 & =ms ei!r basic salts or a hydrate ( alum9a4 ,by dissolv+ alum9ium hydroxide 9 nitric acid we may easily obta9 a well-cry/allis+ alum9ium nitrate1 ,al7,,no#c7c1i;,h#b,o1 :i* fuses at #gc )\t decompos+ 7,ordway71 gives a basic salt1 #b;,al#b,o#c1f;,,hno#c1 at #ajj1 & at #adj leaves ! alum9ium hydroxide p]fectly free f ! elem5ts ( nitric acid4 ,b ! solutions ( ?is salt1 l ^? ( ! acetate1 are also able to yield alum9ium hydroxide4 ,f all ?is x is evid5t t we mu/ suppose t ! solutions ( ?is & simil> salts conta9 an equilibrat$ dissociat$ sy/em1 conta9+ ! salt1 ! acid1 & ! base1 & _! comp\nds ) wat]1 z well z p>tly ! molecules ( wat] itself4 ,su* examples mu* m cle>ly confirm ^? conceptions ( solutions :i* are giv5 9 ! fir/ *apt] ?an a g5]al prelim9>y acqua9tance ) ! subject c d4 #bh ,z an example ( native basic salts we may cite alunite1 or alum-/one 7sp4 gr4 #bf71 :i* sometimes occurs 9 cry/als1 b m frequ5tly 9 fibr\s masses4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 masses 9 ! ,caucasus 7at ,zaglik1 =ty v]/s di/ance f ,elizabetpol71 & at ,tolfa1 ne> ,rome4 ,its composition is ,k#b,o1#c;,al#b,o#c1d,,s#c1f;,h#b,o 7alunite conta9s #i;,h#b,o74 ,x is soluble 9 wat] b n decompos$ by x1 b aft] be+ slightly ignit$ x gives up alum to x4 ,x may be artificially prep>$ by heat+ a mixture ( alum ) alum9ium sulphate 9 a clos$ tube at #bcj4 #bi ,z ! colloidal prop]ties are p>ticul>ly %>ply develop$ 9 ^? oxides 7,al#b,o#c1 ,si,o#b1 ,mo,o#c1 ,sn,o#b1 c47 :i* %[ 7l wat] also7 ! prop]ties ( feeble bases & feeble acids1 !re is probably "s causal reason = ?is co9cid5ce1 all ! m s s9ce among organic sub/ances--gelat9s1 album9s1 c4--! repres5tatives ( ! colloids also h ! prop]ty ( feebly comb9+ ) bases & acids4 #cj ,s9ce ,deville's exp]im5ts ! "q ( ! d5sity ( alum9ium *loride has be5 frequ5tly re-inve/igat$4 ,! subject has m especially occupi$ ! att5tion ( ,nilson1 ,pett]sson1 ,fri$el & ,crafts1 & ,v4 ,mey] & 8 collaborators4 ,9 g5]al1 x has be5 f\nd t at l[ temp]atures 7up to #ddj7 ! d5sity is con/ant1 & indicates a molecule ,al#b;,cl#f2 :il/ depolym]isation probably 7al?\gh x is n yet c]ta97 takes place at high] temp]atures1 & ! molecule ,al,cl#c is obta9$4 ,along ) ?is !re has be51 & /ill is1 a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! vap\r d5sity ( alum9ium e?yl & me?yl--:e!r = in/ance1 ,al7,,*#c7c or ,al#b7;,,*#c7f expresses ! molecule ( ! latt]4 ,! int]e/ ( ^! rese>*es is intimately connect$ ) ! "q ( ! val5cy ( alum9ium1 if we hold to ! op9ion t elem5ts 9 _! v>i\s comp\nds h a con/ant & /rictly def9ite val5cy4 ,9 ?is case ! =mula ,al,cl#c or ,al7,,*#c7c w\ld %[ t ,al is trival5t1 & t consequ5tly ! comp\nds ( alum9ium are ,al7,,oh7#c1 ,al,o#c;,al1 &1 9 g5]al1 ,al,x#c4 ,b if ! molecule be ,al#b;,cl#f1 x is--= ! foll[]s ( ! doctr9e ( ! inv>iable val5cy ( ! elem5ts--incompatible ) ! idea ( ! trival5cy ( alum9ium1 & !y assume x to be quadrival5t l c>bon1 lik5+ ,al#b;,cl#f to e?ane ,c#b;,h#f ,,*#c;,,*#c1 al?\gh ?is does n expla9 :y ,al does n =m ,al,cl#d1 or1 9 g5]al1 ,al,x#d4 ,9 ?is "w ano!r supposition is introduc$2 accord+ to ?is1 al?\gh alum9ium1 z an elem5t ( gr\p ,,iii41 gives comp\nds ( ! type ,al,x#e1 ?is does n exclude ! possibility ( ^! molecules comb9+ ) o!rs1 & consequ5tly ) ea* o!r--t is1 =m+ ,al#b,x#f2 j z ! molecules ( unival5t elem5ts exi/ ei!r z ,h#b1 ,cl#b1 c41 or z ,na1 & ! molecules ( bival5t elem5ts ei!r z ,zn1 or z ,s#b1 or ev5 ,s#f4 ,9 ! fir/ place x mu/ be recognis$ t ! limit+ =m does n exhau/ all p[] ( comb9ation1 x only exhau/s ! capacity ( ! elem5t = comb9+ ) ,x's1 b ! saturat$ sub/ance may aft]w>ds comb9e ) :ole molecules1 :i* fact is be/ prov$ by ! capacity ( sub/ances to =m cry/all9e comp\nds ) wat]1 ammonia1 c4 ,b 9 "s sub/ances ?is faculty = fur!r comb9ations is less develop$ 7= in/ance1 9 c>bon tetra*loride1 ,c,cl#d71 :il/ 9 o!rs x is m s4 ,al,x#c comb9es ) _m o!r molecules4 ,n[ if a limit+ =m1 :i* does n comb9e ) new ,x's1 nev]!less comb9es ) o!r :ole molecules1 x w naturally 9 "s in/ances comb9e ) itself1 w polym]ise4 ,9 ?is mann] ! m9d cle>ly grasps ! idea t ! same =ces :i* cause ,s#b to unite itself to ,cl#b1 or ,c#b;,h#d to ,cl#b1 c41 also unite molecules ( a simil> k9d toge!r2 ?us polym]isation ceases to be an isolat$ fragm5t>y ph5om5on1 & *emical comb9ations 'by analogy' acquire a p>ticul> & important int]e/4 ,9 con=mity ) ^! views ! foll[+ proposition may be made conc]n+ ! comp\nds ( alum9ium4 ,!y are ( ! type ,al,x#c 9 ! limit1 l ,,bx#c1 b ^? limit+ =ms are /ill able to comb9e to =m ,al,x#c1,,rz1 & ! alum9ium *loride is a comp\nd ( ?is k9d--i4e4 7,al,x#c7b4 ,9 boron1 = example1 9 ,b,cl#c1 ?is t5d5cy to =m fur!r comp\nds is less develop$4 ,h5ce boron *loride appe>s z ,b,cl#c1 & n 7,b,cl#c7b4 ,polym]isation is n only possible :5 a sub/ance has n atta9$ ! limit 7al?\gh x is m probable !n71 b also :5 ! limit+ =m has be5 rea*$1 if only ! latt] has ! faculty ( comb9+ ) o!r :ole molecules4 ,we may !re=e conclude t alum9ium1 l boron1 is trival5t 9 ! same s5se t li?ium & sodium are unival5t1 magnesium bival5t1 & c>bon tetraval5t4 ,9 a ^w1 !re is no reason to consid] t alum9ium is capable ( =m+ comp\nds ,al,x#d1 & 9 t way to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ! molecule ,al#b;,cl#f4 ,fur!rmore1 !re are _m reasons = ?9k+ t ,al,f#c1 ,al#b,o#c1 & o!r empirical =mul d n express ! molecul> weights ( ^! comp\nds1 b t !y are mu* high]3 ,aln,f#cn1 ,al#bn,o#cn4 ,9 rec5t ye>s conv9c+ pro(s ( ! tru? ( ! above /atem5ts h be5 obta9$1 & ( ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( ,al,x#c 9 a /ate ( vap\r2 = ,comb has det]m9$ ! vap\r d5sity ( ! volatile acetyl ( alum9ium acetate ,al7,c#c;,h#g,o#b7c 7:i* melts at #aic1 boils at #cae1 & di/ils )\t a trace ( decomposition71 & has f\nd t x exactly corresponds to ! above molecul> composition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,l\ise & ,r\x 7#ahhi7 by employ+ ! me?od ( 'freez+ po9t depression' ( solutions 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di7 f\nd t ! molecules ,al#b7;,c#b;,h#e7f & ,al#b7;,c#e;,h#aa7f1 c41 correspond to ! type ,al#b,x#f4 ,?us x may n[ be accept$ t ! molecul> composition ( ! comp\nds ( alum9ium 9 _! simple/ =m is ,al,x#c1 b t !y may polym]ise & give ,al#b,x#f or1 9 g5]al1 ,al#b,x#cn4 #ca ,9 ! case ( gallium1 z a close analogue ( alum9ium1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran 7#ahhj7 %[$ t probably ! molecule gallium *loride conta9s ,ga#b;,cl#f at l[ temp]atures & high pressures1 & t x dissociates into ,ga,cl#c at high temp]atures & l[ pressures4 ,! molecule ( indium *loride seems to exi/ only 9 ! simple/ =m1 ,in,cl#c4 ,alum9ium sulphate1 ,al#b7,,s#d7c1 :i* is obta9$ by treat+ clay or ! hydrates ( alum9a ) sulphuric acid1 cry/allises 9 ! cold ) #bg;,h#b,o1 or at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 pe>ly cry/als1 :i* are greasy to ! t\* & conta9 #af;,h#b,o4#cb ,its solutions act l sulphuric acid--= in/ance1 !y evolve hydrog5 ) z9c1 =m+ basic salts1 :i* are sometimes met ) 9 nature 7alum9ite1 ,al#b,o#c1,,s#c1i;,h#b,o1 alumiane1 ,al#b,o#c1b,,s#c1 & o!rs71 & may be obta9$ by ! decomposition ( normal salts & by ! direct solution ( ! hydroxide 9 normal salts3 ^! exhibit a v>y+ composition1 7,al#b,o#c7n7,,s#c7m7,h#b,o7q1 :]e m_/n is less ?an #c4 ,alum9ium sulphate is n[ prep>$ 7f ! pure hydrate obta9$ f bauxite1 ,note #ba7 9 l>ge quantities = dye+ purposes 7in/ead ( alums7 z a mordant4 ,) solutions ( ! alkali sulphates 7potassium1 sodium1 ammonium1 rubidium1 & csium sulphates71 ! normal salt easily =ms d\ble salts1 t]m$ alums--= example1 ! ord9>y cry/all9e alum conta9s ,k,al7,,s#d7b1ab;,h#b,o1 or ,k#b,,s#d1;,al#b7,,s#d7c1bd;,h#b,o4 ,9 ! ammonium alums 7:i* leave a residue ( alum9a :5 ignit$7 ! potassium is replac$ by ammonium 7,,nh#d74 ,alums are us$ 9 l>ge quantities1 because !re is sc>cely any o!r salt :i* cry/allises s easily4 ,9 ?is respect ! alums =m$ by potassium & ammonium are equally conv5i5t to purify1 because !y pres5t a consid]able diff]5ce 9 _! solubility at ! ord9>y & high] temp]atures4 ,if ! cry/allisation be conduct$ rapidly1 ! salt sep>ates 9 m9ute cry/als1 b if x be sl[ly deposit$1 especially 9 l>ge masses1 z 9 factories1 !n cry/als sev]al c5timetres long are sometimes obta9$4 ,at a high] temp]ature alums are v mu* m soluble1 & cry/allise ) great] difficulty1 & are !re=e less easily fre$ f impurities2 at #j #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #c p>ts1 at #cj #bb p>ts1 at #gj #ij p>ts1 & at #ajj #ceg p>ts ( potassium alum4#cc ,! solubility ( ammonium alum is slightly less4 ,! specific gravity ( potassium alum is #agd1 ( ammonium alum #afc1 & ( sodium alum #afj4 ,alums easily "p ) _! wat] ( cry/allisation2 ?us pota% alum p>tially effloresces :5 expos$ to ! air1 & loses #i mol4 ,h#b,o "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,at #ajj1 dry air pass$ ov] alums takes up ne>ly all _! wat]4 ,z we h already m5tion$ 7,*apt] ,,xv471 ! law ( isomorph\s sub/itutions exhibits itself m cle>ly 9 ! alums ?an 9 any o!r salts1 & all alums n only conta9 ! same am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 ,,mr7,,s#d7b1ab;,h#b,o 7:]e ,m ,k1 ,,nh#d1 ,na2 ,r ,al1 ,fe1 ,cr71 & appe> 9 cry/als ^: planes are incl9$ at equal angles1 b !y also give e possible k9d ( isomorph\s mixture4 ,! alum9ium 9 !m is easily replac$ by iron1 *romium1 indium & sometimes by o!r metals1 :il/ ! potassium may be sub/itut$ by sodium1 rubidium1 ammonium1 & ?allium1 & ! sulphuric acid may be replac$ by sel5ic & *romic acids4 #cb ,! pure salt 7#af;,h#b,o7 is n hygroscopic4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( impurities ! am\nt ( wat] increases to #ah;,h#b,o1 & ! salt becomes hygroscopic4 #cc ,! common =m ( cry/als ( alums is octah$ral1 b if ?is solution conta9s a c]ta9 small excess ( alum9a above ! ratio #b;,al7,,oh7#c to ,k#b,,s#d1 & n m sulphuric acid ?an #c;,h#b,,s#d to #b;,al7,,oh7#c1 !n x easily =ms comb9ations ( ! cube & octah$ron1 & ^! alums are call$ 'cubic' alums4 ,!y are valu$ by ! dy] because !y c conta9 no iron 9 solution1 = oxide ( iron is precipitat$ be=e alum9a1 & if ! latt] be 9 excess !re c be no oxide ( iron pres5t4 ,^! alums 7 long export$ f ,italy1 :]e !y 7 prep>$ f alunite 7,note #bh74 ,alum9ium *loride1 ,al#b;,cl#f1 is obta9$1 l o!r simil> *lorides1 7= in/ance ,mg,cl#b7 ei!r directly f *lor9e & ! metal1 or by heat+ to r$ness an intimate mixture ( ! amorph\s anhydr\s oxide & *>coal 9 a /ream ( dry *lor9e4#cc bis ,! resultant sublimate is v volatile1#cd & =ms a cry/all9e1 easily fusible mass1 :i* deliquesces 9 ! air & easily dissolves 9 wat]1 ) ! evolution ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat4#cd bis ,on evaporat+ ?is solution1 hydro*loric acid & alum9ium hydroxide are lib]at$4 ,b if ! solution be heat$ 9 a clos$ tube1 ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid1 !n1 on cool+1 cry/als ( ,al,cl#c1f;,h#b,o are obta9$--t is1 alum9ium *loride bo? comb9es ) wat] & is decompos$ by x4 ,& ! faculty ( ! type ,al,x#c = comb9+ ) o!r molecules is se5 9 ! comp\nds ( ,al,cl#c ) _m o!r *lor9e comp\nds4 ,?us1 = example1 a mixture ( alum9ium *loride ) sulphur tetra*loride gives ,al#b;,cl#f1,s,cl#d1 "u ! action ( *lor9e1 :il/ ) phosphorus p5ta*loride x =ms ,al,cl#c1,p,cl#e2 x also comb9es ) ,n,o,cl4 ,?us1 ! comp\nds ,al,cl#c1,n,o,cl1 ,al,cl#c1,p,o,cl#c1 ,al,cl#c1c,,nh#c1 ,al,cl#c1,k,cl1 ,al,cl#c1,na,cl are kn[n4#ce ,! comp\nd ( alum9ium & sodium *lorides1 ,al,na,cl#d1 is v fusible & mu* m /able 9 ! air ?an alum9ium *loride itself4 ,x seems to be ( ! same type z ! alums4 ,?is comp\nd1 ,al,na,cl#d1 is employ$ 9 ! extraction ( metallic alum9ium1 z we %all pres5tly proce$ to describe4 ,alum9ium bromide1 :i* is obta9$ by ! direct comb9ation ( metallic alum9ium ) brom9e1 closely resembles ! *loride2 x melts at #ij1 volatilises at #bgj1 & its vap\r d5sity indicates ! =mula ,al#b;,br#f4 ,alum9ium iodide is obta9$ by heat+ iod9e ) f9ely divid$ alum9ium 9 a clos$ tube2 x is s easily decompos$ by oxyg5 t its vap\r ev5 explodes :5 mix$ ) x4#cf #cc bis ,x is also =m$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid ^u metallic alum9ium 7,nilson & ,pett]sson71 by heat+ alum9a 9 a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( naph?al9e & ,h,cl 7,faure1 #ahhi71 & by ! action ( dry ,h,cl ^u an alloy ( #ad p4c41 or m ( ,al & copp] 7,mob]y74 #cd ,alum9ium *loride fuses at #agh1 boils at #ahc 7pressure #gee mm41 at #afh "u a pressure ( #bej mm41 & at #bac "u #b1bgh mm471 accord+ to ,fri$el & ,crafts1 s t x boils imm$iately aft] fusion4 ,accord+ to ,seub]t & ,pall>d 7#ahib71 ,al#b;,cl#f fuses at #aic4 ,alum9ium bromide fuses at ab\t #ib1 & ! iodide at #ahe accord+ to ,web]1 at #abe accord+ to ,deville & ,troo/4 ,all ^! halog5 comp\nds ( alum9ium are soluble 9 wat]4 ,alum9ium fluoride1 ,al,f#c 7,aln,f#cn71 is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,x is obta9$ by dissolv+ alum9a 9 hydr(luoric acid2 a solution is !n =m$1 b x conta9s an excess ( hydr(luoric acid4 ,:5 ?is solution is evaporat$1 cry/als conta9+ ,al#b;,f#f1;,,hf1,h#b,o are obta9$4 ,!y are also insoluble 9 wat]4 ,by saturat+ ! above solution ) a l>ge quantity ( alum9a1 & !n evaporat+1 we obta9 cry/als hav+ ! composition ,al#b;,f#f1g;,h#b,o4 ,all ^! comp\nds1 :5 ignit$1 leave insoluble anhydr\s alum9ium fluoride4 ,x =ms col\rless rhomboh$ra1 :i* are non-volatile1 ( sp4 gr4 #ca1 & are decompos$ by /eam into alum9a & hydr(luoric acid4 ,! acid solution app>5tly conta9s a comp\nd :i* has its correspond+ salts2 by ! addition ( a solution ( potassium fluoride1 a gelat9\s precipitate ( ,al,k#c;,f#f is obta9$4 ,a simil> comp\nd occurs 9 nature--namely1 ,al,na#c;,f#f1 or cryolite1 sp4 gr4 #cj4 #cd bis ,9 ?is respect alum9ium *loride resembles ! *loranhydrides ( ! acids1 & probably 9 ! aque\s solution ! elem5ts ( ! hydro*loric acid are already sep>at$1 at lea/ p>tially1 f ! alum9ium hydroxide4 ,! solution may also be obta9$ by ! action ( alum9ium hydroxide on hydro*loric acid4 #ce ,"h we see an in/ance 9 confirmation ( :at has be5 said 9 ,note #cj--;i4e4 ! action ( ! molecule ,al,cl#c4 ,we w cite /ill ano!r in/ance confirm+ ! p[] ( alum9a to ent] into complex comb9ations4 ,alum9a1 moi/5$ ) a solution ( calcium *loride1 gives1 :5 ignit$1 an anhydr\s cry/all9e sub/ance 7tetrah$ral71 :i* is soluble 9 acids1 & conta9s 7,al#b,o#c7f7;,ca,o7#aj;,ca,cl#b4 ,ev5 clay =ms a simil> /ony sub/ance1 :i* might be ( practical use4 ,among ! mo/ complex comp\nds ( alum9ium1 ultram>9e1 or lapis lazuli1 mu/ be m5tion$4 ,x occurs 9 nature ne> ,lake ,baikal1 9 cry/als1 "s col\rless & o!rs ( v>i\s t9ts--gre51 blue1 & violet4 ,:5 heat$ x becomes dull & acquires a v brilliant blue col\r4 ,9 ?is =m x is us$ = ornam5ts 7l mala*ite71 & z a brilliant blue pigm5t4 ,at ! pres5t "t ultram>9e is prep>$ artificially 9 l>ge quantities1 & ?is process is "o ( ! mo/ important conque/s ( sci5ce2 = ! blue t9t ( ultram>9e has be5 ! object ( _m sci5tific rese>*es1 :i* h culm9at$ 9 ! manufacture ( ?is native sub/ance4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ultram>9e is t :5 plac$ 9 sulphuric acid x evolves hydrog5 sulphide & becomes col\rless4 ,?is %[s t ! blue col\r ( ultram>9e is due to ! pres5ce ( sulphides4 ,if clay be heat$ 9 a furnace ) sodium sulphate & *>coal 7=m+ sodium sulphide7 )\t access ( air1 a :ite mass is obta9$1 :i* becomes gre5 :5 heat$ 9 ! air1 & :5 treat$ ) wat] leaves a col\rless sub/ance kn[n z ':ite ultram>9e4' ,:5 ignit$ 9 ! air x absorbs oxyg5 & turns blue4 ,! coloration is ascrib$ to ! pres5ce ( metallic sulphides or polysulphides1 b x is mo/ probable t silicon sulphide1 or its oxysulphide1 ,si,o,s1 is pres5t4 ,at all ev5ts ! sulphides play an important "p1 b ! problem is n yet q settl$4 ,! =mula ,na#h;,al#f,si#f,o#bd,s is ascrib$ to :ite ultram>9e4 ,! gre5 probably conta9s m sulphur1 & ! blue a /ill l>g] quantity4 ,! la/ is suppos$ to conta9 ,na#h;,al#f,si#f,o#bd,s#c4 ,x is m probable 7accord+ to ,guckelb]g]1 #ahhb7 t ! composition ( ! blue v>ies betwe5 ,si#ah;,al#ah,na#bj,s#f,o#ga & ,si#ah;,al#ab,na#bj,s#f,o#fi4 ,! latt] may be express$ z 7,al#b,o#c7f7,si,o#b7ah7,na#b,o7#aj,s#f, o#e1 :i* w\ld indicate ! pres5ce ( insuffici5tly-oxidis$ sulphur 9 ultram>9e4 #cf ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature alum9ium does n decompose wat]1 b if a small quantity ( iod9e1 or ( hydriodic acid & iod9e1 or ( alum9ium iodide & iod9e1 is add$ to ! wat]1 !n hydrog5 is abundantly evolv$4 ,x is evid5t t "h ! reaction proce$s at ! exp5se ( ! =mation ( ,al#b;,i#f1 & t ?is sub/ance1 ) wat]1 gives alum9ium hydroxide & hydriodic acid1 :i*1 ) alum9ium1 evolves hydrog54 ,alum9ium probably belongs to ^? metals hav+ a great] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an = ! halog5s 7,note #cf tri74 ,metallic ,alum9ium 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,whl] 9 #ahbb z a grey p[d] by ! action ( potassium on alum9ium *loride4 ,he aft]w>ds 79 #ahde7 obta9$ x z a :ite compact metal1 unoxidisable 9 ! air1 & only sl[ly attack$ by acids4 ,ow+ to ! va/ & wide occurr5ce ( clay1 _m ef=ts h be5 made 9 inve/igat+ 9 detail ! me?ods = ! extraction ( ?is metal4 ,^! ef=ts 7 br\ght to a successful issue 7#ahed7 by ,sa9te-,claire ,deville1 :o is also r5[n$ = 8 doctr9e ( dissociation4 ,exp]im5ts on a l>ge scale h prov$ t metallic alum9ium1 al?\gh possess$ ( great lightness1 /r5g?1 & durability1 is n s g5]ally suitable = te*nical purposes z 0 at fir/ ?\ght4 ,nitric & _m o!r acids1 inde$1 d n act on x1 b ! alkalis1 alkal9e sub/ances1 & ev5 salts--= in/ance1 moi/ table salt--humidity1 c41#cf bis t>ni% x1 & h5ce objects made ( alum9ium suff] at ! surfaces1 alt]1 & _c1 z 0 hop$1 replace ! preci\s metals1 f :i* x diff]s 9 its extreme lightness4 ,b ! alloys made ) alum9ium 7especially ) copp]1 = example alum9ium bronze7 are v valuable 9 _! prop]ties & applications4 #cf bis ,z an example we may m5tion t if m]cury comes 9 contact ) metallic alum9ium & especially if x be rubb$ ^u ! surface ( alum9ium moi/5$ ) a dilute acid1 ! ,al becomes rapidly oxidis$ 7,al#b,o#c be+ =m$74 ,! oxidation is accompani$ by a v curi\s appe>ance1 z x 7 ( wool 7or fur7 =m$ by ?reads ( oxide ( alum9ium gr[+ ^u ! metal4 ,?is 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,cass 9 #ahgj1 & subsequ5tly by ,a4 ,sokoleff 9 #ahib4 ,?is int]e/+ & curi\s ph5om5on has n to my k be5 fur!r /udi$4 ,i ?9k x necess>y1 h[ev]1 to add t accord+ to ,lubb]t & ,ras*]'s rese>*es 7#ahia71 w9e1 c(fee1 milk1 oil1 ur9e1 e>?1 c41 h no m action ^u alum9ium vessels ?an ^u copp]1 t91 & o!r simil> articles4 ,9 ! c\rse ( f\r mon?s ord9>y v9eg> dissolv$ #jce grm4 ( ,al p] sq4 c5timetre1 :il/ a #e p] c5t4 solution ( common salt dissolv$ ab\t #jje grm4 ( alum9ium4 ,ditte 7#ahij7 %[$ t ,al is act$ ^u by nitric & sulphuric acids1 al?\gh only sl[ly 7ow+ to ! =mation ( a lay] ( gas1 z 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #aj7 & t ! reaction proce$s mu* m rapidly 9 vacuo or 9 ! pres5ce ( oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,al is ev5 oxidis$ by wat] on ! surface1 b ! ?9 coat+ ( alum9a =m$ prev5ts fur!r action4 ,9 ! c\rse ( twelve h\rs nitric acid sp4 gr4 #achc dissolv$ at #ag ab\t #bj grms4 ( alum9ium 7conta9+ only a small am\nt ( ,si1 #a-a_/d p4c47 f a sq4 metre ( surface 7,le ,r\>t1 #ahia74 ,! ,deville me?od = ! prep>ation ( metallic alum9ium is bas$ on ! decomposition ( ! above-m5tion$ comp\nd ( sodium & alum9ium *lorides by metallic sodium4 ,! comp\nd is obta9$ by pass+ ! vap\r ( alum9ium *loride 7evolv$ f a mixture ( alum9a1 extract$ f bauxite or cryolite1 ) *>coal ignit$ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e7 ov] r$-hot salt1 :5 ! comp\nd ,al,na,cl#d1 is itself volatilis$1 & may 9 ?is mann] be obta9$ pure4 ,a mixture ( ?is comp\nd ) salt & fluor sp>1 or ) cryolite1 is heat$ ) a c]ta9 excess ( sodium1 cut into small lumps4 ,on a l>ge scale ?is op]ation is c>ri$ on 9 special furnaces ) a small access ( air & at a high temp]ature4 ,! decomposition takes place *iefly accord+ to ! equation ,na,al,cl#d #c,na #d,na,cl ,al4 ,nei!r *>coal nor z9c w r$uce ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( alum9ium2 ev5 sodium & potassium d n act on alum9a4 ,moreov]1 metallic alum9ium1 l magnesium1 is able to r$uce ev5 ! metals ( ! alkalis f _! oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,?is is connect$ ) ! fact t ! atom ( oxyg5 evolves m heat 9 comb9+ ) ,al 7& ,mg7 ?an x does 9 comb9+ ) o!r metals2 :il/ on ! o!r h&1 *lor9e 7& ! o!r halog5s7 evolve m heat 9 comb9+ ) ! metals ( ! alkalis4#cf tri #cf tri ,9 addition to ! data giv5 9 ,*apt]s ,,xi41 ,,xiii41 & 9 ,*apt] ,,xv41 ,note #ai1 ! foll[+ are ! am\nts ( heat 9 ?\s&s ( units1 evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ! oxides & *lorides f ! metals tak5 9 gram-atomic quantities3 ,na#b,o #ajj2 ,mg,o #adj992 #a_/c;,al#b,o#c #abj992 #a_/c;,fe#b,o#c #fc992 ,na#b;,cl#b #aie2 ,mg,cl#b #aea2 #a_/c;,al#b;,cl#f #ajg2 #a_/c;,fe#b;,cl#f #fd4 ,! a/]isks foll[+ ! oxides ( ,mg1 ,al & ,fe call att5tion to ! fact t ! exi/+ data ref] to ! =mation ( ! hydrates ( ^! metals1 f :i* ! heat ( =mation ( ! anhydr\s oxides may easily be assum$1 because ! heat ( hydration 7= example1 ,mg,o ,h#b,o7 has n yet be5 det]m9$4 ,s9ce ! close ( ! eighties ! metallurgy ( alum9ium has tak5 a new direction1 bas$ ^u ! action ( an electric curr5t ^u cryolite at a high temp]ature1#cg & ! solution ( oxide ( alum9ium 7obta9$ f bauxite or 9 ! =m ( corundum7 9 x2 "u ^! conditions metallic alum9ium is r$uc$ at ! negative pole 7ca?ode7 9 a suffici5tly pure /ate1 & if ! ca?ode be copp]1 =ms alloys ) x4 ,su* are ,hall's & ,c[le's 7bo? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates7 & ! ,neuhaus5 process 7:]e ! curr5t is obta9$ f a dynamo work$ by ! ,falls ( ! ,rh9e at ,s*affhaus574 ,z an example1 we w describe 79 ! words ( ,pr(4 ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f1 :o became acqua9t$ ) ?is process at ! ,*icago ,exhibition71 ,hall's process z appli$ ne> ,pittsburg1 :]e x gives ab\t #a1ejj kilos ( ,al a day4 ,an iron box 7ab\t #a metre long & #a_/b metre wide71 provid$ ) a well ramm$ d[n *>coal l9+1 is *>g$ ) a mixture ( cryolite & ,al#b,o#c 7f bauxite71 ov] :i* salt is /rewn1 & a curr5t ( #e1jjj ampres at #bj volts is pass$ ?r\gh ! mixture4 ,! anode is compos$ ( a c>bon cyl9d] 7ab\t #i cm4 9 diamet]71 :ile ! *>coal l9+ =ms ! ca?ode4 ,:5 ! temp]ature inside ! box is rais$ to a r$ heat by ! curr5t1 ! mixture fuses & ! ,al#b,o#c beg9s to decompose4 ,! ,al lib]at$ collects at ! bottom ( ! box1 :il/ ! oxyg5 evolv$ burns ! *>coal anode4 ,:5 ! decomposition is at an end1 & ! resi/ance ( ! mass increases1 a fre% quantity ( ,al#b,o#c is add$1 & ?is is cont9u$ until ! am\nt ( impurities accumulat$ 9 ! furnace & pass+ into ! metal becomes too great4#cg bis #cg ,cryolite "u ! action ( ! curr5t at ab\t #a1jjj gives (f ! vap\r ( ,na :i* r$uces ! ,al1 b x recomb9es ) ! lib]at$ fluor9e & aga9 passes into ! fus$ mass4 ,x is important to obta9 alum9ium at z l[ a temp]ature z possible1 b ! action proce$s f> m easily ) ! solution 7alloy7 ( oxide ( alum9ium 9 cryolite4 #cg bis ,! co/ ( work+ ?is process c be br\ght z l[ z #bj c5ts p] lb4 or ab\t #b-a_/b fcs4 p] kilo4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,ca/n]1 prior to ! introduction ( ! electric me?od1 obta9$ ,al by tak+ a mixture ( #a1bjj p>ts ( ! d\ble salt ,na,al,cl#d1 #fjj p>ts ( cryolite1 & #cej p>ts ( ,na1 & obta9$ ab\t #abj p>ts ( ,al1 s t ! co/ ( ?is process is ab\t #a-a_/b "t t ( ! electric me?od4 ,bu*n] f\nd t sulphide ( alum9ium1 ,al#b,s#c1 is m suitable = ! prep>ation ( ,al by ! electrolytic me?od ?an ,al#b,o#c1 b s9ce ! =mation ( ,al#b,s#c by heat+ a mixture ( ,al#b,o#c1 & *>coal 9 sulphur vap\r proce$s ) difficulty1 ,gray 7#ahid7 propos$ to prep>e ,al#b,s#c by heat+ a mixture ( *>coal1 sulphate ( alum9ium1 & sodium fluoride4 ,! resultant molt5 mixture ( ,na,f & ,al#b,s#c gives alum9ium directly "u ! action ( an electric curr5t4 ,alum9ium has a :ite col\r resembl+ t ( t9--t is1 x is grey] ?an silv] & has ! feebly dull lu/re ( t91 b comp>$ to t9 & pure silv]1 alum9ium is v h>d4 ,its d5sity is #bfg--t is1 x is ne>ly f\r times light] ?an silv] & ?ree times light] ?an copp]4 ,x melts at an incipi5t r$ heat 7#fjj71 & 9 s do+ is b slightly oxidis$4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature x does n alt] 9 ! air1 & 9 a compact mass x burns ) great difficulty at a :ite heat1 b 9 ?9 %eets1 into :i* x may be roll$1 or z a v f9e wire1 x burns ) a brilliant :ite light1 s9ce x =ms an infusible & non-volatile oxide4 ,alum9ium itself is non-volatile at a furnace heat4 ,^! prop]ties r5d] ,al a v good r$uc+ ag5t1 & ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f %[$ t x r$uces ! oxides ( ! alkali metals 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #db bis74 ,dilute sulphuric acid has sc>cely any action on x1 b ! /rong acid dissolves x1 especially ) ! aid ( heat4 ,nitric acid1 dilute or /rong1 has no action :atev] on x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 hydro*loric acid dissolves alum9ium ) great ease1 z d also solutions ( cau/ic soda & pota%4 ,9 ! latt] cases hydrog5 is evolv$4#ch #ch ,alum9ium1 :5 heat$ to ! high temp]ature ( ! electric furnace1 dissolves c>bon & =ms an alloy :i*1 accord+ to ,moissan1 :5 rapidly treat$ ) cold hydro*loric acid leaves a comp\nd ,c#c;,al#d 9 ! =m ( a yell[ cry/all9e transp>5t p[d]1 sp4 gr4 #bcf 7see ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,note #ab bis74 ,?is c>bide ( alum9ium ,c#c;,al#d corresponds to me?ane ,,*#d1 = ,al replaces ,h#c & c>bon ,o#b or ,h#d1 t is1 x is equal to ?ree molecules ( ,,*#d ) ! sub/itution ( twelve atoms ( ,h 9 x by f\r ( ,al1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 x is ! duplicat$ molecule ( ,al#b,o#c ) ! sub/itution ( ,o#f by ,c#c4 ,& inde$ ,c#c;,al#d "u ! action ( wat] =ms m>% gas & hydrate ( alum9a3 ,c#c;,al#d #ab;,h#b,o #c;,,*#d #d;,al7,,oh7#c4 ,?is decomposition gives a new aspect ( ! syn!sis ( hydroc>bons1 & q agrees ) :at %\ld foll[ f ! action ( wat] ^u ! metallic c>bides z appli$ by me = expla9+ ! orig9 ( naph?a 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,notes #eg1 #eh1 & #ei74 ,frank 7#ahid7 by heat+ ,al ) c>bon obta9$ a simil> al?\gh n q pure comp\nd1 :i* 7l ,ca,c#b7 evolves acetyl5e ) hydro*loric acid i4e4 probably has ! composition ,al,c#c4 ,alum9ium =ms alloys ) diff]5t metals ) great ease4 ,among !m ! copp] alloy is ( practical use4 ,x is call$ alum9ium bronze4 ,?is alloy is prep>$ by dissolv+ #aa p4c4 by weight ( metallic alum9ium 9 molt5 copp] at a :ite heat4 ,! =mation ( ! alloy is accompani$ by ! developm5t ( a consid]able quantity ( heat1 s t x gl[s to a bright :ite heat4 ,?is alloy1 :i* corresponds ) ! =mula ,al,cu#c1 pres5ts an exce$+ly homog5e\s mass1 especially if p]fectly pure copp] be tak54 ,x is di/+ui%$ = its capacity to fill up ! mo/ m9ute impressions ( ! m\ld into :i* x may be ca/1 & by its extraord9>y ela/icity & t\ghness1 s t objects ca/ f x may be hamm]$1 drawn1 c41 & at ! same "t x is f9e-gra9$ & exce$+ly h>d1 takes an excell5t poli%1 &1 :at is mo/ important1 its surface !n rema9s almo/ un*angeable 9 ! air1 & has a col\r & lu/re :i* may be comp>$ to t ( gold alloys4 ,h5ce alum9ium bronze is mu* us$ 9 ! arts = mak+ spoons1 wat*es1 vessels1 =ks1 knives1 & = ornam5ts1 c4 ,no less important is ! fact t ! admixture ( "o-?\s&? "p ( alum9ium ) /eel r5d]s its ca/+s homog5e\s 7free f cavities7 to an ext5t t c\ld n be arriv$ at by o!r means1 nor does ! quality ( ! /eel 9 any respect det]iorate by ?is admixture1 b r is x improv$4 ,9 a pure /ate1 alum9ium is only employ$ = su* objects z require ! h>dness ( metals ) comp>ative lightness1 su* z telescopes & v>i\s physical app>atus & small articles4 ,accord+ to ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 ! analogues ( magnesium are z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury 9 ! second gr\p4 ,s also 9 ! ?ird gr\p1 to :i* alum9ium belongs1 we f9d its correspond+ analogues gallium1 indium1 & ?allium4 ,!y are all ?ree s r>ely & sp>+ly met ) 9 nature t !y c\ld only be discov]$ by means ( ! spectroscope4 ,?is fact %[s t !y are p>tially volatile1 z %\ld be ! case accord+ to ! prop]ty ( _! ne>e/ neighb\rs1 ! v volatile z9c1 cadmium & m]cury4 ,z ) !m1 9 gallium1 indium1 & ?allium ! d5sity ( ! metal1 decomposability ( comp\nds1 c41 rises ) ! atomic weight4 ,b "h we f9d a peculi>ity :i* does n exi/ 9 ! second gr\p4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! fusibility increases ) ! atomic weight ( magnesium1 z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury2 inde$1 ! heavie/ metal--m]cury--is a liquid4 ,9 ! ?ird gr\p x is n s4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is x is suffici5t to turn our att5tion to ! elem5ts ( ! fur!r gr\ps ( ! unev5 s]ies--= in/ance1 to gr\p ,v41 conta9+ phosphorus1 ars5ic1 & antimony1 or to gr\p ,,vi41 ) sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium1 & also to gr\p ,,vii41 :]e *lor9e1 brom9e & iod9e are situat$4 ,9 all ^! in/ances ! fusibility decreases ) a rise ( atomic weight2 ! memb]s ( ! high] s]ies1 ! elem5ts ( a high atomic weight1 fuse ) great] difficulty ?an ! light] elem5ts4 ,! repres5tatives ( ! unev5 s]ies ( gr\p ,,iii41 alum9ium1 gallium1 indium1 ?allium1 =m+1 z !y d1 a transition1 all %[ an int]m$iate behavi\r4 ,"h ! mo/ fusible ( all is ! m$ium metal gallium1#ch bis :i* fuses at ! heat ( ! h&2 :il/ indium1 ?allium1 & alum9ium fuse at mu* high] temp]atures4 #ch bis ,! same is ! case 9 gr\p ,,iv4 ( ! unev5 s]ies1 :]e t9 is ! mo/ fusible4 ,?us ! temp]ature ( fusion rises on bo? sides ( t9 7silicon is v infusible2 g]manium1 #ijj2 t91 #bcj2 lead1 #cbf72 z x also does 9 gr\p ,,iii41 />t+ f gallium1 = indium fuses at #agf1 less easily ?an gallium b m easily ?an ?allium 7#bid74 ,alum9ium also fuses ) great] difficulty ?an gallium4 ,z9c 7gr\p ,,ii471 :i* has an atomic weight #fe1 %\ld be foll[$ 9 gr\p ,,iii4 by an elem5t ) an atomic weight ( ab\t #fi4 ,x w be 9 ! same gr\p z ,al & %\ld consequ5tly give ,r#b,o#c1 ,r,cl#c1 ,r#b7,,s#d7c1 alums & simil> comp\nds analog\s to ^? ( alum9ium4 ,its oxide %\ld be m easily r$ucible to metal ?an alum9a1 j z z9c oxide is m easily r$uc$ ?an magnesia4 ,! oxide ,r#b,o#c %\ld1 l alum9a1 h feeble b cle>ly express$ basic prop]ties4 ,! metal r$uc$ f its comp\nds %\ld h a great] atomic volume ?an z9c1 because 9 ! fif? s]ies1 proce$+ f z9c to brom9e1 ! volume increases4 ,& z ! volume ( z9c #ib1 & ( ars5ic #ah1 t ( our metal %\ld be ne> to #ab4 ,?is is also evid5t f ! fact t ! volume ( alum9ium #aa1 & ( indium #ad1 & our metal is situat$ 9 gr\p ,,iii41 betwe5 alum9ium & indium4 ,if its volume #aae & its atomic weight be ab\t #fi1 !n its d5sity w be ne>ly #ei4 ,! fact t z9c is m volatile ?an magnesium gives reason = ?9k+ t ! metal 9 "q w be m volatile ?an alum9ium1 & !re=e = expect+ its discov]y by ! aid ( ! spectroscope1 c4 ,^! prop]ties 7 indicat$ by me = ! analogue ( alum9ium 9 #ahga1 & ,i nam$ x 7see ,*apt] ,,xv47 eka-alum9ium4 ,9 #ahge1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 :o _h done mu* "w 9 spectrum analysis1 discov]$ a new metal 9 a z9c bl5de f ! ,pyr5ees 7,pi]refitte74 ,he recognis$ its individuality & diff]5ce f z9c1 cadmium1 indium1 & ! o!r companions ( z9c by means ( ! spectroscope2 b he only obta9$ "s fractions ( a c5tigram ( x 9 a free /ate4 ,consequ5tly only a few ( its reactions 7 det]m9$1 z1 = in/ance1 t b>ium c>bonate precipitates ! new oxide f its salts 7alum9a1 z is kn[n1 is also precipitat$74 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran nam$ ! newly discov]$ metal gallium4 ,z "o w\ld expect ! same prop]ties = eka-alum9ium z 7 obs]v$ 9 gallium1 ,i po9t$ out ?is fact at ! "t 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,p>is ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,all ! subsequ5t obs]vations ( ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran confirm$ ! id5tity betwe5 ! prop]ties ( gallium & ^? indicat$ = eka-alum9ium4 ,imm$iately aft] ?is ! ammonium alum ( gallium 0 obta9$1 b ! mo/ conv9c+ pro( ( all 0 f\nd 9 ! fact t ! d5sity ( gallium al?\gh fir/ app>5tly diff]5t 7#dg7 f t indicat$ above1 aft]w>ds1 :5 ! metal 0 c>efully purifi$ f sodium 7:i* 0 fir/ us$ z a r$uc+ ag5t71 prov$ to be j t 7#ei7 :i* w\ld h be5 look$ = 9 ! analogue ( alum9ium2 &1 :at 0 v important1 ! equival5t 7#bcc7 & atomic weight 7#fih7 det]m9$ by ! specific heat 7#jjh7 7 %[n by exp]im5t to be su* z w\ld be expect$4 ,^! facts confirm$ ! univ]sality & applicability ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t previ\s to x !re 0 no means ( ei!r =etell+ ! prop]ties or ev5 ! exi/5ce ( undiscov]$ elem5ts4#ci #ci ,! spectrum ( gallium is *>act]is$ by a brilliant violet l9e ( wave-l5g? #dag million?s ( a millimetre4 ,! metal c be sep>at$ f ! solution1 conta9+ a mixture ( ! _m metals occurr+ 9 ! z9c bl5de1 by mak+ use ( ! foll[+ reactions3 x is precipitat$ by sodium c>bonate 9 ! fir/ portions2 x gives a sulphate :i*1 on boil+1 easily decomposes into a basic salt1 v slightly soluble 9 wat]2 & x is deposit$ 9 a metallic /ate f its solutions by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t4 ,x fuses at #cj1 &1 :5 once fus$1 rema9s liquid = "s "t4 ,x oxidises ) difficulty1 evolves hydrog5 f hydro*loric acid & f potassium hydroxide1 &1 l all feeble bases 7= in/ance1 alum9a & indium oxide71 x easily =ms basic salts4 ,! hydroxide is soluble 9 a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 & slightly s 9 cau/ic ammonia4 ,gallium =ms volatile ,ga,cl#c & ,ga,cl#b 7,nilson & ,pett]sson74 ,mu* m light has be5 ?r[n on t elem5t ( ! alum9ium gr\p :i* foll[s aft] cadmium 7its position 9 ! p]iodic sy/em is ,,iii41 #g1 t is1 x is 9 gr\p ,,iii4 9 ! #g? s]ies74 ,?is is indium1 ,91 :i* also occurs 9 small quantities 9 c]ta9 z9c ores4 ,x 0 discov]$ 7#ahfc7 by ,rei* & ,ri*t] 7& m fully inve/igat$ by ,w9kl]7 9 ! ,freib]g z9c ores1 & 0 nam$ indium f ! fact t x gives to ! flame ( a gas-burn] a blue coloration1 ow+ to ! indigo blue spectral l9es prop] to x4 ,! equival5t 7see ,*apt] ,,xv41 ,note #ae71 specific heat1 & o!r prop]ties ( ! metal confirm ! atomic weight ,9 #aac4dj #dj ,! vap\r d5sity ( indium *loride1 ,in,cl#c 7,note #ca71 det]m9$ by ,nilson & ,pett]sson1 confirms ?is atomic weight4 ,indium is sep>at$ f z9c & cadmium1 ) :i* x occurs1 by tak+ advantage ( ! fact t its hydroxide is insoluble 9 ammonia1 t ! solutions ( its salts give indium :5 treat$ ) z9c 7h5ce indium is dissolv$ aft] z9c by acids7 & t !y give a precipitate ) hydrog5 sulphide ev5 9 acid solutions4 ,metallic indium is grey1 has a sp4 gr4 ( #gdb1 fuses at #agf1 & does n oxidise 9 ! air2 :5 ignit$1 x fir/ gives a black suboxide1 ,9#d,o#c1 !n volatilises & gives a br[n oxide1 ,9#b,o#c1 ^: salts1 ,in,x#c1 are also =m$ by ! direct action ( acids on ! metal1 hydrog5 be+ evolv$4 ,cau/ic alkalis d n act on indium1 f :i* x is evid5t t x is less capable ( =m+ alkal9e comp\nds ?an alum9ium is2 h[ev]1 ) potassium & sodium hydroxides1 solutions ( indium salts give a col\rless precipitate ( ! hydroxide1 :i* is soluble 9 an excess ( ! alkali1 l ! hydroxides ( alum9ium & z9c4 ,its salts d n cry/allise4 ,nilson & ,pett]sson 7#ahhi71 by ! action ( ,h,cl ^u ,91 obta9$ volatile cry/all9e1 ,in,cl#b1 & by treat+ ?is comp\nd ) ,91 ,in,cl also4 ,inasmu* z we f\nd among ! analogues ( magnesium 9 gr\p ,,ii4 a metal1 m]cury1 heavi] & m easily r$uc$ ?an ! re/1 & giv+ two grades ( oxidation1 s we %\ld expect to f9d a metal among ! analogues ( alum9ium 9 gr\p ,,iii4 :i* w\ld be heavy1 easily r$uc$1 & give two grades ( oxidation1 & w\ld h an atomic weight great] ?an #bjj4 ,su* is ?allium4 ,x =ms comp\nds ( a l[] type1 ,tl,x1 besides ! high] un/able type ,tl,x#c1 j z m]cury gives ,hg,x#b & ,hg,x4 ,9 ! =m ( ! ?allic oxide1 ,tl#b,o#c1 ! base is b feebly en]getic1 z w\ld be expect$ by analogy ) ! oxides ,al#b,o#c1 ,ga#b,o#c1 & ,9#b,o#c1 :il/ 9 ?all\s oxide1 ,tl#b,o1 ! basic prop]ties are %>ply def9$1 z might be expect$ accord+ to ! prop]ties ( ! type ,r#b,o 7,*apt] ,,xv474 ,?allium 0 discov]$ 9 #ahfa by ,crookes & by ,lamy 9 c]ta9 pyrites4 ,:5 pyrites are employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 !y are burn$1 & give besides sulphur\s anhydride ! vap\rs ( v>i\s sub/ances :i* accompany ! sulphur1 & are volatile4 ,among ^! sub/ances ars5ic & sel5ium are f\nd1 & toge!r ) !m1 ?allium4 ,^! sub/ances accumulate 9 a m or less consid]able quantity 9 ! tubes ?r\gh :i* ! vap\rs =m$ 9 ! combu/ion ( ! pyrites h to pass4 ,:5 ! me?ods ( spectrum analysis 7 discov]$ 7#ahfj71 a great numb] ( sub/ances 7 subject$ to spectroscopic rese>*1 & x 0 obs]v$ t ^? sublimations :i* are obta9$ 9 ! combu/ion ( c]ta9 pyrites conta9$ an elem5t hav+ a v %>ply-def9$ & *>act]i/ic spectrum--namely1 9 ! gre5 portion ( ! spectra x gave a well-def9$ b& 7wave-l5g? #ece million? millimetres7 :i* did n correspond ) any !n kn[n elem5t4#da #da ,?allium 0 aft]w>ds f\nd 9 c]ta9 micas & 9 ! r>e m9]al crookesite1 conta9+ lead1 silv]1 ?allium1 & sel5ium4 ,its isolation dep5ds on ! fact t 9 ! pres5ce ( acids ?allium =ms ?all\s comp\nds1 ,tl,x4 ,among ^! comp\nds ! *loride & sulphate are only slightly soluble1 & give ) hydrog5 sulphide a black precipitate ( ! sulphide ,tl#b,s1 :i* is soluble 9 an excess ( acid1 b insoluble 9 ammonium sulphide4 ,"u ! action ( a galvanic curr5t solutions ( ?allium salts deposit ! metal 9 ! =m ( a heavy p[d]4 ,x is ( a grey col\r l t91 is s(t l sodium1 & has a metallic lu/re4 ,its specific gravity is #aah1 x melts at #bij1 & volatilises at a high temp]ature4 ,:5 heat$ slightly above its melt+ po9t x =ms an insoluble 79 wat]7 high] oxide1 ,tl#b,o#c1 z a d>k-col\r$ p[d]1 g5]ally h[ev] accompani$ by ! l[] oxide ,tl#b,o1 :i* is also black b soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,?is solution has a di/9ctly alkal9e reaction4 ,?is ?all\s oxide1 melts at #cjj1 & is easily obta9$ f ! hydroxide ,tl,h,o by ignit+ x )\t access ( air 79 ! pres5ce ( air ! inc&esc5t ?all\s oxide p>tly passes into ?allic oxide74 ,?all\s hydroxide1 ,tl,o,h1 cry/allises ) "o molecule ,h#b,o 9 yell[ prisms :i* are v easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,metallic ?allium may be us$ = its prep>ation1 z ! metal 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] attracts oxyg5 f ! air & =ms ! hydroxide4 ,b metallic ?allium does n decompose wat]1 al?\gh x gives a hydroxide :i* is soluble 9 wat]4#da bis ,all ! o!r data = ! *emical & physical prop]ties ( ?allium1 ( its two grades ( oxidation & ( _! correspond+ salts1 are express$ by ! position occupi$ by ?is metal 9 virtue ( its atomic weight ,tl #bjd1 betwe5 m]cury ,hg #bjj1 & lead ,pb #bjf4 #da bis ,! be/ me?od ( prep>+ ?all\s hydroxide1 ,tl,o,h1 is by ! decomposition ( ! requisite quantity ( b>yta by ?all\s sulphate1 :i* is slightly soluble 9 wat]2 b>ium sulphate is !n obta9$ 9 ! precipitate & ?all\s hydroxide 9 solution4 ,?is solubility ( ! hydroxide is exce$+ly *>act]i/ic1 & =ms "o ( ! mo/ important prop]ties ( ?allium4 ,^! l[] 7?all\s7 comp\nds are ( ! type ,tl,x1 & recall ! salts ( ! alkalis4 ,! salts ,tl,x are col\rless1 d n give a precipitate ) ! alkalis or ammonia1 b are precipitat$ by ammonium c>bonate1 because ?all\s c>bonate1 ,tl#b;,,co#c1 is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,plat9ic *loride gives ! same k9d ( precipitate z x does ) ! salts ( potassium--t is1 ?all\s plat9o*loride1 ,pt,tl#b;,cl#f4 ,all ^! facts1 toge!r ) ! isomorphism ( ! salts ,tl,x ) ^? ( potassium1 aga9 po9t out :at an important significance ! types ( comp\nds h 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! "* ( a giv5 s]ies ( sub/ances4 ,al?\gh ?allium has a great] atomic weight & great] d5sity ?an potassium1 & al?\gh x has a less atomic volume1 nev]!less ?all\s oxide is analog\s to potassium oxide 9 _m respects1 = !y bo? give comp\nds ( ! same type1 ,,rx4 ,we may fur!r rem>k t ?all\s fluoride1 ,tl,f1 is easily soluble 9 wat] z well z ?all\s silic(luoride1 ,si,tl#b;,f#f1 b t ?all\s cyanide1 ,tl,c,n1 is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is1 toge!r ) ! slight solubility ( ?all\s *loride1 ,tl,cl1 & sulphate1 ,tl#b,,s#d1 indicates an analogy betwe5 ,tl,x & ! salts ( silv]1 ,ag,x4 ,z reg>ds ! high] oxide or ! ?allic oxide1 ,tl#b,o#c1 ! ?allium is trival5t 9 x--t is1 x =ms comp\nds ( ! type ,tl,x#c4 ,! hydroxide1 ,tl,o7,,oh71 is =m$ by ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide on ?all\s oxide1 or by ! action ( ammonia on a solution ( ?allic *loride1 ,tl,cl#c4 ,x is obta9$ z a br[n precipitate1 insoluble 9 wat] b easily soluble 9 acids1 ) :i* x gives ?allic salts1 ,tl,x#c4 ,?allic *loride1 :i* is obta9$ by cauti\sly heat+ ! metal 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 =ms an easily fusible :ite mass1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] & able to "p ) two-?irds ( its *lor9e :5 heat$4 ,an aque\s solution ( ?is salt yields col\rless cry/als conta9+ "o equival5t ( wat]4 ,x is evid5t f ! above t all ! ?allic salts c easily be r$uc$ to ?all\s salts by r$uc+ ag5ts su* z sulphur\s anhydride1 z9c1 c4 ,besides ^! salts1 ?allic sulphate1 ,tl#b7,,s#d7c1g;,h#b,o1 ?allic nitrate ,tl7,,no#c7c1d;,h#b,o1 c41 are kn[n4 ,^! salts are decompos$ by wat]1 l ! salts ( _m feeble basic metals--= example1 alum9ium4 ,gallium1 indium1 & ?allium belong to ! unev5 s]ies1 & !re %\ld be elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies 9 gr\p ,,iii4 correspond+ ) calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium 9 gr\p ,,ii4 ,^! elem5ts %\ld 9 _! oxides ,r#b,o#c pres5t basic *>act]s ( a m en]getic k9d ?an ^? %[n by alum9a1 j z calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium give m en]getic bases ?an magnesium1 z9c1 & cadmium4 ,su* are yttrium & ytt]bium1 :i* occur 9 a r>e ,sw$i% m9]al call$ gadol9ite1 & are !re=e t]m$ ! gadol9ite metals4 ,to ^! belong also ! metal lan?anum1 :i* accompanies ! two o!r metals c]ium & didymium 9 ! m9]al c]ite1 & x !re=e belongs to ! c]ite metals4 ,all ^! metals & c]ta9 o!rs accompany+ !m1 give basic oxides ,r#b,o#c4 ,at fir/ _! =mula 0 suppos$ to be ,,ro1 b ! application ( ! p]iodic sy/em requir$ _! be+ c\nt$ z elem5ts ( gr\ps ,,iii4 & ,,iv41 :i* 0 also confirm$ by ! det]m9ation ( ! specific heats ( ^! metals1#db & bett] /ill by ! fact t ,nilson & ,clve1 9 _! rese>*es on ! gadol9ite metals 7#ahgi71 discov]$ t !y conta9 a peculi> & v r>e elem5t1 sc&ium1 :i* by ! magnitude ( its atomic weight1 ,sc #dd1 & 9 all its prop]ties1 exactly corresponds ) ! metal 7previ\sly =etold on ! basis ( ! p]iodic sy/em7 ekaboron1 ^: prop]ties 7 det]m9$ by tak+ ! c]ite & gadol9ite metals z =m+ oxides ,r#b,o#c4dc #db ,! specific heat ( c]ium det]m9$ 7#ahgj7 by me1 & aft]w>ds confirm$ by ,hillebr&1 corresponds ) t atomic weight ( c]ium accord+ to :i* ! composition ( two oxides %\ld be ,ce#b,o#c & ,ce,o#b4 ,hillebr& also obta9$ metallic lan?anum & didymium by decompos+ _! salts by a galvanic curr5t1 & he f\nd _! specific heats to be ne> t ( c]ium & ab\t #jjd1 & x is !re=e ju/ifiable to give !m an atomic weight ne> t ( c]ium1 z 0 done on ! basis ( ! p]iodic law4 ,up to #ahgj yttrium oxide 0 also giv5 ! =mula ,,ro4 ,hav+ re-det]m9$ ! equival5t ( yttrium oxide 7) respect to wat]71 & f\nd x to be #gdf1 ,i consid]$ x necess>y to also ascribe to x ! composition ,y#b,o#c1 because !n x falls into its prop] place 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,if ! equival5t ( ! oxide to wat] be #gdf1 x conta9s #ehf ( metal p] #af ( oxyg51 & consequ5tly "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 replaces #bic ( yttrium1 & if x be reg>d$ z bival5t 7oxide ,,ro71 x w\ld n1 by its atomic weight #ehf1 f9d a place 9 ! second gr\p4 ,b if x be tak5 z trival5t--t is1 if ! =mula ( its oxide be ,r#b,o#c & salts ,,rx#c--!n ,y #hh1 & a position is op5 = x 9 ! ?ird gr\p 9 ! six? s]ies aft] rubidium & /rontium4 ,^! alt]ations 9 ! atomic weights ( ! c]ite & gadol9ite metals 7 aft]w>ds accept$ by ,clve & o!r inve/igators1 :o n[ ascribe a =mula ,r#b,o#c to all ! newly discov]$ oxides ( ^! metals4 ,b /ill ! position 9 ! p]iodic sy/em ( c]ta9 elem5ts--= example ( holmium1 ?ulium1 sam>ium1 & o!rs--has n yet be5 det]m9$ = want ( a suffici5t k ( _! prop]ties 9 a /ate ( purity4 #dc ,s1 = example1 9 #ahga1 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,physico-,*emical ,society 7p4 #de7 & 9 ,liebig's ,annal51 ,supt4 ,b& viii4 #aih1 ,i d$uc$1 on ! basis ( ! p]iodic law1 an atomic weight #dd = ekaboron1 & ,nilson 9 #ahhh f\nd t ( sc&ium1 :i* is ekaboron1 to be ,sc #ddjc1 ,! p]iodic law %[$ t ! specific gravity ( ! ekaboron oxide w\ld be ab\t #he1 t x w\ld h decid$ b feeble basic prop]ties & t x w\ld give col\rless salts4 ,& ?is prov$ to be ! case ) sc&ium oxide4 ,9 describ+ sc&ium1 ,clve & ,nilson ackn[l$ge t ! p>ticul> int]e/ atta*$ to ?is elem5t is due to its complete id5tity ) ! expect$ elem5t ekaboron4 ,& ?is accurate =etell+ ( prop]ties c\ld only be arriv$ at by admitt+ t alt]ation ( ! atomic weights ( ! c]ite & gadol9ite metals :i* 0 "o ( ! fir/ results ( ! application ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts to ! int]pretation ( *emical facts4 ,9 my fir/ memoirs1 namely1 9 ! ,bullet9 ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 vol4 viii4 7#ahgj71 & 9 ,liebig's ,annal5 7l4 c4 p4 #afh7 & o!rs1 ,i p>ticul>ly insi/$ on ! necessity ( alt]+ ! !n accept$ atomic weights ( c]ium1 lan?anum1 & didymium4 ,clve1 ,hglund1 ,hillebr& & ,norton1 & m especially ,braun]1 & o!rs accept$ ! propos$ alt]ation1 & gave fre% pro(s 9 fav\r ( ! propos$ alt]ations ( ^! atomic weights4 ,! /udy ( ! fluorides 0 p>ticul>ly important4 ,plac+ c]ium 9 ! f\r? gr\p1 ! composition ( its highe/ oxide w\ld !n be ,ce,o#b1 & its comp\nds ,ce,x#d & ! l[] oxide1 ,ce#b,o#c or ,ce,x#c4 ,braun] obta9$ ! fluoride ,ce,f#d1;,h#b,o correspond+ ) ! fir/1 & a d\ble cry/all9e salt1 #c,,kf1#b;,ce,f#d1b;,h#b,o1 )\t any admixture ( comp\nd ( ! l[] grade ,ce,x#c1 :i* g5]ally occur toge!r ) ! majority ( salts correspond+ ) ,ce,x#d4 ,x w be se5 f ^! =mul & f ! tables ( ! elem5ts1 t c]ium & didymium d n belong to ! ?ird gr\p1 :i* is n[ be+ describ$1 b we m5tion !m "h = conv5i5ce1 z all ! c]ite & gadol9ite metals h mu* 9 common4 ,^! metals1 :i* are r>e 9 nature1 resemble ea* o!r 9 _m respects1 always accompany ea* o!r1 are ) difficulty isolat$ f ea* o!r1 & /& toge!r 9 ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts2 !y h acquir$ a peculi> int]e/ ow+ to _! hav+ be5 9 #ahgj ! objects ( ! /udy ( ,m>ignac1 ,delafonta9e1 ,soret1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 ,braun]1 ,clve1 ,nilson1 ! pr(essors ( ,upsala1 & o!rs4 ,! c]ite & gadol9ite metals occur 9 r>e silice\s m9]als f ,sw$51 ,am]ica1 ! ,urals1 & ,baikal1 su* z c]ite 79 ,sw$571 gadol9ite1 & or?ite2 & 9 /ill r>] m9]als =m$ by titanic1 niobic1 & tantalic acids1 su* z eux5ite 9 ,norway & ,am]ica1 & sam>skite 9 ,norway1 ! ,urals & ,am]ica1 & 9 a few r>e fluorides & phosphates4 ,among ! latt]1 monazite is f\nd 9 some:at consid]able quantities 9 ,brazil & ,nor? ,c>ol9a2 ?is conta9s ! phosphate ( c]ium1 ,ce,p,o#d 7 ,ce#b,o#c,p#b,o#c71 toge!r ) didymium1 ?orium & lan?anum 7accord+ to ,w4 ,edron & ,%apleigh's analyses71 & is n[ us$ = prep>+ t mixture ( ! oxides ( ! r>e metals 7especially ,th,o#b1 ,ce#b,o#c1 ,la#b,o#c1 c471 :i* is employ$ = inc&esc5t burn]s 7,au] von ,welsba*71 z x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t t ^! oxides :5 rais$ to inc&esc5ce 9 a non-lum9\s gas flame1 give a f> m brilliant flame ) a small] consumption ( gas1 besides be+ suitable = su* non-lum9\s gases z wat] gas4 ,! insuffici5cy ( mat]ial to "w ^u1 & ! difficulty ( sep>at+ ! oxides f ea* o!r1 are ! *ief reasons :y ! composition ( ! comp\nds ( ^! r>e metals is s imp]fectly kn[n4 ,c]ite is ! mo/ accessible ( ^! m9]als4 ,besides silica x conta9s m ?an #ej p4c4 ( ! oxides ( c]ium1 lan?anum 7f #d p4c471 & didymium4 ,! decomposition ( its p[d] by sulphuric acid gives sulphates1 all ( :i* are soluble 9 wat]4 ,! o!r m9]als m5tion$ above are also decompos$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,! solution ( sulphates is precipitat$ ) free oxalic acid1 :i* =ms salts insoluble 9 wat] & dilute acids ) all ! c]ite & gadol9ite oxides4 ,! oxides !mselves are obta9$ by ignit+ ! oxalates4 ,:5 ignit$ 9 ! air ! c]ium passes f its ord9>y oxide ,ce#b,o#c into ! high] oxide ,ce,o#b1 :i* is s feeble a base t its salts are decompos$ by wat]1 & x is insoluble 9 dilute nitric acid4 ,!re=e x is always possible to remove all ! c]ium oxide by repeat$ ignitions & solutions 9 sulphuric acid4 ,! fur!r sep>ation ( ! metals is ma9ly bas$ on f\r me?ods employ$ by _m inve/igators4 7a7 ,a solution ( ! mix$ salts is treat$ ) an excess ( solid potassium sulphate4 ,d\ble salts1 su* z ,ce#b7,,s#d7c1c,k#b,,s#d1 are ?us =m$4 ,! gadol9ite metals1 namely yttrium1 ytt]bium1 & erbium1 !n rema9 9 solution--t is1 _! d\ble salts are soluble 9 a solution ( potassium sulphate1 :il/ ! c]ite metals--namely1 c]ium1 lan?anum1 & didymium--are precipitat$1 t is1 _! d\ble salts are insoluble 9 a saturat$ solution ( potassium sulphate4 ,?is ord9>y me?od ( sep>ation1 h[ev]1 appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,m>ignac to be s untru/wor?y t a consid]able am\nt ( didymium & ! o!r metals rema9 9 ! soluble portion1 ow+ to ! fact t1 al?\gh individually insoluble1 !y are dissolv$ :5 mix$ toge!r4 ,?us erbium & t]bium occur bo? 9 ! solution & precipitate4 ,nev]!less1 b]yllium1 yttrium1 erbium1 & ytt]bium belong to ! soluble1 & sc&ium1 c]ium1 lan?anum1 didymium1 & ?orium to ! insoluble portion4 ,! insoluble salt ( sc&ium1 = example 7i4e4 insoluble 9 a solution ( potassium sulphate71 has a composition ,sc#b7,,s#d7c1c,k#b,,s#d4 7b7 ,! oxides obta9$ by ! ignition ( ! oxalates are dissolv$ 9 nitric acid 7! nitrates ( ! c]ite metals easily =m d\ble salts ) ^? ( ! alkali metals1 & z "s--= example1 ! ammonio-lan?anum salt--cry/allise v well1 !y %\ld be /udi$ & appli$ to ! analytical sep>ation ( ^! metals71 ! solution is !n evaporat$ to dryness1 & ! residue fus$4 ,all nitrates are de/roy$ by heat2 ^? ( alum9ium & iron1 c41 v easily1 ^? ( ! c]ite & gadol9ite metals also easily 7al?\gh n s easily z ! above7 b 9 diff]5t degrees & sequ5ce2 s t by c>ry+ on ! decomposition c>efully f ! beg9n+ x is possible to de/roy ! nitrate ( only "o metal )\t t\*+ ! o!rs1 or leav+ !m z insoluble basic salts4 ,?is me?od1 l ! prec$+ & ! two foll[+1 mu/ be repeat$ z _m z sev5ty times to atta9 a really con/ant product ( fix$ prop]ties1 t is1 "o 9 :i* ! decompos$ & undecompos$ portions conta9 "o & ! same oxide4 ,?is me?od1 due to ,b]l9 & work$ out by ,buns51 has giv5 9 ! h&s ( ,m>ignac & ,nilson ! be/ results1 especially = ! sep>ation ( ! gadol9ite metals1 ytt]bium & sc&ium4 7c7 ,a solution ( ! salts is p>tially precipitat$ by ammonia2 t is1 ! solution is mix$ ) a small quantity ( ammonia insuffici5t = ! precipitation ( ! entire quantity ( ! bases 7fractional precipitation74 ,?us1 ! didymium hydroxide is fir/ precipitat$ f a mixture ( ! salts ( didymium & lan?anum4 ,a p>tial sep>ation may be effect$ by repeat+ ! solution ( ! precipitate & fractional precipitation1 b a p]fectly pure product is sc>cely atta9able4 7d7 ,! =mates hav+ diff]5t degrees ( solubility 7lan?anum =mate #dbj p>ts ( wat] p] "o ( salt1 didymium =mate #bba1 c]ium =mate #cfj1 yttrium & erbium =mates easily soluble7 give a possible means ( sep>at+ c]ta9 ( ! gadol9ite metals f ea* o!r by a me?od ( fractional solution & precipitation1 z ,buns51 ,bahr1 ,clve1 & o!rs h po9t$ out4 7e7 ,crookes 7#ahic7 took advantage ( ! fractional precipitation ( alcoholic solutions ( ! *lorides by amyl5e1 & by ?is means sep>at$1 = example1 erbium1 t]bium1 & o!rs4 7f7 ,la/ly1 oxide ( ?orium ,th,o#b 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #ei7 is sep>at$ by means ( its solubility 9 a solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,a good me?od ( sep>at+ ^! metals is n kn[n1 = !y are s l ea* o!r4 ,!re are also only a few me?ods ( di/+ui%+ !m f ea* o!r1 & we c only add ! foll[+ f\r to ! above4 a ,! faculty ( oxidis+ into a high] oxide4 ,?is is v *>act]i/ic = c]ium1 :i* gives ! oxides ,ce#b,o#c & ,ce,o#b or ,ce#b,o#d4 ,didymium also gives "o col\rless oxide1 ,di#b,o#c1 :i* is capable ( =m+ salts 7( a lilac col\r71 & ano!r1 accord+ to ,braun]1 ,di#b,o#e :i* is d>k br[n & does n =m salts1 s f> z is kn[n1 & 7l c]ic oxide7 acts z an oxidis+ ag5t1 l ! high] oxides ( tellurium1 manganese1 lead1 & o!rs4 ,lan?anum1 yttrium1 & _m o!rs are n capable ( su* oxidation4 ,! pres5ce ( ! high] oxides may be recognis$ by ignition 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 by :i* means ! high] oxides are r$uc$ to ! l[]1 :i* !n rema9 unalt]$4 b ,! majority ( ! salts ( ! gadol9ite & c]ite metals are col\rless1 b ^? ( didymium & erbium are rose-col\r$1 ! salts ( ! high] oxide ( c]ium1 ,ce,x#d1 yell[1 ( ! high] oxide ( t]bium1 yell[1 c4 ,?us1 ! fir/ metals obta9$ f gadol9ite 7 yttrium1 giv+ col\rless1 & erbium1 giv+ rose-col\r$1 salts4 ,aft]w>ds x 0 f\nd t ! salts ( erbium ( =m] inve/igators conta9$ num]\s col\rless salts ( sc&ium1 ytt]bium1 c41 s t a coloration sometimes indicates ! pres5ce ( a small impurity1 z 0 long kn[n to be ! case 9 m9]als1 & !re=e ?is po9t ( di/9ction _c be consid]$ tru/wor?y4 c ,9 a solid /ate & 9 solutions1 ! salts ( didymium1 sam>ium1 holmium1 c41 give *>act]i/ic absorption spectra1 z we po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 & ?is naturally is connect$ ) ! col\r ( ^! salts4 ,! mo/ important po9t is1 t ^? metals :i* d n give an absorption spectrum--= example1 lan?anum1 yttrium1 sc&ium1 & ytt]bium--may be obta9$ free f didymium1 sam>ium1 & ! o!r metals giv+ absorption spectra1 because ! pres5ce ( ! latt] may be easily recognis$ by means ( ! spectroscope1 :il/ ! pres5ce ( ! =m] 9 ! latt] _c be di/+ui%$1 & !re=e ! purification ( ! =m] c be c>ri$ fur!r ?an t ( ! latt]4 ,we may fur!r rem>k t ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! spectrum reaction = didymium is s great t x is possible ) a lay] ( solution half a metre ?ick to recognise ! pres5ce ( #a "p ( didymium oxide 7z salt7 9 #dj1jjj p>ts ( wat]4 ,cossa det]m9$ ! pres5ce ( didymium 7toge!r ) c]ium & lan?anum7 9 apatites1 lime/ones1 bones1 & ! a%es ( plants by ?is me?od4 ,! ma9 gr\p ( d>k l9es ( didymium correspond ) wave-l5g?s ( f #ehj to #egj million?s mm42 & ! second>y to ab\t #ebj1 #gcj1 #dhj1 c4 ,! *ief absorption b&s ( sam>ium are #dgb-dhf1 #dag1 #ejj1 & #eei4 ,besides :i*1 ,crookes appli$ ! inve/igation ( ! spectra ( ! phosphoresc5t light :i* is emitt$ by c]ta9 e>?s 9 an almo/ p]fect vacuum1 :5 an electric dis*>ge is pass$ ?r\gh x1 to ! discov]y & *>act]isation ( ^! r>e metals4 ,b x w\ld seem t ! smalle/ admixture ( o!r oxides 7= example1 bismu?1 uranium7 s p[]fully influ5ces ^! spectra t ! fundam5tal di/9ctions ( ! oxides _c be det]m9$ by ?is me?od4 ,besides :i*1 ! spectra obta9$ by ! passage ( sp>ks ?r\gh solutions or p[d]s ( ! salts are det]m9$ & appli$ to di/+ui%+ ! elem5ts1 b z spectra v>y ) ! temp]ature & ela/icity 7conc5tration7 ?is me?od _c be consid]$ z tru/wor?y4 d ,! mo/ important po9t ( di/9ction ( individual metallic oxides is giv5 by ! direct det]m9ation ( _! equival5t ) respect to wat]--t is1 ! am\nt ( ! oxide by weight :i* comb9es 7l wat]7 ) #hj p>ts by weight ( sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 = ! =mation ( a normal salt4 ,= ?is purpose ! oxide is weigh$ & dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 sulphuric acid is !n add$1 & ! :ole is evaporat$ to dryness ov] a wat]-ba? & !n heat$ ov] a nak$ flame suffici5tly /rongly to drive (f ! excess ( sulphuric acid1 b s z n to decompose ! salt 7! product w\ld 9 t case n be p]fectly soluble 9 wat]72 !n1 kn[+ ! weight ( ! oxide & ( ! anhydr\s sulphate1 we c f9d ! equival5t ( ! oxide4 ,! foll[+ are ! mo/ tru/wor?y figures 9 ?is connection3 sc&ium oxide #dece 7,nilson71 yttrium oxide #geg 7,clve2 accord+ to my det]m9ation1 #ahga--gdf71 c]\s oxide--t is1 ! l[] =m ( oxidation ( c]ium1 accord+ to v>i\s inve/igators 7,buns51 ,braun]1 & o!rs7 f #ajh to #aaa1 ! high] oxide ( c]ium f #he to #hg1 lan?anum oxide1 accord+ to ,braun]1 #ajh1 didymium oxide 79 salts ( ! ord9>y l[] =m ( oxidation7 ab\t #aab 7,m>ignac1 ,braun]1 ,clve71 sam>ium oxide ab\t #aaf 7,clve71 ytt]bium oxide #acac 7,nilson74 ,x may n be sup]flu\s "h to draw att5tion to ! fact t ! equival5t ( ! oxides ( all ! gadol9ite & c]ite metals = wat] di/ribute !mselves into f\r gr\ps ) a some:at con/ant diff]5ce ( ne>ly #cj4 ,9 ! fir/ gr\p is sc&ium oxide ) equival5t #de1 9 ! second1 yttrium oxide #gf1 9 ! ?ird1 lan?anum1 c]ium1 didymium1 & sam>ium oxides ) equival5t ab\t #aaj1 &1 9 ! f\r?1 erbium1 ytt]bium1 & ?orium oxides ) equival5t ab\t #aca4 ,! common diff]5ce ( p]iod is ne>ly #de4 ,& if we ascribe ! type ,r#b,o#c to all ! oxides--t is1 if we triple ! weight ( ! equival5t ( ! oxide--we %all obta9 a diff]5ce ( ! gr\ps ne>ly equal to #ij1 :i*1 = two atoms ( ! metal1 =ms ! ord9>y p]iodic diff]5ce ( #de4 ,if "o & ! same type ( oxide ,r#b,o#c be ascrib$ to all ^! elem5ts 7z n[ g5]ally accept$1 9 _m cases !re be+ insuffici5tly tru/wor?y data71 !n ! atomic weights %\ld be ,sc #dd1 ,y #hi1 ,la #ach1 ,ce #adj1 ,di #add1 7neodymium #adj1 praseodymium #add71 ,sm #aej1 ,yb #agc1 also t]bium #adg1 holmium #afb1 alphayttrium #aeg1 erbium #aff1 ?ulium #agj1 decipium #aga4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t !re may be in/ances ( basic salts4 ,if1 = example1 an elem5t ) an atomic weight #ij gave an oxide ,,ro#b1 b salts ,,rox#b1 !n by c\nt+ its oxide z ,r#b,o#c its atomic weight w\ld be #aei4 ,all ! po9ts di/+ui%+ _m gadol9ite & c]ite elem5ts h n be5 suffici5tly well e/abli%$ 9 c]ta9 cases 7= example1 ) decipium1 ?ulium1 holmium1 & o!rs74 ,at pres5t ! mo/ c]ta9 are yttrium1 sc&ium1 c]ium1 & lan?anum4 ,9 ! case ( didymium1 = example1 !re is /ill mu* t is d\btful4 ,didymium1 discov]$ 9 #ahdb by ,mos&] aft] lan?anum1 diff]s f ! latt] 9 its absorption spectrum & ! lilac-rose col\r ( its salts4 ,delafonta9e 7#ahgh7 sep>at$ sam>ium f x4 ,welsba* %[$ t x conta9s two p>ticul> elem5ts1 neodymium 7salts blui%-r$7 & praseodymium 7salts apple-gre571 & ,becqu]el 7#ahhg7 by inve/igat+ ! spectra ( cry/als1 recognis$ ! pres5ce ( six individual elem5ts4 ,probably1 !re=e1 _m ( ! n[ recognis$ elem5ts conta9 a mixture ( v>i\s o!rs1 & z yet !re is n en\gh confirmation ( _! individuality4 ,z reg>ds yttrium1 sc&ium1 c]ium1 & lan?anum1 :i* h be5 e/abli%$ )\t d\bt1 ,i ?9k t1 ow+ to _! great r>ity 9 nature & *emical art1 x w\ld be sup]flu\s to describe !m fur!r 9 s elem5t>y a "w z ! pres5t4 ,we may add t ,w9kl] 7#ahia7 obta9$ a hydrog5 comp\nd ( lan?anum1 ^: composition 7accord+ to ,braun]7 is ,la#b;,h#c1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! composition ( ,na#b;,h1 ,mg#b;,h#b1 c4 ,c4 ,w9kl] 7#ahia71 on r$uc+ ,ce,o#b ) magnesium1 also rem>k$ a rapid absorption ( hydrog51 & %[$ t a hydride ( c]ium1 ,ce,h#b1 correspond+ to ,ca,h1 & ! o!r simil> hydrides ( metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 is =m$ 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #fc74 ,! brevity ( ?is "w & ! great r>ity ( ! above-m5tion$ elem5ts w give me ! "r to exclude _! description1 all ! m z ! pr9ciples ( ! p]iodic sy/em enable _m ( _! prop]ties to be =ese51 & z _! practical uses 7c]ium oxalate is us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & didymium oxide 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 a mixture ( ! oxides ( lan?anum & simil> metals is employ$ = giv+ a bright light1 z ?is mixture emits a brilliant :ite light :5 br\ght to inc&esc5ce7 are v limit$1 by reason ( _! great r>ity 9 nature1 & ! difficulty ( sep>at+ !m f "o ano!r4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,silicon ,,& ,,! ,,o!r ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,f\r? ,,gr\p ,c>bon1 :i* gives ! comp\nds ,,*#d1 & ,,co#b1 belongs to ! f\r? gr\p ( elem5ts4 ,! ne>e/ elem5t to c>bon is silicon1 :i* =ms ! comp\nds ,si,h#d & ,si,o#b2 its relation to c>bon is l t ( alum9ium to boron or phosphorus to nitrog54 ,z c>bon composes ! pr9cipal & mo/ ess5tial "p ( animal & vegetable sub/ances1 s is silicon almo/ an inv>iable compon5t "p ( ! rocky =mations ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,silicon hydride1 ,si,h#d1 l ,,*#d1 has no acid prop]ties1 b silica1 ,si,o#b1 %[s feeble acid prop]ties l c>bonic anhydride4 ,9 a free /ate silicon is also a non-volatile1 slightly en]getic non-metal1 l c>bon4 ,!re=e ! =m & nature ( ! comp\nds ( c>bon & silicon are v simil>4 ,9 addition to ?is resemblance1 silicon pres5ts "o exce$+ly important di/9ction f c>bon3 namely1 ! nature ( ! high] degree ( oxidation4 ,t is1 silica1 silicon dioxide1 or silicic anhydride1 ,si,o#b is a solid1 non-volatile1 & exce$+ly infusible sub/ance1 v unlike c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 :i* is a gas4 ,?is expresses ! ess5tial peculi>ity ( silicon4 ,! cause ( ?is di/9ction may be mo/ probably s\ght = 9 ! polym]ic composition ( silica comp>$ ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,! molecule ( c>bonic anhydride conta9s ,,co#b1 z se5 by ! d5sity ( ?is gas4 ,! molecul> weight & vap\r d5sity ( silica1 7 x volatile1 w\ld probably correspond ) ! =mula ,si,o#b1 b x might be imag9$ t x w\ld correspond to a f> high] atomic weight ( ,sin,o#bn1 pr9cipally f ! fact t ,si,h#d is a gas l ,,*#d1 & ,si,cl#d is a liquid & volatile1 boil+ at #eg--t is1 ev5 l[] ?an ,c,cl#d1 :i* boils at #gf4 ,9 g5]al1 analog\s comp\nds ( silicon & c>bon h ne>ly ! same boil+ po9ts if !y are liquid & volatile4#a ,f ?is x might be expect$ t silicic anhydride1 ,si,o#b1 w\ld be a gas l c>bonic anhydride1 :il/ 9 reality silica is a h>d non-volatile sub/ance1#a bis & !re=e x may ) great c]ta9ty be consid]$ t 9 ?is condition x is polym]ic ) ,si,o#b1 z on polym]isation--= in/ance1 :5 cyanog5 passes into p>acyanog51 or hydrocyanic acid into cyanuric acid 7,*apt] ,,ix47--v frequ5tly gase\s or volatile sub/ances *ange into solid1 non-volatile1 & physically d5s] & m complex sub/ances4#b ,we w fir/ make acqua9tance ) free silicon & its volatile comp\nds1 z sub/ances 9 :i* ! analogy ( silicon ) c>bon is %[n1 n only 9 a *emical b also 9 a physical s5se4#c #a ,*lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c1 boils at #fj1 & silicon *lor(orm1 ,si,h,cl#c1 at #cd2 silicon e?yl1 ,si7,c#b;,h#e7d1 boils at ab\t #aej1 & its correspond+ c>bon comp\nd1 ,c7,c#b;,h#e7d1 at ab\t #abj2 e?yl or?osilicate1 ,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d1 boils at #afj1 & e?yl or?oc>bonate1 ,c7,,oc#b;,h#e7d1 at #aeh4 ,! specific volumes 9 a liquid /ate--t is1 ^? ( ! silicon comp\nds--g5]ally are slightly great] ?an ^? ( ! c>bon comp\nds2 = example1 ! volumes ( ,c,cl#d #id1 ,si,cl#d #aab1 ,c,h,cl#c #ha1 ,si,h,cl#c #hb1 ( ,c7,,oc#b;,h#e7d #ahf1 & ,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d #bja4 ,! correspond+ salts h also ne>ly equal specific volumes2 = example1 ,ca,c,o#c #cg1 ,ca,si,o#c #da4 ,x is impossible to comp>e ,si,o#b & ,,co#b1 because _! physical /ates are s widely diff]5t4 #a bis ,b silica fuses & volatilises 7,moissan7 9 ! heat ( ! electric furnace1 ab\t #cjjj1 ,si,o#b is also p>tially volatile at ! temp]ature atta9$ 9 ! flame ( detonat+ gas 7,crem]1 #ahib74 #b ,a prop]ty ( int]comb9ation is obs]vable 9 ! atoms ( c>bon1 & a faculty = int]comb9ation1 or polym]isation1 is also se5 9 ! unsaturat$ hydroc>bons & c>bon comp\nds 9 g5]al4 ,9 silicon a prop]ty ( ! same nature is f\nd to be p>ticul>ly develop$ 9 silica1 ,si,o#b1 :i* is n ! case ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,! faculty ( ! molecules ( silica = comb9+ bo? ) o!r molecules & among !mselves is exhibit$ 9 ! =mation ( mo/ v>i$ comp\nds ) bases1 9 ! =mation ( hydrates ) a gradually decreas+ proportion ( wat] d[n to anhydr\s silica1 9 ! colloid nature ( ! hydrate 7! molecules ( colloids are always complex71 9 ! =mation ( polym]ic e!real salts1 & 9 _m o!r prop]ties :i* w be consid]$ 9 ! sequel4 ,hav+ come to ?is conclusion z to ! polym]ic /ate ( silica s9ce ! ye>s #ahej-ahfj1 ,i h f\nd x to be confirm$ by all subsequ5t rese>*es on ! comp\nds ( silica1 &1 if ,i mi/ake n1 ?is view has n[ be5 v g5]ally accept$4 #c ,x 0 only aft] ,g]h>dt1 & 9 g5]al subsequ5tly to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! true atomic weights ( ! elem5ts 7,*apt] ,,vii471 t a true idea ( ! atomic weight ( silicon & ( ! composition ( silica 0 arriv$ at f ! fact t ! molecules ( ,si,cl#d1 ,si,f#d1 ,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d1 c41 nev] conta9 less ?an #bh p>ts ( silicon4 ,! "q ( ! composition ( silica 0 long ! subject ( ! mo/ contradictory /atem5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,9 ! la/ c5tury ,pott1 ,b]gmann1 & ,s*eele di/+ui%$ silica f alum9a & lime4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury ,smi?son = ! fir/ "t express$ ! op9ion t silica 0 an acid1 & ! m9]als ( rocks salts ( ?is acid4 ,b]zelius det]m9$ ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 silica--namely1 t #h p>ts ( oxyg5 7 unit$ ) #g ( silicon4 ,! composition ( silica 0 fir/ express$ z ,si,o 7& = ! sake ( %ortness ,s only 0 sometimes writt5 in/ead74 ,an inve/igation 9 ! am\nt ( silica pres5t 9 cry/all9e m9]als %[$ t ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! bases be>s a v v>i$ proportion to ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! silica1 & t ?is ratio v>ies f #b 3 #a to #a 3 #c4 ,! ratio #a 3 #a is also met )1 b ! majority ( ^! m9]als are r>e4 ,o!r m common m9]als conta9 a l>g] proportion ( silica1 ! ratio betwe5 ! oxyg5 ( ! bases & ! oxyg5 ( ! silica be+ equal to #a 3 #b1 or !reab\ts2 su* are ! augites1 labradorites1 oligoclase1 talc1 c4 ,! high] ratio #a 3 #c is kn[n = a widely di/ribut$ s]ies ( natural silicates--= example1 ! felsp>s4 ,^? silicates 9 :i* ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! bases is equal to t 9 ! silica are t]m$ monosilicates2 _! g5]al =mula w be 7,,ro7#b,si,o#b or 7,r#b,o#c7b7,si,o#b7c4 ,^? 9 :i* ! ratio ( ! oxyg5 is equal to #a 3 #b are t]m$ bisilicates1 & _! g5]al =mula w be ,r,o,si,o#b or ,r#b,o#c7,si,o#b7c4 ,^? 9 :i* ! ratio is #a 3 #c w be trisilicates1 & _! g5]al =mula 7,,ro7#b7,si,o#b7c or 7,r#b,o#c7b7,si,o#b7i4 ,9 ^! =mul ! n[ e/abli%$ composition ( ,si,o#b--t is1 t 9 :i* ! atom ( ,si #bh--;is employ$4 ,b]zelius1 :o made an accurate analysis ( ! composition ( felsp>1 & recognis$ x z a trisilicate =m$ by ! union ( potassium oxide & alum9a ) silica1 9 j ! same mann] z ! alums are =m$ by sulphuric acid1 gave silica ! same =mula z sulphuric anhydride--t is1 ,si,o#c4 ,9 ?is case ! =mula ( felsp> w\ld be exactly simil> to t ( ! alums--t is1 ,k,al7,si,o#d7b1 l ! alums1 ,k,al7,,s#d7b4 ,if ! composition ( silica be repres5t$ z ,si,o#c1 ! atom ( silicon mu/ be recognis$ z equal to #db 7if ,o #af2 or if ,o #h1 z x 0 be=e tak5 to be1 ,si #ba74 ,! =m] =mul ( silica1 ,si,o 7,si #ad7 & ,si,o#c 7,si #db71 7 fir/ *ang$ into ! pres5t "o1 ,si,o#b 7,si #bh71 on ! basis ( ! foll[+ argum5ts3--,an excess ( silica occurs 9 nature1 & 9 silice\s rocks free silica is g5]ally f\nd side by side ) ! silicates1 & "o is !re=e l$ to ! conclusion t x has =m$ acid salts4 ,x w\ld !re=e be incorrect to consid] ! trisilicates z normal salts ( silica1 = !y conta9 ! l>ge/ proportion ( silica2 x is mu* bett] to admit ano!r =mula ) a small] proportion ( oxyg5 = silica1 & x !n appe>s t ! majority ( m9]als are normal or slightly basic salts1 :il/ "s ( ! m9]als pr$om9at+ 9 nature conta9 an excess ( silica--t is1 belong to ! ord] ( acid salts4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 :5 !re is a g5]al me?od 7,*apt] ,,vii47 = ! det]m9ation ( atomic weights1 ! volumes ( ! volatile comp\nds ( silica %[ t its atomic weight ,si #bh1 & !re=e silica is ,si,o#b4 ,?us1 = example1 ! vap\r d5sity ( silicon *loride ) respect to air is1 z ,dumas %[$ 7#ahfb71 #eid1 & h5ce ) respect to hydrog5 x is #hee1 & consequ5tly its molecul> weight w be #aga 7in/ead ( #agj z indicat$ by !ory74 ,?is weight conta9s #bh p>ts ( silicon & #adb p>ts ( *lor9e1 & z an atom ( ! latt] is equal to #cee1 ! molecule ( silicon *loride conta9s ,si,cl#d4 ,z two atoms ( *lor9e are equival5t to "o ( oxyg51 ! composition ( silica w be ,si,o#b--t is1 ! same z /annic oxide1 ,sn,o#b1 or titanic oxide1 ,ti,o#b1 & ! l1 & also z c>bonic & sulphur\s anhydrides1 ,,co#b & ,,s#b4 ,b silica be>s b little physical resemblance to ! latt] comp\nds1 :il/ /annic & titanic oxides resemble silica bo? physically & *emically4 ,!y are non-volatile1 cry/all9e insoluble1 are colloids1 also =m feeble acids l silica1 c41 & !y might !re=e be expect$ to =m analog\s comp\nds1 & be isomorph\s ) silica1 z ,m>ignac 7#ahei7 f\nd actually to be ! case4 ,he obta9$ /ann(luorides1 = example an easily soluble /rontium salt1 ,sr,sn,f#f1b;,h#b,o1 correspond+ ) ! already long kn[n silic(luorides1 su* z ,sr,si,f#f1b;,h#b,o4 ,^! two salts are almo/ id5tical 9 cry/all9e =m 7monocl9ic2 angle ( ! prism1 #hc = ! =m] & #hd = ! latt]2 incl9ation ( ! axes1 #ajc #df = ! latt] & #ajc #cj = ! =m]71 t is1 !y are isomorph\s4 ,we may "h add t ! specific volume ( silica 9 a solid =m is #bbf1 & ( /annic oxide #bae4 ,free silicon c be obta9$ 9 an amorph\s or cry/all9e /ate4 ,amorph\s silicon is produc$1 l alum9ium1 by decompos+ ! d\ble fluoride ( sodium & silicon 7sodium silic(luoride7 by means ( sodium3 ,na#b,si,f#f #d,na #f,na,f ,si4 ,by treat+ ! mass ?us obta9$ ) wat] ! sodium fluoride may be extract$ & ! residue w consi/ ( br[n1 p[d]y silicon4 ,9 ord] to free x f any silica :i* might be =m$1 x is treat$ ) hydr(luoric acid4 ,?is silicon p[d] is n lu/r\s2 :5 heat$ x easily ignites1 b does n completely burn4 ,x fuses :5 v /rongly heat$1 & has !n ! appe>ance ( c>bon4#d ,cry/all9e silicon is obta9$ 9 a simil> way1 b by sub/itut+ an excess ( alum9ium = ! sodium3 #c,na#b,si,f#f #d;,al #f,na,f #d;,al,f#c #c,si4 ,! "p ( ! alum9ium rema9+ 9 ! metallic /ate dissolves ! silicon1 & ! latt] sep>ates f ! solution on cool+ 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,! excess ( alum9ium aft] ! fusion is remov$ by means ( hydro*loric & hydr(luoric acid4 ,! be/ silicon cry/als are obta9$ f molt5 z9c2 #ae p>ts ( sodium silic(luoride are mix$ ) #bj p>ts ( z9c & #d p>ts ( sodium1 & ! mixture is ?r[n into a /rongly heat$ crucible1 a lay] ( common salt be+ us$ to cov] x2 :5 ! mass fuses x is /irr$1 cool$1 treat$ ) hydro*loric acid1 & !n wa%$ ) nitric acid4 ,silicon1 especially :5 cry/all9e1 l graphite & *>coal1 does n 9 any way act on ! above-m5tion$ acids4 ,x =ms black1 v brilliant1 regul> octah$ra hav+ a specific gravity ( #bdi2 x is a bad conductor ( electricity1 & does n burn ev5 9 pure oxyg5 7b x burns 9 gase\s fluor9e74 ,! only acid :i* acts on x is a mixture ( hydr(luoric & nitric acids2 b cau/ic alkalis dissolve 9 x l alum9ium1 ) evolution ( hydrog51 ?us %[+ its acid "*4 ,9 g5]al silicon /rongly resi/s ! action ( reag5ts1 z d also boron & c>bon4 ,cry/all9e silicon 0 obta9$ 9 #ahee by ,deville1 & amorph\s silicon 9 #ahbf by ,b]zelius4#d bis #d ,a simil> =m ( silicon is obta9$ by fus+ ,si,o#b ) magnesium1 :5 an alloy ( ,si & ,mg is also =m$ 7,gatt]mann74 ,w>r5 7#ahhh7 by heat+ magnesium 9 a /ream ( ,si,f#d obta9$ silicon & its alloy ) magnesium4 ,w9kl] 7#ahij7 f\nd t ,mg#e,si#c & ,mg#b,si are =m$ :5 ,si,o#b & ,mg are heat$ toge!r at l[] temp]atures1 :il/ at a high temp]ature ,si only is =m$4 #d bis ,x is v rem>kable t silicon decomposes c>bonic anhydride at a :ite heat1 =m+ a :ite mass :i*1 aft] be+ treat$ ) potassium hydroxide & hydr(luoric acid1 leaves a v /able yell[ sub/ance ( ! =mula ,si,c,o1 :i* is =m$ accord+ to ! equation1 #c,si #b;,,co#b ,si,o#b #b,si,c,o4 ,x is also sl[ly =m$ :5 silicon is heat$ ) c>bonic oxide4 ,x is n oxidis$ :5 heat$ 9 oxyg54 ,a mixture ( silicon & c>bon :5 heat$ 9 nitrog5 gives ! comp\nd ,si#b;,c#b,n1 :i* is also v /able4 ,on ?is basis ,s*tz5b]g] recognises a gr\p1 ,c#b,si#b1 z capable ( comb9+ ) ,o#b & ,n1 l ,c4 ,we may add t ,troo/ & ,hautefeuille1 by heat+ amorph\s silicon 9 ! vap\r ( ,si,cl#d1 obta9$ cry/all9e silicon1 & probably at ! same "t l[] comp\nds ( ,si & ,cl 7 tempor>ily =m$4 ,9 ! vap\r ( ,ti,cl#d "u ! same conditions cry/all9e titanium is =m$ 7,levy1 #ahib74 ,silicon hydride1 ,si,h#d1 analog\s to m>% gas 0 obta9$ fir/ ( all 9 an impure /ate1 mix$ ) hydrog51 by two me?ods3 by ! action ( an alloy ( silicon & magnesium on hydro*loric acid1#e & by ! action ( ! galvanic curr5t on dilute sulphuric acid1 us+ electrodes ( alum9ium1 conta9+ silicon4 ,9 ^! cases silicon hydride is set free1 toge!r ) hydrog51 & ! pres5ce ( ! hydride is %[n by ! fact t ! hydrog5 sep>at$ ignites spontane\sly on com+ into contact ) ! air1 =m+ wat] & silica4 ,! =mation ( silicon hydride by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on magnesium silicide is p]fectly ak9 to ! =mation ( phosphurett$ hydrog5 by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on calcium phosphide1 to ! =mation ( hydrog5 sulphide by ! action ( acids on _m metallic sulphides1 & to ! =mation ( hydroc>bons by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on :ite ca/ iron4 ,on heat+ silicon hydride--t is1 on pass+ x ?r\gh an inc&esc5t tube1 x is decompos$ into silicon & hydrog51 j l ! hydroc>bons1 b ! cau/ic alkalis1 al?\gh )\t action on ! latt]1 react ) silicon hydride accord+ to ! equation3 ,si,h#d #b,,kho ,h#b,o ,si,k#b,o#c #d;,h#b4 #e ,?is alloy1 z ,beket(f & ,*]ik(f %[$1 is easily obta9$ by directly heat+ f9ely divid$ silica 7! exp]im5t may be conduct$ 9 a te/ tube7 ) magnesium p[d] 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,notes #ag1 #ah74 ,! sub/ance =m$1 :5 ?r[n into a solution ( hydro*loric acid1 evolves spontane\sly inflammable & impure silicon hydride1 s t ! self-inflammability ( ! gas is easily demon/rat$ by ?is means4 ,9 #ahej-fj ,whl] & ,buff obta9$ an alloy ( silicon & magnesium by ! action ( sodium on a molt5 mixture ( magnesium *loride1 sodium silic(luoride1 & sodium *loride4 ,! sodium !n simultane\sly r$uces ! silicon & magnesium4 ,fri$el & ,lad5burg subsequ5tly prep>$ silicon hydride 9 a pure /ate1 & %[$ t x is n spontane\sly inflammable 9 air1 at ! ord9>y pressure1 b t1 l ,,ph#c1 & l ! mixture prep>$ by ! above me?ods1 x easily takes fire 9 air "u a l[] pressure or :5 mix$ ) hydrog54 ,!y prep>$ ! pure comp\nd 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,whl] %[$ t :5 dry hydro*loric acid gas is pass$ ?r\gh a slightly heat$ tube conta9+ silicon x =ms a v volatile col\rless liquid1 :i* fumes /rongly 9 air2 ?is is a mixture ( silicon *loride1 ,si,cl#d1 & silicon *lor(orm1 ,si,h,cl#c1 :i* corresponds ) ord9>y *lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c4 ,?is mixture is easily sep>at$ by di/illation1 because silicon *loride boils at #eg1 & silicon *lor(orm at #cf4 ,! =mation ( ! latt] w be und]/ood f ! equation ,si #c;,h,cl ,h#b ,si,h,cl#c4 ,x is an anhydr\s inflammable liquid ( specific gravity #af4 ,x =ms a transition product betwe5 ,si,h#d & ,si,cl#d1 & may be obta9$ f silicon hydride by ! action ( *lor9e & ,sb,cl#e1 & is itself also trans=m$ into silicon *loride by ! action ( *lor9e4 ,gatt]mann obta9$ ,si,h,cl#c by heat+ ! mass obta9$ aft] ! action 7,note #d7 ( ,mg ^u ,si,o#b1 9 a /ream ( *lor9e 7) ,h,cl7 at ab\t #dgj4 ,fri$el & ,lad5burg1 by act+ on anhydr\s alcohol ) silicon *lor(orm1 obta9$ an e!real comp\nd hav+ ! composition ,si,h7,,oc#b;,h#e7c4 ,?is e!r boils at #acf1 & :5 act$ on by sodium dis5gages silicon hydride1 & is conv]t$ into e?yl or?osilicate1 ,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d1 accord+ to ! equation #d,si,h7,,oc#b;,h#e7c ,si,h#d #c,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d 7! sodium seems to be un*ang$71 :i* is exactly simil> to ! decomposition ( ! l[] oxides ( phosphorus1 ) ! evolution ( phosphurett$ hydrog54 ,if we designate ! gr\p ,c#b;,h#e1 conta9$ 9 ! silicon e!rs by ,et1 ! p>allel is f\nd to be exact3 #d,,pho7,,oh7#b ,,ph#c #c,,po7,,oh7#c2 #d,si,h7,o,et7#c ,si,h#d #c,si7,o,et7#d4 ,silicon *loride1 ,si,cl#d1 is obta9$ f amorph\s anhydr\s silica 7made by ignit+ ! hydrate7 mix$ ) *>coal1#f heat$ to a :ite heat 9 a /ream ( dry *lor9e--t is1 by t g5]al me?od by :i* _m o!r *loranhydrides hav+ acid prop]ties are obta9$4 ,silicon *loride is purifi$ f free *lor9e by di/illation ov] metallic m]cury4 ,free silicon =ms ! same sub/ance :5 treat$ ) dry *lor9e4 ,x is a volatile col\rless liquid1 :i* boils at #ei & has a specific gravity ( #aeb4 ,x fumes /rongly 9 air1 has a pung5t smell1 & 9 g5]al has ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! acid *loranhydrides4 ,x is completely decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ hydro*loric acid & silicic acid1 accord+ to ! equation3 ,si,cl#d #d;,h#b,o ,si7,,oh7#d #d;,h,cl4#g #f ,! amorph\s silica is mix$ ) />*1 dri$1 & !n *>r$ by heat+ ! mixture 9 a clos$ crucible4 ,a v intimate mixture ( silica & *>coal is ?us =m$4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #ac1 we saw t elem5ts l silicon dis5gage m heat ) oxyg5 ?an ) *lor9e1 & !re=e _! oxyg5 comp\nds _c be directly decompos$ by *lor9e1 b t ?is c be effect$ :5 ! aff9ity ( c>bon = oxyg5 is utilis$ to aid ! action4 ,:5 ! mass obta9$ by ! action ( ,mg ^u ,si,o#b is heat$ to #cjj 9 a curr5t ( *lor9e1 x easily =ms ,si,cl#d 7,gatt]mann73 besides :i* two o!r comp\nds1 correspond+ to ,si,cl#d1 are =m$1 namely3 ,si#b;,cl#f1 :i* boils at #ade & solidifies at -#a1 & ,si#c;,cl#h1 :i* boils at ab\t #bab4 ,^! sub/ances1 :i* answ] to correspond+ c>bon comp\nds 7,c#b;,h#f & ,c#c;,h#h71 act ^u wat] & =m correspond+ oxyg5 comp\nds2 = in/ance1 ,si#b;,cl#f #d;,h#b,o 7,si,o#b;,h7#b #f;,h,cl gives ! analogue ( oxalic acid 7,,co#b;,h7#b4 ,?is sub/ance is insoluble 9 wat]1 decomposes "u ! action ( friction & heat ) an explosion1 & %\ld be call$ silico-oxalic acid1 ,si#b;,h#b,o#d 7see lat]1 ,note #aa bis74 #g ,silicon *loride %[s a simil> behavi\r ) alcohol4 ,?is is accompani$ by a v *>act]i/ic ph5om5on2 on p\r+ silicon *loride into anhydr\s alcohol a mom5t>y evolution ( heat is obs]v$1 ow+ to a reaction ( d\ble decomposition1 b ?is is imm$iately foll[$ by a p[]ful cool+ effect1 due to ! dis5gagem5t ( a l>ge am\nt ( hydro*loric acid--t is1 !re is an absorption ( heat f ! =mation ( gase\s hydro*loric acid4 ,?is is a v in/ructive example 9 ?is respect2 "h two processes occurr+ simultane\sly--"o *emical & ! o!r physical--are divid$ f ea* o!r by "t1 ! latt] process %[+ itself by a di/9ct fall 9 temp]ature4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! two processes proce$ simultane\sly1 & we only obs]ve ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! heat develop$ & absorb$4 ,9 act+ on alcohol1 silicon *loride =ms e?yl or?osilicate1 ,si,cl#d #d;,,hoc#b;,h#e #d;,h,cl ,si7,,oc#b;,h#e7d4 ,?is sub/ance boils at #afj1 & has a specific gravity #jid4 ,ano!r salt1 e?yl metasilicate1 ,si,o7,,oc#b;,h#e7b1 is also =m$ by ! action ( silicon *loride on anhydr\s alcohol2 x volatilises above #cjj1 hav+ a sp4 gr4 #ajh4 ,x is exce$+ly int]e/+ t ^! two e!real salts are bo? volatile1 & bo? correspond ) silica1 ,si,o#b3 ! fir/ e!r corresponds to ! hydrate ,si7,,oh7#d1 or?osilic acid1 & ! second to ! hydrate ,si,o7,,oh7#b1 metasilicic acid4 ,z ! nature ( hydrates may be judg$ f ! composition ( salts1 s also1 ) equal "r1 c e!real salts s]ve ! same purpose4 ,! composition ( an e!real salt corresponds ) t ( an acid 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is replac$ by a hydroc>bon radicle--= in/ance1 by ,c#b;,h#e4 ,&1 !re=e1 x may be truly said t !re exi/ at lea/ ! two silicic acids above m5tion$4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t !re are really sev]al su* hydrates2 t ^! e!real salts actually correspond ) hydrates ( silica is cle>ly %[n f ! fact t !y are decompos$ by wat]1 & t 9 moi/ air !y give alcohol & ! correspond+ hydrate1 al?\gh ! hydrate :i* is obta9$ 9 ! residue always corresponds ) ! second e!real salt only--t is1 x has ! composition ,si,o7,,oh7#b2 ?is =m corresponds also to c>bonic acid 9 its ord9>y salts4 ,?is hydrate is =m$ z a vitre\s mass :5 ! e?yl silicates are expos$ to air1 ow+ to ! action ( ! atmosph]ic moi/ure on !m4 ,its specific gravity is #agg4 ,silicon bromide1 ,si,br#d1 z well z silicon brom(orm1 ,si,h,br#c1 are sub/ances closely resembl+ ! *lor9e comp\nds 9 _! reactions1 & !y are obta9$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,silicon iod(orm1 ,si,h,i#c1 boils at ab\t #bbj1 has a specific gravity ( #cd1 reacts 9 ! same mann] z silicon *lor(orm1 & is =m$1 toge!r ) silicon iodide1 ,si,i#d1 by ! action ( a mixture ( hydrog5 & hydriodic acid on heat$ silicon4 ,silicon iodide is a solid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 fus+ at ab\t #abj2 x may be di/ill$ 9 a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride1 b easily takes fire 9 air1 & behaves ) wat] & o!r reag5ts j l silicon *loride4 ,x may be obta9$ by ! direct action ( ! vap\r ( iod9e on heat$ silicon4 ,besson 7#ahia7 also obta9$ ,si,cl#c;,i 7boils at #aac71 ,si,cl#b;,i#b 7#agb71 & ,si,cl,i#c 7#bbj71 & ! correspond+ brom9e comp\nds4 ,all ! halog5 comp\nds ( ,si are capable ( absorb+ #f,,nh#c & m4 ,besides :i* ,besson obta9$ ,si,s,cl#b by heat+ ,si 9 ! vap\r ( *loride ( sulphur2 ?is comp\nd melts at #gd1 boils at #ahe1 & gives ) wat] ! hydrate ( ,si,o#b1 ,h,cl1 & ,h#b,s4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ( ! haloid comp\nds ( silicon is silicon fluoride1 ,si,f#d4 ,x is a gase\s sub/ance only liquefi$ by int5se cold1 -#ajj1 & is obta9$ 7,*apt] ,,xi47 directly by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on silica & its comp\nds 7,si,o#b #d;,,hf #b;,h#b,o ,si,f#d71 & also by heat+ fluorsp> ) silica 7#b;,ca,f#b #c,si,o#b #b;,ca,si,o#c ,si,f#d74h ,9 ord] to prep>e silicon fluoride1 s& or brok5 glass is mix$ ) an equal quantity by weight ( fluorsp> & #f p>ts by weight ( /rong sulphuric acid1 & ! mixture is g5tly heat$4 ,x fumes /rongly 9 air1 react+ ) ! aque\s vap\rs1 al?\gh x is produc$ f silica & hydr(luoric acid ) ! sep>ation ( wat]4 ,x is evid5t t a rev]se reaction occurs "h2 t is to say1 ! wat] reacts ) ! silicon fluoride1 b ! reaction is n complete4 ,?is ph5om5on is simil> to t :i* occurs :5 wat] decomposes alum9ium *loride1 b at ! same "t hydro*loric acid dissolves alum9ium hydroxide & =ms ! same alum9ium *loride4 ,! relative am\nt ( wat] pres5t 7toge!r ) ! temp]ature7 det]m9es ! limit & direction ( ! reaction4 ,! faculty :i* silicon fluoride has ( react+ ) wat] is s great t x takes up ! elem5ts ( wat] f _m sub/ances--= in/ance1 l sulphuric acid1 x *>s pap]4 ,wat] dissolves ab\t #cjj volumes ( ?is gas1 b 9 ?is case x is n a common dissolution :i* takes place1 b a reaction4 ,dur+ ! fir/ absorption ( silicon fluoride by wat]1 silicic acid is sep>at$ 9 ! =m ( a jelly1 b a c]ta9 quantity ( ! silicon fluoride also rema9s 9 ! liquid1 because ! hydr(luoric acid =m$ dissolves ! o!r "p ( ! silica#i & =ms ! s-call$ hydr(luosilicic acid3 ,h#b,si,f#f ,si,f#d #b;,,hf ,si,h#b,o#c #f;,,hf - #c;,h#b,o4 ,t is to say1 a metasilicic acid1 ,si,h#b,o#c1 9 :i* ,o#c is replac$ by ,f#f4 ,?is view ( ! composition ( hydr(luosilicic acid may be admitt$1 because x =ms a :ole s]ies ( cry/allisable & well def9$ salts4 ,9 g5]al1 ! :ole reaction ( wat] on silicon fluoride may be express$ by ! equation3 #c,si,f#d #c;,h#b,o ,si,o7,,oh7#b #b,si,h#b;,f#f4 ,hydr(luosilicic acid & silicic acid resemble ea* o!r z mu*1 & diff] z mu*1 9 _! *emical "* z wat] & hydr(luoric acid4 ,= ?is reason silicic acid is a feebl] acid ?an hydr(luosilicic acid1 & 9 addition to ?is ! =m] is insoluble1 & ! latt] soluble1 9 wat]4#aj ,hydr(luosilicic acid is also =m$ if silicic acid be dissolv$ 9 a solution ( hydr(luoric acid4 ,x is incapable ( volatilis+ )\t decomposition1 & on heat+ ! conc5trat$ acid silicon fluoride is evolv$1 leav+ an aque\s solution ( hydr(luoric acid4 ,?is is ! reason :y solutions ( hydr(luosilicic acid corrode glass4 ,?is decomposition may be fur!r accel]at$ by ! addition ( sulphuric acid1 or ev5 ( o!r acids4 ,hydr(luosilicic acid1 :5 act+ on potassium & b>ium salts1 gives precipitates1 because ! salts ( ^! metals are b sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]3 ?us #b,,kx ,h#b,si,f#f #b;,,hx ,k#b,si,f#f4 ,! potassium salt is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( v f9e octah$ra1 b ! precipitate does n =m quickly1 & at fir/ appe>s z a jelly4 ,nev]!less1 ! decomposition is complete1 & x is tak5 advantage ( = obta9+ _! correspond+ acids f salts ( potassium4#aj bis #h ,?is prop]ty ( calcium fluoride ( conv]t+ silica into a gas & a vitre\s fusible slag ( calcium silicate is frequ5tly tak5 advantage ( 9 ! laboratory & 9 practice 9 ord] to remove silica4 ,! same reaction is employ$ = prep>+ silicon fluoride on a l>ge scale 9 ! manufacture ( hydr(luosilicic acid 7see sequel74 #i ,! am\nt ( heat develop$ by ! solution ( silicic acid1 ,si,o#bn,h#b,o1 9 aque\s hydr(luoric acid1 x,,hfn,h#b,o1 increases ) ! magnitude ( x & normally equals x#e1fjj heat units1 :]e x v>ies betwe5 #a & #h4 ,h[ev]1 :5 x #aj ! maximum am\nt ( heat is develop$ 7 #di1ejj units71 & beyond t ! am\nt decreases 7,?oms574 #aj ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 x w\ld seem t ! reaction is /ill m complex1 because ! aque\s solution ( silicon fluoride does n yield a hydrate ( silica1 b a fluo-hydrate 7,s*iff71 ,si#b,o#c7,,oh7,f1 correspond+ to ! 7pyro7 hydrate ,si#b,o#c7,,oh7#b1 equal to ,si,o7,,oh7#b,si,o#b1 s t ! reaction ( silicon fluoride on wat] is express$ by ! equation3 #e,si,f#d #d;,h#b,o #c,si,h#b;,f#f ,si#b,o#c7,,oh7,f ,,hf4 ,h[ev]1 ,b]zelius /ates t ! hydrate1 :5 well wa%$ ) wat]1 conta9s no fluor9e1 :i* is probably due to ! fact t an excess ( wat] decomposes ,si#b,o#c7,,oh7,f1 =m+ hydr(luoric acid & ! comp\nd ,si#b,o#c7,,oh7#b4 ,wat] saturat$ ) silicon fluoride dis5gages silicon fluoride & hydr(luoric acid :5 treat$ ) hydro*loric acid1 ! gelat9\s precipitate be+ simultane\sly dissolv$4 ,x may be fur!r rem>k$ t hydr(luosilicic acid has be5 frequ5tly reg>d$ z ,si,o#b1f;,,hf1 because x is =m$ by ! solution ( silica 9 hydr(luoric acid1 b only two ( ^! six hydrog5s are replac$ by metals4 ,on conc5tration1 solutions ( ! acid beg9 to decompose :5 !y rea* a /r5g? ( #f;,h#b,o p] ,h#b,si,f#f1 & !re=e ! acid may be reg>d$ z ,si7,,oh7#d1b;,h#b,o1#f;,,hf1 b ! correspond+ salts conta9 less wat]1 & !re are ev5 anhydr\s salts1 ,r#b,si,f#f1 s t ! acid itself is mo/ simply repres5t$ z ,h#b,si,f#f4 ,if gase\s silicon fluoride be pass$ directly into wat]1 ! gas-conduct+ tube becomes clogg$ ) ! precipitat$ silicic acid4 ,?is is be/ prev5t$ by imm]s+ ! end ( ! tube "u m]cury1 & !n p\r+ wat] ov] ! m]cury2 ! silicon fluoride !n passes ?r\gh ! m]cury1 & only comes into contact ) ! wat] at its surface1 & consequ5tly ! gas-conduct+ tube rema9s unob/ruct$4 ,! silicic acid ?us obta9$ soon settles1 & a col\rless solution ) a pleasant b di/9ctly acid ta/e is procur$4 ,mack9to%1 by tak+ #i p4c4 ( hydr(luoric acid1 obs]v$ t 9 ! c\rse ( an h\r its action on opal atta9$ #gg p4c4 ( ! possible1 & did n exce$ #a-a_/b p4c4 ( its possible action on qu>tz dur+ ! same "t4 ,?is %[s ! diff]5ce ( ! /ructure ( ^! two modifications ( silica1 :i* w be m fully describ$ 9 ! sequel4 #aj bis ,! sodium salt is f> m soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allises 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,! magnesium salt1 ,mg,si,f#f1 & calcium salt are soluble 9 wat]4 ,! salts ( hydr(luosilicic acid may be obta9$ n only by ! action ( ! acid on bases or by d\ble decompositions1 b also by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on metallic silicates4 ,sulphuric acid decomposes !m1 ) evolution ( hydr(luoric acid & silicon fluoride1 & ! salts :5 heat$ evolve silicon fluoride1 leav+ a residue ( metallic fluoride1 ,r#b;,f#b4 ,silicon1 hav+ s mu* 9 common ) c>bon1 is also able to comb9e ) x 9 ! proportion giv5 by ! law ( sub/itution1 t is1 x =ms a c>bide ( silicon ,c,si1 call$ c>borundum & obta9$ by ,mhlhus] & ,a*eson 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & by ,moissan 9 ,france 7#ahia71 & o!rs1 by r$uc+ silica ) c>bon 9 ! electrical furnace at a temp]ature ( ab\t #bejjaa1 i4e4 by ! action ( an electrical curr5t ^u a mixture ( c>bon & ,si,o#b ) ,na,cl4 ,aft] treat+ ! resultant mass ) acids & wa%+ ) wat]1 c>borundum is obta9$ 9 transp>5t1 lu/r\s gra9s ( a gre5i% color1 possess+ great h>dness 7great] ?an corundum7 & !re=e us$ = poli%+ ! h>de/ k9ds ( /eel & /ones4 ,! specific gravity is ab\t #ca4 ,c>borundum does n alt] at a r$ heat1 does n burn1 & app>5tly approa*es ! diamond 9 its prop]ties4 7,moissan obta9$1 #ahid1 a simil> v h>d comp\nd = boron1 ,b#f;,c1 sp4 gr4 #be47 #aa ,see ,note #d bis4 ,probably ,s*tz5b]g] _h already obta9$ ,c,si 9 8 rese>*es toge!r ) o!r silicon comp\nds4 ,an amorph\s1 less h>d comp\nd ( ! same alloy is also obta9$ toge!r ) ! h>d cry/all9e ,c,si4 ,accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution1 if silicon =ms ,si,h#d1 a s]ies ( hydrates1 or hydroxyl d]ivatives1 ought to exi/ correspond+ to x4 ,! fir/ hydrate ( an alcoholic "* ought to h ! composition ,si,h#c7,,oh72 ! second hydrate ,si,h#b7,,oh7#b2 ! ?ird1 ,si,h7,,oh7#c2aa bis & ! la/1 ,si7,,oh7#d4 ,! la/ is a hydrate ( silica1 because x is equal to ,si,o#b #b;,h#b,o72 & x is =m$ by ! action ( wat] on silicon *loride1 :5 all f\r atoms ( *lor9e are replac$ by f\r hydroxyl gr\ps4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 rema9 9 ?is /ate1 b easily loses "p ( its wat]4 #aa bis ,! foll[+ consid]ation is v important 9 expla9+ ! nature ( ! l[] hydrates :i* are kn[n = silicon4 ,if we suppose wat] to be tak5 up f ! fir/ hydrates 7j z =mic acid is ,,*7,,oh7#c1 m9us wat]71 we %all obta9 ! v>i\s l[] hydrates correspond+ ) silicon hydride4 ,:5 ignit$ !y %\ld1 l phosphor\s & hypophosphor\s acids1 dis5gage silicon hydride1 & leave a residue ( silica beh9d--i4e4 ( ! oxide correspond+ to ! highe/ hydrate--j z organic hydrates 7= example1 =mic acid ) an alkali7 =m c>bonic anhydride z ! highe/ oxyg5 comp\nd4 ,su* imp]fect hydrates ( silicon1 or1 m correctly speak+1 ( silicon hydride1 7 fir/ obta9$ by ,whl] 7#ahfc7 & /udi$ by ,geu!r 7#ahfe71 & 7 nam$ aft] _! *>act]i/ic col\rs4 7,see ,note #f74 ,leucone is a :ite hydrate ( ! composition ,si,h7,,oh7#c4 ,x is obta9$ by sl[ly pass+ ! vap\r ( silicon *lor(orm into cold wat]3 ,si,h,cl#c #c;,h#b,o ,si,h7,,oh7#c #c;,h,cl4 ,b ?is hydrate1 l ! correspond+ hydrate ( phosphorus or c>bon1 does n rema9 9 ?is /ate ( hydration1 b loses a portion ( its wat]4 ,! c>bon hydrate ( ?is nature1 ,,*7,,oh7#c1 loses wat] & =ms =mic acid1 ,,*o7,,oh72 b ! silicon hydrate loses a /ill great] proportion ( wat]1 #b,si,h7,,oh7#c1 p>t+ ) #c;,h#b,o1 & consequ5tly leav+ ,si#b;,h#b,o#c4 ,?is sub/ance mu/ be an anhydride2 all ! hydrog5 previ\sly 9 ! =m ( hydroxyl has be5 dis5gag$1 two rema9+ hydrog5s be+ left f ,si,h#d4 ,! o!r simil> hydrate is also :ite1 & has ! composition ,si#c;,h#b,o 7ne>ly74 ,x may be reg>d$ z ! above :ite hydrate ,si,o#b4 ,a yell[ hydrate1 kn[n z *ryseone 7silicone71 is obta9$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on an alloy ( silicon & calcium2 its composition is ab\t ,si#f;,h#d,o#c4 ,mo/ probably1 h[ev]1 *ryseone has a m complex composition1 & /&s 9 ! same relation to ! hydrate ,si,h#b7,,oh7#c z leucone does to ! hydrate ,si,h7,,oh7#c1 because ?is v simply expresses ! transition ( ! fir/ comp\nd into ! second ) ! loss ( wat]1 ,si,h#b7,,oh7#c - ,h#b ,h#b,o ,si,h7,,oh7#c4 ,:5 ^! l[] hydrates are ignit$ )\t access ( air1 !y are decompos$ into hydrog51 silicon1 & silica--t is1 x may be suppos$ t !y =m silicon hydride 7:i* decomposes into silicon & hydrog57 & silica 7j z phosphor\s & hypophosphor\s acids give phosphoric acid & phosphurett$ hydrog574 ,:5 ignit$ 9 air1 !y burn1 =m+ silica4 ,!y are none ( !m act$ on by acids1 b :5 treat$ ) alkalis !y evolve hydrog5 & give silicates2 = example1 leucone3 ,si,h#b,o#c #d,,kho #b,si,k#b,o#c ,h#b,o #b;,h#b4 ,!y h no acid prop]ties4 ,silica or silicic anhydride1 bo? 9 ! free /ate & 9 comb9ation ) o!r oxides1 ent]s into ! composition ( mo/ ( ! rocky =mations ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,^! silici\s comp\nds are sub/ances v>y+ s mu* 9 _! prop]ties1 cry/all9e =ms1 & relations to "o ano!r t !y are compris$ 9 a special bran* ( natural sci5ce 7l ! c>bon comp\nds71 & are treat$ ( 9 works on m9]alogy2 s t1 9 deal+ ) !m fur!r1 we %all only give a %ort description ( ^! v>i\s comp\nds4 ,x is fir/ ( all necess>y to turn to ! description ( silica itself1 especially z x is n unfrequ5tly met ) 9 nature 9 a sep>ate /ate1 & (t5 =ms :ole masses ( rocky =mations1 call$ 'qu>tz4' ,9 an anhydr\s condition silica appe>s 9 ! greate/ v>iety ( natural =ms--sometimes 9 well-=m$ cry/als1 hexagonal prisms1 t]m9at$ by hexagonal pyramids4 ,if ! cry/als are col\rless & transp>5t1 !y are call$ rock cry/al4 ,?is is ! pure/ =m ( silica4 ,prismatic cry/als ( rock cry/al sometimes atta9 consid]able size1 & z !y are rem>kable = _! un*angeability1 great h>dness1 & high index ( refraction1 !y are us$ = ornam5ts1 = seals1 mak+ necklaces1 c4#ab ,rock cry/al col\r$ ) organic matt] 9 contact ) :i* x has be5 produc$ has a br[n or greyi% col\r1 & !n be>s ! "n ( cairngorm or smoky qu>tz4 ,9 ?is =m x has ! same uses z rock cry/al1 especially z x is (t5 f\nd 9 l>ge masses4 ,! same m9]al1 frequ5tly occurs1 col\r$ r$ or p9k by manganese or iron oxides1 especially 9 aque\s =mations1 & is !n kn[n z ame?y/4 ,:5 f9ely col\r$ ! ame?y/ is us$ z a preci\s /one1 b ame?y/s mo/ frequ5tly occur z small cry/als 9 ! cavities =m$ 9 o!r rocky =mations1 & especially 9 ^? =m$ 9 silica itself4 ,a simil> anhydr\s silica is (t5 f\nd 9 transp>5t non-cry/all9e masses1 hav+ ! same specific gravity z rock cry/al itself 7#bff74 ,9 ?is case x is call$ qu>tz4 ,sometimes x =ms complete rocky =mations1 b m (t5 p5etrates or is int]sp]s$ ?r\gh o!r rocky =mations1 toge!r ) o!r silice\s comp\nds4 ,?us1 9 granite1 qu>tz is mix$ ) felsp> & simil> sub/ances4 ,sometimes ! col\r+ ( qu>tz is s consid]able t x is h>dly transp>5t 9 ?9 %eets1 b x is (t5 f\nd 9 transp>5t masses slightly col\r$ ) v>i\s t9ts4 ,! exi/5ce 9 nature ( enorm\s masses ( qu>tz proves t x resi/s ! action ( wat]4 ,:5 wat] de/roys rocky =mations1 ! silice\s m9]als :i* !y conta9 are p>tly dissolv$ & p>tly trans=m$ into clay1 c4 ,b ! qu>tz rema9s unt\*$1 9 ! =m ( gra9s 9 :i* x exi/$ 9 ! rocky =mation2 sometimes1 :5 cru%$1 x is c>ri$ away by ! wat] & deposit$4 ,?is is ! nature ( s&4 ,naturally1 sometimes o!r rocky sub/ances :i* are n *ang$ by wat]1 or only slightly act$ on by x1 are f\nd 9 s&2 b z ^! latt] are m or less *ang$ by ! cont9u\s action ( wat]1 x is n unusual to f9d s& :i* consi/s almo/ entirely ( pure qu>tz4 ,common s& is g5]ally col\r$ yell[ or r$di%-br[n by =eign m9]al matt]1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( f]rug9\s m9]als & clays4 ,! pure/ or s-call$ qu>tz s& is1 h[ev]1 r>ely f\nd1 & is recognis$ by ! abs5ce ( col\r1 & also by ! te/ t :5 %ak5 9 wat] x does n =m any turbidity3 ?is %[s ! abs5ce ( clay2 :5 fus$ ) bases x =ms a col\rless glass1 & on ?is acc\nt is a valuable mat]ial = ! manufacture ( glass4 ,s&s 7 =m$ at all p]iods ( ! e>?'s exi/5ce2 ! anci5t ones1 compress$ by /rata ( m rec5t =mation & p]meat$ ) v>i\s sub/ances 7deposit$ f ! infiltrat+ wat]71 are sometimes solidifi$ into rock1 call$ s&/one1 compos+1 9 "s places1 :ole m\nta9 *a9s1 & s]viceable z a mo/ excell5t build+ mat]ial1 on acc\nt ( ! slight *ange x und]goes "u ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic ag5cies1 & on acc\nt ( ! facility ) :i* x may be wr\ght f rocky =mations into imm5se regul>ly-%ap$ flags--! latt] prop]ty is due to ! prim>y lam9> /ructure ( ! s& =mations deposit$1 z above-m5tion$1 by wat]4 ,_m gr9d/ones & :et/ones are made f su* rocks4 #ab ,two modifications ( rock cry/al are kn[n4 ,!y are v easily di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by _! relation to pol>is$ light2 "o rotates ! plane ( pol>isation to ! "r & ! o!r to ! left--9 ! "o ! hemih$ral faces are "r & 9 ! o!r !y are left2 ?is opposite rotatory p[] is tak5 advantage ( 9 ! con/ruction ( pol>is]s4 ,b1 ) ?is physical diff]5ce--:i* is naturally dep5d5t on a c]ta9 diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( ! molecules--!re is n only no obs]vable diff]5ce 9 ! *emical prop]ties1 b n ev5 9 ! d5sity ( ! mass4 ,p]fectly pure rock cry/al is a sub/ance :i* is mo/ inv>iable ) respect to its specific gravity4 ,! num]\s & accurate det]m9ations made by ,/e9heil on ! specific gravity ( rock cry/al %[ t 7if ! cry/al be free f flaws7 x is v con/ant & is equal to #bff4 ,p]fectly pure anhydr\s silica is n only kn[n 9 ! condition ( rock cry/al & qu>tz hav+ a specific gravity ( #bf1 b also 9 ano!r special =m1 hav+ o!r *emical & physical prop]ties4 ,?is v>iety ( silica has a specific gravity ( #bb1 & is =m$ by fus+ rock cry/al or heat+ silicic acid4#ab bis ,silicic acid1 :5 heat$ to a dull r$ heat1 p>ts entirely ) ! wat] x conta9s1 & leaves an exce$+ly f9e amorph\s mass ( silica 7easily levigat$1 b difficult to moi/572 x is *>act]is$ by su* excessive friability t1 :5 lightly bl[n on1 a l>ge mass ( x rises into ! air l a cl\d ( du/4 ,a mass ( anhydr\s silica maybe p\r$ 9 ?is way f "o vessel to ano!r l a liquid1 & l ! latt] x takes a horizontal position 9 ! vessel conta9+ x4#ac ,anhydr\s silica1 l qu>tz1 does n fuse 9 ! heat ( a furnace1 b x fuses 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame to a col\rless glassy mass exactly simil> to t =m$ 9 ! same way f rock cry/al4 ,9 ?is condition silica has a specific gravity ( #bb4ac bis ,bo? =ms ( silica are insoluble 9 ord9>y acids1 & ev5 :5 !y are 9 ! /ate ( p[d]1 alkalis 9 solution act v sl[ly & feebly on !m2 rock cry/al (f]s mu* great] resi/ance to ! action ( alkalis ?an ! p[d] obta9$ by heat+ ! hydrate4 ,! latt] is q soluble1 al?\gh b sl[ly1 9 hot alkal9e solutions4 ,?is la/ prop]ty app]ta9s 9 a great] degree to anhydr\s silica hav+ a specific gravity ( #bb ?an to t :i* has a specific gravity ( #bf4 ,hydr(luoric acid m easily trans=ms ! =m] into silicon fluoride ?an x does ! latt]4 ,bo? v>ieties ( silica1 :5 tak5 9 ! =m ( p[d]1 easily comb9e ) bases1 =m+1 on be+ fus$ ) an alkali1 a vitre\s slag1 :i* is a salt correspond+ ) silica4 ,glass is su* a salt1 =m$ ( alkalis & alkal9e e>?y bases2 if ! glass does n conta9 any ( ! latt]--t is1 if only alkal9e glass be tak5--a mass soluble 9 wat] is obta9$4 ,9 ord] to obta9 su* soluble glass1 potassium or sodium c>bonates1 or bett] a mixture ( ! two 7fusion mixture71 is fus$ ) f9e s&4 ,a /ill bett] & fur!r saturation ( ! alkalis ) silica is effect$ by ! action ( alkal9e solutions on ! silicon hydrate met ) 9 nature2 = in/ance1 an alkal9e solution is (t5 made use ( to act on ! s-call$ tripoli1 or collection ( silice\s skeletons ( ! l[e/ microscopical infusoria1 :i* is sometimes f\nd 9 consid]able lay]s 9 ! =m ( a s&y mass4 ,tripoli is us$ = poli%+1 n only on acc\nt ( ! consid]able h>dness ( ! silica1 b also because ! microscopic bodies ( ! infusoria h a po9t$ %ape1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n angul>1 s t !y d n scrat* metals l s&4#ad ,! alkal9e solutions ( silica obta9$ by boil+ tripoli ) cau/ic soda "u pressure conta9 v>i\s proportions ( silica & alkali4#ad bis ,9 ord] t x may conta9 ! greate/ am\nt ( silica1 silicic acid %\ld be add$ to ! heat$ solution4 ,silicic acid is =m$ by tak+ any solution conta9+ silica & alkali1 & add+ to x1 by degrees1 "s acid--= in/ance1 sulphuric or hydro*loric2 if ! exp]im5t be c>ri$ on c>efully & ! solution be conc5trat$1 ! :ole mass ?ick5s to a jelly1 due to ! gelat9\s =m ( ! silicic acid sep>at$ f ! salt by ! action ( ! acid4 ,! decomposition may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,si7,o,na7#d #d;,h,cl #d,na,cl ,si7,,oh7#d4 ,! hydrate sep>at$1 ,si7,,oh7#d1 easily loses "p ( ! wat] & =ms a jelly1 ! :ole mass gelat9is+ if ! solution be /rong en\gh4#ae #ab bis ,sev]al o!r modifications are kn[n z m9ute cry/als4 ,= example1 !re is a p>ticul> m9]al fir/ f\nd 9 ,/yria & kn[n z tridymite4 ,its specific gravity #bc & =m ( cry/als cle>ly di/+ui% x f rock cry/al2 its h>dness is ! same z t ( qu>tz--t is1 slightly bel[ t ( ! ruby & diamond4 #ac ,!re is a di/9ct rise ( temp]ature 7ab\t #d7 :5 amorph\s silica is moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,b5z5e & amyl alcohol also give an obs]vable rise ( temp]ature4 ,*>coal & s& give ! same result1 al?\gh to a less ext5t4 #ac bis ,silica also occurs 9 nature 9 two modifications4 ,! opal & tripoli 7infusorial e>?7 h a specific gravity ( ab\t #bb1 & are comp>atively easily soluble 9 alkalis & hydr(luoric acid4 ,*alc$ony & fl9t 7t9t$ qu>tzose concretions ( aque\s orig971 agate & simil> =ms ( silica ( und\bt$ aque\s orig91 al?\gh /ill conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]1 h a specific gravity ( #bf1 & correspond ) qu>tz 9 ! difficulty ) :i* !y dissolve4 ,?is =m ( silica sometimes p]meates ! cellulose ( wood1 =m+ "o ( ! ord9>y k9ds ( petrifi$ wood4 ,! silica may be extract$ f x by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid1 & ! cellulose rema9s beh9d1 :i* cle>ly %[s t silica 9 a soluble =m 7see sequel7 has p]meat$ into ! cells1 :]e x has deposit$ ! hydrate1 :i* has lo/ wat]1 & giv5 a silica ( sp4 gr4 #bf4 ,! qu>tzose /alactites f\nd 9 c]ta9 caves are also evid5tly ( a simil> aque\s orig92 _! sp4 gr4 is also #bf4 ,z cry/als ( ame?y/ are frequ5tly f\nd among *alc$onies1 & z ,fri$au & ,s>rau 7#ahgi7 obta9$ cry/als ( rock cry/al by heat+ soluble glass ) an excess ( hydrate ( silica 9 a clos$ vessel1 !re is no d\bt b t rock cry/al itself is =m$ 9 ! wet way f ! gelat9\s hydrate4 ,*r\/*(f obta9$ x directly f soluble silica4 ,?us ?is hydrate is able to =m n only ! v>iety hav+ ! specific gravity #bb b also ! m /able v>iety ( sp4 gr4 #bf2 & bo? exi/ ) a small proportion ( wat] & 9 a p]fectly anhydr\s /ate 9 an amorph\s & cry/all9e =m4 ,all ^! facts are express$ by recognis+ silica z dimorph\s1 & _! cause mu/ be look$ = 9 a diff]5ce 9 ! degree ( polym]isation4 #ad ,deposits ( p]fectly :ite tripoli h be5 discov]$ ne> ,bat\m1 & might prove ( "s comm]cial importance4 #ad bis ,alkal9e solutions1 saturat$ ) silica & kn[n z soluble glass1 are prep>$ on a l>ge scale = te*nical purposes by ! action ( potassium 7or sodium7 hydroxide 9 a /eam boil] on tripoli or infusorial e>?1 :i* conta9s a l>ge proportion ( amorph\s silica4 ,all solutions ( ! alkal9e silicates h an alkal9e reaction1 & are ev5 decompos$ by c>bonic acid4 ,!y are *iefly us$ by ! dy]1 = ! same purposes z sodium alum9ate1 & also = giv+ a h>dness & poli% to /ucco & o!r cem5ts1 & 9 g5]al to sub/ances :i* conta9 lime4 ,a lump ( *alk :5 imm]s$ 9 soluble glass1 or bett] /ill :5 moi/5$ ) a solution & aft]w>ds wa%$ 9 wat] 7or bett] 9 hydr(luosilicic acid1 9 ord] to b9d toge!r ! free alkali & make x insoluble71 becomes exce$+ly h>d1 loses its friability1 is r5d]$ cohesive1 & _c be levigat$ 9 wat]4 ,?is trans=mation is due to ! fact t ! hydrate ( silica pres5t 9 ! solution acts ^u ! lime1 =m+ a /ony mass ( calcium silicate1 :il/ ! c>bonic acid previ\sly 9 comb9ation ) ! lime ent]s into comb9ation ) ! alkali & is wa%$ away by ! wat]4 #ae ,! equation giv5 above does n express ! actual reaction1 = 9 ! fir/ place silica has ! faculty ( =m+ comp\nds ) bases1 & !re=e ! =mula ,si,na#d,o#d is n rightly d$uc$1 if "o may s express oneself4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 silica gives sev]al hydrates4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! hydrate precipitat$ does n actually conta9 s high a proportion ( wat] z ,si7,,oh7#d1 b always less4 ,! insoluble gelat9\s hydrate :i* sep>ates out is able 7be=e1 b n aft]1 hav+ be5 dri$7 to dissolve 9 a solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,:5 dri$ 9 air its composition corresponds ) ! ord9>y salts ( c>bonic acid--t is1 ,si,h#b,o#c1 or ,si,o7,,oh7#b4 ,if gradually heat$ x loses wat] by degrees1 &1 9 s do+1 gives v>i\s degrees ( comb9ation ) x4 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! degrees ( hydration1 hav+ ! composition ,si,h#b,o#cn,si,o#b1 or1 9 g5]al1 n,si,o#bm,h#b,o1 :]e m n1 mu/ be recognis$1 because mo/ v>i$ degrees ( comb9ation ( silica ) bases are kn[n4 ,! hydrate ( silica1 :5 n dri$ above #cj1 has a composition ( ne>ly ,h#d,si#c,o#h 7,h#b,si,o#c7b,si,o#b1 b at #fj conta9s a great] proportion ( silica--t is1 x loses /ill m wat]2 & at #ajj a hydrate ( ! composition ,si,h#b,o#cb,si,o#b1 & at #bej a hydrate hav+ approximately a composition ,si,h#b,o#cg,si,o#b is obta9$4 ,^! data %[ ! complexity ( ! molecules ( anhydr\s silica4 ,! hydrates ( silica easily lose wat] & give ! hydrates 7,si,o#b7n7,h#b,o7m1 :]e m becomes small] & small] ?an n4 ,9 ! natural hydrates1 ?is decrem5t ( wat] proce$s q consecutively1 &1 s to say1 imp]ceptibly1 until n becomes incomp>ably great] ?an m1 & :5 ! ratio becomes v l>ge1 anhydr\s silica ( ! two modifications #bf & #bb is obta9$4 ,! composition 7,si,o#b7aj1;,h#b,o /ill corresponds ) #bi p4c4 ( wat]1 & natural hydrates (t5 conta9 /ill less wat] ?an ?is4 ,?us "s opals are kn[n :i* conta9 only #a p4c4 ( wat]1 :il/ o!rs conta9 #g & ev5 #aj p4c4 ,z ! artificially prep>$ gelat9\s hydrate ( silica :5 dri$ has _m ( ! prop]ties ( native opals1 & z ?is hydrate always loses wat] easily & cont9ually1 !re c be no d\bt t ! transition ( 7,si,o#b7n7,h#b,o7m into anhydr\s silica1 bo? amorph\s & cry/all9e 79 nature1 *alc$ony71 is accompli%$ gradually4 ,?is c only be ! case if ! magnitude ( n be consid]able1 & !re=e ! molecule ( silica 9 ! hydrate is und\bt$ly complex1 & h5ce ! anhydr\s silica ( sp4 gr4 #bb & #bf does n conta9 ,si,o#b1 b a complex molecule1 ,sin,o#bn--t is1 ! /ructure ( silica is polym]ic & complex1 & n simple z repres5t$ above by ! =mula ,si,o#b4 ,nei!r ( ! two v>ieties ( anhydr\s silica1 nor ! v>i\s natural gelat9\s hydrates1 are directly soluble 9 wat]4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a condition ( silica kn[n :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 soluble silica1 & silica is f\nd 9 ?is /ate 9 nature4 ,small quantities ( soluble silica are met ) 9 all wat]s4 ,c]ta9 m9]al spr+s1 & especially hot spr+s--( :i* ! be/ kn[n are ! ,geys]s ( ,icel& & ^? 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,national ,p>k 7,yell[/one ,valley7--conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( silica 9 solution4 ,su* wat]1 p]meat+ ! objects x meets )--= in/ance1 wood--p5etrates into !m & deposits silica inside !m1 t is1 trans=ms !m into a petrifi$ condition4 ,silice\s /alactites1 & also _m 7if n all7 =ms ( silica are =m$ by su* wat]4 ,! absorption ( silica by plants by means ( _! roots1 & also by ! l[] organisms hav+ silice\s bodies1 is due also to _! n\ri%+ !mselves ) ! solutions conta9+ silica cont9ually =m$ 9 nature4 ,?us1 9 plants1 9 ! /raws ( ! grasses1 9 h>d %ave-grass1 & especially 9 ! knots ( bamboo & o!r /raw-l plants1 a consid]able quantity ( silica is deposit$1 :i* mu/ previ\sly h be5 absorb$ by ! plants4 ,silicic acid is a colloid4 ,! gelat9\s silicon hydrate is its hydrogel1 ! soluble hydrate is ! hydrosol 7,*apt] ,,xii47 ,bo? v>ieties may be easily obta9$ f ! alkal9e silicates & f wat]-glass4 ,! v same sub/ances--t is1 aque\s solutions ( soluble glass & acid--tak5 9 ! same proportion1 may produce ei!r ! gelat9\s or ! soluble silica1 accord+ to ! way ^! solutions are mix$ toge!r4 ,if ! acid be add$ little by little to ! alkal9e silicate1 ) cont9u\s /irr+1 a mom5t arrives :5 ! :ole mass ?ick5s to a jelly1 hydrogel2 9 ?is case ! silicic acid is =m$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! alkal9e solution & becomes insoluble4 ,b if ! mix+ be done 9 ! rev]se ord]--t is1 if ! soluble glass be add$ to ! acid1 or if a quantity ( acid be rapidly p\r$ into ! solution ( ! salt--!n ! sep>ation ( ! silica takes place 9 ! mid/ ( ! acid liquid1 & x is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( ! soluble hydrate1 ! hydrosol4#af #af ,! pres5ce ( an excess ( acid aids ! ret5tion ( ! silica 9 ! solution1 because ! gelat9\s silica obta9$ 9 ! above mann]1 b n heat$ to #fj--t is1 conta9+ m wat] ?an ! hydrate ,h#b,si,o#c--;is m soluble 9 wat] conta9+ acid ?an 9 pure wat]4 ,?is w\ld seem to indicate a feeble t5d5cy ( silica to comb9e ) acids1 & x might ev5 h be5 imag9$ t 9 su* a solution ! hydrate ( silica is held 9 comb9ation by an excess ( acid1 _h ,graham n obta9$ soluble silica p]fectly free f acid1 & if !re 7 n solutions ( silica free f any acid 9 nature4 ,at all ev5ts a tol]ably /rong solution ( free silica or silicic acid may be obta9$ f soluble glass dilut$ ) wat]4 ,! solution1 besides silica1 w conta9 sodium *loride & an excess ( ! acid tak54 ,if ?is solution rema9s = "s "t expos$ to ! air1 or 9 a clos$ vessel1 & "u v>i\s o!r conditions1 x is f\nd t1 aft] a "t1 insoluble gelat9\s silica sep>ates out--t is1 ! soluble =m ( silica is un/able1 l ! soluble =m ( alum9a4 ,! analog\s =ms ( molybdic or tung/ic acids may be heat$1 evaporat$1 & kept = a long p]iod ( "t )\t ! soluble =m be+ conv]t$ into ! insoluble4 ,! hydrosol ( silica prep>$ by mix+ an excess ( hydro*loric acid ) a solution ( sodium silicate1 may be fre$ f ! admixtures bo? ( hydro*loric acid & salt1 sodium *loride1 by means ( dialysis1#ag z ,graham %[$ 79 #ahfa7 9 enquir+ into ! nature ( colloids 7,*apt] ,i471 & mak+ _m o!r important *emical inve/igations4 ,! solution1 conta9+ ! acid1 salt1 & silica1 all dissolv$ 9 wat]1 is p\r$ into a dialys]--t is1 a vessel ) a por\s diaphragm surr\nd$ by wat]4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances pass m easily ?r\gh ! diaphragm ?an o!rs4 ,?is may be repres5t$ ?us3 ! passage ?r\gh ! diaphragm proce$s 9 bo? directions1 & if ! solutions on ea* side ( ! diaphragm be equally /rong1 !re w be equal numb]s ( molecules ( ! soluble sub/ance pass+ into ei!r side 9 a giv5 "t1 "s pass+ quickly & o!rs sl[ly4 ,! metallic *lorides & hydro*loric acid belong to ! s]ies ( cry/alloids :i* easily pass ?r\gh a diaphragm1 & !re=e ! hydro*loric acid & sodium *loride conta9$ 9 ! above-m5tion$ dialys] pass f ! solution ?r\gh ! diaphragm into ! wat] ( ! ext]nal vessel ) consid]able rapidity4 ,! aque\s solution ( colloidal silica also p5etrates ?r\gh ! diaphragm1 b v mu* m sl[ly4 ,b if ! am\nt ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ is n equal on ei!r side ( ! diaphragm1 ! :ole sy/em /rives to atta9 a /ate ( equilibrium2 t is1 ! giv5 sub/ance p5etrates ?r\gh ! diaphragm f ! side :]e x is 9 excess to ! "p :]e !re is a small] quantity ( x4 ,all sub/ances :i* are soluble 9 wat] h ! faculty ( p5etrat+ ?r\gh a membrane swoll5 9 wat]1 b ! velocity ( p5etration is n equal1 & 9 ?is respect ! dialys] sep>ates sub/ances l a sieve4 ,! silica passes less rapidly ?r\gh ! diaphragm ?an ! sodium *loride & hydro*loric acid1 s t by repeat$ly *ang+ ! ext]nal wat] x is easy to effect ! extraction ( ! *lor9e comp\nds f ! dialys]1 :i* w f9ally only conta9 a solution ( silica4 ,?is extraction 7( ,h,cl & ,na,cl7 may be s complete t ! liquid tak5 f ! dialys] w n give any precipitate ) a solution ( silv] nitrate4 ,graham obta9$ 9 ?is way soluble silica hav+ a di/9ctly acid reaction1 :i*1 h[ev]1 disappe>$ on ! addition ( a v m9ute quantity ( alkali2 = t5 p>ts ( silica 9 ! solution x 0 suffici5t to take "o "p ( alkali 9 ord] to give ! liquid an alkal9e reaction1 s slightly en]getic are ! acid prop]ties ( silicic acid4 ,! solution ( silica obta9$ by ?is me?od becomes gelat9\s on /&+1 on be+ heat$1 or on evaporation "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 c4 ,! hydrosol is trans=m$ into ! hydrogel1 ! soluble hydrate into ! gelat9\s4 #ag ,see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ah4 ,a solution ( wat]-glass mix$ ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid is p\r$ into ! dialys]1 & ! out] vessel is fill$ ) wat]1 :i* is cont9ually r5ew$4 ,! wat] c>ries (f ! sodium *loride & hydro*loric acid1 & ! hydrosol rema9s 9 ! dialys]4 ,?us 9 addition to ! gelat9\s =m ( ! silicic acid1 !re exi/s also a v>iety ( ?is sub/ance1 soluble 9 wat]1 z is ! case ) alum9a4 ,su* v>iation 9 prop]ties & exactly ! same relations ) reg>d to wat] *>act]ise an imm5se s]ies ( o!r sub/ances hav+ a great significance 9 nature4 ,! numb] ( su* sub/ances is especially great among organic comp\nds1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ^? classes ( !m :i* compose ! pr9cipal mat]ial ( ! bodies ( animals & plants4 ,x is suffici5t to m5tion1 = in/ance1 ! gelat9 :i* is famili> to all z c>p5t]'s & o!r glues1 & 9 ! =m ( size & jelly4 ,! same sub/ance is also kn[n 9 ! solution :i* is us$ to jo9 objects toge!r4 ,9 a peculi> insoluble condition x ent]s into ! composition ( hides & bones4 ,^! v>i\s =ms ( gelat9 diff] 9 ! same way z ! diff]5t v>ieties ( silica4 ,! prop]ty ( =m+ a jelly is exactly ! same z 9 silica1 & ! adhesiv5ess ( ! solutions ( bo? sub/ances is id5tical2 soluble silica adh]es l a solution ( gelat94 ,! same prop]ties are aga9 %[n by />*1 ros91 & album91 & by a s]ies ( simil> sub/ances4 ,! diaphragms us$ 9 dialysis are also insoluble1 gelat9\s1 =ms ( colloids4 ,! bodies ( animals & plants consi/ l>gely ( simil> matt]1 insoluble 9 wat]1 correspond+ ) ! gelat9\s or insoluble silicon hydrate1 or ) glue4 ,! album9 :i* coagulates :5 eggs are boil$ is a typical =m ( ! gelat9\s condition ( su* sub/ances 9 ! body4 ,^! slight indications are suffici5t 9 ord] to %[ h[ great is ! significance ( ^? trans=mations :i* are s well m>k$ 9 silica4 ,! facts discov]$ by ,graham 9 #ahfa-ahfd comprise ! mo/ ess5tial acquisitions 9 ! g5]al association ( ^! ph5om5a ( nature 9 ! hi/ory ( organic =ms4 ,! facility ( transit f hydrogel to hydrosol is ! fir/ condition ( ! possibility ( ! developm5t ( organisms4 ,! blood conta9s hydrosols1 & ! hydrogels ( ! same sub/ances are conta9$ 9 ! muscles & tissues1 & especially on ! surface1 ( ! body4 ,all tissues are =m$ f ! blood1 & 9 t case ! hydrosols are conv]t$ into hydrogels4#ah ,! abs5ce ( cry/allisation1 ! prop]ty1 app>5tly "u ! influ5ce ( feeble ag5cies1 ( pass+ f ! soluble condition to ! insoluble1 to ! gelat9\s condition ( ! hydrogel1 con/itute ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( all colloids4#ai #ah ,a simil> process occurs 9 plants--= example1 :5 !y secrete a /ore ( mat]ial = ! foll[+ ye> 9 _! bulbs1 roots1 c4 7= in/ance1 ! potato 9 its tub]s71 ! solutions f ! leaves & /ems p5etrate into ! roots & o!r p>ts 9 ! =m ( hydrosols1 :]e !y are conv]t$ into hydrogels--t is1 into an insoluble =m1 :i* is act$ on ) difficulty & is easily kept unalt]$ until ! p]iod ( gr[?--= example1 until ! foll[+ spr+--:5 !y are reconv]t$ into hydrosols1 & ! insoluble sub/ance re-ent]s into ! sap1 & s]ves z a s\rce ( ! hydrogels 9 ! leaves & o!r portions ( plants4 #ai ,z reg>ds _! *emical composition ! colloids are v complex--t is1 !y h a high molecul> weight & a l>ge molecul> volume--9 consequ5ce ( :i* !y d n p5etrate ?r\gh membranes1 & are easily subject to v>iation 9 _! physical & *emical prop]ties 7ow+ to _! complex /ructure & polym]ism87 ,!y h b little *emical en]gy1 & are g5]ally feeble acids1 if belong+ to ! ord] ( oxides or hydrates1 su* z ! hydrates ( molybdic & tung/ic acids 7,*apt] ,,xxi474 ,b n[ ! numb] ( sub/ances capable1 l colloids1 ( pass+ into aque\s solutions & ( easily sep>at+ out f !m1 z well z ( appe>+ 9 an insoluble =m1 mu/ be supplem5t$ by v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 among :i* soluble gold & silv] 7,*apt] ,,xxiv47 are ( p>ticul> int]e/4 ,s t n[ x may be said t ! capacity ( =m+ colloid solutions is n limit$ to a def9ite class ( comp\nds1 b is1 if n a g5]al1 at all ev5ts1 an exce$+ly widely di/ribut$ ph5om5on4 ,silica1 z reg>ds its salt =m+ prop]ties1 /&s 9 ! s]ies ( oxides on ! b\nd>y l9e on ! side ( ! acids 9 j su* a place z alum9a occupies on ! side ( ! bases--t is1 alum9ium hydroxide is ! repres5tative ( ! feeble/ bases & silicic acid is ! lea/ en]getic ( acids 7at lea/ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]--t is1 9 aque\s solutions72 9 alum9a1 h[ev]1 ! basic prop]ties are di/9ctly express$1 :ile 9 silica ! acid prop]ties prepond]ate4 ,l all feeble acid oxides x is capable ( =m+1 ) o!r acids1 sal9e comp\nds :i* are b slightly /able & are v easily decompos$ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,! *ief peculi>ity ( ! silicates consi/s 9 ! numb] ( _! types4 ,! salts =m$ ) nitric or sulphuric acid exi/ 9 "o1 two1 & ?ree tol]ably /able =ms1 b = acids l silicic acid ! numb] ( =ms is v great1 almo/ unlimit$4 ,! natural silicates 9 p>ticul> furni% pro( ( ?is fact2 !y conta9 v>i\s bases 9 comb9ation ) silica1 & = "o & ! same base !re (t5 exi/ v>i\s degrees ( comb9ation4 ,z feeble bases are capable ( =m+ basic salts 9 addition to normal salts--t is1 a comp\nd ( a normal salt ) a feeble base 7ei!r ! hydroxide or ! oxide7--s ! feeble acid oxides 7al?\gh n all7 =m1 9 addition to normal salts1 highly acid salts--t is1 normal salts plus acid 7hydrate or anhydride74 ,su* acids are boric1 phosphoric1 molybdic1 *romic1 & especially silicic1 acid4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ^! relations x is necess>y fir/ to recollect ! exi/5ce ( ! v>i\s hydrates ( silica1 or silicic acids1#bj & !n to turn our att5tion to ! simil>ity betwe5 silicon comp\nds & metallic alloys4 ,silica is an oxide hav+ ! appe>ance (1 & 9 _m respects ! same prop]ties z1 ^? oxides :i* comb9e ) x1 & if two metals are capable ( =m+ homog5e\s alloys 9 :i* !re exi/ def9ite or indef9ite comp\nds1 x is p]missible to assume a simil> p[] ( =m+ alloys 9 ! case ( analog\s oxides4 ,su* alloys are f\nd 9 indef9ite1 amorph\s masses 9 ! =m ( glass1 lava1 slags1 & a numb] ( simil> silice\s comp\nds :i* d n conta9 any def9ite types ( comb9ation1 b nev]!less are homog5e\s ?r\gh\t _! mass4 ,by sl[ cool+1 or "u o!r circum/ances1 def9ite cry/all9e comp\nds may--& sometimes d--sep>ate f ?is homog5e\s mass1 z also sometimes def9ite cry/all9e alloys sep>ate f metallic alloys4 #bj ,?is is 9 accordance ) ! g5]ally-accept$ repres5tation ( ! relations betwe5 salts & ! hydrates ( acids1 b x is ( little help 9 ! /udy ( silice\s comp\nds4 ,g5]ally speak+1 x becomes necess>y to expla9 ! prop]ty ( 7,si,o#b7n to comb9e ) 7,,ro7m1 :]e n may be great] ?an m1 & :]e ,r may be ,h#b1 ,ca1 c4 ,"h we are aid$ by ^? facts :i* h be5 atta9$ by ! inve/igation ( c>bon comp\nds1 especially ) respect to glycol4 ,glycol is a comp\nd hav+ ! composition ,c#b;,h#f,o#b1 only diff]+ f alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 by an extra atom ( oxyg54 ,?is hydrate conta9s two hydroxyl gr\ps1 :i* may be successively replac$ by *lor9e1 c4 ,h5ce ! composition ( glycol %\ld be repres5t$ z ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b4 ,x has be5 f\nd t glycol =ms s-call$ polyglycols4 ,_! orig9 w be und]/ood f ! fact t glycol z a hydrate has a correspond+ anhydride ( ! composition ,c#b;,h#d,o1 kn[n z e?yl5e oxide4 ,?is sub/ance is e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 9 :i* two hydrog5s are replac$ by "o atom ( oxyg54 ,e?yl5e oxide is n ! only anhydride ( glycol1 al?\gh x is ! simple/ "o1 because ,c#b;,h#d,o ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b - ,h#b,o4 ,v>i\s o!r anhydrides ( glycol are possible1 & h actually be5 obta9$1 ( ! composition n,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b - 7n - #a7;,h#b,o 7,c#b;,h#d7n,on - #a7,,oh7#b4 ,^! imp]fect anhydrides ( glycol1 or polyglycols1 /ill conta9 hydroxyls l glycol itself1 & !re=e are ( an alcoholic "* 9 ! same s5se z glycol itself4 ,!y are obta9$ by v>i\s me?ods1 &1 among/ o!rs1 by ! direct comb9ation ( e?yl5e oxide ) glycol1 because ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b 7n - #a7;,c#b;,h#d,o 7,c#b;,h#d7n,on - #a7,,oh7#b4 ,! mo/ important circum/ance1 f a !oretical po9t ( view1 is t ^! polyglycols may be di/ill$ )\t und]go+ decomposition1 & t ! g5]al =mula giv5 above expresses _! actual molecul> composition4 ,h5ce we h "h a direct comb9ation ( ! anhydride ) ! hydrate1 &1 moreov]1 a repeat$ "o4 ,! =mula ,an,h#b,o may be us$ to express ! composition ( glycol & polyglycols ) respect to e?yl5e oxide 9 ! mo/ simple mann]1 if ,a /& = e?yl5e oxide4 ,:5 n #a we h glycol1 :5 n is great] ?an #a a polyglycol4 ,su* also is ! relation%ip ( ! salts ( hydrate ( silica1 if ,a /& = silica1 & if we imag9e t ,h#b,o may also be tak5 m times4 ,su* a repres5tation ( ! polysilicic acids corresponds ) ! repres5tation ( ! polym]ism ( silica4 ,laur5t suppos$ ! exi/5ce ( sev]al polym]ic =ms1 ,si#b,o#d1 ,si#c,o#f1 c41 besides silica1 ,si,o#b4 ,! =mation ( cry/all9e rocks 9 nature is p>tly ( su* a nature4 ,by aque\s or igne\s ag5cy1 b 9 any case 9 a liquid condition1 ^? oxides :i* =m ! e>?'s cru/ & h] cry/all9e m9]als came into mutual contact4 ,fir/ ( all !y =m$ a %apeless mass1 ( :i* lava1 glass1 slags & solutions are examples1 b little by little1 or else sudd5ly1 "s def9ite comp\nds ( c]ta9 oxides exi/+ 9 ?is alloy or 9 ! %apeless mass 7 =m$4 ,?is is entirely simil> to two metals =m+ a homog5e\s alloy1#ba & "u kn[n circum/ances 7= in/ance1 on cool+ ! alloy1 or 9 ! case ( aque\s solution :5 ! two metals are simultane\sly lib]at$ f ! solution71 def9ite cry/all9e comp\nds are sep>at$4 ,9 any case !re is no d\bt t !re is less di/9ction betwe5 silica & bases1 ?an betwe5 bases & su* anhydrides z1 = in/ance1 sulphuric or nitric1 or ev5 c>bonic1 z is se5 on comp>+ ! physical & *emical prop]ties ( silica & v>i\s k9ds ( oxides4 ,alum9a1 especially1 is exce$+ly ne> ak9 to silica2 n only 9 ! hydrat$ /ate1 b also 9 ! anhydr\s condition1 !re exi/s a c]ta9 simil>ity betwe5 ! cry/all9e =ms ( alum9a & silica1 9 ! uncomb9$ /ate4 ,bo? are v h>d1 transp>5t1 inactive1 non-volatile1 infusible1 & cry/allise 9 ! hexagonal sy/em--9 a ^w1 !y are rem>kably simil>1 & = ?is reason !y are capable1 l two k9dr$ metals1 ( ent]+ into _m diff]5t degrees ( comb9ation4 ,isomorph\s mixtures--t is1 diff]+ by ! sub/itution ( oxides ak9 bo? 9 _! physical & *emical *>act]s--are v frequ5tly met ) among m9]als1 & ! /udy ( ! latt] gave ! pr9cipal impetus to ! /udy ( isomorphism4 ,?us1 9 a :ole s]ies ( m9]als1 lime & magnesia are f\nd 9 v>iable & int]*angeable proportions4 ,exactly ! same may be said ( potassium & sodium1 ( alum9a & f]ric oxide1 ( mangan\s1 f]r\s1 magnesium oxides1 c4 ,su* isomorphism does n1 h[ev]1 ext5d )\t *ange ( =m & prop]ties beyond c]ta9 r n>r[ limits4#bb ,:at ,i mean by ?is is t lime is n always replac$ totally1 b (t5 only 9 small quantities1 by magnesia1 or by ! mangan\s & f]r\s oxides1 )\t *ang+ ! cry/all9e =m4 ,! same may be obs]v$ ) reg>d to potassium & li?ium1 :i* may be 9 "p1 b n completely1 replac$ by sodium4 ,on ! total sub/itution ( "o metal = ano!r1 (t5 7al?\gh n inv>iably7 ! entire nature ( ! sub/ance is *ang$2 = in/ance1 en/atite 7or bronzite7 is a magnesium bisilicate ) a small isomorph\s sub/itution ( calcium = magnesium2 its composition is express$ by ! =mula ,mg,si,o#c1 x belongs to ! rhombic sy/em4 ,on ! entire sub/itution ( calcium1 wolla/onite1 ,ca,si,o#c1 ( ! monocl9ic sy/em1 is obta9$2 :5 manganese is sub/itut$1 rhodonite1 ( ! tricl9ic sy/em1 is produc$2 b 9 all ( !m ! angles ( ! prism are #hf to #hh4bc #ba ,= u ! latt] h n a sal9e "*1 only because !y are n reg>d$ f ?is po9t ( view1 b an alloy ( sodium & z9c is1 9 a broad s5se1 a salt 9 _m ( its reactions1 = x is subject to ! same d\ble decompositions z sodium phosphide or sulphide1 :i* cle>ly h sal9e prop]ties4 ,! latt] 7sodium phosphide71 :5 heat$ ) e?yl iodide1 =ms e?yl phosphide1 & ! =m]--i4e4 ! alloy ( z9c & sodium--gives z9c e?yl2 t is1 ! elem5t 7,p1 ,s1 ,zn7 :i* 0 unit$ ) ! sodium passes into comb9ation ) ! e?yl3 ,r,na ,et,i ,r,et ,na,i4 ,by comb9+ sodium successively ) *lor9e1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 ars5ic1 antimony1 t91 & z9c1 we obta9 sub/ances hav+ less & less ! ord9>y appe>ance ( salts1 b if ! alloy ( sodium & z9c _c be t]m$ a salt1 !n p]haps ?is "n _c be giv5 to sodium sulphide1 & ! comp\nds ( sodium ) phosphorus4 ,! foll[+ circum/ance may also be obs]v$3 ) *lor9e1 sodium gives only "o comp\nd 7) oxyg51 at ! mo/ ?ree71 ) sulphur five1 ) phosphorus probably /ill m1 ) antimony naturally /ill m1 & ! m analog\s an elem5t is to sodium1 ! m v>i$ are ! proportions 9 :i* x is able to comb9e ) x1 ! less are ! alt]ations 9 ! prop]ties :i* take place by ?is comb9ation1 & ! ne>] does ! comp\nd =m$ approa* to ! class ( comp\nds kn[n z indef9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,9 ?is s5se a silice\s alloy1 conta9+ silica & o!r acids1 is a salt4 ,! oxide to a c]ta9 ext5t plays ! same "p z ! sodium1 :il/ ! silica plays ! "p ( ! acid elem5t :i* 0 tak5 up successively by z9c1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 c41 9 ! above examples4 ,su* a comp>ison ( ! silica comp\nds ) alloys pres5ts ! great advantage ( includ+ "u "o category ! def9ite & indef9ite silica comp\nds :i* are s analog\s 9 composition--t is1 br+s "u "o head su* cry/all9e sub/ances z c]ta9 m9]als1 & su* amorph\s sub/ances z are frequ5tly met ) 9 nature1 & are artificially prep>$1 z glass1 slags1 enamels1 c4 ,if ! comp\nds ( silica are sub/ances l ! metallic alloys1 !n 7#a7 ! *emical union betwe5 ! oxides ( :i* !y are compos$ mu/ be a feeble "o1 z x is 9 all comp\nds =m$ betwe5 analog\s sub/ances4 ,9 reality su* feeble ag5cies z wat] & c>bonic acid are able1 al?\gh sl[ly1 to act on & de/roy ! majority ( ! complex silica comp\nds 9 rocks1 z we saw 9 ! prec$+ *apt]2 7#b7 _! =mation1 l t ( alloys1 %\ld n be accompani$ by a consid]able alt]ation ( volume2 & ?is is actually ! case4 ,= example1 felsp> has a specific gravity ( ab\t #bf1 & !re=e1 tak+ its composition to be ,k#b,o1,al#b,o#c1f,si,o#b1 we f9d its volume1 correspond+ ) ?is =mula1 to be #eefh4 #bf #bad1 ! volume ( ,k#b,o #ce1 ( ,al#b,o#c #bf1 & ( ,si,o#b #bbf4 ,h5ce ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! compon5t oxides1 #ce #bf #f #bbf #aif1 :i* is v ne>ly equal to t ( ! felsp>2 t is1 its =mation is att5d$ by a slight expansion1 & n by contraction1 z is ! case 9 ! majority ( o!r cases :5 comb9ations det]m9$ by /rong aff9ities are accompli%$4 ,9 ! case 9 "q ! same ph5om5on is obs]v$ z 9 solutions & alloys--t is1 z 9 cases ( feeble aff9ities4 ,s also ! specific gravity ( glass is directly dep5d5t on ! am\nt ( ^? oxides :i* ent] into its composition4 ,if 9 ! prec$+ example we take ! sp4 gr4 ( silica to be1 n #bfe1 b #bb1 its volume #bgc1 & ! sum ( ! volumes w be #bbd--t is1 great] ?an t ( or?oclase4 #bb ,x is1 h[ev]1 easy to imag9e1 & exp]i5ce confirms ! supposition1 t 9 a complex silice\s comp\nd conta9+ = in/ance sodium & calcium1 ! :ole ( ! sodium may be replac$ by potassium1 & at ! same "t ! :ole ( ! calcium by magnesium1 because !n ! sub/itution ( potassium = ! sodium w produce a *ange 9 ! nature ( ! sub/ance contr>y to t :i* w occur f ! calcium be+ replac$ by magnesium4 ,t increase 9 weight1 decrease 9 d5sity1 increase ( *emical en]gy1 :i* accompanies ! ex*ange ( sodium = potassium w1 s to speak1 be comp5sat$ by ! ex*ange ( calcium = magnesium1 because bo? 9 weight & 9 prop]ties ! sum ( ,na ,ca is v ne> to ! sum ( ,k ,mg4 ,pyrox5e or augite c be tak5 z an example2 its composition may be express$ by ! =mula ,ca,mg,si#b,o#f2 t is1 x corresponds ) ! acid ,h#b,si,o#c2 x is a bisilicate4 ,9 _m respects x closely resembles ano!r m9]al call$ 'spodum5e' 7!y are bo? monocl9ic74 ,?is latt] has ! composition ,li#f;,al#h,si#ae,o#de4 ,on r$uc+ bo? =mul to an equal cont5ts ( silica ! foll[+ di/9ction w be obs]v$ betwe5 !m3 spodum5e 7,li#b,o7#f7;,al#b,o#c7hcj,si,o#b2 augite 7,ca,o7#ae7,mg,o7#aecj,si,o#b4 ,t is1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m consi/s 9 ! sum ( ! magnesia & lime 7,mg,o7#ae 7,ca,o7#ae replac+ ! sum ( ! li?ium oxide & alum9a 7,li#b,o7#f 7,al#b,o#c7h2 & 9 ! *emical relation ^! sums are ne> to "o ano!r1 because magnesium & calcium1 bo? 9 =ms ( oxidation & 9 en]gy 7z bases71 9 all respects occupy a position int]m$iate betwe5 li?ium & alum9ium1 & !re=e ! sum ( ! fir/ may be replac$ by ! sum ( ! second4 ,if we take ! composition ( spodum5e1 z x is (t5 repres5t$ to be1 ,li#b,o1,al#b,o#c1d,si,o#b1 ! correspond+ =mula ( augite w be 7,ca,o7#b17,mg,o7#b1d,si,o#b1 & also ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! sum ( ,li#b,o,al#b,o#c w be ! same z 9 7,ca,o7#b7,mg,o7#b4 ,i may rem>k1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 t li?ium belongs to ! fir/1 alum9ium to ! ?ird gr\p1 & calcium & magnesium to ! int]m$iate second gr\p2 li?ium1 l calcium1 belongs to ! ev5 s]ies1 & magnesium & alum9ium to ! unev54 ,! repres5tation ( ! sub/itutions ( analog\s comp\nds "h introduc$ 0 fir/ d$uc$ by me 9 #ahef4 ,x f9ds mu* confirmation 9 facts :i* h be5 subsequ5tly discov]$--= example1 ) respect to t\rmal94 ,wlf+ 7#ahhh71 on ! basis ( a numb] ( analyses 7especially ( ^? by ,rggs71 /ates t all v>ieties conta9 an isomorph\s mixture ( alkali & magnesia t\rmal92 into ! composition ( ! =m] !re ent]s #ab,si,o#b1c;,b#b,o#c1h;,al#b,o#c1b,na#b ,o1#d;,h#b,o1 & ( ! latt] #ab,si,o#b1c;,b#b,o#c1e;,al#b,o#c1ab,mg, o1#c;,h#b,o4 ,h5ce x is se5 t ! =m] conta9s 9 addition ! sum ( #c;,al#b,o#c1b,na#b,o1,h#b,o1 :il/ 9 ! latt] ?is sum ( oxides is replac$ by #ab,mg,o1 9 :i* !re is z mu* oxyg5 z 9 ! sum ( ! m cle>ly-def9$ base #b,na#b,o & less basic #c;,al#b,o#c;,h#b,o--t is1 ! relation is j ! same "h z betwe5 augite & spodum5e4 #bc ,) respect to ! silica comp\nds ( ! v>i\s oxides1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t only ! alkali salts are kn[n 9 a soluble =m2 all ! o!rs only exi/ 9 an insoluble =m1 s t a solution ( ! alkali comp\nds ( silica1 or soluble glass1 gives a precipitate ) a solution ( ! salts ( ! majority ( o!r metals1 & ?is precipitate w conta9 ! silica comp\nds ( ! o!r bases4 ,! maximum am\nt ( ! gelat9\s hydrate ( silica1 :i* dissolves 9 cau/ic pota%1 corresponds ) ! =mation ( a comp\nd1 #b,k#b,o1#i,si,o#b4 ,b ?is comp\nd is p>tially decompos$1 ) ! precipitation ( hydrate ( silica1 on cool+ ! solution4 ,solutions conta9+ a small] am\nt ( silica may be kept = an indef9ite "t )\t decompos+1 & silica does n sep>ate out f ! solution2 b su* comp\nds cry/allise f ! solutions ) difficulty4 ,h[ev]1 a cry/all9e bisilicate 7) wat]7 has be5 obta9$ = sodium hav+ ! composition ,na#b,o1,si,o#b--;i4e4 correspond+ to sodium c>bonate4 ,! :ole ( ! c>bonic acid is evolv$1 & a simil> soluble sodium metasilicate is obta9$ on fus+ #ce p>ts ( sodium c>bonate ) #b p>ts ( silica4 ,if less silica be tak5 a portion ( ! sodium c>bonate rema9s undecompos$2 h[ev]1 a sub/ance may !n be obta9$ ( ! composition ,si7,o,na7#d1 correspond+ ) or?osilicic acid4 ,x conta9s ! maximum am\nt ( sodium oxide capable ( comb9+ ) silica "u fusion4 ,x is a sodium or?osilicate1 7,na#b,o7#b1,si,o#b4 ,calcium c>bonate1 & ! c>bonates ( ! alkal9e e>?s 9 g5]al1 also evolve all _! c>bonic acid :5 heat$ ) silica1 & 9 "s in/ances ev5 =m some:at fusible comp\nds4 ,lime =ms a fusible slag ( calcium silicate1 ( ! composition ,ca,o1,si,o#b & #b;,ca,o1#c,si,o#b4 ,) a l>g] proportion ( silica ! slags are infusible 9 a furnace4 ,! magnesium slags are less fusible ?an ^? ) lime1 & are (t5 =m$ 9 smelt+ metals4 ,_m comp\nds ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s ) silica are also met ) 9 nature4 ,= in/ance1 among ! magnesium comp\nds !re is oliv9e1 7,mg,o7#b1,si,o#b1 sp4 gr4 #cd1 :i* occurs 9 meteorites1 & sometimes =ms a preci\s /one 7p]idote71 & occurs 9 slags & basalts4 ,x is decompos$ by acids1 is infusible be=e ! bl[-pipe1 & cry/allises 9 ! rhombic sy/em4 ,s]p5t9e has ! composition #c,mg,o1#b,si,o#b1b;,h#b,o2 x sometimes =ms :ole m\nta9s1 & is di/+ui%$ = its great cohesiv5ess1 & is !re=e us$ 9 ! arts4 ,x is g5]ally t9t$ gre52 its specific gravity is #be2 x is exce$+ly infusible1 ev5 be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,x is act$ on by acids4 ,among ! magnesium comp\nds ( silica1 talc is v widely us$4 ,x is frequ5tly met ) 9 rocks :i* are widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 & sometimes 9 compact masses2 x c be us$ = writ+ l a slate p5cil or *alk1 & be+ greasy to ! t\*1 is also kn[n z /eatite4 ,x cry/allises 9 ! rhombic sy/em1 & resembles mica 9 _m respects2 l x1 x is divisible into lam91 greasy to ! t\*1 & hav+ a sp4 gr4 #bg4 ,^! lam9 are v s(t1 lu/r\s1 & transp>5t1 & are infusible & insoluble 9 acids4 ,! composition ( talc approa*es ne>ly to #f,mg,o1#e,si,o#b1b;,h#b,o4 ,among ! cry/all9e silicates ! foll[+ m9]als are kn[n3--,wolla/onite 7tabul>-sp>71 cry/allises 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em2 sp4 gr4 #bh2 x is semi-transp>5t1 difficultly fusible1 decompos$ by acids1 & has ! composition ( a metasilicate1 ,ca,o,si,o#b4 ,b isomorph\s mixtures ( calcium & magnesium silicates occur ) p>ticul> frequ5cy 9 nature4 ,! augites 7sp4 gr4 #cc71 diallages1 hyp]/h5es1 hornbl5des 7sp4 gr4 #ca71 amphiboles1 common asbe/os1 & _m simil> m9]als1 sometimes =m+ ! ess5tial p>ts ( entire rock =mations1 conta9 v>i\s relative proportions ( ! bisilicates ( calcium & magnesium p>tially mix$ ) o!r metallic silicates1 & g5]ally anhydr\s1 or only conta9+ a small am\nt ( wat]4 ,9 ! pyrox5es1 z a rule1 lime pr$om9ates1 & 9 ! amphiboles 7also ( ! monocl9ic sy/em7 magnesia pr$om9ates4 ,details ^u ?is subject mu/ be look$ = 9 works ^u m9]alogy4 ,! mo/ rem>kable complex silice\s comp\nds are ! felsp>s1 :i* ent] into ne>ly all ! prim>y rocks l porphyry1 granite1 gneiss1 c4 ,^! felsp>s always conta91 9 addition to silica & alum9a1 oxides pres5t+ m m>k$ basic prop]ties1 su* z pota%1 soda1 & lime4 ,?us ! or?oclase 7adul>ia71 or ord9>y felsp> 7monocl9ic7 ( ! granites1 conta9s ,k#b,o1,al#b,o#c1f,si,o#b2 albite conta9s ! same sub/ances1 only ) ,na#b,o in/ead ( ,k#b,o 7x already app]ta9s to ! tricl9ic sy/em72 anor?ite conta9s lime1 & its composition is ,ca,o1,al#b,o#c1b,si,o#b4 ,on express+ ! two la/ z conta9+ equal quantities ( oxyg51 we h3-- ,albite ,na#b ,al#b ,si#f ,o#af ,anor?ite ,ca#b ,al#d ,si#d ,o#af ,x is !n evid5t t on ! conv]sion ( albite into anor?ite1 ,na#b,si#b is replac$ by ,ca#b;,al#b1 & ?is sum1 bo? 9 *emical en]gy & 9 ! =m ( oxide1 may be consid]$ z correspond+ ) ! fir/1 because sodium & silicon are extreme elem5ts 9 *emical "* 7f gr\ps ,i4 & ,,iv471 & calcium & alum9ium are means betwe5 !m 7f gr\ps ,,ii4 & ,,iii471 & actually bo? ^! felsp> m9]als are n only ( "o 7tricl9ic7 sy/em1 b =m 7,t*]mak1 ,s*u/]7 all possible k9ds ( def9ite comp\nds 7isomorph\s mixtures7 betwe5 !mselves1 z indicat$ by _! composition & all _! prop]ties4 ,?us oligoclase1 &es9e1 labradorite1 c4 7plagioclases71 are no?+ m ?an mutual comb9ations ( albite & anor?ite4 ,labradorite consi/s ( albite1 9 comb9ation ) #a to #b molecules ( anor?ite4 ,! class ( zeolites corresponds to ! felsp>s2 !y are hydrat$ comp\nds ( a simil> composition to ! felsp>s4 ,?us natrolite conta9s ,na#b,o1,al#b,o#c1c,si,o#b1b;,h#b,o1 & analcime pres5ts ! same composition1 b conta9s #d,si,o#b in/ead ( #c,si,o#b4 ,9 g5]al1 ! felsp>s & zeolites conta9 ,,ro1,al#b,o#c1n,si,o#b1 :]e n v>ies consid]ably4#bd #bd ,! majority ( ! silice\s m9]als h n[ be5 obta9$ artificially "u v>i\s conditions4 ,?us ,n4 ,n4 ,sokol(f %[$ t slags v frequ5tly conta9 p]idote4 ,hautefeuille1 ,*r\/*(f1 ,fri$el1 & ,s>as9 obta9$ felsp> id5tical 9 all respects ) ! natural m9]als4 ,! details ( ! me?ods "h employ$ mu/ be look$ = 9 special works on m9]alogy2 b1 z an example1 we w describe ! me?od ( ! prep>ation ( felsp> employ$ by ,fri$el & ,s>as9 7#ahha74 ,f ! fact t felsp> gives up potassium silicate to wat] ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7,debray's exp]im5ts71 !y conclud$ t ! felsp> 9 granites _h an aque\s orig9 7& ?is may be suppos$ to be ! case f geological data72 !n1 9 ! fir/ place1 its =mation c\ld n be accompli%$ unless 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( a solution ( potassium silicate4 ,9 ord] to r5d] ?is argum5t cle> ,i may m5tion1 z an example1 t c>nallite is decompos$ by wat] into easily soluble magnesium *loride & potassium *loride1 & !re=e if x is ( aque\s orig9 x c\ld n be =m$ o!rwise ?an f a solution conta9+ an excess ( magnesium *loride1 &1 9 ! second place1 f a /rongly-heat$ solution2 aga91 felsp> itself & its fell[-compon5ts 9 granites are anhydr\s4 ,on ^! facts 7 bas$ exp]im5ts ( heat+ hydrates ( silica ) alum9a & a solution ( potassium silicate 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,! mixture 0 plac$ 9 a seal$ plat9um tube1 :i* 0 enclos$ 9 a /eel tube & heat$ to dull r$ness4 ,:5 ! mixture conta9$ an excess ( silica ! residue conta9$ _m cry/als ( rock cry/al & tridymite1 toge!r ) a p[d] ( felsp>1 :i* =m$ ! ma9 product ( ! reaction :5 ! proportion ( hydrate ( silica 0 decreas$1 & a mixture ( a solution ( potassium silicate ) alum9a precipitat$ toge!r ) ! silica by mix+ soluble glass ) alum9ium *loride 0 employ$4 ,! composition1 prop]ties1 & =ms ( ! resultant felsp> prov$ x to be id5tical ) t f\nd 9 nature4 ,! exp]im5ts approa* v ne>ly to ! natural conditions1 all ! m z felsp> & qu>tz are obta9$ toge!r 9 "o mixture1 z !y s (t5 occur 9 nature4 ,su* complex silicates are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat]1#be & if !y und]go *ange 9 x1 x is b v sl[1 & m (t5 only 9 ! pres5ce ( c>bonic acid4 ,"s ( ! silicates :i* are insoluble 9 wat] are easily & directly decompos$ by acids2 = in/ance1 ! zeolites & ^? fus$ silicates :i* conta9 a l>ge quantity ( en]getic bases--su* z lime4 ,_m ( ! silicates1 l glass1#bf are h>dly *ang$ by acids1 p>ticul>ly if !y conta9 mu* silica1 :il/ fusion ) alkalis leads to ! =mation ( comp\nds ri* 9 bases1 aft] :i* acids decompose ! alloys =m$4#bg #be ,! application ( cem5ts is bas$ on ?is pr9ciple2 !y are ^? sorts ( 'hydraulic' lime :i* g5]ally =m a /ony mass1 :i* h>d5s ev5 "u wat]1 :5 mix$ ) s& & wat]4 ,! hydraulic prop]ties ( cem5ts are due to _! conta9+ calc>e\s & silico-alum9\s comp\nds :i* are able to comb9e ) wat] & =m hydrates1 :i* are !n unact$ on by wat]4 ,?is is be/ prov$1 9 ! fir/ place1 by ! fact t c]ta9 slags conta9+ lime & silica1 & obta9$ by fusion 7= example1 9 bla/-furnaces71 solidify l cem5ts :5 f9ely gr\nd & mix$ ) wat]2 &1 9 ! second place1 by ! me?od n[ employ$ = ! manufacture ( artificial cem5ts 7=m]ly only peculi> & comp>atively r>e natural products 7 us$74 ,= ?is purpose a mixture ( lime & clay is tak51 conta9+ ab\t #be p4c4 ( ! latt]2 ?is mixture is !n heat$1 n to fusion1 b until bo? ! c>bonic anhydride & wat] conta9$ 9 ! clay are expell$4 ,?is mass :5 f9ely gr\nd =ms ,portl& cem5t1 :i* h>d5s "u wat]4 ,! process ( h>d5+ is bas$ on ! =mation ( *emical comp\nds betwe5 ! lime1 silica1 alum9a1 & wat]4 ,^! sub/ances are also f\nd comb9$ toge!r 9 v>i\s natural m9]als--= example1 9 ! zeolites1 z we saw above4 ,9 all cases cem5t :i* has set conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( wat]1 & its h>d5+ is naturally due to hydration--t is1 to ! =mation ( comp\nds ) wat]4 ,well-prep>$ & v f9ely-gr\nd cem5t h>d5s comp>atively quickly 79 sev]al days1 especially aft] be+ ramm$ d[n71 ) #c p>ts 7& ev5 m7 ( co>se s& & ) wat]1 into a /ony mass :i* is z h>d & durable z _m /ones1 & m s ?an bricks & lime/one4 ,h5ce n only all m>itime con/ructions 7docks1 ports1 bridges1 c471 b also ord9>y build+s1 are made ( ,portl& cem5t1 & are di/+ui%$ = _! great durability4 ,a comb9ation ( ironwork 7ties1 gird]s7 & cem5t is p>ticul>ly suitable = ! con/ruction ( aqu$ucts1 ar*es1 res]voirs1 c4 ,ar*es & walls made ( su* cem5ts may be mu* less ?ick ?an ^? built up ( ord9>y /one4 ,h5ce ! production & use ( cem5t rapidly increases f ye> to ye>4 ,! orig9 ( accurate data respect+ cem5ts is *iefly due to ,vicat4 ,9 ,russia ,pr(essor ,s*ulia*5ko has greatly aid$ ! ext5sion ( accurate data conc]n+ ,portl& cem5t4 ,_m works = ! manufacture ( cem5t h already be5 e/abli%$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,russia1 & ?is indu/ry promises a great future 9 ! arts ( con/ruction4 #bf ,glass pres5ts a simil> complex composition1 l t ( _m m9]als4 ,! ord9>y sorts ( :ite glass conta9 ab\t #ge p4c4 ( silica1 #ac p4c4 ( sodium oxide1 & #ab p4c ( lime2 b ! inf]ior sorts ( glass sometimes conta9 up to #aj p4c4 ( alum9a4 ,! mixtures :i* are us$ = ! manufacture ( glass are also mo/ v>i$4 ,= example1 ab\t #cjj p>ts ( pure s&1 ab\t #ajj p>ts ( sodium c>bonate1 & #ej ( lime/one are tak51 & sometimes d\ble ! proportion ( ! latt]4 ,ord9>y soda-glass conta9s sodium oxide1 lime1 & silica z ! *ief compon5t p>ts4 ,x is g5]ally prep>$ f sodium sulphate mix$ ) *>coal1 silica1 & lime 7,*apt] ,,xii471 9 :i* case ! foll[+ reaction takes place at a high temp]ature3 ,na#b,,s#d ,c ,si,o#b ,na#b,si,o#c ,,s#b ,,co4 ,sometimes potassium c>bonate is tak5 = ! prep>ation ( ! bett] qualities ( glass4 ,9 ?is case a glass1 pota%-glass1 is obta9$ conta9+ potassium oxide in/ead ( sodium oxide4 ,! be/-kn[n ( ^! glasses is ! s-call$ ,bohemian glass or cry/al1 :i* is prep>$ by ! fusion ( #ej p>ts ( potassium c>bonate1 #ae p>ts ( lime1 & #ajj p>ts ( qu>tz4 ,! prec$+ k9ds ( glass conta9 lime1 :il/ cry/al glass conta9s lead oxide in/ead4 ,fl9t glass--t is1 ! lead glass us$ = optical in/rum5ts--is prep>$ 9 ?is mann]1 naturally f ! pure/ possible mat]ials4 ,cry/al-glass--i4e4 glass conta9+ lead oxide--is s(t] ?an ord9>y glass1 m fusible & has a high] index ( refraction4 ,h[ev]1 al?\gh ! mat]ials = ! prep>ation ( glass be mo/ c>efully sort$1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( iron oxides falls into ! glass & r5d]s x gre5i%4 ,?is coloration may be de/roy$ by add+ a numb] ( sub/ances to ! vitre\s mass1 :i* are able to conv]t ! f]r\s oxide into f]ric oxide2 = example1 manganese p]oxide 7because ! p]oxide is deoxidis$ to mangan\s oxide1 :i* only gives a pale violet t9t to ! glass7 & ars5i\s anhydride1 :i* is deoxidis$ to ars5ic1 & ?is is volatilis$4 ,! manufacture ( glass is c>ri$ on 9 furnaces giv+ a v high temp]ature 7(t5 9 reg5]ative furnaces1 ,*apt] ,,ix474 ,l>ge clay crucibles are plac$ 9 ^! furnaces1 & ! mixture de/9$ = ! prep>ation ( ! glass1 hav+ be5 fir/ roa/$1 is *>g$ into ! crucibles4 ,! temp]ature ( ! furnace is !n gradually rais$4 ,! process takes place 9 ?ree sep>ate /ages4 ,at fir/ ! mass int]mixes & beg9s to react2 !n x fuses1 evolves c>bonic acid gas1 & =ms a molt5 mass2 &1 la/ly1 at ! highe/ temp]ature1 x becomes homog5e\s & q liquid1 :i* is necess>y = ! ultimate elim9ation ( ! c>bonic anhydride & solid impurities1 :i* latt] collect at ! bottom ( ! crucible4 ,! temp]ature is !n some:at l[]$1 & ! glass is tak5 out on tubes & bl[n into objects ( v>i\s %apes4 ,9 ! manufacture ( w9d[-glass x is bl[n into l>ge cyl9d]s1 :i* are !n cut at ! ends & across1 & aft]w>ds b5t back 9 a furnace into ! ord9>y %eets4 ,aft] be+ work$ up1 all glass objects h to be subject$ to a sl[ cool+ 7anneal+7 9 special furnaces1 o!rwise !y are v brittle1 z is se5 9 ! s-call$ ',rup]t's drops1' =m$ by dropp+ molt5 glass into wat]2 al?\gh ^! drops pres]ve _! =m1 !y are s brittle t !y break up into a f9e p[d] if a small piece be knock$ (f !m4 ,glass objects h frequ5tly to be poli%$ & *as$4 ,9 ! manufacture ( mirrors & _m massive objects ! glass is ca/ & !n gr\nd & poli%$4 ,col\r$ glasses are ei!r made by directly introduc+ into ! glass itself v>i\s oxides1 :i* give _! *>act]i/ic t9ts1 or else a ?9 lay] ( a col\r$ glass is laid on ! surface ( ord9>y glass4 ,gre5 glasses are =m$ by ! oxides ( *romium & copp]1 blue by cobalt oxide1 violet by manganese oxide1 & r$ glass by cupr\s oxide & by ! s-call$ purple ( ,cassius--i4e4 a comp\nd ( gold & t9--:i* w be describ$ lat]4 ,a yell[ coloration is obta9$ by means ( ! oxides ( iron1 silv]1 or antimony1 & also by means ( c>bon1 especially = ! br[n t9ts = c]ta9 k9ds ( bottle-glass4 ,f :at has be5 said ab\t glass x w be und]/ood t x is impossible to give a def9ite =mula = x1 because x is a non-cry/all9e or amorph\s alloy ( silicates2 b su* an alloy c only be =m$ )9 c]ta9 limits 9 ! proportions betwe5 ! compon5t oxides4 ,) a l>ge proportion ( silica ! glass v easily becomes cl\d$ :5 heat$2 ) a consid]able proportion ( alkalis x is easily act$ on by moi/ure1 & becomes cl\dy 9 "t on exposure to ! air2 ) a l>ge proportion ( lime x becomes infusible & opaque1 ow+ to ! =mation ( cry/all9e comp\nds 9 x2 9 a ^w1 a c]ta9 proportion is practically atta9$ among ! compon5t oxides 9 ord] t ! glass =m$ may h suitable prop]ties4 ,nev]!less1 x may be well to rem>k t ! composition ( common glass approa*es to ! =mula ,na#b,o1,ca,o1#d,si,o#b4 ,! coeffici5t ( cubical expansion ( glass is ne>ly equal to t ( plat9um & iron1 be+ approximately #jjjjjbg4 ,! specific heat ( glass is ne>ly #jah1 & ! specific gravity ( common soda glass is ne>ly #be1 ( ,bohemian glass #bd1 & ( bottle glass #bg4 ,fl9t glass is mu* heavi] ?an common glass1 because x conta9s ! heavi] oxide ( lead1 its specific gravity be+ #bi to #cb4 #bg ,x mu/ be recollect$ t al?\gh acids seem to act only feebly on ! majority ( silicates1 nev]!less a f9ely-levigat$ p[d] ( silice\s comp\nds is act$ on by /rong acids1 especially ) ! aid ( heat1 ! basic oxides be+ tak5 up & gelat9\s silica left beh9d4 ,9 ?is respect sulphuric acid heat$ to #bjj ) f9ely-divid$ silice\s comp\nds 9 a clos$ tube acts v en]getically4 ,accord+ to ! p]iodic law1 ! ne>e/ analogues ( silicon ought to be elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies1 because silicon1 l sodium1 magnesium1 & alum9ium1 belongs to ! unev5 s]ies4#bh ,imm$iately aft] silicon foll[s ekasilicon or g]manium1 ,ge #gb1 ^: prop]ties 7 pr$ict$ 7#ahga7 be=e ,w9kl] 7#ahhf7 9 ,freib]g1 ,saxony 7,*apt] ,,xv4 #e71 discov]$ ?is elem5t 9 a peculi> silv] ore call$ argyrodite1 ,ag#f;,ge,s#e4bi ,easily r$uc$ f ! oxide by heat+ ) hydrog5 & *>coal1 & sep>at$ f its solutions by z9c1 metallic g]manium prov$ to be greyi% :ite1 easily cry/allisable 79 octah$ra71 brittle1 fusible 7"u a coat+ ( fus$ borax7 at ab\t #ijj1 & easily oxidisable2 ! specific gravity #edfi1 ! atomic weight #gbc1 & ! specific heat #jjgf1cj z might be expect$ = ?is elem5t accord+ to ! p]iodic law4 ,! correspond+ g]manium dioxide1 ,ge,o#b1 is a :ite p[d] hav+ a specific gravity ( #dgjc2 wat]1 especially :5 boil+1 dissolves ?is dioxide 7#a "p ( ,ge,o#b requires = solution #bdg p>ts ( wat] at #bj1 #ie p>ts at #ajj74 ,x =ms soluble salts ) alkalis & is b sp>+ly soluble 9 acids4#ca ,9 a /ream ( *lor9e ! metal =ms g]manium *loride1 ,ge,cl#d1 :i* boils at #hf1 & has a specific gravity ( #ahhg at #ah2 wat] decomposes x1 =m+ ! oxide4 ,all ^! prop]ties#cb ( g]manium1 %[+ its analogy to silicon & t91 =m a mo/ beautiful demon/ration ( ! tru? ( ! p]iodic law4#cc #bh ,su* elem5ts z silicon1 t91 & lead 7 only br\ght toge!r "u "o common gr\p by means ( ! p]iodic law1 al?\gh ! quadrival5cy ( t9 & lead 0 kn[n mu* e>li]4 ,g5]ally silicon 0 plac$ among ! non-metals1 & t9 & lead among ! metals4 #bi ,at fir/ 7,febru>y #ahhf7 ! want ( mat]ial to "w on1 ! abs5ce ( a spectrum 9 ! ,buns5's flame1 & ! solubility ( _m ( ! comp\nds ( g]manium1 pres5t$ difficulties 9 ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,w9kl]1 :o1 on analys+ argyrodite by ! usual me?od1 obta9$ a con/ant loss ( #g p4c41 & 0 ?us l$ to se>* = a new elem5t4 ,! pres5ce ( ars5ic & antimony 9 ! accompany+ m9]als also imp$$ ! sep>ation ( ! new metal4 ,aft] fusion ) sulphur & sodium c>bonate1 argyrodite gives a solution ( a sulphide :i* is precipitat$ by an excess ( hydro*loric acid2 g]manium sulphide is soluble 9 ammonia & !n precipitat$ by hydro*loric acid1 z a :ite precipitate1 :i* is dissolv$ 7or decompos$7 by wat]4 ,aft] be+ oxidis$ by nitric acid1 dri$ & ignit$ g]manium sulphide leaves ! oxide ,ge,o#b1 :i* is r$uc$ to ! metal :5 ignit$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog54 #cj ,g4 ,kobb det]m9$ ! spectrum ( g]manium1 :5 ! metal 0 tak5 z "o ( ! electrodes ( a p[]ful ,ruhmkorff's coil4 ,! wave-l5g?s ( ! mo/ di/9ct l9es are #fjb1 #ehc1 #eah1 #eac1 #dha1 #dgd1 million?s ( a millimetre4 #ca ,if g]manium or g]manium sulphide be heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydro*loric acid1 x =ms a volatile liquid1 boil+ at #gb1 :i* ,w9kl] reg>d$ z g]manium *loride1 ,ge,cl#b1 or g]manium *lor(orm1 ,ge,h,cl#c4 ,x is decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ a :ite sub/ance1 :i* may p]haps be ! hydrate ( g]mani\s oxide1 ,ge,o1 & acts z a p[]fully r$uc+ ag5t 9 a hydro*loric acid solution4 #cb ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances g]manium gives a blue coloration l t ( ultram>9e1 z ,w9kl] %[$1 :i* might h be5 expect$ f ! analogy ( g]manium ) silicon4 #cc ,w9kl] express$ ?is 9 ! foll[+ words 7,j\r4 f4 pract4 ,*emie1 #ahhf #b1 #cd1 #ahb-ahc73 '444 es kann ke9em ,zweifel mehr unt]lieg51 dass das neue ,elem5t ni*ts ,&]es1 als das vor fnfzehn ,jahr5 von ,m5deleff progno/icirte ,ekasilicium i/4' ',d5n e95 s*lag5d]5 ,beweis fr die ,ri*tigkeit d] ,lehre von d] ,p]iodicitt d] ,elem5te1 als d51 wel*5 die ,v]krp]ung des bi%] hypo!tis*5 ,ekasilicium 9 si* s*lies/1 kann es kaum geb51 und er bildet 9 ,wahrheit mehr1 als die blosse ,be/tigung e9] khn aufge/ellt5 ,!orie1 er b$eutet e9e em95te ,erweit]ung des *emis*5 ,gesi*tfeldes1 e95 m*tig5 ,s*ritt 9's ,rei* d] ,erk5ntniss4' ,! increase ( atomic weight f silicon #bh to g]manium #gb is #dd--t is1 ab\t ! same diff]5ce z !re is 9 ! atomic weights ( *lor9e & brom9e2 betwe5 g]manium & its next analogue1 t9 7,sn #aah71 ! diff]5ce is #df--t is1 almo/ z mu* z ! am\nt by :i* ! atomic weight ( iod9e exce$s t ( brom9e4 ,metallic t9 is r>ely met ) 9 nature2 x occurs 9 ! ve9s ( anci5t =mations1 almo/ exclusively 9 ! =m ( oxide1 ,sn,o#b1 call$ t9-/one4 ,! be/ kn[n t9 deposits are 9 ,cornwall & 9 ,malacca4 ,9 ,russia1 t9 ores h be5 f\nd 9 small quantities on ! %ores ( ,lake ,ladoga1 9 ,pitk>&4 ,! cru%$ ore may easily be sep>at$ f ! e>?y matt] accompany+ x by wa%+ on incl9$ tables1 z ! t9-/one has a specific gravity ( #fi1 :il/ ! impurities are mu* light]4 ,t9 oxide is v easily r$uc$ to metallic t9 by heat+ ) *>coal4 ,= ?is reason t9 0 kn[n 9 anci5t times1 & ! ,phoenicians br\ght x f ,engl&4 ,metallic t9 is ca/ into +ots ( consid]able weight or into ?9 /icks or rods4 ,t9 has a :ite col\r1 r dull] ?an t ( silv]4 ,x fuses easily at #bcb1 & cry/allises on cool+4 ,its specific gravity is #gbi4 ,! cry/all9e /ructure ( ord9>y t9 is notic$ 9 b5d+ t9 rods1 :5 a peculi> s\nd is he>d1 produc$ by ! fracture ( ! p>ticles ( t9 along ! surfaces ( cry/all9e /ructure4 ,:5 pure t9 is cool$ to a l[ temp]ature x splits up into sep>ate cry/als1 ! bond betwe5 ! p>ticles is lo/1 ! t9 assumes a grey col\r1 becomes less brilliant--9 a ^w1 its prop]ties become *ang$1 z ,fritzs*e %[$4 ,?is dep5ds on ! peculi> /ructure :i* ! t9 !n acquires1 & is p>ticul>ly rem>kable because x is effect$ by cold 9 a solid4#cc bis ,if su* t9 be fus$1 or ev5 simply heat$1 x becomes l ord9>y t91 b is aga9 *ang$ :5 cool$4 ,:5 9 ?is condition t9 has a specific gravity ( #gai4 ,simil>ly1 t9 is obta9$ by ! action ( ! galvanic curr5t on a solution ( t9 *loride2 x !n appe>s 9 cry/als ( ! cubic sy/em1 & has a specific gravity ( #gah--t is1 ! same z :5 cool$4#cd #cc bis ,emilian(f 7#ahij7 /ates t 9 ! cold ( ! ,russian w9t] #cj out ( #bjj t9 m\lds = c&les 7 spoilt ?r\gh becom+ q brittle4 #cd ,! t9 deposit$ by an electric curr5t f a neutral solution ( ,sn,cl#b easily oxidises & becomes coat$ ) ,sn,o 7,vignon1 #ahhi74 ,t9 is s(t] ?an silv] & gold1 & is only surpass$ by lead 9 ?is respect4 ,9 addition to ?is x is v ductile1 b its t5acity is v slight1 s t wire made f x w be> b little /ra94 ,9 consequ5ce ( its ductility x is easily work$1 by =g+ & roll+ into v ?9 %eets 7t9 foil71 :i* are us$ = wrapp+ _m articles to pres]ve !m f moi/ure1 c4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 & 9 _m o!rs1 lead is mix$ ) ! t91 :i*1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 does n alt] ! ductility4 ,:il/ s s(t at ! ord9>y temp]atures t9 becomes brittle at #bjj1 be=e fus+4 ,t9 p[d] may be easily obta9$ if ! metal be fus$ & !n /irr$ :il/ cool+4 ,at a :ite heat t9 may be di/ill$1 b ) m difficulty ?an z9c4 ,if molt5 t9 comes into contact ) oxyg51 x oxidises1 =m+ /annic oxide1 ,sn,o#b1 & its vap\r burns ) a :ite flame4 ,at ord9>y temp]atures t9 does n oxidise1 & ?is v important prop]ty ( t9 all[s x to be appli$ 9 _m cases = cov]+ o!r metals to prev5t _! oxidis+4 ,?is is t]m$ t9n+4 ,iron & copp] are frequ5tly t9n$4 ,iron & /eel %eets1 coat$ ) t91 be> ! "n ( t9 plate 7= ! mo/ "p made 9 ,engl&71 & are us$ = num]\s purposes4 ,t9 plate is prep>$ by imm]s+ iron %eets1 previ\sly ?or\ghly cleans$ by acid & me*anical means1 into molt5 t94#cd bis #cd bis ,if aft] ?is ! coat+ ( t9 be rapidly cool$--= in/ance1 by da%+ wat] ov] x--x cry/allises into div]se />-%ap$ figures1 :i* become visible :5 ! %eets are fir/ imm]s$ 9 dilute aqua regia & !n 9 a solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,! coat+ ( iron by t91 gu>ds x aga9/ ! direct access ( air1 b x only pres]ves ! iron f oxidation s long z x =ms a p]fectly cont9u\s coat+4 ,if ! iron is left b>e 9 c]ta9 places1 x w be p[]fully oxidis$ at ^! spots1 because ! t9 is electro-negative ) respect to ! iron1 & ?us ! oxidation is conf9$ entirely to ! iron 9 ! pres5ce ( t94 ,h5ce a coat+ ( t9 ov] iron objects only p>tially pres]ves !m f ru/+4 ,9 ?is respect a coat+ ( z9c is m effectual4 ,h[ev]1 a d5se & inv>iable alloy is =m$ ov] ! surface ( contact ( ! iron & t91 :i* b9ds ! coat+ ( t9 to ! rema9+ mass ( ! iron4 ,t9 may be fus$ ) ca/ iron1 & gives a greyi%-:ite alloy1 :i* is v easily ca/1 & is us$ = ca/+ _m objects = :i* iron by itself w\ld be unsuitable ow+ to its ready oxidisability & porosity4 ,! coat+ ( copp] objects by t9 is g5]ally done to pres]ve ! copp] f ! action ( acid liquids1 :i* w\ld attack ! copp] 9 ! pres5ce ( air & conv]t x into soluble salts4 ,t9 is n act$ on 9 ?is mann]1 & !re=e copp] vessels = ! prep>ation ( food %\ld be t9n$4 ,t9 ) copp] =ms bronze1 an alloy :i* is mo/ ext5sively us$ 9 ! arts4 ,bronze has v>i\s col\rs & a v>iety ( physical prop]ties1 accord+ to ! relative am\nt ( copp] & t9 :i* x conta9s4 ,) an excess ( copp] ! alloy has a yell[ col\r2 ! admixture ( t9 imp>ts consid]able h>dness & ela/icity to ! copp]4 ,an alloy conta9+ #gh p>ts ( copp] & ab\t #bb p] c5t4 ( t9 is s ela/ic t x is us$ = ca/+ bells1 :i* naturally require a v ela/ic & h>d alloy4#ce ,= ca/+ /atues & v>i\s l>ge or small ornam5tal articles alloys conta9+ #b to #e p4c4 ( t91 #aj to #cj p4c4 ( z9c1 & #fe to #he p4c4 ( copp] are us$4#cf ,t9 is also (t5 us$ alloy$ ) lead1 = mak+ v>i\s objects--= in/ance1 dr9k+ vessels4 #ce ,! anci5t ,*9ese alloys1 conta9+ ab\t #bj p4c4 ( t9 7specific gravity ( alloys ab\t #hi71 :i* h be5 rapidly cool$1 are di/+ui%$ = _! resonance & ela/icity4 ,^! alloys 7 =m]ly manufactur$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,*9a = ! musical in/rum5ts kn[n z tom-toms4 ,ow+ to _! h>dness1 alloys ( ?is nature are also employ$ = ca/+ guns1 be>+s1 c41 & an alloy conta9+ ab\t #aa p4c4 ( t9 7correspond+ ) ! ratio ,cu#ae,sn7 is kn[n z gun-metal4 ,! addition ( a small quantity ( phosphorus1 up to #b p4c41 r5d]s bronze /ill h>d] & m ela/ic1 & ! alloy s =m$ is n[ us$ "u ! "n ( phosphor-bronze4 ,! alloy ,sn,cu#c is brittle1 ( a blui% col\r1 & has no?+ 9 common ) ei!r copp] or t9 9 its appe>ance or prop]ties4 ,x rema9s p]fectly homog5e\s on cool+1 & acquires a cry/all9e /ructure 7,ri*e74 ,all ^! signs cle>ly indicate t ! alloy ,sn,cu#c is a product ( *emical comb9ation1 :i* is also se5 to be ! case f its d5sity1 #hia4 ,_h !re be5 no contraction1 ! d5sity ( ! alloy w\ld be #hba4 ,x is ! heavie/ ( all ! alloys ( t9 & copp]1 because ! d5sity ( t9 is #gbi & ( copp] #hh4 ,! alloy ,sn,cu#d1 specific gravity #hgg1 has simil> prop]ties4 ,all ! alloys except ,sn,cu#c & ,sn,cu#d split up on cool+2 a portion ri*] 9 copp] solidifies fir/ 7?is ph5om5on is t]m$ ! liquation ( an alloy71 b ! above two alloys d n split up on cool+4 ,9 ^! & _m simil> facts we c cle>ly di/+ui% a *emical union betwe5 ! metals =m+ an alloy4 ,! alloys ( t9 & copp] 7 kn[n 9 v remote ages1 be=e iron 0 us$4 ,! alloys ( z9c & t9 are less us$1 b alloys compos$ ( z9c1 t91 & copp] frequ5tly replace ! m co/ly bronze4 ,conc]n+ ! alloys ( lead see ,note #df4 #cf ,an excell5t pro( ( ! fact t alloys & solutions are subject to law is giv51 among/ o!rs1 by ! application ( ,ra\lt's me?od 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di7 to solutions ( diff]5t metals 9 t94 ,?us ,heycock & ,neville 7#ahhi7 %[$ t ! temp]ature ( solidification ( molt5 t9 7#bbfd7 is l[]$ by ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( o!r metals 9 proportion to ! conc5tration ( ! solution4 ,! foll[+ 7 ! r$uctions ( ! temp]ature ( solidification ( t9 obta9$ by dissolv+ 9 x atomic proportions ( diff]5t metals 7= example1 #fe p>ts ( z9c 9 #aa1hjj p>ts ( t972 ,zn #bec1 ,cu #bdg1 ,ag #bfg1 ,cd #baf1 ,pb #bbb1 ,hg #bc1 ,sb #b rise1 ,al #acd4 ,z ,ra\lt's me?od 7,*apt] ,,vii47 enables ! molecul> weight to be det]m9$1 ! almo/ p]fect id5tity ( ! resultant figures 7except = alum9ium7 %[s t ! molecules ( copp]1 silv]1 lead1 & antimony conta9 "o atom 9 ! molecule1 l z9c1 m]cury1 & cadmium4 ,!y obta9$ ! same result 7#ahij7 = ,mg1 ,na1 ,ni1 ,au1 ,pd1 ,bi & ,94 ,x %\ld "h be m5tion$ t ,ramsay 7#ahhi7 = ! same purpose 7! det]m9ation ( ! molecul> weight ( metals on ! basis ( _! mutual solution7 took advantage ( ! v>iation ( ! vap\r t5sion ( m]cury 7see ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #acd71 conta9+ v>i\s metals 9 solution1 & he also f\nd t ! above-m5tion$ metals conta9 b "o atom 9 ! molecule4 ,t9 decomposes ! vap\r ( wat] :5 heat$ ) x1 lib]at+ ! hydrog5 & =m+ /annic oxide4 ,sulphuric acid1 dilut$ ) a consid]able quantity ( wat]1 does n act1 or at all ev5ts acts v slightly1 on t91 b t9 r$uces hot /rong sulphuric acid1 :5 n only sulphur\s anhydride b also sulphurett$ hydrog5 is evolv$4 ,hydro*loric acid acts v easily on t91 ) evolution ( hydrog5 & =mation ( /ann\s *loride1 ,sn,cl#b1 9 solution1 :i*1 ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid & access ( air1 is conv]t$ into /annic *loride3 ,sn,cl#b #b;,h,cl ,o ,sn,cl#d ,h#b,o4#cf bis ,nitric acid dilut$ ) a consid]able quantity ( wat] dissolves t9 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ ! nitric acid itself is r$uc$1 =m+1 among/ o!r products1 ammonia & hydroxylam9e4 ,"h ! t9 passes into solution 9 ! =m ( /ann\s nitrate4 ,/rong] nitric acid 7also m dilute1 :5 heat$7 trans=ms ! t9 into its highe/ grade ( oxidation1 ,sn,o#b1 b ! latt] !n appe>s z ! s-call$ meta/annic acid1 :i* does n dissolve 9 nitric acid1 & !re=e ! t9 does n pass into solution4 ,feeble acids--= in/ance1 c>bonic & organic acids--d n act on t9 ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 because t9 does n =m any p[]ful bases4 #cf bis ,! action ( a mixture ( hydro*loric acid & t9 =ms an excell5t means ( r$uc+1 :]e9 bo? ! hydrog5 lib]at$ by ! mixture 7at ! mom5t ( sep>ation7 & ! /ann\s *loride act z p[]ful r$uc+ & deoxidis+ ag5ts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 by ?is mixture nitro-comp\nds are trans=m$ into amido-comp\nds--t is1 ! elem5ts ( ! gr\p ,,no#b are r$uc$ to ,,nh#b4 ,x is important to rem>k z a *>act]i/ic ( t9 t x is r$uc$ f its solutions by _m metals :i* are m easily oxidis$1 z1 = in/ance1 by z9c4 ,9 comb9ation1 t9 appe>s 9 ! two types1 ,sn,x#d & ,sn,x#b1cg comp\nds ( ! int]m$iate type1 ,sn#b,x#f1 be+ also kn[n1 b ^! latt] pass ) rem>kable facility 9 mo/ cases into comp\nds ( ! high] & l[] types1 & !re=e ! =m ,sn,x#c _c be consid]$ z indep5d5t4 #cg ,_m volatile comp\nds ( t9 are kn[n1 ^: molecul> weights c !re=e be e/abli%$ f _! vap\r d5sities4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ /annic *loride1 ,sn,cl#d1 & /annic e?ide1 ,sn7,c#b;,h#e7d 7! latt] boils at ab\t #aej74 ,b ,v4 ,mey] f\nd ! vap\r d5sity ( /ann\s *loride1 ,sn,cl#b1 to be v>iable betwe5 its boil+ po9t 7#fjf7 & #aajj1 ow+1 x w\ld seem1 to ! fact t ! molecule !n v>ies f ,sn#b;,cl#d to ,sn,cl#b1 b ! vap\r d5sity prov$ to be less ?an t indicat$ by ! fir/ & great] ?an t %[n by ! second =mula1 al?\gh x approa*es to ! latt] z ! temp]ature rises--t is1 x pres5ts a simil> ph5om5on to t obs]v$ 9 ! passage ( ,n#b,o#d into ,,no#b4 ,/ann\s oxide1 ,sn,o1 9 an anhydr\s condition is obta9$ by boil+ solutions ( /ann\s salts ) alkalis1 ! fir/ action ( ! alkali be+ to precipitate a :ite hydrate ( /ann\s oxide1 ,sn7,,oh7#b,sn,o4 ,! latt] :5 heat$ p>ts ) wat] z easily z ! hydrate ( copp] oxide4 ,9 ?is =m /ann\s oxide is a black cry/all9e p[d] 7specific gravity #fg7 capable ( fur!r oxidation :5 heat$4 ,! hydrate is freely soluble 9 acids1 & also 9 potassium & sodium hydroxides1 b n 9 aque\s ammonia4#ch ,?is prop]ty indicates ! feeble basic prop]ties ( ?is l[] oxide1 :i* acts 9 _m cases z a r$uc+ ag5t4#ci ,among ! comp\nds correspond+ ) /ann\s oxide ! mo/ rem>kable & ! "o mo/ frequ5tly us$ is /ann\s *loride or *loride ( t91 ,sn,cl#b1 also call$ proto-*loride ( t9 7because x is ! l[e/ *loride1 conta9+ half z mu* ,cl z ,sn,cl#d74 ,x is a transp>5t1 col\rless1 cry/all9e sub/ance1 melt+ at #bej & boil+ at #fjf4 ,wat] dissolves x1 )\t visible *ange 79 reality p>tial decomposition occurs1 z we %all see pres5tly74 ,x is also soluble 9 alcohol4 ,x is obta9$ by heat+ t9 9 dry hydro*loric acid gas1 ! hydrog5 be+ !n lib]at$1 or by dissolv+ metallic t9 9 hot /rong hydro*loric acid & !n evaporat+ quickly4 ,on cool+1 cry/als ( ! monocl9ic sy/em are obta9$ hav+ ! composition ,sn,cl#b1b;,h#b,o4 ,an aque\s solution ( ?is sub/ance absorbs oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 & gives a precipitate conta9+ /annic oxide4 ,f ?is x foll[s t a solution ( /ann\s *loride w act z a r$uc+ ag5t1 a fact frequ5tly made use ( 9 *emical inve/igations--= example1 = r$uc+ metals f _! solutions--s9ce ev5 m]cury may be r$uc$ to a metallic /ate f its salts by means ( /ann\s *loride4 ,?is r$uc+ prop]ty is also employ$ 9 ! arts1 especially 9 ! dye+ indu/ry1 :]e ?is sub/ance 9 ! =m ( a cry/all9e salt f9ds an ext5sive application1 & is kn[n z t9 salt or t9 cry/als4 #ch ,:5 rapidly boil$1 an alkal9e solution ( /ann\s oxide deposits t9 & =ms /annic oxide1 #b,sn,o ,sn ,sn,o#d1 :i* rema9s 9 ! alkal9e solution4 #ci ,web] 7#ahhb7 by precipitat+ a solution ( /ann\s *loride ) sodium sulphite 7?is salt z a r$uc+ ag5t prev5ts ! oxidation ( ! /ann\s comp\nd7 & dissolv+ ! wa%$ precipitate 9 nitric acid1 obta9$ cry/als ( /ann\s nitrate1 ,sn7,,no#c7b1bj;,h#b,o1 on refrig]at+ ! solution4 ,?is cry/allo-hydrate easily melts1 & is deliquesc5t4 ,besides ?is1 a m /able anhydr\s basic salt1 ,sn7,,no#c7b1,sn,o1 is easily =m$4 ,9 g5]al1 /ann\s oxide z a feeble base easily =ms basic salts1 j z cupric & lead oxides d4 ,= ! same reason ,sn,x#b easily =ms d\ble salts4 ,?us a potassium salt1 ,sn,k#b;,cl#d1;,h#b,o1 & especially an ammonium salt1 ,sn7,,nh#d7b;,cl#d1;,h#b,o1 call$ p9k salt1 are kn[n4 ,"s ( ^! salts are us$ 9 ! arts1 ow+ to _! be+ m /able ?an t9 salts alone4 ,/ann\s bromide & iodide1 ,sn,br#b & ,sn,i#b1 resemble ! *loride 9 _m respects4 ,among o!r /ann\s salts a sulphate1 ,sn,s,o#d1 is kn[n4 ,x is =m$ z a cry/all9e p[d] :5 a solution ( /ann\s oxide 9 sulphuric acid is evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,! feeble basic "* ( ! /ann\s oxide is cle>ly se5 9 ?is salt4 ,x decomposes ) extreme facility1 :5 heat$1 into /annic oxide & sulphur\s anhydride1 b x easily =ms d\ble salts ) ! salts ( ! alkali metals4 ,9 gase\s hydro*loric acid1 /ann\s *loride1 ,sn,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 =ms a liquid hav+ ! composition ,sn,cl#b1;,h,cl1#c;,h#b,o 7sp gr4 #bb1 freezes at -#bg71 & a solid salt1 ,sn,cl#b1;,h#b,o 7,engel74 ,/annic oxide1 ,sn,o#b1 occurr+ 9 nature z t9/one1 or cassit]ite1 is =m$ dur+ ! oxidation or combu/ion ( heat$ t9 9 air z a :ite or yell[i% p[d] :i* fuses ) difficulty4 ,x is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities1 be+ us$ z a :ite vitre\s mixture = coat+ ord9>y tiles & simil> e>!nw>e objects ) a lay] ( easily fusible glass or enamel4 ,acid solutions ( /annic oxide treat$ ) alkalis1 & alkal9e solutions treat$ ) acids1 give a precipitate ( /annic hydroxide1 ,sn7,,oh7#d1 also kn[n z /annic acid1 :i*1 :5 heat$1 gives up wat] & leaves ! anhydride1 ,sn,o#b1 :i* is insoluble 9 acids1 cle>ly %[+ ! feebl5ess ( its basic "*4 ,:5 fus$ ) alkali hydroxides 7n ) _! c>bonates or acid sulphates71 an alkal9e comp\nd is obta9$ :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 ,/annic hydroxide1 l ! hydrates ( silica1 is a colloidal sub/ance1 & pres5ts sev]al diff]5t modifications1 dep5d+ on ! me?od ( prep>ation1 b hav+ an id5tical composition2 ! v>i\s hydroxides h also a diff]5t appe>ance1 & act diff]5tly ) reag5ts4 ,= in/ance1 a di/9ction is made betwe5 ord9>y /annic acid & meta/annic acid4 ,/annic acid is produc$ by precipitation by soda or ammonia f a fre%ly-prep>$ solution ( /annic *loride1 ,sn,cl#d1 9 wat]2 on dry+ ! precipitate ?us obta9$1 a non-cry/all9e mass is =m$1 :i* is freely soluble 9 /rong hydro*loric or nitric acids1 & also 9 potassium & sodium hydroxides4 ,?is ord9>y /annic acid may be /ill bett] obta9$ f sodium /annate by ! action ( acids4 ,meta/annic acid is insoluble 9 sulphuric & nitric acids4 ,x is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a heavy :ite p[d] by treat+ t9 ) nitric acid2 hydro*loric acid does n dissolve x imm$iately1 b *anges x to su* an ext5t t1 aft] p\r+ (f ! acid1 wat] extracts ! /annic *loride1 ,sn,cl#d1 already =m$4 ,dilute alkalis n only dissolve meta/annic acid1 b also trans=m x into salts1 :i*1 sl[ly1 yet completely1 dissolve 9 pure wat]1 b are insoluble ev5 9 dilute alkali hydroxides4 ,dilute hydro*loric acid1 especially :5 boil+1 *anges ! ord9>y hydrate into meta/annic acid4 ,on ?is dep5ds1 by ! way1 ! =mation ( a :ite precipitate1 /annic hydroxide1 f solutions ( /ann\s & /annic *lorides dilut$ ) wat]4 ,! /annic oxide fir/ dissolv$ *anges "u ! influ5ce ( hydro*loric acid into meta/annic acid1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid4 ,solutions ( meta/annic acid diff] f solutions ( ord9>y /annic acid1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( alkali !y *ange into solutions ( ord9>y acid1 s t meta/annic acid corresponds pr9cipally ) ! acid comp\nds ( /annic oxide1 & ord9>y /annic acid ) ! alkal9e comp\nds4#dj ,graham obta9$ a soluble colloidal hydroxide2 x is subject to ! same trans=mations t are 9 g5]al peculi> to colloids4 #dj ,frmy supposes ! cause ( ! diff]5ce to consi/ 9 a diff]5ce ( polym]isation1 & consid]s t ! ord9>y acid corresponds ) ! oxide ,sn,o#b1 & ! meta-acid ) ! oxide ,sn#e,o#aj1 b x is m probable t bo? are polym]ic b 9 a diff]5t degree4 ,/annic acid ) sodium c>bonate gives a salt ( ! composition ,na#b,sn,o#c4 ,! same salt is also obta9$ by fus+ meta/annic acid ) sodium hydroxide1 :il/ meta/annic acid gives a salt1 ,na#b,sn,o#c1d,sn,o#b 7,frmy71 :5 treat$ ) a dilute solution ( alkali2 moreov]1 /annic acid is also soluble 9 ! ord9>y /annate1 ,na#b,sn,o#c 7,web]71 s t bo? /annic acids 7l bo? =ms ( silica7 are capable ( polym]isation1 & probably only diff] 9 its degree4 ,9 g5]al1 !re is "h a great resemblance to silica1 & ,graham obta9$ a solution ( /annic acid by ! direct dialysis ( its alkal9e solution4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ^! acids is t ! meta-acid is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 & gives a precipitate ) sulphuric acid & /ann\s *loride1 :i* d n precipitate ! ord9>y acid4 ,vignon 7#ahhi7 f\nd t m heat is evolv$ 9 dissolv+ /annic acid 9 ,,kho ?an meta/annic4 ,/annic oxide %[s ! prop]ties ( a slightly en]getic & int]m$iate oxide 7l wat]1 silica1 c472 t is to say1 x =ms sal9e comp\nds bo? ) bases & ) acids1 b bo? are easily decompos$1 & are b slightly /able4 ,b /ill ! acid "* is m cle>ly develop$ ?an ! basic1 z 9 silica1 g]manic oxide1 & lead dioxide4 ,?is det]m9es ! "* ( ! comp\nds ,sn,x#d1 correspond+ to /annic *loride1 ,sn,cl#d 7also call$ tetra*loride ( t974 ,x is obta9$ 9 an anhydr\s condition by ! direct action ( *lor9e on t91 & is !n easily purifi$1 because x is a liquid boil+ at #aad1 & !re=e c be easily di/ill$4 ,its specific gravity is #bbh 7at #j71 & x fumes 9 ! op5 air 7spiritus fumans libavii71 react+ on ! moi/ure ( ! air1 ?us %[+ ! prop]ties ( a *loranhydride4 ,wat] h[ev] does n at fir/ decompose x1 b dissolves x1 & on evaporation gives ! cry/allo-hydrate ,sn,cl#d1e;,h#b,o4 ,if b little wat] be tak51 cry/als conta9+ ,sn,cl#d1c;,h#b,o are =m$1 :i* "p ) "o-?ird ( ! wat] :5 plac$ "u ! receiv] ( ! air-pump4 ,a l>ge quantity ( wat] h[ev]1 especially on heat+1 causes a precipitate ( meta/annic acid#da & =mation ( ,h,cl4 #da ,! =mation ( ! comp\nd ,sn,cl#d1c;,h#b,o is accompani$ by s great a contraction t ^! cry/als1 al?\gh !y conta9 wat]1 are heavi] ?an ! anhydr\s *loride ,sn,cl#d4 ,! p5ta-hydrat$ cry/allo-hydrate absorbs dry hydro*loric acid1 & gives a liquid ( specific gravity #aiga1 :i* at #j yields cry/als ( ! comp\nd ,sn,cl#d1b;,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o 7x corresponds ) ! simil> plat9um comp\nd71 :i* melt at #bj into a liquid ( specific gravity #aibe 7,engel74 ,/annic *loride comb9es ) ammonia 7,sn,cl#d1d,,nh#c71 hydrocyanic acid1 phosphorett$ hydrog51 phosphorus p5ta*loride 7,sn,cl#d1,p,cl#e71 nitr\s anhydride & its *loranhydride 7,sn,cl#d1,n#b,o#c & ,sn,cl#d1b,n,o,cl71 & ) metallic *lorides 7= example1 ,k#b,sn,cl#f1 7,,nh#d7b,sn,cl#f1 c47 ,9 g5]al1 a highly-develop$ faculty = comb9ation is obs]v$ 9 x4 ,t9 does n comb9e directly ) iod9e1 b if its fil+s be heat$ 9 a clos$ tube ) a solution ( iod9e 9 c>bon bisulphide1 x =ms /annic iodide1 ,sn,i#d1 9 ! =m ( r$ octah$ra :i* fuse at #adb & volatilise at #bie4 ,! fluor9e comp\nds ( t9 h a special int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 because !y give a s]ies ( d\ble salts :i* are isomorph\s ) ! salts ( hydr(luosilicic acid1 ,si,r#b;,f#f1 & ?is fact s]v$ to confirm ! =mula ,si,o#b = silica1 z ! =mula ,sn,o#b 0 indubitable4 ,al?\gh /annic fluoride1 ,sn,f#d1 is almo/ unkn[n 9 ! free /ate1 its correspond+ d\ble salts are v easily =m$ by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on alkal9e solutions ( /annic oxide2 ?us1 = example1 a cry/all9e salt ( ! composition ,sn,k#b;,f#f1;,h#b,o is obta9$ by dissolv+ /annic oxide 9 potassium hydroxide & !n add+ hydr(luoric acid to ! solution4 ,! b>ium salt1 ,sn,ba,f#f1c;,h#b,o1 is sp>+ly soluble l its correspond+ silic(luoride4 ,! m soluble salt ( /rontium1 ,sn,sr,f#f1b;,h#b,o1 cry/allises v well1 & is !re=e m important = ! purposes ( rese>*2 x is isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ salt ( silicon 7& titanium72 ! magnesium salt conta9s #f;,h#b,o4 ,/annic sulphide1 ,sn,s#b1 is =m$1 z a yell[ precipitate1 by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on acid solutions ( /annic salts2 x is easily soluble 9 ammonium & potassium sulphides1 because x has an acid "*1 & !n =ms ?io/annates 7see ,*apt] ,,xx474 ,9 an anhydr\s /ate x has ! =m ( brilliant gold5 yell[ plates1 :i* may be obta9$ by heat+ a mixture ( f9ely-divid$ t91 sulphur1 & sal-ammoniac = a consid]able "t4 ,x is sometimes us$ 9 ?is =m "u ! "n ( mosaic gold1 z a *eap sub/itute = gold-leaf 9 gild+ wood articles4 ,on ignition x p>ts ) a portion ( its sulphur1 & is conv]t$ into /ann\s sulphide ,sn,s4 ,x is soluble 9 cau/ic alkalis4 ,hydro*loric acid does n dissolve ! anhydr\s cry/all9e comp\nd1 b ! precipitat$ p[d]y sulphide is soluble 9 boil+ /rong hydro*loric acid1 ) ! evolution ( hydrog5 sulphide4 ,! alkali comp\nds ( /annic oxide--t is1 ! comp\nds 9 :i* x plays ! "p ( an acid1 correspond+ 9 ?is respect to ! comp\nds ( silica & o!r anhydrides ( ! composition ,,ro#b--;are v easily =m$ & are us$ 9 ! arts4 ,_! composition 9 mo/ cases corresponds ) ! =mula ,sn,m#b,o#c--t is1 ,sn,o7,,mo7#b1 simil> to ,,co7,,mo7#b1 :]e ,m ,k1 ,na4 ,acids1 ev5 feeble acids l c>bonic1 decompose ! salts1 l ! correspond+ comp\nds ( alum9a or silica4 ,9 ord] to obta9 potassium /annate1 :i* cry/allises 9 rhomboh$ra1 & has ! composition ,sn,k#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o1 potassium hydroxide 7#h p>ts7 is fus$1 & meta/annic acid 7#c p>ts7 gradually add$4 ,sodium /annate is prep>$ 9 practice 9 l>ge quantities by heat+ a solution ( cau/ic soda ) lead oxide & metallic t94 ,9 ?is la/ case an alkal9e solution ( lead oxide is =m$1 & ! t9 acts on ! solution 9 su* a way z to r$uce ! lead to ! metallic /ate1 & itself passes into solution4 ,x is v rem>kable t lead displaces t9 :5 9 comb9ation ) acids1 :il/ t91 on ! contr>y1 displaces lead f its alkali comp\nds4 ,by dissolv+ ! mass obta9$ 9 wat]1 & add+ alcohol1 sodium /annate is precipitat$1 :i* may !n be dissolv$ 9 wat] & purifi$ by re-cry/allisation4 ,9 ?is case x has ! composition ,sn,na#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o if sep>at$ f /rong solutions1 & ,sn,na#b,o#c1aj;,h#b,o :5 cry/allis$ at a l[ temp]ature f dilute solutions4 ,9 ! arts ?is salt is us$ z a mordant 9 dye+ op]ations4 ,) a cold solution ( sodium hydroxide meta/annic acid =ms a salt ( ! composition 7,na,h,o7#b1e,sn,o#b1c;,h#b,o1 f :i* ,frmy drew 8 conclusions conc]n+ ! polym]ism ( meta/annic acid4 ,t91 l o!r metals & _m metalloids1 gives a p]oxide =m ( comb9ation or p]/annic oxide4 ,?is sub/ance 0 obta9$ by ,spr+ 7#ahhi7 9 ! =m ( a hydrate1 ,h#b,sn#b,o#g #b7,sn,o#c7;,h#b,o1 by mix+ a solution ( ,sn,cl#b1 conta9+ an excess ( ,h,cl1 ) fre%ly prep>$ p]oxide ( b>ium4 ,a cl\dy liquid is !n obta9$1 & ?is aft] be+ subject$ to dialysis leaves a gelat9\s mass :i* on dry+ is f\nd to h ! composition ,sn#b;,h#b,o#g4 ,above #ajj ?is sub/ance gives (f oxyg5 & leaves ,sn,o#b4 ,x is evid5t t ,sn,o#c be>s ! same relation to ,sn,o#b z ,h#b,o#b to ,h#b,o or ,zn,o#b to ,zn,o1 c4 ,t9 occupies ! same position among/ ! analogues ( silicon z cadmium & indium among/ ! analogues ( magnesium & alum9ium respectively1 & z 9 ea* ( ^! cases ! heavi] analogues ) a high atomic weight & a special comb9ation ( prop]ties--namely1 m]cury & ?allium--are kn[n1 s also = silicon we h lead z ! heavie/ analogue 7,pb #bjf71 ) a s]ies ( bo? k9dr$ & special prop]ties4 ,! high] type1 ,pb,x#d--;= in/ance1 ,pb,o#b--;is 9 a *emical s5se f> less /able ?an ! l[] type1 ,pb,x4 ,! ord9>y comp\nds ( lead correspond ) ! latt]1 & 9 addition to ?is1 ,pb,o1 al?\gh n p>ticul>ly en]getic1 is /ill a decid$ base easily =m+ basic salts1 ,pb,x#b7,pb,o7n4 ,al?\gh ! comp\nds ,pb,x#d1 are un/able !y (f] _m po9ts ( analogy ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( t9 ,sn,o#b2 ?is is se51 = in/ance1 9 ! fact t ,pb,o#b is a feeble acid1 giv+ ! salt ,pb,k#b,o#c1 t ,pb,cl#d is a liquid l ,sn,cl#d :i* is n affect$ by sulphuric acid1 & t ,pb,f#d gives d\ble salts1 l ,sn,f#d or ,si,f#d 7,braun] #ahid4 ,see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #di bis72 ,pb7,c#b;,h#e7d also resembles ,sn7,c#b;,h#e7d c4 ,all ?is %[s t lead is a true analogue ( t91 z ,hg is ( cadmium4#da bis #da bis ,al?\gh ?is has long be5 g5]ally recognis$ f ! resemblance betwe5 ! two metals1 /ill f a *emical po9t ( view x has only be5 demon/rat$ by means ( ! p]iodic law4 ,lead is f\nd 9 nature 9 consid]able masses1 9 ! =m ( gal5a1 lead sulphide1 ,pb,s4#db ,! specific gravity ( gal5a is #geh1 col\r grey2 x cry/allises 9 ! regul> sy/em1 & has a f9e metallic lu/re4 ,bo? ! native & artificial sulphides are insoluble 9 acids 7hydrog5 sulphide gives a black precipitate ) ! salts ,pb,x#b74db bis ,:5 heat$1 lead melts1 & 9 ! op5 air is ei!r totally or p>tially trans=m$ into :ite lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 z x also is by _m oxidis+ ag5ts 7hydrog5 p]oxide1 potassium nitrate74 ,lead sulphate is also insoluble 9 wat]1#dc & lead is b r>ely met ) 9 ?is =m 9 nature4 ,! *romates1 vanadates1 phosphates1 & simil> salts ( lead are also some:at r>e4 ,! c>bonate1 ,pb,c,o#b1 is sometimes f\nd 9 l>ge masses1 especially 9 ! ,altai region4 ,lead sulphide is (t5 work$ = extract+ ! silv] :i* x conta9s2 & z ! lead itself also f9ds manifold indu/rial applications1 ?is "w is c>ri$ out on an exce$+ly l>ge scale4 ,_m me?ods are employ$4 ,sometimes ! lead sulphide is decompos$ by heat+ x ) ca/ iron4 ,! iron takes up ! sulphur f ! lead & =ms easily-fusible iron sulphide1 :i* does n mix ) ! heavi] r$uc$ lead4 ,b ano!r process is m frequ5tly us$3 ! lead ore 7x mu/ be clean2 t is1 free f e>?y matt]1 :i* may be easily remov$ by wa%+7 is heat$ 9 a rev]b]atory furnace to a mod]ate temp]ature ) a free access ( air4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation "p ( ! lead sulphide oxidises & =ms lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 & lead oxide4 ,:5 ! oxidation ( "p ( ! lead has be5 atta9$1 x is necess>y to %ut (f ! air supply & increase ! temp]ature1 !n ! oxidis$ comp\nds ( ! lead ent] into reaction ) ! rema9+ lead sulphide1 ) =mation ( sulphur\s anhydride & metallic lead4 ,at fir/ f ,pb,s ,o#c1 ,pb,o ,,s#b are =m$1 & also f ,pb,s ,o#d lead sulphate ,pb,s,o#d1 & !n ,pb,o & ,pb,s,o#d react ) ! rema9+ ,pb,s1 accord+ to ! equations #b,pb,o ,pb,s #c,pb ,,s#b & also ,pb,s,o#d ,pb,s #b,pb #b,,s#b4dd #db ,mix$ ores ( copp] comp\nds toge!r ) ,pb,s & ,zn,s are frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! mo/ anci5t prim>y rocks4 ,z ! sep>ation ( ! metals !mselves is difficult1 ! ores are sep>at$ by a me?od ( selection or me*anical sort+4 ,su* mix$ ores occur 9 ,russia1 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,caucasus1 & 9 ! ,donetz di/rict 7at ,nagol*ik74 #db bis ,lead sulphide 9 ! pres5ce ( z9c & hydro*loric acid is completely r$uc$ to metallic lead1 all ! sulphur be+ giv5 (f z hydrog5 sulphide4 #dc ,lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 occurs 9 nature 7anglesite7 9 transp>5t brilliant cry/als :i* are isomorph\s ) b>ium sulphate1 & h a specific gravity ( #fc4 ,! same salt is =m$ on mix+ sulphuric acid or its soluble salts ) solutions ( lead salts1 z a heavy :ite precipitate1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & acids1 b dissolves 9 a solution ( ammonium t>trate 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ammonia4 ,?is te/ s]ves to di/+ui% ?is salt f ! simil> salts ( /rontium & b>ium4 #dd ,accord+ to ,j4 ,b4 ,hannay 7#ahid7 ! la/ nam$ decomposition 7,pb,s ,pb,s,o#d #b,pb #b,,s#b7 is really mu* m complicat$1 & 9 fact a portion ( ! ,pb,s is dissolv$ 9 ! ,pb1 =m+ a slag conta9+ ,pb,o1 ,pb,s & ,pb,s,o#d1 :il/ a portion ( ! lead volatilises ) ! ,,s#b 9 ! =m ( a comp\nd ,pb,s#b,o#b1 :i* is also =m$ 9 o!r cases1 b has n yet be5 ?or\ghly /udi$4 ,besides ^! me?ods = extract+ lead f ,,pbs 9 its ores1 roa/+ 7! removal ( ! ,s 9 ! =m ( ,,s#b7 & smelt+ ) *>coal ) a bla/ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! manufacture ( pig iron 7,*apt] ,,xxii47 are also employ$4 ,we may add t ,pb,s 9 contact ) ,zn & hydro*loric acid 7:i* has no action ^u ,pb,s alone7 entirely decomposes1 =m+ ,h#b,s & metallic lead3 ,pb,s ,zn #b;,h,cl ,pb ,zn,cl#b ,h#b,s4 ,z lead is easily r$uc$ f its ores1 & ! ore itself has a metallic appe>ance1 x is n surpris+ t x 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & t its prop]ties 7 famili> to ! al*emi/s1 :o call$ x ',saturn4' ,h5ce metallic lead1 r$uc$ f its salts 9 solution by z9c1 hav+ ! appe>ance ( a tree-l mass ( cry/als1 is call$ 'arbor saturni1' c4 ,! appe>ance ( lead is well kn[n2 its specific gravity is #aac2 ! blui% col\r & well-m>k$ metallic lu/re ( fre%ly-cut lead quickly disappe> :5 expos$ to ! air1 because x becomes coat$ ) a lay]--al?\gh a v ?9 lay]--( oxide & salts =m$ by ! moi/ure & acids 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x melts at #cbj1 & cry/allises 9 octah$ra on cool+4 ,its s(tness is app>5t f ! flexibility ( lead pipes & %eets1 & also f ! fact t x may be cut ) a knife1 & also t x leaves a grey /reak :5 rubb$ on pap]4 ,on acc\nt ( its be+ s s(t1 lead naturally _c be appli$ 9 _m cases :]e mo/ metals may be us$2 b on ! o!r h& x is a metal :i* is n easily *ang$ by *emical reag5ts1 & z x is capable ( be+ sold]$ & drawn into %eets1 c41 lead is mo/ valuable = _m te*nical uses4 ,lead pipes are us$ = convey+ wat]#de & _m o!r liquids1 & %eet lead is us$ = l9+ all k9ds ( vessels conta9+ liquids--7acids1 = in/ance7 :i* act on o!r metals4 ,?is p>ticul>ly ref]s to sulphuric & hydro*loric acids1 because at a l[ temp]ature !y d n act on lead1 & if !y =m lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 & *loride1 ,pb,cl#b1 ^! salts be+ insoluble 9 wat] & 9 acids1 cov] ! lead & protect x f fur!r corrosion4#df ,all soluble prep>ations ( lead are poison\s4 ,at a :ite heat lead may be p>tially di/ill$2 ! vap\rs oxidise & burn4 ,lead may also be easily oxidis$ at l[ temp]atures4 ,lead only decomposes wat] at a :ite heat1 & does n lib]ate hydrog5 f acids1 ) ! exception only ( v /rong hydro*loric acid & !n only :5 boil+4 ,sulphuric acid dilut$ ) wat] does n act on x1 or only acts v feebly at ! surface2 b /rong sulphuric acid1 :5 heat$1 is decompos$ by x1 ) ! evolution ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! be/ solv5t = lead is nitric acid1 :i* trans=ms x into a soluble salt1 ,pb7,,no#c7b4 #de ,fre%ly laid new lead pipes contam9ate ! wat] ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( lead salts1 aris+ f ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 c>bonic acid1 c41 9 ! wat]4 ,b ! lead pipes "u ! action ( runn+ wat] soon become coat$ ) a film ( salts--lead sulphate1 c>bonate1 *loride1 c4--:i* are insoluble 9 wat]1 & ! wat] pipes !n become h>mless4 #df ,lead is us$ 9 ! arts1 & ow+ to its consid]able d5sity1 x is ca/1 mix$ ) small quantities ( o!r metals1 into %ot4 ,a consid]able am\nt is employ$ 7toge!r ) m]cury7 9 extract+ gold & silv] f poor ores1 & 9 ! manufacture ( *emical reag5ts1 & especially ( lead *romate4 ,lead *romate1 ,pb,cr,o#d1 is di/+ui%$ = its brilliant yell[ col\r1 ow+ to :i* x is employ$ 9 consid]able quantities z a dye1 ma9ly = dye+ cotton tissues yell[4 ,x is =m$ on ! tissue itself1 by caus+ a soluble salt ( lead to react on potassium *romate4 ,lead *romate is met ) 9 nature z 'r$ lead ore4' ,x is insoluble 9 wat] & acetic acid1 hut x dissolves 9 aque\s pota%4 ,! s-call$ pewt] vessels (t5 consi/ ( an alloy ( #e p>ts ( t9 & #a "p ( lead1 & sold] is compos$ ( #a to #b p>ts ( t9 ) #a_/b "p ( lead4 ,among/ ! alloys ( lead & t91 ,rudb]g /ates t ! alloy ,pb,sn#c /&s out f ! re/1 s9ce1 accord+ to 8 obs]vations1 ! temp]ature ( solidification ( ! alloy is #ahg4 ,al?\gh acids ?us h directly b little effect on lead1 & ?is is "o ( its mo/ important practical prop]ties1 yet :5 air has free access1 lead 7l copp]7 v easily reacts ) _m acids1 ev5 ) ^? :i* are comp>atively feeble4 ,! action ( acetic acid on lead is p>ticul>ly /rik+ & (t5 appli$ 9 practice4 ,if lead be plung$ into acetic acid x does n *ange at all & does n pass into solution1 b if "p ( ! lead be imm]s$ 9 ! acid1 & ! o!r "p rema9 9 contact ) ! air1 or if lead be m]ely cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( acetic acid 9 su* a way t ! air is practically 9 contact ) ! metal1 !n x unites ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air to =m oxide1 :i* comb9es ) ! acetic acid & =ms lead acetate1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,! =mation ( lead oxide is especially m>k$ f ! fact t ) a suffici5t quantity ( air n only is ! normal lead acetate =m$ b also ! basic salts4#dg #dg ,! normal lead acetate1 kn[n 9 trade z sug> ( lead1 ow+ to its hav+ a sweeti% ta/e1 has ! =mula ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1c;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt only cry/allises f acid solutions4 ,x is capable ( dissolv+ a fur!r quantity ( lead oxide or ( metallic lead 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 ,a basic salt ( ! composition ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1,pb,h#b,o#b is !n =m$ :i* is soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,z 9 ?is salt ! numb] ( atoms is ev5 & ! same z 9 ! hydrate ( acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1;,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#c7,,oh7#c1 x may be repres5t$ z ?is hydrate 9 :i* two ( hydrog5 are replac$ by lead--t is1 z ,c#b;,h#c7,,oh77,o#b,pb74 ,?is basic salt is us$ 9 m$ic9e z a rem$y = inflammation1 = b&ag+ w\nds1 c41 & also 9 ! manufacture ( :ite lead4 ,o!r basic acetates ( lead1 conta9+ a /ill great] am\nt ( lead oxide1 are kn[n4 ,accord+ to ! above repres5tation ( ! composition ( ! prec$+ lead acetate1 a basic salt ( ! composition 7,c#b;,h#c7b7,o#b,pb7#c w\ld be also possible1 b :at appe> to be /ill m basic salts are kn[n4 ,z ! "* ( a salt also dep5ds on ! prop]ty ( ! base f :i* x is =m$1 x w\ld seem t lead =ms a hydroxide ( ! composition ,h,o,pb,o,h1 conta9+ two wat] residues1 "o or bo? ( :i* may be replac$ by ! acid residues4 ,if bo? wat] residues are replac$1 a normal salt1 ,x,pb,x1 is obta9$1 :il/ if only "o is replac$ a basic salt1 ,x,pb,o,h1 is =m$4 ,b lead does n only give ?is normal hydroxide1 b also polyhydroxides1 ,pb7,,oh71n,pb,o1 & if we may imag9e t 9 ^! polyhydroxides !re is a sub/itution ( bo? ! wat] residues by acid residues1 !n ! p[] ( lead = =m+ basic salts is expla9$ by ! prop]ties ( ! base :i* ent]s into _! composition4 ,:5 oxidis+ 9 ! pres5ce ( air1#dh :5 heat$ or 9 ! pres5ce ( an acid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 lead =ms comp\nds ( ! type ,pb,x#b4 ,lead oxide1 ,pb,o1 kn[n 9 indu/ry z li?>ge1 silb]gltte 7?is "n is due to ! fact t silv] is extract$ f ! lead ores ( ?is k9d7 & massicot4 ,if ! lead is oxidis$ 9 air at a high temp]ature1 ! oxide :i* is =m$ fuses1 & on cool+ is easily obta9$ 9 fus$ masses :i* split up into scales ( a yell[i% col\r1 hav+ a specific gravity ( #ic2 9 ?is =m x be>s ! "n ( li?>ge4 ,li?>ge is pr9cipally us$ = mak+ lead salts1 = ! extraction ( metallic lead1 & also = ! prep>ation ( dry+ oils--= in/ance1 f l9se$ oil4#di ,:5 oxidis$ c>efully & slightly heat$1 lead =ms a p[d]y 7n fus$7 oxide kn[n "u ! "n ( massicot4 ,x is be/ prep>$ 9 ! laboratory by heat+ lead nitrate1 or lead hydroxide4 ,x has a yell[ col\r1 & diff]s f li?>ge 9 ! great] difficulty ) :i* x =ms lead salts ) acids4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :5 massicot is moi/5$ ) wat] x does n attract ! c>bonic acid ( ! air s easily z li?>ge does4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be imag9$ t ! cause ( ! diff]5ce dep5ds only on ! =mation ( dioxide on ! surface ( ! lead oxide1 on :i* ! acids d n act4 ,9 any case lead oxide is comp>atively easily soluble 9 nitric & acetic acids4 ,x is b slightly soluble 9 wat]1 b communicates an alkal9e reaction to x1 s9ce x =ms ! hydroxide4 ,?is hydroxide is obta9$ 9 ! %ape ( a :ite precipitate by ! action ( a small quantity ( an alkali hydroxide on a solution ( a lead salt4 ,an excess ( alkali dissolves ! hydroxide sep>at$1 :i* fact demon/rates ! comp>atively indi/9ct basic prop]ties ( lead oxide4 ,! normal lead hydroxide1 :i* %\ld h ! composition ,pb7,,oh7#b1 is unkn[n 9 a sep>ate /ate1 b x is kn[n 9 comb9ation ) lead oxide z ,pb7,,oh7#b1b,pb,o or ,pb#c,o#b7,,oh7#b4 ,! latt] is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( brilliant1 :ite1 octah$ral cry/als :5 basic lead acetate is mix$ ) ammonia & g5tly heat$4 ,! basic qualities ( ?is hydroxide are %[n di/9ctly by its absorb+ ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air4 ,:5 an alkal9e solution ( ! hydroxide is boil$1 x deposits lead oxide 9 ! =m ( a cry/all9e p[d]4 #dh ,few comp\nds are kn[n ( ! l[] type ,pb,x1 & /ill few] ( ! int]m$iate type ,pb,x#c4 ,to ! fir/ type belongs ! s-call$ lead suboxide1 ,pb#b,o1 obta9$ by ! ignition ( lead oxalate1 ,c#b,pb,o#d1 )\t access ( air4 ,x is a black p[d]1 :i* easily breaks up "u ! action ( acids1 & ev5 by ! simple action ( heat1 into metallic lead & lead oxide4 ,?is is ! "* ( all suboxides4 ,!y _c be reg>d$ z indep5d5t salt-=m+ oxides1 nei!r c ^? =ms ( oxidation ( lead :i* conta9 m oxyg5 ?an ! oxide ( lead1 ,pb,o1 & less ?an ! dioxide1 ,pb,o#b4 ,z we %all see1 at lea/ two su* comp\nds are =m$4 ,?us1 = example1 an oxide hav+ ! composition ,pb#b,o#c is kn[n1 b x is decompos$ by ! action ( acids into lead oxide1 :i* passes into solution1 & lead dioxide1 :i* rema9s beh9d4 ,su* is r$ lead4 7,see fur!r on47 #di ,9 ! boil+ ( dry+ oils1 ! lead oxide p>tially passes into solution1 =m+ a saponifi$ comp\nd capable ( attract+ oxyg5 & solidify+ into a t>-l mass1 :i* =ms ! oil pa9t4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 glyc]9e p>tially acts 9 ! process4 ,ossovetsky by saturat+ dry+ oil ) ! salts ( c]ta9 metals obta9$ oil col\rs ( great durability4 ,a mixture ( v f9ely-divid$ li?>ge ) glyc]9e 7#ej p>ts ( li?>ge to #e c4c4 ( anhydr\s glyc]9e7 =ms a v quick 7two m9utes7 sett+ cem5t1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & oils1 & is v useful 9 sett+ up *emical app>atus4 ,! h>d5+ is bas$ on ! reaction ( ! lead oxide ) glyc]9e 7,moraffsky74 ,lead oxide =ms b few soluble salts--= in/ance1 ! nitrate & ! acetate4 ,! majority ( its salts 7sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d2 c>bonate1 ,pb,c,o#c2 iodide1 ,pb,i#b1 c47 are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,^! salts are col\rless or light yell[ if ! acid be col\rless4 ,9 lead oxide ! faculty ( =m+ basic salts1 ,pb,x#bn,pb,o or ,pb,x#bn,pb,h#b,o#b1 is /rongly develop$4 ,a simil> prop]ty 0 obs]v$ 9 magnesium & also 9 ! salts ( m]cury1 b lead oxide =ms basic salts ) /ill great] facility1 al?\gh d\ble salts are 9 ?is case m r>ely =m$4#ej #ej ,x is v in/ructive to obs]ve t lead n only easily =ms basic salts1 b also salts conta9+ sev]al acid gr\ps4 ,?us1 = example1 lead c>bonate occurs 9 nature & =ms comp\nds ) lead *loride & sulphate4 ,! fir/ comp\nd1 kn[n z corne\s lead1 phosg5ite1 has ! composition ,pb,c,o#c1,pb,cl#b2 x occurs 9 nature 9 bright cubical cry/als1 & is prep>$ artificially by simply boil+ lead *loride ) lead c>bonate4 ,a simil> comp\nd ( normal salts1 ,pb,s,o#d1,pb,c,o#c1 occurs 9 nature z lan>kite 9 monocl9ic cry/als4 ,leadhillite conta9s ,pb,s,o#d1c,pb,c,o#c1 & also occurs 9 yell[i%1 monocl9ic1 tabul> cry/als4 ,we w turn our att5tion to ^! salts ( lead1 because x is v probable t _! =mation is alli$ to ! =mation ( ! basic salts1 & ! foll[+ consid]ations may lead to ! explanation ( ! exi/5ce ( bo?4 ,9 describ+ silica we c>efully develop$ ! conception ( polym]isation1 :i* x is also indisp5sable to recognise 9 ! composition ( _m o!r oxides4 ,?us x may be suppos$ t ,pb,o#b is a simil> polym]is$ comp\nd to ,si,o#b--;i4e4 t ! composition ( lead p]oxide w be ,pbn,o#bn1 because lead me?yl1 ,pb,me#d1 & lead e?yl1 ,pb,et#d1 are volatile comp\nds1 :il/ ,pb,o#b is non-volatile1 & is v l silica 9 ?is respect1 & n 9 ! lea/ l c>bonic anhydride4 ,/ill m %\ld a polym]ic /ructure1 ,pbn,on1 be ascrib$ to lead oxide1 s9ce x diff]s z little f lead dioxide 9 its physical prop]ties z c>bonic oxide does f c>bonic anhydride1 & be+ an unsaturat$ comp\nd is m likely to be capable ( int]comb9ation 7polym]isation7 ?an lead dioxide4 ,^! consid]ations respect+ ! complexity ( lead oxide c\ld h no real significance1 & c\ld n be accept$1 7 x n = ! exi/5ce ( ! above-m5tion$ basic & mix$ salts4 ,! oxide app>5tly corresponds ) ! composition ,pbn,x#bn1 & s9ce1 accord+ to ?is repres5tation1 ! numb] ( ,x's 9 ! salts ( lead is consid]able1 x is obvi\s t !y may be div]se4 ,:5 a "p ( ^! ,x's is replac$ by ! wat] residue 7,,oh7 or by oxyg51 ,x#b ,o1 & ! o!r p>ts by an acid residue1 ,x1 !n basic salts are obta9$1 b if a "p ( ! ,x's is replac$ by acid residues ( "o k9d1 & ! o!r "p by acid residues ( ano!r k9d1 !n ^? mix$ salts ab\t :i* we are n[ speak+ are =m$4 ,?us1 = example1 we may suppose1 = a comp>ison ( ! composition ( ! majority ( ! salts ( lead1 t n #ab1 & !n ! above-m5tion$ comp\nds w pres5t !mselves 9 ! foll[+ =m3--,lead oxide1 ,pb#ab,o#ab1 its cry/all9e hydrate1 ,pb#ab,o#h7,,oh7#h1 lead *loride1 ,pb#ab;,cl#bd1 lead oxy*loride1 ,pb#ab;,cl#ab,o#f1 ! o!r oxy*loride1 ,pb#ab7,,oh7#h;,cl#f,o#f1 m5dipite 7see ,note #ea71 ,pb#ab;,cl#h,o#h1 normal lead c>bonate1 ,pb#ab7;,,co#c7ab1 cry/all9e basic salt1 ,pb#ab7,,oh7#f7;,,co#c7f1 :ite lead1 ,pb#ab7;,,co#c7h7;,,ho7#h1 corne\s lead1 ,pb#ab;,cl#ab7;,,co#c7f1 lan>kite1 ,pb#ab7;,,co#c7f7,,s#d7f1 leadhillite1 ,pb#ab7;,,co#c7i7,,s#d7c1 c4 ,! numb] #ab is only tak5 to avoid fractional quantities4 ,possibly ! polym]isation is mu* high] ?an ?is4 ,! !ory ( ! polym]isation ( oxides introduc$ by me 9 ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w 7#ahfi7 is n[ beg9n+ to be g5]ally accept$4 ,among/ ! soluble lead salts1 t be/ kn[n & mo/ (t5 appli$ 9 practical *emi/ry is lead nitrate1 obta9$ directly by dissolv+ lead or its oxide 9 nitric acid4 ,! normal salt1 ,pb7,,no#c7b1 cry/allises 9 octah$ra1 dissolves 9 wat]1 & has a specific gravity ( #de4 ,:5 a solution ( ?is salt acts on :ite lead or is boil$ ) li?>ge1 ! basic salt1 hav+ a composition ,pb7,,oh77,,no#c71 is =m$ 9 cry/all9e ne$les1 sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat] b easily dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & !re=e 9 _m respects resembl+ lead *loride4 ,:5 ! nitrate is heat$1 ei!r lead oxide is obta9$ or else ! oxide 9 comb9ation ) p]oxide4 ,lead *loride1 ,pb,cl#b1 is precipitat$ f ! soluble salts ( lead :5 a /rong solution is treat$ ) hydro*loric acid or a metallic *loride4 ,x is soluble 9 consid]able quantities 9 hot wat]1 & !re=e if ! solutions be dilute or hot1 ! precipitation ( lead *loride does n occur1 & if a hot solution be cool$1 ! salt sep>ates 9 brilliant prismatic cry/als4 ,x fuses :5 heat$ 7l silv] *loride71 b is insoluble 9 ammonia4 ,?is salt is sometimes met ) 9 nature1 & :5 heat$ 9 air is capable ( ex*ang+ half its *lor9e = oxyg51 =m+ ! basic salt or lead oxy*loride1 ,pb,cl#b,pb,o1 :i* may also be obta9$ by fus+ ,pb,cl#b & ,pb,o toge!r4 ,! reaction ( lead *loride ) wat] vap\r leads to ! same conclusion1 %[+ ! feeble basic "* ( lead #b,pb,cl#b ,h#b,o ,pb,cl#b1,pb,o #b;,h,cl4 ,:5 ammonia is add$ to an aque\s solution ( lead *loride a :ite precipitate is =m$1 :i* p>ts ) wat] on be+ heat$1 & has ! composition ,pb7,,oh7,cl1,pb,o4 ,?is comp\nd is also =m$ by ! action ( metallic *lorides on o!r soluble basic salts ( lead4#ea #ea ,a simil> basic salt hav+ a :ite col\r1 & !re=e us$ z a sub/itute = :ite lead1 is also obta9$ by mix+ a solution ( basic lead acetate ) a solution ( lead *loride4 ,its =mation is express$ by ! equation3 #b,pb,x7,,oh71,pb,o ,pb,cl#b #b,pb7,,oh7,cl1,pb,o ,pb,x#b4 ,simil> basic comp\nds ( lead are met ) 9 nature--= in/ance1 m5dipite1 ,pb,cl1#b,pb,o1 :i* appe>s 9 brilliant yell[i%-:ite masses4 ,! ignition ( r$ lead ) sal-ammoniac results 9 simil> polybasic comp\nds ( lead *loride1 =m+ ! ,cassel's1 or m9]al yell[ ( ! composition ,pb,cl#bn,pb,o4 ,lead iodide1 ,pb,i#b1 is /ill less soluble ?an ! *loride1 & is !re=e obta9$ by mix+ potassium iodide ) a solution ( a lead salt4 ,x sep>ates z a yell[ p[d]1 :i* may be dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 & on cool+ sep>ates 9 v brilliant cry/all9e scales ( a gold5 yell[ col\r4 ,! salts ,pb,br#b1 ,pb,f#b1 ,pb7,,cn7#b1 ,pb#b;,fe7,,cn7#f are also insoluble 9 wat]1 & =m :ite precipitates4 ,lead c>bonate1 or :ite lead1 is ! mo/ ext5sively us$ basic lead salt4 ,x has ! valuable prop]ty ( 'cov]+1' :i* only to a c]ta9 ext5t app]ta9s to lead sulphate & o!r :ite p[d]y sub/ances us$ z pigm5ts4 ,?is faculty ( 'cov]+' consi/s 9 ! fact t a small quantity ( :ite lead mix$ ) oil spreads uni=mly1 & if su* a mixture be spread ov] a surface 7= in/ance1 ( wood or metal7 ! surface is quickly cov]$--t is1 light does n p5etrate ?r\gh ev5 a v ?9 lay] ( sup]pos$ :ite lead2 ?us1 = example1 ! gra9 ( ! wood rema9s invisible4#eb ,:ite lead1 or basic lead c>bonate1 aft] be+ dri$ at #abj1 has a composition ,pb7,,oh7#b1b,pb,c,o#c4ec ,x may be obta9$ by add+ a solution ( sodium c>bonate to a solution ( "o ( ! basic salts ( lead--= in/ance1 ! basic acetate--& likewise by treat+ ?is latt] ) c>bonic acid4 ,= ?is purpose ! solution ( basic acetate is p\r$ into ! vessel f2 x is prep>$ 9 ! vat ,a1 conta9+ li?>ge1 into :i* ! pump ,p deliv]s ! solution ( ! acetate1 :i* rema9s aft] ! action ( c>bonic anhydride on ! basic salt4 ,9 ,a a basic salt is =m$ hav+ a composition approa*+ to ,pb#d7,,oh7#f7;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b2 c>bonic anhydride1 #b;,,co#b1 is pass$ ?r\gh ?is solution & precipitates :ite lead1 ,pb#b7,,oh7#b7;,,co#c7b1 & normal lead acetate1 ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1 rema9s 9 ! solution1 & is pump$ back into ! vat ,a conta9+ lead oxide1 :]e ! normal salt is aga9 7on be+ agitat$7 conv]t$ into ! basic salt4 ,?is is run into ! vessel ,e1 & !nce into f4 ,into ! latt] c>bonic anhydride is deliv]$ f ! g5]ator ,d1 & =ms a precipitate ( :ite lead4#ec bis #eb ,x is rem>kable t a peculi> k9d ( attraction exi/s betwe5 boil$ l9se$ oil & :ite lead1 z is se5 f ! foll[+ exp]im5ts4 ,:ite lead is triturat$ 9 wat]4 ,al?\gh x is heavi] ?an wat]1 x rema9s 9 susp5sion 9 x = "s "t & is ?or\ghly moi/5$ by x1 s t ! trituration may be made p]fect2 boil$ l9se$ oil is !n add$1 & %ak5 up ) x4 ,a mixture ( ! oil & :ite lead is !n f\nd to settle at ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,al?\gh ! oil is mu* light] ?an ! wat] x does n float on ! top1 b is reta9$ by ! :ite lead & s9ks "u ! wat] toge!r ) x4 ,!re is n1 h[ev]1 any m p]fect comb9ation nor ev5 any solution4 ,if ! resultant mass be !n treat$ ) e!r or any o!r liquid capable ( dissolv+ ! oil1 ! latt] passes into solution & leaves ! :ite lead unalt]$4 #ec ,x may be reg>d$ z a salt correspond+ ) ! normal hydrate ( c>bonic acid1 ,c7,,oh7#d1 9 :i* ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! hydrog5 is replac$ by lead4 ,a salt is also kn[n 9 :i* all ! hydrog5 ( ?is hydrate ( c>bonic acid is replac$ by lead--namely1 ! salt conta9+ ,,co#d,pb#b4 ,?is salt is obta9$ z a :ite cry/all9e sub/ance by ! action ( wat] & c>bonic acid on lead4 ,! normal salt1 ,pb,c,o#c1 occurs 9 nature "u ! "n ( :ite lead ore 7sp4 gr4 #fdg71 9 cry/als1 isomorph\s ) aragonite1 & is =m$ by ! d\ble decomposition ( lead nitrate ) sodium c>bonate1 z a heavy :ite precipitate4 ,?us bo? ^! salts resemble :ite lead1 b ! fir/-nam$ salt is exclusively us$ 9 practice1 ow+ to its be+ v conv5i5tly prep>$1 & be+ *>act]is$ by its great cov]+ capacity1 or 'body1' due to its f9e /ate ( division4 #ec bis ,"o ( ! _m me?ods by :i* :ite lead is prep>$ consi/s 9 mix+ massicot ) acetic acid or sug> ( lead1 & leav+ ! mixture expos$ to air 7& re-mix+ f "t to "t71 conta9+ c>bonic acid1 :i* is absorb$ f ! surface by ! basic salt =m$4 ,aft] repeat$ mix+s 7) ! addition ( wat]71 ! entire mass is conv]t$ into :ite lead1 :i* is ?us obta9$ v f9ely divid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,manufacture ( :ite lead4 ,9 ord] to m>k ! transition f lead oxide1 ,pb,o1 into lead dioxide ,pb,o#b 7plumbic anhydride71 x is necess>y to direct our att5tion to ! int]m$iate oxide1 or r$ lead1 ,pb#c,o#d4ed ,9 ! arts x is us$ 9 consid]able quantities1 because x =ms a v durable yell[i%-r$ pa9t us$ = col\r+ ! res9s 7%ellac1 colophony1 c47 compos+ seal+ wax4 ,x also =ms a v good *eap oil pa9t1 us$ especially = pa9t+ metals1 m p>ticul>ly because dry+ oils--= in/ance1 hemp se$1 l9se$ oils--v quickly dry ) r$ lead & ) lead salts4 ,r$ lead is prep>$ by slightly heat+ massicot1 = :i* purpose two-/ori$ /oves are us$4 ,9 ! l[] /ory ! lead is turn$ into massicot1 & 9 ! high] "o1 hav+ ! l[] temp]ature 7ab\t #cjj71 ! massicot is trans=m$ into r$ lead4 ,frmy & o!rs %[$ ! in/ability ( r$ lead prep>$ by v>i\s me?ods1 & its decomposition by acids1 ) =mation ( lead dioxide1 :i* is insoluble 9 acids1 & a solution ( ! salts ( lead oxide4 ,! artificial production 7syn!sis7 ( r$ lead by d\ble decomposition 0 mo/ important4 ,= ?is purpose ,frmy mix$ an alkal9e solution ( potassium plumbate1 ,k#b,pb,o#c 7prep>$ by dissolv+ ! dioxide 9 fus$ pota%71#ed bis ) an alkal9e solution ( lead oxide4 ,9 ?is way a yell[ precipitate ( m9ium hydrate is =m$1 :i*1 :5 slightly heat$1 loses wat] & turns into bright r$ anhydr\s m9ium ,pb#c,o#d4 #ed ,if lead hydroxide be dissolv$ 9 pota% & sodium hypo*lorite be add$ to ! solution1 ! oxyg5 ( ! latt] acts on ! dissolv$ lead oxide1 & p>tially conv]ts x into dioxide1 s t ! s-call$ lead sesquioxide is obta9$2 its empirical =mula is ,pb#b,o#c4 ,probably x is no?+ b a lead salt--i4e4 is ref]able to ! type ( dioxide ( lead1 or its hydroxide1 ,pb,o7,,oh7#b1 9 :i* two atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by lead1 ,pb,o7,o#b,pb74 ,! br[n comp\nd precipitat$ by ! action ( dilute acids--= example1 nitric--splits up1 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 into insoluble lead dioxide & a solution ( a lead salt4 ,?is comp\nd evolves oxyg5 :5 x is heat$4 ,x dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid1 =m+ a yell[ liquid1 :i* probably conta9s comp\nds ( ! composition ,pb,cl#b & ,pb,cl#d1 b ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! latt] soon loses ! excess ( *lor9e1 & !n only lead *loride1 ,pb,cl#b1 rema9s4 ,9 ord] to see ! relation betwe5 r$ lead & lead sesquioxide1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t !y only diff] by an extra quantity ( lead oxide--t is1 r$ lead is a basic salt ( ! prec$+ comp\nd1 & if ! comp\nd ,pb#b,o#c may be reg>d$ z ,pb,o#c,pb1 !n r$ lead %\ld be look$ on z ,pb,o#c,pb1,pb,o--t is1 z basic lead plumbate4 #ed bis ,frmy obta9$ potassium plumbate 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,pure lead dioxide is plac$ 9 a silv] crucible1 & a /rong solution ( pure cau/ic pota% is p\r$ ov] x4 ,! mixture is heat$ & small quantities are remov$ f "t to "t = te/+1 :i* consi/s 9 dissolv+ 9 a small quantity ( wat] & decompos+ ! resultant solution ) nitric acid4 ,!re is a c]ta9 mom5t dur+ ! heat+ :5 a consid]able am\nt ( insoluble lead dioxide is precipitat$ on ! addition ( ! nitric acid2 ! solution !n conta9s ! salt 9 "q1 & ! heat+ mu/ be /opp$1 & a small am\nt ( wat] add$ to dissolve ! potassium plumbate =m$4 ,on cool+ ! salt sep>ates 9 some:at l>ge cry/als1 :i* h ! same composition z ! /annate--t is1 ,pb,o7,,ko7#b1c;,h#b,o4 ,m9ium is ! fir/ & mo/ ord9>y means ( produc+ lead dioxide1 or plumbic anhydride1 ,pb,o#b1ee because :5 r$ lead is treat$ ) dilute nitric acid x gives up lead oxide1 & ,pb,o#b rema9s1 on :i* dilute nitric acid does n act4 ,! composition ( m9ium is ,pb#c,o#d1 & !re=e ! action ( nitric acid on x is express$ by ! equation3 ,pb#c,o#d #d;,,hno#c ,pb,o#b #b,pb7,,no#c7b #b;,h#b,o4 ,! dioxide may also be obta9$ by treat+ lead hydroxide susp5d$ 9 wat] ) a /ream ( *lor9e4 ,"u ^! conditions ! *lor9e takes up ! hydrog5 f ! wat]1 & ! oxyg5 passes ov] to ! lead oxide4#ef ,:5 a /rong solution ( lead nitrate is decompos$ by ! electric curr5t1 ! appe>ance ( cry/all9e lead dioxide is also obs]v$ ^u ! positive pole2 x is also f\nd 9 nature 9 ! =m ( a black cry/all9e sub/ance hav+ a specific gravity ( #id4 ,:5 artificially produc$ x is a f9e d>k p[d]1 resi/+ ! action ( acids1 b nev]!less :5 treat$ ) /rong sulphuric acid x evolves oxyg5 & =ms lead sulphate1 & ) hydro*loric acid x evolves *lor9e4 ,! oxidis+ prop]ty ( lead dioxide dep5ds ( c\rse on ! facility ( its transition into ! m /able lead oxide1 :i* is easily und]/ood f ! :ole hi/ory ( lead comp\nds4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis x trans=ms *romium oxide into *romic acid1 :il/ lead *romate1 ,pb,cr,o#d1 is =m$1 rema9+1 h[ev]1 9 solution1 on acc\nt ( its be+ soluble 9 cau/ic alkalis4 ,! oxidis+ action ( lead dioxide on sulphur\s anhydride is mo/ /rik+1 z x imm$iately absorbs x1 ) =mation ( lead sulphate4 ,?is is accompani$ by a *ange ( col\r & developm5t ( heat1 ,pb,o#b ,,s#b ,pb,s,o#d4 ,:5 triturat$ ) sulphur ! mixture explodes1 ! sulphur burn+ at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! lead dioxide4 ,tetra*loride ( lead1 ,pb,cl#d1 belongs to ! same class ( lead comp\nds z ,pb,o#b4 ,?is *loride is =m$ by ! action ( /rong hydro*loric acid ^u ,pb,o#b1 or1 9 ! cold1 by pass+ a /ream ( *lor9e ?r\gh wat] conta9+ ,pb,cl#b 9 susp5sion4 ,! resultant yell[ solution gives (f *lor9e :5 heat$4 ,) a solution ( sal ammoniac 7,nicoluk91 #ahhe7 x gives a precipitate ( a d\ble salt1 7,,nh#d7b,pb,cl#f 7v slightly soluble 9 a solution ( sal ammoniac71 :i* :5 treat$ ) /rong sulphuric acid 7,fri$ri*1 #ahij7 gives ,pb,cl#d z a yell[ liquid sp4 gr4 #cah1 :i* solidifies at -#ah1 & :5 heat$ gives ,pb,cl#b ,cl#b4 ,x is n act$ ^u by ,h#b,,s#d l ,sn,cl#d4 ,tetrafluoride ( lead 7,braun]7 belongs to ! same class ( comp\nds1 x easily =ms d\ble salts & decomposes ) ! evolution ( fluor9e 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #di bis74#ef bis #ee ,lead dioxide is (t5 call$ lead p]oxide1 b ?is "n leads to error1 because ,pb,o#b does n %[ ! prop]ties ( true p]oxides1 l hydrog5 or b>ium p]oxides1 b is end[$ ) acid prop]ties--t is1 x is able to =m true salts ) bases1 :i* is n ! case ) true p]oxides4 ,lead dioxide is a normal salt-=m+ comp\nd ( lead1 z ,bi#b,o#e is = bismu?1 ,ce,o#b = c]ium1 & ,te,o#c = tellurium1 c4 ,!y all evolve *lor9e :5 treat$ ) hydro*loric acid1 :il/ true p]oxides =m hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,! true lead p]oxide1 if x 7 obta9$1 w\ld probably h ! composition ,pb#b,o#e1 or1 9 comb9ation ) p]oxide ( hydrog51 ,h#b,pb#b,o#g ,h#b,o#b ,pb#b,o#e1 judg+ f ! p]oxides correspond+ ) sulphuric1 *romic1 & o!r acids1 :i* we %all aft]w>ds consid]4 ,z a pro( ( ! fact1 t ! =m ,pb,o#b1 or ,pb,x#d1 is ! highe/ normal =m ( any comb9ation ( lead1 x is mo/ important to rem>k t x might be expect$ t ! action ( lead *loride1 ,pb,cl#b1 on z9c-e?yl1 ,zn,et#b1 w\ld result 9 ! =mation ( z9c *loride1 ,zn,cl#b1 & lead-e?yl1 ,pb,et#b1 b t 9 reality ! reaction proce$s o!rwise4 ,half ( ! lead is set free1 & lead tetre?yl1 ,pb,et#d1 is =m$ z a col\rless liquid1 boil+ at ab\t #bjj 7,butl](f1 ,frankl&1 ,buckton1 ,cah\rs1 & o!rs74 ,! type ,pb,x#d is n only express$ 9 ,pb,et#d & ,pb,o#b1 b also 9 ,pb,f#d1 obta9$ by ,braun]4 #ef ,accord+ to ,c>nelley & ,walk]1 ! hydrate 7,pb,o#b7c1;,h#b,o is !n =m$2 x loses wat] at #bcj4 ,! anhydr\s dioxide rema9s un*ang$ up to #bhj1 & is !n conv]t$ into ! sesquioxide1 ,pb#b,o#c1 :i* aga9 loses oxyg5 at ab\t #djj1 & =ms r$ lead1 ,pb#c,o#d4 ,r$ lead also loses oxyg5 at ab\t #eej1 =m+ lead oxide1 ,pb,o1 :i* fuses )\t *ange at ab\t #fjj1 & rema9s con/ant z f> z ! limit ( ! obs]vations made 7ab\t #hjj74 ,! be/ me?od = prep>+ pure lead dioxide consi/s 9 mix+ a hot solution ( lead *loride ) a solution ( blea*+ p[d] 7,fehrman74 #ef bis ,! plumbates ( ,ca & o!r simil> metals1 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #g1 also belong to ! =m ,pb,x#d4 ,among/ ! elem5ts ( ! second & ?ird gr\ps x 0 obs]v$ t ! elem5ts 7 m basic 9 ! ev5 ?an 9 ! unev5 s]ies4 ,x is suffici5t to rememb] calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium 9 ! ev51 & magnesium1 z9c1 & cadmium 9 ! unev5 s]ies4 ,9 addition to ?is1 9 ! ev5 s]ies1 z ! atomic weight increases1 9 ! same type ( oxidation ! basic prop]ties increase 7! acid prop]ties decrease72 = example1 9 ! second gr\p1 calcium1 /rontium1 b>ium4 ,! same also appe>s 9 ! f\r? & all ! foll[+ gr\ps4 ,9 ! ev5 s]ies ( ! f\r? gr\p titanium1 zirconium1 c]ium1 & ?orium are f\nd4 ,all _! highe/ oxides1 ,,ro#b1 ev5 ! lighte/1 titanic oxide1 ,ti,o#b1 h m highly develop$ basic prop]ties ?an silica1 ,si,o#b1 & 9 addition to ?is ! basic prop]ties are m di/9ctly se5 9 zirconium dioxide1 ,zr,o#b1 ?an 9 titanic oxide1 ,ti,o#b1 al?\gh ! acid prop]ty ( comb9+ ) bases /ill rema9s4 ,9 ! heavie/ oxides1 c]ium dioxide1 ,ce,o#b1 & ?orium dioxide1 ,th,o#b1 no acid prop]ties are obs]v$1 ^! be+ bo? purely basic oxides4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 7,note #dc7 we already po9t$ out ?is high] oxide ( c]ium4 ,z ! above-m5tion$ elem5ts are r r>e 9 nature1 h b little practical application1 & d n pres5t any new =ms ( comb9ation1 x is unadvisable to dwell on !m 9 ?is treatise4 ,titanium is f\nd 9 nature 9 ! =m ( its anhydride or oxide1 ,ti,o#b1 mix$ ) silicon 9 _m m9]als1 b ! oxide is also f\nd sep>ately 9 ! =m ( semi-metallic rutile 7sp4 gr4 #db74 ,ano!r titanic m9]al is f\nd z a mixture 9 o!r ores1 kn[n z titanic iron ore 79 ! ,?u5sky m\nta9s ( ! s\!rn ,ural2 x is kn[n z ?u5ite71 ,fe,ti,o#c4 ,?is is a salt ( f]r\s oxide & titanic anhydride4 ,x cry/allises 9 ! rhomboh$ric sy/em1 has a metallic lu/re1 grey col\r1 sp4 gr4 #de4 ,! ?ird m9]al 9 :i* titanium is f\nd 9 consid]able quantities 9 nature is sph5e or titanite1 ,ca,ti,si,o#e ,ca,o1,si,o#b1,ti,o#b1 sp4 gr4 #ce1 col\r yell[1 gre51 or ! l1 cry/allises 9 tablets4 ,! f\r?1 b r>e1 titanic m9]al is p](fskite1 calcium titanate1 ,ca,ti,o#c2 x =ms blacki%-grey or br[n cubic cry/als1 sp4 gr4 #djb1 & occurs 9 ! ,ural & o!r localities4 ,x may be prep>$ artificially by fus+ sph5e 9 an atmosph]e ( wat] vap\r & c>bonic anhydride4 ,at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury ,klapro? %[$ ! di/9ction betwe5 titanic comp\nds & all o!rs !n kn[n4#eg #eg ,! comp\nds ( titanium are g5]ally obta9$ f rutile2 ! f9ely-gr\nd ore is fus$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( acid potassium sulphate1 until ! titanic anhydride1 z a feeble base1 passes into solution4 ,aft] cool+1 ! resultant mass is gr\nd up1 dissolv$ 9 cold wat]1 & treat$ ) ammonium hydrosulphide2 a black precipitate !n sep>ates out f ! solution4 ,?is precipitate conta9s ,ti,o#b 7z hydrate7 & v>i\s metallic sulphides--= example1 iron sulphide4 ,x is fir/ wa%$ ) wat] & !n ) a solution ( sulphur\s anhydride until x becomes col\rless4 ,?is is due to ! iron sulphide conta9$ 9 ! precipitate1 & r5d]+ x black1 be+ conv]t$ into di?ionate by ! action ( ! sulphur\s acid4 ,! titanic acid left beh9d is ne>ly pure4 ,! consid]able volatility ( titanium *loride may also be tak5 advantage ( 9 prep>+ ! comp\nds ( titanium f rutile4 ,x is =m$ by heat+ a mixture ( rutile & *>coal 9 dry *lor9e2 ! di/illate !n conta9s titanium *loride1 ,ti,cl#d4 ,x may be easily purifi$1 ow+ to its hav+ a con/ant boil+ po9t ( #acf4 ,its specific gravity is #agf2 x is a col\rless liquid1 :i* fumes 9 ! air1 & is p]fectly soluble 9 wat] if x be n heat$4 ,:5 hot wat] acts on titanic *loride1 a l>ge proportion ( titanic acid sep>ates out f ! solution & passes into metatitanic acid4 ,a simil> decomposition ( acid solutions ( titanic acid is accompli%$ :5ev] !y are heat$1 & especially 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphuric acid1 j z ) meta/annic acid1 :i* titanic acid resembles 9 _m respects4 ,on ignit+ ! titanic acid a col\rless p[d] ( ! anhydride1 ,ti,o#b1 is obta9$4 ,9 ?is =m x is no long] soluble 9 acids or alkalis1 & only fuses 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame2 b1 l silica1 x dissolves :5 fus$ ) alkalis & _! c>bonates2 z already m5tion$1 x dissolves :5 fus$ ) a consid]able excess ( acid potassium sulphate--t is1 x !n reacts z a feeble base4 ,?is %[s ! basic "* ( titanic anhydride2 x has at once1 al?\gh feebly develop$1 bo? basic & acid prop]ties4 ,! fus$ mass1 obta9$ f titanic anhydride & alkali :5 treat$ ) wat]1 p>ts ) its alkali1 & a residue is obta9$ ( a sp>+ly-soluble poly-titanate1 ,k#b,ti,o#cn,ti,o#b4 ,! hydrate1 :i* is precipitat$ by ammonia f ! solutions obta9$ by ! fusion ( ,ti,o#b ) acid potassium sulphate1 :5 dri$ =ms an amorph\s mass ( ! composition ,ti7,,oh7#d4 ,b x loses wat] ov] sulphuric acid1 gradually pass+ into a hydrate ( ! composition ,ti,o7,,oh7#b1 & :5 heat$ x p>ts ) a /ill l>g] proportion ( wat]2 at #ajj ! hydrate ,ti#b,o#c7,,oh7#b is obta9$1 & at #cjj ! anhydride itself4 ,! high] hydrate1 ,ti7,,oh7#d1 is soluble 9 dilute acid1 & ! solution may be dilut$ ) wat]2 b on boil+ ! sulphuric acid solution 7?\gh n ! solution 9 hydro*loric acid71 all ! titanic acid sep>ates 9 a modifi$ =m1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 n only insoluble 9 dilute acids1 b ev5 9 /rong sulphuric acid4 ,?is hydrate has ! composition ,ti#b,o#c7,,oh7#b1 b %[s diff]5t prop]ties f ^? ( ! hydrate ( ! same composition describ$ above1 & !re=e ?is modifi$ hydrate is call$ metatitanic acid4 ,x is mo/ important to note ! prop]ty ( ! ord9>y gelat9\s hydrate 7t precipitat$ f acid solutions by ammonia7 ( dissolv+ 9 acids1 ! m s s9ce silica does n %[ ?is prop]ty4 ,9 ?is prop]ty a transition app>5tly appe>s betwe5 ! cases ( common solution 7bas$ on a capacity = un/able comb9ation7 & ! case ( ! =mation ( a hydrosol 7! solubility ( g]manium oxide1 ,ge,o#b1 p]haps pres5ts ano!r su* in/ance74 ,if titanium *loride be add$ drop by drop to a dilute solution ( alcohol & hydrog5 p]oxide1 & !n ammonia be add$ to ! resultant solution1 a yell[ precipitate ( titanium trioxide1 ,ti,o#c;,h#b,o1 sep>ates out1 z ,picc9i1 ,well]1 & ,class5 %[$4 ,?is sub/ance app>5tly belongs to ! category ( true p]oxides4 ,titanium *loride absorbs ammonia & =ms a comp\nd1 ,ti,cl#d1d,,nh#c1 z a r$-br[n p[d] :i* attracts moi/ure f ! air & :5 ignit$ =ms titanium nitride1 ,ti#c,n#d4 ,phosphurett$ hydrog51 hydrocyanic acid1 & _m simil> comp\nds are also absorb$ by titanium *loride1 ) ! evolution ( a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,?us1 = example1 a yell[ cry/all9e p[d] ( ! composition ,ti,cl#d1b;,,hcn is obta9$ by pass+ dry hydrocyanic acid vap\r into cold titanium *loride4 ,titanium *loride comb9es 9 a simil> mann] ) cyanog5 *loride1 phosphorus p5ta*loride1 & phosphorus oxy*loride1 =m+ molecul> comp\nds1 = example ,ti,cl#d1,p,o,cl#c4 ,?is faculty = fur!r comb9ation probably /&s 9 connection1 on ! "o h&1 ) ! capacity ( titanium oxide to give polytitanates1 ,ti,o7,,mo7#b1n,ti,o#b2 on ! o!r h&1 x corresponds ) ! k9dr$ faculty ( /annic *loride = ! =mation ( poly-comp\nds 7,note #da71 & la/ly x is probably relat$ to ! rem>kable behavi\r ( titanium t[>ds nitrog54 ,metallic titanium1 obta9$ z a grey p[d] by r$uc+ potassium titan(luoride1 ,k#b,ti,f#f1 7sp4 gr4 #cee ,k4 ,h(man #ahic71 ) iron 9 a *>coal crucible1 comb9es directly ) nitrog5 at a r$ heat4 ,if titanic anhydride be ignit$ 9 a /ream ( ammonia1 all ! oxyg5 ( ! titanic oxide is dis5gag$1 & ! comp\nd ,ti,n#b is =m$ z a d>k violet sub/ance hav+ a copp]-r$ lu/re4 ,a comp\nd ,ti#e,n#f is also kn[n2 x is obta9$ by ignit+ ! comp\nd ,ti#c,n#d 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 & is ( a gold5-yell[ col\r ) a metallic lu/re4 ,to ?is ord] ( comp\nds also belongs ! well-kn[n & *emically hi/orical comp\nd kn[n z titanium nitrocyanide2 its composition is ,ti#e;,,cn#d4 ,?is sub/ance appe>s z infusible1 sometimes well-=m$1 cubical cry/als ( sp4 gr1 #dc1 & hav+ a r$ copp] col\r & metallic lu/re2 x is f\nd 9 bla/ furnace slag4 ,x is insoluble 9 acids b is act$ on by *lor9e at a r$ heat1 =m+ titanium *loride4 ,x 0 at fir/ reg>d$ z metallic titanium2 x is =m$ 9 ! bla/ furnace at ! exp5se ( ^? cyanog5 comp\nds 7potassium cyanide & o!rs7 :i* are always pres5t1 & at ! exp5se ( ! titanium comp\nds :i* accompany ! ores ( iron4 ,whl]1 :o inve/igat$ ?is comp\nd1 obta9$ x artificially by heat+ a mixture ( titanic oxide ) a small quantity ( *>coal1 9 a /ream ( nitrog51 & ?us prov$ ! direct p[] = comb9ation betwe5 nitrog5 & titanium4 ,:5 fus$ ) cau/ic pota%1 all ! nitrog5 comp\nds ( titanium evolve ammonia & =m potassium titanate4 ,l metals !y are able to r$uce _m oxides--= example1 oxides ( copp]--at a r$ heat4 ,among ! alloys ( titanium1 ! cry/all9e comp\nd ,al#d,ti is rem>kable4 ,x is obta9$ by directly dissolv+ titanium 9 fus$ alum9ium2 its specific gravity is #caa4 ,! cry/als are v /able1 & are only soluble 9 aqua regia & alkalis4 ,! comp>atively r>e elem5t zirconium1 ,zr #ij1 is v simil> to titanium1 b has a m basic "*4 ,x is r>] 9 nature ?an titanium1 & is f\nd pr9cipally 9 a m9]al call$ zircon1 ,zr,si,o#d ,zr,o#b4,si,o#b1 cry/allis+ 9 squ>e prisms1 sp4 gr4 #de4 ,x has consid]able h>dness & a *>act]i/ic br[ni%-yell[ col\r1 & is occasionally f\nd 9 ! =m ( transp>5t cry/als1 z a preci\s /one call$ hyac9?4#eh ,metallic zirconium 0 obta9$1 by ,b]zelius & ,troo/1 by ! action ( alum9ium on potassium zircon(luoride 9 ! same way t silicon is prep>$2 x =ms a cry/all9e p[d]1 simil> 9 appe>ance to graphite & antimony1 b hav+ a v consid]able h>dness1 n mu* lu/re1 sp4 gr4 #dae4 ,9 _m respects x resembles silicon2 x does n fuse :5 heat$1 & ev5 oxidises ) difficulty1 b lib]ates hydrog5 :5 fus$ ) pota%4 ,:5 fus$ ) silica x lib]ates silicon4 ,) c>bon 9 ! electrical furnace x =ms ,zr,c#b1 ) hydrog5 x gives ,zr,h#b 7l ,ca,h#b1 ,w9kl]1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #fba72 hydro*loric & nitric acids act feebly on x1 b aqua regia easily dissolves x4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f silicon by ! fact t hydr(luoric acid acts on x ) great facility1 ev5 9 ! cold & :5 dilut$1 :il/ ?is acid does n act on silicon at all4 #eh ,! =mula ,zr,o 0 fir/ giv5 to ! oxide ( zirconium z a base1 9 ?is case ,zr #de :il/ ! pres5t atomic weight is ,zr #ij--t is1 ! =mula ( ! oxide is n[ recognis$ z be+ ,zr,o#b4 ,! reasons = ascrib+ ?is =mula to ! comp\nds ( zirconium are z foll[s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! inve/igation ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( ! zircon(luorides--= example1 ,k#b,zr,f#f1 ,mg,zr,f#f1e;,h#b,o--:i* prov$ to be analog\s 9 composition & cry/all9e =m ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( titanium1 t91 & silicon4 ,9 ! second place1 ! specific heat ( ,zr is #jjfg1 :i* corresponds ) ! comb9+ weight #ij4 ,! ?ird & mo/ important reason = d\bl+ ! comb9+ weight ( zirconium 0 giv5 by ,deville's det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity ( zirconium *loride1 ,zr,cl#d4 ,?is sub/ance is obta9$ by ignit+ zirconium oxide mix$ ) *>coal 9 a /ream ( dry *lor9e1 & is a col\rless1 sal9e sub/ance :i* is easily volatile at #ddj4 ,its d5sity ref]r$ to air 0 f\nd to be #hae1 t is #aag 9 relation to hydrog51 z x %\ld be accord+ to ! molecul> =mula ( ?is sub/ance above-cit$4 ,x exhibits1 h[ev]1 9 _m respects1 a sal9e "* & t ( an acid *loranhydride1 = zirconium oxide itself pres5ts v feebly develop$ acid prop]ties b cle>ly m>k$ basic prop]ties4 ,?us zirconium *loride dissolves 9 wat]1 & on evaporation ! solution only p>tially dis5gages hydro*loric acid--resembl+ magnesium *loride1 = example4 ,zirconium 0 discov]$ & *>act]is$ z an individual elem5t by ,klapro?4 ,pure comp\nds ( zirconium are g5]ally prep>$ f zircon1 :i* is f9ely gr\nd1 b z x is v h>d x is fir/ heat$ & ?r[n into cold wat]1 by :i* means x is dis9tegrat$4 ,zircon is decompos$ or dissolv$ :5 fus$ ) acid potassium sulphate1 or /ill m easily :5 fus$ ) acid potassium fluoride 7a d\ble soluble salt1 ,k#b,zr,f#f1 is !n =m$72 h[ev]1 zirconium comp\nds are g5]ally prep>$ f p[d]$ zircon by fus+ x ) sodium c>bonate & !n boil+ 9 wat]4 ,an insoluble :ite residue is obta9$ consi/+ ( a comp\nd ( ! oxides ( sodium & zirconium1 :i* is !n treat$ ) hydro*loric acid & ! solution evaporat$ to dryness4 ,! silica is ?us conv]t$ into an insoluble =m1 & zirconium *loride obta9$ 9 solution4 ,ammonia precipitates zirconium hydroxide f ?is solution1 z a :ite gelat9\s precipitate1 ,zr,o7,,oh7#b4 ,:5 ignit$ ?is hydroxide loses wat] & 9 s do+ und]goes a spontane\s recalesc5ce & leaves a :ite infusible & exce$+ly h>d mass ( zirconium oxide1 ,zr,o#b1 hav+ a specific gravity ( #ed 79 ! electrical furnace ,zr,o#b fuses & volatilises l ,si,o#b1 ,moissan74 ,ow+ to its infusibility1 zirconium oxide is us$ z a sub/itute = lime & magnesia 9 ! ,drummond light4 ,?is oxide1 9 contradi/9ction to titanium oxide1 is soluble1 ev5 aft] prolong$ ignition1 9 hot /rong sulphuric acid4 ,! hydroxide is easily soluble 9 acids4 ,! composition ( ! salts is ,zr,x#d1 or ,zr,o,x#b1 or ,zr,o,x#b1,zr,o#b1 j z ) ^? ( its analogues4 ,b al?\gh zirconium oxide =ms salts 9 ! same way ) acids1 x also gives salts ) bases4 ,?us x lib]ates c>bonic anhydride :5 fus$ ) sodium c>bonate1 =m+ ! salts ,zr7,na,o7#d1 ,zr,o7,na,o7#b1 c4 ,wat]1 h[ev]1 de/roys ^! salts & extracts ! soda4 ,! v simil> elem5t ?orium 7,? #bcb7 0 di/+ui%$ by ,b]zelius f zirconium4 ,x is v r>ely met )1 9 ?orite & orangeite1 ,th,si,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,! latt] is isomorph\s ) zircon 7sp4 gr4 #dh74ei #ei ,?orium has also be5 f\nd 9 ! =m ( oxide 9 c]ta9 pyro*lores1 eux5ites1 monazites1 & o!r r>e m9]als conta9+ salts ( niobium & phosphates4 ,! comp\nds ( ?orium are prep>$ by decompos+ ?orite or orangeite ) /rong sulphuric acid at its boil+ po9t2 ?is r5d]s ! silica insoluble1 & ! ?orium oxide passes into solution :5 ! residue is treat$ ) cold wat]1 aft] hav+ be5 previ\sly boil$ ) wat] 7boil+ wat] does n dissolve ! oxide ( ?orium74 ,lead & o!r impurities are sep>at$ by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 ?r\gh ! solution1 & ! ?orium hydroxide is !n precipitat$ by ammonia4 ,if ?is hydroxide be dissolv$ 9 ! smalle/ possible am\nt ( hydro*loric acid1 & oxalic acid be !n add$1 ?orium oxalate is obta9$ z a :ite precipitate1 :i* is insoluble 9 an excess ( oxalic acid2 ?is reaction is tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ ?is metal f _m o!rs4 ,x1 h[ev]1 resembles ! c]ite metals 7,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #dc7 9 ?is & _m o!r respects4 ,! ?orium hydroxide is gelat9\s2 on ignition x leaves an infusible oxide1 ,th,o#b1 :i*1 :5 fus$ ) borax1 gives cry/als ( ! same =m z /annic oxide or titanic anhydride2 sp4 gr4 #ihf4 ,b ! basic prop]ties are mu* m develop$ 9 ?orium oxide ?an 9 ! prec$+ oxides1 & x does n ev5 dis5gage c>bonic acid :5 fus$ ) sodium c>bonate--t is1 x is a mu* m en]getic base ?an zirconium oxide4 ,! hydrate1 ,th,o#b1 h[ev]1 is soluble 9 a solution ( ,na#b;,,co#c 7,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #dc74 ,?orium *loride1 ,th,cl#d is obta9$ z a di/9ctly cry/all9e sublimate :5 ?orium oxide1 mix$ ) *>coal1 is ignit$ 9 a /ream ( dry *lor9e4 ,:5 heat$ ) potassium1 ?orium *loride gives a metallic p[d] ( ?orium hav+ a sp4 gr4 #aaa4 ,x burns 9 air1 & is b slightly soluble 9 dilute acids4 ,! atomic weight ( ?orium 0 e/abli%$ by ,*yd5ius & ,delafonta9e on ! basis ( ! ismorphism ( ! d\ble fluorides4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,phosphorus ,,& ,,! ,,o!r ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,fif? ,,gr\p ,nitrog5 is ! lighte/ & mo/ widely di/ribut$ repres5tative ( ! elem5ts ( ! fif? gr\p1 :i* =m a high] sal9e oxide ( ! =m ,r#b,o#e1 & a hydrog5 comp\nd ( ! =m ,,rh#c4 ,phosphorus1 ars5ic1 bismu?1 & antimony belong to ! unev5 s]ies ( ?is gr\p4 ,phosphorus is ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( ^! elem5ts4 ,!re is h>dly any m9]al sub/ance compos+ ! mass ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* does n conta9 "s--x may be a small--am\nt ( phosphorus comp\nds 9 ! =m ( ! salts ( phosphoric acid4 ,! soil & e>?y sub/ances 9 g5]al usually conta9 f "o to t5 p>ts ( phosphoric acid 9 #aj1jjj p>ts4 ,?is am\nt1 :i* appe>s s small1 has1 h[ev]1 a v important significance 9 nature4 ,no plant c atta9 its natural gr[? if x be plant$ 9 an artificial soil completely free f phosphoric acid4 ,plants equally require ! pres5ce ( pota%1 magnesia1 lime1 & f]ric oxide1 among basic1 & ( c>bonic1 sulphuric1 nitric1 & phosphoric anhydrides1 among acid oxides4 ,9 ord] to increase ! f]tility ( a m or less poor soil1 ! above-nam$ nutritive elem5ts are introduc$ into x by means ( f]tilis]s4 ,direct exp]im5t has prov$ t ^! sub/ances are und\bt$ly necess>y to plants1 b t !y mu/ be all pres5t simultane\sly & 9 small quantities1 & t an excess1 l an insuffici5cy1 ( "o ( ^! elem5ts is necess>ily foll[$ by a bad h>ve/1 or an imp]fect gr[?1 ev5 if all ! o!r conditions 7light1 heat1 wat]1 air7 are normal4 ,! phosphoric comp\nds ( ! soil accumulat$ by plants pass into ! organism ( animals1 9 :i* ^! sub/ances are assimilat$ 9 _m in/ances 9 l>ge quantities4 ,?us ! *ief compon5t "p ( bones is calcium phosphate1 ,ca#c,p#b,o#h1 & x is on ?is t _! h>dness dep5ds4#a #a ,dry bones conta9 ab\t "o-?ird ( gelat9\s matt] & ab\t two-?irds ( a%1 *iefly calcium phosphate4 ,! salts ( phosphoric acid are also f\nd 9 ! mass ( ! e>? z sep>ate m9]als2 = example1 ! apatites conta9 ?is salt 9 a cry/all9e =m1 comb9$ ) calcium *loride or fluoride1 ,ca,r#b1c;,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 :]e ,r ,f or ,cl1 sometimes 9 a /ate ( isomorph\s mixture4 ,?is m9]al (t5 cry/allises 9 f9e hexagonal prisms2 sp4 gr4 #cag to #cbb4 ,vivianite is a hydrat$ f]r\s phosphate1 ,fe#c7,,po#d7b1h;,h#b,o4 ,phosphates ( copp] are frequ5tly f\nd 9 copp] m9es2 = example1 tagilite1 ,cu#c7,,po#d7b1;,cu7,,oh7#b1b;,h#b,o4 ,lead & alum9ium =m simil> salts4 ,!y are ne>ly all insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! turquoise1 = in/ance1 is hydrat$ phosphate ( alum9a1 7,al#b,o#c7b1,p#b,o#ee;,h#b,o1 col\r$ ) a salt ( copp]4 ,sea & o!r wat]s always conta9 a small am\nt ( phosphates4 ,! a% ( sea-plants1 z well z ( l&-plants1 always conta9s phosphates4 ,deposits ( calcium phosphate are (t5 met )2 !y are t]m$ phosphorites & o/eolites1 & are compos$ ( ! fossil rema9s ( ! bones ( animals2 !y are us$ = manure4 ,( ! same nature are ! s-call$ guano deposits f ,bak]'s ,isl&1 & entire /rata 9 ,spa91 ,france1 & 9 ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ,orl(f & ,kursk 9 ,russia4 ,x is evid5t t if a soil de/9$ = cultivation conta9 v little phosphoric acid1 ! f]tilisation by means ( ^! m9]als w be b5eficial1 b1 naturally1 only if ! o!r elem5ts necess>y to plants be pres5t 9 ! soil4 ,phosphorus 0 fir/ extract$ by ,br& 9 #affi1 by ! ignition ( evaporat$ ur9e4 ,aft] ! lapse ( a c5tury ,s*eele1 :o knew ( ! exi/5ce ( a m abundant s\rce ( phosphorus 9 bones1 po9t$ out ! me?od :i* is n[ employ$ = ! extraction ( ?is elem5t4 ,calcium phosphate 9 bones p]meates a nitrog5\s organic sub/ance1 :i* is call$ osse91 & =ms a gelat94 ,:5 bones are treat$ exclusively = ! extraction ( phosphorus1 neglect+ ! gelat91 !y are burnt1 9 :i* case all ! osse9 is burnt away4 ,:51 h[ev]1 x is desir$ to pres]ve ! gelat91 ! bones are imm]s$ 9 cold dilute hydro*loric acid1 :i* dissolves ! calcium phosphate & leaves ! gelat9 unt\*$2 calcium *loride & acid calcium phosphate1 ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b1 are !n obta9$ 9 ! solution4 ,:5 ! bones are directly burnt 9 an op5 fire _! m9]al compon5ts only are left z an a%1 conta9+ ab\t #ij p] c5t4 ( calcium phosphate1 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 mix$ ) a small am\nt ( calcium c>bonate & o!r salts4 ,?is mass is treat$ ) sulphuric acid1 & !n ! same sub/ance is obta9$ 9 ! solution z 0 obta9$ f ! unburnt bones imm]s$ 9 hydro*loric acid--i4e4 ! acid calcium phosphate soluble 9 wat]1 9 :i* reaction naturally ! *ief "p ( ! sulphuric acid is conv]t$ into calcium sulphate3 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b #b;,h#b,,s#d #b;,ca,s,o#d ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b4 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b #d;,h,cl #b;,ca,cl#b ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b4 ,on evaporat+ ! solution1 cry/allisable acid calcium phosphate is obta9$4 ,! extraction ( ! phosphorus f ?is salt consi/s 9 heat+ x ) *>coal to a :ite heat4 ,:5 heat$1 ! acid phosphate1 ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b1 fir/ p>ts ) wat]1 & =ms ! metaphosphate1 ,ca7,,po#c7b1 :i* = ! sake ( simplicity may be reg>d$1 l ! acid salt1 z compos$ ( pyrophosphate & phosphoric anhydride1 #b;,ca7,,po#c7b ,ca#b,p#b,o#g ,p#b,o#e4 ,! latt]1 ) *>coal1 gives phosphorus & c>bonic oxide1 ,p#b,o#e #e;,c ,p#b #e;,,co4 ,s t 9 reality a some:at complicat$ process takes place "h1 yield+ ultimately products accord+ to ! foll[+ equation3 #b;,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b #e;,c #d;,h#b,o ,ca#b,p#b,o#g ,p#b #e;,,co4 ,aft] ! /eam has come ov]1 phosphorus & c>bonic oxide di/il ov] f ! retort & calcium pyrophosphate rema9s beh9d4#a bis #a bis ,by subject+ ! pyrophosphate to ! action ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acid x is possible to obta9 a fre% quantity ( ! acid salt f ! residue1 & 9 ?is mann] to extract all ! phosphorus4 ,x is usual to take burnt bones1 b m9]al phosphorites1 o/eolites1 & apatites may also be employ$ z mat]ials = ! extraction ( phosphorus4 ,its extraction = ! manufacture ( mat*es is ev]y:]e ext5d+1 & 9 ,russia1 9 ! ,urals1 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,p]m1 x has atta9$ su* proportions t ! di/rict is able to supply o!r c\ntries ) phosphorus4 ,a great _m me?ods h be5 propos$ = facilitat+ ! extraction ( phosphorus1 b none ( !m diff] ess5tially f ! usual "o1 because ! problem is dep5d5t on ! lib]ation ( phosphoric acid by ! action ( acids1 & on its ultimate r$uction by *>coal4 ,?us ! calcium phosphate may be mix$ directly ) *>coal & s&1 & phosphorus w be lib]at$ on heat+ ! mixture1 because ! silica displaces ! phosphoric anhydride1 :i* gives c>bonic oxide & phosphorus ) ! *>coal4 ,x has also be5 propos$ to pass hydro*loric acid ov] an inc&esc5t mixture ( calcium phosphate & *>coal2 ! acid !n acts j z ! silica does1 lib]at+ phosphoric anhydride1 :i* is r$uc$ by ! *>coal4 ,x is necess>y to prev5t ! access ( air 9 ! cond5sation ( ! vap\rs ( phosphorus1 because !y take fire v easily2 h5ce !y are cond5s$ "u wat] by caus+ ! gase\s products to pass ?r\gh a vessel full ( wat]4 ,= ?is purpose ! cond5s] %[n 9 fig4 #hc is usually employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,prep>ation ( phosphorus4 ,! mixture is calc9$ 9 ! retort c4 ,! vap\rs ( phosphorus pass ?r\gh a into wat] )\t com+ into contact ) air4 ,! phosphorus cond5ses 9 ! wat]1 & ! gases accompany+ x escape ?r\gh i4 ,z phosphorus melts at ab\t #dj1 x cond5ses at ! bottom ( ! receiv] 9 a molt5 liquid mass1 :i* is ca/ "u wat] 9 tubes1 & is sold 9 ! =m ( /icks4 ,?is is common or yell[ phosphorus4 ,x is a transp>5t1 yell[i%1 waxy sub/ance1 :i* is n brittle1 almo/ insoluble 9 wat]1 & easily und]goes *ange 9 its ext]nal appe>ance & prop]ties "u ! action ( light1 heat1 & ( v>i\s sub/ances4 ,x cry/allises 7by sublimation or f its solution 9 c>bon bisulphide7 9 ! regul> sy/em1 &#b 79 contradi/9ction to ! o!r v>ieties7 is easily soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & also p>tially 9 o!r oily liquids4 ,9 ?is x recalls common sulphur4 ,its specific gravity is #ahd4 ,x fuses at #dd1 & passes into vap\r at #bij2 x is easily inflammable1 & mu/ !re=e be h&l$ ) great caution2 c>eless rubb+ is en\gh to cause phosphorus to ignite4 ,its application 9 ! manufacture ( mat*es is bas$ on ?is4#b bis ,x emits light 9 ! air ow+ to its sl[#c oxidation1 & is !re=e kept "u wat] 7su* wat] is phosphoresc5t 9 ! d>k1 l phosphorus itself74 ,x is also v easily oxidis$ by v>i\s oxidis+ ag5ts & takes up ! oxyg5 f _m sub/ances4#c bis ,phosphorus ent]s into direct comb9ation ) _m metals & ) sulphur1 *lor9e1 c41 ) developm5t ( a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,x is v poison\s al?\gh n soluble 9 wat]4 #b ,v]non 7#ahia7 obs]v$ t ord9>y 7yell[7 phosphorus is dimorph\s4 ,if x be melt$ & by c>eful cool+ be br\ght 9 a liquid =m to z l[ a temp]ature z possible1 x gives a v>iety :i* melts at #dec 7! ord9>y v>iety fuses at #ddc71 sp4 gr4 #ahbg 7t ( ! ord9>y v>iety is #ahah7 at #ac1 cry/allises 9 rhombic prisms 7in/ead ( 9 =ms belong+ to ! cubical sy/em74 ,?is is simil> to ! relation betwe5 octah$ral & prismatic sulphur 7,*apt] ,,xx474 #b bis ,accord+ to ,h]r ,ir9yi 7an ,hung>ian /ud5t71 ! fir/ phosphorus mat*es 7 made 9 ,au/ria at ,roem]'s works 9 #ahce4 #c ,! absorption ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e at a con/ant ord9>y temp]ature by a l>ge surface ( phosphorus proce$s s uni=mly1 regul>ly1 & rapidly1 t x may s]ve1 z ,ik$a 7,tokio1 #ahic7 has %[n1 = demon/rat+ ! law ( ! velocity 7rate7 ( reaction1 :i* is consid]$ 9 !oretical *emi/ry1 & %[s t ! rate ( reaction is proportional to ! active mass ( a sub/ance--i4e4 dx_/dt k7,a - x7 :]e t is ! "t1 ,a ! initial mass ( ! react+ sub/ance--9 ?is case oxyg5--x ! am\nt ( x :i* has ent]$ into reaction1 & k ! coeffici5t ( proportionality4 ,ik$a took a te/-tube 7diamet] ab\t #aj mm471 & cov]$ its out] surface ) a coat+ ( phosphorus 7by melt+ x 9 a te/-tube ( l>ge diamet]1 ins]t+ ! small] te/-tube1 &1 :5 ! phosphorus _h solidifi$1 break+ away ! out] te/-tube71 & introduc$ x into a def9ite volume ( air1 conta9$ 9 a ,w\lfe's bottle 7imm]s$ 9 a wat] ba? to ma9ta9 a con/ant temp]ature71 "o ( ^: orifices 0 connect$ ) a m]cury manomet] %[+ ! fall ( pressure1 x4 ,kn[+ t ! initial pressure ( ! oxyg5 79 air ne>ly #gej #jbji7 0 ab\t #aee mm4 ,a1 ! coeffici5t ( ! rate ( reaction k is giv51 by ! law ( ! v>iation ( ! rate ( reaction ) ! mass ( ! react+ sub/ance1 by ! equation3 k 7#a_/t7log7,a_/7,a - x771 :]e t is ! "t1 c\nt+ f ! comm5cem5t1 ( ! exp]im5t 9 m9utes4 ,:5 ! surface ( ! phosphorus 0 ab\t #aa sq4 cm41 ! foll[+ results 7 actually obta9$4 t #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj m9utes x #aje #bae #caa #djg #dia #egc mm #aj1jjj k #cb #cb #cb #cc #cc #cc ,! con/ancy ( k is well %[n 9 ?is case4 ,! det]m9ation takes a comp>atively %ort "t1 s t x may s]ve z a lecture exp]im5t1 & demon/rates "o ( ! mo/ important laws ( *emical me*anics4 #c bis ,n only d oxidis+ ag5ts l nitric1 *romic1 & simil> acids act ^u phosphorus1 b ev5 ! alkalis are attack$--t is1 phosphorus acts z a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,9 fact x r$uces _m sub/ances1 = in/ance1 copp] f its salts4 ,:5 phosphorus is heat$ ) sodium c>bonate1 ! latt] is p>tially r$uc$ to c>bon4 ,if phosphorus be plac$ "u wat] slightly w>m$1 & a /ream ( oxyg5 be pass$ ov] x1 x w burn "u ! wat]4 ,besides ?is1 !re is a r$ v>iety ( phosphorus1 :i* diff]s consid]ably f ! above4 ,r$ phosphorus 7sometimes wrongly call$ amorph\s phosphorus7 is p>tially =m$ :5 ord9>y phosphorus rema9s expos$ to ! action ( light = a long "t4 ,x is also =m$ 9 _m reactions2 = example1 :5 ord9>y phosphorus comb9es ) *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 or oxyg51 a portion ( x is conv]t$ into r$ phosphorus4 ,s*rtt]1 9 ,vi5na1 inve/igat$ ?is v>iety ( phosphorus1 & po9t$ out by :at me?ods x may be produc$ 9 consid]able quantities4 ,r$ phosphorus is a p[d]y r$-br[n opaque sub/ance ( specific gravity #bad4 ,x does n comb9e s en]getically ) oxyg5 & o!r sub/ances z yell[ phosphorus1 & evolves less heat 9 comb9+ ) !m4#d ,common phosphorus easily oxidises 9 ! air2 r$ phosphorus does n oxidise at all at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 h5ce x does n phosphoresce 9 ! air1 & may be v conv5i5tly kept 9 ! =m ( p[d]4 ,x does n1 l yell[ phosphorus1 fuse at #dd4 ,aft] be+ conv]t$ into vap\r at #bij or #cjj1 x aga9 passes into ! ord9>y v>iety :5 sl[ly cool$4 ,r$ phosphorus is n soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide & o!r oily liquids1 :i* p]mits ( its be+ fre$ f any admixture ( ! ord9>y phosphorus4 ,x is n poison\s1 & is us$ 9 _m cases = :i* ! ord9>y phosphorus is unsuitable or dang]\s2 = example1 9 ! manufacture ( mat*es1 :i* are !n n poison\s or inflammable by accid5tal friction1 & !re=e ! r$ v>iety has n[ replac$ ! ord9>y phosphorus4#d bis #d ,! !rmo*emical det]m9ations = phosphorus & its comp\nds date f ! la/ c5tury1 :5 ,lavoisi] & ,laplace burnt phosphorus 9 oxyg5 9 an ice calorimet]4 ,&rews1 ,despretz1 ,favre1 & o!rs h /udi$ ! same subject4 ,! mo/ accurate & complete data are due to ,?oms54 ,to det]m9e ! heat ( combu/ion ( yell[ phosphorus1 ,?oms5 oxidis$ x 9 a calorimet] ) iodic acid 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 & a mixture ( phosphor\s & phosphoric acids 0 ?us =m$ 70 n any hypophosphoric acid =m$8--,salz]71 & ! iodic acid conv]t$ into hydriodic acid4 ,x 0 fir/ necess>y to introduce two corrections into ! calorimetric result obta9$1 "o = ! oxidation ( ! phosphor\s into phosphoric acid1 kn[+ _! relative am\nts by analysis1 & ! o!r = ! deoxidation ( ! iodic acid4 ,! result !n obta9$ expresses ! conv]sion ( phosphor\s into hydrat$ phosphoric acid4 ,?is mu/ be correct$ = ! heat ( solution ( ! hydrate 9 wat]1 & = ! heat ( comb9ation ( ! anhydride ) wat]1 be=e we c obta9 ! heat evolv$ 9 ! reaction ( ,p#b ) ,o#e 9 ! proportion = ! =mation ( ,p#b,o#e4 ,x is natural t ) s complex a me?od !re is a possibility ( _m small errors1 & ! resultant figures w only pres5t a c]ta9 degree ( accuracy aft] repeat$ corrections by v>i\s me?ods4 ,( su* a k9d are ! foll[+ figures det]m9$ by ,?oms51 :i* we express 9 ?\s&s ( calories3--,p#b ,o#e #cgj2 ,p#b ,o#c #c;,h#b,o #djj2 ,p#b ,o#e a mass ( wat] #dje4 ,h5ce we see t ,p#b,o#e #c;,h#b,o #cj2 #b,,ph#c,o#d an excess ( wat] #e4 ,exp]im5t fur!r %[$ t cry/allis$ ,,ph#c,o#d1 9 dissolv+ 9 wat]1 evolves #bg ?\s& calories1 & t fus$ 7#ci7 ,,ph#c,o#d evolves #eb ?\s& calories1 :5ce ! heat ( fusion ( ,h#c,,po#d #be ?\s& calories4 ,= phosphor\s acid1 ,h#c,,po#c1 ,?oms5 obta9$ ,p#b ,o#c #c;,h#b,o #bej1 & ! solution ( cry/allis$ ,h#c,,po#c 9 wat] -#jac1 & ( fus$ ,h#c,,po#c #bi4 ,= hypophosphor\s acid1 ,h#c,,po#b1 ! heats ( solution are ne>ly ! same 7-#jag & #ba71 & ! heat ( =mation ,p#b ,o #c;,h#b,o #ge2 h5ce its conv]sion into #b;,h#c,,po#c evolves #age ?\s& calories1 & ! conv]sion ( #b;,h#c,,po#c into #b;,h#c,,po#d #aej ?\s& calories4 ,= ! sake ( comp>ison we w take ! comb9ation ( *lor9e ) phosphorus1 also accord+ to ,?oms51 p] #b atoms ( phosphorus1 ,p#b #c;,cl#b #aea1 ,p#b #e;,cl#b #baj ?\s& calories4 ,9 _! reaction on an excess ( wat] 7) ! =mation ( a solution71 #b,p,cl#c #acj1 #b,p,cl#e #bdg1 & #b,p,o,cl#c #adb ?\s& calories4 ,besides :i* we w cite ! foll[+ data giv5 by v>i\s obs]v]s3 heat ( fusion = ,p 7t is1 = #ca p>ts ( phosphorus by weight7 -#jae ?\s& calories2 ! conv]sion ( yell[ into r$ phosphorus = ,p1 f #ai to #bg ?\s& calories2 ,p ,h#c #dc1 ,,hi ,,ph#c #bd1 ,,ph#c ,h,br #bb ?\s& calories4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7#bj ,c47 phosphorus is n oxidis$ by pure oxyg52 oxidation only takes place ) a slight rise ( temp]ature1 or ! dilution ( ! oxyg5 ) o!r gases 7especially nitrog5 or hydrog571 or a decrease ( pressure4 #d bis ,ord9>y phosphorus takes fire at a temp]ature 7#fj7 at :i* no o!r kn[n sub/ance w burn4 ,its application to ! manufacture ( mat*es is bas$ on ?is prop]ty4 ,9 ord] to illu/rate ! easy inflammability ( common 7yell[7 phosphorus1 its solution 9 c>bon bisulphide may be p\r$ ov] pap]2 ?is solv5t quickly evaporates1 & ! free phosphorus spread ov] a l>ge surface takes fire spontane\sly1 not)/&+ ! cool+ effect produc$ by ! evaporation ( ! bisulphide4 ,! majority ( phosphorus mat*es are compos$ ( common phosphorus mix$ ) "s oxidis+ sub/ance :i* easily gives up oxyg51 su* z lead dioxide1 potassium *lorate1 nitre1 c4 ,= ?is purpose common phosphorus is c>efully triturat$ "u w>m wat] conta9+ a little gum2 lead dioxide & potassium nitrate are !n add$ to ! resultant emulsion1 & ! mat* ends1 previ\sly coat$ ) sulphur or p>aff91 are dipp$ into ?is prep>ation4 ,aft] ?is ! mat*es are dipp$ into a solution ( gum & %ellac1 9 ord] to pres]ve ! phosphorus f ! action ( ! air4 ,:5 su* a mat* conta9+ p>ticles ( yell[ phosphorus is rubb$ ov] a r\gh surface1 x becomes 7especially at ! po9t ( rupture ( ! brittle gummy coat+7 slightly heat$1 & ?is is suffici5t to cause ! phosphorus to take fire & burn at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! o!r +r$i5ts4 ,! heads ( ! 'safety' mat*es d n conta9 any phosphorus1 b only sub/ances capable ( burn+ & ( support+ combu/ion4 ,r$ phosphorus is spread ov] a surface on ! box1 & x is ! friction aga9/ ?is phosphorus :i* ignites ! mat*es4 ,!re is no dang] ( ! mat*es tak+ fire accid5tally1 nor are !y poison\s4#e ,?is r$ phosphorus is prep>$ by heat+ ! ord9>y phosphorus at #bcj to #bgj2 x is evid5t t ?is mu/ be done 9 an atmosph]e incapable ( support+ combu/ion--= example1 9 nitrog51 c>bonic anhydride1 /eam1 c4 ,on a l>ge scale1 ord9>y phosphorus is plac$ 9 clos$ iron vessels1#e bis & imm]s$ 9 a ba? ( diff]5t proportions ( t9 & lead1 by :i* means ! temp]ature ( #bej necess>y = ! conv]sion is easily atta9$4 ,x is kept at ?is temp]ature = "s "t4 ,! temp]ature is at fir/ cauti\sly rais$1 & ! air is ?us p>tially expell$ by ! heat1 & also by ! evolution ( /eam 7! phosphorus is damp :5 put 971 :il/ ! rema9+ oxyg5 is also p>tially absorb$ by ! phosphorus1 s t an atmosph]e ( nitrog5 is produc$ 9 ! iron vessel4 ,r$ phosphorus ent]s into all ! reactions prop] to yell[ phosphorus1 only ) great] difficulty & m sl[ly2#f &1 z its vap\r t5sion 7volatility7 is less ?an t ( ! yell[ v>iety1 x may be suppos$ t a polym]isation takes place 9 ! passage ( ! yell[ into ! r$ modification1 j z 9 ! passage ( cyanog5 into p>acyanog51 or ( cyanic acid into cyanuric acid 7,*apt] ,,ix4 ,notes #ci bis & #dh74 #e ,9 ! s-call$ 'safety' or ,sw$i% mat*es 7:i* are n poison\s1 & d n take fire f accid5tal friction7 a mixture ( r$ phosphorus & glass =ms ! surface on :i* ! mat*es are /ruck1 & ! mat*es !mselves d n conta9 any phosphorus at all1 b a mixture ( antimoni\s sulphide1 ,sb#b,s#c 7or simil> combu/ible sub/ances7 & potassium *lorate 7or o!r oxidis+ ag5ts74 ,! combu/ion1 :5 once />t$ by contact ) ! r$ phosphorus1 proce$s by itself at ! exp5se ( ! inflammatory & combu/ible elem5ts conta9$ 9 ! tip ( ! mat*4 ,! mixture appli$ on ! mat* itself mu/ n be liable to take fire f a bl[ or friction4 ,! mixture =m+ ! heads ( ! 'safety' mat*es has ! foll[+ approximate composition3 #ee-fj p>ts ( *lorate ( potassium1 #e-aj p>ts ( p]oxide ( manganese 7or ( ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g71 ab\t #a "p ( sulphur or *>coal1 ab\t #a "p ( p5tasulphide ( antimony1 ,sb#b,s#e1 & #cj-dj p>ts ( r\ge & p[d]$ glass4 ,?is mixture is /irr$ up 9 gum or glue1 & ! mat*es are dipp$ into x4 ,! pap] on :i* ! mat*es are /ruck is coat$ ) a mixture ( r$ phosphorus & trisulphide ( antimony1 ,sb#b,s#c1 /irr$ up 9 dextr9e4 #e bis ,phosphorus only acts on iron at a r$ heat4 ,! boil] is provid$ ) a safety valve & gas-conduct+ tube1 :i* is imm]s$ 9 m]cury or o!r liquid to prev5t ! admission ( air into ! boil]4 #f ,! specific heat ( ! yell[ v>iety is #jahi--t is1 great] ?an t ( ! r$ v>iety1 :i* is #jagj4 ,! sp4 gr4 ( ! yell[ is #ahd1 & ( ! r$ prep>$ at #bfj #bae1 & ( t prep>$ at #ehj & above 7i4e4 'metallic' phosphorus1 see bel[7 #bcd4 ,at #bcj ! pressure ( ! vap\r ( ord9>y phosphorus #ead millimetres ( m]cury1 & ( ! r$ #j--t is to say1 ! r$ phosphorus does n =m any vap\r at ?is temp]ature2 at #ddg ! vap\r t5sion ( ord9>y phosphorus is at fir/ #eejj mm41 b x gradually dim9i%es1 :il/ t ( r$ phosphorus is equal to #afcf mm4 ,hittorf1 by heat+ ! l[] portion ( a clos$ tube conta9+ r$ phosphorus to #ecj & ! upp] portion to #ddg1 obta9$ cry/als ( ! s-call$ 'metallic' phosphorus at ! upp] extremity4 ,z ! vap\r t5sions 7accord+ to ,hittorf1 at #ecj ! vap\r t5sion ( yell[ phosphorus #hjdj mm41 ( r$ #faci mm41 & ( metallic #dacj mm47 & reactions are diff]5t1 metallic phosphorus may be reg>d$ z a di/9ct v>iety4 ,x is /ill less en]getic 9 its *emical reaction ?an r$ phosphorus1 & x is d5s] ?an ! two prec$+ v>ieties3 sp4 gr4 #bcd4 ,x does n oxidise 9 ! air2 is cry/all9e1 & has a metallic lu/re4 ,x is obta9$ :5 ord9>y phosphorus is heat$ ) lead = sev]al h\rs at #djj 9 a clos$ vessel1 f :i* ! air has be5 exhau/$4 ,! resultant mass is !n treat$ ) dilute nitric acid1 :i* fir/ dissolves ! lead 7phosphorus is electro-negative to lead1 & does n1 !re=e1 act on ! nitric acid at fir/7 & leaves brilliant rhomboh$ral cry/als ( phosphorus ( a d>k violet col\r ) a slight metallic lu/re1 :i* conduct an electric curr5t incomp>ably bett] ?an ! yell[ v>iety2 ?is also is *>act]i/ic ( ! metallic /ate ( phosphorus4 ,! rese>*es ( ,lemo9e p>tially expla9 ! passage ( yell[ 7ord9>y7 phosphorus into its o!r v>ieties4 ,he heat$ a clos$ glass globe conta9+ ei!r ord9>y or r$ phosphorus1 9 ! vap\r ( sulphur 7#ddj71 & !n det]m9$ ! am\nt ( ! r$ & yell[ v>ieties aft] v>i\s p]iods ( "t1 by treat+ ! mixture ) c>bon bisulphide4 ,x appe>$ t aft] ! lapse ( a c]ta9 "t a mixture ( def9ite & equal composition is obta9$ f bo?--t is1 betwe5 ! r$ & yell[ v>ieties a /ate ( equilibrium sets 9 l t ( dissociation1 or t obs]v$ 9 d\ble decompositions4 ,b at ! same "t1 ! progress ( ! trans=mation appe>$ to be dep5d5t on ! relative quantity ( phosphorus tak5 p] volume ( ! globe 7i4e4 ^u ! pressure74 ,neglect+ ! latt]1 we w cite z an example ! am\nts ( ! r$ phosphorus trans=m$ into ! ord9>y1 & ( ! ord9>y n conv]t$ into r$1 p] #cj grams ( r$ or yell[ tak5 p] litre capacity ( ! globe1 heat$ to #ddj4 ,:5 r$ phosphorus 0 tak51 #dge grams ( yell[ phosphorus 7 =m$ aft] two h\rs1 f\r grams aft] eight h\rs1 ?ree grams aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! la/ limit rema9$ con/ant on fur!r heat+4 ,:5 ?irty grams ( yell[ phosphorus 7 tak51 five grams rema9$ unalt]$ aft] two h\rs1 f\r grams aft] eight h\rs1 & aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs & m ?ree grams z be=e4 ,troo/ & ,hautefeuille %[$ t liquid phosphorus 9 g5]al *anges m easily into ! r$ ?an does phosphorus vap\r1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is able1 al?\gh sl[ly1 to deposit r$ phosphorus4 ,! "q pres5ts itself z to :e!r phosphorus 9 a /ate ( vap\r is ! ord9>y or "s o!r v>iety8 ,hittorf 7#ahfe7 collect$ _m data = ! solution ( ?is problem1 :i* leave no d\bt t 7z exp]im5tal figures %[7 ! d5sity ( ! vap\r ( phosphorus is always ! same1 al?\gh ! vap\r t5sion ( ! diff]5t v>ieties & _! mixtures is v v>iable4 ,?is %[s t ! diff]5t v>ieties ( phosphorus only occur 9 a liquid & solid /ate1 z inde$ is impli$ 9 ! idea ( polym]isation4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! vap\r ( phosphorus is a p>ticul> /ate ( ?is sub/ance1 & ! molecul> =mula ,p#d ref]s only to x1 & n to any o!r def9ite /ate ( phosphorus4 ,b ,ra\lt's solution me?od %[$ t 9 a b5z5e solution ! fall ( ! freez+ po9t indicates = ord9>y phosphorus a molecule ,p#d1 judg+ by ! det]m9ations ( ,pat]no & ,nas9i 7#ahhh71 ,hirtz 7#ahij71 & ,beckmann 7#ahia71 :o obta9$ = sulphur by ! same me?od a molecul> weight ,s#f1 9 con=mity ) ! vap\r d5sity4 ,fur!r rese>* 9 ?is direction w p]haps %[ ! possibility ( f9d+ ! molecul> weight ( r$ phosphorus1 if a means be discov]$ = dissolv+ x )\t conv]t+ x into ! yell[ v>iety4 ,i ?9k x w n be out ( place "h to draw ! read]'s att5tion to ! fact t r$ phosphorus1 :i* we mu/ recognise z polym]ic ) ! yell[1 /&s ne>] to nitrog51 ^: molecule is ,n#b1 9 its small incl9ation t[>ds *emical reactions1 al?\gh judg+ by its small vap\r t5sion x mu/ be m complex ?an ord9>y 7yell[ & :ite7 phosphorus4 ,! vap\r ( phosphorus is col\rless2 its d5sity rema9s con/ant betwe5 #cjj & #ajjj 7,dumas1 #ahcc2 ,mits*]li*1 ,deville1 & ,troo/1 #ahei1 & o!rs74 ,! d5sity ) respect to air has be5 det]m9$ z f #dc to #de4 ,h5ce1 ref]r$ to hydrog51 x is #dd #add #fc1 correspond+ ) a molecul> weight #abd1 i4e4 ! molecule ( phosphorus 9 a /ate ( vap\r conta9s ,p#d4 ,! read] w rememb] t ! molecule ( nitrog5 conta9s ,n#b1 ( sulphur ,s#f or ,s#b1 & ( oxyg5 ,o#b or ,o#c4 ,! *emical en]gy ( phosphorus 9 a free /ate m ne>ly approa*es t ( sulphur ?an nitrog54 ,phosphorus is combu/ible & inflames at #fj2 b hav+ 9 ! act ( comb9ation p>t$ ) a portion ( its en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat x becomes analog\s to nitrog51 s long z !re is no "q ( its r$uction back aga9 into phosphorus4 ,nitric acid is easily r$uc$ to nitrog51 :il/ phosphoric acid is r$uc$ ) v mu* great] difficulty4 ,all ! comp\nds ( phosphorus are less volatile ?an ^? ( nitrog54 ,nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 is easily di/ill$2 metaphosphoric acid1 ,,hpo#c1 is g5]ally said to be non-volatile2 trie?ylam9e1 ,n7,c#b;,h#e7c1 boils at #ij1 & trie?ylphosph9e1 ,p7,c#b;,h#e7c1 at #abg4 ,phosphorus n only comb9es easily & directly ) oxyg51 b also ) *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 sulphur1 & ) c]ta9 metals1 & r$ phosphorus :5 heat$ comb9es ) hydrog5 also4#f bis ,s1 = in/ance1 :5 fus$ ) sodium "u naph?a1 phosphorus gives ! comp\nd ,na#c,p#b4 ,z9c1 absorb+ ! vap\r ( phosphorus1 gives ! phosphide ,zn#c,p#b 7sp4 gr4 #dgf72 t91 ,sn,p2 copp]1 ,cu#b,p2 ev5 plat9um comb9es ) phosphorus 7,pt,p#b1 sp4 gr4 #hgg74f tri ,iron1 :5 comb9$ ev5 ) a small quantity ( phosphorus1 becomes brittle4#g ,"s ( ^! comp\nds ( phosphorus are obta9$ by ! action ( phosphorus on ! solutions ( metallic salts1 & by ! ignition ( metallic oxides 9 ! vap\r ( phosphorus1 or by heat+ mixtures ( phosphates ) *>coal & metals4 ,phosphides d n exhibit ! ext]nal prop]ties ( salts1 :i* are s cle>ly se5 9 ! *lorides & /ill di/9ctly obs]vable 9 ! sulphides4 ,! phosphides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis & ( ! alkal9e e>?s are ev5 imm$iately & v easily decompos$ by wat]1 :]eas ?is is f\nd to be ! case ) only a v few sulphides1 & /ill m r>ely & indi/9ctly ) ! *lorides4 ,we may take calcium phosphide z an example4#g bis ,phosphorus is laid 9 a deep crucible1 & cov]$ ) a clay plug1 ov] :i* lime is /rewn4 ,at a r$ heat ! vap\rs ( phosphorus comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! lime & =m phosphoric anhydride1 :i* =ms a salt ) ano!r portion ( ! lime1 :il/ ! lib]at$ calcium comb9es ) ! phosphorus & =ms calcium phosphide4 ,its composition is n q c]ta92 x may be ,ca,p 7correspond+ ) liquid phosphurett$ hydrog574 ,?is sub/ance is rem>kable = ! foll[+ reaction3 if we take wat]--or1 bett] /ill1 a dilute solution ( hydro*loric acid--& ?r[ calcium phosphide into x1 bubbles ( gas are evolv$1 :i* take fire spontane\sly 9 ! air & =m :ite r+s4 ,?is is ow+ to ! fact t ! liquid hydrog5 phosphide1 ,,ph#b1 is fir/ =m$1 ?us1 ,ca,p #b;,h,cl ,ca,cl#b ,,ph#b1 :i*1 ow+ to its in/ability1 v easily splits up into ! solid phosphide1 ,p#b;,h1 & gase\s phosphide1 ,,ph#c2 #e,,ph#b ,p#b;,h #c,,ph#c2 ! latt] corresponds ) ammonia4 ,! mixture ( ! gase\s & liquid phosphides takes fire spontane\sly 9 ! air1 =m+ phosphoric acid4 ,! same hydrog5 phosphides are =m$ :5 wat] acts on sodium phosphide 7,p#b,na#c74 ,a simil> mixture ( gase\s liquid & solid phosphurett$ hydrog5 7,retg]s #ahid7 is =m$ by heat+ 79 a glass tube7 r$ phosphorus 9 a /ream ( dry hydrog54 ,h5ce we see t !re are ?ree comp\nds ( phosphorus ) hydrog54 7#a7 ,! fir/ or solid yell[ phosphide1 ,p#b;,h 7m probably ,p#d;,h#b71 is obta9$ by ! action ( /rong hydro*loric acid on sodium phosphide2 x takes fire :5 /ruck or at #age4 7#b7 ,! liquid1 ,,ph#b1 or m correctly express$ z ! molecule1 ,p#b;,h#d1 is a col\rless liquid :i* takes fire spontane\sly 9 ! air1 boils at #cj1 is v un/able1 & is easily decompos$ 7by light or hydro*loric acid7 into ! two o!r phosphides ( hydrog54 ,x is prep>$ by pass+ ! gases evolv$ by ! action ( wat] on calcium phosphide ?r\gh a freez+ mixture4#h ,&1 la/ly1 7#c71 gase\s hydrog5 phosphide1 phosph9e1 ,,ph#c1 :i* is di/+ui%$ z be+ ! mo/ /able4 ,x is a col\rless gas1 :i* does n take fire 9 ! air4 ,x has an od\r ( g>lic1 & is v poison\s4 ,x resembles ammonia 9 _m ( its prop]ties4#h bis ,x is easily decompos$ by heat1 l ammonia1 =m+ phosphorus & hydrog52 b x is v slightly soluble 9 wat]1 & does n saturate acids1 al?\gh x =ms comp\nds ) "s ( !m :i* resemble ammonium salts 9 _! =m & prop]ties4 ,among !m ! comp\nd ) hydriodic acid1 ,,ph#d;,i1 analog\s to ammonium iodide1 is rem>kable4 ,?is comp\nd cry/allises on sublimation 9 well-=m$ cubes1 l sal-ammoniac1 :i* x resembles 9 _m respects4 ,h[ev]1 ?is comp\nd does n ent] into ^? reactions ( d\ble decomposition :i* are prop] to sal-ammoniac1 because its sal9e prop]ties are v feebly develop$4 ,phosphurett$ hydrog5 also comb9es1 l ammonia1 ) c]ta9 *loranhydrides2 b !y are decompos$ by wat]1 ) ! evolution ( phosph9e4 ,ogi] 7#ahhj7 %[$ t hydro*loric acid also comb9es ) phosph9e "u a pressure ( #bj atmosph]es at #ah1 & "u ! ord9>y pressure at -#ce1 =m+ ! cry/all9e phosphonium *loride ,,ph#d;,cl1 correspond+ to sal-ammoniac4 ,hydrobromic acid does ! same ) great] ease1 & hydriodic acid ) /ill great] facility1 =m+ phosphonium iodide1 ,,ph#d;,i4#i #f bis ,retg]s 7see fur!r on7 %[$ ?is 9 #ahid1 & obs]v$ t ,z :5 heat$ also comb9es ) hydrog54 #f tri ,! capacity ( m]cury 7,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #be bis7 to give un/able comp\nds ) nitrog5 gives rise to ! supposition t simil> comp\nds exi/ ) phosphorus also4 ,su* a comp\nd 0 obta9$ by ,grang] 7#ahib7 by heat+ m]cury ) iodide ( phosphorus 9 a clos$ tube at #bge-cjj4 ,aft] remov+ ! iodide ( m]cury =m$1 !re rema9 f9e rhombic cry/als hav+ a metallic lu/re1 & composition ,hg#c,p#b4 ,?is comp\nd is /able1 does n alt] at ! ord9>y temp]ature & only decomposes at a r$ heat2 :5 heat$ 9 air x burns ) a flame4 ,nitric & hydro*loric acids d n act ^u x1 b x is easily decompos$ by aqua regia4 ,a phosphide ( copp]1 ,cu#b,p#b1 0 obta9$ by ,grang] 7#ahic7 by heat+ a mixture ( wat]1 f9ely divid$ copp] & r$ phosphorus 9 a seal$ tube to #acj4 ,! excess ( copp] 0 aft]w>ds wa%$ away by a solution ( ,,nh#c 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 #g ,! metallic comp\nds ( phosphorus possess a great *emical int]e/1 because !y %[ a transition f metallic alloys 7= in/ance1 ( ,sb1 ,z7 to ! sulphides1 halog5 salts1 & oxides1 & on ! o!r h& to ! nitrides4 ,al?\gh !re are already _m fragm5t>y data on ! subject1 ! int]e/+ prov9ce ( ! metallic phosphides _c yet be reg>d$ z 9 any way g5]alis$4 ,! v>i$ applications 7phosphor-iron1 phosphor-bronze1 c471 :i* ! phosphides h rec5tly acquir$ %\ld give a /rong inc5tive to ! complete & detail$ /udy ( ?is subject1 :i* w\ld1 9 my op9ion1 help to ! explanation ( *emical relations beg9n+ ) alloys 7solutions7 & end+ ) salts & ! comp\nds ( hydrog5 7hydrides71 because ! phosphor-metals1 z is prov$ by direct exp]im5t1 /& 9 ! same relation to phosphurett$ hydrog5 z ! sulphides d t[>ds sulphurett$ hydrog51 or z ! metallic *lorides to hydro*loric acid4 #g bis ,_m o!r comp\nds ( phosphorus are also capable ( =m+ phosphurett$ hydrog54 ,?us ,,bp also gives ,,ph#c 7see ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #ab74 ,accord+ to ,lpke 7#ahij7 phosphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ by phosphide ( t94 ,! latt] is prep>$ by treat+ molt5 t9 cov]$ ) a lay] ( c>bonate ( ammonium1 ) r$ phosphorus2 #bjj-cjj c4c4 ( wat] are !n p\r$ into a flask1 #c-e grams ( ?is phosphide ( t9 dropp$ 91 & aft] driv+ out ! air by a /ream ( c>bonic acid1 hydro*loric acid 7sp4 gr4 #aajd7 is p\r$ 94 ,! dis5gagem5t ( phosphurett$ hydrog5 takes place on heat+ ! flask 9 a wat] ba?4 ,! foll[+ is ano!r easy me?od = prep>+ ,,ph#c4 ,a mixture ( #a "p ( z9c du/ 7fume7 & #b p>ts ( r$ phosphorus are heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog5 7! mixture burns 9 air74 ,comb9ation takes place accompani$ by a fla%1 & a grey mass ( ,zn#c,p#b is =m$ :i* gives ,,ph#c :5 treat$ ) dilute ,h#b,,s#d4 #h ,! spontane\s inflammability ( ! hydride ,,ph#b 9 air is v rem>kable1 & x is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ t its analogues 9 composition1 ,p7,c#b;,h#e7b 7! =mula mu/ be d\bl$7 & ,zn7,c#b;,h#e7b1 also take fire spontane\sly 9 air4 #h bis ,! analogy betwe5 ,,ph#c & ,,nh#c is p>ticul>ly cle> 9 ! hydroc>bon d]ivatives4 ,j z ,,nh#b,r1 ,,nhr#b1 & ,,nr#c1 :]e ,r is ,,*#c1 & o!r hydroc>bon radicles1 correspond to ,,nh#c1 s !re are actually simil> comp\nds correspond+ to ,,ph#c4 ,^! comp\nds =m a bran* ( organic *emi/ry4 #i ,! p]iodic law & direct exp]im5t 7! molecul> weight7 %[ t ,,ph#c is ! normal comp\nd ( ,p & ,h & t x is m simple ?an ,,ph#b or ,p#b;,h#d1 j z me?ane1 ,,*#d1 is m simple ?an e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 ^: empirical composition is ,,*#c4 ,! =mation ( liquid phosphurett$ hydrog5 may be und]/ood f ! law ( sub/itution4 ,! unival5t radicle ( ,,ph#c is ,,ph#b1 & if x is comb9$ ) ,h 9 ,,ph#c x replaces ,h 9 liquid phosphurett$ hydrog51 :i* ?us gives ,p#b;,h#d4 ,?is sub/ance corresponds ) free amidog5 7hydraz9e71 ,n#b;,h#d 7,*apt] ,,vi47 ,probably ,p#b;,h#d is able to comb9e ) ,,hi1 & p]haps also ) #b;,,hi1 or o!r molecules--t is1 to give a sub/ance correspond+ to phosphonium iodide4 ,phosphonium iodide1 ,,ph#d;,i1 may be prep>$1 accord+ to ,baey]1 9 l>ge quantities 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--#ajj p>ts ( phosphorus are dissolv$ 9 dry c>bon bisulphide 9 a tubulat$ retort3 :5 ! mixture has cool$1 #age p>ts ( iodide are add$ little by little1 & ! c>bon bisulphide is !n di/ill$ (f1 ?is be+ done t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation 9 a curr5t ( dry c>bonic anhydride at a mod]ate temp]ature4 ,! neck ( ! retort is !n connect$ ) a wide glass tube1 & ! tubulure ) a funnel furni%$ ) a /opcock1 & conta9+ #ej p>ts ( wat]4 ,?is wat] is add$ drop by drop to ! phosphor\s iodide1 & a viol5t reaction takes place1 ) ! evolution ( hydriodic acid & phosphonium iodide4 ,! latt] collects z cry/als 9 ! glass tube & ! retort itself4 ,x is purifi$ by fur!r di/illations2 m ?an #ajj p>ts may be obta9$4 ,baey] expresses ! reaction by ! equation ,p#b;,i #b;,h#b,o ,,ph#d;,i ,,po#b2 & ! comp\nd ,,po#b may be repres5t$ z phosphor\s phosphoric anhydride3 ,p#b,o#e ,p#b,o#c #d,,po#b4 ,z a bett] proportion we may take #djj grams ( phosphorus1 #fhj grams ( iod9e1 & #bdj grams ( wat]1 & express ! =mation ?us3 #ac,p #i;,i #ba;,h#b,o #c;,h#d,p#b,o#g #g,,ph#d;,i #b;,,hi 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #gg74 ,phosphonium iodide & ev5 phosph9e act z r$uc+ ag5ts 9 solutions ( _m metallic salts4 ,cavazzi %[$ t ) a solution ( sulphur\s anhydride phosph9e gives sulphur & phosphoric acid4 ,phosphurett$ hydrog51 or phosph9e1 ,,ph#c1 is g5]ally prep>$ by ! action ( cau/ic pota% on phosphorus4#aj ,small pieces ( phosphorus are dropp$ into a flask conta9+ a /rong solution ( cau/ic pota% & heat$4 ,potassium hypophosphite1 ,h#b,,kpo#b1 is !n obta9$ 9 solution2 gase\s phosphurett$ hydrog5 is evolv$3 ,p#d #c,,kho #c;,h#b,o #c7,,kh#b,,po#b7 ,,ph#c4 ,liquid phosphurett$ hydrog5 7& free hydrog57 is also =m$1 toge!r ) ! phosph9e1 s t ! gase\s product1 on escap+ f ! wat] into ! air1 takes fire spontane\sly1 =m+ beautiful :ite r+s ( phosphoric acid4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t1 z 9 t ) calcium phosphide1 x is ! liquid1 ,p#b;,h#d1 t takes fire2 b ! phosph9e set light to by x also burns1 ,,ph#c ,o#d ,,ph#c,o#d4 ,! same phosphurett$ hydrog51 ,,ph#c1 may be obta9$ pure1 & n spontane\sly combu/ible1 by ignit+ ! hydrates ( phosphor\s acid 7#d,,ph#c,o#c ,,ph#c #c,,ph#c,o#d7 & hypophosphor\s acid 7#b,,ph#c,o#b ,,ph#c ,,ph#c,o#d72 or1 m simply1 by ! decomposition ( calcium phosphide by hydro*loric acid1 because !n all ! liquid phosphide1 ,p#b;,h#d1 is decompos$ into non-volatile ,p#b;,h & gase\s ,,ph#c4 ,pure phosph9e liquefies :5 cool$ to -#ij1 boils at -#he1 & solidifies at -#ace 7,olszewski74 ,:5 phosphorus burns 9 an excess#aj bis ( dry oxyg51 !n only phosphoric anhydride1 ,p#b,o#e is =m$4 ,x is prep>$ by dropp+ pieces ( phosphorus ?r\gh a wide tube1 fix$ into ! upp] neck ( a l>ge glass globe1 on to a cup susp5d$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! globe4 ,^! lumps are set alight by t\*+ !m ) a hot wire1 & ! phosphorus burns into ,p#b,o#e4 ,! dry air necess>y = its combu/ion is =c$ into ! globe ?r\gh a lat]al neck1 & ! :ite flakes ( phosphoric anhydride =m$ are c>ri$ by ! curr5t ( air ?r\gh a second lat]al neck into a s]ies ( ,w\lfe's bottles1 :]e !y settle z friable :ite flakes4 ,phosphoric anhydride may also be =m$ by pass+ dry air ?r\gh a solution ( phosphorus 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,all ! mat]ials = ! prep>ation ( ?is sub/ance mu/ be c>efully dri$1 because x comb9es ) great eag]ness ) wat]1 at ! same "t develop+ a l>ge am\nt ( heat & =m+ metaphosphoric acid1 ,,hpo#c1 f :i* ! wat] _c be sep>at$ by heat4 ,phosphoric anhydride is a col\rless sn[-l sub/ance1 :i* attracts moi/ure f ! air ) ! utmo/ avidity4 ,x fuses at a r$ heat1 & !n volatilises4 ,its aff9ity = wat] is s great t x takes x up f _m sub/ances4 ,?us x conv]ts sulphuric acid into sulphuric anhydride1 & c>bohydrates 7wood1 pap]7 are c>bonis$1 & give up ! elem5ts ( wat] :5 br\ght into contact ) x4 #aj ,! air mu/ fir/ be expell$ f ! flask by hydrog51 or "s o!r gas :i* w n support combu/ion1 z o!rwise an explosion might take place ow+ to ! spontane\s inflammability ( ! phosphurett$ hydrog54 ,! combu/ion ( phosphurett$ hydrog5 9 oxyg5 also takes place "u wat] :5 ! bubbles ( bo? gases meet1 & x is v brilliant4 ,! phosphurett$ hydrog5 obta9$ by ! action ( phosphorus on cau/ic pota% always conta9s free hydrog51 & (t5 ev5 ! great] "p ( ! gas evolv$ consi/s ( hydrog54 ,pure phosphurett$ hydrog5 7n conta9+ hydrog5 or liquid or solid phosphides7 is obta9$ by ! action ( a solution ( pota% on phosphonium iodide3 ,,ph#d;,i ,,kho ,,ph#c ,,ki ,h#b,o 79 j ! same way z ammonia is lib]at$ f ammonium *loride74 ,! reaction proce$s easily1 & ! purity ( ! gas is se5 f ! fact t x is entirely absorb$ by blea*+ p[d] & is n spontane\sly inflammable4 ,its mixture ) oxyg5 explodes :5 ! pressure is dim9i%$ 7,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #h74 ,! vap\rs ( brom9e1 nitric acid1 c41 cause x to aga9 acquire ! prop]ty ( inflam+ 9 ! air2 t is1 !y p>tially decompose x1 =m+ ! liquid hydride1 ,p#b;,h#d4 ,opp5heim %[$ t :5 r$ phosphorus is heat$ at #bjj ) hydro*loric acid 9 a clos$ tube x =ms ! comp\nd ,p,cl#c7;,h#c,,po#c71 toge!r ) phosph9e4 #aj bis ,if !re be a defici5cy ( oxyg51 phosphor\s anhydride ,p#b,o#c is =m$4 ,x 0 obta9$ by ,?orpe & ,tutton 7#ahij7 & is easily volatilis$1 melts at #bbe1 boils )\t *ange 79 an atmosph]e ( ,n#b or ,,co#b7 at #agc1 & is !re=e easily sep>at$ f ,p#b,o#c1 :i* volatilises ) difficulty4 ,! vap\r d5sity %[s t ! molecul> weight is d\ble1 i4e4 ,p#d,o#f 7l ,z#b,o#c74 ,al?\gh col\rless1 phosphor\s anhydride 7its d5sity 9 a /ate ( fusion at #bd #aicf7 turns yell[ & r$d5s 9 sun-light 7possibly r$ phosphorus sep>ates out 871 & decomposes at #djj =m+ hypophosphor\s anhydride ,p#b,o#d 7,note #aa7 & phosphorus4 ,x passes into ,p#b,o#e 9 air & oxyg51 & :5 slightly heat$ 9 oxyg5 becomes lum9\s1 & ultimately takes fire4 ,cold wat] sl[ly trans=ms ,p#b,o#c into phosphoric acid1 b hot wat] gives an explosion & leads to ! =mation ( ,,ph#c1 7,p#d,o#f #f;,h#b,o ,,ph#c #c,,ph#c,o#d74 ,alkalis act 9 ! same mann]4 ,x takes fire 9 *lor9e & =ms ,p,o,cl#c & ,,po#b;,cl1 & comb9es ) sulphur at #afj1 =m+ ,p#b,s#b,o#c 7! molecul> =mula is d\ble ?is7 a sub/ance :i* volatilises 9 vacuo & is decompos$ by wat] into ,h#b,s & phosphoric acid1 i4e4 x may be reg>d$ z ,p#b,o#e1 9 :i* ,o#b has be5 replac$ by two atoms ( sulphur4 ,judg+ f ! above1 ! mixture ( ,p#b,o#c & ,p#b,o#e =m$ 9 ! combu/ion ( phosphorus 9 air is trans=m$ into ,p#b,o#e 9 an excess ( oxyg54 ,:5 moi/ phosphorus sl[ly oxidises 9 ! air1 x n only =ms phosphor\s & phosphoric acids1 b also hypophosphoric acid1 ,h#d,p#b,o#f1 :i* :5 9 a dry /ate easily splits up at #fj into phosphor\s & metaphosphoric acids 7,h#d,p#b,o#f ,h#c,,po#c ,,hpo#c71 b diff]s f a mixture ( ^! acids 9 t x =ms well-*>act]is$ salts1 ( :i* ! sodium salt1 ,h#b,na#b,p#b,o#f1 is b slightly soluble 9 wat] 7! sodium salts ( phosphoric & phosphor\s acids are easily soluble71 & t x does n act z a r$uc+ ag5t1 l mixtures conta9+ phosphor\s acid4#aa #aa ,salz] prov$ ! exi/5ce ( hypophosphoric acid 7x is also call$ subphosphoric acid71 9 :i* _m *emi/s did n believe4 ,drawe 7#ahhh7 & ,rammelsb]g 7#ahib7 inve/igat$ its salts4 ,x may be obta9$ 9 a free /ate by ! foll[+ me?od4 ,! solution ( acid produc$ by ! sl[ oxidation ( moi/ phosphorus is mix$ ) a solution 7#be p4c47 ( sodium acetate4 ,a salt1 ,na#b;,h#b,p#b,o#f1f;,h#b,o1 cry/allises out on cool+2 x is soluble 9 #de p>ts ( wat]1 & gives a precipitate ( ,pb#b,p#b,o#f ) lead salts 7,ag#d,p#b,o#f ) salts ( silv]74 ,! lead salt is decompos$ by a curr5t ( hydrog5 sulphide1 :5 lead sulphide is precipitat$1 :ile ! solution1 evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 gives cry/als ( ,h#d,p#b,o#f1b;,h#b,o1 :i* easily lose wat] & give ,h#d,p#b,o#f4 ,! salts 9 :i* ! ,h#d is replac$ by ,ni#b1 or ,ni,na#b1 or ,cd,na#b1 c41 are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,9 ord] to see ! relation betwe5 phosphoric acid & hypophosphoric acid :i* does n conta9 ! elem5ts ( phosphor\s acid 7because x does n r$uce ei!r gold or m]cury f _! solutions71 b :i* nev]!less is capable ( be+ oxidis$ 7= example1 by potassium p]manganate7 into phosphoric acid1 x is simple/ to apply ! law ( sub/itution4 ,?is cle>ly indicates ! relation betwe5 oxalic acid1 7,,cooh7#b1 & c>bonic acid1 ,,oh7,,cooh74 ,! relation betwe5 ! above acids is exactly ! same if we express phosphoric acid z ,,oh7,,poo#b;,h#b71 because 9 ?is case ,p#b;,h#d,o#f1 or 7,,poo#b;,h#b7c1 w correspond ) x j z oxalic does ) c>bonic acid4 ,a simil> relation%ip exi/s betwe5 hyposulphuric or di?ionic acid1 7,,s#b,,oh7#b1 & sulphuric acid1 ,,oh7,,s#b,,oh71 z we %all f9d 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,di?ionic acid corresponds ) ! anhydride ,s#b,o#e1 int]m$iate betwe5 ,,s#b & ,,s#c2 oxalic acid ) ,c#b,o#c1 int]m$iate betwe5 ,,co & ,,co#b2 hypophosphoric acid corresponds ) ! anhydride ,p#b,o#d1 int]m$iate betwe5 ,p#b,o#c & ,p#b,o#e1 & ! analogue ( ,n#b,o#d4 ,judg+ by ! g5]al law ( ! =mation ( acids 7,*apt] ,,xv471 ! s]ies ( phosphorus comp\nds %\ld include ! foll[+ or?o-acids & _! correspond+ anhydrides1 answ]+ to phosphurett$ hydrog51 ,h#c,p3-- ,h#c,,po#d1 phosphoric acid1 & ,p#b,o#e1 anhydride1 ,h#c,,po#c1 phosphor\s acid1 & ,p#b,o#c1 anhydride1 ,h#c,,po#b1 hypophosphor\s acid1 & ,p#b,o1 anhydride4#ab ,! la/ ( ^! 7! analogue ( ,n#b,o7 is almo/ unkn[n4 ,phosphoric anhydride 7,p#b,o#e7 ) a small quantity ( wat] does n at fir/ give or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,ph#c,o#d1 b a comp\nd ,p#b,o#e1;,h#b,o1 or ,,pho#c1 ^: composition corresponds ) t ( nitric acid2 ?is is metaphosphoric acid4 ,ev5 ) an excess ( wat]1 comb9+ ) phosphoric anhydride1 ?is metaphosphoric acid1 & n ! or?o-1 passes at fir/ into solution4 ,metaphosphoric acid 9 solution only passes into or?ophosphoric acid :5 ! solution is heat$ or aft] a lapse ( "t4 #ab ,besides ! hydrates enum]at$1 a comp\nd1 ,,ph#c,o1 %\ld correspond ) ,,ph#c4 ,?is hydrate1 :i* is analog\s to hydroxylam9e1 is n kn[n 9 a free /ate1 b x is kn[n z trie?ylphosph9e oxide1 ,p7,c#b;,h#e7c,o1 :i* is obta9$ by ! oxidation ( trie?ylphosph9e1 ,p7,c#b;,h#e7c4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t !re may also be l[] oxides ( phosphorus correspond+ ) ,,ph#c1 l ,n#b,o & ,,no1 & !re are ev5 indications ( ! =mation ( su* comp\nds1 b ! data conc]n+ !m _c be consid]$ z firmly e/abli%$4 ,or?ophosphoric acid#ac is obta9$ by oxidis+ phosphorus ) nitric acid until ! phosphorus entirely passes into solution & ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 cease to be evolv$4 ,! reaction takes place be/ ) dilute nitric acid1 & :5 aid$ by heat4 ,! resultant solution is evaporat$ to a syrup4 ,if a weigh$ quantity ( phosphorus 7dri$ 9 a curr5t ( dry c>bonic anhydride7 be tak51 a cry/all9e mass ( ! acid c be obta9$ by evaporat+ ! solution until x consi/s only ( ! quantity#ad ( phosphoric acid correspond+ ) ! am\nt ( phosphorus tak5 7f #ca p>ts ( ,p1 #ih p>ts ( solution74 ,! acid fuses at #ci2 specific gravity ( ! liquid #ahh4 ,phosphorus p5ta*loride1 ,p,cl#e1 & oxy*loride1 ,p,o,cl#c 7see fur!r on71 give or?ophosphoric acid & hydro*loric acid ) wat]4 ,! two o!r v>ieties ( phosphoric acid1 ) :i* we %all pres5tly become acqua9t$1 give ! same or?o-acid :5 "u ! influ5ce ( acids1 ) p>ticul> ease :5 boil$ & m sl[ly 9 ! cold4 ,by itself or?ophosphoric acid 7ei!r 9 solution or :5 dry7 does n pass into ! o!r v>ieties2 x does n oxidise1 & !re=e pres5ts ! limit+ & /able =m4 ,:5 heat$ to #cjj1 x loses wat] & passes into pyrophosphoric acid1 #b;,h#c,,po#d ,h#b,o ,h#d,p#b,o#g1 :il/ at a r$ heat x loses twice z mu* wat] & is conv]t$ into metaphosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d ,h#b,o ,,hpo#c4 ,9 aque\s solution or?ophosphoric acid diff]s cle>ly f pyro- or metaphosphoric acids1 because ! solutions ( ^! latt] acids give diff]5t reactions3 ?us or?ophosphoric acid does n precipitate album91 does n give a precipitate ) b>ium *loride1 & =ms a yell[ precipitate ( silv] or?ophosphate1 ,ag#c,,po#d1 ) silv] nitrate 79 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 b n o!rwise72 :il/ a solution ( pyrophosphoric acid1 ,h#d,p#b,o#g1 al?\gh x does n precipitate album9 or b>ium *loride1 gives a :ite precipitate ( silv] pyrophosphate1 ,ag#d,p#b,o#g1 ) silv] nitrate2 & a solution ( metaphosphoric acid1 ,,hpo#c1 precipitates bo? album9 & b>ium *loride1 & gives a :ite precipitate ( silv] metaphosphate1 ,ag,p,o#c1 ) silv] nitrate4 ,^! po9ts ( di/9ction 7 /udi$ by ,graham1 & are exce$+ly in/ructive4 ,!y %[ t ! solution ( a sub/ance does n det]m9e ! maximum ( *emical comb9ation ) wat]1 t solutions may conta9 v>i\s degrees ( comb9ation ) wat]1 & t !re is a cle> diff]5ce betwe5 ! wat] s]v+ = solution & t ent]+ into *emical comb9ation4 ,graham's exp]im5ts also %[$ t ! wat] ^: removal or comb9ation det]m9es ! conv]sion ( or?o- into meta- & pyrophosphoric acids diff]s di/9ctly f wat] ( cry/allisation1 = he obta9$ ! salts ( or?o-1 meta-1 & pyrophosphoric acids ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 & !y diff]$ 9 _! reactions1 l ! acids !mselves4 ,?is wat] ( cry/allisation 0 expell$ ) great] ease ?an ! wat] ( con/itution ( ! hydrates 9 "q4#ad bis #ac ,phosphoric acid1 be+ a soluble & almo/ non-volatile sub/ance1 _c be prep>$ l hydro*loric & nitric acids by ! action ( sulphuric acid on ! alkali phosphates1 al?\gh x is p>tially lib]at$ 9 ! process4 ,= ?is purpose ! salts ( b>ium or lead may be tak51 because !y give insoluble salts1 ?us ,ba#c7,,po#d7b #c;,h#b,,s#d #c;,ba,s,o#d #b;,h#c,,po#d4 ,bone a% conta9s1 besides calcium phosphate1 sodium & magnesium phosphates1 & fluorides & o!r salts1 s t x _c give directly a pure phosphoric acid4 #ad ,if ?is is n done ! or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,ph#c,o#d1 loses a portion ( its wat]1 & !n1 z ) an excess ( wat]1 x does n cry/allise4 #ad bis ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! reactions ( or?o-1 meta- & pyrophosphoric acids1 e/abli%$ by ,graham 7see p4 #afc71 is ( su* importance = ! !ory ( hydrates & = expla9+ ! nature ( solutions1 t 9 my op9ion its influ5ce ^u *emical ?\ght has be5 f> f exhau/$4 ,at ! pres5t "t _m su* in/ances are kn[n bo? 9 organic 7= in/ance1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! reactions ( ! solutions ( c]ta9 anhydrides & hydrates ( acids71 & inorganic *emi/ry 7= example1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! rose & purple cobalt comp\nds1 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 c47 ,!y ess5tially recall ! long kn[n & g5]alis$ diff]5ce betwe5 ,c#b;,h#d 7e?yl5e71 ,c#b;,h#f,o 7e?yl alcohol e?yl5e wat]71 & ,c#d;,h#aj,o 7e?yl e!r #b e?yl5e wat] #b alcohol - wat]72 b to ! pres5t day ! num]\s analog\s ph5om5a exi/+ among inorganic sub/ances are only consid]$ z a simple diff]5ce 9 degrees ( aff9ity1 di/+ui%+ ! wat] ( con/itution 7hydration71 cry/allisation1 & solution )\t p5etrat+ into ! diff]5ce ( ! /ructure or di/ribution ( ! elem5ts1 :i* exi/s "h & gives rise to a di/9ct isom]ism ( solutions4 ,9 my op9ion ! progress ( *emi/ry1 especially ) reg>d to solutions1 %\ld make rapid /rides :5 ! cause ( ! isom]ism ( solutions1 = in/ance1 ( or?o- & pyrophosphoric acids1 has become z cle> to u z ! cause ( _m well-/udi$ in/ances ( ! isom]ism1 polym]ism1 & metam]ism ( organic comp\nds4 ,"h x =ms "o ( ^? _m important problems :i* rema9 = ! *emi/ry ( ! future 9 a /ate ( only indi/9ct pres5tim5ts & 9 ! =m ( facts empirically kn[n b insuffici5tly compreh5d$4 ,or?ophosphoric acid has a pleasant acid ta/e & a di/9ctly acid reaction2 x is us$ z a m$ic9e1 & is n poison\s 7phosphor\s acid is poison\s74 ,alkalis1 l sodium1 potassium1 & ammonium hydroxides1 saturate ! acid prop]ties ( phosphoric acid :5 tak5 9 ! ratio #b,na,h,o 3 ,h#c,,po#d--t is1 :5 salts ( ! composition ,h,na#b,,po#d are =m$4 ,:5 tak5 9 ! ratio ,na,h,o 3 ,h#c,,po#d1 a solution hav+ an acid reaction is obta9$1 & :5 #c,na,h,o 3 ,h#c,,po#d--t is1 :5 ! salt ,na#c,,po#d is =m$--an alkal9e reaction is obta9$4 ,h5ce _m *emi/s 7,b]zelius7 ev5 reg>d$ ! salts ( composition ,r#b;,,hpo#d z normal1 & consid]$ phosphoric acid to be bibasic4 ,b ! salt ,na#b;,,hpo#d also %[s a feeble alkal9e reaction1 s t x is impossible to judge ! *>act]i/ic peculi>ities ( acids by ! reactions on litmus pap]1 z we already "k f _m examples4 ,or?ophosphoric acid is tribasic1 because x conta9s ?ree equival5ts ( hydrog5 replaceable by metals1 =m+ salts1 su* z ,na,h#b,,po#d1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 & ,na#c,,po#d4 ,x is also tribasic1 because ) silv] nitrate its soluble salts always give ,ag#c,,po#d1ae a salt ) ?ree equival5ts ( silv]1 & because by d\ble decomposition ) b>ium *loride x =ms a salt ( ! composition ,ba#c7,,po#d7b1 & silv] & b>ium h>dly ev] give basic salts4 ,) ! metals ( ! alkalis1 phosphoric acid =ms soluble salts1 b ! normal salts ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 ,r#c7,,po#d7b & ev5 ,r#b;,h#b7,,po#d71 are insoluble 9 wat]1 b dissolve 9 feeble acids1 su* z phosphoric & acetic1 because !y !n =m soluble acid salts1 especially ,,rh#d7,,po#d7b4af #ae ,silv] or?ophosphate1 ,ag#c,,po#d1 is yell[1 sp4 gr4 #gcb1 & insoluble 9 wat]4 ,:5 heat$ x fuses l silv] *loride1 & if kept fus$ = "s l5g? ( "t x gives a :ite pyrophosphate 7! decomposition :i* causes ?is is n kn[n74 ,x is soluble 9 aque\s solutions ( phosphoric1 nitric1 & ev5 acetic acids1 ( ammonia1 & _m ( its salts4 ,if silv] nitrate acts on a dimetallic or?ophosphate--= in/ance1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d--;x /ill gives ,ag#c,,po#d1 nitric acid be+ dis5gag$3 ,na#b;,,hpo#d #c;,ag,n,o#c ,ag#c,,po#d #b,na,n,o#c ,,hno#c4 ,:5 alcohol is add$ to silv] or?ophosphate1 ,ag#c,,po#d1 dissolv$ 9 syrupy phosphoric acid1 x precipitates a :ite salt 7! alcohol takes up ! free phosphoric acid7 hav+ ! composition ,ag#b;,,hpo#d1 :i* is imm$iately decompos$ by wat] into ! normal salt & phosphoric acid4 #af ,! rese>*es ( ,?oms5 %[$ t 9 v dilute aque\s solutions ! majority ( monobasic acids--nitric1 acetic1 hydro*loric1 c4 7b hydr(luoric acid m & hydrocyanic less7--,,hx evolve ! foll[+ am\nts ( heat 79 ?\s&s ( calories7 ) cau/ic soda3 ,na,h,o #b;,,hx #ad2 ,na,h,o ,,hx #ad2 #b,na,h,o ,,hx #ad2 t is1 if n be a :ole numb] n,na,h,o ,,hx #ad & ,na,h,o n,,hx #ad4 ,h5ce reaction "h only takes place betwe5 "o molecule ( ,na,h,o & "o molecule ( acid1 & ! rema9+ quantity ( acid or alkali does n ent] into ! reaction4 ,9 ! case ( bibasic acids1 ,h#b,r 7sulphuric1 di?ionic1 oxalic1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 c471 ,na,h,o #b;,h#b,r #ad2 ,na,h,o ,h#b,r #ad2 #b,na,h,o ,h#b,r #bh2 n,na,h,o ,h#b,r #bh2 t is1 ) an excess ( acid 7,na,h,o #b;,h#b,r7 #ad ?\s& units ( heat are develop$1 & ) an excess ( alkali #bh4 ,:5 phosphoric acid is tak5 7b n all tribasic acids--= in/ance1 n citric7 ! g5]al "* ( ! ph5om5on is simil> to ! prec$+1 namely1 ,na,h,o #b;,h#c,,po#d #adg2 ,na,h,o ,h#c,,po#d #adh2 #b,na,h,o ,h#c,,po#d #bga2 #c,na,h,o ,h#c,,po#d #cdj2 #f,na,h,o ,h#c,,po#d #cec2 or1 9 g5]al t]ms1 ,na,h,o n,h#c,,po#d #ad 7approximately7 & n,na,h,o ,h#c,,po#d #ce & n #db1 :i* %[s a peculi>ity ( phosphoric acid4 ,9 ! case ( en]getic acids1 :5 "o equival5t 7#bc grams7 ( sodium 79 ! =m ( hydroxide7 replaces "o equival5t 7#a gram7 ( hydrog5 7) ! =mation ( wat] & 9 dilute solutions71 #ad1jjj heat units are evolv$2 & ?is is true = phosphoric acid :5 9 ,h#c,,po#d1 ,na or ,na#b replaces ,h or ,h#b1 b :5 ,na#c replaces ,h#c less heat is develop$4 ,?is w be se5 f ! foll[+ s*eme bas$ on ! prec$+ figures3 ,h#c,,po#d ,na,h,o #adh2 ,na,h#b,,po#d ,na,h,o #abc2 ,na#b;,,hpo#d ,na,h,o #ei2 ) ,na#c,,po#d ,na,h,o1 a v small am\nt ( heat is evolv$1 z may be judg$ f ! fact t ,na#c,,po#d #c,na,h,o #ac1 b /ill heat is evolv$4 ,x mu/ be suppos$ t 9 act+ on phosphoric acid 9 ! pres5ce ( a l>ge quantity ( wat]1 a c]ta9 portion ( ! sodium hydroxide rema9s z alkali uncomb9$ ) ! acid4 ,?us1 on increas+ ! mass ( ! alkali1 heat is /ill evolv$1 & a fre% int]*ange betwe5 ,na & ,h takes place4 ,h5ce wat] %[s a decompos+ action on ! alkali phosphates4 ,! same decompos+ action ( wat] is se51 b to a less ext5t1 ) ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 z may be judg$ bo? f ! reactions ( ?is salt & f ! am\nt ( heat develop$ by ,na,h#b,,po#d ) ,na,h,o4 ,su* an explanation is 9 accordance ) _m facts conc]n+ ! decomposition ( salts by wat] already kn[n to u4 ,rec5t rese>*es made by ,b]!lot & ,l\gu99e h confirm$ ! above d$uctions made by me 9 ! fir/ edition 7#ahga7 ( ?is "w4 ,at ! pres5t "t views ( ?is nature are some:at g5]ally accept$1 al?\gh !y are n suffici5tly /rictly appli$ 9 o!r cases4 ,z reg>ds ,,ph#c,o#d x may be said t3 on ! sub/itution ( ! fir/ hydrog5 ?is acid acts z a p[]ful acid 7l ,h,cl1 ,,hno#c1 ,h#b,,s#d72 on ! sub/itution ( ! second hydrog5 z a weak] acid 7l an organic acid72 & on ! sub/itution ( ! ?ird1 z an alcohol1 = in/ance ph5ol1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( a feeble acid4 ,phosphoric anhydride1 or any ( its hydrates1 :5 ignit$ ) an excess ( sodium hydroxide1 c>bonate1 c41 =ms normal or trisodium or?ophosphate1 ,na#c,,po#d1 b :5 a solution ( sodium c>bonate is decompos$ by or?ophosphoric acid1 only ! salt ,na#b;,,hpo#d is =m$2 & :5 an excess ( sodium *loride is ignit$ ) or?ophosphoric acid1 hydro*loric acid is evolv$1 & ! acid salt ,h#b,na,p,o#d alone is =m$4 ,^! facts cle>ly indicate ! small en]gy ( phosphoric acid ) respect to ! =mation ( ! tri-metallic salt1 :i* is se5 fur!r f ! fact t ! salt ,na#c,,po#d has an alkal9e reaction1 decomposes 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & c>bonic acid1 =m+ ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 corrodes glass vessels 9 :i* x is boil$ or evaporat$1 j l solutions ( ! alkalis1 dis5gages1 l !m1 ammonia f ammonium *loride1 & cry/allises f solutions1 z ,na#c,,po#d1ab;,h#b,o1 only 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( alkali4 ,at #ae ! cry/als ( ?is salt require five p>ts ( wat] = solution2 !y fuse at #gg4 ,disodium or?ophosphate1 or common sodium phosphate1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 is m /able bo? 9 solution & 9 ! solid /ate4 ,z x is us$ 9 m$ic9e & 9 dye+1 x is prep>$ 9 consid]able quantities1 mo/ frequ5tly f ! impure phosphoric acid obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid on bone a%4 ,! solution ?us =m$--:i* conta9s1 besides phosphoric & sulphuric acids1 salts ( sodium1 calcium1 & magnesium--is heat$1 & sodium c>bonate add$ s long z c>bonic anhydride is dis5gag$4 ,a precipitate is =m$ conta9+ ! insoluble salts ( magnesium & calcium1 :il/ ! solution conta9s sodium phosphate1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 ) a small quantity ( o!r salts1 f :i* x may be easily purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature its solutions1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( sodium c>bonate1 give f9ely-=m$ incl9$ prismatic cry/als1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d1ab;,h#b,o2 :5 ! cry/allisation takes place above #cj !y only conta9 #g;,h#b,o4 ,! =m] cry/als ev5 lose a portion ( _! wat] ( cry/allisation at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7! salt effloresces71 & =m ! second salt ) #g;,h#b,o2 :il/ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump & ov] sulphuric acid !y also "p ) ?is wat]4#ag ,:5 ignit$ !y lose ! la/ molecule ( wat] ( con/itution1 & give sodium pyrophosphate1 ,na#d,p#b,o#g4 #ag ,na#b;,,hpo#d1ab;,h#b,o has a sp4 gr4 #aec4 ,poggiale det]m9$ ! solubility 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] 7#a7 ( ! anhydr\s or?o-salt ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 & 7#b7 ( ! correspond+ pyro-salt ,na#d,p#b,o#g3-- #j #bj #dj #hj #ajj ,i4 #ae #aaa #cji #ha #ajh ,,ii4 #cb #fb #ace #cj #dj ,at temp]atures ( #bj to #ajj ! or?o-salt is s v mu* less soluble t ?is diff]5ce alone already indicates ! deeply-seat$ alt]ation 9 con/itution :i* takes place 9 ! passage f ! or?o- to ! pyro-salts4 ,monosodium or?ophosphate1 ,na,h#b,,po#d1 cry/allises ) "o equival5t ( wat]2 its solution has an acid reaction4 ,at #ajj ! salt only loses ?is wat] ( cry/allisation1 & at ab\t #bjj x p>ts ) all its wat]1 =m+ ! metaphosphate ,na,p,o#c4 ,x is prep>$ f ord9>y sodium phosphate by add+ phosphoric acid until ! solution does n give a precipitate ) b>ium *loride1 & !n evaporat+ & cry/allis+ ! solution4 ,! solution ( ?is salt does n absorb c>bonic anhydride1 & does n give a precipitate ) salts ( calcium1 b>ium1 c4#ah #ah ,! ammonium or?ophosphates resemble ! sodium salts 9 _m respects1 b ! in/ability ( ! di- & tri-metallic salts is se5 9 !m /ill m cle>ly ?an 9 ! sodium salts2 ?us 7,,nh#d7c,,po#d1 & ev5 7,,nh#d7b;,,hpo#d1 lose ammonia 9 ! air 7especially :5 heat$1 ev5 9 solutions72 ,,nh#d;,h#b,,po#d alone does n dis5gage ammonia & has an acid reaction4 ,! cry/als ( ! fir/ salt conta9 #c;,h#b,o1 & are only =m$ 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ammonia2 bo? ! o!rs are anhydr\s1 & may be obta9$ l ! sodium salts4 ,:5 ignit$ ^! salts leave metaphosphoric acid beh9d2 = example1 7,,nh#d7b;,,hpo#d #b,,nh#c ,h#b,o ,,hpo#c4 ,ammonia also ent]s into ! composition ( _m d\ble phosphates4 ,ammonium sodium or?ophosphate1 or simply phosphate1 ,,nh#d,na,h,p,o#d1d;,h#b,o1 cry/allises 9 l>ge transp>5t cry/als f a mixture ( ! solutions ( disodium phosphate & ammonium *loride 79 :i* case sodium *loride is obta9$ 9 ! "m liquid71 or1 bett] /ill1 f a solution ( monosodium phosphate saturat$ ) ammonia4 ,x is also =m$ f ! phosphates 9 ur9e :5 x f]m5ts4 ,?is salt is frequ5tly us$ 9 te/+ metallic comp\nds by ! bl[-pipe1 because :5 ignit$ x leaves a vitre\s metaphosphate1 ,na,p,o#c1 :i*1 l borax1 dissolves metallic oxides1 =m+ *>act]i/ic t9t$ glasses4 ,:5 a solution ( trisodium phosphate is add$ to a solution ( a magnesium salt x gives a :ite precipitate ( ! normal or?ophosphate ,mg#b7,,po#d7b1g;,h#b,o4 ,if ! trisodium salt be replac$ by ! ord9>y salt1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 a precipitate is also =m$1 & ,mg,h,p,o#d1g;,h#b,o is obta9$4 ,x might be ?\ght t ! normal salt ,mg#c7,,po#d7b w\ld be precipitat$ if disodium phosphate 0 add$ to ammonia & a salt ( magnesium1 b 9 reality ammonium magnesium or?ophosphate1 ,mg,n,h#d,,po#d1f;,h#b,o1 is precipitat$ z a cry/all9e p[d]1 :i* loses ammonia & wat] :5 ignit$1 & gives a pyrophosphate1 ,mg#b,p#b,o#g4 ,?is salt occurs 9 nature z ! m9]al /ruvite1 & 9 v>i\s products ( ! *anges ( animal matt]4 ,if we consid] t ! above salt p>ts ) ammonia ) difficulty1 & t ! correspond+ salt ( sodium is n =m$ "u ! same conditions 7,mg,na,p,o#d1i;,h#b,o is obta9$ by ! action ( magnesia on disodium phosphate71 if we turn our att5tion to ! fact t ! salts ( calcium & b>ium d n =m d\ble salts z easily z magnesium1 & rememb] t ! salts ( magnesium 9 g5]al easily =m d\ble ammonium salts1 we are l$ to ?9k t ?is salt is n really a normal1 b an acid salt1 correspond+ ) ,na#b;,,hpo#d1 9 :i* ,na#b is replac$ by ! equival5t gr\p ,,nh#c,mg4 ,! common normal calcium phosphate1 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 occurs 9 m9]als1 9 animals1 especially 9 bones1 & also probably 9 plants1 al?\gh ! a% ( _m portions ( plants1 z a rule1 conta9s less lime ?an ! =mation ( ! normal salt requires4 ,?us #ajj p>ts ( ! a% 7f #e1jjj p>ts ( gra97 ( rye gra9 conta9 #dge ( phosphoric anhydride & only #bg ( lime1 & ev5 ! a% ( ! :ole ( ! rye 7includ+ ! /raw7 conta9s twice z mu* phosphoric anhydride z lime1 & ! normal salt conta9s almo/ equal weights ( ^! sub/ances4 ,only ! a% ( grasses1 & especially ( clov]1 & ( trees1 conta9s 9 ! majority ( cases m lime ?an is requir$ = ! =mation ( ,ca#c,p#b,o#h4 ,?is salt1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 dissolves ev5 9 su* feeble acids z acetic & sulphur\s1 & ev5 9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,! latt] fact is ( imm5se importance 9 nature1 s9ce by reason ( x ra9 wat] is able to transf] ! calcium phosphates 9 ! soil into solutions :i* are absorb$ by plants4 ,! solubility ( ! normal salt 9 acids takes place by virtue ( ! =mation ( an acid salt1 :i* is evid5t f ! quantity ( acid requir$ = its solution1 & m especially f ! fact t ! acid solutions :5 evaporat$ give cry/all9e scales ( ! acid calcium phosphate1 ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is solubility ( ! acid salt =ms ! basis ( ! treatm5t by acids ( bones1 phosphorites1 guano1 & o!r natural products conta9+ ! normal salt & employ$ = f]tilis+ ! soil4 ,! p]fect decomposition requires at lea/ #b;,h#b,,s#d to ,ca#c7,,po#d7b1 b 9 reality less is tak51 s t only a portion ( ! normal salt is conv]t$ into ! acid salt4 ,hydro*loric acid is sometimes us$4 7,9 practice su* mixtures are kn[n z sup]phosphates74 ,c]ta9 exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1 %[ t a ?or\gh gr9d+1 ! pres5ce ( organic1 & especially ( nitrog5\s1 sub/ances1 & ! por\s /ructure ( "s calcium phosphates 7= example1 9 burnt bones71 r5d] ! treatm5t ( phosphoric manures by acids sup]flu\s--t is1 ! crop is n improv$ by x4 ,z a hydrate1 or?ophosphoric acid %\ld be express$1 aft] ! fa%ion ( o!r hydrates1 z conta9+ ?ree wat] residues 7hydroxyl gr\ps71 i4e4 z ,,po7,,oh7#c4 ,?is me?od ( expression indicates t ! type ,,px#e1 se5 9 ,,ph#d;,i1 is "h pres]v$1 ) ! sub/itution ( ,x#b by oxyg5 & ,x#c by ?ree hydroxyl gr\ps4 ,! same type appe>s 9 ,p,o,cl#c1 ,p,cl#e1 ,,pf#e1 c4 ,& if we recognise phosphoric acid z ,,po7,,oh7#c1 we %\ld expect to f9d ?ree anhydrides correspond+ ) x3 7#a7 ,,po7,,oh7#bb,o1 9 :i* two ( ! ?ree hydroxyls are pres]v$2 ?is is pyrophosphoric acid1 ,h#d,p#b,o#g4 7#b7 ,,po7,,oh7,o1 :]e only "o hydroxyl is pres]v$4 ,?is is metaphosphoric acid4 7#c7 7,,po7#b,o#c or ,p#b,o#e1 t is1 p]fect phosphoric anhydride4 ,!re=e1 pyro- & metaphosphoric acids are imp]fect anhydrides 7or anhydro-acids7 ( or?ophosphoric acid4#ai #ai ,9 ?is s5se ! or?o-acid itself might be reg>d$ z an anhydro-acid1 c\nt+ ,p7,,ho7#e z ! p]fect hydrate1 if ,,ph#e exi/$2 b z 9 g5]al ! normal hydrates correspond ) ! exi/+ hydrog5 comp\nds ) ! addition ( up to #d atoms ( oxyg51 !re=e ,,ph#c,o#d is ! normal acid1 j z ,,%#b,o#d & ,cl,h,o#d2 :ile ,,nho#c1 ,,*#b,o#c are meta-acids1 or high] normal acids 7,,nh#c,o#d & ,,*#d,o#d7 ) ! loss ( a molecule ( wat]4 ,9 ord] to see ! relation betwe5 ! or?o-1 pyro-1 & metaphosphoric acids1 ! fir/ ?+ to rem>k 9 !m is t ! anhydride ,p#b,o#e is comb9$ ) #c1 #b1 & #a molecules ( wat]4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( data = ! molecul> weight ( or?o- & pyrophosphoric acids x is necess>y to m5tion t all exi/+ data = metaphosphoric acid indicate 7,note #ba7 t its molecule is mu* m complex & conta9s at lea/ ,h#c,p#c,o#i or ,h#f,p#f,o#ah4 ,! explanation ( ! problems :i* "h pres5t !mselves c1 x seems to me1 be only look$ = aft] a detail$ /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( ! polym]isations ( m9]al sub/ances1 & ( ^? complex acids1 su* z phosphomolybdic1 :i* we %all h]eaft] describe 7,*apt] ,,xxi47 ,a simil> in/ance is exhibit$ 9 ! solubility ( hydrate ( silica 7produc$ by ! action ( silicon fluoride on wat]7 9 fus$ metaphosphoric acid1 ) ! =mation1 on cool+1 ( an octah$ral comp\nd 7sp4 gr41 #ca7 conta9+ ,si,o#b1,p#b,o#e4 ,a c]ta9 indication 7b no pro(7 t ord9>y or?ophosphoric acid is polym]is$ is giv5 by ,/aud5mai] 7#ahic71 :o obta9$ a salt1 ,k#e;,h#d,p#c,o#ab1 by ! action ( a solution ( ,,kh#b,,po#d ^u ,k#b;,,co#c2 & a comp\nd1 ,,kh#c,p#b,o#h1 correspond+ to ! d\bl$ molecule ( ,h#c,,po#d1 by ! action ( ,,kh#b,,po#d ^u ,h#c,,po#d itself4 ,pyrophosphoric acid1 ,h#d,p#b,o#g1 is =m$ by heat+ or?ophosphoric acid to #bej :5 x loses wat]4#ai bis ,its normal salts are =m$ by ignit+ ! dimetallic salts ( or?ophosphoric acid ( ! types ,,hm#b,,po#d4 ,?us f ! disodium salt we obta9 sodium pyrophosphate1 ,na#d,p#b,o#g 7x cry/allises f wat] ) #aj;,h#b,o1 is v /able1 fuses :5 heat$1 has an alkal9e reaction1 & does n =m or?o-salts :5 its solution is boil$73 & f ! monosodium salt ,na,h#b,,po#d ! acid salt ,na#b;,h#b,p#b,o#g 7easily soluble 9 wat]7 is =m$2 ?is has an acid reaction1 & :5 ignit$ fur!r gives ! meta-salt4#bj #ai bis ,accord+ to ,watson 7#ahic7 ! or?o-acid is p>tially trans=m$ into ! pyro-acid at #bcj1 :il/ at #bfj ! latt] beg9s to volatilise4 ,at #cjj ! meta-acid only is =m$4 #bj ,! me?od ( prep>ation ( ! acid itself consi/s 9 conv]t+ ! sodium salt1 ,na#d,p#b,o#g1 by d\ble decomposition ) wat] & a salt ( lead1 into insoluble lead pyrophosphate1 ,pb#b,p#b,o#g1 :i* is !n susp5d$ 9 wat] & decompos$ by sulphurett$ hydrog52 lead sulphide is ?us precipitat$1 & pyrophosphoric acid rema9s 9 solution4 ,?is solution _c be heat$1 or ! pyro-acid w pass into ! or?o-1 b mu/ be evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,x conc5trates to a syrup & cry/allises1 & :5 ignit$ 9 ?is =m loses wat]1 & =ms metaphosphoric acid4 ,x resembles or?ophosphoric acid 9 _m respects2 its salts ) ! alkalis are also soluble1 & ! o!rs insoluble 9 wat] b soluble 9 acids4 ,:5 heat$ 9 solution ) acid x gives or?ophosphoric acid1 z well z :5 fus$ ) an excess ( alkali4 ,witt heat$ ammonium *loride ) phosphoric acid 7hydro*loric acid 0 evolv$71 ignit$ ! residue to drive (f ammonia1 & obta9$ pyrophosphoric acid 9 ! residue4 ,metaphosphoric acid1 ,,hpo#c 7! analogue ( nitric acid71 is =m$ by ! ignition ( ! pyro- & or?o-acids 7or1 bett]1 ( _! ammonium salts71 z a vitre\s1 hygroscopic1 fus$ mass 7glacial phosphoric acid1 acidum phosphoricum glaciale71 soluble 9 wat] & volatilis+ )\t decomposition4 ,x is also =m$ 9 ! fir/ sl[ action ( cold wat] on ! anhydride1 b metaphosphoric acid gradually *anges into ! or?o-acid :5 its solution is boil$1 or :5 x is kept = any l5g? ( "t1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( acids4#ba #ba ,z :5 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator 9 neutralis+ by an alkali metaphosphoric acid is monobasic1 & or?ophosphoric acid is bibasic1 x is possible by means ( ?is diff]5ce to foll[ ! transition ( meta- into or?ophosphoric acid4 ,sabati] 7#ahhh7 c>ri$ on an inve/igation ( ?is nature1 & f\nd t ! rate ( trans=mation is dep5d5t on ! temp]ature1 & is subject to ! g5]al laws ( ! rate ( *emical trans=mations :i* belongs to physical *emi/ry4 ,metaphosphoric acid has a p>ticul> int]e/ 9 respect to ! v>iations to :i* its salts are subject4 ,! metaphosphates are =m$ by ! ignition ( ! acid or?ophosphates1 ,,mh#b,,po#d1 or ,,mnh#d;,,hpo#d1 or ( ! acid pyrophosphates1 ,m#b;,h#b,p#b,o#g1 or ,m#b7,,nh#d7b,p#b,o#g1 wat] & ammonia be+ giv5 (f 9 ! process4 ,! prop]ties ( ! metaphosphates1 :i* h a simil> composition to nitrates--= in/ance1 ,na,p,o#c1 or ,ba7,,po#c7b--v>y accord+ to ! duration ( ! ignition to :i* ! or?o-1 or pyrophosphates f :i* !y are prep>$ h be5 subject$4 ,:5 ! salts ,na,h#b,,po#d or ,,nh#d,na,h,p,o#d are /rongly ignit$1 a salt ,na,p,o#c is =m$1 :i* deliquesces 9 ! air1 & gives a gelat9\s precipitate ) salts ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,b1 z ,graham 79 #ahcj-dj71 & _m o!rs1 especially ,fleitmann & ,h5neb]g 79 #ahdj-ej71 & ,tamman 79 ! n9eties71 obs]v$1 "u o!r conditions ! salts ( ! same composition acquire o!r prop]ties4 ,! above *emi/s recognise five polym]ic =ms ( metaphosphates1 7,,hpo#c7n4 ,we w foll[ ! nom5clature & rese>*es ( ,fleitmann4 ,monometaphosphoric acid4 ,! salts are di/+ui%$ = _! insolubility 9 wat]2 ev5 ! salts ,na,p,o#c1 ,,kpo#c1 are insoluble4 ,!y are obta9$ by ignit+ ! monometallic or?ophosphates--= example1 ,,rh#b,,po#d--up to ! temp]ature at :i* all wat] is evolv$ 7#caf71 b n to fusion4 ,no d\ble salts are kn[n4 ,dimetaphosphoric acid1 on ! contr>y1 easily =ms d\ble salts--= example1 ,k,na,p#b,o#f1 & also ! copp] potassium salt1 c4 ,! copp] salt is obta9$ by evaporat+ a solution ( copp] oxide 9 or?ophosphoric acid4 ,a blue or?o-salt1 ,cu,r,h,o#d1 fir/ sep>ates f ! solution1 !n a light-blue pyro-salt1 ,cu#b,p#b,o#g2 & above #cej1 :5 metaphosphoric acid itself beg9s to volatilise1 ! dimetaphosphate1 ,cu,p#b,o#f1 is =m$4 ,! residue is wa%$ ) wat]1 & decompos$ ) a hot solution ( sodium sulphide1 :5 ! sodium salt1 ,na#b,p#b,o#f1 is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,?is salt1 :5 evaporat$ ) alcohol1 gives cry/als conta9+ #b mol4 ,h#b,o1 :i*1 h[ev]1 reta9 _! solubility 79 #g p>ts ( wat]7 aft] ! wat] is driv5 (f at #ajj4 ,:5 fus$1 ^! cry/als give a deliquesc5t salt 7hexa-metaphosphate74 ,! solution ( ! salt has a neutral reaction1 :i* only aft] prolong$ boil+ becomes acid1 ow+ to ! =mation ( or?ophosphate1 ,na,h#b,,po#d4 ,! soluble salts ( dimetaphosphoric acid give ! insoluble silv] salt1 ,ag#b,p#b,o#f1 ) silv] nitrate1 & a precipitate ( ,ba,p#b,o#fb;,h#b,o ) b>ium *loride4 ,trimetaphosphoric acid is obta9$ z ! sodium salt ,na#c,p#c,o#i :5 any o!r metaphosphate ( sodium is fus$ & sl[ly cool$1 !n dissolv$ 9 a slight excess ( w>m wat]1 & ! resultant solution evaporat$4 ,! cry/als conta9 #f mol4 ,h#b,o1 & dissolve 9 f\r p>ts ( wat]4 ,an acid reaction is only obta9$1 z ) ! prec$+ salt1 aft] prolong$ boil+ ) wat]4 ,! acid is a true analogue ( nitric acid1 because all its metallic salts are soluble4 ,hexametaphosphoric acid4 ,fleitmann s nam$ ! ord9>y metaphosphoric acid 7glacial7 :i* attracts moi/ure4 ,! deliquesc5t sodium salt is obta9$1 l ! trimetaphosphate1 only by rapid cool+4 ,x is also =m$ by fus+ silv] oxide ) an excess ( phosphoric acid4 ,! sodium salt is soluble 9 wat]1 & gives visc\s1 ela/ic precipitates ) salts ( ,ba1 ,ca1 & ,mg4 ,lub]t 7#ahic7 obta9$ salts ( ,ag1 ,pb1 c4 ,jawe9 & ,?illot 7#ahhi71 :o inve/igat$ ! sodium salts ( metaphosphoric acid by ,ra\lt's me?od1 came to ! conclusion t ! salts ( di- & tri-metaphosphoric acid behave 9 su* a mann] t _! molecule mu/ be repres5t$ z non-polym]is$ ,na,p,o#c1 :il/ ^? ( hexametaphosphoric acid behave z 7,na,p,o#c7d4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! s]ies ( salts :i* ,fleitmann & ,h5neb]g reg>d z monometaphosphates--i4e4 z non-polym]is$--are mo/ probably ! mo/ polym]is$1 because !y are insoluble4 ,accord+ to ,tamman's rese>*es1 vitre\s metaphosphoric acid conta9s a mixture consi/+ *iefly ( two v>ieties1 diff]+ 9 ! solubility & degree ( /ability ( _! salts4 ,! lea/ /able corresponds to ,fleitmann's hexa-acid1 & gives ?ree isom]ic salts4 ,tamman came to ! conclusion t !re exi/ polym]s also 9 ! =m ( p5ta-1 or?o-1 & deca-metaphosphoric acids4 ,)\t go+ into details ^u ?is subject1 ,i d n ?9k x sup]flu\s to po9t out t ! und\bt$ capability ( metaphosphoric acid to polym]ise %\ld be connect$ ) its faculty ( comb9+ ) wat]1 :il/ ! degree ( polym]isation & ! numb] ( polym]ic =ms _c yet be consid]$ z suffici5tly expla9$4 ,9 ord] to see ! relation betwe5 phosphoric acid & ! l[] acids ( phosphorus1 x is simple/ to imag9e ! sub/itution ( hydroxyl 9 ,h#c,,po#d or ,,po7,,oh7#c by hydrog54 ,!n f or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,po7,,oh7#c1 we %all obta9 phosphor\s acid1 ,,poh7,,oh7#b1 & hypophosphor\s acid1 ,,poh7,,oh72 &1 fur!rmore1 phosphor\s acid %\ld be bibasic if or?ophosphoric acid 0 tribasic1 & hypophosphor\s acid %\ld be monobasic4 ,?is conclusion#ba bis is1 9 fact1 true1 & h5ce all ! acids ( phosphorus may be ref]r$ to "o common type1 ,,px#e1 ^: repres5tatives are ,,ph#d;,i & ,p,cl#e1 ,p,o,cl#c1 ,p,cl#b;,f#c1 c4 #ba bis ,! bibasity ( ,h#c,,po#c1 e/abli%$ by ,wrtz1 has be5 prov$ by _m direct exp]im5ts 7see1 = in/ance1 ,note #bb71 among :i* we may m5tion t ,amat 7#ahib7 took a mixture ( ! aque\s solutions ( ,na#b;,,hpo#c & ,na,h,o & add$ absolute alcohol to x4 ,two lay]s 7 =m$2 ! upp]1 alcoholic1 conta9$ all ! excess ( ,na,h,o1 :il/ ! l[] only conta9$ ! salt ,na#b;,,hpo#c1 :i* 0 !re=e unable to react ) ! excess ( ,na,h,o4 ,amat also obta9$ ,na,h#b,,po#c by saturat+ ,h#c,,po#c ) soda until he obta9$ a neutral reaction ) me?yl-orange4 ,! replacem5t ( "o atom ( ,h by sodium "h1 z 9 phosphoric acid 7,note #af71 gives m heat ?an ! replacem5t ( ! second atom4 ,= ! ?ird atom !re is no =mation ( a salt1 & !re=e no evolution ( heat4 ,! monometallic salts--= example1 ,na,h#b,,po#c--or ! ammonia salts1 :5 heat$ to #afj1 give1 z ,amat _h previ\sly %[n1 a salt ( bibasic pyrophosphor\s acid1 ,na#b;,h#b,p#b,o#e4 ,phosphor\s acid1 ,,ph#c,o#c1 is g5]ally obta9$ f phosphorus tri*loride1 ,p,cl#c1 by ! action ( wat]3 ,p,cl#c #c;,h#b,o #c;,h,cl ,,ph#c,o#c4 ,bo? acids =m$ are soluble 9 wat]1 b are easily sep>at$1 because hydro*loric acid is volatile :il/ phosphor\s acid volatilises ) difficulty1 & if a small am\nt ( wat] be orig9ally tak5 ! hydro*loric acid ne>ly all passes (f directly4 ,conc5trat$ solutions ( phosphor\s acid give cry/als ( ,h#c,,po#c1 :i* fuse at #gj1 attract moi/ure f ! air1 & deliquesce :5 ignit$1 giv+ phosph9e & phosphoric acid1#bb & are oxidis$ into or?ophosphoric acid by _m oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,9 its salts only two hydrog5 atoms are replac$ by metals 7,wrtz72 ! salts ( ! alkal9e metals are soluble1 & give precipitates ) salts ( ! majority ( o!r metals4 #bb ,phosphor\s acid1 :5 subject$ to ! action ( nasc5t hydrog5 7z9c & sulphuric acid71 evolves phosph9e1 & :5 boil$ ) an excess ( alkali x evolves hydrog5 7,,ph#c,o#c #c,,kho ,,pk#c,o#d #b;,h#b,o ,h#b72 ow+ to its liability to oxidation1 x is a r$uc+ ag5t--= in/ance1 x r$uces cupric *loride to cupr\s *loride1 & precipitates silv] f ! nitrate & m]cury f its salts4 ,^! reactions are p]haps connect$ ) ! fact t 9 ?is acid "o atom ( hydrog5 %\ld be consid]$ z 9 ! same condition z 9 phosphurett$ hydrog51 :i* is express$ by ! =mula ,,pho7,,oh7#b1 if we repres5t x z ,,ph#d,x1 ) ! sub/itution ( two ( ! hydrog5 atoms by oxyg5 & ( ,,hx by two ( hydroxyl4 ,! direct passage ( phosphor\s *loride into phosphor\s acid w\ld1 h[ev]1 indicate t all ! ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 9 x occur 9 ! =m ( hydroxyl1 because no diff]5ce is kn[n betwe5 ! ?ree atoms ( *lor9e 9 ,p,cl#c--!y all react alike1 z a rule4 ,h[ev]1 ,m5s*utk91 by act+ on alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 ) phosphor\s *loride1 obta9$ hydro*loric acid & a sub/ance ,p7,c#b;,h#e,o7,cl#b1 & f x by ! action ( brom9e he obta9$ e?yl bromide1 ,c#b;,h#e;,br1 & a comp\nd ,p,br,o,cl#b1 :i* proves1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! exi/5ce ( a diff]5ce betwe5 ! ?ree atoms ( *lor9e 9 phosphor\s *loride4 ,if we turn our att5tion to ! =mation ( phosph9e by ! ignition ( phosphor\s acid1 we see t #d,,ph#c,o#c only evolve #c;,h 9 ! =m ( ,,ph#c1 & !re=e ! residue--t is1 #c,,ph#c,o#d--w /ill conta9 "o hydrog5 ( ! same nature z 9 phosph9e1 because 9 #d,,ph#c,o#c we %\ld recognise f\r su* hydrog5s z 9 phosph9e4 ,we arrive at ! same conclusion by exam9+ ! decomposition ( hypophosphor\s acid1 #b,,ph#c,o#b ,,ph#c ,,ph#c,o#d4 ,9 ! two molecules ( ! monobasic hypophosphor\s acid tak51 !re are only two atoms ( hydrog5 replaceable by metals1 :il/ 9 ! molecule ( ! resultant phosphoric acid !re are ?ree4 ,p]haps relations ( ?is nature det]m9e ! relative /ability ( ! dimetallic salts ( or?ophosphoric acid4 ,! monobasic hypophosphor\s acid1 ,,ph#c,o#b1 gives salts ,,ph#b,o#b,na1 7,,ph#b,o#b7b;,ba1 c42 ! two rema9+ atoms ( hydrog5 7:i* exi/ 9 ! same =m z 9 phosph9e1 ,,ph#c7 are n replaceable by metals1 & ?is det]m9es ! prop]ty ( ^! salts ( evolv+ phosphurett$ hydrog5 :5 heat$ 7especially ) alkalis74 ,9 act+ on sub/ances liable to r$uction x is ?is hydrog5 :i* acts1 &1 = example1 r$uces gold & m]cury f ! solutions ( _! salts1 or conv]ts cupric into cupr\s salts4 ,9 all ^! in/ances ! hypophosphor\s acid is conv]t$ into phosphoric acid4 ,"u ! action ( z9c & sulphuric acid x gives phosph9e1 ,,ph#c4 ,nev]!less1 nei!r hypophosphor\s acid nor its dry salts absorb oxyg5 f ! air4 ,! salts ( hypophosphor\s acid are m soluble ?an ^? ( ! prec$+ acids ( phosphorus4 ,?us ! sodium salt ,p,na,h#b,o#b does n give a precipitate ) b>ium *loride1 & ! salts ( calcium1 b>ium1 & _m o!r metals are soluble4#bc ,! hypophosphites are prep>$ by boil+ an alkali ) phosphorus s long z phosphurett$ hydrog5 is evolv$4 ,! acid itself is obta9$ f b>ium hypophosphite 7prep>$ 9 ! same mann] by boil+ phosphorus 9 b>yta wat]71 by decompos+ its solution ) sulphuric acid4 ,by conc5tration ( ! solution ( hypophosphor\s acid 7x mu/ n be heat$ above #acj1 at :i* temp]ature x decomposes7 a syrup is =m$ :i* is able to cry/allise4 ,9 ! solid /ate hypophosphor\s acid fuses at #ag1 & has ! prop]ties ( a cle>ly def9$ acid4 #bc ,calcium hypophosphite is us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,accord+ to ,cavazzi1 a mixture ( sodium hypophosphite1 ,na,h#b,,po#b1 & sodium nitrate explodes viol5tly4 ,! types ,,px#c & ,,px#e1 :i* are evid5t = ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 comp\nds ( phosphorus1 are mo/ cle>ly se5 9 its halog5 comp\nds1#bd to ! consid]ation ( :i* we w proce$1 fix+ our att5tion m especially on ! *lor9e comp\nds1 z be+ ! mo/ important f ! hi/orical1 !oretical1 & practical po9t ( view4 #bd ,fluor9e & brom9e give ,,px#c & ,,px#e1 l *lor9e4 ,) respect to iod9e ,,pi#e is1 9 a *emical s5se1 a v un/able sub/ance1 & g5]ally phosphorus tri-iodide only is =m$ 7f yell[ or r$ phosphorus & iod9e 9 ! requisite proportions74 ,x is a r$ cry/all9e sub/ance1 fuses at #ee1 is easily decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ phosphor\s & hydriodic acids1 & :5 heat$ x evolves iod9e vap\rs & =ms phosphorus di-iodide1 ,,pi#b4 ,?is sub/ance may be obta9$ 9 ! same mann] z ! prec$+ by tak+ a small] proportion ( iod9e 7#h p>ts ( iod9e to #a "p ( phosphorus1 :il/ ! tri-iodide requires #abc72 x also =ms r$ cry/als1 :i* melt at #aaj4 ,:5 decompos$ by wat] x n only gives phosphor\s & hydriodic acids1 b also phosph9e & a yell[ sub/ance 7a l[] oxide ( phosphorus74 ,9 its composition di-iodide ( phosphorus corresponds ) liquid phosphurett$ hydrog51 ,,ph#b1 & probably its molecul> weight is mu* high]3 ,p#b;,i#d or ,p#c;,i#f1 c4 ,z ! iod9e comp\nds ( phosphorus give hydriodic & phosphor\s acids ) wat]1 & z bo? ^! sub/ances are r$uc+ ag5ts 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] 7& hydrates71 iodide ( phosphorus also acts z a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,phosphorus burns 9 *lor9e1 =m+ phosphor\s *loride1 ,p,cl#c1 & ) an excess ( *lor9e1 phosphoric *loride1 ,p,cl#e4 ,! oxy*loride1 ,p,o,cl#c1 z ! simple/ *loranhydride accord+ to ! type ,,px#e1 & also phosphoric *loride1 correspond ) or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,po7,,oh7#c1 :ile phosphor\s *loride1 ,p,cl#c1 corresponds ) phosphor\s acid & ! type ,,px#c4 ,phosphoric oxy*loride1 ,p,o,cl#c1 is a col\rless liquid1 boil+ at #aaj4 ,phosphorus tri*loride is also a col\rless liquid1 boil+ at #gf1be :il/ phosphoric *loride is a solid yell[i% sub/ance1 :i* volatilises )\t melt+ at ab\t #afh4 ,!y are all heavi] ?an wat]1 & =m types ( ! *loranhydrides or *lor9e comp\nds ( ! non-metallic elem5ts ^: hydrates are acids1 j z ,na,cl or ,ba,cl#b are types ( halog5 metallic salts4 #be ,9 a liquid /ate ! d5sity ( phosphor\s *loride at #aj #aeig1 & !re=e its molecul> volume #acge_/aeig #hfj1 & t ( phosphorus oxy*loride is equal to #aece_/afic #ijg2 h5ce ! addition ( oxyg5 has produc$ consid]able increase 9 volume1 j z 9 ! conv]sion ( sulphur di*loride1 ,s,cl#b1 into sulphuryl *loride1 ,s,o,cl#b1 ! volume *anges f #fd to #ga4 ,x is ! same ) ! boil+-po9ts2 phosphorus tri*loride boils at #gj1 ! oxy*loride at #ajj1 sulphur di*loride at #fd1 & sulphuryl *loride at #gh--t is1 ! addition ( oxyg5 raises ! boil+ po9ts4 ,! vap\r d5sity ( phosphorus tri*loride & oxy*loride corresponds ) _! =mul 7,cah\rs1 ,wrtz7--namely1 is equal to half ! molecul> weight ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,b x is n s ) phosphorus p5ta*loride4 ,cah\rs %[$ t ! vap\r d5sity ( phosphorus p5ta*loride ref]r$ to air #cfe1 to hydrog5 #ebf1 :il/ accord+ to ! =mula ,p,cl#e x %\ld be #ajdb4 ,h5ce ?is =mula corresponds ) f\r1 & n ) two1 molecules4 ,?is %[s t ! vap\r ( phosphoric *loride conta9s two & n "o molecule1 t 9 a /ate ( vap\r x splits up1 l sal-ammoniac1 sulphuric acid1 c4 ,! products ( disruption mu/ "h be phosphor\s *loride1 ,p,cl#c1 & *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 bodies :i* easily re-=m phosphoric *loride1 ,p,cl#e1 at a l[] temp]ature4 ,?is decomposition ( phosphoric *loride 9 its conv]sion into vap\r is confirm$ by ! fact t ! vap\r ( ?is almo/ col\rless sub/ance %[s ! gre5i%-yell[ col\r prop] to *lor9e4 ,?is dissociation ( phosphoric *loride has be5 consid]$ by "s *emi/s z a sign t phosphorus1 l nitrog51 does n give volatile comp\nds ( ! type ,,px#e1 & t su* sub/ances are only obta9$ z un/able molecul> comp\nds :i* break up :5 di/ill$2 = example1 ,,ph#c1;,,hi1 ,p,cl#c1;,cl#b1 ,,nh#c1;,h,cl1 c4 ,to prove t ! molecule ,p,cl#e actually exi/s1 ,wrtz 9 #ahgj obs]v$ t :5 mix$ ) ! vap\r ( phosphor\s *loride ! vap\r ( phosphoric *loride di/ils ov] 7f #afj to #aij7 p]fectly col\rless1 & has a d5sity :i* is really ne> to ! =mula--namely1 to #ajd--;& ! same d5sity 0 det]m9$ = ! p5ta*loride 9 an atmosph]e ( *lor9e4 ,h5ce at l[ temp]atures & 9 admixture ) "o ( ! products ( dissociation1 !re is no long] t decomposition :i* occurs at high] temp]atures--t is1 we h "h a case ( dissociation proce$+ at mod]ate temp]atures4 ,an important pro( 9 fav\r ( ! type ,,px#e is exhibit$ by phosphorus p5tafluoride ,,pf#e1 obta9$ by ,?orpe z a col\rless gas :i* only corrodes glass aft] ! lapse ( "t2 x may be kept ov] m]cury1 & has a normal d5sity4 ,x is =m$ :5 liquid ars5ic trifluoride1 ,as,f#c1 is add$ to phosphoric *loride surr\nd$ by a freez+ mixture3 #c,p,cl#e #e;,as,f#c #c,,pf#e #e;,as,cl#c4 ,9 g5]al1 fluor9e & phosphorus give /able comp\nds3 ,,pf#c1 ,,p(#c1 & ,,pf#e1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! fact t 9 pass+ f ,cl to ,i 7i4e4 z ! atomic weight ( ! halog5 increases7 ! /ability ( ! comp\nds ) ,p & ! t5d5cy to give ,,px#e 7,note #bd7 decreases4 ,phosphorus trifluoride is obta9$ by heat+ a mixture ( ,zn,f#b & ,p,br#c1 by ! action ( ,as,f#c ^u ,p,cl#c1 by heat+ phosphide ( copp] ) ,pb,f#b1 c4 ,x is a /rong-smell+ gas1 :i* liquefies at -#aj "u a pressure ( #dj atmosph]es1 giv+ a col\rless liquid4 ,x dissolves easily 9 7is absorb$ by1 reacts )7 wat]1 & acts ^u glass2 :5 mix$ ) ,cl#b x comb9es ) x 7,p\l5c1 #ahia71 =m+ ,p,cl#b;,f#c1 a col\rless gas ( normal d5sity1 :i* is trans=m$ into a liquid at #h1 decomposes into ,,pf#c ,cl#b at #bej1 &1 ) a small am\nt ( wat]1 gives oxy-fluoride ( phosphorus1 ,,p(#c 7) a l>ge am\nt ( wat] x gives ,,ph#c,o#d71 :i* ,moissan 7#ahia7 obta9$ by ! action ( dry ,,hf ^u ,p#b,o#e1 & ,?orpe & ,tutton 7#ahij7 by heat+ a mixture ( cryolite & ,p#b,o#e4 ,x is a gas ( normal d5sity1 l ,,pf#c1 & 0 obta9$ by ,moissan by ! action ( fluor9e ^u ,,pf#c 7,,psf#c1 see ,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #bj74 ,?us ! =ms ,,px#c & ,,px#e n only exi/ 9 _m solid & non-volatile sub/ances1 b also z vap\rs4 ,if a piece ( phosphorus be dropp$ into a flask conta9+ *lor9e1 x burns :5 t\*$ ) a r$-hot wire1 & comb9es ) ! *lor9e4 ,if ! phosphorus be 9 excess1 liquid phosphorus tri*loride1 ,p,cl#c1 is always =m$1 b if ! *lor9e be 9 excess ! solid p5ta*loride is obta9$4 ,! tri*loride is g5]ally prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,dry *lor9e 7pass$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( ,w\lfe's bottles conta9+ sulphuric acid7 is l$ into a retort conta9+ s& & phosphorus4 ,! retort is heat$1 ! phosphorus melts1 spreads ?r\gh ! s&1 & gradually =ms ! tri*loride1 :i* di/ils ov] into a receiv]1 :]e x cond5ses4 ,phosphoric *loride or phosphorus p5ta*loride1 ,p,cl#e1 is prep>$ by pass+ dry *lor9e into a vessel conta9+ phosphorus tri*loride 7purifi$ by di/illation74 ,phosphor\s *loride comb9es directly ) oxyg51 b m rapidly ) ozone or ) ! oxyg5 ( potassium *lorate 7#c,p,cl#c ,k,cl,o#c #c,p,o,cl#c ,k,cl71 =m+ phosphorus oxy*loride1 ,p,o,cl#c 7,brodie74 ,?is comp\nd is also =m$ by ! fir/ action ( wat] on phosphoric *loride2 = example1 if two vessels1 "o conta9+ phosphoric *loride & ! o!r wat]1 are plac$ "u a bell j>1 aft] a c]ta9 "t ! cry/als ( ! *loride disappe> & hydro*loric acid passes into ! wat]4 ,! aque\s vap\r acts on ! p5ta*loride1 & ! foll[+ reaction occurs3 ,p,cl#e ,h#b,o ,p,o,cl#c #b;,h,cl1 ! result be+ t liquid phosphorus oxy*loride is f\nd 9 "o vessel1 & a solution ( hydro*loric acid 9 ! o!r4 ,h[ev]1 an excess ( wat] directly trans=ms phosphoric *loride into or?ophosphoric acid1 ,p,cl#e #d;,h#b,o ,,ph#c,o#d #e;,h,cl1#bf s9ce ,p,o,cl#c reacts ) wat] 7#c;,h#b,o71 =m+ #c;,h,cl & phosphoric acid ,,po7,,oh7#c4 #bf ,phosphorus oxy*loride is obta9$ by ! action ( phosphoric *loride on hydrates ( acids 7because alkalis decompose phosphorus oxy*loride71 accord+ to ! equation ,p,cl#e ,,rho ,p,o,cl#c ,r,cl ,h,cl1 :]e ,,rho is an acid4 ,! reaction only proce$s accord+ to ?is equation ) monobasic acids1 b !n ,r,cl is volatile1 & !re=e a mixture is obta9$ ( two volatile sub/ances1 ! acid *loride & phosphorus oxy*loride1 :i* are sometimes difficult to sep>ate2 :il/ if ! hydrate be polybasic ! reaction frequ5tly proce$s s t an anhydride is =m$3 ,,rh#b,o#b ,p,cl#e ,,ro ,p,o,cl#c #b;,h,cl4 ,if ! anhydride be non-volatile 7l boric71 or easily decompos$ 7l oxalic71 x is easy to obta9 pure oxy*loride4 ,?us phosphorus oxy*loride is (t5 prep>$ by act+ on boric or oxalic acid ) phosphoric *loride4 ,x is also =m$ :5 ! vap\r ( phosphoric *loride is pass$ ov] phosphoric anhydride1 ,p#b,o#e #c,p,cl#e #e,p,o,cl#c4 ,?is =ms an excell5t example 9 pro( ( ! fact t ! =mation ( "o sub/ance f two does n necess>ily %[ t ! resultant comp\nd conta9s ! molecules ( ^! sub/ances 9 its molecule4 ,b o!r oxy*lorides ( phosphorus are also =m$ by ! int]action ( phosphoric anhydride & *loride2 ?us at #bjj ! *loranhydride1 ,,po#b;,cl1 or *loranhydride ( metaphosphoric acid1 is =m$ 7,gu/avson74 ,! *loranhydride ( pyrophosphoric acid1 ,p#b,o#c;,cl#d1 0 obta9$ 7,hayt] & ,mi*aelis71 toge!r ) ,n,o,cl1 c41 by ! action ( ,,no ^u cold ,p,cl#c1 z a fum+ liquid boil+ at #baj4 ,! above *lor9e comp\nds s]ve n only z a type ( ! *loranhydrides1 b also z a means = ! prep>ation ( o!r acid *loranhydrides4 ,?us ! conv]sion ( acids ,,xho into *loranhydrides1 ,x,cl1 is g5]ally accompli%$ by means ( phosphorus p5ta*loride4 ,?is fact 0 discov]$ by ,*ancel1 & adopt$ by ,g]h>dt z an important me?od = /udy+ organic acids4 ,by ?is means organic acids1 conta9+1 z we "k1 ,,rcooh 7:]e ,r is a hydroc>bon gr\p1 & :]e c>boxyl may repeat itself sev]al times by replac+ ! hydrog5 ( hydroc>bon comp\nds71 are conv]t$ into _! *loranhydrides1 ,r,c,o,cl4 ,) wat] !y aga9 =m ! acid1 & resemble ! *loranhydrides ( m9]al acids 9 _! g5]al prop]ties4 ,s9ce c>bonic acid1 ,,co7,,oh7#b1 conta9s two hydroxyl gr\ps1 its p]fect *loranhydride1 ,c,o,cl#b1 c>bonic oxy*loride1 c>bonyl *loride or phosg5e gas1 conta9s two atoms ( *lor9e1 & diff]s f ! *loranhydrides ( organic acids 9 t 9 !m "o atom ( *lor9e is replac$ by ! hydroc>bon radicle ,r,c,o,cl1 if ,r be a monatomic radicle giv+ a hydroc>bon ,,rh4 ,x is evid5t1 on ! "o h&1 t 9 ,r,c,o,cl ! hydrog5 is replac$ by ! radicle ,c,o,cl1 :i* is also able to replace sev]al atoms ( hydrog5 7= example1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,c,o,cl7#b corresponds ) ! bibasic succ9ic acid72 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! reactions ( ! *loranhydrides ( organic acids w answ] to ! reactions ( c>bonyl *loride1 z ! reactions ( ! acids !mselves answ] to ^? ( c>bonic acid4 ,c>bonyl *loride is obta9$ directly f dry c>bon monoxide & *lor9e#bg expos$ to ! action ( light1 & =ms a col\rless gas1 :i* easily cond5ses into a liquid1 boil+ at #h1 specific gravity #adc1 & hav+ ! suffocat+ od\r belong+ to all *loranhydrides4 ,l all *loranhydrides1 x is imm$iately decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ c>bonic anhydride1 accord+ to ! equation ,c,o,cl#b ,h#b,o ,,co#b #b;,h,cl1 & ?us expresses ! type prop] to all *loranhydrides ( bo? m9]al & organic acids4#bh #bg ,! direct action ( ! sun's rays1 or ( magnesium light1 is necess>y to />t ! reaction betwe5 c>bonic oxide & *lor9e1 b :5 once />t$ x w proce$ rapidly 9 diffus$ light4 ,an excess ( *lor9e 7:i* gives its coloration to ! col\rless phosg5e7 aids ! completion ( ! reaction1 & may aft]w>ds be remov$ by metallic antimony4 ,por\s sub/ances1 l *>coal1 aid ! reaction4 ,phosg5e may be prep>$ by pass+ a mixture ( c>bonic anhydride & *lor9e ov] inc&esc5t *>coal4 ,lead or silv] *loride1 :5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( c>bonic oxide1 also p>tially =m phosg5e gas4 ,c>bon tetra*loride1 ,c,cl#d1 also =ms x :5 heat$ ) c>bonic anhydride 7at #djj71 ) phosphoric anhydride 7#bjj71 & mo/ easily ( all ) sulphuric anhydride 7#b,,s#c ,c,cl#d ,c,o,cl#b ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b1 ?is is pyrosulphuryl *loride74 ,*lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c1 is conv]t$ into c>bonyl *loride :5 heat$ ) ,,s#b7,,oh7,cl 7! fir/ *loranhydride ( sulphuric acid72 ,c,h,cl#c ,,s#c;,h,cl ,c,o,cl#b ,,s#b #b;,h,cl 7,dew>71 & :5 oxidis$ by *romic acid4 ,among ! reactions ( phosg5e we may m5tion ! =mation ( urea ) ammonia1 & ( c>bonic oxide :5 heat$ ) metals4 #bh ,we are already acqua9t$ ) "s ( ! *loranhydrides ( ! inorganic acids--= in/ance1 ,b,cl#c1 & ,si,cl#d--;& "h we %all describe ^? :i* correspond ) sulphuric acid 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,x may be m5tion$ "h t :5 hydro*loric acts on nitric acid 7aqua regia1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dfg7 !re is =m$1 besides *lor9e1 ! oxy*lorides ,n,o,cl & ,,no#b;,cl1 :i* may be reg>d$ z *loranhydrides ( nitric & nitr\s acids 7nitrog5 *loride1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dgf74 ,! =m] boils at -#e1 ! latt] at #e1 ! specific gravity ( ! fir/ at -#ab #adaf1 & at -#ah #adcc 7,geu!r71 & ( ! second #ac2 ! fir/ is obta9$ f nitric oxide & *lor9e1 ! second f nitric p]oxide & *lor9e1 & also by ! action ( phosphoric *loride on nitric acid4 ,if ! gases evolv$ by aqua regia be pass$ into cold & /rong sulphuric acid1 !y =m cry/als ( ! composition ,,nhso#c 7l *amb] cry/als71 :i* melt at #hf1 & ) sodium *loride =m acid sodium sulphate & ! oxy*loride ,n,o,cl4 ,?is *loranhydride ( nitric acid is t]m$ nitrosyl *loride4 ,cyanog5 *loride1 ,c,n,cl1 is ! gase\s *loranhydride ( cyanic acid2 x is =m$ by ! action ( *lor9e on aque\s m]cury cyanide1 ,hg7,,cn7#b #b;,cl#b ,hg,cl#b #b;,c,n,cl4 ,:5 *lor9e acts on cyanic acid1 x =ms n only ?is cyanog5 *loride1 b also polym]ides ( x--a liquid1 boil+ at #ah1 & a solid1 boil+ at #aij4 ,! latt] corresponds ) cyanuric acid1 & consequ5tly conta9s ,c#c,n#c;,cl#c4 ,details conc]n+ ^! sub/ances mu/ be look$ = 9 works on organic *emi/ry4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! g5]al me?od = ! prep>ation ( acid *loranhydrides1 we w take t ( acetic acid1 ,,*#c;,,cooh1 z an example4 ,phosphorus p5ta*loride is plac$ 9 a glass retort1 & acetic acid p\r$ ov] x2 hydro*loric acid is !n evolv$1 & ! sub/ance di/ill+ ov] directly aft] is a v volatile liquid1 boil+ at #ej1 & hav+ all ! prop]ties ( ! *loranhydrides4 ,) wat] x =ms hydro*loric & acetic acids4 ,! reaction "h tak+ place may be expla9$ ?us3 ! sub/itution ( ! oxyg5 tak5 f ! acetic acid 7f its c>boxyl7 by two atoms ( *lor9e f ! ,p,cl#e %\ld be z foll[s3 ,,*#c;,,cooh ,p,cl#e ,,*#c;,c,o,h,cl#b ,p,o,cl#c4 ,b ! comp\nd ,,*#c;,c,o,h,cl#b does n exi/ 9 a free /ate 7because x w\ld indicate ! possibility ( ! =mation ( comp\nds ( ! type ,,cx#f1 & c>bon only gives ^? ( ! type ,,cx#d72 x !re=e splits up into ,h,cl & ! *loranhydride ,,*#c;,c,o,cl4 ,! g5]al s*eme = ! reaction ( phosphorus p5ta*loride ) hydrates ,,roh is exactly ! same z ) wat]2 namely1 ,,roh ) ,p,cl#e1 gives ,p,o,cl#c ,h,cl ,r,cl--t is a *loranhydride4#bh bis #bh bis ,?is reaction inde$ proce$s v easily & completely ) a numb] ( hydroxides1 if !y d n react on hydro*loric acid & phosphorus oxy*loride1 :i* is ! case :5 !y h alkal9e prop]ties4 ,:5 ! hydroxide is bibasic & is pres5t 9 excess1 x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t ! elem5ts ( wat] are tak5 up3 ,r7,,oh7#b ,p,cl#e ,,ro #b;,h,cl ,p,o,cl#c4 ,! anhydride ,,ro may !n be conv]t$ into *loranhydride1 ,,ro ,p,cl#e ,r,cl#b ,p,o,cl#c--t is1 phosphorus p5ta*loride br+s ab\t ! sub/itution ( ,o by ,cl#b4 ,?us c>bonyl *loride1 ,c,o,cl#b1 boron *loride1 #b;,b,cl#c1 & succ9ic *loride1 ,c#d;,h#d,o#b;,cl#b1 c41 are respectively obta9$ by ! action ( phosphoric *loride on c>bonic1 boric1 & succ9ic anhydrides4 ,phosphorus p5ta*loride reacts 9 a simil> mann] on ! aldehydes1 ,,r*o1 =m+ ,r,c,h,cl#b1 & on ! *loranhydrides !mselves--= example1 ) acetic *loride1 ,,*#c4;,c,o,cl 7:5 heat$ 9 a clos$ tube71 x =ms a sub/ance hav+ ! composition ,,*#c;,c,cl#c4 ,phosphorus tri*loride & oxy*loride act 9 a simil> mann] to phosphoric *loride4 ,:5 phosphorus tri*loride acts on an acid1 #c,,rho ,p,cl#c #c,r,cl ,p7,,ho7#c4 ,if a salt is tak51 !n by ! action ( phosphorus oxy*loride a correspond+ *loranhydride & salt ( or?ophosphoric acid are easily =m$3 #c,r7,,ko7 ,p,o,cl#c #c,r,cl ,,po7,,ko7#c4 ,! *loranhydride ,r,cl is always m volatile ?an its correspond+ acid1 & di/ils ov] be=e ! hydrate ,,rho4 ,?us acetic acid boils at #aag1 & its *loranhydride at #ej4 ,phosphoric & phosphor\s acids are v slightly volatile1 :il/ _! *loranhydrides are comp>atively easily conv]t$ into vap\r4 ,! faculty ( ! *loranhydrides to react at ! exp5se ( _! own *lor9e det]m9es _! great importance 9 *emi/ry4 ,= in/ance1 suppose we require to "k ! molecul> =mula ( "s hydrate :i* does n pass into a /ate ( vap\r & does n give a *loranhydride ) hydro*loric acid--t is1 :i* has n any basic or alkal9e prop]ties2 we mu/ !n endeav\r to obta9 ?is *loranhydride by means ( phosphoric *loride1 & x frequ5tly happ5s t ! correspond+ *loranhydride is volatile4 ,! resultant *loranhydride is !n conv]t$ into vap\r1 & its composition is det]m9$2 & if we "k its composition we are able to decide t ( its correspond+ hydrate4 ,?us1 = example1 f ! =mula ( silicon *loride1 ,si,cl#d1 or ( boron *loride1 ,b,cl#c1 we c judge ! composition ( _! correspond+ hydrates1 ,si7,,ho7#d1 ,b7,,ho7#c4 ,hav+ obta9$ ! *loranhydride ,r,cl or ,r,cln1 x is possible by its means to obta9 _m o!r comp\nds ( ! same radicle ,r accord+ to ! equation ,,mx ,r,cl ,m,cl ,,rx4 ,m may be ,h1 ,k1 ,ag1 or o!r metal4 ,! reaction proce$s ?us if ,m =ms a /able comp\nd ) *lor9e--= example1 silv] *loride1 hydro*loric acid1 & ,r1 an un/able sub/ance4 ,h5ce1 a *loranhydride is frequ5tly employ$ = ! =mation ( o!r comp\nds ( a giv5 radicle2 = in/ance1 ) ammonia !y =m amides ,,rnh#b1 & ) salts ,,rok1 ) anhydrides ,r#b,o1 c4 ,conta9+1 z !y d1 *lor9e1 :i* easily reacts ) hydrog51 phosphorus p5ta*loride1 tri*loride1 & oxy*loride ent] into reaction ) ammonia1 & give a s]ies ( amide & nitrile comp\nds ( phosphorus4 ,?us1 = example1 :5 ammonia acts on ! oxy*loride we obta9 sal-ammoniac 7:i* is aft]w>ds remov$ by wat]7 & an or?ophosphoric triamide1 ,,po7,,nh#b7c1 z a :ite insoluble p[d] on :i* dilute acids & alkalis d n act1 b :i*1 :5 fus$ ) potassium hydroxide1 gives potassium phosphate & ammonia l o!r amides4 ,:5 ignit$1 ! triamide lib]ates ammonia & =ms ! nitrile ,,pon1 j z urea1 ,,co7,,nh#b7b1 gives (f ammonia & =ms ! nitrile ,,conh4 ,?is nitrile1 call$ monophosphamide1 ,,pon1 naturally corresponds ) metaphosphoric acid1 namely1 ) its ammonium salt4 ,,nh#d,,po#c - ,h#b,o ,,po#b,,nh#b1 an z yet unkn[n amide1 & ,,po#b,,nh#b - ,h#b,o gives ! nitrile ,,pon4 ,?is relation is confirm$ by ! fact t ,,pon1 moi/5$ ) wat]1 gives metaphosphoric acid :5 ignit$4 ,x is ! analogue ( nitr\s oxide1 ,,non4 ,x is a v /able comp\nd1 m s ?an ! prec$+4#bi #bi ,! reaction ( ammonia on phosphorus p5ta*loride is m complex ?an ! prec$+4 ,?is is readily und]/ood3 to ! oxy*loride1 ,p,o,cl#c1 t]e corresponds a hydrate ,,po7,,oh7#c1 & a salt ,,po7,,nh#d,o7#c1 & consequ5tly also an amide ,,po7,,nh#b7c1 :il/ ! p5ta*loride1 ,p,cl#e1 has no correspond+ hydrate ,p7,,oh7#e1 & !re=e !re is no amide ,p7,,nh#b7e4 ,! reaction ) ammonia w be ( two k9ds3 ei!r in/ead ( #e mol4 ,,nh#c1 only #c mol4 ,,nh#c or /ill less w act2 i4e4 ,p,cl#b7,,nh#b7c1 ,p,cl#c7,,nh#b7b1 c4 are =m$2 or else ! p5ta*loride w act l a mixture ( *lor9e ) ! tri*loride1 & !n z ! result !re w be obta9$ ! products ( ! action ( *lor9e on ^? amides :i* are =m$ f phosphorus tri*loride & ammonia4 ,x w\ld appe> t bo? k9ds ( reaction proce$ simultane\sly1 b bo? k9ds ( products are un/able1 at all ev5ts complex1 & 9 ! result !re is obta9$ a mixture conta9+ sal-ammoniac1 c4 ,! products ( ! fir/ k9d %\ld react ) wat]1 & we %\ld obta91 = example1 ,p,cl#c7,,nh#b7b #b;,h#b,o #c;,h,cl & ,,po7,,ho77,,nh#b7b4 ,?is sub/ance has n actually be5 obta9$1 b ! comp\nd ,,ponh7,,nh#b7 d]iv$ f x by elim9ation ( ! elem5ts ( wat] is kn[n1 & is t]m$ diphosphamide2 x is1 h[ev]1 m probable t x is a nitrile ?an an amide1 because only amides conta9 ! gr\p ,,nh#b4 ,x is a col\rless1 /able1 insoluble p[d]1 :i* possibly corresponds ) pyrophosphoric acid1 m especially s9ce :5 heat$ x evolves ammonia & gives & leaves phosphoryl nitride1 ,,pon--t is1 ! nitrile ( metaphosphoric acid4 ,! amide correspond+ ) ! pyrophosphate ,p#b,o#c7,,nh#d,o7#d %\ld be ,p#b,o#c7,,nh#b7d1 & ! nitriles correspond+ to ! latt] w\ld be ,p#b,o#b,n7,,nh#b7c1 ,p#b,,on#b7,,nh#b7b1 & ,p#b,n#c7,,nh#b74 ,! composition ( ! fir/ is ! same z t ( ! above diphosphamide4 ,! ?ird pyrophosphoric nitrile has a =mula ,p#b,n#d;,h#b1 & ?is is ! composition ( ! body kn[n z phospham1 ,,phn#b 79 a c]ta9 s5se ?is is ! analogue ( ,n#c;,h polym]is$1 ,*apt] ,,vi47 ,inde$1 phospham has be5 obta9$ by heat+ ! products ( ! action ( ammonia on phosphoric *loride1 z an insoluble & alkal9e p[d]1 :i* gives ammonia & phosphoric acid :5 subject$ to ! action ( wat]4 ,! same sub/ance is obta9$ by ! action ( ammonium *loride on phosphoric *loride 7,p,n,cl#b is fir/ =m$1 & reacts fur!r ) ammonia1 =m+ phospham71 & by ignit+ ! mass :i* is =m$ by ! action ( ammonia on phosphorus tri*loride4 ,=m]ly ! composition ( phospham 0 suppos$ to be ,,phn#b1 n[ !re is reason to ?9k t its molecul> weight is ,p#c;,h#c,n#f4 ,! above comp\nds correspond ) normal salts1 b nitriles & amides correspond+ to acid salts are also possible1 & !y w be acids4 ,= example1 ! amide ,,po7,,ho7#b7,,nh#b71 & its nitrile1 w be ei!r ,,pn7,,ho7#b or ,,po7,,ho77,,nh71 b at all ev5ts ( ! composition ,,pnh#b,o#b1 & hav+ acid prop]ties4 ,! ammonium salt ( ?is phosphonitrilic acid 7x is call$ phosphamic acid71 ,,pnh7,,nh#d7,o#b1 is obta9$ by ! action ( ammonia on phosphoric anhydride1 ,p#b,o#e #d,,nh#c ,h#b,o #b,,pnh7,,nh#d7,o#b4 ,a non-cry/all9e soluble mass is ?us =m$1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 a dilute solution ( ammonia & precipitat$ ) b>ium *loride1 & ! resultant b>ium salt is !n decompos$ ) sulphuric acid1 & ?us a solution ( ! acid ( ! above composition is obta9$4 ,x is evid5t f ! !ory ( ! =mation ( amides & nitriles 7,*apt] ,,ix47 t v _m comp\nds ( ?is k9d c correspond ) ! acids ( phosphorus2 b z yet only a few are kn[n4 ,! easy transitions ( ! or?o-1 meta-1 & pyrophosphoric acids1 by means ( ! hydrog5 ( ammonia1 into ! l[] acids1 & conv]sely1 t5d to complicate ! /udy ( ?is v l>ge class ( comp\nds1 & x is r>ely t ! nature ( a product ?us obta9$ c be judg$ f its composition2 & ?is all ! m t in/ances ( isom]ism & polym]ism1 ( mixture betwe5 wat] ( cry/allisation & ( con/itution1 c41 are "h possible4 ,_m data are yet ne$$ to enable u to =m a true judgm5t z to ! composition & /ructure ( su* comp\nds4 ,z ! be/ pro( ( ?is we w describe ! v int]e/+ & mo/ fully inve/igat$ comp\nd ( ?is class1 ,p,n,cl#b1 call$ *lorophosphamide1 or nitrog5 *lorophosphorite4 ,x is =m$ 9 small quantities :5 ! vap\r ( phosphoric *loride is pass$ ov] ignit$ sal-ammoniac4 ,besson 7#ahib7 heat$ ! comp\nd ,p,cl#eh,,nh#c 7:i* is easily & directly =m$ f ,p,cl#e & ,,nh#c7 "u a pressure ( ab\t #ej mm4 7( m]cury7 to #bjj1 & obta9$ brilliant cry/als ( ,p,n,cl#b1 :i* melt$ at #ajf 79 ! residue aft] ! di/illation ( sal-ammoniacal phospham74 ,! *lor9e 9 x is v /able--q diff]5t f t 9 phosphoric *loride4 ,inde$1 ! resultant sub/ance is n only insoluble 9 wat] 7?\gh soluble 9 alcohol & e!r71 b x is n ev5 moi/5$ by x1 & di/ils ov]1 toge!r ) /eam1 )\t be+ decompos$4 ,9 a free /ate x easily cry/allises 9 col\rless prisms1 fuses at #aad1 boils at #bej 7,glad/one1 ,wi*elhaus71 & :5 fus$ ) pota% gives potassium *loride & ! amidonitrile ( phosphoric acid4 ,judg+ f its =mula & ! simplicity ( its composition & reactions1 x might be ?\ght t ! molecul> weight ( ?is sub/ance w\ld be express$ by ! =mula ,p,cl#b,n1 t x corresponds ) ,,pon & ) ,p,cl#e 7l ,p,o,cl#c71 ) ! sub/itution ( ,cl#c by ,n1 j z 9 ,p,o,cl#c two atoms ( *lor9e are replac$ by oxyg52 b all ^! surmises are incorrect1 because its vap\r d5sity 7ref]r$ to hydrog5--,glad/one1 ,wi*elhaus7 #ahb--t is1 ! molecul> =mula mu/ be ?ree times great]1 ,p#c,n#c;,cl#f4 ,! polym]isation 7tripl+7 is "h ( exactly ! same k9d z ) ! nitriles4 ,! mo/ important analogue ( phosphorus is ars5ic1 ! metallic aspect ( :i* & ! g5]al "* ( its comp\nds ( ! types ,as,x#c & ,as,x#e at once recall ! metals4 ,! hydrate ( its highe/ oxide1 ars5ic acid 7or?o-ars5ic acid71 ,h#c;,as,o#d1 is an oxidis+ ag5t1 & gives up a portion ( its oxyg5 to _m o!r sub/ances2 b1 nev]!less1 x is v l phosphoric acid4 ,mits*]li* e/abli%$ ! conception ( isomorphism by comp>+ ! salts ( ^! acids4#cj #cj ,x is necess>y to rem>k t1 al?\gh ars5ic is s closely analog\s to phosphorus 7especially 9 ! high] =ms ( comb9ation1 ,,rx#c & ,,rx#e71 at ! same "t x exhibits a c]ta9 resemblance & ev5 isomorphism ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( sulphur 7especially ! metallic comp\nds ( ! type ,m,as1 correspond+ ) ,,ms74 ,?us comp\nds conta9+ metals1 ars5ic1 & sulphur are v frequ5tly met ) 9 nature4 ,sometimes ! relative am\nts ( ars5ic & sulphur v>y1 s t an isomorph\s sub/itution betwe5 ! ars5ides & sulphides mu/ be recognis$4 ,besides ,fe,s#b 7ord9>y pyrites71 & ,fe,as#b1 iron =ms an ars5ical pyrites conta9+ bo? sulphur & ars5ic1 :i* f its composition1 ,fe,as,s or ,fe,s#b;,fe,as#b1 resembles ! two prec$+4 ,ars5ic occurs 9 nature1 n only comb9$ ) metals1 b also1 al?\gh r>ely1 native & also 9 comb9ation ) sulphur 9 two m9]als--"o r$1 realg>1 ,z#b,s#b1 & ! o!r yell[1 orpim5t1 ,z#b,s#c 7,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #bi74 ,ars5ic occurs1 b m r>ely1 9 ! =m ( salts ( ars5ic acid--= in/ance1 ! s-call$ cobalt & nickel blooms1 two m9]als :i* are f\nd accompany+ o!r cobalt ores1 are ! ars5ates ( ^! metals4 ,ars5ic is also f\nd 9 c]ta9 clays 7o*res7 & has be5 discov]$ 9 small quantities 9 "s m9]al spr+s1 b x is 9 g5]al ( r>] occurr5ce 9 nature ?an phosphorus4 ,ars5ic is mo/ frequ5tly extract$ f ars5ical pyrites1 ,fe,s,as1 :i*1 :5 roa/$ )\t access ( air1 evolves ! vap\r ( ars5ic1 f]r\s sulphide be+ left beh9d4 ,x is also obta9$ by heat+ ars5i\s anhydride ) *>coal1 9 :i* case c>bonic oxide is evolv$4 ,9 g5]al1 ! oxides & o!r comp\nds are v easily r$uc$4 ,solid ars5ic is a /eel-grey brittle metal1 hav+ a bright lu/re & scaly /ructure4 ,its specific gravity is #eg4 ,x is opaque & infusible1 b volatilises z a yell[ vap\r :i* on cool+ deposits rhomboh$ral cry/als4#cj bis ,! vap\r d5sity ( ars5ic is #aej times great] ?an t ( hydrog5--t is1 its molecule1 l t ( phosphorus1 conta9s #d atoms1 ,z#d4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! air1 ars5ic easily oxidises into :ite ars5i\s anhydride1 ,z#b,o#c1 b ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature x loses its lu/re 7becomes dull71 ow+ to ! =mation ( a coat+ ( a l[] oxide4 ,! latt] appe>s to be z volatile z ars5i\s anhydride1 & x is probable t x is ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ?is comp\nd t ! vap\rs ( ars5i\s comp\nds1 :5 heat$ ) *>coal 7= example1 9 ! r$uc+ flame ( a bl[-pipe71 h ! *>act]i/ic smell ( g>lic1 because ! vap\r ( ars5ic itself has n ?is od\r4 #cj bis ,accord+ to ,retg]s 7#ahic7 ! ars5ic mirror 7see fur!r on7 is an un/able v>iety ( metallic ars5ic1 :il/ ! br[n product :i* is =m$ toge!r ) x 9 ,m>%'s app>atus is a l[] hydride ,as,h4 ,s*ull] & ,mc,leod 7#ahid71 h[ev]1 recognise a peculi> yell[ v>iety ( ars5ic4 ,ars5ic easily comb9es ) brom9e & *lor9e2#ca nitric acid & aqua regia also oxidise x into ! high] oxide1 or r its hydrate1 ars5ic acid4#cb ,z f> z is kn[n1 x does n decompose /eam1 & x acts exce$+ly sl[ly on ^? acids1 l hydro*loric1 :i* are n capable ( oxidis+4 #ca ,hydro*loric acid dissolves ars5i\s anhydride 9 consid]able quantities1 & ?is is probably ow+ to ! =mation ( un/able comp\nds 9 :i* ! ars5i\s anhydride plays ! "p ( a base4 ,a comp\nd call$ ars5i\s oxy*loride1 hav+ ! composition ,as,o,cl1 is ev5 kn[n4 ,x is =m$ :5 ars5i\s anhydride is add$ little by little to boil+ ars5ic tri*loride1 ,z#b,o#c ,as,cl#c #c;,as,o,cl4 ,x is a transp>5t sub/ance1 :i* fumes 9 air1 & comb9es ) wat] to =m a cry/all9e mass hav+ ! composition ,z#b7,,oh7#d;,cl#b4 ,:5 heat$ x decomposes into ars5i\s *loride & a fre% oxy*loride ( a m complex composition1 ,z#f,o#h;,cl#b ,ars5ic tri*loride1 :5 treat$ ) a small quantity ( wat]1 =ms ! cry/all9e comp\nd1 ,z#b7;,,ho7#d;,cl#b1 m5tion$ above4 ,^! comp\nds resemble ! basic salts ( bismu? & alum9ium4 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! comp\nds %[s t ars5ic is ( a m metallic or basic "* ?an phosphorus4 ,nev]!less ars5ic tri*loride1 ,as,cl#c1 resembles phosphorus tri*loride 9 _m respects4 ,x is obta9$ by ! direct action ( *lor9e on ars5ic1 or by di/ill+ a mixture ( common salt1 sulphuric acid1 & ars5i\s anhydride4 ,! latt] mode ( prep>ation already indicates ! basic prop]ties ( ! oxide4 ,ars5i\s *loride is a col\rless oily liquid1 boil+ at #acj1 & hav+ a sp4 gr4 ( #bbj4 ,x fumes 9 air l o!r *loranhydrides1 b x is mu* m sl[ly & imp]fectly decompos$ by wat] ?an phosphorus tri*loride4 ,a consid]able quantity ( wat] is requir$ = its complete decomposition into hydro*loric acid & ars5i\s anhydride4 ,x =ms an excell5t example ( ! transition f true metallic *lorides to true *loranhydrides ( ! acids4 ,x h>dly comb9es ) *lor9e1 i4e4 if ,as,cl#e is =m$ x is v un/able4 ,ars5ic tribromide1 ,as,br#c1 is =m$ z a cry/all9e sub/ance1 fus+ at #bj & boil+ at #bbj1 by ! direct action ( metallic ars5ic on a solution ( brom9e 9 c>bon bisulphide1 ! latt] be+ !n evaporat$4 ,! specific gravity ( ars5ic tribromide is #ccf4 ,cry/all9e ars5ic tri-iodide1 ,as,i#c1 hav+ a sp4 gr4 #dci1 may be obta9$ 9 a l mann]2 x may be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & on evaporation sep>ates out f ! solution 9 an anhydr\s /ate--t is1 x is n decompos$--& consequ5tly behaves l metallic salts4 ,ars5ic trifluoride1 ,as,f#c1 is obta9$ by heat+ fluor sp> & ars5i\s anhydride ) sulphuric acid4 ,x is a fum+1 col\rless1 & v poison\s liquid1 :i* boils at #fc & has a sp4 gr4 ( #bgc4 ,x is decompos$ by wat]4 ,x is v rem>kable t fluor9e =ms a p5tafluoride ( ars5ic also1 al?\gh ?is comp\nd has n yet be5 obta9$ 9 a sep>ate /ate1 b only 9 comb9ation ) potassium fluoride4 ,?is comp\nd1 ,k#c;,as,f#h1 is =m$ z prismatic cry/als :5 potassium ars5ate1 ,k#c;,as,o#d1 is dissolv$ 9 hydr(luoric acid4 #cb ,ars5ic acid1 ,h#c;,as,o#d1 correspond+ ) or?ophosphoric acid1 is =m$ by oxidis+ ars5i\s anhydride ) nitric acid1 & evaporat+ ! resultant solution until x atta9s a sp4 gr4 ( #bb2 on cool+ x sep>ates 9 cry/als hav+ ! above composition4 ,?is hydrate corresponds ) ! normal salts ( ars5ic acid2 b on dissolv+ 9 wat] 7)\t heat+71 & on cool+ a /rong solution1 cry/als conta9+ a great] am\nt ( wat]1 namely1 7,as,h#c,o#d7b1;,h#b,o1 sep>ate4 ,?is wat]1 l wat] ( cry/allisation1 is v easily expell$ at #ajj4 ,at #abj cry/als hav+ a composition id5tical ) t ( pyrophosphoric acid1 ,z#b;,h#d,o#g1 sep>ate1 b wat]1 on dissolv+ ?is hydrate ) ! developm5t ( heat1 =ms a solution 9 no way diff]+ f a solution ( ord9>y ars5ic acid1 s t x is n an indep5d5t pyro>s5ic acid t is =m$4 ,nei!r is !re any true analogue ( metaphosphoric acid1 al?\gh ! comp\nd ,as,h,o#c is =m$ at #bjj1 & on solidify+ =ms a mass hav+ a pe>ly lu/re & sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]2 b on com+ into contact ) w>m wat] x becomes v hot1 & gives ord9>y or?o>s5ic acid 9 solution4 ,ars5ic acid =ms ?ree s]ies ( salts1 :i* are p]fectly analog\s to ! ?ree s]ies ( or?ophosphates4 ,?us ! normal salt1 ,k#c;,as,o#d1 is =m$ by fus+ ! o!r potassium ars5ates ) potassium c>bonate2 x is soluble 9 wat] & cry/allises 9 ne$les :i* d n conta9 wat]4 ,di-potassium ars5ate1 ,k#b;,h,as,o#d1 is =m$ 9 solution by mix+ potassium c>bonate & ars5ic acid until c>bonic anhydride ceases to be evolv$2 x does n cry/allise1 & has an alkal9e reaction2 h5ce x corresponds p]fectly ) ! sodium phosphate4 ,z 0 m5tion$ above1 ars5ic acid itself acts z an oxidis+ ag5t2 = example1 x is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( anil9e dyes = oxidis+ ! anil9e1 & x is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities = ?is purpose4 ,:5 sulphurett$ hydrog5 is pass$ ?r\gh its solution1 sulphuric acid & ars5i\s anhydride are obta9$ 9 solution4 ,ars5ic acid is v easily soluble 9 wat]1 & its solution has an exce$+ly acid reaction1 & :5 boil$ ) hydro*loric acid evolves *lor9e1 l sel5ic1 *romic1 manganic1 & c]ta9 o!r high] metallic acids4 ,ars5ic anhydride1 ,z#b,o#e1 is produc$ :5 ars5ic acid is heat$ to r$ness4 ,x mu/ be c>efully heat$1 z at a bright r$ heat x decomposes into oxyg5 & ars5i\s anhydride4 ,ars5ic anhydride is an amorph\s sub/ance almo/ entirely insoluble 9 wat]1 b x attracts moi/ure f ! air1 deliquesces1 & passes into ! acid4 ,hot wat] produces ?is trans=mation ) great ease4 ,ars5iurett$ hydrog51 ars9e1 ,as,h#c1 resembles phosphurett$ hydrog5 9 _m respects4 ,?is col\rless gas1 :i* liquefies into a mobile liquid at -#dj1 has a disagreeable g>lic-l od\r1 is only slightly soluble 9 wat]1 & is exce$+ly poison\s4 ,ev5 9 a small quantity x causes great suff]+1 & if pres5t to any consid]able am\nt 9 air x ev5 causes dea?4 ,! o!r comp\nds ( ars5ic are also poison\s1 ) ! exception ( ! insoluble sulphur comp\nd & "s comp\nds ( ars5ic acid4 ,ars5iurett$ hydrog51 ,as,h#c1 is obta9$ by ! action ( wat] on ! alloy ( ars5ic & sodium1 sodium hydroxide & ars5iurett$ hydrog5 be+ =m$4 ,x is also =m$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid on ! alloy ( ars5ic & z9c3 ,zn#c;,z#b #c;,h#b,,s#d #b;,as,h#c #c,zn,s,o#d4cc ,! oxyg5 comp\nds ( ars5ic are v easily r$uc$ by ! action ( hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its evolution f acids1 & ! r$uc$ ars5ic !n comb9es ) ! hydrog52 h5ce1 if a c]ta9 am\nt ( an oxyg5 comp\nd ( ars5ic be put into an app>atus conta9+ z9c & sulphuric acid 7& ?us s]v+ = ! evolution ( hydrog571 ! hydrog5 evolv$ w conta9 ars5iurett$ hydrog54 ,9 ?is case x is dilut$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( hydrog54 ,b its pres5ce 9 ! mo/ m9ute quantities may be easily recognis$ f ! fact t x is easily decompos$ by heat 7#bjj accord+ to ,brunn7 into metallic ars5ic & hydrog51 & !re=e if su* impure hydrog5 he pass$ ?r\gh a mod]ately-heat$ tube metallic ars5ic w be deposit$ z a bright lay] on ! "p ( ! tube :i* 0 heat$ 7see ,note #cj bis74 ,?is reaction is s s5sitive t x enables ! mo/ m9ute traces ( ars5ic to be discov]$2 h5ce x is employ$ 9 m$ical jurisprud5ce1 z a te/ 9 poison+ cases4 ,x is easy to discov] ! pres5ce ( ars5ic 9 common z9c1 copp]1 sulphuric & hydro*loric acids1 c4 by ?is me?od4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 te/+ = poison by ,m>%'s app>atus x is necess>y to take z9c & sulphuric acid q free f ars5ic4 ,! ars5ic deposit$ 9 ! tube may be driv5 z a volatile metal f "o place to ano!r 9 ! curr5t ( hydrog5 evolv$1 ow+ to its volatility4 ,?is =ms a di/9ction betwe5 ars5iurett$ & antimoniurett$ hydrog51 :i* is decompos$ by heat 9 j ! same way z ars5iurett$ hydrog51 b ! mirror giv5 by ,sb is n s volatile z t =m$ by ,z4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,=mation & decomposition ( ars5iurett$ hydrog54 ,hydrog5 is evolv$ 9 ! ,w\lfe's bottle1 & :5 ! gas comes (f1 a solution conta9+ ars5ic is p\r$ ?r\gh ! funnel4 ,! pres5ce ( ,as,h#c is recognis$ f ! deposition ( a mirror ( ars5ic :5 ! gas-conduct+ tube is heat$4 ,if ! escap+ hydrog5 be light$1 & a porcela9 di% be held 9 ! flame1 a film ( ars5ic is deposit$ on x4 ,! gas is dri$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! tube conta9+ calcium *loride4 ,?is app>atus is us$ = ! detection ( ars5ic by ,m>%'s te/4 #cc ,! =mation ( ars5iurett$ hydrog5 is accompani$ by ! absorption ( #cg1jjj heat units1 :ile phosph9e evolves #ah1jjj 7,ogi]71 & ammonia #bg1jjj4 ,sodium 7#jf p4c47 amalgam1 ) a /rong solution ( ,z#b,o#c1 gives a gas conta9+ #hf vols4 ( ars5ic & #ad vols4 ( hydrog5 7,cavazzi74 ,if hydrog5 conta9s ars5iurett$ hydrog51 x also gives metallic ars5ic :5 x burns1 because 9 ! r$uc+ flame ( hydrog5 ! oxyg5 attract$ comb9es entirely ) ! hydrog5 & n ) ! ars5ic1 s t if a cold object1 su* z a piece ( *9a1 be held 9 ! hydrog5 flame ! ars5ic w be deposit$ ^u x z a metallic spot4#cd #cd ,?is spot1 or ! metallic r+ :i* is deposit$ on ! heat$ tube1 may easily be te/$ z to :e!r x is really due to ars5ic or proce$s f "s o!r sub/ance r$uc$ 9 ! hydrog5 flame--= in/ance1 c>bon or antimony4 ,! necessity = di/+ui%+ ars5ic f antimony is all ! m frequ5tly enc\nt]$ 9 m$ical jurisprud5ce1 f ! fact t prep>ations ( antimony are v frequ5tly us$ z m$ic9e1 & antimony behaves 9 ! hydrog5 app>atus j l ars5ic1 & !re=e 9 mak+ an inve/igation = poison+ by ars5ic x is easy to mi/ake x = antimony4 ,! be/ me?od to di/+ui% betwe5 ! metallic spots ( ars5ic & antimony is to te/ !m ) a solution ( sodium hypo*lorite1 free f *lor9e1 because ?is w dissolve ars5ic & n antimony4 ,su* a solution is easily obta9$ by ! d\ble decomposition ( solutions ( sodium c>bonate & blea*+ p[d]4 ,a solution ( potassium *lorate acts 9 ! same mann]1 only m sl[ly4 ,fur!r p>ticul>s mu/ be look$ = 9 analytical works4 ,ars5iurett$ hydrog51 l phosphurett$ hydrog51 is only slightly soluble 9 wat]1 has no alkal9e prop]ties--t is1 x does n comb9e ) acids--& acts z a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,:5 pass$ into a solution ( silv] nitrate x gives a blacki% br[n precipitate ( metallic silv]1 ! ars5ic be+ oxidis$4 ,if act+ on copp] sulphate & simil> salts1 ars5iurett$ hydrog5 sometimes =ms ars5ides--i4e4 x r$uces ! metallic salt ) its hydrog51 & is itself r$uc$ to ars5ic4 ,sulphuric1 & ev5 hydro*loric1 acid r$uces ars5iurett$ hydrog5 to ars5ic1 & x is /ill m easily decompos$ by ars5i\s *loride1 & ) phosphor\s *loride x gives ! comp\nd ,p,as4 ,ars5iurett$ hydrog5 gives metallic ars5ic ) an acid solution ( ars5i\s anhydride 7,tivoli74 ,! mo/ common comp\nd ( ars5ic is ! solid & volatile ars5i\s anhydride1 ,z#b,o#c1 :i* corresponds ) phosphor\s & nitr\s anhydrides4 ,?is v poison\s1 col\rless1 & sweet-ta/+ sub/ance is g5]ally kn[n "u ! "n ( ars5ic1 or :ite ars5ic4 ,! correspond+ hydrate is z yet unkn[n2 its solutions1 :5 evaporat$1 yield cry/als ( ars5i\s anhydride4 ,x is *iefly prep>$ = ! dy]1 & is also us$ z a v]m9 kill]1 & sometimes 9 m$ic9e2 x is a product f :i* all o!r comp\nds ( ars5ic c be prep>$4 ,x is obta9$ z a by-product 9 roa/+ cobalt & o!r ores conta9+ ars5ic4 ,ars5ical pyrites are sometimes purposely roa/$ = ! extraction ( ars5i\s anhydride4 ,:5 ars5ical ores are burnt 9 ! air1 ! sulphur & ars5ic are conv]t$ into ! oxides ,z#b,o#c & ,,s#b4 ,! =m] is a solid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ! latt] gase\s1 & !re=e ! ars5i\s anhydride is deposit$ z a sublimate 9 ! cool] portion ( ! flues ?r\gh :i* ! vap\rs escape f ! furnace4 ,x collects 9 cond5s+ *amb]s especially con/ruct$ 9 ! flues4 ,! deposit is collect$1 & aft] be+ di/ill$ gives ars5i\s anhydride 9 ! =m ( a vitre\s non-cry/all9e mass4 ,?is is "o ( ! v>ieties ( ars5i\s anhydride1 :i* is also kn[n 9 two cry/all9e =ms4 ,:5 sublim$--i4e4 :5 x rapidly passes f ! /ate ( vap\r to ! solid /ate--x appe>s 9 ! regul> sy/em 9 ! =m ( octah$ra4#ce ,x is obta9$ 9 ! same =m :5 x is cry/allis$ f acid solutions4 ,! specific gravity ( ! cry/als is #cg4 ,! o!r cry/all9e =m 79 prisms7 belongs to ! rhomboh$ral sy/em1 & is also =m$ by sublimation :5 ! cry/als are deposit$ on a heat$ surface1 or :5 x is cry/allis$ f alkal9e solutions4#cf #ce ,accord+ to ,mits*]li*'s det]m9ation1 ! vap\r d5sity ( ars5i\s anhydride is #aii 7,h #a7--t is1 x answ]s to ! molecul> =mula ,z#d,o#f4 ,probably ?is is connect$ ) ! fact t ! molecule ( free ars5ic conta9s ,z#d4 ,v4 ,mey] & ,biltz1 h[ev]1 %[$ 7#ahhi7 t at a temp]ature ( ab\t #a1gjj ! vap\r d5sity ( ars5ic corresponds ) ! molecule ,z#b1 & n ,z#d1 z at l[] temp]atures4 #cf ,ars5i\s anhydride is obta9$ 9 an amorph\s =m aft] prolong$ heat+ at a temp]ature ne> to t at :i* x volatilises1 or1 bett] /ill1 by heat+ x 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,x !n fuses to a col\rless liquid1 :i* on cool+ =ms a transp>5t vitre\s mass1 ^: specific gravity is only slightly less ?an t ( ! cry/all9e anhydride4 ,on cool+1 ?is vitre\s mass und]goes an int]nal *ange1 9 :i* x cry/allises & becomes opaque1 & acquires ! appe>ance ( porcela94 ,! foll[+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! vitre\s & opaque v>ieties is v rem>kable3 :5 ! vitre\s v>iety is dissolv$ 9 /rong & hot hydro*loric acid x gives cry/als ( ! anhydride on cool+1 & ?is cry/allisation is accompani$ by ! emission ( light 7:i* is visible 9 ! d>k71 & ! entire liquid gl[s z ! cry/als beg9 to sep>ate4 ,! opaque v>iety does n emit light :5 ! cry/als sep>ate f its hydro*loric acid solution4 ,x is also rem>kable t ! vitre\s v>iety passes into ! opaque =m :5 x is p\nd$--t is1 "u ! action ( a s]ies ( bl[s4 ,?us1 sev]al v>ieties ( ars5i\s anhydride are kn[n1 b z yet !y are n *>act]is$ by any special *emical di/9ctions1 & ev5 diff] b little 9 _! specific gravities1 s t x _c be said t ! above diff]5ces are due to any isom]ic trans=mation--t is1 to an arrangem5t ( ! atoms 9 ! molecule--b probably only dep5d on a diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( ! molecules1 or1 9 o!r t]ms1 are physical & n *emical v>iations4 ,"o "p ( ! vitre\s anhydride requires twelve p>ts ( boil+ wat] = its solution1 or tw5ty-five p>ts at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! opaque v>iety is less soluble1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature requires ab\t sev5ty p>ts ( wat] = its solution4 ,solutions ( ars5i\s anhydride h a sweet metallic ta/e1 & give a feeble acid reaction4 ,its solubility increases ) ! admixture ( acids & alkalis4 ,?is %[s ! prop]ty ( ars5i\s anhydride ( =m+ salts ) acids & alkalis4 ,& 9 fact comp\nds ( x ) hydro*loric acid 7,note #ca71 sulphuric anhydride 7see fur!r on71 & ) ! alkali oxides are kn[n4#cg ,if silv] nitrate be add$ to a solution ( ars5i\s anhydride1 x does n give any precipitate unless a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! ars5i\s anhydride is saturat$ ) an alkali--= in/ance1 ammonia4 ,x !n gives a precipitate ( silv] ars5ite1 ,ag#c;,as,o#c4 ,?is is yell[1 soluble 9 an excess ( ammonia1 & anhydr\s2 x di/9ctly %[s t ars5i\s acid is tribasic1 & t x diff]s 9 ?is respect f phosphor\s acid1 9 :i* only two atoms ( hydrog5 c be replac$ by metals4#ch ,! feeble acid "* ( ars5i\s anhydride is confirm$ by ! =mation ( sal9e comp\nds ) acids4 ,9 ?is respect ! mo/ rem>kable example is ! anhydr\s comp\nd ) sulphuric acid1 hav+ ! composition ,z#b,o#c1,,s#c4 ,x is =m$ 9 ! roa/+ ( ars5ical pyrites 9 ^? spaces :]e ! ars5i\s anhydride cond5ses1 a portion ( ! sulphur\s anhydride be+ conv]t$ into sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! comp\nd 9 "q =ms col\rless tabul> cry/als1 :i* are decompos$ by wat] ) =mation ( sulphuric acid & ars5i\s anhydride4#ci #cg ,ars5i\s anhydride does n oxidise 9 air1 ei!r 9 a dry /ate or 9 solution1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis x absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 & acts z an excell5t r$uc+ ag5t4 ,?is probably is connect$ ) ! fact t ars5ic acid is mu* m en]getic ?an ars5i\s acid1 & t x is ars5ic acid :i* is =m$ by ! oxidation ( ! latt] 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis4 ,ars5i\s anhydride is easily r$uc$ to ars5ic by _m metals1 ev5 by copp]4 #ch ,! feebl5ess ( ! acid prop]ties ( ars5i\s anhydride is se5 9 ! fact t if x be dissolv$ 9 ammonia wat]1 & !n a /ill /rong] solution ( ammonia be add$1 prismatic cry/als sep>ate hav+ ! composition ( ammonium met>s5ite1 ,,nh#d;,as,o#c4 ,?is ammonium salt deliquesces 9 air1 & loses all its ammonia4 ,! magnesium salt is tri-metallic1 ,mg#c7;,as,o#c7b2 x is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is =m$ by mix+ an ammoniacal solution ( ars5i\s anhydride ) an ammoniacal solution ( a magnesium salt4 ,x is insoluble ev5 9 ammonia1 al?\gh x dissolves 9 an excess ( acids4 ,magnesium hydroxide gives ! same salt ) ars5i\s solutions1 & h5ce magnesia is "o ( ! be/ antidotes = ars5ic poison+4 ,! ars5ites ( copp] are mu* us$ 9 ! manufacture ( col\rs1 m especially ( pigm5ts4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ by _! insolubility 9 wat] & by _! rem>kably vivid gre5 col\r1 b at ! same "t by _! poison\s "*4 ,n only d su* pigm5ts appli$ to wall pap]s or o!r mat]ials easily du/ (f f !m1 b !y give exhalations conta9+ ,as,h#c4 ,! cupric salts1 ,cu,x#b1 :5 mix$ ) an alkal9e solution ( ars5i\s acid1 give a gre5 precipitate ( a copp] salt call$ ,s*eele's gre54 ,its composition is probably ,cu,h,as,o#c4 ,ammonia dissolves x1 & gives a col\rless solution1 conta9+ cupr\s ars5ate--t is1 ! cupric comp\nd is r$uc$ & ! ars5ic subject$ to a fur!r oxidation4 ,! s-call$ ,s*we9furt gre5 0 /ill m us$1 especially 9 =m] times2 x is an insoluble gre5 cupric salt1 :i* resembles ! prec$+ 9 _m respects1 b has a diff]5t t9t4 ,x is prep>$ by mix+ boil+ solutions ( ars5i\s acid & cupric acetate4 ,ars5i\s acid =ms an insoluble comp\nd ) f]ric hydroxide1 resembl+ ! phosphate2 & ?is is ! reason :y fre%ly precipitat$ oxide ( iron is employ$ z an antidote = ars5ic4 ,! fre%ly precipitat$ oxide ( iron1 tak5 imm$iately aft] poison+ by ars5ic1 conv]ts ! ars5i\s acid into an insoluble /ate1 by =m+ a comp\nd on :i* ! acids ( ! /oma* h no action1 s t ! poison+ _c proce$4 ,x is rem>kable t ! inhabitants ( c]ta9 m\nta9\s c\ntries accu/om !mselves to tak+ ars5ic1 z a means :i*1 accord+ to _! exp]i5ce1 helps to ov]come ! fatigue ( m\nta9 asc5ts4 ,ars5i\s anhydride & c]ta9 ( its salts are also us$ 9 m$ic9e1 naturally only 9 small quantities4 ,:5 tak5 int]nally ars5ic passes into ! blood1 & is ma9ly excret$ by ! ur9e4 #ci ,adie 7#ahhi7 obta9$ comp\nds ( ,z#b,o#c ) #a1 #b1 #d1 & #h ,,s#c by ! direct action ( ord9>y & ,nordhaus5 sulphuric acid ^u ,z#b,o#c4 ,web] _h previ\sly obta9$ ,z#b,o#c,,s#c 7:i* dis5gages ,,s#c at #bbe71 & also o!r ,z#b,o#cn,,s#c 7:]e n #c1 #f1 & #h71 by ! action ( ! vap\rs ( ,,s#c ^u ,z#b,o#c at a def9ite temp]ature4 ,! comp\nd ,z#b,o#c1h,,s#c loses ,,s#c at #ajj4 ,oxide ( antimony1 ,sb#b,o#c1 gives simil> comp\nds4 ,adie 7#ahia7 also obta9$ 7by ! action ( ,,s#c ^u ,h#c,,po#d7 a comp\nd ,h#c,,po#dc,,s#c 9 ! =m ( a visc\s liquid decompos$ by wat]4 ,antimony 7/ibium71 ,sb #abj1 is ano!r analogue ( phosphorus4 ,9 its ext]nal appe>ance & ! prop]ties ( its comp\nds x resembles ! metals /ill m closely ?an ars5ic4 ,9 fact1 antimony has ! appe>ance1 lu/re1 & _m ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! metals4 ,its oxide1 ,sb#b,o#c1 exhibits ! e>?y appe>ance ( ru/ or ( lime1 & has di/9ctly basic prop]ties1 al?\gh x corresponds ) nitr\s & phosphor\s anhydride1 & is able1 l !m1 to give sal9e comp\nds ) bases4 ,at ! same "t antimony pres5ts1 9 ! majority ( its comp\nds1 an entire analogy ) phosphorus & ars5ic4 ,its comp\nds belong to ! type ,sb,x#c & ,sb,x#e4 ,x is f\nd 9 nature *iefly 9 ! =m ( sulphide1 ,sb#b,s#c4 ,?is sub/ance sometimes occurs 9 l>ge masses 9 m9]al ve9s & is kn[n 9 m9]alogy "u ! "n ( antimony glance or /ibnite1 & comm]cially z antimony 7,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #bi74 ,! mo/ abundant deposits ( antimony ore occur 9 ,portugal 7ne> ,oporto on ! ,d\ro74 ,besides :i* antimony p>tially or totally replaces ars5ic 9 "s m9]als2 ?us1 = example1 a comp\nd ( antimony sulphide & ars5ic sulphide ) silv] sulphide is f\nd 9 r$ silv] ore4 ,b 9 e case antimony is a r r>e metal f\nd 9 few localities4 ,9 ,russia x is kn[n to occur 9 ,daghe/an 9 ! ,caucasus4 ,x is extract$ *iefly = ! prep>ation ( alloys ) lead & t91 :i* are us$ = ca/+ pr9t+ type4#dj ,"s ( its comp\nds are also us$ 9 m$ic9e1 ! mo/ important 9 ?is respect be+ antimony p5tasulphide1 ,sb#b,s#e 7sulfur auratum antimonii71 & t>t> emetic1 :i* is a d\ble salt d]iv$ f t>t>ic acid & has ! composition ,c#d;,h#d,k7,sb,o7,o#f4 ,ev5 ! native antimony sulphide is us$ 9 l>ge quantities z a purgative = horses & dogs4 ,metallic antimony is extract$ f ! glance1 ,sb#b,s#b1 by roa/+1 :5 ! sulphur burns away & ! antimony oxidises1 =m+ ! oxide ,sb#b,o#c1 :i* is !n heat$ ) *>coal1 & ?us r$uc$ to a metallic /ate4 ,! r$uction may be c>ri$ on 9 ! laboratory on a small scale by fus+ ! sulphide ) iron :i* takes up ! sulphur4#dj bis #dj ,pr9t]s' type consi/s ( an alloy kn[n z 'type-metal1' conta9+ usually ab\t #ae p>ts ( antimony to #he p>ts ( lead2 sometimes 7= example1 = /]eotypes7 f #aj to #ae p] c5t4 ,bi or #h p] c5t4 ,sn & ev5 ,cu is add$4 ,! h>dness ( ! alloy1 :i* is ess5tial = pr9t+1 evid5tly dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( antimony1 b an excess mu/ be avoid$1 s9ce ?is r5d]s ! alloy brittle1 & ! type aft] a "t loses its %>pness4 #dj bis ,antimony is prep>$ 9 a /ate ( great] purity by heat+ ) *>coal ! oxide obta9$ by ! action ( nitric acid on ! impure comm]cial metallic antimony4 ,?is is bas$ on ! fact t by ! action ( ! acid1 antimony =ms ! oxide ,sb#b,o#c1 :i* is b slightly soluble 9 wat]4 ,! ars5ic1 :i* is ne>ly always pres5t1 =ms soluble ars5i\s & ars5ic acids1 & rema9s 9 solution4 ,! pure/ antimony is easily obta9$ f t>t> emetic1 by heat+ x ) a small quantity ( nitre4 ,metallic antimony also occurs1 al?\gh r>ely1 native2 & z x is v easily obta9$1 x 0 kn[n to ! al*emi/s ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,v pure metallic antimony may be deposit$ by ! electric curr5t f a solution ( antimoni\s sulphide 9 sodium sulphide aft] ! addition ( sodium *loride to ! solution4 ,metallic antimony has a :ite col\r & a brilliant lu/re2 x rema9s unt>ni%$ 9 ! air1 = ! metal does n oxidise at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,x cry/allises 9 rhomboh$ra1 & always %[s a di/9ctly cry/all9e /ructure :i* gives x q a diff]5t aspect f ! majority ( ! metals yet kn[n4 ,x is mo/ l tellurium 9 ?is respect4 ,antimony is brittle1 s t x is v easily p[d]$2 its specific gravity is #fg1 x melts at ab\t #dcb1 b only volatilises at a bright r$ heat4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! air--= in/ance1 be=e ! bl[-pipe--x burns & gives :ite od\rless fumes1 consi/+ ( ! oxide4 ,?is oxide is t]m$ antimoni\s oxide1 al?\gh x might z well be t]m$ antimoni\s anhydride4 ,x is giv5 ! fir/ "n because 9 ! majority ( cases its comp\nds ) acids are us$1 b x =ms comp\nds ) ! alkalis j z easily4 ,antimoni\s oxide1 l ars5i\s anhydride1 cry/allises ei!r 9 regul> octah$ra or 9 rhombic prisms2 its specific gravity is #eef2 :5 heat$ x becomes yell[ & !n fuses1 & :5 fur!r heat$ 9 air x oxidises1 =m+ an oxide ( ! composition ,sb#b,o#d4 ,antimoni\s oxide is insoluble 9 wat] & 9 nitric acid1 b x easily dissolves 9 /rong hydro*loric acid & 9 alkalis1 z well z 9 t>t>ic acid or solutions ( its acid salts4 ,:5 dissolv$ 9 ! latt] x =ms t>t> emetic4 ,x is precipitat$ f its solutions 9 alkalis & acids 7by ! action ( acids on ! =m] & alkalis on ! latt]74 ,x occurs native b r>ely4 ,z a base x gives salts ( ! type ,sb,o,x 7z if ! basic salts ,sb,x#c1 ,sb#b,o#c7 & h>dly ev] =ms salts1 ,sb,x#c4 ,9 ! antimonyl salts1 ,sb,o,x1 ! gr\p ,sb,o is unival5t1 l potassium or silv]4 ,! oxide itself is 7,sb,o7#b,o1 ! hydroxide1 ,sb,o7,,oh71 c42 t>t> emetic is a salt 9 :i* "o hydrog5 ( t>t>ic acid is replac$ by potassium & ! o!r by antimonyl1 ,sb,o4 ,antimoni\s oxide is v easily sep>at$ f its salts by any base1 b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ?is sep>ation does n take place 9 ! pres5ce ( t>t>ic acid1 ow+ to ! prop]ty ( t>t>ic acid ( =m+ a soluble d\ble salt--i4e4 t>t> emetic4#da #da ,z antimoni\s oxide answ]s to ! type ,sb,x#c1 x is evid5t t comp\nds may exi/ 9 :i* antimony w replace ?ree atoms ( hydrog52 su* comp\nds h be5 to "s ext5t obta9$1 b !y are easily conv]t$ by wat] into sub/ances correspond+ ) ! ord9>y =mul ( ! comp\nds ( antimony4 ,?us t>t> emetic1 ,c#d;,h#d7,sb,o7,,ko#f1 loses wat] :5 heat$1 & =ms ,c#d;,h#b,sb,k,o#f--t is1 t>t>ic acid1 ,c#b;,h#f,o#f1 9 :i* "o atom ( hydrog5 is replac$ by potassium & ?ree by antimony4 ,b ?is sub/ance is reconv]t$ into t>t> emetic by ! action ( wat]4 ,a simil> comp\nd is se5 9 t int]m$iate oxide ( antimony :i* is =m$ :5 antimoni\s oxide is heat$ 9 air3 its composition is ,sb,o#b or ,sb#b,o#d4 ,?is oxide may be reg>d$ z or?antimonic acid1 ,sb,o7,,ho7#c1 9 :i* ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by antimony 9 t /ate 9 :i* x occurs 9 oxide ( antimony--i4e4 ,sb,o7,sb,o#c7 ,sb#b,o#d4 ,oxide ( antimony is also =m$ :5 antimonic acid is ignit$2 x !n loses wat] & oxyg51 & gives ?is int]m$iate oxide z a :ite infusible p[d]1 ( sp4 gr4 #fg4 ,x is some:at soluble 9 wat]1 & gives a solution :i* turns litmus pap] r$4 ,if metallic antimony1 or antimoni\s oxide1 be oxidis$ by an excess ( nitric acid & ! resultant mass be c>efully evaporat$ to dryness1 metantimonic acid1 ,sb,h,o#c1 is =m$4 ,its correspond+ potassium salt1 #b,sb,k,o#c1e;,h#b,o1 is prep>$ by fus+ metallic antimony ) "o-f\r? its weight ( nitre & wa%+ ! resultant mass ) cold wat]4 ,?is potassium salt is only slightly soluble 9 wat] 79 #ej p>ts7 & ! sodium salt is /ill less s4 ,an or?o-acid1 ,sb,h#c,o#d1 also appe>s to exi/2#da bis x is obta9$ by ! action ( wat] on antimony p5ta*loride1 b x is v un/able1 l ! p5ta*loride1 ,sb,cl#e1 itself1 :i* easily gives up ,cl#b1 leav+ antimony tri*loride1 ,sb,cl#c1 & ?is is decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ an oxy*loride--,sb,o,cl1 only slightly soluble 9 wat]4 ,:5 antimonic acid is heat$ to an incipi5t r$ heat1 x p>ts ) wat] & =ms ! anhydride1 ,sb#b,o#e1 ( a yell[ col\r & specific gravity #fe4db #da bis ,beil/e9 & ,blaese 7#ahhi71 aft] prep>+ _m salts ( antimonic acid1 came to ! conclusion t x is monobasic1 b all ! salts /ill conta9 wat]1 s t _! g5]al type is mo/ly3 ,m,sb,o#cc;,h#b,o1 = example1 ,m ,li1 ,hg 7salts ( ! suboxide71 #a_/b ,pb1 c4 ,! type ( ! or?o-salts1 ,m#b,sb,o#d1 is q unkn[n1 al?\gh x is reproduc$ 9 ! ?io-comp\nds1 = in/ance1 ,s*lippe's salt1 ,na#b,sb,s#d1 b ?is salt also conta9s wat] ( cry/allisation1 #i;,h#b,o 7,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #bi74 #db ,among ! o!r comp\nds ( antimony1 antimoniurett$ hydrog51 ,sb,h#c1 resembles ars5iurett$ hydrog5 9 its mode ( =mation & prop]ties 7x splits up at #aej1 ,brunn #ahij2 :5 liquifi$1 x boils at -#fe & solidifies at -#ib71 :il/ ! halog5 comp\nds diff] 9 _m respects f ^? ( ars5ic4 ,:5 *lor9e is pass$ ov] an excess ( antimony p[d]1 x =ms antimony tri*loride1 ,sb,cl#c1 b if ! *lor9e be 9 excess x =ms ! p5ta*loride1 ,sb,cl#e4 ,! tri*loride is a cry/all9e sub/ance :i* melts at #gb & di/ils at #bcj1 :il/ ! p5ta*loride is a yell[ liquid1 :i* splits up into *lor9e & ! tri*loride :5 heat$2 at #adj x beg9s to give (f *lor9e abundantly1 c>ry+ away ! vap\r ( ! tri*loride ) x2 & at #bjj ! decomposition is complete1 & pure antimoni\s *loride only passes ov]4 ,?is prop]ty ( antimony p5ta*loride has caus$ x to be appli$ 9 _m cases = ! transf]5ce ( *lor9e2 all ! m t :5 x has giv5 up its *lor9e1 x leaves ! tri*loride1 :i* is able to absorb a fre% am\nt ( *lor9e2 & !re=e _m sub/ances :i* are unable to react directly ) gase\s *lor9e d s ) antimony p5ta*loride1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( x *lor9e w act on !m1 j z oxyg5 is able1 9 ! pres5ce ( nitrog5 oxides1 to oxidise sub/ances :i* c\ld n be oxidis$ by means ( free oxyg54 ,?us c>bon bisulphide is n act$ on by *lor9e at l[ temp]atures--?is reaction requires a high temp]ature--b 9 ! pres5ce ( antimony p5ta*loride its conv]sion into c>bon tetra*loride takes place at l[ temp]atures4 ,antimony tri- & p5ta*loride1 hav+ ! "* ( *loranhydrides1 fume 9 air1 attract moi/ure1 & are decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ antimoni\s & antimonic acids4 ,b 9 ! fir/ action ( wat] ! tri*loride does n evolve all its *lor9e z hydro*loric acid1 :i* is intelligible 9 view ( ! fact t antimoni\s anhydride is also a base1 & is !re=e able to react ) acids2 inde$ antimony sulphide dissolv$ 9 an excess ( hydro*loric acid 7hydrog5 sulphide is evolv$7 gives an aque\s solution ( antimony tri*loride1 :i*1 :5 c>efully di/ill$1 ev5 gives ! anhydr\s comp\nd4 ,antimony tri*loride is only decompos$ by an excess ( wat]1 & !n n completely1 = ) a l>ge quantity ( wat] x =ms p[d] ( alg>o?--i4e4 antimony oxy*loride4 ,! fir/ action ( wat] consi/s 9 ! =mation ( oxy*loride1 ,sb,o,cl--t is1 a salt correspond+ to oxide ( antimony z a base4 ,if antimony oxide or antimony *loride be dissolv$ 9 an excess ( hydro*loric acid1 & ! solution dilut$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( wat]1 !n ?is same p[d] ( alg>o? is precipitat$4 ,! composition v>ies ) ! relative am\nt ( wat]2 namely1 betwe5 ! limits ,sb,o,cl & ,sb#d,o#e;,cl#b4 ,! latt] comp\nd is1 z x 71 a basic salt ( ! =m]1 because its composition #b7,sb,o,cl7,sb#b,o#c4 ,) brom9e & iod9e1 antimony =ms comp\nds simil> to ^? ) *lor9e4 ,antimoni\s bromide1 ,sb,br#c1 cry/allises 9 col\rless prisms1 melts at #id1 & boils at #bgj2 antimoni\s iodide1 ,sb,i#c1 =ms r$ cry/als ( sp4 gr4 #ej2 antimony trifluoride1 ,sb,f#c sep>ates f a solution ( antimoni\s oxide 9 hydr(luoric acid1 & ,sb,f#e is =m$ by a simil> treatm5t ( antimonic acid4 ,! latt] gives easily-soluble d\ble salts ) ! fluorides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis4 ,de ,han 7#ahhg7 obta9$ v /able d\ble soluble salts1 ,sb,f#c1,k,cl 7#ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #eg p>ts ( salt71 ,sb,f#c1,k#b,,s#d1 c41 :i* he propos$ to make use ( 9 ! arts z v easily cry/allisable & soluble salts ( antimony4 ,engel1 by pass+ hydro*loric acid gas into a saturat$ solution ( antimoni\s *loride at #j1 obta9$ a comp\nd ,h,cl1#b,sb,cl#c1b;,h#b,o1 & ) ! p5ta*loride a comp\nd ,sb,cl#e1e;,h,cl1#aj;,h#b,o4 ,bismu? tri*loride1 ,bi,cl#c1 gives a simil> comp\nd4 ,saund]s 7#ahib7 obta9$ #e,rb,cl1#c,sb,cl#c & ,rb,cl1,sb,cl#c4 ,ditte & ,metzn] 7#ahib7 %[$ t ,sb & ,bi dissolve 9 hydro*loric acid only ow+ to ! p>ticipation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air or ( t dissolv$ 9 ! acid4 ,! heavie/ analogue ( nitrog5 & phosphorus is bismu?1 ,bi #bjh4 ,"h1 z 9 ! o!r gr\ps1 ! basic1 metallic1 prop]ties increase ) ! atomic weight4 ,bismu? does n give any hydrog5 comp\nd & ! highe/ oxide1 ,bi#b,o#e1 is a v feeble acid oxide4 ,bismu?\s oxide1 ,bi#b,o#c1 is a base1 & bismu? itself a p]fect metal4 ,to expla9 ! o!r prop]ties ( bismu? x mu/ fur!r be rem>k$ t 9 ! elev5? s]ies x foll[s m]cury1 ?allium & lead1 ^: atomic weights are ne> to t ( bismu?1 & t !re=e x resembles !m & m especially its ne>e/ neighb\r1 lead4 ,al?\gh ,pb,o & ,pb,o#b1 repres5t types diff]5t f ,bi#b,o#c & ,bi#b,o#e1 !y resemble !m 9 _m respects1 ev5 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance1 moreov] ! l[] oxides bo? ( ,pb & ,bi are basic & ! high] acid1 :i* easily evolve oxyg54 ,b judg+ by ! =mula1 ,bi#b,o#c is a m feeble base ?an ,pb,o4 ,!y bo? easily give basic salts4 ,bismu? =ms comp\nds ( two types1 ,bi,x#c & ,bi,x#e1dc :i* entirely recall ! two types we h already e/abli%$ = ! comp\nds ( lead4 ,j z 9 ! case ( lead1 ! type ,pb,x#b1 is basic1 /able1 easily =m$1 & passes ) difficulty into ! high] & l[] types1 :i* are un/able1 s also 9 ! case ( bismu? ! type ( comb9ation ,bi,x#c is ! usual basic =m4 ,! high] type ( comb9ation1 ,bi,x#e1dd 9 fact behaves t[>d ?is /able type1 ,bi,x#c1 9 exactly ! same mann] z lead dioxide does to ! monoxide2 & bismu?ic acid is obta9$ by ! action ( *lor9e on bismu? oxide susp5d$ 9 wat]1 9 exactly ! same way z lead dioxide is obta9$ f lead oxide4 ,x is an oxidis+ ag5t l lead dioxide1 & ev5 ! acid "* 9 bismu?ic acid is only slightly m develop$ ?an 9 lead dioxide4 ,"h1 z 9 ! case ( lead 7m9ium71 int]m$iate comp\nds are easily =m$ 9 :i* ! bismu? ( ! l[] oxide plays ! "p ( a base comb9$ ) ! acid :i* is =m$ by ! high] =m ( ! oxidation ( bismu?4 #dc ,metallic bismu? is v easily obta9$ :5 ! comp\nds ( ! oxide are r$uc$ by p[]ful r$uc+ ag5ts1 b :5 less p[]ful r$uc+ ag5ts--= example1 /ann\s oxide--are tak51 bismu? suboxide is =m$ z a black cry/all9e p[d]4 ,x is a comp\nd ( ! type ,bi,x#b1 its composition be+ ,bi,o2 x is decompos$ by acids into ! metal & oxide1 :i* passes into solution4 #dd ,! type ,bi,x#e is repres5t$ by ! p5toxide1 ,bi#b,o#e1 its metahydrate1 ,bi#b,o#e1;,h#b,o1 or ,bi,h,o#c1 kn[n z bismu?ic acid1 & ! pyrohydrate1 ,bi#b;,h#d,o#g4 ,bismu? p5toxide is obta9$ by ! prolong$ passage ( *lor9e ?r\gh a boil+ solution ( potassium hydroxide 7sp4 gr4 #ach71 conta9+ bismu? oxide 9 susp5sion2 ! precipitate is wa%$ ) wat]1 ) boil+ nitric acid 7b n = long1 z o!rwise ! bismu?ic acid is decompos$71 !n aga9 ) wat]1 & f9ally ! resultant bright r$ p[d] ( ! hydrate ,bi,h,o#c is dri$ at #abe4 ,! prolong$ action ( nitric acid on bismu?ic anhydride1 ,bi#b,o#e1 results 9 ! =mation ( ! comp\nd ,bi#b,o#d1;,h#b,o1 :i* decomposes 9 moi/ air1 =m+ ,bi#b,o#c4 ,! d5sity ( bismu?ic anhydride is #eaj1 ( ! tetroxide1 ,bi#b,o#d1 #cfj1 & ( bismu?ic acid1 ,bi,h,o#c1 #ege4 ,pyrobismu?ic acid1 ,bi#b;,h#d,o#g1 =ms a br[n p[d]1 :i* loses a portion ( its wat] at #aej1 & decomposes on fur!r heat+1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 & wat]4 ,x is obta9$ by ! action ( potassium cyanide on a solution ( bismu? nitrate4 ,! meta-salts ( bismu?ic acid are kn[n1 = example ,k,bi,o#c4 ,!y g5]ally occur1 h[ev]1 9 comb9ations ) metabismu?ic acid itself4 ,?us ,&r 7#ahia7 took a solution ( ! d\ble salt ( ,bi,br#c & ,k,br1 treat$ x ) brom9e aft] add+ ammonia1 & obta9$ a r$-br[n precipitate1 :i* aft] be+ wa%$ 7= sev]al weeks7 _h ! composition ,k,bi,o#c1;,h,bi,o#c ,:5 wa%$ ) dilute nitric acid ?is salt gave bismu?ic acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,furnace us$ = ! extraction ( bismu? f its ores4 ,9 nature1 bismu? occurs 9 only a few localities & 9 small quantities1 mo/ frequ5tly 9 a native /ate1 & m r>ely z oxide & z a comp\nd ( bismu? sulphide ) ! sulphides ( o!r metals1 & sometimes 9 gold ores4 ,x is extract$ f its native ores by simple fusion 9 ! furnace %[n 9 fig4 #he4 ,?is furnace conta9s an incl9$ iron retort1 into ! upp] extremity ( :i* ! ore is *>g$1 & ! molt5 metal fl[s f ! l[] extremity4 ,x is ref9$ by re-melt+1 & ! pure metal may be obta9$ by dissolv+ 9 nitric acid1 decompos+ ! resultant salt ) wat]1 & r$uc+ ! precipitate by heat+ x ) *>coal4 ,bismu? is a metal :i* cry/allises v well f a molt5 /ate4 ,its specific gravity is #ih2 x melts at #bfi1 & if x be melt$ 9 a crucible1 all[$ to cool sl[ly1 & ! cru/ brok5 & ! rema9+ molt5 liquid p\r$ out1 p]fect rhomboh$ral cry/als ( bismu? are obta9$ on ! sides ( ! crucible4#dd bis ,x is brittle1 has a grey-col\r$ fracture ) a r$di% lu/re1 is n h>d1 & is b v slightly ductile & malleable2 x volatilises at a :ite heat & easily oxidises4 ,x recalls antimony & lead 9 _m ( its prop]ties4 ,:5 oxidis$ 9 air1 or :5 ! nitrate is ignit$1 bismu? =ms ! oxide1 ,bi#b,o#c1 z a :ite p[d] :i* fuses :5 heat$ & resembles massicot4 ,! addition ( an excess ( cau/ic pota% to a solution ( a bismu?\s salt gives a :ite precipitate ( ! hydroxide1 ,bi,o7,,oh71 :i* loses its wat] & gives ! anhydr\s oxide :5 boil$ ) a solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,bo? ! hydroxide & oxide easily dissolve 9 acids & =m bismu?\s salts4 #dd bis ,hr>d 7#ahhi7 obta9$ a peculi> v>iety ( bismu? by heat+ pure cry/all9e bismu? to a bright r$ heat 9 a /ream ( nitrog54 ,a gre5i% vap\r 0 deposit$ 9 ! cool] portions ( ! app>atus 9 ! =m ( a grey p[d]1 :i* "u ! microscope _h ! appe>ance ( m9ute globules4 ,an atmosph]e ( nitrog5 is necess>y = ?is trans=mation1 o!r gases su* z hydrog5 & c>bonic oxide d n fav\r ! transition4 ,! resultant amorph\s bismu? fuses at #daj 7! cry/all9e v>iety at #bfi71 sp4 gr4 #idhc4 7,does x n conta9 a nitride87 ,bismu?\s oxide1 ,bi#b,o#c1 is a feeble & un5]getic base4 ,! normal hydroxide ( ! oxide ,bi#b,o#c is ,bi7,,oh7#c2 x p>ts ) wat] & =ms a metahydroxide 7bismu?yl hydroxide71 ,bi,o7,,oh74 ,bo? ( ^! hydroxides h _! correspond+ sal9e comp\nds ( ! composition ,bi,x#c & ,bi,o,x4 ,& ! =m ,bi,o,x is no?+ else b ! type ( ! basic salt1 because #c,,rox ,,rx ,r#b,o#c4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ! type ,bi,x#c ! bismu? replaces ?ree atoms ( hydrog54 ,& inde$ ) phosphoric acid solutions ( ! bismu?\s salts give a precipitate ( ! composition ,bi,p,o#d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! =m ( comp\nds ,bi,o,x or ,bi7,,oh7#b,x1 ! unival5t gr\p 7,bi,o7 or 7,bi,h#b,o#b7 is comb9$ ) ,x4 ,_m bismu? salts are =m$ accord+ to ! type ,bi,o,x4 ,= in/ance ! c>bonate1 7,bi,o7#b;,,co#c1 :i* corresponds ) ! o!r c>bonates ,m#b;,,co#c4 ,x is obta9$ z a :ite precipitate :5 a solution ( sodium c>bonate is add$ to a solution ( a bismu? salt4#de ,! comp\nd radicle ,bi,o is n a special natural gr\p+1 z x 0 =m]ly repres5t$ to be2 x is simply a mode ( expression = %[+ ! relation betwe5 ! comp\nd 9 "q & ! comp\nds ( o!r oxides4 #de ,basic bismu? c>bonate is employ$ = :it5+ ! sk9 7vel\t9e1 c47 ,?ree salts ( nitric acid are kn[n conta9+ bismu?\s oxide4 ,if metallic bismu? or its oxide be dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 x =ms a col\rless transp>5t solution conta9+ a salt :i* sep>ates 9 l>ge transp>5t cry/als conta9+ ,bi7,,no#c7c1e;,h#b,o4 ,:5 heat$ at #hj ^! cry/als melt 9 _! wat] ( cry/allisation1 & 9 s do+ lose a portion ( _! nitric acid toge!r ) wat]1 =m+ a salt ^: empirical =mula is ,bi#b,n#b;,h#b,o#i4 ,if ! prec$+ salt belongs to ! type ,bi,x#c1 ?is "o %\ld belong to ! =m ,bi,o,x1 because x ,bi,o7,,no#c7 ,bi7,h#b,o#b77,,no#c74 ,?is salt may be heat$ to #aej )\t *ange4 ,:5 ! fir/ col\rless cry/all9e salt dissolves 9 wat] x is decompos$4 ,!re is no decomposition if an excess ( acid be add$ to ! wat]--t is to say1 ! salt is able to exi/ 9 an acid solution )\t decompos+1 )\t sep>ation ( ! s-call$ basic salt--b by itself x _c be kept 9 solution2 wat] decomposes ?is salt1 act+ on x l an alkali4 ,9 o!r words ! basic prop]ties ( bismu?ic oxide are s feeble t ev5 wat] acts by tak+ up a portion ( ! acid f x4 ,"h we see "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ facts1 long s9ce obs]v$1 confirm+ t action ( wat] on salts ab\t :i* we h spok5 9 ,*apt] ,x4 & else:]e4 ,?is action on wat] may be express$ ?us3--,bi,x#c #b;,h#b,o ,bi7,,oh7#b,x #b,,xh4 ,a salt ( ! type ,bi7,,oh7#b,x is obta9$ 9 ! precipitate4 ,b if ! quantity ( acid1 ,,hx1 be increas$1 ! salt ,bi,x#c is aga9 =m$ & passes into solution4 ,! quantity ( ! salt ,bi,o,x :i* passes into solution on ! addition ( a giv5 quantity ( acid dep5ds indisputably on ! am\nt 7mass7 ( wat] 7,muir74 ,! solution1 :i* is p]fectly transp>5t ) a small am\nt ( wat]1 becomes cl\dy & deposits ! salt ( ! type ,bi,o,x1 :5 dilut$4 ,! :ite flaky precipitate ( ,bi7,,oh7#b,,no#c =m$ f ! normal salt ,bi7,,no#c7c by mix+ x ) five p>ts ( wat]1 & 9 g5]al ) a small am\nt ( wat]1 is us$ 9 m$ic9e "u ! "n ( magi/]y ( bismu?4#df #df ,) an excess ( wat] a fur!r quantity ( acid is sep>at$ & a /ill m basic salt =m$4 ,! ultimate product1 on :i* an excess ( wat] has app>5tly no action :atev]1 is a sub/ance hav+ ! composition ,bi,o7,,no#c74;,bi,o7,,oh74 ,9 ! latt] salt we see ! limit ( *ange1 & ?is limit appe>s to %[ t ! type ( ! sal9e comp\nds ( bismu?ic oxide is ( ! =m ,bi#b,x#f1 & n ,bi,x#c2 b x is v probable1 on ! basis ( ! examples :i* we consid]$ 9 ! case ( lead1 t ?is type %\ld be /ill fur!r polym]is$ 9 ord] to give a correct idea ( ! type ( ! bismu?\s comp\nds4 ,if we ref] all ! bismu?\s comp\nds to ?is type1 ,bi#b,x#f1 we %all obta9 ! foll[+ expression = ! composition ( ! nitrates3 normal salt1 ,bi#b7,,no#c7f1 fir/ basic salt1 ,bi#b,o7,,oh7#b7,,no#c7b1 magi/]y ( bismu?1 ,bi#b7,,oh7#d7,,no#c7b1 & ! limit+ =m ,bi#b,o#b7,,oh77,,no#c74 ,! g5]al "* ( bismu?\s oxide 9 its comp\nds is well exemplifi$ 9 ! nitrate2 bismu?\s *loride1 ,bi,cl#c1 :i* is obta9$ by heat+ bismu? 9 *lor9e1 or by dissolv+ x 9 aqua regia1 & !n di/ill+ )\t access ( air1 is also decompos$ by wat] 9 exactly ! same mann]1 & =ms basic salts--= in/ance1 fir/1 ,bi,o,cl1 l ! above salt ( nitric acid4 ,bismu? *loride boils at #ddg & probably its =mula is ,bi,cl#c4 ,polym]isation may take place 9 "s comp\nds & n 9 o!rs4 ,a volatile comp\nd ( ! composition ,bi7,c#b;,h#e7c is also kn[n z a liquid :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & decomposes ) explosion :5 heat$ at #acj4 ,d\ble salts conta9+ *loride ( bismu? are3 #b7,k,cl7,bi,cl#cb;,h#b,o 7f a solution ( ,bi#b,o#c & ,k,cl 9 hydro*loric acid7 & ,k,cl,bi,cl#c;,h#b,o4 ,bigham 7#ahib7 also obta9$ ,k,br7,,s#d7b 9 tabul> cry/als by treat+ ! above-nam$ d\ble salt ) /rong sulphuric acid4 ,! composition ( ?is salt recalls t ( alum4 ,metallic bismu? is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( fusible alloys4 ,! addition ( bismu? to _m metals r5d]s !m v h>d1 & at ! same "t g5]ally l[]s _! melt+ po9t to a consid]able ext5t4 ,?us ,wood's metal1 :i* conta9s "o "p ( cadmium1 "o "p ( t91 two p>ts ( lead1 & f\r p>ts ( bismu?1 fuses at ab\t #fj1 & 9 g5]al _m alloys compos$ ( bismu?1 t91 lead1 & antimony melt bel[ or ab\t ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4#dg #dg ,z ! metals conta9$ 9 alloys l ! above 7bismu?1 lead1 t91 cadmium7 are difficultly volatile & _! alloys are fusible1 !y may be employ$ 9 ! place ( m]cury 9 _m physical exp]im5ts conduct$ at or above #gj1 & !y (f] ! advantage t !y d n give any vap\r hav+ an appreciable t5sion 7m]cury at #ajj1 #jge mm47 ,bismu? exp&s 9 pass+ into a molt5 /ate1 b x has a temp]ature ( maximum d5sity4 ,accord+ to ,lu$ek+ ! mean coeffici5t ( expansion ( liquid bismu? is #jjjjjddb 7betwe5 #bgj & #cjc71 & ( solid bismu? #jjjjjdaa4 ,j z 9 gr\p ,,ii41 side by side ) ! elem5ts z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury 9 ! unev5 s]ies1 we f\nd calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium 9 ! ev5 s]ies2 & z 9 gr\p ,,iv41 p>allel to silicon1 g]manium1 t91 & lead1 we notic$ ?allium1 zirconium1 c]ium1 & ?orium2 s also 9 gr\p ,v4 we f9d1 beside ^? elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies j consid]$ by u1 a s]ies ( analogues 9 ! ev5 s]ies1 :i*1 ) a c]ta9 degree ( simil>ity 7ma9ly quantitative1 or relative to ! atomic weights71 also pres5t a s]ies ( p>ticul> 7qualitative7 indep5d5t po9ts ( di/9ction4 ,9 ! ev5 s]ies are kn[n vanadium1 :i* /&s betwe5 titanium & *romium1 niobium1 betwe5 zirconium & molybd5um1 & tantalum1 situat$ ne> tung/5 7an elem5t ( gr\p ,,vi4 l *romium & molybd5um74 ,j z bismu? is simil> 9 _m respects to its neighb\r lead1 s also d ^! neighb\r+ elem5ts resemble ea* o!r1 ev5 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance1 n to m5tion ! quality ( _! comp\nds1 naturally tak+ into acc\nt ! diff]5ces ( type correspond+ ) ! diff]5t gr\ps4 ,! occurr5ce 9 gr\p ,v4 det]m9es ! type ( ! oxides1 ,r#b,o#c & ,r#b,o#e1 & ! developm5t ( an acid "* 9 ! high] oxides4 ,! occurr5ce 9 ! ev5 s]ies det]m9es ! abs5ce ( volatile comp\nds1 ,,rh#c1 = ^! metals1 & a m basic "* ( ! oxides ( a giv5 composition ?an 9 ! unev5 s]ies1 c4#dh ,vanadium1 niobium1 & tantalum belong to ! category ( r>e metals1 & are exce$+ly difficult to obta9 pure1 m especially ow+ to _! simil>ity to1 & occurr5ce )1 *romium1 tung/5 & o!r metals1 & also 9 comb9ation among !mselves2 !re=e x is natural t !y h be5 f> f completely /udi$1 al?\gh s9ce #ahfj *emi/s h devot$ n a little "t to _! inve/igation4 ,! rese>*es c>ri$ out by ,m>ignac1 at ,g5eva1 on niobium1 & by ,sir ,h5ry ,roscoe1 at ,man*e/]1 on vanadium des]ve special att5tion4 ,! und\bt$ ext]nal resemblance ( ! comp\nds ( *romium & vanadium1 z well z ! want ( complet5ess 9 ! k ( ! comp\nds ( vanadium1 long caus$ its oxides to be consid]$ analog\s 9 atomic composition to ^? =m$ by *romium4 ,! high] oxide ( vanadium 0 !re=e suppos$ to h ! =mula ,,vo#c4 ,b ! fact ( ! matt] is1 t ! *emical analogy ( ! elem5ts does n hold 9 "o direction only2 vanadium is at "o & ! same "t ! analogue ( *romium1 & consequ5tly ( ! elem5ts l sulphur ( gr\p ,,vi1 & also ! analogue ( phosphorus1 ars5ic1 & antimony2 j z bismu? /&s 9 respect to lead & antimony4 ,inve/igation has %[n t ! comp\nds ( vanadium are always accompani$ by ^? ( phosphorus z well z ( iron1 & t x is ev5 m difficult to sep>ate x f ! comp\nds ( phosphorus ?an f ^? ( iron & tung/54 ,we %\ld h to ext5d our description consid]ably if we wi%$ to give ! complete hi/ory1 ev5 ( vanadium alone1 n to m5tion niobium & tantalum1 all ! m z que/ions w\ld n unfrequ5tly arise conc]n+ ! comp\nds ( ^! elem5ts :i* h n yet be5 fully elucidat$4 ,we %all !re=e limit ourselves to po9t+ out ! mo/ important features 9 ! hi/ory ( ^! elem5ts1 ! m s s9ce ! m9]als !mselves 9 :i* !y occur are exce$+ly r>e & only accessible to a few inve/igators4 #dh ,al?\gh1 guid$ by ,braun]1 :o %[$ t didymium gives a high] oxide1 ,di#b,o#e1 ,i place ?is elem5t 9 ! fif? gr\p1 /ill ,i am n c]ta9 z to its position1 because ,i consid] t ! que/ions relat+ to ?is metal are /ill f> f be+ def9itely answ]$4 ,an important po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p is ! circum/ance t !y =m volatile comp\nds ) *lor9e1 simil> to ! comp\nds ( ! elem5ts ( ! phosphorus gr\p1 namely1 ( ! type ,,rx#e4 ,! vap\r d5sities ( ! comp\nds ( ?is k9d 7 det]m9$1 & s]v$ z ! mo/ important basis = ! explanation ( ! atomic composition ( ^! molecules4 ,9 ?is we see ! p[] ( g5]al & fundam5tal laws1 l ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,an oxy*loride1 ,v,o,cl#c1 is kn[n = vanadium1 :i* is ! p]fect analogue ( phosphorus oxy*loride4 ,x 0 =m]ly consid]$ to be vanadium *loride1 = j z 9 ! case ( uranium 7,*apt] ,,xxi471 its l[] oxide1 ,,vo1 0 consid]$ to be ! metal1 because x is exce$+ly difficultly r$uc$--ev5 potassium does n remove all ! oxyg51 besides :i* x has a metallic appe>ance1 & decomposes acids l a metal2 9 a ^w1 x simulates a metal 9 e respect4 ,vanadium oxy*loride is obta9$ by heat+ ! trioxide1 ,v#b,o#c1 mix$ ) *>coal1 9 a curr5t ( hydrog52 ! l[] oxide ( vanadium is !n =m$1 & ?is1 :5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( dry *lor9e1 gives ! oxy*loride ,v,o,cl#c z a r$di% liquid :i* does n act on sodium & may be purifi$ by di/illation ov] ?is metal4 ,x fumes 9 ! air1 giv+ r$di% vap\rs2 x reacts on wat]1 =m+ hydro*loric & vanadic acids2 h5ce1 on ! "o h& x is v simil> to phosphorus oxy*loride1 & on ! o!r h& to *romium oxy*loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b 7,*apt] ,,xxi474 ,x is ( a yell[ col\r1 its specific gravity is #ahc1 x boils at #abj1 & its vap\r d5sity is #hf ) respect to hydrog52 !re=e ! above =mula expresses its molecul> weight4#di #di ,:5 ! vap\rs ( vanadium oxy*loride are heat$ ) z9c 9 a clos$ tube at #djj1 !y lose a portion ( _! *lor9e & =m a gre5 cry/all9e mass ( sp4 gr4 #bhh1 :i* is deliquesc5t 9 air & has ! composition ,v,o,cl#b4 ,only its vap\r d5sity is unkn[n1 & x w\ld be extremely important to det]m9e :e!r its molecul> composition is t giv5 above1 or :e!r x corresponds ) ! =mula ,v#b,o#b;,cl#d4 ,ano!r less volatile oxy*loride1 ,v,o,cl1 is =m$ ) x z a br[n insoluble sub/ance1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 soluble 9 nitric acid l ! prec$+4 ,roscoe obta9$ a /ill less *lor9at$ sub/ance1 namely1 7,,vo7#b;,cl2 b x may only consi/ ( a mixture ( ,,vo & ,v,o,cl4 ,at all ev5ts1 we "h f9d a graduat$ s]ies su* z is met ) 9 ! comp\nds ( v few o!r elem5ts4 ,vanadic anhydride1 ,v#b,o#e1 is obta9$ ei!r 9 small quantities f c]ta9 clays :]e x accompanies ! oxides ( iron 7h5ce "s sorts ( iron conta9 vanadium7 & phosphoric acid1 or f ! r>e m9]als3 volbor?ite1 ,cu,h,v,o#d1 or basic vanadate ( copp]2 vanad9ite1 ,pb,cl#bc,pb#c7,,vo#d7b2 lead vanadate1 ,pb#c7,,vo#d7b1 c4 ,! latt] salts are c>efully ignit$ = "s "t ) "o-?ird ( _! weight ( nitre2 ! fus$ mass ?us =m$ is p[d]$ & boil$ 9 wat]3 ! yell[ solution obta9$ conta9s potassium vanadate4 ,! solution is neutralis$ ) acid1 & b>ium *loride add$2 a meta-salt1 ,ba7,,vo#c7b1 is !n precipitat$ z an almo/ insoluble :ite p[d]1 :i* gives a solution ( vanadic acid :5 boil$ ) sulphuric acid4 7,! precipitate is at fir/ yell[1 z long z x rema9s amorph\s1 b x aft]w>ds becomes cry/all9e & :ite47 ,! solution ?us obta9$ is neutralis$ ) ammonia1 :i* ?us =ms ammonium 7meta7 vanadate1 ,,nh#d,,vo#c1 :i*1 :5 evaporat$1 gives col\rless cry/als1 insoluble 9 wat] conta9+ sal-ammoniac2 h5ce ?is salt is precipitat$ by add+ solid sal-ammoniac to ! solution4 ,ammonium vanadate1 :5 ignit$1 leaves vanadic acid beh9d4 ,9 ?is x diff]s f ! correspond+ *romium salt1 :i* is deoxidis$ into *romium oxide :5 ignit$4 ,9 g5]al1 vanadic acid has b a small oxidis+ action4 ,x is r$uc$ ) difficulty1 l phosphoric or sulphuric acid1 & 9 ?is diff]s f ars5ic & *romic acids4 ,vanadic acid1 l *romic acid1 sep>ates f its solution z ! anhydride ,v#b,o#e1 & n 9 a hydr\s /ate4 ,vanadic anhydride1 ,v#b,o#e1 =ms a r$di%-br[n mass1 :i* easily fuses & re-solidifies into transp>5t cry/als hav+ a violet lu/re 7ano!r po9t ( resemblance to *romic acid72 x dissolves 9 wat]1 =m+ a yell[ solution ) a slightly acid reaction4#ej #ej ,/rong acids & alkalis dissolve vanadic anhydride 9 consid]able quantities1 =m+ yell[ solutions4 ,:5 x is ignit$1 especially 9 a curr5t ( hydrog51 x evolves oxyg5 & =ms ! l[] oxides2 ,v#b,o#d 7acid solutions ( a gre5 col\r1 l ! salts ( *romic oxide71 ,v#b,o#c1 & ! l[e/ oxide1 ,,vo4 ,! latt] is ! metallic p[d] :i* is obta9$ :5 ! vanadium oxy*loride is heat$ 9 an excess ( hydrog51 & 0 =m]ly mi/ak5 = metallic vanadium4 ,:5 a solution ( vanadic acid is treat$ ) metallic z9c x =ms a blue solution1 :i* seems to conta9 ?is oxide4 ,x acts z a r$uc+ ag5t 7& =ms a close analogue to *rom\s oxide1 ,cr,o74 ,metallic vanadium c only be obta9$ f vanadium *loride :i* is q free f oxyg54 ,moissan 7#ahic7 obta9$ x by r$uc+ ! oxide ) c>bon 9 ! electric furnace1 & consid]$ x to be mo/ infusible ( ! metals 9 ! s]ies ,pt1 ,cr1 ,mo1 ,u1 ,w1 & ,v 7he also obta9$ a comp\nd ( vanadium & c>bon74 ,! specific gravity ( ?is metal is #ee4 ,x is ( a grey-:ite col\r1 is n decompos$ by wat]1 & is n oxidis$ 9 air1 b burns :5 /rongly heat$1 & c be fus$ 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 7=m+ p]haps a comp\nd ) hydrog574 ,x is insoluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 b easily dissolves 9 nitric acid1 & :5 fus$ ) cau/ic soda x =ms sodium vanadate4 ,z reg>ds ! salts ( vanadic acid1 ?ree diff]5t classes are kn[n2 ! fir/ correspond ) metavanadic acid1 ,,vmo#c ,m#b,,ov#b,o#e1 ! second correspond ) ! di*romates--t is1 h ! composition ,v#d,m#b,o#aa1 :i* is equal to ,m#b,o #b,v#b,o#e--;& ! ?ird correspond ) or?ovanadic acid1 ,,vm#c,o#d or #c,m#b,o ,v#b,o#e4 ,! latt] are =m$ :5 vanadic anhydride is fus$ ) an excess ( an alkal9e c>bonate4 ,vanadic acid gives ! s-call$ 'complex' acids 7:i* are consid]$ m fully 9 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 9 speak+ ( ,mo & ,w7--i4e4 acids =m$ ( two acids assimilat$ into "o4 ,?us ,fri$heim 7#ahij7 obta9$ phosphor-vanadic acid1 & ,s*mitz-,dumont 7#ahij7 a simil> ars5o-vanadic acid4 ,! =m] is obta9$ by heat+ ,v#b,o#e ) sirupy phosphoric acid4 ,! resultant gold5-yell[ tabul> cry/als h ! composition ,h#b,,ov#b,o#e,p#b,o#ei;,h#b,o1 & !re are correspond+ salts--= example1 7,,nh#d7b,v#b,o#e,p#b,o#e ) #c & #g;,h#b,o1 c4 ,^! salts _c be sep>at$ by cry/allisation1 s t !re are 'complexes' ( ^! acids 9 a :ole s]ies ( salts 7& also 9 nature74 ,x may be suppos$ 7,fri$heim7 t ,v#b,o#e "h1 z x 71 plays ! "p ( a base1 or t ^? acids may be look$ ^u z d\ble salts4 ,among ! true d\ble salts ( vanadium 7,nb & ,ta7 v _m are kn[n among ! fluorides1 su* z ,,vf#cb,,nh#d;,f1 ,,v(#bb,,nh#d;,f1 ,,vo#b;,f1#c,,nh#d;,f1 c4 7,pett]sson1 ,picc9i1 & ,georgi1 #ahij-ib74 ,vanadium 0 discov]$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury by ,del-,rio1 & aft]w>ds inve/igat$ by ,sef/rm1 b x 0 only 9 #ahfh t ,roscoe e/abli%$ ! above =mul ( ! vanadic comp\nds4 ,niobium & tantalum#ea occur z acids 9 r>e m9]als1 & are ma9ly extract$ f tantalite & columbite1 :i* are f\nd 9 ,bav>ia1 ,f9l&1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & 9 ! ,urals4 ,^! m9]als are compos$ ( ! f]r\s salts ( niobic & tantalic acids2 !y conta9 ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( f]r\s oxide 9 isomorph\s mixture ) mangan\s oxide1 9 comb9ation ) v>i\s proportions ( tantalic & niobic anhydrides4 ,^! m9]als are fir/ fus$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( potassium bisulphate1 & ! fus$ mass is boil$ 9 wat]1 :i* dissolves ! f]r\s & potassium salts & leaves an insoluble residue ( impure niobic & tantalic acids4 ,?is raw product is !n treat$ ) ammonium sulphide1 9 ord] to extract ! t9 & tung/51 :i* pass into solution4 ,! residue conta9+ ! acids 7accord+ to ,m>ignac7 is !n treat$ ) hydr(luoric acid1 9 :i* x entirely dissolves1 & potassium fluoride is add$ to ! resultant hot solution2 on cool+1 a sp>+ly soluble d\ble fluoride ( potassium & tantalum sep>ates out 9 f9e cry/als1 :ile ! mu* m soluble niobium salt rema9s 9 solution4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! solubility ( ^! d\ble salts 9 wat] acidifi$ ) hydr(luoric acid 79 pure wat] ! solution becomes cl\dy aft] a c]ta9 "t7 is s great t ! tantalum comp\nd requires #aej p>ts ( wat] = its solution1 & ! niobium comp\nd only #ac p>ts4 ,! ,gre5l& columbite 7specific gravity #ecf7 only conta9s niobic acid1 & t f ,bod5mais1 ,bav>ia 7specific gravity #fjf7 almo/ equal quantities ( tantalic & niobic acids4 ,hav+ isolat$ tantalic & niobic salts1 ,m>ignac f\nd t ! relation betwe5 ! potassium & fluor9e 9 !m is v v>iable--t is1 t !re exi/ v>i\s d\ble salts ( fluoride ( potassium1 & ( ! fluorides ( ! metals ( ?is gr\p1 b t ) an excess ( hydr(luoric acid bo? ! tantalum & niobium comp\nds conta9 sev5 atoms ( fluor9e to two ( potassium1 :5ce x mu/ be conclud$ t ! simple/ =mula = ^! d\ble salts w be ,k#b,,rf#g ,,rf#e1b,,kf2 t is1 t ! type ( ! high] comp\nds ( niobium & tantalum is ,,rx#e1 & h5ce is simil> to phosphoric acid4 ,a *loride1 ,ta,cl#e1 may be obta9$ f pure tantalic acid by heat+ x ) *>coal 9 a curr5t ( *lor9e4 ,?is is a yell[ cry/all9e sub/ance1 :i* melts at #baa1 & boils at #bda2 its vap\r d5sity ) respect to hydrog5 is #ahj1 z w\ld foll[ f ! =mula ,ta,cl#e4 ,x is completely decompos$ by wat] into tantalic & hydro*loric acids4 ,niobium p5ta*loride may be prep>$ 9 ! same mann]2 x fuses at #aid1 & boils at #bdj4 ,:5 treat$ ) wat] ?is sub/ance gives a solution conta9+ niobic acid1 :i* only sep>ates out on boil+ ! solution4 ,delafonta9e & ,deville f\nd its vap\r d5sity to be #ic 7air #a71 z is %[n by its =mula ,nb,cl#e4eb #ea ,! rese>*es made by ,roscoe 7 prec$$ by ^? ( ,m>ignac 9 #ahfe1 on ! comp\nds ( niobium & tantalum1 to :i* 7 also ascrib$ diff]5t =mul f ^? n[ recognis$4 ,tantalum 0 discov]$ simultane\sly ) vanadium by ,hat*ett & ,ekeb]g1 & 0 aft]w>ds /udi$ by ,rose1 :o 9 #ahdd discov]$ niobium 9 x4 ,not)/&+ ! num]\s rese>*es ( ,h]mann 79 ,mosc[71 ,kobell1 ,rose1 & ,m>ignac1 /ill !re is n yet any c]ta9ty z to ! purity (1 & ! prop]ties ascrib$ to1 ! comp\nds ( ^! elem5ts4 ,!y are difficult to sep>ate f ea* o!r1 & especially f ! c]ite metals & titanium1 c41 :i* accompany !m4 ,be=e ! inve/igations ( ,rose ! highe/ oxide ( tantalum 0 suppos$ to belong to ! type ,ta,x#f--t is1 its composition 0 tak5 z ,ta,o#c1 & to ! l[] oxide 0 ascrib$ a =mula ,ta,o#b4 ,rose gave ! =mula ,ta,o#b to ! high] oxide1 & discov]$ a new elem5t call$ niobium 9 ! sub/ance previ\sly suppos$ to be ! l[] oxide4 ,he ev5 admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( a ?ird elem5t occurr+ toge!r ) tantalum & niobium1 :i* he nam$ pelopium1 b he aft]w>ds f\nd t pelopic acid 0 only ano!r oxide ( niobium1 & he consid]$ x probable t ! high] oxide ( ?is elem5t is ,nb,o#b1 & ! l[] ,nb#b,o#c4 ,h]mann f\nd t niobic acid :i* 0 consid]$ pure conta9$ a consid]able quantity ( tantalic acid1 & besides ?is he admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ano!r special metallic acid1 :i* he call$ ilm5ic acid1 aft] ! locality 7! ,ilm5 m\nta9s ( ! ,urals7 ( ! m9]al f :i* he obta9$ x4 ,v4 ,kobell recognis$ /ill ano!r acid1 :i* he call$ dianic acid1 & ^! div]se /atem5ts 7 only br\ght into agreem5t 9 ! sixties by ,m>ignac4 ,he fir/ ( all indicat$ an accurate me?od = ! sep>ation ( tantalic & niobic comp\nds1 :i* are always obta9$ 9 admixture4 #eb ,if niobic acid be mix$ ) a small quantity ( *>coal & ignit$ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 a difficultly-fusible & difficultly-volatile oxy*loride1 ,nb,o,cl#c sep>ates4 ,! vap\r d5sity ( ?is comp\nd ) respect to air is #ge1 & ?is vap\r d5sity p]fectly confirms ! accuracy ( ! =mul giv5 by ,m>ignac1 & indicates ! quantitative analogy betwe5 ! comp\nds ( niobium & tantalum1 & ^? ( phosphorus & ars5ic1 & consequ5tly also ( vanadium4 ,9 _! qualitative relations 7z is evid5t also f ! correspond5ce ( ! atomic weights71 ! comp\nds ( tantalum & niobium exhibit a great analogy ) ! comp\nds ( molybd5um & tung/54 ,?us z9c1 :5 act+ on acid solutions ( tantalic & niobic comp\nds1 gives a blue coloration1 exactly z x does ) ^? ( tung/5 & molybd5um 7also titanium74 ,^! acids =m ! same l>ge numb] ( salts z ^? ( tung/5 & molybd5um4 ,! anhydrides ( ! acids are also insoluble 9 wat]1 b z colloids are sometimes held 9 solution1 j l ^? ( titanic & molybdic acids4 ,fur!rmore1 niobium is 9 e respect ! ne>e/ analogue ( molybd5um1 & tantalum ( tung/54 ,niobium is obta9$ by r$uc+ ! d\ble fluoride ( niobium & sodium1 ) sodium4 ,x is difficult to obta9 9 a pure /ate4 ,x is a metal on :i* hydro*loric acid acts ) "s en]gy1 z also does hydr(luoric acid mix$ ) nitric acid1 & also a boil+ solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,tantalum1 :i* is obta9$ 9 exactly ! same way1 is a mu* heavi] metal4 ,x is infusible1 & is only act$ on by a mixture ( hydr(luoric & nitric acids4 ,rose 9 #ahfh %[$ t 9 ! r$uction ( ! d\ble fluoride1 ,nb,f#e1b,,kf1 by sodium1 a greyi% p[d] is obta9$ aft] treat+ ) wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( ?is p[d] is #fh1 & he consid]s x to be niobium hydride1 ,nb,h4 ,nei!r did he obta9 metallic niobium :5 he r$uc$ ) magnesium & alum9ium1 b an alloy1 ,al#c,nb1 hav+ a sp4 gr4 ( #de4 ,niobium1 s f> z is kn[n1 unites 9 ?ree proportions ) oxyg54 ,nb,o1 :i* is =m$ :5 ,nb,o,f#c1b,,kf is r$uc$ by sodium2 ,nb,o#b1 :i* is =m$ by ignit+ niobic acid 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 & niobic anhydride1 ,nb#b,o#e1 a :ite infusible sub/ance1 :i* is insoluble 9 acids1 & has a specific gravity ( #de4 ,tantalic anhydride closely resembles niobic anhydride1 & has a specific gravity ( #gb4 ,! tantalates & niobates pres5t ! type ( or?o-salts--= example1 ,na#b;,h,nb,o#d1f;,h#b,o1 & also ( pyro-salts1 su* z ,k#c;,h,nb#b,o#g1f;,h#b,o1 & ( meta-salts--= example1 ,k,nb,o#c1b;,h#b,o4 ,&1 besides ^!1 !y give salts ( a m complex type1 conta9+ a l>g] am\nt ( ! elem5ts ( ! anhydride2 ?us1 = in/ance1 :5 niobic anhydride is fus$ ) cau/ic pota% x =ms a salt :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allises 9 monocl9ic prisms1 hav+ ! composition ,k#h,nb#f,o#ai1af;,h#b,o4 ,!re is a p]fectly simil> isomorph\s salt ( tantalic acid4 ,tantalite is a salt ( ! type ( metatantalic acid1 ,fe7,ta,o#c7b4 ,! composition ( ,yttrotantalite appe>s to correspond ) or?otantalic acid4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,sulphur1 ,,sel5ium1 ,,& ,,tellurium ,! acid "* ( ! high] oxides ,,ro#c ( ! elem5ts ( gr\p ,,vi4 is /ill m cle>ly def9$ ?an t ( ! high] oxides ( ! prec$+ gr\ps1 :il/ feeble basic prop]ties only appe> 9 ! oxides ,,ro#c ( ! elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies1 & !n only = ^? elem5ts hav+ a high atomic weight--t is1 "u ^? two conditions 9 :i*1 z a rule1 ! basic *>act]s increase4 ,ev5 ! l[] types ,,ro#b & ,r#b,o#c1 c41 =m$ by ! elem5ts ( gr\p ,,vi41 are acid anhydrides 9 ! unev5 s]ies1 & only ^? ( ! elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies h ! prop]ties ( p]oxides or ev5 ( bases4 ,sulphur is ! typical repres5tative ( gr\p ,,vi41 bo? on acc\nt ( ! fact t ! acid prop]ties ( ! gr\p are cle>ly def9$ 9 x1 & also because x is m widely di/ribut$ 9 nature ?an any ( ! o!r elem5ts belong+ to ?is gr\p4 ,z an elem5t ( ! unev5 s]ies ( gr\p ,,vi41 sulphur gives ,h#b,s1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,,s#c1 sulphuric anhydride1 & ,,s#b1 sulphur\s anhydride4 ,& 9 all ( !m we f9d acid prop]ties--,,s#c & ,,s#b are anhydrides ( acids1 & ,h#b,s is an acid1 al?\gh a feeble "o4 ,z an elem5t sulphur has all ! prop]ties ( a true non-metal2 x has n a metallic lu/re1 does n conduct electricity1 is a bad conductor ( heat1 is transp>5t1 & comb9es directly ) metals--9 %ort x has all ! prop]ties ( ! non-metals1 l oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,fur!rmore1 sulphur exhibits a great qualitative & quantitative resemblance to oxyg51 especially 9 ! fact t1 l oxyg51 x comb9es ) two atoms ( hydrog51 & =ms comp\nds resembl+ oxides ) metals & non-metals4 ,f ?is po9t ( view sulphur is bival5t1 if ! halog5s are unival5t4#a ,! *emical "* ( sulphur is express$ by ! fact t x =ms a v slightly /able & feebly en]getic acid ) hydrog54 ,! salts correspond+ ) ?is acid are ! sulphides1 j z ! oxides correspond to wat] & ! *lorides to hydro*loric acid4 ,h[ev]1 z we %all aft]w>ds see m fully1 ! sulphides are m analog\s to ! =m] ?an to ! latt]4 ,b al?\gh comb9+ ) metals1 l oxyg51 sulphur also =ms *emically /able comp\nds ) oxyg51 & ?is fact impresses a peculi> "* on all ! relations ( ?is elem5t4#b #a ,! "* ( sulphur is v cle>ly def9$ 9 ! organo-metallic comp\nds4 ,n to dwell on ?is va/ subject1 :i* belongs to ! prov9ce ( organic *emi/ry1 ,i ?9k x w be suffici5t = our purpose to comp>e ! physical prop]ties ( ! e?yl comp\nds ( m]cury1 z9c1 sulphur & oxyg54 ,! composition ( all ( !m is express$ by ! g5]al =mula 7,c#b;,h#e7b,r1 :]e ,r ,hg1 ,zn1 ,s1 or ,o4 ,!y are all volatile3 m]cury e?yl1 ,hg7,c#b;,h#e7b1 boils at #aei1 its sp4 gr4 is #bddd1 molecul> volume #ajf2 z9c e?yl boils at #aah1 sp4 gr4 #ahhb1 volume #aja2 e?yl sulphide1 ,s7,c#b;,h#e7b1 boils at #ij1 sp4 gr4 #jhbe1 volume #ajg2 common e!r1 or e?yl oxide1 ,o7,c#b;,h#e7b1 boils at #ce1 sp4 gr4 #jgcf1 volume #aja1 9 addition to :i* die?yl itself1 7,c#b;,h#e7b ,c#d;,h#aj1 boils ab\t #j1 sp4 gr4 ab\t #jfb1 volume ab\t #id4 ,?us ! sub/itution ( ,hg1 ,s1 & ,o sc>cely *anges ! volume1 not)/&+ ! diff]5ce ( ! weights2 ! physical influ5ce1 if "o may s express oneself1 ( ^! elem5ts1 :i* are s v diff]5t 9 _! atomic weights1 is almo/ alike4 #b ,!re=e 9 =m] times sulphur 0 kn[n z an amphid elem5t4 ,al?\gh ! analogy betwe5 ! comp\nds ( sulphur & oxyg5 has be5 recognis$ f ! v bir? ( mod]n *emi/ry 7ow+1 among/ o!r ?+s1 to ! fact t ! oxides & sulphides are ! mo/ widely spread metallic ores 9 nature71 /ill x has only be5 cle>ly express$ by ! p]iodic sy/em1 :i* places bo? ^! elem5ts 9 gr\p ,,vi4 ,"h1 moreov]1 /&s out t p>allelism :i* exi/s betwe5 ,,s#b & ozone ,,oo#b1 betwe5 ,k#b,,s#c & p]oxide ( potassium ,k#b,o#d 7,volkovit* 9 #ahic aga9 drew att5tion to ?is p>allelism74 ,sulphur belongs to ! numb] ( ^? elem5ts :i* are v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 & occurs bo? free & comb9$ 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,! atmosph]e1 h[ev]1 is almo/ entirely free f comp\nds ( sulphur1 al?\gh a c]ta9 am\nt ( !m %\ld be pres5t1 if only f ! fact t sulphur\s anhydride is emitt$ f ! e>? 9 volcanic eruptions1 & 9 ! air ( cities1 :]e mu* coal is burnt1 s9ce ?is always conta9s ,fe,s#b4 ,sea & riv] wat] g5]ally conta9 m or less sulphur 9 ! =m ( sulphates4 ,! b$s ( gypsum1 sodium sulphate1 magnesium sulphate1 & ! l are =mations ( und\bt$ly aque\s orig94 ,! sulphates conta9$ 9 ! soil are ! s\rce ( ! sulphur f\nd 9 plants1 & are indisp5sable to _! gr[?4 ,among vegetable sub/ances1 ! proteds always conta9 f "o to two p] c5t4 ( sulphur4 ,f plants ! album9\s sub/ances1 toge!r ) _! sulphur1 pass into ! animal organism1 & !re=e ! decomposition ( animal matt] is accompani$ by ! od\r ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 z ! product into :i* ! sulphur passes 9 ! decomposition ( ! album9\s sub/ances4 ,?us a rott5 egg emits sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,sulphur occurs l>gely 9 nature1 z ! v>i\s insoluble sulphides ( ! metals4 ,iron1 copp]1 z9c1 lead1 antimony1 ars5ic1 c41 occur 9 nature comb9$ ) sulphur4 ,^! sulphides frequ5tly h a metallic lu/re1 & 9 ! majority ( cases occur cry/allis$1 & also v (t5 sev]al sulphides occur comb9$ or mix$ toge!r 9 ^! cry/all9e comp\nds4 ,if !y are yell[ & h a metallic lu/re !y are call$ pyrites4 ,su* are1 = example1 copp] pyrites1 ,cu,fe,s#b1 & iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 :i* is ! commone/ ( all4 ,!y are all also kn[n z glances or bl5des if !y are greyi% & h a metallic lu/re--= example1 z9c bl5de1 lead glance1 ,pb,s1 antimony glance1 ,sb#b,s#c1 c4 ,&1 la/ly1 sulphur occurs native4 ,x occurs 9 ?is =m 9 ! mo/ rec5t geological =mations 9 admixture ) lime/one & gypsum1 & mo/ frequ5tly 9 ! vic9ity ( active or ext9ct volcanoes4 ,z ! gases ( volcanoes conta9 sulphur comp\nds--namely1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 & sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* by react+ on "o ano!r may produce sulphur1 :i* also frequ5tly appe>s 9 ! crat]s ( volcanoes z a sublimate--x might be imag9$ t ! sulphur 0 ( volcanic orig94 ,b on a ne>] acqua9tance ) its mode ( occurr5ce1 & m especially consid]+ its relation to gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d1 & lime/one1 ! pres5t g5]al op9ion leads to ! conclusion t ! 'native' sulphur has be5 =m$ by ! r$uction ( ! gypsum by organic matt] & t its occurr5ce is only indirectly connect$ ) volcanic ag5cies4 ,ne> ,tetu%1 on ! ,volga1 !re are b$s conta9+ gypsum1 sulphur1 & asphalt 7m9]al t>74 ,9 ,europe ! mo/ important deposits ( sulphur are 9 ! s\? ( ,sicily f ,catania to ,girg5ti4#c ,!re are v ri* deposits ( sulphur 9 ,daghe/an ne> ,*]kai & ,*]kat 9 ,khyut1 ne> ,m\nt ,kanab\r-bam1 ne> ,petrovsk1 & 9 ! ,kira ,k\mski /eppes 9 ! ,trans-,caspian prov9ces1 :i* are able to supply ! :ole ( ,russia ) ?is m9]al4 ,abundant deposits ( sulphur h also be5 f\nd 9 ,kamt*atka 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! volcanoes4 ,! me?od ( sep>ation ( ! sulphur f its e>?y impurities is bas$ on ! fact t sulphur melts :5 x is heat$4 ,! fusion is c>ri$ on at ! exp5se ( a portion ( ! sulphur1 :i* is burnt1 s t ! rema9d] may melt & run f ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,?is is c>ri$ on 9 special furnaces call$ calc>oni1 built up ( unhewn /one 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! m9es4#d #c ,:5 9 ,sicily1 ,i f\nd1 ne> ,caltanisetta1 a specim5 ( sulphur ) m9]al t>4 ,9 ! same neighb\rhood !re are naph?a spr+s & mud volcanoes4 ,x may be t ^! sub/ances h r$uc$ ! sulphur f gypsum4 ,! *ief pro( 9 fav\r ( ! orig9 ( sulphur f gypsum is t 9 treat+ ! deposits = ! extraction ( ! sulphur x is f\nd t ! proportion ( sulphur to calcium c>bonate nev] exce$s t :i* x w\ld be _h !y bo? be5 d]iv$ f calcium sulphate4 #d ,naturally only ^? ores ( sulphur :i* conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( sulphur c be treat$ by ?is me?od4 ,) poor ores x is necess>y to h rec\rse to di/illation or me*anical treatm5t 9 ord] to sep>ate ! sulphur1 b its price is s l[ t ?is me?od 9 mo/ cases is n pr(itable4 ,! sulphur obta9$ by ! above-describ$ me?od /ill conta9s "s impurities1 b x is frequ5tly made use ( 9 ?is =m = _m purposes1 & especially 9 consid]able quantities = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & = /rew+ ov] grapes4 ,= o!r purposes1 & especially 9 ! prep>ation ( gunp[d]1 a pur] sulphur is requir$4 ,sulphur may be purifi$ by di/illation4 ,! crude sulphur is call$ r\gh1 & ! di/ill$ sulphur ref9$4 ,! arrangem5t giv5 9 fig4 #hf is employ$ = ref9+ sulphur4 ,! r\gh sulphur is melt$ 9 ! boil] d1 & z x melts x is run ?r\gh ! tube ,f into an iron retort ,b heat$ by ! nak$ flame ( ! furnace4 ,"h ! sulphur is conv]t$ into vap\r1 :i* passes ?r\gh a wide tube into ! *amb] ,g1 surr\nd$ by /one walls & furni%$ ) a safety-valve ,s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,ref9+ sulphur by sublimation4 ,sulphur is purifi$ by di/illation 9 special retorts 7see fig4 #hf7 by pass+ ! vap\r into a *amb] ,g built ( /one4 ,! fir/ portions ( ! vap\r ent]+ into ! cond5s+ *amb] are cond5s$ /raightway f ! vap\r into a solid /ate1 & =m a f9e p[d] kn[n z fl[]s ( sulphur4#e ,b :5 ! temp]ature ( ! receiv] atta9s ! melt+ po9t ( sulphur1 x passes into a liquid /ate & is ca/ into m\lds 7l seal+ wax71 & is !n kn[n "u ! "n ( roll sulphur4#f #e ,fl[]s ( sulphur always conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! oxides ( sulphur4 #f ,sulphur may be extract$ by v>i\s o!r means4 ,x may be extract$ f iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 :i* is v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature4 ,f #ajj p>ts ( iron pyrites ab\t half ! sulphur conta9$1 namely1 ab\t #be p>ts1 may be extract$ by heat+ )\t ! access ( air1 a l[] sulphide ( iron1 :i* is m /able "u ! action ( heat1 be+ left beh9d4 ,alkali wa/e 7,*apt] ,,xii471 conta9+ calcium sulphide & gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d1 may be us$ = ! same purpose1 b native sulphur is s *eap t rec\rse c only be _h to ^! s\rces :5 ! calcium sulphide appe>s z a wor?less by-product4 ,! mo/ simple process = ! extraction ( sulphur f alkali wa/e1 9 a *emical s5se1 consi/s 9 evolv+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 f ! calcium sulphide by ! action ( hydro*loric acid4 ,! sulphurett$ hydrog5 :5 burnt gives wat] & sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* reacts on fre% sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) ! sep>ation ( sulphur4 ,! combu/ion ( ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 may be s conduct$ t a mixture ( #b;,h#b,s & ,,s#b is /raightway =m$1 & ?is mixture w deposit sulphur 7,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #ad74 ,gossage & ,*ance treat alkali wa/e ) c>bonic anhydride1 & subject ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 evolv$ to incomplete combu/ion 7?is is be/ done by pass+ a mixture ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & air1 tak5 9 ! requisite proportions1 ov] r$-hot f]ric oxide71 by :i* means wat] & ! vap\r ( sulphur are =m$3 ,h#b,s ,o ,h#b,o ,s4 ,9 an uncomb9$ /ate sulphur exi/s 9 sev]al modifications1 & =ms a good example ( ! facility ) :i* an alt]ation ( prop]ties c take place )\t a *ange ( composition--t is1 z reg>ds ! mat]ial ( a sub/ance4 ,common sulphur has ! well-kn[n yell[ col\r4 ,?is col\r fades z ! temp]ature falls1 & at -#ej sulphur is almo/ col\rless4 ,x is v brittle1 s t x may be easily conv]t$ into a p[d]1 & x pres5ts a cry/all9e /ructure1 :i*1 by ! way1 %[s itself 9 ! unequal expansion ( lumps ( sulphur by heat4 ,h5ce :5 a piece ( sulphur is heat$ by ! w>m? ( ! h&1 x emits s\nds & sometimes cracks1 :i* probably also dep5ds on ! bad heat-conduct+ p[] ( ?is sub/ance4 ,x is easily obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e =m by artificial means1 because al?\gh insoluble 9 wat] x dissolves 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & 9 c]ta9 oils4#g ,solutions ( sulphur 9 c>bon bisulphide :5 evaporat$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature yield well-=m$ transp>5t cry/als ( sulphur 9 ! =m ( rhombic octah$ra1 9 :i* =m x occurs native4 ,! specific gravity ( ^! cry/als is #bjde4 ,fus$ sulphur1 ca/ into m\lds & cool$1 has1 aft] be+ kept a long "t1 a specific gravity #bjff2 almo/ ! same z t ( ! cry/all9e sulphur ( ! above =m1 :i* %[s t common sulphur is ! same z t :i* cry/allises 9 octah$ra4 ,! specific heat ( octah$ral sulphur is #jag2 x melts at #aad1 & =ms a bright yell[ mobile liquid4 ,on fur!r heat+1 ! fus$ sulphur und]goes an alt]ation1 :i* we %all pres5tly describe1 fir/ obs]v+ t ! above octah$ral /ate ( sulphur is its mo/ /able =m4 ,sulphur may be kept at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 ?is =m = an indef9ite l5g? ( "t1 & _m o!r modifications ( sulphur pass into ?is =m aft] be+ left = a c]ta9 "t at ord9>y temp]ature4 #g ,"o hundr$ p>ts ( liquid c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 dissolve #afe p>ts ( sulphur at -#aa1 #bd p>ts at #j1 #cg p>ts at #ae1 #df p>ts at #bb1 & #aha p>ts at #ee4 ,! saturat$ solution boils at #ee1 :il/ pure c>bon bisulphide boils at #dg4 ,! solution ( sulphur 9 c>bon bisulphide r$uces ! temp]ature1 j z 9 ! solution ( salts 9 wat]4 ,?us ! solution ( #bj p>ts ( sulphur 9 #ej p>ts ( c>bon bisulphide at #bb l[]s ! temp]ature by #e2 #ajj p>ts ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 dissolves #jife "p ( sulphur at #bf1 & #dcgg p>ts at #ga2 *lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c1 dissolves #ab "p ( sulphur at #bb1 & #afce p>ts at #agd4 ,if sulphur be melt$ & !n slightly cool$1 s t x =ms a cru/ on ! surface & ov] ! sides ( ! crucible1 :ile ! int]nal mass rema9s liquid1 !n ! sulphur takes ano!r cry/all9e =m z x solidifies4 ,?is may be se5 by break+ ! cru/1 & p\r+ out ! rema9+ molt5 sulphur4#h ,x is !n f\nd t ! sides ( ! crucible are cov]$ ) prismatic cry/als ( ! monocl9ic sy/em2 !y h a totally diff]5t appe>ance f ! above-describ$ cry/als ( rhombic sulphur4 ,! prismatic cry/als are br[n1 transp>5t1 & less d5se ?an ! cry/als ( rhombic sulphur1 _! specific gravity be+ only #aic1 & _! melt+ po9t high]--ab\t #abj4 ,^! cry/als ( sulphur _c be kept at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :i* is inde$ evid5t f ! fact t 9 "t !y turn yell[2 ! specific gravity also *anges1 & !y pass completely into ! ord9>y modification4 ,?is is accompani$ by a consid]able developm5t ( heat1 s t ! temp]ature ( ! mass may rise #ab4 ,?us sulphur is dimorph\s--t is1 x exi/s 9 two cry/all9e =ms1 & 9 bo? =ms x has indep5d5t physical prop]ties4 ,h[ev]1 no *emical reactions are kn[n :i* di/+ui% ! two modifications ( sulphur1 j z !re are none di/+ui%+ aragonite f calcsp>4#i #h ,if ! exp]im5t be made 9 a vessel ) a n>r[ capill>y tube1 ! sulphur fuses at a l[] temp]ature 7occurs1 z x 71 9 a sup]saturat$ /ate71 & solidify+ at #ij1 appe>s 9 a rhombic =m 7,s*tz5b]g]74 #i ,if sulphur be cauti\sly melt$ 9 a ,u tube imm]s$ 9 a salt ba?1 & !n gradually cool$1 x is possible = all ! sulphur to rema9 liquid at #ajj4 ,x w n[ be 9 a /ate ( sup]fusion2 ?us also by c>eful refrig]ation wat] may be obta9$ 9 a liquid /ate at -#aj1 & a lump ( ice !n causes su* wat] to =m ice1 & ! temp]ature rises to #j4 ,if a prismatic cry/al ( sulphur be ?r[n into "o bran* ( ! ,u tube conta9+ ! liquid sulphur at #ajj1 & an octah$ral cry/al be ?r[n into ! o!r bran*1 !n1 z ,g]nez %[$1 ! sulphur 9 ea* bran* w cry/allise 9 ! correspond+ =m1 & bo? =ms are obta9$ at ! same temp]ature2 !re=e x is n ! influ5ce ( temp]ature only :i* causes ! molecules ( sulphur to di/ribute !mselves 9 "o or ano!r =m1 b also ! influ5ce ( ! cry/all9e p>ts already =m$4 ,?is ph5om5on is ess5tially analog\s to ! ph5om5a ( sup]saturat$ solutions4 ,if molt5 sulphur be heat$ to #aeh x loses its mobility & becomes ?ick & v d>k-col\r$1 s t ! crucible 9 :i* x is heat$ may be inv]t$ )\t ! sulphur runn+ out4 ,:5 heat$ above ?is temp]ature ! sulphur aga9 becomes liquid1 & at #bej x is v mobile1 al?\gh x does n acquire its orig9al col\r1 & at #ddj x boils4 ,^! modifications 9 ! prop]ties ( sulphur dep5d n only on ! v>iations ( temp]ature1 b also on a *ange ( /ructure4 ,if sulphur1 heat$ to ab\t #cej1 be p\r$ 9 a ?9 /ream into cold wat]1 x does n solidify into a solid mass1 b reta9s its br[n col\r & rema9s s(t1 may be /ret*$ out into ?reads1 & is ela/ic1 l guttap]*a4 ,b 9 ?is s(t & ductile /ate1 also1 x does n rema9 = a long "t4 ,aft] ! lapse ( a c]ta9 p]iod ?is s(t transp>5t sulphur h>d5s1 becomes opaque1 passes into ! ord9>y yell[ modification ( sulphur1 & 9 s do+ develops heat1 j z 9 ! conv]sion ( ! prismatic into ! octah$ral v>iety4 ,! s(t sulphur is *>act]is$ by ! fact t a c]ta9 portion ( x is insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,:5 s(t sulphur is imm]s$ 9 ?is liquid1 only a portion ( common sulphur passes into solution1 :il/ a c]ta9 portion is q insoluble & rema9s s = a long "t4 ,! maximum proportion ( insoluble sulphur is obta9$ by heat+ slightly above #agj4 ,x melts at #aad4 ,an exactly simil> insoluble amorph\s sulphur is obta9$ 9 c]ta9 reactions 9 ! wet way1 :5 sulphur sep>ates out f solutions4 ,?us sodium ?iosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 :5 treat$ ) acids1 gives a precipitate ( sulphur1 :i* is insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,! action ( wat] on sulphur *loride also gives a simil> modification ( sulphur4 ,c]ta9 sulphides1 :5 treat$ ) nitric acid1 also yield sulphur 9 ?is =m4#aj #aj ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( insoluble sulphur rema9s = a long "t 9 ! mass ( s(t sulphur1 *ang+ into ! ord9>y v>iety4 ,fre%ly-cool$ s(t sulphur conta9s ab\t "o-?ird ( insoluble sulphur1 & aft] ! lapse ( two ye>s x /ill conta9s ab\t #ae p4c4 ,fl[]s ( sulphur1 obta9$ by ! rapid cond5sation ( sulphur f a /ate ( vap\r1 also conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( insoluble sulphur4 ,rapidly di/ill$ & cond5s$ sulphur also conta9s "s insoluble sulphur4 ,h5ce a c]ta9 am\nt ( insoluble sulphur is frequ5tly f\nd 9 roll sulphur4 ,! action ( light on a solution ( sulphur conv]ts a c]ta9 portion into ! insoluble modification4 ,insoluble sulphur is ( a light] col\r ?an ! ord9>y v>iety4 ,x is be/ prep>$ by vaporis+ sulphur 9 a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride1 hydro*loric acid1 c41 & collect+ ! vap\r 9 cold wat]4 ,:5 cond5s$ 9 ?is mann] x is ne>ly all insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,x !n has ! =m ( holl[ sph]oids1 & is !re=e light] ?an ! common v>iety3 sp4 gr4 #ahb4 ,an idea ( ! modifications tak+ place 9 sulphur betwe5 #aaj & #bej may be =m$ f ! fact t at #aej liquid sulphur has a coeffici5t ( expansion ( ab\t #jjjje1 :il/ betwe5 #aej & #bej x is less ?an #jjjjc4 ,engel 7#ahia71 by decompos+ a saturat$ solution ( hyposulphite ( sodium 7,note #db7 ) ,h,cl 9 ! cold 7! sulphur is n precipitat$ directly 9 ?is case71 obta9$1 aft] %ak+ up ) *lor(orm & evaporation1 cry/als ( sulphur 7sp4 gr4 #bace71 :i*1 aft] sev]al h\rs1 pass$ into ! insoluble 79 ,,cs#b7 /ate1 & 9 s do+ became opaque1 & increas$ 9 volume4 ,b if a mixture ( solution ( ,na#b,s#b,o#c & ,h,cl be all[$ to /&1 x deposits sulphur1 :i*1 aft] suffici5t wa%+1 is able to dissolve 9 wat] 7l ! colloid v>ieties ( ! metallic sulphides1 alum9a1 boron1 & silv]71 b ?is colloid solution ( sulphur soon deposits sulphur insoluble 9 ,,cs#b4 ,:5 a solution ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 wat] is decompos$ by an electric curr5t ! sulphur is deposit$ on ! positive pole1 & has !re=e an electro-negative "*1 & ?is sulphur is soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,:5 a solution ( sulphur\s acid is decompos$ 9 ! same mann]1 ! sulphur is deposit$ on ! negative pole1 & is !re=e electro-positive1 & ! sulphur s deposit$ is insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,! sulphur :i* is comb9$ ) metals mu/ h ! prop]ties ( ! sulphur conta9$ 9 sulphurett$ hydrog51 :il/ ! sulphur comb9$ ) *lor9e is l t :i* is comb9$ ) oxyg5 9 sulphur\s anhydride4 ,h5ce ,b]!lot recognises ! pres5ce ( soluble sulphur 9 metallic sulphides1 & ( ! insoluble modification ( amorph\s sulphur 9 sulphur *loride4 ,cloez %[$ t ! sulphur precipitat$ f solutions is ei!r soluble or insoluble1 accord+ to :e!r x sep>ates f an alkal9e or acid solution4 ,if sulphur be melt$ ) a small quantity ( iod9e or brom9e1 !n on p\r+ out ! molt5 mass x =ms amorph\s sulphur1 :i* keeps s = a v long "t1 & is insoluble1 or ne>ly s1 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 ca/+ c]ta9 articles 9 sulphur1 :i* by ?is means reta9 _! t5acity = a long "t2 = example1 ! discs ( electrical ma*9es4 ,at temp]atures ( #ddj to #gjj ! vap\r d5sity ( sulphur is #ff ref]r$ to air--i4e4 ab\t #if ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,h5ce1 at ^! temp]atures ! molecule ( sulphur conta9s six atoms1 x has ! composition ,s#f4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ! obs]vations ( ,dumas1 ,mits*]li*1 ,b9eau1 & ,deville confirms ! accuracy ( ?is result4 ,b 9 ?is respect ! prop]ties ( sulphur 7 f\nd to be v>iable4 ,:5 heat$ to high] temp]atures1 t is to say1 above #hjj1 ! vap\r d5sity ( sulphur is f\nd to be "o-?ird ( ?is quantity1 i4e4 ab\t #cb ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,at ?is temp]ature ! molecule ( sulphur1 l t ( hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & *lor9e1 conta9s two atoms2 h5ce ! molecul> =mula is !n ,s#b4 ,?is v>iation 9 ! vap\r d5sity ( sulphur evid5tly corresponds ) a polym]ic modification1 & may be lik5$ to ! trans=mation ( ozone1 ,o#c1 into oxyg51 ,o#b1 or bett] /ill1 ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 into acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b4aa #aa ,"h1 h[ev]1 x is v important to rem>k t bo? b5z5e & acetyl5e c exi/ at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ ! sulphur molecule ,s#b only exi/s at high temp]atures2 & if ?is sulphur be all[$ to cool1 x passes fir/ into ,s#f & !n into a liquid /ate4 ,7 x possible to h sulphur at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 bo? ! above modifications1 !n 9 all probability ! sulphur 9 ! /ate ,s#b w\ld pres5t totally diff]5t prop]ties f ^? :i* x has 9 ! =m ,s#f1 j z ! prop]ties ( gase\s acetyl5e are f> f be+ simil> to ^? ( liquid b5z5e4 ,sulphur1 9 ! =m ( ,s#b1 is probably a sub/ance :i* boils at a mu* l[] temp]ature ?an ! v>iety ) :i* we are n[ deal+4 ,pat]no & ,nas9i 7#ahhh71 foll[+ ! me?od ( depression or fall ( ! freez+-po9t 9 a b5z5e solution1 f\nd t ! molecule ( sulphur 9 solution conta9s ,s#f4 ,"o mu/ "h call att5tion to ! fact t sulphur1 ) all its analogy to oxyg5 7:i* also %[s itself 9 its faculty to give ! modification ,s#b71 is also able to give a s]ies ( comp\nds conta9+ m atoms ( sulphur ?an ! analog\s oxyg5 comp\nds d ( oxyg54 ,?us1 = in/ance1 comp\nds ( #e atoms ( sulphur ) #a atom ( b>ium1 ,ba,s#e1 are kn[n1 :]eas ) oxyg5 only ,ba,o#b is kn[n4 ,on e side "o _c b see 9 sulphur a faculty = ! union ( a great] numb] ( atoms ?an ) oxyg54 ,) oxyg5 ! =m ( ozone1 ,o#c1 is v un/able1 ! /able =m is ,o#b2 :il/ ) sulphur ,s#f is ! /able =m1 & ,s#b is exce$+ly un/able4 ,fur!rmore1 x is rem>kable t sulphur gives a high] degree ( oxidation1 ,h#b,,s#d1 correspond+1 z x 71 ) its complex composition1 if we suppose t 9 ,s#f f\r atoms ( sulphur are replac$ by oxyg5 & "o by two atoms ( hydrog54 ,! =mul ( its comp\nds1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,k#b,s#b,o#c1 ,k#b,s#e1 ,ba,s#e1 & _m o!rs1 h no analogues among ! comp\nds ( oxyg54 ,!y all correspond ) ! =m ,s#f 7"o portion ( ! sulphur be+ replac$ by oxyg5 & ano!r by metals71 :i* is n atta9$ by oxyg54 ,9 ?is faculty ( sulphur to hold _m atoms ( o!r sub/ances ! same =ces appe> :i* cause _m atoms ( sulphur to =m "o complex molecule4 ,9 its faculty = comb9ation1 sulphur mo/ closely resembles oxyg5 & *lor9e2 l !m1 x comb9es ) ne>ly all elem5ts1 ) ! developm5t ( heat & light1 =m+ sulphur comp\nds1 b z a rule ?is only takes place at a high temp]ature4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature x does n ent] into reactions1 ow+1 among/ o!r ?+s1 to ! fact t x is a solid4 ,9 a molt5 /ate x acts on mo/ metals & on ! halog5s4 ,x burns 9 air at ab\t #cjj1 & ) c>bon at a r$ heat1 b x does n comb9e ) nitrog54 ,f9e wires1 or ! p[d]s ( ! great] numb] ( metals1 burn 9 ! vap\r ( sulphur4 ,! direct comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) sulphur is re/rict$ by a limit--t is1 at a giv5 temp]ature & "u o!r giv5 conditions x does n proce$ unre/rict$ly2 !re is no explosion or recalesc5ce4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,h#b,s1 decomposes at its temp]ature ( comb9ation--t is1 x is easily dissociat$4#ab ,! same ph5om5on is repeat$ "h z ) wat]1 except t ! temp]atures at :i* ! attraction ( hydrog5 = sulphur beg9s & ceases are mu* l[] ?an 9 ! case ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! temp]ature at :i* comb9ation takes place is "h1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 ne>ly ! same z t at :i* dissociation beg9s4 ,h5ce sulphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ 9 a small quantity by ! direct ignition ( a mixture ( ! vap\r ( sulphur & hydrog54 ,h[ev]1 ! temp]ature mu/ n be high1 because o!rwise ! :ole ( ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 is decompos$2 b at l[] temp]atures a small am\nt ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ by direct comb9ation4#ac ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 h[ev]1 l all o!r hydrog5 comp\nds1 may be easily obta9$ by ! d\ble decomposition ( its correspond+ metallic comp\nds1 ! replacem5t ( ! metal by hydrog5 be+ effect$ by ! action ( acids on ! sulphides4 ,! metallic sulphides are1 z a rule1 easily =m$4 ,a sulphide1 :5 mix$ ) a non-volatile acid1 may give1 by d\ble decomposition1 a salt ( ! acid tak5 & sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,m#b,s ,h#b,,s#d ,h#b,s ,m#b,,s#d4 ,h[ev]1 x is n all sulphides nor solutions ( all acids t w evolve sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i* fact is exce$+ly *>act]i/ic1 because1 = example1 all c>bonates evolve c>bonic anhydride :5 treat$ ) any acid4 ,sulphuric acid w only evolve sulphurett$ hydrog5 f ^? sulphides :i* conta9 a metal capable ( decompos+ ! acid ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 ,?us z9c1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 manganese1 potassium1 sodium1 c41 =m sulphides :i* evolve sulphurett$ hydrog5 :5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid1 & ! metals !mselves evolve hydrog5 ) acids4#ad ,! sulphides ( ^? metals :i* d n lib]ate hydrog5 f acids d n g5]ally act on acids--t is1 d n =m sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) !m2 su* are1 = example1 ! sulphides ( lead1 silv]1 copp]1 m]cury1 t91 c4 ,!re=e1 ! modus op]&i ( ! =mation ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 by ! action ( acids on metallic sulphides may be look$ on z a ph5om5on ( ! comb9ation ( hydrog51 at ! mom5t ( its evolution1 ) ! sulphur1 :i* is comb9$ ) ! metal4 ,su* a repres5tation is all ! m simple z all ! circum/ances "u :i* sulphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ are exactly simil> to ! conditions ( ! =mation ( hydrog5 itself4 ,?us ! usual mode ( prep>+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 is by ! action ( sulphuric acid on f]r\s sulphide1 9 :i* ! same app>atus & me?od are employ$ z 9 ! prep>ation ( hydrog51 only replac+ ! metallic iron or z9c by f]r\s sulphide or z9c sulphide4 ,! reaction betwe5 sulphide ( iron & sulphuric acid takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & is accompani$ by j z small a developm5t ( heat z 9 ! lib]ation ( hydrog5 itself1 ,fe,s ,h#b,,s#d ,fe,s,o#d ,h#b,s4#ae #ab ,9 ! =mation ( potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s 7t is1 9 ! comb9ation ( #cb p>ts ( sulphur ) #gh p>ts ( potassium71 ab\t #ajj ?\s& heat units are develop$4 ,ne>ly z mu* heat is develop$ 9 ! comb9ation ( an equival5t quantity ( sodium2 ab\t #ij ?\s& heat units 9 ! =mation ( calcium or /rontium sulphide2 ab\t #dj ?\s& = z9c or cadmium sulphide1 & ab\t #bj ?\s& = iron1 cobalt1 or nickel sulphide4 ,less heat is evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation ( sulphur ) copp]1 lead1 & silv]4 ,accord+ to ,?oms51 sulphur develops heat ) hydrog5 9 solutions4 ,! reaction ,i#b1;,aq1,h#b,s #ba1hcj calories4 ,b1 z ! reaction ,i#b ,h#b ,aq develops #bf1hdb calories1 x foll[s t ! reaction ,h#b ,s develops #d1eab calories4 #ac ,if sulphur be melt$ 9 a flask & heat$ ne>ly to its boil+ po9t1 z ,lid(f %[$1 ! addition1 drop by drop 7f a funnel ) a /opcock7 ( heavy 7#ji7 naph?a oil 7( lubricat+ oleonaph?a71 c41 is foll[$ by a regul> evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,?is is analog\s to ! action ( brom9e or iod9e on p>aff9 & o!r oils1 because hydrobromic or hydriodic acid is !n =m$ 7,*apt] ,,xi47 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( hydrog5 sulphide is ev5 =m$ :5 sulphur is boil$ ) wat]4 #ad ,h[ev]1 ! matt] is really mu* m complicat$4 ,?us z9c sulphide evolves sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) sulphuric or hydro*loric acids1 b does n react ) acetic acid & is oxidis$ by nitric acid4 ,f]r\s sulphide evolves sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) acids1 :il/ ! bisulphide1 ,fe,s#b1 does n react ) acids ( ord9>y /r5g?4 ,?is abs5ce ( action dep5ds1 among o!r ?+s1 on ! =m 9 :i* ! native iron pyrites occurs2 x is a cry/all9e1 compact1 & v d5se sub/ance2 & acids 9 g5]al react ) great difficulty on su* metallic sulphides4 ,?is is se5 v cle>ly 9 ! case ( z9c sulphide2 if ?is sub/ance is obta9$ by d\ble decomposition1 x sep>ates z a :ite precipitate1 :i* evolves sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) great ease :5 treat$ ) acids4 ,z9c sulphide is obta9$ 9 ! same =m :5 z9c is fus$ ) sulphur1 b native z9c sulphide--:i* occurs 9 compact masses ( z9c bl5de1 & has a metallic lu/re--is n decompos$ or sc>cely decompos$ by sulphuric acid4 ,ano!r s\rce ( complication 9 ! behavi\r ( ! metallic sulphides t[>ds acids dep5ds on ! action ( wat]1 & is %[n 9 ! fact t ! action v>ies ) diff]5t degrees ( dilution or proportion ( wat] pres5t4 ,! be/ kn[n example ( ?is is antimoni\s sulphide1 ,sb#b,s#c1 = /rong hydro*loric acid1 conta9+ n m wat] ?an corresponds ) ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 ev5 decomposes native antimony glance1 ) evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 :il/ dilute acid has no action1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( wat] ! reaction #b,sb,cl#c #c;,h#b,s ,sb#b,s#c #f;,h,cl occurs1 :il/ 9 ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( wat] ! reaction proce$s 9 exactly ! opposite direction4 ,"h ! p>ticipation ( wat] 9 ! reaction & its aff9ity are evid5t4 ,! facts t lead sulphide is insoluble 9 acids1 t z9c sulphide is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid b insoluble 9 acetic acid1 t calcium sulphide is ev5 decompos$ by c>bonic acid1 c4--all ^! peculi>ities ( ! sulphides are 9 correlation ) ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! reaction ( ! oxides ) hydrog5 sulphide & ) acids1 z is se5 f ! obs]vations ( ,favre & ,silb]man1 & f ! comp>isons made by ,b]!lot 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,p>is ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 #ahgj1 to :i* we ref] ! read] = fur!r details4 #ae ,f]r\s sulphide is =m$ by heat+ a piece ( iron to an incipi5t :ite heat1 & !n remov+ x f ! furnace & br++ x into contact ) a piece ( sulphur4 ,comb9ation !n proce$s1 accompani$ by ! developm5t ( heat1 & ! f]r\s sulphide =m$ fuses4 ,! sulphide ( iron ?us =m$ is a black1 easily-fusible sub/ance1 insoluble 9 wat]4 ,:5 damp x attracts oxyg5 f ! air1 & is conv]t$ into gre5 vitriol1 ,fe,s,o#d4 ,if all ! iron does n comb9e ) ! sulphur 9 ! me?od describ$ above1 ! action ( sulphuric acid w evolve hydrog5 z well z hydrog5 sulphide4 ,we w n describe ! details ( ! prep>ation ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 employ$ z a reag5t 9 ! laboratory1 because1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! me?ods are ess5tially ! same z 9 ! prep>ation ( hydrog51 &1 9 ! second place1 because ! app>atus & me?ods employ$ are always describ$ 9 text-books ( analytical *emi/ry4 ,f]r\s sulphide may be advantage\sly replac$ by calcium sulphide or a mixture ( calcium & magnesium sulphides4 ,a solution ( magnesium hydrosulphide1 ,mg,s1,h#b,s1 is v conv5i5t1 z at #fj x evolves a /ream ( pure hydrog5 sulphide4 ,a pa/e1 consi/+ ( ,cu,s ) cry/als ( ,mg,cl#b & wat]1 may also be employ$1 s9ce x only evolves ,h#b,s :5 heat$ 7,hab]mann74 ,9 nature sulphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ 9 _m ways4 ,! mo/ usual mode ( its =mation is by ! decomposition ( album9\s sub/ances conta9+ sulphur1 z m5tion$ above4 ,ano!r me?od is by ! r$uc+ action ( organic matt] on sulphates1 & by ! action ( wat] & c>bonic acid on ! sulphides =m$ by ?is r$uction4 ,volcanic eruptions are a ?ird s\rce ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 nature4 ,al?\gh sulphurett$ hydrog5 is =m$ 9 small quantities ev]y:]e1 x nev]!less soon disappe>s f ! atmosph]e1 ow+ to its be+ easily decompos$ by oxidis+ ag5cies4 ,_m m9]al wat]s conta9 sulphurett$ hydrog51 & smell ( x2 !y are call$ 'sulphur wat]s4' ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 is a col\rless gas1 hav+ a v unpleasant od\r4 ,x has1 z its composition ,h#b,s %[s1 a specific gravity sev5te5 times great] ?an hydrog51 & !re=e x is some:at heavi] ?an air4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 liquefies at ab\t -#gd1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature :5 subject$ to a pressure ( #aj to #ae atmosph]es2 at -#he x is conv]t$ into a solid cry/all9e mass4#ae bis ,! easy liquefaction ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 is evid5tly alli$ to its solubility4 ,"o volume ( wat] at #j dissolves #dcg volumes ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 at #aj #ceh volumes1 & at #bj #bi volumes4#af ,! solutions imp>t a v feeble r$ coloration to litmus pap]4 ,?is gas is poison\s4 ,"o "p 9 fifte5 hundr$ p>ts ( air w kill birds4 ,mammalia die 9 an atmosph]e conta9+ #a_/bjj ( ?is gas4 #ae bis ,liquid sulphurett$ hydrog5 is mo/ easily obta9$ by ! decomposition ( hydrog5 polysulphide1 :i* we %all pres5tly describe1 by ! action ( heat1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( wat]4 ,if p\r$ into a b5t tube1 l t describ$ = ! liquefaction ( ammonia 7,*apt] ,,vi471 ! hydrog5 polysulphide is decompos$ by heat1 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 into sulphur & sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i* cond5ses 9 ! cold end ( ! tube into a col\rless liquid4 #af ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 is /ill m soluble 9 alcohol ?an 9 wat]2 "o volume at ! ord9>y temp]ature dissolves z mu* z eight volumes ( ! gas4 ,! solutions 9 wat] & alcohol und]go *ange1 especially 9 op5 vessels1 ow+ to ! fact t ! wat] & alcohol dissolve oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 act+ on ! sulphurett$ hydrog51 =ms wat] & sulphur4 ,! solution may be s alt]$ 9 ?is mann] t e trace ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 disappe>s4 ,solutions ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 glyc]9e *ange mu* m sl[ly1 & may !re=e be kept = a long "t z reag5ts4 ,de ,=cr& obta9$ a hydrate1 ,h#b,s1#af;,h#b,o1 resembl+ ! hydrates giv5 by _m gases4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 is v easily decompos$ into its compon5t p>ts by ! action ( heat or a s]ies ( electric sp>ks4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ t sulphurett$ hydrog5 und]goes *ange "u ! action ( _m sub/ances hav+ a consid]able aff9ity = hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,v _m metals#ag evolve hydrog5 ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 s t 9 ?is respect x pres5ts ! prop]ty ( an acid2 = in/ance1 #b;,h#b,s ,sn #b;,h#b ,sn,s#b4 ,?is may be tak5 advantage ( = det]m9+ ! composition ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 because a giv5 volume !n leaves ! same volume ( hydrog54 ,on ! o!r h&1 oxyg51#ah *lor9e1#ai & ev5 iod9e decompose sulphurett$ hydrog51 remov+ ! hydrog5 f x & leav+ free sulphur1 s t 9 ?is reaction ! sulphur is replac$ by ! above-nam$ elem5ts2 = example1 ,h#b,s ,br#b #b;,h,br ,s4 ,9 no o!r hydrog5 comp\nd is x s easy to %[ ! sub/itution1 bo? ( hydrog5 & ( ! elem5t comb9$ ) x1 z 9 hydrog5 sulphide4 ,?is cle>ly proves ! feeble union betwe5 ! elem5ts =m+ ?is gas4 ,comp\nds conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( oxyg51 ) :i* !y easily "p1 c accompli% ! sep>ation ( ! sulphur v easily4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 nitr\s acid1 *romic acid1 & ev5 f]ric oxide & ! high] oxides l x4 ,?us1 if sulphurett$ hydrog5 be pass$ into a solution ( *romic acid or an acid solution ( f]ric oxide1 wat] is =m$1 & ! sulphur is sep>at$ 9 a free /ate4 ,?us1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 acts z a r$uc+ ag5t1 9 virtue ( ! hydrog5 x conta9s4 ,salts ( iodic1 *lor\s1 *loric1 & o!r acids are r$uc$ by sulphurett$ hydrog51 _! oxyg5 act+ ma9ly on its hydrog52 b 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t a portion ( ! sulphur may also be oxidis$ to sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! r$uc+ action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 is frequ5tly appli$ 9 *emical manipulations = ! prep>ation ( l[] oxides1 & = ! conv]sion ( c]ta9 oxyg5 comp\nds into hydrog5 comp\nds3 ?us1 ! high] oxides ( nitrog5 are conv]t$ into ammonia by x1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis ! nitro-comp\nds are conv]t$ into ammonia d]ivatives4 ,! reaction ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on sulphur\s anhydride belongs to ?is class ( ph5om5a1 ! *ief products ( :i* are sulphur & wat]1 #b;,h#b,s ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o ,s#c4 #ag ,"s metals evolve hydrog5 f sulphurett$ hydrog5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,= example1 ! light metals1 & copp] & silv] 7especially ) ! access ( air87 among ! heavy metals4 ,h5ce articles made ( silv] turn black 9 ! pres5ce ( vap\rs conta9+ sulphurett$ hydrog51 because silv] sulphide is black4 ,z9c & cadmium act at a r$ heat1 b n completely4 #ah ,if sulphurett$ hydrog5 escapes f a f9e orifice into ! air1 x w burn :5 light$1 & be trans=m$ into sulphur\s anhydride & wat]4 ,b if x burns 9 a limit$ supply ( air--= in/ance1 :5 a cyl9d] is fill$ ) x & light$--!n only ! hydrog5 burns1 :i* has1 judg+ f ! am\nt ( heat develop$ 9 its combu/ion & f all its prop]ties1 a great] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an sulphur4 ,9 ?is respect ! combu/ion ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 resembles t ( hydroc>bons4 #ai ,h5ce blea*+ p[d] & *lor9e de/roy ! disagreeable smell ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 7,= ! reaction ( hydrog5 sulphide & iod9e1 see ,*apt] ,,xi4 p4 #ejd47 ,! acid "* ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 is cle>ly se5 9 its action on alkalis & salts4#ai bis ,?us lead oxide & its salts 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 =m wat] or an acid1 & sulphide ( lead3 ,pb,x#b ,h#b,s ,pb,s #b;,,hx4 ,?is reaction takes place ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( p[]ful acids1 because lead sulphide is "o ( ^? sulphides :i* are unact$ on by acids1 & 9 solutions ! reaction is a complete "o4 ,?is reaction is tak5 advantage ( = ! prep>ation ( _m acids1 by fir/ conv]t+ into a lead salt1 & !n submitt+ ?is salt to ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,= example1 lead =mate ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 gives =mic acid4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 act+ on a numb] ( metallic acid sub/ances 9 solution or 9 an anhydr\s /ate also =ms correspond+ sulphates3 7#a7 if x does n r$uce ! acid2 7#b7 if ! sulphur comp\nd correspond+ ) ! anhydride ( ! acid be insoluble 9 wat]1 ! reaction proce$s 9 solutions2 7#c7 if ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 & ! acid tak5 d n come 9 contact ) an alkali1 on :i* !y w\ld be able to act fir/2 & 7#d7 if ! sulphur comp\nd be n decompos$ by wat]4 ,?us solutions ( ars5i\s acid give a precipitate ( ars5i\s sulphide1 ,z#b,s#c1 ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,?is reaction proce$s n only 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 b also ( acids1 because ! latt] d n decompose ! resultant sulphur comp\nds4 ,! type ( ! decomposition is ! same z ) bases--t is1 ! sulphur & oxyg5 *ange places3 ,,ron n,h#b,s ,,rsn n,h#b,o4 ,"s sulphides correspond+ ) acid anhydrides are decompos$ by wat]1 & !re=e are n =m$ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,su*1 = example1 are ! sulphides ( phosphorus4#bj #ai bis ,p]fectly dry ,h#b,s 7,hughes #ahib7 has no action ^u p]fectly dry salts1 j z dry ,h,cl does n react ) dry ,,nh#c or metals 7,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #bi74 #bj ,! sulphide ,p#d,s is obta9$ by cauti\sly fus+ ! requisite proportions ( common phosphorus & sulphur "u wat]2 x is a liquid :i* solidifies at #j1 & may be di/ill$ )\t und]go+ *ange1 b x fumes 9 air & easily takes fire4 ,! high] sulphide1 ,p#b,s1 has simil> prop]ties4 ,b little heat is evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ^! comp\nds1 & x may be suppos$ t !y are =m$ by ! direct conjunction ( :ole molecules ( phosphorus & sulphur2 b if ! proportion ( sulphur be increas$1 ! reaction is accompani$ by s consid]able a rise ( temp]ature t an explosion takes place1 & = ! sake ( safety r$ phosphorus mu/ be us$1 mix$ z intimately z possible ) p[d]$ sulphur & heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! high] comp\nds are decompos$ by wat]4 ,by increas+ ! proportion ( sulphur1 ! foll[+ comp\nds h be5 obta9$3 ,p#d,s#c z prisms 7fuses at #afe1 ,rebs71 soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & unalt]$ by air & wat]2 phosphorus trisulphide1 ,p#b,s#c1 is ! analogue ( ,p#b,o#c2 x is a light yell[ cry/all9e comp\nd only slightly soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 fusible & volatile1 decompos$ into hydrog5 sulphide & phosphor\s acid by wat]1 &1 l ! highe/ comp\nd ( sulphur & phosphorus1 ,p#b,s#e1 x =ms ?io-salts ) potassium sulphide1 c4 ,?is phosphorus p5tasulphide corresponds ) phosphoric anhydride2 l ! trisulphide x gives hydrog5 sulphide & phosphoric acid ) an excess ( wat]4 ,x reacts 9 _m respects l phosphoric *loride4 ,! sulphide ,,ps#b is also kn[n2 ! vap\r d5sity ( ?is comp\nd seems to indicate a molecule ,p#c,s#f4 ,phosphorus sulpho*loride1 ,p,s,cl#c1 corresponds ) phosphorus oxy*loride4 ,x is a col\rless1 pleasant-smell+ liquid1 boil+ at #abd1 & ( sp4 gr4 #afc2 x fumes 9 air & is decompos$ by wat]3 ,p,s,cl#c #d;,h#b,o ,,ph#c,o#d ,h#b,s #c;,h,cl4 ,x is obta9$ :5 phosphoric *loride is treat$ ) hydrog5 sulphide1 hydro*loric acid be+ also =m$2 x is also produc$ by ! action ( phosphoric *loride on c]ta9 sulphides--= example1 on antimoni\s sulphide1 also by ! 7cauti\s7 action ( phosphorus on sulphur *loride3 #b,p #c,s#b;,cl#b #b,p,s,cl#c #d,s1 by ! action ( ,p,cl#e ^u c]ta9 sulphides1 = example1 ,sb#b,s#c1 by ! reaction3 #c,m,cl ,p#b,s#e ,p,s,cl#c ,m#c,,ps#d 7,glatzel1 #ahic71 & 9 ! reaction #c,p,cl#c ,s,o,cl#b ,p,cl#e ,p,o,cl#c ,p,s,cl#c1 %[+ ! r$uc+ action ( phosphorus tri*loride1 :i* is especially cle> 9 ! reaction ,,s#c ,p,cl#c ,,s#b ,p,o,cl#c4 ,?orpe & ,rodg] 7#ahhi71 by heat+ #c,pb,f#b or ,bi,f#c ) phosphorus p5tasulphide 7& also by heat+ ,as,f#c & ,p,s,cl#c to #aej71 obta9$ ?iophosphoryl fluoride z a col\rless1 spontane\sly inflammable gas 7see fur!r on1 ,note #gd bis1 & ,*apt] ,,xix41 ,note #be74 ,! action ( ,p,s,cl#c ^u ,na,h,o gives a salt ( mono?iophosphoric acid 7,wrtz1 ,kubi]s*ky71 ,h#c,,pso#c1 :i* gives soluble salts ( ! alkalis4 ,! metallic sulphides correspond+ ) ! metallic oxides h ei!r a feeble alkal9e or a feeble acid "*1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! correspond+ oxide1 & !re=e by comb9+ toge!r !y are able to =m sal9e sub/ances--t is1 salts 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is replac$ by sulphur4 ,?us sulphurett$ hydrog5 hav+ ! prop]ties ( a feeble acid#ba has1 at ! same "t1 ! prop]ties ( wat]1 & =ms ! type ( ! sulphur d]ivatives1 :i* may also be =m$ by means ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 j z ! oxides may be =m$ by ! aid ( wat]4 ,b z sulphurett$ hydrog5 has acid prop]ties1 x comb9es m easily ) ! basic metallic sulphides4 ,h5ce1 = in/ance1 !re exi/s a comp\nd ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) potassium sulphide1 potassium hydrosulphide1 #b,,khs ,k#b,s ,h#b,s1 j z !re are potassium hydroxides2 b !re are sc>cely any comp\nds ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) ! sulphides correspond+ ) acids4 ,?us ! sulphides ( ! metals may be reg>d$ ei!r z salts ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 or z oxides ( ! metals 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is replac$ by sulphur4 ,9 g5]al t]ms ! sulphides exhibit ! same degrees ( diff]5ce ) respect to _! solubility 9 wat] z d ! oxides4 ,?us ! oxides ( ! alkali metals1 & ( "s ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 are soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ^? ( ne>ly all ! o!r metals are insoluble4 ,! same may be said z to ! sulphides2 ! sulphides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis & c]ta9 ( ! alkal9e e>?s are soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ^? ( ! o!r metals are insoluble4 ,^? metals1 l alum9ium1 ^: oxides--= example1 ,al#b,o#c--;h int]m$iate prop]ties & d n =m comp\nds ) feeble acids1 at lea/ 9 a wet way1 also d n =m sulphides by ?is me?od1 al?\gh ^! may be obta9$ indirectly4 ,& 9 g5]al ! sulphides ( ! metals are easily =m$ 9 a wet way1 & ) p>ticul> ease if !y are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,9 ?is case _! salts ent] into d\ble decomposition ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 or ) soluble sulphides1 & give an insoluble sulphide--= in/ance1 a salt ( lead gives lead sulphide ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on a salt ( a metal1 a free acid mu/ be =m$ besides ! metallic sulphide4 ,?us if a metal ,m be 9 a /ate ( comb9ation ,,mx#b1 !n by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 !re w be =m$1 besides ,,ms1#bb an acid #b;,,hx4 ,x is evid5t t sulphurett$ hydrog5 w n precipitate an insoluble sulphide f ! salts ( ^? metals ^: sulphides react ) free acid1 su* z z9c1 iron1 manganese1 c4 ,! reaction ,fe,cl#b ,h#b,s ,fe,s #b;,h,cl1 & ! l1 d n take place because ! acid acts on ! f]r\s sulphide4 ,antimoni\s sulphide is n act$ on by dilute hydro*loric acid1 b x is decompos$ by /rong acid1 & !re=e 9 pres5ce ( an excess ( hydro*loric acid antimoni\s *loride does n entirely react ) hydrog5 sulphide1 :il/ ! reaction #b,sb,cl#c #c;,h#b,s ,sb#b,s#c #f;,h,cl is a complete "o 9 a dilute solution & ) a small quantity ( acid4 ,^? metallic sulphides :i* are decompos$ by acids may be obta9$ 9 a wet way by ! d\ble decomposition ( ! salts ( ! metals1 n ) hydrog5 sulphide1 b ) soluble metallic sulphides1 su* z sulphide ( ammonium or ( potassium1 because !n no free acid is =m$1 b a salt ( ! metal 7potassium or ammonium7 :i* 0 tak5 z a soluble sulphide4 ,s1 = example1 ,fe,cl#b ,k#b,s ,fe,s #b,k,cl4#bc #ba ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 does n saturate ! alkal9e prop]ties ( alkali hydroxides1 s t a solution ( potassium hydroxide w n "u any circum/ances give a neutral liquid ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,9 ?is case ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 =ms 9 solution only an acid salt ) ! potassium3 ,,kho ,h#b,s ,,khs ,h#b,o4 ,x mu/ be suppos$ t ! normal salt is n =m$ 9 ! solution--t is1 t ! reaction #b,,kho ,h#b,s ,k#b,s #b;,h#b,o does n take place4 ,?is is se5 f ! fact t a developm5t ( heat1 dep5d+ on ! =mation ( potassium hydrosulphide1 ,,khs1 is rem>k$ :5 z mu* hydrog5 sulphide is pass$ into a solution ( potassium hydroxide z x w absorb4 ,b if a fur!r quantity ( potassium hydroxide be add$ to ! resultant solution1 heat is n develop$1 :il/ if alkali be add$ to potassium acid sulphate or sodium acid c>bonate1 heat is develop$4 ,x mu/ n be conclud$ f ?is t ,h#b,s is a monobasic acid1 = "h !re is a "q ( ! decompos+ action ( wat] ^u ,k#b,s2 ,k#b,s & ,h#b,o 9 react+ on ea* o!r %\ld absorb heat if ! reaction ( ,,khs ^u ,,kho evolves heat4 ,fur!rmore1 x mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt t potassium oxide1 ,k#b,o1 & ! anhydr\s oxides l x1 also d n exi/ 9 solutions1 = :5ev] !y are =m$ !y imm$iately react ) ! wat]1 =m+ cau/ic pota%1 ,,kho1 c4 ,9 ! same way1 directly potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 is =m$ 9 wat] x is decompos$ into potassium hydroxide & hydrosulphide3 ,k#b,s ,h#b,o ,,kho ,,khs4 ,potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 9 a solid /ate corresponds ) ,k#b,o1 al?\gh nei!r c exi/ 9 solution4 #bb ,dur+ rec5t ye>s 7beg9n+ ) ,s*ulze1 #ahhb7 x has be5 f\nd t _m metallic sulphides :i* 7 consid]$ totally insoluble d1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 =m v un/able solutions 9 wat]1 z already m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #eg4 ,ars5ic sulphide is v easily obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a solution 7hydrosol74 ,solutions ( copp] & cadmium sulphides may also be easily obta9$ by precipitat+ _! salts ,cu,x#b1 or ,cd,x#b1 ) ammonium sulphide1 & wa%+ ! precipitate2 b !y are re-precipitat$ by ! addition ( =eign salts4 #bc ,9 reality ! prec$+ reaction %\ld be express$ ?us3 ,fe,cl#b #b,,khs ,fe,s #b,k,cl ,h#b,s 7,note #ba71 because 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] n ,k#b,s b ,,khs reacts4 ,b z ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 takes no "p 9 ! reaction1 x is usual to express ! =mation ( su* sulphides )\t tak+ ! hydrog5 sulphide proce$+ f ! potassium or ammonium hydrosulphides into acc\nt4 ,x is n usual to employ potassium sulphide b ammonium sulphide--or1 to speak m accurately1 ammonium hydrosulphide--9 ord] to avoid ! =mation ( a non-volatile salt ( potassium & to h1 toge!r ) ! =mation ( ! sulphide1 a salt ( ammonium :i* c always be driv5 (f by evaporat+ ! solution & ignit+ ! residue--= in/ance3 ,fe,cl#b 7,,nh#d7b,s ,fe,s #b,,nh#d;,cl4 ,?us ! metallic sulphides may be divid$ into ?ree *ief classes3 7#a7 ^? soluble 9 wat]1 7#b7 ^? insoluble 9 wat] b react+ ) acids1 & 7#c7 ^? insoluble bo? 9 wat] & acids4 ,! ?ird class may be easily subdivid$ into two gr\ps2 to ! fir/ gr\p belong ^? sulphides :i* correspond ) bases or basic oxides1 & are !re=e unable to play ! "p ( an acid ) ! sulphides ( ! alkalis1 & are insoluble 9 ,,nh#d;,,hs1 :il/ ! sulphides ( ! second gr\p are ( an acid "*1 & give soluble ?io-salts ) ! sulphides ( ! alkal9e metals1 9 :i* !y play ! "p ( an acid4 ,to ?is gr\p belong ^? metals ^: correspond+ oxides h acid prop]ties4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t n all metallic acids h correspond+ sulphides1 p>tly ow+ to ! fact t c]ta9 acids are r$ucible by sulphurett$ hydrog51 especially :5 _! l[] degrees ( oxidation are ( a basic "*4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ! acids ( *romium1 manganese1 c4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 conv]ts !m into l[] oxides1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( bases4 ,^? bases :i* d n comb9e ) feeble acids1 su* z c>bonic acid & hydrog5 sulphide1 give a precipitate ( hydroxide ) ammonium sulphide--= example1 alum9ium salts react 9 ?is mann]4 ,?is diff]5ce ( ! metals 9 _! behavi\r t[>ds sulphurett$ hydrog5 gives a v valuable means ( sep>at+ !m f ea* o!r1 & is tak5 advantage ( 9 analytical *emi/ry4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! metals ( ! fir/ & ?ird gr\ps occur toge!r1 x is only necess>y to conv]t !m into soluble salts1 & to act on ! solution ( ! salts ) sulphurett$ hydrog52 ?is w precipitate ! metals ( ! ?ird gr\p 9 ! =m ( sulphides1 :il/ ! metals ( ! fir/ gr\p w n be 9 ! lea/ act$ on4 ,su* a me?od ( sep>at+ ! metals is consid]$ m fully 9 analytical *emi/ry1 & we w !re=e limit ourselves "h to po9t+ out to :i* gr\ps ! mo/ common metals belong1 & ! col\r :i* is prop] to ! sulphide precipitat$4 ,metals :i* are precipitat$ by sulphurett$ hydrog51 z sulphides f a solution ( _! salts1 ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( free acid3 ,! precipitate is soluble 9 ammonium sulphide3 ,plat9um 7d>k br[n7 ,antimony 7orange7 ,gold 7d>k br[n7 ,ars5ic 7yell[7 ,t9 7yell[ & br[n7 ,! precipitate is insoluble 9 ammonium sulphide3 ,copp] 7black7 ,m]cury 7black7 ,silv] 7black7 ,lead 7black7 ,cadmium 7yell[7 ,metals :i* are precipitat$ by ammonium sulphide f neutral solutions1 b n precipitat$ f acid solutions by sulphurett$ hydrog53 ,! sulphide precipitat$ is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid3 ,z9c 7:ite7 ,manganese 7rose col\r7 ,iron 7black7 ,! sulphide precipitat$ is n soluble 9 dilute hydro*loric acid3 ,nickel 7black7 ,cobalt 7black7 ,a hydroxide1 & n a sulphide1 is precipitat$3 ,*romium 7gre57 ,alum9ium 7:ite7 ,! metals ( ! alkalis & ( ! alkal9e e>?s are n precipitat$ ei!r by sulphurett$ hydrog5 or ammonium sulphide4 ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s :5 9 acid solutions 9 ! =m ( phosphates & _m o!r salts are precipitat$ by ammonium sulphide1 because ! latt] neutralises ! free acid1 ) =mation ( an ammonium salt ( ! acid & evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,metallic sulphides may be obta9$ by _m o!r means besides ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on salts & oxides1 or by ! simple comb9ation ( metals ) sulphur :5 heat$ or fus$4 ,?us !y may also be =m$ by ! r$uction ( sulphates by heat+ !m ) *>coal or o!r means4 ,*>coal takes up ! oxyg5 f _m sulphates1 leav+ correspond+ sulphides4 ,?us sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 :5 heat$ ) *>coal1 =ms sodium sulphide1 ,na#b,s4 ,besides :i* metallic sulphides are also obta9$ by heat+ metals or _! oxides 9 ! vap\rs ( _m sulphur comp\nds--= example1 9 ! vap\r ( c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 :5 ! c>bon takes up ! oxyg5 & ! sulphur comb9es ) ! metal4 ,! sulphides =m$ 9 ?is mann] are (t5 cry/all9e1 & (t5 appe> ) ^? prop]ties & 9 t cry/all9e =m 9 :i* !y occur 9 nature4 ,besides :i* we mu/ m5tion t _m ( ! sulphides ( ! metals are oxidis$ 9 air at ! ord9>y1 & especially at a high]1 temp]ature1 =m+ ei!r ,,s#b & ! oxide ( ! metal or sulphates4 ,?is oxidation proce$s ) p>ticul> ease1 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :5 a metallic sulphide is precipitat$ f its solutions1 z a f9e p[d] conta9+ wat]4 ,! sulphides ( iron & manganese1 c41 are v easily oxidis$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,b if ^! hydrates be ignit$1 !y lose _! wat] 7! ignition mu/ be c>ri$ on 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 to prev5t _! oxidation dur+ ! process71 become d5s]1 & are no long] oxidis$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,^? sulphides ^: correspond+ sulphates are decompos$ by heat "p ) _! sulphur 9 ! =m ( sulphur\s anhydride :5 !y are ignit$ 9 air1 & ! metal1 z a rule1 rema9s beh9d z oxide4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 ! treatm5t ( sulphur\s ores4 ,! process is call$ roa/+4 ,hydrog5 n only =ms sulphurett$ hydrog5 ) sulphur1 b x also comb9es ) x 9 sev]al o!r proportions1 j z x comb9es ) oxyg51 =m+ n only wat] b also hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,moreov] ^! polysulphides ( hydrog5 are also un/able1 l hydrog5 p]oxide1 & are also obta9$ f ! correspond+ polysulphides ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 j z hydrog5 p]oxide is obta9$ f b>ium p]oxide4 ,?us calcium =ms n only calcium sulphide1 ,ca,s1 b also z bi-1 tri-1 & p5tasulphide1 ,ca,s#e1 & all ^! comp\nds are soluble 9 wat]4 ,sodium also comb9es ) sulphur 9 ! same proportions1 =m+ sulphides f ,na#b,s to ,na#b,s#e4 ,if an acid be add$ to a solution ( a polysulphide1 x gives sulphur1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 & a salt ( ! metal4 ,= in/ance1 ,,ms#e1 #b;,h,cl ,m,cl#b ,h#b,s #d,s4 ,if we rev]se ! op]ation1 & p\r a solution ( a polysulphide into an acid1 sulphur is n precipitat$1 b an oily liquid is =m$ :i* is heavi] ?an wat] & insoluble 9 x4 ,?is is ! polysulphide ( hydrog53 ,,ms#e #b;,h,cl ,m,cl#b ,h#b,s#e4 ,z ,rebs %[$ 7#ahhh71 :atev] polysulphide be tak5--( sodium1 = in/ance--x always gives "o & ! same hydrog5 p5tasulphide1#bd ( specific gravity #aga 7#ae74 ,x c only be pres]v$ 9 ! abs5ce ( wat] & at l[ temp]atures1 & !n n = long3 =1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis & :5 slightly w>m$1 x splits up v easily into sulphurett$ hydrog5 & sulphur4#be #bd ,rebs took di-1 tri-1 tetra-1 & p5tasulphides ( sodium1 potassium1 & b>ium1 :i* he prep>$ by dissolv+ sulphur 9 solutions ( ! normal sulphides2 on add+ hydro*loric acid he always obta9$ hydrog5 p5tasulphide1 :5ce x is evid5t t #d;,h#b,sn 7n - #a7;,h#b,s#e 7#e - n7,h#b,s4 ,= example1 if ,h#b,s#b 7 =m$1 x w\ld decompose accord+ to ! equation #d;,h#b,s#b ,h#b,s#e #c;,h#b,s4 ,! hydrog5 p5tasulphide =m$ breaks up into hydrog5 sulphide & sulphur :5 br\ght into contact ) wat]4 ,previ\s to ,rebs' rese>*es _m *emi/s /at$ t all polysulphides gave ! bisulphide ,h#b,s#b1 & ,h(mann recognis$ only hydrog5 trisulphide1 ,h#b,s#c4 #be ,! =mation ( ! polysulphides ( hydrog51 ,h#b,sn is easily und]/ood f ! law ( sub/itution1 l t ( ! saturat$ hydroc>bons1 ,cn,h#bn #b1 kn[+ t sulphur gives ,h#b,s1 because ! molecule ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 may be divid$ into ,h & ,,hs4 ,?is radicle1 ,,hs1 is equival5t to ,h4 ,by sub/itut+ ?is radicle = hydrog5 9 ,h#b,s we obta9 7,,hs7,,hs ,h#b,s#b1 7,,hs77,,hs7,s ,h#b,s#c1 c41 9 g5]al ,h#b,sn4 ,! homologues ( ,,*#d1 ,cn,h#bn #b are =m$ 9 ?is mann] f ,,*#d1 & consequ5tly ! polysulphides ,h#b,sn are ! homologues ( ,h#b,s4 ,! "q arises :y 9 ,h#b,sn ! app>5t limit ( n is #e--t is1 :y does ! sub/itution end ) ! =mation ( ,h#b,s#e8 ,! answ] appe>s to me to be cle>ly because 9 ! molecule ( sulphur1 ,s#f1 !re are six atoms ( sulphur 7,note #aa74 ,! =ces 9 "o & ! o!r case are ! same4 ,9 ! "o case !y hold ,s#f toge!r1 9 ! o!r ,s#e & ,h#b2 &1 judg+ f ,h#b,s1 ! two atoms ( hydrog5 are equal 9 p[] & significance to ! atom ( sulphur4 ,j z hydrog5 p]oxide1 ,h#b,o#b1 expresses ! composition ( ozone1 ,o#c1 9 :i* ,o is replac$ by ,h#b1 s also ,h#b,s#e corresponds ) ,s#f4 ,! soluble sulphides & polysulphides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis & alkal9e e>?s--= example1 ( ammonium1#bf potassium1#bg & calcium1#bh--;h ! appe>ance & prop]ties ( salts1 j z ! hydrat$ oxides h1 :il/ ! sulphides ( ! metals ( ! high] gr\ps resemble _! oxides & h n at all ! appe>ance ( salts1 & ?is is m especially ! case ) reg>d to ! cry/all9e =ms 9 :i* !y frequ5tly occur 9 nature4#bi #bf ,ammonium sulphide1 7,,nh#d7b,s1 may be prep>$ by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 into a vessel full ( dry ammonia1 or by pass+ bo? dry gases toge!r into a v cold receiv]4 ,9 ! latt] case x is necess>y to prev5t ! access ( air1 & to h an excess ( ammonia4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 two volumes ( ammonia comb9e ) "o volume ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 & =m a col\rless1 v volatile1 cry/all9e sub/ance1 hav+ a v unpleasant od\r1 :i* is v poison\s & exce$+ly un/able4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air x absorbs oxyg5 & acquires a yell[ col\r1 & !n conta9s oxyg5 & polysulphide comp\nds 7because a portion ( ! hydrog5 sulphide gives wat] & sulphur74 ,x is soluble 9 wat] & =ms a col\rless solution1 :i*1 h[ev]1 9 all probability conta9s free ammonia & ! acid salt--t is1 ammonium hydrosulphide1 ,,nh#d;,,hs1 or 7,,nh#d7b1,s1,h#b,s4 ,?is salt is =m$ :5 dry ammonia is mix$ ) an excess ( dry sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! comp\nd conta9s equal volumes ( ! compon5ts ,,nh#c ,h#b,s 7,,nh#d7;,,hs4 ,x cry/allises 9 an anhydr\s /ate 9 col\rless plates1 & may be easily volatilis$ 7dissociat+ l ammonium *loride71 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 x has an alkal9e reaction1 absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 is soluble 9 wat]1 & its solution is usually prep>$ by saturat+ an aque\s solution ( ammonia ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,accord+ to ! ord9>y rule1 ^! salts1 l o!r ammonium salts1 split up into ammonia & sulphurett$ hydrog5 :5 !y are di/ill$4 ,a solution ( ammonium sulphide is able to dissolve sulphur1 & x !n conta9s comp\nds ( hydrog5 polysulphide & ammonia4 ,"s ( ^! comp\nds may be obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,?us ,fritzs*e obta9$ a comp\nd ( ammonia ) hydrog5 p5tasulphide1 or ammonium p5tasulphide1 7,,nh#d7b,s#e1 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,he saturat$ an aque\s solution ( ammonia ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 add$ p[d]$ sulphur to x1 & pass$ ammonia gas into ! solution1 :i* !n absorb$ a fre% am\nt4 ,aft] ?is he aga9 pass$ sulphurett$ hydrog5 into ! solution1 & !n add$ sulphur1 & !n aga9 ammonia4 ,aft] repeat+ ?is sev]al times1 orange-yell[ cry/als ( 7,,nh#d7b,s#e sep>at$ out f ! liquid4 ,^! cry/als melt$ at #dj to #ej1 & 7 v un/able4 ,:5 a solution ( ammonium hydrosulphide1 prep>$ by saturat+ a solution ( ammonia ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 is expos$ to ! air1 x turns yell[1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( an ammonium polysulphide1 ^: =mation is due to ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 be+ oxidis$ by ! air & conv]t$ into wat] & sulphur1 :i* is dissolv$ by ! ammonium sulphide4 ,9 c]ta9 analytical reactions x is usual to employ a solution ( ammonium sulphide :i* has be5 kept = "s "t & acquir$ a yell[ col\r4 ,?is yell[ sulphide ( ammonium deposits sulphur :5 saturat$ ) acids1 :il/ a fre%ly-prep>$ solution only evolves sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! yell[ solution fur!rmore conta9s ammonium ?iosulphate1 :i* is d]iv$ n only f ! oxidation ( ! ammonium sulphide1 b also f ! action ( ! lib]at$ sulphur on ! ammonia1 j z an alkal9e salt ( ?iosulphuric acid & a sulphide are =m$ by ! action ( sulphur on a solution ( a cau/ic alkali4 #bg ,potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 is obta9$ by heat+ a mixture ( potassium sulphate & *>coal to a bright-r$ heat4 ,x may be prep>$ 9 solution by tak+ a solution ( potassium hydroxide1 divid+ x into two equal p>ts1 & saturat+ "o portion ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 s long z x is absorb$4 ,?is portion w !n conta9 ! acid salt ,,khs 7,note #ba74 ,! two portions are !n mix$ toge!r1 & potassium sulphide w !n be obta9$ 9 ! solution4 ,?is solution has a /rongly alkal9e reaction1 & is col\rless :5 fre%ly prep>$1 b x v easily und]goes *ange :5 expos$ to ! air1 =m+ potassium ?iosulphate & polysulphides4 ,:5 ! solution is evaporat$ at l[ temp]atures "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 x yields cry/als conta9+ ,k#b,s1#e;,h#b,o 7heat$ at #aej1 !y "p ) #c mol4 ,h#b,o1 & at high] temp]atures !y lose ne>ly all _! wat] )\t evolv+ sulphurett$ hydrog574 ,:5 !y are ignit$ 9 glass vessels !y corrode ! glass4 ,:5 a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 completely saturat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 is evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump x =ms col\rless rhomboh$ra ( potassium hydrosulphide1 #b7,,khs71,h#b,o1,k#b,s1,h#b,s1,h#b,o4 ,^! cry/als are deliquesc5t 9 ! air1 b d n *ange 9 a vacuum :5 heat$ up to #agj1 & at high] temp]atures !y lose wat] b d n evolve sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! anhydr\s comp\nd1 ,,khs1 fuses at a d>k-r$ heat into a v mobile yell[ liquid1 :i* gradually becomes d>k] 9 col\r & solidifies to a r$ mass4 ,x is rem>kable t :5 a solution ( ! comp\nd ,,khs is boil$ x some:at easily evolves half its sulphurett$ hydrog51 leav+ potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 9 solution2 & a solution ( ! latt] 9 wat] is also able to evolve sulphurett$ hydrog5 on prolong$ boil+1 b ! evolution _c be r5d]$ complete1 &1 !re=e1 at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 a solution ( potassium sulphide w n be capable ( absorb+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 at all4 ,f ?is we mu/ conclude t potassium hydroxide1 wat]1 & sulphurett$ hydrog5 =m a sy/em ^: complex equilibrium is subject to ! laws ( dissociation1 dep5ds on ! relative mass ( ea* sub/ance1 on ! temp]ature1 & ! dissociation pressure ( ! compon5t elem5ts4 ,potassium sulphide is n only soluble 9 wat]1 b also 9 alcohol4 ,b]zelius %[$ t 9 addition to potassium sulphide !re also exi/ potassium bisulphide1 ,k#b,s#b2 trisulphide1 ,k#b,s#c2 tetrasulphide1 ,k#b,s#d2 & p5tasulphide1 ,k#b,s#e4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,s*ne1 ! la/ ?ree are ! mo/ /able4 ,^! diff]5t comp\nds ( potassium & sulphur may be prep>$ by fus+ potassium hydroxide or c>bonate ) an excess ( sulphur 9 a porcela9 crucible 9 a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,at ab\t #fjj potassium p5tasulphide is =m$2 ?is is ! highe/ sulphur comp\nd ( potassium4 ,:5 heat$ to #hjj x loses "o-fif? ( its sulphur & gives ! tetrasulphide1 :i* at ?is temp]ature is /able4 ,at a bright-r$ heat--namely1 at ab\t #ijj--! trisulphide is =m$4 ,?is comp\nd may be also =m$ by ignit+ potassium c>bonate 9 a /ream ( c>bon bisulphide1 9 :i* case a comp\nd1 ,k#b;,,cs#c1 is fir/ =m$ correspond+ to potassium c>bonate1 & c>bonic anhydride is evolv$4 ,on fur!r ignition ?is comp\nd splits up into c>bon & potassium trisulphide1 ,k#b,s#c4 ,! tetrasulphide may also be obta9$ 9 solution if a solution ( potassium sulphide be boil$ ) ! requisite am\nt ( sulphur )\t access ( air4 ,?is solution yields r$ cry/als ( ! composition ,k#b,s#d1b;,h#b,o :5 x is evaporat$ 9 a vacuum4 ,^! cry/als are v hygroscopic1 easily soluble 9 wat]1 b v sp>+ly 9 alcohol2 :5 ignit$ !y give (f wat]1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 & sulphur4 ,if a solution ( potassium sulphide be boil$ ) an excess ( sulphur x =ms ! p5tasulphide1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is decompos$ on prolong$ boil+ into sulphurett$ hydrog5 & potassium ?iosulphate3 ,k#b,s#e #c;,h#b,o ,k#b,s#b,o#c #c;,h#b,s4 ,a sub/ance call$ liv] ( sulphur 0 =m]ly frequ5tly us$ 9 *emi/ry & m$ic9e4 ,"u ?is "n is kn[n ! sub/ance :i* is =m$ by boil+ a solution ( cau/ic pota% ) an excess ( fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,?is solution conta9s a mixture ( potassium p5tasulphide & ?iosulphate1 #f,,kho #ab,s #b,k#b,s#e ,k#b,s#b,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,! sub/ance obta9$ by fus+ potassium c>bonate ) an excess ( sulphur 0 also kn[n z liv] ( sulphur4 ,if ?is mixture be heat$ to an incipi5t d>k-r$ heat x w conta9 potassium ?iosulphate1 b at high] temp]atures potassium sulphate is =m$4 ,9 ei!r case a polysulphide ( potassium is also pres5t4 ,! sulphides ( sodium1 = example ,na#b,s1 ,na,h,s1 c41 9 _m respects closely resemble ! correspond+ potassium comp\nds4 #bh ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 l ^? ( ! alkalis1 =m sev]al comp\nds ) sulphur2 ?us calcium =ms comp\nds ) "o & ) five atoms ( sulphur4 ,!re are d\btless also int]m$iate sulphides4 ,if sulphurett$ hydrog5 be pass$ ov] ignit$ lime x =ms wat] & calcium sulphide1 :i* may also be =m$ by heat+ calcium sulphate ) *>coal1 :il/ if sulphur be heat$ ) lime or ) calcium c>bonate1 !n naturally oxyg5 comp\nds 7calcium ?iosulphate & sulphate7 are =m$ at ! same "t z calcium sulphide4 ,! prolong$ action ( ! vap\r ( c>bon bisulphide1 especially :5 mix$ ) c>bonic anhydride1 on /rongly ignit$ calcium c>bonate entirely conv]ts x into sulphide4 ,calcium sulphide is g5]ally obta9$ z an almo/ col\rless1 opaque1 brittle mass1 :i* is infusible at a :ite heat1 & is soluble 9 wat]4 ,! act ( solution 7z ) ,k#b,s1 ,note #ba7 is p>tly accompani$ by a d\ble decomposition ) ! wat]4 ,:5 heat$1 dry calcium sulphide does n absorb oxyg5 f ! air4 ,an excess ( wat] decomposes x1 l _m o!r metallic sulphides1 precipitat+ lime 7z a product ( ! decomposition ! lime h9d]s ! action ( ! wat] ^u ! ,ca,s2 see soda refuse1 ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #ab71 & =m+ a hydrosulphide1 ,ca,h#b,s#b1 9 solution4 ,?is comp\nd is also =m$ by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 ?r\gh an aque\s solution ( calcium sulphide or lime4 ,its solution1 l t ( calcium sulphide1 has an alkal9e reaction4 ,x decomposes :5 evaporat$1 & absorbs oxyg5 f ! air4 ,calcium p5tasulphide1 ,ca,s#e1 is n kn[n 9 a pure /ate1 b may be obta9$ 9 admixture ) calcium ?iosulphate by boil+ a solution ( lime or calcium sulphide ) sulphur3 #c;,ca,h#b,o#b #ab,s #b;,ca,s#e ,ca,s#b,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,a simil> comp\nd 9 an impure =m is =m$ by ! action ( air on alkali wa/e1 & is us$ = ! prep>ation ( ?iosulphates4 ,_m ( ! sulphides ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are phosphoresc5t--t is1 !y h ! faculty ( emitt+ light1 aft] hav+ be5 subject$ to ! action ( sunlight1 or ( any bright s\rce ( light 7,canton phosphorus1 c474 ,! lum9osity la/s "s "t1 b x is n p]man5t1 & gradually disappe>s4 ,?is phosphoresc5t prop]ty is inh]5t1 9 a great] or less degree1 to ne>ly all sub/ances 7,becqu]el71 b = a v %ort "t1 :il/ ) calcium sulphide x is comp>atively durable1 la/+ = sev]al h\rs1 & ,dew> 7#ahid7 %[$ t x is f> m int5se at v l[ temp]atures 7= in/ance1 9 bodies cool$ 9 liquid oxyg5 to -#ahb74 ,x is due to ! excitation ( ! surfaces ( sub/ances by ! action ( light1 & is det]m9$ by ^? rays :i* exhibit a *emical action4 ,h5ce daylight or ! light ( burn+ magnesium1 c41 acts m p[]fully ?an ! light ( a lamp1 c4 ,w>n]ke has %[n t a small quantity ( magnesium light$ ne> ! surface ( a phosphoresc5t sub/ance rapidly excites ! greate/ possible int5sity ( lum9osity2 ?is enabl$ him to f\nd a me?od ( measur+ ! int5sity ( light--i4e4 to obta9 a con/ant unit ( light--& to apply x to photography4 ,! nature ( ! *ange :i* is accompli%$ on ! surface ( ! lum9\s sub/ance is at pres5t unkn[n1 b 9 any case x is a r5ewable "o1 because ! exp]im5t may be repeat$ = an inf9ite numb] ( times & takes place 9 a vacuum4 ,! int5sity & t9t ( ! light emitt$ dep5d on ! me?od ( prep>ation ( ! calcium sulphide1 & on ! degree ( ignition & purity ( ! calcium c>bonate tak54 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,becqu]el1 ! pres5ce ( comp\nds ( manganese1 bismu?1 c41 sodium sulphide 7b n potassium sulphide71 c41 al?\gh 9 m9ute traces1 is p]fectly indisp5sable4 ,?is gives reason = ?9k+ t ! =mation 79 ! d>k7 & decomposition 79 light7 ( d\ble salts l ,mn,s1,na#b,s p]haps =m ! *emical cause ( ! ph5om5a4 ,comp\nds ( /rontium & b>ium h ?is prop]ty to ev5 a great] ext5t ?an calcium sulphide4 ,^! comp\nds may be prep>$ z 9 ! foll[+ example3 ,a mixture ( sodium ?iosulphate & /rontium *loride is prep>$2 a d\ble decomposition takes place betwe5 ! salts1 &1 on ! addition ( alcohol1 /rontium ?iosulphate1 ,sr,s#b,o#c1 is precipitat$1 :i*1 :5 ignit$1 leaves /rontium sulphide beh9d4 ,! /rontium sulphide ?us prep>$ emits 7:5 dry7 a gre5i% yell[ light4 ,x conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( sulphur1 sodium sulphide1 & /rontium sulphate4 ,by ignition at v>i\s temp]atures1 & by diff]5t me?ods ( prep>ation1 x is possible to obta9 mixtures :i* emit diff]5t col\r$ lights4 #bi ,z examples1 we w describe ! sulphides ( ars5ic1 antimony1 & m]cury4 ,ars5ic trisulphide1 or orpim5t1 ,z#b,s#c1 occurs native1 & is obta9$ pure :5 a solution ( ars5i\s anhydride 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid comes into contact ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 7!re is no precipitate 9 ! abs5ce ( free acid74 ,a beautiful yell[ precipitate is !n obta9$3 ,z#b,o#c #c;,h#b,s #c;,h#b,o ,z#b,s#c2 x fuses :5 heat$1 & volatilises )\t decomposition4 ,z#b,s#c is easily obta9$ 9 a colloid =m 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #eg74 ,:5 fus$ x =ms a semi-transp>5t1 yell[ mass1 & x is ?us t x ent]s ! m>ket4 ,! specific gravity ( native orpim5t is #cd1 & t ( ! artificially-fus$ mass is #bg4 ,x is us$ z a yell[ pigm5t1 & ow+ to its insolubility 9 wat] & acids x is less injuri\s ?an ! o!r comp\nds correspond+ to ars5i\s acid4 ,accord+ to ! type ,as,x#b1 realg>1 ,as,s1 is kn[n1 b x is probable t ! true composition ( ?is comp\nd is ,z#d,s#d--t is1 x pres5ts ! same relation to orpim5t z liquid phosphurett$ hydrog5 does to gase\s4 ,realg> 7,s&>aca7 occurs native z brilliant r$ cry/als ( specific gravity #cei1 & may be prep>$ artificially by fus+ ars5ic & sulphur 9 ! proportions indicat$ by its =mul4 ,x is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities by di/ill+ a mixture ( sulphur & ars5ical pyrites4 ,l orpim5t x dissolves 9 calcium sulphide1 & ev5 9 cau/ic pota%4 ,x is us$ = signal lights & fireworks1 because x deflagrates & gives a l>ge & v brilliant :ite flame ) nitre4 ,) antimony1 sulphur gives a tri- & a p5tasulphide4 ,! =m]1 ,sb#b,s#c1 :i* corresponds ) antimoni\s oxide1 occurs native 7,*apt] ,,xix47 9 a cry/all9e =m2 its sp4 gr4 is !n #di1 & x pres5ts brilliant rhombic cry/als ( a grey col\r1 :i* fuse :5 heat$4 ,a sub/ance ( ! same composition is obta9$ z an amorph\s orange p[d] by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 into an acid solution ( antimoni\s oxide4 ,9 ?is respect antimoni\s oxide aga9 reacts l ars5i\s acid1 & ! sulphides ( bo? are soluble 9 ammonium & potassium sulphides1 &1 especially 9 ! case ( ars5i\s sulphide1 are easily obta9$ 9 colloidal solutions4 ,by prolong$ boil+ ) wat]1 antimoni\s sulphide may be entirely conv]t$ into ! oxide1 hydrog5 sulphide be+ evolv$ 7,elb]s74 ,native antimony sulphide1 or ! orange precipitat$ trisulphide :5 fus$ ) dry1 or boil$ ) dissolv$1 alkalis1 =ms a d>k-col\r$ mass 7,k]mes m9]al7 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 m$ic9e1 :i* conta9s a mixture ( antimoni\s sulphide & oxide4 ,!re are also comp\nds ( ^! sub/ances4 ,a s-call$ antimony v]milion is mu* us$ z a dye2 x is prep>$ by boil+ sodium ?iosulphate 7six p>ts7 ) antimony tri*loride 7five p>ts7 & wat] 7fifty p>ts74 ,?is sub/ance probably conta9s an oxysulphide ( antimony--t is1 a portion ( ! oxyg5 9 ! oxide ( antimony 9 x is replac$ by sulphur4 ,r$ antimony ore1 & antimony glass1 :i* is obta9$ by fus+ ! trisulphide ) antimoni\s oxide1 h a simil> composition1 ,sb#b,,os#b4 ,9 ! arts1 ! antimony p5tasulphide1 ,sb#b,s#e1 is ! mo/ frequ5tly us$ ( ! sulphur comp\nds ( antimony4 ,x is =m$ by ! action ( acids on ! s-call$ ,s*lippe's salt1 :i* is a sodium ?ior?antimonate1 ,sb,s7,na,s7#c1 correspond+ ) 7,*apt] ,,xix41 ,note #da bis7 or?antimonic acid1 ,sb,o7,,oh7#c1 ) ! replacem5t ( oxyg5 by sulphur4 ,x is obta9$ by boil+ f9ely-p[d]$ native antimony trisulphide ) twice its weight ( sodium c>bonate1 & half its weight ( sulphur & lime1 9 ! pres5ce ( a consid]able quantity ( wat]4 ,! processes tak+ place are z foll[s3--,! sodium c>bonate is conv]t$ into hydroxide by ! lime1 & !n =ms sodium sulphide ) ! sulphur2 ! sodium sulphide !n dissolves ! antimony sulphide1 :i* 9 ?is =m already comb9es ) ! greate/ am\nt ( sulphur1 s t a comp\nd is =m$ correspond+ ) antimony p5tasulphide dissolv$ 9 sodium sulphide4 ,! solution is filt]$ & cry/allis$1 c>e be+ tak5 to prev5t access ( air1 :i* oxidises ! sodium sulphide4 ,?is salt cry/allises 9 l>ge1 yell[i% cry/als1 :i* are easily soluble 9 wat] & h ! composition ,na#c,sb,s#d1i;,h#b,o4 ,:5 heat$ !y lose _! wat] ( cry/allisation & !n fuse )\t alt]ation2 b :5 9 solution1 & ev5 9 cry/all9e =m1 ?is salt turns br[n 9 air1 ow+ to ! oxidation ( ! sulphur & ! break+ up ( ! comp\nd4 ,z x is us$ 9 m$ic9e1 especially 9 ! prep>ation ( antimony p5tasulphide1 x is kept "u a lay] ( alcohol1 9 :i* x is insoluble4 ,acids precipitate antimony p5tasulphide f a solution ( ?is salt1 z an orange p[d]1 insoluble 9 acids & v frequ5tly us$ 9 m$ic9e 7sulfur auratum antimonii74 ,?is sub/ance :5 heat$ evolves vap\rs ( sulphur1 & leaves antimony trisulphide beh9d4 ,m]cury =ms comp\nds ) sulphur ( ! same types z x does ) oxyg54 ,m]cur\s sulphide1 ,hg#b,s1 easily splits up into m]cury & m]curic sulphide4 ,x is obta9$ by ! action ( potassium sulphide on m]cur\s *loride1 & also by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on solutions ( salts ( ! type ,hg,x4 ,m]curic sulphide1 ,hg,s1 correspond+ ) ! oxide1 is c9nab>2 x is obta9$ z a black precipitate by ! action ( an excess ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on solutions ( m]curic salts4 ,x is insoluble 9 acids1 & is !re=e precipitat$ 9 _! pres5ce4 ,if a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] conta9+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 be add$ to a solution ( m]curic *loride1 x fir/ gives a :ite precipitate ( ! composition ,hg#c,s#b;,cl#b--t is1 a comp\nd ,hg,cl1#b;,hg,s1 a sulpho*loride ( m]cury l ! oxy*loride4 ,b 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 ! black precipitate ( m]curic sulphide is =m$4 ,9 ?is /ate x is n cry/all9e 7! r$ v>iety is =m$ by ! prolong$ action ( polysulphides ( ammonium ^u ! black ,hg,s71 b if x be heat$ to its temp]ature ( volatilisation x =ms a r$ cry/all9e sublimate :i* is id5tical ) native c9nab>4 ,9 ?is =m its specific gravity is #hj1 & x =ms a r$ p[d]1 ow+ to :i* x is us$ z a r$ pigm5t 7v]milion7 9 oil1 pa/el1 & o!r pa9ts4 ,x is s little attack$ by reag5ts t ev5 nitric acid has no action on x1 & ! ga/ric juices d n dissolve x1 s t x is n poison\s4 ,:5 heat$ 9 air1 ! sulphur burns away & leaves metallic m]cury4 ,on a l>ge scale c9nab> is usually prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #cjj p>ts ( m]cury & #aae p>ts ( sulphur are mix$ toge!r z intimately z possible & p\r$ into a solution ( #ge p>ts ( cau/ic pota% 9 #dbe p>ts ( wat]1 & ! mixture is heat$ at #ej = sev]al h\rs4 ,r$ m]cury sulphide is ?us =m$1 & sep>ates out f ! solution4 ,! reaction :i* takes place is z foll[s3 ,a soluble comp\nd1 ,k#b;,hg,s#b1 is fir/ =m$2 ?is comp\nd is able to sep>ate 9 col\rless silky ne$les1 :i* are soluble 9 ! cau/ic pota%1 b are decompos$ by wat]1 & at #ej2 ?is solution 7p]haps by attract+ oxyg5 f ! air7 sl[ly deposits ,hg,s 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,spr+ conduct$ an int]e/+ rese>* 7at ,lige1 #ahid7 ^u ! conv]sion ( ! black amorph\s sulphide ( m]cury1 ,hg,s1 into r$ cry/all9e c9nab>4 ,?is rese>* =m$ a sequel to ,spr+'s classical rese>*es on ! influ5ce ( high pressures ^u ! prop]ties ( solids & _! capacity = mutual comb9ation4 ,he %[$1 among o!r ?+s1 t ord9>y solids & ev5 metals 7= in/ance1 ,pb71 aft] be+ consid]ably compress$ "u a pressure ( #bj1jjj atmosph]es1 return on removal ( ! pressure to _! orig9al d5sity l gases4 ,b ?is is only true :5 ! compress$ solid is n liable to an allotropic v>iation1 & does n give a d5s] v>iety4 ,?us prismatic sulphur 7sp4 gr4 #ai7 passes "u pressure into ! octah$ral 7sp4 gr4 #bje7 v>iety4 ,black ,hg,s 7precipitat$ f solution7 has a sp4 gr4 #gf1 :ile t ( ! r$ v>iety is #hb1 & !re=e x might be expect$ t ! =m] w\ld pass into ! latt] "u pressure1 b exp]im5ts bo? at ! ord9>y & a high] temp]ature did n give ! look$-= result1 because ev5 at a pressure ( #bj1jjj atmosph]es ! black sulphide 0 n compress$ to ! d5sity ( c9nab> 7a pressure ( z mu* z #ce1jjj atmosph]es 0 necess>y1 :i* c\ld n be atta9$ 9 ! exp]im5t74 ,b ,spr+ prep>$ a black ,hg,s1 :i* _h a sp4 gr4 ( #hj1 & ?is1 "u a pressure ( #b1ejj atmosph]es1 pass$ into c9nab>4 ,he obta9$ ?is peculi> black v>iety ( ,hg,s 7sp4 gr4 #hj7 by di/ill+ c9nab> 9 an atmosph]e ( ,,co#b1 :5 ! great] portion ( ! ,hg,s is r$eposit$ 9 ! =m ( c9nab>4 ,"u ! action ( a solution ( polysulphide ( ammonium1 ?is v>iety ( ,hg,s passes m sl[ly into ! r$ v>iety ?an ! precipitat$ v>iety does1 :ile "u pressure ! conv]sion is comp>atively easy4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t ,l9d] & ,picton obta9$ complex comp\nds ( _m ( ! sulphides ( ! heavy metals 7,ca1 ,hg1 ,sb1 ,zn1 ,cd1 ,ag1 ,au7 ) ,h#b,s1 = example ,h#b,s1#g;,cu,s 7by ! action ( ,h#b,s ^u ! hydrate ( oxide ( copp]71 ,h#b,s1#i;,cu,s 79 ! pres5ce ( acetic acid & ) an excess ( ,h#b,s71 c4 ,probably we h "h a sort ( 'solid' solution ( ,h#b,s 9 ! metallic sulphides4 ,z ! acids d]iv$ f *lor9e1 phosphorus1 & c>bon are ! oxidis$ hydrog5 comp\nds ( ^! elem5ts1 s also we c =m an idea ( ! acid hydrates ( sulphur1 or ( ! normal acids ( sulphur1 by repres5t+ !m z ! oxidis$ products ( sulphurett$ hydrog5-- ,h,cl ,h#b,s ,h#c,p ,h#d;,c ,h,cl,o ,h#b,,s787 ,h#c,,po787 ,h#d;,,co ,h,cl,o#b ,h#b,,s#b787 ,h#c,,po#b ,h#d;,,co#b ,h,cl,o#c ,h#b,,s#c ,h#c,,po#c ,h#d;,,co#c ,h,cl,o#d ,h#b,,s#d ,h#c,,po#d ,h#d;,,co#dcj ,9 ! case ( *lor9e1 if n all ! hydrates1 at all ev5ts salts ( all ! normal hydrates are kn[n1 :il/ 9 ! case ( sulphur only ! acids ,h#b,s1 ,h#b,,s#c & ,h#b,,s#d are kn[n4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! latt] are obta9$ n only z hydrates b also z /able anhydrides1 ,,s#b & ,,s#c1 :i* are =m$ ) ! evolution ( heat f sulphur & oxyg52 #cb p>ts ( sulphur 9 comb9+ ) #cb p>ts ( oxyg5--t is1 9 =m+ ,,s#b--;evolve #ga1jjj heat units1#ca & if ! oxidation proce$s to ! =mation ( ,,s#c1 #ajc1jjj heat units are evolv$4 ,^! figures may be comp>$ ) ^? :i* correspond ) ! passage ( c>bon into ,,co & ,,co#b1 :5 #bi1jjj & #ig1jjj units ( heat are evolv$4 ,?is det]m9es ! /ability ( ! high] oxides ( sulphur1 & also expresses ! peculi>ity ( sulphur z an elem5t :i*1 al?\gh an analogue ( oxyg51 =ms /able comp\nds ) x1 & ?us fundam5tally diff]s f *lor9e4 ,! high] & l[] oxides ( *lor9e are p[]ful oxidis+ ag5ts1 :il/ ! high] oxide ( sulphur1 ,,s#c1 has b feeble oxidis+ p[]s1 & ! l[] oxide1 ,,s#b1 frequ5tly acts z a r$uc+ ag5t1 & is =m$ by ! direct combu/ion ( sulphur1 j z c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 proce$s f ! combu/ion ( c>bon4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( sulphur1 & also 9 ! oxidation 7roa/+7 ( ! sulphides & polysulphides by _! ignition 9 air1 sulphur\s oxide1 or sulphur\s anhydride1 or sulphur dioxide1 ,,s#b1ca bis is exclusively =m$4 ,x is prep>$ on a l>ge scale by burn+ sulphur or roa/+ iron pyrites or o!r sulphides#cb = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid 7,*apt] ,,vi471 & = direct application 9 ! manufacture ( w9e or = blea*+ tissues & o!r purposes4 ,9 ! latt] in/ances its application is bas$ on ! fact t sulphur\s anhydride acts on c]ta9 vegetable matt]s1 & has ! prop]ty ( a r$uc+ & feeble acid4#cb bis #cj ,,*#d gives ,,*#d,o or ,,*#c7,,oh71 wood _s2 ,,*#d,o#b or ,,*#b7,,oh7#b1 :i* decomposes into wat] & ,,*#b,o--t is1 me?yl5e oxide or =maldehyde2 ,,*#d,o#c ,,*7,,oh7#c ,h#b,o ,,*o7,,oh71 or =mic acid2 & ,,*#d,o#d ,c7,,oh7#d #b;,h#b,o ,,co#b4 ,!re are f\r typical hydrog5 comp\nds1 ,,rh1 ,,rh#b1 ,,rh#c1 & ,,rh#d1 & ea* ( !m has its typical oxide4 ,beyond ,h#d & ,o#d comb9ation does n proce$4 #ca ,rhombic sulphur1 #ga1jhj heat units2 monocl9ic sulphur1 #ga1gbj units1 accord+ to ,?oms54 #ca bis ,h[ev]1 :5 sulphur or metallic sulphides burn 9 an excess ( air1 !re is always =m$ a c]ta91 al?\gh small1 am\nt ( ,,s#c1 :i* gives sulphuric acid ) ! moi/ure ( ! air4 #cb ,! enorm\s am\nt ( sulphuric acid n[ manufactur$ is *iefly prep>$ by roa/+ native pyrites1 b a consid]able am\nt ( ! ,,s#b = ?is purpose is obta9$ by roa/+ z9c bl5de 7,zn,s7 & copp] & lead sulphides4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt is also procur$ f soda refuse 7,note #f7 & ! residues obta9$ f ! purification ( coal gas4 #cb bis ,sulphur\s anhydride is also obta9$ by ! decomposition ( _m sulphates1 especially ( ! heavy metals1 by ! action ( heat2 b ?is requires a v p[]ful heat4 ,?is =mation ( sulphur\s anhydride f sulphates is bas$ on ! decomposition prop] to sulphuric acid itself4 ,:5 sulphuric acid is /rongly heat$ 7= in/ance1 by dropp+ x ^u an inc&esc5t surface7 x is decompos$ into wat]1 oxyg51 & sulphur\s anhydride--t is1 into ^? comp\nds f :i* x is =m$4 ,a simil> decomposition proce$s dur+ ! ignition ( _m sulphates4 ,ev5 s /able a sulphate z gypsum does n resi/ ! action ( v high temp]atures1 b is decompos$ 9 ! same mann]1 lime be+ left beh9d4 ,! decomposition ( sulphates by heat is accompli%$ ) /ill great] facility 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphur1 because 9 ?is case ! lib]at$ oxyg5 comb9es ) ! sulphur & ! metal is able to =m a sulphide4 ,?us :5 f]r\s sulphate 7gre5 vitriol7 is ignit$ ) sulphur1 x gives f]r\s sulphide & sulphur\s anhydride3 ,fe,s,o#d #b,s ,fe,s #b,,s#b1 & ?is reaction may ev5 be us$ = ! prep>ation ( ?is gas4 ,at #djj sulphuric acid & sulphur give an extremely uni=m /ream ( pure sulphur\s anhydride1 s t x is be/ prep>$ on a manufactur+ scale by ?is me?od4 ,iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 :5 heat$ to #aej ) sulphuric acid 7sp4 gr4 #age7 9 ca/-iron vessels also gives an abundant & uni=m supply ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,9 ! laboratory--t is1 on a small scale--sulphur\s anhydride is be/ prep>$ by deoxidis+ sulphuric acid by heat+ x ) *>coal1 or copp]1 sulphur1 m]cury1 c4 ,*>coal produces ?is decomposition ( sulphuric acid at b mod]ately high temp]atures2 x is itself conv]t$ into c>bonic anhydride1#cb tri & !re=e :5 sulphuric acid is heat$ ) *>coal x evolves a mixture ( sulphur\s & c>bonic anhydrides3 ,c #b;,h#b,,s#d ,,co#b #b,,s#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,! metals :i* are unable to decompose wat]1 & :i* d n1 !re=e1 expel hydrog5 f sulphuric acid1 are frequ5tly capable ( decompos+ sulphuric acid1 ) ! evolution ( sulphur\s anhydride1 j z !y decompose nitric acid1 =m+ ! l[] oxides ( nitrog54 ,^! metals are silv]1 m]cury1 copp]1 lead1 & o!rs4 ,?us1 = example1 ! action ( copp] on sulphuric acid may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,cu #b;,h#b,,s#d ,cu,s,o#d ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,9 ! laboratory ?is reaction is c>ri$ on 9 a flask ) a gas-conduct+ tube1 & does n take place unless aid$ by heat4#cc #cb tri ,mellitic acid is =m$ at ! same "t 7,v]neuille74 #cc ,! !rmo*emical data connect$ ) ?is reaction are z foll[s3 ,a molecule ( hydrog5 ,h#b1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 7,o #af7 develops ab\t #fi1jjj heat units1 :il/ ! molecule ( ,,s#b1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 only develops ab\t #cb1jjj heat units--t is1 ab\t half z mu*--& !re=e ^? metals :i* _c decompose wat] may /ill be able to deoxidise sulphuric into sulphur\s acid4 ,^? metals :i* decompose wat] & sulphuric acid ) ! evolution ( hydrog51 evolve 9 comb9+ ) sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 m heat ?an hydrog5 does--= example1 ,k#b1 ,na#b1 ,ca develop ab\t or m ?an #ajj1jjj heat units2 ,fe1 ,zn1 ,mn ab\t #gj1jjj to #hj1jjj heat units2 :il/ ^? metals :i* nei!r decompose wat] nor evolve hydrog5 f sulphuric acid1 b are /ill capable ( evolv+ sulphur\s anhydride f x1 develop less heat ) oxyg5 ?an hydrog51 b ne>ly ! same am\nt1 if n m ?an1 sulphur\s anhydride develops--= example1 ,cu & ,hg develop ab\t #dj1jjj & ,pb ab\t #ej1jjj heat units4 ,9 its physical & *emical prop]ties sulphur\s anhydride pres5ts a great resemblance to c>bonic anhydride4 ,x is a heavy gas1 some:at consid]ably soluble 9 wat]1 v easily cond5s$ into a liquid2 x =ms normal & acid salts1 does n evolve oxyg5 "u ! direct action ( heat1#cd al?\gh su* metals z sodium & magnesium burn 9 x1 j z 9 c>bonic anhydride4 ,x has a suffocat+ od\r1 :i* is well kn[n ow+ to its be+ evolv$ :5 sulphur or sulphur mat*es are burnt4 ,9 *>act]is+ ! prop]ties ( sulphur\s anhydride1 x is v important to rememb] 7,*apt] ,,ii47 also t x is m easily liquefi$ 7at -#aj1 or at #j "u two atmosph]es pressure7 ?an c>bonic anhydride 7?irty-six atmosph]es at #j71ce t x is m soluble ?an c>bonic anhydride 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #gi72 at #j1 #ajj vols4 ( wat] dissolve #ahj vols4 ( c>bonic anhydride & #fhh vols4 ( sulphuric anhydride71 t ! molecul> weight ( ,,s#b #fd & ( ,,co#b #dd1 & t ! d5sity ( liquid sulphur\s anhydride at #j #adc 7molecul> volume #de7 & ( c>bonic anhydride #jie 7molecul> volume #di74 ,al?\gh sulphur dioxide is ! anhydride ( an acid1 nev]!less1 l c>bonic anhydride1 x does n =m any /able comp\nds ) wat]1 b gives a solution f :i* x may be entirely expell$ by ! action ( heat4#cf ,! acid "* ( sulphur\s anhydride is cle>ly express$ by ! fact t x is entirely absorb$ by alkalis1 ) :i* x =ms acid & normal salts easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,) salts ( b>ium1 calcium1 & ! heavy metals1 ! normal salts ( ! alkalis1 ,m#b,,s#c1 give precipitates exactly l ^? =m$ by ! c>bonates4 ,9 g5]al1 ! salts ( sulphur\s acid are closely analog\s to ! correspond+ c>bonates4 #cd ,t is1 x only dissociates & re-=ms ! orig9al product on cool+4 #ce ,at a giv5 temp]ature ! pressure ( ?is gas evolv$ f any salt w be less ?an t ( c>bonic anhydride1 if we comp>e ! sep>ation ( a gas f its salts ) ! ph5om5on ( evaporation1 z 0 done 9 discuss+ ! decomposition ( calcium c>bonate4 ,liquid sulphur\s anhydride is us$ on a l>ge scale 7,pictet7 = ! production ( cold4 #cf ,de la ,rive1 ,pi]re1 & m especially ,roozeboom1 h inve/igat$ ! cry/allo-hydrate :i* is =m$ by sulphur\s anhydride & wat] at temp]atures bel[ #g "u ! ord9>y pressure1 & 9 clos$ vessels 7at temp]atures bel[ #ab74 ,its composition is ,,s#b1g;,h#b,o1 & d5sity #ab4 ,?is hydrate corresponds ) ! simil> hydrate ,,co#b1h;,h#b,o obta9$ by ,wroblewsky4 ,acid sodium sulphite1 ,na,h,s,o#c1 may be obta9$ by pass+ sulphur\s anhydride into a solution ( sodium hydroxide4 ,x is also =m$ by saturat+ a solution ( sodium c>bonate ) ! gas 7c>bonic anhydride is !n giv5 (f71 & z ! solubility ( ! acid sulphite is mu* great] ?an t ( ! c>bonate1 a fur!r quantity ( ! latt] may be dissolv$ aft] ! passage ( ! sulphur\s anhydride1 s t ultimately a v /rong solution ( ! sulphite may be =m$ 9 ?is mann]1 f :i* x may be obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e =m1 ei!r by cool+ & evaporat+ 7)\t heat+1 = !n ! salt w\ld give (f sulphur\s anhydride7 or by add+ alcohol to ! solution4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air ?is salt loses sulphur\s anhydride & attracts oxyg51 :i* conv]ts x into sodium sulphate4 ,! acid sulphites ( ! alkali metals are able to comb9e n only ) oxyg51 b also ) _m o!r sub/ances--= example1 a solution ( ! sodium salt dissolves sulphur1 =m+ sodium ?iosulphate1 gives cry/all9e comp\nds ) ! aldehydes & ketones1 & dissolves _m bases1 conv]t+ !m into d\ble sulphites4 ,hav+ ! faculty ( attract+ or absorb+ oxyg51 acid sodium sulphite is also able to absorb *lor9e1 & is !re=e employ$1 l sodium ?iosulphate1 = ! removal ( *loride 7z an anti*lor71 especially 9 ! blea*+ ( fabrics1 :5 x is necess>y to remove ! la/ traces ( ! *lor9e held 9 ! tissues1 :i* might o!rwise h an injuri\s effect on !m4 ,if a solution ( an alkali hydroxide be divid$ into two p>ts1 & "o half is saturat$ ) sulphur\s anhydride1 & !n ! o!r half add$ to x1 a normal salt w be obta9$ 9 ! solution1 hav+ an alkal9e reaction1 l a solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,! acid salt has a neutral reaction4#cf bis ,l sodium c>bonate1 normal sodium sulphite has ! composition ,na#b,,s#c1aj;,h#b,o1 & its maximum solubility is at #cc--;9 a ^w1 x v closely resembles sodium c>bonate4 ,al?\gh ?is salt does n give (f sulphur\s anhydride f its solution1 x is able1 l ! acid salt1 to absorb oxyg5 f ! air1 & is !n conv]t$ into sodium sulphate4#cg #cf bis ,s*wick] 7#ahhi7 by saturat+ ,na,h,s,o#c ) pota%1 or ,,khso#c ) soda1 obta9$ ,na,k,s,o#c1 9 ! fir/ in/ance ) ,h#b,o1 & 9 ! second in/ance ) #b;,h#b,o1 probably ow+ to ! diff]5t m$ia 9 :i* ! cry/als are =m$4 ,9 g5]al sulphur\s acid easily =ms d\ble salts4 #cg ,! normal salts ( calcium & magnesium are slightly1 & ! acid salts easily1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,^! acid sulphites are mu* us$ 9 practice2 ?us calcium bisulphite is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( cellulose f sawdu/1 = mix+ ) fibr\s matt] 9 ! manufacture ( pap]4 ,besides ! acid "* we mu/ also po9t out ! r$uc+ "* ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! r$uc+ action ( sulphur\s acid1 its anhydride & salts1 is due to _! faculty ( pass+ into sulphuric acid & sulphates4 ,! r$uc+ action ( ! sulphites is p>ticul>ly en]getic1 s t !y ev5 conv]t nitric oxide into nitr\s oxide3 ,k#b,,s#c #b,,no ,k#b,,s#d ,n#b,o4 ,! salts ( _m ( ! high] oxides are conv]t$ into ^? ( ! l[]--= example1 ,fe,x#c into ,fe,x#b1 ,cu,x#b into ,cu,x1 ,hg,x#b into ,hg,x2 ?us #b;,fe,x#c ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o #b;,fe,x#b ,h#b,,s#d #b;,,hx4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 sulphur\s anhydride is oxidis$ by *lor9e 7,,s#b #b;,h#b,o ,cl#b ,h#b,,s#d #b;,h,cl71 iod9e1 nitr\s acid1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 hypo*lor\s acid1 *loric acid1 & o!r oxyg5 comp\nds ( ! halog5s1 *romic1 manganic1 & _m o!r metallic acids & high] oxides1 z well z all p]oxides4 ,free oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( spongy plat9um is able to oxidise sulphur\s anhydride ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( wat]1 9 :i* case sulphuric anhydride ,,s#c is =m$1 s t ! latt] may be prep>$ by pass+ a mixture ( sulphur\s anhydride & oxyg5 ov] inc&esc5t spongy plat9um1 or1 z x is n[ prep>$ on a l>ge scale 9 *emical works1 by pass+ ?is mixture ov] asbe/os or pumice /one moi/5$ ) a solution ( plat9um salt & ignit$4 ,sulphur\s anhydride is completely absorb$ by c]ta9 high] oxides--= in/ance1 by b>ium p]oxide & lead dioxide 7,pb,o#b ,,s#b ,pb,s,o#d74ch #ch ,?is reaction is tak5 advantage ( 9 remov+ sulphur\s anhydride f a mixture ( gases4 ,lead dioxide1 ,pb,o#b1 is br[n1 & :5 comb9$ ) sulphur\s anhydride x =ms lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 :i* is :ite1 s t ! reaction is evid5t bo? f ! *ange 9 col\r & developm5t ( heat4 ,sulphur\s anhydride is sl[ly decompos$ by ! action ( light1 ) ! sep>ation ( sulphur & =mation ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,?is expla9s ! fact t sulphur\s anhydride prep>$ 9 ! d>k gives a :ite precipitate ( silv] sulphite1 ,ag#b,,s#c1 ) silv] *lorate1 ,ag,cl,o#d1 b :5 prep>$ 9 ! light1 ev5 9 diffus$ light1 x gives a d>k precipitate4 ,?is naturally dep5ds on ! fact t ! sulphur lib]at$ !n =ms silv] sulphide1 :i* is black4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 cases :]e sulphur\s anhydride acts z an oxidis+ ag5t--t is1 x is deoxidis$ 9 ! pres5ce ( sub/ances :i* are capable ( absorb+ oxyg5 ) /ill great] en]gy ?an ! sulphur\s anhydride itself4 ,?is oxidis+ action proce$s ) ! =mation ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 or ( sulphides1 :ile ! r$uc+ ag5t is oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! sulphur\s anhydride4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! action ( /ann\s salts is p>ticul>ly rem>kable4 ,/ann\s *loride1 ,sn,cl#b1 9 an aque\s solution gives a precipitate ( /annic sulphide1 ,sn,s#b1 ) sulphur\s anhydride--t is1 ! latt] is deoxidis$ to sulphurett$ hydrog51 :ile ,sn,x#b is oxidis$ into ,sn,x#d4 ,a solution ( sulphur\s anhydride has also an oxidis+ action on z9c4 ,! z9c passes into solution1 b no hydrog5 is evolv$1#ci because a salt ( hydrosulphur\s acid1 ,zn,s#b,o#d1 is =m$4 ,! free acid is /ill less /able ?an ! salt4 #ci ,s*nebe9 obs]v$ t ! liquid turns yell[1 & acquires ! faculty ( decoloris+ litmus & indigo4 ,s*tz5b]g] %[$ t ?is dep5ds on ! =mation ( a z9c salt ( a peculi> & v p[]fully-r$uc+ acid1 = ) cupric salts ! yell[ solution gives a r$ precipitate ( cupr\s hydrate or metallic copp]1 & x r$uces salts ( silv] & m]cury entirely4 ,an exactly simil> solution is obta9$ by ! action ( z9c on sodium bisulphite )\t access ( air & 9 ! cold4 ,! yell[ liquid absorbs oxyg5 f ! air ) great avidity1 & =ms a sulphate4 ,if ! solution be mix$ ) alcohol1 x deposits a d\ble sulphite ( z9c & sodium1 ,zn,na#b7,,s#c7b1 :i* does n decolorise litmus or indigo4 ,! rema9+ alcoholic solution deposits col\rless cry/als 9 ! cold1 :i* absorb oxyg5 ) great en]gy 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 b are tol]ably /able :5 dri$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,! solution ( ^! cry/als has ! above-m5tion$ decoloris+ & r$uc+ prop]ties4 ,^! cry/als conta9 a sodium salt ( a l[] acid2 _! composition 0 at fir/ suppos$ to be ,h,na,s,o#b1 b x 0 aft]w>ds prov$ t !y d n conta9 hydrog51 & pres5t ! composition ,na#b,s#b,o#d 7,b]n?s574 ,! same salt is =m$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on a solution ( sodium bisulphite1 ow+ to ! action ( ! hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation4 ,if ,,s#b resembles ,,co#b 9 its composition1 !n hyposulphur\s acid ,h#b,s#b,o#d resembles oxalic acid ,h#b;,c#b,o#d4 ,p]haps an analogue ( =mic acid ,,%#b,o#b w be discov]$4 ,! faculty ( sulphur\s anhydride ( comb9+ ) v>i\s sub/ances is evid5t f ! above-cit$ reactions1 :]e x comb9es ) hydrog5 & ) oxyg51 & ?is faculty also appe>s 9 ! fact t1 l c>bonic oxide1 x comb9es ) *lor9e1 =m+ a *loranhydride ( sulphuric acid1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 to :i* we %all aft]w>ds return4 ,! same faculty = comb9ation also appe>s 9 ! salts ( sulphur\s acid1 9 _! liability to oxidation & 9 ! exce$+ly *>act]i/ic =mation ( a peculi> s]ies ( salts obta9$ by ,pel\ze & ,frmy4 ,at a temp]ature ( -#aj or bel[1 nitric oxide ,,no is absorb$ by alkal9e solutions ( ! alkali sulphites1 =m+ a peculi> s]ies ( nitrosulphates4 ,at a high] temp]ature ^! salts are n =m$ b ! nitric oxide is r$uc$ to nitr\s oxide4 ,b 9 ! cold ! liquid saturat$ ) nitric oxide aft] a c]ta9 "t gives prismatic cry/als resembl+ ^? ( nitre4 ,! composition ( ! potassium salt is ,k#b,,sn#b,o#c--t is1 ! salt conta9s ! elem5ts ( potassium sulphite & ( nitric oxide4#dj #dj ,! in/ability ( ?is salt is v great1 & may be comp>$ to t ( ! comp\nd ( f]r\s sulphate ) nitric oxide1 = :5 heat$ "u ! contact influ5ce ( spongy plat9um1 *>coal1 c41 x splits up into potassium sulphate & nitr\s oxide4 ,at #acj ! dry salt gives (f nitric oxide1 & re-=ms potassium sulphite4 ,! free acid has n yet be5 obta9$4 ,^! salts resemble ! s]ies ( sulphonitrites discov]$ by ,frmy 9 #ahde4 ,!y are obta9$ by pass+ sulphur\s anhydride ?r\gh a conc5trat$ & /rongly alkal9e aque\s solution ( potassium nitrite4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat]1 b are precipitat$ by an excess ( alkali4 ,! fir/ product ( ! action has ! composition ,k#c,,ns#c;,,ho#i4 ,x is !n conv]t$ by ! fur!r action ( sulphur\s anhydride1 cold wat]1 & o!r reag5ts into a s]ies ( simil> complex salts1 _m ( :i* give well-=m$ cry/als4 ,"o mu/ suppose t ! *ief cause ( ! =mation ( ^! v complex comp\nds is t !y conta9 unsaturat$ comp\nds1 ,,no1 ,,kno#b1 & ,,khso#c1 all ( :i* are subject to oxidation & fur!r comb9ation1 & !re=e easily comb9e among ea* o!r4 ,! decomposition ( ^! comp\nds1 ) ! evolution ( ammonia1 :5 _! solutions are heat$ is due to ! fact t ! molecule conta9s ! deoxidant1 sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* r$uces ! nitr\s acid1 ,,no7,,oh71 to ammonia4 ,9 my op9ion ! composition ( ! sulphonitrites may be v simply ref]r$ to ! composition ( ammonia1 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is p>tly replac$ by ! radicle ( ! sulphates4 ,if we repres5t ! composition ( potassium sulphate z ,,ko4,,kso#c1 ! gr\p ,,kso#c w be equival5t 7accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution7 to ,,ho & to hydrog54 ,x comb9es ) hydrog51 =m+ ! potassium acid sulphite1 ,,khso#c4 ,h5ce ! gr\p ,,kso#c may also replace ! hydrog5 9 ammonia4 ,judg+ by my analysis 7#ahgj7 ! extreme limit ( ?is sub/itution1 ,n7,,hso#c7c1 agrees ) t ( ! sulphonitrite1 :i* is easily =m$1 simultane\sly ) alkali1 by ! action ( potassium sulphite on potassium nitrite1 accord+ to ! equation #c,k7,,kso#c7 ,,kno#b #b;,h#b,o ,n7,,kso#c7c #d;,,hko4 ,! rese>*es ( ,b]glund1 & especially ( ,ras*ig 7#ahhg71 fully v]ifi$ my conclusions1 & %[$ t we mu/ di/+ui% ! foll[+ types ( salts1 correspond+ ) ammonia1 :]e ,x /&s = ! sulphonic gr\p1 ,,hso#c1 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is replac$ by potassium2 h5ce ,x ,,kso#c3 7#a7 ,,nh#b,x1 7#b7 ,,nhx#b1 7#c7 ,,nh#c1 7#d7 ,n7,,oh7,,xh1 7#e7 ,n7,,oh7,x#b1 7#f7 ,n7,,oh7#b,x1 j z ,,nh#b7,,oh7 is hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh7,,oh7#b1 is ! hydrate ( nitr\s oxide1 & ,n7,,oh7#c is or?onitr\s acid1 z foll[s f ! law ( sub/itution4 ,?is class ( comp\nds is 9 mo/ intimate relation ) ! s]ies ( sulphonitr\s comp\nds1 correspond+ ) '*amb] cry/als' & _! acids1 :i* we %all consid] lat]4 ,!re are also sev]al o!r sub/ances1 =m$ by ! oxides ( nitrog5 & sulphur1 :i* belong to ?is class ( complex &1 "u "s circum/ances1 un/able comp\nds4 ,9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 bo? ^! classes ( oxides come into contact ) ea* o!r 9 ! lead *amb]s1 & if !re be insuffici5t wat] = ! =mation ( sulphuric acid !y give cry/all9e comp\nds1 t]m$ *amb] cry/als4 ,z a rule1 ! composition ( ! cry/als is express$ by ! =mula ,,nhso#c4 ,?is is a comp\nd ( ! radicles ,,no#b ( nitric acid1 & ,,hso#c ( sulphuric acid1 or nitro-sulphuric acid1 ,,no#b4,,%o#c1 if sulphuric acid be express$ z ,,oh4,,%o#c & nitric by ,,no#b4,,oh4 ,! tabul> cry/als ( ?is sub/ance fuse at ab\t #gj1 are =m$ bo? by ! direct action ( nitr\s anhydride or nitric p]oxide 7b n ,,no1 :i* is n absorb$ by sulphuric acid7 on sulphuric acid 7,weltzi5 & o!rs71 & especially on sulphuric acid conta9+ an anhydride & ! l[] oxides ( sulphur & nitric acid4#da #da ,9 ! sulphuric acid *amb]s ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 & sulphur take "p 9 ! reaction4 ,!y are oxidis$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & =m nitro-sulphuric acid--= example1 #b,,s#b ,n#b,o#c ,o#b ,h#b,o #b,,nhso#e4 ,?is comp\nd dissolves 9 /rong sulphuric acid )\t *ang+1 & :5 ?is solution is dilut$ 7:5 ! sp4 gr4 falls to #ae71 x splits up into sulphuric acid & nitr\s anhydride1 & by ! action ( sulphur\s anhydride is conv]t$ into nitric oxide1 :i* by itself 79 ! abs5ce ( nitric acid or oxyg57 is insoluble 9 sulphuric acid4 ,^! reactions are tak5 advantage ( 9 reta9+ ! oxides ( nitrog5 9 ! ,gay-,lussac coke-t[]s1 & = extract+ ! absorb$ oxides ( nitrog5 f ! resultant solution 9 ! ,glov] t[]4 ,al?\gh nitric oxide is n absorb$ by sulphuric acid1 x reacts 7,rose1 ,brn+7 on its anhydride1 & =ms sulphur\s anhydride & a cry/all9e sub/ance1 ,n#b,s#b,o#i #b,,no #c,,s#c - ,,s#b ,n#b,o#cb,,s#c4 ,?is may be reg>d$ z ! anhydride ( nitro-sulphuric acid1 because ,n#b,s#b,o#i #b,,nhso#e - ,h#b,o2 l nitro-sulphuric acid1 x is decompos$ by wat] into nitro-sulphuric acid & nitr\s anhydride4 ,s9ce boric & ars5i\s anhydrides1 alum9a & o!r oxides ( ! =m ,r#b,o#c are able to comb9e ) sulphuric anhydride to =m simil> comp\nds decomposable by wat]1 ! above comp\nd does n pres5t any exceptional ph5om5on4 ,! sub/ance ,n,o,cl,s,o#c obta9$ by ,web] by ! action ( nitrosyl *loride ^u sulphuric anhydride belongs to ?is class ( comp\nds4 ,?iosulphuric acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#c--t is1 a comp\nd ( sulphur\s acid & sulphur--also belongs to ! products ( comb9ation ( sulphur\s acid4 ,9 ! same way t sulphur\s acid1 ,h#b,,s#c1 gives ,h#b,,s#d ) oxyg51 s x gives ,h#b,s#b,o#c ) sulphur4 ,9 a free /ate x is v un/able1 & x is only kn[n 9 ! =m ( its salts proce$+ f ! direct action ( sulphur on ! normal sulphites2 if endeav\rs be made to sep>ate x 9 a free /ate1 x imm$iately splits up into ^? elem5ts f :i* x might be =m$--t is1 into sulphur & sulphur\s acid4 ,! mo/ important ( its salts is ! sodium ?iosulphate 7kn[n z hyposulphite71 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1e;,h#b,o1 :i* occurs 9 col\rless cry/als1 & is unact$ on by atmosph]ic oxyg5 ei!r :5 9 a dry /ate or 9 solution4 ,_m o!r salts ( ?is acid are easily =m$ by means ( ?is salt1#da bis al?\gh ?is _c be done ) all bases1 = su* bases z alum9a1 f]ric oxide1 *romium oxide1 & o!rs d n give comp\nds ) ?iosulphuric acid1 j z !y d n =m /able comp\nds ) c>bonic acid4 ,:5ev] ^! salts might be =m$1 !y 7l ! acid7 split up into sulphur\s acid & sulphur1 & fur!rmore ! elem5ts ( ?iosulphuric acid 9 _m cases act 9 a r$uc+ mann]1 =m+ sulphuric acid & tak+ up ! oxyg5 f r$ucible oxides4 ,?us :5 treat$ ) a ?iosulphate ! soluble f]ric salts give a precipitate ( sulphur & =m f]r\s salts4 ,! ?iosulphates ( ! metals ( ! alkalis are obta9$ directly by boil+ a solution ( _! sulphites ) sulphur3 ,na#b,,s#c ,s ,na#b,s#b,o#c4 ,! same salts are =m$ by ! action ( sulphur\s anhydride on solutions ( ! sulphides2 ?us sodium sulphide dissolv$ 9 wat] gives sulphur & sodium ?iosulphate :5 a /ream ( sulphur\s anhydride is pass$ ?r\gh x3 #b,na#b,s #c,,s#b #b,na#b,s#b,o#c ,s4 ,! polysulphides ( ! alkali metals :5 left expos$ to ! air attract oxyg5 & also =m ?iosulphates4#db #da bis ,_m d\ble salts ( ?iosulphuric acid are kn[n1 = in/ance1 ,pb,s#b,o#c1c,na#b,s#b,o#c1ab;,h#b,o2 ,ca,s#b,o#c1c,k#b,s#b,o#c1e;,h#b,o1 c4 7,=tman1 ,s*wick]1 ,fock1 & o!rs74 #db ,?us :5 alkali wa/e1 :i* conta9s calcium sulphide1 und]goes oxidation 9 ! air x fir/ =ms a calcium polysulphide1 & !n calcium ?iosulphate1 ,ca,s#b,o#c4 ,:5 iron or z9c acts on a solution ( sulphur\s acid1 besides ! hyposulphur\s acid fir/ =m$1 a mixture ( sulphite & ?iosulphate is obta9$ 7,note #ci71 #c,,s#b ,zn#b ,zn,s,o#c ,zn,s#b,o#c4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! =mation ( hyposulphur\s acid1 !re is no hydrog5 lib]at$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common me?ods = prep>+ ?iosulphates consi/s 9 ! action ( sulphur on ! alkalis4 ,! reaction is accompli%$ by ! =mation ( sulphides & ?iosulphates1 j z ! reaction ( *lor9e on alkalis is accompani$ by ! =mation ( hypo*lorites & *lorides2 h5ce 9 ?is respect ! ?iosulphates hold ! same position 9 ! ord] ( ! comp\nds ( sulphur z ! hypo*lorites d among ! *lor9e comp\nds4 ,! reaction ( cau/ic soda on an excess ( sulphur may be express$ ?us3 #f,na,h,o #ab,s #b,na#b,s#e ,na#b,s#b,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,?us sulphur is soluble 9 alkalis4 ,on a l>ge scale sodium ?iosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 is prep>$ by fir/ heat+ sodium sulphate ) *>coal1 to =m sodium sulphide1 :i* is !n dissolv$ 9 wat] & treat$ ) sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! reaction is complete :5 ! solution has become slightly acid4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( cau/ic alkali is add$ to ! slightly acid solution2 a portion ( ! sulphur is ?us precipitat$1 & ! solution is !n boil$ & evaporat$ :5 ! salt cry/allises out4 ,! saturation ( ! solution ( sodium sulphide by sulphur\s anhydride is c>ri$ on 9 diff]5t ways--= example1 by means ( coke-t[]s1 by caus+ ! solution ( sulphide to trickle ov] ! coke1 & ! sulphur\s anhydride1 obta9$ by burn+ sulphur1 to pass up ! coke-t[] f bel[4 ,an excess ( sulphur\s anhydride mu/ be avoid$1 z o!rwise sodium tri?ionate is =m$4 ,sodium ?iophosphate is also prep>$ by ! d\ble decomposition ( ! soluble calcium ?iosulphate ) sodium sulphate or c>bonate1 9 :i* case calcium sulphate or c>bonate is precipitat$4 ,! calcium ?iosulphate is prep>$ by ! action ( sulphur\s anhydride on ei!r calcium sulphide or alkali wa/e4 ,a dilute solution ( calcium ?iosulphate may be obta9$ by treat+ alkali wa/e :i* has be5 expos$ to ! action ( air ) wat]4 ,on evaporation1 ?is solution gives cry/als ( ! salt conta9+ ,ca,s#b,o#c1e;,h#b,o4 ,a solution ( calcium ?iosulphate mu/ be evaporat$ ) great c>e1 because o!rwise ! salt breaks up into sulphur & calcium sulphide4 ,ev5 ! cry/allis$ salt sometimes und]goes ?is *ange4 ,! cry/als ( sodium ?iosulphate are /able1 d n effloresce & at #j dissolve 9 "o "p ( wat]1 & at #bj 9 #jf "p4 ,! solution ( ?is salt does n und]go any *ange :5 boil$ = a %ort "t1 b aft] prolong$ boil+ x deposits sulphur4 ,! cry/als fuse at #ef1 & lose all _! wat] at #ajj4 ,:5 ! dry salt is ignit$ x gives sodium sulphide & sulphate4 ,) acids1 a solution ( ! ?iosulphate soon becomes cl\dy & deposits an exce$+ly f9e p[d] ( sulphur 7,note #aj74 ,if ! am\nt ( acid add$ be consid]able1 x also evolves sulphur\s anhydride3 ,h#b,s#b,o#c ,h#b,o ,s ,,s#b4 ,sodium ?iosulphate has _m practical uses2 x is us$ 9 photography = dissolv+ silv] *loride & bromide4 ,its solv5t action on silv] *loride may be tak5 advantage ( 9 extract+ ?is metal z *loride f its ores4 ,9 dissolv+1 x =ms a d\ble salt ( silv] & sodium3 ,ag,cl ,na#b,s#b,o#c ,na,cl ,ag,na,s#b,o#c4 ,sodium ?iosulphate is an anti*lor--t is1 a sub/ance :i* h9d]s ! de/ructive action ( free *lor9e ow+ to its be+ v easily oxidis$ by *lor9e into sulphuric acid & sodium *loride4 ,! reaction ) iod9e is diff]5t1 & is rem>kable = ! accuracy ) :i* x proce$s4 ,! iod9e takes up half ! sodium f ! salt & conv]ts x into a tetra?ionate2 #b,na#b,s#b,o#c ,i#b #b,na,i ,na#b,s#d,o#f1 & h5ce ?is reaction is employ$ = ! det]m9ation ( free iod9e4 ,z iod9e is expell$ f potassium iodide by *lor9e1 x is possible also to det]m9e ! am\nt ( *lor9e by ?is me?od if potassium iodide be add$ to a solution conta9+ *lor9e4 ,& z _m ( ! high] oxides are able to evolve iod9e f potassium iodide1 or *lor9e f hydro*loric acid 7= example1 ! high] oxides ( manganese1 *romium1 c471 x is also possible to det]m9e ! am\nts ( ^! high] oxides by means ( sodium ?iosulphate & lib]at$ iod9e4 ,?is =ms ! basis ( ! iodometric me?od ( volumetric analysis4 ,! details ( ^! me?ods w be f\nd 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4 ,on add+ a solution ( a lead salt gradually to a solution ( sodium ?iosulphate a :ite precipitate ( lead ?iosulphate1 ,pb,s#b,o#c1 is =m$ 7a soluble d\ble salt is fir/ =m$1 & if ! action be rapid1 lead sulphide74 ,:5 ?is sub/ance is heat$ at #bjj1 x und]goes a *ange & takes fire4 ,sodium ?iosulphate 9 solution rapidly r$uces cupric salts to cupr\s salts by means ( ! sulphur\s acid conta9$ 9 ! ?iosulphate1 b ! resultant cupr\s oxide is n precipitat$1 because x passes into ! /ate ( a ?iosulphate & =ms a d\ble salt4 ,^! d\ble cupr\s salts are excell5t r$uc+ ag5ts4 ,! solution :5 heat$ gives a black precipitate ( copp] sulphide4 ,! foll[+ =mul suffici5tly expla9 ! position held by ?iosulphuric acid among ! o!r acids ( sulphur3 ,sulphur\s acid ,,s#b;,h7,,oh7 ,sulphuric acid ,,s#b,,oh7,,oh7 ,?iosulphuric acid ,,s#b,,%7,,oh7 ,hyposulphur\s acid ,,s#b;,h7,,s#b;,h7 ,di?ionic acid ,,s#b,,oh7,,s#b,,oh7 ,at "o "t x 0 ?\ght t all ! salts ( ?iosulphuric acid only exi/$ 9 comb9ation ) wat]1 & x 0 !n suppos$ t _! composition 0 ,h#d,s#b,o#d1 or ,h#b,,s#b1 b ,popp obta9$ ! anhydr\s salts4 ,al?\gh sulphur1 oxidis+ at a high temp]ature1 only =ms a small quantity ( sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & ne>ly all passes into sulphur\s anhydride1 /ill ! latt] may be conv]t$ into ! high] oxide1 or sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 by _m me?ods4 ,sulphuric anhydride is a solid cry/all9e sub/ance at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 x is easily fusible 7#ae71 & volatile 7#df71 & rapidly attracts moi/ure4 ,al?\gh x is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphur\s anhydride ) oxyg51 x is capable ( fur!r comb9ation4 ,?us x comb9es ) wat]1 hydro*loric acid1 ammonia1 ) _m hydroc>bons1 & ev5 ) sulphuric acid1 boric & nitr\s anhydrides1 c41 & also ) bases :i* burn directly 9 its vap\r1 =m+ sulphates 9 ! pres5ce ( traces ( moi/ure 7see ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #bi74 ,! oxidation ( sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 into sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 is effect$ by pass+ a mixture ( ! =m] & dry oxyg5 or air ov] inc&esc5t spongy plat9um4 ,an increase ( pressure accel]ates ! reaction 7,hanis*74 ,if ! product be pass$ into a cold vessel1 cry/all9e sulphuric anhydride is deposit$ ^u ! sides ( ! vessel1 b z x is difficult to avoid all traces ( moi/ure x always conta9s comp\nds ( its hydrates3 ,h#b,s#b,o#g & ,h#b,s#d,o#ac1 ^: pres5ce s modifies ! prop]ties ( ! anhydride 7,web]7 t =m]ly two modifications ( ! anhydride 7 recognis$4 ,! same sulphuric anhydride may be obta9$ f c]ta9 anhydr\s sulphates1 or ^? :i* are almo/ s1 :i* are decompos$ by heat1 :il/ an impure b p]fectly anhydr\s anhydride is =m$ by di/illation ov] phosphoric anhydride4 ,= in/ance1 acid sodium sulphate1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 & ! pyro- or di-sulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#g 7,*apt] ,,xii47 =m$ f x1 :5 ignit$ evolve sulphuric anhydride4 ,gre5 vitriol--t is1 f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d--;belongs to ! numb] ( ^? sulphates :i* easily give (f sulphuric anhydride "u ! action ( heat4 ,x conta9s wat] ( cry/allisation & p>ts ) x :5 x is heat$1 b ! la/ equival5t ( wat] is driv5 (f ) difficulty1 j z is ! case ) magnesium sulphate1 ,mg,s,o#dg;,h#b,o2 h[ev]1 :5 ?or\ghly heat$1 ?is evolution ( sulphuric anhydride does take place1 al?\gh n completely1 because at a high temp]ature a portion ( x is decompos$ by ! f]r\s oxide 7,,s#c #b;,fe,o71 :i* is conv]t$ into f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 & 9 consequ5ce "p ( ! sulphuric anhydride is conv]t$ into sulphur\s anhydride4 ,?us ! products ( ! decomposition ( f]r\s sulphate w be3 f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 & sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 accord+ to ! equation3 #b;,fe,s,o#d ,fe#b,o#c ,,s#b ,,s#c4 ,z wat] /ill rema9s ) ! f]r\s sulphate :5 x is heat$1 ! result w p>tially consi/ ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1 ) anhydride1 ,,s#c1 dissolv$ 9 x4 ,sulphuric acid 0 = a long "t prep>$ 9 ?is mann]2 ! process 0 =m]ly c>ri$ on on a l>ge scale 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,nordhaus51 & h5ce ! sulphuric acid prep>$ f f]r\s sulphate is call$ fum+ ,nordhaus5 acid4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! fum+ acid is prep>$ by pass+ ! volatile products ( ! decomposition ( f]r\s sulphate ?r\gh /rong sulphuric acid prep>$ by ! ord9>y me?od4 ,! sulphur\s anhydride is insoluble 9 x1 b x absorbs ! sulphuric anhydride4 ,sulphuric anhydride may be prep>$ n only by ignit+ ,fe,s,o#d or sodium pyrosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#g 7! decomposition proce$s at #fjj71 b also by heat+ a mixture ( ! latt] & ,mg,s,o#d 7,walt]s72 9 ! =m] case a /able d\ble salt ,mg,na#b7,,s#d7b f9ally rema9s4 ,x is also obta9$ by ! direct comb9ation ( ,,s#b & ,o "u ! action ( spongy plat9um or asbe/os coat$ ) plat9um black 7,c4 ,w9kl]'s process74 ,nordhaus5 sulphuric acid fumes 9 air1 ow+ to its conta9+ & easily giv+ (f sulphuric anhydride1 & x is !re=e also call$ fum+ sulphuric acid2 ^! fumes are no?+ b ! vap\r ( sulphuric anhydride comb9+ ) ! moi/ure 9 ! air & =m+ non-volatile sulphuric acid 7hydrate74#dc #dc ,nordhaus5 sulphuric acid may s]ve z a v simple means = ! prep>ation ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,= ?is purpose ! ,nordhaus5 acid is heat$ 9 a glass retort1 ^: neck is firmly fix$ 9 ! m\? ( a well-cool$ flask4 ,! access ( moi/ure is prev5t$ by connect+ ! receiv] ) a dry+-tube4 ,on heat+ ! retort ! vap\rs ( sulphuric anhydride w pass ov] into ! receiv]1 :]e !y cond5se2 ! cry/als ( anhydride ?us prep>$ w1 h[ev]1 conta9 traces ( sulphuric acid--t is1 ( ! hydrate4 ,by repeat$ly di/ill+ ov] phosphoric anhydride1 x is possible to obta9 ! pure anhydride1 ,,s#c1 especially if ! process be c>ri$ on )\t access ( air 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,! ord9>y sulphuric anhydride1 :i* is imp]fectly fre$ f ! hydrate1 is a sn[-:ite1 exce$+ly volatile sub/ance1 :i* cry/allises 7g5]ally by sublimation7 9 long silky prisms1 & only gives ! pure anhydride :5 c>efully di/ill$ ov] ,p#b,o#e4 ,fre%ly prep>$ cry/als ( almo/ pure anhydride fuse at #af into a col\rless liquid hav+ a specific gravity at #bf #aia1 & at #dg #aha2 x volatilises at #df4 ,aft] be+ kept = "s "t ! anhydride1 ev5 conta9+ only small traces ( wat]1 und]goes a *ange ( ! foll[+ nature3 ,a small quantity ( sulphuric acid comb9es by degrees ) a l>ge proportion ( ! anhydride1 =m+ polysulphuric acids1 ,h#b,,s#d1n,,s#c1 :i* fuse ) difficulty 7ev5 at #ajj1 ,m>ignac71 b decompose :5 heat$4 ,9 ! entire abs5ce ( wat] ?is rise 9 ! fus+ po9t does n occur 7,web]71 & !n ! anhydride long rema9s liquid1 & solidifies at ab\t #ae1 volatilises at #dj1 & has a specific gravity #aid at #af4 ,we may add t ,web] 7#ahha71 by treat+ sulphuric anhydride ) sulphur1 obta9$ a blue l[] oxide ( sulphur1 ,s#b,o#c4 ,sel5ium & tellurium also give simil> products ) ,,s#c1 ,se,s,o#c1 & ,te,s,o#c4 ,wat] does n act ^u !m4 ,nordhaus5 sulphuric acid conta9s a peculi> comp\nd ( ,,s#c & ,h#b,,s#d1 or pyrosulphuric acid2 an imp]fect anhydride ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#g1 analog\s 9 composition ) ! salts ,na#b,s#b,o#g1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g1 & be>+ ! same relation to ,h#b,,s#d t pyrophosphoric acid does to ,h#c,,po#d4 ,! bond hold+ ! sulphuric acid & anhydride toge!r is un/able4 ,?is is obvi\s f ! fact t ! anhydride may easily be sep>at$ f ?is comp\nd1 by ! action ( heat4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! def9ite comp\nd1 ! ,nordhaus5 acid is cool$ to #e1 or1 bett] /ill1 a portion ( x is di/ill$ until all ! anhydride & a c]ta9 am\nt ( sulphuric acid h pass$ ov] into ! di/illate1 :i* w !n solidify at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 because ! comp\nd ,h#b,,s#d1,,s#c fuses at #ce4 ,al?\gh ?is sub/ance reacts on wat]1 bases1 c41 l a mixture ( ,,s#c ,h#b,,s#d1 /ill s9ce a def9ite comp\nd1 ,h#b,s#b,o#g1 exi/s 9 a free /ate & gives salts & a *loranhydride1 ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b1dd we mu/ admit ! exi/5ce ( a def9ite pyrosulphuric acid1 l pyrophosphoric acid1 only t ! latt] has a f> great] /ability & is n ev5 conv]t$ into a p]fect hydrate by wat]4 ,fur!r1 ! salts ,m#b,s#b,o#g dissolv$ 9 wat] react 9 ! same mann] z ! acid salts ,,mhso#d1 :il/ ! imp]fect hydrates ( phosphoric acid 7= example1 ,,pho#c1 ,h#d,p#b,o#g7 h indep5d5t reactions ev5 9 an aque\s solution :i* di/+ui% !m & _! salts f ! p]fect hydrates4 #dd ,pyrosulphuric *loranhydride1 or pyrosulphuryl *loride1 ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b1 corresponds to pyrosulphuric acid1 9 ! same way t sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 corresponds to sulphuric acid4 ,! composition ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b ,,s#b;,cl#b ,,s#c4 ,x is obta9$ by ! action ( ! vap\r ( sulphuric anhydride on sulphur *loride3 ,s#b;,cl#b #e,,s#c #e,,s#b ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b4 ,x is also =m$ 7& n sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 ,mi*aelis7 by ! action ( phosphorus p5ta*loride 9 excess on sulphuric acid 7or its fir/ *loranhydride1 ,,%o#c;,cl74 ,x is an oily liquid1 boil+ at ab\t #aej1 & ( sp4 gr4 #ah4 ,accord+ to ,konoval(f 7,*apt] ,,vii471 its vap\r d5sity is normal4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t ! same sub/ance is obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric anhydride on sulphur tetra*loride1 & also on c>bon tetra*loride1 & ?is sub/ance is ! la/ product ( ! metalepsis ( ,,*#d1 & !re=e ! comp>ison ( ,s,cl#b & ,s#b;,cl#b ) products ( metalepsis 7see lat]7 also f9ds confirmation 9 p>ticul> reactions4 ,rose1 :o obta9$ pyrosulphuryl *loride1 ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b1 reg>d$ x z ,s,cl#f1e,,s#c1 = at t "t an endeav\r 0 always made to f9d two compon5t p>ts ( opposite pol>ity1 & ?is sub/ance 0 cit$ z a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( a hexa*loride1 ,s,cl#f4 ,pyrosulphuryl *loride is decompos$ by cold wat]1 b m sl[ly ?an *lorosulphuric acid & ! o!r *loranhydrides4 ,! relation betwe5 pyrosulphuric acid & ! normal acid w be obvi\s if we express ! latt] by ! =mula ,,oh7,,s#c;,h71 because ! sulphonic gr\p 7,,s#c;,h7 is !n evid5tly equival5t to ,,oh1 & consequ5tly to ,h1 & if we replace bo? ! hydrog5s 9 wat] by ?is radicle we %all obta9 7,,s#c;,h7#b,o--t is1 pyrosulphuric acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,conc5tration ( sulphuric acid 9 glass retorts4 ,! neck ( ea* retort is atta*$ to a b5t glass tube1 ^: v]tical arm is l[]$ into a glass or e>!nw>e vessel act+ z a receiv] = ! /eam :i* comes ov] f ! acid1 z ! =m] /ill conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( acid4 ,sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( its anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & wat]1 ) ! evolution ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat2 ! reaction ,,s#c ,h#b,o develops #ba1cjj heat units4 ,! me?od ( its prep>ation on a l>ge scale1 & mo/ ( ! me?ods employ$ = its =mation1 are dep5d5t on ! oxidation ( sulphur\s anhydride1 & ! =mation ( sulphuric anhydride1 :i* =ms sulphuric acid "u ! action ( wat]4 ,! te*nical me?od ( its manufacture has be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! acid obta9$ f ! lead *amb]s conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( wat]1 & is also impure ow+ to ! pres5ce ( oxides ( nitrog51 lead comp\nds1 & c]ta9 impurities f ! burnt sulphur :i* h come ov] 9 a gase\s & vapor\s /ate 7= example1 ars5ic comp\nds74 ,= practical purposes1 h>dly any notice is tak5 ( ! majority ( ^! impurities1 because !y d n int]f]e ) its g5]al qualities4 ,mo/ frequ5tly endeav\rs are only made to remove1 z f> z possible1 all ! wat] :i* c be expell$4#de ,t is1 ! object is to obta9 ! hydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1 f ! dilute acid 7#fj p] c5t471 & ?is is effect$ by evaporation by means ( heat4 ,e giv5 mixture ( wat] & sulphuric acid beg9s to "p ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( aque\s vap\r :5 heat$ to a c]ta9 def9ite temp]ature4 ,at a l[ temp]ature ei!r !re is no evaporation ( wat]1 or !re c ev5 be an absorption ( moi/ure f ! air4 ,z ! removal ( ! wat] proce$s1 ! vap\r t5sion ( ! residue decreases = ! same temp]ature1 & !re=e ! m dilute ! acid ! l[] ! temp]ature at :i* x gives up a portion ( its wat]4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! removal ( wat] f dilute solutions ( sulphuric acid may be easily c>ri$ on 7up to #ge p4c4 ,h#b,,s#d7 9 lead vessels1 because at l[ temp]atures dilute sulphuric acid does n attack lead4 ,b z ! acid becomes m conc5trat$ ! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] comes ov] becomes high] & high]1 & !n ! acid beg9s to act on lead 7) ! evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & conv]sion ( ! lead into sulphate71 & !re=e lead vessels _c be employ$ = ! complete removal ( ! wat]4 ,= ?is purpose ! evaporation is g5]ally c>ri$ on 9 glass or plat9um retorts1 l ^? depict$ 9 figs4 #hg & #hh4 #de ,! removal ( ! wat]1 or conc5tration to almo/ ! real acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 is effect$ = two reasons3 9 ! fir/ place to avoid ! exp5se ( transit 7x is *eap] to remove ! wat] ?an to pay = its transit71 & 9 ! second place because _m processes--= in/ance1 ! ref9+ ( petroleum--require a /rong acid free f an excess ( wat]1 ! weak acid hav+ no action4 ,:5 9 ! manufacture ( *amb] acid1 bo? ! ,gay-,lussac t[] 7cold1 situat$ at ! end ( ! *amb]s7 & ! ,glov] t[] 7hot1 situat$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! plant1 betwe5 ! *amb]s & ov5s = ! production ( ,,s#b7 are employ$1 a mixture ( nitrose 7i4e4 ! product ( ! ,gay-,lussac t[]7 & *amb] acid conta9+ ab\t #fj p4c4 ,h#b,,s#d1 is p\r$ into ! ,glov] t[]1 :]e "u ! action ( ! hot furnace gases conta9+ ,,s#b1 & ! wat] held 9 ! *amb] acid 7#a7 ,n#b,o#c is evolv$ f ! nitrose2 7#b7 wat] is expell$ f ! *amb] acid2 7#c7 a portion ( ! ,,s#b is conv]t$ into ,h#b,,s#d2 & 7#d7 ! furnace gases are cool$4 ,?us1 among/ o!r ?+s1 ! ,glov] t[] facilitates ! conc5tration ( ! *amb] acid 7removal ( ,h#b,o71 b ! product g5]ally conta9s _m impurities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,conc5tration ( sulphuric acid 9 plat9um retorts4 ,! conc5tration ( sulphuric acid 9 glass retorts is n a cont9u\s process1 & consi/s ( heat+ ! dilute #ge p] c5t4 acid until x ceases to give (f aque\s vap\r1 & until acid conta9+ #ic-ih p] c5t4 ,h#b,,s#d 7#ff ,baum7 is obta9$--& ?is takes place :5 ! temp]ature rea*es #cbj & ! d5sity ( ! residue rea*es #ahdg 7#ff ,baum74#df ,! plat9um vessels design$ = ! cont9u\s conc5tration ( sulphuric acid consi/ ( a /ill ,b1 furni%$ ) a /ill head ,e1 a connect+ pipe ,e ,f1 & a syphon tube ,h ,r1 :i* draws (f ! sulphuric acid conc5trat$ 9 ! boil]4 ,a /ream ( sulphuric acid previ\sly conc5trat$ 9 lead retorts to a d5sity ( ab\t #fj ,baum--i4e4 to #ge p] c5t4 or a sp4 gr4 ( #ag--runs cont9u\sly into ! retort ?r\gh a syphon funnel ,e4 ,! app>atus is f$ f above1 because ! acid fre%ly suppli$ is light] ?an t :i* has already lo/ wat]1 & also because ! wat] is m easily evaporat$ f ! fre%ly suppli$ acid at ! surface4 ,! plat9um retort is heat$1 & ! /eam com+ (f#dg is cond5s$ 9 a worm ,f ,g1 :il/ z fre% dilute acid is suppli$ to ! boil] ! acid already conc5trat$ is drawn (f ?r\gh ! syphon tube ,h ,b1 :i* is furni%$ ) a regulat+ cock by means ( :i* ! outfl[ ( ! conc5trat$ acid f ! bottom ( ! retort c be s regulat$ t x w always pres5t "o & ! same specific gravity1 correspond+ ) ! /r5g? requir$4 ,= ?is purpose ! acid fl[+ f ! syphon is collect$ 9 a receiv] ,r1 9 :i* a hydromet]1 indicat+ its d5sity1 floats2 if its d5sity be less ?an #ff ,baum1 ! regulat+ cock is clos$ suffici5tly to ret>d ! outfl[ ( sulphuric acid1 s z to l5g!n ! "t ( its evaporation 9 ! retort4#dh #df ,! difficulty ) :i* ! la/ portions ( wat] are remov$ is se5 f ! fact t ! boil+ becomes v irregul>1 totally ceas+ at "o mom5t1 !n sudd5ly />t+ aga91 ) ! rapid =mation ( a consid]able am\nt ( /eam1 & at ! same "t bump+ & ev5 ov]turn+ ! vessel 9 :i* x is held4 ,h5ce x is n a r>e occurr5ce = ! glass retorts to break dur+ ! di/illation2 ?is causes plat9um retorts to be pref]r$1 z ! boil+ !n proce$s q uni=mly4 #dg ,accord+ to ,regnault1 ! vap\r t5sions 79 millimetres ( m]cury7 ( ! wat] giv5 (f by ! hydrates ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1n,h#b,o1 are-- t#e #ae #cj n #a #ja #ja #jb #b #jd #jg #ae #c #ji #af #da #d #ac #bh #gj #e #ba #db #ajg #g #cb #fb #aef #i #da #hj #aif #aa #dd #ij #bbb #ag #ee #ajf #bfa ,accord+ to ,lunge1 ! vap\r t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r giv5 (f f solutions ( sulphuric acid conta9+ p p] c5t4 ,h#b,,s#d1 at t1 equals ! b>ometric pressure #gbj to #gcj mm4 p #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj #gj #hj #he #ij #ie t #ajb #aje #ajh #aad #abd #ada #agj #bjg #bcc #bfb #bie ,! latt] figures give ! temp]ature at :i* wat] is easily expell$ f solutions ( sulphuric acid ( diff]5t /r5g?s4 ,b ! evaporation beg9s soon]1 & conc5tration may be c>ri$ on at l[] temp]atures if a /ream ( air be pass$ ?r\gh ! acid4 ,kessl]'s process is bas$ ^u ?is 7,note #dh74 #dh ,! greate/ "p ( ! sulphuric acid is us$ 9 ! soda manufacture1 9 ! conv]sion ( ! common salt into sulphate4 ,= ?is purpose an acid hav+ a d5sity ( #fj ,baum is amply suffici5t4 ,*amb] acid has a d5sity up to #aeg #ej to #ea ,baum2 x conta9s ab\t #ce p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( ?is wat] c be remov$ 9 lead5 /ills1 & ne>ly all ! rema9d] may be expell$ 9 glass or plat9um vessels4 ,acid ( #ff ,baum1 #ahdg1 conta9s ab\t #if p] c5t4 ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d4 ,! d5sity falls ) a great] or less proportion ( wat]1 ! maximum d5sity correspond+ ) #ig-a_/b p] c5t4 ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d4 ,! conc5tration ( ,h#b,,s#d 9 plat9um retorts has ! disadvantage t sulphuric acid1 upw>ds ( #ij p] c5t4 9 /r5g?1 does corrode plat9um1 al?\gh b slightly 7a few grams p] t5s ( tons ( acid74 ,! retorts !re=e require repair+1 & ! co/ ( ! plat9um exce$s ! price obta9$ = conc5trat+ ! acid f #ij p] c5t4 to #ih p] c5t4 79 factories ! acid is n conc5trat$ beyond ?is by evaporation 9 ! air74 ,?is inconv5i5ce has lately 7#ahia1 by ,ma!y7 be5 elim9at$ by coat+ ! inside ( ! plat9um retorts ) a ?9 7#ja to #jjb mm47 lay] ( gold :i* is #dj times less corrod$ by sulphuric acid ?an plat9um4 ,ngri] 7#ahij7 c>ries on ! di/illation 9 porcela9 di%es1 ,blond by heat+ a ?9 plat9um wire imm]s$ 9 ! acid by means ( an electric curr5t1 b ! mo/ promis+ me?od is t ( ,kessl] 7#ahia71 :i* consi/s 9 pass+ hot air ov] sulphuric acid fl[+ 9 a ?9 /ream 9 /one vessels1 s t !re is no boil+ b only evaporation at mod]ate temp]atures3 ! transf]5ce ( ! heat is direct 7& n ?r\gh ! sides ( ! vessels71 :i* economises ! fuel & prev5ts ! di/ill+ vessels be+ damag$4 ,:51 by evaporation ( ! wat]1 sulphuric acid atta9s a d5sity ( #ff ,baum 7sp4 gr4 #ahd71 x is impossible to conc5trate x fur!r1 because x !n di/ils ov] un*ang$4 ,! di/illation ( sulphuric acid is n g5]ally c>ri$ on on a l>ge scale1 b =ms a laboratory process1 employ$ :5 p>ticul>ly pure acid is requir$4 ,! di/illation is effect$ ei!r 9 plat9um retorts furni%$ ) correspond+ cond5s]s & receiv]s1 or 9 glass retorts4 ,9 ! latt] case1 great caution is necess>y1 because ! boil+ ( sulphuric acid itself is accompani$ by /ill m viol5t j]ks & great] irregul>ity ?an ev5 ! evaporation ( ! la/ portions ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! acid4 ,if ! glass retort :i* holds ! /rong sulphuric acid to be di/ill$ be heat$ directly f bel[1 x frequ5tly j]ks & breaks4 ,= great] safety ! heat+ is n effect$ f bel[1 b at ! sides ( ! retort4 ,! evaporation !n does n proce$ 9 ! :ole mass1 b only f ! upp] portions ( ! liquid1 & !re=e goes on mu* m quietly4 ,! acid may be made to boil quietly also by surr\nd+ ! retort ) good conductors ( heat--= example1 iron fil+s1 or by imm]s+ a bun* ( plat9um wires 9 ! acid1 z ! bubbles ( sulphuric acid vap\r !n =m on ! extremities ( ! wires4 ,/rictly speak+1 sulphuric acid is n volatile1 & at its s-call$ boil+-po9t x really decomposes into its anhydride & wat]2 its boil+-po9t 7#cch7 be+ no?+ else b its temp]ature ( decomposition4 ,! products ( ?is decomposition are sub/ances boil+ mu* bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! decomposition ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is conclusion ) reg>d to ! process ( ! di/illation ( sulphuric acid may be d$uc$ f ,b9eau's obs]vations on ! vap\r-d5sity ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is d5sity ref]r$ to hydrog5 prov$ to be half t :i* sulphuric acid %\ld h accord+ to its molecul> weight1 ,h#b,,s#d1 9 :i* case x %\ld be #di1 :il/ ! obs]v$ d5sity 0 equal to #bde4 ,besides :i*1 ,m>ignac %[$ t ! fir/ portions ( ! sulphuric acid di/ill+ ov] conta9 less ( ! elem5ts ( wat] ?an ! portion :i* rema9s beh9d1 or :i* di/ils ov] t[>ds ! end4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t on di/illation ! sulphuric acid is decompos$1 b a portion ( ! wat] proce$+ f its decomposition is reta9$ by ! rema9+ mass ( sulphuric acid1 & !re=e at fir/ a mixture ( sulphuric acid & sulphuric anhydride--i4e4 fum+ sulphuric acid--is obta9$ 9 ! di/illate4 ,x is possible by repeat+ ! di/illation sev]al times & only collect+ ! fir/ portions ( ! di/illate1 to obta9 a di/9ctly fum+ acid4 ,to obta9 ! def9ite hydrate ,h#b,,s#d x is necess>y to refrig]ate a highly conc5trat$ acid1 ( z great a purity z possible1 to :i* a small quantity ( sulphuric anhydride has be5 previ\sly add$4 ,sulphuric acid conta9+ a small quantity 7a fraction ( a p] c5t4 by weight7 ( wat] only freezes at a v l[ temp]ature1 :ile ! pure normal acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 solidifies :5 x is cool$ bel[ #j1 & !re=e ! normal acid fir/ cry/allises out f ! conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,by repeat+ ! refrig]ation sev]al times1 & p\r+ (f ! unsolidifi$ portion1 x is possible to obta9 a pure normal hydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1 :i* melts at #ajd4 ,ev5 at #dj x gives (f di/9ct fumes--t is1 x beg9s to evolve sulphuric anhydride1 :i* volatilises1 & !re=e ev5 9 a dry atmosph]e ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d becomes weak]1 until x conta9s #a-a_/b p4c4 ( wat]4#di #di ,?us x appe>s t s common1 & app>5tly s /able1 a comp\nd z sulphuric acid decomposes ev5 at a l[ temp]ature ) sep>ation ( ! anhydride1 b ?is decomposition is re/rict$ by a limit1 correspond+ to ! pres5ce ( ab\t #a-a_/b p4c4 ( wat]1 or to a composition ( ne>ly ,h#b,o1#ab;,h#b,,s#d4 ,n[ !re is no reason = ?9k+ t ?is sub/ance is a def9ite comp\nd2 x is an equilibrat$ sy/em :i* does n decompose "u ord9>y circum/ances bel[ #cch4 ,dittm> c>ri$ on ! di/illation "u pressures v>y+ betwe5 #cj & #b1adj millimetres 7( m]cury71 & he f\nd t ! composition ( ! residue h>dly v>ies1 & conta9s f #iib to #ihb p] c5t4 ( ! normal hydrate1 al?\gh at #cj mm4 ! temp]ature ( di/illation is ab\t #baj & at #b1adj mm4 x is #chb4 ,fur!rmore1 x is a fact ( practical importance t "u a pressure ( two atmosph]es ! di/illation ( sulphuric acid proce$s v quietly4 ,sulphuric acid may be purifi$ f ! majority ( its impurities by di/illation1 if ! fir/ & la/ portions ( ! di/illate be reject$4 ,! fir/ portions w conta9 ! oxides ( nitrog51 hydro*loric acid1 c41 & ! la/ portions ! less volatile impurities4 ,! oxides ( nitrog5 may be remov$ by heat+ ! acid ) *>coal1 :i* conv]ts !m into volatile gases4 ,sulphuric acid may be fre$ f ars5ic by heat+ x ) manganese dioxide & !n di/ill+4 ,?is oxidises all ! ars5ic into non-volatile ars5ic acid4 ,)\t a prelim9>y oxidation x w\ld p>tially rema9 z volatile ars5i\s acid1 & might pass ov] into ! di/illate4 ,! ars5ic may also be driv5 (f by fir/ r$uc+ x to ars5i\s acid1 & !n pass+ hydro*loric acid gas ?r\gh ! heat$ acid4 ,x is !n conv]t$ into ars5i\s *loride1 :i* volatilises4 ,9 a conc5trat$ =m sulphuric acid is comm]cially kn[n z oil ( vitriol1 because = a long "t x 0 obta9$ f gre5 vitriol & because x has an oily appe>ance & fl[s f "o vessel into ano!r 9 a ?ick & some:at sluggi% /ream1 l ! majority ( oily sub/ances1 & 9 ?is cle>ly diff]s f su* liquids z wat]1 _s1 e!r1 & ! l1 :i* exhibit a f> great] mobility4 ,among its reactions ! fir/ to be rem>k$ is its faculty = ! =mation ( _m comp\nds4 ,we already "k t x comb9es ) its anhydride1 & ) ! sulphates ( ! alkali metals2 t x is soluble 9 wat]1 ) :i* x =ms m or less /able comp\nds4 ,sulphuric acid1 :5 mix$ ) wat]1 develops a v consid]able am\nt ( heat4#ej #ej ,! am\nt ( heat develop$ by ! mixture ( sulphuric acid ) wat] is express$ 9 ! diagram on p4 #gg1 ,volume ,i41 by ! middle curve1 ^: absciss are ! p]c5tage am\nts ( acid 7,h#b,,s#d7 9 ! resultant solution1 & ord9ates ! numb] ( units ( heat correspond+ ) ! =mation ( #ajj cubic c5timetres ( ! solution 7at #ah74 ,! calculations on :i* ! curve is design$ are bas$ on ,?oms5's det]m9ations1 :i* %[ t #ih grams or a molecul> am\nt ( sulphuric acid1 9 comb9+ ) m molecules ( wat] 7t is1 ) m#ah grams ( wat]71 develop ! foll[+ numb] ( units ( heat1 ,r3-- m #a #b #c #e #i ,r #fcgi #idah #aaacg #acajh #adieb c #jdcb #jdgj #jejj #jegf #jgja ,t #abg #adi #adf #aba #hb m #ai #di #ajj #bjj ,r #afbef #affhd #afhei #agjff c #jhba #jiad #jied #jige ,t #ade #ai #i #e c /&s = ! specific heat ( ,h#b,,s#dm,h#b,o 7accord+ to ,m>ignac & ,pfaundl]71 & ,t = ! rise 9 temp]ature :i* proce$s f ! mixture ( ,h#b,,s#d ) m,h#b,o4 ,! diagram %[s t contraction & rise ( temp]ature proce$ almo/ p>allel ) ea* o!r4 ,besides ! normal hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1 ano!r def9ite hydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o 7#hddh p] c5t4 ( ! normal hydrate1 & #aeeb p] c5t4 ( wat]7 is kn[n2 x cry/allises#ej bis extremely easily 9 l>ge six-sid$ prisms1 :i* =m above #j--namely1 at ab\t #he2 :5 heat$ to #baj x loses wat]4#ea ,if ! hydrates ,h#b,,s#d & ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o exi/ at l[ temp]atures z def9ite cry/all9e comp\nds1 & if pyrosulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d,,s#c1 has ! same prop]ty1 & if !y all decompose ) m or less ease on a rise ( temp]ature1 ) ! dis5gagem5t ( ei!r ,,s#c or ,h#b,o1 & 9 _! ord9>y =m pres5t all ! prop]ties ( simple solutions1 x foll[s t betwe5 sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o1 !re exi/s a consecutive s]ies ( homog5e\s liquids or solutions1 among :i* we mu/ di/+ui% def9ite comp\nds1 & !re=e x is q ju/ifiable to look = o!r def9ite comp\nds betwe5 ,,s#c & ,h#b,o1 beyond ! conditions = a *ange ( /ate4 ,9 ?is respect we may be guid$ by ! v>iation ( prop]ties ( any k9d1 proce$+ concurr5tly ) a v>iation 9 ! composition ( a solution4 #ej bis ,pick]+ 7#ahij7 %[$ 7a7 t dilute solutions ( sulphuric acid conta9+ up to ,h#b,,s#d #aj;,h#b,o deposit ice 7at -#jab :5 !re is #b1jjj;,h#b,o p] ,h#b,,s#d1 at -#jbc :5 !re is #a1jjj;,h#b,o1 at -#ajd :5 !re is #bjj;,h#b,o1 at -#bab :5 !re is #ajj;,h#b,o1 at -#de :5 !re is #ej;,h#b,o1 at -#aeg :5 !re is #bj;,h#b,o1 & at -#fa :5 ! composition ( ! solution is ,h#b,,s#d #aj;,h#b,o72 7b7 t = high] conc5trations cry/als sep>ate out at a consid]able degree ( cold1 hav+ ! composition ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o1 :i* melt at -#bde1 & if ei!r wat] or ,h#b,,s#d be add$ to ?is comp\nd ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation falls1 s t a solution ( ! composition #ab;,h#b,,s#d #ajj;,h#b,o gives cry/als ( ! above hydrate at -#gj1 #ae;,h#b,,s#d #ajj;,h#b,o at -#dg1 #cj;,h#b,,s#d #ajj;,h#b,o at -#cb1 #dj;,h#b,,s#d #ajj;,h#b,o at -#eb2 7c7 t if ! am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d be /ill great]1 !n a hydrate ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o sep>ates out & melts at #he1 :ile ! addition ( wat] or sulphuric acid to x l[]s ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation s t ! cry/allisation ( ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o f a solution ( ! composition ,h#b,,s#d #agc;,h#b,o takes place at -#bb1 ,h#b,,s#d #ae;,h#b,o at -#fe1 ,h#b,,s#d #ab;,h#b,o at #cg1 ,h#b,,s#d #jge;,h#b,o at #bh1 ,h#b,,s#d #je;,h#b,o at -#af2 7d7 t :5 !re is less ?an #dj;,h#b,o p] #ajj;,h#b,,s#d1 refrig]ation sep>ates out ! normal hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1 :i* melts at #ajce1 & t a solution ( ! composition ,h#b,,s#d #jce;,h#b,o deposits cry/als ( ?is hydrate at -#cd1 ,h#b,,s#d #ja;,h#b,o at -#da1 ,h#b,,s#d #jje;,h#b,o at #di1 :ile fum+ acid ( ! composition ,h#b,,s#d #jje,,s#c deposits ,h#b,,s#d at ab\t #g4 ,?us ! temp]ature ( ! sep>ation ( cry/als cle>ly di/+ui%es ! above f\r regions ( solutions1 & 9 ! space betwe5 ,h#b,,s#d ,h#b,o & #be;,h#b,o a p>ticul> hydrate ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o sep>ates out1 discov]$ by ,pick]+1 ! isolation ( :i* des]ves full att5tion & fur!r rese>*4 ,i may add "h t ! exi/5ce ( a hydrate ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o 0 po9t$ out 9 my "w1 ,! ,inve/igation ( ,aque\s ,solutions1 p4 #abj 7#ahhg71 ^u ! basis t x has at all temp]atures a small] value = ! coeffici5t ( expansion k 9 ! =mula ,st ,s#j_/7a - kt7 ?an ! adjac5t 79 composition7 solutions ( sulphuric acid4 ,& = solutions approximat+ to ,h#b,,s#daj;,h#b,o 9 _! composition1 k is con/ant at all temp]atures 7= m dilute solutions ! value ( k increases ) t & = m conc5trat$ solutions x decreases74 ,?is solution 7) #aj;,h#b,o7 =ms ! po9t ( transition betwe5 m dilute solutions :i* deposit ice 7wat]7 :5 refrig]at$ & ^? :i* give cry/als ( ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o4 ,accord+ to ,r4 ,pictet 7#ahid7 ! solution ,h#b,,s#daj;,h#b,o freezes at -#hh 7b no ref]5ce is made z to :at sep>ates out71 i4e4 at a l[] temp]ature ?an all ! o!r solutions ( sulphuric acid4 ,h[ev]1 9 respect to ^! la/ rese>*es ( ,r4 ,pictet 7= #hhhh p4c4 ,h#b,,s#d -#ee1 = ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o #ce1 = ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o -#gj1 = ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o -#dj1 c47 x %\ld be rem>k$ t !y (f] "s q improbable data2 = example1 = ,h#b,,s#dge;,h#b,o !y give ! freez+ po9t z #j1 = ,h#b,,s#dcjj;,h#b,o #de1 & ev5 = ,h#b,,s#dajjj;,h#b,o #je1 al?\gh x is well kn[n t a small am\nt ( sulphuric acid l[]s ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice4 ,i h f\nd by direct exp]im5t t a froz5 solidifi$ solution ( ,h#b,,s#d #cjj;,h#b,o melt$ completely at #j4 #ea ,) an excess ( sn[1 ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o1 l ! normal hydrate1 gives a freez+ mixture1 ow+ to ! absorption ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat 7! lat5t heat ( fusion74 ,9 melt+1 ! molecule ,h#b,,s#d absorbs #ifj heat units1 & ! molecule ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o #c1fhj heat units4 ,if !re=e we mix "o gram molecule ( ?is hydrate ) sev5te5 gram molecules ( sn[1 !re is an absorption ( #ah1jhj heat units1 because #ag;,h#b,o absorbs #ag #a1dcj heat units1 & ! comb9ation ( ! monohydrate ) wat] evolves #i1hjj heat units4 ,z ! specific heat ( ! resultant comp\nd ,h#b,,s#d1ah;,h#b,o #jhac1 ! fall ( temp]ature w be -#ebf4 ,&1 9 fact1 a v l[ temp]ature may be obta9$ by means ( sulphuric acid4 ,b only a few prop]ties h be5 det]m9$ ) suffici5t accuracy4 ,9 ^? prop]ties :i* h be5 det]m9$ = _m solutions ( sulphuric acid1 x is actually se5 t ! above-m5tion$ def9ite comp\nds are di/+ui%$ by di/9ctive m>ks ( *ange4 ,z an example we may cite ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity ) a v>iation ( temp]ature 7namely ,k ds_/dt1 if s be ! sp4 gr4 & t ! temp]ature74 ,= ! normal hydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ?is factor is easily det]m9$ f ! fact t-- s #ahebh - #ajfet #jjact#b1 :]e s is ! specific gravity at t 7degrees ,celsius7 if ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at #d #aj1jjj4 ,!re=e ,k #ajfe - #jjbft4 ,?is means t at #j ! sp4 gr4 ( ! acid ,h#b,,s#d decreases by #ajfe = e rise ( a degree ( temp]ature1 at #aj by #ajci1 at #bj by #ajac1 at #cj by #ihg4eb ,& = solutions conta9+ slightly m anhydride ?an ! acid ,h#b,,s#d 7i4e4 = fum+ sulphuric acid71 z well z = solutions conta9+ m wat]1 ,k is great] ?an = ! acid ,h#b,,s#d4 ,?us = ! solution ,,s#c1b;,h#b,,s#d1 at #aj ,k #aaj4 ,on dilut+ ! acid ,h#b,,s#d ,k aga9 increases until ! =mation ( ! solution ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o 7,k #aaa at #aj71 & !n1 on fur!r dilution ) wat]1 x aga9 decreases4 ,consequ5tly bo? hydrates ,h#b,,s#d & ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o are "h express$ by an alt]ation ( ! magnitude ( ,k4 #eb ,= example1 if x be tak5 t at #ai ! sp4 gr4 ( pure sulphuric acid is #ahccj1 !n at #bj x is #ahccj - 7#bj - #ai7ajac #ahcbj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,diagram %[+ ! v>iation ( ! factor 7ds_/dp7 ( ! specific gravity ( solutions ( sulphuric acid4 ,! p]c5tage quantities ( ! acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 are laid out on ! axes ( absciss4 ,! ord9ates are ! factors or rises 9 sp4 gr4 7wat] at #d #aj1jjj7 ) ! increase 9 ! quantity ( ,h#b,,s#d4 ,?is %[s t 9 liquid solutions x is possible by /udy+ ! v>iation ( _! prop]ties 7)\t a *ange ( physical /ate7 to recognise ! pres5ce or =mation ( def9ite hydrate comp\nds1 & !re=e an exact inve/igation ( ! prop]ties ( solutions1 ( _! specific gravity = in/ance1 %\ld give direct indications ( su* comp\nds4#ec ,! mean result ( ! mo/ tru/wor?y det]m9ations ( ?is nature is giv5 9 ! foll[+ tables4 ,! fir/ ( ^! tables gives ! specific gravities 79 vacuo1 tak+ ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at #d #a71 at #j 7column #c71 #ae 7column #d71 & #cj 7column #e71ec bis = solutions hav+ ! composition ,h#b,,s#d n,h#b,o 7! value ( n is giv5 9 ! fir/ column71 & conta9+ p 7column #b7 p] c5t4 7by weight 9 vacuo7 ( ,h#b,,s#d4ec tri n p #j #ae #cj #ajj #eaf #ajcgd #ajcda #ajbib #ej #ihb #ajgag #ajfff #ajfjc #be #aghh #aaccg #aabeg #aaagc #ae #bffc #abjdj #aaici #aahcg #aj #cebe #abgeh #abfdi #abedj #h #djej #acbbc #acaaj #abiih #f #dgeg #achfe #acgdh #acfbb #e #ebac #adcja #adahj #adjfb #d #egfe #adhha #adgee #adfca #c #fddg #aefce #aeeja #aecgj #b #gcac #affdh #afejj #afcei #a #hddh #agidj #agggb #agfjh #je #iaei #ahdde #ahbhd #ahabh ,h#b,,s#d #ajj #ahebi #ahcgb #ahbba #ec ,un=tunately1 not)/&+ ! great numb] ( fragm5t>y & sy/ematic rese>*es :i* h be5 made 7by ,p>ks1 ,ure1 ,b9eau1 ,kolbe1 ,lunge1 ,m>ignac1 ,krem]s1 ,?oms51 ,p]k91 & o!rs7 = det]m9+ ! relation betwe5 ! sp4 gr4 & composition ( solutions ( sulphuric acid1 !y conta9 discrepancies :i* am\nt to1 & ev5 exce$1 #jjjb 9 ! sp4 gr4 ,= in/ance1 at #aed ! solution ( composition ,h#b,,s#dc;,h#b,o has a sp4 gr4 #aedic accord+ to ,p]k9 7#ahhf71 #aeeja accord+ to ,pick]+ 7#ahij71 & #aeebe accord+ to ,lunge 7#ahij74 ,! cause ( ^! discrepancies mu/ be look$ = 9 ! me?ods employ$ = det]m9+ ! composition ( ! solutions--i4e4 9 ! inaccuracy ) :i* ! p]c5tage am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d is det]m9$1 = a diff]5ce ( #a p4c4 corresponds to a diff]5ce ( f #jjjgj 7= v weak solutions7 to #jjaah 7= a solution conta9+ ab\t #gc p4c47 9 ! specific gravity 7t is ! factor ds_/dp7 at #ae4 ,z x is possible to det]m9e ! specific gravity ) an accuracy ev5 exce$+ #jjjjb1 ! specific gravities giv5 9 ! adjo9+ tables are only av]ages & mo/ probable data 9 :i* ! error1 especially = ! #cj-hj p4c4 solutions _c be less ?an #jjjaj 7tak+ wat] at #d z #a74 #ec bis ,judg+ f ! be/ exi/+ det]m9ations 7( ,m>ignac1 ,krem]s1 & ,pick]+7 = solutions ( sulphuric acid 7especially ^? conta9+ m ?an #e p4c4 ,h#b,,s#d7 )9 ! limits ( #j & #cj 7& ev5 to #dj71 ! v>iation ( ! sp4 gr4 ) ! temp]ature t may 7)9 ! accuracy ( ! exi/+ det]m9ations7 be p]fectly express$ by ! equation ,st ,s#j ,at ,bt#b4 ,x mu/ be add$ t 7#a7 ?ree specific gravities fully det]m9e ! v>iation ( ! d5sity ) t2 7#b7 ds_/dt ,a #b;,bt--i4e4 ! factor ( ! temp]ature is express$ by a /raight l9e2 7#c7 ! value ( ,a 7if p be great] ?an #e p4c47 is negative1 & num]ically mu* great] ?an ,b2 7#d7 ! value ( ,b = dilute solutions conta9+ less ?an #be p4c4 is negative2 = solutions approximat+ to ,h#b,,s#dc;,h#b,o 9 _! composition x is equal to #j1 & = solutions ( great] conc5tration ,b is positive2 7#e7 ! factor ds_/dp = all temp]atures atta9s a maximum value ab\t ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o2 7#f7 on divid+ ds_/dt by ,s#j1 & s obta9+ ! coeffici5t ( expansion k 7see ,note #ec71 a m9imum is obta9$ ne> ,h#b,,s#d & ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o1 & a maximum at ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o = all temp]atures4 #ec tri ,^! data 7z well z ^? 9 ! foll[+ table7 h be5 recalculat$ by me *iefly ^u ! basis ( ,krem]'s1 ,pick]+'s1 ,p]k9's1 & my own det]m9ations2 all ! requisite corrections h be5 introduc$1 & ,i h reason = ?9k+ t 9 ea* ( !m ! probable error 7or diff]5ce f ! true figures1 n[ unkn[n7 ( ! specific gravity does n exce$ #jjjjg 7if wat] at #d #a7 = ! #be-hj p4c4 solutions1 & #jjjjb = ! m dilute or conc5trat$ solutions4 ,9 ! second table ! fir/ column gives ! p]c5tage am\nt p 7by weight7 ( ,h#b,,s#d1 ! second column ! weight 9 grams 7,s#ae7 ( a litre ( ! solution at #ae 7at #d ! weight ( a litre ( wat] #a1jjj grams71 ! ?ird column1 ! v>iation 7d,s_/dt7 ( ?is weight = a rise ( #a1 ! f\r? column1 ! v>iation d,s_/dp ( ?is weight 7at #ae7 = a rise ( #a p] c5t4 ( ,h#b,,s#d1 ! fif? column1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight ( a litre at #j & #ae 7,s#j - ,s#ae71 & ! six? column1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight ( a litre at #ae & #cj 7,s#ae - ,s#cj74 p ,s#ae d,s#ae_/;dt d,s#ae_/;dp ,s#j- ,s#ae- ,s#ae ,s#cj #j #iiiae #jadh #gj #jg #cd #e #ajccj #jbg #fh #ca #ej #aj #ajfgg #jch #ga #eb #fd #bj #aadai #jeh #gg #hf #hi #cj #abbac #jfi #hb #ajd #ajd #dj #acjff #jge #hh #aac #aab #ej #acigi #jgi #ii #aai #aah #fj #aejab #jhf #ajh #acj #abg #gj #afaca #jic #aaf #ada #ach #hj #agcad #ajd #aaj #aeh #aed #ij #ahaii #ajh #ed #afd #afj #ie #ahcgf #ajc #ag #aeh #aea #ajj #ahcgb #ajc -#aied #aeg #aea ,! figures 9 ^! tables give ! means ( f9d+ ! am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d conta9$ 9 a solution f its specific gravity1#ee & also %[ t 'special po9ts' 9 ! l9es ( v>iation ( ! specific gravity ) ! temp]ature & p]c5tage composition correspond to c]ta9 def9ite comp\nds ( ,h#b,,s#d ) ,,oh#b4 ,?is is be/ se5 9 ! v>iation ( ! factors 7d,s_/dt & d,s_/dp7 ) ! temp]ature & composition 7columns #c1 #d1 second table74 ,we h already m5tion$ h[ ! factor ( temp]ature po9ts to ! exi/5ce ( hydrates1 ,h#b,,s#d & ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o4 ,z reg>ds ! factor d,s_/dp 7giv+ ! increase ( sp4 gr4 ) an increase ( #a p] c5t4 ,h#b,,s#d7 ! foll[+ are ! ?ree mo/ sali5t po9ts3 7#a7 ,9 pass+ f #ih p] c5t4 to #ajj p] c5t4 ! factor is negative1 & at #ajj p] c5t4 ab\t -#jjjai 7i4e4 at #ii p] c5t4 ! sp4 gr4 is ab\t #ahcia1 & at #ajj p] c5t4 ab\t #ahcgb1 at #ae1 ! am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d has increas$ :il/ ! sp4 gr4 has decreas$71 b z soon z a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,,s#c is add$ to ! def9ite comp\nd ,h#b,,s#d 7& 'fum+' acid =m$7 ! specific gravity rises 7= example1 = ,h#b,,s#d #jacf ,,s#c ! sp4 gr4 at #ae #ahff71 t is ! factor becomes positive 7&1 9 fact1 great] by #jja71 s t ! =mation ( ! def9ite hydrate ,h#b,,s#d is accompani$ by a di/9ct & consid]able break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! factor#ee bis2 7#b7 ,! factor 7d,s_/dp7 9 increas+ 9 its passage f dilute to conc5trat$ solutions1 atta9s a maximum value 7at #ae ab\t #jjab7 ab\t ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o1 i4e4 at ab\t ! hydrate correspond+ to ! =m ,,sx#f2 prop] to ! comp\nds ( sulphur1 = ,s7,,oh7#f ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o2 ! same hydrate corresponds to ! composition ( gypsum ,ca,s,o#db;,h#b,o1 & to x also corresponds ! greate/ contraction & rise ( temp]ature 9 mix+ ,h#b,,s#d ) ,h#b,o 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #bh72 7#c7 ,! v>iation ( ! factor 7d,s_/dp7 "u c]ta9 v>iations 9 ! composition proce$s s uni=mly & regul>ly1 & is s diff]5t f ! v>iation giv5 "u o!r proportions ( ,h#b,,s#d & ,h#b,o1 t ! sum ( ! v>iations ( d,s_/dp is express$ by a s]ies ( /raight l9es1 if ! values ( p be laid along ! axis ( absciss & ^? ( d,s_/dp along ! ord9ates4#ef ,?us1 = in/ance1 = #ae1 at #aj p] c5t4 d,s_/dp #jjjga1 at #bj p] c5t4 #jjjgg1 at #cj p] c5t4 #jjjhb1 at #dj p] c5t4 #jjjhh1 t is1 = ea* #aj p] c5t4 ! factor increases by ab\t #jjjjf = ! :ole ( ! above range1 b beyond ?is x becomes l>g]1 & !n1 aft] pass+ ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o1 x beg9s to fall rapidly4 ,su* *anges 9 ! v>iation ( ! factor take place app>5tly ab\t def9ite hydrates1#ef bis & especially ab\t ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o1 ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o4 ,all ?is indicat+ z x does ! special *emical aff9ity ( sulphuric acid = wat]1 al?\gh ( no small significance = compreh5d+ ! nature ( solutions 7see ,*apt] ,i4 & ,*apt] ,,vii471 conta9s _m special po9ts :i* require detail$ inve/igation1 ! *ief difficulty be+ t x requires great accuracy 9 a l>ge numb] ( exp]im5tal data4 #ed ,! factor d,s_/dp passes ?r\gh #j1 t is1 ! specific gravity atta9s a maximum value at ab\t #ih p4c4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,kohlraus*1 & confirm$ by ,*]tel1 ,pick]+1 & o!rs4 #ee ,naturally "u ! condition t !re is no o!r +r$i5t besides wat]1 :i* is suffici5tly true4 ,= comm]cial acid1 ^: specific gravity is usually express$ 9 degrees ( ,baum's hydromet]1 we may add t at #ae ,specific gravity #a #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah ,degree ,baum #j #ac #bd #ccc #dab #dha #eda #eie #fdb #ff ,baum 7! /ronge/ comm]cial acid or oil ( vitriol7 corresponds to a sp4 gr4 #ahd4 ,by employ+ ! second table 7by ! me?od ( int]polation7 ! specific gravity1 at a giv5 temp]ature 7f #j to #cj7 c be f\nd = any p]c5tage am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d1 & !re=e conv]sely ! p]c5tage ( ,h#b,,s#d c be f\nd f ! specific gravity4 #ee bis ,:e!r simil> 7ev5 small7 breaks 9 ! cont9uity ( ! factor d,s_/dp exi/ or n1 = o!r hydrates 7= in/ance1 = ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o7 _c z yet be affirm$ ow+ to ! want ( accurate data 7,note #ec74 ,9 my inve/igation ( ?is subject 7#ahhg7 ,i admit _! possibility1 b only conditionally2 & n[1 )\t insi/+ ^u a simil> op9ion1 ,i only hold to ! exi/5ce ( a di/9ct break 9 ! factor at ,h#b,,s#d1 be+ guid$ by ,c4 ,w9kl]'s obs]vations ond ! specific gravities ( fum+ sulphuric acid4 #ef ,9 #ahhg1 on consid]+ all ! exi/5t obs]vations = a temp]ature #j1 ,i gave ! accompany+ s*eme 7p4 #bdc7 ( ! v>iation ( ! factor ds_/dp at #j4 ,i did n !n 7#ahhg7 give ?is s*eme an absolute value1 & n[ aft] ! appe>ance ( two s]ies ( new det]m9ations 7,lunge & ,pick]+ 9 #ahij71 :i* disagree 9 _m po9ts1 ,i ?9k x well to /ate q cle>ly3 7#a7 t ,lunge's & ,pick]+'s new det]m9ations h n add$ to ! accuracy ( our data respect+ ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity ( solutions ( sulphuric acid2 7#b7 t ! sum total ( exi/+ data does n negative 7)9 ! limit ( exp]im5tal accuracy7 ! possibility ( a rectil9e> & brok5 =m = ! factors ds_/dp2 7#c7 t ! supposition ( 'special po9ts' 9 ds_/dp1 indicat+ def9ite hydrates1 f9ds confirmation 9 all ! late/ det]m9ations2 7#d7 t ! supposition respect+ ! exi/5ce ( hydrates det]m9+ a break ( ! factor ds_/dp is 9 9 way alt]$ if1 in/ead ( a s]ies ( brok5 /raight l9es1 !re be a cont9u\s s]ies ( curves1 ne>ly approa*+ /raight l9es2 & 7#e7 t ?is subject des]ves 7z ,i m5tion$ 9 #ahhg7 new & c>eful elaboration1 because x conc]ns t =emo/ problem 9 our sci5ce--solutions--& introduces a special me?od into x--t is1 ! /udy ( diff]5tial v>iations 9 a prop]ty :i* is s easily obs]v$ z ! specific gravity ( a liquid4 #ef bis ,^! hydrates are3 7a7 ,h#b,,s#d ,,s#c;,h#b,o 7melts at #ajd72 7b7 ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o ,,s#cb;,h#b,o 7cry/allo-hydrate1 melts at #he72 7c7 ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o 7is app>5tly n cry/allisable72 7d7 "o ( ! hydrates betwe5 ,h#b,,s#df;,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#dc;,h#b,o1 mo/ probably ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o ,,s#ce;,h#b,o1 = x cry/allises at -#bde 7,note #ej bis72 & 7e7 a c]ta9 hydrate ) a l>ge proportion ( wat]1 ab\t ,h#b,,s#daej;,h#b,o4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! la/ is inf]r$ f ! fact t ! factor ds_/dp fir/ falls1 />t+ f wat]1 & !n rises1 & ?is *ange takes place :5 p is less ?an #e p4c4 ,c]ta9ly a *ange 9 ! v>iation ( ds_/dp or ds_/dt does take place 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ^! five hydrates 7,pick]+1 #ahij1 recognis$ a f> great] numb] ( hydrates74 ,i ?9k x well to add t if ! composition ( ! solutions be express$ by ! p]c5tage am\nt ( molecules--r#a,,s#c 7#ajj - r#a7;,h#b,o we f9d t = ,h#b,,s#d1 r#a #ej1 = ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o r#a #be #ej_/b1 = ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o1 r#a #ccccc #ej #b_/c1 :ile = ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o1 r#a #affff #ej #a_/c--;i4e4 t ! *ief hydrates are di/ribut$ symmetrically betwe5 ,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,besides :i* ,i may m5tion t my rese>*es 7#ahhg7 ^u ! abrupt *anges 9 ! factor = solutions ( sulphuric acid1 & ^u ! correspond5ce ( ! breaks ( ds_/dp ) def9ite hydrates1 receiv$ an indirect confirmation n only 9 ! solutions ( ,,hno#c1 ,h,cl1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 ,c#c;,h#h,o1 c41 :i* ,i inve/igat$ 79 my "w cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai71 b also 9 ! c>eful obs]vations made by ,pr(essor ,*eltz(f on ! solutions ( ,fe,cl#c & ,zn,cl#b 7,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #d7 :i* %[$ ! exi/5ce 9 ^! solutions ( an almo/ simil> *ange 9 ds_/dp z is f\nd 9 sulphuric acid4 ,! detail$ rese>*es 7#ahic7 made by ,t\rbaba on ! solutions ( _m organic sub/ances are ( a simil> nature4 ,besides :i*1 ,h4 ,crompton 7#ahhh71 9 8 rese>*es on ! electrical conductivity ( solutions ( sulphuric acid1 & ,tammann1 9 8 obs]vations on _! vap\r t5sion1 f\nd a correlation ) ! hydrates indicat$ z above by ! inve/igation ( _! specific gravities4 ,! influ5ce ( mixtures ( a def9ite composition ^u ! *emical relations ( solutions is ev5 exhibit$ 9 su* a complex process z electrolysis4 ,v4 ,k\ril(f 7#ahia7 %[$ t mixtures conta9+ ab\t #c p4c41 #dg p4c4 & #gc p4c4 ( sulphuric acid--i4e4 ^: composition approa*es t ( ! hydrates ,h#b,,s#daej;,h#b,o1 ,h#b,,s#df;,h#b,o & ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o--exhibit c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 respect to ! am\nt ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 =m$ dur+ electrolysis4 ,?us a #c p4c4 solution gives a maximum am\nt ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 at ! negative pole1 z comp>$ ) t giv5 by o!r neighb\r+ conc5trations4 ,/>t+ f #c p4c41 ! =mation ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 ceases until a conc5tration ( #dg p4c4 is rea*$4 ,! great aff9ity ( sulphuric acid = wat] is also se5 f ! fact t :5 ! /rong acid acts on ! majority ( organic sub/ances conta9+ hydrog5 & oxyg5 7especially on heat+7 x v frequ5tly takes up ^! elem5ts 9 ! =m ( wat]4 ,?us /rong sulphuric acid act+ on alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 removes ! elem5ts ( wat] f x1 & conv]ts x into olefiant gas1 ,c#b;,h#d4 ,x acts 9 a simil> mann] on wood & o!r vegetable tissues1 :i* x *>s4 ,if a piece ( wood be imm]s$ 9 /rong sulphuric acid x turns black4 ,?is is ow+ to ! fact t ! wood conta9s c>bohydrates :i* give up hydrog5 & oxyg5 z wat] to ! sulphuric acid1 leav+ *>coal1 or a black mass v ri* 9 x4 ,= example1 cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 acts 9 ?is mann]4#eg #eg ,cellulose1 = in/ance unsiz$ pap] or calico1 is dissolv$ by /rong sulphuric acid4 ,acid dilut$ ) ab\t half its volume ( wat] conv]ts x 7if ! action be ( %ort duration7 into vegetable p>*m5t 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ah74 ,! action ( dilute solutions ( sulphuric acid conv]ts x into hydro-cellulose1 & ! fibre loses its coh]5t quality & becomes brittle4 ,! prolong$ action ( /rong sulphuric acid *>s ! cellulose :ile dilute acid conv]ts x into glucose4 ,if sulphuric acid be kept 9 an op5 vessel1 ! organic matt] ( ! du/ held 9 ! atmosph]e falls into x & black5s ! acid4 ,! same ?+ happ5s if sulphuric acid be kept 9 a bottle clos$ by a cork2 ! cork becomes *>r$1 & ! acid turns black4 ,h[ev]1 ! *emical prop]ties ( ! acid und]go only a v slight *ange :5 x turns black4 ,sulphuric acid :i* is consid]ably dilut$ ) wat] does n produce ! above effects1 :i* cle>ly %[s _! dep5d5ce on ! aff9ity ( ! sulphuric acid = wat]4 ,x is evid5t f ! prec$+ t /rong sulphuric acid w act z a p[]ful poison2 :il/1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 v dilute x is employ$ 9 c]ta9 m$ic9es & z a f]tilis] = plants4 ,we h already _h frequ5t occasion to notice ! v en]getic acid prop]ties ( sulphuric acid1 & !re=e we w n[ only consid] a few ( _! aspects4 ,fir/ ( all we mu/ rememb] t1 ) calcium1 /rontium1 & especially ) b>ium & lead1 sulphuric acid =ms v slightly soluble salts1 :il/ ) ! majority ( o!r metals x gives m easily soluble salts1 :i* 9 ! majority ( cases are able1 l sulphuric acid itself1 to comb9e ) wat] to =m cry/allo-hydrates4 ,normal sulphuric acid1 conta9+ two atoms ( hydrog5 9 its molecule1 is able = ?is reason alone to =m two classes ( salts1 normal & acid1 :i* x does ) great facility ) ! alkali metals4 ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s & ! majority ( o!r metals1 if !y d =m acid sulphates1 d s "u exceptional conditions 7) an excess ( /rong sulphuric acid71 & ^! salts :5 =m$ are decomposable by wat]--t is1 al?\gh hav+ a c]ta9 degree ( physical /ability !y h no *emical /ability4 ,besides ! acid salts ,,rhso#d1 sulphuric acid also gives o!r =ms ( acid salts4 ,an entire s]ies ( salts hav+ ! composition ,,rhso#d1;,h#b,,s#d1 or = bival5t metals ,,rso#d1c;,h#b,,s#d1eh has be5 prep>$4 ,su* salts h be5 obta9$ = potassium1 sodium1 nickel1 calcium1 silv]1 magnesium1 manganese4 ,!y are prep>$ by dissolv+ ! sulphates 9 an excess ( sulphuric acid & heat+ ! solution until ! excess ( sulphuric acid is driv5 (f2 on cool+1 ! mass solidifies to a cry/all9e salt4 ,besides :i*1 ,rose obta9$ a salt hav+ ! composition ,na#b,,s#d1,na,h,s,o#d1 & if ,h,na,s,o#d be heat$ x easily =ms a salt ,na#b,s#b,o#g ,na#b,,s#d1,,s#c2 h5ce x is cle> t sulphuric anhydride comb9es ) v>i\s proportions ( bases1 j z x comb9es ) v>i\s proportions ( wat]4 #eh ,web] 7#ahhd7 obta9$ a s]ies ( salts ,r#b,o1#h,,s#cn,h#b,o = ,k1 ,rb1 ,cs1 & ,tl4 ,we h already le>n$ t sulphuric acid displaces ! acid f ! salts ( nitric1 c>bonic1 & _m o!r volatile acids4 ,b]?ollet's laws 7,*apt] ,x47 expla9 ?is by ! small volatility ( sulphuric acid2 &1 inde$1 9 an aque\s solution sulphuric acid displaces ! mu* less soluble boric acid f its comp\nds--= in/ance1 f borax1 & x also displaces silica f its comp\nds ) bases2 b bo? boric anhydride & silica1 :5 fus$ ) sulphates1 decompose !m1 displac+ sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 because !y are less volatile ?an sulphuric anhydride4 ,x is also well kn[n t ) metals1 sulphuric acid =ms salts giv+ (f hydrog5 7,fe1 ,zn1 c471 or sulphur dioxide 7,cu1 ,hg1 c474#eh bis #eh bis ,ditte 7#ahij7 divides all ! metals into two gr\ps ) respect to sulphuric acid2 ! fir/ gr\p includes silv]1 m]cury1 copp]1 lead1 & bismu?1 :i* are only act$ ^u by hot conc5trat$ acid4 ,9 ?is case sulphur\s anhydride is evolv$ )\t any by-reactions4 ,! second gr\p conta9s manganese1 nickel1 cobalt1 iron1 z9c1 cadmium1 alum9ium1 t91 ?allium1 & ! alkali metals4 ,!y react ) sulphuric acid ( any conc5tration at any temp]ature4 ,at a l[ temp]ature hydrog5 is dis5gag$1 & at high] temp]atures 7& ) v conc5trat$ acid7 hydrog5 & sulphur\s anhydride are simultane\sly evolv$4 ,! reactions ( sulphuric acid ) respect to organic sub/ances are g5]ally det]m9$ by its acid "*1 :5 ! direct extraction ( wat]1 or oxidation at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! sulphuric acid1#ei or dis9tegration does n take place4 ,?us ! majority ( ! saturat$ hydroc>bons1 ,cn,h#bm1 =m ) sulphuric acid a special class ( sulphonic acids1 ,cn,h#bm-#a7;,,hso#c72 = example1 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 =ms b5z5esulphonic acid1 ,c#f;,h#e4,,s#c;,h1 wat] be+ sep>at$1 = ! =mation ( :i* oxyg5 is tak5 up f ! sulphuric acid1 = ! product conta9s less oxyg5 ?an ! sulphuric acid4 ,x is evid5t f ! exi/5ce ( ^! acids t ! hydrog5 9 organic comp\nds is replaceable by ! gr\p ,,s#c;,h1 j z x may be replac$ by ! radicles ,cl1 ,,no#b1 ,,co#b;,h & o!rs4 ,z ! radicle ( sulphuric acid or sulphoxyl1 ,,s#b,,oh or ,,%o#c1 conta9s1 l c>boxyl 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cie71 "o hydrog5 7hydroxyl7 ( sulphuric acid1 ! resultant sub/ances are acids ^: basicity is equal to ! numb] ( hydrog5s replac$ by sulphoxyl4 ,s9ce also sulphoxyl takes ! place ( hydrog51 & itself conta9s hydrog51 ! sulpho-acids are equal to a hydroc>bon ,,s#c1 j z e organic 7c>boxylic7 acid is equal to a hydroc>bon ,,co#b4 ,moreov]1 "h ?is relation corresponds ) actual fact1 because _m sulphonic acids are obta9$ by ! direct comb9ation ( sulphuric anhydride3 ,c#f;,h#e17,,s#c;,h7 ,c#f;,h#f ,,s#c4 ,! sulphonic acids give soluble b>ium salts1 & are !re=e easily di/+ui%$ f sulphuric acid4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat]1 are n volatile1 & :5 di/ill$ give sulphur\s anhydride 7:il/ ! hydroxyl previ\sly 9 comb9ation ) ! sulphur\s anhydride rema9s 9 ! hydroc>bon gr\p2 ?us ph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#e4,,oh1 is obta9$ f b5z5esulphonic acid71 & !y are v en]getic1 because ! hydrog5 act+ 9 !m is ( ! same nature z 9 sulphuric acid itself4#fj #ei ,= example1 ! action ( hot sulphuric acid on nitrog5\s comp\nds1 z appli$ 9 ,kjeldahl's me?od = ! e/imation ( nitrog5 7,volume ,i4 p4 #bdi74 ,x is obvi\s t :5 sulphuric acid acts z an oxidis+ ag5t x =ms sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! action ( sulphuric acid on ! alcohols is exactly simil> to its action on alkalis1 because ! alcohols1 l alkalis1 react on acids2 a molecule ( alcohol ) a molecule ( sulphuric acid sep>ates wat] & =ms an acid e!real salt--t is !re is produc$ an e!real comp\nd correspond+ ) acid salts4 ,?us1 = example1 ! action ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 on ord9>y alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 gives wat] & sulphov9ic acid1 ,c#b;,h#e;,,hso#d--t is1 sulphuric acid 9 :i* "o atom ( hydrog5 is replac$ by ! radicle ,c#b;,h#e ( e?yl alcohol1 ,,s#b7,,oh77,,oc#b;,h#e71 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 ! hydrog5 9 alcohol is replac$ by ! radicle 7sulphoxyl7 ( sulphuric acid1 ,c#b;,h#e,o4,,s#b7,,oh74 #fj ,we w m5tion ! foll[+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! sulphonic acids & ! e!real acid sulphates 7,note #ei73 ! =m] re-=m sulphuric acid ) difficulty & ! latt] easily4 ,?us sulphov9ic acid :5 heat$ ) an excess ( wat] is reconv]t$ into alcohol & sulphuric acid4 ,?is is expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,bo? ^! classes ( acids are produc$ by ! sub/itution ( hydrog5 by ,,s#c;,h1 or ! unival5t radicle ( sulphuric acid1 b 9 ! =mation ( e!real acid sulphates ! ,,s#c;,h replaces ! hydrog5 ( ! hydroxyl 9 ! alcohol1 :il/ 9 ! =mation ( ! sulphonic acids ! ,,s#c;,h replaces ! hydrog5 ( a hydroc>bon4 ,?is diff]5ce is cle>ly evid5c$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( two acids ( ! composition ,,s#d;,c#b;,h#f4 ,! "o1 m5tion$ above1 is sulphov9ic acid or alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e4,,oh1 9 :i* ! hydrog5 ( ! hydroxyl is replac$ by sulphoxyl ,c#b;,h#e4,,oso#c;,h1 :il/ ! o!r is alcohol1 9 :i* "o atom ( ! hydrog5 9 e?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e1 is replac$ by ! sulphonic gr\p--t is 7,c#b;,h#d7,,s#c;,h,,oh4 ,! latt] is call$ ise?ionic acid4 ,x is m /able ?an sulphov9ic acid4 ,! details z to ^! int]e/+ comp\nds mu/ be look$ = 9 works on organic *emi/ry1 b ,i ?9k x necess>y to note "o ( ! g5]al me?ods ( =mation ( ^! acids4 ,! sulphites ( ! alkalis--= example1 ,k#b,,s#c--:5 heat$ ) ! halog5 products ( metalepsis1 give a halog5 salt & a salt ( a sulphonic acid4 ,?us me?yl iodide1 ,,*#c;,i1 d]iv$ f m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 :5 heat$ to #ajj ) a solution ( potassium sulphite1 ,k#b,,s#c1 gives potassium iodide1 ,,ki1 & potassium me?ylsulphonate1 ,,*#c,,s#c,k--t is a salt ( ! sulphonic acid4 ,?is %[s t ! sulphonic acid may be ref]r$ to sulphur\s acid1 & t !re is a resemblance betwe5 sulphuric & sulphur\s acid1 :i* cle>ly reveals itself "h 9 ! =mation ( "o product f !m bo?4 ,sulphuric acid1 z conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( oxyg51 is a sub/ance :i* frequ5tly acts z an oxidis+ ag5t3 9 :i* case x is deoxidis$1 =m+ sulphur\s anhydride & wat] 7or ev51 al?\gh m r>ely1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 & sulphur74 ,sulphuric acid acts 9 ?is mann] on *>coal1 copp]1 m]cury1 silv]1 organic & o!r sub/ances1 :i* are unable to evolve hydrog5 f x directly1 z we saw 9 describ+ sulphur\s anhydride4 ,al?\gh ! hydrate ( a high] sal9e =m ( oxidation 7,*apt] ,,xv471 sulphuric anhydride is capable ( fur!r oxidation1 & =ms a k9d ( p]oxide1 j z hydrog5 gives hydrog5 p]oxide 9 addition to wat]1 or z sodium & potassium1 besides ! oxides ,na#b,o & ,k#b,o1 give _! p]oxides1 comp\nds :i* are 9 a *emical s5se un/able1 p[]fully oxidis+1 & n directly able to ent] into sal9e comb9ations4 ,if ! oxides ( potassium1 b>ium1 c41 be comp>$ to wat]1 !n _! p]oxides mu/ 9 l mann] correspond to hydrog5 p]oxide1#fa n only because ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 !m is v mobile & easily lib]at$1 & because _! reactions are simil>1 b also because !y c be mutually trans=m$ into ea* o!r1 & are able to =m comp\nds ) ea* o!r1 ) bases & ) wat]1 & inde$ =m a k9d ( p]oxide salts4#fb ,?is is also ! "* ( p]sulphuric acid1 discov]$ 9 #ahgh by ,b]!lot1 & its correspond+ anhydride or p]oxide ( sulphur ,s#b,o#g4 ,x is =m$ f #b,,s#c ,o ) ! absorption ( heat 7-#bg ?\s& heat units71 l ozone f ,o#b ,o 7-#bi ?\s& units ( heat71 or hydrog5 p]oxide f ,h#b,o ,o 7-#ba ?\s& heat units74 #fa ,! reaction ,ba,o ,o develops #ab1jjj heat units1 :il/ ! reaction ,h#b,o ,o absorbs #ba1jjj heat units4 #fb ,s*ne obta9$ a comp\nd ( p]oxide ( b>ium ) p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,if b>ium p]oxide be dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric 7or acetic7 acid1 or if a solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide be dilut$ ) a solution ( b>ium hydroxide1 a pure hydrate is precipitat$ hav+ ! composition ,ba,o#b1h;,h#b,o 7sometimes ! composition is tak5 z ,ba,o#b1f;,h#b,o74 ,?is fact 0 already kn[n to ,?n>d4 ,s*ne %[$ t if hydrog5 p]oxide be 9 excess1 a cry/all9e comp\nd ( ! two p]oxides1 ,ba,o#b;,h#b,o#b1 is precipitat$4 ,s*ne also obta9$ small well-=m$ cry/als ( ! same composition by add+ a solution ( ammonia to an acid solution ( b>ium p]oxide 7conta9+ a b>ium salt & hydrog5 p]oxide or a comp\nd ( ,ba,o#b ) ! acid74 ,?us b>ium p]oxide comb9es ) bo? wat] & hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,?is is a v important fact = ! compreh5sion ( ! composition ( o!r p]oxides4 ,moreov]1 if ! p]oxides are able to give hydrates !y c also =m correspond+ salts1 i4e4 !y c comb9e ) bases & acids1 z 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be ! case on fur!r rese>* into ?is subject4 ,p]oxide ( sulphur is produc$ by ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge ^u a mixture ( oxyg5 & sulphur\s anhydride4#fc ,) wat] ,s#b,o#g gives p]sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#h4 ,! latt] is obta9$ m simply by mix+ /rong sulphuric acid 7n weak] ?an ,h#b,,s#d1b;,h#b,o7 directly ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 or by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on sulphuric acid mix$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]1 & cool$1 ! electrodes be+ plat9um wires1 :5 p]sulphuric acid naturally appe>s at ! positive pole4#fd ,:5 an acid ( ! /r5g? ,h#b,,s#d1f;,h#b,o is tak51 at fir/ ! hydrate ( ! sulphuric p]oxide1 ,s#b,o#g1;,h#b,o only is =m$2 b :5 ! conc5tration ab\t ! positive pole rea*es ,h#b,,s#d1c;,h#b,o1 a mixture ( hydrog5 p]oxide & ! hydrate ( sulphuric p]oxide beg9s to be =m$4 ,dilute solutions ( sulphuric p]oxide c be kept bett] ?an m conc5trat$ solutions1 b ! latt] may be obta9$ conta9+ z mu* z #abc grams ( ! p]oxide to a litre4 ,x is a v in/ructive fact t hydrog5 p]oxide is always =m$ :5 /rong solutions ( p]sulphuric acid break up on keep+4 ,s t ! bond betwe5 ! two p]oxides is e/abli%$ bo? by analysis & syn!sis3 hydrog5 p]oxide is able to produce ,s#b;,h#b,o#h1 & ! latt] to produce hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,a mixture ( sulphuric p]oxide ) sulphuric acid or wat] is imm$iately decompos$1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 ei!r :5 heat$ or "u ! action ( spongy plat9um4 ,! same ?+ takes place ) a solution ( b>yta1 al?\gh at fir/ no precipitate is =m$ & ! decomposition ( ! b>ium salt1 ,ba,s#b,o#h1 ) ! =mation ( ,ba,s,o#d1 only proce$s sl[ly1 s t ! solution may be filt]$ 7! b>ium salt ( p]sulphuric acid is soluble 9 wat]74 ,m]cury1 f]r\s oxide1 & ! /ann\s salts1 are oxidis$ by ,s#b;,h#b,o#h4 ,^! are all di/9ct signs ( true p]oxides4 ,! same common prop]ties 7capacity = oxidis+1 prop]ty ( =m+ p]oxide ( hydrog51 c47 are possess$ by ! alkali salts ( p]sulphuric acid1 :i* are obta9$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t ^u c]ta9 sulphates1 = in/ance ammonium or potassium sulphate4 ,! ammonium salt ( p]sulphuric acid1 7,,nh#d7b,s#b,o#h1 is especially easily =m$ by ?is means1 & is n[ prep>$ on a l>ge scale & us$ 7l ,na#b,o#b & ,h#b,o#b7 = blea*+ tissues & fibres4#fe #fc ,anhydr\s sulphuric p]oxide1 ,s#b,o#g1 is obta9$ by ! prolong$ 7#h to #aj h\rs7 action ( a sil5t dis*>ge ( consid]able int5sity on a mixture ( oxyg5 & sulphur\s anhydride2 ! vap\r ( sulphuric p]oxide1 ,s#b,o#g1 cond5ses z liquid drops1 or aft] be+ cool$ to #j 9 ! =m ( long prismatic cry/als1 resembl+ ^? ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,! anhydr\s comp\nd ,s#b,o#g 7& also ! hydrat$ comp\nd7 _c be pres]v$ long1 z x splits up into oxyg5 & sulphuric anhydride4 ,direct exp]im5t %[s t a mixture ( equal volumes ( sulphur\s anhydride & oxyg5 leaves a residue ( a qu>t] ( ! oxyg5 tak51 or half ( ! :ole volume1 :i* indicates ! =mula ,s#b,o#g4 ,?is sub/ance is soluble 9 wat]1 & x !n gives a hydrate1 probably hav+ ! composition ,s#b,o#g1;,h#b,o #b,,%o#d4 ,?is solution oxidises ! salts ,sn,x#b1 potassium iodide1 & o!rs1 :i* r5d]s x possible to prove t ! solution actually conta9s "o atom ( oxyg5 capable ( effect+ oxidation to two molecules ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,9 ord] to fully demon/rate ! reality ( a p]oxide =m = acids1 x %\ld be m5tion$ t "s ye>s ago ,brodie obta9$ ! s-call$ acetic p]oxide1 7,c#b;,h#b,o7#b,o#b1 by ! action ( b>ium p]oxide on acetic anhydride1 7,c#b;,h#c,o7#b,o4 ,its correspond+ hydrate is also kn[n4 ,?is %[s t true p]oxides & _! hydrates1 ) reactions simil> to ^? ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 are possible = acids4 ,a simil> high] oxide has long be5 kn[n = *romium1 & ,b]!lot obta9$ a l comp\nd = nitric acid 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #bf74 #fd ,:5 an acid ( ! /r5g? ,h#b,,s#df;,h#b,o is tak51 at fir/ only ! hydrate ( ! sulphuric p]oxide1 ,s#b,o#g;,h#b,o1 is =m$1 b :5 ! conc5tration at ! positive pole rea*es ,h#b,,s#dc;,h#b,o1 a mixture ( hydrog5 p]oxide & ! hydrate ( sulphuric p]oxide beg9s to be =m$4 ,a /ate ( equilibrium is ultimately arriv$ at :5 ! am\nts ( ^! sub/ances correspond to ! proportion ,s#b,o#g 3 #b;,h#b,o#b1 :i*1 z x 71 answ]s to a new hydrate1 ,s#b,o#ib;,h#b,o4 ,b its exi/5ce _c be admitt$ because ! sulphuric p]oxide c be easily di/+ui%$ f ! hydrog5 p]oxide 9 ! solution ow+ to ! fact t ! =m] does n act on an acid solution ( potassium p]manganate1 :il/ ! hydrog5 p]oxide dis5gages bo? its own oxyg5 & t ( ! p]manganic acid1 conv]t+ x into mangan\s oxide4 ,_! common prop]ty ( lib]at+ iod9e f an acid solution ( ! potassium iodide enables ! sum ( ! active oxyg5 9 !m bo? to be det]m9$4 #fe ,if a solution ( sulphuric acid :i* has be5 fir/ subject$ to electrolysis be neutralis$ ) pota% or b>yta1 ! salt :i* is =m$ beg9s to decompose rapidly ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 7,b]!lot1 #ahij74 ,on saturat+ ) cau/ic b>yta1 ! solution ( ! salt =m$ may be sep>at$ f ! sulphate ( b>ium1 & !n ! composition ( ! resultant comp\nd1 ,ba,s#b,o#h1 may be det]m9$ f ! am\nt ( oxyg5 dis5gag$4 ,m>%all 7#ahia7 /udi$ ! =mation ( ?is class ( comp\nds m fully2 he subject$ a saturat$ solution ( bisulphate ( potassium to electrolysis ) a curr5t ( #c-c-a_/b ampres2 be=e electrolysis dilute sulphuric acid is add$ to ! liquid surr\nd+ ! negative pole1 & dur+ electrolysis ! solution at ! anode is cool$4 ,! electrolysis is cont9u$ )\t int]ruption = two days1 & a :ite cry/all9e deposit sep>ates at ! anode4 ,to avoid decomposition1 ! latt] is n filt]$ ?r\gh pap]1 b ?r\gh a p]=at$ plat9um plate1 & dri$ on a por\s tile4 ,! "m liquor1 ) ! addition ( a fre% solution ( bisulphate ( potassium1 is aga9 subject$ to electrolysis & ! cry/als =m$ at ! anode are aga9 collect$1 c4 ,! salt s obta9$ may be recry/allis$ by dissolv+ x 9 hot wat] & rapidly cool+ ! solution aft] filtration2 a small proportion ( ! salt is decompos$ by ?is treatm5t4 ,rapid cool+ is foll[$ by ! =mation ( small column> cry/als2 sl[ cool+ gives l>ge prismatic cry/als4 ,! composition ( ! salt is det]m9$ ei!r by ignit+ x1 :5 x =ms sulphate ( potassium1 or else by titrat+ ! active oxyg5 ) p]manganate3 its composition 0 f\nd to correspond to ! salt ( p]sulphuric acid1 ,k#b,s#b,o#h4 ,! solution ( ! salt has a neutral reaction1 & does n give a precipitate ) salts ( o!r metals4 ,k#b,s#b,o#h is ! mo/ insoluble ( ! salts ( p]sulphuric acid4 ,) nitrate ( silv] x =ms p]sulphate ( silv]1 :i* gives p]oxide ( silv] "u ! action ( wat] accord+ to ! equation ,ag#b,s#b,o#h #b;,h#b,o ,ag#b,o#b #b;,h#b,,s#d4 ,) an alkal9e solution ( a cupric salt 7,fehl+'s solution7 x =ms a r$ precipitate ( p]oxide ( copp]4 ,manganese & cobalt salts give precipitates ( ,mn,o#b & ,co#b,o#c4 ,f]r\s salts are rapidly oxidis$1 potassium iodide sl[ly dis5gages iod9e at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,all ^! reactions indicate ! p[]ful oxidis+ prop]ties ( ,k#b,s#b,o#h4 ,9 oxidis+ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] x gives a residue ( ,,khso#d4 ,! decomposition ( ! dry salt beg9s at #ajj b is n complete ev5 at #bej4 ,! fre%ly prep>$ salt is inodor\s1 b aft] be+ kept 9 a clos$ vessel x evolves a peculi> smell diff]5t f t ( ozone4 ,! ammonium salt ( p]sulphuric acid1 7,,nh#d7b,s#b,o#h1 is obta9$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,x is soluble to ! ext5t ( #eh p>ts p] #ajj p>ts by weight ( wat]4 ,! decomposition ( ! ammonium salt by ! hydrat$ oxide ( b>ium gives ! b>ium salt1 ,ba,s#b,o#hd;,h#b,o1 :i* is soluble to ! ext5t ( #ebb p>ts 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #j4 ,! cry/als d n deliquesce 9 ! air & decompose 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al days2 !y decompose mo/ rapidly 9 p]fectly dry air4 ,solutions ( ! pure salt decompose sl[ly at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 on boil+ b>ium sulphate is gradually precipitat$1 oxyg5 be+ lib]at$ simultane\sly4 ,to completely decompose ?is salt x is necess>y to boil its solution = a long "t4 ,alcohol dissolves ! solid salt2 ! anhydr\s salt does n sep>ate f ! alcoholic solution1 b a hydrate conta9+ "o molecule ( wat]1 ,ba,s#b,o#h;,h#b,o1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] b insoluble 9 absolute alcohol4 ,solid b>ium p]sulphate decomposes ev5 :5 slightly heat$4 ,! free acid1 :i* may s]ve = ! prep>ation ( o!r salts1 is obta9$ by treat+ ! b>ium salt ) sulphuric acid4 ,! lead salt1 ,pb,s#b,o#h1 has be5 obta9$ f ! free acid2 x cry/allises ) two or ?ree molecules ( wat]4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]1 deliquesces 9 ! air1 & ) alkalis gives a precipitate ( ! hydrat$ oxide :i* rapidly oxidises into ! b9oxide4 ,traube1 be=e ,m>%all's rese>*es1 ?\ght t ! electrolysis ( solutions ( sulphuric acid did n give p]sulphuric acid b a p]sulphuric oxide hav+ ! composition ,,s#d4 ,on repeat+ 8 =m] rese>*es 7#ahib7 ,traube obta9$ a p]sulphuric oxide by ! electrolysis ( a #gj p] c5t4 solution ( sulphuric acid1 & he sep>at$ x f ! solution by means ( b>ium phosphate4 ,analysis %[$ t ?is sub/ance correspond$ to ! above composition ,,s#d1 & !re=e ,traube consid]s x v likely t ! salts obta9$ by ,m>%all correspond$ to an acid ,h#b,,s#d ,,s#d1 i4e4 t ! indiff]5t oxide1 ,,s#d1 c comb9e ) sulphuric acid & =m peculi> sal9e comp\nds4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! relation ( sulphuric p]oxide to sulphuric acid we mu/ fir/ rem>k t hydrog5 p]oxide is to be consid]$1 9 accordance ) ! law ( sub/itution1 z wat]1 ,h7,,oh71 9 :i* ,h is replac$ by 7,,oh74 ,n[ ! relation ( ,h#b,s#b,o#h to ,h#b,,s#d is exactly simil>4 ,! radicle ( sulphuric acid1 equival5t to hydrog51 is ,,hso#d2fe bis x corresponds ) ! 7,,oh7 ( wat]1 & !re=e sulphuric acid1 ,h7,,%o#d71 gives 7,,%o#d7b or ,s#b;,h#b,o#h1 9 exactly ! same mann] z wat] gives 7,,ho7#b--;i4e4 ,h#b,o#b4ff #fe bis ,or "o ( ^? suppos$ ions :i* appe> at ! positive pole 9 ! decomposition ( sulphuric acid by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t4 #ff ,if ?is be true "o w\ld expect ! foll[+ p]oxide hydrates3 = phosphoric acid1 7,h#b,,po#d7b ,h#d,p#b,o#h #b;,h#b,o #b,,po#c2 = c>bonic acid1 7,,hco#c7b ,h#b;,c#b,o#f ,h#b,o ,c#b,o#e2 & = lead ! true p]oxide w be also ,pb#b,o#e1 c4 ,judg+ f ! example ( b>ium p]oxide 7,note #fb71 ^! p]oxide =ms w probably comb9e toge!r4 ,x seems to me t ! comp\nds obta9$ by ,fairley = uranium are v in/ructive z elucidat+ ! p]oxides4 ,9 ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 an acid solution on uranium oxide1 ,,uo#c1 !re is =m$ a uranium p]oxide1 ,,uo#d1d;,h#b,o 7,u #bdj71 b hydrog5 p]oxide acts on uranium oxide 9 ! pres5ce ( cau/ic soda2 on ! addition ( alcohol a cry/all9e comp\nd conta9+ ,na#d,,uo#h1d;,h#b,o is precipitat$1 :i* is d\btless a comp\nd ( ! p]oxides ( sodium1 ,na#b,o#b1 & uranium1 ,,uo#d4 ,x is v possible t ! fir/ p]oxide1 ,,uo#d1d;,h#b,o1 conta9s ! elem5ts ( hydrog5 p]oxide & uranium p]oxide1 ,u#b,o#g1 or ev5 ,u7,,oh7#f1;,h#b,o#b1 j z ! p]oxide =m lately discov]$ by ,spr+ = t9 p]haps conta9s ,sn#b,o#c1;,h#b,o#b4 ,! l>ge/ "p ( ! sulphuric acid made is us$ = react+ on sodium *loride 9 ! manufacture ( sodium c>bonate2 = ! manufacture ( ! volatile acids1 l nitric1 hydro*loric1 c41 f _! correspond+ salts2 = ! prep>ation ( ammonium sulphate1 alums1 vitriols 7copp] & iron71 artificial manures1 sup]phosphate 7,*apt] ,,xix41 ,note #ah7 & o!r salts ( sulphuric acid2 9 ! treatm5t ( bone a% = ! prep>ation ( phosphorus1 & = ! solution ( metals--= example1 ( silv] 9 its sep>ation f gold--= clean+ metals f ru/1 c4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( oil ( vitriol is also us$ 9 treatm5t ( organic sub/ances2 x is us$ = ! extraction ( /e>91 or /e>ic acid1 f tall[1 = ref9+ petroleum & v>i\s vegetable oils1 9 ! prep>ation ( nitro-glyc]9e 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,notes #cg & #cg bis71 = dissolv+ indigo & o!r col\r+ matt]s1 = ! conv]sion ( pap] into vegetable p>*m5t1 = ! prep>ation ( e!r f alcohol1 = ! prep>ation ( v>i\s artificial sc5ts f fusel oil1 = ! prep>ation ( vegetable acids1 su* z oxalic1 t>t>ic1 citric1 = ! conv]sion ( non-f]m5table />*y sub/ances into f]m5table glucose1 & 9 a numb] ( o!r processes4 ,x w\ld be difficult to f9d ano!r artificially-prep>$ sub/ance :i* is s frequ5tly appli$ 9 ! arts z sulphuric acid4 ,:]e !re are n works = its manufacture1 ! economical production ( _m o!r sub/ances ( great te*nical importance is impossible4 ,9 ^? localities :i* h arriv$ at a high te*nical activity ! am\nt ( sulphuric acid consum$ is proportionally l>ge2 sulphuric acid1 sodium c>bonate1 & lime are ! mo/ important ( ! artificially-prep>$ ag5ts employ$ 9 factories4 ,besides ! normal acids ( sulphur1 ,h#b,,s#c1 ,h#b,,s#c,s1 & ,h#b,,s#d1 correspond+ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,h#b,s1 9 ! same way t ! oxy-acids ( *lor9e correspond ) hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 !re exi/s a peculi> s]ies ( acids :i* are t]m$ ?ionic acids4 ,_! g5]al composition is ,sn,h#b,o#f1 :]e n v>ies f #b to #e4 ,if n #b1 ! acid is call$ di?ionic acid4 ,! o!rs are di/+ui%$ z tri?ionic1 tetra?ionic1 & p5ta?ionic acids4 ,_! composition1 exi/5ce1 & reactions are v easily und]/ood if !y be ref]r$ to ! class ( ! sulphonic acids--t is1 if _! relation to sulphuric acid be express$ 9 j ! same mann] z ! relation ( ! organic acids to c>bonic acid4 ,! organic acids1 z we saw 7,*apt] ,,ix471 proce$ f ! hydroc>bons by ! sub/itution ( _! hydrog5 by c>boxyl--t is1 by ! radicle ( c>bonic acid1 ,,*#b,o#c - ,,ho ,,*o#b4 ,! =mation ( ! acids ( sulphur by means ( sulphoxyl may be repres5t$ 9 ! same mann]1 ,,hso#c ,h#b,,s#d - ,,ho4 ,!re=e to hydrog5 ,h#b1 !re %\ld correspond ! acids ,h4,,%o#c1 sulphur\s1 & ,,%o#c4,,%o#c ,s#b;,h#b,o#f1 or di?ionic2 to ,,%#b !re %\ld correspond ! acids ,,%7,,%o#c7 ,h#b,s#b,o#c 7?iosulphuric71 & ,s7,,%o#c7b ,h#b,s#c,o#f 7tri?ionic72 to ,s#b;,h#b ! acids ,s#b;,h7,,%o#c7 ,h#b,s#c,o#b 7unkn[n71 & ,s#b7,,%o#c7b ,h#b,s#d,o#f 7tetra?ionic72 to ,s#c;,h#b ! acids ,s#c;,h7,,%o#c7 & ,s#c7,,%o#c7b ,h#b,s#e,o#f 7p5ta?ionic74 ,we "k t iod9e reacts directly ) ! hydrog5 ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & comb9es ) x1 & if ?iosulphuric acid conta9s ! radicle ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 7or hydrog5 unit$ ) sulphur7 ( ! same nature z 9 sulphurett$ hydrog51 x is n surpris+ t iod9e reacts ) sodium ?iosulphate & =ms sodium tetra?ionate4 ,?us1 ?iosulphuric acid1 ,,hs7,,%o#c71 :5 depriv$ ( ,h1 gives a radicle :i* imm$iately comb9es ) ano!r simil> radicle1 =m+ ! tetra?ionate ,s#b7,,s#b;,,ho7#b4 ,on ?is view#fg ( ! /ructure ( ! ?ionic acids & salts1 x is also cle> h[ all ! ?ionic acids1 l ?iosulphuric acid1 easily give sulphur & sulphides1 ) ! exception only ( di?ionic acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#f1 :i*1 judg+ f ! above1 /&s ap>t f ! s]ies ( ! o!r ?ionic acids4 ,di?ionic acid /&s 9 ! same relation to sulphuric acid z oxalic acid does to c>bonic acid4 ,oxalic acid is dic>boxyl1 7,,*o#b7b ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 & s also di?ionic acid is disulphoxyl1 7,,%o#c7b ,s#b;,h#b,o#f4 ,oxalic acid :5 ignit$ decomposes into c>bonic anhydride & c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 & di?ionic acid :5 heat$ decomposes into sulphuric anhydride & sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 & ,,s#b /&s 9 ! same relation to ,,s#c z ,,co to ,,co#b4 ,?is also expla9s ! peculi>ity ( ! calcium1 b>ium1 & lead1 c4 salts ( ! ?ionic acids be+ easily soluble 7al?\gh ! correspond+ salts ( ,h#b,,s#c1 ,h#b,,s#d1 & ,h#b,s dissolve ) difficulty71 because ! =m] are simil> to ! salts ( ! sulphonic acids1 :i* are also soluble 9 wat]4 ,?us ! ?ionic acids are disulphonic acids1 j z _m dic>boxylic acids are kn[n--= example1 ,,*#b7;,,co#b;,h7#b1 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,co#b;,h7#b4fh #fg ,?is view 0 communicat$ by me 9 #ahgj to ! ,russian ,*emical ,society4 #fh ,di?ionic acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#f1 is di/+ui%$ among ! ?ionic acids z conta9+ ! lea/ proportion ( sulphur4 ,x is also call$ hyposulphuric acid1 because its suppos$ anhydride1 ,s#b,o#e1 conta9s m ,o ?an sulphur\s oxide1 ,,s#b or ,s#b,o#d1 & less ?an sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c or ,s#b,o#f4 ,di?ionic acid1 discov]$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,welt]1 is kn[n z a hydrate & z salts1 b n z anhydride4 ,! me?od = prep>+ di?ionic acid usually employ$ is by ! action ( f9ely-p[d]$ manganese dioxide on a solution ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,on %ak+1 ! smell ( ! latt] disappe>s1 & ! manganese salt ( ! acid 9 "q passes into solution2 ,mn,o#b #b,,s#b ,mn,s#b,o#f4 ,if ! temp]ature be rais$1 ! di?ionate splits up into sulphur\s anhydride & manganese sulphate1 ,mn,s,o#d4 ,g5]ally ow+ to ?is a mixture ( manganese sulphate & di?ionate is obta9$ 9 ! solution4 ,!y may be sep>at$ by mix+ ! solution ( ! manganese salts ) a solution ( b>ium hydroxide1 :5 a precipitate ( manganese hydroxide & b>ium sulphate is obta9$4 ,9 ?is mann] b>ium di?ionate only is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,x is purifi$ by cry/allisation1 & sep>ates z ,ba,s#b,o#f1b;,h#b,o2 ?is is !n dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & decompos$ ) ! requisite am\nt ( sulphuric acid4 ,di?ionic acid1 ,h#b,s#b,o#f1 !n rema9s 9 solution4 ,by conc5trat+ ! resultant solution "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump x is possible to obta9 a liquid ( sp4 gr4 #acdg1 b x /ill conta9s wat]1 & on fur!r evaporation ! acid decomposes into sulphuric acid & sulphur\s anhydride3 ,h#b,s#b,o#f ,h#b,,s#d ,,s#b4 ,! same decomposition takes place if ! solution be slightly heat$4 ,l all ! ?ionic acids1 di?ionic acid is readily attack$ by oxidis+ ag5ts1 & passes into sulphur\s acid4 ,no di?ionate is able to )/& ! action ( heat1 ev5 :5 v slight1 )\t giv+ (f sulphur\s anhydride3 ,k#b,s#b,o#f ,k#b,,s#d ,,s#b4 ,! alkali di?ionates h a neutral reaction 7:i* indicates ! en]getic nature ( ! acid7 are soluble 9 wat]1 & 9 ?is respect pres5t a c]ta9 resemblance to ! salts ( nitric acid 7_! anhydrides are3 ,n#b,o#e & ,s#b,o#e74 ,klss 7#ahhh7 describ$ _m ( ! salts ( di?ionic acid4 ,langlois1 ab\t #ahdj1 obta9$ a peculi> ?ionic acid by heat+ a /rong solution ( acid potassium sulphite ) fl[]s ( sulphur to ab\t #fj1 until ! disappe>ance ( ! yell[ coloration fir/ produc$ by ! solution ( ! sulphur4 ,on cool+1 a portion ( ! sulphur 0 precipitat$1 & cry/als ( a salt ( tri?ionic acid1 ,k#b,s#c,o#f 7p>tly mix$ ) potassium sulphate71 sep>at$ out4 ,plessy aft]w>ds %[$ t ! action ( sulphur\s acid on a ?iosulphate also gives sulphur & tri?ionic acid3 #b,k#b,s#b,o#c #c,,s#b #b,k#b,s#c,o#f ,s4 ,a mixture ( potassium acid sulphite & ?iosulphate also gives a tri?ionate4 ,x is v possible t a reaction ( ! same k9d occurs 9 ! =mation ( tri?ionic acid by ,langloid's me?od1 because potassium sulphite & sulphur yield potassium ?iosulphate4 ,! potassium ?iosulphate may also be replac$ by potassium sulphide1 & on pass+ sulphur\s anhydride ?r\gh ! solution ?iosulphate is fir/ =m$ & !n tri?ionate3 #d,,khso#c ,k#b,s #d,,s#b #c,k#b,s#c,o#f #b;,h#b,o4 ,! sodium salt is n =m$ "u ! same circum/ances z ! correspond+ potassium salt4 ,! sodium salt does n cry/allise & is v un/able3 ! b>ium salt is1 h[ev]1 m /able4 ,! b>ium & potassium salts are anhydr\s1 !y give neutral solutions & decompose :5 ignit$1 ) ! evolution ( sulphur & sulphur\s anhydride1 a sulphate be+ left beh9d1 ,k#b,s#c,o#f ,k#b,,s#d ,,s#b ,s4 ,if a solution ( ! potassium salt be decompos$ by means ( hydr(luosilicic or *loric acid1 ! insoluble salts ( ^! acids are precipitat$ & tri?ionic acid is obta9$ 9 solution1 :i* h[ev] v easily breaks up on conc5tration4 ,! addition ( salts ( copp]1 m]cury1 silv]1 c41 to a solution ( a tri?ionate is foll[$1 ei!r imm$iately or aft] a c]ta9 "t1 by ! =mation ( a black precipitate ( ! sulphides ^: =mation is due to ! decomposition ( ! tri?ionic acid ) ! transf]5ce ( its sulphur to ! metal4 ,tetra?ionic acid1 ,h#b,s#d,o#f1 9 contradi/9ction to ! prec$+ acids1 is mu* m /able 9 ! free /ate ?an 9 ! =m ( salts4 ,9 ! latt] =m x is easily conv]t$ into tri?ionate1 ) lib]ation ( sulphur4 ,sodium tetra?ionate 0 obta9$ by ,=dos & ,glis1 by ! action ( iod9e on a solution ( sodium ?iosulphate4 ,! reaction ess5tially consi/s 9 ! iod9e tak+ up half ! sodium ( ! ?iosulphate1 inasmu* z ! latt] conta9s ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 :il/ ! tetra?ionate conta9s ,na,s#b,o#c or ,na#b,s#d,o#f1 s t ! reaction is z foll[s3 #b,na#b,s#b,o#c ,i#b #b,na,i ,na#b,s#d,o#f4 ,x is evid5t t tetra?ionic acid /&s to ?iosulphuric acid 9 exactly ! same relation z di?ionic acid does to sulphur\s acid2 = ! same am\nt ( ! o!r elem5ts 9 di?ionate1 ,,kso#c1 & tetra?ionate1 ,,ks#b,o#c1 !re is half z mu* metal z 9 sulphite1 ,k#b,,s#c1 & ?iosulphate1 ,k#b,s#b,o#c4 ,if 9 ! above reaction ! sodium ?iosulphate be replac$ by ! lead salt ,pb,s#b,o#c1 ! sp>+ly-soluble lead iodide ,pb,i#b & ! soluble salt ,pb,s#d,o#f are obta9$4 ,moreov] ! lead salt easily gives tetra?ionic acid itself 7,pb,s,o#d is precipitat$74 ,! solution ( tetra?ionic acid may be evaporat$ ov] a wat]-ba?1 & aft]w>ds 9 a vacuum1 :5 x gives a col\rless liquid1 :i* has no smell & a v acid reaction4 ,:5 dilute x may be heat$ to its boil+-po9t1 b 9 a conc5trat$ =m x decomposes into sulphuric acid1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & sulphur3 ,h#b,s#d,o#f ,h#b,,s#d ,,s#b ,s#b4 ,p5ta?ionic acid1 ,h#b,s#e,o#f1 also belongs to ?is s]ies ( acids4 ,b little is kn[n conc]n+ x1 ei!r z hydrate or 9 salts4 ,x is =m$1 toge!r ) tetra?ionic acid1 by ! direct action ( sulphur\s acid on sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 an aque\s solution2 a l>ge proportion ( sulphur be+ precipitat$ at ! same "t3 #e,,s#b #e;,h#b,s ,h#b,s#e,o#f #e,s #d;,h#b,o4 ,if1 z 0 %[n above1 ! ?ionic acids are disulphonic acids1 !y may be obta9$1 l o!r sulphonic acids1 by means ( potassium sulphite & sulphur *loride4 ,?us ,spr+ demon/rat$ ! =mation ( potassium tri?ionate by ! action ( sulphur di*loride on a /rong solution ( potassium sulphite3 #b,,kso#c,k ,s,cl#b ,s7,,s#c,k7#b #b,k,cl4 ,if sulphur *loride be tak51 sulphur also is precipitat$4 ,! same tri?ionate is =m$ by heat+ a solution ( d\ble ?iosulphates2 = example1 ( ,ag,k,s#b,o#c4 ,two molecules ( ! salts !n =m silv] sulphide & potassium tri?ionate4 ,if ! ?iosulphate be ! potassium silv] salt ,,s#c,k7,ag,s71 !n ! /ructure ( ! tri?ionate mu/ necess>ily be 7,,s#c,k7#b,s4 ,previ\s to ,spr+'s rese>*es1 ! action ( iod9e on sodium ?iosulphate 0 an isolat$ accid5tally discov]$ reaction2 he1 h[ev]1 %[$ its g5]al significance by te/+ ! action ( iod9e on mixtures ( diff]5t sulphur comp\nds4 ,?us ) iod9e1 ,i#b1 ! mixture ,na#b,s ,na#b,,s#c =ms #b,na,i ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 :il/ ! mixture ,na#b,s#b,o#c ,na#b,,s#c ,i#b gives #b,na,i ,na#b,s#c,o#f--t is1 tri?ionic acid /&s 9 ! same relation to ?iosulphuric acid z ! latt] does to sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,we adopt ! same mode ( repres5tation3 by replac+ "o hydrog5 9 ,h#b,s by sulphuryl we obta9 ?iosulphuric acid1 ,,hso#c4;,,hs1 & by replac+ a second hydrog5 9 ! latt] aga9 by sulphuryl we obta9 tri?ionic acid1 7,,hso#c7b,s4 ,fur!rmore1 ,spr+ %[$ t ! action ( sodium amalgam on ! ?ionic acids causes rev]se reactions to ^? above indicat$ = iod9e4 ,?us sodium ?iosulphate ) ,na#b gives ,na#b,s ,na#b,,s#c1 & ,spr+ %[$ t ! sodium "h is n a simple elem5t tak+ up sulphur1 b itself ent]s into d\ble decomposition1 replac+ sulphur2 = on tak+ a potassium salt & act+ on x ) sodium1 ,,kso#c7,,sk7 ,na,na ,,kso#c,na 7,,sk7,na4 ,9 a simil> way sodium di?ionate ) sodium gives sodium sulphite3 7,na,s,o#c7b ,na#b #b,na,s,o#c,na2 sodium tri?ionate =ms ,na,s,o#c,na & ,na,s,o#c4,s,na1 & tetra?ionate =ms sodium ?iosulphate1 7,na,s,o#c7,s#b7,na,s,o#c7 ,na#b #b7,na,s,o#c77,na,s74 ,9 all ! oxidis$ comp\nds ( sulphur we may note ! pres5ce ( ! elem5ts ( sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 ! only product ( ! combu/ion ( sulphur1 & 9 ?is s5se ! comp\nds ( sulphur conta9+ "o ,,s#b are-- ,h ,,ho ,c#f;,h#e ,,hs ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,sulphur\s ,sulphuric ,b5z5e sulphonic ,?iosulphuric acid acid acid acid :ile1 accord+ to ?is mode ( repres5tation1 ! ?ionic acids are-- ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,s ,s#b ,s#c ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,s#b ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,,ho ,di?ionic ,tri?ionic ,tetra?ionic ,p5ta?ionic ,h5ce x is evid5t t ,,s#b has 7:il/ ,,co#b has n7 ! faculty = comb9ation1 & aims at =m+ ,,s#b,x#b4 ,^! ,x#b c ,o1 & ! "q naturally sugge/s itself z to :e!r ! ,o#b :i* occurs 9 ,,s#b is n ( ! same nature z ?is oxyg5 :i* adds itself to ,,s#b--t is1 :e!r ,,s#b does n correspond ) ! m g5]al type ,,sx#d1 & its comp\nds ) ! type ,,sx#f8 ,to ?is we may answ] ',yes' & ',no'--',yes' 9 ! g5]al s5se :i* proce$s f ! inve/igation ( ! majority ( comp\nds1 especially metals1 :]e ,,ro corresponds ) ,r,cl#b1 ,,rx#b2 ',no' 9 ! s5se t sulphur does n give ei!r ,,%#d1 ,,%#f1 or ,s,cl#f1 & !re=e ! /ages ,,sx#d & ,,sx#f are only obs]vable 9 oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,) ref]5ce to ! type ,,sx#f a hydrate1 ,s7,,ho7#f1 might be expect$1 if n ,s,cl#f4 ,& we mu/ recognise ?is hydrate f a /udy ( ! comp\nds ( sulphuric acid ) wat]4 ,9 addition to :at has be5 already said respect+ ! complex acids =m$ by sulphur1 ,i ?9k x well to m5tion t1 accord+ to ! above view1 /ill m complex oxyg5 acids & salts ( sulphur may be look$ =4 ,= in/ance1 ! salt ,na#b,s#d,o#h obta9$ by ,villi]s 7#ahhh7 is ( ?is k9d4 ,x is =m$ toge!r ) sodium tri?ionate & sulphur1 :5 ,,s#b is pass$ ?r\gh a cold solution ( ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 :i* is !n all[$ to /& = sev]al days at ! ord9>y temp]ature3 #b,na#b,s#b,o#c #d,,s#b ,na#b,s#d,o#h ,na#b,s#c,o#f ,s4 ,x may be assum$ "h1 z 9 ! ?ionic acids1 t !re are two sulphoxyls1 b\nd toge!r n only by ,s1 b also by ,,s#b1 or :at is almo/ ! same ?+1 t ! sulphoxyl is comb9$ ) ! residue ( tri?ionic acid1 i4e4 replaces "o aque\s residue 9 tri?ionic acid4 ,sulphur exhibits an acid "*1 n only 9 its comp\nds ) hydrog5 & oxyg51 b also 9 ^? ) o!r elem5ts4 ,! comp\nd ( sulphur & c>bon has be5 p>ticul>ly well inve/igat$4 ,x pres5ts a great analogy to c>bonic anhydride1 bo? 9 its elem5t>y composition & *emical "*4 ,?is sub/ance is ! s-call$ c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 & corresponds ) ,,co#b4 ,! fir/ endeav\rs to obta9 a comp\nd ( sulphur ) c>bon 7 unsuccessful1 = al?\gh sulphur does comb9e directly ) c>bon1 yet ! =mation ( ?is comp\nd requires di/9ctly def9ite conditions4 ,if sulphur be mix$ ) *>coal & heat$1 x is simply driv5 (f f ! latt]1 & n ! smalle/ trace ( c>bon bisulphide is obta9$4 ,! =mation ( ?is comp\nd requires t ! *>coal %\ld be fir/ heat$ to a r$ heat1 b n above1 & !n ei!r ! vap\r ( sulphur pass$ ov] x or lumps ( sulphur ?r[n on to ! r$-hot *>coal1 b 9 small quantities1 s z n to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! latt]4 ,if ! *>coal be heat$ to a :ite heat1 ! am\nt ( c>bon bisulphide =m$ is less4 ,?is dep5ds1 9 ! fir/ place1 on ! c>bon bisulphide dissociat+ at a high temp]ature4#fi ,9 ! second place1 ,favre & ,silb]man %[$ t 9 ! combu/ion ( "o gram ( c>bon bisulphide 7! products w be ,,co#b #b,,s#b7 #c1djj heat units are evolv$--t is1 ! combu/ion ( a molecul> quantity ( c>bon bisulphide evolves #beh1djj heat units 7accord+ to ,b]!lot1 #bdf1jjj74 ,f a molecule ( c>bon bisulphide 9 grams we may obta9 #ab grams ( c>bon1 ^: combu/ion evolves #if1jjj heat units1 & #fd grams ( sulphur1 evolv+ by combu/ion 7into ,,s#b7 #adj1hjj heat units4 ,h5ce we see t ! compon5t elem5ts sep>ately evolve less heat by _! combu/ion 7#bcg1jjj heat units7 ?an c>bon bisulphide itself--t is1 t heat %\ld be evolv$ 7at ! ord9>y temp]ature7 & n absorb$ 9 its decomposition1 & !re=e t ! =mation ( c>bon bisulphide f *>coal & sulphur is 9 all probability accompani$ by an absorption ( heat4#gj ,x is !re=e n surpris+ t1 l o!r comp\nds produc$ ) an absorption ( heat 7ozone1 nitr\s oxide1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 c471 c>bon bisulphide is un/able & easily conv]t$ into ! orig9al sub/ances f :i* x is obta9$4 ,& inde$ if ! vap\r ( c>bon bisulphide be pass$ ?r\gh a r$-hot tube1 x is decompos$--t is1 x dissociates--into sulphur & c>bon4 ,& ?is takes place at ! temp]ature at :i* ?is sub/ance is =m$1 j z wat] decomposes into hydrog5 & oxyg5 at ! temp]ature ( its =mation4 ,9 ?is absorption ( heat 9 ! =mation ( c>bon bisulphide is expla9$ ! facility ) :i* x suff]s reactions ( decomposition1 :i* we %all see 9 ! sequel1 & its ma9 diff]5ce f ! closely analog\s c>bonic anhydride4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,app>atus = ! manufacture ( c>bon bisulphide4 #fi ,ev5 light decomposes c>bon bisulphide1 b n to ! ext5t ( sep>at+ c>bon2 "u ! action ( ! sun's rays x is decompos$ into sulphur & solid sub/ance :i* is consid]$ to be c>bon monosulphide2 x is ( a r$ col\r1 & its sp4 gr4 is #aff4 7,! =mation ( a r$ liquid comp\nd ,c#c,s#b has also be5 rem>k$47 ,?orpe 7#ahhi7 obs]v$ a complete decomposition ( c>bon bisulphide "u ! action ( a liquid alloy ( potassium & sodium2 x is accompani$ by an explosion & ! deposition ( c>bon & sulphur4 ,a simil> complete decomposition ( c>bon bisulphide is also accompli%$ by ! action ( m]cury fulm9ate 7,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #bf71 & is due to ! fact t at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7at :i* c>bon bisulphide is n produc$7 ! decomposition ( c>bon bisulphide takes place ) ! developm5t ( heat--t is1 x pres5ts an exo!rmal reaction1 l ! decomposition ( all explosives4 ,x is v possible t at a high] temp]ature1 :5 c>bon bisulphide is =m$1 ! comb9ation ( c>bon ) sulphur is also an exo!rmal reaction--t is1 heat is develop$4 ,if ?is %\ld be ! case1 c>bon bisulphide w\ld pres5t a mo/ in/ructive example 9 !rmo*emi/ry4 #gj ,! fact %\ld n be lo/ sight ( t sulphur & *>coal are solids at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ c>bon bisulphide is a v volatile liquid1 & consequ5tly1 9 ! act ( comb9ation1 ref]r$ to ! ord9>y temp]ature 7,note #fi71 !re is1 z x 71 a passage into a liquid /ate1 & ?is requires ! absorption ( heat4 ,& fur!rmore1 ! molecule ( sulphur conta9s at lea/ six atoms1 & ! molecule ( c>bon 9 all probability 7,*apt] ,,viii47 a v consid]able numb] ( atoms2 ?us ! reaction ( sulphur on *>coal may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #c;,cn n,s#f #cn,,cs#b--t is1 f n #c molecules !re proce$ #cn molecules1 & z n mu/ be v consid]able1 #cn mu/ be great] ?an #c n1 :i* indicates a decomposition 9 ! =mation ( c>bon bisulphide1 al?\gh ! reaction at fir/ sight appe>s z "o ( comb9ation4 ,?is decomposition is se5 also f ! volumes 9 ! solid & liquid /ates4 ,c>bon bisulphide has a sp4 gr4 ( #abi2 h5ce its molecul> volume is #ei4 ,b ! volume ( c>bon1 ev5 9 ! =m ( *>coal1 is n m ?an #f1 & ! volume ( ,s#b is #cj2 h5ce #cf volumes aft] comb9ation give #ei volumes--an expansion takes place1 z 9 decompositions4 ,9 ! laboratory c>bon bisulphide is prep>$ z foll[s3 ,a porcela9 tube is lut$ into a furnace 9 an incl9$ position1 ! upp] extremity ( ! tube be+ clos$ by a cork1 & ! l[] end connect$ ) a cond5s]4 ,! tube conta9s *>coal1 :i* is rais$ to a r$ heat1 & !n pieces ( sulphur are plac$ 9 ! upp] end4 ,! sulphur melts1 & its vap\r comes into contact ) ! r$-hot *>coal1 :5 comb9ation takes place2 ! vap\rs cond5se 9 ! cond5s]1 c>bon bisulphide be+ a liquid boil+ at #dh4 ,on a l>ge scale ! app>atus depict$ 9 fig4 #ij is employ$4 ,a ca/-iron cyl9d] re/s on a /& 9 a furnace4 ,wood *>coal is *>g$ into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! upp] tube clos$ by a clay /opp]1 :il/ ! sulphur is introduc$ ?r\gh a tube rea*+ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,pieces ( sulphur ?r[n into ?is tube fall on to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & are conv]t$ into vap\r1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! entire lay] ( *>coal 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! vap\r ( c>bon bisulphide ?us =m$ passes ?r\gh ! exit tube fir/ into a ,w\lfe's bottle 7:]e ! sulphur :i* has n ent]$ into ! reaction is cond5s$71 & !n into a /rongly-cool$ cond5s] or worm4#ga #ga ,c>bon bisulphide1 z prep>$ on a l>ge scale1 is g5]ally v impure1 & conta9s n only sulphur1 b1 m especially1 o!r impurities :i* give x a v disagreeable od\r4 ,! be/ me?od ( purify+ ?is malodor\s c>bon bisulphide is to %ake x up ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( m]curic *loride1 or ev5 simply ) m]cury1 until ! surface ( ! metal ceases to turn black4 ,aft] ?is ! c>bon bisulphide mu/ be p\r$ (f & di/ill$ ov] a wat]-ba?1 aft] mix+ ) "s oil to reta9 ! impurities4 ,pure c>bon bisulphide is a col\rless liquid1 :i* refracts light /rongly1 & has a pure e!real smell2 at #j its specific gravity is #abic1 & at #ae #abga4 ,if kept = a long "t x seems to und]go a *ange1 especially :5 x is kept "u wat]1 9 :i* x is insoluble4 ,x boils at #dh1 & ! t5sion ( its vap\r is s great t x evaporates v easily1 produc+ cold1#gb & !re=e x has to be kept 9 well-/opp]$ vessels2 x is g5]ally kept "u a lay] ( wat]1 :i* h9d]s its evaporation & does n dissolve x4#gc #gb ,if c>bon bisulphide be evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 or by means ( a curr5t ( air1 x is possible to obta9 a temp]ature z l[ z -#fj1 & ! c>bon bisulphide does n solidify at ?is temp]ature4 ,h[ev]1 if a s]ies ( air-bubbles be pass$ ?r\gh x by means ( bell[s1 a cry/all9e :ite sub/ance rema9s :i* volatilises bel[ #j3 ?is a hydrate1 ,h#b,o1#b;,,cs#b2 x easily decomposes into wat] & c>bon bisulphide4 ,x is =m$ 9 ! above exp]im5t by ! moi/ure held 9 ! air pass$ ?r\gh ! c>bon bisulphide1 & ! fall ( temp]ature4 #gc ,/rong alcohol is miscible 9 all proportions ) c>bon bisulphide1 b dilute alcohol only 9 a def9ite am\nt1 ow+ to its dim9i%$ solubility f ! pres5ce ( ! wat] 9 x4 ,e!r1 hydroc>bons1 fatty oils1 & _m o!r organic sub/ances are soluble ) great ease 9 c>bon bisulphide4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 practice = extract+ ! fatty oils f vegetable se$s1 su* z l9se$1 palm-nuts1 or f bones1 c4 ,! prep>ation ( vegetable oils is usually done by press+ ! se$s "u a press1 b ! residue always conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( oil4 ,^! traces ( oil c1 h[ev]1 be remov$ by treatm5t ) c>bon bisulphide4 ,9 ?is mann] a solution is obta9$ :i* :5 heat$ easily p>ts ) all ! c>bon bisulphide1 leav+ ! non-volatile fatty oil beh9d1 s t ! same c>bon bisulphide may be cond5s$ & us$ ov] aga9 = ! same purpose4 ,x also dissolves iod9e1 brom9e1 indi>ubb]1 sulphur1 & t>s4 ,c>bon bisulphide1 especially at high temp]atures1 v (t5 acts by its elem5ts 9 a mann] 9 :i* c>bon & sulphur alone are n able to react1 :i* w be und]/ood f :at has be5 said above respect+ its endo!rmal orig94 ,if x be pass$ ov] r$-hot metals--ev5 ov] copp]1 = in/ance1 n to m5tion sodium1 c4--x =ms a sulphide ( ! metal & deposits *>coal1 & if ! vap\r be pass$ ov] inc&esc5t metallic oxides x =ms metallic sulphides & c>bonic anhydride 7& sometimes a c]ta9 am\nt ( sulphur\s anhydride74 ,lime & simil> oxides give "u ^! circum/ances a c>bonate & a sulphide--= example1 ,,cs#b #c;,ca,o #b;,ca,s ,ca,c,o#c4 ,! sulphides obta9$ by ?is means are (t5 well cry/allis$1 l ^? f\nd 9 nature--= example1 lead & antimony sulphides4 ,c>bon bisulphide ent]s into _m comb9ations1 :i* are frequ5tly closely analog\s to ! comp\nds ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,9 ?is respect x is a ?io-anhydride--i4e4 x has ! "* ( ! acid anhydrides1#gc bis l c>bonic anhydride1 ) ! diff]5ce t ! oxyg5 ( ! latt] is replac$ by sulphur4 ,by ?io-comp\nds 9 g5]al are und]/ood ^? comp\nds ( sulphur :i* diff] f ! comp\nds ( oxyg5 z c>bon bisulphide does f c>bonic anhydride--t is1 :i* correspond ) ! oxyg5 comp\nds1 b ) sub/itution ( sulphur = oxyg54 ,?us ?iosulphuric acid is mono?iosulphuric acid--t is1 sulphuric acid 9 :i* "o atom ( sulphur replaces "o atom ( oxyg54 ,) ! sulphides ( ! alkalis & alkal9e e>?s1 x =ms sal9e sub/ances correspond+ ) ! c>bonates1 & ^! comp\nds may be t]m$ ?ioc>bonates4 ,= example1 ! composition ( ! sodium salt ,na#b;,,cs#c is exactly l t ( sodium c>bonate4 ,!y are =m$ by ! direct solution ( c>bon bisulphide 9 aque\s solutions ( ! sulphides2 b !y are difficult to obta9 9 a cry/all9e =m1 because !y are easily decomposable4 ,:5 ! solutions ( ^! salts are highly conc5trat$ !y beg9 to decompose1 ) ! evolution ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & ! =mation ( a c>bonate1 wat] tak+ "p 9 ! reaction--= example1 ,k#b;,,cs#c #c;,h#b,o ,k#b;,,co#c #c;,h#b,s4#gd #gc bis ,& j z ,c,o,cl#b corresponds to ,,co#b1 s also ! *loranhydride1 ,c,s,cl#b1 or ?iophosg5e1 corresponds to ,,cs#b4 #gd ,if in/ead ( a sulphide we take an alkali hydroxide1 a ?ioc>bonate is also =m$1 toge!r ) a c>bonate--?us1 #c;,ba,h#b,o#b #c;,,cs#b #b;,ba,c,s#c ,ba,c,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,f ! in/ability ( ! ?ioc>bonates ( ! alkal9e metals we c cle>ly see ! reason ( ! difficulty ) :i* ! salts ( ! heavi] metals are =m$1 ^: basic prop]ties are incomp>ably weak] ?an ^? ( ! alkali metals4 ,h[ev]1 ^! salts may be obta9$ by d\ble decomposition4 ,ammonia 9 react+ on c>bon bisulphide gives1 besides products l ^? =m$ by o!r alkalis1 a :ole s]ies ( products ( z complex a /ructure z ^? sub/ances :i* are produc$ by ! action ( c>bonic anhydride on ammonia4 ,9 ! n9? *apt] we exam9$ ! =mation ( ! ammonium c>bonates1 & saw ! transition f !m into ! cyanides4 ,x is n surpris+ aft] ?is t ! action ( c>bon bisulphide on ammonia n only produces ! above-m5tion$ salts1 b also amidic comp\nds correspond+ ) !m1 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is :olly or p>tially replac$ by sulphur4 ,?us ammonium di?ioc>bamate is v easily obta9$ if c>bon bisulphide be add$ to an alcoholic solution ( ammonia1 & ! mixture cool$ 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,! salt !n sep>ates out 9 m9ute yell[ cry/als1 ,,cn#b;,h#f,s#b4 ,c>bon bisulphide n only =ms comp\nds ) ! metallic sulphides1 b also ) sulphurett$ hydrog5--t is1 x =ms ?ioc>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,cs#c4 ,?is is obta9$ by c>efully mix+ solutions ( ?ioc>bonates ) dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,x !n sep>ates 9 an oily lay]1 :i* easily decomposes 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] into sulphurett$ hydrog5 & c>bon bisulphide1 j z ! correspond+ c>bonic acid 7hydrate7 decomposes into wat] & c>bonic anhydride4 ,c>bon bisulphide comb9es n only ) sodium sulphide1 b also ) ! bisulphide1 ,na#b,s#b1 n1 h[ev]1 ) ! trisulphide1 ,na#b,s#c4 ,! relation ( c>bon bisulphide to ! o!r c>bon comp\nds pres5ts _m mo/ int]e/+ features :i* are consid]$ 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,we w "h only turn our att5tion to "o ( ! comp\nds ( ?is class4 ,e?yl sulphide1 7,c#b;,h#e7b,s1 comb9es ) e?yl iodide1 ,c#b;,h#e;,i1 =m+ a new molecule1 ,s7,c#b;,h#e7c;,i4 ,if we designate ! hydroc>bon gr\p1 = in/ance e?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e1 by ,et1 ! reaction w\ld be express$ by ! foll[+ equation 3 ,et#b,s ,et,i ,s,et#c;,i4 ,?is comp\nd is ( a sal9e "*1 corresponds ) salts ( ! alkalis1 & is closely analog\s to ammonium *loride4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]2 :5 heat$ x aga9 splits up into its compon5ts ,et,i & ,et#b,s1 & ) silv] hydroxide gives a hydroxide1 ,et#c,s,,oh1 hav+ ! prop]ty ( a di/9ct & en]getic alkali1 resembl+ cau/ic ammonia4 ,?us ! comp\nd gr\p ,s,et#c comb9es1 l potassium or ammonium1 ) iod9e1 hydroxyl1 *lor9e1 c4 ,! hydroxide ,s,et#c,,oh is soluble 9 wat]1 precipitates metallic salts1 saturates acids1 c4 ,h5ce sulphur "h ent]s into a relation t[>ds o!r elem5ts simil> to t ( nitrog5 9 ammonia & ammonium salts1 ) only ?is diff]5ce1 t nitrog5 reta9s1 besides iod9e1 hydroxyl1 & o!r gr\ps1 also ,h#d or ,et#d 7= example1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 ,n,et#c;,,hi1 ,n,et#d;,i71 :il/ sulphur only reta9s ,et#c4 ,comp\nds ( ! =mula ,,%#c,x are h[ev] unkn[n1 only ! products ( sub/itution ,s,et#c,x1 c4 are kn[n4 ,! di/9ctly alkal9e prop]ties ( ! hydroxide1 trie?ylsulph9e hydroxide1 ,s,et#c,,oh1 & also ! %>ply-def9$ prop]ties ( ! correspond+ hydroxide1 tetrae?ylammonium hydroxide1 ,n,et#d,,oh1 dep5d naturally n only on ! prop]ties ( ! nitrog5 & sulphur ent]+ into _! composition1 b also on ! l>ge proportion ( hydroc>bon gr\ps !y conta94 ,judg+ f ! exi/5ce ( ! e?ylsulph9e comp\nds1 x might be imag9$ t sulphur =ms a comp\nd1 ,,%#d1 ) hydrog52 b no su* comp\nd is kn[n1 j z ,,nh#e is unkn[n1 al?\gh ,,nh#d;,cl exi/s4 ,a rem>kable example#gd bis ( ! ?io-comp\nds is f\nd 9 ?iocyanic acid--i4e4 cyanic acid 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is replac$ by sulphur1 ,,hcns4 ,we "k 7,*apt] ,,ix47 t ) oxyg5 ! cyanides ( ! alkal9e metals ,,rcn give cyanates ,,rcno2 b !y also comb9e ) sulphur1 & !re=e if yell[ prussiate ( pota% be treat$ z 9 ! prep>ation ( potassium cyanide1 & sulphur be add$ to ! mass1 potassium ?iocyanate1 ,,kncs1 is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,?is salt is mu* m /able ?an potassium cyanate2 x dissolves )\t *ange 9 wat] & alcohol1 =m+ col\rless solutions f :i* x easily cry/allises on evaporation4 ,x may be kept expos$ to air ev5 :5 9 solution2 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] x absorbs a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 & =ms a />t+-po9t = ! prep>ation ( all ! ?iocyanates1 ,,rcns1 & organic comp\nds 9 :i* ! metals are replac$ by hydroc>bon gr\ps4 ,su*1 = example1 is volatile mu/>d oil1 ,c#c;,h#e;,,csn 7allyl ?iocyanate71#ge :i* gives to mu/>d its cau/ic prop]ties4 ,) f]ric salts ! ?iocyanates give an exce$+ly brilliant r$ coloration1 :i* s]ves = detect+ ! smalle/ traces ( f]ric salts 9 solution4 ,?iocyanic acid1 ,,hcns1 may be obta9$ by a me?od ( d\ble decomposition1 by di/ill+ potassium ?iocyanate ) dilute sulphuric acid4 ,x is a volatile col\rless liquid1 hav+ a smell recall+ t ( v9eg>1 is soluble 9 wat]1 & may be kept 9 solution )\t *ange4#ge bis #gd bis ,?orpe & ,rodg] 7#ahhi71 by heat+ a mixture ( lead fluoride & phosphorus p5tasulphide to #bej 9 an atmosph]e ( dry nitrog51 obta9$ gase\s phosphorus fluosulphide1 or ?iophosphoryl fluoride1 ,,psf#c1 correspond+ ) ,p,o,cl#c4 ,?is col\rless gas is conv]t$ into a col\rless liquid by a pressure ( elev5 atmosph]es2 x does n act on dry m]cury1 & takes fire spontane\sly 9 air or oxyg51 =m+ phosphorus p5tafluoride1 phosphoric anhydride1 & sulphur\s anhydride4 ,x is soluble 9 e!r1 b is decompos$ by wat]3 ,,psf#c #d;,h#b,o ,h#b,s ,h#c,,po#d #c;,,hf 7,note #bj74 #ge ,al?\gh mu/>d oil may be obta9$ f ! ?iocyanates1 x is only an isom] ( allyl ?iocyanate prop]1 z is expla9$ 9 ,organic ,*emi/ry4 #ge bis ,sulphur c only replace half ! oxyg5 9 ,,co#b1 z is se5 9 c>bon oxysulphide1 or mono?ioc>bonic anhydride ,,cos4 ,?is sub/ance 0 obta9$ by ,?an1 & is =m$ 9 _m reactions4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt is obta9$ if a mixture ( c>bonic oxide & ! vap\r ( sulphur be pass$ ?r\gh a r$-hot tube4 ,:5 c>bon tetra*loride is heat$ ) sulphur\s anhydride1 ?is sub/ance is also =m$2 b x is be/ obta9$ 9 a pure =m by decompos+ potassium ?iocyanate ) a mixture ( equal volumes ( wat] & sulphuric acid4 ,a gas is !n evolv$ conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( hydrocyanic acid1 f :i* x may be fre$ by pass+ x ov] wool conta9+ moi/5$ m]curic oxide1 :i* reta9s ! hydrocyanic acid4 ,! reaction is express$ by ! equation3 #b,,kcns #b;,h#b,,s#d #b;,h#b,o ,k#b,,s#d 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d #b;,,cos4 ,x is also =m$ by pass+ ! vap\r ( c>bon bisulphide ov] alum9a or clay heat$ to r$ness 7,gauti]2 silicon sulphide is !n =m$74 ,,cos is also =m$ by pass+ phosg5e ov] a long lay] ( asbe/os mix$ ) cadmium sulphide at #bgj2 ,cd,s ,c,o,cl#c ,cd,cl#b ,,cos 7,nuricsn1 #ahib74 ,! pure gas has an aromatic od\r1 is soluble 9 an equal volume ( wat]1 :i*1 h[ev]1 acts on x1 s t x mu/ be collect$ ov] m]cury4 ,:5 slightly heat$1 c>bon oxysulphide decomposes into sulphur & c>bonic oxide4 ,x burns 9 air ) a pale blue flame1 explodes ) oxyg51 & yields potassium sulphide & c>bonate ) potassium hydroxide3 ,,cos #d,,kho ,k#b;,,co#c ,k#b,s #b;,h#b,o4 ,! sulphur comp\nds ( *lor9e ,cl#b,s & ,cl#b,s#b may be reg>d$ on ! "o h& z products ( ! metalepsis ( ! sulphides ( hydrog51 ,h#b,s & ,h#b,s#b2 & on ! o!r h& ( ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( *lor9e1 because *loride ( sulphur1 ,cl#b,s1 resembles *lor9e oxide1 ,cl#b,o1 :il/ ,cl#b,s#b corresponds ) ! high] oxide ( *lor9e2 or ?irdly1 we may see 9 ^! comp\nds ! type ( ! acid *loranhydrides1 because !y are all decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ hydro*loric acid1 & sulphur tetra*loride1 ,s,cl#d1 is decompos$ ) ! =mation ( sulphur\s anhydride4#gf #gf ,!re is no reason = see+ any contradiction or mutual incompatibility 9 ^! ?ree views1 because e analogy is m or less modifi$ by a *ange ( elem5ts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 x _c be expect$ t ! product ( ! metalepsis ( hydrog5 sulphide w\ld resemble ! correspond+ products ( wat] 9 all respects1 because wat] has n ! acid prop]ties ( hydrog5 sulphide4 ,9 ! days ( dualism & electrical pol>ity x 0 suppos$ t ! sulphur v>i$ 9 its nature3 9 hydrog5 sulphide or potassium sulphide x 0 consid]$ to be negative1 & 9 sulphur\s anhydride or sulphur di*loride positive4 ,x !n appe>$ evid5t t sulphur di*loride w\ld h no po9t ( analogy ) potassium sulphide4 ,b metalepsis1 or its expression 9 ! law ( sub/itution1 necessitates su* op9ions be+ laid aside4 ,if we c comp>e ,,co#b1 ,,*#d1 ,c,cl#d1 ,c,h,cl#c1 ,,*#c7,,oh7 ) ea* o!r1 we _c recognise any diff]5ce 9 ! sulphur 9 ,,%#b1 ,s,cl#b1 ,,sk#b1 or 9 g5]al ,,sx#b1 = o!rwise we %\ld h to ackn[l$ge z _m diff]5t /ates ( sulphur1 c>bon1 or hydrog5 z !re are comp\nds ( sulphur1 c>bon1 or hydrog54 ,! ess5tial tru? ( ! matt] is t all ! elem5ts 9 a molecule play _! "p 9 ! reactions into :i* x ent]s4 ,(t5 ?is appe>s to be contradict$ 9 ! result--= example1 hydrog5 alone may be replac$2 b x is n ?is hydrog5 alone t has det]m9$ ! reaction2 all ! elem5ts pres5t h p>ticipat$ 9 x4 ,?is may be made cle>] by ! foll[+ r\gh illu/ration4 ,suppos+ two regim5ts ( soldi]s 7 fight+ aga9/ ea* o!r1 & t sev]al m5 7 lo/ by "o ( ! regim5ts2 no "o c\ld say t x 0 only ^! m5 :o took "p 9 ! engagem5t4 ,! o!r m5 fir$ & ! bullets flew ov] ! heads ( _! oppon5ts4 ,x 0 n only ^? :o fell :o f\ght1 al?\gh !y only 7 remov$ f ! field ( battle2 ! fight+ proce$$ among ! masses1 b only ^? few 7 disabl$ :o w5t =w>d & 7 m conspicu\s c42 n t ! rema9d] did n take "p 9 ! action2 !y also f\ght & 7 an object ( attack1 only !y rema9$ s\nd & unhurt4 ,hydrog5 is light] ?an o!r elem5ts & its atoms m mobile2 x subjects itself m frequ5tly & easily to reactions2 b x is n x alone :i* reacts1 x is ev5 less liable to attack ?an o!r elem5ts4 ,x p>ticipates 9 exce$+ly div]se reactions1 n inde$ because ! hydrog5 itself v>ies1 b because "o atom ( x puts itself =w>d1 ano!r is hidd51 "o is unit$ ) c>bon1 ano!r feebly held by sulphur1 "o /&s or moves 9 ! neighb\rhood ( oxyg51 ano!r is jo9$ to a hydroc>bon4 ,all hydrog5 atoms are equal1 & equally s]ve z an object ( attack = ! atoms ( molecules enc\nt]+ !m1 b ^? only are remov$ f ! sph]e ( action :i* are ne>] ! surface ( a molecule1 :i* are m mobile1 or held by a less sum ( =ces4 ,s also sulphur is "o & ! same 9 sulphur di*loride1 9 sulphur\s or sulphuric anhydride1 9 hydrog5 sulphide1 9 potassium sulphide1 b x reacts diff]5tly1 & ^? elem5ts :i* are ) x also v>y 9 _! reactions because !y are ) x1 & x v>ies its reactions because x is ) !m4 ,x is possible to seize on a "* common to sub/ances quantitatively & qualitatively analog\s to ea* o!r4 ,x may be admitt$ t an elem5t 9 c]ta9 =ms is n able to ent] into reactions into :i* 9 o!r =ms x ent]s will+ly1 if only ! requisite conditions are enc\nt]$2 b x mu/ n !re=e be conclud$ t an elem5t *anges its ess5tial quality 9 ^! diff]5t cases4 ,! prec$+ rem>ks t\* on que/ions :i* are subject to mu* argum5t among *emi/s1 & ,i m5tion !m "h 9 ord] to %[ ! treatm5t ( ^? mo/ important problems ( *emi/ry :i* lie at ! basis ( ?is treatise4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,app>atus = ! prep>ation ( sulphur *loride1 & simil> volatile comp\nds prep>$ by combu/ion 9 a /ream ( *lor9e4 ,! comp\nds ( sulphur ) *lor9e are prep>$ 9 ! app>atus depict$ 9 fig4 #ia4 ,z sulphur *loride is decompos$ by wat]1 ! *lor9e evolv$ 9 ! flask ,c mu/ be dri$ be=e com+ into contact ) ! sulphur4 ,x is !re=e fir/ pass$ ?r\gh a ,w\lfe's bottle1 ,b1 conta9+ sulphuric acid1 & !n ?r\gh ! cyl9d] ,d conta9+ pumice /one moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid1 & !n l$ into ! retort ,e1 9 :i* ! sulphur is heat$4 ,! comp\nd :i* is =m$ di/ils ov] into ! receiv] ,r4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( sulphur passes ov] ) ! sulphur *loride1 b if ! resultant di/illate be re-saturat$ ) *lor9e & di/ill$ no free sulphur rema9s1 ! boil+-po9t rises to #add1 & pure sulphur *loride1 ,s#b;,cl#b1 is obta9$4 ,x has ?is =mula because its vap\r d5sity ref]r$ to hydrog5 is #fh4 ,x is also obta9$ by heat+ c]ta9 metallic *lorides 7/ann\s1 m]curic7 ) sulphur2 bo? ! metal & *lor9e !n comb9e ) ! sulphur4 ,sulphur *loride is a yell[i%-br[n liquid1 :i* boils at #add1 & has a specific gravity ( #agj at #j4 ,x fumes /rongly 9 ! air1 react+ on ! moi/ure conta9$ !re91 & has a heavy *loranhydr\s od\r4 ,x dissolves sulphur1 is miscible ) c>bon bisulphide1 & falls to ! bottom ( a vessel conta9+ wat]1 by :i* x is decompos$1 =m+ sulphur\s anhydride & hydro*loric acid2 b x fir/ =ms v>i\s l[] /ages ( oxidation ( sulphur1 because ! addition ( silv] nitrate to ! solution gives a black precipitate4 ,) hydrog5 sulphide x gives sulphur & hydro*loric acid1 & x reacts directly ) metals--especially ars5ic1 antimony1 & t9--=m+ sulphides & *lorides4 ,9 ! cold1 x absorbs *lor9e & gives sulphur di*loride1 ,s,cl#b4 ,! entire conv]sion into ?is sub/ance requires ! prolong$ passage ( dry *lor9e ?r\gh sulphur *loride surr\nd$ by a freez+ mixture4 ,! di/illation ( ! di*loride mu/ be conduct$ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 z o!rwise x p>tially decomposes into sulphur *loride & *lor9e4 ,pure sulphur di*loride is a r$di%-br[n liquid1 :i* resembles ! l[] *loride 9 _m respects2 its specific gravity is #afb2 its od\r is m suffocat+ ?an t ( sulphur *loride2 x volatilises at #fd4gg #gg ,! obs]v$ vap\r d5sity ( sulphur di*loride ref]r$ to hydrog5 is #ecc1 & t giv5 by ! =mula is #eae4 ,! small] molecul> weight expla9s its boil+ po9t be+ l[] ?an t ( sulphur *loride1 ,s#b;,cl#b4 ,! reactions ( bo? ^! comp\nds are v simil>4 ,sulphur conv]ts ! di*loride1 ,s,cl#b1 into ! mono*loride1 ,s#b;,cl#b4 ,9 "o po9t ! di*loride diff]s di/9ctly f ! mono*loride--t is1 9 its capacity = easily giv+ up *lor9e & decompos+4 ,ev5 light decomposes x into *lor9e & ! mono*loride4 ,h5ce x acts on _m sub/ances 9 ! same mann] z *lor9e1 or sub/ances :i* easily "p ) ! latt]1 su* z phosphoric or antimonic *loride4 ,9 di/9ction to ^!1 h[ev]1 sulphur di*loride w\ld appe> to di/il )\t any consid]able decomposition1 judg+ by ! vap\r d5sity4 ,b ?is is n a valid conclusion1 = if !re be a decomposition1 !n #b,s,cl#b ,s#b;,cl#b ,cl#b2 n[ ! d5sity ( sulphur *loride #fge1 & ( *lor9e #cee1 & consequ5tly a mixture ( equal volumes ( ! two #eae1 j ! same z an equal volume ( sulphur di*loride4 ,!re=e ! di/illation ( sulphur di*loride is probably no?+ b its decomposition4 ,h5ce ! comp\nd ,s,cl#b1 :i* is /able at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 decomposes at #fd4 ,9 ! cold x absorbs a fur!r am\nt ( *lor9e1 correspond+ to ,s,cl#d1 b ev5 at -#aj a portion ( ! absorb$ *lor9e is giv5 (f--t is1 dissociation takes place4 ,?us ! tetra*loride is ev5 less /able ?an ! di*loride4 ,?ionyl *loride1 ,s,o,cl#b1 may be reg>d$ z oxidis$ sulphur di*loride2 x corresponds ) sulphur *loride1 ,s#b;,cl#b1 9 :i* "o atom ( sulphur is replac$ by oxyg54 ,at ! same "t x is *lor9e oxide 7hypo*lor\s anhydride1 ,cl#b,o7 comb9$ ) sulphur1 & also ! *loranhydride ( sulphur\s acid--t is1 ,,s7,,ho7#b1 9 :i* ! two hydroxyl gr\ps are replac$ by two atoms ( *lor9e1 or sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 9 :i* "o atom ( oxyg5 is replac$ by two atoms ( *lor9e4 ,all ^! repres5tations are confirm$ by reactions ( =mation1 or decompositions2 !y all agree ) our notions ( ! o!r comp\nds ( sulphur1 oxyg51 & *lor9e2 h5ce ^! def9itions are n contradictory to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ?ionyl *loride 0 fir/ obta9$ by ,s*iff1 by ! action ( dry sulphur\s anhydride on phosphorus p5ta*loride4 ,on di/ill+ ! resultant liquid1 ?ionyl *loride comes ov] fir/ at #hj1 & on cont9u+ ! di/illation phosphorus oxy*loride di/ils ov] at above #ajj1 ,p,cl#e ,,s#b ,p,o,cl#c ,s,o,cl#b4 ,?is mode ( prep>ation is direct evid5ce ( ! oxy*loride "* ( ,s,o,cl#b4 ,wrtz obta9$ ! same sub/ance by pass+ a /ream ( *lor9e oxide ?r\gh a cold solution ( sulphur 9 sulphur *loride2 ! *lor9e oxide !n comb9$ directly ) ! sulphur1 ,s ,cl#b,o ,s,o,cl#b1 :il/ ! sulphur *loride rema9$ un*ang$ 7sulphur _c be comb9$ directly ) *lor9e oxide1 z an explosion takes place74 ,?ionyl *loride is a col\rless liquid1 ) a suffocat+ acrid smell2 x has a specific gravity at #j ( #afge1 & boils at #gh4 ,x s9ks 9 wat]1 by :i* x is imm$iately decompos$1 l all *loranhydrides--= example1 l c>bonyl *loride1 :i* corresponds ) x3 ,s,o,cl#b ,h#b,o ,,s#b #b;,h,cl4#gg bis #gg bis ,h>tog & ,sims 7#ahic7 obta9$ ?ionyl bromide1 ,s,o,br#b1 by treat+ ,s,o,cl#b ) sodium bromide2 x is a r$ liquid1 sp4 gr4 #bfb1 & decomposes at #aej4 ,normal sulphuric acid has two correspond+ *loranhydrides2 ! fir/1 ,,s#b7,,oh7,cl1 is sulphuric acid1 ,,s#b7;,,ho7#b1 9 :i* "o equival5t ( ,,ho is replac$ by *lor9e2 ! second has ! composition ,,s#b;,cl#b--t is1 two ,,ho gr\ps are sub/itut$ by two ( *lor9e4 ,! second *loranhydride1 or ! comp\nd ,,s#b;,cl#b1 is call$ sulphuryl *loride1 & ! fir/ *loranhydride1 ,,s#b;,h,o,cl1 may be call$ *lorosulphonic acid1 because x is really an acid2 x /ill reta9s "o hydroxyl ( sulphuric acid1 & its correspond+ salts are kn[n4 ,?us1 potassium *loride absorbs ! vap\r ( sulphuric anhydride1 =m+ a salt1 ,,s#c,k,cl1 correspond+ ) ,,s#c;,h,cl z acid4 ,9 act+ on sodium *loride x =ms hydro*loric acid & ! salt ,na,s,o#c;,cl4 ,?is fir/ *loranhydride ( sulphuric acid1 ,,s#b;,h,o,cl1 discov]$ by ,williamson1 is obta9$ ei!r by ! action ( phosphorus p5ta*loride on sulphuric acid 7,p,cl#e ,h#b,,s#d ,p,o,cl#c ,h,cl ,,hso#c;,cl71 or directly by ! action ( dry hydro*loric acid on sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c ,h,cl ,,hso#c;,cl4 ,! mo/ easy & rapid me?od ( its =mation is by direct saturation ( cold ,nordhaus5 acid ) dry hydro*loric acid gas 7,,s#c ,h,cl ,,hso#c;,cl71 & di/illation ( ! resultant solution2 ! di/illate !n conta9s ,,hso#c;,cl4 ,x is a col\rless fum+ liquid1 hav+ an acrid od\r2 x boils at #aec 7accord+ to my det]m9ation1 confirm$ by ,konoval(f71 & its specific gravity at #ai is #aggf4 ,x is imm$iately decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ hydro*loric & sulphuric acids1 z %\ld be ! case ) a true *loranhydride4 ,9 ! reactions ( ?is *loranhydride we f9d ! easie/ means ( introduc+ ! sulphonic gr\p ,,hso#c into o!r comp\nds1 because x is "h comb9$ ) *lor9e4 ,! second *loranhydride ( sulphuric acid1 or sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 0 obta9$ by ,regnault by ! direct action ( ! sun's ray on a mixture ( equal volumes ( *lor9e & sulphur\s oxide4 ,! gases gradually cond5se into a liquid1 comb9+ toge!r z c>bonic oxide does ) *lor9e4 ,x is also obta9$ :5 a mixture ( ! two gases 9 acetic acid is all[$ to /& = "s "t4 ,! fir/ *loranhydride1 ,,s#c;,h,cl1 decomposes :5 heat$ at #bjj 9 a clos$ tube into sulphuric acid & sulphuryl *loride4 ,x boils at #gj1 its specific gravity is #ag1 x gives hydro*loric & sulphuric acids ) wat]1 fumes 9 ! air1 &1 judg+ by its vap\r d5sity1 does n decompose :5 di/ill$4#gh #gh ,pyrosulphuryl *loride1 ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b4 ,see ,note #dd4 ,?orpe & ,kirman1 by treat+ ,,s#c ) ,,hf1 obta9$ ,,s#b7,,oh7,f1 z a liquid boil+ at #afc1 b :i* decompos$ ) great] facility & !n gave ,,s#b;,f#b4 ,! acids ( sulphur naturally h _! correspond+ ammonium salts1 & ! latt] _! amides & nitriles4 ,x w be readily und]/ood h[ va/ a field = rese>* is pres5t$ by ! s]ies ( comp\nds ( sulphur & nitrog51 if we only rememb] t to c>bonic & =mic acids !re corresponds1 z we saw 7,*apt] ,,ix471 a va/ s]ies ( d]ivatives correspond+ ) _! ammonium salts4 ,to sulphuric acid !re correspond two ammonium salts1 ,,s#b7;,,ho77,,nh#d,o7 & ,,s#b7,,nh#d,o7#b2 ?ree amides3 ! acid amide ,,s#b7;,,ho77,,nh#b71 or sulphamic acid1 ! normal sal9e comp\nd ,,s#b7,,nh#d,o77,,nh#b71 or ammonium sulphamate1 & ! normal amide ,,s#b7,,nh#b7b1 or sulphamide 7! analogue ( urea72 !n ! acid nitrile1 ,,son7,,ho71 & two neutral nitriles1 ,,son7,,nh#b7 & ,,sn#b4 ,!re are simil> comp\nds correspond+ ) sulphur\s acid1 & !re=e its nitriles w be1 an acid1 ,,sn7,,ho71 its salt1 & ! normal comp\nd1 ,,sn7,,nh#b74 ,di?ionic & ! o!r acids ( sulphur %\ld also h _! correspond+ amides & nitriles4 ,only a few examples are kn[n1 :i* we w briefly describe4 ,sulphuric acid =ms salts ( v great /ability ) ammonia1 & ammonium sulphate is "o ( ! commone/ ammoniacal comp\nds4 ,x is obta9$ by ! direct action ( ammonia on sulphuric acid1 or by ! action ( ! latt] on ammonium c>bonate2 x sep>ates f its solutions 9 an anhydr\s /ate1 l potassium sulphate1 ) :i* x is isomorph\s4 ,h5ce1 ! composition ( cry/als ( ammonium sulphate is 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d4 ,?is salt fuses at #adj1 & does n und]go any *ange :5 heat$ up to #ahj4 ,at high] temp]atures x does n lose wat]1 b p>ts ) half its ammonia1 & is conv]t$ into ! acid salt1 ,,hnh#d,,s#d2 & ?is acid salt1 on fur!r heat+1 und]goes a fur!r decomposition1 & splits up into nitrog51 wat]1 & acid ammonium sulphite1 ,,hnh#d,,s#c4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! normal salt is soluble 9 twice its weight ( wat] & at ! boil+-po9t ( wat] 9 an equal weight4 ,9 its faculty = comb9ations ?is salt exhibits a great resemblance to potassium sulphate1 &1 l x1 easily =ms a numb] ( d\ble salts2 ! mo/ rem>kable ( :i* are ! ammonia alums1 ,,nh#d;,al,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o1 & ! d\ble salts =m$ by ! metals ( ! magnesium gr\p1 hav+1 = example1 ! composition 7,,nh#d7b,mg,s#b,o#h1f;,h#b,o4 ,ammonium sulphate does n give an amide :5 heat$1 p]haps ow+ to ! faculty ( sulphuric anhydride to reta9 ! wat] comb9$ ) x ) great =ce4 ,b ! amides ( sulphuric acid may be v conv5i5tly prep>$ f sulphuric anhydride4 ,_! =mation by ?is me?od is v easily und]/ood because an amide is equal to an ammonium salt less wat]1 & if ! anhydride be tak5 x w give an amide directly ) ammonia4 ,?us1 if dry ammonia be pass$ into a vessel surr\nd$ by a freez+ mixture & conta9+ sulphuric anhydride1 x =ms a :ite p[d]y mass call$ sulphatammon1 hav+ ! composition ,,s#c1b;,h#c,n1 & resembl+ ! simil> comp\nd ( c>bonic acid1 ,,co#b1b,,nh#c4 ,?is sub/ance is naturally ! ammonium salt ( sulphamic acid1 ,,s#b7,,nh#d,o7,,nh#b4 ,x is sl[ly act$ on by wat]1 & may !re=e be obta9$ 9 solution1 9 :i* x sl[ly reacts ) b>ium *loride1 :i* proves t ) wat] x /ill =ms ammonium sulphate4 ,if ?is sub/ance be c>efully dissolv$ 9 wat] & evaporat$1 x yields well-=m$ cry/als1 ^: solution no long] gives a precipitate ) b>ium *loride4 ,?is is n due to ! pres5ce ( impurities1 b to a *ange 9 ! nature ( ! sub/ance1 & !re=e ,rose calls ! cry/all9e modification p>asulphatammon4 ,plat9um *loride only precipitates half ! nitrog5 z plat9o*loride f solutions ( sulphat- & p>asulphatammon1 :i* %[s t !y are ammonium salts1 ,,s#b7,,nh#d,o77,,nh#b74 ,x may be t ! reason ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! two modifications is connect$ ) ! fact t two diff]5t sub/ances ( ! composition ,n#b;,h#d,,s#b are possible3 "o is ! amide ,,s#b7,,nh#b7b correspond+ ) ! normal salt1 & ! o!r is ! salt ( ! nitrile acid correspond+ ) acid ammonium sulphate--t is1 ,,son7,,onh#d7 corresponds ) ! acid ,,son7,,oh7 ,,s#b7,,nh#d,o7,,oh - #b;,h#b,o4 ,h5ce !re may "h be a diff]5ce ( ! same nature z betwe5 urea & ammonium cyanate4 ,up to ! pres5t1 ! isom]ism indicat$ above has be5 b little inve/igat$1 & might be ! subject ( int]e/+ rese>*es4 ,if 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t ! ammonia1 & n ! sulphuric anhydride1 be tak5 9 excess1 a soluble sub/ance ( ! composition #b,,s#b1c,,nh#c is =m$4 ,?is comp\nd1 obta9$ by ,jacquel9e & inve/igat$ by ,voron91 d\btless also conta9s a salt ( sulphamic acid--t is1 ( ! amide correspond+ ) ! acid ammonium sulphate ,,hnh#d,,s#d - ,h#b,o 7,,nh#b7,,s#b7,,oh74 ,probably x is a comp\nd ( sulphatammon ) sulphamic acid4 ,?us x has an acid reaction1 & does n give a precipitate ) b>ium *loride4 ,) normal sulphate ( ammonium1 an amide ( ! composition ,n#b;,h#d,,s#b %\ld correspond1 :i* %\ld be> ! same relation to sulphuric acid z urea be>s to c>bonic acid4 ,?is amide1 kn[n z sulphamide1 is obta9$ by ! action ( dry ammonia on ! sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 j z urea is obta9$ by ! action ( ammonia on c>bonyl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b #d,,nh#c ,n#b;,h#d,,s#b #b,,nh#d;,cl4 ,! ammonium *loride is sep>at$ f ! resultant sulphamide ) great difficulty4 ,cold wat]1 act+ on ! mixture1 dissolves !m bo?2 ! cold solution does n gives precipitate ) b>ium *loride4 ,alkalis act on x sl[ly1 z !y d on urea2 b on boil+1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis or acids1 x easily recomb9es ) wat]1 & gives an ammonium salt4 ,v4 ,traube 7#ahib7 obta9$ sulphamide by ! reaction ( sulphuryl1 dissolv$ 9 *lor(orm1 ^u ammonia4 ,! resultant precipitate dissolves :5 %ak5 up ) wat]1 & ! solution 7aft] boil+ ) ! oxides or lead or silv]7 is evaporat$1 :5 a syrupy liquid rema9s4 ,) nitrate ( silv] ! latt] gives a solid comp\nd1 :i*1 :5 decompos$ by hydro*loric acid1 gives free sulphamide 9 l>ge col\rless cry/als1 hav+ ! composition ,,s#b7,,nh#b7b4 ,?is sub/ance fuses at #ha1 beg9s to decompose bel[ #ajj1 & is entirely decompos$ above #bej2 x is soluble 9 wat]1 & ! solution has a neutral reaction & bitt] ta/e4 ,:5 heat$ ) acids1 sulphamide gradually decomposes1 =m+ sulphuric acid & ammonia4 ,if ! silv] comp\nd obta9$ by ! action ( sulphamide on nitrate ( silv] be heat$ at #agj-ahj until ammonia is no long] evolv$1 & ! residue be extract$ ) wat] acidulat$ ) nitric acid1 a salt sep>ates out f ! solution1 answ]+ 9 its composition to sulphamide1 ,,s#b,n,ag1 :i* ! amide - ,,nh#c ,,s#b,n#b;,h#d - ,,nh#c ,,s#b,,nh4 ,! action ( sulphuryl *loride 7& ( ! o!r *loranhydrides ( sulphur7 on ammonium c>bonate always1 z ,m5te %[$ 7#ahhh71 results 9 ! =mation ( ! salt ,,nh7,,s#c,,nh#d7b4 ,! nitriles correspond+ ) sulphuric acid are n z yet kn[n ) any c]ta9ty4 ,! mo/ simple nitrile correspond+ ) sulphuric acid %\ld h ! composition ,n#b;,h#h,,s#d - #d;,h#b,o ,n#b,s4 ,?is w\ld be a k9d ( cyanog5 correspond+ ) sulphuric acid4 ,on comp>+ sulphur\s acid ) c>bonic acid1 we saw t !y pres5t a great analogy 9 _m respects1 & !re=e x might be expect$ t nitrile comp\nds hav+ ! composition ,,nhs & ,n#b,s#b w\ld be f\nd4 ,! latt] ( ^! comp\nds is well kn[n1 & 0 obta9$ by ,s\beiron1 by ! action ( dry ammonia on sulphur *loride4 ,?is sub/ance corresponds ) cyanog5 7p>acyanog571 & is kn[n z nitrog5 sulphide1 ,n#b,s#b4 ,x is =m$ accord+ to ! equation #c,s,cl#b #h,,nh#c ,n#b,s#b ,s #f,,nh#d;,cl4 ,! free sulphur & nitrog5 sulphide are dissolv$ by act+ on ! product ) c>bon bisulphide1 ! nitrog5 sulphide be+ mu* less soluble ?an ! sulphur4 ,x is a yell[ sub/ance1 :i* is excessively irritat+ to ! eyes & no/rils4 ,x explodes :5 rubb$ ) a h>d sub/ance1 be+ naturally decompos$ ) ! evolution ( nitrog52 b :5 heat$ x fuses )\t decompos+1 & only decomposes ) explosion at #aeg4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 & only slightly s 9 alcohol1 e!r1 & c>bon bisulphide2 #ajj p>ts ( ! latt] dissolve #ae "p ( nitrog5 sulphide at ! boil+ po9t4 ,?is solution on cool+ deposits x 9 m9ute transp>5t prisms ( a gold5 yell[ col\r4 ,9 ! gr\p ( ! halog5s we saw f\r closely analog\s elem5ts--fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e--& we meet ) ! same numb] ( closely alli$ analogues 9 ! oxyg5 gr\p2 = besides sulphur ?is gr\p also includes sel5ium & tellurium3 ,o1 ,s1 ,se1 ,te4 ,^! two gr\ps are v closely alli$1 bo? 9 respect to ! magnitudes ( _! atomic weights & also 9 ! faculty ( ! elem5ts ( bo? gr\ps = comb9+ ) metals4 ,! di/9ct analogy & def9ite degree ( v>iance kn[n to u = ! halog5s1 also repeat !mselves 9 ! same degree = ! elem5ts ( ! oxyg5 gr\p4 ,among/ ! halog5s fluor9e has _m peculi>ities comp>$ to ,cl1 ,br & ,i :i* are m closely analog\s1 :il/ oxyg5 diff]s 9 _m respects f ,s1 ,se1 ,te1 :i* possess great] simil>ities4 ,! analogy 9 a quantitative respect is p]fect 9 bo? cases4 ,?us ! halog5s comb9e ) ,h1 & ! elem5ts ( ! oxyg5 gr\p ) ,h#b1 =m+ ,h#b,o1 ,h#b,s1 ,h#b,se1 ,h#b,te4 ,! hydrog5 comp\nds ( sel5ium & tellurium are acids l hydrog5 sulphide4 ,sel5ium1 by simple heat+ 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 p>tially comb9es ) x directly1 b sel5iurett$ hydrog5 is m readily decomposable by heat ?an sulphurett$ hydrog51 & ?is prop]ty is /ill m develop$ 9 tellurett$ hydrog54 ,hydrog5 sel5ide & telluride are gases l sulphurett$ hydrog51 &1 l x1 are soluble 9 wat]1 =m sal9e comp\nds ) alkalis1 precipitate metallic salts1 are obta9$ by ! action ( acids on _! comp\nds ) metals1 c4 ,sel5ium & tellurium1 l sulphur1 give two normal grades ( comb9ation ) oxyg51 bo? ( an acid "*1 ( :i* only ! =ms correspond+ to sulphur\s anhydride--namely1 sel5i\s anhydride1 ,se,o#b1 & tellur\s anhydride1 ,te,o#bgi--;are =m$ directly4 ,^! are bo? solids1 obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( ! elem5ts !mselves & by ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts on !m4 ,!y =m feebly en]getic acids1 hav+ di/9ct bibasic prop]ties2 h[ev]1 a *>act]i/ic diff]5ce f ,,s#b is obs]vable bo? 9 ! physical prop]ties ( ^! comp\nds & 9 _! /ability & capacity = fur!r oxidation1 j z 9 ! s]ies ( ! halog5s already kn[n to u1 only 9 an inv]se ord]2 9 ! latt] we saw t iod9e comb9es m easily ?an brom9e or *lor9e ) oxyg51 =m+ m /able oxyg5 comp\nds1 :]eas "h1 on ! contr>y1 sulphur\s anhydride1 z we "k1 is difficultly decompos$1 p>ts ) its sulphur ) difficulty1 & is easily oxidis$ & especially 9 its salts1 :ile sel5i\s & tellur\s anhydrides are oxidis$ ) difficulty & easily r$uc$1 ev5 by means ( sulphur\s acid4 #gi ,sel5i\s anhydride1 ,se,o#b1 is a volatile solid1 :i* cry/allises 9 prisms soluble 9 wat]4 ,x is be/ procur$ by ! action ( nitric acid on sel5ium4 ,! well-kn[n rese>*es ( ,nilson 7#ahgd7 %[$ t ! salts ( sel5i\s acid easily =m acid salts1 & are s *>act]i/ic 9 _m respects t !y may ev5 s]ve = judg+ ! analogy ( types ( oxides4 ,?us ! oxides ( ! composition ,,ro give normal salts ( ! composition ,r,se,o#c1b;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,mn1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 ,zn4 ,! salts ( magnesium1 b>ium1 & calcium conta9 a diff]5t quantity ( wat]1 z d also ! salts ( ! oxides ,r#b,o#c4 ,we "h turn att5tion to ! fact t b]yllium gives a normal salt1 ,be,se,o#c1b;,h#b,o1 & n a salt analog\s to ^? ( alum9ium1 sc&ium1 ,sc#b7,se,o#c7c1;,h#b,o1 yttrium1 ,y#b7,se,o#c7b1ab;,h#b,o1 & o!r oxides ( ! =m ,r#b,o#c1 :i* speaks 9 fav\r ( ! =mula ,be,o4 ,tellur\s anhydride is also a col\rless solid1 :i* cry/allises 9 octah$ra2 x also1 :5 heat$1 fir/ fuses & !n volatilises4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 & ! decomposition ( its salts gives a hydrate1 ,h#b,te,o#c1 :i* is insoluble4 ,x is a v *>act]i/ic circum/ance t sel5i\s & tellur\s anhydrides are v easily r$uc$ to sel5ium & tellurium4 ,?is is n only effect$ by metals l z9c1 or by sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i* are p[]ful deoxidis]s1 b ev5 by sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* is able to precipitate sel5ium & tellurium f solutions ( ! sel5ites & tellurites1 & ev5 ( ! acids !mselves1 :i* is tak5 advantage ( 9 obta9+ ^! elem5ts & sep>at+ !m f sulphur4 ,sulphuric acid1 z we "k1 r>ely acts z an oxidis+ ag5t4 ,x is o!rwise ) sel5ic & telluric acids1 ,h#b,se,o#d & ,h#b,te,o#d1 :i* are p[]ful oxidis+ ag5ts--t is1 are easily r$uc$ 9 _m circum/ances ei!r into ! l[] oxide or ev5 to sel5ium & tellurium4 ,a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t is requir$ 9 ord] to conv]t sel5i\s & tellur\s anhydrides into sel5ic & telluric anhydrides1 &1 moreov]1 x mu/ be employ$ 9 excess4 ,if *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( potassium sel5ide1 ,k#b,se1 telluride1 ,k#b,te1 sel5ite1 ,k#b,se,o#c1 or tellurite1 ,k#b,te,o#c1 x acts z an oxidis] 9 ! pres5ce ( ! wat]1 =m+ potassium sel5ate1 ,k#b,se,o#d1 or tellurate1 ,k#b,te,o#d4 ,! same salts are =m$ by fus+ ! l[] oxides ) nitre4 ,^! salts are isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ sulphates1 & _c !re=e be sep>at$ f !m by cry/allisation4 ,! salts ( potassium1 sodium1 magnesium1 copp]1 cadmium1 c4 are soluble l ! sulphates1 b ^? ( b>ium & calcium are insoluble1 9 p]fect analogy ) ! sulphates4 ,:5 copp] sel5ate1 ,cu,se,o#d1 is treat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 7,cu,s is precipitat$71 sel5ic acid rema9s 9 solution4 ,on evaporation & dry+ 9 vacuo at #ahj x gives a syrupy liquid1 :i* may be conc5trat$ to almo/ ! pure acid1 ,h#b,se,o#d1 hav+ a specific gravity ( #bf4 ,cam]on & ,macallan 7#ahia7 %[$ t pure ,h#b,se,o#d only rema9s liquid 9 a /ate ( sup]fusion :il/ ! solidifi$ acid melts at #eh1 ! solid acid cry/allises well1 its sp4 gr4 is !n #bie4 ,! hydrate ,h#b,se,o#d1;,h#b,o melts at #be4 ,! acid 9 a sup]fus$ /ate has a sp4 gr4 #bcf & ! solid #bfc4 ,l sulphuric acid /rong sel5ic acid attracts moi/ure f ! atmosph]e2 x is n decompos$ by sulphur\s acid1 b oxidises hydro*loric acid 7l nitric1 *romic1 & manganic acids71 evolv+ *lor9e & =m+ sel5i\s acid1 ,h#b,se,o#d #b;,h,cl ,h#b,se,o#c ,h#b,o ,cl#b4 ,telluric acid1 ,h#b,te,o#d1 is obta9$ by fus+ tellur\s anhydride ) potassium hydroxide & *lorate2 ! solution1 conta9+ potassium tellurate1 is !n precipitat$ ) b>ium *loride1 & ! b>ium tellurate1 ,ba,te,o#d obta9$ 9 ! precipitate is decompos$ by sulphuric acid4 ,a solution ( telluric acid is ?us obta9$1 :i* on evaporation yields col\rless prisms1 soluble 9 wat]1 & conta9+ ,te,h#b,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,two equival5ts ( wat] are driv5 (f at #afj2 on fur!r heat+ ! la/ equival5t ( wat] is expell$1 & !n oxyg5 is giv5 (f4 ,x also gives *lor9e ) hydro*loric acid1 l sel5ic acid4 ,its salts also correspond ) ^? ( sulphuric acid4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rem>k$ t telluric & sel5ic acids are able to give poly-acid salts ) mu* great] ease ?an sulphuric acid4 ,?us1 = example1 !re are kn[n = telluric acid n only ,k#b,te,o#d1e;,h#b,o & ,k,h,te,o#d1c;,h#b,o1 b also ,k,h,te,o#d1;,h#b,te,o#d1;,h#b,o ,k#b,te,o#d1c;,h#b,te,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt is easily obta9$ f acid solutions ( ! prec$+ salts & is less soluble 9 wat]4 ,z sel5i\s anhydride is volatile & gives simil> poly-salts1 x may be surmis$ t sel5i\s1 tellur\s1 sel5ic1 & telluric anhydrides are polym]ic z comp>$ ) sulphur\s & sulphuric anhydrides1 = :i* reason x w\ld be desirable to det]m9e ! vap\r d5sity ( sel5i\s anhydride4 ,x w\ld probably correspond ) ,se#b,o#d or ,se#c,o#f4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! v close analogy ( sel5ium to sulphur1 ,i w quote two examples4 ,potassium cyanide dissolves sel5ium1 z x does sulphur1 =m+ potassium sel5ocyanate1 ,k,c,n,se1 correspond+ ) potassium ?iocyanate4 ,acids precipitate sel5ium f ?is solution1 because sel5ocyanic acid1 ,h#b;,c,n,se1 :5 9 a free /ate is imm$iately decompos$4 ,a boil+ solution ( sodium sulphite dissolves sel5ium1 j z x w\ld sulphur1 =m+ a salt analog\s to ?iosulphate ( sodium1 namely1 sodium sel5osulphate1 ,na#b,s,se,o#c4 ,sel5ium is sep>at$ f a solution ( ?is salt by ! action ( acid4 ,sel5ium 0 obta9$ 9 #ahag by ,b]zelius f ! sublimate :i* collects 9 ! fir/ *amb] 9 ! prep>ation ( sulphuric acid f ,fahlun pyrites4 ,c]ta9 o!r pyrites also conta9 small quantities ( sel5ium4 ,"s native sel5ides1 especially ^? ( lead1 m]cury1 & copp]1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s1 b only 9 small quantities4 ,pyrites & bl5des1 9 :i* ! sulphur is p>tially replac$ by sel5ium1 /ill rema9 ! *ief s\rce = its extraction4 ,:5 ^! pyrites are roa/$ !y evolve sel5i\s anhydride1 :i* cond5ses 9 ! cool] portions ( ! app>atus 9 :i* ! pyrites are roa/$1 & is p>tially or :olly r$uc$ by ! sulphur\s anhydride simultane\sly =m$4 ,! pres5ce ( sel5ium 9 ores & sublimates is mo/ simply te/$ by heat+ !m be=e ! bl[pipe1 :5 !y evolve ! *>act]i/ic od\r ( g>lic4 ,sel5ium exhibits two modifications1 l sulphur3 "o amorph\s & insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 ! o!r cry/all9e & slightly soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide 79 #a1jjj p>ts at #de & #f1jjj at #j71 & sep>at+ f its solutions 9 monocl9ic prisms4 ,if ! r$ precipitate obta9$ by ! action ( sulphur\s anhydride on sel5i\s anhydride be dri$1 x gives a br[n p[d]1 hav+ a specific gravity ( #dbf1 :i* :5 heat$ *anges col\r & fuses to a metallic mass1 :i* ga9s lu/re z x cools4 ,! sel5ium acquires diff]5t prop]ties accord+ to ! rate at :i* x is cool$ f a fus$ /ate2 if rapidly cool$1 x rema9s amorph\s & has ! same specific gravity 7#dbh7 z ! p[d]1 b if sl[ly cool$ x becomes cry/all9e & opaque1 soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & has a specific gravity ( #dhj4 ,9 ?is =m x fuses at #bad & rema9s un*ang$1 :il/ ! amorph\s =m1 especially above #hj1 gradually passes into ! cry/all9e v>iety4 ,! transition is accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat1 z 9 ! case ( sulphur2 ?us ! analogy betwe5 sulphur & sel5ium is cle>ly %[n "h4 ,9 ! fus$ amorph\s =m sel5ium pres5ts a br[n mass1 slightly transluc5t1 ) a vitre\s fracture1 :il/ 9 ! cry/all9e =m x has ! appe>ance ( a grey metal1 ) a feeble lu/re & a cry/all9e fracture4#gi bis ,sel5ium boils at #gjj1 =m+ a vap\r ^: d5sity is only con/ant at a temp]ature ( ab\t #a1djj1 :5 x is equal to #gid 7ref]r$ to hydrog57--t is1 ! molecul> =mula is !n ,se#b1 l sulphur at an equally high temp]ature4 #gi bis ,mu?mann1 9 8 rese>*es ^u ! allotropic =ms ( sel5ium1 po9t$ out 7#ahhi7 a peculi> modification1 :i* appe>s1 z x 71 z a transition betwe5 cry/all9e & amorph\s sel5ium4 ,x is obta9$ toge!r ) ! cry/all9e v>iety by sl[ly evaporat+ a solution ( sel5ium 9 bisulphide ( c>bon1 & diff]s f ! cry/all9e v>iety 9 ! =m ( its cry/als2 x passes into ! latt] modification :5 heat$4 ,s*ultz also obta9$ sel5ium 7l ,ag1 see ,*apt] ,,xxiv47 9 a soluble =m1 b ^! rese>*es are n s conclusive z ^? ^u soluble silv]1 & we %all !re=e n consid] !m m fully4 ,tellurium is met ) /ill m r>ely ?an sel5ium 7x is kn[n 9 ,saxony7 9 comb9ation ) gold1 silv]1 lead1 & antimony 9 ! s-call$ foliat$ tellurium ore4 ,bismu? telluride & silv] telluride h be5 f\nd 9 ,hung>y & 9 ! ,altai4 ,tellurium is extract$ f bismu? telluride by mix+ ! f9ely-p[d]$ ore ) potassium & *>coal 9 z intimate a mixture z possible1 & !n heat+ 9 a cov]$ crucible4 ,potassium telluride1 ,k#b,te1 is !n =m$1 because ! *>coal r$uces potassium tellurite4 ,z potassium telluride is soluble 9 wat]1 =m+ a r$-br[n solution :i* is decompos$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e 7,k#b,te ,o ,h#b,o #b,,kho ,te71 ! mass =m$ 9 ! crucible is treat$ ) boil+ wat] & filt]$ z rapidly z possible1 & ! resultant solution expos$ to ! air1 by :i* means ! tellurium is precipitat$4#hj ,9 a free /ate tellurium has a p]fectly metallic appe>ance2 x is ( a silv]-:ite col\r1 cry/allises v easily 9 long brilliant ne$les2 is v brittle1 s t x c be easily r$uc$ to p[d]2 b x is a bad conductor ( heat & electricity1 & 9 ?is respect1 z 9 _m o!rs1 x =ms a transition f ! metals to ! non-metals4 ,its specific gravity is #fah1 x melts at an incipi5t r$ heat1 & takes fire :5 heat$ 9 air1 l sel5ium & sulphur1 burn+ ) a blue flame1 evolv+ :ite fumes ( tellur\s anhydride1 ,te,o#b1 & emitt+ an acrid smell if no sel5ium be pres5t2 b if x be1 ! od\r ( ! latt] prepond]ates4 ,alkalis dissolve tellurium :5 boil$ ) x1 potassium telluride1 ,k#b,te1 & potassium tellurite1 ,k#b,te,o#c1 be+ =m$4 ,! solution is ( a r$ col\r1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! telluride1 ,k#b,te2 b ! col\r disappe>s :5 ! solution is cool$ or dilut$1 ! tellurium be+ all precipitat$3 #b,k#b,te ,k#b,te,o#c #c;,h#b,o #f,,kho #c,te4#ha #hj ,! tellurium ?us prep>$ is impure1 & conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( sel5ium4 ,! latt] may be remov$ by conv]t+ ! mixture into ! salts ( potassium1 & treat+ ?is ) nitric acid & b>ium nitrate1 :5 b>ium sel5ate only is precipitat$1 :il/ ! b>ium tellurate rema9s 9 solution4 ,?is me?od does n1 h[ev]1 give a pure product1 & x appe>s to be be/ to sep>ate ! sel5ium f ! tellurium 9 a metallic =m2 ?is is done by boil+ ! impure potassium tellurate ) hydro*loric acid1 :i* conv]ts x into potassium tellurite1 f :i* ! tellurium is r$uc$ by sulphur\s anhydride4 ,! metal ?us obta9$ is !n fus$ & di/ill$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog52 ! sel5ium volatilises fir/1 & !n ! tellurium1 ow+ to its be+ mu* less volatile ?an ! =m]4 ,nev]!less1 tellurium is also volatile1 & may be sep>at$ 9 ?is mann] f less volatile metals1 su* z antimony4 ,braun] det]m9$ ! atomic weight ( pure tellurium1 & f\nd x to be #abe1 b %[$ 7#ahhi7 t tellurium purifi$ by ! usual me?od1 ev5 aft] di/illation1 conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( impurities4 #ha ,! decomposition proce$s 9 ! above ord] 9 ! cold1 b 9 a hot solution ) an excess ( potassium hydroxide x proce$s inv]sely4 ,a simil> ph5om5on takes place :5 tellurium is fus$ ) alkalis1 & x is !re=e necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 potassium telluride to add *>coal4 ,sel5ium & tellurium =m high] comp\nds ) *lor9e ) comp>ative ease4 ,= sel5ium1 ,se,cl#b & ,se,cl#d are kn[n1 & = tellurium ,te,cl#b & ,te,cl#d4 ,! tetra*lorides ( sel5ium & tellurium are =m$ by pass+ *lor9e ov] ^! elem5ts4 ,sel5ium tetra*loride1 ,se,cl#d1 is a cry/all9e1 volatile mass :i* gives sel5i\s anhydride & hydro*loric acid ) wat]4 ,tellurium tetra*loride is mu* less volatile1 fuses easily1 & is also decompos$ by wat]4 ,bo? elem5ts =m simil> comp\nds ) brom9e4 ,tellurium tetrabromide is r$1 fuses to a br[n liquid1 volatilises1 & gives a cry/all9e salt1 ,k#b,te,br#f1c;,h#b,o1 ) an aque\s solution ( potassium bromide4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,*romium1 ,,molybd5um1 ,,tung/51 ,,uranium1 ,,& ,,manganese ,sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium belong to ! unev5 s]ies ( ! six? gr\p4 ,9 ! ev5 s]ies ( ?is gr\p !re are kn[n *romium1 molybd5um1 tung/51 & uranium2 ^! give acid oxides ( ! type ,,ro#c1 l ,,s#c4 ,_! acid prop]ties are less %>ply def9$ ?an ^? ( sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium1 z is ! case ) all elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies z comp>$ ) ^? ( ! unev5 s]ies 9 ! same gr\p4 ,b /ill ! oxides ,cr,o#c1 ,mo,o#c1 ,,wo#c1 & ev5 ,,uo#c1 h cle>ly def9$ acid prop]ties1 & =m salts ( ! composition ,,mo1n,,ro#c ) bases ,,mo4 ,9 ! case ( ! heavy elem5ts1 & especially ( uranium1 ! type ( oxide1 ,,uo#c1 is less acid & m basic1 because 9 ! ev5 s]ies ( oxides ! elem5t ) ! highe/ atomic weight always acquires a m & m pron\nc$ basic "*4 ,h5ce ,,uo#c %[s ! prop]ties ( a base1 & gives salts ,,uo#b,x#b4 ,! basic prop]ties ( *romium1 molybd5um1 tung/51 & uranium are mo/ cle>ly express$ 9 ! l[] oxides1 :i* !y all =m4 ,?us *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 is z di/9ct a base z alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c4 ,( all ^! elem5ts *romium is ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ & ! mo/ frequ5tly us$4 ,x gives *romic anhydride1 ,cr,o#c1 & *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c--two comp\nds ^: relative am\nts ( oxyg5 /& 9 ! ratio #b 3 #a4 ,*romium is1 al?\gh some:at r>ely1 met ) 9 nature z a comp\nd ( "o or ! o!r type4 ,! r$ *romium ore ( ! ,urals1 lead *romate or crocoisite ,pb,cr,o#d1 0 ! s\rce 9 :i* *romium 0 discov]$ by ,vauquel91 :o gave x ?is "n 7f ! ,greek ^w signify+ col\r7 ow+ to ! brilliant col\rs ( its comp\nds2 ! *romates 7salts ( *romic anhydride7 are r$ & yell[1 & ! *romic salts 7f ,cr#b,o#c7 gre5 & violet4 ,! r$ lead *romate is1 h[ev]1 a r>e *romium ore f\nd only 9 ! ,urals & 9 a few o!r localities4 ,*romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 is m frequ5tly met )4 ,9 small quantities x =ms ! col\r+ matt] ( _m m9]als & rocks--= example1 ( "s s]p5t9es4 ,! commone/ ore1 & ! *ief s\rce ( ! *romium comp\nds1 is ! *rome iron ore or *romite1 :i* occurs 9 ! ,urals#a & ,asia ,m9or1 ,cali=nia1 ,au/ralia1 & o!r localities4 ,?is is magnetic iron ore1 ,fe,o1,fe#b,o#c1 9 :i* ! f]ric oxide is replac$ by *romic oxide1 its composition be+ ,fe,o1,cr#b,o#c4 ,*rome iron ore cry/allises 9 octah$ra ( sp4 gr4 #dd2 x has a feeble metallic lu/re1 is ( a greyi%-black col\r1 & gives a br[n p[d]4 ,x is v feebly act$ on by acids1 b :5 fus$ ) potassium acid sulphate x gives a soluble mass1 :i* conta9s a *romic salt1 besides potassium sulphate & f]r\s sulphate4 ,9 practice ! treatm5t ( *rome iron ore is ma9ly c>ri$ on = ! prep>ation ( *romates1 & n ( *romic salts1 & !re=e we w trace ! hi/ory ( ! elem5t by beg9n+ ) *romic acid1 & especially ) ! work+ up ( ! *rome iron ore into potassium di*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g1 z ! mo/ common salt ( ?is acid4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t *romic anhydride1 ,cr,o#c1 is only obta9$ 9 an anhydr\s /ate1 & is di/+ui%$ = its capacity = easily giv+ anhydro-salts ) ! alkalis1 conta9+ "o1 two1 & ev5 ?ree equival5ts ( ! anhydride to "o equival5t ( base4 ,?us among ! potassium salts !re is kn[n ! normal or yell[ *romate1 ,k#b;,cr,o#d1 :i* corresponds to1 & is p]fectly isomorph\s )1 potassium sulphate1 easily =ms isomorph\s mixtures ) x1 & is n !re=e suitable = a process 9 :i* x is necess>y to sep>ate ! salt f a mixture conta9+ sulphates4 ,z 9 ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 excess ( acid1 ! di*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #b,k#b;,cr,o#d #b;,,hx - #b,,kx - ,h#b,o1 is easily =m$ f ,k#b;,cr,o#d1 ! object ( ! manufactur] is to produce su* a di*romate1 ! m s z x conta9s a l>g] proportion ( ! elem5ts ( *romic acid ?an ! normal salt4 ,f9ely-gr\nd *rome iron ore1 :5 heat$ ) an alkali1 absorbs oxyg5 almo/ z easily 7,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #g7 z a mixture ( ! oxides ( manganese ) an alkali4 ,?is absorption is due to ! pres5ce ( *romic oxide1 :i* is oxidis$ into ! anhydride1 & !n comb9es ) ! alkali ,cr#b,o#c ,o#c #b;,cr,o#c4 ,z ! oxidation & =mation ( ! *romate proce$s1 ! mass turns yell[4 ,! iron is also oxidis$1 b does n give f]ric acid1 because ! capacity ( ! *romium = oxidation is incomp>ably great] ?an t ( ! iron4 #a ,! work+ ( ! ,ural *rome iron ore into *romium comp\nds has be5 firmly e/abli%$ 9 ,russia1 ?anks to ! endeav\rs ( ,p4 ,k4 ,u%ak(f1 :o con/ruct$ l>ge works = ?is purpose on ! riv] ,kama1 ne> ,elab\gi1 :]e z mu* z #b1jjj tons ( ore are treat$ ye>ly1 ow+ to :i* ! importation ( *romium prep>ations into ,russia has ceas$4 ,a mixture ( lime 7sometimes ) pota%7 & *rome iron ore is heat$ 9 a rev]b]atory furnace1 ) free access ( air & at a r$ heat = sev]al h\rs1 until ! mass becomes yell[2 x !n conta9s normal calcium *romate1 ,ca,cr,o#d1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( lime4#a bis ,! resultant mass is gr\nd up1 & treat$ ) wat] & sulphuric acid4 ,! excess ( lime =ms gypsum1 & ! soluble calcium di*romate1 ,ca,cr#b,o#g1 toge!r ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( iron1 pass into solution4 ,! solution is p\r$ (f1 & *alk add$ to x2 ?is precipitates ! f]ric oxide 7! f]r\s oxide is conv]t$ into f]ric oxide 9 ! furnace7 & =ms a fre% quantity ( gypsum1 :ile ! *romic acid rema9s 9 solution--t is1 x does n =m ! sp>+ly-soluble normal salt 7#a "p soluble 9 #bdj p>ts ( wat]74 ,! solution !n conta9s a fairly pure calcium di*romate1 :i* by d\ble decomposition gives o!r *romates2 = example1 ) a solution ( potassium sulphate x gives a precipitate ( calcium sulphate & a solution ( potassium di*romate1 :i* cry/allises :5 evaporat$4#b #a bis ,b ! calcium *romate is soluble 9 wat] 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( *romic acid1 z may be se5 f ! fact t a solution ( *romic acid dissolves lime4 #b ,!re are _m v>iations 9 ! details ( ! manufactur+ processes1 & ^! mu/ be look$ = 9 works on te*nical *emi/ry4 ,b we may add t ! *romate may also be obta9$ by slightly roa/+ briquettes ( a mixture ( *rome iron & lime1 & !n leav+ ! resultant mass to ! action ( moi/ air 7oxyg5 is absorb$1 & ! mass turns yell[74 ,potassium di*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g1 easily cry/allises f acid solutions 9 r$1 well-=m$ prismatic cry/als1 :i* fuse at a r$ heat & evolve oxyg5 at a v high temp]ature1 leav+ *romic oxide & ! normal salt1 :i* und]goes no fur!r *ange3 #b,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #b,k#b;,cr,o#d ,cr#b,o#c ,o#c4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #aj p>ts ( ?is salt1 & ! solubility increases z ! temp]ature rises4 ,x is mo/ important to note t ! di*romate does n conta9 wat]1 x is ,k#b;,cr,o#d ,cr,o#c2 ! acid salt correspond+ to potassium acid sulphate1 ,,khso#d1 does n exi/4 ,x does n ev5 evolve heat :5 dissolv+ 9 wat]1 b on ! contr>y produces cold1 i4e4 x does n =m a v /able comp\nd ) wat]4 ,! solution & ! salt itself are poison\s1 & act z p[]ful oxidis+ ag5ts1 :i* is ! "* ( *romic acid 9 g5]al4 ,:5 heat$ ) sulphur or organic sub/ances1 ) sulphur\s anhydride1 hydrog5 sulphide1 c41 ?is salt is deoxidis$1 yield+ *romic comp\nds4#b bis ,potassium di*romate#c is us$ 9 ! arts & 9 *emi/ry z a s\rce = ! prep>ation ( all o!r *romium comp\nds4 ,x is conv]t$ into yell[ pigm5ts by means ( d\ble decomposition ) salts ( lead1 b>ium1 & z9c4 ,:5 solutions ( ! salts ( ^! metals are mix$ ) potassium di*romate 79 dye+ g5]ally mix$ ) soda1 9 ord] to obta9 normal salts71 !y are precipitat$ z insoluble normal salts2 = example1 #b;,ba,cl#b ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g ,h#b,o #b;,ba,cr,o#d #b,k,cl #b;,h,cl4 ,x foll[s f ?is t ^! salts are insoluble 9 dilute acids1 b ! precipitation is n complete 7z x w\ld be ) ! normal salt74 ,! b>ium & z9c salts are ( a lemon yell[ col\r2 ! lead salt has a /ill m int5se col\r pass+ into orange4 ,yell[ cotton pr9ts are dy$ ) ?is pigm5t4 ,! silv] salt1 ,ag#b;,cr,o#d1 is ( a bright r$ col\r4 #b bis ,! oxidis+ action ( potassium di*romate on organic sub/ances at ! ord9>y temp]ature is especially m>k$ "u ! action ( light4 ,?us x acts on gelat91 z ,p\tv5 discov]$2 ?is is appli$ to photography 9 ! processes ( photogravure1 photo-li?ography1 pigm5t pr9t+1 c4 ,"u ! action ( light ?is gelat9 is oxidis$1 & ! *romic anhydride deoxidis$ into *romic oxide1 :i* unites ) ! gelat9 & =ms a comp\nd insoluble 9 w>m wat]1 :il/ :]e ! light has n act$1 ! gelat9 rema9s soluble1 its prop]ties be+ unaffect$ by ! pres5ce ( *romic acid or potassium di*romate4 #c ,ammonium & sodium di*romates are n[ also prep>$ on a l>ge scale4 ,! sodium salts may be prep>$ 9 exactly ! same mann] z ^? ( potassium4 ,! normal salt comb9es ) t5 equival5ts ( wat]1 l ,glaub]'s salt1 ) :i* x is isomorph\s4 ,its solution above #cj deposits ! anhydr\s salt4 ,sodium di*romate cry/als conta9 ,na#b;,cr#b,o#g1b;,h#b,o4 ,! ammonium salts ( *romic acid are obta9$ by saturat+ ! anhydride itself ) ammonia4 ,! di*romate is obta9$ by saturat+ "o "p ( ! anhydride ) ammonia1 & !n add+ a second "p ( anhydride & evaporat+ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,on ignition1 ! normal & acid salts leave *romic oxide4 ,potassium ammonium *romate1 ,,nh#d,k,cr,o#d1 is obta9$ 9 yell[ ne$les f a solution ( potassium di*romate 9 aque\s ammonia2 x n only loses ammonia & becomes conv]t$ into potassium di*romate :5 ignit$1 b also by degrees at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,?is %[s ! feeble en]gy ( *romic acid1 & its t5d5cy to =m /able di*romates4 ,magnesium *romate is soluble 9 wat]1 z also is ! /rontium salt4 ,! calcium salt is also some:at soluble1 b ! b>ium salt is almo/ insoluble4 ,! isomorphism ) sulphuric acid is %[n 9 ! *romates by ! fact t ! magnesium & ammonium salts =m d\ble salts conta9+ six equival5ts ( wat]1 :i* are p]fectly isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ sulphates4 ,! magnesium salt cry/allises 9 l>ge cry/als conta9+ sev5 equival5ts ( wat]4 ,! b]yllium1 c]ium1 & cobalt salts are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,*romic acid dissolves mangan\s c>bonate1 b on evaporation ! solution deposits manganese dioxide1 =m$ at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! *romic acid4 ,*romic acid also oxidises f]r\s oxide1 & f]ric oxide is soluble 9 *romic acid4 ,"o ( ! *romates mo/ us$ by ! dy] is ! insoluble yell[ lead *romate1 ,pb,cr,o#d 7,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #df71 :i* is precipitat$ on mix+ solutions ( ,pb,x#b ) soluble *romates4 ,x easily =ms a basic salt1 hav+ ! composition ,pb,o1,pb,cr,o#d1 z a cry/all9e p[d]1 obta9$ by fus+ ! normal salt ) nitre & !n rapidly wa%+ 9 wat]4 ,! same sub/ance is obta9$1 al?\gh impure & 9 small quantity1 by treat+ lead *romate ) neutral potassium *romate1 especially on boil+ ! mixture2 & ?is gives ! possibility ( atta9+1 by means ( ^! mat]ials1 v>i\s t9ts ( lead *romate1 f yell[ to r$1 pass+ ?r\gh diff]5t orange %ades4 ,! decomposition :i* takes place 7incompletely7 9 ?is case is z foll[s3 #b,pb,cr,o#d ,k#b;,cr,o#d ,pb,cr,o#d1,pb,o ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g--t is1 potassium di*romate is =m$ 9 solution4 ,:5 potassium di*romate is mix$ ) potassium hydroxide or c>bonate 7c>bonic anhydride be+ dis5gag$ 9 ! latt] case7 x =ms ! normal salt1 ,k#b;,cr,o#d1 kn[n z yell[ *romate ( potassium4 ,its specific gravity is #bg1 be+ almo/ ! same z t ( ! di*romate4 ,x absorbs heat 9 dissolv+2 "o "p ( ! salt dissolves 9 #age "p ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 =m+ a yell[ solution4 ,:5 mix$ ev5 ) su* feeble acids z acetic1 & m especially ) ! ord9>y acids1 x gives ! di*romate1 & ,graham obta9$ a tri*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#c,o#aj ,k#b;,cr,o#d1b;,cr,o#c1 by mix+ a solution ( ! latt] salt ) an excess ( nitric acid4 ,*romic anhydride is obta9$ by prep>+ a saturat$ solution ( potassium di*romate at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & p\r+ x 9 a ?9 /ream into an equal volume ( pure sulphuric acid4#d ,on mix+1 ! temp]ature naturally rises2 :5 sl[ly cool$1 ! solution deposits *romic anhydride 9 ne$le-%ap$ cry/als ( a r$ col\r sometimes sev]al c5timetres long4 ,! cry/als are fre$ f ! "m liquor by plac+ !m on a por\s tile4#d bis ,x is v important at ?is po9t to call att5tion to ! fact t a hydrate ( *romic anhydride is nev] obta9$ 9 ! decomposition ( *romic comp\nds1 b always ! anhydride1 ,cr,o#c4 ,! correspond+ hydrate1 ,cr,o#d;,h#b1 or any o!r hydrate1 is n ev5 kn[n4 ,nev]!less1 x mu/ be admitt$ t *romic acid is bibasic1 because x =ms salts isomorph\s or p]fectly analog\s ) ! salts =m$ by sulphuric acid1 :i* is ! be/ example ( a bibasic acid4 ,a cle> pro( ( ! bibasicity ( ,cr,o#c is se5 9 ! fact t ! anhydride & salts give 7:5 heat$ ) sodium *loride & sulphuric acid7 a volatile *loranhydride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 conta9+ two atoms ( *lor9e z a bibasic acid %\ld4#e ,*romic anhydride is a r$ cry/all9e sub/ance1 :i* is conv]t$ into a black mass by heat2 x fuses at #aij1 & dis5gages oxyg5 above #bej1 leav+ a residue ( *romium dioxide1 ,cr,o#b1f &1 on /ill fur!r heat+1 *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c4 ,*romic anhydride is exce$+ly soluble 9 wat]1 & ev5 attracts moi/ure f ! air1 b1 z 0 m5tion$ above1 x does n =m any def9ite comp\nd ) wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( its cry/als is #bg1 & :5 fus$ x has a specific gravity #bf4 ,! solution pres5ts p]fectly def9$ acid prop]ties4 ,x lib]ates c>bonic anhydride f c>bonates2 gives insoluble precipitates ( ! *romates ) salts ( b>ium1 lead1 silv]1 & m]cury4 #d ,! sulphuric acid %\ld n conta9 any l[] oxides ( nitrog51 because !y r$uce *romic anhydride into *romic oxide4 ,if a solution ( a *romate be heat$ ) an excess ( acid--= in/ance1 sulphuric or hydro*loric acid--oxyg5 or *lor9e is evolv$1 & a solution ( a *romic salt is =m$4 ,h5ce1 "u ^! circum/ances1 *romic acid _c be obta9$ f its salts4 ,"o ( ! fir/ me?ods employ$ consi/$ 9 conv]t+ its salts into volatile *romium hexafluoride1 ,cr,f#f4 ,?is comp\nd1 obta9$ by ,unv]dorb51 may be prep>$ by mix+ lead *romate ) fluor sp> 9 a dry /ate1 & treat+ ! mixture ) fum+ sulphuric acid 9 a plat9um vessel3 ,pb,cr,o#d #c;,ca,f#b #d;,h#b,,s#d ,pb,s,o#d #c;,ca,s,o#d #d;,h#b,o ,cr,f#f4 ,fum+ sulphuric acid is tak51 & 9 consid]able excess1 because ! *romium fluoride :i* is =m$ is v easily decompos$ by wat]4 ,x is volatile1 & =ms a v cau/ic1 poison\s vap\r1 :i* cond5ses :5 cool$ 9 a dry plat9um vessel into a r$1 exce$+ly volatile liquid1 :i* fumes p[]fully 9 air4 ,! vap\rs ( ?is sub/ance :5 introduc$ into wat] are decompos$ into hydr(luoric acid & *romic anhydride3 ,cr,f#f #c;,h#b,o ,cr,o#c #f;,,hf4 ,if v little wat] be tak5 ! hydr(luoric acid volatilises1 & *romic anhydride sep>ates directly 9 cry/als4 ,! *loranhydride ( *romic acid1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b 7,note #e71 is also decompos$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,a solution ( *romic acid & a precipitate ( b>ium sulphate are =m$ by treat+ ! insoluble b>ium *romate ) an equival5t quantity ( sulphuric acid4 ,if c>efully evaporat$1 ! solution yields cry/als ( *romic anhydride4 ,fritzs*e gave a v conv5i5t me?od ( prep>+ *romic anhydride1 bas$ on ! relation ( *romic to sulphuric acid4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! /rong acid dissolves bo? *romic anhydride & potassium *romate1 b if a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] is add$ to ! solution ! *romic anhydride sep>ates1 & if ! am\nt ( wat] be increas$ ! precipitat$ *romic anhydride is aga9 dissolv$4 ,! *romic anhydride is almo/ all sep>at$ f ! solution :5 x conta9s two equival5ts ( wat] to "o equival5t ( sulphuric acid4 ,_m me?ods = ! prep>ation ( *romic anhydride are bas$ on ?is fact4 #d bis ,!y _c be filt]$ ?r\gh pap] or wa%$1 because ! *romic anhydride is r$uc$ by ! filt]-pap]1 & is dissolv$ dur+ ! process ( wa%+4 #e ,b]zelius obs]v$1 & ,rose c>efully inve/igat$1 ?is rem>kable reaction1 :i* occurs betwe5 *romic acid & sodium *loride 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphuric acid4 ,if #aj p>ts ( common salt be mix$ ) #ab p>ts ( potassium di*romate1 fus$1 cool$1 & brok5 up into lumps1 & plac$ 9 a retort ) #bj p>ts ( fum+ sulphuric acid1 x gives rise to a viol5t reaction1 accompani$ by ! =mation ( br[n fumes ( *romic *loranhydride1 or *romyl *loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 accord+ to ! reaction3 ,cr,o#c #b,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ,na#b,,s#d ,h#b,o ,cr,o#b;,cl#b4 ,! addition ( an excess ( sulphuric acid is necess>y 9 ord] to reta9 ! wat]4 ,! same sub/ance is always =m$ :5 a metallic *loride is heat$ ) *romic acid1 or any ( its salts1 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphuric acid4 ,! =mation ( ?is volatile sub/ance is easily obs]v$ f ! br[n col\r :i* is prop] to its vap\r4 ,on cond5s+ ! vap\r 9 a dry receiv] a liquid is obta9$ hav+ a sp4 gr4 ( #ai1 boil+ at #aah1 & giv+ a vap\r ^: d5sity1 comp>$ ) hydrog51 is #gh1 :i* corresponds ) ! above =mula4 ,*romyl *loride is decompos$ by heat into *romic oxide1 oxyg51 & *lor9e3 #b;,cr,o#b;,cl#b ,cr#b,o#c #b;,cl#b ,o2 s t x is able to act simultane\sly z a p[]ful oxidis+ & *lor9at+ ag5t1 :i* is tak5 advantage ( 9 ! inve/igation ( _m1 & especially ( organic1 sub/ances4 ,:5 treat$ ) wat]1 ?is sub/ance fir/ falls to ! bottom1 & is !n decompos$ into hydro*loric & *romic acids1 l all *loranhydrides3 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b ,h#b,o ,cr,o#c #b;,h,cl4 ,:5 br\ght into contact ) inflammable sub/ances x sets fire to !m2 x acts ?us1 = in/ance1 on phosphorus1 sulphur1 oil ( turp5t9e1 ammonia1 hydrog51 & o!r sub/ances4 ,x attracts moi/ure f ! atmosph]e ) great en]gy1 & mu/ !re=e be kept 9 clos$ vessels4 ,x dissolves iod9e & *lor9e1 & ev5 =ms a solid comp\nd ) ! latt]1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! faculty ( *romium to =m its high] oxide1 ,cr#b,o#g4 ,! close analogy 9 ! physical prop]ties ( ! *loranhydrides1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b & ,,s#b;,cl#b1 is v rem>kable1 al?\gh sulphur\s anhydride is a gas1 & ! correspond+ oxide1 ,cr,o#b1 is a non-volatile solid4 ,x may be imag9$1 !re=e1 t *romium dioxide 7:i* w be m5tion$ 9 ! foll[+ note7 pres5ts a polym]is$ modification ( ! sub/ance hav+ ! composition ,cr,o#b2 9 fact1 ?is is obvi\s f ! me?od ( its =mation4 ,if ?ree p>ts ( potassium di*romate be mix$ ) f\r p>ts ( /rong hydro*loric acid & a small quantity ( wat]1 & g5tly w>m$1 x all passes into solution1 & no *lor9e is evolv$2 on cool+1 ! liquid deposits r$ prismatic cry/als1 kn[n z ,peligot's salt1 v /able 9 air4 ,?is has ! composition ,k,cl1,cr,o#c1 & is =m$ accord+ to ! equation ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #b;,h,cl #b,k,cl1,cr,o#c ,h#b,o4 ,x is evid5t t ?is is ! fir/ *loranhydride ( *romic acid1 ,h,cr,o#c;,cl1 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is replac$ by potassium4 ,x is decompos$ by wat]1 & on evaporation ! solution yields potassium di*romate & hydro*loric acid4 ,?is is a fre% in/ance ( ! rev]sible reactions s frequ5tly enc\nt]$4 ,) sulphuric acid ,peligot's salt =ms *romyl *loride4 ,! latt] circum/ance1 & ! fact t ,geu!r produc$ ,peligot's salt f potassium *romate & *romyl *loride1 give reason = ?9k+ t x is a comp\nd ( ^! two sub/ances3 #b,k,cl1,cr,o#c ,k#b;,cr,o#d ,cr,o#b;,cl#b4 ,x is also sometimes reg>d$ z potassium di*romate 9 :i* "o atom ( oxyg5 is replac$ by *lor9e--t is1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#f;,cl#b1 correspond+ ) ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g4 ,:5 heat$ x p>ts ) all its *lor9e1 & on fur!r heat+ gives *romic oxide4 #f ,?is int]m$iate degree ( oxidation1 ,cr,o#b1 may also be obta9$ by mix+ solutions ( *romic salts ) solutions ( *romates4 ,! br[n precipitate =m$ conta9s a comp\nd1 ,cr#b,o#c1;,cr,o#c1 consi/+ ( equival5t am\nts ( *romic oxide & anhydride4 ,! br[n precipitate ( *romium dioxide conta9s wat]4 ,! same sub/ance is =m$ by ! imp]fect deoxidation ( *romic anhydride by v>i\s r$uc+ ag5ts4 ,*romic oxide1 :5 heat$1 absorbs oxyg51 & appe>s to give ! same sub/ance4 ,*romic nitrate1 :5 ignit$1 also gives ?is sub/ance4 ,:5 ?is sub/ance is heat$ x fir/ dis5gages wat] & !n oxyg51 *romic oxide be+ left4 ,x corresponds ) manganese dioxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1;,cr,o#c #c;,cr,o#b4 ,krg] treat$ *romium dioxide ) a mixture ( sodium *loride & sulphuric acid1 & f\nd t *lor9e gas 0 evolv$1 b t *romyl *loride 0 n =m$4 ,"u ! action ( light1 a solution ( *romic acid also deposits ! br[n dioxide4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature *romic anhydride leaves a br[n /a9 ^u ! sk9 & tissues1 :i* probably proce$s f a decomposition ( ! same k9d4 ,*romic anhydride is soluble 9 alcohol conta9+ wat]1 & ?is solution is decompos$ 9 a simil> mann] by light4 ,*romium dioxide =ms ,k#b;,cr,o#d :5 treat$ ) ,h#b,o#b 9 ! pres5ce ( ,,kho4 ,! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide on a solution ( *romic acid or ( potassium di*romate gives a blue solution1 :i* v quickly becomes col\rless ) ! dis5gagem5t ( oxyg54 ,b>reswill %[$ t ?is is due to ! =mation ( a p]*romic anhydride1 ,cr#b,o#g1 correspond+ ) sulphur p]oxide4 ,?is p]oxide is rem>kable f ! fact t x v easily dissolves 9 e!r & is mu* m /able 9 ?is solution1 s t1 by %ak+ up hydrog5 p]oxide mix$ ) a small quantity ( *romic acid1 ) e!r1 x is possible to transf] all ! blue sub/ance =m$ to ! e!r4#f bis #f bis ,n[ t p]sulphuric acid ,h#b,s#b,o#h is well kn[n x might be suppos$ t p]*romic anhydride1 ,cr#b,o#g1 w\ld correspond to p]*romic acid1 ,h#b;,cr#b,o#h1 b z yet x is n c]ta9 :e!r correspond+ salts are =m$4 ,p*>d 7#ahia7 on add+ an excess ( ,h#b,o#b & b>yta wat] to a dilute solution ( ,cr,o#b 7#h grm4 p] litre71 obs]v$ ! =mation ( a yell[ precipitate1 b oxyg5 0 dis5gag$ at ! same "t & ! precipitate 7:i* easily explod$ :5 dri$7 0 f\nd to conta91 besides an admixture ( ,ba,o#b1 a comp\nd ,ba,cr,o#e1 & ?is ,ba,o#b ,cr,o#c1 & does n correspond to p]*romic acid4 ,! fact ( its decompos+ ) an explosion1 & ! mode ( its prep>ation1 proves1 h[ev]1 t ?is is a simil> d]ivative ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 to p]sulphuric acid 7,*apt] ,,xx47 ,) oxyg5 acids1 *romic acid evolves oxyg52 = example1 ) sulphuric acid ! foll[+ reaction takes place3 #b;,cr,o#c #c;,h#b,,s#d ,cr#b7,,s#d7c ,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,x w be readily und]/ood f ?is t a mixture ( *romic acid or ( its salts ) sulphuric acid =ms an excell5t oxidis+ ag5t1 :i* is frequ5tly employ$ 9 *emical laboratories & ev5 = te*nical purposes z a means ( oxidation4 ,?us hydrog5 sulphide & sulphur\s anhydride are conv]t$ into sulphuric acid by ?is means4 ,*romic acid is able to act z a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t because x passes into *romic oxide1 & 9 s do+ dis5gages half ( ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 x3 #b;,cr,o#c ,cr#b,o#c ,o#c4 ,?us *romic anhydride itself is a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t1 & is !re=e employ$ in/ead ( nitric acid 9 galvanic batt]ies 7z a depol>is]71 ! hydrog5 evolv$ at ! c>bon be+ !n oxidis$1 & ! *romic acid conv]t$ into a non-volatile product ( deoxidation1 in/ead ( yield+1 z nitric acid does1 volatile l[] oxides ( (f5sive od\r4 ,organic sub/ances are m or less p]fectly oxidis$ by means ( *romic anhydride1 al?\gh ?is g5]ally requires ! aid ( heat1 & does n proce$ 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 b g5]ally 9 ! pres5ce ( acids4 ,9 act+ on a solution ( potassium iodide1 *romic acid1 l _m oxidis+ ag5ts1 lib]ates iod9e2 ! reaction proce$s 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( ,cr,o#c pres5t1 & may s]ve = det]m9+ ! am\nt ( ,cr,o#c1 s9ce ! am\nt ( iod9e lib]at$ c be accurately det]m9$ by ! iodometric me?od 7,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #db74 ,if *romic anhydride be ignit$ 9 a /ream ( ammonia1 x gives *romic oxide1 wat]1 & nitrog54 ,9 all cases :5 *romic acid acts z an oxidis+ ag5t 9 ! pres5ce ( acids & "u ! action ( heat1 ! product ( its deoxidation is a *romic salt1 ,cr,x#c1 :i* is *>act]is$ by ! gre5 col\r ( its solution1 s t ! r$ or yell[ solution ( a salt ( *romic acid is !n trans=m$ into a gre5 solution ( a *romic salt1 d]iv$ f *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 :i* is closely analog\s to ,al#b,o#c1 ,fe#b,o#c1 & o!r bases ( ! composition ,r#b,o#c4 ,?is analogy is se5 9 ! insolubility ( ! anhydr\s oxide1 9 ! gelat9\s =m ( ! colloidal hydrate1 9 ! =mation ( alums1#g ( a volatile *loride ( *romium1 c4#g bis #g ,z a mixture ( potassium di*romate & sulphuric acid is usually employ$ = oxidation1 ! resultant solution g5]ally conta9s a d\ble sulphate ( potassium & *romium--t is1 *rome alum1 isomorph\s ) ord9>y alum--,k#b;,cr#b,o#g #d;,h#b,,s#d #bj;,h#b,o ,o#c ,k#b;,cr#b7,,s#d7d1bd;,h#b,o or #b7,k,cr7,,s#d7b1ab;,h#b,o74 ,x is prep>$ by dissolv+ potassium di*romate 9 dilute sulphuric acid2 alcohol is !n add$ & ! solution slightly heat$1 or sulphur\s anhydride is pass$ ?r\gh x4 ,on ! addition ( alcohol to a cold mixture ( potassium di*romate & sulphuric acid1 ! gradual dis5gagem5t ( pleasant-smell+ volatile products ( ! oxidation ( alcohol1 & especially ( aldehyde1 ,c#b;,h#d,o1 is rem>k$4 ,if ! temp]ature ( decomposition does n exce$ #ce1 a violet solution ( *rome alum is obta9$1 b if ! temp]ature be high]1 a solution ( ! same alum is obta9$ ( a gre5 col\r4 ,z *rome alum requires = solution #g p>ts ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x foll[s t if a some:at /rong solution ( potassium di*romate be tak5 7#d p>ts ( wat] & #a-a_/b ( sulphuric acid to #a "p ( di*romate71 x w give s conc5trat$ a solution ( *rome alum t on cool+1 ! salt w sep>ate )\t fur!r evaporation4 ,if ! liquid1 prep>$ z above or 9 any in/ance ( ! deoxidation ( *romic acid1 be heat$ 7! oxidation naturally proce$s m rapidly7 some:at /rongly1 = in/ance1 to ! boil+-po9t ( wat]1 or if ! violet solution already =m$ be rais$ to ! same temp]ature1 x acquires a bright gre5 col\r1 & on evaporation ! same mixture1 :i* at l[] temp]atures s easily gives cubical cry/als ( *rome alum1 does n give any cry/als :atev]4 ,if ! gre5 solution be kept1 h[ev]1 = sev]al weeks at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x deposits violet cry/als ( *rome alum4 ,! gre5 solution1 :5 evaporat$1 gives a non-cry/all9e mass1 & ! violet cry/als lose wat] at #ajj & turn gre54 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! transition ( ! gre5 modification into ! violet is accompani$ by a decrease 9 volume 7,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 ,favre74 ,if ! gre5 mass =m$ at ! high] temp]ature be evaporat$ to dryness & heat$ at #cj 9 a curr5t ( air1 x does n reta9 m !n #f equival5ts ( wat]4 ,h5ce ,lwel1 & also ,s*rtt]1 conclud$ t ! gre5 & violet modifications ( ! alum dep5d on diff]5t degrees ( comb9ation ) wat]1 :i* may be lik5$ to ! diff]5t comp\nds ( sodium sulphate ) wat] & to ! diff]5t hydrates ( f]ric oxide4 ,h[ev]1 ! "q 9 ?is case is n s simple1 z we %all aft]w>ds see4 ,n *rome alum alone1 b all ! *romic salts1 give two1 if n ?ree1 v>ieties4 ,at lea/1 !re is no d\bt ab\t ! exi/5ce ( two--a gre5 & a violet modification4 ,! gre5 *romic salts are obta9$ by heat+ solutions ( ! violet salts1 ! violet solutions are produc$ on keep+ solutions ( ! gre5 salts = a long "t4 ,! conv]sion ( ! violet salts into gre5 by ! action ( heat is itself an indication ( ! possibility ( expla9+ ! diff]5t modifications by _! conta9+ diff]5t proportions 7or /ates7 ( wat]1 &1 moreov]1 by ! gre5 salts hav+ a less am\nt ( wat] ?an ! violet4 ,h[ev]1 !re are o!r explanations4 ,*romic oxide is a base l alum9a1 & is !re=e able to give bo? acid & basic salts4 ,x is suppos$ t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! gre5 & violet salts is due to ?is fact4 ,?is op9ion ( ,krg] is bas$ on ! fact t alcohol sep>ates out a salt f ! gre5 solution :i* conta9s less sulphuric acid ?an ! normal violet salt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,lwel %[$ t all ! acid _c be sep>at$ f ! gre5 *romic salts by suitable reag5ts1 z easily z x c be f ! same solution ( ! violet salts2 ?us b>ium salts d n precipitate all ! sulphuric acid f solutions ( ! gre5 salts4 ,accord+ to o!r rese>*es ! cause ( ! v>ieties ( ! *romic salts lies 9 a diff]5ce 9 ! bases !y conta9--t is1 x is connect$ ) a modification ( ! prop]ties ( ! oxide ( *romium itself4 ,?is only ref]s to ! hydroxides1 b z hydroxides !mselves are only special =ms ( salts1 ! diff]5ces obs]v$ z yet 9 ?is direction betwe5 ! hydroxides only confirm ! g5]ality ( ! diff]5ce obs]v$ 9 ! *romic comp\nds 7see ,note #g bis74 ,! salts ( *romic oxide1 l ^? ( alum9a1 are easily decompos$1 give basic & d\ble salts1 & h an acid reaction1 z *romic oxide is a feeble base4 ,potassium & sodium hydroxides give a precipitate ( ! hydroxide ) *romic salts1 ,cr,x#c4 ,! violet & gre5 salts give a hydroxide soluble 9 an excess ( ! reag5t2 b ! hydroxide is held 9 solution by v feeble aff9ities1 s t x is p>tially sep>at$ by heat & dilution ) wat]1 & completely s on boil+4 ,9 an alkal9e solution1 *romic hydroxide is easily conv]t$ into *romic acid by ! action ( lead dioxide1 *lor9e1 & o!r oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,if ! *romic oxide occurs toge!r ) su* oxides z magnesia1 or z9c oxide1 !n on precipitation x sep>ates out f its solution 9 comb9ation ) ^! oxides1 =m+1 = example1 ,zn,o1,cr#b,o#c4 ,vi>d obta9$ comp\nds ( ,cr#b,o#c ) ! oxides ( ,mg1 ,zn1 ,cd1 c47 ,on precipitat+ ! violet solution ( *rome alum ) ammonia1 a precipitate conta9+ ,cr#b,o#c1f;,h#b,o is obta9$1 :il/ ! precipitate f ! boil+ solution ) cau/ic pota% 0 a hydrate conta9+ f\r equival5ts ( wat]4 ,:5 fus$ ) borax *romic salts give a gre5 glass4 ,! same coloration is communicat$ to ord9>y glass by ! pres5ce ( traces ( *romic oxide4 ,a *rome glass conta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( *romic oxide may be gr\nd up & us$ z a gre5 pigm5t4 ,among ! hydrates ( oxide ( *romium ,guignet's gre5 =ms "o ( ! widely-us$ gre5 pigm5ts :i* h be5 sub/itut$ = ! poison\s ars5ical copp] pigm5ts1 su* z ,s*we9furt gre51 :i* =m]ly 0 mu* us$4 ,guignet's gre5 has an extremely bright gre5 col\r1 & is di/+ui%$ = its great /ability1 n only "u ! action ( light b also t[>ds reag5ts2 ?us x is n alt]$ by alkal9e solutions1 & ev5 nitric acid does n act on x4 ,?is pigm5t rema9s un*ang$ up to a temp]ature ( #bej2 x conta9s ,cr#b,o#c1b;,h#b,o1 & g5]ally a small am\nt ( alkali4 ,x is prep>$ by fus+ #c p>ts ( boric acid ) #a "p ( potassium di*romate2 oxyg5 is dis5gag$1 & a gre5 glass1 conta9+ a mixture ( ! borates ( *romium & potassium1 is obta9$4 ,:5 cool ?is glass is gr\nd up & treat$ ) wat]1 :i* extracts ! boric acid & alkali & leaves ! above-nam$ *romic hydroxide beh9d4 ,?is hydroxide only p>ts ) its wat] at a r$ heat1 leav+ ! anhydr\s oxide4 ,! *romic hydroxides lose _! wat] by ignition1 & 9 s do+ become spontane\sly inc&esc5t1 l ! ord9>y f]ric hydroxide 7,*apt] ,,xxii474 ,x is n kn[n1 h[ev]1 :e!r all ! modifications ( *romic oxide %[ ?is ph5om5on4 ,! anhydr\s *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 is exce$+ly difficultly soluble 9 acids1 if x has pass$ ?r\gh ! above recalesc5ce4 ,b if x has p>t$ ) its wat]1 or ! great] "p ( x1 & n yet und]gone ?is self-induc$ inc&esc5ce 7has n lo/ a portion ( its en]gy71 !n x is soluble 9 acids4 ,x is n r$uc$ by hydrog54 ,x is easily obta9$ 9 v>i\s cry/all9e =ms by _m me?ods4 ,! *romates ( m]cury & ammonium give a v conv5i5t me?od = its prep>ation1 because :5 ignit$ !y leave *romic oxide beh9d4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance oxyg5 & m]cury are dis5gag$1 & 9 ! second case nitrog5 & wat]3 #b;,hg#b;,cr,o#d ,cr#b,o#c ,o#e #d;,hg or 7,,nh#d7b;,cr#b,o#g ,cr#b,o#c #d;,h#b,o ,n#b4 ,! second reaction is v en]getic1 & ! mass ( salt burns spontane\sly if ! temp]ature be suffici5tly high4 ,a mixture ( potassium sulphate & *romic oxide is =m$ by heat+ potassium di*romate ) an equal weight ( sulphur3 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g ,s ,k#b,,s#d ,cr#b,o#c4 ,! sulphate is easily extract$ by wat]1 & !re rema9s a bright gre5 residue ( ! oxide1 ^: col\r is m brilliant ! l[] ! temp]ature ( ! decomposition4 ,! oxide ?us obta9$ is us$ z a gre5 pigm5t = *9a & enamel4 ,! anhydr\s *romic oxide obta9$ f *romyl *loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 has a specific gravity ( #eba1 & =ms almo/ black cry/als1 :i* give a gre5 p[d]4 ,!y are h>d en\gh to scrat* glass1 & h a metallic lu/re4 ,! cry/all9e =m ( *romic oxide is id5tical ) t ( ! oxide ( iron & alum9a1 ) :i* x is isomorph\s4 #g bis ,! mo/ important ( ! comp\nds correspond+ ) *romic oxide is *romic *loride1 ,cr#b;,cl#f1 :i* is kn[n 9 an anhydr\s & 9 a hydrat$ =m4 ,x resembles f]ric & alum9ic *lorides 9 _m respects4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! anhydr\s & ! hydrat$ *lorides2 ! =m] is insoluble 9 wat]1 ! latt] easily dissolves1 & on evaporation its solution =ms a hygroscopic mass :i* is v un/able & easily evolves hydro*loric acid :5 heat$ ) wat]4 ,! anhydr\s =m is ( a violet col\r1 & ,whl] gives ! foll[+ me?od = its prep>ation3 an intimate mixture is prep>$ ( ! anhydr\s *romic oxide ) c>bon & organic matt]1 & *>g$ into a wide infusible glass or porcela9 tube :i* is heat$ 9 a combu/ion furnace2 "o extremity ( ! tube communicates ) an app>atus g5]at+ *lor9e :i* is pass$ ?r\gh sev]al bottles conta9+ sulphuric acid 9 ord] to dry x p]fectly be=e x rea*es ! tube4 ,on heat+ ! portion ( ! tube 9 :i* ! mixture is plac$ & pass+ *lor9e ?r\gh1 a slightly volatile sublimate ( *romic *loride1 ,cr,cl#c or ,cr#b;,cl#f1 is =m$4 ,?is sub/ance =ms violet tabul> cry/als1 :i* may be di/ill$ 9 dry *lor9e )\t *ange1 b :i*1 h[ev]1 require a r$ heat = _! volatilisation4 ,^! cry/als are greasy to ! t\* & insoluble 9 wat]1 b if !y be p[d]$ & boil$ 9 wat] = a long "t !y pass into a gre5 solution4 ,/rong sulphuric acid does n act on ! anhydr\s salt1 or only acts ) exce$+ sl[ness1 l wat]4 ,ev5 aqua regia & o!r acids d n act on ! cry/als1 & alkalis only %[ a v feeble action4 ,! specific gravity ( ! cry/als is #bii4 ,:5 fus$ ) sodium c>bonate & nitre !y give sodium *loride & potassium *romate1 & :5 ignit$ 9 air !y =m gre5 *romic oxide & evolve *lor9e4 ,on ignition 9 a /ream ( ammonia1 *romic *loride =ms sal-ammoniac & *romium nitride1 ,cr,n 7analog\s to ! nitrides ,,bn1 ,al,n74 ,mosb]g & ,peligot %[$ t :5 *romic *loride is ignit$ 9 hydrog51 x p>ts ) "o-?ird ( its *lor9e1 =m+ *rom\s *loride1 ,cr,cl#b--t is1 !re is =m$ f a comp\nd correspond+ ) *romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 a comp\nd answ]+ to ! suboxide1 *rom\s oxide1 ,cr,o--j z hydrog5 conv]ts f]ric *loride into f]r\s *loride ) ! aid ( heat4 ,*rom\s *loride1 ,cr,cl#b1 =ms col\rless cry/als easily soluble 9 wat]1 :i* 9 dissolv+ evolve a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 & =m a blue liquid1 capable ( absorb+ oxyg5 f ! air ) great facility1 be+ conv]t$ !reby into a *romic comp\nd4 ,! blue solution ( *rom\s *loride may also be obta9$ by ! action ( metallic z9c on ! gre5 solution ( ! hydrat$ *romic *loride2 ! z9c 9 ?is case takes up *lor9e j z ! hydrog5 did4 ,x mu/ be employ$ 9 a l>ge excess4 ,*romic oxide is also =m$ 9 ! action ( z9c on *romic *loride1 & if ! solution rema9 = a long "t 9 contact ) ! z9c ! :ole ( ! *romium is conv]t$ into *romic oxy*loride4 ,o!r *romic salts are also r$uc$ by z9c into *rom\s salts1 ,cr,x#b1 j z ! f]ric salts ,fe,x#c are conv]t$ into f]r\s salts ,fe,x#b by x4 ,! *rom\s salts are exce$+ly un/able & easily oxidise & pass into *romic salts2 h5ce ! r$uc+ p[] ( ^! salts is v great4 ,f cupric salts !y sep>ate cupr\s salts1 f /ann\s salts !y precipitate metallic t91 !y r$uce m]curic salts into m]cur\s & f]ric into f]r\s salts4 ,moreov]1 !y absorb oxyg5 f ! air directly4 ,) potassium *romate !y give a br[n precipitate ( *romium dioxide or ( *romic oxide1 accord+ to ! relative am\nts ( ! sub/ances tak53 ,cr,o#c ,cr,o #b;,cr,o#b or ,cr,o#c #c;,cr,o #b;,cr#b,o#c4 ,aque\s ammonia gives a blue precipitate1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( ammoniacal salts a blue liquid is obta9$ :i* turns r$ 9 ! air f oxidation4 ,?is is accompani$ by ! =mation ( comp\nds analog\s to ^? giv5 by cobalt 7,*apt] ,,xxii474 ,a solution ( *rom\s *loride ) a hot saturat$ solution ( sodium acetate1 ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b1 gives1 on cool+1 transp>5t r$ cry/als ( *rom\s acetate1 ,c#d;,h#f;,cr,o#d1;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt is also a p[]ful r$uc+ ag5t1 b may be kept = a long "t 9 a vessel full ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! insoluble anhydr\s *romic *loride ,cr,cl#c v easily passes into solution 9 ! pres5ce ( a trace 7#jjjd7 ( *rom\s *loride ,cr,cl#b4 ,?is rem>kable ph5om5on 0 obs]v$ by ,peligot & expla9$ by ,lwel 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 *rom\s *loride1 z a l[] /age ( oxidation1 is capable ( absorb+ bo? oxyg5 & *lor9e1 comb9+ ) v>i\s sub/ances4 ,x is able to decompose _m *lorides by tak+ up *lor9e f !m2 ?us x precipitates m]cur\s *loride f a solution ( m]curic *loride1 & 9 s do+ passes into *romic *loride3 #b;,cr,cl#b #b;,hg,cl#b ,cr#b;,cl#f #b;,hg,cl4 ,let u suppose t ! same ph5om5on takes place :5 ! anhydr\s *romic *loride is mix$ ) a solution ( *rom\s *loride4 ,! latt] w !n take up a portion ( ! *lor9e ( ! =m]1 & pass into a soluble hydrate ( *romic *loride 7hydro*loride ( oxide ( *romium71 & ! orig9al anhydr\s *romic *loride w pass into *rom\s *loride4 ,! *rom\s *loride re-=m$ 9 ?is mann] w !n act on a fre% quantity ( ! *romic *loride1 & 9 ?is mann] transf] x entirely into solution z hydrate4 ,?is view is confirm$ by ! fact t o!r *lorides1 capable ( absorb+ *lor9e l *rom\s *loride1 also induce ! solution ( ! insoluble *romic *loride--= example1 f]r\s *loride1 ,fe,cl#b1 & cupr\s *loride4 ,! pres5ce ( z9c also aids ! solution ( *romic *loride1 ow+ to its conv]t+ a portion ( x into *rom\s *loride4 ,! solution ( *romic *loride 9 wat] obta9$ by ^! me?ods is p]fectly id5tical ) t :i* is =m$ by dissolv+ *romic hydroxide 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,on evaporat+ ! gre5 solution obta9$ 9 ?is mann]1 x gives a gre5 mass1 conta9+ wat]4 ,on fur!r heat+ x leaves a soluble *romic oxy*loride1 & :5 ignit$ x fir/ =ms an insoluble oxy*loride & !n *romic oxide2 b no anhydr\s *romic *loride1 ,cr#b;,cl#f1 is =m$ by heat+ ! aque\s solution ( *romic *loride1 :i* =ms an important fact 9 support ( ! view t ! gre5 solution ( *romic *loride is no?+ else b hydro*loride ( oxide ( *romium4 ,at #ajj ! composition ( ! gre5 hydrate is ,cr#b;,cl#f1i;,h#b,o1 & on evaporation at ! ord9>y temp]ature ov] ,h#b,,s#d cry/als are obta9$ ) #ab equival5ts ( wat]2 ! r$ mass obta9$ at #abj conta9s ,cr#b,o#c1d;,cr#b;,cl#f1bd;,h#b,o4 ,! great] portion ( x is soluble 9 wat]1 l ! mass :i* is =m$ at #aej4 ,! latt] conta9s ,cr#b,o#c1b;,cr#b;,cl#f1i;,h#b,o #c7;,cr#b,o,cl#d1c;,h#b,o7--t is1 x pres5ts ! same composition z *romic *loride 9 :i* "o atom ( oxyg5 replaces two ( *lor9e4 ,& if ! hydrate ( *romic *loride be reg>d$ z ,cr#b,o#c1f;,h,cl1 ! sub/ance :i* is obta9$ %\ld be reg>d$ z ,cr#b,o#c1d;,h,cl comb9$ ) wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,! addition ( alkalis--= example1 b>yta--to a solution ( *romic *loride imm$iately produces a precipitate1 :i*1 h[ev]1 re-dissolves on %ak+1 ow+ to ! =mation ( "o ( ! oxy*lorides j m5tion$1 :i* may be reg>d$ z basic salts4 ,?us we may repres5t ! product ( ! *ange produc$ on *romic *loride "u ! influ5ce ( wat] & heat by ! foll[+ =mul3 fir/ ,cr#b,o#c1f;,h,cl or ,cr#b;,cl#f1c;,h#b,o is =m$1 !n ,cr#b,o#c1d;,h,cl1,h#b,o or ,cr#b,o,cl#d1c;,h#b,o1 & la/ly ,cr#b,o#c1b;,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o or ,cr#b,o#b;,cl#b1c;,h#b,o4 ,9 all ?ree cases !re are #b equival5ts ( *romium to at lea/ #c equival5ts ( wat]4 ,^! comp\nds may be reg>d$ z be+ int]m$iate betwe5 *romic hydroxide & *loride2 *romic *loride is ,cr#b;,cl#f1 ! fir/ oxy*loride ,cr#b7,,oh7#b;,cl#d1 ! second ,cr#b7,,oh7#d;,cl#b1 & ! hydrate ,cr#b7,,oh7#f--t is1 ! *lor9e is replac$ by hydroxyl4 ,x is v important to rem>k two circum/ances 9 respect to ?is3 7#a7 ,t ! :ole ( ! *lor9e 9 ! above comp\nds is n precipitat$ f _! solutions by silv] nitrate2 ?us ! normal salt ( ! composition ,cr#b;,cl#f1i;,h#b,o only gives up two-?irds ( its *lor9e2 !re=e ,peligot supposes t ! normal salt conta9s ! oxy*loride comb9$ ) hydro*loric acid3 ,cr#b;,cl#f #b;,h#b,o ,cr#b,o#b;,cl#b1d;,h,cl1 & t ! *lor9e held z hydro*loric acid reacts ) ! silv]1 :il/ t held 9 ! oxy*loride does n ent] into reaction1 j z we obs]ve a v feebly-develop$ faculty = reaction 9 ! anhydr\s *romic *loride2 & 7#b7 if ! gre5 aque\s solution ( ,cr,cl#c be left to /& = "s "t1 x ultimately turns violet2 9 ?is =m ! :ole ( ! *lor9e is precipitat$ by ,ag,n,o#c1 :il/ boil+ re-conv]ts x into ! gre5 v>iety4 ,lwel obta9$ ! violet solution ( hydro*loride ( *romic oxide by decompos+ ! violet *romic sulphate ) b>ium *loride4 ,silv] nitrate precipitates all ! *lor9e f ?is violet modification2 b if ! violet solution be boil$ & s conv]t$ into ! gre5 modification1 silv] nitrate !n only precipitates a portion ( ! *lor9e4 ,rec\ra 7#ahij-ahic7 obta9$ a cry/allohydrate ( violet *romium sulphate1 ,cr#b7,,s#d7c1 ) #ah or #ae ,h#b,o4 ,by boil+ a solution ( ?is cry/allohydrate1 he conv]t$ x into ! gre5 salt1 :i*1 :5 treat$ ) alkalis1 gave a precipitate ( ,cr#b,o#c1b;,h#b,o1 soluble 9 #b;,h#b,,s#d 7& n #c71 & only =m+ ! basic salt1 ,cr#b7,,oh7#b7,,s#d7b4 ,he !re=e concludes t ! gre5 salts are basic salts4 ,! cryoscopic det]m9ations made by ,a4 ,sp]ansky 7#ahib7 & ,m>*etti 7#ahib7 give a great] 'depression' = ! violet ?an ! gre5 salts1 t is1 indicate a great] molecul> weight = ! gre5 salts4 ,b z t>d1 by heat+ ! violet sulphate to #ajj1 conv]t$ x into a gre5 salt ( ! same composition1 b ) a small] am\nt ( ,h#b,o1 x foll[s t ! =mation ( a basic salt alone is insuffici5t to expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! gre5 & violet v>ieties1 & ?is is also %[n by ! fact t ,ba,cl#b precipitates ! :ole ( ! sulphuric acid ( ! violet salt1 & only a portion ( t ( ! gre5 salt4 ,a4 ,sp]ansky also %[$ t ! molecul> electro-conductivity ( ! gre5 solutions is less ?an t ( ! violet4 ,x is also kn[n t ! passage ( ! =m] into ! latt] is accompani$ by an increase ( volume1 &1 accord+ to ,rec\ra1 by an evolution ( heat also4 ,picc9i's rese>*es 7#ahid7 ?r[ an important light ^u ! peculi>ities ( ! gre5 *romium tri*loride 7or *romic *loride72 he %[$ 7#a7 t ,ag,f 79 contradi/9ction to ! o!r salts ( silv]7 precipitates all ! *lor9e f an aque\s solution ( ! gre5 v>iety2 7#b7 t solutions ( gre5 ,cr,cl#c1f;,h#b,o 9 e?yl alcohol & acetone precipitate all _! *lor9e :5 mix$ ) a simil> solution ( ,ag,n,o#c2 7#c7 t ! rise ( ! boil+-po9t ( ! e?yl alcohol & acetone gre5 solutions ( ,cr,cl#c1f;,h#b,o 7,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #bg bis7 %[s t i 9 ?is case 7z 9 ! aque\s solutions ( ,mg,s,o#d & ,hg,cl#b7 is ne>ly equal to #a1 t is1 t !y are l solutions ( non-conductors2 7#d7 t a solution ( gre5 ,cr,cl#c 9 me?yl alcohol at fir/ precipitates ab\t #g_/h ( its *lor9e 7an aque\s solution ab\t #b_/c7 :5 treat$ ) ,ag,n,o#c1 b aft] a "t ! :ole ( ! *lor9e is precipitat$2 & 7#e7 t an aque\s solution ( ! gre5 v>iety gradually passes into ! violet1 :ile a me?yl alcoholic solution pres]ves its gre5 col\r1 bo? ( itself & also aft] ! :ole ( ! *lor9e has be5 precipitat$ by ,ag,n,o#c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 an aque\s or me?yl alcoholic solution only a portion ( ! *lor9e be precipitat$1 ! solution gradually turns violet4 ,9 my op9ion ! g5]al mean+ ( all ^! obs]vations requires fur!r elucidation & explanation1 :i* %\ld be 9 h>mony ) ! !ory ( solutions4 ,rec\ra1 moreov]1 obta9$ comp\nds ( ! gre5 salt1 ,cr#b7,,s#d7c1 ) #a1 #b1 & #c molecules ( ,h#b,,s#d1 ,k#b,,s#d1 & ev5 a comp\nd ,cr#b7,,s#d7c;,h#b;,cr,o#d4 ,by neutralis+ ! sulphuric acid ( ! comp\nds ( ,cr#b7,,s#d7c & ,h#b,,s#d ) cau/ic soda1 ,rec\ra obta9$ an evolution ( #cc ?\s& calories p] ea* #b,na,h,o1 :ile free ,h#b,,s#d only gives #cjh ?\s& calories4 ,rec\ra is ( op9ion t special *romo sulphuric acids1 = in/ance 7,cr,s,o#d7;,h#b,,s#d #a_/b;,cr#b7,,s#d7c;,h#b,,s#d1 are =m$4 ,) a /ill l>g] excess ( sulphuric acid1 ,rec\ra obta9$ salts conta9+ a /ill great] numb] ( sulphuric acid radicles1 b ev5 ?is me?od does n expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! gre5 & violet salts4 ,^! facts mu/ naturally be tak5 into consid]ation 9 ord] to arrive at any complete decision z to ! cause ( ! diff]5t modifications ( ! *romic salts4 ,we may obs]ve t ! gre5 modification ( *romic *loride does n give d\ble salts ) ! metallic *lorides1 :il/ ! violet v>iety =ms comp\nds ,cr#b;,cl#f1b,r,cl 7:]e ,r an alkali metal71 :i* are obta9$ by heat+ ! *romates ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid & evaporat+ ! solution until x acquires a violet col\r4 ,z ! result ( all ! exi/+ rese>*es on ! gre5 & violet *romic salts1 x appe>s to me mo/ probable t _! diff]5ce is det]m9$ by ! feeble basic "* ( *romic oxide1 by its faculty ( giv+ basic salts1 & by ! colloidal prop]ties ( its hydroxide 7^! ?ree prop]ties are mutually connect$71 & moreov]1 x seems to me t ! relation betwe5 ! gre5 & violet salts ( *romic oxide be/ answ]s to ! relation ( ! purpureo to ! luteo cobaltic salts 7,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce74 ,?is subject _c yet be consid]$ z exhau/$ 7see ,note #g74 ,we may "h obs]ve t ) t9 ! *romic salts1 ,cr,x#c1 give at l[ temp]atures ,cr,x#b & ,sn,x#b1 :il/ at high temp]atures1 on ! contr>y1 ,cr,x#b r$uces ! metal f its salts ,sn,x#b4 ,! reaction1 !re=e1 belongs to ! class ( rev]sible reactions 7,beket(f74 ,p\l5c obta9$ anhydr\s ,cr,f#c 7sp4 gr4 #cgh7 & ,cr,f#b 7sp4 gr4 #daa7 by ! action ( gase\s ,,hf ^u ,cr,cl#b4 ,a solution ( fluoride ( *romium is employ$ z a mordant 9 dye+4 ,rec\ra 7#ahij7 obta9$ gre5 & violet v>ieties ( ,cr#b;,br#f1f;,h#b,o4 ,! gre5 v>iety c only be kept 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ,h,br 9 ! solution2 if alone its solution easily passes into ! violet v>iety ) evolution ( heat4 ,*romic oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 r>ely f\nd1 & 9 small quantities1 9 *rome o*re1 is =m$ by ! oxidation ( *romium & its l[] oxides1 by ! r$uction ( *romates 7= example1 ( ammonium or m]curic *romate7 & by ! decomposition 7splitt+ up7 ( ! sal9e comp\nds ( ! oxide itself1 ,cr,x#c or ,cr#b,x#f1 l alum9a1 :i* x resembles 9 =m+ a feeble base easily giv+ d\ble & basic salts1 :i* are ei!r gre5 or violet4 ,! r$uction ( *romic oxide--= in/ance1 9 a solution by z9c & sulphuric acid--leads to ! =mation ( *rom\s oxide1 ,cr,o1 & its salts1 ,cr,x#b1 ( a blue col\r 7see ,notes #g & #g bis74 ,! fur!r r$uction#h ( oxide ( *romium & its correspond+ comp\nds gives metallic *romium4 ,deville obta9$ x 7probably conta9+ c>bon7 by r$uc+ *romic oxide ) c>bon1 at a temp]ature ne> ! melt+ po9t ( plat9um1 ab\t #agej1 b ! metal itself does n fuse at ?is temp]ature4 ,*romium has a /eel-grey col\r & is v h>d 7sp4 gr4 #ei71 takes a good poli%1 & dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid1 b cold dilute sulphuric & nitric acids h no action ^u x4 ,buns5 obta9$ metallic *romium by decompos+ a solution ( *romic *loride1 ,cr#b;,cl#f1 by a galvanic curr5t1 z scales ( a grey col\r 7sp4 gr4 #gc74 ,whl] obta9$ cry/all9e *romium by ignit+ a mixture ( ! anhydr\s *romic *loride ,cr#b;,cl#f 7see ,note #g bis7 ) f9ely-divid$ z9c1 & sodium & potassium *lorides1 at ! boil+-po9t ( z9c4 ,:5 ! resultant mass has cool$ ! z9c may be dissolv$ 9 dilute nitric acid1 & grey cry/all9e *romium 7sp4 gr4 #fha7 is left beh9d4 ,frmy also prep>$ cry/all9e *romium by ! action ( ! vap\r ( sodium on anhydr\s *romic *loride 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 us+ ! app>atus %[n 9 ! accompany+ draw+1 & plac+ ! sodium & ! *romic *loride 9 sep>ate porcela9 boats4 ,! tube conta9+ ^! boats is only heat$ :5 x is q full ( dry hydrog54 ,! cry/als ( metallic *romium obta9$ 9 ! tube are grey cubes hav+ a consid]able h>dness & )/&+ ! action ( p[]ful acids1 & ev5 ( aqua regia4 ,! *romium obta9$ by ,whl] by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t is1 on ! contr>y1 act$ on "u ^! conditions4 ,! reason ( ?is diff]5ce mu/ be look$ = 9 ! pres5ce ( impurities1 & 9 ! cry/all9e /ructure4 ,b 9 any case1 among ! prop]ties ( metallic *romium1 ! foll[+ may be consid]$ e/abli%$3 x is :ite 9 col\r1 ) a specific gravity ( ab\t #fg1 is extremely h>d 9 a cry/all9e =m1 is n oxidis$ by air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ) c>bon x =ms alloys l ca/ iron & /eel4 #h ,! r$uction ( metallic *romium proce$s ) comp>ative ease 9 aque\s solutions4 ,?us ! action ( sodium amalgams ^u a /rong solution ( ,cr#b;,cl#f gives 7fir/ ,cr,cl#b7 an amalgam ( *romium f :i* ! m]cury may be easily driv5 (f by heat+ 79 hydrog5 to avoid oxidation71 & !re rema9s a spongy mass ( easily oxidizable *romium4 ,plaset 7#ahia71 by pass+ an electric curr5t ?r\gh a solution ( *rome alum mix$ ) a small am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d & ,k#b,,s#d1 obta9$ h>d scales ( *romium ( a blui%-:ite col\r possess+ great h>dness & /ability 7"u ! action ( wat]1 air1 & acids74 ,glatzel 7#ahij7 r$uc$ a mixture ( #b,k,cl ,cr#b;,cl#f by heat+ x to r$ness ) %av+s ( magnesium4 ,! metallic *romium ?us obta9$ has ! appe>ance ( a f9e light-grey p[d] :i* is se5 to be cry/all9e "u ! microscope2 its sp4 gr4 at #af is #fgbhd4 ,x fuses 7) anhydr\s borax7 only at ! highe/ temp]atures1 & aft] fusion pres5ts a silv]-:ite fracture4 ,! /ronge/ magnet has no action ^u x4 ,moissan 7#ahic7 obta9$ *romium by r$uc+ ! oxide ,cr#b,o#c ) c>bon 9 ! electrical furnace 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #ag7 9 #i-aj m9utes ) a curr5t ( #cej ampres & #ej volts4 ,! mixture ( oxide & c>bon gives a bright +ot weigh+ #ajj-aaj grams4 ,a curr5t ( #ajj ampres & #ej volts completes ! exp]im5t ^u a small] quantity ( mat]ial 9 #ae m9utes2 a curr5t ( #cj ampres & #ej volts gave an +ot ( #aj grams 9 #cj-dj m9utes4 ,! resultant c>bon alloy is m or less ri* 9 *romium 7f #hgcg-iag p4c474 ,to obta9 ! metal free f c>bon1 ! alloy is brok5 into l>ge lumps1 mix$ ) oxide ( *romium1 put into a crucible & cov]$ ) a lay] ( oxide4 ,?is mixture is !n heat$ 9 ! electric furnace & ! pure metal is obta9$4 ,?is r$uction c also be c>ri$ on ) *rome iron ore ,fe,o,cr#b,o#c :i* occurs 9 nature4 ,9 ?is case a homog5e\s alloy ( iron & *romium is obta9$4 ,if ?is alloy be ?r[n 9 lumps into molt5 nitre1 x =ms insoluble sesquioxide ( iron & a soluble alkal9e *romate4 ,?is alloy ( iron & *romium dissolv$ 9 molt5 /eel 7*rome /eel7 r5d]s x h>d & t\gh1 s t su* /eel has _m valuable applications4 ,! alloy1 conta9+ ab\t #c p4c4 ,cr & ab\t #ac p4c4 c>bon1 is ev5 h>d] ?an ! ord9>y k9ds ( temp]$ /eel & has a f9e granul> fracture4 ,! usual mode ( prep>+ ! f]ro*romes = add+ to /eel is by fus+ p[d]$ *rome iron ore "u fluxes 9 a graphite crucible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,app>atus = ! prep>ation ( metallic *romium by ignit+ *romic *loride & sodium 9 a /ream ( hydrog54 ,! two analogues ( *romium1 molybd5um & tung/5 7or wolfram71 are ( /ill r>] occurr5ce 9 nature1 & =m acid oxides1 ,,ro#c1 :i* are /ill less en]getic ?an ,cr,o#c4 ,tung/5 occurs 9 ! some:at r>e m9]als1 s*eelite1 ,ca,w,o#d1 & wolfram2 ! latt] be+ an isomorph\s mixture ( ! normal tung/ates ( iron & manganese1 7,mn,fe7,,wo#d4 ,molybd5um is mo/ frequ5tly met ) z molybd5ite1 ,mo,s#b1 :i* pres5ts a c]ta9 resemblance to graphite 9 its physical prop]ties & s(tness4 ,x also occurs1 b mu* m r>ely1 z a yell[ lead ore1 ,pb,mo,o#d4 ,9 bo? ^! =ms molybd5um occurs 9 ! prim>y rocks1 9 granites1 gneiss1 c41 & 9 iron & copp] ores 9 ,saxony1 ,sw$51 & ,f9l&4 ,tung/5 ores are sometimes met ) 9 consid]able masses 9 ! prim>y rocks ( ,bohemia & ,saxony1 & also 9 ,engl&1 ,am]ica1 & ! ,urals4 ,! prelim9>y treatm5t ( ! ore is v simple2 = example1 ! sulphide1 ,mo,s#b1 is roa/$1 & ?us conv]t$ into sulphur\s anhydride & molybdic anhydride1 ,mo,o#c1 :i* is !n dissolv$ 9 alkalis1 g5]ally 9 ammonia4 ,! ammonium molybdate is !n treat$ ) acids1 :5 ! sp>+ly soluble molybdic acid is precipitat$4 ,wolfram is treat$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,mo/ frequ5tly ! f9ely-gr\nd ore is repeat$ly boil$ ) hydro*loric & nitric acids1 & ! resultant solutions 7( salts ( manganese & iron7 p\r$ (f1 until ! d>k br[n mass ( ore disappe>s1 :il/ ! tung/ic acid rema9s1 mix$ ) silica1 z an insoluble residue2 x is treat$ also ) ammonia1 & is ?us conv]t$ into soluble ammonium tung/ate1 :i* passes into solution & yields tung/ic acid :5 treat$ ) acids4 ,?is hydrate is !n ignit$1 & leaves tung/ic anhydride4 ,! g5]al "* ( molybdic & tung/ic anhydrides is analog\s to t ( *romic anhydride2 !y are anhydrides ( a feebly acid "*1 :i* easily give polyacid salts & colloid solutions4#h bis #h bis ,! atomic composition ( ! tung/5 & molybd5um comp\nds is tak5 z be+ id5tical ) t ( ! comp\nds ( sulphur & *romium1 because 7#a7 bo? ^! metals give two oxides 9 :i* ! am\nts ( oxyg5 p] giv5 am\nt ( metal /& 9 ! ratio #b 3 #c2 7#b7 ! high] oxide is ( ! latt] k9d1 &1 l *romic & sulphuric anhydrides1 x has an acid "*2 7#c7 c]ta9 ( ! molybdates are isomorph\s ) ! sulphates2 7#d7 ! specific heat ( tung/5 is #jjccd1 consequ5tly ! product ( ! atomic weight & specific heat is #fae1 l t ( ! o!r elem5ts--x is ! same ) molybd5um1 #ifj #jjgbb #fi2 7#e7 tung/5 =ms ) *lor9e n only comp\nds ,w,cl#f1 ,w,cl#e1 & ,w,o,cl#d1 b also ,,wo#b;,cl#b1 a volatile sub/ance ! analogue ( *romyl *loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 & sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b4 ,molybd5um gives ! *lor9e comp\nds1 ,m,o,cl#b1 ,m,o,cl#c7871 ,m,o,cl#d 7fuses at #aid1 boils at #bfh2 accord+ to ,debray x conta9s ,m,o,cl#e71 ,mo,o,cl#d1 ,mo,o#b;,cl#b1 & ,mo,o#b7,,oh7,cl4 ,! exi/5ce ( tung/5 hexa*loride1 ,w,cl#f1 is an excell5t pro( ( ! fact t ! type ,,sx#f appe>s 9 ! analogues ( sulphur z 9 ,,s#c2 7#f7 ! vap\r d5sity accurately det]m9$ = ! *lor9e comp\nds ,mo,cl#d1 ,w,cl#f1 ,w,cl#e1 ,w,o,cl#d 7,roscoe7 leaves no d\bt z to ! molecul> composition ( ! comp\nds ( tung/5 & molybd5um1 = ! obs]v$ & calculat$ results entirely agree4 ,tung/5 is sometimes call$ s*eele 9 hon\r ( ,s*eele1 :o discov]$ x 9 #agha & molybd5um 9 #aggh4 ,tung/5 is also kn[n z wolfram2 ! =m] "n 0 ! "n giv5 to x by ,s*eele1 because he extract$ x f ! m9]al !n kn[n z tung/5 & n[ call$ s*eelite1 ,ca,w,o#d4 ,! rese>*es ( ,roscoe1 ,blom/r& & o!rs h subsequ5tly ?r[n consid]able light on ! :ole hi/ory ( ! comp\nds ( molybd5um & tung/54 ,! ammonium salts ( tung/5 & molybdic acids :5 ignit$ leave ! anhydrides1 :i* resemble ea* o!r 9 _m respects4 ,tung/5 anhydride1 ,,wo#c1 is a yell[i% sub/ance1 :i* only fuses at a /rong heat1 & has a sp4 gr4 ( #fh4 ,x is insoluble bo? 9 wat] & acid1 b solutions ( ! alkalis1 & ev5 ( ! alkali c>bonates1 dissolve x1 especially :5 heat$1 =m+ alkal9e salts4 ,molybdic anhydride1 ,mo,o#c1 is obta9$ by ignit+ ! acid 7hydrate7 or ! ammonium salt1 & =ms a :ite mass :i* fuses at a r$ heat1 & solidifies to a yell[ cry/all9e mass ( sp4 gr4 #dd2 :il/ on fur!r heat+ 9 op5 vessels or 9 a /ream ( air ?is anhydride sublimes 9 pe>ly scales--?is enables x to be obta9$ 9 a tol]ably pure /ate4 ,wat] dissolves x 9 small quantities--namely1 #a "p requires #fjj p>ts ( wat] = its solution4 ,! hydrates ( molybdic anhydride are soluble also 9 acids 7a hydrate1 ,h#b,mo,o#d1 is obta9$ f ! nitric acid solution ( ! ammonium salt71 :i* =ms "o ( _! di/9ctions f ! tung/ic acids4 ,b aft] ignition molybdic anhydride is insoluble 9 acids1 l tung/ic anhydride2 alkalis dissolve ?is anhydride1 easily =m+ molybdates4 ,potassium bit>trate dissolves ! anhydride ) ! aid ( heat4 ,none ( ! acids yet consid]$ by u =m s _m diff]5t salts ) "o & ! same base 7alkali7 z molybdic & tung/ic acids4 ,! composition ( ^! salts1 & _! prop]ties also1 v>y consid]ably4 ,! mo/ important discov]y 9 ?is respect 0 made by ,m>gu]ite & ,laur5t1 :o %[$ t ! salts :i* conta9 a l>ge proportion ( tung/ic acid are easily soluble 9 wat]1 & ascrib$ ?is prop]ty to ! fact t tung/ic acid may be obta9$ 9 sev]al /ates4 ,! common tung/ates1 obta9$ ) an excess ( alkali1 h an alkal9e reaction1 & on ! addition ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acid fir/ deposit an acid salt & !n a hydrate ( tung/ic acid1 :i* is insoluble bo? 9 wat] & acids2 b if in/ead ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acids1 we add acetic or phosphoric acid1 or if ! tung/ate be saturat$ ) a fre% quantity ( tung/ic acid1 :i* may be done by boil+ ! solution ( ! alkali salt ) ! precipitat$ tung/ic acid1 a solution is obta9$ :i*1 on ! addition ( sulphuric or a simil> acid1 does n give a precipitate ( tung/ic acid at ! ord9>y or at high] temp]atures4 ,! solution !n conta9s peculi> salts ( tung/ic acid1 & if !re be an excess ( acid x also conta9s tung/ic acid itself2 ,laur5t1 ,ri*e1 & o!rs call$ x metatung/ic acid1 & x is /ill kn[n by ?is "n4 ,^? salts :i* ) acids imm$iately give ! insoluble tung/ic acid h ! composition ,r#b,,wo#d1,,rhwo#d1 :il/ ^? :i* give ! soluble metatung/ic acid conta9 a f> great] proportion ( ! acid elem5ts4 ,s*eibl] obta9$ ! 7soluble7 metatung/ic acid itself by treat+ ! soluble b>ium 7meta7 tetratung/ate1 ,ba,o1#d,,wo#c1 ) sulphuric acid4 ,subsequ5t rese>* %[$ ! exi/5ce ( a simil> ph5om5on = molybdic acid4 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is is a case ( colloidal modifications4 ,_m *emi/s h work$ on ! v>i\s salts =m$ by molybdic & tung/ic acids4 ,! tung/ates h be5 inve/igat$ by ,m>gu]ite1 ,laur5t1 ,m>ignac1 ,ri*e1 ,s*eibl]1 ,an?on1 & o!rs4 ,! molybdates 7 p>tially /udi$ by ! same *emi/s1 b *iefly by ,/ruv & ,svanb]g1 ,delafonta9e1 & o!rs4 ,x appe>s t = a giv5 am\nt ( base ! salts conta9 "o to eight equival5ts ( molybdic or tung/ic anhydride2 i4e4 if ! base h ! composition ,,ro1 !n ! highe/ proportion ( base w be conta9$ by ! salts ( ! composition ,,r[o#c or ,r,o,mo,o#c--t is1 by ^? salts :i* correspond ) ! normal acids ,h#b,,wo#d & ,h#b,mo,o#d1 ( ! same nature z sulphuric acid2 b !re also exi/ salts ( ! composition ,,ro1#b,,wo#c1 ,,ro1#c,,wo#c 444 ,,ro1#h,,wo#c4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 ! composition ( _m ( ! acid salts is (t5 n tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! above4 ,! prop]ties ( ! salts hold+ diff]5t proportions ( acids v>y consid]ably1 b "o salt may be conv]t$ into ano!r by ! addition ( acid or base ) great facility1 & ! great] ! proportion ( ! elem5ts ( ! acid 9 a salt1 ! m /able1 )9 a c]ta9 limit1 is its solution & ! salt itself4 ,! mo/ common ammonium molybdate has ! composition 7,,nh#d;,,ho7#f1;,h#b,o1#g,mo,o#c 7or1 accord+ to ,m>ignac & o!rs1 ,,nh#d;,h,mo,o#d71 & is prep>$ by evaporat+ an ammoniacal solution ( molybdic acid4 ,x is us$ 9 ! laboratory = precipitat+ phosphoric acid1 & is purifi$ = ?is purpose by mix+ its solution ) a small quantity ( magnesium nitrate1 9 ord] to precipitate any phosphoric acid pres5t1 filt]+1 & !n add+ nitric acid & evaporat+ to dryness4 ,a pure ammonium molybdate free f phosphoric acid may !n be extract$ f ! residue4 ,phosphoric acid =ms insoluble comp\nds ) ! oxides ( uranium & iron1 t91 bismu?1 c41 hav+ feeble basic & ev5 acid prop]ties4 ,?is p]haps dep5ds on ! fact t ! atoms ( hydrog5 9 phosphoric acid are ( a v diff]5t "*1 z we saw above4 ,^? atoms ( hydrog5 :i* are replac$ ) difficulty by ammonium1 sodium1 c41 are probably easily replac$ by feebly en]getic acid gr\ps--t is1 ! =mation ( p>ticul> complex sub/ances may be expect$ to take place at ! exp5se ( ^! atoms ( ! hydrog5 ( phosphoric acid & ( c]ta9 feeble metallic acids2 & ^! sub/ances w /ill be acids1 because ! hydrog5 ( ! phosphoric acids & metallic acids1 :i* is easily replac$ by metals1 is n remov$ by _! mutual comb9ation1 b rema9s 9 ! resultant comp\nd4 ,su* a conclusion is v]ifi$ 9 ! phosphomolybdic acids obta9$ 7#ahhh7 by ,debray4 ,if a solution ( ammonium molybdate be acidifi$1 & a small am\nt ( a solution 7x may be acid7 conta9+ or?ophosphoric acid or its salts be add$ to x 7s t !re are at lea/ #dj p>ts ( molybdic acid pres5t to #a "p ( phosphoric acid71 !n aft] a p]iod ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! :ole ( ! phosphoric acid is sep>at$ z a yell[ precipitate1 conta9+1 h[ev]1 n m ?an #c to #d p4c4 ( phosphoric anhydride1 ab\t #c p4c4 ( ammonia1 ab\t #ij p4c4 ( molybdic anhydride1 & ab\t #d p4c4 ( wat]4 ,! =mation ( ?is precipitate is s di/9ct & s complete t ?is me?od is employ$ = ! discov]y & sep>ation ( ! smalle/ quantities ( phosphoric acid4 ,phosphoric acid 0 f\nd to be pres5t 9 ! majority ( rocks by ?is means4 ,! precipitate is soluble 9 ammonia & its salts1 9 alkalis & phosphates1 b is p]fectly insoluble 9 nitric1 sulphuric1 & hydro*loric acids 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonium molybdate4 ,! composition ( ! precipitate appe>s to v>y "u ! conditions ( its precipitation1 b its nature became cle> :5 ! acid correspond+ ) x 0 obta9$4 ,if ! above-describ$ yell[ precipitate be boil$ 9 aqua regia1 ! ammonia is de/roy$1 & an acid is obta9$ 9 solution1 :i*1 :5 evaporat$ 9 ! air1 cry/allises out 9 yell[ oblique prisms ( approximately ! composition ,p#b,o#e1bj,mo,o#c1bf;,h#b,o4 ,su* an unusual proportion ( compon5t p>ts is expla9$ by ! above-m5tion$ consid]ations4 ,we saw above t molybdic acid easily gives salts ,r#b,on,mo,o#cm,h#b,o1 :i* we may imag9e to correspond to a hydrate ,mo,o#b7;,,ho7#bn,mo#cm,h#b,o4 ,& suppose t su* a hydrate reacts on or?ophosphoric acid1 =m+ wat] & comp\nds ( ! composition ,mo,o#b7;,,hpo#d7n,mo,o#cm,h#b,o or ,mo,o#c7;,h#b,,po#d7bn,mo,o#cm,h#b,o2 ?is is actually ! composition ( phosphomolybdic acid4 ,probably x conta9s a portion ( ! hydrog5 replaceable by metals ( bo? ! acids ,h#c,,po#d & ( ,h#b,mo,o#d4 ,! cry/all9e acid above is probably ,h#c,mo,p,o#g1i,mo,o#c1ab;,h#b,o4 ,?is acid is really tribasic1 because its aque\s solution precipitates salts ( potassium1 ammonium1 rubidium 7b n li?ium & sodium7 f acid solutions1 & gives a yell[ precipitate ( ! composition ,r#c,mo,p,o#g1i,mo,o#c1h;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,,nh#d4 ,besides ^!1 salts ( ano!r composition may be obta9$1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! prec$+4 ,^! salts are only /able 9 acid solutions 7:i* is naturally due to _! conta9+ an excess ( acid oxides71 :il/ "u ! action ( alkalis !y give col\rless phosphomolybdates ( ! composition ,r#c,mo,p,o#c1,mo,o#b1c;,h#b,o4 ,! correspond+ salts ( potassium1 silv]1 ammonium1 are easily soluble 9 wat] & cry/all9e4 ,phosphomolybdic acid is an example ( ! complex inorganic acids fir/ obta9$ by ,m>ignac & aft]w>ds g5]alis$ & /udi$ 9 detail by ,gibbs4 ,we %all aft]w>ds meet ) sev]al examples ( su* acids1 & we w n[ turn att5tion to ! fact t !y are usually =m$ by weak polybasic acids 7boric1 silicic1 molybdic1 c471 & 9 c]ta9 respects resemble ! cobaltic & su* simil> complex comp\nds1 ) :i* we %all become acqua9t$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,z an example we w "h m5tion c]ta9 complex comp\nds conta9+ molybdic & tung/ic acids1 z !y w illu/rate ! possibility ( a consid]able complexity 9 ! composition ( salts4 ,! action ( ammonium molybdate ^u a dilute solution ( purpureocobaltic salts 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii47 acidulat$ ) acetic acid gives a salt :i* aft] dry+ at #ajj has ! composition ,co#b,o#caj,,nh#cg,mo,o#cc;,h#b,o4 ,aft] ignition ?is salt leaves a residue hav+ ! composition #b;,co,o#g,mo,o#c4 ,an analog\s comp\nd is also obta9$ = tung/ic acid1 hav+ ! composition ,co#b,o#caj,,nh#caj,,wo#ci;,h#b,o4 ,9 ?is case aft] ignition !re rema9s a salt ( ! composition ,co,o#e,,wo#c 7,c>not1 #ahhi74 ,pr(essor ,k\rnak(f1 by treat+ a solution ( potassium & sodium molybdates1 conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( suboxide ( cobalt1 ) brom9e obta9$ salts hav+ ! composition3 #c,k#b,o,co#b,o#cab,mo,o#cbj;,h#b,o 7light gre57 & #c,k#b,o,co#b,o#caj,mo#caj;,h#b,o 7d>k gre574 ,p*>d 7#ahic7 obta9$ salts ( ! f\r complex phosphotung/ic acids by evaporat+ equival5t mixtures ( solutions ( phosphoric acid & metatung/ic acid 7see fur!r on73 phosphotrimetatung/ic acid ,p#b,o#eab,,wo#cdh;,h#b,o1 phosphotetrametatung/ic acid ,p#b,o#eaf,,wo#cfi;,h#b,o1 phosphop5tametatung/ic acid ,p#b,o#ebj,,wo#c;,h#b,o1 & phosphohexametatung/ic acid ,p#b,o#ebd,,wo#cei;,h#b,o4 ,kehrmann & ,frankel describ$ /ill m complex salts1 su* z3 #c;,ag#b,o#d;,ba,o,p#b,o#ebb,,wo#c;,h#b, o1#e;,ba,o#b ,k#b,,op#b,o#cbb,,wo#cdh;,h#b,o4 ,analog\s d\ble salts ) #bb,,wo#c 7 also obta9$ ) ,k,sr1 ,k,hg1 ,ba,hg1 & ,,nh#d,pb4 ,kehrmann 7#ahib7 consid]s ! possibility ( obta9+ an unlimit$ numb] ( su* salts to be a g5]al *>act]i/ic ( su* comp\nds4 ,mahom & ,fri$heim 7#ahib7 obta9$ comp\nds ( simil> complexity = molybdic & ars5ic acids4 ,= tung/ic acid !re are kn[n3 7#a7 ,normal salts--= example1 ,k#b,,wo#d2 7#b7 ! s-call$ acid salts h a composition l #c,k#b,o1#g,,wo#c1f;,h#b,o or ,k#f;,h#h7,,wo#d7g1b;,h#b,o2 7#c7 ! tritung/ates l ,na#c,o1#c,,wo#c1c;,h#b,o ,na#b;,h#d7,,wo#d7c1;,h#b,o4 ,all ^! ?ree classes ( salts are soluble 9 wat]1 b are precipitat$ by b>ium *loride1 & ) acids 9 solution give an insoluble hydrate ( tung/ic acid2 :il/ ^? salts :i* are enum]at$ bel[ d n give a precipitate ei!r ) acids or ) ! salts ( ! heavy metals1 because !y =m soluble salts ev5 ) b>ium & lead4 ,!y are g5]ally call$ metatung/ates4 ,!y all conta9 wat] & a l>g] proportion ( acid elem5ts ?an ! prec$+ salts2 7#d7 ! tetratung/ates1 l ,na#b,o1#d,,wo#c1aj;,h#b,o & ,ba,o1#d,,wo#c1i;,h#b,o = example2 7#e7 ! octatung/ates--= example1 ,na#b,o1#h,,wo#c1bd;,h#b,o4 ,s9ce ! metatung/ates lose s mu* wat] at #ajj t !y leave salts ^: composition corresponds ) an acid1 #c;,h#b,o1#d,,wo#c--t is1 ,h#f,w#d,o#ae--:il/ 9 ! meta salts only #b hydrog5s are replac$ by metals1 x is assum$1 al?\gh )\t mu* gr\nd1 t ^! salts conta9 a p>ticul> soluble metatung/ic acid ( ! composition ,h#f,w#d,o#ae4 ,z an example we w give a %ort description ( ! sodium salts4 ,! normal salt1 ,na#b,,wo#d1 is obta9$ by heat+ a /rong solution ( sodium c>bonate ) tung/ic acid to a temp]ature ( #hj2 if ! solution be filt]$ hot1 x cry/allises 9 rhombic tabul> cry/als1 hav+ ! composition ,na#b,,wo#d1b;,h#b,o1 :i* rema9 un*ang$ 9 ! air & are easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,:5 ?is salt is fus$ ) a fre% quantity ( tung/ic acid1 x gives a ditung/ate1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] & sep>ates f its solution 9 cry/als conta9+ wat]4 ,! same salt is obta9$ by c>efully add+ hydro*loric acid to ! solution ( ! normal salt s long z a precipitate does n appe>1 & ! liquid /ill has an alkal9e reaction4 ,?is salt 0 fir/ suppos$ to h ! composition ,na#b,w#b,o#g1d;,h#b,o1 b x has s9ce be5 f\nd to conta9 7at #ajj7 ,na#f,w#g,o#bd1af;,h#b,o--t is1 x corresponds ) ! simil> salt ( molybdic acid4 7,if ?is salt be heat$ to a r$ heat 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 x loses a portion ( its oxyg51 acquires a metallic lu/re1 & turns a gold5 yell[ col\r1 &1 aft] be+ treat$ ) wat]1 alkali1 & acid1 leaves gold5 yell[ leaflets & cubes :i* are v l gold4 ,?is v rem>kable sub/ance1 discov]$ by ,whl]1 has1 accord+ to ,malaguti's analysis1 ! composition ,na#b,w#c,o#i2 t is1 x1 z x 71 conta9s a d\ble tung/ate ( tung/5 oxide1 ,,wo#b1 & ( sodium1 ,na#b,,wo#d1,,wo#b,,wo#c4 ,! decomposition ( ! fus$ sodium salt is be/ effect$ by f9ely-divid$ t94 ,?is sub/ance has a sp4 gr4 #ff2 x conducts electricity l metals1 & l !m has a metallic lu/re4 ,:5 br\ght into contact ) z9c & sulphuric acid x dis5gages hydrog51 & x becomes cov]$ ) a coat+ ( copp] 9 a solution ( copp] sulphate 9 ! pres5ce ( z9c--t is1 not)/&+ its complex composition x pres5ts to a c]ta9 ext5t ! appe>ance & reactions ( ! metals4 ,x is n act$ on by aqua regia or alkal9e solutions1 b x is oxidis$ :5 ignit$ 9 air47 ,! ditung/ate m5tion$ above1 depriv$ ( wat] 7hav+ und]gone a modification simil> to t ( metaphosphoric acid71 aft] be+ treat$ ) wat]1 leaves an anhydr\s1 sp>+ly soluble tetratung/ate1 ,na#b,,wo#d1c,,wo#c1 :i*1 :5 heat$ at #abj 9 a clos$ tube ) wat]1 passes into an easily soluble metatung/ate4 ,x may !re=e be said t ! metatung/ates are hydrat$ comp\nds4 ,on boil+ a solution ( ! above-m5tion$ salts ( sodium ) ! yell[ hydrate ( tung/ic acid !y give a solution ( metatung/ate1 :i* is ! hydrat$ tetratung/ate4 ,its cry/als conta9 ,na#b,w#d,o#ac1aj;,h#b,o4 ,aft] ! hydrate ( tung/ic acid 7obta9$ f ! ord9>y tung/ates by precipitation ) an acid7 has /ood a long "t 9 contact ) a solution 7hot or cold7 ( sodium tung/ate1 x gives a solution :i* is n precipitat$ by hydro*loric acid2 ?is mu/ be filt]$ & evaporat$ ov] sulphuric acid 9 a desiccator 7x is decompos$ by boil+74 ,x fir/ =ms a v d5se solution 7alum9ium floats 9 x7 ( sp4 gr4 #cj1 & octah$ral cry/als ( sodium metatung/ate1 ,na#b,w#d,o#ac1aj;,h#b,o1 sp4 gr4 #che1 !n sep>ate4 ,x effloresces & loses wat]1 & at #ajj only two out ( ! t5 equival5ts ( wat] rema91 b ! prop]ties ( ! salt rema9 unalt]$4 ,if ! salt be depriv$ ( wat] by fur!r heat+1 x becomes insoluble4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature "o "p ( wat] dissolves t5 p>ts ( ! metatung/ate4 ,! o!r metatung/ates are easily obta9$ f ?is salt4 ,?us a /rong & hot solution1 mix$ ) a l solution ( b>ium *loride1 gives on cool+ cry/als ( b>ium metatung/ate1 ,ba,w#d,o#ac1i;,h#b,o4 ,^! cry/als are dissolv$ )\t *ange 9 wat] conta9+ hydro*loric acid1 & also 9 hot wat]1 b !y are p>tially decompos$ by cold wat]1 ) ! =mation ( a solution ( metatung/ic acid & ( ! normal b>ium salt ,ba,w,o#d4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties ( ! salts ( tung/ic acid1 we may add t a mixture ( a solution ( tung/ic acid ) a solution ( silicic acid does n coagulate :5 heat$1 al?\gh ! silicic acid alone w\ld d s2 ?is is due to ! =mation ( a silicotung/ic acid1 discov]$ by ,m>ignac1 :i* pres5ts a fre% example ( a complex acid4 ,a solution ( a tung/ate dissolves gelat9\s silica1 j z x does gelat9\s tung/ic acid1 & :5 evaporat$ deposits a cry/all9e salt ( silicotung/ic acid4 ,?is solution is n precipitat$ ei!r by acids 7a cle> analogy to ! metatung/ates7 or by sulphurett$ hydrog51 & corresponds ) a s]ies ( salts4 ,^! salts conta9 "o equival5t ( silica & #h equival5ts ( hydrog5 or metals1 9 ! same =m z 9 salts1 to #ab or #aj equival5ts ( tung/ic anhydride2 = example ! cry/all9e potassium salt has ! composition ,k#h,w#ab,si,o#db1ad;,h#b,o #d,k#b,o1#ab,,wo#c1,si,o#b1ad;,h#b,o4 ,acid salts are also kn[n 9 :i* half ( ! metal is replac$ by hydrog54 ,! complexity ( ! composition ( su* complex acids 7= example1 ( ! phosphomolybdic acid7 involunt>ily leads to ! idea ( polym]isation1 :i* we 7 oblig$ to recognise = silica1 lead oxide1 & o!r comp\nds4 ,?is polym]isation1 x seems to me1 may be und]/ood ?us3 a hydrate ,a 7= example1 tung/ic acid7 is capable ( comb9+ ) a hydrate ,b 7= example1 silica or phosphoric acid1 ) or )\t ! dis5gagem5t ( wat]71 & by reason ( ?is faculty x is capable ( polym]isation--t is1 ,a comb9es ) ,a--comb9es ) itself--j z aldehyde1 ,c#b;,h#d,o1 or ! cyanog5 comp\nds are able to comb9e ) hydrog51 oxyg51 c41 & are liable to polym]isation4 ,on ?is view ! molecule ( tung/ic acid is probably mu* m complex ?an we repres5t x2 ?is agrees ) ! easy volatility ( su* comp\nds z ! *loranhydrides1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 ,mo,o#b;,cl#b1 ! analogues ( ! volatile sulphuryl *loride1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 & ) ! non-volatility1 or difficult volatility1 ( *romic & molybdic anhydrides1 ! analogues ( ! volatile sulphuric anhydride4 ,su* a view also f9ds a c]ta9 confirmation 9 ! rese>*es made by ,graham on ! colloidal /ate ( tung/ic acid1 because colloidal prop]ties only app]ta9 to comp\nds ( a v complex composition4 ,! obs]vations made by ,graham on ! colloidal /ate ( tung/ic & molybdic acids introduc$ mu* new matt] into ! hi/ory ( ^! sub/ances4 ,:5 sodium tung/ate1 mix$ 9 a dilute solution ) an equival5t quantity ( dilute hydro*loric acid1 is plac$ 9 a dialys]1 hydro*loric acid & sodium *loride pass ?r\gh ! membrane1 & a solution ( tung/ic acid rema9s 9 ! dialys]4 ,out ( #ajj p>ts ( tung/ic acid ab\t #hj p>ts rema9 9 ! dialys]4 ,! solution has a bitt]1 a/r+5t ta/e1 & does n yield gelat9\s tung/ic acid 7hydrogel7 ei!r :5 heat$ or on ! addition ( acids or salts4 ,x may also be evaporat$ to dryness2 x !n =ms a vitre\s mass ( ! hydrosol ( tung/ic acid1 :i* adh]es /rongly to ! walls ( ! vessel 9 :i* x has be5 evaporat$1 & is p]fectly soluble 9 wat]4 ,x does n ev5 lose its solubility aft] hav+ be5 heat$ to #bjj1 & only becomes insoluble :5 heat$ to a r$ heat1 :5 x loses ab\t #b-a_/b p4c4 ( wat]4 ,! dry acid1 dissolv$ 9 a small quantity ( wat]1 =ms a gluey mass1 j l gum arabic1 :i* is "o ( ! repres5tatives ( ! hydrosols ( colloidal sub/ances4 ,! solution1 conta9+ #e p4c ( ! anhydride1 has a sp4 gr4 ( #ajdg2 ) #bj p4c41 ( #abag2 ) #ej p4c41 ( #ahj2 & ) #hj p4c41 ( #cbd4 ,! pres5ce ( a polym]is$ trioxide 9 ! =m ( hydrate1 ,h#b,,ow#c,o#i or ,h#b,o#d,,wo#c1 mu/ !n be recognis$ 9 ! solution3 ?is is confirm$ by ,sabaneeff's cryoscopic det]m9ations 7#ahhi74 ,a simil> /able solution ( molybdic acid is obta9$ by ! dialysis ( a mixture ( a /rong solution ( sodium molybdate ) hydro*loric acid 7! precipitate :i* is =m$ is re-dissolv$74 ,if ,mo,cl#d be precipitat$ by ammonia & wa%$ ) wat]1 a po9t is rea*$ at :i* p]fect solution takes place1 & ! molybdic acid =ms a colloid solution :i* is precipitat$ by ! addition ( ammonia 7,mu?mann74 ,! addition ( alkali to ! solutions ( ! hydrosols ( tung/ic & molybdic acids imm$iately results 9 ! re-=mation ( ! ord9>y tung/ates & molybdates4 ,!re appe>s to be no d\bt b t ! same trans=mation is accompli%$ 9 ! passage ( ! ord9>y tung/ates into ! metatung/ates z takes place 9 ! passage ( tung/ic acid itself f an insoluble into a soluble /ate2 b ?is may be ev5 actually prov$ to be ! case1 because ,s*eibl] obta9$ a solution ( tung/ic acid1 be=e ,graham1 by decompos+ b>ium metatung/ate 7,ba,o#d,,wo#c1i;,h#b,o7 ) sulphuric acid4 ,by treat+ ?is salt ) sulphuric acid 9 ! am\nt requir$ = ! precipitation ( ! b>yta1 ,s*eibl] obta9$ a solution ( metatung/ic acid :i*1 :5 conta9+ #dcge p4c4 ( acid1 _h a sp4 gr4 ( #afcd1 & ) #bgfa p4c4 a sp4 gr4 ( #acbg--t is1 specific gravities correspond+ ) ^? f\nd by ,graham4 ,p*>d f\nd t z mu* heat is evolv$ by neutralis+ metatung/ic acid z ) sulphuric acid4 ,que/ions connect$ ) ! metamorphoses or modifications ( tung/ic & molybdic acids1 & ! polym]isation & colloidal /ate ( sub/ances1 z well z ! =mation ( complex acids1 belong to t class ( problems ! solution ( :i* w d mu* t[>ds atta9+ a true compreh5sion ( ! me*anism ( a numb] ( *emical reactions4 ,i ?9k1 moreov]1 t que/ions ( ?is k9d /& 9 intimate connection ) ! !ory ( ! =mation ( solutions & alloys & o!r s-call$ indef9ite comp\nds4 ,hydrog5 7:i* does n directly =m comp\nds ) ,cr1 ,mo1 & ,w7 r$uces molybdic & tung/ic anhydride at a r$ heat2 & ?is =ms ! means ( obta9+ metallic molybd5um & tung/54 ,bo? metals are infusible1 & bo? "u ! action ( heat =m comp\nds ) c>bon & iron 7! addition ( tung/5 to /eel r5d]s ! latt] ductile & h>d74#i ,molybd5um =ms a grey p[d]1 :i* sc>cely aggregates "u a mo/ p[]ful heat1 & has a specific gravity ( #he4 ,x is n act$ on by ! air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b :5 ignit$ x is fir/ conv]t$ into a br[n1 & !n into a blue oxide1 & la/ly into molybdic anhydride4 ,acids d n act on x--t is1 x does n lib]ate hydrog5 f !m1 n ev5 f hydro*loric acid--b /rong sulphuric acid dis5gages sulphur\s anhydride1 =m+ a br[n mass1 conta9+ a l[] oxide ( molybd5um4 ,alkalis 9 solution d n act on molybd5um1 b :5 fus$ ) x hydrog5 is giv5 (f1 :i* %[s1 z does its :ole "*1 ! acid prop]ties ( ! metal4 ,! prop]ties ( tung/5 are almo/ id5tical2 x is infusible1 has an iron-grey col\r1 is exce$+ly h>d1 s t x ev5 scrat*es glass4 ,its specific gravity is #aia 7accord+ to ,roscoe71 s t1 l uranium1 plat9um1 c41 x is "o ( ! heavie/ metals4#i bis ,j z sulphur & *romium h _! correspond+ p]sulphuric & p]*romic acids1 ,h#b,s#b,o#h & ,h#b;,cr,o#h1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( p]oxides1 & correspond+ to p]oxide ( hydrog51 s also molybd5um & tung/5 are kn[n to give p]molybdic & p]tung/ic acids1 ,h#b,mo#b,o#h & ,h#b,w#b,o#h1 :i* h ! prop]ties ( true p]oxides1 i4e4 easily dis5gage iod9e f ,,ki & *lor9e f ,h,cl1 easily "p ) _! oxyg51 & are =m$ by ! action ( p]oxide ( hydrog51 into :i* !y are readily reconv]t$ 7h5ce !y may be reg>d$ z comp\nds ( ,h#b,o#b ) #b,mo,o#c & #b,,wo#c71 c4 ,_! =mation 7,bo]wald #ahhd1 ,kemm]] #ahia7 is at once se5 9 ! coloration 7n de/roy$ by boil+71 :i* is obta9$ on mix+ a solution ( ! salts ) p]oxide ( hydrog51 & on treat+1 = in/ance1 molybdic acid ) a solution ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 7,p*>d #ahib74 ,! acid !n =ms an orange-col\r$ solution1 :i* aft] evaporation 9 vacuo leaves ,mo#b;,h#b,o#hd;,h#b,o z a cry/all9e p[d]1 & loses #d;,h#b,o at #ajj1 beyond :i* x decomposes ) ! evolution ( oxyg54#i tri #i ,moissan 7#ahic7 /udi$ ! comp\nds ( ,mo & ,w =m$ ) c>bon 9 ! electrical furnace 7!y are extremely h>d7 f a mixture ( ! anhydrides & c>bon4 ,poleck & ,grtzn] obta9$ def9ite comp\nds ,fe,w#b & ,fe,w#b;,c#c = tung/54 ,metallic ,w & ,mo displace ,ag f its solutions b n ,pb4 ,!re is reason = believ+ t ! sp4 gr4 ( pure molybd5um is high] ?an t 7#he7 g5]ally ascrib$ to x4 #i bis ,we may conclude our description ( tung/5 & molybd5um by /at+ t _! sulphur comp\nds h an acid "*1 l c>bon bisulphide or /annic sulphide4 ,if sulphurett$ hydrog5 be pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( a molybdate x does n give a precipitate unless sulphuric acid be pres5t1 :5 a d>k br[n precipitate ( molybd5um trisulphide1 ,mo,s#c1 is =m$4 ,:5 ?is sulphide is ignit$ )\t access ( air x gives ! bisulphide ,mo,s#b2 ! latt] is n able to comb9e ) potassium sulphide l ! trisulphide ,mo,s#c1 :i* =ms a salt1 ,k#b,mo,s#d1 correspond+ ) ,k#b,mo,o#d4 ,?is is soluble 9 wat]1 & sep>ates out f its solution 9 r$ cry/als1 :i* h a metallic lu/re & reflect a gre5 light4 ,x is easily obta9$ by heat+ ! native bisulphide1 ,mo,s#b1 ) pota%1 sulphur1 & a small am\nt ( *>coal1 :i* s]ves = deoxidis+ ! oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,tung/5 gives simil> comp\nds1 ,r#b,,ws#d1 :]e ,r ,,nh#d1 ,k1 ,na4 ,!y are decompos$ by acids1 ) ! sep>ation ( tung/5 trisulphide1 ,,ws#c1 & molybd5um trisulphide1 ,mo,s#c4 ,rideal 7#ahib7 obta9$ ,w#b,n#c by heat+ ,,wo#c 9 ,,nh#c4 ,?is comp\nd exhibit$ ! g5]al prop]ties ( metallic nitrides4 #i tri ,:5 p]oxide ( hydrog5 acts ^u a solution ( potassium molybdate well-=m$ yell[ cry/als belong+ to ! tricl9ic sy/em sep>ate out 9 ! cold4 ,:5 ^! cry/als are heat$ 9 vacuo !y fir/ lose wat] & !n decompose1 leav+ a residue compos$ ( ! salt orig9ally tak54 ,!y are soluble 9 wat] b insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,_! composition is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,k#b,mo#b,o#hb;,h#b,o4 ,an ammonium salt is obta9$ by evaporat+ p]oxide ( hydrog5 ) ammonium molybdate4 ,! foll[+ salts h also be5 obta9$ by ! action ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 ^u ! correspond+ molybdates3 ,na#b,mo#b,o#ff;,h#b,o--9 yell[ prismatic cry/als2 ,mg,mo#b,o#haj;,h#b,o--/ell> ne$les2 ,ba,mo,o#hb;,h#b,o--9 microscopic yell[ octah$ra4 ,a correspond+ sodium p]tung/ate has be5 obta9$ by ,p*>d by boil+ sodium tung/ate ) a solution ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 = sev]al m9utes4 ,! solution rapidly turns yell[1 & no long] gives a precipitate ( tung/ic anhydride :5 treat$ ) nitric acid4 ,:5 evaporat$ 9 vacuo ! solution leaves a ?ick syrupy liquid f :i* ray-l cry/als sep>ate out2 ^! cry/als are m soluble 9 wat] ?an ! salt orig9ally tak54 ,:5 heat$ !y also lose wat] & oxyg54 ,_! composition answ]s to ! =mula ,m#b,w#b,o#hb;,h#b,o1 :]e ,m ,na1 ,,nh#d1 c4 ,! p]molybdates & p]tung/ates h simil> prop]ties4 ,:5 treat$ ) oxyg5 acids !y give p]oxide ( hydrog51 & dis5gage *lor9e & iod9e f hydro*loric acid & potassium iodide4 ,picc9i 7#ahia7 %[$ t p]oxide ( hydrog5 n only comb9es ) ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( ,mo & ,w1 b also ) _! fluo-comp\nds1 among :i* ammonium fluo-molybdate ,mo,o#b;,f#bb,,nh#d & o!rs h long be5 kn[n4 7,a few new salts ( simil> composition h be5 obta9$ by ,f4 ,m\reu 9 #ahic47 ,! action ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 ^u ^! comp\nds gives salts conta9+ a l>g] am\nt ( oxyg52 = in/ance1 a solution ( ,mo,o#b;,f#bb,,kfh#b,o ) p]oxide ( hydrog5 gives a yell[ solution :i* aft] cool+ sep>ates out yell[ cry/all9e flakes ( ,mo,o#c;,f#bb,,kfh#b,o1 resembl+ ! salt orig9ally tak5 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance4 ,by employ+ a simil> me?od ,picc9i also obta9$3 ,mo,o#c;,f#bb,rb,f,h#b,o--yell[ monocl9ic cry/als2 ,mo,o#c;,f#b1b;,cs,f,h#b,o1--yell[ flakes1 & ! correspond+ tung/ic comp\nds4 ,all ^! salts react l p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,9 speak+ ( ^! comp\nds ,i = my "p ?9k x may be well to call att5tion to ! fact t1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! composition ( ,picc9i's oxy-fluo comp\nds does n correspond to t ( p]molybdic & p]tung/ic acid4 ,if ! latt] be express$ by =mul ) "o equival5t ( an elem5t1 !y w be ,h,mo,o#d & ,,hwo#d1 & ! oxy-fluo =m correspond+ to !m %\ld h ! composition ,mo,o#c;,f & ,,wo#c;,f :ile x conta9s ,,mo#c;,f#b & ,,wo#c;,f#b1 i4e4 answ]s z x 7 to a high] degree ( oxidation1 ,mo,h#b,o#c & ,w#c;,,ho#c4 ,b if p]molybdic acid be reg>d$ z #b,mo,o#c ,h#b,o#b1 i4e4 z conta9+ ! elem5ts ( p]oxide ( hydrog51 !n ,picc9i's comp\nd w also be f\nd to conta9 ! orig9al salts ,h#b,o2 = example1 f ,mo,o#b;,f#bb,,kfh#b,o !re is obta9$ a comp\nd ,mo,o#b;,f#bb,,kfh#b,o#b1 i4e4 in/ead ( ,h#b,o !y conta9 ,h#b,o#b4 ,9 ! second place ! capacity ( ! salts ( molybd5um & tung/5 to reta9 a fur!r am\nt ( oxyg5 or ,h#b,o#b probably be>s "s relation to _! prop]ty ( giv+ complex acids & ( polym]is+ :i* has be5 consid]$ 9 ,note #h bis4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great *emical int]e/ 9 ! accumulation ( data respect+ ^! high p]oxide comp\nds correspond+ to molybdic & tung/ic acids4 ,) reg>d to ! p]oxide =m ( uranium1 see ,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #ff4 ,uranium1 ,u #bdj1 has ! highe/ atomic weight ( all ! analogues ( *romium1 & inde$ ( all ! elem5ts yet kn[n4 ,its highe/ salt-=m+ oxide1 ,,uo#c1 %[s v feeble acid prop]ties4 ,al?\gh x gives sp>+ly-soluble yell[ comp\nds ) alkalis1 :i* fully correspond ) ! di*romates--= example1 ,na#b,u#b,o#g ,na#b,o1#b,,uo#c1aj--yet x m frequ5tly & easily reacts ) acids1 ,,hx1 =m+ fluoresc5t yell[i%-gre5 salts ( ! composition ,,uo#b,x#b1 & 9 ?is respect uranic trioxide1 ,,uo#c1 diff]s f *romic anhydride1 ,cr,o#c1 al?\gh ! latt] is able to give ! oxy*loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b4 ,9 molybd5um & tung/51 h[ev]1 we see a cle> transition f *romium to uranium4 ,?us1 = example1 *romyl *loride1 ,cr,o#b;,cl#b1 is a br[n liquid :i* volatilises )\t *ange1 & is completely decompos$ by wat]2 molybd5um oxy*loride1 ,mo,o#b;,cl#b1 is a cry/all9e sub/ance ( a yell[ col\r1 :i* is volatile & soluble 9 wat] 7,blom/r&71 l _m salts4 ,tung/5 oxy*loride1 ,,wo#b;,cl#b1 /&s /ill ne>] to uranyl *loride 9 its prop]ties2 x =ms yell[ scales on :i* wat] & alkalis act1 z !y d on _m salts 7z9c *loride1 f]ric *loride1 alum9ium *loride1 /annic *loride1 c471 & p]fectly corresponds ) ! difficultly volatile salt1 ,,uo#b;,cl#b 7obta9$ by ,peligot by ! action ( *lor9e on ignit$ uranium dioxide1 ,,uo#b71 :i* is also yell[ & gives a yell[ solution ) wat]1 l all ! salts ,,uo#b,x#b4 ,! prop]ty ( uranic oxide1 ,,uo#c1 ( =m+ salts ,,uo#b,x#b is %[n 9 ! fact t ! hydrat$ oxide ( uranium1 ,,uo#b7;,,ho7#b1 :i* is obta9$ f ! nitrate1 c>bonate1 & o!r salts by ! loss ( ! elem5ts ( ! acid1 is easily soluble 9 acids1 z well z 9 ! fact t ! l[] grades ( oxidation ( uranium are able1 :5 treat$ ) nitric acid1 to =m an easily cry/allisable uranyl nitrate1 ,,uo#b7,,no#c7b1f;,h#b,o2 ?is is ! mo/ commonly occurr+ uranium salt4#aa #aj ,uranium trioxide1 or uranic oxide1 %[s its feeble basic & acid prop]ties 9 a great numb] ( its reactions4 7#a7 ,solutions ( uranic salts give yell[ precipitates ) alkalis1 b ^! precipitates d n conta9 ! hydrate ( ! oxide1 b comp\nds ( x ) bases2 = example1 #b,,uo#b7,,no#c7b #f,,kho #d,,kno#c #c;,h#b,o ,k#b,u#b,o#g4 ,!re are o!r urano-alkali comp\nds ( ! same con/itution2 = example1 7,,nh#d7b,u#b,o#g 7kn[n comm]cially z uranic oxide71 ,mg,u#b,o#g1 ,ba,u#b,o#g4 ,!y are ! analogues ( ! di*romates4 ,sodium uranate is ! mo/ g5]ally us$ "u ! "n ( uranium yell[1 ,na#b,u#b,o#g4 ,x is us$ = imp>t+ ! *>act]i/ic yell[-gre5 t9t to glass & porcela94 ,nei!r heat nor wat] nor acids are able to extract ! alkali f sodium uranate1 ,na#b,u#b,o#g1 & !re=e x is a true insoluble salt1 ( a yell[ col\r1 & cle>ly indicates ! acid "* 7al?\gh feeble7 ( uranic oxide4 7#b7 ,! c>bonates ( ! alkal9e e>?s 7= in/ance1 b>ium c>bonate7 precipitate uranic oxide f its salts1 z !y d all ! salts ( feeble bases2 = example1 ,r#b,o#c4 7#c7 ,! alkal9e c>bonates1 :5 add$ to solutions ( uranic salts1 give a precipitate1 :i* is soluble 9 an excess ( ! reag5t1 & p>ticul>ly s if ! acid c>bonates be tak54 ,?is is due to ! fact t 7#d7 ! uranyl salts easily =m d\ble salts ) ! salts ( ! alkali metals1 includ+ ! salts ( ammonium4 ,uranium1 9 ! =m ( ^! d\ble salts1 (t5 gives salts ( well-def9$ cry/all9e =m1 al?\gh ! simple salts are little prone to appe> 9 cry/als4 ,su*1 = example1 are ! salts obta9$ by dissolv+ potassium uranate1 ,k#b,u#b,o#g1 9 acids1 ) ! addition ( potassium salts ( ! same acids4 ,?us1 ) hydro*loric acid & potassium *loride a well-=m$ cry/all9e salt1 ,k#b7,,uo#b7;,cl#d1b;,h#b,o1 belong+ to ! monocl9ic sy/em1 is produc$4 ,?is salt decomposes 9 dissolv+ 9 pure wat]4 ,among ^! d\ble salts we may m5tion ! d\ble c>bonate ) ! alkalis1 ,r#d7,,uo#b77;,,co#c7c 7equal to #b,r#b;,,co#c ,,uo#b;,,co#c72 ! acetates1 ,r7,,uo#b77;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c--;= in/ance1 ! sodium salt1 ,na7,,uo#b77;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c1 & ! potassium salt1 ,k7,,uo#b77;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c1;,h#b,o2 ! sulphates1 ,r#b7,,uo#b77,,s#d7c1b;,h#b,o1 c4 ,9 ! prec$+ =mula ,r ,k1 ,na1 ,,nh#d1 or ,r#b ,mg1 ,ba1 c4 ,?is prop]ty ( giv+ comp>atively /able d\ble salts indicates feebly develop$ basic prop]ties1 because d\ble salts are ma9ly =m$ by salts ( di/9ctly basic metals 7^! =m1 z x 71 ! basic elem5t ( a d\ble salt7 & salts ( feebly en]getic bases 7^! =m ! acid elem5t ( a d\ble salt71 j z ! =m] also give acid salts2 ! acid ( ! acid salts is replac$ 9 ! d\ble salts by ! salt ( ! feebly en]getic base1 :i*1 l wat]1 belongs to ! class ( int]m$iate bases4 ,= ?is reason b>ium does n give d\ble salts ) alkalis z magnesium does1 & ?is is :y d\ble salts are m easily =m$ by potassium ?an by li?ium 9 ! s]ies ( ! alkali metals4 7#e7 ,! mo/ rem>kable prop]ty1 prov+ ! feeble en]gy ( uranic oxide z a base1 is se5 9 ! fact t :5 _! composition is comp>$ ) t ( o!r salts ^? ( uranic oxide always appe> z basic salts4 ,x is well kn[n t a normal salt1 ,r#b,x#f1 corresponds ) ! oxide ,r#b,o#c1 :]e ,x ,cl1 ,,no#c1 c41 or ,x#b ,,s#d1 ,,co#c1 c42 b !re also exi/ basic salts ( ! same type :]e ,x ,,ho or ,x#b ,o4 ,we saw salts ( all k9ds among ! salts ( alum9ium1 *romium1 & o!rs4 ,) uranic oxide no salts are kn[n ( ! types ,,ux#f 7,u,cl#f1 ,u7,,s#d7c1 alums1 c41 are n kn[n71 nor ev5 salts1 ,u7,,ho7#b,x#d or ,,uox#d1 b x always =ms salts ( ! type ,u7,,ho7#d,x#b1 or ,,uo#b,x#b4 ,judg+ f ! fact t ne>ly all ! salts ( uranic oxide reta9 wat] 9 cry/allis+ f _! solutions1 & t ?is wat] is difficult to sep>ate f !m1 x may be ?\ght to be wat] ( hydration4 ,?is is se5 9 "p f ! fact t ! composition ( _m ( ! salts ( uranic oxide may !n be express$ )\t ! pres5ce ( wat] ( cry/allisation2 = in/ance1 ,u7,,ho7#d,k#b;,cl#d 7& ! salt ( ,,nh#d1 ,u7,,ho7#d,k#b7,,s#d7b1 ,u7,,ho7#d7;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b4 ,sodium uranyl acetate h[ev] does n conta9 wat]4 #aa ,uranyl nitrate1 or uranium nitrate1 ,,uo#b7,,no#c7b1f;,h#b,o1 cry/allises f its solutions 9 transp>5t yell[i%-gre5 prisms 7f an acid solution71 or 9 tabul> cry/als 7f a neutral solution71 :i* effloresce 9 ! air & are easily soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r1 h a sp4 gr4 ( #bh1 & fuse :5 heat$1 los+ nitric acid & wat] 9 ! process4 ,if ! salt itself 7,b]zelius7 or its alcoholic solution 7,malaguti7 be heat$ up to ! temp]ature at :i* oxides ( nitrog5 are evolv$1 !re !n rema9s a mass :i*1 aft] be+ evaporat$ ) wat]1 leaves uranyl hydroxide1 ,,uo#b7;,,ho7#b 7sp4 gr4 #eic71 :il/ if ! salt be ignit$ !re rema9s ! dioxide1 ,,uo#b1 z a brick-r$ p[d]1 :i* on fur!r heat+ loses oxyg5 & =ms ! d>k olive uranoso-uranic oxide1 ,u#c,o#h4 ,! solution ( ! nitrate obta9$ f ! ore is purifi$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 sulphur\s anhydride is fir/ pass$ ?r\gh x 9 ord] to r$uce ! ars5ic acid pres5t into ars5i\s acid2 ! solution is !n heat$ to #fj1 & sulphurett$ hydrog5 pass$ ?r\gh x2 ?is precipitates ! lead1 ars5ic1 & t91 & c]ta9 o!r metals1 z sulphides1 insoluble 9 wat] & dilute nitric acid4 ,?is liquid is !n filt]$ & evaporat$ ) nitric acid to cry/allisation1 & ! cry/als are dissolv$ 9 e!r4 ,or else ! solution is fir/ treat$ ) *lor9e 9 ord] to conv]t ! f]r\s *loride 7produc$ by ! action ( ! hydrog5 sulphide7 into f]ric *loride1 ! oxides are !n precipitat$ by ammonia1 & ! resultant precipitate1 conta9+ ! oxides ,fe#b,o#c1 ,,uo#c1 & comp\nds ( ! latt] ) pota%1 lime1 ammonia1 & o!r bases pres5t 9 ! solution 7! latt] be+ due to ! prop]ty ( uranic oxide ( comb9+ ) bases71 is wa%$ & dissolv$ 9 a /rong1 slightly-heat$ solution ( ammonium c>bonate1 :i* dissolves ! uranic oxide b n ! f]ric oxide4 ,! solution is filt]$1 & on cool+ deposits a well-cry/allis+ uranyl ammonium c>bonate1 ,,uo#b7,,nh#d7d7;,,co#c7c1 9 brilliant monocl9ic cry/als :i* on exposure to air sl[ly give (f wat]1 c>bonic anhydride1 & ammonia2 ! same decomposition is readily effect$ at #cjj1 ! residue !n consi/+ ( uranic oxide4 ,?is salt is n v soluble 9 wat]1 b is readily s 9 ammonium c>bonate2 x is obvi\s t x may readily be conv]t$ into all ! o!r salts ( oxides ( uranium4 ,uranium salts are also purifi$ 9 ! =m ( acetate1 :i* is v sp>+ly soluble1 & is !re=e directly precipitat$ f a /rong solution ( ! nitrate by mix+ x ) acetic acid4 ,we may also m5tion ! uranyl phosphate1 ,,hupo#f1 :i* mu/ be reg>d$ z an or?ophosphate 9 :i* two hydrog5s are replac$ by ! radicle uranyl1 ,,uo#b1 i4e4 z ,h7,,uo#b7,,po#d4 ,?is salt is =m$ z a hydrat$ gelat9\s yell[ precipitate1 on mix+ a solution ( uranyl nitrate ) disodium phosphate4 ,! precipitation occurs 9 ! pres5ce ( acetic acid1 b n 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid4 ,if moreov] an excess ( an ammonium salt be pres5t1 ! ammonia ent]s into ! composition ( ! bright yell[ gelat9\s precipitate =m$1 9 ! proportion ,,uo#b,,nh#d,,po#d4 ,?is precipitate is n soluble 9 wat] & acetic acid1 & its solution 9 inorganic acids :5 boil$ entirely expels all ! phosphoric acid4 ,?is fact is tak5 advantage ( = remov+ phosphoric acids f solutions--= in/ance1 f ^? conta9+ salts ( calcium & magnesium4 ,uranium1 :i* gives an oxide1 ,,uo#c1 & ! correspond+ salt ,,uo#b,x#b & dioxide ,,uo#b1 to :i* ! salts ,,ux#d correspond1 is r>ely met ) 9 nature4 ,uranite or ! d\ble or?ophosphate ( uranic oxide1 ,r7,,uo#b7;,h#b,p#b,o#h1g;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,cu or ,ca1 uranium-vitriol ,u7,,s#d7b1;,h#b,o1 sam>akite1 & s*ynite1 are v r>ely f\nd1 & !n only 9 small quantities4 ,( m frequ5t & abundant occurr5ce is ! non-cry/all9e1 e>?y br[n uranium ore kn[n z pit*bl5de 7sp4 gr4 #gb71 :i* is ma9ly compos$ ( ! int]m$iate oxide1 ,u#c,o#h ,,uo#b1b,,uo#c4 ,?is ore is f\nd at ,joa*im/hal 9 ,bohemia & 9 ,cornwall4 ,x usually conta9s a numb] ( diff]5t impurities1 *iefly sulphides & ars5ides ( lead & iron1 z well z lime & silica comp\nds4 ,9 ord] to expel ! ars5ic & sulphur x is roa/$1 gr\nd1 wa%$ ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 :i* does n dissolve ! uranoso-uranic oxide1 ,u#c,o#h1 & ! residue is dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 :i* trans=ms ! uranium oxide into ! nitrate1 ,,uo#b7,,no#c7b4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! oxide ( uranium1 fir/ di/+ui%$ by ,klapro? 7#aghi71 0 = a long "t reg>d$ z able to give metallic uranium "u ! action ( *>coal & o!r r$uc+ ag5ts 7) ! aid ( heat74 ,b ! sub/ance ?us obta9$ 0 only ! uranium dioxide1 ,,uo#b4 ,! comp\nd nature ( ?is dioxide1#ab or ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 x1 0 demon/rat$ by ,peligot 7#ahda71 by ignit+ x ) *>coal 9 a /ream ( *lor9e4 ,he ?us obta9$ a volatile uranium tetra*loride1 ,u,cl#d1ac :i*1 :5 heat$ ) sodium1 gave metallic uranium z a grey metal1 hav+ a specific gravity ( #ahg1 & lib]at+ hydrog5 f acids1 ) ! =mation ( gre5 uran\s salts1 ,,ux#d1 :i* act z p[]ful r$uc+ ag5ts4#ad #ab ,uranium dioxide1 or uranyl1 ,,uo#b1 :i* is conta9$ 9 ! salts ,,uo#b,x#b1 has ! appe>ance & _m ( ! prop]ties ( a metal4 ,uranic oxide may be reg>d$ z uranyl oxide1 7,,uo#b7,o1 its salts z salts ( ?is uranyl2 its hydroxide1 7,,uo#b7;,h#b,o#b1 is con/itut$ l ,ca,h#b,o#b4 ,! gre5 oxide ( uranium1 uranoso-uranic oxide 7easily =m$ f uranic salts by ! loss ( oxyg571 ,u#c,o#h ,,uo#b1b,,uo#c1 :5 ignit$ ) *>coal or hydrog5 7dry7 gives a brilliant cry/all9e sub/ance ( sp4 gr4 ab\t #aaj 7,urlaub71 ^: appe>ance resembles t ( metals1 & decomposes /eam at a r$ heat ) ! evolution ( hydrog52 x does n1 h[ev]1 decompose hydro*loric or sulphuric acid1 b is oxidis$ by nitric acid4 ,! same sub/ance 7i4e4 uranium dioxide ,,uo#b7 is also obta9$ by ignit+ ! comp\nd 7,,uo#b7,k#b;,cl#d 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 accord+ to ! equation ,,uo#b,k#d;,cl#d ,h#b ,,uo#b #b;,h,cl #b,k,cl4 ,x 0 at fir/ reg>d$ z ! metal4 ,9 #ahda ,peligot f\nd t x conta9$ oxyg51 because c>bonic oxide & anhydride 7 evolv$ :5 x 0 ignit$ ) *>coal 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 & f #bgb p>ts ( ! sub/ance :i* 0 consid]$ to be metal he obta9$ #chb p>ts ( a volatile product conta9+ #adb p>ts ( *lor9e4 ,f ?is x 0 conclud$ t ! sub/ance tak5 conta9$ an equival5t am\nt ( oxyg54 ,z #adb p>ts ( *lor9e correspond ) #cb p>ts ( oxyg51 x foll[$ t #bgb - #cb #bdj p>ts ( metal 7 comb9$ 9 ! sub/ance ) #cb p>ts ( oxyg51 & also 9 ! *lor9e comp\nd obta9$ ) #adb p>ts ( *lor9e4 ,^! calculations h be5 made = ! n[ accept$ atomic weight ( uranium 7,u #bdj1 see ,note #ad74 ,peligot took ano!r atomic weight1 b ?is does n alt] ! pr9ciple ( ! argum5t4 #ac ,uranium tetra*loride1 uran\s *loride1 ,u,cl#d1 corresponds ) uran\s oxide z a base4 ,x 0 obta9$ by ,peligot by ignit+ uranic oxide mix$ ) *>coal 9 a /ream ( dry *lor9e3 ,,uo#c #c;,c #b;,cl#b ,u,cl#d #c;,,co4 ,?is gre5 volatile comp\nd 7,note #ab7 cry/allises 9 regul> octah$ra1 is v hygroscopic1 easily soluble 9 wat]1 ) ! developm5t ( a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 & no long] sep>ates out f its solution 9 an anhydr\s /ate1 b dis5gages hydro*loric acid :5 evaporat$4 ,! solution ( uran\s *loride 9 wat] is gre54 ,x is also =m$ by ! action ( z9c & copp] 7=m+ cupr\s *loride7 on a solution ( uranyl *loride1 ,,uo#b;,cl#b1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid & sal-ammoniac4 ,solutions ( uranyl salts are conv]t$ into uran\s salts by ! action ( v>i\s r$uc+ ag5ts1 & among o!rs by organic sub/ances or by ! action ( light1 :il/ ! salts ,,ux#d are conv]t$ into uranyl salts1 ,,uo#b,x#b1 by exposure to air or by oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,solutions ( ! gre5 uranyl salts act z p[]ful r$uc+ ag5ts1 & give a br[n precipitate ( ! uran\s hydroxide1 ,,uh#d,o#d1 ) pota% & o!r alkalis4 ,?is hydroxide is easily soluble 9 acids b n 9 alkalis4 ,on ignition x does n =m ! oxide ,,uo#b1 because x decomposes wat]1 b :5 ! high] oxides ( uranium are ignit$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 or ) *>coal !y yield uran\s oxide4 ,bo? x & ! *loride ,u,cl#d1 dissolve 9 /rong sulphuric acid1 =m+ a gre5 salt1 ,u7,,s#d7b1b;,h#b,o4 ,! same salt1 toge!r ) uranyl sulphate1 ,,uo#b7,,s#d71 is =m$ :5 ! gre5 oxide1 ,u#c,o#h1 is dissolv$ 9 hot sulphuric acid4 ,! salts obta9$ 9 ! latt] in/ance may be sep>at$ by add+ alcohol to ! solution1 :i* is left expos$ to ! light2 ! alcohol r$uces ! uranyl salt to uran\s salt1 an excess ( acid be+ requir$4 ,an excess ( wat] decomposes ?is salt1 =m+ a basic salt1 :i* is also easily produc$ "u o!r circum/ances1 & conta9s ,,uo7,,s#d71b;,h#b,o 7:i* corresponds to ! uranic salt74 #ad ,! atomic weight ( uranium 0 =m]ly tak5 z half ! pres5t "o1 ,u #abj1 & ! oxides ,u#b,o#c1 suboxide ,,uo1 & gre5 oxide ,u#c,o#d1 7 ( ! same types z ! oxides ( iron4 ,) a c]ta9 resemblance to ! elem5ts ( ! iron gr\p1 uranium pres5ts _m po9ts ( di/9ction :i* d n p]mit its be+ gr\p$ ) !m4 ,?us uranium =ms a v /able oxide1 ,u#b,o#c7,u #abj71 b does n give ! correspond+ *loride ,u#b;,cl#f 7,roscoe1 h[ev]1 9 #ahgd obta9$ ,u,cl#e1 l ,mo,cl#e & ,w,cl#e71 & "u ^? circum/ances 7! ignition ( oxide ( uranium mix$ ) *>coal1 9 a /ream ( *lor9e71 :5 ! =mation ( ?is comp\nd might be expect$1 x gives 7,u #abj7 ! *loride ,u,cl#b1 :i* is *>act]is$ by its volatility2 ?is is n a prop]ty1 to su* an ext5t1 ( any ( ! bi*lorides1 ,r,cl#b1 ( ! iron gr\p4 ,! alt]ation or d\bl+ ( ! atomic weight ( uranium--i4e4 ! recognition ( ,u #bdj--0 made = ! fir/ "t 9 ! fir/ 7,russian7 edition ( ?is "w 7#ahga71 & 9 my memoir ( ! same ye> 9 ,liebig's ,annal51 on ! gr\nd t ) an atomic weight #abj1 uranium c\ld n be plac$ 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,i ?9k x w n be sup]flu\s to add ! foll[+ rem>ks on ?is subject3 7#a7 ,9 ! o!r gr\ps 7,k--,rb--,cs1 ,ca--,sr--,ba1 ,cl--,br--,i7 ! acid "* ( ! oxides decreases & _! basic "* increases ) ! rise ( atomic weight1 & !re=e we %\ld expect to f9d ! same 9 ! gr\p ,cr--,mo--,w--,u1 & if ,cr,o#c1 ,mo,o#c1 ,,wo#c be ! anhydrides ( acids !n we inde$ f9d a decrease 9 _! acid "*1 & !re=e uranium trioxide1 ,,uo#c1 %\ld be a v feeble anhydride1 b its basic prop]ties %\ld also be v feeble4 ,uranic oxide does inde$ %[ ^! prop]ties1 z 0 po9t$ out above 7,note #aj74 7#b7 ,*romium & its analogues1 besides ! oxides ,,ro#c1 also =m l[] grades ( oxidation ,,ro#b1 ,r#b,o#c1 & ! same is se5 9 uranium2 x =ms ,,uo#c1 ,,uo#b1 ,u#b,o#c & _! comp\nds4 7#c7 ,molybd5um & tung/51 9 be+ r$uc$ f ,,ro#c1 easily & frequ5tly give an int]m$iate oxide ( a blue col\r1 & uranium %[s ! same prop]ty2 giv+ ! s-call$ gre5 oxide :i*1 accord+ to pres5t views1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ,u#c,o#h ,,uo#bb,,uo#c1 analog\s to ,mo#c,o#h4 7#d7 ,! high] *lorides1 ,r,cl#f1 possible = ! elem5ts ( ?is gr\p1 are ei!r un/able 7,w,cl#f7 or d n exi/ at all 7,cr72 b !re is "o s+le l[] volatile comp\nd1 :i* is decompos$ by wat]1 & liable to fur!r r$uction into a non-volatile *lor9e product & ! metal4 ,! same is obs]v$ 9 uranium1 :i* =ms an easily volatile *loride1 ,u,cl#d1 decompos$ by wat]4 7#e7 ,! high sp4 gr4 ( uranium 7#ahf7 is expla9$ by its analogy to tung/5 7sp4 gr4 #aia74 7#f7 ,= uranium1 z = *romium & tung/51 yell[ t9ts pr$om9ate 9 ! =m ,,ro#c1 :il/ ! l[] =ms are gre5 & blue4 7#g7 ,zimm]mann 7#ahha7 det]m9$ ! vap\r d5sities ( uran\s bromide1 ,u,br#d1 & *loride1 ,u,cl#d 7#aid & #acb71 & !y 7 f\nd to correspond to ! =mul giv5 above--t is1 !y confirm$ ! high] atomic weight ,u #bdj4 ,roscoe1 a great au?ority on ! metals ( ?is gr\p1 0 ! fir/ to accept ! propos$ atomic weight ( uranium1 ,u #bdj1 :i* s9ce ,zimm]mann's "w has be5 g5]ally recognis$4 ,z ! salts ( uranic oxide are r$uc$ 9 ! abs5ce ( organic matt] by ! action ( light1 & z !y imp>t a *>act]i/ic coloration to glass1#ae !y f9d a c]ta9 application 9 photography & glass "w4 #ae ,uranium glass1 obta9$ by ! addition ( ! yell[ salt ,k#b,u#b,o#g to glass1 has a gre5 yell[ fluoresc5ce1 & is sometimes employ$ = ornam5ts2 x absorbs ! violet rays1 l ! o!r salts ( uranic oxide--t is1 x possesses an absorption spectrum 9 :i* ! violet rays are abs5t4 ,! index ( refraction ( ! absorb$ rays is alt]$1 & !y are giv5 out aga9 z gre5i%-yell[ rays2 h5ce1 comp\nds ( uranic acid1 :5 plac$ 9 ! violet portion ( ! spectrum1 emit a gre5i%-yell[ light1 & ?is =ms "o ( ! be/ examples 7ano!r is f\nd 9 a solution ( qu99e sulphate7 ( ! ph5om5on ( fluoresc5ce4 ,! rays ( light :i* pass ?r\gh uranic comp\nds d n conta9 ! rays :i* excite ! ph5om5a ( fluoresc5ce & ( *emical trans=mation1 z ! rese>*es ( ,/okes prove4 ,if we comp>e toge!r ! highly acid elem5ts1 sulphur1 sel5ium1 & tellurium1 ( ! unev5 s]ies1 ) *romium1 molybd5um1 tung/51 & uranium ( ! ev5 s]ies1 we f9d t ! resemblance ( ! prop]ties ( ! high] =m ,,ro#c does n ext5d to ! l[] =ms1 & ev5 entirely disappe>s 9 ! elem5ts1 = !re is n ! smalle/ resemblance betwe5 sulphur & *romium & _! analogues 9 a free /ate4 ,9 o!r words1 ?is means t ! small p]iods1 l ,na1 ,mg1 ,al1 ,si1 ,p1 ,s1 ,cl1 conta9+ sev5 elem5ts1 d n conta9 any ne> analogues ( *romium1 molybd5um1 c41 & !re=e _! true position among ! o!r elem5ts mu/ be look$ = only 9 ^? l>ge p]iods :i* conta9 two small p]iods1 & ^: type is se5 9 ! p]iod conta9+3 ,k1 ,ca1 ,sc1 ,ti1 ,v1 ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 ,zn1 ,ga1 ,ge1 ,z1 ,se1 ,br4 ,^! l>ge p]iods conta9 ,ca & ,zn1 giv+ ,,ro1 ,sc1 & ,ga ( ! ?ird gr\p1 ,ti & ,ge giv+ ,,ro#b1 ,v & ,z =m+ ,r#b,o#e1 ,cr & ,se ( ! six? gr\p1 ,mn & ,br ( ! sev5? gr\p1 & ! rema9+ elem5ts1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 =m connective memb]s ( ! int]m$iate eigh? gr\p1 to ! description ( ! repres5tatives ( :i* we %all turn 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,we w n[ proce$ to describe manganese1 ,mn #ee1 z an elem5t ( ! sev5? gr\p ( ! ev5 s]ies1 directly foll[+ aft] ,cr #eb1 :i* corresponds ) ,br #hj to ! same degree t ,cr does ) ,se #gi4 ,= *romium1 sel5ium1 & brom9e v close analogues are kn[n1 b = manganese z yet none h be5 obta9$--t is1 x is ! only repres5tative ( ! ev5 s]ies 9 ! sev5? gr\p4 ,9 plac+ manganese ) ! halog5s 9 "o gr\p1 ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts only requires t x %\ld be> an analogy to ! halog5s 9 ! high] type ( oxidation--i4e4 9 ! salts & acids--:il/ x requires t z great a diff]5ce %\ld be expect$ 9 ! l[] types & elem5ts z !re exi/s betwe5 *romium or molybd5um & sulphur or sel5ium4 ,& ?is is actually ! case4 ,! elem5ts ( ! sev5? gr\p =m a high] salt-=m+ oxide1 ,r#b,o#g1 & its correspond+ hydrate1 ,,hro#d1 & salts--= example1 ,k,cl,o#d4 ,manganese 9 ! =m ( potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 actually pres5ts a great analogy 9 _m respects to potassium p]*lorate1 ,k,cl,o#d4 ,! analogy ( ! cry/all9e =m ( bo? salts 0 %[n by ,mits*]li*4 ,! salts ( p]manganic acid are also ne>ly all soluble 9 wat]1 l ^? ( p]*loric acid1 & if ! silv] salt ( ! latt]1 ,ag,cl,o#d1 be sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 s also is silv] p]manganate1 ,ag,mn,o#d4 ,! specific volume ( potassium p]*lorate is equal to #ee1 because its specific gravity #bed2 ! specific volume ( potassium p]manganate is equal to #eh1 because its specific gravity #bga4 ,s t ! volumes ( equival5t quantities are 9 ?is in/ance approximately ! same :il/ ! atomic volumes ( *lor9e 7#cee_/ac #bg7 & manganese 7#ee_/ge7 are 9 ! ratio #d 3 #a4 ,9 a free /ate ! high] acids ,h,cl,o#d & ,h,mn,o#d are bo? soluble 9 wat] & volatile1 bo? are p[]ful oxidis]s--9 a ^w1 _! analogy is /ill clos] ?an t ( *romic & sulphuric acids1 & ^? po9ts ( di/9ction :i* !y pres5t also appe> among ! ne>e/ analogues--= example1 9 sulphuric & telluric acids1 9 hydro*loric & hydriodic acids1 c4 ,besides ,mn#b,o#g manganese gives a l[] grade ( oxidation1 ,mn,o#c1 analog\s to sulphuric & *romic trioxides1 & ) x corresponds potassium manganate1 ,k#b,mn,o#d1 isomorph\s ) potassium sulphate4#af ,9 ! /ill l[] grades ( oxidation1 ,mn#b,o#c & ,mn,o1 !re is h>dly any simil>ity to *lor9e1 :il/ e po9t ( resemblance disappe>s :5 we come to ! elem5ts !mselves--i4e4 to manganese & *lor9e--= manganese is a metal1 l iron1 :i* comb9es directly ) *lor9e to =m a sal9e comp\nd1 ,mn,cl#b1 analog\s to magnesium *loride4#ag #af ,! comp>ison ( potassium p]manganate ) potassium p]*lorate1 or ( potassium manganate ) potassium sulphate1 %[s directly t _m ( ! physical & *emical prop]ties ( sub/ances d n dep5d on ! nature ( ! elem5ts1 b on ! atomic types 9 :i* !y appe>1 on ! k9d ( movem5ts1 or on ! positions 9 :i* ! atoms =m+ ! molecule occur4 #ag ,if1 h[ev]1 we comp>e ! spectra 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #efe7 ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e ) t ( manganese1 a c]ta9 resemblance or analogy is to be f\nd connect+ manganese bo? to iron & to *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,manganese belongs to ! numb] ( metals widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 especially 9 ^? localities :]e iron occurs1 ^: ores frequ5tly conta9 comp\nds ( mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o1 :i* pres5ts a resemblance to f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 & to magnesia4 ,9 _m m9]als magnesia & ! oxides alli$ to x are replac$ by mangan\s oxide2 calcsp>s & magnesites--i4e4 ,r,,co#c 9 g5]al--are frequ5tly met ) conta9+ mangan\s c>bonate1 :i* also occurs 9 a sep>ate /ate1 al?\gh b r>ely4 ,! soil also & ! a% ( plants g5]ally conta9 a small quantity ( manganese4 ,9 ! analysis ( m9]als x is g5]ally f\nd t manganese occurs toge!r ) magnesia1 because1 l x1 mangan\s oxide rema9s 9 solution 9 ! pres5ce ( ammoniacal salts1 n be+ precipitat$ by reag5ts4 ,! prop]ty ( ?is mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o1 ( pass+ into ! high] grades ( oxidation "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 alkalis1 & air1 gives an easy means n only ( discov]+ ! pres5ce ( manganese 9 admixture ) magnesia1 b also ( sep>at+ ^! two analog\s bases4 ,magnesia is n able to give high] grades ( oxidation1 :il/ manganese gives !m ) great facility4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 an alkal9e solution ( sodium hypo*lorite produces a precipitate ( manganese dioxide 9 a solution ( a mangan\s salt3 ,mn,cl#b ,na,cl,o #b,na,h,o ,mn,o#b ,h#b,o #c,na,cl2 :il/ magnesia is n *ang$ "u ^! circum/ances1 & rema9s 9 ! =m ( ,mg,cl#b4 ,if ! magnesia be precipitat$ ow+ to ! pres5ce ( alkali1 x may be dissolv$ 9 acetic acid1 9 :i* manganese dioxide is insoluble4 ,! pres5ce ( small quantities ( manganese may also be recognis$ by ! gre5 coloration :i* alkalis acquire :5 heat$ ) manganese comp\nds 9 ! air4 ,?is gre5 coloration dep5ds on ! prop]ty ( manganese ( giv+ a gre5 alkal9e manganate3 ,mn,cl#b #d,,kho ,o#b ,k#b,mn,o#d #b,k,cl #b;,h#b,o4 ,?us ! faculty ( oxidis+ 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis =ms an ess5tial "* ( manganese4 ,! high] grades ( oxidation conta9+ ,mn#b,o#g & ,mn,o#c are q unkn[n 9 nature1 & ev5 ,mn,o#b is n s widely spread 9 nature z ! ores compos$ ( mangan\s comp\nds :i* are met ) ne>ly ev]y:]e4 ,! mo/ important ore ( manganese is its dioxide1 or s-call$ p]oxide1 ,mn,o#b1 :i* is kn[n 9 m9]alogy z pyrolusite4 ,manganese also occurs z an oxide correspond+ ) magnetic iron ore1 ,mn,o1,mn#b,o#c ,mn#c,o#d1 =m+ ! m9]al kn[n z hausmannite4 ,! oxide ,mn#b,o#c also occurs 9 nature z ! anhydr\s m9]al braunite1 & 9 a hydrat$ =m1 ,mn#b,o#c1;,h#b,o1 call$ manganite4 ,bo? ( ^! (t5 occur z an admixture 9 pyrolusite4 ,besides :i*1 manganese is met ) 9 nature z a rose-col\r$ m9]al1 rhodonite1 or silicate1 ,mn,si,o#c4 ,v f9e & ri* deposits ( manganese ores h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,caucasus1 ! ,urals1 & along ! ,dniep]4 ,^? at ! ,%>apansky di/rict ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,kutais & at ,nicopol on ! ,dniep] are p>ticul>ly ri*4 ,a l>ge quantity ( ! ore 7z mu* z #ajj1jjj tons ye>ly7 is export$ f ^! localities4 ,?us manganese gives oxides ( ! foll[+ =ms3 ,mn,o1 mangan\s oxide1 & mangan\s salts1 ,mn,x#b1 correspond+ ) ! base1 :i* resembles magnesia & f]r\s oxide 9 _m respects2 ,mn#b,o#c1 a v feeble base1 giv+ salts1 ,mn,x#c1 analog\s to ! alum9ium & f]ric salts1 easily r$uc$ to ,mn,x#b2 ,mn,o#b1 dioxide1 g5]ally call$ p]oxide1 an almo/ indiff]5t oxide1 or feebly acid2#ah ,mn,o#c1 manganic anhydride1 :i* =ms salts resembl+ potassium sulphate2#ah bis ,mn#b,o#g1 p]manganic anhydride1 giv+ salts analog\s to ! p]*lorates4 #ah ,! "n 'p]oxide' %\ld only be reta9$ = ^? highe/ oxides 7& ,mn,o#b /&s betwe5 ,mn,o & ,mn,o#c7 :i* ei!r by a direct me?od ( d\ble decomposition are able to give hydrog5 p]oxide or conta9 a l>g] proportion ( oxyg5 ?an ! base or ! acid1 j z hydrog5 p]oxide conta9s m oxyg5 ?an wat]4 ,_! type w be ,h#b,o#b1 & !y are exemplifi$ by b>ium p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 & sulphur p]oxide1 ,s#b,o#g1 c4 ,su* a dioxide z ,mn,o#b is1 9 all probability1 a salt--t is1 a mangan\s manganate1 ,mn,o#c,mn,o1 & also1 z a basic salt ( a feeble base1 capable ( comb9+ ) alkalis & acids4 ,h5ce ! "n ( manganese p]oxide %\ld be ab&on$1 & replac$ by manganese dioxide4 ,pb,o#b is bett] t]m$ lead dioxide ?an p]oxide4 ,bisulphide ( manganese1 ,mn,s#b1 correspond+ to iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 sometimes occurs 9 nature 9 f9e octah$ra 7& cube comb9ations71 = in/ance1 9 ,sicily2 x is call$ ,hau]ite4 #ah bis ,on comp>+ ! manganates ) ! p]manganates--= example1 ,k#b,mn,o#d ) ,k,mn,o#d--we f9d t !y diff] 9 composition by ! ab/raction ( "o equival5t ( ! metal4 ,su* a relation 9 composition produc$ by oxidation is ( frequ5t occurr5ce--= in/ance1 ,k#d;,fe7,,cn7#f 9 oxidis+ gives ,k#c;,fe7,,cn7#f2 ,h#b,,s#d 9 oxidis+ gives p]sulphuric acid1 ,,hso#d1 or ,h#b,s#g,o#h2 ,h#b,o =ms ,,ho or ,h#b,o#b1 c4 ,all ! oxides ( manganese :5 heat$ ) acids give salts1 ,mn,x#b1 correspond+ ) ! l[] grade ( oxidation1 mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o4 ,manganic oxide1 ,mn#b,o#c1 is a feebly en]getic base2 x is true t x dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid & gives a d>k solution conta9+ ! salt ,mn,cl#c1 b ! latt] :5 heat$ evolves *lor9e & gives a salt correspond+ ) mangan\s oxide ,mn,cl#b--;i4e4 at fir/3 ,mn#b,o#c #f;,h,cl #c;,h#b,o ,mn#b;,cl#f1 & !n ! ,mn#b;,cl#f decomposes into #b,mn,cl#b ,cl#b4 ,none ( ! rema9+ high] grades ( oxidation h a basic "*1 b act z oxidis+ ag5ts 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 dis5gag+ oxyg5 & pass+ into salts ( ! l[] grade ( oxidation ( manganese1 ,mn,o4 ,ow+ to ?is circum/ance1 ! mangan\s salts are (t5 obta9$2 !y are1 = in/ance1 left 9 ! residue :5 ! dioxide is us$ = ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 & *lor9e4#ai #ai ,9 ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 f ! dioxide by means ( ,h#b,,s#d1 ,mn,s,o#d is =m$2 9 ! prep>ation ( *lor9e f ,h,cl & ,mn,o#b1 ,mn,cl#b is obta9$4 ,^! two mangan\s salts may be tak5 z examples ( comp\nds ,mn,x#b4 ,mangan\s sulphate g5]ally conta9s v>i\s impurities1 & also a l>ge am\nt ( iron salt 7f ! native ,mn,o#b71 f :i* x _c be fre$ by cry/allisation4 ,_! removal may1 h[ev]1 be effect$ by mix+ a portion ( ! liquid ) a solution ( sodium c>bonate2 a precipitate ( mangan\s c>bonate is !n =m$4 ,?is precipitate is collect$ & wa%$1 & !n add$ to ! rema9+ mass ( ! impure solution ( mangan\s sulphate2 on heat+ ! solution ) ?is precipitate1 ! :ole ( ! iron is precipitat$ z oxide4 ,?is is due to ! fact t 9 ! solution ( ! manganese dioxide 9 sulphuric acid ! :ole ( ! iron is conv]t$ into ! f]ric /ate 7because ! dioxide acts z an oxidis+ ag5t71 :i*1 z an exce$+ly feeble base precipitat$ by calcium c>bonate & o!r k9dr$ salts1 is also precipitat$ by mangan\s c>bonate4 ,aft] be+ treat$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! solution ( mangan\s sulphate is fur!r purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,if x be a bright r$ col\r1 x is due to ! pres5ce ( high] grades ( oxidation ( manganese2 !y may be de/roy$ by boil+ ! solution1 :5 ! oxyg5 f ! oxides ( manganese is evolv$ & a v fa9tly col\r$ solution ( mangan\s sulphate is obta9$4 ,?is salt is rem>kable = ! facility ) :i* x gives v>i\s comb9ations ) wat]4 ,by evaporat+ ! almo/ col\rless solution ( mangan\s sulphate at v l[ temp]atures1 & by cool+ ! saturat$ solution at ab\t #j1 cry/als are obta9$ conta9+ #g atoms ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 ,mn,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 :i* are isomorph\s ) cobalt\s & f]r\s sulphates4 ,^! cry/als1 ev5 at #aj1 lose #e p4c4 ( wat]1 & completely effloresce at #ae1 los+ ab\t #bj p4c4 ( wat]4 ,by evaporat+ a solution ( ! salt at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b n above #bj1 cry/als are obta9$ conta9+ #e mol4 ,h#b,o1 :i* are isomorph\s ) copp] sulphate2 :il/ if ! cry/allisation be c>ri$ on betwe5 #bj & #cj1 l>ge transp>5t prismatic cry/als are =m$ conta9+ #d mol4 ,h#b,o 7see ,nickel74 ,a boil+ solution also deposits ^! cry/als toge!r ) cry/als conta9+ #c mol4 ,h#b,o1 :il/ ! fir/ salt1 :5 fus$ & boil$ ) alcohol1 gives cry/als conta9+ #b mol4 ,h#b,o4 ,graham obta9$ a monohydrat$ salt by dry+ ! salt at ab\t #bjj4 ,! la/ atom ( wat] is elim9at$ ) difficulty1 z is ! case ) all salts l ,mn,s,o#dn,h#b,o4 ,! cry/als conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( wat] are rose-col\r$1 & ! anhydr\s cry/als are col\rless4 ,! solubility ( ,mn,s,o#d1d;,h#b,o 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #bd7 p] #ajj p>ts ( wat] is3 at #aj1 #abg p>ts2 at #cge1 #adi p>ts2 at #ge1 #ade p>ts2 & at #aja1 #ib p>ts4 ,:5ce x is se5 t at ! boil+-po9t ?is salt is less soluble ?an at l[] temp]atures1 & !re=e a solution saturat$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature becomes turbid :5 boil$4 ,mangan\s sulphate1 be+ analog\s to magnesium sulphate1 is decompos$1 l ! latt]1 :5 ignit$1 b x does n !n leave mangan\s oxide1 b ! int]m$iate oxide1 ,mn#c,o#d4 ,x gives d\ble salts ) ! alkali sulphates4 ,) alum9ium sulphate x =ms f9e radiat$ cry/als1 ^: composition resembles t ( ! alums--namely1 ,mn,al#b7,,s#d7d1bd;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt is easily soluble 9 wat]1 & occurs 9 nature4 ,mangan\s *loride1 ,m,cl#b1 cry/allises ) #d mol4 ,h#b,o1 l ! f]r\s salt1 & n ) #f mol4 ,h#b,o l _m k9dr$ salts--= example1 ^? ( cobalt1 calcium1 & magnesium2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #ch p>ts ( ! anhydr\s salt at #aj & #ee p>ts at #fb4 ,alcohol also dissolves mangan\s *loride1 & ! alcoholic solution burns ) a r$ flame4 ,?is salt1 l magnesium *loride1 readily =ms d\ble salts4 ,a solution ( borax gives a dirty rose-col\r$ precipitate hav+ ! composition ,mn,h#d7;,,bo#c7b;,h#b,o1 :i* is us$ z a dri] 9 pa9t-mak+4 ,potassium cyanide produces a yell[i%-grey precipitate1 ,mn,c#b,n#b1 ) mangan\s salts1 soluble 9 an excess ( ! reag5t1 a d\ble salt1 ,k#d,mn,c#f,n#f1 correspond+ ) potassium f]rocyanide1 be+ =m$4 ,on evaporation ( ?is solution1 a portion ( ! manganese is oxidis$ & precipitat$1 :il/ a salt correspond+ to ,gmel9's r$ salt1 ,k#c1,mn,c#f,n#f 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii471 rema9s 9 solution4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 does n precipitate salts ( manganese1 n ev5 ! acetate1 b ammonium sulphide gives a fle%-col\r$ precipitate1 ,mn,s2 at #cbj ?is sulphide ( manganese passes into a gre5 v>iety 7,antony74 ,oxalic acid 9 /rong solutions ( mangan\s salts gives a :ite precipitate ( ! oxalate1 ,mn,c#b,o#d4 ,?is precipitate is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is us$ = ! prep>ation ( mangan\s oxide itself because x decomposes l oxalic acid :5 ignit$ 79 a tube )\t access ( air71 ) ! =mation ( c>bonic anhydride1 c>bonic oxide1 & mangan\s oxide4 ,mangan\s oxide ?us obta9$ is a gre5 p[d]1 :i* h[ev] oxidises ) su* facility t x burns 9 air :5 br\ght into contact ) an inc&esc5t sub/ance1 & passes into ! r$ int]m$iate oxide ,mn#c,o#d4 ,9 solutions ( mangan\s salts1 alkalis produce a precipitate ( ! hydroxide ,mn,h#b,o#b1 :i* rapidly absorbs oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( air & gives ! br[n int]m$iate oxide1 or1 m correctly speak+1 its hydrate4 ,mangan\s oxide1 besides be+ obta9$ by ! above-describ$ me?od f mangan\s oxalate1 may also be obta9$ by ignit+ ! high] oxides 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 & also f manganese c>bonate4 ,! mangan\s oxide ignit$ 9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 acquires a great d5sity1 & is no long] s easily oxidis$4 ,x may also be obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e =m1 if dur+ ! ignition ( ! c>bonate or high] oxide a trace ( dry hydro*loric acid gas be pass$ into ! curr5t ( hydrog54 ,x is ?us obta9$ 9 ! =m ( transp>5t em]ald gre5 cry/als ( ! regul> sy/em1 & 9 ?is /ate is easily soluble 9 acids4 ,mangan\s oxide 9 oxidis+ gives ! r$ oxide ( manganese1 ,mn#e,o#d4 ,?is is ! mo/ /able ( all ! oxides ( manganese2 x is n only /able at ! ord9>y b also at a high temp]ature--t is1 x does n absorb or dis5gage oxyg5 spontane\sly4 ,:5 ignit$1 all ! high] oxides ( manganese pass into x by los+ oxyg51 & mangan\s oxide by absorb+ oxyg54 ,?is oxide does n give any di/9ct salts1 b x dissolves 9 sulphuric acid1 =m+ a d>k r$ solution1 :i* conta9s bo? mangan\s & manganic 7( ! oxide1 ,mn#b,o#c7 sulphates4 ,! latt] ) potassium sulphate gives a manganese alum1 9 :i* ! alum9a is replac$ by its isomorph\s oxide ( manganese4 ,b ?is alum1 l ! solution ( ! int]m$iate oxide 9 sulphuric acid1 evolves oxyg5 & leaves a mangan\s salt :5 slightly heat$4 ,manganese dioxide is /ill less basic ?an ! oxide1 & dis5gages oxyg5 or a halog5 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 =m+ mangan\s salts1 l ! oxide4 ,h[ev]1 if x be susp5d$ 9 e!r1 & hydro*loric acid gas pass$ into ! mixture1 :i* is kept cool1 ! e!r acquires a gre5 col\r1 ow+ to ! =mation ( tetra*loride ( manganese1 ,mn,cl#d1 correspond+ ) ! dioxide :i* passes into solution4 ,x is h[ev] v un/able1 be+ exce$+ly easily decompos$ ) ! evolution ( *lor9e4 ,! correspond+ fluoride1 ,mn,f#d1 obta9$ by ,nickls is mu* m /able4 ,at all ev5ts1 manganese dioxide does n exhibit any well-def9$ basic "*1 b has r an acid "*1 :i* is p>ticul>ly %[n 9 ! comp\nds ,mn,f#d & ,mn,cl#d j m5tion$1 & 9 ! prop]ty ( manganese dioxide ( comb9+ ) alkalis4 ,if ! high] grades ( oxidation ( manganese be deoxidis$ 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 !y frequ5tly give ! dioxide comb9$ ) ! alkali--= example1 9 ! pres5ce ( pota% a comp\nd is =m$ :i* conta9s ,k#b,o1#e,mn,o#b1 :i* %[s ! weak acid "* ( ?is oxide4 ,:5 ignit$ 9 ! pres5ce ( sodium comp\nds manganese dioxide frequ5tly =ms ,na#b,o1#h,mn,o#b & ,na#b,o1#ab,mn,o#b1 & lime :5 heat$ ) ,mn,o#b gives f ,ca,o1#c,mn,o#b to 7,ca,o7#b1,mn,o#b 7,r\sseau7 accord+ to ! temp]ature4 ,besides :i*1 p]haps1 ,mn,o#b is a sal9e comp\nd1 conta9+ ,mn,o,mn,o#c or 7,mn,o7#c,mn#b,o#g1 & !re are reactions :i* support su* a view 7,spr+1 ,ri*>ds1 ,traube1 & o!rs72 = in/ance x is kn[n t mangan\s *loride & potassium p]manganate give ! dioxide 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis4 ,manganese dioxide may be obta9$ f mangan\s salts by ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,if mangan\s hydroxide or c>bonate be %ak5 up 9 wat] ?r\gh :i* *lor9e is pass$1 ! hypo*lorite ( ! metal is n =m$1 z is ! case ) c]ta9 o!r oxides1 b manganese dioxide is precipitat$3 #b,mn,o#b;,h#b ,cl#b ,mn,cl#b ,mn,o#b1;,h#b,o ,h#b,o4 ,ow+ to ?is fact1 hypo*lorites 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis & acetic acid :5 add$ to a solution ( mangan\s salts give hydrat$ manganese dioxide1 z 0 m5tion$ above4 ,mangan\s nitrate also leaves manganese dioxide :5 heat$ to #bjj4 ,x is also obta9$ f mangan\s & manganic salts ( ! alkalis1 :5 !y are decompos$ 9 ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( acid2 ! practical me?od ( conv]t+ ! salts ,mn,x#b into ! high] grades ( oxidation is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #f4 ,z ! salts ( mangan\s oxide ,mn,x#b closely resemble 7& are isomorph\s )7 ! salts ( magnesia ,mg,x#b 9 _m respects 7) ! exception ( ! fact t ,mn,x#b are rose col\r$ & are easily oxidis$ 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis71 we w n dwell ^u !m1 b limit ourselves to illu/rat+ ! *emical "* ( manganese by describ+ ! metal & its correspond+ acids4 ,! fact alone t ! oxides ( manganese are n r$uc$ to ! metal :5 ignit$ 9 hydrog5 7:il/ ! oxides ( iron give metallic iron "u ^! circum/ances71 b only to mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o1 %[s t manganese has a consid]able aff9ity = oxyg5--t is1 x is difficult to r$uce4 ,?is may be effect$1 h[ev]1 by means ( *>coal or sodium at a v high temp]ature4 ,a mixture ( "o ( ! oxides ( manganese ) *>coal or organic matt] gives fus$ metallic manganese "u ! p[]ful heat develop$ by coke ) an artificial draught4 ,! metal 0 obta9$ = ! fir/ "t 9 ?is mann] by ,gahn1 aft] ,pott1 & m especially ,s*eele1 _h 9 ! la/ c5tury %[n ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! comp\nds ( iron & manganese 7!y 7 previ\sly reg>d$ z be+ ! same74 ,manganese is prep>$ by mix+ "o ( its oxides 9 a f9ely-divid$ /ate ) oil & soot2 ! resultant mass is !n fir/ ignit$ 9 ord] to decompose ! organic matt]1 & aft]w>ds /rongly heat$ 9 a *>coal crucible4 ,! manganese ?us obta9$1 h[ev]1 conta9s1 z a rule1 a consid]able am\nt ( silicon & o!r impurities4 ,its specific gravity v>ies betwe5 #gb & #hj4 ,x has a light grey col\r1 a feebly metallic lu/re1 & al?\gh x is v h>d x c be scrat*$ by a file4 ,x rapidly oxidises 9 air1 be+ conv]t$ into a black oxide2 wat] acts on x ) ! evolution ( hydrog5--?is decomposition proce$s v rapidly ) boil+ wat]1 & if ! metal conta9 c>bon4#bj #bj ,o!r *emi/s h obta9$ manganese by diff]5t me?ods1 & attribut$ diff]5t prop]ties to x4 ,?is diff]5ce probably dep5ds on ! pres5ce ( c>bon 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,deville obta9$ manganese by subject+ ! pure dioxide1 mix$ ) pure *>coal 7f burnt sug>71 to a /rong heat 9 a lime crucible until ! resultant metal fus$4 ,! metal obta9$ _h a rose t9t1 l bismu?1 & l x 0 v brittle1 al?\gh exce$+ly h>d4 ,x decompos$ wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,brunn] obta9$ manganese hav+ a specific gravity ( ab\t #gb1 :i* decompos$ wat] v feebly at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 did n oxidise 9 air1 & 0 capable ( tak+ a bright poli%1 l /eel2 x _h ! grey col\r ( ca/ iron1 0 v brittle1 & h>d en\gh to scrat* /eel & glass1 l a diamond4 ,brunn]'s me?od 0 z foll[s3 ,he decompos$ ! manganese fluoride 7obta9$ z a soluble comp\nd by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on manganese c>bonate7 ) sodium1 by mix+ ^! sub/ances toge!r 9 a crucible & cov]+ ! mixture ) a lay] ( salt & fluor sp>2 aft] :i* ! crucible 0 fir/ gradually heat$ until ! reaction began1 & !n /rongly heat$ 9 ord] to fuse ! metal sep>at$4 ,glatzel 7#ahhi7 obta9$ #be grms4 ( manganese1 hav+ a grey col\r & sp4 gr4 #gci1 by heat+ a mixture ( #ajj grms4 ( ,mn,cl#b ) #bjj grms4 ,k,cl & #ae grms4 ,mg to a bright :ite heat4 ,moissan & o!rs1 by heat+ ! oxides ( manganese ) c>bon 9 ! electric furnace1 obta9$ c>bides ( manganese--= example1 ,mn#c;,c--& rem>k$ t ! metal volatilis$ 9 ! heat ( ! voltaic arc4 ,metallic manganese is1 h[ev]1 n prep>$ on a l>ge scale1 b only its alloys ) c>bon 7!y readily & rapidly oxidise7 & f]ro-manganese or a co>sely cry/all9e alloy ( iron1 manganese & c>bon1 :i* is smelt$ 9 bla/-furnaces l pig-iron 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii47 ,?is f]ro-manganese is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( /eel by ,bessem]'s & o!r processes 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii47 & = ! manufacture ( manganese bronze4 ,h[ev]1 9 ,am]ica1 ,gre5 & ,wahl 7#ahie7 obta9$ almo/ pure metallic manganese on a l>ge scale4 ,!y fir/ treat ! ore ( ,mn,o#b ) #cj p4c4 sulphuric acid 7:i* extracts all ! oxides ( iron pres5t 9 ! ore71 & !n heat x 9 a r$uc+ flame to conv]t x into ,mn,o1 :i* !y mix ) a p[d] ( ,al1 lime & ,ca,f#b 7z a flux71 & heat ! mixture 9 a crucible l9$ ) magnesia2 a reaction imm$iately takes place at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 & a metal ( specific gravity #gc is obta9$1 :i* only conta9s a small trace ( iron4 ,manganese gives two comp\nds ) nitrog51 ,mn#e,n#b & ,mn#c,n#b4 ,!y 7 obta9$ by ,prel+] 7#ahid7 f ! amalgam ( manganese ,mn#b;,hg#e 7obta9$ on a m]cury anode by ! action ( an electric curr5t ^u a solution ( ,mn,cl#b72 ! m]cury may be remov$ f ?is amalgam by heat+ x 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 & !n metallic manganese is obta9$ z a grey por\s mass ( specific gravity #gdb4 ,if ?is amalgam be heat$ 9 dry nitrog5 x gives ,mn#e,n#b 7grey p[d]1 sp4 gr4 #feh71 b if heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( ,,nh#c x gives 7z also does ,mn#e,n#b7 ,mn#c,n#b1 7a d>k mass ) a metallic lu/re1 sp4 gr4 #fba71 :i*1 :5 heat$ 9 nitrog5 is conv]t$ into ,mn#e,n#b1 & if heat$ 9 hydrog5 evolves ,,nh#c & dis5gages hydrog5 f a solution ( ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,at all ev5ts1 manganese is a metal :i* decomposes wat] m easily ?an iron1 nickel1 & cobalt4 ,x has be5 %[n above t if manganese dioxide1 or any l[] oxide ( manganese1 be heat$ ) an alkali 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 ! mixture absorbs oxyg51#ba & =ms an alkal9e manganate ( a gre5 col\r3 #b,,kho ,mn,o#b ,o ,k#b,mn,o#d ,h#b,o4 ,/eam is dis5gag$ dur+ ! ignition ( ! mixture1 & if ?is does n take place !re is no absorption ( oxyg54 ,! oxidation proce$s mu* m rapidly if1 be=e ignit+ 9 air1 potassium *lorate or nitre be add$ to ! mixture1 & ?is is ! me?od ( prep>+ potassium manganate1 ,k#b,mn,o#d4 ,! resultant mass dissolv$ 9 a small quantity ( wat] gives a d>k gre5 solution1 :i*1 :5 evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump ov] sulphuric acid1 deposits gre5 cry/als ( exactly ! same =m z potassium sulphate--namely1 six-sid$ prisms & pyramids4 ,! composition ( ! product is n *ang$ by be+ r$issolv$1 if p]fectly pure wat] free f air & c>bonic acid be tak54 ,b 9 ! pres5ce ( ev5 v feeble acids ! solution ( ?is salt *anges its col\r & becomes r$1 & deposits manganese dioxide4 ,! same decomposition takes place :5 ! salt is heat$ ) wat]1 b :5 dilut$ ) a l>ge quantity ( unboil$ wat] manganese dioxide does n sep>ate1 al?\gh ! solution turns r$4 ,?is *ange ( col\r dep5ds on ! fact t potassium manganate1 ,k#b,mn,o#d1 ^: solution is gre51 is trans=m$ into potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 ^: solution is ( a r$ col\r4 ,! reaction proce$+ "u ! influ5ce ( acids & a l>ge quantity ( wat] is express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #c,k#b,mn,o#d #b;,h#b,o #b,k,mn,o#d ,mn,o#b #d,,kho4 ,if !re is a l>ge proportion ( acid & ! decomposition is aid$ by heat1 ! manganese dioxide & potassium p]manganate are also decompos$1 ) =mation ( mangan\s salt4 ,exactly ! same decomposition z takes place "u ! action ( acids is also accompli%$ by magnesium sulphate1 :i* reacts 9 _m cases l an acid4 ,:5 wat] hold+ atmosph]ic oxyg5 9 solution acts on a solution ( potassium manganate1 ! oxyg5 comb9es directly ) ! manganate & =ms potassium p]manganate1 )\t precipitat+ manganese dioxide1 #b,k#b,mn,o#d ,o ,h#b,o #b,k,mn,o#d #b,,kho4 ,?us a solution ( potassium manganate und]goes a v *>act]i/ic *ange 9 col\r & passes f gre5 to r$2 h5ce ?is salt receiv$ ! "n ( *ameleon m9]al4#bb #ba ,volume ,i4 p4 #aeg1 ,note #g4 #bb ,x 0 kn[n to ! al*emi/s by ?is "n1 b ! true explanation ( ! *ange 9 col\r is due to ! rese>*es ( ,*evillot1 ,edw>ds1 ,mits*]li*1 & ,=*hamm]4 ,! *ange 9 col\r ( potassium manganate is due to its in/ability & to its splitt+ up into two o!r manganese comp\nds1 a high] & a l[]3 #c,mn,o#c ,mn#b,o#g ,mn,o#b4 ,manganese trioxide is really decompos$ 9 ?is mann] by ! action ( wat] 7see lat]73 #c,mn,o#c ,h#b,o #b,mn,h,o#d ,mn,o#b 7,franke1 ,?orpe1 & ,humbly74 ,! in/ability ( ! salt is prov$ by ! fact ( its be+ deoxidis$ by organic matt]1 ) ! =mation ( manganese dioxide & alkali1 s t1 = in/ance1 a solution ( ?is salt _c be filt]$ ?r\gh pap]4 ,! pres5ce ( an excess ( alkali increases ! /ability ( ! salt2 :5 heat$ x breaks up 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg54 ,! me?od ( prep>+ potassium p]manganate w be und]/ood f ! above4 ,!re are _m recipes = prep>+ ?is sub/ance1 z x is n[ us$ 9 consid]able quantities bo? = te*nical & laboratory purposes4 ,b 9 all cases ! ess5ce ( ! me?ods is "o & ! same3 a mixture ( alkali ) any oxide ( manganese 7ev5 mangan\s hydroxide1 :i* may be obta9$ f mangan\s *loride7 is fir/ heat$ 9 ! pres5ce ( air or ( an oxidis+ sub/ance 7= ! sake ( rapidity1 ) potassium *lorate72 ! resultant mass is !n treat$ ) wat] & heat$1 :5 manganese dioxide is precipitat$ & potassium p]manganate rema9s 9 solution4 ,?is solution may be boil$1 z ! liquid w conta9 free alkali2 b ! solution _c be evaporat$ to dryness1 because a /rong solution1 z well z ! solid salt1 is decompos$ by heat4 ,by add+ a dilute solution ( mangan\s sulphate to a boil+ mixture ( lead dioxide & dilute nitric acid1 ! :ole ( ! manganese may be conv]t$ into p]manganic acid 7,crum74 ,potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 cry/allises 9 well-=m$1 long r$ prisms ) a bright gre5 metallic lu/re4 ,9 ! arts ! pota% is frequ5tly replac$ by soda1 & by o!r alkal9e bases1 b no salt ( p]manganic acid cry/allises s well z ! potassium salt1 & !re=e ?is salt is exclusively us$ 9 *emical laboratories4 ,"o "p ( ! cry/all9e salt dissolves 9 #ae p>ts ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! solution is ( a v deep r$ col\r1 :i* is s int5se t x is /ill cle>ly obs]vable aft] be+ highly dilut$ ) wat]4 ,9 a solid /ate x is decompos$ by heat1 ) evolution ( oxyg51 a residue consi/+ ( ! l[] oxides ( manganese & potassium oxide be+ left4#bb bis ,a mixture ( p]manganate ( potassium1 phosphor\s & sulphur takes fire :5 /ruck or rubb$1 a mixture ( ! p]manganate ) c>bon only takes fire :5 heat$1 n :5 /ruck4 ,! in/ability ( ! salt is also se5 9 ! fact t its solution is decompos$ by p]oxide ( hydrog51 :i* at ! same "t x decomposes4 ,a numb] ( sub/ances r$uce potassium p]manganate to manganese dioxide 79 :i* case ! r$ solution becomes col\rless74#bc ,_m organic sub/ances 7al?\gh f> f all1 ev5 :5 boil$ 9 a solution ( p]manganate7 act 9 ?is mann]1 be+ oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( a portion ( its oxyg54 ,?us1 a solution ( sug> decomposes a cold solution ( potassium p]manganate4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( alkali1 ) a small quantity ( sug>1 ! r$uction leads to ! =mation ( potassium manganate1 because #b,k,mn,o#d #b,,kho ,o #b,k#b,mn,o#d ,h#b,o4 ,) a consid]able am\nt ( sug> & a m prolong$ action1 ! solution turns br[n & precipitates manganese dioxide or ev5 oxide4 ,9 ! oxidation ( _m organic bodies by an alkal9e solution ( ,k,mn,o#d g5]ally ?ree-eigh?s ( ! oxyg5 9 ! salt are utilis$ = oxidation3 #b,k,mn,o#d ,k#b,o #b,mn,o#b ,o#c4 ,a portion ( ! alkali lib]at$ is reta9$ by ! manganese dioxide1 & ! o!r portion g5]ally comb9es ) ! sub/ance oxidis$1 because ! latt] mo/ frequ5tly gives an acid ) an excess ( alkali4 ,a solution ( potassium iodide acts 9 a simil> mann]1 be+ conv]t$ into potassium iodate at ! exp5se ( ! ?ree atoms ( oxyg5 dis5gag$ by two molecules ( potassium p]manganate4 #bb bis ,! solution ( ?is salt ) an excess ( impure comm]cial alkali g5]ally acquires a gre5 t9t4 #bc ,a solution ( potassium p]manganate gives a beautiful absorption spectrum 7,*apt] ,,xiii47 ,if ! light 9 pass+ ?r\gh ?is solution loses a portion ( its rays 9 x 7if "o may s acc\nt = x71 ?is is p>tially expla9$ by ! increas$ oxidis+ p[] :i* ! solution !n acquires4 ,we may "h also rem>k t a dilute solution ( p]manganate ( potassium =ms a col\rless solution ) nickel salts1 because ! gre5 col\r ( ! solution ( nickel salts is complem5t>y to ! r$4 ,su* a decoloris$ solution1 conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( nickel & a small proportion ( manganese1 decomposes aft] a "t1 ?r[s d[n a precipitate1 & re-acquires ! gre5 col\r prop] to ! nickel salts4 ,! addition ( a solution ( a cobalt salt 7rose-r$7 to ! nickel salt also de/roys ! col\r ( bo? salts4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 potassium p]manganate acts z an oxidis+ ag5t ) /ill great] en]gy ?an 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis4 ,at any rate1 a great] proportion ( oxyg5 is !n available = oxidation1 namely1 n #c_/h1 z 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 b #e_/h1 because 9 ! fir/ in/ance manganese dioxide is =m$1 & 9 ! second case mangan\s oxide1 or r ! salt1 ,mn,x#b1 correspond+ ) x4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( sulphuric acid1 ! decomposition is accompli%$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #b,k,mn,o#d #c;,h#b,,s#d ,k#b,,s#d #b,mn,s,o#d #c;,h#b,o #e,o4 ,?is decomposition1 h[ev]1 does n proce$ directly on mix+ a solution ( ! salt ) sulphuric acid1 & cry/als ( ! salt ev5 dissolve 9 oil ( vitriol )\t ! evolution ( oxyg51 & ?is solution only decomposes by degrees aft] a c]ta9 "t4 ,?is is due to ! fact t sulphuric acid lib]ates free p]manganic acid f ! p]manganate1#bd :i* acid is /able 9 solution4 ,b if1 9 ! pres5ce ( acids & a p]manganate1 !re is a sub/ance capable ( absorb+ oxyg5--= in/ance1 capable ( pass+ into a high] grade ( oxidation--!n ! r$uction ( ! p]manganic acid into mangan\s oxides sometimes proce$s directly at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,?is r$uction is v cle>ly se51 because ! solutions ( potassium p]manganate are r$ :il/ ! mangan\s salts are almo/ col\rless4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 nitr\s acid & its salts are conv]t$ into nitric acid & decolorise ! acid solution ( ! p]manganate4 ,sulphur\s anhydride & its salts imm$iately decolorise potassium p]manganate1 =m+ sulphuric acid4 ,f]r\s salts1 & 9 g5]al salts ( l[] grades ( oxidation capable ( be+ oxidis$ 9 solution1 act 9 exactly ! same mann]4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 is also oxidis$ to sulphuric acid2 ev5 m]cury is oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( p]manganic acid1 & decolorises its solution1 be+ conv]t$ into m]curic oxide4 ,moreov]1 ! end po9t ( ^! reactions may easily be se51 & !re=e1 hav+ fir/ det]m9$ ! am\nt ( active oxyg5 9 "o volume ( a solution ( potassium p]manganate1 & kn[+ h[ _m volumes are requir$ to effect a giv5 oxidation1 x is easy to det]m9e ! am\nt ( an oxidisable sub/ance 9 a solution f ! am\nt ( p]manganate exp5d$ 7,m>gu]ite's me?od74 #bd ,if sulphuric acid is all[$ to act on potassium p]manganate )\t any special precautions1 a l>ge am\nt ( oxyg5 is evolv$ 7x may ev5 explode & inflame71 & a violet spray ( ! decompos+ p]manganic acid is giv5 (f4 ,b if ! pure salt 7i4e4 free f *lor9e7 be dissolv$ 9 pure well-cool$ sulphuric acid1 )\t any rise 9 temp]ature1 a gre5-col\r$ liquid settles at ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,?is liquid does n conta9 any sulphuric acid1 & consi/s ( p]manganic anhydride1 ,mn#b,o#g 7,as*(f1 ,t]reil74 ,x is impossible to prep>e any consid]able quantity ( ! anhydride by ?is me?od1 z x decomposes ) an explosion z x collects1 evolv+ oxyg5 & leav+ r$ oxide ( manganese4 ,p]manganic anhydride1 ,mn#b,o#g1 9 dissolv+ 9 sulphuric acid1 gives a gre5 solution1 :i* 7accord+ to ,franke1 #ahhg7 conta9s a comp\nd ,mn#b,,s#aj 7,mn,o#c7b,,s#d--t is1 sulphuric acid 9 :i* bo? hydrog5s are replac$ by ! gr\p ,mn,o#c1 :i* is comb9$ ) ,,ok 9 p]manganate ( potassium4 ,?is mixture ) a small quantity ( wat] gives ,mn#b,o#g1 accord+ to ! equation3 7,mn,o#c7b,,s#d ,h#b,o ,h#b,,s#d ,mn#b,o#g1 & :5 heat$ to #cj x gives manganese trioxide1 7,mn,o#c7b,,s#d ,h#b,o #b,mn,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,o4 ,pure manganese trioxide is obta9$ if ! solution ( 7,mn,o#c7b,,s#d be p\r$ 9 drops on to sodium c>bonate4 ,!n1 toge!r ) c>bonic anhydride1 a spray ( manganese trioxide passes ov]1 :i* may be collect$ 9 a well-cool$ receiv]1 & ?is %[s t ! reaction proce$s accord+ to ! equation3 7,mn,o#c7b,,s#d ,na#b;,,co#c ,na#b,,s#d #b,mn,o#c ,,co#b ,o 7,?orpe74 ,! trioxide is decompos$ by wat]1 =m+ manganese dioxide & a solution ( p]manganic acid3 #c,mn,o#c ,h#b,o ,mn,o#b #b;,h,mn,o#d4 ,! same acid is obta9$ by dissolv+ p]manganic anhydride 9 wat]4 ,b>ium p]manganate :5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid gives ! same acid4 ,?is b>ium salt may be prep>$ by ! action ( b>ium *loride on ! difficultly soluble silv] p]manganate1 ,ag,mn,o#d1 :i* is precipitat$ on mix+ a /rong solution ( ! potassium salt ) silv] nitrate4 ,! solution ( p]manganic acid =ms a bright r$ liquid :i* reflects a d>k violet t9t4 ,a dilute solution has exactly ! same col\r z t ( ! potassium salt4 ,x deposits manganese dioxide :5 expos$ to ! action ( light1 & also :5 heat$ above #fj1 & ?is proce$s ! m rapidly ! m dilute ! solution4 ,x %[s its oxidis+ prop]ties 9 _m cases1 z already m5tion$4 ,ev5 hydrog5 gas is absorb$ by a solution ( p]manganic acid2 & *>coal & sulphur are also oxidis$ by x1 z !y are by potassium p]manganate4 ,?is may be tak5 advantage ( 9 analys+ gunp[d]1 because :5 x is treat$ ) a solution ( potassium p]manganate1 all ! sulphur is conv]t$ into sulphuric acid & all ! *>coal into c>bonic anhydride4 ,f9ely-divid$ plat9um imm$iately decomposes p]manganic acid4 ,) potassium iodide x lib]ates iod9e 7:i* may aft]w>ds be oxidis$ into iodic acid7 7,mits*]li*1 ,fromh]z1 ,as*(f1 & o!rs74 ,ammonia does n =m a correspond+ salt ) free p]manganic acid1 because x is oxidis$ ) evolution ( nitrog54 ,! oxidis+ action ( p]manganic acid 9 a /rong solution may be accompani$ by flame & ! =mation ( violet fumes ( p]manganic acid2 ?us a /rong solution ( x takes fire :5 br\ght into contact ) pap]1 alcohol1 alkal9e sulphides1 fats1 c4 ,we may add t1 accord+ to ,franke1 #a "p ( potassium p]manganate ) #ac p>ts ( sulphuric acid at #ajj gives br[n cry/als ( ! salt ,mn#b7,,s#d7c1;,h#b,,s#d1d;,h#b,o1 :i* gives a precipitate ( hydrat$ manganese dioxide1 ,h#b,mn,o#c ,mn,o#b;,h#b,o1 :5 treat$ ) wat]4 ,spr+1 by precipitat+ potassium p]manganate ) sodium sulphite & wa%+ ! precipitate by decantation1 obta9$ a soluble colloidal manganese oxide1 ^: composition 0 ! mean betwe5 ,mn#b,o#c & ,mn,o#b--namely1 ,mn#b,o#c1d7,mn,o#b;,h#b,o74 ,! oxidis+ action ( ,k,mn,o#d1 l all o!r *emical reactions1 is n accompli%$ in/antane\sly1 b only gradually4 ,&1 z ! c\rse ( ! reaction is "h easily foll[$ by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( salt un*ang$ 9 a sample tak5 at a giv5 mom5t1#be ! oxidis+ reaction ( potassium p]manganate1 9 an acid liquid1 0 employ$ by ,h>c\rt & ,esson 7#ahfe7 z "o ( ! fir/ cases = ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ! rate ( *emical *ange#bf z a subject ( great importance 9 *emical me*anics4 ,9 _! exp]im5ts !y took oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 :i* 9 oxidis+ gives c>bonic anhydride1 :il/1 ) an excess ( sulphuric acid1 ! potassium p]manganate is conv]t$ into mangan\s sulphate1 ,mn,s,o#d1 s t ! ultimate oxidation w be express$ by ! equation3 #e;,c#b;,h#b,o#d #b,mn,k,o#d #c;,h#b,,s#d #aj;,,co#b ,k#b,,s#d #b,mn,s,o#d #h;,h#b,o4 ,! influ5ce ( ! relative am\nt ( sulphuric acid is se5 f ! annex$ table1 :i* gives ! measure ( reaction p p] #ajj p>ts ( potassium p]manganate1 tak5 f\r m9utes aft] mix+1 us+ n molecules ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 p] #b,k,mn,o#d #e;,c#b;,h#b,o#d3 n #b #d #f #h #ab #af #bb p #bb #cf #ea #fc #gg #hf #ib %[+ t 9 a giv5 "t 7#d m9utes7 ! oxidation is ! m p]fect ! great] ! am\nt ( sulphuric acid tak5 = giv5 am\nts ( ,k,mn,o#d & ,c#b;,h#b,o#d4 ,x is obvi\s also t ! temp]ature & relative am\nt ( e "o ( ! act+ & result+ sub/ances %\ld %[ its influ5ce on ! relative velocity ( reaction2 ?us1 = in/ance1 direct exp]im5t %[$ ! influ5ce ( ! admixture ( mangan\s sulphate4 ,:5 a l>ge proportion ( oxalic acid 7#ajh molecules7 0 tak5 to a l>ge mass ( wat] & to #b molecules ( p]manganate #ad molecules ( mangan\s sulphate 7 add$1 ! quantity x ( ! potassium p]manganate act$ on 79 p]c5tages ( ! potassium p]manganate tak57 9 t m9utes 7at #af7 0 z foll[s3 t #b #e #h #aa #ad #dd #dg #ec #fa #fh x #eb #aba #ahg #bea #cac #fhd #gag #geh #gih #hcj ,^! figures %[ t ! rate ( reaction--t is1 ! quantity ( p]manganate *ang$ 9 "o m9ute--decreases proportionally to ! decrease 9 ! am\nt ( un*ang$ potassium p]manganate4 ,at ! comm5cem5t1 ab\t #bf p] c5t4 ( ! salt tak5 0 decompos$ 9 ! c\rse ( "o m9ute1 :il/ aft] an h\r ! rate 0 ab\t #je p] c5t4 ,! same ph5om5a are obs]v$ 9 e case :i* has be5 inve/igat$1 & ?is bran* ( !oretical or physical *emi/ry1 n[ /udi$ by _m1#bg promises to expla9 ! c\rse ( *emical trans=mations f a fre% po9t ( view1 :i* is closely alli$ to ! doctr9e ( aff9ity1 because ! rate ( reaction1 )\t d\bt1 is connect$ ) ! magnitude ( ! aff9ities act+ betwe5 ! react+ sub/ances4 #be ,= rapid & accurate det]m9ations ( ?is k9d1 advantage is tak5 ( ^? me?ods ( *emical analysis :i* are kn[n z 'titrations' 7volumetric analysis71 & consi/ 9 measur+ ! volume ( solutions ( kn[n /r5g? requir$ = ! complete conv]sion ( a giv5 sub/ance4 ,details respect+ ! !ory & practice ( titration1 9 :i* potassium p]manganate is v frequ5tly employ$1 mu/ be look$ = 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4 #bf ,! measurem5ts ( velocity & accel]ation s]ve = det]m9+ ! measure ( =ces 9 me*anics1 b 9 t case ! velocities are magnitudes ( l5g? or pa?s pass$ ov] 9 a unit ( "t4 ,! velocity ( *emical *ange embodies a conception ( q ano!r k9d4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! velocities ( reactions are magnitudes ( ! masses :i* h ent]$ into *emical trans=mations2 9 ! second place1 ^! velocities c only be relative quantities4 ,h5ce ! conception ( 'velocity' has q a diff]5t mean+ 9 *emi/ry f :at x has 9 me*anics4 ,_! only common factor is "t4 ,if dt be ! increm5t ( "t & dx ! quantity ( a sub/ance *ang$ 9 ?is space ( "t1 !n ! fraction 7or quoti5t7 dx_/dt w express ! rate ( ! reaction4 ,! natural conclusion1 come to bo? by ,h>c\rt & ,esson1 & previ\sly to !m 7#ahej7 by ,wilhelmj 7:o inve/igat$ ! rate ( conv]sion1 or inv]sion1 ( sug> 9 its passage into glucose71 consi/s 9 e/abli%+ t ?is velocity is proportional to ! quantity ( sub/ances /ill un*ang$--i4e4 t dx_/dt ,c7,a - x71 :]e ,c is a con/ant coeffici5t ( proportionality1 & :]e ,a is ! quantity ( a sub/ance tak5 = reaction at ! mom5t :5 t #j & x #j--t is1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t1 f :i* ! "t t & quantity x ( sub/ance *ang$ is c\nt$4 ,on integrat+ ! prec$+ equation we obta9 log7,a_/7,a - x77 kt1 :]e k is a new con/ant1 if we take ord9>y 7& n natural7 log>i?ms4 ,h5ce1 kn[+ ,a1 x1 & t1 = ea* reaction1 we f9d k1 & x proves to be a con/ant quantity4 ,?us f ! figures cit$ 9 ! text = ! reaction #b,k,mn,o#d #ajh;,c#b;,h#b,o#d #ad,mn,s,o#d1 x may be calculat$ t k #jjaad2 = example1 t #dd1 x #fhd 7,a #ajj71 :5ce kt #jejjd & k #jjaad1 7see also ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #c1 & ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #be bis74 #bg ,! rese>*es made by ,hood1 ,van't ,h(f1 ,o/wald1 ,w>d]1 ,m5s*utk91 ,konoval(f1 & o!rs h a p>ticul> significance 9 ?is direction4 ,ow+ to ! comp>ative novelty ( ?is subject1 & ! abs5ce ( applicable z well z indubitable d$uctions1 ,i consid] x impossible to ent] into ?is prov9ce ( !oretical *emi/ry1 al?\gh ,i am q confid5t t its developm5t %\ld lead to v important results1 especially 9 respect to *emical equilibria1 = ,van't ,h(f has already %[n t ! limit ( reaction 9 rev]sible reactions is det]m9$ by ! atta9m5t ( equal velocities = ! opposite reactions4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,iron1 ,,cobalt1 ,,& ,,nickel ,judg+ f ! atomic weights1 & ! =ms ( ! high] oxides ( ! elem5ts already consid]$1 x is easy to =m an idea ( ! sev5 gr\ps ( ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ! typical s]ies ,li1 ,be1 ,b1 ,c1 ,n1 ,o1 ,f1 or ! ?ird s]ies1 ,na1 ,mg1 ,al1 ,si1 ,p1 ,s1 ,cl4 ,! sev5 usual types ( oxides f ,r#b,o to ,r#b,o#g correspond ) !m 7,*apt] ,,xv47 ,! position ( ! eigh? gr\p is q sep>ate1 & is det]m9$ by ! fact t1 z we h already se51 9 ea* gr\p ( metals hav+ a great] atomic weight ?an potassium a di/9ction ought to be made betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! ev5 & unev5 s]ies4 ,! s]ies ( ev5 elem5ts1 comm5c+ ) a /rik+ly alkal9e elem5t 7potassium1 rubidium1 csium71 toge!r ) ! unev5 s]ies foll[+ x1 & conclud+ ) a haloid 7*lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e71 =ms a l>ge p]iod1 ! prop]ties ( ^: memb]s repeat !mselves 9 o!r simil> p]iods4 ,! elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p are situat$ betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! ev5 s]ies & ! elem5ts ( ! unev5 s]ies foll[+ !m4 ,& = ?is reason elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p are f\nd 9 ! middle ( ea* l>ge p]iod4 ,! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts belong+ to x1 9 _m respects indep5d5t & /rik+1 are %[n ) typical cle>ness 9 ! case ( iron1 ! well-kn[n repres5tative ( ?is gr\p4 ,iron is "o ( ^? elem5ts :i* are n only widely diffus$ 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 b also ?r\gh\t ! entire univ]se4 ,its oxides & _! v>i\s comp\nds are f\nd 9 ! mo/ div]se portions ( ! e>?'s cru/2 b "h iron is always f\nd comb9$ ) "s o!r elem5t4 ,iron is n f\nd on ! e>?'s surface 9 a free /ate1 because x easily oxidises "u ! action ( air4 ,x is occasionally f\nd 9 ! native /ate 9 meteorites1 or a]olites1 :i* fall ^u ! e>?4 ,meteoric iron is =m$ outside ! e>?4#a ,meteorites are fragm5ts :i* are c>ri$ r\nd ! sun 9 orbits1 & fall ^u ! e>? :5 com+ into proximity ) x dur+ _! motion 9 space4 ,! meteoric du/1 on pass+ ?r\gh ! upp] p>ts ( ! atmosph]e1 & becom+ inc&esc5t f friction ) ! gases1 produces t ph5om5on :i* is famili> "u ! "n ( fall+ />s4#b ,su* is ! doctr9e conc]n+ meteorites1 & !re=e ! fact ( _! conta9+ rocky 7silice\s7 matt] & metallic iron %[s t outside ! e>? ! elem5ts & _! aggregation are 9 "s degree ! same z ^u ! e>? itself4 #a ,! composition ( meteoric iron is v>iable4 ,x g5]ally conta9s nickel1 phosphorus1 c>bon1 c4 ,! s*reib]site ( meteoric /ones conta9s ,fe#d,ni#b,p4 #b ,comets & ! r+s ( ,saturn ought n[ to be consid]$ z consi/+ ( an accumulation ( su* meteoric cosmic p>ticles4 ,p]haps ! "p play$ by ^! m9ute bodies scatt]$ ?r\gh\t space is mu* m important 9 ! =mation ( ! l>ge/ cele/ial bodies ?an has hi!rto be5 imag9$4 ,! inve/igation ( ?is bran* ( a/ronomy1 due to ,s*iap>elli1 has a be>+ on ! :ole ( natural sci5ce4 ,! "q arises z to :y ! iron 9 meteorites is 9 a free /ate1 :il/ on e>? x is 9 a /ate ( comb9ation4 ,does n ?is t5d to %[ t ! condition ( our globe is v diff]5t f t ( ! re/8 ,my answ] to ?is "q has be5 already giv5 9 ,volume ,i4 p4 #cgg1 ,note #eg4 ,x is my op9ion t inside ! e>? !re is a mass simil> 9 composition to meteorites--t is1 conta9+ rocky matt] & metallic iron1 p>tly c>burett$4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i consid] x w n be out ( place to add ! foll[+ explanations4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ! di/ribution ( pressures 7see my treatise1 ,on ,b>ometrical ,levell+1 #ahgf1 pages #dh et seq47 9 an atmosph]e ( mix$ gases1 x foll[s t two gases1 ^: d5sities are d & d#a1 & ^: relative quantities or p>tial pressures at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! c5tre ( gravity are h & h#a1 w1 :5 at a great] di/ance f ! c5tre ( attraction1 pres5t a diff]5t ratio ( _! masses x 3 x#a--t is1 ( _! p>tial pressures--:i* may be f\nd by ! equation d#a7log7h7 - log7x77 d7log7h#a7 - log7x#a774 ,if1 = in/ance1 d 3 d#a #b 3 #a1 & h h#a 7t is to say1 ! masses are equal at ! l[] height7 #ajjj1 !n :5 x #aj ! magnitude ( x#a w n be #aj 7i4e4 ! mass ( a gas at a high] level ^: d5sity #a w n be equal to ! mass ( a gas ^: d5sity #b1 z 0 ! case at a l[] level71 b mu* great]--namely1 x#a #ajj--t is1 ! light] gas w pr$om9ate ov] a heavi] "o at a high] level4 ,!re=e1 :5 ! :ole mass ( ! e>? 0 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 ! sub/ances hav+ a great] vap\r d5sity accumulat$ ab\t ! c5tre & ^? ) a less] vap\r d5sity at ! surface4 ,& z ! vap\r d5sities dep5d on ! atomic & molecul> weights1 ^? sub/ances :i* h small atomic & molecul> weights ought to h accumulat$ at ! surface1 & ^? ) high atomic & molecul> weights1 :i* are ! lea/ volatile & ! easie/ to cond5se1 at ! c5tre4 ,?us x becomes app>5t :y su* light elem5ts z hydrog51 c>bon1 nitrog51 oxyg51 sodium1 magnesium1 alum9ium1 silicon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 *lor9e1 potassium1 calcium1 & _! comp\nds pr$om9ate at ! surface & l>gely =m ! e>?'s cru/4 ,!re is also n[ mu* iron 9 ! sun1 z spectrum analysis %[s1 & !re=e x mu/ h ent]$ into ! composition ( ! e>? & o!r planets1 b w\ld h accumulat$ at ! c5tre1 because ! d5sity ( its vap\r is c]ta9ly l>ge & x easily cond5ses4 ,!re 0 also oxyg5 ne> ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 b n suffici5t to comb9e ) ! iron4 ,! =m]1 z a mu* light] elem5t1 pr9cipally accumulat$ at ! surface1 :]e we at ! pres5t "t f9d all oxidis$ comp\nds & ev5 a remnant ( free oxyg54 ,?is gives ! possibility n only ( expla9+ 9 accordance ) cosmogonic !ories ! pr$om9ance ( oxyg5 comp\nds on ! surface ( ! e>?1 ) ! occurr5ce ( unoxidis$ iron 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? & 9 meteorites1 b also ( und]/&+ :y ! d5sity ( ! :ole e>? 7ov] #e7 is f> great] ?an t ( ! rocks 7#a to #c7 compos+ its cru/4 ,& if all ! prec$+ argum5ts & !ories 7= in/ance ! supposition t ! sun1 e>?1 & all ! planets 7 =m$ ( an elem5t>y homog5e\s mass1 =m]ly compos$ ( vap\rs & gases7 be true1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! int]ior ( ! e>? & o!r planets conta9s metallic 7unoxidis$7 iron1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is only f\nd on ! surface z a]olites4 ,& !n assum+ t a]olites are ! fragm5ts ( planets :i* h crumbl$ to pieces s to say dur+ cool+ 7?is has be5 held to be ! case by a/ronom]s1 judg+ f ! pa?s ( a]olites71 x is readily und]/ood :y !y %\ld be compos$ ( metallic iron1 & ?is w\ld expla9 its occurr5ce 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?1 :i* we assum$ z ! basis ( our !ory ( ! =mation ( naph?a 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,notes #eg-fj74 ,! mo/ widely diffus$ t]re/rial comp\nd ( iron is iron bisulphide1 ,fe,s#b1 or iron pyrites4 ,x occurs 9 =mations ( bo? aque\s & igne\s orig91 & sometimes 9 enorm\s masses4 ,x is a sub/ance hav+ a greyi%-yell[ col\r1 ) a metallic lu/re1 & a specific gravity ( #ej2 x cry/allises 9 ! regul> sy/em4#b bis #b bis ,imm5se deposits ( iron pyrites are kn[n 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,russia4 ,on ! riv] ,m/a1 ne> ,borovitsi1 ?\s&s ( tons are ye>ly collect$ f ! detritus ( ! neighb\r+ rocks4 ,9 ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ,t\la1 ,riazan1 & 9 ! ,donets di/rict cont9u\s lay]s ( pyrites occur among ! coal seams4 ,v ?ick b$s ( pyrites are also kn[n 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,caucasus4 ,b ! deposits ( ! ,urals are p>ticul>ly va/1 & h be5 work$ = a long "t4 ,among/ ^! ,i w only indicate ! deposits on ! ,soym5sky e/ate ne> ! ,ki%teimsky works2 ! ,kalet9sky deposits ne> ! ,virhny-,isetsky works 7conta9+ #a-b p4c4 ,cu72 on ! banks ( ! riv] ,k\%aivi ne> ,k\%vi 7#c-e p4c4 ,cu71 & ! deposits ne> ! ,bogoslovsky works 7#c-e p4c4 ,cu74 ,iron pyrites 7especially t conta9+ copp] :i* is extract$ aft] roa/+7 is n[ *iefly employ$ = roa/+1 z a s\rce ( ,,s#b1 = ! manufacture ( *amb] sulphuric acid 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bia71 b ! rema9+ oxide ( iron is p]fectly suitable = smelt+ into pig iron1 al?\gh x gives a sulphur\s pig iron 7! sulphur may be easily remov$ by subsequ5t treatm5t1 especially ) ! aid ( f]ro-manganese 9 ,bessem]'s process74 ,! great te*nical importance ( iron pyrites leads to its sometimes be+ import$ f great di/ances2 = in/ance1 into ,engl& f ,spa94 ,besides :i*1 :5 heat$ 9 clos$ retorts ,fe,s#b gives sulphur1 & if all[$ to oxidise 9 damp air1 gre5 vitriol1 ,fe,s,o#d4 ,! oxides are ! pr9cipal ores us$ = produc+ metallic iron4 ,! majority ( ! ores conta9 f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 ei!r 9 a free /ate or comb9$ ) wat]1 or else 9 comb9ation ) f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o4 ,! species & v>ieties ( iron ores are num]\s & div]se4 ,f]ric oxide 9 a sep>ate =m appe>s sometimes z cry/als ( ! rhomboh$ric sy/em1 hav+ a metallic lu/re & greyi% /eel col\r2 !y are brittle1 & =m a r$ p[d]1 specific gravity ab\t #ebe4 ,f]ric oxide 9 type ( oxidation & prop]ties resembles alum9a2 x is1 h[ev]1 al?\gh ) difficulty1 soluble 9 acids ev5 :5 anhydr\s4 ,! cry/all9e oxide be>s ! "n ( specul> iron ore1 b f]ric oxide mo/ (t5 occurs 9 a non-cry/all9e =m1 9 masses hav+ a r$ fracture1 & is !n kn[n z r$ hmatite4 ,9 ?is =m1 h[ev]1 x is r a r>e ore1 & is pr9cipally f\nd 9 ve9s4 ,! hydrates ( f]ric oxide1 f]ric hydroxides1#c are mo/ (t5 f\nd 9 aque\s or /ratifi$ =mations1 & are kn[n z br[n hmatites2 !y g5]ally h a br[n col\r1 =m a yell[i%-br[n p[d]1 & h no metallic lu/re b an e>?y appe>ance4 ,!y easily dissolve 9 acids & diffuse ?r\gh o!r =mations1 especially clays 7= in/ance1 o*re72 !y sometimes occur 9 r5i=m & simil> masses1 evid5tly ( aque\s orig94 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ! s-call$ bog or lake & peat ores f\nd at ! bottom ( m>%es & lakes1 & also "u & 9 peat b$s4 ,?is ore is =m$ f wat] conta9+ f]r\s c>bonate 9 solution1 :i*1 aft] absorb+ oxyg51 deposits f]ric hydroxide4 ,9 riv]s & spr+s1 iron is f\nd 9 solution z f]r\s c>bonate ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( c>bonic acid3 h5ce ! exi/5ce ( *alybeate spr+s conta9+ ,fe,c,o#c4 ,?is f]r\s c>bonate1 or sid]ite1 is ei!r f\nd z a non-cry/all9e product ( evid5tly aque\s orig91 or z a cry/all9e sp> call$ spa?ic iron ore4 ,! r5i=m deposits ( ! =m] are mo/ rem>kable2 !y are call$ sph]osid]ites1 & sometimes =m :ole /rata 9 ! jurassic & c>bonif]\s =mations4 ,magnetic iron ore1 ,fe#c,o#d ,fe,o1,fe#b,o#c1 9 virtue ( its purity & practical uses1 is a v important ore2 x is a comp\nd ( ! f]r\s & f]ric oxides1 is naturally magnetic1 has a specific gravity ( #ea1 cry/allises 9 well-=m$ cry/als ( ! regul> sy/em1 is ) difficulty soluble 9 acids1 & sometimes =ms enorm\s masses1 z1 = in/ance1 ,m\nt ,blagodat 9 ! ,ural4 ,h[ev]1 9 mo/ cases--= in/ance1 at ,korsak-,mogila 7to ! nor? ( ,b]diansk & ,nogaiska1 ne> ! ,sea ( ,azov71 or at ,krivoi ,rog 7to ! we/ ( ,ekat]9oslav7--! magnetic iron ore is mix$ ) o!r iron ores4 ,9 ! ,urals1 ! ,caucasus 7)\t m5tion+ ,sib]ia71 & 9 ! di/ricts adjo9+ ! bas9 ( ! ,don1 ,russia possesses ! ri*e/ iron ores 9 ! _w4 ,to ! s\? ( ,mosc[1 9 ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ,t\la & ,nijn9ovgorod1 9 ! ,olonetz di/rict1 & 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,orl(fsky 7ne> ,z9ovieff 9 ! di/rict ( ,kromsky71 & 9 _m o!r places1 !re are likewise abundant supplies ( iron ores among/ ! deposit$ aque\s =mations2 ! sid]ite ( ,orl(fsky1 = in/ance1 is di/+ui%$ by its great purity4#d #c ,! hydrat$ f]ric oxide is f\nd 9 nature 9 a dual =m4 ,x is some:at r>ely met ) 9 ! =m ( a cry/all9e m9]al call$ g?ite1 ^: specific gravity is #dd & composition ,fe#b;,h#c,o#d1 or ,fe,h,o#b--t is1 "o ( oxide ( iron to "o ( wat]1 ,fe#b,o#c1;,h#b,o2 frequ5tly f\nd z br[n iron/one1 =m+ a d5se mass ( fibr\s1 r5i=m deposits conta9+ #b;,fe#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o--t is1 hav+ a composition ,fe#d;,h#f,o#i4 ,9 bog ore & o!r simil> ores we mo/ (t5 f9d a mixture ( ?is hydrat$ f]ric oxide ) clay & o!r impurities4 ,! specific gravity ( su* =mations is r>ely z high z #dj4 #d ,! ores ( iron1 simil>ly to all sub/ances extract$ f ve9s & deposits1 are work$ accord+ to m9+ practice by means ( v]tical1 horizontal1 or incl9$ %afts :i* rea* & p5etrate ! ve9s & /rata conta9+ ! ore deposits4 ,! mass ( ore excavat$ is rais$ to ! surface1 !n sort$ ei!r by h& or else 9 special sort+ app>atus 7g5]ally act+ ) wat] to wa% ! ore71 & is subject$ to roa/+ & o!r treatm5t4 ,9 e case ! ore conta9s =eign matt]4 ,9 ! extraction ( iron1 :i* is "o ( ! *eape/ metals1 ! dress+ ( an ore is 9 mo/ cases unpr(itable1 & only ores ri* 9 metal are work$--namely1 ^? conta9+ at lea/ #bj p4c4 ,x is (t5 pr(itable to transport v ri* & pure ores 7) z mu* z #gj p4c4 ( iron7 f long di/ances4 ,! details conc]n+ ! work+ & extraction ( metals w be f\nd 9 special treatises on metallurgy & m9+4 ,iron is also f\nd 9 ! =m ( v>i\s o!r comp\nds--= in/ance1 9 c]ta9 silicates1 & also 9 "s phosphates2 b ^! =ms are comp>atively r>e 9 nature 9 a pure /ate1 & h n ! indu/rial importance ( ^? natural comp\nds ( iron previ\sly m5tion$4 ,9 small quantities iron ent]s into ! composition ( e k9d ( soil & all rocky =mations4 ,z f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 is isomorph\s ) magnesia1 & f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 ) alum9a1 isomorph\s sub/itution is possible "h1 & h5ce m9]als are n unfrequ5tly f\nd 9 :i* ! quantity ( iron v>ies consid]ably2 su*1 = in/ance1 are pyrox5e1 amphibole1 c]ta9 v>ieties ( mica1 c4 ,al?\gh mu* iron oxide is delet]i\s to ! gr[? ( vegetation1 /ill plants d n fl\ri% )\t iron2 x ent]s z an indisp5sable compon5t into ! composition ( all high] organisms2 9 ! a% ( plants we always f9d m or less ( its comp\nds4 ,x also occurs 9 blood1 & =ms "o ( ! col\r+ matt]s 9 x2 #ajj p>ts ( ! blood ( ! highe/ organisms conta9 ab\t #jje ( iron4 ,! r$uction ( ! ores ( iron into metallic iron is 9 pr9ciple v simple1 because :5 ! oxides ( iron are /rongly heat$ ) *>coal1 hydrog51 c>bonic oxide1 & o!r r$uc+ ag5ts1#e !y easily give metallic iron4 ,b ! matt] is r5d]$ m difficult by ! fact t ! iron does n melt at ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion ( ! *>coal1 & !re=e x does n sep>ate f ^? me*anically mix$ impurities :i* are f\nd 9 ! iron ore4 ,?is is obviat$ by ! foll[+ v rem>kable prop]ty ( iron3 at a high temp]ature x is capable ( comb9+ ) a small quantity 7f #b to #e p4c47 ( c>bon1 & !n =ms ca/ iron1 :i* easily melts 9 ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion ( *>coal 9 air4 ,= ?is reason metallic iron is n obta9$ directly f ! ore1 b is only =m$ aft] ! fur!r treatm5t ( ! ca/ iron2 ! fir/ product extract$ f ! ore be+ ca/ iron4 ,! fus$ mass disposes itself 9 ! furnace bel[ ! slag--t is1 ! impurities ( ! ore fus$ by ! heat ( ! furnace4 ,if ^! impurities did n fuse !y w\ld block up ! furnace 9 :i* ! ore 0 be+ smelt$1 & ! cont9u\s smelt+ ( ! ca/ iron w\ld n be possible2#f x w\ld be necess>y p]iodically to cool ! furnace & heat x up aga91 :i* means a wa/eful exp5diture ( fuel1 & h5ce 9 ! production ( ca/ iron1 ! object 9 view is to obta9 all ! e>?y impurities ( ! ore 9 ! %ape ( a fus$ mass or slag4 ,only 9 r>e cases does ! ore itself =m a mass :i* fuses at ! temp]ature employ$1 & ^! cases are objectionable if mu* iron oxide is c>ri$ away 9 ! slag4 ,! impurities ( ! ores mo/ (t5 consi/ ( c]ta9 mixtures--= in/ance1 a mixture ( clay & s&1 or a mixture ( lime/one & clay1 or qu>tz1 c4 ,^! impurities d n sep>ate ( !mselves1 or d n fuse4 ,! difficulty ( ! indu/ry lies 9 =m+ an easily-fusible slag1 into :i* ! :ole ( ! =eign matt] ( ! ore w\ld pass & fl[ d[n to ! bottom ( ! furnace above ! heavi] ca/ iron4 ,?is is effect$ by mix+ c]ta9 fluxes ) ! ore & *>coal4 ,a flux is a sub/ance :i*1 :5 mix$ ) ! =eign matt] ( ! ore1 =ms a fusible vitre\s mass or slag4 ,! flux us$ = silica is lime/one ) clay2 = lime/one a def9ite quantity ( silica is us$1 ! be/ proc$ure hav+ be5 arriv$ at by exp]im5t & by long practice 9 iron smelt+ & o!r metallurgical processes4#g #e ,! r$uction ( iron oxides by hydrog5 belongs to ! ord] ( rev]sible reactions 7,*apt] ,,ii471 & is !re=e det]m9$ by a limit :i* is "h express$ by ! atta9m5t ( ! same pressure z 9 ! case :]e hydrog5 acts on iron oxides1 & z 9 ! case :]e 7at ! same temp]ature7 wat] is decompos$ by metallic iron4 ,! calculations ref]r+ to ?is matt] 7 made by ,h5ri ,sa9te-,claire ,deville 7#ahgj74 ,spongy iron 0 plac$ 9 a tube hav+ a temp]ature t1 "o end ( :i* 0 connect$ ) a vessel conta9+ wat] at #j 7vap\r t5sion #df mm47 & ! o!r end ) a m]cury pump & pressure gauge :i* det]m9$ ! limit+ t5sion atta9$ by ! dry hydrog5 p 7subtract+ ! t5sion ( ! wat] vap\r f ! t5sion obs]v$74 ,a tube 0 !n tak5 conta9+ an excess ( iron oxide4 ,x 0 fill$ ) hydrog51 & ! t5sion p#a obs]v$ ( ! residual hydrog5 :5 ! wat] 0 cond5s$ at #j4 t #bjj #ddj #hfj #ajdj p #iei #beh #abh #ib mm4 p#a -- -- #abh #id mm4 ,! equality ( ! pressure 7t5sion7 ( ! hydrog5 9 ! two cases is evid5t4 ,! hydrog5 "h behaves l ! vap\r ( iron or ( its oxide4 ,by tak+ f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 ,moissan obs]v$ t at #cej x pass$ into magnetic oxide1 ,fe#c,o#d1 at #ejj into f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 & at #fjj into metallic iron4 ,wright & ,luff 7#ahgh71 :il/ inve/igat+ ! r$uction ( oxides1 f\nd t 7a7 ! temp]ature ( reaction dep5ds on ! condition ( ! oxide tak5--= in/ance1 precipitat$ f]ric oxide is r$uc$ by hydrog5 at #he1 t obta9$ by oxidis+ ! metal or f its nitrate at #age2 7b7 :5 o!r conditions are ! same1 ! r$uction by c>bonic oxide comm5ces e>li] ?an t by hydrog51 & ! r$uction by hydrog5 /ill e>li] ?an t by *>coal2 7c7 ! r$uction is effect$ ) great] facility :5 a great] quantity ( heat is evolv$ dur+ ! reaction4 ,f]ric oxide obta9$ by heat+ f]r\s sulphate to a r$ heat beg9s to be r$uc$ by c>bonic oxide at #bjb1 by hydrog5 at #bfj1 by *>coal at #dcj1 :il/ = magnetic oxide1 ,fe#c,o#d1 ! temp]atures are #bjj1 #bij1 & #dej respectively4 #f ,! primitive me?ods ( iron manufacture 7 conduct$ by int]mitt5t processes 9 he>?s resembl+ smi?s' fires4 ,z evid5c$ by ! un9t]rupt$ action ( ! /eam boil]1 or ! process ( lime burn+1 & ! cont9u\s prep>ation & cond5sation ( sulphuric acid or ! un9t]rupt$ smelt+ ( iron1 e indu/rial process becomes increas+ly pr(itable & complete "u ! condition ( ! cont9u\s action1 z f> z possible1 ( all ag5cies conc]n$ 9 ! production4 ,?is cont9u\s me?od ( production is ! fir/ condition = ! pr(itable production on ! l>ge scale ( ne>ly all indu/rial products4 ,?is me?od less5s ! co/ ( lab\r1 simplifies ! sup]vision ( ! "w1 r5d]s ! product uni=m1 & frequ5tly introduces a v great economy 9 ! exp5diture ( fuel & at ! same "t pres5ts ! simplicity & p]fection ( an equilibrat$ sy/em4 ,h5ce e manufactur+ op]ation %\ld be a cont9u\s "o1 & ! manufacture ( pig iron & sulphuric acid1 :i* h long s9ce become s1 may be tak5 z examples 9 _m respects4 ,a /udy ( ^! two manufactures %\ld =m ! comm5cem5t ( an acqua9tance ) all ! contempor>y me?ods ( manufactur+ bo? f a te*nical & economical po9t ( view4 #g ,! composition ( slag suitable = iron smelt+ mo/ (t5 approa*es ! foll[+3 #ej to #fj p4c4 ,si,o#b1 #e to #bj ,al#b,o#c1 ! re/ ( ! mass consi/+ ( ,mg,o1 ,ca,o1 ,mn,o1 ,fe,o4 ,?us ! mo/ fusible slag 7accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,bodeman7 conta9s ! alloy ,al#b,o#c1d;,ca,o1#g,si,o#b4 ,on alt]+ ! quantity ( magnesia & lime1 & especially ( ! alkalis 7:i* increases ! fusibility7 & ( silica 7:i* decreases x71 ! temp]ature ( fusion *anges ) ! relation betwe5 ! total quantity ( oxyg5 & t 9 ! silica4 ,slags ( ! composition ,,ro1,si,o#b are easily fusible1 h a vitre\s appe>ance1 & are v common4 ,basic slags approa* ! composition #b,,ro1,si,o#b4 ,h5ce1 kn[+ ! composition & quantity ( ! =eign matt] 9 ! ore1 x is at once easy to f9d ! quantity & quality ( ! flux :i* mu/ be add$ to =m a suitable slag4 ,! smelt+ ( iron is r5d]$ m complex by ! fact t ! silica1 ,si,o#b1 :i* ent]s into ! slag & fluxes is capable ( =m+ a slag ) ! iron oxides4 ,9 ord] t ! lea/ quantity ( iron may pass into ! slag1 x is necess>y = x to be r$uc$ be=e ! temp]ature is atta9$ at :i* ! slags are =m$ 7ab\t #ajjj71 :i* is effect$ by r$uc+ ! iron1 n ) *>coal itself1 b ) c>bonic oxide4 ,f ?is x w be und]/ood h[ ! progress ( ! :ole treatm5t may be judg$ by ! prop]ties ( ! slags4 ,details ( ?is complicat$ & well-/udi$ subject w be f\nd 9 works on metallurgy4 ,?us ! foll[+ mat]ials h to be introduc$ into ! furnace :]e ! smelt+ ( ! iron ore is c>ri$ on3 7#a7 ! iron ore1 compos$ ( oxide ( iron & =eign matt]2 7#b7 ! flux requir$ to =m a fusible slag ) ! =eign matt]2 7#c7 ! c>bon :i* is necess>y 7a7 = r$uc+1 7b7 = comb9+ ) ! r$uc$ iron to =m ca/ iron1 7c7 pr9cipally = ! purpose ( combu/ion & ! heat g5]at$ !reby1 necess>y n only = r$uc+ ! iron & trans=m+ x into ca/ iron1 b also = melt+ ! slag1 z well z ! ca/ iron--& 7#d7 ! air necess>y = ! combu/ion ( ! *>coal4 ,! air is introduc$ aft] a prep>atory heat+ 9 ord] to economise fuel & to obta9 ! highe/ temp]ature4 ,! air is =c$ 9 "u pressure by means ( a special bla/ arrangem5t4 ,?is p]mits ( an exact regulation ( ! heat & rate ( smelt+4 ,all ^! compon5t p>ts necess>y = ! smelt+ ( iron mu/ be conta9$ 9 a v]tical1 t is1 %aft furnace1 :i* at ! base mu/ h a receptacle = ! accumulation ( ! slag & ca/ iron =m$1 9 ord] t ! op]ation may proce$ )\t int]ruption4 ,! walls ( su* a furnace ought to be built ( firepro( mat]ials if x be design$ to s]ve = ! cont9u\s production ( ca/ iron by *>g+ ! ore1 fuel1 & flux into ! m\? ( ! furnace1 =c+ a bla/ ( air into ! l[] "p1 & runn+ out ! molt5 iron & slag f bel[4 ,! :ole op]ation is conduct$ 9 furnaces kn[n z bla/ furnaces4 ,! annex$ illu/ration1 fig4 #ic 7:i* is tak5 by k9d p]mission f ,?orpe's ,diction>y ( ,appli$ ,*emi/ry71 repres5ts ! v]tical section ( su* a furnace4 ,^! furnaces are g5]ally ( l>ge dim5sions--v>y+ f #ej to #ij feet 9 height4 ,!y are sometimes built aga9/ ris+ gr\nd 9 ord] to af=d easy access to ! top :]e ! ore1 flux1 & *>coal or coke are *>g$4#h #h ,! section ( a bla/ furnace is repres5t$ by two truncat$ cones jo9$ at _! bases1 ! upp] cone be+ long] ?an ! l[] "o2 ! l[] cone is t]m9at$ by ! he>?1 or almo/ cyl9drical cavity 9 :i* ! ca/ iron & slag collect1 "o side be+ provid$ ) ap]tures = draw+ (f ! iron & slag4 ,! air is bl[n into ! bla/ furnace ?r\gh special pipes1 situat$ ov] ! he>?1 z %[n 9 ! section4 ,! air previ\sly passes ?r\gh a s]ies ( ca/-iron pipes1 heat$ by ! combu/ion ( ! c>bonic oxide obta9$ f ! upp] p>ts ( ! furnace1 :]e x is =m$ z 9 a 'gas-produc]4' ,! bla/ furnace acts cont9u\sly until x is worn out2 ! iron is tapp$ (f twice a day1 & ! furnace is all[$ to cool a little f "t to "t s z n to be spoilt by ! increas+ heat1 & to enable x to )/& long usage4 ,bla/ furnaces work$ ) *>coal fuel are n s high1 & 9 g5]al give a small] yield ?an ^? us+ coke1 because ! latt] are work$ ) heavi] *>ges ?an ^? 9 :i* *>coal is employ$4 ,coke furnaces yield #bj1jjj tons & ov] ( pig iron a ye>4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are bla/ furnaces #cj metres high1 & upw>ds ( #fjj cubic metres capacity1 yield+ z mu* z #acj1jjj tons ( pig iron1 requir+ a bla/ ( ab\t #gej cubic metres ( air p] m9ute1 heat$ to #fjj1 & consum+ ab\t #jhe "p ( coke p] #a "p ( pig iron produc$4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! _w produces z mu* z #cj million tons ( pig iron a ye>1 ab\t #i_/aj ( :i* is conv]t$ into wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,! *ief produc]s are ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7ab\t #aj million tons a ye>7 & ,engl& 7ab\t #i million tons a ye>72 ,russia yields ab\t #a-a_/e million tons a ye>4 ,! _w's production has d\bl$ dur+ ! la/ #bj ye>s1 & 9 ?is respect ! ,unit$ ,/ates h outrun all o!r c\ntries4 ,! reason ( ?is increase ( production mu/ be look$ = 9 ! increas$ dem& = iron & /eel = railway purposes1 = /ructures 7especially %ip-build+71 & 9 ! fact t3 7a7 ! co/ ( pig iron has fall51 ?anks to ! erection ( l>ge furnaces & a full] /udy ( ! processes tak+ place 9 !m1 & 7b7 t e k9d ( iron ore 7ev5 sulphur\s & phosphoritic7 c n[ be conv]t$ into a homog5e\s /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,v]tical section ( a mod]n ,clevel& bla/ furnace capable ( produc+ #cjj to #a1jjj tons ( pig iron weekly4 ,! out] cas+ is ( rivet$ iron plates1 ! furnace be+ l9$ ) refractory fire-brick4 ,x is clos$ at ! top by a 'cap & cone' arrangem5t1 by means ( :i* ! *>ge c be f$ into ! furnace at suitable int]vals by l[]+ ! moveable cone4 ,9 ord] to m ?or\ghly grasp ! *emical process :i* takes place 9 bla/ furnaces1 x is necess>y to foll[ ! c\rse ( ! mat]ial *>g$ 9 at ! top & ( ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! furnace4 ,f #ej to #bjj p>ts ( c>bon are exp5d$ on #ajj p>ts ( iron4 ,! ore1 flux1 & coke are *>g$ into ! top ( ! furnace1 9 lay]s1 z ! ca/ iron is =m$ 9 ! l[] p>ts & fl[+ d[n to ! bottom causes ! :ole cont5ts ( ! furnace to subside1 ?us =m+ an empty space at ! top1 :i* is aga9 fill$ up ) ! a=e-m5tion$ mixture4 ,dur+ its d[nw>d c\rse ?is mixture is subject$ to increas+ heat4 ,?is rise ( temp]ature fir/ drives (f ! moi/ure ( ! ore mixture1 & !n leads to ! =mation ( ! products ( ! dry di/illation ( coal or *>coal4 ,little by little ! subsid+ mass atta9s a temp]ature at :i* ! heat$ c>bon reacts ) ! c>bonic anhydride pass+ upw>ds ?r\gh ! furnace & trans=ms x into c>bonic oxide4 ,?is is ! reason :y c>bonic anhydride is n evolv$ f ! furnace1 b only c>bonic oxide4 ,z reg>ds ! ore itself1 on be+ heat$ to ab\t #fjj to #hjj x is r$uc$ at ! exp5se ( ! c>bonic oxide asc5d+ ! furnace1 & =m$ by ! contact ( ! c>bonic anhydride ) ! inc&esc5t *>coal1 s t ! r$uction 9 ! bla/ furnace is )\t d\bt br\ght ab\t by ! =mation & decomposition ( c>bonic oxide & n by c>bon itself--?us1 ,fe#b,o#c #c;,,co ,fe#b #c;,,co#b4 ,! r$uc$ iron1 on fur!r subsid5ce & contact ) c>bon1 =ms ca/ iron1 :i* fl[s to ! bottom ( ! furnace4 ,9 ^! l[] lay]s1 :]e ! temp]ature is highe/ 7ab\t #a1cjj71 ! =eign matt] ( ! ore f9ally =ms slag1 :i* also is fusible1 ) ! aid ( fluxes4 ,! air bl[n 9 f bel[1 ?r\gh ! s-call$ tuy]es1 enc\nt]s c>bon 9 ! l[] lay]s ( ! furnace1 & burns x1 conv]t+ x into c>bonic anhydride4 ,x is evid5t t ?is develops ! highe/ temp]ature 9 ^! l[] lay]s ( ! furnace1 because "h ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon is effect$ by heat$ & compress$ air4 ,?is is v ess5tial1 = x is by virtue ( ?is high temp]ature t ! process ( =m+ ! slag & ( =m+ & fus+ ! ca/ iron are effect$ simultane\sly 9 ^! l[] portions ( ! furnace4 ,! c>bonic acid =m$ 9 ^! p>ts rises high]1 enc\nt]s inc&esc5t c>bon1 & =ms ) x c>bonic oxide4 ,?is heat$ c>bonic oxide acts z a r$uc+ ag5t on ! iron ore1 & is reconv]t$ by x into c>bonic anhydride2 ?is gas meets ) m c>bon1 & aga9 =ms c>bonic oxide1 :i* aga9 acts z a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,! f9al trans=mation ( ! c>bonic anhydride into c>bonic oxide is effect$ 9 ^? p>ts ( ! furnace :]e ! r$uction ( ! oxides ( iron does n take place1 b :]e ! temp]ature is /ill high en\gh to r$uce ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,! asc5d+ mixture ( c>bonic oxide & nitrog51 ,,co#b1 c41 is !n )drawn ?r\gh special lat]al ap]tures =m$ 9 ! upp] cold p>ts ( ! furnace walls1 & is conduct$ ?r\gh pipes to ^? /oves :i* are us$ = heat+ ! air1 & also sometimes into o!r furnaces us$ = ! fur!r processes ( iron manufacture4 ,! fuel ( bla/ furnaces consi/s ( wood *>coal 7?is is ! mo/ exp5sive mat]ial1 b ! pig iron produc$ is ! pure/1 because *>coal does n conta9 any sulphur1 :ile coke does71 an?racite 7= in/ance1 9 ,p5nsylvania1 & 9 ,russia at ,pa/\h(f's works 9 ! ,don di/rict71 coke1 coal1 & ev5 wood & peat4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! utilisation ( naph?a & naph?a refuse w\ld probably give v pr(itable results 9 metallurgical processes4 ,! process j describ$ is accompani$ by a s]ies ( o!r processes4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 9 ! bla/ furnace a consid]able quantity ( cyanog5 comp\nds are =m$4 ,?is takes place because ! nitrog5 ( ! air bla/ comes into contact ) inc&esc5t c>bon & v>i\s alkal9e matt]s conta9$ 9 ! =eign matt] ( ! ores4 ,a consid]able quantity ( potassium cyanide is =m$ :5 wood *>coal is employ$ = iron smelt+1 z its a% is ri* 9 pota%4 ,! ca/ iron =m$ 9 bla/ furnaces is n always ( ! same quality4 ,:5 sl[ly cool$ x is s(t1 has a grey col\r1 & is n completely soluble 9 acids4 ,:5 treat$ ) acids a residue ( graphite rema9s2 x is kn[n z grey or s(t ca/ iron4 ,?is is ! g5]al =m ( ! ord9>y ca/ iron us$ = ca/+ v>i\s objects1 because 9 ?is /ate x is n s brittle z 9 ! %ape ( :ite ca/ iron1 :i* does n leave p>ticles ( graphite :5 dissolv$1 b yields its c>bon 9 ! =m ( hydroc>bons4 ,?is :ite ca/ iron is *>act]is$ by its :iti%-grey col\r1 dull lu/re1 ! cry/all9e /ructure ( its fracture 7m homog5e\s ?an t ( grey iron71 & su* h>dness t a file w h>dly cut x4 ,:5 :ite ca/ iron is produc$ 7f manganese ore7 at high temp]atures 7& ) an excess ( lime71 & conta9+ little sulphur & silica b a consid]able am\nt ( c>bon 7z mu* z #e p4c471 x acquires a co>se cry/all9e /ructure :i* increases 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( manganese1 & x is !n kn[n "u ! "n ( 'spiegeleis5' 7& 'f]ro-manganese'74#i #i ,! specific gravity ( :ite ca/ iron is ab\t #ge4 ,grey ca/ iron has a mu* l[] specific gravity1 namely1 #gj4 ,grey ca/ iron g5]ally conta9s less manganese & m silica ?an :ite2 b bo? conta9 f #b to #c p4c4 ( c>bon4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! v>ieties ( ca/ iron dep5ds on ! condition ( ! c>bon :i* ent]s into ! composition ( ! iron4 ,9 :ite ca/ iron ! c>bon is 9 comb9ation ) ! iron--9 all probability1 z ! comp\nd ,c,fe#d 7,abel & ,osmond & o!rs extract$ ?is comp\nd1 :i* is sometimes call$ 'c>bide1' f temp]$ /eel1 :i* /&s to unanneal$ /eel z :ite ca/ iron does to grey71 b p]haps 9 ! /ate ( an indef9ite *emical comp\nd resembl+ a solution4 ,9 any case ! comp\nd ( ! iron & c>bon 9 :ite ca/ iron is *emically v un/able1 because :5 sl[ly cool$ x decomposes1 ) sep>ation ( graphite1 j z a solution :5 sl[ly cool$ yields a portion ( ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,! sep>ation ( c>bon 9 ! =m ( graphite on ! conv]sion ( :ite ca/ iron into grey is nev] complete1 h[ev] sl[ly ! sep>ation be c>ri$ on2 "p ( ! c>bon rema9s 9 comb9ation ) ! iron 9 ! same /ate 9 :i* x exi/s 9 :ite ca/ iron4 ,h5ce :5 grey ca/ iron is treat$ ) acids1 ! :ole ( ! c>bon does n rema9 9 ! =m ( graphite1 b a "p ( x is sep>at$ z hydroc>bons1 :i* proves ! exi/5ce ( *emically-comb9$ c>bon 9 grey ca/ iron4 ,x is suffici5t to re-melt grey ca/ iron & to cool x quickly to trans=m x into :ite ca/ iron4 ,x is n c>bon alone t influ5ces ! prop]ties ( ca/ iron2 :5 x conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( sulphur1 ca/ iron rema9s :ite ev5 aft] hav+ be5 sl[ly cool$4 ,! same is obs]v$ 9 ca/ iron v ri* 9 manganese 7#e to #g p4c471 & 9 ?is latt] case ! fracture is v di/9ctly cry/all9e & brilliant4 ,:5 ca/ iron conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( manganese1 ! quantity ( c>bon may also be increas$4 ,cry/all9e v>ieties ( ca/ iron ri* 9 manganese are 9 practice call$ f]ro-manganese 7p4 #caj71 & are prep>$ = ! ,bessem] process4 ,grey ca/ iron n hav+ an uni=m /ructure is mu* m liable to v>i\s *anges ?an d5se & ?or\ghly uni=m :ite ca/ iron1 & ! latt] oxidises mu* m sl[ly 9 air ?an ! =m]4 ,:ite ca/ iron is n only us$ = conv]sion into wr\ght iron & /eel1 b also 9 ^? cases :]e great h>dness is requir$1 al?\gh x be accompani$ by a c]ta9 brittl5ess2 = in/ance1 = mak+ roll]s1 pl\gh-%>es1 c4 ,ca/ iron is a mat]ial :i* is ei!r suitable = direct application = ca/+ 9 m\lds or else = work+ up into wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,! latt] pr9cipally diff] f ca/ iron 9 _! conta9+ less c>bon--?us1 /eel conta9s f #a p4c4 to #je p4c4 ( c>bon & f> less silicon & manganese ?an ca/ iron2 wr\ght iron does n g5]ally conta9 m ?an #jbe p4c4 ( c>bon & n m ?an #jbe p4c4 ( ! o!r impurities4 ,?us ! ess5ce ( ! work+ up ( ca/ iron into /eel & wr\ght iron consi/s 9 ! removal ( ! great] "p ( ! c>bon & o!r elem5ts1 ,s1 ,p1 ,mn1 ,si1 c4 ,?is is effect$ by means ( oxidation1 because ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 oxidis+ ! iron at a high temp]ature1 =ms solid oxides ) x2 & ! latt]1 com+ into contact ) ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! ca/ iron1 are deoxidis$1 =m+ wr\ght iron & c>bonic oxide1 :i* is evolv$ f ! mass 9 a gase\s =m4 ,x is evid5t t ! oxidation mu/ be c>ri$ on ) a molt5 mass 9 a /ate ( agitation1 s t ! oxyg5 ( ! air may be br\ght into contact ) ! :ole mass ( c>bon conta9$ 9 ! ca/ iron1 or else ! op]ation is effect$ by means ( ! addition ( oxyg5 comp\nds ( iron 7oxides1 ores1 z 9 ,m>t9's process74 ,ca/ iron melts mu* m easily ?an wr\ght iron & /eel1 &1 !re=e1 z ! c>bon sep>ates1 ! mass 9 ! furnace 79 puddl+7 or he>? 79 ! bloom]y process7 becomes m & m solid2 moreov] ! degree ( h>dness =ms1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 a measure ( ! am\nt ( c>bon sep>at$1 & ! op]ation may t]m9ate ei!r 9 ! =mation ( /eel or wr\ght iron4#aj ,9 any case1 ! iron us$ = indu/rial purposes conta9s impurities4 ,*emically pure iron may be obta9$ by precipitat+ iron f a solution 7a mixture ( f]r\s sulphate ) magnesium sulphate or ammonium *loride7 by ! prolong$ action ( a feeble galvanic curr5t2 ! iron may be !n obta9$ z a d5se mass4 ,?is me?od1 propos$ by ,btt*] & appli$ by ,kle91 gives1 z ,r4 ,l5z %[$1 iron conta9+ occlud$ hydrog51 :i* is dis5gag$ on heat+4 ,?is galvanic deposition ( iron is us$ = mak+ galvanopla/ic cli*s1 :i* are di/+ui%$ = _! great h>dness4 ,electro-deposit$ iron is brittle1 b if heat$ 7aft] ! sep>ation ( ! hydrog57 x becomes s(t4 ,if pure f]ric hydroxide1 :i* is easily prep>$ by ! precipitation ( solutions ( f]ric salts by means ( ammonia1 be heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 x =ms1 fir/ ( all1 a dull black p[d] :i* ignites spontane\sly 9 air 7pyrophoric iron71 & !n a grey p[d] ( pure iron4 ,! p[d]y sub/ance fir/ obta9$ is an iron suboxide2 :5 ?r[n into ! air x ignites1 =m+ ! oxide ,fe#c,o#d4 ,if ! heat+ 9 hydrog5 be cont9u$1 m wat] & pure iron1 :i* does n ignite spontane\sly1 w be obta9$4 ,if a small quantity ( iron be fus$ 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame 7) an excess ( oxyg57 9 a piece ( lime & mix$ ) p[d]$ glass1 pure molt5 iron w be =m$1 because 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame iron melts & burns1 b ! sub/ances mix$ ) ! iron oxidise fir/4 ,! oxidis$ impurities "h ei!r disappe> 7c>bonic anhydride7 9 a gase\s =m1 or turn into slag 7silica1 manganese1 oxide1 & o!rs7--t is1 fuse ) ! glass4 ,pure iron has a silv]y :ite col\r & a specific gravity ( #ghd2 x melts at a temp]ature high] ?an ! melt+-po9ts ( silv]1 gold1 nickel1 & /eel1 i4e4 ab\t #adjj-aejj & bel[ ! melt+ po9t ( plat9um 7#agej74aa ,b pure iron becomes s(t at a temp]ature consid]ably bel[ t at :i* x melts1 & may !n be easily =g$1 weld$1 & roll$ or drawn into %eets & wire4#aa bis ,pure iron may be roll$ into an exce$+ly ?9 %eet1 weigh+ less ?an a %eet ( ord9>y pap] ( ! same size4 ,?is ductility is ! mo/ important prop]ty ( iron 9 all its =ms1 & is mo/ m>k$ ) %eet iron1 & lea/ s ) ca/ iron1 ^: ductility1 comp>$ ) wr\ght iron1 is small1 b x is /ill v consid]able :5 comp>$ ) o!r sub/ances--su*1 = in/ance1 z rocks4#ab #aj ,?is direct process ( sep>at+ ! c>bon f ca/ iron is t]m$ puddl+4 ,x is conduct$ 9 rev]b]atory furnaces4 ,! ca/ iron is plac$ on ! b$ ( ! furnace & melt$2 ?r\gh a special ap]ture1 ! puddl] /irs up ! oxidis+ mass ( ca/ iron1 press+ ! oxides into ! molt5 iron4 ,?is resembles knead+ d\gh1 & ! process introduc$ 9 ,engl& became kn[n z puddl+4 ,x is evid5t t ! puddl$ mass1 or bloom1 is a het]og5e\s sub/ance obta9$ by mix+1 & h5ce "o "p ( ! mass w /ill be ri* 9 c>bon1 ano!r w be poor1 "s p>ts w conta9 oxide n r$uc$1 c4 ,! fur!r treatm5t ( ! puddl$ mass consi/s 9 hamm]+ & draw+ x out into flat pieces1 :i* on be+ hamm]$ become m homog5e\s1 & :5 sev]al pieces are weld$ toge!r & aga9 hamm]$ out a /ill m homog5e\s mass is obta9$4 ,! quality ( ! /eel & iron ?us =m$ dep5ds pr9cipally on _! uni=mity4 ,! want ( uni=mity dep5ds on ! oxides rema9+ inside ! mass1 & on ! v>iable di/ribution ( ! c>bon ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a m homog5e\s metal = manufactur+ articles out ( /eel1 x is drawn into ?9 rods1 :i* are ti$ toge!r 9 bundles & !n aga9 hamm]$ out4 ,z an example ( :at may be atta9$ 9 ?is direction1 imitation ,damascus /eel may be cit$2 x consi/s ( twi/$ & plait$ wire1 :i* is !n hamm]$ into a d5se mass4 7,real damasc5$ wootz /eel may be made by melt+ a mixture ( ! be/ iron ) graphite 7#a_/ab7 & iron ru/2 ! article is !n corrod$ ) acid1 & ! c>bon rema9s 9 ! =m ( a patt]n47 ,/eel & wr\ght iron are manufactur$ f ca/ iron by puddl+4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 obta9$ n only by ?is me?od b also by ! bloom]y process1 :i* is c>ri$ out 9 a fire simil> to a blacksmi?'s =ge1 f$ ) *>coal & provid$ ) a bla/2 a pig ( ca/ iron is gradually pu%$ into ! fire1 & portions ( x melt & fall to ! bottom ( ! he>?1 com+ into contact ) an air bla/1 & are ?us oxidis$4 ,! bloom ?us =m$ is !n squeez$ & hamm]$4 ,x is evid5t t ?is process is only available :5 ! *>coal us$ 9 ! fire does n conta9 any =eign matt] :i* might injure ! quality ( ! iron or /eel--= in/ance1 sulphur or phosphorus--& !re=e only wood *>coal may be us$ ) impunity1 f :i* x foll[s t ?is process c only be c>ri$ on :]e ! manufacture ( iron c be conduct$ ) ?is fuel4 ,coal & coke conta9 ! above-m5tion$ impurities1 & w\ld !re=e produce iron ( a brittle nature1 & ?us x w\ld be necess>y to h rec\rse to puddl+1 :]e ! fuel is burnt on a special he>?1 sep>ate f ! ca/ iron1 :]eby ! impurities ( ! fuel d n come into contact ) x4 ,! manufacture ( /eel f ca/ iron may also be conduct$ 9 fires2 b1 9 addition to ?is1 x is also n[ prep>$ by _m o!r me?ods4 ,"o ( ! long-kn[n processes is call$ cem5tation1 by :i* /eel is prep>$ f wr\ght iron b n f ca/ iron4 ,= ?is process /rips ( iron are heat$ r$-hot = a consid]able "t :il/ imm]s$ 9 p[d]$ *>coal2 dur+ ?is op]ation ! iron at ! surface comb9es ) ! *>coal1 :i* h[ev] does n p5etrate2 aft] ?is ! iron /rips are re-=g$1 drawn out aga91 & cem5t$ anew1 repeat+ ?is process until a /eel ( ! desir$ quality is =m$--t is1 conta9+ ! requisite proportion ( c>bon4 ,! ,bessem] process occupies ! front rank among ! new] me?ods 7s9ce #ahef72 x is s call$ f ! "n ( its inv5tor4 ,?is process consi/s 9 runn+ melt$ ca/ iron into conv]t]s 7hold+ ab\t #f tons ( ca/ iron7--t is1 egg-%ap$ receiv]s1 fig4 #id1 capable ( revolv+ on trunnions 79 ord] to *>ge 9 ! ca/ iron & dis*>ge ! /eel71 & =c+ a /ream ( air ?r\gh small ap]tures at a consid]able pressure4 ,combu/ion ( ! iron & c>bon at an elevat$ temp]ature !n takes place1 result+ f ! bubbles ( oxyg5 ?us p5etrat+ ! mass ( ! ca/ iron4 ,! c>bon1 h[ev]1 burns to a great] ext5t ?an ! iron1 & !re=e a mass is obta9$ :i* is mu* poor] 9 c>bon ?an ca/ iron4 ,z ! combu/ion proce$s v rapidly 9 ! mass ( metal1 ! temp]ature rises to su* an ext5t t ev5 ! wr\ght iron :i* may be =m$ rema9s 9 a molt5 condition1 :il/ ! /eel1 be+ m fusible ?an ! wr\ght iron1 rema9s v liquid4 ,9 half an h\r ! mass is ready4 ,! pure/ possible ca/ iron is us$ 9 ! ,bessem] process1 because sulphur & phosphorus d n burn out l c>bon1 silicon1 & manganese4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,bessem] conv]t]1 con/ruct$ ( iron plate & l9$ ) gani/]4 ,! air is c>ri$ by ! tubes1 ,l1 ,o1 ,d to ! bottom1 ,m1 f :i* x passes by a numb] ( holes into ! conv]t]4 ,! conv]t] is rotat$ on ! trunnion d by means ( ! rack & p9ion ,h1 :5 x is requir$ ei!r to receive molt5 ca/ iron f ! melt+ furnaces or to p\r out ! /eel4 ,! pres5ce ( manganese enables ! sulphur to be remov$ ) ! slag1 & ! pres5ce ( lime or magnesia1 :i* are introduc$ into ! l9+ ( ! conv]t]1 facilitates ! removal ( ! phosphorus4 ,?is basic ,bessem] process1 or ,?omas ,gil*ri/ process1 introduc$ ab\t #ahhj1 enables ores conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( phosphorus1 :i* _h hi!rto only be5 us$ = ca/ iron1 to be us$ = mak+ wr\ght iron & /eel4 ,naturally ! greate/ uni=mity w be obta9$ by re-melt+ ! metal4 ,/eel is re-melt$ 9 small w9d furnaces1 9 masses n exce$+ #cj kilos2 a liquid metal is =m$1 :i* may be ca/ 9 m\lds4 ,a mixture ( wr\ght & ca/ iron is (t5 us$ = mak+ ca/ /eel 7! addition ( a small am\nt ( metallic ,al improves ! homog5eity ( ! ca/+s1 by facilitat+ ! passage ( ! impurities into slag74 ,l>ge /eel ca/+s are made by simultane\s fusion 9 sev]al furnaces & crucibles2 9 ?is way1 ca/+s up to #hj tons or m1 su* z l>ge ordnance1 may be made4 ,?is molt51 & !re=e homog5e\s1 /eel is call$ ca/ /eel4 ,( late ye>s ! ,m>t9's process = ! manufacture ( /eel has come l>gely into use2 x 0 inv5t$ 9 ,france ab\t #ahfj1 & ) ! use ( reg5]ative furnaces x enables l>ge quantities ( ca/ /eel to be made at a "t4 ,x is bas$ on ! melt+ ( ca/ iron ) iron oxides & iron itself--= in/ance1 pure ores1 scrap1 c4 ,!re ! c>bon ( ! ca/ iron & ! oxyg5 ( ! oxide =m c>bonic oxide1 & ! c>bon !re=e burns out1 & ?us ca/ /eel is obta9$ f ca/ iron1 provid+1 naturally1 t !re is a requisite proportion & correspond+ degree ( heat4 ,! advantage ( ?is process is t n only d ! c>bon1 silicon1 & manganese1 b also a great "p ( ! sulphur & phosphorus ( ! ca/ iron burn out at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! iron oxides4 ,dur+ ! la/ decade ! manufacture ( /eel & its application = rails1 arm\r plate1 guns1 boil]s1 c41 has develop$ to an enorm\s ext5t1 ?anks to ! inv5tion ( *eap processes = ! manufacture ( l>ge masses ( homog5e\s ca/ /eel4 ,wr\ght iron may also be melt$1 b ! heat ( a bla/ furnace is insuffici5t = ?is4 ,x easily melts 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame4 ,x may be obta9$ 9 a molt5 /ate directly f ca/ iron1 if ! latt] be melt$ ) nitre & suffici5tly /irr$ up4 ,consid]able oxidation !n takes place inside ! mass ( ca/ iron1 & ! temp]ature rises to su* an ext5t t ! wr\ght iron =m$ rema9s liquid4 ,a me?od is also kn[n = obta9+ wr\ght iron directly f ri* iron ores by ! action ( c>bonic oxide3 ! wr\ght iron is !n =m$ z a spongy mass 7:i* =ms an excell5t filt] = purify+ wat]71 & may be work$ up into wr\ght iron or /eel ei!r by =g+ or by dissolv+ 9 molt5 ca/ iron4 ,ev]ybody is m or less famili> ) ! diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties ( /eel & wr\ght iron4 ,iron is rem>kable = its s(tness1 pliability1 & small ela/icity1 :il/ /eel may be *>act]is$ by its capability ( atta9+ ela/icity & h>dness if x be cool$ sudd5ly aft] hav+ be5 heat$ to a def9ite temp]ature1 or1 z x is t]m$1 temp]$4 ,b if temp]$ /eel be re-heat$ & sl[ly cool$1 x becomes z s(t z wr\ght iron1 & c !n be cut ) ! file & =g$1 & 9 g5]al c be made to assume any %ape1 l wr\ght iron4 ,9 ?is s(t condition x is call$ anneal$ /eel4 ,! transition f temp]$ to anneal$ /eel ?us takes place 9 a simil> way to ! transition f :ite to grey ca/ iron4 ,/eel1 :5 homog5e\s1 has consid]able lu/re1 & su* a f9e granul> /ructure t x takes a v high poli%4 ,its fracture cle>ly %[s ! granul> nature ( its /ructure4 ,! possibility ( temp]+ /eel enables x to be us$ = mak+ all k9ds ( cutt+ in/rum5ts1 because anneal$ /eel c be =g$1 turn$1 drawn 7"u roll]s1 = in/ance1 = mak+ rails1 b>s1 c471 fil$1 c41 & x may !n be temp]$1 gr\nd & poli%$4 ,! me?od & temp]ature ( temp]+ & anneal+ /eel det]m9e its h>dness & o!r qualities4 ,/eel is g5]ally temp]$ to ! requir$ degree ( h>dness 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,x is fir/ /rongly heat$ 7= in/ance1 up to #fjj71 & !n plung$ into wat]--t is1 h>d5$ by rapid cool+ 7x !n becomes z brittle z glass74 ,x is !n heat$ until ! surface assumes a def9ite col\r1 & f9ally cool$ ei!r quickly or sl[ly4 ,:5 /eel is heat$ up to #bbj1 its surface acquires a yell[ col\r 7surgical in/rum5ts72 x fir/ ( all becomes /raw-col\r$ 7razors1 c471 & !n gold-col\r$2 !n at a temp]ature ( #bej x becomes br[n 7scissors71 !n r$1 !n light blue at #bhe 7spr+s71 !n indigo at #cjj 7files71 & f9ally sea-gre5 at ab\t #cdj4 ,^! col\rs are only ! t9ts ( ?9 films1 l ! hues ( soap bubbles1 & appe> on ! /eel because a ?9 lay] ( oxides is =m$ ov] its surface4 ,/eel ru/s m sl[ly ?an wr\ght iron1 & is m soluble 9 acids ?an ca/ iron1 b less s ?an wr\ght iron4 ,its specific gravity is ab\t #gf to #gi4 ,z reg>ds ! =mation ( /eel1 x 0 a long "t be=e ! process ( cem5tation 0 ?or\ghly und]/ood1 because 9 ?is case infusible *>coal p]meates unfus$ wr\ght iron4 ,c>on %[$ t ?is p]meation dep5ds on ! fact t ! *>coal us$ 9 ! process conta9s alkalis1 :i*1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! nitrog5 ( ! air1 =m metallic cyanides2 ^! be+ volatile & fusible1 p]meate ! iron1 &1 giv+ up _! c>bon to x1 s]ve z ! mat]ial = ! =mation ( /eel4 ,?is explanation is confirm$ by ! fact t *>coal )\t alkalis or )\t nitrog5 w n cem5t iron4 ,! *>coal us$ = cem5tation acts badly :5 us$ ov] aga91 z x has lo/ alkali4 ,! v volatile ammonium cyanide easily conduces to ! =mation ( /eel4 ,al?\gh /eel is also =m$ by ! action ( cyanog5 comp\nds1 nev]!less x does n conta9 m nitrog5 ?an ca/ or wr\ght iron 7#jja p4c471 & ^! latt] conta9 x because _! ores conta9 titanium1 :i* comb9es directly ) nitrog54 ,h5ce ! "p play$ by nitrog5 9 /eel is b an insignificant "o4 ,x may be useful "h to add "s in=mation tak5 f ,c>on's treatise conc]n+ ! influ5ce ( =eign matt] on ! quality ( /eel4 ,! pr9cipal prop]ties ( /eel are ^? ( temp]+ & anneal+4 ,! comp\nds ( iron ) silicon & boron h n ^! prop]ties4 ,!y are m /able ?an ! c>bon comp\nd1 & ?is latt] is capable ( *ang+ its prop]ties2 because ! c>bon 9 x ei!r ent]s into comb9ation or else is dis5gag$1 :i* det]m9es ! condition ( h>dness or s(tness ( /eel1 z 9 :ite & grey ca/ iron4 ,:5 sl[ly cool$1 /eel splits up into a mixture ( s(t & c>burett$ iron2 b1 nev]!less1 ! c>bon does n sep>ate f ! iron4 ,if su* /eel be aga9 heat$1 x =ms a uni=m comp\nd1 & h>d5s :5 rapidly cool$4 ,if ! same /eel z be=e be tak5 & heat$ a long "t1 !n1 aft] be+ sl[ly cool$1 x becomes mu* m soluble 9 acid1 & leaves a residue ( pure c>bon4 ,?is %[s t ! comb9ation betwe5 ! c>bon & iron 9 /eel becomes de/roy$ :5 subject$ to heat1 & ! /eel becomes iron mix$ ) c>bon4 ,su* burnt /eel _c be temp]$1 b may be correct$ by cont9u$ =g+ 9 a heat$ condition1 :i* has ! effect ( r$i/ribut+ ! c>bon equally ?r\gh\t ! :ole mass4 ,aft] ! =g+1 if ! iron is pure & ! c>bon has n be5 burnt out1 /eel is aga9 =m$1 :i* may be temp]$4 ,if /eel be repeat$ly or /rongly heat$1 x becomes burnt ?r\gh & _c be temp]$ or anneal$2 ! c>bon sep>ates f ! iron1 & ?is is effect$ m easily if ! /eel conta9s o!r impurities :i* are capable ( =m+ /able comb9ations ) iron1 su* z silicon1 sulphur1 or phosphorus4 ,if !re be mu* silicon1 x occupies ! place ( ! c>bon1 & !n cont9u$ =g+ w n induce ! c>bon once sep>at$ to re-ent] into comb9ation4 ,su* /eel is easily burnt ?r\gh & _c be correct$2 :5 burnt ?r\gh1 x is h>d & _c be anneal$--?is is t\gh /eel1 an inf]ior k9d4 ,iron :i* conta9s sulphur & phosphorus cem5ts badly1 comb9es b little ) c>bon1 & /eel ( ?is k9d is brittle1 bo? hot & cold4 ,iron 9 comb9ation ) ! above-m5tion$ sub/ances _c be anneal$ by sl[ cool+1 %[+ t ^! comp\nds are m /able ?an ^? ( c>bon & iron1 & !re=e !y prev5t ! =mation ( ! latt]4 ,su* metals z t9 & z9c comb9e ) iron1 b n ) c>bon1 & =m a brittle mass :i* _c be anneal$ & is delet]i\s to /eel4 ,manganese & tung/51 on ! contr>y1 are capable ( comb9+ ) *>coal2 !y d n h9d] ! =mation ( /eel1 b ev5 remove ! injuri\s effects ( o!r admixtures 7by trans=m+ ^! admix$ sub/ances into new comp\nds & slags71 & are !re=e rank$ ) ! sub/ances :i* act b5eficially on /eel2 b1 nev]!less1 ! be/ /eel1 :i* is capable ( r5ew+ mo/ (t5 its primitive qualities aft] burn+ or hot =g+1 is ! pure/4 ,! addition ( ,ni1 ,cr1 ,w1 & c]ta9 o!r metals to /eel r5d]s x v suitable = c]ta9 special purposes1 & is !re=e frequ5tly made use (4 ,x is wor?y ( att5tion t /eel1 besides temp]1 possesses _m v>iable prop]ties1 a review ( :i* may be made 9 ! classification ( ! sorts ( /eel 7#ahgh1 ,cock]ell74 7#a7 ,v mild /eel conta9s f #jje to #jbj p4c4 ( c>bon1 breaks ) a weight ( #dj to #ej kilos p] squ>e millimetre1 & has an ext5sion ( #bj to #cj p4c42 x may be weld$1 l wr\ght iron1 b _c be temp]$2 is us$ 9 %eets = boil]s1 arm\r plate & bridges1 nails1 rivets1 c41 z a sub/itute = wr\ght iron2 7#b7 mild /eel1 f #jbj to #jce p4c4 ( c>bon1 resi/ance to t5sion #ej to #fj kilos1 ext5sion #ae to #bj p4c41 n easily weld$1 & temp]s badly1 us$ = axles1 rails1 & railway tyres1 = cannons & guns1 & = p>ts ( ma*9es de/9$ to resi/ b5d+ & torsion2 7#c7 h>d /eel1 c>bon #jce to #jej p4c41 break+ weight #fj to #gj kilos p] squ>e millimetre1 ext5sion #aj to #ae p4c41 _c be weld$1 takes a temp]2 us$ = rails1 all k9ds ( spr+s1 swords1 p>ts ( ma*9]y 9 motion subject$ to friction1 sp9dles ( looms1 hamm]s1 spades1 hoes1 c42 7#d7 v h>d /eel1 c>bon #je to #jfe p4c41 t5sile break+ weight #gj to #hj kilos1 ext5sion #e to #aj p4c41 does n weld1 b temp]s easily2 us$ = small spr+s1 saws1 files1 knives & simil> in/rum5ts4 ,! prop]ties ( ord9>y wr\ght iron are well kn[n4 ,! be/ iron is ! mo/ t5aci\s--t is to say1 t :i* does n break up :5 /ruck ) ! hamm] or b5t1 & yet at ! same "t is suffici5tly h>d4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a di/9ction betwe5 h>d & s(t iron4 ,g5]ally ! s(te/ iron is ! mo/ t5aci\s1 & c be/ be weld$1 drawn into wire1 %eets1 c4 ,h>d1 especially t\gh1 iron is (t5 *>act]is$ by its break+ :5 b5t1 & is !re=e v difficult to "w1 & objects made f x are less s]viceable 9 _m respects4 ,s(t iron is mo/ adapt$ = mak+ wire & %eet iron & su* small objects z nails4 ,s(t iron is *>act]is$ by its atta9+ a fibr\s fracture aft] =g+1 :il/ t\gh iron pres]ves its granul> /ructure aft] ?is op]ation4 ,c]ta9 sorts ( iron1 al?\gh fairly s(t at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 become brittle :5 heat$ & are difficult to weld4 ,^! sorts are less suitable = be+ work$ up into small objects4 ,! v>iety ( ! prop]ties ( iron dep5ds on ! impurities :i* x conta9s4 ,9 g5]al1 ! iron us$ 9 ! arts /ill conta9s c>bon & always a c]ta9 quantity ( silicon1 manganese1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 c4 ,a v>iety 9 ! proportion ( ^! compon5t p>ts *anges ! quality ( ! iron4 ,9 addition to ?is ! *ange :i* s(t wr\ght iron1 hav+ a fibr\s /ructure1 und]goes :5 subject$ to repeat$ bl[s & vibrations is consid]able2 x !n becomes granul> & brittle4 ,?is to a c]ta9 degree expla9s ! want ( /ability ( "s iron objects--su* z truck axles1 :i* mu/ be r5ew$ aft] a c]ta9 t]m ( s]vice1 o!rwise !y become brittle4 ,x is evid5t t !re are innum]able int]m$iate transitions f wr\ght iron to /eel & ca/ iron4 ,at ! pres5t day ! great] "p ( ! ca/ iron manufactur$ is conv]t$ into /eel1 g5]ally ca/ /eel 7,bessem]'s & ,m>t9's74 ,i may add ! ,urals1 ,donetz di/rict1 & o!r p>ts ( ,russia (f] ! greate/ advantages = ! developm5t ( an iron indu/ry1 because ^! localities n only conta9 va/ supplies ( excell5t iron ore1 b also coal1 :i* is necess>y = smelt+ x4 #aa ,accord+ to in=mation suppli$ by ,a4 ,t4 ,sk9d]'s exp]im5ts at ! ,ob\k(f ,/eel ,works1 #adj volumes ( liquid molt5 /eel give #abh volumes ( solid metal4 ,by means ( a galvanic curr5t ( great int5sity & d5se *>coal z "o electrode1 & iron z ! o!r1 ,b]nadoss weld$ iron & fus$ holes ?r\gh %eet iron4 ,s(t wr\ght iron1 l /eel & s(t malleable ca/ iron1 may be melt$ 9 ,siem5s' reg5]ative furnaces1 & 9 furnaces heat$ ) naph?a4 #aa bis ,gore 7#ahfi71 ,tait1 ,b>ret1 ,t*]n(f1 ,osmond1 & o!rs obs]v$ t at a temp]ature approa*+ #fjj--t is1 betwe5 d>k & bright r$ heat--all k9ds ( wr\ght iron und]go a peculi> *ange call$ recalesc5ce1 i4e4 a spontane\s rise ( temp]ature4 ,if iron be consid]ably heat$ & all[$ to cool1 x may be obs]v$ t at ?is temp]ature ! cool+ /ops--t is1 lat5t heat is dis5gag$1 correspond+ ) a *ange 9 condition4 ,! specific heat1 electrical conductivity1 magnetic1 & o!r prop]ties !n also *ange4 ,9 temp]+1 ! temp]ature ( recalesc5ce mu/ n be rea*$1 & s also 9 anneal+1 c4 ,x is evid5t t a *ange ( ! int]nal condition is "h enc\nt]$1 exactly simil> to ! transition f a solid to a liquid1 al?\gh !re is no evid5t physical *ange4 ,x is probable t att5tive /udy w\ld lead to ! discov]y ( a simil> *ange 9 o!r sub/ances4 #ab ,! p>ticles ( /eel are l9k$ toge!r or connect$ m closely ?an ^? ( ! o!r metals2 ?is is %[n by ! fact t x only breaks ) a t5sile /ra9 ( #ej-hj kilos p] sq4 mm41 :il/ wr\ght iron only )/&s ab\t #cj kilos1 ca/ iron #aj1 copp] #ce1 silv] #bc1 plat9um #cj1 wood #h4 ,! ela/icity ( iron1 /eel1 & o!r metals is express$ by ! s-call$ coeffici5t ( ela/icity4 ,let a rod be tak5 ^: l5g? is ,l2 if a weight1 ,p1 be hung f ! extremity ( x1 x w l5g!n to l4 ,! less x l5g!ns "u o!r equal conditions1 ! m ela/ic ! mat]ial1 if x resumes its orig9al l5g? :5 ! weight is remov$4 ,x has be5 %[n by exp]im5t t ! increase 9 l5g? l1 due to ela/icity1 is directly proportional to ! l5g? ,l & ! weight ,p1 & inv]sely proportional to ! section1 b *anges ) ! mat]ial4 ,! coeffici5t ( ela/icity expresses t weight 79 kilos p] sq4 mm47 "u :i* a rod hav+ a squ>e section tak5 z #a 7we take #a sq4 mm47 acquires d\ble ! l5g? by t5sion4 ,naturally 9 practice mat]ials d n )/& su* a l5g!n+1 "u a c]ta9 weight !y atta9 a limit ( ela/icity1 i4e4 !y /ret* p]man5tly 7und]go de=mation74 ,neglect+ fractions 7z ! ela/icity ( metals v>ies n only ) ! temp]ature1 b also ) =g+1 purity1 c471 ! coeffici5t ( ela/icity ( /eel & iron is #bj1jjj1 copp] & brass #aj1jjj1 silv] #g1jjj1 glass #f1jjj1 lead #b1jjj1 & wood #a1bjj4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( iron h be5 already repeat$ly m5tion$ 9 prec$+ *apt]s4 ,iron ru/s 9 air at ! ord9>y temp]ature--t is to say1 x becomes cov]$ ) a lay] ( iron oxides4 ,"h1 )\t d\bt1 ! moi/ure ( ! air plays a "p1 because 9 dry air iron does n oxidise at all1 & also because1 m p>ticul>ly1 ammonia is always f\nd 9 iron ru/2 ! ammonia mu/ arise f ! action ( ! hydrog5 ( ! wat]1 at ! mom5t ( its sep>ation1 on ! nitrog5 ( ! air4 ,highly-poli%$ /eel does n ru/ ne>ly s readily1 b if moi/5$ ) wat]1 x easily becomes coat$ ) ru/4 ,z ru/ dep5ds on ! access ( moi/ure1 iron may be pres]v$ f ru/ by coat+ x ) sub/ances :i* prev5t ! moi/ure hav+ access to x4 ,?us arises ! practice ( cov]+ iron objects ) p>aff91#ac v>ni%1 oil1 pa9ts1 or enamell+ x ) a glassy-look+ flux possess+ ! same coeffici5t ( expansion z iron1 or ) a d5se scoria 7=m$ by ! heat ( sup]heat$ /eam71 or ) a compact coat+ ( v>i\s metals4 ,wr\ght iron 7bo? z %eet iron & 9 o!r =ms71 ca/ iron1 & /eel are (t5 coat$ ) t91 copp]1 lead1 nickel1 & simil> metals1 :i* prev5t contact ) ! air4 ,^! metals pres]ve iron v effectually f ru/ if !y =m a completely compact surface1 b 9 ^? places :]e ! iron becomes expos$1 ei!r accid5tally or f we>1 ru/ appe>s mu* m quickly ?an on a uni=m iron surface1 because1 t[>ds ^! metals 7& also t[>ds ! ru/71 ! iron w !n behave z an electro-positive pole 9 a galvanic c\ple1 & h5ce w attract oxyg54 ,a coat+ ( z9c does n produce ?is inconv5i5ce1 because iron is electro-negative ) ref]5ce to z9c1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* galvanis$ iron does n easily ru/1 & ev5 an iron boil] conta9+ "s lumps ( z9c ru/s less ?an "o )\t z9c4#ad ,iron oxidises at a high temp]ature1 =m+ iron scale1 ,fe#c,o#d1 compos$ ( f]r\s & f]ric oxides1 &1 z has be5 se51 decomposes wat] & acids ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 ,x is also capable ( decompos+ salts & oxides ( o!r metals1 :i* prop]ty is appli$ 9 ! arts = ! extraction ( copp]1 silv]1 lead1 t91 c4 ,= ?is reason iron is soluble 9 ! solutions ( _m salts--= in/ance1 9 cupric sulphate1 ) precipitation ( copp] & =mation ( f]r\s sulphate4#ae ,:5 iron acts on acids x always =ms comp\nds ,fe,x#b--t is1 correspond+ to ! suboxide ,fe,o--& answ]+ to magnesium comp\nds--& h5ce two atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by "o atom ( iron4 ,/rongly oxidis+ acids l nitric acid may trans=m ! f]r\s salt :i* is =m+ into ! high] degree ( oxidation or f]ric salt 7correspond+ ) ! sesquioxide1 ,fe#b,o#c71 b ?is is a second>y reaction4 ,iron1 al?\gh easily soluble 9 dilute nitric acid1 loses ?is prop]ty :5 plung$ into /rong fum+ nitric acid2 aft] ?is op]ation x ev5 loses ! prop]ty ( solubility 9 o!r acids until ! ext]nal coat+ =m$ by ! action ( ! /rong nitric acid is me*anically remov$4 ,?is condition ( iron is t]m$ ! passive /ate4 ,! passive condition ( iron dep5ds on ! =mation1 on its surface1 ( a coat+ ( oxide due to ! iron be+ act$ on by ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 conta9$ 9 ! fum+ nitric acid4#af ,/rong nitric acid :i* does n conta9 ^! l[] oxides1 does n r5d] iron passive1 b x is only necess>y to add "s alcohol or o!r r$uc+ ag5t :i* =ms ^! l[] oxides 9 ! nitric acid1 & ! iron w assume ! passive /ate4 #ac ,p>aff9 is "o ( ! be/ pres]vatives = iron aga9/ oxidation 9 ! air4 ,i f\nd ?is by exp]im5ts ab\t #ahfj1 & imm$iately publi%$ ! fact4 ,?is me?od is n[ v g5]ally appli$4 #ad ,see ,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #cd bis4 ,bas$ on ! rapid oxidation ( iron & its increase 9 volume 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & salts ( ammonium1 a pack+ is us$ = wat] ma9s & /eam pipes :i* is tightly hamm]$ into ! socket jo9ts4 ,?is pack+ consi/s ( a mixture ( iron fil+s & a small quantity ( sal-ammoniac 7& sulphur7 moi/5$ ) wat]2 aft] a c]ta9 lapse ( "t1 especially aft] ! pipes h be5 us$1 ?is mass swells to su* an ext5t t x h]metically seals ! jo9ts ( ! pipes4 #ae ,"h1 h[ev]1 a f]ric salt may also be =m$ 7:5 all ! iron has dissolv$ & ! cupric salt is /ill 9 excess71 because ! cupric salts are r$uc$ by f]r\s salts4 ,ca/ iron is also dissolv$4 #af ,p[d]y r$uc$ iron is passive ) reg>d to nitric acid ( a specific gravity ( #acg1 b :5 heat$ ! acid acts on x4 ,?is passiv5ess disappe>s 9 ! magnetic field4 ,sa9t-,edme attributes ! passiv5ess ( iron 7& nickel7 to ! =mation ( nitride ( iron on ! surface ( ! metal1 because he obs]v$ t :5 heat$ 9 dry hydrog5 ammonia is evolv$ by passive iron4 ,rems5 obs]v$ t if a /rip ( iron be imm]s$ 9 acid & plac$ 9 ! magnetic field1 x is pr9cipally dissolv$ at its middle "p--t is1 ! acid acts m feebly at ! poles4 ,accord+ to t>d 7#ahia7 /rong nitric acid dissolves iron 9 mak+ x passive1 al?\gh ! action is a v sl[ "o4 ,iron readily comb9es ) non-metals--= in/ance1 ) *lor9e1 iod9e1 brom9e1 sulphur1 & ev5 ) phosphorus & c>bon2 b on ! o!r h& ! prop]ty ( comb9+ ) metals is b little develop$ 9 x--t is to say1 x does n easily =m alloys4 ,m]cury1 :i* acts on mo/ metals1 does n act directly on iron1 & ! iron amalgam1 or solution ( iron 9 m]cury1 :i* is us$ = electrical ma*9es1 is only obta9$ 9 a p>ticul> way--namely1 ) ! co-op]ation ( a sodium amalgam1 9 :i* ! iron dissolves & by means ( :i* x is r$uc$ f solutions ( its salts4 ,:5 iron acts on acids x =ms f]r\s salts ( ! type ,fe,x#b1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( air & oxidis+ ag5ts !y *ange by degrees into f]ric salts ( ! type ,fe,x#c4 ,?is faculty ( pass+ f ! f]r\s to ! f]ric /ate is /ill fur!r develop$ 9 f]r\s hydroxide4 ,if sodium hydroxide be add$ to a solution ( f]r\s sulphate or gre5 vitriol1 ,fe,s,o#d1ag a :ite precipitate ( f]r\s hydroxide1 ,fe,h#b,o#b1 is obta9$2 b on exposure to ! air1 ev5 "u wat]1 x turns gre51 becomes grey1 & f9ally turns br[n1 :i* is due to ! oxidation t x und]goes4 ,f]r\s hydroxide is v sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]2 ! solution has1 h[ev]1 a di/9ct alkal9e reaction1 :i* is due to its be+ a fairly en]getic basic oxide4 ,9 any case1 f]r\s oxide is f> m en]getic ?an f]ric oxide1 s t if ammonia be add$ to a solution conta9+ a mixture ( a f]r\s & f]ric salt1 at fir/ f]ric hydroxide only w be precipitat$4 ,if b>ium c>bonate1 ,ba,c,o#c1 be %ak5 up 9 ! cold ) f]r\s salts1 x does n precipitate !m--t is1 does n *ange !m into f]r\s c>bonate2 b x completely sep>ates all ! iron f ! f]ric salts 9 ! cold1 accord+ to ! equation ,fe#b;,cl#f #c;,ba,c,o#c #c;,h#b,o ,fe#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o #c;,ba,cl#b #c;,,co#b4 ,if f]r\s hydroxide be boil$ ) a solution ( pota%1 ! wat] is decompos$1 hydrog5 is evolv$1 & ! f]r\s hydroxide is oxidis$4 ,! f]r\s salts are 9 all respects simil> to ! salts ( magnesium & z9c2 !y are isomorph\s ) !m1 b diff] f !m 9 t ! f]r\s hydroxide is n soluble ei!r 9 aque\s pota% or ammonia4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ammonium salts1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 proportion ( ! iron is n precipitat$ by alkalis & alkali c>bonates1 :i* fact po9ts to ! =mation ( d\ble ammonium salts4#ah ,! f]r\s salts h a dull gre5i% col\r1 & =m solutions also ( a pale gre5 col\r1 :il/ ! f]ric salts h a br[n or r$di%-br[n col\r4 ,! f]r\s salts1 be+ capable ( oxidation1 =m v active r$uc+ ag5ts--= in/ance1 "u _! action gold *loride1 ,au,cl#c1 deposits metallic gold1 nitric acid is trans=m$ into l[] oxides1 & ! highe/ oxides ( manganese also pass into ! l[] =ms ( oxidation4 ,all ^! reactions take place ) especial ease 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( acid4 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t ! f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o 7or salt71 act+ z a r$uc+ ag5t1 turns into f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c 7or salt71 & 9 ! f]ric /ate x requires m acid = ! =mation ( a normal salt ?an 9 ! f]r\s condition4 ,?us 9 ! normal f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d1 !re is "o equival5t ( iron to "o equival5t ( sulphur 79 ! sulphuric radicle71 b 9 ! neutral f]ric salt1 ,fe#b7,,s#d7c1 !re is "o equival5t ( iron to "o & a half ( sulphur 9 ! =m ( ! elem5ts ( sulphuric acid4#ai #ag ,iron vitriol or gre5 vitriol1 sulphate ( iron or f]r\s sulphate1 g5]ally cry/allises f solutions1 l magnesium sulphate1 ) sev5 molecules ( wat]1 ,fe,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt is n only =m$ by ! action ( iron on sulphuric acid1 b also by ! action ( moi/ure & air on iron pyrites1 especially :5 previ\sly roa/$ 7,fe,s#b ,o#b ,fe,s ,,s#b71 & 9 ?is condition x easily absorbs ! oxyg5 ( damp air 7,fe,s ,o#d ,fe,s,o#d74 ,gre5 vitriol is obta9$ 9 _m processes z a by-product4 ,f]r\s sulphate1 l all ! f]r\s salts1 has a pale gre5i% col\r h>dly p]ceptible 9 solution4 ,if x be desir$ to pres]ve x )\t *ange--t is1 s z n to conta9 f]ric comp\nds--x is necess>y to keep x h]metically seal$4 ,?is is be/ done by expell+ ! air by means ( sulphur\s anhydride or e!r2 sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 removes oxyg5 f f]ric comp\nds1 :i* might be =m$1 & is itself *ang$ into sulphuric acid1 & h5ce ! oxidation ( ! f]r\s comp\nd does n take place 9 its pres5ce4 ,unless ^! precautions are tak51 gre5 vitriol turns br[n1 p>tly *ang+ into ! f]ric salt4 ,:5 turn$ br[n1 x is n completely soluble 9 wat]1 because dur+ its oxidation a c]ta9 am\nt ( free insoluble f]ric oxide is =m$3 #f;,fe,s,o#d ,o#c #b;,fe#b7,,s#d7c ,fe#b,o#c4 ,9 ord] to cleanse su* mix$ gre5 vitriol f ! oxide1 x is necess>y to add "s sulphuric acid & iron & boil ! mixture2 ! f]ric salt is !n trans=m$ into ! f]r\s /ate3 ,fe#b7,,s#d7c ,fe #c;,fe,s,o#d4 ,gre5 vitriol is us$ = ! manufacture ( ,nordhaus5 sulphuric acid 7,*apt] ,,xx471 = prep>+ f]ric oxide1 9 _m dye works 7= prep>+ ! indigo vats & r$uc+ blue indigo to :ite71 & 9 _m o!r processes2 x is also a v good dis9fectant1 & is ! *eape/ salt f :i* o!r comp\nds ( iron may be obta9$4 ,! o!r f]r\s salts 7except+ ! yell[ prussiate1 :i* w be m5tion$ lat]7 are b little us$1 & x is !re=e unnecess>y to dwell ^u !m4 ,we w only m5tion f]r\s *loride1 :i*1 9 ! cry/all9e /ate1 has ! composition ,fe,cl#b1d;,h#b,o4 ,x is easily prep>$2 = in/ance1 by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on iron1 & 9 ! anhydr\s /ate by ! action ( hydro*loric acid gas on metallic iron at a r$ heat4 ,! anhydr\s f]r\s *loride !n volatilises 9 ! =m ( col\rless cubic cry/als4 ,f]r\s oxalate 7or ! d\ble potassium salt7 acts z a p[]ful r$uc+ ag5t1 & is frequ5tly employ$ 9 photography 7z a develop]74 #ah ,f]r\s sulphate1 l magnesium sulphate1 easily =ms d\ble salts--= in/ance1 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d1;,fe,s,o#d1f;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt does n oxidise 9 air s readily z gre5 vitriol1 & is !re=e us$ = /&>dis+ ,k,mn,o#d4 #ai ,! trans=mation ( f]r\s oxide into f]ric oxide is n completely effect$ 9 air1 z !n only a "p ( ! suboxide is conv]t$ into f]ric oxide4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! s-call$ magnetic oxide ( iron is g5]ally produc$1 :i* conta9s atomic quantities ( ! suboxide & oxide--namely1 ,fe,o1,fe#b,o#c ,fe#c,o#d4 ,?is sub/ance1 z already m5tion$1 is f\nd 9 nature & 9 iron scale4 ,x is also =m$ :5 mo/ f]r\s & f]ric salts are heat$ 9 air2 ?us1 = in/ance1 :5 f]r\s c>bonate1 ,fe,c,o#c 7native or ! precipitate giv5 by soda 9 a solution ( ,fe,x#b71 is heat$ x loses ! elem5ts ( c>bonic anhydride1 & magnetic oxide rema9s4 ,?is oxide ( iron is attract$ by ! magnet1 & is on ?is acc\nt call$ magnetic oxide1 al?\gh x does n always %[ magnetic prop]ties4 ,if magnetic oxide be dissolv$ 9 any acid--= in/ance1 hydro*loric--:i* does n act z an oxidis+ ag5t1 a f]r\s salt is fir/ =m$ & f]ric oxide rema9s1 :i* is also capable ( pass+ into solution4 ,! be/ way ( prep>+ ! hydrate ( ! magnetic oxide is by decompos+ a mixture ( f]r\s & f]ric salts ) ammonia2 x is1 h[ev]1 indisp5sable to p\r ?is mixture into ! ammonia1 & n vice v]s1 z 9 t case ! f]r\s oxide w\ld at fir/ be precipitat$ alone1 & !n ! f]ric oxide4 ,! comp\nd ?us =m$ has a bright gre5 col\r1 & :5 dri$ =ms a black p[d]4 ,o!r comb9ations ( f]r\s ) f]ric oxide are kn[n1 z are also comp\nds ( f]ric oxide ) o!r bases4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 comp\nds are kn[n conta9+ #d molecules ( f]r\s oxide to #a ( f]ric oxide1 & also #f ( f]r\s to #a ( f]ric oxide4 ,^! are also magnetic1 & are =m$ by heat+ iron 9 air4 ,! magnesium comp\nd ,mg,o1,fe#b,o#c is prep>$ by pass+ gase\s hydro*loric acid ov] a heat$ mixture ( magnesia & f]ric oxide4 ,cry/all9e magnesium oxide is !n =m$1 & black1 %9y1 octah$ral cry/als ( ! above-m5tion$ composition4 ,?is comp\nd is analog\s to ! alum9ates--= in/ance1 to sp9el4 ,b]nheim 7#ahhh7 & ,r\sseau 7#ahia7 obta9$ _m simil> comp\nds ( f]ric oxide1 & _! composition app>5tly corresponds to ! hydrates 7,note #bb7 kn[n = ! oxide4 ,! mo/ simple oxidis+ ag5t = trans=m+ f]r\s into f]ric salts is *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]--= in/ance1 #b;,fe,cl#b ,cl#b ,fe#b;,cl#f1 or1 g5]ally speak+1 #b;,fe,o ,cl#b ,h#b,o ,fe#b,o#c #b;,h,cl4 ,:5 su* a trans=mation is requir$ x is be/ to add potassium *lorate & hydro*loric acid to ! f]r\s solution2 *lor9e is =m$ by _! mutual reaction & acts z an oxidis+ ag5t4 ,nitric acid produces a simil> effect1 al?\gh m sl[ly4 ,f]r\s salts may be completely & rapidly oxidis$ into f]ric salts by means ( *romic acid or p]manganic acid1 ,h,mn,o#d1 9 ! pres5ce ( acids--= example1 #aj;,fe,s,o#d #b,k,mn,o#d #h;,h#b,,s#d #e;,fe#b7,,s#d7c #b,mn,s,o#d ,k#b,,s#d #h;,h#b,o4 ,?is reaction is easily obs]v$ by ! *ange ( col\r1 & its t]m9ation is easily se51 because potassium p]manganate =ms solutions ( a bright r$ col\r1 & :5 add$ to a solution ( a f]r\s salt ! above reaction imm$iately takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( acid1 & ! solution !n becomes col\rless1 because all ! sub/ances =m$ are only fa9tly col\r$ 9 solution4 ,directly all ! f]r\s comp\nd has pass$ into ! f]ric /ate1 any excess ( p]manganate :i* is add$ communicates a r$ col\r to ! liquid 7see ,*apt] ,,xxi47 ,?us :5 f]r\s salts are act$ on by oxidis+ ag5ts1 !y pass into ! f]ric =m1 & "u ! action ( r$uc+ ag5ts ! rev]se reaction occurs4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 may1 = in/ance1 be us$ = ?is complete trans=mation1 = "u its influ5ce f]ric salts are r$uc$ ) sep>ation ( sulphur--= example1 ,fe#b;,cl#f ,h#b,s #b;,fe,cl#b #b;,h,cl ,s4 ,sodium ?iosulphate acts 9 a simil> way3 ,fe#b;,cl#f ,na#b,s#b,o#c ,h#b,o #b;,fe,cl#b ,na#b,,s#d #b;,h,cl ,s4 ,metallic iron or z9c1#bj 9 ! pres5ce1 ( acids1 or sodium amalgam1 c41 acts l hydrog51 & has also a simil> r$uc+ action1 & ?is furni%es ! be/ me?od = r$uc+ f]ric salts to f]r\s salts--= in/ance1 ,fe#b;,cl#f ,zn #b;,fe,cl#b ,zn,cl#b4 ,?us ! transition f f]r\s salts to f]ric salts & vice v]s is always possible4#ba #bj ,copp] & cupr\s salts also r$uce f]ric oxide to f]r\s oxide1 & are !mselves turn$ into cupric salts4 ,! ess5ce ( ! reactions is express$ by ! foll[+ equations3 ,fe#b,o#c ,cu#b,o #b;,fe,o #b;,cu,o2 ,fe#b,o#c ,cu #b;,fe,o ,cu,o4 ,?is fact is made use ( 9 analys+ copp] comp\nds1 ! quantity ( copp] be+ asc]ta9$ by ! am\nt ( f]r\s salt obta9$4 ,an excess ( f]ric salt is requir$ to complete ! reaction4 ,"h we h an example ( rev]se reaction2 ! f]r\s oxide or its salt 9 ! pres5ce ( alkali trans=ms ! cupric oxide into cupr\s oxide & metallic copp]1 z obs]v$ by ,lovel1 ,knopp1 & o!rs4 #ba ,we w "h m5tion ! reactions by means ( :i* x may be asc]ta9$ :e!r ! f]r\s comp\nd has be5 entirely conv]t$ into a f]ric comp\nd or vice v]s4 ,!re are two sub/ances :i* are be/ employ$ = ?is purpose3 potassium f]ricyanide1 ,fe,k#c;,c#f,n#f1 & potassium ?iocyanate1 ,,kcns4 ,! fir/ salt gives ) f]r\s salts a blue precipitate ( an insoluble salt1 hav+ a composition ,fe#e;,c#ab,n#ab2 b ) f]ric salts x does n =m any precipitate1 & only gives a br[n col\r1 & !re=e :5 trans=m+ a f]r\s salt into a f]ric salt1 ! completion ( ! trans=mation may be detect$ by tak+ a drop ( ! liquid on pap] or on a porcela9 plate & add+ a drop ( ! f]ricyanide solution4 ,if a blue precipitate be =m$1 !n "p ( ! f]r\s salt /ill rema9s2 if !re is none1 ! trans=mation is complete4 ,! ?iocyanate does n give any m>k$ coloration ) f]r\s salts2 b ) f]ric salts 9 ! mo/ dilut$ /ate x =ms a bright r$ soluble comp\nd1 & !re=e :5 trans=m+ a f]ric salt into a f]r\s salt we mu/ proce$ z be=e1 te/+ a drop ( ! solution ) ?iocyanate1 :5 ! abs5ce ( a r$ col\r w prove ! total trans=mation ( ! f]ric salt into ! f]r\s /ate1 & if a r$ col\r is app>5t x %[s t ! trans=mation is n yet complete4 ,f]ric oxide1 or sesquioxide ( iron1 ,fe#b,o#c1 is f\nd 9 nature1 & is artificially prep>$ 9 ! =m ( a r$ p[d] by _m me?ods4 ,?us aft] heat+ gre5 vitriol a r$ oxide ( iron rema9s1 call$ colco?>1 :i* is us$ z an oil pa9t1 pr9cipally = pa9t+ wood4 ,! same sub/ance 9 ! =m ( a v f9e p[d] 7r\ge7 is us$ = poli%+ glass1 /eel1 & o!r objects4 ,if a mixture ( f]r\s sulphate ) an excess ( common salt be /rongly heat$1 cry/all9e f]ric oxide w be =m$1 hav+ a d>k violet col\r1 & resembl+ "s natural v>ieties ( ?is sub/ance4 ,:5 iron pyrites is heat$ = prep>+ sulphur\s anhydride1 f]ric oxide also rema9s beh9d2 x is us$ z a pigm5t4 ,on ! addition ( alkalis to a solution ( f]ric salts1 a br[n precipitate ( f]ric hydroxide is =m$1 :i* :5 heat$ 7ev5 :5 boil$ 9 wat]1 t is1 at ab\t #ajj1 accord+ to ,tomassi7 easily p>ts ) ! wat]1 & leaves r$ anhydr\s f]ric oxide4 ,pure f]ric oxide does n %[ any magnetic prop]ties1 b :5 heat$ to a :ite heat x loses oxyg5 & is conv]t$ into ! magnetic oxide4 ,anhydr\s f]ric oxide :i* has be5 heat$ to a high temp]ature is ) difficulty soluble 9 acids 7b x is soluble :5 heat$ 9 /rong acids1 & also :5 fus$ ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate71 :il/ f]ric hydroxide1 at all ev5ts t :i* is precipitat$ f salts by means ( alkalis1 is v readily soluble 9 acids4 ,! precipitat$ f]ric hydroxide has ! composition #b;,fe#b,o#cc;,h#b,o1 or ,fe#d;,h#f,o#i4 ,if ?is ord9>y hydroxide be r5d]$ anhydr\s 7at #ajj71 at a c]ta9 mom5t x becomes inc&esc5t--t is1 loses a c]ta9 quantity ( heat4 ,?is self-inc&esc5ce dep5ds on int]nal displacem5t produc$ by ! transition ( ! easily-soluble 79 acids7 v>iety into ! difficultly-soluble v>iety1 & does n dep5d on ! loss ( wat]1 s9ce ! anhydr\s oxide und]goes ! same *ange4 ,9 addition to ?is !re exi/s a f]ric hydroxide1 or hydrat$ oxide ( iron1 :i*1 l ! /rongly-heat$ anhydr\s iron oxide1 is difficultly soluble 9 acids4 ,?is hydroxide on los+ wat]1 or aft] ! loss ( wat]1 does n und]go su* self-inc&esc5ce1 because no su* /ate ( int]nal displacem5t occurs 7loss ( en]gy or heat7 ) x z t :i* is peculi> to ! ord9>y oxide ( iron4 ,! f]ric hydroxide :i* is difficultly soluble 9 acids has ! composition ,fe#b,o#c1;,h#b,o4 ,?is hydroxide is obta9$ by a prolong$ ebullition ( wat] 9 :i* f]ric hydroxide prep>$ by ! oxidation ( f]r\s oxide is susp5d$1 & also sometimes by simil> treatm5t ( ! ord9>y hydroxide aft] x has be5 = a long "t 9 contact ) wat]4 ,! transition ( "o hydroxide to ano!r is app>5t by a *ange ( col\r2 ! easily-soluble hydroxide is r$d]1 & ! sp>+ly-soluble hydroxide m yell[ 9 col\r4#bb #bb ,! two f]ric hydroxides are n only *>act]is$ by ! above-m5tion$ prop]ties1 b also by ! fact t ! fir/ hydroxide =ms imm$iately ) potassium f]rocyanide1 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f1 a blue col\r dep5d+ on ! =mation ( ,prussian blue1 :il/ ! second hydroxide does n give any reaction :atev] ) ?is salt4 ,! fir/ hydroxide is entirely soluble 9 nitric1 hydro*loric1 & all o!r acids2 :il/ ! second sometimes 7n always7 =ms a brick-col\r$ liquid1 :i* appe>s turbid & does n give ! reactions peculi> to ! f]ric salts 7,pan de ,sa9t-,gilles1 ,s*eur]-,ke/n]74 ,9 addition to ?is1 :5 ! smalle/ quantity ( an alkal9e salt is add$ to ?is liquid1 f]ric oxide is precipitat$4 ,?us a colloidal solution is =m$ 7hydrosol71 :i* is exactly simil> to silica hydrosol 7,*apt] ,,xvii471 accord+ to :i* example ! hydrosol ( f]ric oxide may be obta9$4 ,if ord9>y f]ric hydroxide be dissolv$ 9 acetic acid1 a solution ( ! col\r ( r$ w9e is obta9$1 :i* has all ! reactions *>act]i/ic ( f]ric salts4 ,b if ?is solution 7=m$ 9 ! cold7 be heat$ to ! boil+-po9t1 its col\r is v rapidly int5sifi$1 a smell ( acetic acid becomes app>5t1 & ! solution !n conta9s a new v>iety ( f]ric oxide4 ,if ! boil+ ( ! solution be cont9u$1 acetic acid is evolv$1 & ! modifi$ f]ric oxide is precipitat$4 ,if ! evaporation ( ! acetic acid be prev5t$ 79 a clos$ or seal$ vessel71 & ! liquid be heat$ = "s "t1 ! :ole ( ! f]ric hydroxide !n passes into ! insoluble =m1 & if "s alkal9e salt be add$ 7to ! hydrosol =m$71 ! :ole ( ! f]ric oxide is !n precipitat$ 9 its insoluble =m4 ,?is me?od may be appli$ = sep>at+ f]ric oxide f solutions ( its salts4 ,all ph5om5a obs]v$ respect+ f]ric oxide 7colloidal prop]ties1 v>i\s =ms1 =mation ( d\ble basic salts7 demon/rate t ?is sub/ance1 l silica1 alum9a1 lead hydroxide1 c41 is polym]is$1 t ! composition is repres5t$ by 7,fe#b,o#c7n4 ,! normal salts ( ! composition ,fe#b,x#f or ,fe,x#c correspond ) f]ric oxide--= example1 ! exce$+ly volatile f]ric *loride1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1 :i* is easily prep>$ 9 ! anhydr\s /ate by ! action ( *lor9e on heat$ iron4#bc ,su* also is ! normal f]ric nitrate1 ,fe#b7,,no#c7f2 x is obta9$ by dissolv+ iron 9 an excess ( nitric acid1 tak+ c>e z f> z possible to prev5t any rise ( temp]ature4#bd ,! normal salt sep>ates f ! br[n solution :5 x is conc5trat$ "u a bell j> ov] sulphuric acid4 ,?is salt1 ,fe#b7,,no#c7f1i;,h#b,o1 !n cry/allises 9 well-=m$ & p]fectly col\rless cry/als1#be :i* deliquesce 9 air1 melt at #ce1 & are soluble 9 & decompos$ by wat]4 ,! decomposition may be se5 f ! fact t ! solution is br[n & does n yield ! :ole ( ! salt aga91 b gives p>tly basic salt4 ,! normal salt 7only /able 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ,,hno#c7 is completely decompos$ ) great facility by heat+ ) wat]1 ev5 at #acj1 & ?is is made use ( = remov+ iron 7& also c]ta9 o!r oxides ( ! =m ,r#b,o#c7 f _m o!r bases 7( ! =m ,,ro7 ^: nitrates are f> m /able4 ,! f]ric salts1 ,fe,x#c1 9 pass+ into f]r\s salts1 act z oxidis+ ag5ts1 z is se5 f ! fact t !y n only lib]ate ,s f ,,%#b1 b also iod9e f ,,ki l _m oxidis+ ag5ts4#be bis #bc ,! f]ric comp\nd :i* is mo/ us$ 9 practice 7= in/ance1 9 m$ic9e1 = caut]is+1 /opp+ ble$+1 c4--,oleum ,m>tis7 is f]ric *loride1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1 easily obta9$ by dissolv+ ! ord9>y hydrat$ oxide ( iron 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,x is obta9$ 9 ! anhydr\s /ate by ! action ( *lor9e on heat$ iron4 ,! exp]im5t is c>ri$ on 9 a porcela9 tube1 & a solid volatile sub/ance is !n =m$ 9 ! %ape ( brilliant violet scales :i* v readily absorb moi/ure f ! air1 & :5 heat$ ) wat] decompose into cry/all9e f]ric oxide & hydro*loric acid3 ,fe#b;,cl#f #c;,h#b,o #f;,h,cl ,fe#b,o#c4 ,f]ric *loride is s volatile t ! d5sity ( its vap\r may be det]m9$4 ,at #ddj x is equal to #afdj ref]r$ to hydrog52 ! =mula ,fe#b;,cl#f corresponds ) a d5sity ( #afbe4 ,an aque\s solution ( ?is salt has a br[n col\r4 ,on evaporat+ & cool+ ?is solution1 cry/als sep>ate conta9+ #f or #ab molecules ( ,h#b,o4 ,f]ric *loride is n only soluble 9 wat]1 b also 9 alcohol 7simil>ly to magnesium *loride1 c47 & 9 e!r4 ,if ! latt] solutions are expos$ to ! rays ( ! sun !y become col\rless1 & deposit f]r\s *loride1 ,fe,cl#b1 *lor9e be+ dis5gag$4 ,aft] a c]ta9 lapse ( "t1 ! aque\s solutions ( f]ric *loride decompose ) precipitation ( a basic salt1 ?us demon/rat+ ! in/ability ( f]ric *loride1 l ! o!r salts ( f]ric oxide 7,note #bb74 ,?is salt is mu* m /able 9 ! =m ( d\ble salts1 l all ! f]ric salts & also ! salts ( _m o!r feeble bases4 ,potassium or ammonium *loride =ms ) x v beautiful r$ cry/als ( a d\ble salt1 hav+ ! composition ,fe#b;,cl#f1d,k,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,:5 a solution ( ?is salt is evaporat$ x decomposes1 ) sep>ation ( potassium *loride4 ,b4 ,roozeboom 7#ahib7 /udi$ 9 detail 7z = ,ca,cl#b1 ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ej7 ! sep>ation ( diff]5t hydrates f saturat$ solutions ( ,fe#b;,cl#f at v>i\s conc5trations & temp]atures2 he f\nd t !re are #d cry/allohydrates ) #ab1 #g1 #e1 & #d molecules ( wat]4 ,an orange yell[ only slightly hygroscopic hydrate1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1ab;,h#b,o1 is mo/ easily & usually obta9$1 :i* melts at #cg2 its solubility at diff]5t temp]atures is repres5t$ by ! curve ,,bcd 9 ! accompany+ figure1 :]e ! po9t ,b corresponds to ! =mation1 at -#ee1 ( a cryohydrate conta9+ ab\t ,fe#b;,cl#f #cf;,h#b,o1 ! po9t ,c corresponds to ! melt+-po9t 7#cg7 ( ! hydrate ,fe#b;,cl#f1ab;,h#b,o1 & ! curve ,,cd to ! fall 9 ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation ) an increase 9 ! am\nt ( salt1 or decrease 9 ! am\nt ( wat] 79 ! figure ! temp]atures are tak5 along ! axis ( absciss1 & ! am\nt ( n 9 ! =mula n,fe#b;,cl#f #ajj;,h#b,o along ! axis ( ord9ates74 ,:5 anhydr\s ,fe#b;,cl#f is add$ to ! above hydrate 7#ab;,h#b,o71 or "s ( ! wat] is evaporat$ f ! latt]1 v hygroscopic cry/als ( ,fe#b;,cl#f1e;,h#b,o 7,frits*e7 are =m$2 !y melt at #ef1 _! solubility is express$ by ! curve ,,hj1 :i* also pres5ts a small bran* at ! end ,j4 ,?is aga9 gives ! fall 9 ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation ) an increase 9 ! am\nt ( ,fe#b;,cl#f4 ,besides ^! curves & ! solubility ( ! anhydr\s salt express$ by ! l9e ,,kl 7up to #ajj1 beyond :i* *lor9e is lib]at$71 ,roozeboom also gives ! two curves1 ,,efg & ,,jk1 correspond+ to ! cry/allohydrates1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1g;,h#b,o 7melts at #cbe1 t is l[] ?an any ( ! o!rs7 & ,fe#b;,cl#f1d;,h#b,o 7melts at #gce71 :i* he discov]$ by a sy/ematic rese>* on ! solutions ( f]ric *loride4 ,! curve ,,ab repres5ts ! sep>ation ( ice f dilute solutions ( ! salt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,diagram ( ! solubility ( ,fe#b;,cl#f4 ,! rese>*es ( ! same ,dut* *emi/ ^u ! conditions ( ! =mation ( cry/als f ! d\ble salt 7,,nh#d;,cl7#d;,fe#b;,cl#f1b;,h#b,o are ev5 m p]fect4 ,?is salt 0 obta9$ 9 #ahci by ,frits*e1 & is easily =m$ f a /rong solution ( ,fe#b;,cl#f by add+ sal-ammoniac1 :5 x sep>ates 9 crimson rhombic cry/als1 :i*1 aft] dissolv+ 9 wat]1 only deposit aga9 on evaporation1 toge!r ) ! sal-ammoniac4 ,roozeboom 7#ahib7 f\nd t :5 ! solution conta9s b molecules ( ,fe#b;,cl#f1 & a molecules ( ,,nh#d;,cl1 p] #ajj molecules ,h#b,o1 !n at #ae "o ( ! foll[+ sep>ations takes place3 7#a7 cry/als1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1ab;,h#b,o1 :5 a v>ies betwe5 #j & #aa1 & b betwe5 #dfe & #dh1 or 7#b7 a mixture ( ^! cry/als & ! d\ble salt1 :5 a #acf1 & b #ddg1 or 7#c7 ! d\ble salt1 ,fe#b;,cl#f1d,,nh#d;,cl1#b;,h#b,o1 :5 a v>ies betwe5 #b & #aah1 & b betwe5 #ca & #def1 or 7#d7 a mixture ( sal-ammoniac ) ! iron salt 7x cry/allises 9 sep>ate cubes1 ,retg]s1 ,lehmann71 :5 a v>ies betwe5 #gg & #aji1 & b is less ?an #cch1 or 7#e7 sal-ammoniac1 :5 a #aahh4 ,& z 9 ! d\ble salt1 a 3 b 33 #d 3 #a x is evid5t t ! d\ble salt only sep>ates out :5 ! ratio a 3 b is less ?an #d 3 #a 7i4e4 :5 ,fe#b;,cl#f pr$om9ates74 ,! above is se5 m cle>ly 9 ! accompany+ figure1 :]e a1 or ! numb] ( molecules ( ,,nh#d;,cl p] #ajj;,h#b,o1 is tak5 along ! axis ( absciss1 & b1 or ! numb] ( molecules ( ,fe#b;,cl#f1 along ! ord9ates4 ,! curves ,,abcd correspond to saturation & pres5t an iso-!rm ( #ae4 ,! portion ,,ab corresponds to ! sep>ation ( *loride ( iron 7! asc5d+ nature ( ?is curve %[s t ! solubility ( ,fe#b;,cl#f is increas$ by ! pres5ce ( ,,nh#d;,cl1 :ile t ( ,,nh#d;,cl decreases 9 ! pres5ce ( ,fe#b;,cl#f71 ! portion ,,bc to ! d\ble salt1 & ! portion ,,cd to a mixture ( sal-ammoniac & f]ric *loride1 :ile ! /raight l9e ,,( corresponds to ! ratio ,fe#b;,cl#f1d,,nh#d;,cl1 or a 3 b 33 #d 3 #a4 ,! portion ,,ce %[s t m d\ble salt may be introduc$ into ! solution )\t decomposition1 b !n ! solution deposits a mixture ( sal-ammoniac & f]ric *loride 7see ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,note #i bis74 ,if !re 7 m su* well-inve/igat$ cases ( solutions1 our k ( d\ble salts1 solutions1 ! influ5ce ( wat]1 equilibria1 isomorph\s mixtures1 & su*-l prov9ces ( *emical relations might be consid]ably advanc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,diagram ( ! =mation1 at #ae1 ( ! d\ble salt ,fe#b;,cl#fd,,nh#d;,cl#b;,h#b,o or ,fe7,,nh#d7b;,cl#e;,h#b,o4 7,aft] ,roozeboom47 #bd ,! normal f]ric salts are decompos$ by heat & ev5 by wat]1 =m+ basic salts1 :i* may be prep>$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,g5]ally f]ric hydroxide is dissolv$ 9 solutions ( f]ric nitrate2 if x conta9s a d\ble quantity ( iron ! basic salt is =m$ :i* conta9s ,fe#b,o#c 79 ! =m ( hydroxide7 #b;,fe#b7,,no#c7f #c;,fe#b,o7,,no#c7d1 a salt ( ! type ,fe#b,,ox#d4 ,probably wat] ent]s into its composition4 ,) consid]able quantities ( f]ric oxide1 insoluble basic salts are obta9$ conta9+ v>i\s am\nts ( f]ric hydroxide4 ,?us :5 a solution ( ! above-m5tion$ basic acid is boil$1 a precipitate is =m$ conta9+ #d7;,fe#b,o#c7h1b7,n#b,o#e71c;,h#b,o1 :i* probably conta9s #b;,fe#b,o#b7,,no#c7b #b;,fe#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o4 ,if a solution ( basic nitrate be seal$ 9 a tube & !n imm]s$ 9 boil+ wat]1 ! col\r ( ! solution *anges j 9 ! same way z if a solution ( f]ric acetate _h be5 employ$ 7,note #bb74 ,! solution obta9$ smells /rongly ( nitric acid1 & on add+ a drop ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acid ! insoluble v>iety ( hydrat$ f]ric oxide is precipitat$4 ,normal f]ric or?ophosphate is soluble 9 sulphuric1 hydro*loric1 & nitric acids1 b insoluble 9 o!rs1 su* z1 = in/ance1 acetic acid4 ,! composition ( ?is salt 9 ! anhydr\s /ate is ,fe,p,o#d1 because 9 or?ophosphoric acid !re are ?ree atoms ( hydrog51 & iron1 9 ! f]ric /ate1 replaces ! ?ree atoms ( hydrog54 ,?is salt is obta9$ f f]ric acetate1 :i*1 ) disodium phosphate1 =ms a :ite precipitate ( ,fe,p,o#d1 conta9+ wat]4 ,if a solution ( f]ric *loride 7yell[i%-r$ col\r7 be mix$ ) a solution ( sodium acetate 9 excess1 ! liquid assumes an int5se br[n col\r :i* demon/rates ! =mation ( a c]ta9 quantity ( f]ric acetate2 !n ! disodium phosphate directly =ms a :ite gelat9\s precipitate ( f]ric phosphate4 ,by ?is means ! :ole ( ! iron may be precipitat$1 & ! liquid :i* 0 br[n !n becomes col\rless4 ,if ?is normal salt be dissolv$ 9 or?ophosphoric acid1 ! cry/all9e acid salt ,fe,h#c7,,po#d7b is =m$4 ,if !re be an excess ( f]ric oxide 9 ! solution1 ! precipitate w consi/ ( ! basic salt4 ,if f]ric phosphate be dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & ammonia be add$1 a salt is precipitat$ on heat+ :i*1 aft] cont9u$ wa%+ 9 wat] & heat+ 7to remove ! wat]71 has ! composition ,fe#d,p#b,o#aa--t is1 #b;,fe#b,o#c1,p#b,o#e4 ,9 an aque\s condition ?is salt may be consid]$ z f]ric hydroxide1 ,fe#b7,,oh7#f1 9 :i* 7,,oh7#c is replac$ by ! equival5t gr\p ,,po#d4 ,:5ev] ammonia is add$ to a solution conta9+ an excess ( f]ric salt & a c]ta9 am\nt ( phosphoric acid1 a precipitate is =m$ conta9+ ! :ole ( ! phosphoric acid 9 ! mass ( ! f]ric oxide4 ,f]ric oxide is *>act]is$ z a feeble base1 & also by ! fact ( its =m+ d\ble salts--= in/ance1 potassium iron alum1 :i* has a composition ,fe#b7,,s#d7c1,k#b,,s#d1bd;,h#b,o or ,fe,k7,,s#d7b1ab;,h#b,o4 ,x is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( almo/ col\rless or light rose-col\r$ l>ge octah$ra ( ! regul> sy/em by simply mix+ solutions ( potassium sulphate & ! f]ric sulphate obta9$ by dissolv+ f]ric oxide 9 sulphuric acid4 #be ,x w\ld seem t all normal f]ric salts are col\rless1 & t ! br[n col\r :i* is peculi> to ! solutions is really due to basic f]ric salts4 ,a rem>kable example ( ! app>5t *ange ( col\r ( salts is repres5t$ by ! f]r\s & f]ric oxalates4 ,! =m] 9 a dry /ate has a yell[ col\r1 al?\gh z a rule ! f]r\s salts are gre51 & ! latt] is col\rless or pale gre54 ,:5 ! normal f]ric salt is dissolv$ 9 wat] x is1 l _m salts1 probably decompos$ by ! wat] into acid & basic salts1 & ! latt] communicates a br[n col\r to ! solution4 ,iron alum is almo/ col\rless1 is easily decompos$ by wat]1 & is ! be/ pro( ( our ass]tion4 ,! /udy ( ! ph5om5a peculi> to f]ric nitrate might1 9 my op9ion1 give a v useful addition to our k ( ! aque\s solutions ( salts 9 g5]al4 #be bis ,! reaction ,fe,x#c ,,ki ,fe,x#b ,,kx ,i proce$s comp>atively sl[ly 9 solutions1 is n complete 7dep5ds ^u ! mass71 & is rev]sible4 ,9 ?is connection we may cite ! foll[+ data f ,seub]t & ,rohr]'s 7#ahid7 compreh5sive rese>*es4 ,! inve/igations 7 conduct$ ) solutions conta9+ #a_/aj gram--equival5t weights ( ,fe#b7,,s#d7c 7i4e4 conta9+ #bj grams ( salt p] litre71 & a correspond+ solution ( ,,ki2 ! am\nt ( iod9e lib]at$ be+ det]m9$ 7aft] ! addition ( />*7 by a solution 7also #a_/aj normal7 ( ,na#b,s#b,o#c 7see ,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #db74 ,! progress ( ! reaction 0 express$ by ! am\nt ( lib]at$ iod9e 9 p]c5tages ( ! !oretical am\nt4 ,= in/ance1 ! foll[+ am\nt ( iodide ( potassium 0 decompos$ :5 ,fe#b7,,s#d7c #bn,,ki 0 tak53 n #a #b #c #f #aj #bj ,aft] #ae #aad #bfc #djf #gce #iaf #ifj #cj #adj #ceh #dgh #ghe #idc #igd #a h\r #aij #dbg #efj #hdj #ieg #igf #aj #cbf #efj #geg #icb #ife #igf #dh #cid #fgg #hbf #icd #iff #igf ,simil> results 7 obta9$ = ,fe,cl#c1 b !n ! am\nt ( iod9e lib]at$ 0 some:at great]4 ,simil> results 7 also obta9$ by increas+ ! mass ( ,fe,x#c p] ,,ki1 & by replac+ x by ,,hi 7see ,*apt] ,,xxi41 ,note #bf74 ,iron =ms "o o!r oxide besides ! f]ric & f]r\s oxides2 ?is conta9s twice z mu* oxyg5 z ! =m]1 b is s v un/able t x c nei!r be obta9$ 9 ! free /ate nor z a hydrate4 ,:5ev] su* conditions ( d\ble decomposition occur z %\ld all[ ( its sep>ation 9 ! free /ate1 x decomposes into oxyg5 & f]ric oxide4 ,x is kn[n 9 ! /ate ( salts1 & is only /able 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 & =ms salts ) !m :i* h a decid$ly alkal9e reaction2 x is !re=e a feebly acid oxide4 ,?us :5 small pieces ( iron are heat$ ) nitre or potassium *lorate a potassium salt ( ! composition ,k#b;,fe,o#d is =m$1 & !re=e ! hydrate correspond+ ) ?is salt %\ld h ! composition ,h#b;,fe,o#d4 ,x is call$ f]ric acid4 ,its anhydride ought to conta9 ,fe,o#c or ,fe#b,o#f--twice z mu* oxyg5 z f]ric oxide4 ,if a solution ( potassium f]rate be mix$ ) acid1 ! free hydrate ought to be =m$1 b x imm$iately decomposes 7#b,k#b;,fe,o#d #e;,h#b,,s#d #b,k#b,,s#d ,fe#b7,,s#d7c #e;,h#b,o ,o#c71 oxyg5 be+ evolv$4 ,if a small quantity ( acid be tak51 or if a solution ( potassium f]rate be heat$ ) solutions ( o!r metallic salts1 f]ric oxide is sep>at$--= in/ance3 #b;,cu,s,o#d #b,k#b;,fe,o#d #b,k#b,,s#d ,o#c ,fe#b,o#c #b;,cu,o4 ,bo? ^! oxides are ( c\rse deposit$ 9 ! =m ( hydrates4 ,?is %[s t n only ! hydrate ,h#b;,fe,o#d1 b also ! salts ( ! heavy metals correspond+ ) ?is high] oxide ( iron1 are n =m$ by reactions ( d\ble decomposition4 ,! solution ( potassium f]rate naturally acts z a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t2 = in/ance1 x trans=ms mangan\s oxide into ! dioxide1 sulphur\s into sulphuric acid1 oxalic acid into c>bonic anhydride & wat]1 c4#bf #bf ,if *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh a /rong solution ( potassium hydroxide 9 :i* hydrat$ f]ric oxide is susp5d$1 ! turbid liquid acquires a d>k pomegranate-r$ col\r & conta9s potassium f]rate3 #aj,,kho ,fe#b,o#c #c;,cl#b #b,k#b;,fe,o#d #f,k,cl #e;,h#b,o4 ,! *lor9e mu/ n be 9 excess1 o!rwise ! salt is aga9 decompos$1 al?\gh ! mode ( decomposition is unkn[n2 h[ev]1 f]ric *loride & potassium *lorate are probably =m$4 ,ano!r way 9 :i* ! above-describ$ salt is =m$ is also rem>kable2 a galvanic curr5t 7f #f ,grove elem5ts7 is pass$ ?r\gh ca/-iron & plat9um electrodes into a /rong solution ( potassium hydroxide4 ,! ca/-iron electrode is connect$ ) ! positive pole1 & ! plat9um electrode is surr\nd$ by a por\s e>!nw>e cyl9d]4 ,oxyg5 w\ld be evolv$ at ! ca/-iron electrode1 b x is us$ up 9 oxidation1 & a d>k solution ( potassium f]rate is !re=e =m$ ab\t x4 ,x is rem>kable t ! ca/ iron _c be replac$ by wr\ght iron4 ,iron ?us comb9es ) oxyg5 9 ?ree proportions3 ,,ro1 ,r#b,o#c1 & ,,ro#c4 ,x might h be5 expect$ t !re w\ld be int]m$iate /ages ,,ro#b 7correspond+ to pyrites ,fe,s#b7 & ,r#b,o#e1 b = iron ^! are unkn[n4#bf bis ,! l[] oxide has a di/9ctly basic "*1 ! high] is feebly acid4 ,! only "o :i* is /able 9 ! free /ate is f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c2 ! suboxide1 ,fe,o1 absorbs oxyg51 & f]ric anhydride1 ,fe,o#c1 evolves x4 ,x is also ! same = o!r elem5ts2 ! "* ( ea* is det]m9$ by ! relative degree ( /ability ( ! kn[n oxides4 ,! salts ,fe,x#b correspond ) ! suboxide1 ! salts ,fe,x#c or ,fe#b,x#f ) ! sesquioxide1 & ,fe,x#f repres5ts ^? ( f]ric acid1 z its potassium salt is ,fe,o#b7,,ok7#b1 correspond+ ) ,k#b,,s#d1 ,k#b,mn,o#d1 ,k#b;,cr,o#d1 c4 ,iron !re=e =ms comp\nds ( ! types ,fe,x#b1 ,fe,x#c1 & ,fe,x#f1 b ?is latt]1 l ! type ,,nx#e1 does n appe> sep>ately1 b only :5 ,x repres5ts het]og5e\s elem5ts or gr\ps2 = in/ance1 = nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ,,no#b7,,oh71 ,,nh#d;,cl1 c41 = iron 9 ! =m ( ,fe,o#b7,,ok7#b4 ,b /ill ! type ,fe,x#f exi/s1 & !re=e ,fe,x#b & ,fe,x#c are comp\nds :i*1 l ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 are capable ( fur!r comb9ations up to ,fe,x#f2 ?is is also se5 9 ! prop]ty ( f]r\s & f]ric salts ( =m+ comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 besides d\ble & basic salts1 ^: /ability is det]m9$ by ! quality ( ! elem5ts includ$ 9 ! types ,fe,x#b & ,fe,x#c4bf tri ,x is !re=e to be expect$ t !re %\ld be complex comp\nds d]iv$ f f]r\s & f]ric oxides4 ,among/ ^! ! s]ies ( cyanog5 comp\nds is p>ticul>ly int]e/+2 _! =mation & "* is n only det]m9$ by ! prop]ty :i* iron possesses ( =m+ complex types1 b also by ! simil> faculty ( ! cyanog5 comp\nds1 :i*1 l nitriles 7,*apt] ,,ix471 h cle>ly develop$ prop]ties ( polym]isation & 9 g5]al ( =m+ complex comp\nds4#bg #bf bis ,:5 ,mond & 8 assi/ants obta9$ ! rem>kable volatile comp\nd ,ni7,,co7#d 7describ$ lat]1 ,*apt] ,,xxii471 x 0 %[n subsequ5tly by ,mond & ,qu9cke 7#ahia71 & also by ,b]!lot1 t iron1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 9 a /ream ( c>bonic oxide1 also volatilises & =ms a comp\nd l t giv5 by nickel4 ,roscoe & ,scudd] !n %[$ t :5 wat] gas is pass$ ?r\gh & kept "u pressure 7#h atmosph]es7 9 iron vessels a portion ( ! iron volatilises f ! sides ( ! vessel1 & t :5 ! gas is burnt x deposits a c]ta9 am\nt ( oxides ( iron 7! same result is obta9$ ) ord9>y coal gas :i* conta9s a small am\nt ( ,,co74 ,to obta9 ! volatile comp\nd ( iron ) c>bonic oxide1 ,mond prep>$ a f9ely divid$ iron by heat+ ! oxalate 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 & aft] cool+ x to #hj-de he pass$ ,,co ov] ! p[d]4 ,! iron !n =m$ 7al?\gh v sl[ly7 a volatile comp\nd conta9+ ,fe7,,co7#e 7z ?\gh x answ]$ to a v high type1 ,fe,x#aj71 :i* :5 cool$ cond5ses into a liquid 7slightly col\r$1 probably ow+ to incipi5t decomposition71 sp4 gr4 #adg1 :i* solidifies at -#ba1 boils at ab\t #ajc1 & has a vap\r d5sity 7ab\t #fe ) respect to air7 correspond+ to ! above =mula2 x decomposes at #ahj4 ,wat] & dilute acids d n act ^u x1 b x decomposes "u ! action ( light & =ms a h>d1 non-volatile cry/all9e yell[ comp\nd ,fe#b7;,,co7#g :i* decomposes at #hj & aga9 =ms ,fe7,,co7#e4 #bf tri ,:5 ! molecul> ,fe#b;,cl#f is produc$ in/ead ( ,fe,cl#c ?is complication ( ! type also occurs4 #bg ,"s light may be ?r[n ^u ! faculty ( ,fe ( =m+ v>i\s comp\nds ) ,,cn1 by ! fact t ,fe n only comb9es ) c>bon b also ) nitrog54 ,nitride ( iron ,fe#b,n 0 obta9$ by ,f[l] by heat+ f9ely p[d]$ iron 9 a /ream ( ,,nh#c at ! temp]ature ( melt+ lead4 ,9 ! cyanog5 comp\nds ( iron1 two degrees might be expect$3 ,fe7,,cn7#b1 correspond+ ) f]r\s oxide1 & ,fe7,,cn7#c1 correspond+ ) f]ric oxide4 ,!re are actually1 h[ev]1 _m o!r kn[n comp\nds1 int]m$iate & f> m complex4 ,!y correspond ) ! d\ble salts s easily =m$ by metallic cyanides4 ,! two foll[+ d\ble salts are p>ticul>ly well kn[n1 v /able1 (t5 us$1 & easily prep>$4 ,potassium f]rocyanide or yell[ prussiate ( pota%1 a d\ble salt ( cyanide ( potassium & f]r\s cyanide1 has ! composition ,fe,c#b,n#b1d,,kcn2 its cry/als conta9 #c mol4 ( wat]3 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f1c;,h#b,o4 ,! o!r is potassium f]ricyanide or r$ prussiate ( pota%4 ,x is also kn[n z ,gmel9's salt1 & conta9s cyanide ( potassium ) f]ric cyanide2 its composition is ,fe7,,cn7#c1c,,kcn or ,k#c;,fe,c#f,n#f4 ,its cry/als d n conta9 wat]4 ,x is obta9$ f ! fir/ by ! action ( *lor9e1 :i* removes "o atom ( ! potassium4 ,a :ole s]ies ( o!r f]rocyanic comp\nds correspond ) ^! ord9>y salts4 ,be=e treat+ ( ! prep>ation & prop]ties ( ^! two rem>kable & v /able salts1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t ) ord9>y reag5ts nei!r ( !m gives ! same d\ble decompositions z ! o!r f]r\s & f]ric salts1 & !y bo? pres5t a s]ies ( rem>kable prop]ties4 ,?us ^! salts h a neutral reaction1 are un*ang$ by air1 dilute acids1 or wat]1 unlike potassium cyanide & ev5 "s ( its d\ble salts4 ,:5 solutions ( ^! salts are treat$ ) cau/ic alkalis1 !y d n give a precipitate ( f]r\s or f]ric hydroxides1 nei!r are !y precipitat$ by sodium c>bonate4 ,?is l$ ! e>li] inve/igators to recognise special indep5d5t gr\p+s 9 !m4 ,! yell[ prussiate 0 consid]$ to conta9 ! complex radicle ,fe,c#f,n#f comb9$ ) potassium1 namely ) ,k#d1 & ,k#c 0 attribut$ to ! r$ prussiate4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ! fact t :il/ 9 bo? salts any o!r metal1 ev5 hydrog51 might be sub/itut$ = potassium1 ! iron rema9$ un*angeable1 j z nitrog5 9 cyanog51 ammonium1 & nitrates does n ent] into d\ble decomposition1 be+ 9 ! /ate ( ! complex radicles ,,cn1 ,,nh#d1 ,,no#b4 ,su* a repres5tation is1 h[ev]1 completely sup]flu\s = ! explanation ( ! peculi>ities 9 ! reactions ( su* comp\nds z d\ble salts4 ,if a magnesium salt :i* c be precipitat$ by potassium hydroxide does n =m a precipitate 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonium *loride1 x is v cle> t x is ow+ to ! =mation ( a soluble d\ble salt :i* is n decompos$ by alkalis4 ,& !re is no necessity to acc\nt = ! peculi>ity ( reaction ( a d\ble salt by ! =mation ( a new complex radicle4 ,9 ! same way also1 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( t>t>ic acid1 cupric salts d n =m a precipitate ) potassium hydroxide1 because a d\ble salt is =m$4 ,^! peculi>ities are m easily und]/ood 9 ! case ( cyanog5 comp\nds ?an 9 all o!rs1 because all cyanog5 comp\nds1 z unsaturat$ comp\nds1 %[ a m>k$ t5d5cy to complexity4 ,?is t5d5cy is satisfi$ 9 d\ble salts4 ,! appe>ance ( a peculi> "* 9 d\ble cyanides is ! m easily und]/ood s9ce 9 ! case ( potassium cyanide itself1 & also 9 hydrocyanic acid1 a great _m peculi>ities h be5 obs]v$ :i* are n enc\nt]$ 9 ^? haloid comp\nds1 potassium *loride & hydro*loric acid1 ) :i* x 0 usual to comp>e cyanog5 comp\nds4 ,^! peculi>ities become m compreh5sible on comp>+ cyanog5 comp\nds ) ammonium comp\nds4 ,?us 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia ! reactions ( _m comp\nds *ange consid]ably4 ,if 9 addition to ?is x is rememb]$ t ! pres5ce ( _m c>bon 7organic7 comp\nds frequ5tly completely di/urbs ! reaction ( salts1 ! peculi>ities ( c]ta9 d\ble cyanides w appe> /ill less /range1 because !y conta9 c>bon4 ,! fact t ! pres5ce ( c>bon or ano!r elem5t 9 ! comp\nd produces a *ange 9 ! reactions1 may be comp>$ to ! action ( oxyg51 :i*1 :5 ent]+ into a comb9ation1 also v mat]ially *anges ! nature ( reactions4 ,*lor9e is n detect$ by silv] nitrate :5 x is 9 ! =m ( potassium *lorate1 ,k,cl,o#c1 z x is detect$ 9 potassium *loride1 ,k,cl4 ,! iron 9 f]r\s & f]ric comp\nds v>ies 9 its reactions4 ,9 addition to ! above-m5tion$ facts1 consid]ation ought to be giv5 to ! circum/ance t ! easy mutability ( nitric acid und]goes modification 9 its alkali salts1 & 9 g5]al ! prop]ties ( a salt (t5 diff] mu* f ^? ( ! acid4 ,e d\ble salt ought to be reg>d$ z a peculi> k9d ( sal9e comp\nd3 potassium cyanide is1 z x 71 a basic1 & f]r\s cyanide an acid1 elem5t4 ,!y may be un/able 9 ! sep>ate /ate1 b =m a /able d\ble comp\nd :5 comb9$ toge!r2 ! act ( comb9ation dis5gages ! en]gy ( ! elem5ts1 & !y1 s to speak1 saturate ea* o!r4 ,( c\rse1 all ?is is n a def9ite explanation1 b !n ! supposition ( a special complex radicle c ev5 less be reg>d$ z su*4 ,potassium f]rocyanide1 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f1 is v easily =m$ by mix+ solutions ( f]r\s sulphate & potassium cyanide4 ,fir/1 a :ite precipitate ( f]r\s cyanide1 ,fe,c#b,n#b1 is =m$1 :i* becomes blue on exposure to air1 b is soluble 9 an excess ( potassium cyanide1 =m+ ! f]rocyanide4 ,! same yell[ prussiate is obta9$ on heat+ animal nitrog5\s *>coal or animal matt]s--su* z horn1 lea!r cutt+s1 c4--) potassium c>bonate 9 iron vessels1#bg bis ! mass =m$ be+ aft]w>ds boil$ ) wat] ) exposure to air1 potassium cyanide fir/ appe>+1 :i* gives yell[ prussiate4 ,! animal *>coal may be ex*ang$ = wood *>coal1 p]meat$ ) potassium c>bonate & heat$ 9 nitrog5 or ammonia2 ! mass ?us produc$ is !n boil$ 9 wat] ) f]ric oxide4#bh ,9 ?is mann] x is manufactur$ on ! l>ge scale1 & is call$ 'yell[ prussiate' 7'prussiate de potasse1' ,blutlaug5salz74 #bg bis ,! sulphur ( ! animal refuse "h =ms ! comp\nd ,fe,k,s#b1 :i* by ! action ( potassium cyanide yields potassium sulphide1 ?iocyanate1 & f]rocyanide4 #bh ,potassium f]rocyanide may also be obta9$ f ,prussian blue by boil+ ) a solution ( potassium hydroxide1 & f ! f]ricyanide by ! action ( alkalis & r$uc+ sub/ances 7because ! r$ prussiate is a product ( oxidation produc$ by ! action ( *lor9e3 a f]ric salt is r$uc$ to a f]r\s salt71 c4 ,9 _m works 7especially 9 ,g]many & ,france7 yell[ prussiate is prep>$ f ! mass1 conta9+ oxide ( iron1 & employ$ = purify+ coal gas 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cfa71 :i* g5]ally conta9s cyanog5 comp\nds4 ,ab\t #b p4c4 ( ! nitrog5 conta9$ 9 coal is conv]t$ into cyanog51 :i* =ms ,prussian blue & ?iocyanates 9 ! mass us$ = purify+ ! gas4 ,on evaporation ! solution yields l>ge yell[ cry/als conta9+ #c molecules ( wat]1 :i* is easily expell$ by heat+ above #ajj4 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature are capable ( dissolv+ #be p>ts ( ?is salt2 its sp4 gr4 is #ahc4 ,:5 ignit$ x =ms potassium cyanide & iron c>bide1 ,fe,c#b 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #ab74 ,oxidis+ sub/ances *ange x into potassium f]ricyanide4 ,) /rong sulphuric acid x gives c>bonic oxide1 & ) dilute sulphuric acid1 :5 heat$1 prussic acid is evolv$ accord+ to ! equation3 #b,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f #c;,h#b,,s#d ,k#b;,fe#b;,c#f,n#f #c,k#b,,s#d #f;,,hcn2 h5ce 9 ! yell[ prussiate ,k#b replaces ,fe4 ,x is easy to sub/itute o!r metals = ! potassium 9 ! yell[ prussiate4 ,! hydrog5 salt or hydr(]rocyanic acid1 ,h#d;,fe,c#f,n#f1 is obta9$ by mix+ /rong solutions ( yell[ prussiate & hydro*loric acid4 ,if e!r be add$ & ! air exclud$1 ! acid is obta9$ directly 9 ! =m ( a :ite sc>cely cry/all9e precipitate :i* becomes blue on exposure to air 7z f]r\s cyanide does f ! =mation ( blue comp\nds ( f]r\s & f]ric cyanides1 & x is on ?is acc\nt us$ 9 cotton pr9t+74 ,x is soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 b n 9 e!r1 has m>k$ acid prop]ties1 & decomposes c>bonates1 :i* r5d]s x easily possible to prep>e f]rocyanides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis & alkal9e e>?s2 ^! are readily soluble1 h a neutral reaction1 & resemble ! yell[ prussiate4 ,solutions ( ^! salts =m precipitates ) ! salts ( o!r metals1 because ! f]rocyanides ( ! heavy metals are insoluble4 ,"h ei!r ! :ole ( ! potassium ( ! yell[ prussiate1 or only a "p ( x1 is ex*ang$ = an equival5t quantity ( ! heavy metal4 ,?us1 :5 a cupric salt is add$ to a solution ( yell[ prussiate1 a r$ precipitate is obta9$ :i* /ill conta9s half ! potassium ( ! yell[ prussiate3 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f ,cu,s,o#d ,k#b;,cu,fe,c#f,n#f ,k#b,,s#d4 ,b if ! process be rev]s$ 7! salt ( copp] be+ !n 9 excess7 ! :ole ( ! potassium w be ex*ang$ = copp]1 =m+ a r$di%-br[n precipitate1 ,cu#b;,fe,c#f,n#f1i;,h#b,o4 ,?is reaction & ^? simil> to x are v s5sitive & may be us$ = detect+ metals 9 solution1 m especially z ! col\r ( ! precipitate v (t5 %[s a m>k$ diff]5ce :5 "o metal is ex*ang$ = ano!r4 ,z9c1 cadmium1 lead1 antimony1 t91 silv]1 cupr\s & aur\s salts =m :ite precipitates2 cupric1 uranium1 titanium & molybd5um salts r$di%-br[n2 ^? ( nickel1 cobalt1 & *romium1 gre5 precipitates2 ) f]r\s salts1 f]rocyanide =ms1 z has be5 already m5tion$1 a :ite precipitate--namely1 ,fe#b;,fe,c#f,n#f1 or ,fe,c#b,n#b--:i* turns blue on exposure to air1 & ) f]ric salts a blue precipitate call$ ,prussian blue4 ,"h ! potassium is replac$ by iron1 ! reaction be+ express$ ?us3 #b;,fe#b;,cl#f #c,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f #ab,k,cl ,fe#d;,fe#c;,c#ah,n#ah1 ! latt] =mula express+ ! composition ( ,prussian blue4 ,x is !re=e ! comp\nd #d;,fe7,,cn7#c #c;,fe7,,cn7#b4 ,! yell[ prussiate is prep>$ 9 *emical works on a l>ge scale especially = ! manufacture ( ?is blue pigm5t1 :i* is us$ = dye+ clo? & o!r fabrics & also z "o ( ! ord9>y blue pa9ts4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 & ! /uffs are !re=e dy$ by fir/ soak+ !m 9 a solution ( a f]ric salt & !n 9 a solution ( yell[ prussiate4 ,if h[ev] an excess ( yell[ prussiate be pres5t complete sub/itution betwe5 potassium & iron does n occur1 & soluble ,prussian blue is =m$2 ,k,fe#b7;,,cn7#f ,,kcn1,fe7,,cn7#b1;,fe7,,cn7#c4 ,?is blue salt is colloidal1 is soluble 9 pure wat]1 b insoluble & precipitat$ :5 o!r salts--= in/ance1 potassium or sodium *loride--are pres5t ev5 9 small quantities1 & is !re=e fir/ obta9$ z a precipitate4#bi #bi ,skraup obta9$ ?is salt bo? f potassium f]rocyanide ) f]ric *loride & f f]ricyanide ) f]r\s *loride1 :i* evid5tly %[s t x conta9s iron 9 bo? ! f]ric & f]r\s /ates4 ,) f]r\s *loride x =ms ,prussian blue1 & ) f]ric *loride ,turnbull's blue4 ,prussian blue 0 discov]$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury by a ,b]l9 manufactur]1 ,diesba*4 ,x 0 !n prep>$1 z x sometimes is also at pres5t1 directly f potassium cyanide obta9$ by heat+ animal *>coal ) potassium c>bonate4 ,! mass ?us obta9$ is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 alum is add$ to ! solution 9 ord] to saturate ! free alkali1 & !n a solution ( gre5 vitriol is add$ :i* has previ\sly be5 suffici5tly expos$ to ! air to conta9 bo? f]ric & f]r\s salts4 ,if ! solution ( potassium cyanide be mix$ ) a solution conta9+ bo? salts1 ,prussian blue w be =m$1 because x is a comp\nd ( f]r\s cyanide1 ,fe,c#b,n#b1 & f]ric cyanide1 ,fe#b;,c#f,n#f4 ,a f]ric salt ) potassium f]rocyanide =ms a blue col\r1 because f]r\s cyanide is obta9$ f ! fir/ salt & f]ric cyanide f ! second4 ,dur+ ! prep>ation ( ?is comp\nd alkali mu/ be avoid$1 z o!rwise ! precipitate w\ld conta9 oxides ( iron4 ,prussian blue has n a cry/all9e /ructure2 x =ms a blue mass ) a copp]-r$ metallic lu/re4 ,bo? acids & alkalis act on x4 ,! action is at fir/ conf9$ to ! f]ric salt x conta9s4 ,?us alkalis =m f]ric oxide & f]rocyanide 9 solution3 #b;,fe#b;,c#f,n#f1c;,fe,c#b,n#b #ab,,kho #b7;,fe#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o7 #c,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f4 ,v>i\s f]rocyanides may ?us be prep>$4 ,prussian blue is soluble 9 an aque\s solution ( oxalic acid1 =m+ blue ink4 ,9 air1 :5 expos$ to ! action ( light1 x fades2 b 9 ! d>k aga9 absorbs oxyg5 & becomes blue1 :i* fact is also sometimes notic$ 9 blue clo?4 ,an excess ( potassium f]rocyanide r5d]s ,prussian blue soluble 9 wat]1 al?\gh insoluble 9 v>i\s sal9e solutions--t is1 x conv]ts x into ! soluble v>iety4 ,/rong hydro*loric acid also dissolves ,prussian blue4 ,potassium f]ricyanide1 or r$ prussiate ( pota%1 ,k#c;,fe,c#f,n#f1 is call$ ',gmel9's salt1' because ?is savant obta9$ x by ! action ( *lor9e on a solution ( ! yell[ prussiate3 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f ,cl ,k#c;,fe,c#f,n#f ,k,cl4 ,! reaction is due to ! f]r\s salt be+ *ang$ by ! action ( ! *lor9e into a f]ric salt4 ,x sep>ates f solutions 9 anhydr\s1 well-=m$ prisms ( a r$ col\r1 b ! solution has an olive col\r2 #ajj p>ts ( wat]1 at #aj1 dissolve #cg p>ts ( ! salt1 & at #ajj1 #gh p>ts4#cj ,! r$ prussiate gives a blue precipitate ) f]r\s salts1 call$ ,turnbull's blue1 v mu* l ,prussian blue 7& ! soluble v>iety71 because x also conta9s f]r\s cyanide & f]ric cyanide1 al?\gh 9 ano!r proportion1 be+ =m$ accord+ to ! equation3 #c;,fe,cl#b #b,k#c;,fe,c#f,n#f #f,k,cl ,fe#c;,fe#b;,c#ab,n#ab1 or #c;,fe,c#b,n#b1;,fe#b;,c#f,n#f2 9 ,prussian blue we h ,fe#g;,cy#ah1 & "h ,fe#e;,cy#ab4 ,a f]ric salt ought to =m f]ric cyanide ,fe#b;,c#f,n#f1 ) r$ prussiate1 b f]ric cyanide is soluble1 & !re=e no precipitate is obta9$1 & ! liquid only becomes br[n4#ca #cj ,an excess ( *lor9e mu/ n be employ$ 9 prep>+ ?is comp\nd1 o!rwise ! reaction goes fur!r4 ,x is easy to f9d out :5 ! action ( ! *lor9e on potassium f]rocyanide mu/ cease2 x is only necess>y to take a sample ( ! liquid & add a solution ( a f]ric salt to x4 ,if a precipitate ( ,prussian blue is =m$1 m *lor9e mu/ be add$1 z !re is /ill "s undecompos$ f]rocyanide1 = ! f]ricyanide does n give a precipitate ) f]ric salts4 ,potassium f]ricyanide1 l ! f]rocyanide1 easily ex*anges its potassium = hydrog5 & v>i\s metals by d\ble decomposition4 ,) ! salts ( t91 silv]1 & m]cury x =ms yell[ precipitates1 & ) ^? ( uranium1 nickel1 cobalt1 copp]1 & bismu? br[n precipitates4 ,! lead salt "u ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 =ms lead sulphide & a hydrog5 salt or acid1 ,h#c;,fe,c#f,n#f1 correspond+ ) potassium f]ricyanide1 :i* is soluble1 cry/allises 9 r$ ne$les1 & resembles hydr(]rocyanic acid1 ,h#d;,fe,c#f,n#f4 ,"u ! action ( r$uc+ ag5ts--= in/ance1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 copp]--potassium f]ricyanide is *ang$ into f]rocyanide1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 & ?us =ms a r en]getic oxidis+ ag5t--capable1 = in/ance1 ( *ang+ mangan\s oxide into dioxide1 blea*+ tissues1 c4 #ca ,x is important to m5tion a s]ies ( readily cry/allisable salts =m$ by ! action ( nitric acid on potassium & o!r f]rocyanides & f]ricyanides4 ,^! salt conta9 ! elem5ts ( nitric oxide1 & are !re=e call$ nitro-7nitroso7 f]ricyanides 7nitroprussides74 ,g5]ally a cry/all9e sodium salt is obta9$1 ,na#b;,fe,c#e,n#f,o1#b;,h#b,o4 ,9 its composition ?is salt diff]s f ! r$ sodium salt1 ,na#c;,fe,c#f,n#f1 by ! fact t 9 x "o molecule ( sodium cyanide1 ,na,c,n1 is replac$ by nitric oxide1 ,,no4 ,9 ord] to prep>e x1 potassium f]rocyanide 9 p[d] is mix$ ) five-sev5?s ( its weight ( nitric acid dilut$ ) an equal volume ( wat]4 ,! mixture is at fir/ left at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & !n heat$ on a wat]-ba?4 ,"h f]ricyanide is fir/ ( all =m$ 7z %[n by ! liquid giv+ a precipitate ) f]r\s *loride71 :i* !n disappe>s 7no precipitate ) f]r\s *loride71 & =ms a gre5 precipitate4 ,! liquid1 :5 cool$1 deposits cry/als ( nitre4 ,! liquid is !n /ra9$ (f & mix$ ) sodium c>bonate1 boil$1 filt]$1 & evaporat$2 sodium nitrate & ! salt describ$ are deposit$ 9 cry/als4 ,x sep>ates 9 prisms ( a r$ col\r4 ,alkalis & salts ( ! alkal9e e>?s d n give precipitates3 !y are soluble1 b ! salts ( iron1 z9c1 copp]1 & silv] =m precipitates :]e sodium is ex*ang$ ) ^! metals4 ,x is rem>kable t ! sulphides ( ! alkali metals give ) ?is salt an int5se bright purple coloration4 ,?is s]ies ( comp\nds 0 discov]$ by ,gmel9 & /udi$ by ,playfair & o!rs 7#ahdi74 ,?is s]ies to a c]ta9 ext5t resembles ! nitro-sulphide s]ies describ$ by ,r\ss94 ,"h ! prim>y comp\nd consi/s ( black cry/als1 :i* are obta9$ z foll[s3--,solutions ( potassium hydrosulphide & nitrate are mix$1 & ! mixture is agitat$ :il/ f]ric *loride is add$1 !n boil$ & filt]$2 on cool+1 black cry/als are deposit$1 hav+ ! composition ,fe#f,s#c7,,no7#aj1;,h#b,o 7,ros5b]g71 or1 accord+ to ,demel1 ,fe,n,o#b1,,nh#b,s4 ,!y h a slightly metallic lu/re1 & are soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r4 ,!y absorb ! latt] z easily z calcium *loride absorbs wat]4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis ^! cry/als rema9 un*ang$1 b ) acids !y evolve nitric oxides4 ,!re are sev]al comp\nds :i* are capable ( int]*ang+1 & correspond ) ,r\ss9's salt4 ,"h we ent] into ! s]ies ( ! nitrog5 comp\nds :i* h be5 z yet b little inve/igat$1 & w mo/ probably 9 "t =m mo/ in/ructive mat]ial = /udy+ ! nature ( t elem5t4 ,^! s]ies ( comp\nds are z unlike ! usual sal9e comp\nds ( inorganic *emi/ry z are organic hydroc>bons4 ,!re is no necessity to describe ^! s]ies 9 detail1 because _! connection ) o!r comp\nds is n yet cle>1 & !y h n yet any application4 ,if *lor9e & sodium are repres5tatives ( indep5d5t gr\ps ( elem5ts1 ! same may also be said ( iron4 ,its ne>e/ analogues %[1 besides a simil>ity 9 "*1 a lik5ess z reg>ds physical prop]ties & a proximity 9 atomic weight4 ,iron occupies a m$ium position among/ its ne>e/ analogues1 bo? ) respect to prop]ties & faculty ( =m+ sal9e oxides1 & also z reg>ds atomic weight4 ,on ! "o h&1 cobalt1 #eh1 & nickel1 #ei1 approa* iron1 #ef2 !y are metals ( a m basic "*1 !y d n =m /able acids or high] degrees ( oxidation1 & are a transition to copp]1 #fc1 & z9c1 #fe4 ,on ! o!r h&1 manganese1 #ee1 & *romium1 #eb1 are ! ne>e/ to iron2 !y =m bo? basic & acid oxides1 & are a transition to ! metals possess+ acid prop]ties4 ,9 addition to hav+ atomic weights approximately alike1 *romium1 manganese1 iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 & copp] h also ne>ly ! same specific gravity1 s t ! atomic volumes & ! molecules ( _! analog\s comp\nds are also ne> to "o ano!r 7see table at ! beg9n+ ( ?is volume74 ,besides ?is1 ! lik5ess betwe5 ! above-m5tion$ elem5ts is also se5 f ! foll[+3 ,!y =m suboxides1 ,,ro1 fairly en]getic bases1 isomorph\s ) magnesia--= in/ance1 ! salt ,,rso#d1g;,h#b,o1 ak9 to ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 & ,fe,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 or to sulphates conta9+ less wat]2 ) alkali sulphates all =m d\ble salts cry/allis+ ) #f;,h#b,o2 all are capable ( =m+ ammonium salts1 c4 ,! l[] oxides1 9 ! cases ( nickel & cobalt1 are tol]ably /able1 are n easily oxidis$ 7! nickel comp\nd ) m difficulty ?an cobalt1 a transition to copp]72 ) manganese1 & especially ) *romium1 !y are m easily oxidis$ ?an ) iron & pass into high] oxides4 ,!y also =m oxides ( ! =m ,r#b,o#c1 & ) nickel1 cobalt1 & manganese ?is oxide is v un/able1 & is m easily r$uc$ ?an f]ric oxide2 b1 9 ! case ( *romium1 x is v /able1 & =ms ! ord9>y k9d ( salts4 ,x is isomorph\s ) f]ric oxide1 =ms alums1 is a feeble base1 c4 ,*romium1 manganese1 & iron are oxidis$ by alkali & oxidis+ ag5ts1 =m+ salts l ,na#b,,s#d2 b cobalt & nickel are difficult to oxidise2 _! acids are n kn[n ) any c]ta9ty1 & are1 9 all probability1 /ill less /able ?an ! f]rates4 ,cr1 ,mn & ,fe =m comp\nds ,r#b;,cl#f :i* are l ,fe#b;,cl#f 9 _m respects2 9 ,co ?is faculty is weak] & 9 ,ni x has almo/ disappe>$4 ,! cyanog5 comp\nds1 especially ( manganese & cobalt1 are v ne> ak9 to ! correspond+ f]rocyanides4 ,! oxides ( nickel & cobalt are m easily r$uc$ to metal ?an ^? ( iron1 b ^? ( manganese & *romium are n r$uc$ s easily z iron1 & ! metals !mselves are n easily obta9$ 9 a pure /ate2 !y are capable ( =m+ v>ieties resembl+ ca/ iron4 ,! metals ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 & ,ni h a grey iron col\r & are v difficult to melt1 b nickel & cobalt c be melt$ 9 ! rev]b]atory furnace & are m fusible ?an iron1 :il/ *romium is m difficult to melt ?an plat9um 7,deville74 ,^! metals decompose wat]1 b ) great] difficulty z ! atomic weight rises1 =m+ a transition to copp]1 :i* does n decompose wat]4 ,all ! comp\nds ( ^! metals h v>i\s col\rs1 :i* are sometimes v bright1 especially 9 ! high] /ages ( oxidation4 ,^! metals ( ! iron gr\p are (t5 met ) toge!r 9 nature4 ,manganese ne>ly ev]y:]e accompanies iron1 & iron is always an +r$i5t 9 ! ores ( manganese4 ,*romium is f\nd pr9cipally z *rome iron/one--t is1 a peculi> k9d ( magnetic oxide 9 :i* ,fe#b,o#c is replac$ by ,cr#b,o#c4 ,nickel & cobalt are z insep>able companions z iron & manganese4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 !m ev5 ext5ds to su* remote prop]ties z magnetic qualities4 ,9 ?is s]ies ( metals we f9d ^? :i* are ! mo/ magnetic3 iron1 cobalt1 & nickel4 ,!re is ev5 a magnetic oxide among ! *romium comp\nds1 su* be+ unkn[n 9 ! o!r s]ies4 ,nickel easily becomes passive 9 /rong nitric acid4 ,x absorbs hydrog5 9 j ! same way z iron4 ,9 %ort1 9 ! s]ies ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 & ,ni1 !re are _m po9ts 9 common al?\gh !re are _m diff]5ces1 z w be se5 /ill m cle>ly on becom+ acqua9t$ ) cobalt & nickel4 ,9 nature cobalt is pr9cipally f\nd 9 comb9ation ) ars5ic & sulphur4 ,cobalt ars5ide1 or cobalt speiss1 ,co,as#b1 is f\nd 9 brilliant cry/als ( ! regul> sy/em1 pr9cipally 9 ,saxony4 ,cobalt glance1 ,co,as#b;,co,s#b1 resembles x v mu*1 & also belongs to ! regul> sy/em2 x is f\nd 9 ,sw$51 ,norway1 & ! ,caucasus4 ,kupf]nickel is a nickel ore 9 comb9ation ) ars5ic1 b ( a diff]5t composition f cobalt ars5ide1 hav+ ! =mula ,ni,as2 x is f\nd 9 ,bohemia & ,saxony4 ,x has a copp]-r$ col\r & is r>ely cry/all9e2 x is s call$ because ! m9]s ( ,saxony fir/ mi/ook x = an ore ( copp] 7,kupf]71 b 7 unable to extract copp] f x4 ,nickel glance1 ,ni,s#b1,ni,as#b1 correspond+ ) cobalt glance1 is also kn[n4 ,nickel accompanies ! ores ( cobalt & cobalt ^? ( nickel1 s t bo? metals are f\nd toge!r4 ,! ores ( cobalt are work$ 9 ! ,caucasus 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,elizavetopolsk4 ,nickel ores conta9+ aque\s hydrat$ nickel silicate are f\nd 9 ! ,ural 7,revdansk74 ,l>ge quantities ( a simil> ore are export$ into ,europe f ,new ,cal$onia4 ,bo? ores conta9 ab\t #ab p] c5t4 ,ni4 ,g>ni]ite1 7,,ro7#e7,si,o#b7da-a_/b;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,ni & ,mg1 pr$om9ates 9 ! ,new ,cal$onian ore4 ,l>ge deposits ( nickel h be5 discov]$ 9 ,canada1 :]e ! ore 7z nickel\s pyrites7 is free f ars5ic4 ,cobalt is pr9cipally work$ up into cobalt comp\nds1 b nickel is g5]ally r$uc$ to ! metallic /ate1 9 :i* x is n[ (t5 us$ = alloys--= in/ance1 = co9age 9 _m ,european ,/ates1 & = plat+ o!r metals1 because x does n oxidise4 ,cobalt ars5ide & cobalt glance are pr9cipally us$ = ! prep>ation ( cobalt comp\nds2 !y are fir/ sort$ by disc>d+ ! rocky matt]1 & !n roa/$4 ,dur+ ?is process mo/ ( ! sulphur & ars5ic disappe>s2 ! ars5i\s anhydride volatilises ) ! sulphur\s anhydride & ! metal also oxidises4#cb ,x is a simple matt] to obta9 nickel & cobalt f _! oxides4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! latt]1 solutions ( _! salts are treat$ ) sodium c>bonate & ! precipitat$ c>bonates are heat$2 ! suboxides are ?us obta9$1 & ^! latt] are r$uc$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 or ev5 by heat+ ) ammonium *loride4 ,!y easily oxidise :5 9 ! /ate ( p[d]4 ,:5 ! *lorides ( nickel & cobalt are heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 ! metal is deposit$ 9 brilliant scales4 ,nickel is always mu* m easily & quickly r$uc$ ?an cobalt4 ,nickel melts m easily ?an cobalt1 & ?is ev5 furni%es a means ( te/+ ! heat+ p[]s ( a rev]b]atory furnace4 ,cobalt fuses at a temp]ature only a little l[] ?an t at :i* iron does4 ,9 g5]al1 cobalt is ne>] to iron ?an nickel1 nickel be+ ne>] to copp]4#cb bis ,bo? nickel & cobalt h magnetic prop]ties l iron1 b ,co is less magnetic ?an ,fe1 & ,ni /ill less s4 ,! specific gravity ( nickel r$uc$ by hydrog5 is #ia & t ( cobalt #hi4 ,fus$ cobalt has a specific gravity ( #he1 ! d5sity ( ord9>y nickel be+ almo/ ! same4 ,nickel has a greyi% silv]y-:ite col\r2 x is brilliant & v ductile1 s t ! f9e/ wire may be easily drawn f x4 ,?is wire has a resi/ance to t5sion equal to iron wire4 ,! beautiful col\r ( nickel1 & ! high poli% :i* x is capable ( receiv+ & reta9+1 z x does n oxidise1 r5d] x a useful metal = _m purposes1 & 9 _m ways x resembles silv]4#cb tri ,x is n[ v common to cov] o!r metals ) a lay] ( nickel 7nickel plat+74 ,?is is done by a process ( electro-plat+1 us+ a solution ( a nickel salt4 ,! col\r ( cobalt is d>k & r$d]2 x is also ductile1 & has a great] t5sile resi/ance ?an iron4 ,dilute acids act v sl[ly on nickel & cobalt2 nitric acid may be consid]$ z ! be/ solv5t = !m4 ,! solutions 9 e case conta9 salts correspond+ ) ! f]r\s salts--t is1 ! salts ,co,x#b1 ,ni,x#b1 correspond ) ! suboxides ( ^! metals4 ,^! salts 9 _! types are simil> to ! magnesium salts4 ,! salts ( nickel :5 cry/allis+ ) wat] h a gre5 col\r1 & =m bright gre5 solutions1 b 9 ! anhydr\s /ate !y mo/ frequ5tly h a yell[ col\r4 ,! salts ( cobalt are g5]ally rose-col\r$1 & g5]ally blue :5 9 ! anhydr\s /ate4 ,_! aque\s solutions are rose-col\r$4 ,cobalt\s *loride is easily soluble 9 alcohol1 & =ms a solution ( an int5se blue col\r4#cc #cb ,! residue f ! roa/+ ( cobalt ores is call$ zafflor1 & is (t5 met ) 9 comm]ce4 ,f ?is ! pur] comp\nds ( cobalt may be prep>$4 ,! ores ( nickel are also fir/ roa/$1 & ! oxides dissolv$ 9 acid1 nickel\s salts be+ !n obta9$4 ,! fur!r treatm5t ( cobalt & nickel ores is facilitat$ if ! ars5ic c be almo/ entirely remov$1 :i* may be effect$ by roa/+ ! ore a second "t ) a small addition ( nitre & sodium c>bonate2 ! nitre comb9es ) ! ars5ic1 =m+ an ars5i\s salt1 :i* may be extract$ ) wat]4 ,! rema9+ mass is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 mix$ ) a small quantity ( nitric acid4 ,copp]1 iron1 manganese1 nickel1 cobalt1 c41 pass into solution4 ,by pass+ hydrog5 sulphide ?r\gh ! solution1 copp]1 bismu?1 lead1 & ars5ic are deposit$ z metallic sulphides2 b iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 & manganese rema9 9 solution4 ,if an alkal9e solution ( blea*+ p[d] be !n add$ to ! rema9+ solution1 ! :ole ( ! manganese w fir/ be deposit$ 9 ! =m ( dioxide1 !n ! cobalt z hydrat$ cobaltic oxide1 & f9ally ! nickel also4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible to rely on ?is me?od = effect+ a complete sep>ation1 ! m s s9ce ! high] oxides ( ! ?ree above-m5tion$ metals h all a black col\r2 b1 aft] a few trials1 x w be easy to f9d h[ mu* blea*+ p[d] is requir$ to precipitate ! manganese1 & ! am\nt :i* w precipitate all ! cobalt4 ,! manganese may also be sep>at$ f cobalt by precipitation f a mixture ( ! solutions ( bo? metals 79 ! =m ( ! 'ous' salts7 ) ammonium sulphide1 & !n treat+ ! precipitate ) acetic acid or dilute hydro*loric acid1 9 :i* manganese sulphide is easily soluble & cobalt sulphide almo/ insoluble4 ,fur!r p>ticul>s relat+ to ! sep>ation ( cobalt f nickel may be f\nd 9 treatises on analytical *emi/ry4 ,9 practice x is usual to rely on ! r\gh me?od ( sep>ation f\nd$ on ! fact t nickel is m easily r$uc$ & m difficult to oxidise ?an cobalt4 ,! ,new ,cal$onian ore is smelt$ ) ,ca,s,o#d & ,ca,c,o#c on coke1 & a metallic regulus is obta9$ conta9+ all ! ,ni1 ,fe1 & ,s4 ,?is is roa/$ ) ,si,o#b1 :i* conv]ts all ! iron into slag1 :il/ ! ,ni rema9s comb9$ ) ! ,s2 ?is residue on fur!r roa/+ gives ,ni,o1 :i* is r$uc$ by ! c>bon to metallic ,ni4 ,! ,canadian ore 7a pyrites conta9+ #aa p4c4 ,ni7 is frequ5tly treat$ 9 ,am]ica 7aft] a prelim9>y dress+7 by smelt+ x ) ,na#b,,s#d & *>coal2 ! resultant fusible ,na#b,s !n dissolves ! ,cu,s & ,fe,s#b1 :ile ! ,ni,s is obta9$ 9 a bottom lay] 7,b>tlett & ,?omson's process7 f :i* ,ni is obta9$ 9 ! mann] describ$ above4 ,= manufactur+ purposes some:at impure cobalt comp\nds are frequ5tly us$1 :i* are conv]t$ into smalt4 ,?is is glass conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( cobalt oxide2 ! glass acquires a bright blue col\r f ?is addition1 s t :5 p[d]$ x may be us$ z a blue pigm5t2 x is also unalt]$ at high temp]atures1 s t x us$ to take ! place n[ occupi$ by ,prussian blue1 ultram>9e1 c4 ,at pres5t smalt is almo/ exclusively us$ = col\r+ glass & *9a4 ,to prep>e smalt1 ord9>y impure cobalt ore 7zaffre7 is fus$ 9 a crucible ) qu>tz & potassium c>bonate4 ,a fus$ mass ( cobalt glass is ?us =m$1 conta9+ silica1 cobalt oxide1 & potassium oxide1 & a metallic mass rema9s at ! bottom ( ! crucible1 conta9+ almo/ all ! o!r metals1 ars5ic1 nickel1 copp]1 silv]1 c4 ,?is metallic mass is call$ speiss1 & is us$ z nickel ore = ! extraction ( nickel4 ,smalt usually conta9s #gj p4c4 ( silica1 #bj p4c4 ( pota% & soda1 & ab\t #e to #f p4c4 ( cobalt\s oxide2 ! rema9d] consi/+ ( o!r metallic oxides4 #cb bis ,all we "k respect+ ! relations ( ,co & ,ni to ,fe & ,cu confirms ! fact t ,co is m closely relat$ to ,fe & ,ni to ,cu2 & z ! atomic weight ( ,fe #ef & ( ,cu #fc1 !n accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( ! p]iodic sy/em x w\ld be expect$ t ! atomic weight ( ,co w\ld be ab\t #ei-fj1 :il/ t ( ,ni %\ld be great] ?an t ( ,co b less ?an t ( ,cu1 i4e4 ab\t #eje-fje4 ,h[ev]1 z yet ! majority ( ! det]m9ations ( ! atomic weights ( ,co & ,ni give a diff]5t result & %[ t a l[] atomic weight is obta9$ = ,ni ?an = ,co4 ,?us ,k4 ,w9kl] 7#ahid7 obta9$ 7employ+ metals deposit$ electrolytically & det]m9+ ! am\nt ( iod9e :i* comb9$ ) !m7 ,ni #ehgb & ,co #eicg 7if ,h #a & ,i #abfec74 ,9 my op9ion ?is %\ld n be reg>d$ z prov+ t ! pr9ciples ( ! p]iodic sy/em _c be appli$ 9 ?is in/ance1 nor z a reason = alt]+ ! position ( ^! elem5ts 9 ! sy/em 7i4e4 by plac+ ,ni aft] ,fe1 & ,co next to ,cu71 because 9 ! fir/ place ! figures giv5 by diff]5t *emi/s 7= in/ance1 ,zimm]mann1 ,krss1 & o!rs7 are some:at div]g5t1 & 9 ! second place ! majority ( ! late/ modes ( det]m9+ ! atomic weights ( ,co & ,ni aim at f9d+ :at weights ( ^! metals react ) kn[n weights ( o!r elem5ts )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! faculty !y h ( absorb+ hydrog52 s9ce ?is faculty is m develop$ 9 ,ni ?an 9 ,co ! hydrog5 7occlud$ 9 ,ni7 %\ld l[] ! atomic weight ( ,ni m ?an t ( ,co4 ,on ! :ole1 ! "q ( ! atomic weights ( ,co & ,ni _c yet be consid]$ z decid$1 not)/&+ ! num]\s rese>*es :i* h be5 made2 /ill !re c be no d\bt t ! atomic weights ( ^! two metals are v ne>ly equal1 & great] ?an t ( ,fe1 b less ?an t ( ,cu4 ,?is "q is ( great int]e/1 n only = complet+ our k ( ^! metals1 b also = p]fect+ our k ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts4 #cb tri ,= in/ance1 ! alkalis may be fus$ 9 nickel vessels z well z 9 silv]1 because !y h no action ^u ei!r metal4 ,nickel1 l silv]1 is n act$ ^u by dilute acids4 ,only nitric acid dissolves bo? metals well4 ,nickel is h>d]1 & fuses at a high] temp]ature ?an silv]4 ,= ca/+s1 a small quantity ( magnesium 7#jjja "p by weight7 is add$ to nickel to r5d] x m homog5e\s 7j z alum9ium is add$ to /eel74 ,nickel =ms _m valuable alloys4 ,/eel conta9+ #c p4c4 ,ni is p>ticul>ly valuable1 its limit ( ela/icity is high] & its h>dness is great]2 x is us$ = arm\r plate & o!r l>ge pieces4 ,! alloys ( nickel1 especially ) copp] & z9c 7mel*ior1 see lat]71 alum9ium & silv]1 al?\gh us$ 9 c]ta9 cases1 are n[ replac$ by nickel-plat$ or nickel-deposit$ goods 7deposit$ by electricity f a solution ( ! ammonium salts74 #cc ,! *ange ( col\r is dep5d5t 9 all probability on ! comb9ation ) wat]1 or accord+ to o!rs on polym]ic trans=mation4 ,x enables a solution ( cobalt *loride to be us$ z sympa!tic ink4 ,if some?+ be writt5 ) cobalt *loride on :ite pap]1 x w be invisible on acc\nt ( ! feeble col\r ( ! solution1 & :5 dry no?+ c be di/+ui%$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! pap] be heat$ be=e ! fire1 ! rose-col\r$ salt w be *ang$ into a less hydr\s blue salt1 & ! writ+ w become q visible1 b fade away :5 cool4 ,! *ange ( col\r :i* takes place 9 solutions ( ,co,cl#b "u ! influ5ce n only ( solution 9 wat] or alcohol1 b also ( a *ange ( temp]ature1 is a *>act]i/ic ( all ! halog5 salts ( cobalt4 ,cry/all9e iodide ( cobalt1 ,co,i#bf;,h#b,o1 gives a d>k r$ solution betwe5 -#bb & #bj2 above #bj ! solution turns br[n & passes f olive to gre51 f #ce to #cbj ! solution rema9s gre54 ,accord+ to t>d ! *ange ( col\r is due to ! fact t at fir/ ! solution conta9s ! hydrate ,co,i#b;,h#b,o1 & t above #ce x conta9s ,co,i#bd;,h#b,o4 ,^! hydrates c be cry/allis$ f ! solutions2 ! =m] at ord9>y temp]ature & ! latt] on heat+ ! solution4 ,! int]m$iate olive col\r ( ! solutions corresponds to ! incipi5t decomposition ( ! hexahydrat$ salt & its passage into ,co,i#bd;,h#b,o4 ,a solution ( ! hexahydrat$ *loride ( cobalt1 ,co,cl#bf;,h#b,o1 is rose-col\r$ betwe5 -#bb & #be2 b ! col\r *anges />t+ f #be1 & passes ?r\gh all ! t9ts betwe5 r$ & blue "r up to #ej2 a true blue solution is only obta9$ at #ee & rema9s up to #cjj4 ,?is true blue solution conta9s ano!r hydrate1 ,co,cl#bb;,h#b,o4 ,! dep5d5ce betwe5 ! solubility ( ! iodide & *loride ( cobalt & ! temp]ature is express$ by two almo/ /raight l9es correspond+ to ! hexa- & di-hydrates2 ! passage ( ! "o into ! o!r hydrate be+ express$ by a curve4 ,! same "* ( ph5om5a is se5 also 9 ! v>iation ( ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions ( *loride ( cobalt ) ! temp]ature4 ,we h repeat$ly se5 t aque\s solutions 7= in/ance1 ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #bc = ,fe#b;,cl#f7 deposit diff]5t cry/allo-hydrates at diff]5t temp]atures1 & t ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! hydrate decreases z ! temp]ature t rises1 s t x is n surpris+ t ,co,cl#bb;,h#b,o 7or accord+ to ,potilitz9 ,co,cl#b;,h#b,o7 %\ld sep>ate out above #ee & ,co,cl#bf;,h#b,o at #be & bel[4 ,nor is x exceptional t ! col\r ( a salt v>ies accord+ z x conta9s diff]5t am\nts ( ,h#b,o4 ,b 9 ?is in/ance x is *>act]i/ic t ! *ange ( col\r takes place 9 solution 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( wat]4 ,?is app>5tly %[s t ! actual solution may conta9 ei!r ,co,cl#bf;,h#b,o or ,co,cl#bb;,h#b,o4 ,& z we "k t a solution may conta9 bo? metaphosphoric ,,pho#c & or?ophosphoric acid ,h#c,,po#d ,,hpo#c ,h#b,o1 z well z c]ta9 o!r anhydrides1 ! "q ( ! /ate ( sub/ances 9 solutions becomes /ill m complicat$4 ,nickel sulphate cry/allises f neutral solutions at a temp]ature ( f #ae to #bj 9 rhombic cry/als conta9+ #g;,h#b,o4 ,its =m approa*es v closely to t ( ! salts ( z9c & magnesium4 ,! planes ( a v]tical prism = magnesium salts are incl9$ at an angle ( #ij #cj1 = z9c salts at an angle ( #ia #g1 & = nickel salts at an angle ( #ia #aj4 ,su* is also ! =m ( ! z9c & magnesium sel5ates & *romates4 ,cobalt sulphate conta9+ #g molecules ( wat] is deposit$ 9 cry/als ( ! monocl9ic sy/em1 l ! correspond+ salts ( iron & manganese4 ,! angle ( a v]tical prism = ! iron salt #hb #bj1 = cobalt #hb #bb1 & ! incl9ation ( ! horizontal p9acoid to ! v]tical prism = ! iron salt #ii #b1 & = ! cobalt salt #ii #cf4 ,all ! isomorph\s mixtures ( ! salts ( magnesium1 iron1 cobalt1 nickel & manganese h ! same =m if !y conta9 #g mol4 ,h#b,o & iron or cobalt pr$om9ate1 :il/ if !re is a prepond]ance ( magnesium1 z9c1 or nickel1 ! cry/als h a rhombic =m l magnesium sulphate4 ,h5ce ^! sulphates are dimorph\s1 b = "s ! "o =m is m /able & = o!rs ! o!r4 ,brooke1 ,moss1 ,mits*]li*1 ,rammelsb]g1 & ,m>ignac h expla9$ ^! relations4 ,brooke & ,mits*]li* also suppos$ t ,ni,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o is n only capable ( assum+ ^! =ms1 b also t ( ! tetragonal sy/em1 because x is deposit$ 9 ?is =m f acid1 & especially f slightly-heat$ solutions 7#cj to #dj74 ,b ,m>ignac demon/rat$ t ! tetragonal cry/als d n conta9 #g1 b #f1 molecules ( wat]1 ,ni,s,o#d1f;,h#b,o4 ,he also obs]v$ t a solution evaporat$ at #ej to #gj deposits monocl9ic cry/als1 b ( a diff]5t =m f f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o--namely1 ! angle ( ! prism is #ga #eb1 t ( ! p9acoid #ie #f4 ,?is salt appe>s to be ! same ) #f molecules ( wat] z ! tetragonal4 ,m>ignac also obta9$ magnesium & z9c salts ) #f molecules ( wat] by evaporat+ _! solutions at a high] temp]ature1 & ^! salts 7 f\nd to be isomorph\s ) ! monocl9ic nickel salt4 ,9 addition to ?is x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! rhombic cry/als ( nickel sulphate ) #g;,h#b,o become turbid "u ! influ5ce ( heat & light1 lose wat]1 & *ange into ! tetragonal salt4 ,! monocl9ic cry/als 9 "t also become turbid1 & *ange _! /ructure1 s t ! tetragonal =m ( ?is salt is ! mo/ /able4 ,let u also add t nickel sulphate 9 all its %apes =ms v beautiful em]ald gre5 cry/als1 :i*1 :5 heat$ to #bcj1 assume a dirty gre5i%-yell[ hue & !n conta9 "o molecule ( wat]4 ,klobb 7#ahia7 & ,langlot & ,l5oir obta9$ anhydr\s ,co,s,o#d & ,ni,s,o#d by ignit+ ! hydrat$ salt ) 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d until ! ammonium salt _h completely volatilis$ & decompos$4 ,we may add t :5 equival5t aque\s solutions ( ,ni,x#b 7gre57 & ,co,x#b 7r$7 are mix$ toge!r !y give an almo/ col\rless 7grey7 solution1 9 :i* ! gre5 & r$ col\r ( ! compon5t p>ts disappe>s ow+ to ! comb9ation ( ! complem5t>y col\rs4 ,a d\ble salt ,ni,k,f#c is obta9$ by heat+ ,ni,cl#b ) ,,kfhf 9 a plat9um crucible2 ,k,co,f#c is =m$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,! nickel salt occurs 9 f9e gre5 plates1 easily soluble 9 wat] b sc>cely soluble 9 e?yl & me?yl alcohol4 ,!y decompose into gre5 oxide ( nickel & potassium fluoride :5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( air4 ,! analog\s salt ( cobalt cry/allises 9 crimson flakes4 ,if in/ead ( potassium fluoride1 ,co,cl#b or ,ni,cl#b be fus$ ) ammonium fluoride1 !y also =m d\ble salts ) ! latt]4 ,?is gives ! possibility ( obta9+ anhydr\s fluorides ,ni,f#b & ,co,f#b4 ,cry/all9e fluoride ( nickel1 obta9$ by heat+ ! amorph\s p[d] =m$ by decompos+ ! d\ble ammonium salt 9 a /ream ( hydr(luoric acid1 occurs 9 beautiful gre5 prisms1 sp4 gr4 #dfc1 :i* are insoluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r2 sulphuric1 hydro*loric1 & nitric acids also h no action ^u !m1 ev5 :5 heat$2 ,ni,f#b is decompos$ by /eam1 ) ! =mation ( black oxide1 :i* reta9s ! cry/all9e /ructure ( ! salt4 ,fluoride ( cobalt1 obta9$ z a rose-col\r$ p[d] by decompos+ ! d\ble ammonium salt ) ! aid ( heat 9 a /ream ( hydr(luoric acid1 fuses into a ruby-col\r$ mass :i* be>s di/9ct signs ( a cry/all9e /ructure2 sp4 gr4 #ddc4 ,! molt5 salt only volatilises at ab\t #adjj1 :i* =ms a cle> di/9ction betwe5 ,co,f#b & ! volatile ,ni,f#b4 ,hydro*loric1 sulphuric1 & nitric acids act ^u ,co,f#b ev5 9 ! cold1 al?\gh sl[ly1 :ile :5 heat$ ! reaction proce$s rapidly 7,p\l5c1 #ahib74 ,if a solution ( potassium hydroxide be add$ to a solution ( a cobalt salt1 a blue precipitate ( ! basic salt w be =m$4 ,if a solution ( a cobalt salt be heat$ almo/ to ! boil+-po9t1 & ! solution be !n mix$ ) a boil+ solution ( an alkali hydroxide1 a p9k precipitate ( cobalt\s hydroxide1 ,co,h#b,o#b1 w be =m$4 ,if air be n completely exclud$ dur+ ! precipitation by boil+1 ! precipitate w also conta9 br[n cobaltic hydroxide =m$ by ! fur!r oxidation ( ! cobalt\s oxide4#cd ,"u simil> circum/ances nickel salts =m a gre5 precipitate ( nickel\s hydroxide1 ! =mation ( :i* is n h9d]$ by ! pres5ce ( ammonium salts1 b 9 t case only requires m alkali to completely sep>ate ! nickel4 ,! nickel\s oxide obta9$ by heat+ ! hydroxide1 or f ! c>bonate or nitrate1 is a grey p[d]1 easily soluble 9 acids & easily r$uc$1 b ! same sub/ance may be obta9$ 9 ! cry/all9e =m z an ord9>y product f ! ores2 x cry/allises 9 regul> octah$ra1 ) a metallic lu/re1 & is ( a grey col\r4 ,9 ?is /ate ! nickel\s oxide almo/ resi/s ! action ( acids4#cd bis #cd ,hydrat$ suboxide ( cobalt 7de ,s*ult51 #ahhi7 is obta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,a solution ( #aj grams ( ,co,cl#bf;,h#b,o 9 #fj c4c4 ( wat] is heat$ 9 a flask ) #bej grams ( cau/ic pota% & a /ream ( coal gas is pass$ ?r\gh ! solution4 ,:5 heat$ ! hydrate ( ! suboxide ( cobalt :i* sep>ates out1 dissolves 9 ! cau/ic pota% & =ms a d>k blue solution4 ,?is solution is all[$ to /& = #bd h\rs 9 an atmosph]e ( coal gas 79 ord] to prev5t oxidation74 ,! cry/all9e mass :i* sep>ates out has a composition ,co7,,oh7#b1 & to ! nak$ eye appe>s z a violet p[d]1 :i* is se5 to be cry/all9e "u ! microscope4 ,! specific gravity ( ?is hydrate is #ceig at #ae4 ,x does n und]go *ange 9 ! air2 w>m acetic acid dissolves x1 b x is insoluble 9 w>m & cold solutions ( ammonia & sal-ammoniac4 #cd bis ,! foll[+ reaction may be add$ to ^? ( ! cobalt\s & nickel\s salts3 potassium cyanide =ms a precipitate ) cobalt salts :i* is soluble 9 an excess ( ! reag5t & =ms a gre5 solution4 ,on heat+ ?is & add+ a c]ta9 quantity ( acid1 a d\ble cobalt cyanide is =m$ :i* corresponds ) potassium f]ricyanide4 ,its =mation is accompani$ ) ! evolution ( hydrog51 & is f\nd$ ^u ! prop]ty :i* cobalt has ( oxidis+ 9 an alkal9e solution1 ! developm5t ( :i* has be5 obs]v$ 9 su* a consid]able measure 9 ! cobaltam9e salts4 ,! process :i* goes on "h may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation2 ,co,c#b,n#b #d,,kcn fir/ =ms ,co,k#d;,c#f,n#f1 :i* salt ) wat]1 ,h#b,o1 =ms potassium hydroxide1 ,,kho1 hydrog51 ,h1 & ! salt1 ,k#c;,co,c#f,n#f4 ,"h naturally ! pres5ce ( ! acid is indisp5sable 9 consequ5ce ( its be+ requir$ to comb9e ) ! alkali4 ,f aque\s solutions ?is salt cry/allises 9 transp>5t1 hexagonal prisms ( a yell[ col\r1 easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,! reactions ( d\ble decomposition1 & ev5 ! =mation ( ! correspond+ acid1 are "h completely ! same z 9 ! case ( ! f]ricyanide4 ,if a nickel\s salt be treat$ 9 precisely ! same mann] z t j describ$ = a salt ( cobalt1 decomposition w occur4 ,x is int]e/+ to note ! relation ( ! cobalt\s & nickel\s hydroxides to ammonia2 aque\s ammonia dissolves ! precipitate ( cobalt\s & nickel\s hydroxide4 ,! blue ammoniacal solution ( nickel resembles ! same solution ( cupric oxide1 b has a some:at r$di% t9t4 ,x is *>act]is$ by ! fact t x dissolves silk 9 ! same way z ! ammoniacal cupric oxide dissolves cellulose4 ,ammonia likewise dissolves ! precipitate ( cobalt\s hydroxide1 =m+ a br[ni% liquid1 :i* becomes d>k] 9 air & f9ally assumes a bright r$ hue1 absorb+ oxyg54 ,! admixture ( ammonium *loride prev5ts ! precipitation ( cobalt salts by ammonia2 :5 ! ammonia is add$1 a br[n solution is obta9$ f :i*1 z 9 ! case ( ! prec$+ solution1 potassium hydroxide does n sep>ate ! cobalt\s oxide4 ,peculi> comp\nds are produc$ 9 ?is solution2 !y are comp>atively /able1 conta9+ ammonia & an excess ( oxyg52 !y be> ! "n cobaltoam9e & cobaltiam9e salts4 ,!y h be5 pr9cipally inve/igat$ by ,g5?1 ,frmy1 ,jrg5son & o!rs4 ,g5? f\nd t :5 a cobalt salt1 mix$ ) an excess ( ammonium *loride1 is treat$ ) ammonia & expos$ to ! air1 aft] a c]ta9 lapse ( "t1 on add+ hydro*loric acid & boil+1 a r$ p[d] is precipitat$ & ! rema9+ solution conta9s an orange salt4 ,! /udy ( ^! comp\nds l$ to ! discov]y ( a :ole s]ies ( simil> salts1 "s ( :i* correspond ) p>ticul> high] degrees ( oxidation ( cobalt1 :i* are describ$ lat]4#ce ,nickel does n possess ?is prop]ty ( absorb+ ! oxyg5 ( ! air :5 9 an ammoniacal solution4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is di/9ction1 & 9 g5]al ! relation ( nickel1 x is important to obs]ve t cobalt m easily =ms a high] degree ( oxidation--namely1 sesquioxide ( cobalt1 cobaltic oxide1 ,co#b,o#c--?an nickel1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( hypo*lor\s acid4 ,if a solution ( a cobalt salt be mix$ ) b>ium c>bonate & an excess ( hypo*lor\s acid be add$1 or *lor9e gas be pass$ ?r\gh x1 !n at ! ord9>y temp]ature on %ak+1 ! :ole ( ! cobalt w be sep>at$ 9 ! =m ( black cobaltic oxide3 #b;,co,s,o#d ,cl,h,o #b;,ba,c,o#c ,co#b,o#c #b;,ba,s,o#d ,h,cl #b;,,co#b4 ,"u ^! circum/ances nickel\s oxide does n imm$iately =m black sesquioxide1 b aft] a consid]able space ( "t x also sep>ates 9 ! =m ( sesquioxide1 ,ni#b,o#c1 b always lat] ?an cobalt4 ,?is is due to ! relative difficulty ( fur!r oxidation ( ! nickel\s oxide4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible to oxidise x2 if1 = in/ance1 ! hydroxide ,ni,h#b,o#b be %ak5 9 wat] & *lor9e gas be pass$ ?r\gh x1 !n nickel *loride w be =m$1 :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 & insoluble nickelic oxide 9 ! =m ( a black precipitate3 #c,ni,h#b,o#b ,cl#b ,ni,cl#b ,ni#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o4 ,nickelic oxide may also be obta9$ by add+ sodium hypo*lorite mix$ ) alkali to a solution ( a nickel salt4 ,nickelic & cobaltic hydrates are black4 ,nickelic oxide evolves oxyg5 ) all acids1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ?is x is n sep>at$ z a precipitate 9 ! pres5ce ( acids2 ?us x evolves *lor9e ) hydro*loric acid1 exactly l manganese dioxide4 ,:5 nickelic oxide is dissolv$ 9 aque\s ammonia x lib]ates nitrog51 & an ammoniacal solution ( nickel\s oxide is =m$4 ,:5 heat$1 nickelic oxide loses oxyg51 =m+ nickel\s oxide4 ,cobaltic oxide1 ,co#b,o#c1 exhibits m /ability ?an nickelic oxide1 & %[s feeble basic prop]ties2 ?us x is dissolv$ 9 acetic acid )\t ! evolution ( oxyg54#ce bis ,b ord9>y acids1 especially on heat+1 evolve oxyg51 =m+ a solution ( a cobalt\s salt4 ,! pres5ce ( a cobaltic salt 9 a solution ( a cobalt\s salt may be detect$ by ! br[n col\r ( ! solution & ! black precipitate =m$ by ! addition ( alkali1 & also f ! fact t su* solutions evolve *lor9e :5 heat$ ) hydro*loric acid4 ,cobaltic oxide may n only be prep>$ by ! above-m5tion$ me?ods1 b also by heat+ cobalt nitrate1 aft] :i* a /eel-col\r$ mass rema9s :i* reta9s traces ( nitric acid1 b :5 heat$ fur!r to inc&esc5ce evolves oxyg51 leav+ a comp\nd ( cobaltic & cobalt\s oxides1 simil> to magnetic iron/one4 ,cobalt 7b n nickel7 und\bt$ly =ms besides ,co#b,o#c a dioxide ,co,o#b4 ,?is is obta9$#cf :5 ! cobalt\s oxide is oxidis$ by iod9e or p]oxide ( b>ium4#cg #ce ,! cobalt salts may be divid$ into at lea/ ! foll[+ classes1 :i* repeat !mselves = ,cr1 ,ir1 ,rh 7we %all n /op to consid] ! latt]1 p>ticul>ly z !y closely resemble ! cobalt salts73-- 7a7 ,ammonium cobalt salts1 :i* are simply direct comp\nds ( ! cobalt\s salts ,co,x#b ) ammonia1 simil> to v>i\s o!r comp\nds ( ! salts ( silv]1 copp]1 & ev5 calcium & magnesium1 ) ammonia4 ,!y are easily cry/allis$ f an ammoniacal solution1 & h a p9k col\r4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :5 cobalt\s *loride 9 solution is mix$ ) suffici5t ammonia to r$issolve ! precipitate fir/ =m$1 octah$ral cry/als are deposit$ :i* h a composition ,co,cl#b1;,h#b,o1#f,,nh#c4 ,^! salts are no?+ else b comb9ations ) ammonia ( cry/allisation--if x may be s t]m$--lik5+ !m 9 ?is way to comb9ations ) wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,?is simil>ity is evid5t bo? f _! composition & f _! capability ( giv+ (f ammonia at v>i\s temp]atures4 ,! mo/ important po9t to obs]ve is t all ^! salts conta9 #f molecules ( ammonia to #a atom ( cobalt1 & ?is ammonia is held 9 fairly /able connection4 ,wat] decomposes ^! salts4 7,nickel behaves simil>ly )\t =m+ o!r comp\nds correspond+ to ! true cobaltic47 7b7 ,! solutions ( ! above-m5tion$ salts are r5d]$ turbid by ! action ( ! air2 !y absorb oxyg5 & become cov]$ ) a cru/ ( oxycobaltam9e salts4 ,! latt] are sp>+ly soluble 9 aque\s ammonia1 h a br[n col\r1 & are *>act]is$ by ! fact t ) w>m wat] !y evolve oxyg51 =m+ salts ( ! foll[+ category3 ,! nitrate may be tak5 z an example ( ?is k9d ( salt2 its composition is ,co,n#b,o#g1e,,nh#c1;,h#b,o4 ,x diff]s f cobalt\s nitrate1 ,co7,,no#c7b1 9 conta9+ an extra atom ( oxyg5--t is1 x corresponds ) cobalt dioxide1 ,co,o#b1 9 ! same way t ! fir/ salts correspond ) cobalt\s oxide2 !y conta9 #e1 & n #f1 molecules ( ammonia1 z if ,,nh#c _h be5 replac$ by ,o1 b we %all aft]w>ds meet comp\nds conta9+ ei!r #e,,nh#c or #f,,nh#c to ea* atom ( cobalt4 7c7 ,! luteocobaltic salts are ?us call$ because !y h a yell[ 7luteus7 col\r4 ,!y are obta9$ f ! salts ( ! fir/ k9d by submitt+ !m 9 dilute solution to ! action ( ! air2 9 ?is case salts ( ! second k9d are n =m$1 because !y are decompos$ by an excess ( wat]1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 & ! =mation ( luteocobaltic salts4 ,by ! action ( ammonia ! salts ( ! fif? k9d 7roseocobaltic7 are also conv]t$ into luteocobaltic salts4 ,^! la/-nam$ salts g5]ally cry/allise readily1 & h a yell[ col\r2 !y are comp>atively mu* m /able ?an ! prec$+ ones1 & ev5 = a c]ta9 "t resi/ ! action ( boil+ wat]4 ,boil+ aque\s pota% lib]ates ammonia & precipitates hydrat$ cobaltic oxide1 ,co#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o1 f !m4 ,?is %[s t ! luteocobaltic salts correspond ) cobaltic oxide1 ,co#b,o#c1 & ^? ( ! second k9d ) ! dioxide4 ,:5 a solution ( luteocobaltic sulphate1 ,co#b7,,s#d7c1ab,,nh#c1d;,h#b,o1 is treat$ ) b>yta1 b>ium sulphate is precipitat$1 & ! solution conta9s luteocobaltic hydroxide1 ,co7,,oh7#c1f,,nh#c1 :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 is p[]fully alkal9e1 absorbs ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & :5 heat$ is decompos$ ) ! evolution ( ammonia4 ,?is comp\nd !re=e corresponds to a solution ( cobaltic hydroxide 9 ammonia4 ,! luteocobaltic salts conta9 #b atoms ( cobalt & #ab molecules ( ammonia--t is1 #f,,nh#c to ea* atom ( cobalt1 l ! salts ( ! fir/ k9d4 ,! ,co,x#b salts h a metallic ta/e1 :il/ ^? ( luteocobalt & o!rs h a purely sal9e ta/e1 l ! salts ( ! alkali metals4 ,9 ! luteo-salts all ! ,x's react 7are ionis$1 z "s *emi/s say7 z 9 ord9>y salts--= in/ance1 all ! ,cl#b is precipitat$ by a solution ( ,ag,n,o#c2 all ! 7,,s#d7c gives a precipitate ) ,ba,x#b1 c4 ,! d\ble salt =m$ ) ,pt,cl#d is compos$ 9 ! same mann] z ! potassium salt1 ,k#b,pt,cl#d #b,k,cl ,pt,cl#d1 t is1 conta9s 7,co,cl#c1f,,nh#c7b1c,pt,cl#d1 or ! am\nt ( *lor9e 9 ! ,pt,cl#d is d\ble t 9 ! alkal9e salt4 ,9 ! rosep5tam9e 7e71 & rosetetram9e 7f71 salts1 also all ! ,x's react or are ionis$1 b 9 ! 7g7 & 7h7 salts only a portion ( ! ,x's react1 & !y are equal to ! 7e7 & 7f7 salts m9us wat]2 ?is means t al?\gh ! wat] dissolves !m x is n comb9$ ) !m1 z ,,pho#c diff]s f ,,ph#c,o#c2 ph5om5a ( ?is class correspond exactly to :at has be5 already 7,*apt] ,,xxi41 ,note #g7 m5tion$ respect+ ! gre5 & violet salts ( oxide ( *romium4 7d7 ,! fuscocobaltic salts4 ,an ammoniacal solution ( cobalt salts acquires a br[n col\r 9 ! air1 due to ! =mation ( ^! salts4 ,!y are also produc$ by ! decomposition ( salts ( ! second k9d2 !y cry/allise badly1 & are sep>at$ f _! solutions by addition ( alcohol or an excess ( ammonia4 ,:5 boil$ !y give up ! ammonia & cobaltic oxide :i* !y conta94 ,hydro*loric & nitric acids give a yell[ precipitate ) ^! salts1 :i* turns r$ :5 boil$1 =m+ salts ( ! next category4 ,! foll[+ is an example ( ! composition ( two ( ! fuscocobaltic salts1 ,co#b,o7,,s#d7b1h,,nh#c1d;,h#b,o & ,co#b,o,cl#d1h,,nh#c1c;,h#b,o4 ,x is evid5t t ! fuscocobaltic salts are ammoniacal comp\nds ( basic cobaltic salts4 ,! normal cobaltic sulphate ought to h ! composition ,co#b7,,s#d7c ,co#b,o#c1c,,s#c2 ! simple/ basic salts w be ,co#b,o7,,s#d7b ,co#b,o#c7b,,s#c1 & ,co#b,o#b7,,s#d7 ,co#b,o#c1,,s#c4 ,! fuscocobaltic salts correspond ) ! fir/ type ( basic salts4 ,!y are *ang$ 79 conc5trat$ solutions7 into oxycobaltam9e salts by absorption ( "o atom ( oxyg51 ,co#b,o#b7,,s#d7b4 ,! :ole process ( oxidation w be z foll[s3 fir/ ( all ,co#b,x#d1 a cobalt\s salt1 is 9 ! solution 7,x a unival5t haloid1 #b molecules ( ! salt be+ tak571 !n ,co#b,,ox#d1 ! basic cobaltic salt 7#d? s]ies71 !n ,co#b,o#b,x#d1 ! salt ( ! dioxide 7#bnd s]ies74 ,! s]ies ( basic salts ) an acid1 #b;,,hx1 =ms wat] & a normal salt1 ,co#b,x#f 79 #c1 #e1 #f s]ies74 ,^! salts are comb9$ ) v>i\s am\nts ( wat] & ammonia4 ,"u _m conditions ! salts ( fuscocobalt are easily trans=m$ into salts ( ! next s]ies4 ,! salts ( ! s]ies t has j be5 describ$ conta9 #d molecules ( ammonia to #a atom ( cobalt4 7e7 ,! roseocobaltic 7or rosep5tam9e71 ,co,x#b;,h#b,o1#e,,nh#c1 salts1 l ! luteocobaltic1 correspond ) ! normal cobaltic salts1 b conta9 less ammonia1 & an extra molecule ( wat]4 ,?us ! sulphate is obta9$ f cobalt\s sulphate dissolv$ 9 ammonia & left expos$ to ! air until trans=m$ into a br[n solution ( ! fuscocobaltic salt2 :5 ?is is treat$ ) sulphuric acid a cry/all9e p[d] ( ! roseocobaltic salt1 ,co#b7,,s#d7c1aj,,nh#c1e;,h#b,o1 sep>ates4 ,! =mation ( ?is salt is easily und]/ood3 cobalt\s sulphate 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia absorbs oxyg51 & ! solution ( ! fuscocobaltic salt w !re=e conta91 l cobalt\s sulphate1 "o "p ( sulphuric acid to e "p ( cobalt1 s t ! :ole process ( =mation may be express$ by ! equation3 #aj,,nh#c #b;,co,s,o#d ,h#b,,s#d #d;,h#b,o ,o ,co#b7,,s#d7c1aj,,nh#c1e;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt =ms tetragonal cry/als ( a r$ col\r1 slightly soluble 9 cold1 b readily soluble 9 w>m wat]4 ,:5 ! sulphate is treat$ ) b>yta1 roseocobaltic hydroxide is =m$ 9 ! solution1 :i* absorbs ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air4 ,x is obta9$ f ! next s]ies by ! action ( alkalis4 7f7 ,! rosetetram9e cobaltic salts ,co,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1#d,,nh#c 7 obta9$ by ,jrg5son1 & belong to ! type ( ! luteo-salts1 only ) ! sub/itution ( #b,,nh#c = ,h#b,o4 ,l ! luteo- & roseo-salts !y give d\ble salts ) ,pt,cl#d1 simil> to ! alkal9e d\ble salts1 = in/ance 7,co#b;,h#b,o1#d,,nh#c7b7,,s#d7b;,cl#b,p t,cl#d4 ,!y are d>k] 9 col\r ?an ! prec$+1 b also cry/allise well4 ,!y are =m$ by dissolv+ ,co,c,o#c 9 sulphuric acid 7( a giv5 /r5g?71 & aft] ,,nh#c & c>bonate ( ammonium h be5 add$1 air is pass$ ?r\gh ! solution 7= oxidation7 until ! latt] turns r$4 ,x is !n evaporat$ ) lumps ( c>bonate ( ammonium1 filt]$ f ! precipitate & cry/allis$4 ,a salt ( ! composition ,co#b7;,,co#c7b7,,s#d717b;,h#b,o1#d,,nh# c7b is ?us obta9$1 f :i* ! o!r salts may be easily prep>$4 7g7 ,! purpureocobaltic salts1 ,co,x#c1e,,nh#c1 are also products ( ! direct oxidation ( ammoniacal solutions ( cobalt salts4 ,!y are easily obta9$ by heat+ ! roseocobaltic & luteo-salts ) /rong acids4 ,!y are to all effects ! same z ! roseocobaltic salts1 only anhydr\s4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! purpureocobaltic *loride1 ,co#b;,cl#f1aj,,nh#c1 or ,co,cl#c1e,,nh#c1 is obta9$ by boil+ ! oxycobaltam9e salts ) ammonia4 ,!re is ! same di/9ction betwe5 ^! salts & ! prec$+ ones z betwe5 ! v>i\s comp\nds ( cobalt\s *loride ) wat]4 ,9 ! purpureocobaltic only ,x#b out ( ! ,x#c react 7are ionis$74 ,to ! rosetetram9e salts 7f7 !re correspond ! purpureotetram9e salts1 ,co,x#c;,h#b,o1#d,,nh#c4 ,! correspond+ *romium purpureop5tam9e salt1 ,cr,cl#c1e,,nh#c is obta9$ ) p>ticul> ease 7,*ri/5s51 #ahic74 ,dry anhydr\s *romium *loride is treat$ ) anhydr\s liquid ammonia 9 a freez+ mixture compos$ ( liquid ,,co#b & *lor9e1 & aft] "s "t ! mixture is tak5 out ( ! freez+ mixture1 s t ! excess ( ,,nh#c boils away2 ! violet cry/als !n imm$iately acquire ! r$ col\r ( ! salt1 ,cr,cl#c1e,,nh#c1 :i* is =m$4 ,! product is wa%$ ) wat] 7to extract ! luteo-salt1 ,cr,cl#c1f,,nh#c71 :i* does n dissolve ! salt1 & x is !n recry/allis$ f a hot solution ( hydro*loric acid4 7h7 ,! praseocobaltic salts1 ,co,x#c1d,,nh#c1 are gre51 & =m1 ) respect to ! rosetetram9e salts 7f71 ! products ( ultimate dehydration 7= example1 l metaphosphoric acid ) respect to or?ophosphoric acid1 b 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] !y give nei!r rosetetram9e nor tetram9e salts4 7,9 my op9ion "o %\ld expect salts ) a /ill small] am\nt ( ,,nh#c1 ( ! blue col\r prop] to ! l[ hydrat$ comp\nds ( cobalt2 ! gre5 col\r ( ! prazeo-salts already =ms a /ep t[>ds ! blue47 ,jrg5son obta9$ salts = e?yl5e-diam9e1 ,n#b;,h#d;,c#b;,h#d :i* replaces #b,,nh#c4 ,aft] be+ kept a long "t 9 aque\s solution !y give rosetetram9e salts1 j z metaphosphoric acid gives or?ophosphoric acid1 :ile ! rosetetram9e salts are conv]t$ into prazeo-salts by ,ag#b,o & ,na,h,o4 ,"h only "o ,x is ionis$ out ( ! ,x#c4 ,!re are also basic salts ( ! same type2 b ! be/ kn[n is ! *romium salt call$ ! rhodozo*romic salt1 ,cr#b7,,oh7#c;,cl#c1f,,nh#c1b;,h#b,o1 :i* is =m$ by ! prolong$ action ( wat] ^u ! correspond+ roseo-salt4 ,! cobaltam9e comp\nds diff] ess5tially b little f ! ammoniacal comp\nds ( o!r metals4 ,! only diff]5ce is t "h ! cobaltic oxide is obta9$ f ! cobalt\s oxide 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia4 ,9 any case x is a simpl] "q ?an t ( ! d\ble cyanides4 ,^? =ces 9 virtue ( :i* su* a consid]able numb] ( ammonia molecules are unit$ ) a molecule ( a cobalt comp\nd1 app]ta9 naturally to ! s]ies ( ^? slightly inve/igat$ =ces :i* exi/ ev5 9 ! highe/ degrees ( comb9ation ( ! majority ( elem5ts4 ,!y are ! same =ces :i* lead to ! =mation ( comp\nds conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation1 d\ble salts1 isomorph\s mixtures & complex acids 7,*apt] ,,xxi41 ,note #h bis74 ,! simple/ conception1 accord+ to my op9ion1 ( cobalt comp\nds 7mu* m s ?an by assum+ special complex radicles1 ) ,s*iff1 ,weltzi51 ,claus1 & o!rs71 may be =m$ by comp>+ !m ) o!r ammoniacal products4 ,ammonia1 l wat]1 comb9es 9 v>i\s proportions ) a multitude ( molecules4 ,silv] *loride & calcium *loride1 j l cobalt *loride1 absorb ammonia1 =m+ comp\nds :i* are sometimes slightly /able1 & easily dissociat$1 sometimes m /able1 9 exactly ! same way z wat] comb9es ) c]ta9 sub/ances1 =m+ fairly /able comp\nds call$ hydroxides or hydrates1 or less /able comp\nds :i* are call$ comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,naturally ! diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties 9 bo? cases dep5ds on ! prop]ties ( ^? elem5ts :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! giv5 sub/ance1 & on ^? k9ds ( aff9ity t[>ds :i* *emi/s h n z yet turn$ _! att5tion4 ,if boron fluoride1 silicon fluoride1 c41 comb9e ) hydr(luoric acid1 if plat9ic *loride1 & ev5 cadmium *loride1 comb9e ) hydro*loric acid1 ^! comp\nds may be reg>d$ z d\ble salts1 because acids are salts ( hydrog54 ,b evid5tly wat] & ammonia h ! same sal9e faculty1 m especially z !y1 l haloid acids1 conta9 hydrog51 & are bo? capable ( fur!r comb9ation--= in/ance1 ammonia ) hydro*loric acid4 ,h5ce x is simpl] to comp>e complex ammoniacal ) d\ble salts1 hydrates1 & simil> comp\nds1 b ! ammonio-metallic salts pres5t a mo/ complete qualitative & quantitative resemblance to ! hydrat$ salts ( metals4 ,! composition ( ! latt] is ,,mxnm,h#b,o1 :]e ,m metal1 ,x ! haloid1 simple or complex1 & n & m ! quantities ( ! haloid & s-call$ wat] ( cry/allisation respectively4 ,! composition ( ! ammoniacal salts ( metals is ,,mxnm,,nh#c4 ,! wat] ( cry/allisation is held by ! salt ) m or less /ability1 & "s salts ev5 d n reta9 x at all2 "s "p ) wat] easily :5 expos$ to ! air1 o!rs :5 heat$1 & !n ) difficulty4 ,9 ! case ( "s metals all ! salts comb9e ) wat]1 :il/ ) o!rs only a few1 & ! wat] s comb9$ may !n be easily dis5gag$4 ,all ?is applies equally well to ! ammoniacal salts1 & !re=e ! comb9ation ( ammonia may be t]m$ ! ammonia ( cry/allisation4 ,j z ! wat] :i* is comb9$ ) a salt is held by x ) diff]5t degrees ( =ce1 s x is ) ammonia4 ,9 comb9+ ) #b,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b evolves #ca1jjj cals42 :ile ,ca,cl#b only evolves #ad1jjj cals42 & ! =m] comp\nd p>ts ) its ,,nh#c 7toge!r ) ,h,cl 9 ?is case7 ) m difficulty1 only above #bjj1 :ile ! latt] dis5gages ammonia at #ahj4 ,zn,cl#b1b,,nh#c 9 =m+ ,zn,cl#b1d,,nh#c evolves only #aa1jjj cals41 & splits up aga9 into its compon5ts at #hj4 ,! am\nt ( comb9$ ammonia is z v>iable z ! am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation--= in/ance1 ,sn,i#dh,,nh#c1 ,cr,cl#bh,,nh#c1 ,cr,cl#cf,,nh#c1 ,cr,cl#ce,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1 c4 are kn[n4 ,v (t5 ,,nh#c is replaceable by ,,oh#b & conv]sely4 ,a col\rless1 anhydr\s cupric salt--= in/ance1 cupric sulphate--:5 comb9$ ) wat] =ms blue & gre5 salts1 & violet :5 comb9$ ) ammonia4 ,if /eam be pass$ ?r\gh anhydr\s copp] sulphate ! salt absorbs wat] & becomes heat$2 if ammonia be sub/itut$ = ! wat] ! heat+ becomes mu* m int5se1 & ! salt breaks up into a f9e violet p[d]4 ,) wat] ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o is =m$1 & ) ammonia ,cu,s,o#d1e,,nh#c1 ! numb] ( wat] & ammonia molecules reta9$ by ! salt be+ ! same 9 ea* case1 & z a pro( ( ?is1 & t x is n an isolat$ co9cid5ce1 ! rem>kable fact mu/ be borne 9 m9d t wat] & ammonia consecutively1 molecule = molecule1 are capable ( supplant+ ea* o!r1 & =m+ ! comp\nds ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 ,cu,s,o#d1d;,h#b,o1,,nh#c2 ,cu,s,o#d1c;,h#b,o1#b,,nh#c2 ,cu,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1#c,,nh#c2 ,cu,s,o#d1;,h#b,o1#d,,nh#c1 & ,cu,s,o#d1e,,nh#c4 ,! la/ ( ^! comp\nds 0 obta9$ by ,h5ry ,rose1 & my exp]im5ts h %[n t m ammonia ?an ?is _c be reta9$4 ,by add+ to a /rong solution ( cupric sulphate suffici5t ammonia to dissolve ! :ole ( ! oxide precipitat$1 & !n add+ alcohol1 ,b]zelius obta9$ ! comp\nd ,cu,s,o#d1;,h#b,o1#d,,nh#c1 c4 ,! law ( sub/itution also assi/s 9 r5d]+ ^! ph5om5a cle>]1 because a comp\nd ( ammonia ) wat] =ms ammonium hydroxide1 ,,nh#d;,,ho1 & !re=e ^! molecules comb9+ ) "o ano!r may also int]*ange1 z be+ ( equal value4 ,9 g5]al1 ^? salts =m /able ammoniacal comp\nds :i* are capable ( =m+ /able comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation2 & z ammonia is capable ( comb9+ ) acids1 & z "s ( ! salts =m$ by slightly en]getic bases 9 _! prop]ties m closely resemble acids 7t is1 salts ( hydrog57 ?an ^? salts conta9+ m en]getic bases1 we might expect to f9d m /able & m easily-=m$ ammonio-metallic salts ) metals & _! oxides hav+ weak] basic prop]ties ?an ) ^? :i* =m en]getic bases4 ,?is expla9s :y ! salts ( potassium1 b>ium1 c41 d n =m ammonio-metallic salts1 :il/ ! salts ( silv]1 copp]1 z9c1 c41 easily =m !m1 & ! salts ,,rx#c /ill m easily & ) great] /ability4 ,?is consid]ation also acc\nts = ! great /ability ( ! ammoniacal comp\nds ( cupric oxide comp>$ ) ^? ( silv] oxide1 s9ce ! =m] is displac$ by ! latt]4 ,x also enables u to see cle>ly ! di/9ction :i* exi/s 9 ! /ability ( ! cobaltam9e salts conta9+ salts correspond+ ) cobalt\s oxide1 & ^? correspond+ ) high] oxides ( cobalt1 = ! latt] are weak] bases ?an cobalt\s oxides4 ,! nature ( ! =ces & quality ( ! ph5om5a occurr+ dur+ ! =mation ( ! mo/ /able sub/ances1 & ( su* comp\nds z cry/allisable comp\nds1 are "o & ! same1 al?\gh p]haps exhibit$ 9 a diff]5t degree4 ,?is1 9 my op9ion1 may be be/ confirm$ by exam9+ ! comp\nds ( c>bon1 because = ?is elem5t ! nature ( ! =ces act+ dur+ ! =mation ( its comp\nds is well kn[n4 ,let u take z an example two un/able comp\nds ( c>bon4 ,acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b 7specific gravity #ajf71 ) wat] =ms ! hydrate1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1;,h#b,o1 d5s] 7#ajg7 ?an ei!r ( ! compon5ts1 b un/able & easily decompos$1 g5]ally simply ref]r$ to z a solution4 ,su* also is ! cry/all9e comp\nd ( oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 ) wat]1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,_! =mation might be pr$ict$ z />t+ f ! hydroc>bon ,c#b;,h#f1 9 :i*1 z 9 any o!r1 ! hydrog5 may be ex*ang$ = *lor9e1 ! wat] residue 7hydroxyl71 c4 ,! fir/ sub/itution product ) hydroxyl1 ,c#b;,h#e7;,,ho71 is /able2 x c be di/ill$ )\t alt]ation1 resi/s a temp]ature high] ?an #ajj1 & !n does n give (f wat]4 ,?is is ord9>y alcohol4 ,! second1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,,ho7#b1 c also be di/ill$ )\t *ange1 b c be decompos$ into wat] & ,c#b;,h#d,o 7e?yl5e oxide or aldehyde72 x boils at ab\t #aig1 :il/ ! fir/ hydrate boils at #gh1 a diff]5ce ( ab\t #ajj4 ,! comp\nd ,c#b;,h#c7;,,ho7#c w be ! ?ird product ( su* sub/itution2 x ought to boil at ab\t #cjj1 b does n resi/ ?is temp]ature--x decomposes into ,h#b,o & ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1 :]e only "o hydroxyl gr\p rema9s1 & ! o!r atom ( oxyg5 is left 9 ! same condition z 9 e?yl5e oxide1 ,c#b;,h#d,o4 ,!re is a pro( ( ?is4 ,glycol1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,,ho7#b1 boils at #aig1 & =ms wat] & e?yl5e oxide1 :i* boils at #ac 7aldehyde1 its isom]ide1 boils at #ba72 !re=e ! product dis5gag$ by ! splitt+ up ( ! hydrate boils at #ahd l[] ?an ! hydrate ,c#b;,h#d7;,,ho7#b4 ,?us ! hydrate ,c#b;,h#c7;,,ho7#c1 :i* ought to boil at ab\t #cjj1 splits up 9 exactly ! same way into wat] & ! product ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1 :i* boils at #aag--t is1 ne>ly #ahc l[] ?an ! hydrate1 ,c#b;,h#c7;,,ho7#c4 ,b ?is hydrate splits up be=e di/illation4 ,! above-m5tion$ hydrate ( acetic acid is su* a decomposable hydrate--t is to say1 :at is call$ a solution4 ,/ill less /ability may be expect$ f ! foll[+ hydrates4 ,c#b;,h#b7;,,ho7#d also splits up into wat] & a hydrate 7x conta9s two hydroxyl gr\ps7 call$ glycolic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o7,,ho7#b ,c#b;,h#d,o#c4 ,! next product ( sub/itution w be ,c#b;,h7,,ho7#e2 x splits up into wat]1 ,h#b,o1 & glyoxylic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#d 7?ree hydroxyl gr\ps74 ,! la/ hydrate :i* ought to be obta9$ f ,c#b;,h#f1 & ought to conta9 ,c#b7;,,ho7#f1 is ! cry/all9e comp\nd ( oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d 7two hydroxyl gr\ps71 & wat]1 #b;,h#b,o1 :i* has be5 already m5tion$4 ,! hydrate ,c#b7;,,ho7#f ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 ought1 accord+ to ! =ego+ reason+1 to boil at ab\t #fjj 7because ! hydrate1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,,ho7#b1 boils at ab\t #bjj1 & ! sub/itution ( #d hydroxyl gr\ps = #d atoms ( hydrog5 w raise ! boil+-po9t #djj74 ,x does n resi/ ?is temp]ature1 b at a mu* l[] po9t splits up into wat]1 #b;,h#b,o1 & ! hydrate ,c#b,o#b7;,,ho7#b1 :i* is also capable ( yield+ wat]4 ,)\t go+ into fur!r discussion ( ?is subject1 x may be obs]v$ t ! =mation ( ! hydrates1 or comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 ( acetic & oxalic acids has ?us receiv$ an accurate explanation1 illu/rat+ ! po9t we desir$ to prove 9 affirm+ t comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation are held toge!r by ! same =ces z ^? :i* act 9 ! =mation ( o!r complex sub/ances1 & t ! easy displaceability ( ! wat] ( cry/allisation is only a peculi>ity ( a local "*1 & n a radical po9t ( di/9ction4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ hydrates1 ,c#b,x#f1 or products ( _! de/ruction1 are actually obta9$ by ! oxidation ( ! fir/ hydrate1 ,c#b;,h#c7;,,ho71 or common alcohol1 by nitric acid 7,sokol(f & o!rs74 ,h5ce ! =ces :i* induce salts to comb9e ) n,h#b,o or ) ,,nh#c are und\bt$ly ( ! same ord] z ! =ces :i* gov]n ! =mation ( ord9>y 'atomic' & sal9e comp\nds4 7,a great imp$im5t 9 ! /udy ( ! =m] 0 caus$ by ! conviction :i* reign$ 9 ! sixties & sev5ties1 t 'atomic' 7 ess5tially diff]5t f 'molecul>' comp\nds l cry/allohydrates1 9 :i* x 0 assum$ t !re 0 a comb9ation ( entire molecules1 z ?\gh )\t ! p>ticipation ( ! atomic =ces47 ,if ! bond betwe5 *lor9e & diff]5t metals is n equally /rong1 s also ! bond unit+ n,h#b,o & n,,nh#c is exce$+ v>iable2 !re is no?+ v surpris+ 9 ?is4 ,& 9 ! fact t ! comb9ation ( diff]5t am\nts ( ,,nh#c & ,h#b,o alt]s ! capacity ( ! haloids ,x ( ! salts ,,rx#b = reaction 7= in/ance1 9 ! luteo-salts all ! ,x#c1 :ile 9 ! purpureo1 only #b out ( ! #c1 & 9 ! prazeo-salts only #a ( ! #c ,x's reacts71 we %\ld see 9 ! fir/ place a ph5om5on simil> to :at we met ) 9 ,cr#b;,cl#f 7,*apt] ,,xxi41 ,note #g bis71 = 9 bo? in/ances ! ess5ce ( ! diff]5ce lies 9 ! removal ( wat]2 a molecule ,r,cl#c1f;,h#b,o or ,r,cl#c1f,,nh#c conta9s ! halog5 9 a p]fectly mobile 7ionis$7 /ate1 :ile 9 ! molecule ,r,cl#c1e;,h#b,o or ,r,cl#c1e,,nh#c a portion ( ! halog5 has almo/ lo/ its faculty = react+ ) ,ag,n,o#c1 j z metalepsical *lor9e has lo/ ?is faculty :i* is fully develop$ 9 ! *loranhydride4 ,until ! reason ( ?is diff]5ce be cle>1 we _c expect t ord9>y po9ts ( view & g5]alisation c give a cle> answ]4 ,h[ev]1 we may assume t "h ! explanation lies 9 ! nature & k9d ( motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules1 al?\gh z yet x is n cle> h[4 ,nev]!less1 ,i ?9k x well to call att5tion aga9 7,*apt] ,i47 to ! fact t ! comb9ation ( wat]1 & h5ce1 also1 ( any o!r elem5t1 leads to mo/ div]se consequ5ces2 ! wat] 9 ! gelat9\s hydrate ( alum9a or 9 ! decahydrat$ ,glaub] salt is v mobile1 & easily reacts l wat] 9 a free /ate2 b ! same wat] comb9$ ) oxide ( calcium1 or ,c#b;,h#d 7= in/ance1 9 ,c#b;,h#f,o & 9 ,c#d;,h#aj,o71 or ) ,p#b,o#e1 has become q diff]5t1 & no long] acts l wat] 9 a free /ate4 ,we see ! same ph5om5on 9 _m o!r cases--= example1 ! *lor9e 9 *lorates no long] gives a precipitate ( *loride ( silv] ) ,ag,n,o#c4 ,?us1 al?\gh ! in/ance :i* is f\nd 9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! roseo- & purpureo-salts des]ves to be fully /udi$ on acc\nt ( its simplicity1 /ill x is f> f be+ exceptional1 & we _c expect x to be ?or\ghly expla9$ unless a mass ( simil> in/ances1 :i* are exce$+ly common among *emical comp\nds1 be conjo9tly expla9$4 7,among ! rese>*es :i* add to our k respect+ ! complex ammoniacal comp\nds1 ,i ?9k x indisp5sable to call ! read]'s att5tion to ,pr(4 ,k\rnak(f's diss]tation ',on complex metallic bases1' #ahic47 ,k\rnak(f 7#ahid7 %[$ t ! solubility ( ! luteo-salt1 ,co,cl#c1f,,nh#c1 at #j #dcj 7p] #ajj ( wat]71 at #bj #gg1 t 9 pass+ into ! roseo-salt1 ,co,cl#c;,h#b,o#e,,nh#c1 ! solubility rises consid]ably1 & at #j #afd1 & at #bj ab\t #bg1 :il/ ! passage into ! purpureo-salt1 ,co,cl#c1e,,nh#c1 is accompani$ by a great fall 9 ! solubility1 namely1 at #j #jbc1 & at #bj ab\t #je4 ,& z cry/allohydrates ) a small] am\nt ( wat] are usually m soluble ?an ! high] cry/allohydrates 7,le ,*ateli]71 :il/ "h we f9d t ! solubility falls 79 ! purpureo-salt7 ) a loss ( wat]1 t wat] :i* is conta9$ 9 ! roseo-salt _c be comp>$ ) ! wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,k\rnak(f1 !re=e1 connects ! fall 9 solubility 79 ! passage ( ! roseo- into ! purpureo-salts7 ) ! accompany+ loss 9 ! reactive capacity ( ! *lor9e4 ,9 conclusion1 x may be obs]v$ t ! elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p--t is1 ! analogues ( iron & plat9um--accord+ to my op9ion1 w yield mo/ fruitful results :5 /udi$ z to comb9ations ) :ole molecules1 z already %[n by ! examples ( complex ammoniacal1 cyanog51 nitro-1 & o!r comp\nds1 :i* are easily =m$ 9 ?is eigh? gr\p1 & are rem>kable = _! /ability4 ,?is faculty ( ! elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p = =m+ ! complex comp\nds allud$ to1 is 9 all probability connect$ ) ! position :i* ! eigh? gr\p occupies ) reg>d to ! o!rs4 ,foll[+ ! sev5?1 :i* =ms ! type ,,rx#g1 x might be expect$ to conta9 ! mo/ complex type1 ,,rx#h4 ,?is is met ) 9 ,os,o#d4 ,! o!r elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p1 h[ev]1 only =m ! l[] types ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 ,,rx#d 444 & ^! accord+ly %\ld be expect$ to aggregate !mselves into ! high] types1 :i* is accompli%$ 9 ! =mation ( ! above-m5tion$ complex comp\nds4 #ce bis ,m>%all 7#ahia7 obta9$ cobaltic sulphate1 ,co#b7,,s#d7c1ah;,h#b,o1 by ! action ( an electric curr5t ^u a /rong solution ( ,co,s,o#d4 #cf ,! action ( an alkal9e hypo*lorite or hypobromite ^u a boil+ solution ( cobalt\s salts1 accord+ to ,s*ro$]] 7#ahhi71 produces oxides1 ^: composition v>ies betwe5 ,co#c,o#e 7,rose's comp\nd7 & ,co#b,o#c1 & also betwe5 ,co#e,o#h & ,co#ab,o#ai4 ,if cau/ic pota% & !n brom9e be add$ to ! liquid1 only ,co#b,o#c is =m$4 ,! action ( alkal9e hypo*lorites or hypo-bromites1 or ( iod9e1 ^u cobaltic salts1 gives a highly-col\r$ precipitate :i* has a diff]5t col\r to ! hydrate ( ! oxide ,co#b7,,oh7#f4 ,accord+ to ,c>not ! precipitate produc$ by ! hypo*lorites has a composition ,co#aj,o#af1 :il/ t giv5 by iod9e 9 ! pres5ce ( an alkali conta9s a l>g] am\nt ( oxyg54 ,=tmann 7#ahia7 re9ve/igat$ ! composition ( ! high] oxyg5 oxide obta9$ by iod9e 9 ! pres5ce ( alkali1 & f\nd t ! gre5i% precipitate 7:i* dis5gages oxyg5 :5 heat$ to #ajj7 corresponds to ! =mula ,co,o#b4 ,! reaction mu/ be express$ by ! equation3 ,co,x#b ,i#b #d,,kho ,co,o#b #b,,kx #b,,ki #b;,h#b,o4 #cg ,prior to ,=tmann1 ,r\sseau 7#ahhi7 endeav\r$ to solve ! "q z to :e!r ,co,o#b 0 able to comb9e ) bases4 ,he succe$$ 9 obta9+ a b>ium comp\nd correspond+ to ?is oxide4 ,fifte5 grams ( ,ba,cl#b or ,ba,br#b are triturat$ ) #e-f grams ( oxide ( b>ium1 & ! mixture heat$ to r$ness 9 a clos$ plat9um crucible2 #a gram ( oxide ( cobalt is !n gradually add$ to ! fus$ mass4 ,ea* addition ( oxide is accompani$ by a viol5t dis5gagem5t ( oxyg54 ,aft] a %ort "t1 h[ev]1 ! mass fuses quietly1 & a salt settles at ! bottom ( ! crucible1 :i*1 :5 fre$ f ! residue1 appe>s z black hexagonal1 v brilliant cry/als4 ,9 dissolv+ 9 wat] ?is sub/ance evolves *lor9e2 its composition corresponds to ! =mula #b7;,co,o#b7;,ba,o4 ,if ! orig9al mass be heat$ = a long "t 7#dj h\rs71 ! am\nt ( dioxide 9 ! resultant mass decreases4 ,! au?or obta9$ a neutral salt hav+ ! composition ,co,o#b;,ba,o 7?is comp\nd ,ba,o#b;,co,o7 by break+ up ! mass z x agglom]ates toge!r1 & br++ ! pieces into contact ) ! m heat$ surface ( ! crucible4 ,?is salt is =m$ betwe5 ! some:at n>r[ limits ( temp]ature #a1jjj-a1ajj2 above & bel[ ^! limits comp\nds ri*] or poor] 9 ,co,o#b are =m$4 ,! =mation ( ,co,o#b by ! action ( ,ba,o#b1 & ! easy decomposition ( ,co,o#b ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 give reason = ?9k+ t x belongs to ! class ( p]oxides 7l ,cr#b,o#g1 ,ca,o#b1 c472 x is n yet kn[n :e!r !y give p]oxide ( hydrog5 l ! true p]oxides4 ,! fact t x is obta9$ by means ( iod9e 7probably ?r\gh ,,hio71 & its great resemblance to ,mn,o#b1 leads r to ! supposition t ,co,o#b is a v feeble sal9e oxide4 ,! =m ,co,o#b is repeat$ 9 ! cobaltic comp\nds 7,note #ce71 & ! exi/5ce ( ,co,o#b %\ld h long ago be5 recognis$ ^u ?is basis4 ,nickel alloys possess qualities :i* r5d] !m valuable = te*nical purposes1 ! alloy ( nickel ) iron be+ p>ticul>ly rem>kable4 ,?is alloy is met ) 9 nature z meteoric iron4 ,! ,pallas(fsky mass ( meteoric iron1 pres]v$ 9 ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy1 fell 9 ,sib]ia 9 ! la/ c5tury2 x weighs ab\t #ae cwt4 & conta9s #hh p4c4 ( iron & ab\t #aj p4c4 ( nickel1 ) a small admixture ( o!r metals4 ,9 ! arts ,g]man silv] is mo/ ext5sively us$2 x is an alloy conta9+ nickel1 copp]1 & z9c 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,x g5]ally consi/s ( ab\t #ej p>ts ( copp]1 #be p>ts ( z9c1 & #be p>ts ( nickel4 ,?is alloy is *>act]is$ by its :ite col\r resembl+ t ( silv]1 &1 l ?is latt] metal1 x does n ru/1 & !re=e furni%es an excell5t sub/itute = silv] 9 ! majority ( cases :]e x is us$4 ,alloys :i* conta9 silv] 9 addition to nickel %[ ! prop]ties ( silv] to a /ill great] ext5t4 ,alloys ( nickel are us$ = curr5cy1 & if ri* deposits ( nickel are discov]$ a wide field ( application lies be=e x1 n only 9 a pure /ate 7because x is a beautiful metal & does n ru/7 b also = use 9 alloys4 ,/eel vessels 7press$ or =g$ out ( %eet /eel7 cov]$ ) nickel h su* practical m]its t _! manufacture1 :i* has n long comm5c$1 w mo/ probably be rapidly develop$1 :il/ nickel /eel1 :i* exce$s ord9>y /eel 9 its t5acity1 has already prov$ its excell5t qualities = _m purposes 7= in/ance1 = arm\r plate74 ,until #ahij no comp\nd ( cobalt or nickel 0 kn[n ( suffici5t volatility to det]m9e ! molecul> weights ( ! comp\nds ( ^! metals2 b 9 #ahij ,mr4 ,l4 ,mond1 9 conduct+ 7toge!r ) ,lang] & ,qu9cke7 8 rese>*es on ! action ( nickel ^u c>bonic oxide 7,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #bd bis71 obs]v$ t nickel gradually volatilises 9 a /ream ( c>bonic oxide2 ?is only takes place at l[ temp]atures1 & is se5 by ! coloration ( ! flame ( ! c>bonic oxide4 ,?is obs]vation l$ to ! discov]y ( a rem>kable volatile comp\nd ( nickel & c>bonic oxide1 hav+ z molecul> composition ,ni7,,co7#d1ch z det]m9$ by ! vap\r d5sity & depression ( ! freez+ po9t4 ,cobalt & _m o!r metals d n =m volatile comp\nds "u ^! conditions1 b iron gives a simil> product 7,note #bf bis74 ,ni7,,co7#d is prep>$ by tak+ f9ely divid$ ,ni 7obta9$ by r$uc+ ,ni,o by heat+ x 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 or by ignit+ ! oxalate ,ni,c#b,o#d7ci & pass+ 7at a temp]ature bel[ #ej1 = ev5 at #fj decomposition may take place & an explosion7 a /ream ( ,,co ov] x2 ! latt] c>ries ov] ! vap\r ( ! comp\nd1 :i* cond5ses 79 a well-cool$ receiv]7 into a p]fectly col\rless extremely mobile liquid1 boil+ )\t decomposition at #dc1 & cry/allis+ 9 ne$les at -#be 7,mond & ,nas9i1 #ahia74 ,liquid ,ni7,,co7#d has a sp4 gr4 #acef at #j1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 dissolves 9 alcohol & b5z5e1 & burns ) a v smoky flame due to ! lib]ation ( ,ni4 ,! vap\r :5 pass$ ?r\gh a tube heat$ to #ahj & above deposits a brilliant coat+ ( metal1 & dis5gages ,,co4 ,if ! tube be /rongly heat$ ! decomposition is accompani$ by an explosion4 ,if ,ni7,,co7#d z vap\r be pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( ,cu,cl#b1 x r$uces ! latt] to metal2 x has ! same action ^u an ammoniacal solution ( ,ag,cl1 /rong nitric acid oxidises ,ni7,,co7#d1 dilute solutions ( acids h no action2 if ! vap\r be pass$ ?r\gh /rong sulphuric acid1 ,,co is lib]at$1 *lor9e gives ,ni,cl & ,c,o,cl#b2 no simple reactions ( d\ble decomposition are yet kn[n = ,ni7,,co7#d1 h[ev]1 s t its connection ) o!r c>bon comp\nds is n cle>4 ,probably ! =mation ( ?is comp\nd c\ld be appli$ = extract+ nickel f its ores4#dj #ch ,?is comp\nd is kn[n z nickel tetra-c>bonyl4 ,x appe>s to me yet premature to judge ( ! /ructure ( su* an extraord9>y comp\nd z ,ni7,,co7#d4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t potassium comb9es ) ,,co =m+ ,kn7,,co7n 7,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ca71 b ?is sub/ance is app>5tly sal9e & non-volatile1 & has z little 9 common ) ,ni7,,co7#d z ,na#b;,h has ) ,sb,h#c4 ,h[ev]1 ,b]!lot obs]v$ t :5 ,ni,c#d,o#d is kept 9 air1 x oxidises & gives a col\rless comp\nd1 ,ni#c;,c#b,o#c1aj;,h#b,o1 hav+ app>5tly sal9e prop]ties4 ,we may add t ,s*tz5b]g]1 on r$uc+ ,ni,cl#b by heat+ x 9 a curr5t ( hydrog51 obs]v$ t a nickel comp\nd p>tially volatilises ) ! ,h,cl & gives metallic nickel :5 heat$ aga94 ,! plat9um comp\nd1 ,pt,cl#b7;,,co7#c 7,*apt] ,,xxiii41 ,note #aa71 (f]s ! greate/ analogy to ,ni7,,co7#d4 ,?is comp\nd 0 obta9$ z a volatile sub/ance by ,s*tz5b]g] by mod]ately heat+ 7to #bce7 metallic plat9um 9 a mixture ( *lor9e & c>bonic oxide4 ,if we designate ,,co by ,y1 & an atom ( *lor9e by ,x1 !n tak+ into acc\nt t1 accord+ to ! p]iodic sy/em1 ,ni is an analogue ( ,pt1 a c]ta9 degree ( correspond5ce is se5 9 ! composition ,ni,y#d & ,pt,x#b,y#b4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to comp>e ! reactions ( ! two comp\nds4 #ci ,accord+ to its empirical =mula oxalate ( nickel also conta9s nickel & c>bonic oxide4 #dj ,! foll[+ are ! !rmo-*emical data 7accord+ to ,?oms51 & ref]r$ to gram weights express$ by ! =mula1 9 l>ge calories or ?\s& units ( heat7 = ! =mation ( correspond+ comp\nds ( ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 & ,cu 7 ,aq signifies t ! reaction proce$s 9 an excess ( wat]73 ,r ,mn ,fe ,co ,ni ,cu ,r ,cl#b ,aq #abh #ajj #ie #id #fc ,r ,br#b ,aq #ajf #gh #gc #gb #da ,r ,i#b ,aq #gf #dh #dc #da #cb ,r ,o ,h#b,o #ie #fh #fc #fa #ch ,r ,o#b ,,s#b n,h#b,o #aic #afi #afc #afc #acj ,r,cl#b ,aq #af #ah #ah #ai #aa ,^! examples %[ t = analog\s reactions ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 pass+ f ,mn to ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 & ,cu v>ies 9 regul> sequ5ces z ! atomic weight increases4 ,a simil> diff]5ce is to be f\nd 9 o!r gr\ps & s]ies1 & proves t !rmo-*emical ph5om5a are subject to ! p]iodic law4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,! ,,plat9um ,,metals ,! six metals3 ru!nium1 ,ru1 rhodium1 ,rh1 palladium1 ,pd1 osmium1 ,os1 iridium1 ,ir1 & plat9um1 ,pt1 are met ) associat$ toge!r 9 nature4 ,plat9um always pr$om9ates ov] ! o!rs1 & h5ce !y are kn[n z ! plat9um metals4 ,by _! *emical "* _! position 9 ! p]iodic sy/em is 9 ! eigh? gr\p1 correspond+ ) iron1 cobalt1 & nickel4 ,! natural transition f titanium & vanadium to copp] & z9c by means ( ! elem5ts ( ! iron gr\p is demon/rat$ by all ! prop]ties ( ^! elem5ts1 & 9 exactly ! same mann] a transition f zirconium1 niobium1 & molybd5um to silv]1 cadmium1 & indium1 ?r\gh ru!nium1 rhodium1 & palladium1 is 9 p]fect accordance ) fact & ) ! magnitude ( ! atomic weights1 z also is ! position ( osmium1 iridium1 & plat9um betwe5 tantalum & tung/5 on ! "o side1 & gold & m]cury on ! o!r4 ,9 all ^! ?ree cases ! elem5ts ( small] atomic weight 7*romium1 molybd5um1 & tung/57 are able1 9 _! high] grades ( oxidation1 to give acid oxides hav+ ! prop]ties ( di/9ct b feebly en]getic acids 79 ! l[] oxides !y give bases71 :il/ ! elem5ts ( great] atomic weight 7z9c1 cadmium1 m]cury71 ev5 9 _! high] grades ( oxidation1 only give bases1 al?\gh ) feebly develop$ basic prop]ties4 ,! plat9um metals pres5t ! same int]m$iate prop]ties su* z we h already se5 9 iron & ! elem5ts ( ! eigh? gr\p4 ,9 ! plat9um metals ! int]m$iate prop]ties ( feebly acid & feebly basic metals are develop$ ) great cle>ness1 s t !re is n "o %>ply-def9$ acid anhydride among _! oxides1 al?\gh !re is a great div]sity 9 ! grades ( oxidation f ! type ,,ro#d to ,r#b,o4 ,! feebl5ess ( ! *emical =ces obs]v$ 9 ! plat9um metals is connect$ ) ! ready decomposability ( _! comp\nds1 ) ! small atomic volume ( ! metals !mselves1 & ) _! l>ge atomic weight4 ,! oxides ( plat9um1 iridium1 & osmium c sc>cely be t]m$ ei!r basic or acid2 !y are capable ( comb9ations ( bo? k9ds1 ea* ( :i* is feeble4 ,!y are all int]m$iate oxides4 ,! atomic weights ( plat9um1 iridium1 & osmium are ne>ly #aia to #aif1 & ( palladium1 rhodium1 & ru!nium1 #ajd to #ajf4 ,?us1 /rictly speak+1 we h "h two s]ies ( metals1 :i* are1 moreov]1 p]fectly p>allel to ea* o!r2 ?ree memb]s 9 ! fir/ s]ies1 & ?ree memb]s 9 ! second--namely1 plat9um pres5ts an analogy to palladium1 iridium to rhodium1 & osmium to ru!nium4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! :ole gr\p ( ! plat9um metals is *>act]is$ by a numb] ( common prop]ties1 bo? physical & *emical1 &1 moreov]1 !re are sev]al po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p & ^? ( ! iron gr\p 7,*apt] ,,xxii47 ,! atomic volumes 7,table ,,iii41 column #ah7 ( ! elem5ts ( ?is gr\p are ne>ly equal & v small4 ,! iron metals h atomic volumes ( ne>ly #g1 :il/ t ( ! metals alli$ to palladium is ne>ly #i1 & ( ^? adjac5t to plat9um 7,pt1 ,ir1 ,os7 ne>ly #id4 ,?is comp>atively small atomic volume corresponds ) ! great infusibility & t5acity prop] to all ! iron & plat9um metals1 & to _! small *emical en]gy1 :i* /&s out v cle>ly 9 ! heavy plat9um metals4 ,all ! plat9um metals are v easily r$uc$ by ignition & by ! action ( v>i\s r$uc+ ag5ts1 9 :i* process oxyg51 or a haloid gr\p1 is dis5gag$ f _! comp\nds & ! metal left beh9d4 ,?is is a prop]ty ( ! plat9um metals :i* det]m9es _m ( _! reactions1 & ! circum/ance ( _! always be+ f\nd 9 nature 9 a native /ate4 ,9 ,russia 9 ! ,urals 7discov]$ 9 #ahai7 & 9 ,brazil 7#agce7 plat9um is obta9$ f alluvial deposits1 b 9 #ahib ,pr(essor ,ino/rantseff discov]$ a ve9 deposit ( plat9um 9 s]p5t9e ne> ,tagil 9 ! ,urals4#a ,! facility ) :i* !y are r$uc$ is s great t _! *lorides are ev5 decompos$ by gase\s hydrog51 especially :5 %ak5 up & heat$ "u a c]ta9 pressure4 ,h5ce x w be readily und]/ood t su* metals z z9c1 iron1 c41 sep>ate !m f solutions ) great ease1 :i* fact is tak5 advantage ( 9 practice & 9 ! *emical treatm5t ( ! plat9um metals4#a bis #a ,wells & ,p5field 7#ahhh7 h describ$ a m9]al sp]ryllite f\nd 9 ! ,canadian gold-be>+ qu>tz & consi/+ ( plat9um di>s5ide1 ,pt,as#b4 ,x is a noticeable fact t ?is m9]al cle>ly confirms ! position ( plat9um 9 ! same gr\p z iron1 because x corresponds 9 cry/all9e =m 7regul> octah$ron7 & *emical composition ) iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b4 #a bis ,"s light is ?r[n ^u ! facility ) :i* ! plat9um comp\nds decompose by ,?oms5's data1 %[+ t 9 an excess ( wat] 7 ,aq7 ! =mation f plat9um1 ( su* a d\ble salt z ,pt,cl#b1b,k,cl1 is accompani$ by a comp>atively small evolution ( heat 7see ,*apt] ,,xxi41 ,note #dj71 = in/ance1 ,pt ,cl#b #b,k,cl ,aq only evolves ab\t #cc1jjj calories 7h5ce ! reaction1 ,pt ,cl#b ,aq1 w evid5tly dis5gage /ill less1 because ,pt,cl#b #b,k,cl evolves a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat71 :il/ on ! o!r h&1 ,fe ,cl#b ,aq gives #ajj1jjj calories1 & ev5 ! reaction ) copp] 7= ! =mation ( ! d\ble salt7 evolves #fc1jjj calories4 ,all ! plat9um metals1 l ^? ( ! iron gr\p1 are grey1 ) a comp>atively feeble metallic lu/re1 & are v infusible4 ,9 ?is respect !y /& 9 ! same ord] z ! metals ( ! iron s]ies2 nickel is m fusible & :it] ?an cobalt & iron1 s also palladium is :it] & m fusible ?an rhodium & ru!nium1 & plat9um is comp>atively m fusible & :it] ?an iridium or osmium4 ,! sal9e comp\nds ( ^! metals are r$ or yell[1 l ^? ( ! majority ( ! metals ( ! iron s]ies1 & l ! latt]1 ! diff]5t =ms ( oxidation pres5t diff]5t col\rs4 ,moreov]1 c]ta9 complex comp\nds ( ! plat9um metals1 l c]ta9 complex comp\nds ( ! iron s]ies1 ei!r h p>ticul> *>act]i/ic t9ts or else are col\rless4 ,! plat9um metals are f\nd 9 nature associat$ toge!r 9 alluvial deposits 9 a few localities1 f :i* !y are wa%$1 ow+ to _! v consid]able d5sity1 :i* enables a /ream ( wat] to wa% away ! s& & clay ) :i* !y are mix$4 ,plat9um deposits are *iefly kn[n 9 ! ,urals1 & also 9 ,brazil & a few o!r localities4 ,! plat9um ore wa%$ f ^! alluvial deposits pres5ts ! appe>ance ( m or less co>se gra9s1 & sometimes1 z x 71 ( semi-fus$ nuggets4#b #b ,! l>ge/ am\nt ( plat9um is extract$ 9 ! ,urals1 ab\t five tons annually4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( gold is extract$ f ! wa%$ plat9um by means ( m]cury1 :i* does n dissolve ! plat9um metals b dissolves ! gold accompany+ ! plat9um 9 its ores4 ,moreov]1 ! ores ( plat9um always conta9 metals ( ! iron s]ies associat$ ) !m4 ,! wa%$ & me*anically sort$ ore 9 ! majority ( cases conta9s ab\t #gj to #hj p4c4 ( plat9um1 ab\t #e to #h p4c4 ( iridium1 & a some:at small] quantity ( osmium4 ,! o!r plat9um metals--palladium1 rhodium1 & ru!nium--occur 9 small] proportions ?an ! ?ree above nam$4 ,sometimes gra9s ( almo/ pure osmium-iridium1 conta9+ only a small quantity ( o!r metals1 are f\nd 9 plat9um ores4 ,?is osmium-iridium may be easily sep>at$ f ! o!r plat9um metals1 ow+ to its be+ ne>ly insoluble 9 aqua regia1 by :i* ! latt] are easily dissolv$4 ,!re are gra9s ( plat9um :i* are magnetic4 ,! gra9s ( osmium-iridium are v h>d & malleable1 & are !re=e us$ = c]ta9 purposes1 = in/ance1 = ! tips ( gold p5s4 ,all ! plat9um metals give comp\nds ) ! halog5s1 & ! highe/ haloid type ( comb9ation = all is ,,rx#d4 ,= ! majority ( ! plat9um metals ?is type is exce$+ly un/able2 ! l[] comp\nds correspond+ to ! type ,,rx#b1 :i* are =m$ by ! sep>ation ( ,x#b1 are m /able4 ,9 ! type ,,rx#b ! plat9um metals =m m /able salts1 :i* (f] no little resemblance to ! k9dr$ comp\nds ( ! iron s]ies--= example1 to nickel\s *loride1 ,ni,cl#b1 cobalt\s *loride1 ,co,cl#b1 c4 ,?is ev5 expresses itself 9 a simil>ity ( volume 7plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b1 volume1 #df2 nickel\s *loride1 ,ni,cl#b #ej71 al?\gh 9 ! type ,,rx#b ! true iron metals give v /able comp\nds1 :il/ ! plat9um metals frequ5tly react aft] ! mann] ( suboxides1 decompos+ into ! metal & high] types1 #b,,rx#b ,r ,,rx#d4 ,?is probably dep5ds on ! facility ) :i* ,,rx#b decomposes into ,r & ,x#b1 :5 ,x#b comb9es ) ! rema9+ portion ( ,,rx#b4 ,z 9 ! s]ies iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 nickel gives ,ni,o & ,ni#b,o#c1 :il/ cobalt & iron give high] & v>i$ =ms ( oxidation1 s also among ! plat9um metals1 plat9um & palladium only give ! =ms ,,rx#b & ,,rx#d1 :il/ rhodium & iridium =m ano!r & int]m$iate type1 ,,rx#c1 also met ) 9 cobalt1 correspond+ ) ! oxide1 hav+ ! composition ,r#b,o#c1 besides :i* !y =m an acid oxide1 l f]ric acid1 :i* is also kn[n 9 ! =m ( salts1 b is 9 e respect un/able4 ,osmium & ru!nium1 l manganese1 =m /ill high] oxides1 & 9 ?is respect exhibit ! greate/ div]sity4 ,!y n only give ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 ,,rx#d1 & ,,rx#f1 b also a /ill high] =m ( oxidation1 ,,ro#d1 :i* is n met ) 9 any o!r s]ies4 ,?is =m is exce$+ly *>act]i/ic1 ow+ to ! fact t ! oxides1 ,os,o#d & ,ru,o#d1 are volatile & h feebly acid prop]ties4 ,9 ?is respect !y mo/ resemble p]manganic anhydride1 :i* is also some:at volatile4#c #c ,9 *>act]is+ ! plat9um metals accord+ to _! relation to ! iron metals1 x is v important to add two m v rem>kable po9ts4 ,! plat9um metals are capable ( =m+ a sort ( un/able comp\nd ) hydrog52 !y absorb x & only "p ) x :5 some:at /rongly heat$4 ,?is faculty is especially develop$ 9 plat9um & palladium1 & x is v *>act]i/ic t nickel1 :i* exactly corresponds ) plat9um & palladium 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 %\ld exhibit ! same faculty = reta9+ a consid]able quantity ( hydrog5 7,graham's & ,ra\lt's exp]im5ts74 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ! plat9um metals consi/s 9 _! easily giv+ 7l cobalt :i* =ms ! cobaltic salts7 /able & *>act]i/ic sal9e comp\nds ) ammonia1 & l ,fe & ,co1 d\ble salts ) ! cyanides ( ! alkali metals1 especially 9 _! l[] =ms ( comb9ation4 ,all ! above s cle>ly br+s ! elem5ts ( ! iron s]ies 9 close relation to ! plat9um metals1 t ! eigh? gr\p acquires z natural a "* z c be requir$1 ) a c]ta9 orig9ality or individuality = ea* elem5t4 ,:5 dissolv$ 9 aqua regia 7,pt,cl#d is =m$7 & lib]at$ f ! solution by sal-ammoniac 77,,nh#d7b,pt,cl#f is =m$7 & r$uc$ by ignition 7:i* may be done by ,zn & o!r r$uc+ ag5ts1 direct f a solution ( ,pt,cl#d7 plat9um#c bis =ms a p[d]y mass1 kn[n z spongy plat9um or plat9um black4 ,if ?is p[d] ( plat9um be heat$ & press$1 or hamm]$ 9 a cyl9d]1 ! gra9s aggregate or =ge toge!r1 & =m a cont9u\s1 ?\gh ( c\rse n entirely homog5e\s1 mass4 ,plat9um 0 =m]ly1 & is ev5 n[1 work$ up 9 ?is mann]4 ,! plat9um money =m]ly us$ 9 ,russia 0 made 9 ?is way4 ,sa9te-,claire ,deville1 9 ! fifties1 = ! fir/ "t melt$ plat9um 9 consid]able quantities by employ+ a special furnace made 9 ! =m ( a small rev]b]atory furnace1 & compos$ ( two pieces ( lime1 on :i* ! heat ( ! oxyhydrog5 flame has no action4 ,into ?is furnace 7%[n 9 fig4 #cd1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #age7--or1 m /rictly speak+1 into ! cavity made 9 ! pieces ( lime--! plat9um is introduc$1 & two orifices are made 9 ! lime2 ?r\gh "o1 ! upp]1 or side orifice1 is introduc$ an oxyhydrog5 gas burn]1 9 :i* ei!r detonat+ gas or a mixture ( oxyg5 & coal-gas is burnt1 :il/ ! o!r orifice s]ves = ! escape ( ! products ( combu/ion & c]ta9 impurities :i* are m volatile ?an ! plat9um1 & especially ! oxidis$ comp\nds ( osmium1 ru!nium1 & palladium1 :i* are comp>atively easily volatilis$ by heat4 ,9 ?is mann] ! plat9um is conv]t$ into a cont9u\s metallic =m by means ( fusion1 & ?is me?od is n[ us$ = melt+ consid]able masses ( plat9um#d & its alloys ) iridium4 #c bis ,plat9um 0 fir/ obta9$ 9 ! la/ c5tury f ,brazil1 :]e x 0 call$ silv] 7plat9us74 ,watson 9 #agej *>act]is$ plat9um z a sep>ate indep5d5t metal4 ,9 #ahjc ,wolla/on discov]$ palladium & rhodium 9 crude plat9um1 & at ab\t ! same "t ,t5nant di/+ui%$ iridium & osmium 9 x4 ,pr(essor ,claus1 ( ,kazan1 9 8 rese>*es on ! plat9um metals 7ab\t #ahdj7 discov]$ ru!nium 9 !m1 & to him are due _m important discov]ies ) reg>d to ^! elem5ts1 su* z ! indication ( ! rem>kable analogy betwe5 ! s]ies ,pd--,rh--,ru & ,pt--,ir--,os4 ,! treatm5t ( plat9um ore is *iefly c>ri$ on = ! extraction ( ! plat9um itself & its alloys ) iridium1 because ^! metals (f] a great] resi/ance to ! action ( *emical reag5ts & high temp]atures ?an any ( ! o!r malleable & ductile metals1 & !re=e ! wire s (t5 us$ 9 ! laboratory & = te*nical purposes is made f !m1 z also are v>i\s vessels us$ = *emical purposes 9 ! laboratory & 9 works4 ,?us sulphuric acid is di/ill$ 9 plat9um retorts1 & _m sub/ances are fus$1 ignit$1 & evaporat$ 9 ! laboratory 9 plat9um crucibles & on plat9um foil4 ,gold & _m o!r sub/ances are dissolv$ 9 di%es made ( iridium-plat9um1 because ! alloys ( plat9um & iridium are b slightly attack$ :5 subject$ to ! action ( aqua regia4 ,! comp>atively high d5sity 7ab\t #bae71 h>dness1 ductility1 & infusibility 7x does n melt at a furnace heat1 b only 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame or electric furnace71 z well z ! fact ( its resi/+ ! action ( wat]1 air1 & o!r reag5ts1 r5d]s an alloy ( #ij p>ts ( plat9um & #aj p>ts ( iridium 7,deville's plat9um-iridium alloy7 a mo/ valuable mat]ial = mak+ /&>d weights & measures1 su* z ! metre1 kilogram1 & p\nd1 & !re=e all ! newe/ /&>ds ( mo/ c\ntries are made ( ?is alloy4 #d ,?is process has alt]$ ! te*nical treatm5t ( plat9um to a consid]able ext5t4 ,x has 9 p>ticul> facilitat$ ! manufacture ( alloys ( plat9um ) iridium & rhodium f ! pure plat9um ores1 s9ce x is suffici5t to fuse ! ore 9 ord] = ! great] am\nt ( ! osmium to burn (f1 & = ! mass to fuse into a homog5e\s1 malleable alloy1 :i* c be directly made use (4 ,!re is v little ru!nium 9 ! ores ( plat9um4 ,if dur+ fusion lead be add$1 x dissolves ! plat9um 7& o!r plat9um metals7 ow+ to its be+ able to =m a v *>act]i/ic alloy conta9+ ,pt,pb4 ,if an alloy ( ! two metals be left expos$ to moi/ air1 ! excess ( lead is conv]t$ into c>bonate 7:ite lead7 9 ! pres5ce ( ! wat] & c>bonic acid ( ! air1 :il/ ! above plat9um alloy rema9s un*ang$4 ,! :ite lead may be extract$ by dilute acid1 & ! alloy ,pt,pb rema9s unalt]$4 ,! o!r plat9um metals also give simil> alloys ) lead4 ,! fusibility ( ^! alloys enables ! plat9um metals to be sep>at$ f ! gangue ( ! ore1 & !y may aft]w>ds be sep>at$ f ! lead by subject+ ! alloy to oxidation 9 furnaces furni%$ ) a bone a% b$1 because ! lead is !n oxidis$ & absorb$ by ! bone a%1 leav+ ! plat9um metals unt\*$4 ,?is me?od ( treatm5t 0 propos$ by ,h4 ,sa9te-,claire ,deville 9 ! sixties1 & is also us$ 9 ! analysis ( ^! metals 7see fur!r on74 ,to obta9 pure plat9um1 ! ore is treat$ ) aqua regia 9 :i* only ! osmium & iridium are insoluble4 ,! solution conta9s ! plat9um metals 9 ! =m ,r,cl#d1 & 9 ! l[] =ms ( *lor9ation1 ,r,cl#c & ,r,cl#b1 because "s ( ^! metals--= in/ance1 palladium & rhodium--=m su* un/able *lorides ( ! type ,,rx#d t !y p>tially decompose ev5 :5 dilut$ ) wat]1 & pass into ! /able l[] type ( comb9ation2 9 addition to :i* ! *lor9e is v easily dis5gag$ if x comes 9 contact ) sub/ances on :i* x c act4 ,9 ?is respect plat9um resi/s ! action ( heat & r$uc+ ag5ts bett] ?an any ( its companions--t is1 x passes ) great] difficulty f ,pt,cl#d to ! l[] comp\nd ,pt,cl#b4 ,on ?is is bas$ ! me?od ( prep>ation ( m or less pure plat9um4 ,lime or sodium hydroxide is add$ to ! solution 9 aqua regia until neutralis$1 or only conta9+ a v slight excess ( alkali4 ,x is be/ to fir/ evaporate & slightly ignite ! solution1 9 ord] to remove ! excess ( acid1 & by heat+ x to p>tially conv]t ! high] *lorides ( ! palladium1 c41 into ! l[]4 ,! addition ( alkalis completes ! r$uction1 because ! *lor9e held 9 ! comp\nds ,,rx#d acts on ! alkali l free *lor9e1 conv]t+ x into a hypo*lorite4 ,?us palladium *loride1 ,pd,cl#d1 = example1 is conv]t$ into palladi\s *loride1 ,pd,cl#b1 by ?is means1 accord+ to ! equation ,pd,cl#d #b,na,h,o ,pd,cl#b ,na,cl ,na,cl,o ,h#b,o4 ,9 a simil> mann] iridic *loride1 ,ir,cl#d1 is conv]t$ into ! tri*loride1 ,ir,cl#c1 by ?is me?od4 ,:5 ?is conv]sion takes place ! plat9um /ill rema9s 9 ! =m ( plat9ic *loride1 ,pt,cl#d4 ,x is !n possible to take advantage ( a c]ta9 diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties ( ! high] & l[] *lorides ( ! plat9um metals4 ,?us lime precipitates ! l[] *lorides ( ! memb]s ( ! plat9um metals occurr+ 9 solution )\t act+ on ! plat9ic *loride1 ,pt,cl#d1 & h5ce ! addition ( a l>ge proportion ( lime imm$iately precipitates ! associat$ metals1 leav+ ! plat9um itself 9 solution 9 ! =m ( a soluble d\ble salt1 ,pt,cl#d1;,ca,cl#b4 ,a f> bett] & m p]fect sep>ation is effect$ by means ( ammonium *loride1 :i* gives1 ) plat9ic *loride1 an insoluble yell[ precipitate1 ,pt,cl#d1b,,nh#d;,cl1 :il/ x =ms soluble d\ble salts ) ! l[] *lorides ,r,cl#b & ,r,cl#c1 s t ammonium *loride precipitates ! plat9um only f ! solution obta9$ by ! prec$+ me?od4 ,^! me?ods are employ$ = prep>+ ! plat9um :i* is us$ = ! manufacture ( plat9um articles1 because1 hav+ plat9um 9 solution z calcium plat9o*loride1 ,pt,ca,cl#f1 or z ! insoluble ammonium plat9o*loride1 ,pt7,,nh#d7b;,cl#f1 ! plat9um comp\nd 9 e case1 aft] dry+ or ignition1 loses all ! *lor9e f ! plat9ic *loride & leaves f9ely-divid$ metallic plat9um1 :i* may be conv]t$ into homog5e\s metal by compression & =g+1 or by fusion4#e #e ,= ! ultimate purification ( plat9um f palladium & iridium ! metals mu/ be re-dissolv$ 9 aqua regia1 & ! solution evaporat$ until ! residue beg9s to evolve *lor9e4 ,! residue is !n re-precipitat$ ) ammonium or potassium *loride4 ,! precipitate may /ill conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( iridium1 :i* passes ) great] difficulty f ! tetra*loride1 ,ir,cl#d1 into ! tri*loride1 ,ir,cl#c1 b x w be q free f palladium1 because ! latt] easily loses its *lor9e & passes into palladi\s *loride1 ,pd,cl#b1 :i* gives an easily-soluble salt ) potassium *loride4 ,! precipitate1 conta9+ a small quantity ( iridium1 is !n heat$ ) sodium c>bonate 9 a crucible1 :5 ! mass decomposes1 giv+ metallic plat9um & iridium oxide4 ,if potassium *loride has be5 employ$1 ! residue aft] ignition is wa%$ ) wat] & treat$ ) aqua regia4 ,! iridium oxide rema9s undissolv$1 & ! plat9um easily passes into solution4 ,only cold & dilute aqua regia mu/ be us$4 ,! solution w !n conta9 pure plat9ic *loride1 :i* =ms ! />t+-po9t = ! prep>ation ( all plat9um comp\nds4 ,pure plat9um = accurate rese>*es 7= in/ance1 = ! unit ( light1 accord+ to ,violle's me?od7 may be obta9$ 7,mylius & ,fo]/]1 #ahib7 by ,f9k5]'s me?od1 by dissolv+ ! impure metal 9 aqua regia 7x %\ld be evaporat$ to drive (f ! nitrog5 comp\nds71 & add+ ,na,cl s z to =m a d\ble sodium salt1 :i* is purifi$ by cry/allis+ ) a small am\nt ( cau/ic soda1 wa%+ ! cry/als ) a /rong solution ( ,na,cl1 & !n dissolv+ !m 9 a hot #a p4c4 solution ( soda1 repeat+ ! above & ultimately ignit+ ! d\ble salt1 previ\sly dri$ at #abj1 9 a /ream ( hydrog52 plat9um black & ,na,cl are !n =m$4 ,! ?ree foll[+ are v s5sitive te/s 7to ?\s&?s ( a p] c5t47 = ! pres5ce ( ,ir1 ,ru1 ,rh1 ,pd 7osmium is n usually pres5t 9 plat9um :i* has once be5 purifi$1 s9ce x easily volatilises ) ,cl#b & ,,co#b1 & 9 ! fir/ treatm5t ( ! crude plat9um ei!r passes (f z ,os,o#d or rema9s undissolv$71 ,fe1 ,cu1 ,ag1 & ,pb3 7#a7 ! assay is alloy$ ) #aj p>ts ( pure lead1 ! alloy treat$ ) dilute nitric acid 7to remove ! great] "p ( ! ,pb71 & dissolv$ 9 aqua regia2 ! residue w consi/ ( ,ir & ,ru2 ! ,pb is precipitat$ f ! nitric acid solution by sulphuric acid1 :il/ ! rema9+ plat9um metals are r$uc$ f ! evaporat$ solution by =mic acid1 & ! resultant precipitate fus$ ) ,,khso#d2 ! ,pd & ,rh are ?us conv]t$ into soluble salts1 & ! =m] is !n precipitat$ by ,hg,c#b,n#b4 7#b7 ,iron may be detect$ by ! usual reag5ts1 if ! crude plat9um be dissolv$ 9 aqua regia1 & ! plat9um metals precipitat$ f ! solution by =mic acid4 7#c7 ,if crude plat9um 7z foil or sponge7 be heat$ 9 a mixture ( *lor9e & c>bonic oxide x volatilises 7) a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,ir1 ,pd1 ,fe1 c47 z ,pt,cl#b1b;,,co 7,note #aa71 :il/ ! :ole ( ! ,rh1 ,ag1 & ,cu x may conta9 rema9s beh9d4 ,among o!r *>act]i/ic reactions = ! plat9um metals1 we may m5tion3 7#a7 t rhodium is precipitat$ f ! solution obta9$ aft] fusion ) ,,khso#d 79 :i* ,pt does n dissolve7 by ,,nh#c1 acetic & =mic acids2 7#b7 t dilute aqua regia dissolves precipitat$ ,pt1 b n ,rh2 7#c7 t if ! insoluble residue ( ! plat9um metals 7,ir1 ,ru1 ,os7 obta9$1 aft] treat+ ) aqua regia1 be fus$ ) a mixture ( #a "p ( ,,kno#c & #c p>ts ( ,k#b;,,co#c 79 a gold crucible71 & !n treat$ ) wat]1 x gives a solution conta9+ ! ,ru 7& a portion ( ! ,ir71 b :i* ?r[s x all d[n :5 saturat$ ) *lor9e & boil$2 7#d7 t if iridium be fus$ ) a mixture ( ,,kho & ,,kno#c1 x gives a soluble potassium salt1 ,ir,k#b,o#d 7! solution is blue71 :i*1 :5 saturat$ ) *lor9e1 gives ,ir,cl#d1 :i* is precipitat$ by ,,nh#d;,cl 7! precipitate is black71 =m+ a d\ble salt1 leav+ metallic ,ir aft] ignition2 7#e7 t rhodium mix$ ) ,na,cl & ignit$ 9 a curr5t ( *lor9e gives a soluble d\ble salt 7f :i* sal-ammoniac sep>ates ,pt & ,ir71 :i* gives 7accord+ to ,jrg5s57 a difficultly soluble purpureo-salt 7,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce71 ,rh#b;,cl#c1e,,nh#c1 :5 treat$ ) ,,nh#c2 9 ?is =m ! ,rh may be easily purifi$ & obta9$ 9 a metallic =m by ignit+ 9 hydrog52 & 7#f7 t palladium1 dissolv$ 9 aqua regia & dri$ 7,,nh#d;,cl ?r[s d[n any ,pt71 gives soluble ,pd,cl#b1 :i* =ms an easily cry/allisable yell[ salt1 ,pd,cl#b,,nh#c1 ) ammonia2 ?is salt 7,wilm7 may be easily purifi$ by cry/allisation1 & gives metallic ,pd :5 ignit$4 ,^! reactions illu/rate ! me?od ( sep>at+ ! plat9um metals f ea* o!r4 ,metallic plat9um 9 a fus$ /ate has a specific gravity ( #ba2 x is grey1 s(t] ?an iron b h>d] ?an copp]1 exce$+ly ductile1 & !re=e easily drawn into wire & roll$ into ?9 %eets1 & may be hamm]$ into crucibles & drawn into ?9 tubes1 c4 ,9 ! /ate 9 :i* x is obta9$ by ! ignition ( its comp\nds1 x =ms a spongy mass1 kn[n z spongy plat9um1 or else z p[d] 7plat9um black74#f ,9 ei!r case x is dull grey1 & is *>act]is$1 z we already "k1 by ! faculty ( absorb+ hydrog5 & o!r gases4 ,plat9um is n act$ on by hydro*loric1 hydriodic1 nitric1 & sulphuric acids1 or a mixture ( hydr(luoric & nitric acids4 ,aqua regia1 & any liquid conta9+ *lor9e or able to evolve *lor9e or brom9e1 dissolves plat9um4 ,alkalis are decompos$ by plat9um at a r$ heat1 ow+ to ! faculty ( ! plat9um oxide1 ,pt,o#b1 =m$ to comb9e ) alkal9e bases1 inasmu* z x has a feebly-develop$ acid "* 7see ,note #h74 ,sulphur1 phosphorus 7! phosphide1 ,pt,p#b1 is =m$71 ars5ic & silicon all act m or less rapidly on plat9um1 "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,_m ( ! metals =m alloys ) x4 ,ev5 *>coal comb9es ) plat9um :5 x is ignit$ ) x1 & !re=e c>bonace\s matt] _c be subject$ to prolong$ & p[]ful ignition 9 plat9um vessels4 ,h5ce a plat9um crucible soon becomes dull on ! surface 9 a smoky flame4 ,plat9um also =ms alloys ) z9c1 lead1 t91 copp]1 gold1 & silv]4#g ,al?\gh m]cury does n directly dissolve plat9um1 /ill x =ms a solution or amalgam ) spongy plat9um 9 ! pres5ce ( sodium amalgam2 a simil> amalgam is also =m$ by ! action ( sodium amalgam on a solution ( plat9um *loride1 & is us$ = physical exp]im5ts4 #f ,we h already become acqua9t$ ) ! effect ( f9ely-divid$ plat9um on _m gase\s sub/ances4 ,x is be/ se5 9 ! s-call$ plat9um black1 :i* is a coal-black p[d] left by ! action ( sulphuric acid on ! alloy ( z9c & plat9um1 or :i* is precipitat$ by metallic z9c f a dilute solution ( plat9um4 ,9 any case1 f9ely-divid$ plat9um absorbs gases m p[]fully & rapidly ! m f9ely divid$ & por\s x is4 ,sulphur\s anhydride1 hydrog51 alcohol1 & _m organic sub/ances 9 ! pres5ce ( su* plat9um are easily oxidis$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 al?\gh !y d n comb9e ) x directly4 ,! absorption ( oxyg5 is z mu* z sev]al hundr$ volumes p] "o volume ( plat9um1 & ! oxidis+ p[] ( su* absorb$ oxyg5 is tak5 advantage ( n only 9 ! laboratory b ev5 9 manufactur+ processes4 ,asbe/os or *>coal1 soak$ 9 a solution ( plat9ic *loride & ignit$1 is v useful = ?is purpose1 because by ?is means x becomes coat$ ) plat9um black4 ,if #ej grams ( ,pt,cl#d be dissolv$ 9 #fj c4c4 ( wat]1 & #gj c4c4 ( a /rong 7#dj p4c47 solution ( =mic aldehyde add$1 ! mixture cool$1 & !n a solution ( #ej grams ( ,na,h,o 9 #ej grams ( wat] add$1 ! plat9um is precipitat$4 ,aft] wa%+ ) wat] ! precipitate passes into solution & =ms a black liquid conta9+ soluble colloidal plat9um 7,loew1 #ahij74 ,if ! precipitat$ plat9um be all[$ to absorb oxyg5 on ! filt]1 ! temp]ature rises #dj1 & a v por\s plat9um black is obta9$ :i* vigor\sly facilitates oxidation4 #g ,x is necess>y to rem>k t plat9um :5 alloy$ ) silv]1 or z amalgam1 is soluble 9 nitric acid1 & 9 ?is respect x diff]s f gold1 s t x is possible1 by alloy+ gold ) silv]1 & act+ on ! alloy ) nitric acid1 to recognise ! pres5ce ( plat9um 9 ! gold1 because nitric acid does n act on gold alloy$ ) silv]4 ,!re are two k9ds ( plat9um comp\nds1 ,pt,x#d & ,pt,x#b4 ,! =m] are produc$ by an excess ( halog5 9 ! cold1 & ! latt] by ! aid ( heat or by ! splitt+ up ( ! =m]4 ,! />t+-po9t = ! plat9um comp\nds is plat9um tetra*loride1 plat9ic *loride1 ,pt,cl#d1 obta9$ by dissolv+ plat9um 9 aqua regia4#g bis ,! solution cry/allises 9 ! cold1 9 a desiccator1 9 ! =m ( r$di%-br[n deliquesc5t cry/als :i* conta9 hydro*loric acid1 ,pt,cl#d1b;,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 & behave l a true acid ^: salts correspond to ! =mula ,r#b,pt,cl#f--;ammonium plat9o*loride1 = example4#g tri ,! hydro*loric acid is lib]at$ f ^! cry/als by g5tly heat+ or evaporat+ ! solution to dryness2 or1 bett] /ill1 aft] treatm5t ) silv] nitrate a r$di%-br[n mass rema9s beh9d1 :i* dissolves 9 wat]1 & =ms a yell[i%-r$ solution :i* on cool+ deposits cry/als ( ! composition ,pt,cl#d1h;,h#b,o4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,pt,cl#d to comb9e ) hydro*loric acid & wat]--t is1 to =m high] cry/all9e comp\nds--is evid5t 9 ! plat9um comp\nds1 & mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 expla9+ ! prop]ties ( plat9um & ! =mation ( _m o!r ( its complex comp\nds4 ,dilute solutions ( plat9ic *loride are yell[1 & are completely r$uc$ by hydrog51 sulphur\s anhydride1 & _m r$uc+ ag5ts1 :i* fir/ conv]t ! plat9ic *loride into ! l[] comp\nd plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b4 ,t faculty :i* reveals itself 9 plat9um tetra*loride ( comb9+ ) wat] ( cry/allisation & hydro*loric acid is di/9ctly m>k$ 9 its prop]ty1 ) :i* we are already acqua9t$1 ( giv+ precipitates ) ! salts ( potassium1 ammonium1 rubidium1 c4 ,9 g5]al x readily =ms d\ble salts1 ,r#b,pt,cl#f ,pt,cl#d #b,r,cl1 :]e ,r is a unival5t metal su* z potassium or ,,nh#d4 ,h5ce ! addition ( a solution ( potassium or ammonium *loride to a solution ( plat9ic *loride is foll[$ by ! =mation ( a yell[ precipitate1 :i* is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat] & almo/ entirely insoluble 9 alcohol & e!r 7plat9ic *loride is soluble 9 alcohol1 potassium iridio*loride1 ,ir,k#c;,cl#f1 i4e4 a comp\nd ( ,ir,cl#c1 is soluble 9 wat] b n 9 alcohol74 ,x is especially rem>kable 9 ?is case1 t ! potassium comp\nds "h1 z 9 a numb] ( o!r in/ances1 sep>ate 9 an anhydr\s =m1 :il/ ! sodium comp\nds1 :i* are soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 =m r$ cry/als conta9+ wat]4 ,! composition ,na#b,pt,cl#f1f;,h#b,o exactly corresponds ) ! above-m5tion$ hydro*loric comp\nd4 ,! comp\nds ) b>ium1 ,ba,pt,cl#f1d;,h#b,o1 /rontium1 ,sr,pt,cl#f1h;,h#b,o1 calcium1 magnesium1 iron1 manganese1 & _m o!r metals are all soluble 9 wat]4#h #g bis ,pt,cl#d is also =m$ by ! action ( a mixture ( ,h,cl vap\r & air1 & by ! action ( gase\s *lor9e ^u plat9um4 #g tri ,pigeon 7#ahia7 obta9$ f9e yell[ cry/als ( ,pt,h#b;,cl#f1d;,h#b,o by add+ /rong sulphuric acid to a /rong solution ( ,pt,h#b;,cl#f1f;,h#b,o4 ,if cry/als ( ,h#b,pt,cl#f1f;,h#b,o be melt$ 9 vacuo 7#fj7 9 ! pres5ce ( anhydr\s pota%1 a r$-br[n solid hydrate is obta9$ conta9+ less wat] & ,h,cl1 :i* p>ts ) ! rema9d] at #bjj1 leav+ anhydr\s ,pt,cl#d4 ,! latt] does n dis5gage *lor9e be=e #bbj1 & is p]fectly soluble 9 wat]4 #h ,nilson 7#ahgg71 :o inve/igat$ ! plat9o*lorides ( v>i\s metals subsequ5tly to ,bonsdorff1 ,topse1 ,clve1 ,m>ignac1 & o!rs1 f\nd t unival5t & bival5t metals--su* z hydrog51 potassium1 ammonium 444 b]yllium1 calcium1 b>ium--give comp\nds ( su* a composition t !re is always twice z mu* *lor9e 9 ! plat9ic *loride z 9 ! comb9$ metallic *loride2 = example1 ,k#b;,cl#b1,pt,cl#d2 ,be,cl#b1,pt,cl#d1h;,h#b,o1 c4 ,su* trival5t metals z alum9ium1 iron 7f]ric71 *romium1 didymium1 c]ium 7c]\s7 =m comp\nds ( ! type ,r,cl#c,pt,cl#d1 9 :i* ! am\nts ( *lor9e are 9 ! ratio #c3d4 ,only indium & yttrium give salts ( a diff]5t composition--namely1 #b;,in,cl#c1e,pt,cl#d1cf;,h#b,o & #d,y,cl#c1e,pt,cl#d1ea;,h#b,o4 ,su* quadrival5t metals z ?orium1 t91 zirconium give comp\nds ( ! type ,r,cl#d1,pt,cl#d1 9 :i* ! ratio ( ! *lor9e is #a3a4 ,9 ?is mann] ! val5cy ( a metal may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 be judg$ f ! composition ( ! d\ble salts =m$ ) plat9ic *loride4 ,plat9ic bromide1 ,pt,br#d1 & iodide1 ,pt,i#d1 are analog\s to ! tetra*loride1 b ! iodide is decompos$ /ill m easily ?an ! *loride4 ,if sulphuric acid be add$ to plat9ic *loride1 & ! solution evaporat$1 x =ms a black por\s mass l *>coal1 :i* deliquesces 9 ! air1 & has ! composition ,pt7,,s#d7b4 ,b ?is1 ! only oxyg5 salt ( ! type ,pt,x#d1 is exce$+ly un/able4 ,?is is due to ! fact t plat9um oxide1 ! oxide ( ! type ,pt,o#b1 has a feeble acid "*4 ,?is is %[n 9 a numb] ( in/ances4 ,?us if a /rong solution ( plat9ic *loride treat$ ) sodium c>bonate be expos$ to ! action ( light or evaporat$ to dryness & !n wa%$ ) wat]1 a sodium plat9ate1 ,pt#c,na#b,o#g1f;,h#b,o1 rema9s4 ,! composition ( ?is salt1 if we reg>d x 9 ! same s5se z we did ! salts ( silicic1 titanic1 molybdic & o!r acids1 w be ,pt,o7,o,na7#b1b,pt,o#b1f;,h#b,o--t is1 ! same type is repeat$ z we saw 9 ! cry/all9e comp\nds ( plat9um tetra*loride ) sodium *loride1 or ) hydro*loric acid--namely1 ! type ,pt,x#dh,y1 :]e ,y is ! molecule ,h#b,o1,h,cl1 c4 ,simil> comp\nds are also obta9$ ) o!r alkalis4 ,!y w be plat9ates ( ! alkalis 9 :i* ! plat9ic oxide1 ,pt,o#b1 plays ! "p ( an acid oxide4 ,r\sseau 7#ahhi7 obta9$ diff]5t grades ( comb9ation ,ba,o,pt,o#b1 #c7;,ba,o7#b,pt,o#b1 c41 by ignit+ a mixture ( ,pt,cl#d & cau/ic b>yta4 ,if su* an alkal9e comp\nd ( plat9um be treat$ ) acetic acid1 ! alkali comb9es ) ! latt]1 & a plat9ic hydroxide1 ,pt7,,oh7#d1 rema9s z a br[n mass1 :i* loses wat] & oxyg5 :5 ignit$1 & 9 s do+ decomposes ) a slight explosion4 ,:5 slightly ignit$ ?is hydroxide fir/ loses wat] & gives ! v un/able oxide ,pt,o#b4 ,plat9ic sulphide1 ,pt,s#b1 belongs to ! same type2 x is precipitat$ by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 on a solution ( plat9um tetra*loride4 ,! moi/ precipitate is capable ( attract+ oxyg51 & is !n conv]t$ into ! sulphate above m5tion$1 :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is absorption ( oxyg5 & conv]sion into sulphate is ano!r illu/ration ( ! basic nature ( ,pt,o#b1 s t x cle>ly exhibits bo? basic & acid prop]ties4 ,! latt] appe>1 = in/ance1 9 ! fact t plat9ic sulphide1 ,pt,s#b1 gives cry/all9e comp\nds ) ! alkali sulphides4 ,plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b1 is =m$ :5 hydrog5 plat9o*loride1 ,pt,h#b;,cl#f1 is ignit$ at #cjj1 or :5 potassium is heat$ at #bcj 9 a /ream ( *lor9e4 ,! undecompos$ tetra*loride is extract$ f ! residue by wa%+ x ) wat]1 & a gre5i%-grey or br[n insoluble mass ( ! di*loride 7sp4 gr4 #ei7 is !n obta9$4 ,x is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 giv+ an acid solution ( ! composition ,pt,cl#b1b;,h,cl1 correspond+ ) ! type ( d\ble salts ,pt,r#b;,cl#d4 ,al?\gh plat9\s *loride decomposes bel[ #ejj1 /ill x is =m$ to a small ext5t at high] temp]atures4 ,troo/ & ,hautefeuille1 & ,seelheim obs]v$ t :5 plat9um 0 /rongly ignit$ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 ! metal1 z x 71 sl[ly volatilis$ & 0 deposit$ 9 cry/als2 a volatile *loride1 probably plat9\s *loride1 0 evid5tly =m$ 9 ?is case1 & decompos$ subsequ5tly to its =mation1 deposit+ cry/als ( plat9um4 ,! prop]ties ( plat9um above-describ$ are repeat$ m or less di/9ctly1 or sometimes ) c]ta9 modifications1 9 ! above-m5tion$ associates & analogues ( ?is metal4 ,?us al?\gh palladium =ms ,pd,cl#d1 ?is =m passes into ,pd,cl#b ) extreme ease4#i ,:il/ rhodium & iridium 9 dissolv+ 9 aqua regia also =m ,rh,cl#d & ,ir,cl#d1 b !y pass into ,rh,cl#c & ,ir,cl#ci bis v easily :5 heat$ or :5 act$ ^u by sub/ances capable ( tak+ up *lor9e 7ev5 alkalis1 :i* =m blea*+ salts74 ,among ! plat9um metals1 ru!nium & osmium h ! mo/ acid "*1 & al?\gh !y give ,ru,cl#d & ,os,cl#d !y are easily oxidis$ to ,ru,o#d1 & ,os,o#d by ! action ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]2 ! latt] are volatile & may be di/ill$ ) ! wat] & hydro*loric acid1 f a solution conta9+ o!r plat9um metals4#i tri ,?us ) respect to ! types ( comb9ation1 all ! plat9um metals1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 give comp\nds ( ! type ,,rx#d--;= in/ance1 ,,ro#b1 ,r,cl#d1 c4 ,b ?is is ! highe/ =m = only plat9um & palladium4 ,! rema9+ plat9um metals fur!r1 l iron1 give acids ( ! type ,,ro#c or hydrates1 ,h#b,,ro#d ,,ro#b7;,,ho7#b 7! type ( sulphuric acid72 b !y1 l f]ric & manganic acids1 are *iefly kn[n 9 ! =m ( salts ( ! composition ,k#b,,ro#d or ,k#b,r#b,o#g 7l ! di*romate74 ,^! salts are obta9$1 l ! manganates & f]rates1 by fus+ ! oxides1 or ev5 ! metals !mselves1 ) nitric1 or1 bett] /ill1 ) potassium p]oxide4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat]1 are easily deoxidis$ & d n yield ! acid anhydrides "u ! action ( acids1 b break up1 ei!r 7l ! f]rate7 =m+ oxyg5 & a basic oxide 7iridium & rhodium react 9 ?is mann]1 z !y d n give high] =ms ( oxidation71 or pass+ into a l[] & high] =m ( oxidation--t is1 react+ l a manganate 7or p>tly l nitrite or phosphite74 ,osmium & ru!nium react accord+ to ! latt] =m1 z !y are capable ( giv+ high] =ms ( oxidation1 ,os,o#d & ,ru,o#d1 & !re=e _! reactions ( decomposition may be ess5tially repres5t$ by ! equation3 #b,os,o#c ,os,o#b ,os,o#d4aj #i ,9 comp>+ ! *>act]i/ics ( ! plat9um metals1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t palladium 9 its =m ( comb9ation ,pd,x#b gives sal9e comp\nds ( consid]able /ability4 ,among/ !m pallad\s *loride is =m$ by ! direct action ( *lor9e or aqua regia 7n 9 excess or 9 dilute solutions7 on palladium4 ,x =ms a br[n solution1 :i* gives a black insoluble precipitate ( pallad\s iodide1 ,pd,i#b1 ) solutions ( iodides 79 ?is respect1 z 9 _m o!rs1 palladium resembles m]cury 9 ! m]curic comp\nds ,hg,x#b74 ,) a solution ( m]curic cyanide x gives a yell[i% :ite precipitate1 pallad\s cyanide1 ,pd,c#b,n#b1 :i* is soluble 9 potassium cyanide1 & gives o!r d\ble salts1 ,m#b,pd,c#d,n#d4 ,t portion ( ! plat9um ore :i* dissolves 9 aqua regia & is precipitat$ by ammonium or potassium *loride does n conta9 palladium4 ,x rema9s 9 solution1 because ! palladic *loride1 ,pd,cl#d1 is decompos$ & ! pallad\s *loride =m$ is n precipitat$ by ammonium *loride2 ! same holds good = all ! o!r l[] *lorides ( ! plat9um metals4 ,z9c 7& iron7 sep>ates out all ! unprecipitat$ plat9um metals 7& also copp]1 c47 f ! solution4 ,! palladium is f\nd 9 ^! plat9um residues precipitat$ by z9c4 ,if ?is mixture ( metals be treat$ ) aqua regia1 all ! palladium w pass into solution z pallad\s *loride ) "s plat9ic *loride4 ,by ?is treatm5t ! ma9 portion ( ! iridium1 rhodium1 c4 rema9s almo/ undissolv$1 ! plat9um is sep>at$ f ! mixture ( pallad\s & plat9ic *lorides by a solution ( ammonium *loride1 & ! solution ( palladium is precipitat$ by potassium iodide or m]curic cyanide4 ,wilm 7#ahha7 %[$ t palladium may be sep>at$ f an impure solution by saturat+ x ) ammonia2 all ! iron pres5t is ?us precipitat$1 &1 aft] filt]+1 ! addition ( hydro*loric acid to ! filtrate gives a yell[ precipitate ( an ammonio-palladium comp\nd1 ,pd,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 :il/ ne>ly all ! o!r metals rema9 9 solution4 ,metallic palladium is obta9$ by ignit+ ! ammonio-comp\nd or ! cyanide1 ,pd,c#b,n#b4 ,x occurs native1 al?\gh r>ely1 & is a metal ( a :it] col\r ?an plat9um1 sp4 gr4 #aad1 melts at ab\t #a1ejj2 x is mu* m volatile ?an plat9um1 p>tially oxidises on ! surface :5 heat$ 7,wilm obta9$ spongy palladium by ignit+ ,pd,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 & obs]v$ t x gives ,pd,o :5 ignit$ 9 oxyg51 & t on fur!r ignition ?is oxide =ms a mixture ( ,pd#b,o & ,pd71 & loses its absorb$ oxyg5 on a fur!r rise ( temp]ature4 ,x does n black5 or t>ni% 7does n absorb sulphur7 9 ! air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & is !re=e bett] suit$ ?an silv] = a/ronomical & o!r in/rum5ts 9 :i* f9e divisions h to be engrav$ on a :ite metal1 9 ord] t ! f9e l9es %\ld be cle>ly visible4 ,! mo/ rem>kable prop]ty ( palladium1 discov]$ by ,graham1 consi/s 9 its capacity = absorb+ a l>ge am\nt ( hydrog54 ,ignit$ palladium absorbs z mu* z #idj volumes ( hydrog51 or ab\t #jg p4c4 ( its own weight1 :i* closely approa*es to ! =mation ( ! comp\nd ,pd#c;,h#b1 & probably indicates ! =mation ( palladium hydride1 ,pd#b;,h4 ,?is absorption also takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature--= example1 :5 palladium s]ves z an electrode at :i* hydrog5 is evolv$4 ,9 absorb+ ! hydrog51 ! palladium does n *ange 9 appe>ance1 & reta9s all its metallic prop]ties1 only its volume increases by ab\t #aj p4c4--t is1 ! hydrog5 pu%es out & sep>ates ! atoms ( ! palladium f ea* o!r1 & is itself compress$ to #a_/ijj ( its volume4 ,?is compression indicates a great =ce ( *emical attraction1 & is accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #ch74 ,! absorption ( #a grm4 ( hydrog5 by metallic palladium 7,favre7 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( #db ?\s& calories 7= ,pt #bj1 = ,na #ac1 = ,k #aj ?\s& units ( heat74 ,troo/ %[$ t ! dissociation pressure ( palladium hydride is inconsid]able at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b rea*es ! atmosph]ic pressure at ab\t #adj4 ,?is subject 0 subsequ5tly inve/igat$ by ,a4 ,a4 ,crac[ ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg 7#ahid71 :o %[$ t at fir/ ! absorption ( hydrog5 by ! palladium proce$s l solution1 accord+ to ! law ( ,dalton & ,h5ry1 b t t[>ds ! end x proce$s l a dissociation ph5om5on 9 def9ite comp\nds2 ?is =ms ano!r l9k betwe5 ! ph5om5on ( solution & ( ! =mation ( def9ite atomic comp\nds4 ,crac['s obs]vations = a temp]ature #ah1 %[$ t ! electro-conductivity & t5sion v>y until a comp\nd ,pd#b;,h is rea*$1 & namely1 t ! t5sion p rises ) ! volume v ( hydrog5 absorb$1 accord+ to ! law ( ,dalton & ,h5ry--= in/ance1 = p #ba #cb #ee #gg mm4 v #ad #bj #cd #dg ,! maximum t5sion at #ah is #i mm4 ,at a temp]ature ( ab\t #adj 79 ! vap\r ( xyl5e7 ! maximum t5sion is ab\t #gfj mm41 & :5 v #aj-ej vols4 ! t5sion 7accord+ to ,crac['s exp]im5ts7 /&s at #ij-dej mm4--t is1 increases 9 proportion to ! volume ( hydrog5 absorb$4 ,b f ! po9t ( view ( *emical me*anics x is especially important to rem>k t ,m\ti] cle>ly %[$1 ?r\gh palladium hydride1 ! simil>ity ( ! ph5om5a :i* proce$ 9 evaporation & dissociation1 :i* fact ,h5ri ,sa9te-,claire ,deville plac$ z a fundam5tal proposition 9 ! !ory ( dissociation4 ,x is possible ^u ! basis ( ! second law ( ! !ory ( heat1 accord+ to ! law ( ! v>iation ( ! t5sion p ( evaporation ) ! temp]ature ,t 7c\nt$ f -#bgc71 to calculate ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ,l 7see works on physics7 because #dbd,l ,t7#a_/;d - #a_/;,d7dp_/dt1 :]e d & ,d are ! weights ( cubic measures ( ! gas 7vap\r7 & liquid4 7,?us1 = in/ance1 = wat]1 :5 t #ajj1 ,t #cgc1 d #jfje1 ,d #ifj1 dp_/dt #jjbg m41 #ac1eif #cfg1 ,l #ecf1 :5ce #dbd,l #bbg1bfd1 & ! second portion ( ! equation #bbf1add1 :i* is suffici5tly ne>1 )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error1 see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #aa47 ,! same equation is applicable to ! dissociation ( ,na#b;,h & ,k#b;,h--7,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #db7--;b x has only be5 v]ifi$ 9 ?is respect = ,pd#b;,h1 s9ce ,m\ti]1 by calculat+ ! am\nt ( heat ,l evolv$1 = t #bj1 accord+ to ! v>iation ( ! t5sion 7dp_/dt7 obta9$ #da ?\s& calories1 :i* is v ne> ! figure obta9$ exp]im5tally by ,favre 7see ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #dd74 ,! absorb$ hydrog5 is easily dis5gag$ by ignition or decreas$ pressure4 ,! resultant comp\nd does n decompose at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b :5 expos$ to air ! metal sometimes gl[s spontane\sly1 ow+ to ! hydrog5 burn+ at ! exp5se ( ! atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,! hydrog5 absorb$ by palladium acts t[>ds _m solutions z a r$uc+ ag5t2 9 a ^w1 ev]y?+ "h po9ts to ! =mation ( a def9ite comp\nd & at ! same "t ( a physically-compress$ gas1 & =ms "o ( ! be/ examples ( ! bond exi/+ betwe5 *emical & physical processes1 to :i* we h _m times drawn att5tion4 ,x mu/ be aga9 rememb]$ t ! o!r metals ( ! eigh? gr\p1 ev5 copp]1 are1 l palladium & plat9um1 able to comb9e ) hydrog54 ,! p]meability ( iron & plat9um tubes to hydrog5 is naturally due to ! =mation ( simil> comp\nds1 b palladium is ! mo/ p]meable4 #i bis ,rhodium is g5]ally sep>at$1 toge!r ) iridium1 f ! residues left aft] ! treatm5t ( native plat9um1 because ! palladium is entirely sep>at$ f !m1 & ! ru!nium is pres5t 9 !m 9 v small traces1 :il/ ! osmium at any rate is easily sep>at$1 z we %all soon see4 ,! mixture ( rhodium & iridium :i* is left undissolv$ 9 dilute aqua regia is dissolv$ 9 *lor9e wat]1 or by ! action ( *lor9e on a mixture ( ! metals ) sodium *loride4 ,9 ei!r case bo? metals pass into solution4 ,!y may be sep>at$ by _m me?ods4 ,9 ei!r case 7if ! action be aid$ by heat7 ! rhodium is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( ! *loride ,rh,cl#c1 & ! iridium z iridi\s *loride1 ,ir,cl#c4 ,!y bo? =m d\ble salts ) sodium *loride :i* are soluble 9 wat]1 b ! iridium salt is also p>tially soluble 9 alcohol1 :il/ ! rhodium salt is n4 ,a mixture ( ! *lorides1 :5 treat$ ) dilute aqua regia1 gives iridic *loride1 ,ir,cl#d1 :il/ ! rhodium *loride1 ,rh,cl#c1 rema9s unalt]$2 ammonium *loride !n precipitates ! iridium z ammonium iridio*loride1 ,ir7,,nh#d7b;,cl#f1 & on evaporat+ ! rose-col\r$ filtrate ! rhodium gives a cry/all9e salt1 ,rh7,,nh#d7c;,cl#f4 ,rhodium & its v>i\s oxides are dissolv$ :5 fus$ ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate1 & give a soluble d\ble sulphate 7:il/ iridium rema9s unact$ on72 ?is fact is v *>act]i/ic = ?is metal1 :i* (f]s 9 its prop]ties _m po9ts ( resemblance ) ! iron metals4 ,:5 fus$ ) potassium hydroxide & *lorate x is oxidis$ l iridium1 b x is n aft]w>ds soluble 9 wat]1 9 :i* respect x diff]s f ru!nium4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ rhodium1 ru!nium1 & iridium4 ,9 any case1 rhodium "u ord9>y conditions always gives salts ( ! type ,,rx#c1 & n ( any o!r type2 & n only halog5 salts1 b also oxyg5 salts1 are kn[n 9 ?is type1 :i* is r>e among ! plat9um metals4 ,rhodium *loride1 ,rh,cl#c1 is kn[n 9 an insoluble anhydr\s & also 9 a soluble =m 7l ,cr,x#c or salts ( *romic oxides71 9 :i* x easily gives d\ble salts1 comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 & =ms rose-col\r$ solutions4 ,9 ?is =m rhodium easily gives d\ble salts ( ! two types ,rh,m#c;,cl#f & ,rh,m#b;,cl#c--;= example1 ,k#e,rh,cl#f1c;,h#b,o & ,k#b,rh,cl#e1;,h#b,o4 ,solutions ( ! salts 7at lea/1 ! ammonium salt7 ( ! fir/ k9d give salts ( ! second k9d :5 !y are boil$4 ,if a /rong solution ( pota% be add$ to a r$ solution ( rhodium *loride & boil$1 a black precipitate ( ! hydroxide ,rh7,,oh7#c is =m$2 b if ! solution ( pota% is add$ little by little1 x gives a yell[ precipitate conta9+ m wat]4 ,?is yell[ hydrate ( rhodium oxide gives a yell[ solution :5 x is dissolv$ 9 acids1 :i* only becomes rose-col\r$ aft] be+ boil$4 ,x is obvi\s a *ange "h takes place1 l ! transmutations ( ! salts ( *romic oxide4 ,x is also a rem>kable fact t ! black hydroxide1 l _m o!r oxidis$ comp\nds ( ! plat9oid metals1 does n dissolve 9 ! ord9>y oxyg5 acids1 :il/ ! yell[ hydroxide is easily soluble & gives yell[ solutions1 :i* deposit imp]fectly cry/allis$ salts4 ,metallic rhodium is easily obta9$ by ignit+ its oxyg5 & o!r comp\nds 9 hydrog51 or by precipitation ) z9c4 ,x resembles plat9um1 & has a sp4 gr4 ( #aba4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature x decomposes =mic acid into hydrog5 & c>bonic anhydride1 ) developm5t ( heat 7,deville74 ,) ! alkali sulphites1 ! salts ( rhodium & iridium ( ! type ,,rx#c give sp>+ly-soluble precipitates ( d\ble sulphites ( ! composition ,r7,,s#c,na7#c1;,h#b,o1 by means ( :i* ^! metals may be sep>at$ f solution1 & also may be sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 = a mixture ( ^! salts :5 treat$ ) /rong sulphuric acid gives a soluble iridium sulphate & leaves a r$ insoluble d\ble salt ( rhodium & sodium4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! oxides ,ir#b,o#c & ,rh#b,o#c are comp>atively /able & are easily =m$1 & t !y also =m diff]5t d\ble salts 7= in/ance1 ,ir,cl#c1c,k,cl#c;,h#b,o1 ,rh,cl#c1b,,nh#d;,cl#d;,h#b,o1 ,rh,cl#c1c,,nh#d;,cl#a-a_/b;,h#b,o7 & comp\nds l ! cobaltia comp\nds 7= in/ance1 luteo-salts ,rh,x#c1f,,nh#c1 roseo-salts1 ,rh,x#c;,h#b,o#e,,nh#c1 & purpureo-salts ,ir,x#c1e,,nh#c1 c47 ,iridi\s oxide1 ,ir#b,o#c1 is obta9$ by fus+ iridi\s *loride & its comp\nds ) sodium c>bonate1 & treat+ ! mass ) wat]4 ,! oxide is !n left z a black p[d]1 :i*1 :5 /rongly heat$1 is decompos$ into iridium & oxyg52 x is easily r$uc$1 & is insoluble 9 acids1 :i* indicates ! feeble basic "* ( ?is oxide1 9 _m respects resembl+ su* oxides z cobaltic oxide1 c]ic or lead dioxide1 c4 ,x does n dissolve :5 fus$ ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate4 ,rhodium oxide1 ,rh#b,o#c1 is a f> m en]getic base4 ,x dissolves :5 fus$ ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate4 ,f :at has be5 said respect+ ! sep>ation ( plat9um & rhodium x w be und]/ood h[ ! comp\nds ( iridium1 :i* is ! ma9 associate ( plat9um1 are obta9$4 ,9 describ+ ! treatm5t ( osmiridium we %all aga9 h an opportunity ( le>n+ ! me?od ( extraction ( ! comp\nds ( ?is metal1 :i* has 9 rec5t times f\nd a te*nical application 9 ! =m ( its oxide1 ,ir#b,o#c2 ?is is obta9$ f _m ( ! comp\nds ( iridium by ignition ) wat]1 is easily r$uc$ by hydrog51 & is insoluble 9 acids4 ,x is us$ 9 pa9t+ on *9a1 = giv+ a black col\r4 ,iridium itself is m difficultly fusible ?an plat9um1 & :5 fus$ x does n decompose acids or ev5 aqua regia2 x is extremely h>d1 & is n malleable2 its sp4 gr4 is #bbd4 ,9 ! =m ( p[d] x dissolves 9 aqua regia1 & is ev5 p>tially oxidis$ :5 heat$ 9 air1 sets fire to hydrog51 &1 9 a ^w1 closely resembles plat9um4 ,heat$ 9 an excess ( *lor9e x gives iridic *loride1 ,ir,cl#d1 b ?is loses *lor9e at #ej2 x is1 h[ev]1 m /able 9 ! =m ( d\ble salts1 :i* h a *>act]i/ic black col\r--= in/ance1 ,ir7,,nh#d7b;,cl#f--;b !y give iridi\s *loride1 ,ir,cl#c1 :5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid4 #i tri ,we h yet to become acqua9t$ ) ! two rema9+ associates ( plat9um--ru!nium & osmium--^: mo/ important prop]ty is t !y are oxidis$ ev5 :5 heat$ 9 air1 & t !y are able to give volatile oxides ( ! =m ,ru,o#d & ,os,o#d2 ^! h a p[]ful od\r 7l iod9e & nitr\s anhydride74 ,bo? ^! high] oxides are solids2 !y volatilise ) great ease at #ajj2 ! =m] is yell[ & ! latt] :ite4 ,!y are kn[n z ru!nic & osmic anhydrides1 al?\gh _! aque\s solutions 7!y bo? sl[ly dissolve 9 wat]7 d n %[ an acid reaction1 & al?\gh !y d n ev5 expel c>bonic anhydride f potassium c>bonate1 d n give cry/all9e salts ) bases1 & _! alkal9e solutions p>tially deposit !m aga9 :5 boil$ 7an excess ( wat] decomposes ! salts74 ,! =mul ,os,o#d & ,ru,o#d correspond ) ! vap\r d5sity ( ^! oxides4 ,?us ,deville f\nd ! vap\r d5sity ( osmic anhydride to be #abh 7by ! =mula #abge7 ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,t5nant & ,vauquel9 discov]$ ?is comp\nd1 & ,b]zelius1 ,whl]1 ,fritzs*e1 ,/ruv1 ,deville1 ,claus1 ,joly1 & o!rs help$ 9 its inve/igation2 nev]!less !re are /ill _m que/ions conc]n+ x :i* rema9 unsolv$4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,,ro#d is ! highe/ kn[n =m = an oxyg5 comp\nd1 & ,,rh#d is ! highe/ kn[n =m = a comp\nd ( hydrog52 :il/ ! highe/ =ms ( acid hydrates conta9 ,si,h#d,o#d1 ,,ph#c,o#d1 ,,%#b,o#d1 ,cl,h,o#d--;all ) f\r atoms ( oxyg51 & !re=e 9 ?is numb] !re is app>5tly ! limit = ! simple =ms ( comb9ation ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,9 comb9ation ) sev]al atoms ( an elem5t1 or sev]al elem5ts1 !re may be m ?an ,o#d or ,h#d1 b a molecule nev] conta9s m ?an f\r atoms ( ei!r ,o or ,h to "o atom ( ano!r elem5t4 ,?us ! simple/ =ms ( comb9ation ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 are exhau/$ by ! li/ ,,rh#d1 ,,rh#c1 ,,rh#b1 ,,rh1 ,,ro1 ,,ro#b1 ,,ro#c1 ,,ro#d4 ,! extreme memb]s are ,,rh#d & ,,ro#d1 & are only met ) = su* elem5ts z c>bon1 silicon1 osmium1 ru!nium1 :i* also give ,r,cl#d ) *lor9e4 ,9 ^! extreme =ms1 ,,rh#d & ,,ro#d1 ! comp\nds are ! lea/ /able 7comp>e ,si,h#d1 ,,ph#c1 ,,%#b1 ,cl,h1 or ,ru,o#d1 ,mo,o#c1 ,zr,o#b1 ,sr,o71 & easily give up "p1 or ev5 all1 _! oxyg5 or hydrog54 ,! prim>y s\rce f :i* ! comp\nds ( ru!nium & osmium are obta9$ is ei!r osmiridium 7! osmium pr$om9ates1 f ,ir,os to ,ir,os#d1 sp4 gr4 f #af to #ba71 :i* occurs 9 plat9um ores 7x is di/+ui%$ f ! gra9s ( plat9um by its cry/all9e /ructure1 h>dness1 & insolubility 9 aqua regia71 or else ^? insoluble residues :i* are obta9$1 z we saw above1 aft] treat+ plat9um ) aqua regia4 ,osmium pr$om9ates 9 ^! mat]ials1 :i* sometimes conta9 f #cj p4c4 to #dj p4c4 ( x1 & r>ely m ?an #d p4c4 to #e p4c4 ( ru!nium4 ,! process = _! treatm5t is z foll[s3 !y are fir/ fus$ ) #f p>ts ( z9c1 & ! z9c is !n extract$ ) dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,! osmiridium ?us treat$ is1 accord+ to ,fritzs*e & ,/ruv's me?od1 !n add$ to a fus$ mixture ( potassium hydroxide & *lorate 9 an iron crucible2 ! mass z x beg9s to evolve oxyg5 acts on ! metal1 & ! reaction aft]w>ds proce$s spontane\sly4 ,! d>k product is treat$ ) wat]1 & gives a solution ( osmium & ru!nium 9 ! =m ( soluble salts1 ,r#b,os,o#d & ,r#b,ru,o#d1 :il/ ! insoluble residue conta9s a mixture ( oxides ( iridium 7& "s osmium1 rhodium1 & ru!nium71 & gra9s ( metallic iridium /ill unact$ on4 ,accord+ to ,frmy's me?od ! lumps ( osmiridium are /raightway heat$ to :it5ess 9 a porcela9 tube 9 a /ream ( air or oxyg51 :5 ! v volatile osmic anhydride is obta9$ directly1 & is collect$ 9 a well-cool$ receiv]1 :il/ ! ru!nium gives a cry/all9e sublimate ( ! dioxide1 ,ru,o#b1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 v difficultly volatile 7x volatilises toge!r ) osmic anhydride71 & !re=e rema9s 9 ! cool] portions ( ! tube2 ?is me?od does n give volatile ru!nic anhydride1 & ! iridium & o!r metals are n oxidis$ or give non-volatile products4 ,?is me?od is simple1 & at once gives dry1 pure osmic anhydride 9 ! receiv]1 & ru!nium dioxide 9 ! sublimate4 ,! air :i* passes ?r\gh ! tube %\ld be previ\sly pass$ ?r\gh sulphuric acid1 n only 9 ord] to dry x1 b also to remove ! organic & r$uc+ du/4 ,! vap\r ( osmic anhydride mu/ be p[]fully cool$1 & ultimately pass$ ov] cau/ic pota%4 ,a ?ird mode ( treatm5t1 :i* is mo/ frequ5tly employ$1 0 propos$ by ,whl]1 & consi/s 9 slightly heat+ 79 ord] t ! sodium *loride %\ld n melt7 an intimate mixture ( osmiridium & common salt 9 a /ream ( moi/ *lor9e4 ,! metals !n =m comp\nds ) *lor9e & sodium *loride1 :il/ ! osmium =ms ! *loride1 ,os,cl#d1 :i* reacts ) ! moi/ure1 & gives osmic anhydride1 :i* is cond5s$4 ,! ru!nium 9 ?is1 z 9 ! o!r processes1 does n directly give ru!nic anhydride1 b is always extract$ z ! soluble ru!nium salt1 ,k#b,ru,o#d1 obta9$ by fusion ) potassium hydroxide & *lorate or nitrate4 ,:5 ! orange-col\r$ ru!nate1 ,k#b,ru,o#d1 is mix$ ) acids1 ! lib]at$ ru!nic acid imm$iately decomposes into ! volatile ru!nic anhydride & ! insoluble ru!nic oxide3 #b,k#b,ru,o#d #d;,,hno#c ,ru,o#d ,ru,o#b1b;,h#b,o #d,,kno#c4 ,:5 once "o ( ! above comp\nds ( ru!nium or osmium is procur$ x is easy to obta9 all ! rema9+ comp\nds1 & by r$uction 7by metals1 hydrog51 =mic acid1 c47 ! metals !mselves4 ,osmic anhydride1 ,os,o#d1 is v easily deoxidis$ by _m me?ods4 ,x black5s organic sub/ances1 ow+ to r$uction1 & is !re=e us$ 9 inve/igat+ vegetable & animal1 & especially n]ve1 prep>ations "u ! microscope4 ,al?\gh osmic anhydride may be di/ill$ 9 hydrog51 /ill complete r$uction is accompli%$ :5 a mixture ( hydrog5 & osmic anhydride is slightly ignit$ 7j be=e x inflames74 ,if osmium be plac$ 9 ! flame x is oxidis$1 & gives vap\rs ( osmic anhydride1 :i* become r$uc$1 & ! flame gives a brilliant light4 ,osmic anhydride deflagrates l nitre on r$-hot *>coal2 z9c1 & ev5 m]cury & silv]1 r$uce osmic anhydride f its aque\s solutions into ! l[] oxides or metal2 su* r$uc+ ag5ts z hydrog5 sulphide1 f]r\s sulphate1 or sulphur\s anhydride1 alcohol1 c41 act 9 ! same mann] ) great ease4 ,! l[] oxides ( osmium1 ru!nium1 & ( ! o!r elem5ts ( ! plat9um s]ies are n volatile1 & x is notewor?y t ! o!r elem5ts behave diff]5tly4 ,on comp>+ ,,s#b1 ,,s#c2 ,z#b,o#c1 ,z#b,o#e2 ,p#b,o#c1 ,p#b,o#e2 ,,co1 ,,co#b1 c41 we obs]ve a conv]se ph5om5on2 ! high] oxides are less volatile ?an ! l[]4 ,9 ! case ( osmium all ! oxides1 ) ! exception ( ! highe/1 are non-volatile1 & x may !re=e be ?\ght t ?is high] =m is m simply con/itut$ ?an ! l[]4 ,x is possible t osmic oxide1 ,os,o#b1 /&s 9 ! same relation to ! anhydride z ,c#b;,h#d to ,,*#d--;i4e4 ! l[] oxide is p]haps ,os#b,o#d1 or is /ill m polym]is$1 :i* w\ld expla9 :y ! l[] oxides1 hav+ a great] molecul> weight1 are less volatile ?an ! high] oxides1 j z we saw 9 ! case ( ! nitrog5 oxides1 ,n#b,o & ,,no4 ,ru!nium & osmium1 obta9$ by ! ignition or r$uction ( _! comp\nds 9 ! =m ( p[d]1 h a d5sity consid]ably less ?an 9 ! fus$ =m1 & diff] 9 ?is condition 9 _! capacity = reaction2 !y are mu* m difficultly fus$ ?an plat9um & iridium1 al?\gh ru!nium is m fusible ?an osmium4 ,ru!nium 9 p[d] has a specific gravity ( #he1 ! fus$ metal ( #abb2 osmium 9 p[d] has a specific gravity ( #bjj1 & :5 semi-fus$--or1 m /rictly speak+1 agglom]at$--9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame1 ( #bad1 & fus$ #bbe4 ,! p[d] ( slightly-heat$ osmium oxidises v easily 9 ! air1 & :5 ignit$ burns l t9d]1 directly =m+ ! odorif]\s osmic anhydride 7h5ce its "n1 f ! ,greek ^w signify+ od\r72 ru!nium also oxidises :5 heat$ 9 air1 b ) m difficulty1 =m+ ! oxide ,ru,o#b4 ,! oxides ( ! types ,,ro1 ,r#b,o#c1 & ,,ro#b 7& _! hydrates7 obta9$ by r$uction f ! high] oxides1 & also f ! *lorides1 are analog\s to ^? giv5 by ! o!r plat9um metals1 9 :i* respect osmium & ru!nium closely resemble !m4 ,we may also rem>k t ru!nium has be5 f\nd 9 ! plat9um deposits ( ,borneo 9 ! =m ( laurite1 ,ru#b,s#c1 9 grey octah$ra ( sp4 gr4 #gj4 ,= osmium1 ,moraht & ,wis*9 7#ahic7 obta9$ free osmic acid1 ,h#b,os,o#d1 by decompos+ ,k#b,os,o#d ) wat]1 & precipitat+ ) alcohol 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 7because 9 air volatile ,os,o#d is =m$72 ) ,h#b,s1 osmic acid gives ,os,o#c7;,,hs7#b at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,debray & ,joly %[$ t ru!nic anhydride1 ,ru,o#d1 fuses at #be1 boils at #ajj1 & evolves oxyg5 :5 dissolv$ 9 pota%1 =m+ ! salt ,k,ru,o#d 7n isomorph\s ) potassium p]manganate74 ,joly 7#ahia71 :o /udi$ ! ru!nium comp\nds 9 great] detail1 %[$ t ! easily-=m$ ,k,ru,o#d gives ,ru,k,o#d,ru,o#c :5 ignit$1 b x resembles ,k,mn,o#d 9 _m respects4 ,9 g5]al1 ,ru has mu* 9 common ) ,mn4 ,joly 7#ahhi7 also %[$ t if ,,kno#c be add$ to a solution ( ,ru,cl#c conta9+ ,h,cl1 ! solution becomes hot1 & a salt1 ,ru,cl#c,,no#b,k,cl1 is =m$1 :i* ent]s into d\ble decomposition & is v /able4 ,moreov]1 if ,ru,cl#c be treat$ ) an excess ( nitric acid1 x =ms a salt1 ,ru,cl#c,,noh#b,o1 aft] be+ heat$ 7to boil+7 & ! addition ( ,h,cl4 ,! vap\r d5sity ( ,ru,o#d1 det]m9$ by ,debray & ,joly1 corresponds to t =mula4 #aj ,al?\gh palladium gives ! same types ( comb9ation 7) *lor9e7 z plat9um1 its r$uction to ,,rx#b is incomp>ably easi] ?an t ( plat9ic *loride1 & 9 ! case ( iridium x is also v easy4 ,iridic *loride1 ,ir,cl#d1 acts z an oxidis+ ag5t1 readily p>ts ) a f\r? ( its *lor9e to a numb] ( sub/ances1 readily evolves *lor9e :5 heat$1 & x is only at l[ temp]atures t *lor9e & aqua regia conv]t iridium into iridic *loride4 ,9 dis5gag+ *lor9e iridium m (t5 & easily gives ! v /able iridi\s *loride1 ,ir,cl#c 7p]haps ?is sub/ance is ,ir#b;,cl#f ,ir,cl#b1;,ir,cl#d1 insoluble 9 wat]1 b soluble 9 potassium *loride1 because x =ms ! d\ble salt ,k#c;,ir,cl#f71 ?an ! di*loride1 ,ir,cl#b4 ,?is comp\nd1 correspond+ to ,ir,x#b1 is v /able1 & corresponds ) ! basic oxide1 ,ir#b,o#c1 resembl+ ! oxides ,fe#b,o#c1 ,co#b,o#c4 ,to ?is =m !re correspond ammoniacal comp\nds simil> to ^? giv5 by cobaltic oxide4 ,al?\gh iridium also gives an acid 9 ! =m ( ! salt ,k#b;,ir#b,o#g1 x does n1 l iron 7& *romium71 =m ! correspond+ *loride1 ,ir,cl#f4 ,9 g5]al1 9 ?is z 9 ! o!r elem5ts1 x is impossible to pr$ict ! *lor9e comp\nds f ^? ( oxyg54 ,j z !re is no *loride ,s,cl#f1 b only ,s,cl#b1 s also1 al?\gh ,ir,o#c exi/s1 ,ir,cl#f is want+1 ! only *loride be+ ,ir,cl#d1 & ?is is un/able1 l ,s,cl#b1 & easily p>ts ) its *lor9e4 ,9 ?is respect rhodium is v mu* l iridium 7z plat9um is l palladium74 ,= ,rh,cl#d decomposes ) extreme ease1 :il/ rhodium *loride1 ,rh,cl#c1 is v /able1 l _m ( ! salts ( ! type ,rh,x#c1 al?\gh l ! plat9um elem5ts ^! salts are easily r$uc$ to metal by ! action ( heat & p[]ful reag5ts4 ,!re is z close a resemblance betwe5 osmium & ru!nium4 ,osmium :5 submitt$ to ! action ( dry *lor9e gives osmic *loride1 ,os,cl#d1 b ! latt] is conv]t$ by wat] 7z is osmium by moi/ *lor9e7 into osmic anhydride1 al?\gh ! great] portion is !n decompos$ into ,os7,,ho7#d & #d;,h,cl1 l a *loranhydride ( an acid4 ,9 g5]al ?is acid "* is m develop$ 9 osmium ?an 9 plat9um & iridium4 ,hav+ p>t$ ) *lor9e1 osmic *loride1 ,os,cl#d1 gives ! un/able tri*loride1 ,os,cl#c1 & ! /able soluble di*loride1 ,os,cl#b1 :i* corresponds ) plat9\s *loride 9 its prop]ties & reactions4 ,! relation ( ru!nium to ! halog5s is ( ! same nature4 ,plat9um & its analogues1 l iron & its analogues1 are able to =m complex & comp>atively /able cyanog5 & ammonia comp\nds1 correspond+ ) ! f]rocyanides & ! ammoniacal comp\nds ( cobalt1 :i* we h already consid]$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,if plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b 7insoluble 9 wat]71 be add$ by degrees to a solution ( potassium cyanide1 x is completely dissolv$ 7l silv] *loride71 & on evaporat+ ! solution deposits rhombic prisms ( potassium plat9ocyanide1 ,pt,k#b7;,,cn7#d1c;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt1 l all ^? correspond+ ) x1 has a rem>kable play ( col\rs1 due to ! ph5om5a ( di*romism1 & ev5 poly*romism1 natural to all ! plat9ocyanides4 ,?us x is yell[ & reflects a bright blue light4 ,x is easily soluble 9 wat]1 effloresces 9 air1 !n turns r$1 & at #ajj orange1 :5 x loses all its wat]4 ,! loss ( wat] does n de/roy its /ability--t is1 x /ill rema9s un*ang$1 & its /ability is fur!r %[n by ! fact t x is =m$ :5 potassium f]rocyanide1 ,k#d;,fe7,,cn7#f1 is heat$ ) plat9um black4 ,?is salt1 fir/ obta9$ by ,gmel91 %[s a neutral reaction ) litmus2 x is exce$+ly /able "u ! action ( air1 l potassium f]rocyanide1 :i* x resembles 9 _m respects4 ,?us ! plat9um 9 x _c be detect$ by reag5ts su* z sulphurett$ hydrog52 ! potassium may be replac$ by o!r metals by ! action ( _! salts1 s t x corresponds ) a :ole s]ies ( comp\nds1 ,r#b,pt7,,cn7#d1 & x is /able1 al?\gh ! potassium cyanide & plat9\s salts1 ( :i* x is compos$1 individually easily und]go *ange4 ,:5 treat$ ) oxidis+ ag5ts x passes1 l ! f]rocyanide1 into a high] =m ( comb9ation ( plat9um4 ,if salts ( silv] be add$ to its solution1 x gives a heavy :ite precipitate ( silv] plat9ocyanide1 ,pt,ag#b7;,,cn7#d1 :i* :5 susp5d$ 9 wat] & treat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ! latt] & =ms insoluble silv] sulphide1 ,ag#b,s1 & soluble hydroplat9ocyanic acid1 ,h#b,pt7,,cn7#d4 ,if potassium plat9ocyanide be mix$ ) an equival5t quantity ( sulphuric acid1 ! hydroplat9ocyanic acid lib]at$ may be extract$ by a mixture ( alcohol & e!r4 ,! e!real solution1 :5 evaporat$ 9 a desiccator1 deposits bright r$ cry/als ( ! composition ,pt,h#b7;,,cn7#d1e;,h#b,o4 ,?is acid col\rs litmus pap]1 lib]ates c>bonic anhydride f sodium c>bonate1 & saturates alkalis1 s t x pres5ts an analogy to hydr(]rocyanic acid4#aa #aa ,?is acid "* is expla9$ by ! influ5ce ( ! plat9um on ! hydrog51 & by ! atta*m5t ( ! cyanog5 gr\ps4 ,?us cyanuric acid1 ,h#c7;,,cn7#c,o#c1 is an en]getic acid comp>$ ) cyanic acid1 ,,hcno4 ,& ! =mation ( a comp\nd ) five molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 7,pt,h#b7;,,cn7#d1e;,h#b,o71 confirms ! op9ion t plat9um is able to =m comp\nds ( /ill high] types ?an t express$ 9 its sal9e comp\nds1 &1 moreov]1 ! comb9ation ( hydroplat9ocyanic acid ) wat] does n rea* ! limit ( ! comp\nds :i* appe>s 9 ,pt,cl#d1b;,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o4 ,a :ole s]ies ( plat9ocyanides ( ! common type ,pt,r#b7;,,cn7#dn,h#b,o is obta9$ by means ( d\ble decomposition ) ! potassium or hydrog5 or silv] salts4 ,= example1 ! salts ( sodium & li?ium conta91 l ! potassium salt1 ?ree molecules ( wat]4 ,! sodium salt is soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,! ammonium salt has ! composition ,pt7,,nh#d7b7;,,cn7#d1b;,h#b,o & gives cry/als :i* reflect blue & rose-col\r$ light4 ,?is ammonium salt decomposes at #cjj1 ) evolution ( wat] & ammonium cyanide1 leav+ a gre5i% plat9um dicyanide1 ,pt7,,cn7#b1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & acid b dissolves 9 potassium cyanide1 hydrocyanic acid1 & o!r cyanides4 ,! same plat9\s cyanide is obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid on ! potassium salts 9 ! =m ( a r$di%-br[n amorph\s precipitate4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! plat9ocyanides are ^? ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,! magnesium salt ,pt,mg7,,cn7#d1g;,h#b,o cry/allises 9 regul> prisms1 ^: side faces are ( a metallic gre5 col\r & t]m9al planes d>k blue4 ,x %[s a c>m9e-r$ col\r along ! ma9 axis1 & d>k r$ along ! lat]al axes2 x easily loses wat]1 7#b;,h#b,o71 at #dj1 & !n turns blue 7x !n conta9s #e;,h#b,o1 :i* is frequ5tly ! case ) ! plat9ocyanides74 ,its aque\s solution is col\rless1 & an alcoholic solution deposits yell[ cry/als4 ,! rema9d] ( ! wat] is giv5 (f at #bcj4 ,x is obta9$ by saturat+ plat9ocyanic acid ) magnesia1 or else by d\ble decomposition betwe5 ! b>ium salt & magnesium sulphate4 ,! /rontium salt1 ,sr,pt7,,cn7#d1d;,h#b,o cry/allises 9 milk-:ite plates hav+ a violet & gre5 iridesc5ce4 ,:5 x effloresces 9 a desiccator1 its surfaces h a violet & metallic gre5 iridesc5ce4 ,a col\rless solution ( ! b>ium salt ,pt,ba7,,cn7#d1d;,h#b,o is obta9$ by saturat+ a solution ( hydroplat9ocyanic acid ) b>yta1 or by boil+ ! insoluble copp] plat9ocyanide 9 b>yta wat]4 ,x cry/allises 9 monocl9ic prisms ( a yell[ col\r1 ) blue & gre5 iridesc5ce2 x loses half its wat] at #ajj1 & ! :ole at #aej4 ,! e?yl salt1 ,pt7,c#b;,h#e7b7;,,cn7#d1b;,h#bj1 is also v *>act]i/ic2 its cry/als are isomorph\s ) ^? ( ! potassium salt1 & are obta9$ by pass+ hydro*loric acid into an alcoholic solution ( hydroplat9ocyanic acid4 ,! facility ) :i* !y cry/allise1 ! regul>ity ( _! =ms1 & _! rem>kable play ( col\rs1 r5d]s ! prep>ation ( ! plat9ocyanides "o ( ! mo/ attractive lessons ( ! laboratory4 ,by ! action ( *lor9e or dilute nitric acid1 ! plat9ocyanides are conv]t$ into salts ( ! composition ,pt,m#b7;,,cn7#e1 :i* corresponds ) ,pt7,,cn7#c1b,,kcn--t is1 !y express ! type ( a non-exi/5t =m ( oxidation ( plat9um1 ,pt,x#c 7i4e4 oxide ,pt#b,o#c71 j z potassium f]ricyanide 7,fe,cy#c1c,k,cy7 corresponds ) f]ric oxide1 & ! f]rocyanide corresponds ) ! f]r\s oxide4 ,! potassium salt ( ?is s]ies conta9s ,pt,k#b7;,,cn7#e1c;,h#b,o1 & =ms br[n regul> prisms ) a metallic lu/re1 & is soluble 9 wat] b insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,alkalis re-conv]t ?is comp\nd into ! ord9>y plat9ocyanide ,k#b,pt7,,cn7#d1 tak+ up ! excess ( cyanog54 ,x is rem>kable t ! salts ( ! type ,pt,m#b;,cy#e conta9 ! same am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation z ^? ( ! type ,pt,m#b;,cy#d4 ,?us ! salts ( potassium & li?ium conta9 ?ree1 & ! salt ( magnesium sev51 molecules ( wat]1 l ! correspond+ salts ( ! type ( plat9\s oxide4 ,moreov]1 nei!r plat9um nor any ( its associates gives any cyanog5 comp\nd correspond+ ) ! oxide1 i4e4 hav+ ! composition ,pt,k#b;,cy#f1 j z !re are no comp\nds high] ?an ^? :i* correspond to ,r,cy#cn,m,cy#c = cobalt or iron4 ,?is w\ld appe> to indicate ! abs5ce ( any su* cyanides1 & inde$1 = no elem5t are !re yet kn[n any poly-cyanides conta9+ m ?an ?ree equival5ts ( cyanog5 = "o equival5t ( ! elem5t4 ,! ph5om5on is p]haps connect$ ) ! faculty ( cyanog5 ( giv+ tricyanog5 polym]ides1 su* z cyanuric acid1 solid cyanog5 *loride1 c4 ,"u ! action ( an excess ( *lor9e1 a solution ( ,pt,k#b7;,,cn7#d gives 7besides ,pt,k#b;,cy#e7 a product ,pt,k#b;,cy#d;,cl#b1 :i* evid5tly conta9s ! =m ,pt,x#d1 b at fir/ ! action ( ! *lor9e 7or ! electrolysis (1 or addition ( dilute p]oxide ( hydrog5 to1 a solution ( ,pt,k#b;,cy#d1 acidulat$ ) hydro*loric acid7 produces an easily soluble int]m$iate salt :i* cry/allises 9 ?9 copp]-r$ ne$les 7,wilm1 ,had[1 #ahhi74 ,x only conta9s a small am\nt ( *lor9e1 & app>5tly corresponds to a comp\nd #e,pt,k#b;,cy#d ,pt,k#b;,cy#d;,cl#b #bd;,h#b,o4 ,"u ! action ( an excess ( ammonia bo? ^! *lor9e products are conv]t$ ei!r completely or 9 "p 7accord+ to ,wilm ammonia does n act ^u ,pt,k#b;,cy#d7 into ,pt,cy#b1b,,nh#c1 i4e4 a plat9o-ammonia comp\nd 7see fur!r on74 ,x is also necess>y to pay att5tion to ! fact t ru!nium & osmium--:i*1 z we "k1 give high] =ms ( oxidation ?an plat9um--are also able to comb9e ) a l>g] proportion ( potassium cyanide 7b n ( cyanog57 ?an plat9um4 ,?us ru!nium =ms a cry/all9e hydroru!nocyanic acid1 ,ru,h#d7;,,cn7#f1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 & corresponds ) ! salts ,m#d,ru7,,cn7#f4 ,!re are exactly simil> osmic comp\nds--= example1 ,k#d,os7,,cn7#f1c;,h#b,o4 ,! latt] is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( col\rless1 sp>+ly-soluble regul> tablets on evaporat+ ! solution obta9$ f a fus$ mixture ( potassium osmio*loride1 ,k#b,os,cl#f1 & potassium cyanide4 ,^! osmic & ru!nic comp\nds fully correspond ) potassium f]rocyanide1 ,k#d;,fe7,,cn7#f1c;,h#b,o1 n only 9 _! composition b also 9 _! cry/all9e =m & reactions1 :i* aga9 demon/rates ! close analogy betwe5 iron1 ru!nium1 & osmium1 :i* we h %[n by giv+ ^! ?ree elem5ts a simil> position 79 ! eigh? gr\p7 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,= rhodium & iridium only salts ( ! same type z ! f]ricyanides1 ,m#c,r,cy#f1 are kn[n1 & = palladium only ( ! type ,m#b,pd,cy#d1 :i* are analog\s to ! plat9um salts4 ,9 all ^! examples a con/ancy ( ! types ( ! d\ble cyanides is app>5t4 ,9 ! eigh? gr\p we h iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 copp]1 & _! analogues ru!nium1 rhodium1 palladium1 silv]1 & also osmium1 iridium1 plat9um1 gold4 ,! d\ble cyanides ( iron1 ru!nium1 osmium h ! type ,k#d,r7,,cn7#f2 ( cobalt1 rhodium1 iridium1 ! type ,k#c,r7,,cn7#f2 ( nickel1 palladium1 plat9um ! type ,k#b,r7,,cn7#d & ,k#b,r7,,cn7#e2 & = copp]1 silv]1 gold !re are kn[n ,,kr7,,cn7#b1 s t ! pres5ce ( #d1 #c1 #b1 & #a atoms ( potassium corresponds ) ! ord] ( ! elem5ts 9 ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,^? types :i* we h se5 9 ! f]rocyanides & f]ricyanides ( iron repeat !mselves 9 all ! plat9oid metals1 & ?is naturally leads to ! conclusion t ! =mation ( simil> s-call$ d\ble salts is ( exactly ! same nature z t ( ! ord9>y salts4 ,if1 9 express+ ! union ( ! elem5ts 9 ! oxyg5 salts1 ! exi/5ce ( an aque\s residue 7hydroxyl gr\p7 be admitt$1 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is replac$ by a metal1 we h !n only to apply ?is mode ( expression to ! d\ble salts & ! analogy w be obvi\s1 if only we rememb] t ,cl#b1 7,,cn7#b1 ,,s#d1 c41 are equival5t to ,o1 z we see 9 ,,ro1 ,r,cl#b1 ,,rso#d1 c4 ,!y all ,x#b1 &1 !re=e1 9 po9t ( fact1 :]ev] ,x 7 ,cl or ,,oh1 c47 c be plac$1 !re 7,cl#b;,h71 7,,s#d;,h71 c41 c also /&4 ,& z ,cl#b;,h ,cl ,h,cl & ,,s#d;,h ,,oh ,,s#c1 c41 x foll[s t molecules ,h,cl or ,,s#c1 or1 9 g5]al1 :ole molecules--= in/ance1 ,,nh#c1 ,h#b,o1 salts1 c41 c annex !mselves to a comp\nd conta9+ ,x4 7,?is is an indirect consequ5ce ( ! law ( sub/itution :i* expla9s ! orig9 ( d\ble salts1 ammonia comp\nds1 comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 c41 by "o g5]al me?od47 ,?us ! d\ble salt ,mg,s,o#d1,k#b,,s#d1 accord+ to ?is reason+1 may be consid]$ z a sub/ance ( ! same type z ,mg,cl#b1 namely1 z ,mg7,,s#d,k7#b1 & ! alums z d]iv$ f ,al7,,oh77,,s#d71 namely1 z ,al7,,s#d,k77,,s#d74 ,)\t /opp+ to pursue ?is digression fur!r1 we w apply ^! consid]ations to ! type ( ! f]rocyanides & f]ricyanides & _! plat9um analogues4 ,su* a salt z ,k#b,pt,cy#d may accord+ly be reg>d$ z ,pt7,cy#b,k7#b1 l ,pt7,,oh7#b2 & su* a salt z ,pt,k#b;,cy#e z ,pt,cy7,cy#b,k7#b1 ! analogue ( ,pt,x7,,oh7#b1 or ,al,x7,,oh7#b1 & o!r comp\nds ( ! type ,,rx#c4 ,potassium f]ricyanide & ! analog\s comp\nds ( cobalt1 iridium1 & rhodium1 belong to ! same type1 ) ! same diff]5ce z !re is betwe5 ,,rx7,,oh7#b & ,r7,,oh7#c1 s9ce ,fe,k#c;,cy#f ,fe7,cy#b,k7#c4 ,limit+ myself to ^! consid]ations1 :i* may p>tially elucidate ! nature ( d\ble salts1 ,i w n[ pass aga9 to ! complex sal9e comp\nds kn[n = plat9um4 7,a7 ,on mix+ a solution ( potassium ?iocyanate ) a solution ( potassium plat9oso*loride1 ,k#b,pt,cl#d1 !y =m a d\ble ?iocyanate1 ,pt,k#b7;,,cns7#d1 :i* is easily soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 cry/allises 9 r$ prisms1 & gives an orange-col\r$ solution1 :i* precipitates salts ( ! heavy metals4 ,! action ( sulphuric acid on ! lead salt ( ! same type gives ! acid itself1 ,pt,h#b7,,scn7#d1 :i* corresponds ) ^! salts4 ,! type ( ^! comp\nds is evid5tly ! same z t ( ! cyanides4 7,b7 ,plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 =ms d\ble salts ) ! metallic *lorides4 ,^! d\ble *lorides are soluble 9 wat]1 & capable ( cry/allis+4 ,h5ce :5 a hydro*loric acid solution ( plat9\s *loride is mix$ ) solutions ( metallic salts & evaporat$ x =ms cry/all9e salts ( a r$ or yell[ col\r4 ,?us1 = example1 ! potassium salt1 ,pt,k#b;,cl#d1 is r$1 & easily soluble 9 wat]2 ! sodium salt is also soluble 9 alcohol2 ! b>ium salt1 ,pt,ba,cl#d1c;,h#b,o1 is soluble 9 wat]1 b ! silv] salt1 ,pt,ag#b;,cl#d1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 & may be us$ = obta9+ ! rema9+ salts by means ( d\ble decomposition ) _! *lorides4 7,c7 ,a rem>kable example ( ! complex comp\nds ( plat9um 0 obs]v$ by ,s*tz5b]g] 7#ahfh74 ,he %[$ t f9ely-divid$ plat9um 9 ! pres5ce ( *lor9e & c>bonic oxide at #bej-cjj gives phosg5e & a volatile comp\nd conta9+ plat9um4 ,! same sub/ance is =m$ by ! action ( c>bonic oxide on plat9\s *loride4 ,x decomposes ) an explosion 9 contact ) wat]4 ,c>bon tetra*loride dissolves a portion ( ?is sub/ance1 & on evaporation gives cry/als ( #b,pt,cl#b1c;,,co1 :il/ ! comp\nd ,pt,cl#b1b;,,co rema9s undissolv$4 ,:5 fus$ & sublim$ x gives yell[ ne$les ( ,pt,cl#b1;,,co1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( c>bonic oxide ,pt,cl#b1b;,,co is =m$4 ,^! comp\nds are fusible 7! fir/ at #bej1 ! second at #adb1 & ! ?ird at #aie74 ,9 ?is case 7z 9 ! d\ble cyanides7 comb9ation takes place1 because bo? c>bonic oxide & plat9\s *loride are unsaturat$ comp\nds capable ( fur!r comb9ation4 ,! c>bon tetra*loride solution absorbs ,,nh#c & gives ,pt,cl#b1;,,co1#b,,nh#c1 & ,pt,cl#b1b;,,co1#b,,nh#c1 & ^! sub/ances are analog\s 7,fo]/]1 ,zeisel1 ,jrg5s57 to simil> comp\nds conta9+ complex am9es 7= in/ance1 pyrid9e1 ,c#e;,h#e,n71 in/ead ( ,,nh#c1 & e?yl5e1 c41 in/ead ( ,,co1 s t "h we h a :ole s]ies ( complex plat9o-comp\nds4 ,! comp\nd ,pt,cl#b;,,co dissolves 9 hydro*loric acid )\t *ange1 & ! solution dis5gages all ! c>bonic oxide :5 ,,kcn is add$ to x1 :i* %[s t ^? =ces :i* b9d #b molecules ( ,,kcn to ,pt,cl#b c also b9d ! molecule ,,co1 or #b molecules ( ,,co4 ,:5 ! hydro*loric acid solution ( ,pt,cl#b;,,co is mix$ ) a solution ( sodium acetate or acetic acid1 x gives a precipitate ( ,pt,o,c,o1 i4e4 ! ,cl#b is replac$ by oxyg5 7probably because ! acetate is decompos$ by wat]74 ,?is oxide1 ,pt,o,c,o1 splits up into ,pt ,,co#b at #cej4 ,pt,s,c,o is obta9$ by ! action ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 ^u ,pt,cl#b;,,co4 ,all ?is leads to ! conclusion t ! gr\p ,pt,c,o is able to assimilate ,x#b ,cl#b1 ,s1 ,o1 c4 7,mylius1 ,fo]/]1 #ahia74 ,pull+] 7#ahia71 by ignit+ spongy plat9um at #bej1 fir/ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 & !n 9 a /ream ( c>bonic oxide1 obta9$ 7besides volatile products7 a non-volatile yell[ sub/ance :i* rema9$ un*ang$ 9 air & dis5gag$ *lor9e & phosg5e gas :5 ignit$2 its composition 0 ,pt,cl#f7;,,co7#b1 :i* app>5tly proves x to be a comp\nd ( ,pt,cl#b & #b;,c,o,cl#b1 z ,pt,cl#b is able to comb9e ) oxy*lorides1 & =ms some:at /able comp\nds4 7,d7 ,! faculty ( plat9\s *loride = =m+ /able comp\nds ) div]s sub/ances %[s itself 9 ! =mation ( ! comp\nd ,pt,cl#b1,p,cl#c by ! action ( phosphorus p5ta*loride at #bej on plat9um p[d] 7,pd reacts 9 a simil> mann]1 accord+ to ,f9k1 #ahib74 ,! product conta9s bo? phosphorus p5ta*loride & plat9um1 :il/ ! pres5ce ( ,pt,cl#b is %[n 9 ! fact t ! action ( wat] produces *lorplat9o-phosphor\s acid1 ,pt,cl#b,p7,,oh7#c4 7,e7 ,aft] ! cyanides1 ! d\ble salts ( plat9um =m$ by sulphur\s acid are mo/ di/+ui%$ = _! /ability & *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,?is is all ! m in/ructive1 z sulphur\s acid is only feebly en]getic1 &1 moreov]1 9 ^!1 z 9 all its comp\nds1 x exhibits a dual reaction4 ,! salts ( sulphur\s acid1 ,r#b,,s#c1 ei!r react z salts ( a feeble bibasic acid1 :]e ! gr\p ,,s#c pres5ts itself z bival5t1 & consequ5tly equal to ,x#b1 or else !y react aft] ! mann] ( salts ( a monobasic acid conta9+ ! same residue1 ,,rso#c1 z occurs 9 ! salts ( sulphuric acid4 ,9 sulphur\s acid ?is residue is comb9$ ) hydrog51 ,h7,,s#c;,h71 :il/ 9 sulphuric acid x is unit$ ) ! aque\s residue 7hydroxyl71 ,,oh7,,s#c;,h74 ,^! two =ms ( action ( ! sulphites appe> 9 _! reactions ) ! plat9um salts--t is to say1 salts ( bo? k9ds are =m$1 & !y bo? correspond ) ! type ,pt,h#b,x#d4 ,! "o s]ies ( salts conta9 ,pt,h#b7,,s#c7b1 & _! reactions are due to ! bival5t residue ( sulphur\s acid1 :i* replaces ,x#b4 ,! o!rs1 :i* h ! composition ,pt,r#b7,,s#c;,h7#d1 conta9 sulphoxyl4 ,! latt] salts w evid5tly react l acids2 !y are =m$ simultane\sly ) ! salts ( ! fir/ k9d1 & pass into !m4 ,^! salts are obta9$ ei!r by directly dissolv+ plat9\s oxide 9 wat] conta9+ sulphur\s acid1 or by pass+ sulphur\s anhydride into a solution ( plat9\s *loride 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,if a solution ( plat9\s *loride or plat9\s oxide 9 sulphur\s acid be saturat$ ) sodium c>bonate1 x =ms a :ite1 sp>+ly soluble precipitate conta9+ ,pt,na#b7,,s#c,na7#d1g;,h#b,o4 ,if ?is precipitate be dissolv$ 9 a small quantity ( hydro*loric acid & left to evaporate at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x deposits a salt ( ! o!r type1 ,pt,na#b7,,s#c7b1;,h#b,o1 9 ! =m ( a yell[ p[d]1 :i* is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,! potassium salt analog\s to ! fir/ salt1 ,pt,k#b7,,s#c,k7#d1b;,h#b,o1 is precipitat$ by pass+ sulphur\s anhydride into a solution ( potassium sulphite 9 :i* plat9\s oxide is susp5d$4 ,a simil> salt is kn[n = ammonium1 & ) hydro*loric acid x gives a salt ( ! second k9d1 ,pt7,,nh#d7b7,,s#c7b1;,h#b,o4 ,if ammonio-*loride ( plat9um be add$ to an aque\s solution ( sulphur\s anhydride1 x is fir/ deoxidis$1 & *lor9e is evolv$1 =m+ a salt ( ! type ,pt,x#b2 a d\ble decomposition !n takes place ) ! ammonium sulphite1 & a salt ( ! composition ,pt7,,nh#d7b;,cl#c7,,s#c;,h7 is =m$ 79 a desiccator74 ,! acid "* ( ?is sub/ance is expla9$ by ! fact t x conta9s ! elem5ts ,,s#c;,h--sulphoxyl1 ) ! hydrog5 n yet displac$ by a metal4 ,on saturat+ a solution ( ?is acid ) potassium c>bonate x gives orange-col\r$ cry/als ( a potassium salt ( ! composition ,pt7,,nh#d7b;,cl#c7,,s#c,k74 ,"h x is evid5t t an equival5t ( *lor9e 9 ,pt7,,nh#d7b7;,cl#d is replac$ by ! unival5t residue ( sulphur\s acid4 ,among ^! salts1 t ( ! composition ,pt7,,nh#d7b7;,cl#b7,,s#c;,h7#b1;,h#b,o is v readily =m$1 & cry/allises 9 well-=m$ col\rless cry/als2 x is obta9$ by dissolv+ ammonium plat9oso*loride1 ,pt7,,nh#d7b;,cl#d1 9 an aque\s solution ( sulphur\s acid4 ,! difficulty ) :i* sulphur\s anhydride & plat9um are sep>at$ f ^! salts indicates ! same basic "* 9 ^! comp\nds z is se5 9 ! d\ble cyanides ( plat9um4 ,9 _! passage into a complex salt1 ! metal plat9um & ! gr\p ,,s#b modify _! relations 7comp>$ ) ^? ( ,pt,x#b or ,,s#b,x#b71 j z ! *lor9e 9 ! salts ,k,cl,o1 ,k,cl,o#c1 & ,k,cl,o#d is modifi$ 9 its relations z comp>$ ) hydro*loric acid or potassium *loride4 7,f7 ,no less *>act]i/ic are ! plat9onitrites =m$ by plat9\s oxide4 ,!y correspond ) nitr\s acid1 ^: salts1 ,,rno#b1 conta9 ! unival5t radicle1 ,,no#b1 :i* is capable ( replac+ *lor9e1 & !re=e ! salts ( ?is k9d %\ld =m a common type ,pt,r#b7,,no#b7d1 & su* a salt ( potassium has actually be5 obta9$ by mix+ a solution ( potassium plat9oso*loride ) a solution ( potassium nitrite1 :5 ! liquid becomes col\rless1 especially if x be heat$1 :i* indicates ! *ange 9 ! *emical di/ribution ( ! elem5ts4 ,z ! liquid decolorises x gradually deposits sp>+ly soluble1 col\rless prisms ( ! potassium salt ,k#b,pt7,,no#b7d1 :i* does n conta9 any wat]4 ,) silv] nitrate a solution ( ?is salt gives a precipitate ( silv] plat9onitrite1 ,pt,ag#b7,,no#b7d4 ,! silv] ( ?is salt may be replac$ by o!r metals by means ( d\ble decomposition ) metallic *lorides4 ,! sp>+ly soluble b>ium salt1 :5 treat$ ) an equival5t quantity ( sulphuric acid1 gives a soluble acid1 :i* sep>ates1 "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 9 r$ cry/als2 ?is acid has ! composition ,pt,h#b7,,no#b7d4 ,to ! potassium salt1 ,k#b,pt7,,no#b7d1 !re correspond 7,vzes1 #ahib7 ,k#b,pt7,,no#b7d;,br#b & ,k#b,pt7,,no#b7d;,cl#b & o!r comp\nds ( ! same type ,k#b,pt,x#f1 :]e ,x is p>tly replac$ by ,cl or ,br & p>tly by 7,,no#b71 %[+ a transition t[>ds ! type ( ! d\ble salts l ! plat9o-ammoniacal salts4 7,! correspond+ d\ble sodium nitrite salt ( cobalt is soluble 9 wat]1 :ile ! ,k1,,nh#d & _m o!r salts are insoluble 9 wat]1 z ,i 0 in=m$ by ,pr(4 ,k4 ,w9kl] 9 #ahid74 ,9 all ! prec$+ complex comp\nds ( ,pt we see a common type ,pt,x#b1b,,mx 7i4e4 ( d\ble salts correspond+ to ,pt,o7 or ,pt,m#b,x#d ,pt7,,mx#b7b1 correspond+ to ,pt7,,ho7#b ) ! replacem5t ( ,o by its equival5t ,x#b4 ,two o!r facts mu/ also be not$4 ,9 ! fir/ place ^! ,x's g5]ally correspond to elem5ts 7l *lor9e7 or gr\ps 7l ,,cn1 ,,no#b1 ,,s#c1 c471 :i* are capable ( fur!r comb9ation4 ,9 ! second place all ! comp\nds ( ! type ,pt,m#b,x#d are capable ( comb9+ ) *lor9e or simil> elem5ts1 & ?us pass+ into comp\nds ( ! types ,pt,x#c or ,pt,x#d4 ,ammonia1 l potassium cyanide1 has ! faculty ( easily react+ ) plat9um di*loride1 =m+ comp\nds simil> to ! plat9ocyanide & cobaltia comp\nds1 :i* are comp>atively /able4 ,b z ammonia does n conta9 any hydrog5 easily replaceable by metals1 & z ammonia itself is able to comb9e ) acids1 ! ,pt,x#b plays1 z x 71 ! "p ( an acid ) ref]5ce to ! ammonia4 ,ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! ammonia1 ! ,x#b 9 ! resultant comp\nd w repres5t ! same "* z x has 9 ammoniacal salts2 consequ5tly1 ! ammoniacal comp\nds produc$ f ,pt,x#b w be salts 9 :i* ,x w be replaceable by v>i\s o!r haloids1 j z ! metal is replac$ 9 ! cyanog5 salts2 su* is ! nature ( ! plat9o-ammonium comp\nds4 ,pt,x#b =ms comp\nds ) #b,,nh#c & ) #d,,nh#c1 & s also ,pt,x#d gives 7n directly f ,pt,x#d & ammonia1 b f ! comp\nds ( ,pt,x#b by ! action ( *lor9e1 c47 simil> comp\nds ) #b,,nh#c & ) #d,,nh#c4ab #ab ,! plat9um salt & ammonia1 :5 once comb9$ toge!r1 are no long] subject to _! ord9>y reactions b =m comp\nds :i* are comp>atively v /able4 ,! "q at once sugge/s itself to all :o are acqua9t$ ) ^! ph5om5a1 z to :at is ! relation ( ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 ^! comp\nds4 ,! fir/ explanation is t ^! comp\nds are salts ( ammonium 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is p>tially replac$ by plat9um4 ,?is is ! view1 ) c]ta9 %ades ( diff]5ce1 held by _m respect+ ! plat9o-ammonium comp\nds4 ,!y 7 reg>d$ 9 ?is light by ,g]h>dt1 ,s*iff1 ,kolbe1 ,weltzi51 & _m o!rs4 ,if we suppose ! hydrog5 9 #b,,nh#d,x to be replac$ by bival5t plat9um 7z 9 ! salts ,pt,x#b71 we %all obta9 ,,nh#c ,x ,pt ,,nh#c ,x --t is1 ! comp\nd ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c4 ,! comp\nd ) #d,,nh#c w !n be repres5t$ by a fur!r sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 9 ammonia by ammonium itself--i4e4 z ,,nh#b7,,nh#d,x7#b,pt or ,pt,x#b1d,,nh#c4 ,a modification ( ?is view is f\nd 9 t repres5tation ( comp\nds ( ?is k9d :i* is bas$ on atomicity4 ,z plat9um 9 ,pt,x#b is bival5t1 has two aff9ities1 & ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 is also bival5t1 because nitrog5 is qu9quival5t & is "h only comb9$ ) ,h#c1 x is evid5t :at bonds %\ld be repres5t$ 9 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c & 9 ,pt,x#b1d,,nh#c4 ,9 ! =m]1 ,pt7,,nh#c;,cl7#b1 ! nitrog5 ( ea* atom ( ammonia is unit$ by ?ree aff9ities ) ,h#c1 by "o ) plat9um1 & by ! fif? ) *lor9e4 ,! o!r comp\nd is ,pt7,,nh#c4,,nh#c;,cl7#b--t is1 ! ,n is unit$ by "o aff9ity ) ! o!r ,n1 :il/ ! rema9+ bonds are ! same z 9 ! fir/ salt4 ,x is evid5t t ?is union or *a9 ( ammonias has no obvi\s limit1 & ! mo/ ess5tial fault ( su* a mode ( repres5tation is t x does n indicate at all :at numb] ( ammonias are capable ( be+ reta9$ by plat9um4 ,moreov]1 x is h>dly possible to admit ! bond betwe5 nitrog5 & plat9um 9 su* /able comp\nds1 = ^! k9ds ( aff9ities are1 at all ev5ts1 feeble1 & _c lead to /ability1 b w\ld r indicate explosive & easily-decompos$ comp\nds4 ,moreov]1 x is n cle> :y ?is plat9um1 :i* is capable ( giv+ ,pt,x#d1 does n act ) its rema9+ aff9ities :5 ! addition ( ammonia to ,pt,x#b takes place4 ,^!1 & c]ta9 o!r consid]ations :i* indicate ! imp]fection ( ?is repres5tation ( ! /ructure ( ! plat9o-ammonium salts1 cause _m *emi/s to incl9e m to ! repres5tations ( ,b]zelius1 ,claus1 ,gibbs1 & o!rs1 :o suppose t ,,nh#c is able to comb9e ) sub/ances1 to adjo9 itself or pair itself ) !m 7?is k9d ( comb9ation is call$ ',pa>ung'7 )\t alt]+ ! fundam5tal capacity ( a sub/ance = fur!r comb9ations4 ,?us1 9 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1 ! ammonia is ! associate ( ,pt,x#b1 z is express$ by ! =mula ,n#b;,h#f,pt,x#b4 ,)\t enl>g+ on ! exposition ( ! details ( ?is doctr9e1 we w only m5tion t x1 l ! fir/1 does n r5d] x possible to =esee a limit to ! comp\nds ) ammonia2 x isolates comp\nds ( ?is k9d into a special & artificial class2 does n %[ ! connection betwe5 comp\nds ( ?is & ( o!r k9ds1 & !re=e x ess5tially only expresses ! fact ( ! comb9ation ) ammonia & ! modification 9 its ord9>y reactions4 ,= ^! reasons we d n hold to ei!r ( ^! propos$ repres5tations ( ! ammonio-plat9um comp\nds1 b reg>d !m f ! po9t ( view cit$ above ) ref]5ce to d\ble salts & wat] ( cry/allisation--t is1 we embrace all ^! comp\nds "u ! repres5tation ( comp\nds ( complex types4 ,! type ( ! comp\nd ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c is f> m probably ! same z t ( ,pt,x#b1b,z--i4e4 z ,pt,x#d1 or1 /ill m accurately & truly1 x is a comp\nd ( ! same type z ,pt,x#b1b,,kx or ,pt,x#b1b;,h#b,o1 c4 ,al?\gh ! plat9um fir/ ent]$ into ,pt,k#b,x#d z ! type ,pt,x#b1 yet its "* has *ang$ 9 ! same mann] z ! "* ( sulphur *anges :5 f ,,s#b ! comp\nd ,,s#b7,,oh7#b is obta9$1 or :5 ,k,cl,o#d1 ! high] =m1 is obta9$ f ,k,cl4 ,= u z yet !re is no "q z to :at aff9ities hold ,x#b & :at hold #b,,nh#c1 because ?is is a "q :i* arises f ! supposition ( ! exi/5ce ( diff]5t aff9ities 9 ! atoms1 :i* !re is no reason = tak+ z a common ph5om5on4 ,x seems to me t x is mo/ important z a comm5cem5t to r5d] cle> ! analogy 9 ! =mation ( v>i\s complex comp\nds1 & x is ?is analogy ( ! ammonia comp\nds ) ^? ( wat] ( cry/allisation & d\ble salts t =ms ! ma9 object ( ! prim>y g5]alisation4 ,we recognise 9 plat9um1 at all ev5ts1 n only ! f\r aff9ities express$ 9 ! comp\nd ,pt,cl#d1 b a mu* l>g] numb] ( !m1 if only ! summation ( aff9ities is actually possible4 ,?us1 9 sulphur we recognise n two b a mu* great] numb] ( aff9ities2 x is cle> t at lea/ six aff9ities c act4 ,s also among ! analogues ( plat9um3 osmic anhydride1 ,os,o#d1 ,ni7,,co7#d1 ,pt,h#b;,cl#f1 c4 indicate ! exi/5ce ( at lea/ eight aff9ities2 :il/1 9 *lor9e1 judg+ f ! comp\nd ,k,cl,o#d ,cl,o#c7,,ok7 ,cl,x#g1 we mu/ recognise at lea/ sev5 aff9ities1 in/ead ( ! "o :i* is accept$4 ,! latt] mode ( calculat+ aff9ities is a tribute to t p]iod ( ! developm5t ( sci5ce :5 only ! simple/ hydrog5 comp\nds 7 consid]$1 & :5 all complex comp\nds 7 entirely neglect$ 7!y 7 plac$ "u ! class ( molecul> comp\nds74 ,?is is insuffici5t = ! pres5t /ate ( k1 because we f9d t1 9 complex comp\nds z 9 ! mo/ simple1 ! same con/ant types or modes ( equilibrium are repeat$1 & ! "* ( c]ta9 elem5ts is greatly modifi$ 9 ! passage f ! mo/ simple into v complex comp\nds4 ,judg+ f ! mo/ complex plat9o-ammonium comp\nds ,pt,cl#d1d,,nh#c1 we %\ld admit ! possibility ( ! =mation ( comp\nds ( ! type ,pt,x#d,y#d1 :]e ,y#d #d,x#b #d,,nh#c1 & ?is %[s t ^? =ces :i* =m su* a *>act]i/ic s]ies ( d\ble plat9ocyanides ,pt,k#b7;,,cn7#d1c;,h#b,o1 probably also det]m9e ! =mation ( ! high] ammonia d]ivatives1 z is se5 on comp>+-- ,pt,cl#b ,,nh#c ,cl#b #c,,nh#c ,pt7,,cn7#b ,,kcn ,,kcn #c;,h#b,o4 ,moreov]1 x is obvi\sly mu* m natural to ascribe ! faculty = comb9ation ) n,y to ! :ole ( ! act+ elem5ts--t is1 to ,pt,x#b or ,pt,x#d1 & n to plat9um alone4 ,naturally su* comp\nds are n produc$ ) any ,y4 ,) c]ta9 ,x's !re only comb9e c]ta9 ,y's4 ,! be/ kn[n & mo/ frequ5tly-=m$ comp\nds ( ?is k9d are ^? ) wat]--t is1 comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,comp\nds ) salts are d\ble salts2 also we "k t simil> comp\nds are also frequ5tly =m$ by means ( ammonia4 ,salts ( z9c1 ,zn,x#b1 copp]1 ,cu,x#b1 silv]1 ,ag,x1 & _m o!rs give simil> comp\nds1 b ^! & _m o!r ammonio-metallic sal9e comp\nds are un/able1 & readily "p ) _! comb9$ ammonia1 & x is only 9 ! elem5ts ( ! plat9um gr\p & 9 ! gr\p ( ! analogues ( iron1 t we obs]ve ! faculty to =m /able ammonio-metallic comp\nds4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! metals ( ! plat9um & iron gr\ps are able to =m sev]al high grades ( oxidation :i* h an acid "*1 & consequ5tly 9 ! l[] degrees ( comb9ation !re yet rema9 aff9ities capable ( reta9+ o!r elem5ts1 & !y probably reta9 ammonia1 & hold x ! m /ably1 because all ! prop]ties ( ! plat9um comp\nds are r acid ?an basic--t is1 ,pt,xn recalls r ,,hx or ,sn,xn or ,,cxn ?an ,,kx1 ,ca,x#b1 ,ba,x#b1 c41 & ammonia naturally w r comb9e ) an acid ?an ) a basic sub/ance4 ,fur!r1 a dep5d5ce1 or c]ta9 connection ( ! =ms ( oxidation ) ! ammonia comp\nds1 is se5 on comp>+ ! foll[+ comp\nds3 ,pd,cl#b1b,,nh#c1;,h#b,o ,pd,cl#b1d,,nh#c1;,h#b,o ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c ,pt,cl#d1d,,nh#c ,rh,cl#c1e,,nh#c ,ru,cl#b1d,,nh#c1c;,h#b,o ,ir,cl#c1e,,nh#c ,os,cl#b1d,,nh#c1b;,h#b,o ,we "k t plat9um & palladium give comp\nds ( l[] types ?an iridium & rhodium1 :il/ ru!nium & osmium give ! highe/ =ms ( oxidation2 ?is %[s itself 9 ?is case also4 ,we h purposely cit$ ! same comp\nds ) #d,,nh#c = osmium & ru!nium z we h = plat9um & palladium1 & x is !n se5 t ,ru & ,os are capable ( reta9+ #b;,h#b,o & #c;,h#b,o1 besides ,cl#b & ,,nh#c1 :i* ! comp\nds ( plat9um & palladium are unable to d4 ,! same ideas :i* 7 develop$ 9 ,note #ce1 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 respect+ ! cobaltia comp\nds are p]fectly applicable to ! pres5t case1 i4e4 to ! plat9ia comp\nds or ammonia comp\nds ( ! plat9um metals1 among :i* ,rh & ,ir give comp\nds :i* are p]fectly analog\s to ! cobaltia comp\nds4 ,iridium & rhodium1 :i* easily give comp\nds ( ! type ,,rx#c1 give comp\nds 7,claus7 ( ! type ,ir,x#c1e,,nh#c1 ( a rose col\r1 & ,rh,x#c1e,,nh#c1 ( a yell[ col\r4 ,jrg5s51 9 8 rese>*es on ^! comp\nds1 %[$ _! entire analogy ) ! cobalt comp\nds1 z 0 to be expect$ f ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,if ammonia acts on a boil+ solution ( plat9\s *loride 9 hydro*loric acid1 x produces ! gre5 salt ( ,magnus 7#ahbi71 ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 insoluble 9 wat] & hydro*loric acid4 ,b1 judg+ by its reactions1 ?is salt has twice ?is =mula4 ,?us1 ,gros 7#ahcg71 on boil+ ,magnus's salt ) nitric acid1 obs]v$ t half ! *lor9e 0 replac$ by ! residue ( nitric acid & half ! plat9um 0 dis5gag$3 #b,pt,cl#b7,,nh#c7b #b;,,hno#c ,pt,cl#b7,,no#c7b7,,nh#c7d #b,pt,cl#b4 ,! ,gros's salt ?us obta9$1 ,pt,cl#b7,,no#c7bd,,nh#c 7if ,magnus's salt belongs to ! type ,pt,x#b1 !n ,gros's salt belongs to ! type ,pt,x#d71 is soluble 9 wat]1 & ! elem5ts ( nitric acid1 b n ! *lor9e1 conta9$ 9 x are capable ( easily submitt+ !mselves to d\ble sal9e decomposition4 ,?us silv] nitrate does n ent] into d\ble decomposition ) ! *lor9e ( ,gros's salt4 ,mo/ in/ructive 0 ! circum/ance t ,gros1 by act+ on 8 salt ) hydro*loric acid1 succe$$ 9 sub/itut+ ! residue ( nitric acid 9 x by *lor9e1 & ! *lor9e ?us introduc$1 easily react$ ) silv] nitrate4 ,?us x appe>$ t ,gros's salt conta9$ two v>ieties ( *lor9e--"o :i* reacts readily1 & ! o!r :i* reacts ) difficulty4 ,! composition ( ,gros's fir/ salt is ,pt,cl#b7,,nh#c7d7,,no#c7b2 x may be conv]t$ into ,pt,cl#b7,,nh#c7d7,,s#d71 & 9 g5]al into ,pt,cl#b7,,nh#c7d,x#b4ac #ac ,subsequ5tly1 a :ole s]ies ( su* comp\nds 0 obta9$ ) v>i\s elem5ts 9 ! place ( ! 7non-react+7 *lor9e1 & nev]!less !y1 l ! *lor9e1 react$ ) difficulty1 :il/ ! second portion ( ! ,x's introduc$ into su* salts easily und]w5t reaction4 ,?is =m$ ! mo/ important reason = ! int]e/ :i* ! /udy ( ! composition & /ructure ( ! plat9o-ammonium salts subsequ5tly pres5t$ to _m *emi/s1 su* z ,reiset1 ,blom/r&1 ,peyrone1 ,raeffski1 ,g]h>dt1 ,buckton1 ,clve1 ,?oms51 ,jrg5s51 ,k\rnak(f1 ,v]n]1 & o!rs4 ,! salts ,pt,x#d1b,,nh#c1 discov]$ by ,g]h>dt1 also exhibit$ sev]al diff]5t prop]ties 9 ! two pairs ( ,x's4 ,9 ! rema9+ plat9o-ammonium salts all ! ,x's appe> to react alike4 ,! quality ( ! ,x's1 reta9able 9 ! plat9o-ammonium salts1 may be consid]ably modifi$1 & !y may frequ5tly be :olly or p>tially replac$ by hydroxyl4 ,= example1 ! action ( ammonia on ! nitrate ( ,g]h>dt's base1 ,pt7,,no#c7d1b,,nh#c1 9 a boil+ solution1 gradually produces a yell[ cry/all9e precipitate :i* is no?+ else ?an a basic hydrate or alkali1 ,pt7,,oh7#d1b,,nh#c4 ,x is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 b gives directly soluble salts ,pt,x#d1b,,nh#c ) acids4 ,! /ability ( ?is hydroxide is su* t pota% does n expel ammonia f x1 ev5 on boil+1 & x does n *ange bel[ #acj4 ,simil> prop]ties are %[n by ! hydroxide ,pt7,,oh7#b1b,,nh#c & ! oxide ,pt,o1#b,,nh#c ( ,reiset's second base4 ,b ! hydroxides ( ! comp\nds conta9+ #d,,nh#c are p>ticul>ly rem>kable4 ,! pres5ce ( ammonia r5d]s !m soluble & en]getic4 ,! brevity ( ?is "w does n p]mit u1 h[ev]1 to m5tion _m int]e/+ p>ticul>s 9 connection ) ?is subject4 ,! salt ( ,magnus :5 boil$ ) a solution ( ammonia gives ! salt 7( ,reiset's fir/ base7 ,pt,cl#b7,,nh#c7d1 & ?is1 :5 treat$ ) brom9e1 =ms ! salt ,pt,cl#b;,br#b7,,nh#c7d1 :i* has ! same composition & reactions z ,gros's salt4 ,to ,reiset's salts !re corresponds a soluble1 col\rless1 cry/all9e hydroxide1 ,pt7,,oh7#b7,,nh#c7d1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( a p[]ful & v en]getic alkali2 x attracts c>bonic anhydride f ! atmosph]e1 precipitates metallic salts l pota%1 saturates active acids1 ev5 sulphuric1 =m+ col\rless 7) nitric1 c>bonic1 & hydro*loric acids71 or yell[ 7) sulphuric acid71 salts ( ! type ,pt,x#b7,,nh#c7d4ad ,! comp>ative /ability 7= in/ance1 z comp>$ ) ,ag,cl & ,,nh#c7 ( su* comp\nds1 & ! exi/5ce ( _m o!r comp\nds analog\s to !m1 end[s !m ) a p>ticul> *emical int]e/4 ,?us ,k\rnak(f 7#ahhi7 obta9$ a s]ies ( correspond+ comp\nds conta9+ ?ioc>bamide1 ,,csn#b;,h#d1 9 ! place ( ammonia1 ,pt,cl#b1d;,,csn#b;,h#d1 & o!rs correspond+ ) ,reiset's salts4 ,hydroxylam9e1 & o!r sub/ances correspond+ ) ammonia1 also give simil> comp\nds4 ,! common prop]ties & composition ( su* comp\nds %[ _! entire analogy to ! cobaltia comp\nds 7especially = ru!nium & iridium7 & correspond to ! fact t bo? ! plat9um metals & cobalt occur 9 ! same1 eigh?1 gr\p4 #ad ,hydroxides are kn[n correspond+ ) ,gros's salts1 :i* conta9 "o hydroxyl gr\p 9 ! place ( t *lor9e or haloid :i* 9 ,gros's salts reacts ) difficulty1 & ^! hydroxides d n at once %[ ! prop]ties ( alkalis1 j z ! *lor9e :i* /&s 9 ! same place does n react di/9ctly2 b /ill1 aft] ! prolong$ action ( acids1 ?is hydroxyl gr\p is also replac$ by acids4 ,?us1 = example1 ! action ( nitric acid on ,pt7,,no#c7b;,cl#b1d,,nh#c causes ! non-active *lor9e to react1 b 9 ! product all ! *lor9e is n replac$ by ,,no#c1 b only half1 & ! o!r half is replac$ by ! hydroxyl gr\p3 ,pt7,,no#c7b;,cl#b1d,,nh#c ,,hno#c ,h#b,o ,pt7,,no#c7c7,,oh71#d,,nh#c #b;,h,cl2 & ?is is p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic1 because "h ! hydroxyl gr\p has n react$ ) ! acid--an evid5t sign ( ! non-alkal9e "* ( ?is residue4 ,i ?9k x may be well to call att5tion to ! fact t ! composition ( ! ammonio-metallosalts v (t5 exhibits a correspond5ce betwe5 ! am\nt ( ,x's & ! am\nt ( ,,nh#c1 ( su* a nature t we f9d !y conta9 ei!r ,,xnh#c or ! gr\p+ ,x#b,,nh#c2 = example1 ,pt7,,xnh#c7b & ,pt7,x#b,,nh#c7b1 ,co7,x#b,,nh#c7c1 ,pt7,,xnh#c7d1 c4 ,judg+ f ?is1 ! view ( ! con/itution ( ! d\ble cyanides ( plat9um giv5 9 ,note #aa f9ds "s confirmation "h1 b1 9 my op9ion1 all que/ions respect+ ! composition 7& /ructure7 ( ! ammoniacal1 d\ble1 complex1 & cry/allisation comp\nds /& connect$ ) ! solution ( que/ions respect+ ! =mation ( comp\nds ( v>i\s degrees ( /ability1 among :i* a !ory ( solutions mu/ be includ$1 & !re=e ,i ?9k t ! "t has n yet come = a complete g5]alisation ( ! data :i* exi/ = ^! comp\nds2 & "h ,i aga9 ref] ! read] to ,pr(4 ,k\rnak(f's "w cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce4 ,h[ev]1 we may add a few individual rem>ks conc]n+ ! plat9ia comp\nds4 ,to ! common prop]ties ( ! plat9o-ammonium salts1 we mu/ add n only _! /ability 7feeble acids & alkalis d n decompose !m1 ! ammonia is n evolv$ by heat+1 c471 b also ! fact t ! ord9>y reactions ( plat9um are conceal$ 9 !m to z great an ext5t z ^? ( iron 9 ! f]ricyanides4 ,?us nei!r alkalis nor hydrog5 sulphide w sep>ate ! plat9um f !m4 ,= example1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 act+ on ,gros's salts gives sulphur1 removes half ! *lor9e by means ( its hydrog51 & =ms salts ( ,reiset's fir/ base4 ,?is may be und]/ood or expla9$ by consid]+ ! plat9um 9 ! molecule z cov]$1 wall$ up by ! ammonia1 or situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! molecule1 & !re=e inaccessible to reag5ts4 ,on ?is assumption1 h[ev]1 we %\ld expect to f9d cle>ly-express$ ammoniacal prop]ties1 & ?is is n ! case4 ,?us ammonia is easily decompos$ by *lor9e1 :il/ 9 act+ on ! plat9o-ammonium salts conta9+ ,pt,x#b & #b,,nh#c or #d,,nh#c1 *lor9e comb9es & does n de/roy ! ammonia2 x conv]ts ,reiset's salts into ^? ( ,gros & ,g]h>dt4 ,?us f ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c !re is =m$ ,pt,x#b;,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 & f ,pt,x#b1d,,nh#c ! salt ( ,gros's base ,pt,x#b;,cl#b1d,,nh#c4 ,?is %[s t ! am\nt ( *lor9e :i* comb9es is n dep5d5t on ! am\nt ( ammonia pres5t1 b is due to ! basic prop]ties ( plat9um4 ,ow+ to ?is "s *emi/s suppose ! ammonia to be inactive or passive 9 c]ta9 comp\nds4 ,x appe>s to me t ^! relations1 ^! modifications1 9 ! usual prop]ties ( ammonia & plat9um are expla9$ directly by _! mutual comb9ation4 ,sulphur1 9 sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 & hydrog5 sulphide1 ,,%#b1 is naturally "o & ! same1 b if we only knew ( x 9 ! =m ( hydrog5 sulphide1 !n1 hav+ obta9$ x 9 ! =m ( sulphur\s anhydride1 we %\ld consid] its prop]ties z hidd54 ,! oxyg5 9 magnesia1 ,mg,o1 & 9 nitric p]oxide1 ,,no#b1 is s diff]5t t !re is no resemblance4 ,ars5ic no long] reacts 9 its comp\nds ) hydrog5 z x reacts 9 its comp\nds ) *lor9e1 & 9 _! comp\nds ) nitrog5 all metals modify bo? _! reactions & _! physical prop]ties4 ,we are accu/om$ to judge ! metals by _! sal9e comp\nds ) haloid gr\ps1 & ammonia by its comp\nds ) acid sub/ances1 & "h1 9 ! plat9o-comp\nds1 if we assume ! plat9um to be b\nd to ! entire mass ( ! ammonia--to its hydrog5 & nitrog5--we %all und]/& t bo? ! plat9um & ammonia modify _! *>act]s4 ,f> m complicat$ is ! "q :y a portion ( ! *lor9e 7& o!r haloid simple & complex gr\ps7 9 ,gros's salts acts 9 a diff]5t mann] f ! o!r portion1 & :y only half ( x acts 9 ! usual way4 ,b ?is also is n an exclusive case4 ,! *lor9e 9 potassium *lorate or 9 c>bon tetra*loride does n react ) ! same ease ) metals z ! *lor9e 9 ! salts correspond+ ) hydro*loric acid4 ,9 ?is case x is unit$ to oxyg5 & c>bon1 :il/ 9 ! plat9o-ammonium comp\nds x is unit$ p>tly to plat9um & p>tly to ! plat9o-ammonium gr\p4 ,_m *emi/s1 moreov]1 suppose t a "p ( ! *lor9e is unit$ directly to ! plat9um & ! o!r "p to ! nitrog5 ( ! ammonia1 & ?us expla9 ! diff]5ce ( ! reactions2 b *lor9e unit$ to plat9um reacts z well ) a silv] salt z ! *lor9e ( ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 or nitrosyl *loride1 ,n,o,cl1 al?\gh !re is no d\bt t 9 ?is case !re is a union betwe5 ! *lor9e & nitrog54 ,h5ce x is necess>y to expla9 ! abs5ce ( a facile reactive capacity 9 a portion ( ! *lor9e by ! conjo9t influ5ce ( ! plat9um & ammonia on x1 :il/ ! o!r portion may be admitt$ z be+ "u ! influ5ce ( ! plat9um only1 & !re=e z react+ z 9 o!r salts4 ,by admitt+ a c]ta9 k9d ( /able union 9 ! plat9o-ammonium gr\p+1 x is possible to imag9e t ! *lor9e does n react ) its cu/om>y facility1 because access to a portion ( ! atoms ( *lor9e 9 ?is complex gr\p+ is difficult1 & ! *lor9e union is n ! same z we usually meet 9 ! sal9e comp\nds ( *lor9e4 ,^! are ! gr\nds on :i* we1 9 refut+ ! n[ accept$ explanations ( ! reactions & =mation ( ! plat9o-comp\nds1 pron\nce ! foll[+ op9ion z to _! /ructure4 ,9 *>act]is+ ! plat9o-ammonium comp\nds1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d t comp\nds :i* already conta9 ,pt,x#d d n comb9e directly ) ,,nh#c1 & t su* comp\nds z ,pt,x#d1d,,nh#c only proce$ f ,pt,x#b1 & !re=e x is natural to conclude t ^? aff9ities & =ces :i* cause ,pt,x#b to comb9e ) ,x#b also cause x to comb9e ) #b,,nh#c4 ,& hav+ ! comp\nd ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1 & suppos+ t 9 subsequ5tly comb9+ ) ,cl#b x reacts ) ^? aff9ities :i* produce ! comp\nds ( plat9ic *loride1 ,pt,cl#d1 ) wat]1 potassium *loride1 potassium cyanide1 hydro*loric acid1 & ! l1 we expla9 n only ! fact ( comb9ation1 b also _m ( ! reactions occurr+ 9 ! transition ( "o k9d ( plat9o-ammonium salts into ano!r4 ,?us by ?is means we expla9 ! fact t 7#a7 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c comb9es ) #b,,nh#c1 =m+ salts ( ,reiset's fir/ base2 7#b7 & ! fact t ?is comp\nd 7repres5t$ z foll[s = di/9ctness71 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c1 :5 heat$1 or ev5 :5 boil$ 9 solution1 aga9 passes into ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c 7:i* resembles ! easy dis5gagem5t ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 c472 7#c7 ! fact t ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c is capable ( absorb+1 "u ! action ( ! same =ces1 a molecule ( *lor9e1 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1;,cl#b1 :i* x !n reta9s ) en]gy1 because x is attract$1 n only by ! plat9um1 b also by ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonia2 7#d7 ! fact t ?is *lor9e held 9 ?is comp\nd 7( ,g]h>dt7 w h a position unusual 9 salts1 :i* w expla9 a c]ta9 7al?\gh v feebly-m>k$7 difficulty ( reaction2 7#e7 ! fact t ?is does n exhau/ ! faculty ( plat9um = fur!r comb9ation 7we ne$ only recall ! comp\nd ,pt,cl#d1b;,h,cl1#af;,h#b,o71 & t !re=e bo? ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1;,cl#b & ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c are /ill capable ( comb9ation1 :5ce ! latt]1 ) *lor9e1 gives ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c1;,cl#b1 aft] ! type ( ,pt,x#d,y#d 7& p]haps high]72 7#f7 ! fact t ,gros's comp\nds ?us =m$ are readily reconv]t$ into ! salts ( ,reiset's fir/ base :5 act$ on by r$uc+ ag5ts2 7#g7 ! fact t 9 ,gros's salts1 ,pt,x#b1b,,nh#c7,,nh#c,x7#b1 ! newly-atta*$ *lor9e or haloid w react ) difficulty ) salts ( silv]1 c41 because x is atta*$ bo? to ! plat9um & to ! ammonia1 = bo? ( :i* x has an attraction2 7#h7 ! fact t ! faculty = fur!r comb9ation is n ev5 yet exhau/$ 9 ! type ( ,gros's salts1 & t we actually h a comp\nd ( ,gros's *lor9e salt ) plat9\s *loride & ) plat9ic *loride2 ! salt ,pt,s,o#d1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c1,,s#d comb9es fur!r also ) ,h#b,o2 7#i7 ! fact t su* a faculty ( comb9ation ) new molecules is naturally m develop$ 9 ! l[] =ms ( comb9ation ?an 9 ! high]4 ,h5ce ! salts ( ,reiset's fir/ base--= example1 ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c--;bo? comb9e ) wat] & give precipitates 7soluble 9 wat] b n 9 hydro*loric acid7 ( d\ble salts ) _m salts ( ! heavy metals--= example1 ) lead *loride1 cupric *loride1 & also ) plat9ic & plat9\s *lorides 7,buckton's salts74 ,! latt] comp\nds w h ! composition ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c1b,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b--t is1 ! same composition z ! salts ( ,reiset's second base1 b x _c be id5tical ) x4 ,su* an int]e/+ case does actually exi/4 ,! fir/ salt1 ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b1 is gre51 insoluble 9 wat] & 9 hydro*loric acid1 & is kn[n z ,magnus's salt1 & ! second1 ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 is ,reiset's yell[1 sp>+ly soluble 79 wat]74 ,!y are polym]ic1 namely1 ! fir/ conta9s twice ! numb] ( elem5ts held 9 ! second1 & at ! same "t !y easily pass into ea* o!r4 ,if ammonia be add$ to a hot hydro*loric acid solution ( plat9\s *loride1 x =ms ! salt ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( plat9\s *loride x gives ,magnus's salt4 ,on boil+ ! latt] 9 ammonia x gives a col\rless soluble salt ( ,reiset's fir/ base1 ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1 & if ?is be boil$ ) wat]1 ammonia is dis5gag$1 & a salt ( ,reiset's second base1 ,pt,cl#b1b,,nh#c1 is obta9$4 ,a class ( plat9o-ammonium isom]ides 7obta9$ by ,millon & ,?oms57 are also kn[n4 ,buckton's salts--= example1 ! copp] salt--7 obta9$ by !m f ! salts ( ,reiset's fir/ base1 ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1 by treatm5t ) a solution ( cupric *loride1 c41 & !re=e1 accord+ to our me?od ( expression1 ,buckton's copp] salt w be ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1;,cu,cl#b4 ,?is salt is soluble 9 wat]1 b n 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,9 x ! ammonia mu/ be consid]$ z unit$ to ! plat9um4 ,b if cupric *loride be dissolv$ 9 ammonia1 & a solution ( plat9\s *loride 9 ammonium *loride is add$ to x1 a violet precipitate is obta9$ ( ! same composition z ,buckton's salt1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 b soluble 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,9 ?is a portion1 if n all1 ( ! ammonia mu/ be reg>d$ z unit$ to ! copp]1 & x mu/ !re=e be repres5t$ z ,cu,cl#b1d,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b4 ,?is =m is id5tical 9 composition b diff]5t 9 prop]ties 7is isom]ic7 ) ! prec$+ salt 7,buckton's74 ,! salt ( ,magnus is int]m$iate betwe5 !m1 ,pt,cl#b1d,,nh#c1,pt,cl#b2 x is insoluble 9 wat] & hydro*loric acid4 ,^! & c]ta9 o!r in/ances ( isom]ic comp\nds 9 ! s]ies ( ! plat9o-ammonium salts ?r[ a light on ! nature ( ! comp\nds 9 "q1 j z ! /udy ( ! isom]ides ( ! c>bon comp\nds has s]v$ & /ill s]ves z ! *ief cause ( ! rapid progress ( organic *emi/ry4 ,9 conclusion1 we may add t 7accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution7 we mu/ necess>ily expect all k9ds ( int]m$iate comp\nds betwe5 ! plat9o & analog\s ammonia d]ivatives on ! "o h&1 & ! complex comp\nds ( nitr\s acid on ! o!r4 ,p]haps ! in/ance ( ! reaction ( ammonia ^u osmic anhydride1 ,os,o#d1 obs]v$ by ,frits*e1 ,frmy1 & o!rs1 & m fully /udi$ by ,joly 7#ahia71 belongs to ?is class4 ,! latt] %[$ t :5 ammonia acts ^u an alkal9e solution ( ,os,o#d ! reaction proce$s accord+ to ! equation3 ,os,o#d ,,kho ,,nh#c ,os,n,k,o#c #b;,h#b,o4 ,x might be imag9$ t 9 ?is case ! ammonia is oxidis$1 probably =m+ ! residue ( nitr\s acid 7,,no71 :ile ! type ,os,o#d is deoxidis$ into ,os,o#b1 & a salt1 ,os,o7,,no77,,ko71 ( ! type ,os,x#d is =m$4 ,?is salt cry/allises well 9 light yell[ octah$ra4 ,x corresponds to osmiamic acid1 ,os,o7,,on77,,ho71 ^: anhydride ,os,o7,,no7#b1 has ! composition ,os#b,n#b,o#e1 :i* equals #b,os ,n#b,o#e to ! same ext5t z ! above-m5tion$ comp\nd ,pt,c,o#b equals ,pt ,,co#b 7see ,note #aa74 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,copp]1 ,,silv]1 ,,& ,,gold ,t degree ( analogy & diff]5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 iron1 cobalt1 & nickel repeats itself 9 ! correspond+ triad ru!nium1 rhodium1 & palladium1 & also 9 ! heavy plat9um metals1 osmium1 iridium1 & plat9um4 ,^! n9e metals =m ,gr\p ,,viii4 ( ! elem5ts 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 be+ ! int]m$iate gr\p betwe5 ! ev5 elem5ts ( ! l>ge p]iods & ! unev51 among :i* we "k z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury 9 ,gr\p ,,ii4 ,copp]1 silv]1 & gold complete#a ?is transition1 because _! prop]ties place !m 9 proximity to nickel1 palladium1 & plat9um on ! "o h&1 & to z9c1 cadmium1 & m]cury on ! o!r4 ,j z ,zn1 ,cd1 & ,hg2 ,fe1 ,ru1 & ,os2 ,co1 ,rh1 & ,ir2 ,ni1 ,pd1 & ,pt1 resemble ea* o!r 9 _m respects1 s also d ,cu1 ,ag1 & ,au4 ,?us1 = example1 ! atomic weight ( copp] ,cu #fc1 & 9 all its prop]ties x /&s betwe5 ,ni #ei & ,zn #fe4 ,b z ! transition f ,gr\p ,,viii4 to ,gr\p ,,ii41 :]e z9c is situat$1 _c be o!rwise ?an ?r\gh ,gr\p ,i41 s 9 copp] !re are c]ta9 prop]ties ( ! elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,i4 ,?us x gives a suboxide1 ,cu#b,o1 & salts1 ,cu,x1 l ! elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,i41 al?\gh at ! same "t x =ms an oxide1 ,cu,o1 & salts ,cu,x#b1 l nickel & z9c4 ,9 ! /ate ( ! oxide1 ,cu,o1 & ! salts1 ,cu,x#b1 copp] is analog\s to z9c1 judg+ f ! insolubility ( ! c>bonates1 phosphates1 & simil> salts1 & by ! isomorphism1 & o!r *>act]s4#b ,9 ! cupr\s salts !re is und\bt$ly a great resemblance to ! silv] salts--?us1 = example1 silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 is *>act]is$ by its insolubility & capacity ( comb9+ ) ammonia1 & 9 ?is respect cupr\s *loride closely resembles x1 = x is also insoluble 9 wat]1 & comb9es ) ammonia & dissolves 9 x1 c4 ,its composition is also ,r,cl1 ! same z ,ag,cl1 ,na,cl1 ,k,cl1 c41 & silv] 9 _m comp\nds resembles1 & is ev5 isomorph\s )1 sodium1 s t ?is aga9 ju/ifies _! be+ br\ght toge!r4 ,silv] *loride1 cupr\s *loride1 & sodium *loride cry/allise 9 ! regul> sy/em4 ,besides :i*1 ! specific heats ( copp] & silv] require t !y %\ld h ! atomic weights ascrib$ to !m4 ,to ! oxides ,cu#b,o & ,ag#b,o !re are correspond+ sulphides ,ag#b,s & ,cu#b,s4 ,!y bo? occur 9 nature 9 cry/als ( ! rhombic sy/em1 &1 :at is mo/ important1 copp] glance conta9s an isomorph\s mixture ( !m bo?1 & reta9s ! =m ( copp] glance ) v>i\s proportions ( copp] & silv]1 & !re=e has ! composition ,r#b,s :]e ,r ,cu1 ,ag4 #a ,! p]fectly unique position held by copp]1 silv]1 & gold 9 ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 & ! degree ( aff9ity :i* is f\nd betwe5 !m1 is all ! m rem>kable1 z nature & practice h long isolat$ ^! metals f all o!rs by hav+ employ$ !m--= example1 = co9age--& det]m9$ _! relative importance & value 9 con=mity ) ! ord] 7silv] betwe5 copp] & gold7 ( _! atomic weights1 c4 #b ,cupric sulphate conta9s #e molecules ( wat]1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 & ! isomorph\s mixtures ) ,zn,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o conta9 ei!r #e or #g equival5ts1 accord+ to :e!r copp] or z9c pr$om9ates 7,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #f74 ,if !re be a l>ge proportion ( copp]1 & if ! mixture conta9 #e;,h#b,o1 ! =m ( ! isomorph\s mixture 7tricl9ic7 w be isomorph\s ) cupric sulphate1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 b if a l>ge am\nt ( z9c 7or magnesium1 iron1 nickel1 or cobalt7 be pres5t ! =m 7rhombic or monocl9ic7 w be ne>ly ! same z t ( z9c sulphate1 ,zn,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o4 ,sup]saturat$ solutions ( ea* ( ^! salts cry/allise 9 t =m & ) t am\nt ( wat] :i* is conta9$ 9 a cry/al ( "o or o!r ( ! salts br\ght 9 contact ) ! solution 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #bg74 ,not)/&+ ! resemblance 9 ! atomic composition ( ! cupr\s comp\nds1 ,cu,x1 & silv] comp\nds1 ,ag,x1 ) ! comp\nds ( ! alkali metals ,,kx1 ,na,x1 !re is a consid]able degree ( diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two s]ies ( elem5ts4 ,?is diff]5ce is cle>ly se5 9 ! fact t ! alkali metals belong to ^? elem5ts :i* comb9e ) extreme facility ) oxyg51 decompose wat]1 & =m ! mo/ alkal9e bases2 :il/ silv] & copp] are oxidis$ ) difficulty1 =m less en]getic oxides1 & d n decompose wat]1 ev5 at a r high temp]ature4 ,moreov]1 !y only displace hydrog5 f v few acids4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is also se5 9 ! dissimil>ity ( ! prop]ties ( _m ( ! correspond+ comp\nds4 ,?us cupr\s oxide1 ,cu#b,o1 & silv] oxide1 ,ag#b,o1 are insoluble 9 wat]3 ! cupr\s & silv] c>bonates1 *lorides1 & sulphates are also sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,! oxides ( silv] & copp] are also easily r$uc$ to metal4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 prop]ties is 9 intimate relation ) t diff]5ce 9 ! d5sity ( ! metals :i* exi/s 9 ?is case4 ,! alkali metals belong to ! lighte/1 & copp] & silv] to ! heavie/1 & !re=e ! di/ance betwe5 ! molecules 9 ^! metals is v dissimil>--x is great] = ! =m] ?an ! latt] 7tables 9 ,*apt] ,,xv474 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! p]iodic law1 ?is diff]5ce betwe5 copp] & silv] & su* elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,i4 z potassium & rubidium1 is cle>ly se5 f ! fact t copp] & silv] /& 9 ! middle ( ^? l>ge p]iods 7= example1 ,k1 ,ca1 ,sc1 ,ti1 ,v1 ,cr1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 ,zn1 ,ga1 ,ge1 ,z1 ,se1 ,br7 :i* />t ) ! true metals ( ! alkalis--t is to say1 ! analogy & diff]5ce betwe5 potassium & copp] are ( ! same nature z t betwe5 *romium & sel5ium1 or vanadium & ars5ic4 ,copp] is "o ( ! few metals :i* h long be5 kn[n 9 a metallic =m4 ,! ,greeks & ,romans import$ copp] *iefly f ! isl& ( ,cyprus--:5ce its ,lat9 "n1 cuprum4 ,x 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts be=e iron1 & 0 us$1 especially :5 alloy$ ) o!r metals1 = arms & dome/ic ut5sils4 ,t copp] 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts w be und]/ood f ! fact t x occurs1 al?\gh r>ely1 9 a native /ate1 & is easily extract$ f its o!r natural comp\nds4 ,among ! latt] are ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( copp]4 ,:5 ignit$ ) *>coal1 !y easily give up _! oxyg5 to x1 & yield metallic copp]2 hydrog5 also easily takes up ! oxyg5 f copp] oxide :5 heat$4 ,copp] occurs 9 a native /ate1 sometimes 9 association ) o!r ores1 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,urals & 9 ,sw$51 & 9 consid]able masses 9 ,am]ica1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! great ,am]ican lakes2 & also 9 ,*ili1 ,japan1 & ,*9a4 ,! oxyg5 comp\nds ( copp] are also ( some:at common occurr5ce 9 c]ta9 localities2 9 ?is respect c]ta9 deposits ( ! ,urals are especially fam\s4 ,! geological p]iod ( ! ,urals 7,p]mian7 is *>act]is$ by a consid]able di/ribution ( copp] ores4 ,copp] is met ) 9 ! =m ( cupr\s oxide1 or suboxide ( copp]1 ,cu#b,o1 & is !n kn[n z r$ copp] ore1 because x =ms r$ masses :i* n unfrequ5tly are cry/allis$ 9 ! regul> sy/em4 ,x is f\nd mu* m r>ely 9 ! /ate ( cupric oxide1 ,cu,o1 & is !n call$ black copp] ore4 ,! mo/ common ( ! oxyg5is$ comp\nds ( copp] are ! basic c>bonates correspond+ ) ! oxides4 ,t ^! comp\nds are und\bt$ly ( aque\s orig9 is app>5t1 n only f ! fact t specim5s are frequ5tly f\nd ( a gradual transition f ! metallic1 sulphurett$1 & oxidis$ copp] into its v>i\s c>bonates1 b also f ! pres5ce ( wat] 9 _! composition1 & f ! lam9>1 r5i=m /ructure :i* _m ( !m pres5t4 ,9 ?is respect mala*ite is p>ticul>ly well kn[n2 x is us$ z a gre5 pa9t & also = ornam5ts1 ow+ to ! div]sity ( ! %ades ( col\r pres5t$ by ! diff]5t lay]s ( deposit$ mala*ite4 ,! composition ( mala*ite corresponds ) ! basic c>bonate conta9+ "o molecule ( cupric c>bonate to "o ( hydroxide3 ,cu,c,o#c1;,cu,h#b,o#b4 ,9 ?is =m ! copp] frequ5tly occurs 9 admixture ) v>i\s s$im5t>y rocks1 =m+ l>ge /rata1 :i* confirms ! aque\s orig9 ( ^! comp\nds4 ,!re are _m su* localities 9 ! ,p]m & o!r ,gov]nm5ts b\nd+ ! ,urals4 ,blue c>bonate ( copp]1 or azurite1 is also (t5 met ) 9 ! same localities2 x conta9s ! same +r$i5ts z mala*ite1 b 9 a diff]5t proportion1 its composition be+ ,cu,h#b,o#b1b;,cu,c,o#c4 ,bo? ^! sub/ances may be obta9$ artificially by ! action ( ! alkali c>bonates on solutions ( cupric salts at v>i\s temp]atures4 ,^! native c>bonates are (t5 us$ = ! extraction ( copp]1 all ! m z !y v readily give metallic copp]1 evolv+ wat] & c>bonic anhydride :5 ignit$1 & leav+ ! easily-r$ucible cupric oxide4 ,copp] is1 h[ev]1 /ill m (t5 met ) 9 ! =m ( ! sulphides4 ,! sulphides ( copp] g5]ally occur 9 *emical comb9ation ) ! sulphides ( iron4#c ,^! copp]-sulphur comp\nds 7copp] pyrites ,cu,fe,s#b1 v>iegat$ copp] ore ,cu#c;,fe,s#c1 c47 g5]ally occur 9 ve9s 9 a rock gangue4 #c ,iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 v (t5 conta9 a small quantity ( copp] sulphide 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #b bis71 & on burn+ ! iron pyrites = sulphur\s anhydride ! copp] oxide rema9s 9 ! residue1 f :i* ! copp] is (t5 extract$ ) pr(it4 ,= ?is purpose ! :ole ( ! sulphur is n burnt (f f ! iron pyrites1 b a portion is left beh9d 9 ! ore1 :i* is !n sl[ly ignit$ 7roa/$7 ) access ( air4 ,cupric sulphate is !n =m$1 & is extract$ by wat]2 or :at is bett] & m frequ5tly done1 ! residue f ! roa/+ ( ! pyrites is roa/$ ) common salt1 & ! solution ( cupric *loride obta9$ by lixiviat+ is precipitat$ ) iron4 ,a f> great] am\nt ( copp] is obta9$ f o!r sulphurett$ ores4 ,among ^! copp] glance1 ,cu#b,s1 is m r>ely met )4 ,x has a metallic lu/re1 is grey1 g5]ally cry/all9e1 & is obta9$ 9 admixture ) organic matt]2 s t !re is no d\bt t its orig9 is due to ! r$uc+ action ( ! latt] on solutions ( cupric sulphate4 ,v>iegat$ copp] ore1 :i* cry/allises 9 octah$ra1 n infrequ5tly =ms an admixture 9 copp] glance2 x has a metallic lu/re1 & is r$di%-br[n2 x has a sup]ficial play ( col\rs1 due to oxidation proce$+ on its surface4 ,its composition is ,cu#c;,fe,s#c4 ,b ! mo/ common & widely-di/ribut$ copp] ore is copp] pyrites1 :i* cry/allises 9 regul> octah$ra2 x has a metallic lu/re1 a sp4 gr4 ( #dj1 & yell[ col\r4 ,its composition is ,cu,fe,s#b4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! sulphur\s ores ( copp] are oxidis$ 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] conta9+ oxyg5 9 solution1 & =m cupric sulphate1 blue vitriol1 :i* is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,if ?is wat] conta9s calcium c>bonate1 gypsum & cupric c>bonate are =m$ by d\ble decomposition3 ,cu,s,o#d ,ca,c,o#c ,cu,c,o#c ,ca,s,o#d4 ,h5ce copp] sulphide 9 ! =m ( diff]5t ores mu/ be consid]$ z ! prim>y product1 & ! _m o!r copp] ores z second>y products1 =m$ by wat]4 ,?is is confirm$ by ! fact t at ! pres5t "t ! wat] extract$ f _m copp] m9es conta9s cupric sulphate 9 solution4 ,f ?is liquid x is easy to extract cupric oxide by ! action ( organic matt] & v>i\s impurities ( wat]4 ,h5ce metallic copp] is sometimes f\nd 9 natural products ( ! modification ( copp] sulphide & is probably deposit$ by ! action ( organic matt] pres5t 9 ! wat]4 ,! extraction ( copp] f its oxide ores does n pres5t any difficulty1 because ! copp]1 :5 ignit$ ) *>coal & melt$1 is r$uc$ f ! impurities :i* accompany x4 ,?is mode ( smelt+ copp] ores is c>ri$ on 9 cupola or cyl9drical furnaces1 fluxes =m+ a slag be+ add$ to ! mixture ( ore & *>coal4 ,! smelt$ copp] /ill conta9s sulphur1 iron1 & o!r metallic impurities1 f :i* x is fre$ by fusion 9 rev]b]atory furnaces1 ) access ( air to ! surface ( ! molt5 metal1 z ! iron & sulphur are m easily oxidis$ ?an ! copp]4 ,! iron !n sep>ates z oxides1 :i* collect 9 ! slag4#d #d ,copp] ores ri* 9 oxyg5 are v r>e2 ! sulphur ores are ( m common occurr5ce1 b ! extraction ( ! copp] f !m is mu* m difficult4 ,! problem "h n only consi/s 9 ! removal ( ! sulphur1 b also 9 ! removal ( ! iron comb9$ ) ! sulphur & copp]4 ,?is is atta9$ by a :ole s]ies ( op]ations1 aft] :i* !re /ill sometimes rema9s ! extraction ( ! metallic silv] :i* g5]ally accompanies ! copp]1 al?\gh 9 b small quantity4 ,^! processes comm5ce ) ! roa/+--i4e4 calc9ation--( ! ore ) access ( air1 by :i* means ! sulphur is conv]t$ into sulphur\s anhydride4 ,x %\ld "h be rem>k$ t iron sulphide is m easily oxidis$ ?an copp] sulphide1 & !re=e ! great] "p ( ! iron 9 ! residue f roa/+ is no long] 9 ! =m ( sulphide b ( oxide ( iron4 ,! roa/$ ore is mix$ ) *>coal1 & silice\s fluxes1 & smelt$ 9 a cupola furnace4 ,! iron !n passes into ! slag1 because its oxide gives an easily-fusible mass ) ! silica1 :il/ ! copp]1 9 ! =m ( sulphide1 fuses & collects "u ! slag4 ,! great] "p ( ! iron is remov$ f ! mass by ?is smelt+4 ,! resultant co>se metal is aga9 roa/$ 9 ord] to remove ! great] "p ( ! sulphur f ! copp] sulphide1 & to conv]t ! metal into oxide1 aft] :i* ! mass is aga9 smelt$4 ,^! processes are repeat$ sev]al times1 accord+ to ! ri*ness ( ! ore4 ,dur+ ^! smelt+s a portion ( ! copp] is already obta9$ 9 a metallic =m1 because copp] sulphide gives metallic copp] ) ! oxide 7,cu,s #b;,cu,o #c;,cu ,,s#b74 ,we w n "h describe ! furnaces us$ or ! details ( ?is process1 b ! above rem>ks include ! explanation ( ^? *emical processes :i* are accompli%$ 9 ! v>i\s te*nical op]ations :i* are made use ( 9 ! process 7= details see works on metallurgy74 ,besides ! smelt+ ( copp] !re also exi/ me?ods = its extraction f solutions 9 ! wet way1 z x is call$4 ,rec\rse is g5]ally _h to ^! me?ods = poor copp] ores4 ,! copp] is br\ght into solution1 f :i* x is sep>at$ by means ( metallic iron or by o!r me?ods 7by ! action ( an electric curr5t74 ,! sulphides are roa/$ 9 su* a mann] t ! great] "p ( ! copp] is oxidis$ into cupric sulphate1 :il/ at ! same "t ! correspond+ iron salts are z f> z possible decompos$4 ,?is process is bas$ on ! fact t ! copp] sulphides absorb oxyg5 :5 !y are calc9$ 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 =m+ cupric sulphate4 ,! roa/$ ore is treat$ ) wat]1 to :i* acid is sometimes add$1 & aft] lixiviation ! resultant solution conta9+ copp] is treat$ ei!r ) metallic iron or ) milk ( lime1 :i* precipitates cupric hydroxide f ! solution4 ,copp] oxide ores poor 9 metal may be treat$ ) dilute acids 9 ord] to obta9 ! copp] oxides 9 solution1 f :i* ! copp] is !n easily precipitat$ ei!r by iron or z hydroxide by lime4 ,accord+ to ,hunt & ,d\glas's me?od1 ! copp] 9 ! ore is conv]t$ by calc9ation into ! cupric oxide1 :i* is br\ght into solution by ! action ( a mixture ( solutions ( f]r\s sulphate & sodium *loride2 ! oxide conv]ts ! f]r\s *loride into f]ric oxide1 =m+ copp] *lorides1 accord+ to ! equation #c;,cu,o #b;,fe,cl#b ,cu,cl#b #b;,cu,cl ,fe#b,o#c4 ,! cupric *loride is soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ! cupr\s *loride is dissolv$ 9 ! solution ( sodium *loride1 & !re=e all ! copp] passes into solution1 f :i* x is precipitat$ by iron4 ,! same ,am]ican metallurgi/s give ! foll[+ wet me?od = extract+ ! ,ag & ,au occurr+ 9 _m copp] ores1 especially 9 sulphur\s ores3 7#a7 ,! ,cu#b,s is fir/ conv]t$ into oxide by roa/+ 9 a calc9]2 7#b7 ! ,cu,o is extract$ by ! dilute sulphuric acid obta9$ 9 ! f\r? process1 ! ,cu !n passes into solution1 :ile ! ,ag1 ,au & oxides ( iron rema9 beh9d 9 ! residue 7f :i* ! noble metals may be extract$72 7#c7 a portion ( ! copp] 9 solution is conv]t$ into ,cu,cl#b 7& ,ca,s,o#d precipitat$7 by means ( ! ,ca,cl#b obta9$ 9 ! fif? process2 7#d7 ! mixture ( solutions ( ,cu,s,o#d & ,cu,cl#b is conv]t$ into ! insoluble ,cu,cl 7salt ( ! suboxide7 by ! action ( ! ,,s#b obta9$ by roa/+ ! ore 79 ! fir/ op]ation71 sulphuric acid is !n =m$ 9 ! solution1 accord+ to ! equation3 ,cu,s,o#d ,cu,cl#b ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o #b;,h#b,,s#d #b;,cu,cl2 7#e7 ! precipitat$ ,cu,cl is treat$ ) lime & wat]1 & gives ,cu,cl#b 9 solution & ,cu,o 9 ! residue2 & la/ly 7#f7 ! ,cu#b,o is r$uc$ to metallic ,cu by c>bon 9 a furnace4 ,accord+ to ,crooke's me?od ! impure copp] regulus obta9$ by roa/+ & smelt+ ! ore is brok5 up & imm]s$ repeat$ly 9 molt5 lead1 :i* extracts ! ,ag & ,au occurr+ 9 ! regulus4 ,! regulus is !n heat$ 9 a rev]b]atory furnace to run (f ! lead1 & is !n smelt$ = ,cu4 ,! copp] br\ght into ! m>ket (t5 conta9s small quantities ( v>i\s impurities4 ,among ^! !re are g5]ally pres5t iron1 lead1 silv]1 ars5ic1 & sometimes small quantities ( oxides ( copp]4 ,z copp]1 :5 mix$ ) a small am\nt ( =eign sub/ances1 loses its t5acity to a c]ta9 degree1 ! manufacture ( v ?9 %eet copp] requires ! use ( ,*ili copp]1 :i* is di/+ui%$ = its great s(tness1 & !re=e :5 x is desir$ to h pure copp]1 x is be/ to take ?9 %eet copp]1 l t :i* is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( c>tridges4 ,b ! pure/ copp] is electrolytic copp]--t is1 t :i* is deposit$ f a solution by ! action ( an electric curr5t4 ,if ! copp] conta9s silv]1 z is (t5 ! case1 x is us$ 9 gold ref9]ies = ! precipitation ( silv] f its solutions 9 sulphuric acid4 ,iron & z9c r$uce copp] salts1 b copp] r$uces m]cury & silv] salts4 ,! precipitate conta9s n only ! silv] :i* 0 previ\sly 9 solution1 b also all t :i* 0 9 ! copp]4 ,! silv] solutions 9 sulphuric acid are obta9$ 9 ! sep>ation ( silv] f gold by treat+ _! alloys ) sulphuric acid1 :i* only dissolves ! silv]4 ,copp] is *>act]is$ by its r$ col\r1 :i* di/+ui%es x f all o!r metals4 ,pure copp] is s(t1 & may be beat5 out by a hamm] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & :5 hot may be roll$ into v ?9 %eets4 ,extremely ?9 leaves ( copp] transmit a gre5 light4 ,! t5acity ( copp] is also consid]able1 & next to iron x is "o ( ! mo/ durable metals 9 ?is respect4 ,copp] wire ( #a sq4 millimetre 9 section only breaks "u a weight ( #de kilograms4 ,! specific gravity ( copp] is #hh1 unless x conta9s cavities due to ! fact t molt5 copp] absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 :i* is dis5gag$ on cool+1 & !re=e gives a por\s mass ^: d5sity is mu* less4 ,roll$ copp]1 & also t :i* is deposit$ by ! electric curr5t1 has a comp>atively high d5sity4 ,copp] melts at a bright r$ heat1 ab\t #ajej1 al?\gh bel[ ! temp]ature at :i* _m k9ds ( ca/ iron melt4 ,at a high temp]ature x is conv]t$ into vap\r1 :i* communicates a gre5 col\r to ! flame4 ,bo? native copp] & t cool$ f a molt5 /ate cry/allise 9 regul> octah$ra4 ,copp] is n oxidis$ 9 dry air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b :5 calc9$ x becomes coat$ ) a lay] ( oxide1 & x does n burn ev5 at ! highe/ temp]ature4 ,copp]1 :5 calc9$ 9 air1 =ms ei!r ! r$ cupr\s oxide or ! black cupric oxide1 accord+ to ! temp]ature & quantity ( air suppli$4 ,9 air at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 copp]--z ev]yone kn[s--becomes coat$ ) a br[n lay] ( oxides or a gre5 coat+ ( basic salts1 due to ! action ( ! damp air conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,if ?is action cont9ue = a prolong$ "t1 ! copp] is cov]$ ) a ?ick coat+ ( basic c>bonate1 or ! s-call$ v]digris 7! rugo nobilis ( anci5t /atues74 ,?is is due to ! fact t copp]1 al?\gh sc>cely capable ( oxidis+ by itself1#e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & acids--ev5 v feeble acids1 l c>bonic acid--absorbs oxyg5 f ! air & =ms salts1 :i* is a v *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( x 7& ( lead74#f ,copp] does n decompose wat]1 & !re=e does n dis5gage hydrog5 f x ei!r at ! ord9>y or at high temp]atures4 ,nor does copp] lib]ate hydrog5 f ! oxyg5 acids2 ^! act on x 9 two ways3 !y ei!r give up a portion ( _! oxyg51 =m+ l[] grades ( oxidation1 or else only react 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 ,?us1 :5 nitric acid acts on copp] x evolves nitric oxide1 ! copp] be+ oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( ! nitric acid4 ,9 ! same way copp] conv]ts sulphuric acid into ! l[] grade ( oxidation--into sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b4 ,9 ^! cases ! copp] is oxidis$ to copp] oxide1 :i* comb9es ) ! excess ( acid tak51 & !re=e =ms a cupric salt1 ,cu,x#b4 ,dilute nitric acid does n act on copp] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b :5 heat$ x reacts ) great ease2 dilute sulphuric acid does n act on copp] except 9 pres5ce ( air4 #e ,s*tz5b]g] %[$ t :5 ! basic c>bonate ( copp] is decompos$ by an electric curr5t x gives1 besides ! ord9>y copp]1 an allotropic =m :i* gr[s on ! negative plat9um electrode1 if its surface be small] ?an t ( ! positive copp] electrode1 9 ! =m ( brittle cry/all9e gr[?s ( sp4 gr4 #ha4 ,x diff]s f ord9>y copp] by giv+ n nitric oxide b nitr\s oxide :5 treat$ ) nitric acid1 & 9 be+ v easily oxidis$ 9 air1 & coat$ ) r$ %ades ( col\r4 ,x is possible t ?is is copp] hydride1 or copp] :i* has occlud$ hydrog54 ,spr+ 7#ahib7 obs]v$ t copp] r$uc$ f ! oxide by hydrog5 at ! l[e/ possible temp]ature 0 pulv]ul5t1 :ile t r$uc$ f ,cu,cl#b at a some:at high temp]ature appe>$ 9 bright cry/als4 ,! same diff]5ce occurs ) _m o!r metals1 & is probably p>tly due to ! volatility ( ! metallic *lorides4 #f ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 practice2 = in/ance1 by p\r+ dilute acids ov] copp] turn+s on revolv+ tables 9 ! prep>ation ( copp] salts1 su* z v]digris1 or ! basic acetate #b;,c#d;,h#f;,cu,o#d1;,cu,h#b,o#b1e;,h#b ,o1 :i* is s mu* us$ z an oil pa9t 7i4e4 ) boil$ oil74 ,! capacity ( copp] = absorb+ oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( acids is s great t x is possible by ?is means 7by tak+1 = example1 ?9 copp] %av+s moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid7 to take up all ! oxyg5 f a giv5 volume ( air1 & ?is is ev5 employ$ = ! analysis ( air4 ,! comb9ation ( copp] ) oxyg5 is n only aid$ by acids b also by alkalis1 al?\gh cupric oxide does n appe> to h an acid "*4 ,alkalis d n act on copp] except 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 :5 !y produce cupric oxide1 :i* does n appe> to comb9e ) su* alkalis z cau/ic pota% or soda4 ,b ! action ( ammonia is p>ticul>ly di/9ct 7,*apt] ,v41 ,note #b74 ,9 ! action ( a solution ( ammonia n only is oxyg5 absorb$ by ! copp]1 b x also acts on ! ammonia1 & a def9ite quantity ( ammonia is always act$ on simultane\sly ) ! passage ( ! copp] into solution4 ,! ammonia is !n conv]t$ into nitr\s acid1 accord+ to ! reaction3 ,,nh#c ,o#c ,,nho#b ,h#b,o1 & ! nitr\s acid ?us =m$ passes into ! /ate ( ammonium nitrite1 ,,nh#d,,no#b4 ,9 ?is mann] ?ree equival5ts ( oxyg5 are exp5d$ on ! oxidation ( ! ammonia1 & six equival5ts ( oxyg5 pass ov] to ! copp]1 =m+ six atoms ( cupric oxide4 ,! latt] does n rema9 9 ! /ate ( oxide1 b comb9es ) ! ammonia4 ,a /rong solution ( common salt does n act on copp]1 b a dilute solution ( ! salt corrodes copp]1 conv]t+ x into oxy*loride--t is1 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 ,?is action ( salt wat] is evid5t 9 ^? cases :]e ! bottoms ( %ips are coat$ ) %eet copp]4 ,f :at has be5 said above x w be evid5t t copp] vessels %\ld n be employ$ 9 ! prep>ation ( food1 because ?is conta9s salts & acids :i* act on copp] 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 & give copp] salts1 :i* are poison\s1 & !re=e ! food prep>$ 9 unt9n$ copp] vessels may be poison\s4 ,h5ce t9n$ vessels are employ$ = ?is purpose--t is1 copp] vessels coat$ ) a ?9 lay] ( t91 on :i* acid & sal9e solutions d n act4 ,bo? ! oxides ( copp]1 ,cu#b,o & ,cu,o1 are unact$ on by air1 &1 z already m5tion$1 !y bo? occur 9 nature4#f bis ,h[ev]1 9 ! majority ( cases copp] is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( cupric oxide & its salts--& ! copp] comp\nds us$ indu/rially g5]ally belong to ?is type4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! cupr\s comp\nds absorb oxyg5 f ! air & pass into cupric comp\nds4 ,! cupric comp\nds may s]ve z ! s\rce = ! prep>ation ( cupr\s oxide1 because _m r$uc+ ag5ts are capable ( deoxidis+ ! oxide into ! suboxide4 ,organic sub/ances are mo/ g5]ally employ$ = ?is purpose1 & especially sac*>9e sub/ances1 :i* are able1 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 to und]go oxidation at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! cupric oxide1 & to give acids :i* comb9e ) ! alkali3 #b;,cu,o - ,o ,cu#b,o4 ,9 ?is case ! deoxidation ( ! copp] may be c>ri$ fur!r & metallic copp] obta9$1 if only ! reaction be aid$ by heat4 ,?us1 = example1 a f9e p[d] ( metallic copp] may be obta9$ by heat+ an ammoniacal solution ( cupric oxide ) cau/ic pota% & grape sug>4 ,b if ! r$uc+ action ( ! sac*>9e sub/ance proce$ 9 ! pres5ce ( a suffici5t quantity ( alkali 9 solution1 & at n too high a temp]ature1 cupr\s oxide is obta9$4 ,to see ?is reaction cle>ly1 x is n suffici5t to take any cupric salt1 because ! alkali necess>y = ! reaction might precipitate cupric oxide--x is necess>y to add previ\sly "s sub/ance :i* w prev5t ?is precipitation4 ,among su* sub/ances1 t>t>ic acid1 ,c#d;,h#f,o#f1 is "o ( ! be/4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( a suffici5t quantity ( t>t>ic acid1 any am\nt ( alkali may be add$ to a solution ( cupric salt )\t produc+ a precipitate1 because a soluble d\ble salt ( cupric oxide & alkali is !n =m$4 ,if glucose 7= in/ance1 honey or molasses7 be add$ to su* an alkal9e t>t>ic solution1 & ! temp]ature be slightly rais$1 x fir/ gives a yell[ precipitate 7?is is cupr\s hydroxide1 ,cu,h,o71 & !n1 on boil+1 a r$ precipitate ( 7anhydr\s7 cupr\s oxide4 ,if su* a mixture be left = a long "t at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x deposits well-=m$ cry/als ( anhydr\s cupr\s oxide belong+ to ! regul> sy/em4#g #f bis ,copp]1 besides ! cupr\s oxide1 ,cu#b,o1 & cupric oxide1 ,cu,o1 gives two kn[n high] =ms ( oxidation1 b !y h sc>cely be5 inve/igat$1 & ev5 _! composition is n well kn[n4 ,copp] dioxide 7,cu,o#b1 or ,cu,o#b1;,h#b,o1 p]haps ,cu,o,h#b,o#b7 is obta9$ by ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide on cupric hydroxide1 :5 ! gre5 col\r ( ! latt] is *ang$ to yell[4 ,x is v un/able1 & is decompos$ ev5 by boil+ wat]1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 :il/ ! action ( acids gives cupric salts1 oxyg5 be+ also dis5gag$4 ,a /ill high] copp] p]oxide is =m$ by heat+ a mixture ( cau/ic pota%1 nitre1 & metallic copp] to a r$ heat1 & by dissolv+ cupric hydroxide 9 solutions ( ! hypo*lorites ( ! alkali metals4 ,a slight heat+ ( ! soluble salt =m$ is en\gh = x to be decompos$ into oxyg5 & copp] dioxide1 :i* is precipitat$4 ,judg+ f ,frmy's rese>*es1 ! composition ( ! copp]-potassic comp\nd %\ld be ,k#b;,cu,o#d4 ,p]haps ?is is a comp\nd ( ! p]oxides ( potassium1 ,k#b,o#b1 & ( copp]1 ,cu,o#b4 #g ,col\rless solutions ( cupr\s salts may also be obta9$ by ! action ( sulphur\s or phosphor\s acid & simil> l[] grades ( oxidation on ! blue solutions ( ! cupric salts4 ,?is is v cle>ly & easily effect$ by means ( sodium ?iosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1 :i* is oxidis$ 9 ! process4 ,cupr\s oxide c n only be obta9$ by ! deoxidation ( cupric oxide1 b also directly f metallic copp] itself1 because ! latt]1 9 oxidis+ at a r$ heat 9 air1 fir/ gives cupr\s oxide4 ,x is prep>$ 9 ?is mann] on a l>ge scale by heat+ %eet copp] roll$ into spirals 9 rev]b]atory furnaces4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! air is n 9 great excess1 & t ! coat+ ( r$ cupr\s oxide =m$ does n beg9 to pass into ! black cupric oxide4 ,if ! oxidis$ spiral %eet is !n unb5t1 ! brittle cupr\s oxide falls away f ! s(t metal4 ,! suboxide obta9$ 9 ?is mann] fuses ) ease4 ,x is necess>y to prev5t ! access ( air dur+ ! fusion1 & if ! mass conta9s cupric oxide x mu/ be mix$ ) *>coal1 :i* r$uces ! latt]4 ,cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl1 correspond+ ) cupr\s oxide 7z sodium *loride corresponds ) sodium oxide71 :5 calc9$ ) sodium c>bonate1 gives sodium *loride & cupr\s oxide1 c>bonic anhydride be+ evolv$1 because x does n comb9e ) ! cupr\s oxide "u ^! conditions4 ,! reaction c be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 #b;,cu,cl ,na#b;,,co#c ,cu#b,o #b,na,cl ,,co#b4 ,! cupric oxide itself1 :5 calc9$ ) f9ely-divid$ copp]1 ?is copp] p[d] may be obta9$ by _m me?ods--= in/ance1 by imm]s+ z9c 9 a solution ( a copp] salt1 or by ignit+ cupric oxide 9 hydrog571 gives ! fusible cupr\s oxide3 ,cu ,cu,o ,cu#b,o4 ,bo? ! native & artificial cupr\s oxide h a sp4 gr4 ( #ef4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is n act$ on by 7dry7 air4 ,:5 heat$ ) acids ! suboxide =ms a solution ( a cupric salt & metallic copp]--= example1 ,cu#b,o ,h#b,,s#d ,cu ,cu,s,o#d ,h#b,o4 ,h[ev]1 /rong hydro*loric acid does n sep>ate metallic copp] on dissolv+ cupr\s oxide1 :i* is due to ! fact t ! cupr\s *loride =m$ is soluble 9 /rong hydro*loric acid4 ,cupr\s oxide also dissolves 9 a solution ( ammonia1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( air gives a col\rless solution1 :i* turns blue 9 ! air1 absorb+ oxyg51 ow+ to ! conv]sion ( ! cupr\s oxide into cupric oxide4 ,! blue solution ?us =m$ may be aga9 reconv]t$ into a col\rless cupr\s solution by imm]s+ a copp] /rip 9 x1 because ! metallic copp] !n deoxidises ! cupric oxide 9 ! solution into cupr\s oxide4 ,cupr\s oxide is *>act]is$ by ! fact t x gives r$ glasses :5 fus$ ) glass or ) salts =m+ vitre\s alloys4 ,glass t9t$ ) cupr\s oxide is us$ = ornam5ts4 ,! access ( air mu/ be avoid$ dur+ its prep>ation1 because ! col\r !n becomes gre51 ow+ to ! =mation ( cupric oxide1 :i* col\rs glass blue4 ,?is may ev5 be tak5 advantage ( 9 te/+ = copp] "u ! bl[-pipe by heat+ ! copp] comp\nd ) borax 9 ! flame ( a bl[-pipe2 a r$ glass is obta9$ 9 ! r$uc+ flame1 & a blue glass 9 ! oxidis+ flame1 ow+ to ! conv]sion ( ! cupr\s into cupric oxide4 t>d 7#ahhb71 by pass+ sulphur\s anhydride into a solution ( cupric acetate1 obta9$ a :ite precipitate ( cupr\s sulphite1 ,cu#b,,s#c1;,h#b,o1 :il/ he obta9$ ! same salt1 ( a r$ col\r1 f ! d\ble salt ( sodium & copp]2 b !re are n any conv9c+ pro(s ( isom]ism 9 ?is case4 ,cupric *loride1 ,cu,cl#b1 :5 ignit$1 gives cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl--i4e4 ! salt correspond+ ) suboxide ( copp]--& !re=e cupr\s *loride is always =m$ :5 copp] ent]s into reaction ) *lor9e at a high temp]ature4 ,?us1 = example1 :5 copp] is calc9$ ) m]curic *loride1 x =ms cupr\s *loride & vap\rs ( m]cury4 ,! same sub/ance is obta9$ on heat+ metallic copp] 9 hydro*loric acid1 hydrog5 be+ dis5gag$2 b ?is reaction only proce$s ) f9ely-divid$ copp]1 z hydro*loric acid acts v feebly on compact masses ( copp]1 &1 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 gives cupric *loride4 ,! gre5 solution ( cupric *loride is decoloris$ by metallic copp]1 cupr\s *loride be+ =m$2 b ?is reaction is only accompli%$ ) ease :5 ! solution is v conc5trat$ & 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( hydro*loric acid to dissolve ! cupr\s *loride4 ,! addition ( wat] to ! solution precipitates ! cupr\s *loride1 because x is less soluble 9 dilute ?an 9 /rong hydro*loric acid4 ,_m r$uc+ ag5ts :i* are able to take up half ! oxyg5 f cupric oxide are able1 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid1 to =m cupr\s *loride4 ,/ann\s salts1 sulphur\s anhydride1 alkali sulphites1 phosphor\s & hypophosphor\s acids1 & _m simil> r$uc+ ag5ts1 act 9 ?is mann]4 ,! usual me?od ( prep>+ cupr\s *loride consi/s 9 pass+ sulphur\s anhydride into a v /rong solution ( cupric *loride3 #b;,cu,cl#b ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o #b;,cu,cl #b;,h,cl ,h#b,,s#d4 ,cupr\s *loride =ms col\rless cubic cry/als :i* are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,x is easily fusible1 & ev5 volatile4 ,"u ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts1 x passes into ! cupric salt1 & x absorbs oxyg5 f moi/ air1 =m+ cupric oxy*loride1 ,cu#b;,cl#b,o4 ,aque\s ammonia easily dissolves cupr\s *loride z well z cupr\s oxide2 ! solution also turns blue on exposure to ! air4 ,?us an ammoniacal solution ( cupr\s *loride s]ves z an excell5t absorb5t = oxyg52 b ?is solution absorbs n only oxyg51 b also c]ta9 o!r gases--= example1 c>bonic oxide & acetyl5e4#h #h ,! solubility ( cupr\s *loride 9 ammonia is due to ! =mation ( comp\nds betwe5 ! ammonia & ! *loride4 ,9 a w>m solution ! comp\nd ,,nh#c1b;,cu,cl is =m$1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature ,cu,cl1,,nh#c4 ,?is salt is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 & !n =ms a correspond+ d\ble salt ( cupr\s *loride & ammonium *loride4 ,by ! action ( a c]ta9 excess ( ammonia on a hydro*loric acid solution ( cupr\s *loride1 v well =m$ cry/als1 hav+ ! composition ,cu,cl1,,nh#c1;,h#b,o1 are obta9$4 ,cupr\s *loride is n only soluble 9 ammonia & hydro*loric acid1 b x also dissolves 9 solutions ( c]ta9 o!r salts--= example1 9 sodium *loride1 potassium *loride1 sodium ?iosulphate1 & c]ta9 o!rs4 ,all ! solutions ( cupr\s *loride act 9 _m cases z v p[]ful deoxidis+ sub/ances2 = example1 x is easy1 by means ( ^! solutions1 to precipitate gold f its solutions 9 a metallic =m1 accord+ to ! equation ,au,cl#c #c;,cu,cl ,au #c;,cu,cl#b4 ,among ! o!r comp\nds correspond+ ) cupr\s oxide1 cupr\s iodide1 ,cu,i1 is wor?y ( rem>k4 ,x is a col\rless sub/ance :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & sp>+ly soluble 9 ammonia 7l silv] iodide71 b capable ( absorb+ x1 & 9 ?is respect x resembles cupr\s *loride4 ,x is rem>kable f ! fact t x is exce$+ly easily =m$ f ! correspond+ cupric comp\nd ,cu,i#b4 ,a solution ( cupric iodide easily decomposes into iod9e & cupr\s iodide1 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ cupric *loride only suff]s a simil> *ange on ignition4 ,if a solution ( a cupric salt be mix$ ) a solution ( potassium iodide ! cupric iodide =m$ imm$iately decomposes into free iod9e & cupr\s iodide1 :i* sep>ates out z a precipitate4 ,9 ?is case ! cupric salt acts 9 an oxidis+ mann]1 l1 = example1 nitr\s acid1 ozone1 & o!r sub/ances :i* lib]ate iod9e f iodides1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t x only lib]ates half1 :il/ !y set free ! :ole ( ! iod9e f potassium iodide3 #b,,ki ,cu,cl#b #b,k,cl ,cu,i ,i4 ,x mu/ also be rem>k$ t cupr\s oxide1 :5 treat$ ) hydr(luoric acid1 gives an insoluble cupr\s fluoride1 ,cu,f4 ,cupr\s cyanide is also insoluble 9 wat]1 & is obta9$ by ! addition ( hydrocyanic acid to a solution ( cupric *loride saturat$ ) sulphur\s anhydride4 ,?is cupr\s cyanide1 l silv] cyanide1 gives a d\ble soluble salt ) potassium cyanide4 ,! d\ble cyanide ( copp] & potassium is tol]ably /able 9 ! air1 & ent]s into d\ble decompositions ) v>i\s o!r salts1 l ^? d\ble cyanides ( iron ) :i* we are already acqua9t$4 ,copp] hydride1 ,cu,h1 also belongs to ! numb] ( ! cupr\s comp\nds4 ,x 0 obta9$ by ,wrtz by mix+ a hot 7#gj7 solution ( cupric sulphate ) a solution ( hypophosphor\s acid1 ,h#c,,po#b4 ,! addition ( ! r$uc+ hypophosphor\s acid mu/ be /opp$ :5 a br[n precipitate makes its appe>ance1 & :5 gas beg9s to be evolv$4 ,! br[n precipitate is ! hydrat$ cupr\s hydride4 ,:5 g5tly heat$ x dis5gages hydrog52 x gives cupr\s oxide :5 expos$ to ! air1 burns 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 & lib]ates hydrog5 ) hydro*loric acid3 ,cu,h ,h,cl ,cu,cl ,h#b4 ,z9c1 silv]1 m]cury1 lead1 & _m o!r heavy metals d n =m su* a comp\nd ) hydrog51 nei!r "u ^! circum/ances nor "u ! action ( hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( ! decomposition ( salts by a galvanic curr5t4 ,! greate/ resemblance is se5 betwe5 cupr\s hydride & ! hydrog5 comp\nds ( potassium1 sodium1 ,pd1 ,ca1 & ,ba4 ,:5 copp] is oxidis$ ) a consid]able quantity ( oxyg5 at a high temp]ature1 or at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 & also :5 x decomposes acids1 conv]t+ !m into l[] grades ( oxidation 7= example1 :5 submitt$ to ! action ( nitric & sulphuric acids71 x =ms cupric oxide1 ,cu,o1 or1 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 cupric salts4 ,copp] ru/1 or t black mass :i* =ms on ! surface ( copp] :5 x is calc9$1 consi/s ( cupric oxide4 ,! coat+ ( ! oxidis$ copp] is v easily sep>at$ f ! metallic copp]1 because x is brittle & v easily peels (f1 :5 x is /ruck or imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,_m copp] salts 7= in/ance1 ! nitrite & c>bonate7 leave oxide ( copp]#h bis 9 ! =m ( friable black p[d]1 aft] be+ ignit$4 ,if ! ignition be c>ri$ fur!r1 ,cu#b,o may be =m$ f ! ,cu,o4#h tri ,anhydr\s cupric oxide is v easily dissolv$ 9 acids1 =m+ cupric salts1 ,cu,x#b4 ,!y are analog\s to ! salts ,mg,x#b1 ,zn,x#b1 ,ni,x#b1 ,fe,x#b1 9 _m respects4 ,on add+ potassium or ammonium hydroxide to a solution ( a cupric salt1 x =ms a gelat9\s blue precipitate ( ! hydrat$ oxide ( copp]1 ,cu,h#b,o#b1 insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! resultant precipitate is r$issolv$ by an excess ( ammonia1 & gives a v beautiful azure blue solution1 ( s int5se a col\r t ! pres5ce ( small traces ( cupric salts may be discov]$ by ?is means4#i ,an excess ( potassium or sodium hydroxide does n dissolve cupric hydroxide4 ,a hot solution gives a black precipitate ( ! anhydr\s oxide in/ead ( ! blue precipitate1 & ! precipitate ( ! hydroxide ( copp] becomes granul>1 & turns black :5 ! solution is heat$4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! blue hydroxide is exce$+ly un/able1 & :5 slightly heat$ x loses ! elem5ts ( wat] & gives ! black anhydr\s cupric oxide3 ,cu,h#b,o#b ,cu,o ,h#b,o4 #h bis ,! oxide ( copp] obta9$ by ignit+ ! nitrate is frequ5tly us$ = organic analyses4 ,x is hygroscopic & reta9s nitrog5 7#ae c4c4 p] gram7 :5 ! nitrate is heat$ 9 vacuo 7,ri*>ds & ,rog]s1 #ahic74 #h tri ,oxide ( copp] is also capable ( dissociat+ :5 heat$4 ,debray & ,joannis %[$ t x !n dis5gages oxyg51 ^: maximum t5sion is con/ant = a giv5 temp]ature1 provid+ t fusion does n take place 7! ,cu,o !n dissolves 9 ! molt5 ,cu#b,o72 t ?is loss ( oxyg5 is foll[$ by ! =mation ( suboxide1 & t on cool+1 ! oxyg5 is aga9 absorb$1 =m+ ,cu,o4 #i ,cupric oxide & _m ( its salts are able to give def9ite1 al?\gh un/able1 comp\nds ) ammonia4 ,?is faculty already %[s itself 9 ! fact t cupric oxide1 z well z ! salts ( copp]1 dissolves 9 aque\s ammonia1 & also 9 ! fact t salts ( copp] absorb ammonia gas4 ,if ammonia be add$ to a solution ( any cupric salt1 x fir/ =ms a precipitate ( cupric hydroxide1 :i* !n dissolves 9 an excess ( ammonia4 ,! solution ?us =m$1 :5 evaporat$ or on ! addition ( alcohol1 frequ5tly deposits cry/als ( salts conta9+ bo? ! elem5ts ( ! salt ( copp] tak5 & ( ammonia4 ,sev]al su* comp\nds are g5]ally =m$4 ,?us cupric *loride1 ,cu,cl#b1 accord+ to ,deh]a91 =ms f\r comp\nds ) ammonia--namely1 ) "o1 two1 f\r1 & six molecules ( ammonia4 ,?us1 = example1 if ammonia gas be pass$ into a boil+ saturat$ solution ( cupric *loride1 on cool+1 small octah$ral cry/als ( a blue col\r sep>ate out1 conta9+ ,cu,cl#b1b,,nh#c1;,h#b,o4 ,at #aej ?is sub/ance loses half ! ammonia & all ! wat] conta9$ 9 x1 leav+ ! comp\nd ,cu,cl#b1,,nh#c4 ,nitrate ( copp] =ms ! comp\nd ,cu7,,no#c7b1b,,nh#c ,?is comp\nd rema9s un*ang$ on evaporation4 ,dry cupric sulphate absorbs ammonia gas1 & gives a comp\nd conta9+ five molecules ( ammonia to "o ( sulphate 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #beg1 & ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce74 ,if ?is comp\nd is dissolv$ 9 aque\s ammonia1 on evaporation x deposits a cry/all9e sub/ance conta9+ ,cu,s,o#d1d,,nh#c1;,h#b,o4 ,at #aej ?is sub/ance loses ! molecule ( wat] & "o-f\r? ( its ammonia4 ,on ignition all ^! comp\nds "p ) ! rema9+ ammonia 9 ! =m ( an ammoniacal salt1 s t ! residue consi/s ( cupric oxide4 ,bo? ! hydrat$ & anhydr\s cupric oxide are soluble 9 aque\s ammonia4 ,! solution obta9$ by ! action ( aque\s ammonia & air on copp] turn+s 7,note #f7 is rem>kable = its faculty ( dissolv+ cellulose1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 dilute acids1 & alkalis4 ,pap] soak$ 9 su* a solution acquires ! prop]ty ( n rott+1 ( be+ difficultly combu/ible1 & wat]pro(1 c4 ,x has !re=e be5 appli$1 especially 9 ,engl&1 to _m practical purposes--= example1 to ! con/ruction ( tempor>y build+s1 = cov]+ ro(s1 c4 ,! composition ( ! sub/ance held 9 solution is ,cu7,,ho7#b1d,,nh#c4 ,if dry ammonia gas be pass$ ov] cupric oxide heat$ to #bfe1 a portion ( ! oxide ( copp] rema9s unalt]$1 :il/ ! o!r portion gives copp] nitride1 ! oxyg5 ( ! copp] oxide comb9+ ) ! hydrog5 & =m+ wat]4 ,! oxide ( copp] :i* rema9s un*ang$ is easily remov$ by wa%+ ! resultant product ) aque\s ammonia4 ,copp] nitride is v /able1 & is insoluble2 x has ! composition ,cu#c,n 7i4e4 ! copp] is monatomic "h z 9 ,cu#b,o71 & is an amorph\s gre5 p[d]1 :i* is decompos$ :5 /rongly ignit$1 & gives cupr\s *loride & ammonium *loride :5 treat$ ) hydro*loric acid4 ,l ! o!r nitrides1 copp] nitride1 ,cu#c,n1 has sc>cely be5 inve/igat$4 ,grang] 7#ahib71 by heat+ copp] 9 ! vap\r ( phosphorus1 obta9$ hexagonal prisms ( ,cu#e,p1 :i* pass$ into ,cu#f,p 7previ\sly obta9$ by ,abel7 :5 heat$ 9 nitrog54 ,ars5ic is easily absorb$ by copp]1 & its pres5ce 7l ,p71 ev5 9 small quantities1 has a great influ5ce ^u ! prop]ties ( copp]--= in/ance1 pure copp] wire #a sq4 mm4 9 section breaks "u a load ( #ce kilos1 :ile ! pres5ce ( ,o#bb p4c4 ( ars5ic raises ! break+ load to #db kilos4 ,cupric oxide fuses at a /rong heat1 & on cool+ =ms a heavy cry/all9e mass1 :i* is black1 opaque1 & some:at t5aci\s4 ,x is a feebly en]getic base1 s t n only d ! oxides ( ! metals ( ! alkalis & alkal9e e>?s displace x f its comp\nds1 b ev5 su* oxides z ^? ( lead & silv] precipitate x f solutions1 :i* is p>tially due to ^! oxides be+ soluble1 al?\gh b slightly s1 9 wat]4 ,h[ev]1 cupric oxide1 & especially ! hydroxide1 easily comb9es ) ev5 ! lea/ en]getic acids1 & does n give any comp\nds ) bases2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x easily =ms basic salts1#i bis & 9 ?is respect out/rips magnesium & recalls ! oxides ( lead or m]cury4 ,h5ce ! hydroxide ( copp] dissolves 9 solutions ( neutral cupric salts4 ,! cupric salts are g5]ally blue or gre51 because cupric hydroxide itself is col\r$4 ,b "s ( ! salts 9 ! anhydr\s /ate are col\rless4#aj #i bis ,z a comp>atively feeble base1 oxide ( copp] easily =ms bo? basic & d\ble salts4 ,z an in/ance we may m5tion ! d\ble salts compos$ ( ! di*loride ,cu,cl#b1b;,h#b,o & potassium *loride4 ,! d\ble salt ,cu,k#b;,cl#d1b;,h#b,o cry/allises f solutions 9 blue plates1 b :5 heat$ alone or ) sub/ances tak+ up wat] easily gives br[n ne$les ,cu,k,cl#c & at ! same "t ,k,cl1 & ?is reaction is rev]sible at #ib z ,mey]h(f] 7#ahhi7 %[$ 7i4e4 above #ib ! simpl] d\ble salt is =m$ & bel[ #ib ! m complex salt74 ,) an excess ( ! copp] salt1 ,k,cl gives ano!r d\ble salt1 ,cu#b,k,cl#e1d;,h#b,o1 ! transition temp]ature ( :i* is #ee4 ,! in/ances ( equilibria :i* are enc\nt]$ 9 su* complex relations 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #be1 a/rakhanite1 & ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #bc7 are embrac$ by ! law ( phases giv5 by ,gibbs 7,transactions ( ! ,connecticut ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 #ahge-ahgh1 9 ,j4 ,will>d ,gibbs' memoir ',on ! equilibrium ( het]og5e\s sub/ances3' & 9 a cle>] & m accessible =m 9 ,h4 ,w4 ,bakhuis ,roozeboom's pap]s1 ,rec4 trav4 *im41 ,vol4 ,,vi41 & 9 ,w4 ,mey]h(f]'s memoir ,die ,phas5regel und ihre ,anw5dung51 #ahic1 to :i* s\rces we ref] ^? desir+ full] in=mation respect+ ?is law74 ,gibbs calls 'bodies' sub/ances 7simple or comp\nd7 capable ( =m+ homog5e\s complexes 7= in/ance1 solutions or int]comb9ations7 ( a v>i$ composition2 a phase--a me*anically sep>able portion ( su* bodies or ( _! homog5e\s complexes 7= in/ance1 a vap\r1 liquid or precipitat$ solid71 p]fect equilibrium--su* a /ate ( bodies & ( _! complexes z is *>act]is$ by a con/ant pressure at a con/ant temp]ature ev5 "u a *ange 9 ! am\nt ( "o ( ! compon5t p>ts 7= in/ance1 ( a salt 9 a saturat$ solution71 :ile an imp]fect equilibrium is su* a "o = :i* su* a *ange corresponds ) a *ange ( pressure 7= in/ance1 an unsaturat$ solution74 ,! law ( phases consi/s 9 ! fact t3 n bodies only give a p]fect equilibrium :5 n #a phases p>ticipate 9 t equilibrium--= example1 9 ! equilibrium ( a salt 9 its saturat$ solution 9 wat] !re are two bodies 7! salt & wat]7 & ?ree phases1 namely1 ! salt1 solution1 & vap\r1 :i* c be me*anically sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & to ?is equilibrium !re corresponds a def9ite t5sion4 ,at ! same "t1 n bodies may occur 9 n #b phases1 b only at "o def9ite temp]ature & "o pressure2 a *ange ( "o ( ^! may br+ ab\t ano!r /ate 7p]fect or n--equilibrium /able or un/able74 ,?us wat] :5 liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature (f]s two phases 7liquid & vap\r7 & is 9 p]fect equilibrium 7z also is ice bel[ #j71 b wat]1 ice1 & vap\r 7?ree phases & only "o body7 c only be 9 equilibrium at #j1 & at ! ord9>y pressure2 ) a *ange ( t !re w rema9 ei!r only ice & vap\r or only liquid wat] & vap\r2 :il/ ) a rise ( pressure n only w ! vap\r pass into ! liquid 7!re aga9 only rema9 two phases7 b also ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice w fall 7by ab\t #g p] #ajjj atmosph]es74 ,! same laws ( phases are applicable to ! consid]ation ( ! =mation ( simple or d\ble salts f saturat$ solutions & to a numb] ( o!r purely *emical relations4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! above-m5tion$ in/ance1 :5 ! bodies are ,k,cl1 ,cu,cl#b1 & ,h#b,o1 p]fect equilibrium 7:i* "h has ref]5ce to ! solubility7 consi/+ ( f\r phases1 corresponds to ! foll[+ sev5 cases1 consid]+ only ! phases 7above #j7 ,a ,cu,cl#b1b,k,cl1#b;,h#b,o2 ,b ,cu,cl#b,k,cl2 ,c ,cu,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1,k,cl1 solution & vap\r3 7#a7 ,a ,b solution vap\r2 7#b7 ,a ,c solution vap\r2 7#c7 ,a ,k,cl solution vap\r2 7#d7 ,a ,b ,c vap\r 7x foll[s t ,b ,k,cl solution gives ,a72 7#e7 ,a ,c ,k,cl vap\r2 7#f7 ,b ,c solution vap\r2 & 7#g7 ,b ,k,cl solution vap\r4 ,?us above #ib ,a gives ,b ,k,cl4 ,! law ( phases by br++ complex in/ances ( *emical reaction "u simple physical s*emes1 facilitates _! /udy 9 detail & gives ! means ( seek+ ! simple/ *emical relations deal+ ) solutions1 dissociation1 d\ble decompositions & simil> cases1 & !re=e des]ves consid]ation1 b a detail$ exposition ( ?is subject mu/ be look$ = 9 works on physical *emi/ry4 #aj ,! normal cupric nitrate1 ,cu,n#b,o#f1c;,h#b,o1 is obta9$ z a deliquesc5t salt ( a blue col\r 7soluble 9 wat] & 9 alcohol7 by dissolv+ copp] or cupric oxide 9 nitric acid4 ,x is s easily decompos$ by ! action ( heat t x is impossible to drive (f ! wat] ( cry/allisation f x be=e x beg9s to decompose4 ,dur+ ! ignition ( ! normal salt ! cupric oxide =m$ ent]s into comb9ation ) ! rema9+ undecompos$ normal salt1 & gives a basic salt1 ,cu,n#b,o#f1b;,cu,h#b,o#b4 ,! same basic salt is obta9$ if a c]ta9 quantity ( alkali or cupric hydroxide or c>bonate be add$ to ! solution ( ! normal salt1 :i* is ev5 decompos$ :5 boil$ ) metallic copp]1 & =ms ! basic salt z a gre5 p[d]1 :i* easily decomposes "u ! action ( heat & leaves a residue ( cupric oxide4 ,! basic salt1 hav+ ! composition ,cu,n#b,o#f1c;,cu,h#b,o#b1 is ne>ly insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! normal c>bonate ( copp]1 ,cu,c,o#c1 occurs 9 nature1 al?\gh extremely r>ely4 ,if solutions ( cupric salts be mix$ ) solutions ( alkali c>bonates1 !n1 z 9 ! case ( magnesium1 c>bonic anhydride is evolv$ & basic salts are =m$1 :i* v>y 9 composition accord+ to ! temp]ature & conditions ( ! reaction4 ,by mix+ cold solutions1 a volum9\s blue precipitate is =m$1 conta9+ an equival5t proportion ( cupric hydroxide & c>bonate 7aft] /&+ or heat+1 its composition is ! same z mala*ite1 sp4 gr4 #cea3 #b;,cu,s,o#d #b,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,cu,c,o#c1;,cu,h#b,o#b #b,na#b,,s#d ,,co#b4 ,if ! resultant blue precipitate be heat$ 9 ! liquid1 x loses wat] & is trans=m$ into a granul> gre5 mass ( ! composition ,cu#b;,,co#d--;i4e4 into a comp\nd ( ! normal salt ) anhydr\s cupric oxide4 ,?is salt ( ! oxide corresponds ) or?oc>bonic acid1 ,c7,,oh7#d ,,*#d,o#d :]e #d;,h is replac$ by #b;,cu4 ,on fur!r boil+ ?is salt loses a portion ( ! c>bonic acid1 =m+ black cupric oxide1 s un/able is ! comp\nd ( copp] ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,ano!r basic salt :i* occurs 9 nature1 #b;,cu,c,o#c1;,cu,h#b,o#b1 is kn[n z azurite1 or blue c>bonate ( copp]2 x also loses c>bonic acid :5 boil$ ) wat]4 ,on mix+ a solution ( cupric sulphate ) sodium sesquic>bonate no precipitate is at fir/ obta9$1 b aft] boil+ a precipitate is =m$ hav+ ! composition ( mala*ite4 ,debray obta9$ artificial azurite by heat+ cupric nitrate ) *alk4 ,! commone/ normal salt is blue vitriol--i4e4 ! normal cupric sulphate4 ,x g5]ally conta9s five molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o4 ,x =ms ! product ( ! action ( /rong sulphuric acid on copp]1 sulphur\s anhydride be+ evolv$4 ,! same salt is obta9$ 9 practice by c>efully roa/+ sulphurett$ ores ( copp]1 & also by ! action ( wat] hold+ oxyg5 9 solution on !m3 ,cu,s ,o#d ,cu,s,o#d4 ,?is salt =ms a by-product1 obta9$ 9 gold ref9]ies1 :5 ! silv] is precipitat$ f ! sulphuric acid solution by means ( copp]4 ,x is also obta9$ by p\r+ dilute sulphuric acid ov] %eet copp] 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 or by heat+ cupric oxide or c>bonate 9 sulphuric acid4 ,! cry/als ( ?is salt belong to ! tricl9ic sy/em1 h a specific gravity ( #bai1 are ( a beautiful blue col\r1 & give a solution ( ! same col\r4 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #j dissolve #ae1 at #be #bc1 & at #ajj ab\t #de p>ts ( cupric sulphate1 ,cu,s,o#d4aj bis ,at #ajj ?is salt loses a portion ( its wat] ( cry/allisation1 :i* x only p>ts ) entirely at a high temp]ature 7#bbj7 & !n gives a :ite p[d] ( ! anhydr\s sulphate2 & ! latt]1 on fur!r calc9ation1 loses ! elem5ts ( sulphuric anhydride1 leav+ cupric oxide1 l all ! cupric salts4 ,! anhydr\s 7col\rless7 cupric sulphate is sometimes us$ = absorb+ wat]2 x turns blue 9 ! process4 ,x (f]s ! advantage t x reta9s bo? hydro*loric acid & wat]1 b n c>bonic anhydride4#aa ,cupric sulphate is us$ = /eep+ se$ corn2 ?is is said to prev5t ! gr[? ( c]ta9 p>asites on ! plants4 ,9 ! arts a consid]able quantity ( cupric sulphate is also us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( o!r copp] salts--= in/ance1 ( c]ta9 pigm5ts#aa bis--& a p>ticul>ly l>ge quantity is us$ 9 ! galvanopla/ic process1 :i* consi/s 9 ! deposition ( copp] f a solution ( cupric sulphate by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t1 :5 ! metallic copp] is deposit$ on ! negative pole & takes ! %ape ( ! latt]4 ,! description ( ! processes ( galvanopla/ic art introduc$ by ,jacobi 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg =ms a "p ( appli$ physics1 & w n be t\*$ on "h1 & we w only m5tion t1 al?\gh fir/ introduc$ = small articles1 x is n[ us$ = su* articles z type m\lds 7cli*s71 = maps1 pr9ts1 c41 & also = l>ge /atues1 & = ! deposition ( iron1 z9c1 nickel1 gold1 silv]1 c4 on o!r metals & mat]ials4 ,! beg9n+ ( ! application ( ! galvanic curr5t to ! practical extraction ( metals f solutions has also be5 e/abli%$1 especially s9ce ! dynamo-electric ma*9es ( ,gramme1 ,siem5s1 & o!rs h r5d]$ x possible to *eaply conv]t ! me*anical motion ( ! /eam eng9e into an electric curr5t4 ,x is to be expect$ t ! application ( ! electric curr5t1 :i* has long s9ce giv5 su* important results 9 *emi/ry1 w1 9 ! ne> future1 play an important "p 9 te*nical processes1 ! example be+ %[n by electric light+4 #aj bis ,al?\gh sulphate ( copp] usually cry/allises ) #e;,h#b,o1 t is1 diff]5tly to ! sulphates ( ,mg1 ,fe1 & ,mn1 x is nev]!less p]fectly isomorph\s ) !m1 z is se5 n only 9 ! fact t x gives isomorph\s mixtures ) !m1 conta9+ a simil> am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 b also 9 ! ease ) :i* x =ms1 l all bases analog\s to ,mg,o1 d\ble salts1 ,r#b;,cu7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,k1 ,rb1 ,cs1 ( ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,salts ( ?is k9d1 l ,cu,cl#b1b,k,cl1#b;,h#b,o1,pt,k#b;,cy#d1 c41 pres5t a composition ,cu,x#b if ! repres5tation ( d\ble salts giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiii41 ,note #aa1 be admitt$1 because !y1 l ,cu7,,ho7#b1 conta9 ,cu7,x#b,k7#b1 :]e ,x#b ,,s#d1 i4e4 ! residue ( sulphuric acid1 :i* comb9es ) ,h#b1 & is !re=e able to replace ! ,h#b by ,x#b or ,o4 ,a detail$ /udy ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( ^! salts1 made by ,tutton 7#ahic7 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #a71 %[$3 7#a7 t #bb inve/igat$ salts ( ! composition ,r#b,m7,,s#d71f;,h#b,o1 :]e ,r ,k1 ,rb1 ,cs1 & ,m ,mg1 ,zn1 ,cd1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,cu1 pres5t a complete cry/allographic resemblance2 7#b7 t 9 all respects ! ,rb salts pres5t a transition betwe5 ! ,k & ,cs salts2 7#c7 t ! ,cs salts =m cry/als mo/ easily1 & ! ,k salts ! mo/ difficultly1 & t = ! ,k salts ( ,cd & ,mn x 0 ev5 impossible to obta9 well-=m$ cry/als2 7#d7 t not)/&+ ! clos5ess ( _! angles1 ! g5]al appe>ance 7habit7 ( ! potassium comp\nd diff]s v cle>ly f ! ,cs salts1 :ile ! ,rb salts pres5t a di/9ct transition 9 ?is respect2 7#e7 t ! angle ( ! incl9ation ( "o ( ! axes to ! plane ( ! two o!r axes %[$ t 9 ! ,k salts 7angle f #ge to #ge #ch7 ! incl9ation is lea/1 9 ! ,cs salts 7f #gb #eb to #gc #ej7 greate/1 & 9 ! ,rb salts 7f #gc #eg to #gd #db7 int]m$iate betwe5 ! two2 ! replacem5t ( ,mg 444 ,cu produces b a v small *ange 9 ?is angle2 7#f7 t ! o!r angles & ! ratio ( ! axes ( ! cry/als exhibit a simil> v>iation2 & 7#g7 t ?us ! v>iation ( ! =m is *iefly det]m9$ by ! atomic weight ( ! alkal9e metal4 ,z an example we cite ! magnitude ( ! incl9ation ( ! axes ( ,r#b,m7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o4 ,r ,k ,rb ,cs ,m ,mg #ge #ab #gd #a #gb #ed ,zn #ge #ab #gd #g #gb #ei ,cd -- #gd #g #gb #di ,mn -- #gc #c #gb #ec ,fe #ge #bh #gd #af #gc #h ,co #ge #e #gc #ei #gb #eb ,ni #ge #j #gc #eg #gb #eh ,cu #ge #cb #gd #db #gc #ej ,?is %[s cle>ly 7)9 ! limits ( possible error1 :i* may be z mu* z #cj7 ! almo/ p]fect id5tity ( ! indep5d5t cry/all9e =ms not)/&+ ! diff]5ce ( ! atomic weights ( ! diatomic elem5ts1 ,m ,mg1 ,cu4 #aa ,9 addition to :at has be5 said 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #fe1 & ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #ce7 respect+ ! comb9ation ( ,cu,s,o#d ) wat] & ammonia1 we may add t ,la*9(f 7#ahic7 %[$ t ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o loses #d-c_/d;,h#b,o at #ahj1 t ,cu,s,o#d1e,,nh#c also loses #d-c_/d,,nh#c at #cbj1 & t only #a_/d;,h#b,o & #a_/d,,nh#c rema9 9 comb9ation ) ! ,cu,s,o#d4 ,! la/ #a_/d;,h#b,o c only be driv5 (f by heat+ to #bjj1 & ! la/ #a_/d,,nh#c by heat+ to #cfj4 ,ammonia displaces wat] f ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 b wat] _c displace ! ammonia f ,cu,s,o#d1e,,nh#c4 ,if hydro*loric acid gas be pass$ ov] ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x fir/ =ms ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1#c;,h,cl1 & !n ,cu,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1#b;,h,cl4 ,:5 air is pass$ ov] ! latt] comp\nd x passes into ,cu,s,o#d;,h#b,o ) a small am\nt ( ,h,cl 7ab\t #a_/h;,h,cl74 ,at #ajj ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o 9 a /ream ( hydro*loric acid gas gives ,cu,s,o#d1a_/d;,h#b,o1#b;,h,cl1 & !n ,cu,s,o#d1a_/d;,h#b,o1,h,cl1 :il/ aft] prolong$ heat+ ,cu,s,o#d rema9s1 :i* rapidly passes into ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o :5 plac$ "u a bell j> ov] wat]4 ,ov] sulphuric acid1 h[ev]1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o only p>ts ) #c;,h#b,o1 & if ,cu,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o be plac$ ov] wat] x aga9 =ms ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o1 & s on4 #aa bis ,comm]cial blue vitriol g5]ally conta9s f]r\s sulphate4 ,! salt is purifi$ by conv]t+ ! f]r\s salt into a f]ric salt by heat+ ! solution ) *lor9e or nitric acid4 ,! solution is !n evaporat$ to dryness1 & ! un*ang$ cupric sulphate extract$ f ! residue1 :i* w conta9 ! l>g] portion ( ! f]ric oxide4 ,! rema9d] w be sep>at$ if cupric hydroxide is add$ to ! solution & boil$2 ! cupric oxide1 ,cu,o1 !n precipitates ! f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 j z x is itself precipitat$ by silv] oxide4 ,b ! solution w conta9 a small proportion ( a basic salt ( copp]1 & !re=e sulphuric acid mu/ be add$ to ! filt]$ solution1 & ! salt all[$ to cry/allise4 ,acid salts are n =m$1 & cupric sulphate itself has an acid reaction on litmus pap]4 ,! alloys ( copp] ) c]ta9 metals1 & especially ) z9c & t91 are easily =m$ by directly melt+ ! metals toge!r4 ,!y are easily ca/ into m\lds1 =g$1 & work$ l copp]1 :il/ !y are mu* m durable 9 ! air1 & are !re=e frequ5tly us$ 9 ! arts4 ,ev5 ! anci5ts us$ exclusively alloys ( copp]1 & n pure copp]1 b its alloys ) t9 or diff]5t k9ds ( bronze 7,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #ce74 ,! alloys ( copp] ) z9c are call$ brass or 'yell[ metal4' ,brass conta9s ab\t #cb p4c4 ( z9c2 g5]ally1 h[ev]1 x does n conta9 m ?an #fe p4c4 ( copp]4 ,! rema9d] is compos$ ( lead & t91 :i* usually occur1 al?\gh 9 small quantities1 9 brass4 ,yell[ metal conta9s ab\t #dj p4c4 ( z9c4#ab ,! addition ( z9c to copp] *anges ! col\r ( ! latt] to a consid]able degree2 ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( z9c ! col\r ( ! copp] becomes yell[1 & ) a /ill l>g] proportion ( z9c an alloy is =m$ :i* has a gre5i% t9t4 ,9 ^? alloys ( z9c & copp] :i* conta9 a l>g] am\nt ( z9c ?an ( copp]1 ! yell[ col\r disappe>s & is replac$ by a greyi% col\r4 ,b :5 ! am\nt ( z9c is dim9i%$ to ab\t #bj p4c41 ! alloy is r$ & h>d1 & is call$ 'tombac4' ,a contraction takes place 9 alloy+ copp] ) z9c1 s t ! volume ( ! alloy is less ?an t ( ei!r metal individually4 ,! z9c volatilises on prolong$ heat+ at a high temp]ature & ! excess ( metallic copp] rema9s beh9d4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! air1 ! z9c oxidises be=e ! copp]1 s t all ! z9c alloy$ ) copp] may be remov$ f ! copp] by ?is means4 ,an important prop]ty ( brass conta9+ ab\t #cj p4c4 ( z9c is t x is s(t & malleable 9 ! cold1 b becomes some:at brittle :5 heat$4 ,we may also m5tion t ord9>y copp] co9s conta91 9 ord] to r5d] !m h>d1 t91 z9c1 & iron 7,cu #ie p4c472 t x is n[ cu/om>y to add a small am\nt ( phosphorus to copp] & bronze1 = ! same purpose2 & also t copp] is add$ to silv] & gold 9 co9+1 c4 to r5d] x h>d2 moreov]1 9 ,g]many1 ,switz]l&1 & ,belgium1 & o!r c\ntries1 a silv]-:ite alloy 7mel*ior1 ,g]man silv]1 c471 = base co9age & o!r purposes1 is prep>$ f brass & nickel 7f #aj to #bj p4c4 ( nickel2 #bj to #cj p4c4 z9c3 #ej to #gj p4c4 copp]71 or directly f copp] & nickel1 or1 m r>ely1 f an alloy conta9+ silv]1 nickel1 & copp]4#ab bis #ab ,among ! alloys ( copp] resembl+ brass1 delta metal1 inv5t$ by ,a4 ,dick 7,london7 is l>gely us$ 7s9ce #ahhc74 ,x conta9s #ee p4c4 ,cu1 & #da p4c4 ,zn1 ! rema9+ #d p4c4 be+ compos$ ( iron 7z mu* z #c-a_/b p4c41 :i* is fir/ alloy$ ) z9c71 or ( cobalt1 & manganese1 & c]ta9 o!r metals4 ,! sp4 gr4 ( delta metal is #hd4 ,x melts at #iej1 & !n becomes s fluid t x fills up all ! cavities 9 a m\ld & =ms excell5t ca/+s4 ,x has a t5sile /r5g? ( #gj kilos p] sq4 mm4 7gun metal ab\t #bj1 phosphor bronze ab\t #cj74 ,x is v s(t1 especially :5 heat$ to #fjj1 b aft] =g+ & roll+ x becomes v h>d2 x is m difficultly act$ ^u by air & wat] ?an o!r k9ds ( brass1 & pres]ves its gold5 yell[ col\r = any l5g? ( "t1 especially if well poli%$4 ,x is us$ = mak+ be>+s1 screw propell]s1 valves1 & _m o!r articles4 ,9 g5]al ! alloys ( ,cu & ,zn conta9+ ab\t #b_/c p4c4 by weight ( copp] 7 = a long "t almo/ exclusively made 9 ,sw$5 & ,engl& 7,bri/ol1 ,birm+ham74 ,^! alloys = ! mo/ "p are *eap]1 h>d]1 & m fusible ?an copp] alone1 & =m good ca/+s4 ,! alloys conta9+ #de-hj p4c4 ,cu cry/allise 9 cubes if sl[ly cool$ 7,bi also gives cry/als74 ,by wa%+ ! surface ( brass ) dilute sulphuric acid1 ,zn is remov$ & ! article acquires ! col\r ( copp]4 ,! alloys approa*+ ,zn#b;,cu#c 9 _! composition exhibit ! greate/ resi/ance 7"u o!r equal conditions2 ( purity1 =g+1 roll+1 c47 ,! addition ( #c p4c4 ,al1 or #e p4c4 ,sn1 improves ! quality ( brass4 ,respect+ alum9ium bronze see ,*apt] ,,xvii4 p4 #hh4 #ab bis ,ball 7also ,kam5sky71 #ahhh1 by inve/igat+ ! electrical conductivity ( ! alloys ( antimony & copp] ) lead1 came to ! conclusion t only two def9ite comp\nds ( antimony & copp] exi/1 :il/ ! o!r alloys are ei!r alloys ( ^! two toge!r or ) antimony or ) copp]4 ,^! comp\nds are ,cu#b,sb & ,cu#d,sb--"o corresponds ) ! maximum1 & ! o!r ) ! m9imum1 electrical resi/ance4 ,9 g5]al1 ! resi/ance (f]$ to an electrical curr5t =ms "o ( ! me?ods by :i* ! composition ( def9ite alloys 7= example1 ,pb#b,zn#g7 is (t5 e/abli%$1 :il/ ! electromotive =ce ( alloys af=ds 7,laurie1 #ahhh7 a /ill m accurate me?od--= in/ance1 sev]al def9ite comp\nds 7 discov]$ by ?is me?od among ! alloys ( copp] ) z9c & t92 b we w n ent] into any details ( ?is subject1 because we avoid all ref]5ces to electricity1 al?\gh ! read] is recomm5d$ to make himself acqua9t$ ) ?is bran* ( sci5ce1 :i* has _m po9ts 9 common ) *emi/ry4 ,! /udy ( alloys reg>d$ z solid solutions %\ld1 9 my op9ion1 ?r[ mu* light ^u ! "q ( solutions1 :i* is /ill obscure 9 _m aspects & 9 _m bran*es ( *emi/ry4 ,copp]1 9 its cupr\s comp\nds1 is s analog\s to silv]1 t 7 !re no cupric comp\nds1 or if silv] gave /able comp\nds ( ! high] oxide1 ,ag,o1 ! resemblance w\ld be z close z t betwe5 *lor9e & brom9e or z9c & cadmium2 b silv] comp\nds correspond+ to ,ag,o are q unkn[n4 ,al?\gh silv] p]oxide--:i* 0 reg>d$ z ,ag,o1 b :i* ,b]!lot 7#ahhj7 recognis$ z ! sesquioxide ,ag#b,o#c--;is kn[n1 /ill x does n =m any true salts1 & consequ5tly _c be plac$ along ) cupric oxide4 ,9 di/9ction to copp]1 silv] z a metal does n oxidise "u ! influ5ce ( heat2 & its oxides1 ,ag#b,o & ,ag#b,o#c1 easily lose oxyg5 7see ,note #h tri74 ,silv] does n oxidise 9 air at ! ord9>y pressure1 & is !re=e class$ among ! s-call$ noble metals4 ,x has a :ite col\r1 :i* is mu* pur] ?an t ( any o!r kn[n metal1 especially :5 ! metal is *emically pure4 ,9 ! arts silv] is always us$ alloy$1 because *emically-pure silv] is s s(t t x we>s exce$+ly easily1 :il/ :5 fus$ ) a small am\nt ( copp]1 x becomes v h>d1 )\t los+ its col\r4#ac #ac ,!re are n _m s(t metals2 lead1 t91 copp]1 silv]1 iron1 & gold are some:at s(t1 & potassium & sodium v s(t4 ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are sonor\s & h>d1 & _m o!r metals are ev5 brittle1 especially bismu? & antimony4 ,b ! v slight significance :i* ^! prop]ties h 9 det]m9+ ! fundam5tal *emical prop]ties ( sub/ances 7al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ( imm5se importance 9 ! practical applications ( metals7 is se5 f ! example %[n by z9c1 :i* is h>d at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 s(t at #ajj1 & brittle at #bjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,cupel = silv] assay+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,clay muffle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,portable muffle furnace4 ,z ! value ( silv] dep5ds exclusively on its purity1 & z !re is no possibility ( tell+ ! am\nt ( impurities alloy$ ) x f its ext]nal appe>ance1 x is cu/om>y 9 mo/ c\ntries to m>k an article ) ! am\nt ( pure silv] x conta9s aft] an accurately-made analysis kn[n z ! assay ( ! silv]4 ,9 ,france ! assay ( silv] %[s ! am\nt ( pure silv] 9 #a1jjj p>ts by weight2 9 ,russia ! am\nt ( pure silv] 9 #if p>ts--t is1 ! assay %[s ! numb] ( zolotniks 7#dbf grams7 ( pure silv] 9 "o p\nd 7#daj grams7 ( alloy$ silv]4 ,russian silv] is g5]ally #hd assay--t is1 conta9s #hd p>ts by weight ( pure silv] & #ab p>ts ( copp] & o!r metals4 ,fr5* money conta9s #ij p4c4 79 ! ,russian sy/em ?is w be #hfd assay7 by weight ( silv] ,engli% co9s & jewell]y conta9 #ibe p4c4 ( silv]2 ! silv] r\ble is ( #hc-a_/c assay--t is1 x conta9s #hfh p4c4 ( silv]--& ! small] ,russian silv] co9age is ( #dh assay1 & !re=e conta9s #ej p4c4 ( silv]4 ,silv] ornam5ts & articles are usually made 9 ,russia ( #hd & #gb assay4 ,z ! alloys ( silv] & copp]1 especially aft] be+ subject$ to ! action ( heat1 are n s :ite z pure silv]1 !y g5]ally und]go a process kn[n z 'blan*+' 7or 'pickl+'7 aft] be+ work$ up4 ,?is consi/s 9 remov+ ! copp] f ! surface ( ! article by subject+ x to a d>k-r$ heat & !n imm]s+ x 9 dilute acid4 ,dur+ ! calc9ation ! copp] on ! surface is oxidis$1 :il/ ! silv] rema9s un*ang$2 ! dilute acid !n dissolves ! copp] oxides =m$1 & pure silv] is left on ! surface4 ,! surface is dull aft] ?is treatm5t1 ow+ to ! removal ( a portion ( ! metal by ! acid4 ,aft] be+ poli%$ ! article acquires ! desir$ lu/re & col\r1 s z to be indi/+ui%able f a pure silv] object4 ,9 ord] to te/ a silv] article1 a portion ( its mass mu/ be tak51 n f ! surface1 b to a c]ta9 dep?4 ,! me?ods ( assay us$ 9 practice are v v>i$4 ,! commone/ & mo/ (t5 us$ is t kn[n z cupellation4 ,x is bas$ on ! diff]5ce 9 ! oxidisability ( copp]1 lead1 & silv]4 ,! cupel is a por\s cup ) ?ick sides1 made by compress+ bone a%4 ,! por\s mass ( bone a% absorbs ! fus$ oxides1 especially ! lead oxide1 :i* is easily fusible1 b x does n absorb ! unoxidis$ metal4 ,! latt] collects into a globule "u ! action ( a /rong heat 9 ! cupel1 & on cool+ solidifies into a button1 :i* may !n be weigh$4 ,sev]al cupels are plac$ 9 a muffle4 ,a muffle is a semi-cyl9drical clay vessel1 %[n 9 ! accompany+ draw+4 ,! sides ( ! muffle are pi]c$ ) sev]al orifices1 :i* all[ ! access ( air into x4 ,! muffle is plac$ 9 a furnace1 :]e x is /rongly heat$4 ,"u ! action ( ! air ent]+ ! muffle ! copp] ( ! silv] alloy is oxidis$1 b z ! oxide ( copp] is infusible1 or1 m /rictly speak+1 difficultly fusible1 a c]ta9 quantity ( lead is add$ to ! alloy2 ! lead is also oxidis$ by ! air at ! high temp]ature ( ! muffle1 & gives ! v fusible lead oxide4 ,! copp] oxide !n fuses ) ! lead oxide1 & is absorb$ by ! cupel1 :il/ ! silv] rema9s z a bright :ite globule4 ,if ! weight ( ! alloy tak5 & ( ! silv] left on ! cupel be det]m9$1 x is possible to calculate ! composition ( ! alloy4 ,?us ! ess5ce ( cupellation consi/s 9 ! sep>ation ( ! oxidisable metals f silv]1 :i* does n oxidise "u ! action ( heat4 ,a m accurate me?od1 bas$ on ! precipitation ( silv] f its solutions 9 ! =m ( silv] *loride1 is describ$ 9 detail 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4 ,silv] occurs 9 nature1 bo? 9 a native /ate & 9 c]ta9 comp\nds4 ,native silv]1 h[ev]1 is ( r r>e occurr5ce4 ,a f> great] quantity ( silv] occurs 9 comb9ation ) sulphur1 & especially 9 ! =m ( silv] sulphide1 ,ag#b,s1 ) lead sulphide or copp] sulphide1 or ! ores ( v>i\s o!r metals4 ,! l>ge/ am\nt ( silv] is extract$ f ! lead 9 :i* x occurs4 ,if ?is lead be calc9$ 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 x oxidises1 & ! resultant lead oxide1 ,pb,o 7'li?>ge' or 'silb]gltte1' z x is call$71 melts into a mobile liquid1 :i* is easily remov$4 ,! silv] rema9s 9 an unoxidis$ metallic /ate4#ad ,?is process is call$ cupellation4 #ad ,9 ,am]ica1 :5ce ! l>ge/ am\nt ( silv] is n[ obta9$1 ores are work$ conta9+ n m ?an #a_/e p4c4 ( silv]1 :il/ at #a_/b p4c4 its extraction is v pr(itable4 ,moreov]1 ! extraction ( silv] f ores conta9+ n m ?an #jja p4c4 ( ?is metal is sometimes pr(itable4 ,! majority ( ! lead smelt$ f gal5a conta9s silv]1 :i* is extract$ f x4 ,?us ne> ,arras1 9 ,france1 an ore is work$ :i* conta9s ab\t #fe p>ts ( lead & #jjhh "p ( silv] 9 #ajj p>ts ( ore1 :i* corresponds ) #acf p>ts ( silv] 9 #ajj1jjj p>ts ( lead4 ,at ,freib]g1 9 ,saxony1 ! ore us$ 7enri*$ by me*anical dress+7 conta9s ab\t #ji ( silv]1 #afj ( lead1 & #b ( copp] 9 #aj1jjj p>ts4 ,9 e case ! lead is fir/ extract$ 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii41 & ?is lead w conta9 all ! silv]4 ,n unfrequ5tly o!r ores ( silv] are mix$ ) lead ores1 9 ord] to obta9 an arg5tif]\s lead z ! product4 ,! extraction ( small quantities ( silv] f lead is facilitat$ by ! fact 7,patt9son's process7 t molt5 arg5tif]\s lead 9 cool+ fir/ deposits cry/als ( pure lead1 :i* fall to ! bottom ( ! cool+ vessel1 :il/ ! proportion ( silv] 9 ! unsolidifi$ mass increases ow+ to ! removal ( ! cry/als ( lead4 ,! lead is enri*$ 9 ?is mann] until x conta9s #a_/djj "p ( silv]1 & is !n subject$ to cupellation on a l>g] scale4 ,accord+ to ,p>k's process1 z9c is add$ to ! molt5 arg5tif]\s lead1 & ! alloy ( ,pb & ,zn1 :i* fir/ sep>ates out on cool+1 is collect$4 ,?is alloy is f\nd to conta9 all ! silv] previ\sly conta9$ 9 ! lead4 ,! addition ( #je p4c4 ( alum9ium to ! z9c 7,rossl] & ,edelman7 facilitates ! extraction ( ! ,ag f ! resultant alloy besides prev5t+ oxidation2 =1 aft] re-melt+1 ne>ly all ! lead easily runs (f 7rema9s fluid71 & leaves an alloy conta9+ ab\t #cj p4c4 ,ag & ab\t #gj p4c4 ,zn4 ,?is alloy may be us$ z an anode 9 a solution ( ,zn,cl#b1 :5 ! ,zn is deposit$ on ! ca?ode1 leav+ ! silv] ) a small am\nt ( ,pb1 c4 beh9d4 ,! silv] c be easily obta9$ pure by treat+ x ) dilute acids & cupell+4 ,! ores ( silv] :i* conta9 a l>g] am\nt ( x are3 silv] glance1 ,ag#b,s 7sp4 gr4 #gb72 arg5tif]\s-copp] glance1 ,cu,ag,s2 horn silv] or *loride ( silv]1 ,ag,cl2 arg5tif]\s grey copp] ore2 polybasite1 ,m#i,,rs#f 7:]e ,m ,ag1 ,cu1 & ,r ,sb1 ,z71 & arg5tif]\s gold4 ,! latt] is ! usual =m 9 :i* gold is f\nd 9 alluvial deposits & ores4 ,! cry/als ( gold f ! ,b]ez(fsky m9es 9 ! ,urals conta9 #ij to #ie ( gold & #e to #i ( silv]1 & ! ,altai gold conta9s #ej to #fe ( gold & #cf to #ch ( silv]4 ,! proportion ( silv] 9 native gold v>ies betwe5 ^! limits 9 o!r localities4 ,silv] ores1 :i* g5]ally occur 9 ve9s1 usually conta9 native silv] & v>i\s sulphur comp\nds4 ,! mo/ fam\s m9es 9 ,europe are 9 ,saxony 7,freib]g71 :i* has a ye>ly output ( z mu* z #bf tons ( silv]1 ,hung>y1 & ,bohemia 7#da tons74 ,9 ,russia1 silv] is extract$ 9 ! ,altai & at ,n]*9sk 7#ag tons74 ,! ri*e/ silv] m9es kn[n are 9 ,am]ica1 especially 9 ,*ili 7z mu* z #gj tons71 ,mexico 7#bjj tons71 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ri*ness ( ^! m9es may be judg$ f ! fact t "o m9e 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nevada 7,com/ock1 ne> ,wa%oe & ! cities ( ,gold ,hill & ,virg9ia71 :i* 0 discov]$ 9 #ahei1 gave an output ( #djj tons 9 #ahff4 ,9 place ( cupellation1 *lor9ation may also be employ$ = extract+ silv] f its ores4 ,! me?od ( *lor9ation consi/s 9 conv]t+ ! silv] 9 an ore into silv] *loride4 ,?is is ei!r done by a wet or by a dry me?od1 roa/+ ! ore ) ,na,cl4 ,:5 ! silv] *loride is =m$1 ! extraction ( ! metal is also done by two me?ods4 ,! fir/ consi/s 9 ! silv] *loride be+ r$uc$ to metal by means ( iron 9 rotat+ b>rels1 ) ! subsequ5t addition ( m]cury :i* dissolves ! silv]1 b does n act on ! o!r metals4 ,! m]cury hold+ ! silv] 9 solution is di/ill$1 :5 ! silv] rema9s beh9d4 ,?is me?od is call$ amalgamation4 ,! o!r me?od is less frequ5tly us$1 & consi/s 9 dissolv+ ! silv] *loride 9 sodium *loride or 9 sodium ?iosulphate1 & !n precipitat+ ! silv] f ! solution4 ,! amalgamation is !n c>ri$ on 9 rotat+ b>rels conta9+ ! roa/$ ore mix$ ) wat]1 iron1 & m]cury4 ,! iron r$uces ! silv] *loride by tak+ up ! *lor9e f x4 ,! te*nical details ( ^! processes are describ$ 9 works on metallurgy4 ,! extraction ( ,ag,cl by ! wet me?od is c>ri$ on 7,pat]a's process7 by means ( a solution ( hyposulphite ( sodium :i* dissolves ,ag,cl 7see ,note #bc71 or by lixiviat+ ) a #b p4c4 solution ( a d\ble hyposulphite ( ,na & ,cu 7obta9$ by add+ ,cu,s,o#d to ,na#b,s#b,o#c74 ,! resultant solution ( ,ag,cl is fir/ treat$ ) soda to precipitate ,pb,c,o#c1 & !n ) ,na#b,s1 :i* precipitates ! ,ag & ,au4 ,! process %\ld be c>ri$ on rapidly to prev5t ! precipitation ( ,cu#b,s f ! solution ( ,cu,s,o#d & ,na#b,s#b,o#c4 ,comm]cial silv] g5]ally conta9s copp]1 &1 m r>ely1 o!r metallic impurities also4 ,*emically pure silv] is obta9$ ei!r by cupellation or by subject+ ord9>y silv] to ! foll[+ treatm5t4 ,! silv] is fir/ dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 :i* conv]ts x & ! copp] into nitrates1 ,cu7,,no#c7b & ,ag,n,o#c2 hydro*loric acid is !n add$ to ! resultant solution 7gre51 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! cupric salt71 :i* is consid]ably dilut$ ) wat] 9 ord] to reta9 ! lead *loride 9 solution if ! silv] conta9$ lead4 ,! copp] & _m o!r metals rema9 9 solution1 :il/ ! silv] is precipitat$ z silv] *loride4 ,! precipitate is all[$ to settle1 & ! liquid is decant$ (f2 ! precipitate is !n wa%$ & fus$ ) sodium c>bonate4 ,a d\ble decomposition !n takes place1 sodium *loride & silv] c>bonate be+ =m$2 b ! latt] decomposes into metallic silv]1 because ! silv] oxide is decompos$ by heat3 ,ag#b;,,co#c ,ag#b ,o ,,co#b4 ,! silv] *loride may also be mix$ ) metallic z9c1 sulphuric acid1 & wat]1 & left = "s "t1 :5 ! z9c removes ! *lor9e f ! silv] *loride & precipitates ! silv] z a p[d]4 ,?is f9ely-divid$ silv] is call$ 'molecul> silv]4'#ae #ae ,!re is ano!r practical me?od :i* is also suitable = sep>at+ ! silv] f ! solutions obta9$ 9 photography1 & consi/s 9 precipitat+ ! silv] by oxalic acid4 ,9 ?is case ! am\nt ( silv] 9 ! solution mu/ be kn[n1 & #bc grams ( oxalic acid dissolv$ 9 #djj grams ( wat] mu/ be add$ = e #fj grams ( silv] 9 solution 9 a litre ( wat]4 ,a precipitate ( silv] oxalate1 ,ag#b;,c#b,o#d1 is !n obta9$1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] b soluble 9 acids4 ,h5ce1 if ! liquid conta9 any free acid x mu/ be previ\sly fre$ f x by ! addition ( sodium c>bonate4 ,! resultant precipitate ( silv] oxalate is dri$1 mix$ ) an equal weight ( dry sodium c>bonate1 & ?r[n into a g5tly-heat$ crucible4 ,! sep>ation ( ! silv] !n proce$s )\t an explosion1 :il/ ! silv] oxalate if heat$ alone decomposes ) explosion4 ,accord+ to ,/as1 ! be/ me?od = obta9+ silv] f its solutions is by ! r$uction ( silv] *loride dissolv$ 9 ammonia by means ( an ammoniacal solution ( cupr\s ?iosulphate2 ! silv] is !n precipitat$ 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,a solution ( ammonium sulphite may be us$ in/ead ( ! cupr\s salt4 ,*emically-pure silv] has an exce$+ pure :ite col\r1 & a specific gravity ( #aje4 ,solid silv] is light] ?an ! molt5 metal1 & !re=e a piece ( silv] floats on ! latt]4 ,! fus+-po9t ( silv] is ab\t #iej ,c41 & at ! high temp]ature atta9$ by ! combu/ion ( detonat+ gas x volatilises4#af ,by employ+ silv] r$uc$ f silv] *loride by milk sug> & cau/ic pota%1 & di/ill+ x1 ,/as obta9$ silv] pur] ?an t obta9$ by any o!r means2 9 fact1 ?is 0 p]fectly pure silv]4 ,! vap\r ( silv] has a v beautiful gre5 col\r1 :i* is se5 :5 a silv] wire is plac$ 9 an oxyhydrog5 flame4#ag #af ,silv] is v malleable & ductile2 x may be beat5 into leaves #jjjb mm4 9 ?ickness4 ,silv] wire may be made s f9e t #a gram is drawn into a wire #b-a_/b kilometres long4 ,9 ?is respect silv] is second only to gold4 ,a wire ( #b mm4 diamet] breaks "u a /ra9 ( #bj kilograms4 #ag ,9 melt+1 silv] absorbs a consid]able am\nt ( oxyg51 :i* is dis5gag$ on solidify+4 ,"o volume ( molt5 silv] absorbs z mu* z #bb volumes ( oxyg54 ,9 solidify+1 ! silv] =ms cavities l ! crat]s ( a volcano1 & ?r[s (f metal1 ow+ to ! evolution ( ! gas2 all ^! ph5om5a recall a volcano on a m9iature scale 7,dumas74 ,silv] :i* conta9s a small quantity ( copp] or gold1 c41 does n %[ ?is prop]ty ( dissolv+ oxyg54 ,! absorption ( oxyg5 by molt5 silv] is1 h[ev]1 an oxidation1 b x is at ! same "t a ph5om5on ( solution4 ,"o cubic c5timetre ( molt5 silv] c dissolve tw5ty-two cubic c5timetres ( oxyg51 :i*1 ev5 at #j1 only weighs #jjc gram1 :il/ #a cubic c5timetre ( silv] weighs at lea/ #aj grams1 & !re=e x is impossible to suppose t ! absorption ( ! oxyg5 is att5d$ by ! =mation ( any def9ite comp\nd 7ri* 9 oxyg57 ( silv] & oxyg5 7ab\t #de atoms ( silv] to #a ( oxyg57 9 any o!r b a dissociat$ =m1 & ?is is ! /ate 9 :i* sub/ances 9 solution mu/ be reg>d$ 7,*apt] ,i47 ,le ,*ateli] %[$ t at #cjj & #ae atmosph]es pressure silv] absorbs s mu* oxyg5 t x may be reg>d$ z hav+ =m$ ! comp\nd ,ag#d,o1 or a mixture ( ,ag#b & ,ag#b,o4 ,moreov]1 silv] oxide1 ,ag#b,o1 only decomposes at #cjj "u l[ pressures1 :il/ at pressures above #aj atmosph]es !re is no decomposition at #cjj b only at #djj4 ,/as %[$ t silv] is oxidis$ by air 9 ! pres5ce ( acids4 ,v4 d4 ,p=dt5 confirm$ ?is1 & %[$ t an acidifi$ solution ( potassium p]manganate rapidly dissolves silv] 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 ,x has long be5 kn[n 7,whl]7 t :5 nitrate ( silv]1 ,ag,n,o#c1 reacts z an oxidis+ ag5t ^u citrates & t>trates1 x is able "u c]ta9 conditions to give ei!r a salt ( suboxide ( silv] 7see ,note #ai7 or a r$ solution1 or to give a precipitate ( metallic silv] r$uc$ at ! exp5se ( ! organic sub/ances4 ,9 #ahhi ,c>ey ,lea1 9 8 rese>*es on ?is class ( reactions1 %[$ t soluble silv] is "h =m$1 :i* he call$ allotropic silv]4 ,x may be obta9$ by tak+ #bjj c4c4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( ,ag,n,o#c & quickly add+ a mixture 7neutralis$ ) ,na,h,o7 ( #bjj c4c4 ( a #cj p] c5t4 solution ( ,fe,s,o#d & #bjj c4c4 ( a #dj p] c5t4 solution ( sodium citrate4 ,a lilac precipitate is obta9$1 :i* is collect$ on a filt] 7! precipitate becomes blue7 & wa%$ ) a solution ( ,,nh#d,,no#c4 ,x !n becomes soluble 9 pure wat]1 =m+ a r$ p]fectly transp>5t solution f :i* ! dissolv$ silv] is precipitat$ on ! addition ( _m soluble =eign bodies4 ,"s ( ! latt]--= in/ance1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 alkal9e sulphates1 nitrates1 & citrates--give a precipitate :i* r$issolves 9 pure wat]1 :il/ o!rs--= in/ance1 ,mg,s,o#d1 ,fe,s,o#d1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g1 ,ag,n,o#c1 ,ba7,,no#c7b & _m o!rs--conv]t ! precipitat$ silv] into a new v>iety1 :i*1 al?\gh no long] soluble 9 wat]1 rega9s its solubility 9 a solution ( borax & is soluble 9 ammonia4 ,bo? ! soluble & insoluble silv] are rapidly conv]t$ into ! ord9>y grey-metallic v>iety by sulphuric acid1 al?\gh no?+ is giv5 (f 9 ! reaction2 ! same *ange takes place on ignition1 b 9 ?is case ,,co#b is dis5gag$2 ! latt] is =m$ f ! organic sub/ances :i* rema9 7to ! am\nt ( #c p] c5t47 9 ! modifi$ silv] 7!y are n remov$ by soak+ 9 alcohol or wat]74 ,if ! precipitat$ silv] be slightly wa%$ & laid 9 a smoo? ?9 lay] on pap] or glass1 x is se5 t ! soluble v>iety is r$ :5 moi/ & a f9e blue col\r :5 dry1 :il/ ! insoluble v>iety has a blue reflex4 ,besides ^!1 "u special conditions#ah a gold5 yell[ v>iety may be obta9$1 :i* gives a brilliant gold5 yell[ coat+ on glass2 b x is easily conv]t$ into ! ord9>y grey-metallic /ate by friction or trituration4 ,!re is no d\bt#ah bis t !re is ! same relation betwe5 ord9>y silv] :i* is p]fectly insoluble 9 wat] & ! v>ieties ( silv] obta9$ by ,c>ey ,lea#ah tri z !re is betwe5 qu>tz & soluble silica or betwe5 ,cu,s & ,z#b,s#b 9 _! ord9>y insoluble =ms & 9 ! /ate ( ! colloid solution ( _! hydrosols 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #eg1 & ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #be bis74 ,"h1 h[ev]1 an important /ep 9 advance has be5 made 9 ?is respect1 t we are deal+ ) ! solution ( a simple body1 & moreov] ( a metal--i4e4 ( a p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic /ate ( matt]4 ,& z boron1 gold1 & c]ta9 o!r simple bodies h already be5 obta9$ 9 a soluble 7colloid7 =m1 & z num]\s organic comp\nds 7album9\s sub/ances1 gum1 cellulose1 />*1 c47 & inorganic sub/ances are also kn[n 9 ?is =m1 x might be said t ! colloid /ate 7( hydrogels & hydrosols7 c be acquir$1 if n by e sub/ance1 at all ev5ts by sub/ances ( mo/ v>i$ *emical "* "u p>ticul> conditions ( =mation f solutions4 ,& ?is be+ ! case1 we may hope t a fur!r /udy ( soluble colloid comp\nds1 :i* app>5tly pres5t v>i\s transitions t[>ds emulsions1 may ?r[ a new light ^u ! complex "q ( solutions1 :i* =ms "o ( ! problems ( ! pres5t epo* ( *emical sci5ce4 ,moreov]1 we may rem>k t ,spr+ 7#ahij7 cle>ly prov$ ! colloid /ate ( soluble silv] by means ( dialysis z x did n pass ?r\gh ! membrane4 #ah ,:5 solutions ( ,ag,n,o#c1 ,fe,s,o#d1 sodium citrate1 & ,na,h,o are mix$ toge!r 9 ! mann] describ$ above1 !y ?r[ d[n a precipitate ( a beautiful lilac col\r2 :5 transf]r$ to a filt] pap] ! precipitate soon *anges col\r1 & becomes d>k blue4 ,to obta9 ! sub/ance z pure z possible x is wa%$ ) a #e-aj p4c4 solution ( ammonium nitrate2 ! liquid is decant$1 & #aej c4c4 ( wat] p\r$ ov] ! precipitate4 ,x !n dissolves entirely 9 ! wat]4 ,a small quantity ( a saturat$ solution ( ammonium nitrate is add$ to ! solution1 & ! silv] 9 solution aga9 sep>ates out z a precipitate4 ,^! alt]nate solutions & precipitations are repeat$ sev5 or eight times1 aft] :i* ! precipitate is transf]r$ to a filt] & wa%$ ) #ie p4c4 alcohol until ! filtrate gives no residue on evaporation4 ,an analysis ( ! sub/ance s obta9$ %[$ t x conta9$ f #igah p4c4 to #igca p4c4 ( metallic silv]4 ,x rema9$ to discov] :at ! rema9+ #b-c p4c4 7 compos$ (4 ,are !y m]ely impurities1 or is ! sub/ance "s comp\nd ( silv] ) oxyg5 or hydrog51 or does x conta9 citric acid 9 comb9ation :i* might acc\nt = its solubility8 ,! fir/ supposition is set aside by ! fact t no gases are dis5gag$ by ! precipitate ( silv]1 ei!r "u ! action ( gases or :5 heat$4 ,! second supposition is %[n to be impossible by ! fact t !re is no def9ite relation betwe5 ! silv] & citric acid4 ,a det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( silv] 9 solution %[$ t ! am\nt ( citric acid v>ies greatly = "o & ! same am\nt ( silv]1 & !re is no simple ratio betwe5 !m4 ,among o!r me?ods ( prep>+ soluble silv] giv5 by ,c>ey ,lea1 we may m5tion ! me?od publi%$ by him 9 #ahia4 ,ag,n,o#c is add$ to a solution ( dextr9e 9 cau/ic soda or pota%2 at fir/ a precipitate ( br[n oxide ( silv] is ?r[n d[n1 b ! br[n col\r !n *anges into a r$di% *ocolate1 ow+ to ! r$uction ( ! silv] by ! dextr9e1 & ! solution turns a deep r$4 ,a few drops ( ?is solution turn wat] bright r$1 & give a p]fectly transp>5t liquid4 ,! dextr9e solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ #dj grams ( cau/ic soda & ! same am\nt ( ord9>y br[n dextr9e 9 two litres ( wat]4 ,to ?is solution is gradually add$ #bh grams ( ,ag,n,o#c dissolv$ 9 a small quantity ( wat]4 ,! insoluble allotropic silv] is obta9$1 z 0 m5tion$ above1 f a solution ( silv] prep>$ 9 ! mann] describ$1 by ! addition ( sulphate ( copp]1 iron1 b>ium1 magnesium1 c4 ,9 "o exp]im5t ,lea succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! insoluble allotropic ,ag 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,! r$ solution1 describ$ above1 aft] /&+ sev]al weeks1 deposits cry/als spontane\sly 9 ! =m ( %ort black ne$les & ?9 prisms1 ! liquid becom+ col\rless4 ,?is insoluble v>iety1 :5 rubb$ ^u pap]1 has ! appe>ance ( bright %9+ gre5 flakes1 :i* pol>ise light4 ,! gold v>iety is obta9$ 9 a diff]5t mann] to ! two o!r v>ieties4 ,a solution is prep>$ conta9+ #bjj c4c4 ( a #aj p4c4 solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 #bjj c4c4 ( a #bj p4c4 solution ( ,ro*elle salt1 & #hjj c4c4 ( wat]4 ,j z 9 ! previ\s case ! reaction consi/$ 9 ! r$uction ( ! citrate ( silv]1 s 9 ?is case x consi/s 9 ! r$uction ( ! t>trate1 :i* "h fir/ =ms a r$1 & !n a black precipitate ( allotropic ,ag1 :i*1 :5 transf]r$ to ! filt]1 appe>s ( a beautiful bronze col\r4 ,aft] wa%+ & dry+1 ?is precipitate acquires ! lu/re & col\r peculi> to poli%$ gold1 & ?is is especially rem>k$ :]e ! precipitate comes into contact ) glass or *9a4 ,an analysis ( ! gold5 v>iety gave a p]c5tage composition ( #ihgej to #ihgdi ,ag4 ,bo? ! insoluble v>ieties 7! blue & gold7 h a diff]5t specific gravity f ord9>y silv]4 ,:il/ t ( fus$ silv] is #ajej1 & ( f9ely-divid$ silv] #ajfb1 ! specific gravity ( ! blue insoluble v>iety is #ieh1 & ( ! gold v>iety #hea4 ,! gold v>iety passes into ord9>y ,ag ) great ease4 ,?is transition may ev5 be rem>k$ on ! filt] 9 ^? places :i* h accid5tally n be5 moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,a simple %ock1 & !re=e friction ( "o p>ticle ^u ano!r1 is en\gh to conv]t ! gold v>iety into normal :ite silv]4 ,c>ey ,lea s5t samples ( ! gold v>iety = a long di/ance by rail pack$ 9 ?ree tubes1 9 :i* ! silv] occupi$ ab\t ! qu>t] ( _! volume2 9 "o tube only he fill$ up ?is space ) cotton-wool4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd t ! %ak+ ( ! p>ticles ( ,ag _h completely conv]t$ x into ord9>y :ite silv]1 & t only ! tube conta9+ ! cotton-wool _h pres]v$ ! gold5 v>iety intact4 ,! soluble v>iety ( ,ag also passes into ! ord9>y /ate ) great ease1 ! heat ( conv]sion be+1 z ,prange %[$ 9 #ahij1 ab\t #fj calories4 #ah bis ,! op9ion ( ! nature ( soluble silv] giv5 bel[ 0 fir/ enunciat$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,*emical ,society1 ,febru>y #a1 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,,xxii41 ,note #gc4 ,?is view is1 at ! pres5t "t1 g5]ally accept$1 & ?is silv] is frequ5tly kn[n z ! 'colloid' v>iety4 ,i may add t ,c>ey ,lea obs]v$ ! solution ( ord9>y molecul> silv] 9 ammonia )\t ! access ( air4 #ah tri ,x is1 h[ev]1 notewor?y t ord9>y metallic lead has long be5 consid]$ soluble 9 wat]1 t boron has be5 repeat$ly obta9$ 9 a br[n solution1 & t obs]vations ^u ! developm5t ( c]ta9 bact]ia h %[n t ! latt] die 9 wat] :i* has be5 = "s "t 9 contact ) metals4 ,?is seems to indicate ! passage ( small quantities ( metals into wat] 7h[ev]1 ! =mation ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 may be suppos$ to h "s influ5ce 9 ^! cases74 ,z reg>ds ! capacity ( silv] = *emical reactions1 x is rem>kable = its small capacity = comb9ation ) oxyg5 & = its consid]able en]gy ( comb9ation ) sulphur1 iod9e1 & c]ta9 k9dr$ non-metals4 ,silv] does n oxidise at any temp]ature1 & its oxide1 ,ag#b,o1 is decompos$ by heat4 ,x is also a v important fact t silv] is n oxidis$ by oxyg5 ei!r 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 ev5 at exce$+ly high temp]atures1 or 9 ! pres5ce ( acids--at lea/1 ( dilute acids--:i* prop]ties r5d] x a v important metal 9 *emical indu/ry = ! fusion ( alkalis1 & also = _m purposes 9 ev]yday life2 = in/ance1 = mak+ spoons1 salt-cell>s1 c4 ,ozone1 h[ev]1 oxidises x4 ,( all acids nitric acid has ! greate/ action on silv]4 ,! reaction is accompani$ by ! =mation ( oxides ( nitrog5 & silv] nitrate1 ,ag,n,o#c1 :i* dissolves 9 wat] & does n1 !re=e1 h9d] ! fur!r action ( ! acid on ! metal4 ,! halog5 acids1 especially hydriodic acid1 act on silv]1 hydrog5 be+ evolv$2 b ?is action soon /ops1 ow+ to ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv] be+ insoluble 9 wat] & only v slightly soluble 9 acids2 !y !re=e pres]ve ! rema9+ mass ( metal f ! fur!r action ( ! acid2 9 consequ5ce ( ?is ! action ( ! halog5 acids is only di/9ctly se5 ) f9ely-divid$ silv]4 ,sulphuric acid acts on silv] 9 ! same mann] t x does on copp]1 only x mu/ be conc5trat$ & at a high] temp]ature4 ,sulphur\s anhydride1 & n hydrog51 is !n evolv$1 b !re is no action at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( air4 ,among ! v>i\s salts1 sodium *loride 79 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure1 air1 & c>bonic acid7 & potassium cyanide 79 ! pres5ce ( air7 act on silv] m decid$ly ?an any o!rs1 conv]t+ x respectively into silv] *loride & a d\ble cyanide4 ,al?\gh silv] does n directly comb9e ) oxyg51 /ill ?ree diff]5t grades ( comb9ation ) oxyg5 may be obta9$ indirectly f ! salts ( silv]4 ,!y are all1 h[ev]1 un/able1 & decompose into oxyg5 & metallic silv] :5 ignit$4 ,^! ?ree oxides ( silv] h ! foll[+ composition3 silv] suboxide1 ,ag#d,o1#ai correspond+ ) ! 7little inve/igat$7 suboxides ( ! alkali metals2 silv] oxide1 ,ag#b,o1 correspond+ ) ! oxides ( ! alkali metals & ! ord9>y salts ( silv]1 ,ag,x2 & silv] p]oxide1 ,ag,o1#ai bis or1 judg+ f ,b]!lot's rese>*es1 ,ag#b,o#c4 ,silv] oxide is obta9$ z a br[n precipitate 7:i* :5 dri$ does n conta9 wat]7 by add+ potassium hydroxide to a solution ( a silv] salt--= example1 ( silv] nitrate4 ,! precipitate =m$ seems1 h[ev]1 to be an hydroxide1 ,ag,h,o1 i4e4 ,ag,n,o#c ,,kho ,,kno#c ,ag,h,o1 & ! =mation ( ! anhydr\s oxide1 #b;,ag,h,o ,ag#b,o ,h#b,o1 may be comp>$ ) ! =mation ( ! anhydr\s cupric oxide by ! action ( potassium hydroxide on hot cupric solutions4 ,silv] hydroxide decomposes into wat] & silv] oxide1 ev5 at l[ temp]atures2 at lea/1 ! hydroxide no long] exi/s at #fj1 b =ms ! anhydr\s oxide1 ,ag#b,o4#ai tri ,silv] oxide is almo/ insoluble 9 wat]2 b1 nev]!less1 x is und\bt$ly a r p[]ful basic oxide1 because x displaces ! oxides ( _m metals f _! soluble salts1 & saturates su* acids z nitric acid1 =m+ ) !m neutral salts1 :i* d n act on litmus pap]4#bj ,und\bt$ly wat] dissolves a small quantity ( silv] oxide1 :i* expla9s ! possibility ( its action on solutions ( salts--= example1 on solutions ( cupric salts4 ,wat] 9 :i* silv] oxide is %ak5 up has a di/9ctly alkal9e reaction4 ,! oxide is di/+ui%$ by its great in/ability :5 heat$1 s t x loses all its oxyg5 :5 slightly heat$4 ,hydrog5 r$uces x at ab\t #hj4bj bis ,! feebl5ess ( ! aff9ity ( silv] = oxyg5 is %[n by ! fact t silv] oxide decomposes "u ! action ( light1 s t x mu/ be kept 9 opaque vessels4 ,! silv] salts are col\rless & decompose :5 heat$1 leav+ metallic silv] if ! elem5ts ( ! acid are volatile4#bj tri ,!y h a peculi> metallic ta/e1 & are exce$+ly poison\s2 ! majority ( !m are act$ on by light1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( organic sub/ances1 :i* are !n oxidis$4 ,! alkal9e c>bonates give a :ite precipitate ( silv] c>bonate1 ,ag#b;,,co#c1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 b soluble 9 ammonia & ammonium c>bonate4 ,aque\s ammonia1 add$ to a solution ( a normal silv] salt1 fir/ acts l potassium hydroxide1 b ! precipitate dissolves 9 an excess ( ! reag5t1 l ! precipitate ( cupric hydroxide4#ba ,silv] oxalate & ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv] are insoluble 9 wat]2 hydro*loric acid & soluble *lorides give1 z already repeat$ly obs]v$1 a :ite precipitate ( silv] *loride 9 solutions ( silv] salts4 ,potassium iodide gives a yell[i% precipitate ( silv] iodide4 ,z9c sep>ates all ! silv] 9 a metallic =m f solutions ( silv] salts4 ,_m o!r metals & r$uc+ ag5ts--= example1 organic sub/ances--also r$uce silv] f ! solutions ( its salts4 #ai ,silv] suboxide 7,ag#d,o7 or arg5t\s oxide is obta9$ f arg5tic citrate by heat+ x to #ajj 9 a /ream ( hydrog54 ,wat] & arg5t\s citrate are !n =m$1 & ! latt]1 al?\gh b slightly soluble 9 wat]1 gives a r$di%-br[n solution ( colloid silv] 7,note #ah71 & :5 boil$ ?is solution becomes col\rless & deposits metallic silv]1 ! arg5tic salt be+ aga9 =m$4 ,whl]1 :o discov]$ ?is oxide1 obta9$ x z a black precipitate by add+ potassium hydroxide to ! above solution ( arg5t\s citrate4 ,) hydro*loric acid ! suboxide gives a br[n comp\nd1 ,ag#b;,cl4 ,s9ce ! discov]y ( soluble silv] ! above data _c be reg>d$ z p]fectly tru/wor?y2 x is probable t a mixture ( ,ag#b & ,ag#b,o 0 be+ dealt )1 s t ! actual exi/5ce ( ,ag#d,o is n[ d\btful1 b !re c be no d\bt z to ! =mation ( a sub*loride1 ,ag#b;,cl 7see ,note #be71 correspond+ to ! suboxide4 ,! same comp\nd is obta9$ by ! action ( light on ! high] *loride4 ,o!r acids d n comb9e ) silv] suboxide1 b conv]t x into an arg5tic salt & metallic silv]4 ,9 ?is respect cupr\s oxide pres5ts a c]ta9 resemblance to ^! suboxides4 ,b copp] =ms a suboxide ( ! composition ,cu#d,o1 :i* is obta9$ by ! action ( an alkal9e solution ( /ann\s oxide on cupric hydroxide1 & is decompos$ by acids into cupric salts & metallic copp]4 ,! problems (f]$ by ! suboxides1 z well z by ! p]oxides1 _c be consid]$ z fully solv$4 #ai bis ,silv] p]oxide1 ,ag,o or ,ag#b,o#c1 is obta9$ by ! decomposition ( a dilute 7#aj p4c47 solution ( silv] nitrate by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t 7,ritt]74 ,on ! positive pole1 :]e oxyg5 is usually evolv$ 9 ! decomposition ( salts1 brittle grey ne$les ) a metallic lu/re1 :i* occasionally atta9 a some:at consid]able size1 are !n =m$4 ,!y are insoluble 9 wat]1 & decompose ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 :5 !y are dri$ & heat$1 especially up to #aej1 &1 l lead dioxide1 b>ium p]oxide1 c41 _! action is /rongly oxidis+4 ,:5 treat$ ) acids1 oxyg5 is evolv$ & a salt ( ! oxide =m$4 ,silv] p]oxide absorbs sulphur\s anhydride & =ms silv] sulphate4 ,hydro*loric acid evolves *lor9e2 ammonia r$uces ! silv]1 & is itself oxidis$1 =m+ wat] & gase\s nitrog54 ,analyses ( ! above-m5tion$ cry/als %[ t !y conta9 silv] nitrate1 p]oxide1 & wat]4 ,accord+ to ,fi%]1 !y h ! composition #d;,ag,o1,ag,n,o#c1;,h#b,o1 &1 accord+ to ,b]!lot1 #d;,ag#b,o#e1b;,ag,n,o#c1;,h#b,o4 #ai tri ,accord+ to ,c>ey ,lea1 h[ev]1 oxide ( silv] /ill reta9s wat] ev5 at #ajj1 & only p>ts ) x toge!r ) ! oxyg54 ,oxide ( silv] is us$ = col\r+ glass yell[4 #bj ,! reaction ( ,pb7,,oh7#b ^u ,ag,h,o 9 ! pres5ce ( ,na,h,o leads to ! =mation ( a comp\nd ( bo? oxides1 ,pb,on,ag#b,o1 f :i* ! oxide ( lead _c be remov$ by alkalies 7,whl]1 ,leton74 ,whl]1 ,wel*1 & o!rs obta9$ cry/all9e d\ble salts1 ,r#b;,ag,x#c1 by ! action ( /rong solutions ( ,,rx ( ! halog5 salts ( ! alkal9e metals ^u ,ag,x1 :]e ,r ,cs1 ,rb1 ,k4 #bj bis ,accord+ to ,mll]1 f]ric oxide is r$uc$ by hydrog5 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #e7 at #bie 7into :at 871 cupric oxide at #adj1 ,ni#b,o#c at #aej2 nickel\s oxide1 ,ni,o1 is r$uc$ to ! suboxide1 ,ni#b,o1 at #aie1 & to nickel at #bgj2 z9c oxide requires s high a temp]ature = its r$uction t ! glass tube 9 :i* ,mll] conduct$ ! exp]im5t did n /& ! heat2 antimony oxide requires a temp]ature ( #bae = its r$uction2 yell[ m]curic oxide is r$uc$ at #acj & ! r$ oxide at #bcj2 silv] oxide at #he1 & plat9um oxide ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 #bj tri ,a silica comp\nd1 ,ag#b,o,si,o#b is obta9$ by fus+ ,ag,n,o#c ) silica2 ?is salt is able to decompose ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 leav+ ,ag ,si,o#b4 #ba ,if a solution ( a silv] salt be precipitat$ by sodium hydroxide1 & aque\s ammonia is add$ drop by drop until ! precipitate is completely dissolv$1 ! liquid :5 evaporat$ deposits a violet mass ( cry/all9e silv] oxide4 ,if moi/ silv] oxide be left 9 a /rong solution ( ammonia x gives a black mass1 :i* easily decomposes ) a l\d explosion1 especially :5 /ruck4 ,?is black sub/ance is call$ fulm9at+ silv]4 ,probably ?is is a comp\nd l ! o!r comp\nds ( oxides ) ammonia1 & 9 explod+ ! oxyg5 ( ! silv] oxide =ms wat] ) ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonia1 :i* is naturally accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat & =mation ( gase\s nitrog51 or1 z ,ras*ig /ates1 fulm9at+ silv] conta9s ,n,ag#c or "o ( ! amides 7= in/ance1 ,n,h,ag#b ,,nh#c ,ag#b,o - ,h#b,o74 ,fulm9at+ silv] is also =m$ :5 potassium hydroxide is add$ to a solution ( silv] nitrate 9 ammonia4 ,! dang]\s explosions :i* are produc$ by ?is comp\nd r5d] x ne$ful t great c>e be tak5 :5 salts ( silv] come into contact ) ammonia & alkalis 7see ,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #bf74 ,silv] nitrate1 ,ag,n,o#c1 is kn[n by ! "n ( lun> cau/ic 7or lapis inf]nalis72 x is obta9$ by dissolv+ metallic silv] 9 nitric acid4 ,if ! silv] be impure1 ! resultant solution w conta9 a mixture ( ! nitrates ( copp] & silv]4 ,if ?is mixture be evaporat$ to dryness & ! residue c>efully fus$ at an incipi5t r$ heat1 all ! cupric nitrate is decompos$1 :il/ ! great] "p ( ! silv] nitrate rema9s un*ang$4 ,on treat+ ! fus$ mass ) wat] ! latt] is dissolv$1 :il/ ! cupric oxide rema9s insoluble4 ,if a c]ta9 am\nt ( silv] oxide be add$ to ! solution conta9+ ! nitrates ( silv] & copp]1 x displaces all ! cupric oxide4 ,9 ?is case x is ( c\rse n necess>y to take pure silv] oxide1 b only to p\r (f "s ( ! solution & to add potassium hydroxide to "o portion1 & to mix ! resultant precipitate ( ! hydroxides1 ,cu7,,oh7#b & ,ag,o,h1 ) ! rema9+ portion4#bb ,by ^! me?ods all ! copp] c be easily remov$ & pure silv] nitrate obta9$ 7its solution is col\rless1 :ile ! pres5ce ( ,cu r5d]s x blue71 :i* may be ultimately purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,x cry/allises 9 col\rless transp>5t prismatic plates1 :i* are n act$ on by air4 ,!y are anhydr\s4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #dcd2 x dissolves 9 half its weight ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4#bb bis ,! pure salt is n act$ on by light1 b x easily acts 9 an oxidis+ mann] on ! majority ( organic sub/ances1 :i* x g5]ally black5s4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! organic sub/ance is oxidis$ by ! silv] nitrate1 :i* is r$uc$ to metallic silv]2 ! latt] is ?us obta9$ 9 a f9ely-divid$ /ate1 :i* causes ! black /a94 ,?is peculi>ity is tak5 advantage ( = m>k+ l954 ,silv] nitrate is = ! same reason us$ = caut]is+ w\nds & v>i\s gr[?s on ! body4 ,"h aga9 x acts by virtue ( its oxidis+ capacity 9 de/roy+ ! organic matt]1 :i* x oxidises1 z is se5 f ! sep>ation ( a coat+ ( black metallic p[d]y silv] f ! "p caut]is$4#bb tri ,f ! description ( ! prep>ation ( silv] nitrate x w h be5 se5 t ?is salt1 :i* fuses at #bah1 does n decompose at an incipi5t r$ heat2 :5 ca/ into /icks x is usually employ$ = caut]is+4 ,on fur!r heat+1 ! fus$ salt und]goes decomposition1 fir/ =m+ silv] nitrite & !n metallic silv]4 ,) ammonia1 silv] nitrate =ms1 on evaporation ( ! solution1 col\rless cry/als conta9+ ,ag,n,o#c1b;,,hn#c 7,m>ignac74 ,9 g5]al ! salts ( silv]1 l cupr\s1 cupric1 z9c1 c4 salts1 are able to give sev]al comp\nds ) ammonia2 = example1 silv] nitrate 9 a dry /ate absorbs ?ree molecules 7,rose74 ,! ammonia is g5]ally easily expell$ f ^! comp\nds by ! action ( heat4 #bb ,s t we "h enc\nt] ! foll[+ ph5om5a3 copp] displaces silv] f ! solutions ( its salts1 & silv] oxide displaces copp] oxide f cupric salts4 ,guid$ by ! conceptions enunciat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xv41 we c acc\nt = ?is 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! atomic volume ( silv] #ajc1 & ( copp] #gb1 ( silv] oxide #cb1 & ( copp] oxide #ac4 ,a great] contraction has tak5 place 9 ! =mation ( cupric oxide1 ,cu,o1 ?an 9 ! =mation ( silv] oxide1 ,ag#b,o1 s9ce 9 ! =m] 7#ac - #g #f7 ! volume aft] comb9ation ) ! oxyg5 has increas$ by v little1 :il/ ! volume ( silv] oxide is consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! metal x conta9s #cb - 7#b #ajc7 #aad4 ,h5ce silv] oxide is less compact ?an cupric oxide1 & is !re=e less /able2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are great] int]vals betwe5 ! atoms 9 silv] oxide ?an 9 cupric oxide1 & !re=e silv] oxide is able to give m /able comp\nds ?an ^? ( copp] oxide4 ,?is is v]ifi$ by ! figures & data ( _! reactions4 ,x is impossible to calculate = cupric nitrate1 because ?is salt has n yet be5 obta9$ 9 an anhydr\s /ate2 b ! sulphates ( bo? oxides are kn[n4 ,! specific gravity ( copp] sulphate 9 an anhydr\s /ate is #cec1 & ( silv] sulphate #ecf2 ! molecul> volume ( ! =m] is #de1 & ( ! latt] #eh4 ,! gr\p ,,s#c 9 ! copp] occupies1 z x 71 a volume #de - #ac #cb1 & 9 ! silv] salt a volume #eh - #cb #bf2 h5ce a small] contraction has tak5 place 9 ! =mation ( ! copp] salt f ! oxide ?an 9 ! =mation ( ! silv] salt1 & consequ5tly ! latt] %\ld be m /able ?an ! =m]4 ,h5ce silv] oxide is able to decompose ! salt ( copp] oxide1 :il/ ) respect to ! metals bo? salts h be5 =m$ ) an almo/ id5tical contraction1 s9ce #eh volumes ( ! silv] salt conta9 #ba volumes ( metal 7diff]5ce #cg71 & #de volumes ( ! copp] salt conta9 #g volumes ( copp] 7diff]5ce #ch74 ,besides :i*1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t copp] oxide displaces iron oxide1 j z silv] oxide displaces copp] oxide4 ,silv]1 copp]1 & iron1 9 ! =m ( oxides1 displace ea* o!r 9 ! above ord]1 b 9 ! =m ( metals 9 a rev]se ord] 7iron1 copp]1 silv]74 ,! cause ( ?is ord] ( ! displacem5t ( ! oxides lies1 among/ o!r ?+s1 9 _! composition4 ,!y h ! composition ,ag#b,o1 ,cu#b,o#b1 ,fe#b,o#c2 ! oxide conta9+ a less proportion ( oxyg5 displaces t conta9+ a l>g] proportion1 because ! basic "* dim9i%es ) ! increase ( conta9$ oxyg54 ,copp] also displaces m]cury f its salts4 ,x may "h be rem>k$ t ,spr+ 7#ahhh71 on leav+ a mixture ( dry m]cur\s *loride & copp] = two h\rs1 obs]v$ a di/9ct r$uction1 :i* belongs to ! category ( ^? ph5om5a :i* demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( a mobility ( p>ts 7i4e4 atoms & molecules7 9 solid sub/ances4 #bb bis ,! reaction ( #a "p by weight ( ,ag,n,o#c requires 7accord+ to ,krem]s7 ! foll[+ am\nts ( wat]3 at #j1 #jhb "p1 at #aie1 #jda "p1 at #ed1 #jbj "p1 at #aaj1 #jji "p1 &1 accord+ to ,tild51 at #abe1 #jjfag "p1 & at #acc1 #jjeae "p4 #bb tri ,x may be rem>k$ t ! black /a9 produc$ by ! r$uction ( metallic silv] disappe>s "u ! action ( a solution ( m]curic *loride or ( potassium cyanide1 because ^! salts act on f9ely-divid$ silv]4 ,nitrate ( silv] easily =ms d\ble salts l ,ag,n,o#cb,na,n,o#c & ,ag,n,o#c,,kno#c4 ,silv] nitrate "u ! action ( wat] & a halog5 gives nitric acid 7see ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bhj1 =mation ( ,n#b,o#e71 a halog5 salt ( silv]1 & a silv] salt ( an oxyg5 acid ( ! halog54 ,?us1 = example1 a solution ( *lor9e 9 wat]1 :5 mix$ ) a solution ( silv] nitrate1 gives silv] *loride & *lorate4 ,x is "h evid5t t ! reaction ( ! silv] nitrate is id5tical ) ! reaction ( ! cau/ic alkalis1 z ! nitric acid is all set free & ! silv] oxide only reacts 9 exactly ! same way 9 :i* aque\s pota% acts on free *lor9e4 ,h5ce ! reaction may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #f;,ag,n,o#c #c;,cl#b #c;,h#b,o #e;,ag,cl ,ag,cl,o#c #f,,nho#c4 ,silv] nitrate1 l ! nitrates ( ! alkalis1 does n conta9 any wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,moreov] ! o!r salts ( silv] almo/ always sep>ate out )\t any wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,! silv] salts are fur!r *>act]is$ by ! fact t !y give nei!r basic nor acid salts1 ow+ to :i* ! =mation ( silv] salts g5]ally =ms ! means ( det]m9+ ! true composition ( acids--?us1 to any acid ,hn,x !re corresponds a salt ,agn,x--= in/ance1 ,ag#c,,po#d 7,*apt] ,,xix41 ,note #ae74 ,silv] gives insoluble & exce$+ly /able comp\nds ) ! halog5s4 ,!y are obta9$ by d\ble decomposition ) great facility :5ev] a silv] salt comes 9 contact ) halog5 salts4 ,solutions ( nitrate1 sulphate1 & all o!r k9dr$ salts ( silv] give a precipitate ( silv] *loride or iodide 9 solutions ( *lorides & iodides & ( ! halog5 acids1 because ! halog5 salts ( silv] are insoluble bo? 9 wat]#bc & 9 o!r acids4 ,silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 is !n obta9$ z a :ite floccul5t precipitate1 silv] bromide =ms a yell[i% precipitate1 & silv] iodide has a v di/9ct yell[ col\r4 ,^! halog5 comp\nds sometimes occur 9 nature2 !y are =m$ by a dry me?od--by ! action ( halog5 comp\nds on silv] comp\nds1 especially "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,silv] *loride easily fuses at #dea on cool+ f a molt5 /ate2 x =ms a some:at s(t horn-l mass :i* c be cut ) a knife & is kn[n z horn silv]4 ,x volatilises at a high] temp]ature4 ,its ammoniacal solution1 on ! evaporation ( ! ammonia1 deposits cry/all9e *loride ( silv]1 9 octah$ra4 ,bromide & iodide ( silv] also appe> 9 =ms ( ! regul> sy/em1 s t 9 ?is respect ! halog5 salts ( silv] resemble ! halog5 salts ( ! alkali metals4#bd #bc ,silv] *loride is almo/ p]fectly insoluble 9 wat]1 b is some:at soluble 9 wat] conta9+ sodium *loride or hydro*loric acid1 or o!r *lorides1 & _m salts1 9 solution4 ,?us at #ajj1 #ajj p>ts ( wat] saturat$ ) sodium *loride dissolve #jd "p ( silv] *loride4 ,bromide & iodide ( silv] are less soluble 9 ?is respect1 z also 9 reg>d to o!r solv5ts4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t silv] *loride dissolves 9 solutions ( ammonia1 potassium cyanide1 & ( sodium ?iosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#c4 ,silv] bromide is almo/ p]fectly analog\s to ! *loride1 b silv] iodide is ne>ly insoluble 9 a solution ( ammonia4 ,silv] *loride ev5 absorbs dry ammonia gas1 =m+ v un/able ammoniacal comp\nds4 ,:5 heat$1 ^! comp\nds 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bej1 ,note #h7 evolve ! ammonia1 z !y also d "u ! action ( all acids4 ,silv] *loride ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) potassium cyanide1 =m+ a soluble d\ble cyanide1 :i* we %all pres5tly describe2 x also =ms a soluble d\ble salt1 ,na,ag,s#b,o#c1 ) sodium ?iosulphate4 ,silv] *loride (f]s diff]5t modifications 9 ! /ructure ( its molecule1 z is se5 9 ! v>iations 9 ! consi/5cy ( ! precipitate1 & 9 ! diff]5ces 9 ! action ( light :i* p>tially decomposes ,ag,cl 7see ,note #be74 ,/as & ,c>ey ,lea inve/igat$ ?is subject1 :i* has a p>ticul> importance 9 photography1 because silv] bromide also gives photo-salts4 ,!re is /ill mu* to be discov]$ 9 ?is respect1 s9ce ,abney %[$ t p]fectly dry ,ag,cl plac$ 9 a vacuum 9 ! d>k is n 9 ! lea/ act$ ^u :5 subsequ5tly expos$ to light4 #bd ,silv] bromide & iodide 7:i* occur z ! m9]als bromite & iodite7 resemble ! *loride 9 _m respects1 b ! degree ( aff9ity ( silv] = iod9e is great] ?an t = *lor9e & brom9e1 al?\gh less heat is evolv$ 7see ,note #bh bis74 ,deville d$uc$ ?is fact f a numb] ( exp]im5ts4 ,?us silv] *loride1 :5 treat$ ) hydriodic acid1 evolves hydro*loric acid1 & =ms silv] iodide4 ,f9ely-divid$ silv] easily lib]ates hydrog5 :5 treat$ ) hydriodic acid2 x produces ! same decomposition ) hydro*loric acid1 b 9 a consid]ably less degree & only on ! surface4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 silv] *loride & iodide is especially rem>kable1 s9ce ! =mation ( ! =m] is att5d$ ) a great] contraction ?an t ( ! latt]4 ,! volume ( ,ag,cl #bf2 ( *lor9e #bg1 ( silv] #aj1 ! sum #cg1 h5ce a contraction has ensu$2 & 9 ! =mation ( silv] iodide an expansion takes place1 = ! volume ( ,ag is #aj1 ( ,i #bf1 & ( ,ag,i #ci in/ead ( #cf 7d5sity1 ,ag,cl1 #eei2 ,ag,i1 #efg74 ,! atoms ( *lor9e h unit$ ) ! atoms ( silv] )\t mov+ asund]1 :il/ ! atoms ( iod9e mu/ h mov$ ap>t 9 comb9+ ) ! silv]4 ,x is o!rwise ) respect to ! metal2 ! di/ance betwe5 its atoms 9 ! metal #bb1 9 silv] *loride #cj1 & 9 silv] iodide #ce2 h5ce its atoms h mov$ asund] consid]ably 9 bo? cases4 ,x is also v rem>kable1 z ,fizeau obs]v$1 t ! d5sity ( silv] iodide increases ) a rise ( temp]ature--t is1 a contraction takes place :5 x is heat$ & an expansion :5 x is cool$4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! fact t 9 silv] comp\nds ! iodide is m /able ?an ! *loride & oxide1 ,pr(essor ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f1 9 8 ',rese>*es on ! ,ph5om5a ( ,sub/itutions' 7,kh>k(f1 #ahfe71 propos$ ! foll[+ orig9al hypo!sis1 :i* we w give 9 almo/ ! words ( ! au?or3--,9 ! case ( alum9ium1 ! oxide1 ,al#b,o#c1 is m /able ?an ! *loride1 ,al#b;,cl#f1 & ! iodide1 ,al#b;,i#f4 ,9 ! oxide ! am\nt ( ! metal is to ! am\nt ( ! elem5t comb9$ ) x z #edh 7,al #bgc7 is to #dh1 or 9 ! ratio #aab 3 #ajj2 = ! *loride ! ratio is #be 3 #ajj2 = ! iodide x #g 3 #ajj4 ,9 ! case ( silv] ! oxide 7ratio #acej 3 #ajj7 is less /able ?an ! *loride 7ratio #cjd 3 #ajj71 & ! iodide 7ratio ( ! weight ( metal to ! weight ( ! halog5 #he 3 #ajj7 is ! mo/ /able4 ,f ^! & simil> examples x foll[s t ! mo/ /able comp\nds are ^? 9 :i* ! weights ( ! comb9$ sub/ances are equal4 ,?is may be p>tly expla9$ by ! attraction ( simil> molecules ev5 aft] _! hav+ pass$ into comb9ation ) o!rs4 ,?is attraction is proportional to ! product ( ! act+ masses4 ,9 silv] oxide ! attraction ( ,ag#b = ,ag#b #baf #baf #df1fef1 & ! attraction ( ,ag#b = ,o #baf #af #c1def4 ,! attraction ( l molecules ?us c\nt]acts ! attraction ( ! unlike molecules4 ,! =m] naturally does n ov]come ! latt]1 o!rwise !re w\ld be a disruption1 b x nev]!less dim9i%es ! /ability4 ,9 ! case ( an equality or proximity ( ! magnitude ( ! comb9+ masses1 ! attraction ( ! l p>ts w c\nt]act ! /ability ( ! comp\nd to ! lea/ ext5t--9 o!r words1 ) an inequality ( ! comb9$ masses1 ! molecules h an incl9ation to return to an elem5t>y /ate1 to decompose1 :i* does n exi/ to su* an ext5t :]e ! comb9$ masses are equal4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a t5d5cy = l>ge masses to comb9e ) l>ge1 & = small masses to comb9e ) small4 ,h5ce ,ag#b,o #b,,ki gives ,k#b,o #b;,ag,i4 ,! influ5ce ( an equality ( masses on ! /ability is se5 p>ticul>ly cle>ly 9 ! effect ( a rise ( temp]ature4 ,arg5tic1 m]curic1 auric & o!r oxides compos$ ( unequal masses1 are some:at readily decompos$ by heat1 :il/ ! oxides ( ! light] metals 7l wat]7 are n s easily decompos$ by heat4 ,silv] *loride & iodide approa* ! condition ( equality1 & are n decompos$ by heat4 ,! mo/ /able oxides "u ! action ( heat are ^? ( magnesium1 calcium1 silicon1 & alum9ium1 s9ce !y also approa* ! condition ( equality4 ,= ! same reason hydriodic acid decomposes ) great] facility ?an hydro*loric acid4 ,*lor9e does n act on magnesia or alum9a1 b x acts on lime & silv] oxide1 c4 ,?is is p>tially expla9$ by ! fact t by consid]+ heat z a mode ( motion1 & kn[+ t ! atomic heats ( ! free elem5ts are equal1 x mu/ be suppos$ t ! am\nt ( ! motion ( atoms 7_! vis viva7 is equal1 & z x is equal to ! product ( ! mass 7atomic weight7 into ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 x foll[s t ! great] ! comb9+ weight ! small] w be ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 & if ! comb9+ weights be ne>ly equal1 !n ! velocities also w be ne>ly equal4 ,h5ce ! great] ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weights ( ! comb9$ atoms ! great] w be ! diff]5ce betwe5 _! velocities4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! velocities w increase ) ! temp]ature1 & !re=e ! temp]ature ( decomposition w be ! soon] atta9$ ! great] be ! orig9al diff]5ce--t is1 ! great] ! diff]5ce ( ! weights ( ! comb9$ sub/ances4 ,! ne>] ^! weights are to ea* o!r1 ! m analog\s ! motion ( ! unlike atoms1 & consequ5tly1 ! m /able ! resultant comp\nd4 ,! in/ability ( cupric *loride & nitric oxide1 ! abs5ce ( comp\nds ( fluor9e ) oxyg51 :il/ !re are comp\nds ( oxyg5 ) *lor9e1 ! great] /ability ( ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( iod9e ?an ^? ( *lor9e1 ! /ability ( boron nitride1 & ! in/ability ( cyanog51 & a numb] ( simil> in/ances1 :]e1 judg+ f ! above argum5t1 "o w\ld expect 7ow+ to ! clos5ess ( ! atomic weights7 a /ability1 %[ t ,beket(f's addition to ! me*anical !ory ( *emical ph5om5a is /ill f> f suffici5t = expla9+ ! true relations ( aff9ities4 ,nev]!less1 9 8 mode ( expla9+ ! relative /abilities ( comp\nds1 we f9d an exce$+ly int]e/+ treatm5t ( que/ions ( prim>y importance4 ,)\t su* ef=ts x w\ld be impossible to g5]alise ! complex data ( exp]im5tal k4 ,fluoride ( silv]1 ,ag,f1 is obta9$ by dissolv+ ,ag#b,o or ,ag#b;,,co#c 9 hydr(luoric acid4 ,x diff]s f ! o!r halog5 salts ( silv] 9 be+ soluble 9 wat] 7#a "p ( salt 9 #jee ( wat]74 ,x cry/allises f its solution 9 prisms1 ,ag,f,h#b,o 7,m>ignac71 or ,ag,f#b;,h#b,o 7,pfaundl]71 :i* lose _! wat] 9 vacuo4 ,gntz 7#ahia71 by electrolis+ a saturat$ solution ( ,ag#b;,f1 obta9$ polyfluoride ( silv]1 ,ag#b;,f1 :i* is decompos$ by wat] into ,ag,f ,ag4 ,x is also =m$ by ! action ( a /rong solution ( ,ag,f ^u f9ely-divid$ 7precipitat$7 silv]4 ,silv] *loride may be decompos$1 ) ! sep>ation ( silv] oxide1 by heat+ x ) a solution ( an alkali1 & if an organic sub/ance be add$ to ! alkali ! *loride c easily be r$uc$ o metallic silv]1 ! silv] oxide be+ r$uc$ 9 ! oxidation ( ! organic sub/ance4 ,iron1 z9c1 & _m o!r metals r$uce silv] *loride 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,cupr\s & m]cur\s *lorides & _m organic sub/ances are also able to r$uce ! silv] f *loride ( silv]4 ,?is %[s ! r easy decomposability ( ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv]4 ,silv] iodide is mu* m /able 9 ?is respect ?an ! *loride4 ,! same is also obs]v$ ) respect to ! action ( light ^u moi/ ,ag,cl4 ,:ite silv] *loride soon acquires a violet col\r :5 expos$ to ! action ( light1 & especially "u ! direct action ( ! sun's rays4 ,aft] be+ act$ ^u by light x is no long] entirely soluble 9 ammonia1 b leaves metallic silv] undissolv$1 f :i* x might be assum$ t ! action ( light consi/$ 9 ! decomposition ( ! silv] *loride into *lor9e & metallic silv] & 9 fact ! silv] *loride becomes 9 "t d>k] & d>k]4 ,silv] bromide & iodide are mu* m sl[ly act$ on by light1 &1 accord+ to c]ta9 obs]vations1 :5 pure !y are ev5 q unact$ on2 at lea/ !y d n *ange 9 weight1#bd bis s t if !y are act$ on by light1 ! *ange !y und]go mu/ be "o ( a *ange 9 ! /ructure ( _! p>ts & n ( decomposition1 z x is 9 silv] *loride4 ,! silv] *loride "u ! action ( light *anges 9 weight1 :i* indicates ! =mation ( a volatile product1 & ! deposition ( metallic silv] on dissolv+ 9 ammonia %[s ! loss ( *lor9e4 ,! *ange does actually occur "u ! action ( light1 b ! decomposition does n g z f> z into *lor9e & silv]1 b only to ! =mation ( a sub*loride ( silv]1 ,ag#b;,cl1 :i* is ( a br[n col\r & is easily decompos$ into metallic silv] & silv] *loride1 ,ag#b;,cl ,ag,cl ,ag4 ,?is *ange ( ! *emical composition & /ructure ( ! halog5 salts ( silv] "u ! action ( light =ms ! basis ( photography1 because ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv]1 aft] hav+ be5 expos$ to light1 give a precipitate ( f9ely-divid$ silv]1 ( a black col\r1 :5 treat$ ) r$uc+ ag5ts4#be #bd bis ,! *anges br\ght ab\t by ! action ( light necessitate di/+ui%+ ! photo-salts ( silv]4 #be ,9 photography ^! are call$ 'develop]s4' ,! mo/ common develop]s are3 solutions ( f]r\s sulphate1 pyrogallol1 f]r\s oxalate1 hydroxylam9e1 potassium sulphite1 hydroqu9one 7! la/ acts p>ticul>ly well & is v conv5i5t to use71 c4 ,! *emical processes ( photography are ( great practical & !oretical int]e/2 b x w\ld be impossible 9 ?is "w to ent] into ?is special bran* ( *emi/ry1 :i* has z yet be5 v little work$ out f a !oretical po9t ( view4 ,nev]!less1 we w pause to consid] c]ta9 aspects ( ?is subject :i* are ( a purely *emical int]e/1 & especially ! facts conc]n+ sub*loride ( silv]1 ,ag#b;,cl 7see ,note #ai71 & ! photo-salts 7,note #bc74 ,!re is no d\bt t "u ! action ( light1 ,ag,cl becomes d>k] 9 col\r1 decreases 9 weight1 & probably =ms a mixture ( ,ag,cl1 ,ag#b;,cl1 & ,ag4 ,b ! isolation ( ! sub*loride has only be5 rec5tly accompli%$ by ,gntz by means ( ! ,ag#b;,f1 discov]$ by him 7see ,note #bd74 ,_m *emi/s 7& among !m ,hodgk9son7 assum$ t an oxy*loride ( silv] 0 =m$ by ! decomposition ( ,ag,cl "u ! action ( light4 ,c>ey ,lea's 7#ahhi7 & ,a4 ,ri*>dson's 7#ahia7 exp]im5ts %[$ t ! product =m$ does n1 h[ev]1 conta9 any oxyg5 at all1 & ! *ange 9 col\r produc$ by ! action ( light ^u ,ag,cl is mo/ probably due to ! =mation ( ,ag#b;,cl4 ,?is sub/ance 0 isolat$ by ,gntz 7#ahia7 by pass+ ,h,cl ov] cry/als ( ,ag#b;,f4 ,he also obta9$ ,ag#b;,i 9 a simil> mann] by pass+ ,,hi1 & ,ag#b,s by pass+ ,h#b,s ov] ,ag#b;,f4 ,ag#b;,cl is be/ prep>$ by ! action ( phosphorus tri*loride ^u ,ag#b;,f4 ,at ! temp]ature ( its =mation ,ag#b;,cl has an easily *angeable t9t1 ) %ades ( violet r$ to violet black4 ,"u ! action ( light a simil> 7isom]ic7 sub/ance is obta9$1 :i* splits up into ,ag,cl ,ag :5 heat$4 ,) potassium cyanide ,ag#b;,cl gives ,ag ,ag,c,n ,k,cl1 :5ce x is possible to calculate ! heat ( =mation ( ,ag#b;,cl2 x #big1 :il/ ! heat ( =mation ( ,ag,cl #bib--;i4e4 ! reaction #b;,ag,cl ,ag#b;,cl ,cl corresponds to an absorption ( #bhg major calories4 ,if we admit ! =mation ( su* a comp\nd by ! action ( light1 x is evid5t t ! en]gy ( ! light is consum$ 9 ! above reaction4 ,c>ey ,lea 7#ahib7 subject$ ,ag,cl1 ,ag,br1 & ,ag,i to a pressure 7( c\rse 9 ! d>k7 ( #c1jjj atmosph]es1 & to trituration ) wat] 9 a mort>1 & obs]v$ a *ange ( col\r indicat+ incipi5t decomposition1 :i* is facilitat$ "u ! action ( light by ! molecul> curr5ts set up 7,l]mont(f1 ,egor(f74 ,! *ange ( col\r ( ! halog5 salts ( silv] "u ! action ( light1 & _! faculty ( subsequ5tly giv+ a visible photographic image "u ! action ( 'develop]s1' mu/ n[ be reg>d$ z connect$ ) ! decomposition ( ,ag,x1 lead+ to ! =mation ( ,ag#b,x1 & ! diff]5t t9t$ photo-salts mu/ be consid]$ z sy/ems conta9+ su* ,ag#b,x's4 ,c>ey ,lea obta9$ photo-salts ( ?is k9d n only by ! action ( light b also 9 _m o!r ways1 :i* we w enum]ate to prove t !y conta9 ! products ( an incomplete comb9ation ( ,ag ) ! halog5s1 7= ! salts ,ag#b,x mu/ be reg>d$ z su*74 ,! photo-salts h be5 obta9$ 7#a7 by ! imp]fect *lor9ation ( silv]2 7#b7 by ! incomplete decomposition ( ,ag#b,o or ,ag#b;,,co#c by alt]nately heat+ & treat+ ) a halog5 acid2 7#c7 by ! action ( nitric acid or ,na#b,s#b,o#c ^u ,ag#b;,cl2 7#d7 by mix+ a solution ( ,ag,n,o#c ) ! hydrates ( ,fe,o1 ,mn,o & ,cr,o1 & precipitat+ by ,h,cl2 7#e7 by ! action ( ,h,cl ^u ! product obta9$ by ! r$uction ( citrate ( silv] 9 hydrog5 7,note #ai71 & 7#f7 by ! action ( milk sug> ^u ,ag,n,o#c toge!r ) soda & aft]w>ds acidulat+ ) ,h,cl4 ,all ^! reactions %\ld lead to ! =mation ( products ( imp]fect comb9ation ) ! halog5s & give photo-salts ( a simil> div]sity ( col\r to ^? produc$ by ! action ( develop]s ^u ! halog5 salts ( silv] aft] exposure to light4 ,! insolubility ( ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv] =ms ! basis ( _m me?ods us$ 9 practical *emi/ry4 ,?us by means ( ?is reaction x is possible to obta9 salts ( o!r acids f a halog5 salt ( a giv5 metal1 = in/ance1 ,r,cl#b #b;,ag,n,o#c ,r7,,no#c7b #b;,ag,cl4 ,! =mation ( ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv] is v frequ5tly us$ 9 ! inve/igation ( organic sub/ances2 = example1 if any product ( metalepsis conta9+ iod9e or *lor9e be heat$ ) a silv] salt or silv] oxide1 ! silv] comb9es ) ! halog5 & gives a halog5 salt1 :il/ ! elem5ts previ\sly comb9$ ) ! silv] replace ! halog54 ,= in/ance1 e?yl5e dibromide1 ,c#b;,h#d;,br#b1 is trans=m$ into e?yl5e diacetate1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1 & silv] bromide by heat+ x ) silv] acetate1 #b;,c#b;,h#c,o#b;,ag4 ,! insolubility ( ! halog5 comp\nds ( silv] is /ill m frequ5tly tak5 advantage ( 9 det]m9+ ! am\nt ( silv] & halog5 9 a giv5 solution4 ,if x is requir$1 = in/ance1 to det]m9e ! quantity ( *lor9e pres5t 9 ! =m ( a metallic *loride 9 a giv5 solution1 a solution ( silv] nitrate is add$ to x s long z x gives a precipitate4 ,on %ak+ or /irr+ ! liquid1 ! silv] *loride easily settles 9 ! =m ( heavy flakes4 ,x is possible 9 ?is way to precipitate ! :ole ( ! *lor9e f a solution1 )\t add+ an excess ( silv] nitrate1 s9ce x c be easily se5 :e!r ! addition ( a fre% quantity ( silv] nitrate produces a precipitate 9 ! cle> liquid4 ,9 ?is mann] x is possible to add to a solution conta9+ *lor9e1 z mu* silv] z is requir$ = its entire precipitation1 & to calculate ! am\nt ( *lor9e previ\sly 9 solution f ! am\nt ( ! solution ( silv] nitrate consum$1 if ! quantity ( silv] nitrate 9 ?is solution has be5 previ\sly det]m9$4#be bis ,! atomic proportions & prelim9>y exp]im5ts ) a pure salt--= example1 ) sodium *loride--w give ! am\nt ( *lor9e f ! quantity ( silv] nitrate4 ,details ( ^! me?ods w be f\nd 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4#be tri #be bis ,9 ord] to det]m9e :5 ! reaction is at an end1 a few drops ( a solution ( ,k#b;,cr,o#d are add$ to ! solution ( ! *loride4 ,be=e all ! *lor9e is precipitat$ z ,ag,cl1 ! precipitate 7aft] %ak+7 is :ite 7s9ce ,ag#b;,cr,o#d ) #b,r,cl gives #b;,ag,cl72 b :5 all ! *lor9e is ?r[n d[n ,ag#b;,cr,o#d is =m$1 :i* col\rs ! precipitate r$di%-br[n4 ,9 ord] to obta9 accurate results ! liquid %\ld be neutral to litmus4 #be tri ,silv] cyanide1 ,ag,c,n1 is closely analog\s to ! haloid salts ( silv]4 ,x is obta9$1 9 simil> mann] to silv] *loride1 by ! addition ( potassium cyanide to silv] nitrate4 ,a :ite precipitate is !n =m$1 :i* is almo/ insoluble 9 boil+ wat]4 ,x is also1 l silv] *loride1 insoluble 9 dilute acids4 ,h[ev]1 x is dissolv$ :5 heat$ ) nitric acid1 & bo? hydriodic & hydro*loric acids act on x1 conv]t+ x into silv] *loride & iodide4 ,alkalis1 h[ev]1 d n act on silv] cyanide1 al?\gh !y act on ! o!r haloid salts ( silv]4 ,ammonia & solutions ( ! cyanides ( ! alkali metals dissolve silv] cyanide1 z !y d ! *loride4 ,9 ! latt] case d\ble cyanides are =m$--= example1 ,k,ag,c#b,n#b4 ,?is salt is obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e /ate on evaporat+ a solution ( silv] cyanide 9 potassium cyanide4 ,x is mu* m /able ?an silv] cyanide itself4 ,x has a neutral reaction1 does n *ange 9 ! air1 & does n smell ( hydrocyanic acid4 ,_m acids1 9 act+ on a solution ( ?is d\ble salt1 precipitate ! insoluble silv] cyanide4 ,metallic silv] dissolves 9 a solution ( potassium cyanide 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 ) =mation ( ! same d\ble salt & potassium hydroxide1 & :5 silv] *loride dissolves 9 potassium cyanide x =ms potassium *loride1 besides ! salt ,k,ag,c#b,n#b4 ,?is d\ble salt ( silv] is us$ 9 silv] plat+4 ,= ?is purpose potassium cyanide is add$ to its solution1 z o!rwise silv] cyanide1 & n metallic silv]1 is deposit$ by ! electric curr5t4 ,if two electrodes--"o positive 7silv]7 & ! o!r negative 7copp]7--be imm]s$ 9 su* a solution1 silv] w be deposit$ ^u ! latt]1 & ! silv] ( ! positive electrode w be dissolv$ by ! liquid1 :i* w ?us pres]ve ! same am\nt ( metal 9 solution z x orig9ally conta9$4 ,if in/ead ( ! negative electrode a copp] object be tak51 well clean$ f all dirt1 ! silv] w be deposit$ 9 an ev5 coat+2 ?is1 inde$1 =ms ! mode ( silv] plat+ by ! wet me?od1 :i* is mo/ (t5 us$ 9 practice4 ,a solution ( "o "p ( silv] nitrate 9 #cj to #ej p>ts ( wat]1 & mix$ ) a suffici5t quantity ( a solution ( potassium cyanide to r$issolve ! precipitate ( silv] cyanide =m$1 gives a dull coat+ ( silv]1 b if twice z mu* wat] be us$ ! same mixture gives a bright coat+4 ,silv] plat+ 9 ! wet way has n[ replac$ to a consid]able ext5t ! old process ( dry silv]+1 because ?is process1 :i* consi/s 9 dissolv+ silv] 9 m]cury & apply+ ! amalgam to ! surface ( ! objects1 & !n vaporis+ ! m]cury1 (f]s ! great disadvantage ( ! poison\s m]cury fumes4 ,besides ^!1 !re is ano!r me?od ( silv] plat+1 bas$ on ! direct displacem5t ( silv] f its salts by o!r metals--= example1 by copp]4 ,! copp] r$uces ! silv] f its comp\nds1 & ! silv] sep>at$ is deposit$ ^u ! copp]4 ,?us a solution ( silv] *loride 9 sodium ?iosulphate deposits a coat+ ( silv] ^u a /rip ( copp] imm]s$ 9 x4 ,x is be/ = ?is purpose to take pure silv] sulphite4 ,?is is prep>$ by mix+ a solution ( silv] nitrate ) an excess ( ammonia1 & add+ a saturat$ solution ( sodium sulphite & !n alcohol1 :i* precipitates silv] sulphite f ! solution4 ,! latt] & its solutions are v easily decompos$ by copp]4 ,metallic iron produces ! same decomposition1 & iron & /eel articles may be v readily silv]-plat$ by means ( ! ?iosulphate solution ( silv] *loride4 ,inde$1 copp] & simil> metals may ev5 be silv]-plat$ by means ( silv] *loride2 if ! *loride ( silv]1 ) a small am\nt ( acid1 be rubb$ ^u ! surface ( ! copp]1 ! latt] becomes cov]$ ) a coat+ ( silv]1 :i* x has r$uc$4 ,silv] plat+ is n only applicable to metallic objects1 b also to glass1 *9a1 c4 ,glass is silv]$ = v>i\s purposes--= example1 glass globes silv]$ int]nally are us$ = ornam5tation1 & h a mirror$ surface4 ,common look+-glass silv]$ ^u "o side =ms a mirror :i* is bett] ?an ! ord9>y m]cury mirrors1 ow+ to ! tru] col\rs ( ! image due to ! :it5ess ( ! silv]4 ,= optical in/rum5ts--= example1 telescopes--concave mirrors are n[ made ( silv]$ glass1 :i* has fir/ be5 gr\nd & poli%$ into ! requir$ =m4 ,! silv]+ ( glass is bas$ on ! fact t silv] :i* is r$uc$ f c]ta9 solutions deposits itself uni=mly 9 a p]fectly homog5e\s & cont9u\s b v ?9 lay]1 =m+ a bright reflect+ surface4 ,c]ta9 organic sub/ances h ! prop]ty ( r$uc+ silv] 9 ?is =m4 ,! be/ kn[n among ^! are c]ta9 aldehydes--= in/ance1 ord9>y acetaldehyde1 ,c#b;,h#d,o1 :i* easily oxidises 9 ! air & =ms acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b4 ,?is oxidation also easily takes place at ! exp5se ( silv] oxide1 :5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ammonia is add$ to ! mixture4 ,! oxide ( silv] gives up its oxyg5 to ! aldehyde1 & ! silv] r$uc$ f x is deposit$ 9 a metallic /ate 9 a uni=m bright coat+4 ,! same action is produc$ by c]ta9 sac*>9e sub/ances & c]ta9 organic acids1 su* z t>t>ic acid1 c4 ,accurate exp]im5ts1 & m especially ! rese>*es ( ,/as at ,brussels1 %[ ! proportion 9 :i* silv] reacts ) metallic *lorides4 ,^! rese>*es h l$ to ! det]m9ation ( ! comb9+ weights ( silv]1 sodium1 potassium1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 & o!r elem5ts1 & are di/+ui%$ = _! model exactitude1 & we w !re=e describe !m 9 "s detail4 ,z sodium *loride is ! *loride mo/ g5]ally us$ = ! precipitation ( silv]1 s9ce x c mo/ easily be obta9$ 9 a pure /ate1 we w "h cite ! quantitative obs]vations made by ,/as = %[+ ! co-relation betwe5 ! quantities ( *loride ( sodium & silv] :i* react toge!r4 ,9 ord] to obta9 p]fectly pure sodium *loride1 he took pure rock salt1 conta9+ only a small quantity ( magnesium & calcium comp\nds & a small am\nt ( potassium salts4 ,?is salt 0 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! saturat$ solution evaporat$ by boil+4 ,! sodium *loride sep>at$ out dur+ ! boil+1 & ! "m liquor conta9+ ! impurities 0 p\r$ (f4 ,alcohol ( #fe p4c4 /r5g? & plat9ic *loride 7 add$ to ! resultant salt1 9 ord] to precipitate all ! potassium & a c]ta9 "p ( ! sodium salts4 ,! resultant alcoholic solution1 conta9+ ! sodium & plat9um *lorides1 0 !n mix$ ) a solution ( pure ammonium *loride 9 ord] to remove ! plat9ic *loride4 ,aft] ?is precipitation1 ! solution 0 evaporat$ 9 a plat9um retort1 & !n sep>ate portions ( ?is purifi$ sodium *loride 7 collect$ z !y cry/allis$4 ,! same salt 0 prep>$ f sodium sulphate1 t>trate1 nitrate1 & f ! plat9o*loride1 9 ord] to h sodium *loride prep>$ by diff]5t me?ods & f diff]5t s\rces1 & 9 ?is mann] t5 samples ( sodium *loride ?us prep>$ 7 purifi$ & inve/igat$ 9 _! relation to silv]4 ,aft] be+ dri$1 weigh$ quantities ( all t5 samples ( sodium *loride 7 dissolv$ 9 wat] & mix$ ) a solution 9 nitric acid ( a weigh$ quantity ( p]fectly pure silv]4 ,a slightly great] quantity ( silv] 0 tak5 ?an w\ld be requir$ = ! decomposition ( ! sodium *loride1 & :51 aft] p\r+ 9 all ! silv] solution1 ! silv] *loride _h settl$1 ! am\nt ( silv] rema9+ 9 excess 0 det]m9$ by means ( a solution ( sodium *loride ( kn[n /r5g?4 ,?is solution ( sodium *loride 0 add$ s long z x =m$ a precipitate4 ,9 ?is mann] ,/as det]m9$ h[ _m p>ts ( sodium *loride correspond to #ajj p>ts by weight ( silv]4 ,! result ( t5 det]m9ations 0 t = ! entire precipitation ( #ajj p>ts ( silv]1 f #edbjfj to #edbjic p>ts ( sodium *loride 7 requir$4 ,! diff]5ce is s inconsid]able t x has no p]ceptible influ5ce on ! subsequ5t calculations4 ,! mean ( t5 exp]im5ts 0 t #ajj p>ts ( silv] react ) #edbjgh p>ts ( sodium *loride4 ,9 ord] to le>n f ?is ! relation betwe5 ! *lor9e & silv]1 x 0 necess>y to det]m9e ! quantity ( *lor9e conta9$ 9 #edbjgh p>ts ( sodium *loride1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 ! quantity ( *lor9e :i* comb9es ) #ajj p>ts ( silv]4 ,= ?is purpose ,/as made a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! quantity ( silv] *loride obta9$ f #ajj p>ts ( silv]4 ,f\r syn!ses 7 made by him = ?is purpose4 ,! fir/ syn!sis consi/$ 9 ! =mation ( silv] *loride by ! action ( *lor9e on silv] at a r$ heat4 ,?is exp]im5t %[$ t #ajj p>ts ( silv] give #acbhda1 #acbhdc & #acbhdc ( silv] *loride4 ,! second me?od consi/$ 9 dissolv+ a giv5 quantity ( silv] 9 nitric acid & precipitat+ x by means ( gase\s hydro*loric acid pass$ ov] ! surface ( ! liquid2 ! resultant mass 0 evaporat$ 9 ! d>k to drive (f ! nitric acid & excess ( hydro*loric acid1 & ! rema9+ silv] *loride 0 fus$ fir/ 9 an atmosph]e ( hydro*loric acid gas & !n 9 air4 ,9 ?is process ! silv] *loride 0 n wa%$1 & !re=e !re c\ld be no loss f solution4 ,two exp]im5ts made by ?is me?od %[$ t #ajj p>ts ( silv] give #acbhdi & #acbhdf p>ts ( silv] *loride4 ,a ?ird s]ies ( det]m9ations 0 also made by precipitat+ a solution ( silv] nitrate ) a c]ta9 excess ( gase\s hydro*loric acid4 ,! am\nt ( silv] *loride obta9$ 0 altoge!r #acbhdh4 ,la/ly1 a f\r? det]m9ation 0 made by precipitat+ dissolv$ silv] ) a solution ( ammonium *loride1 :5 x 0 f\nd t a consid]able am\nt ( silv] 7#jcage7 _h pass$ into solution 9 ! wa%+2 = #ajj p>ts ( silv] !re 0 obta9$ altoge!r #acbhdag ( silv] *loride4 ,?us f ! mean ( sev5 det]m9ations x appe>s t #ajj p>ts ( silv] give #acbhdde p>ts ( silv] *loride--t is1 t #cbhdde p>ts ( *lor9e are able to comb9e ) #ajj p>ts ( silv] & ) t quantity ( sodium :i* is conta9$ 9 #edbjgh p>ts ( sodium *loride4 ,^! obs]vations %[ t #cbhdde p>ts ( *lor9e comb9e ) #ajj p>ts ( silv] & ) #bacfcc p>ts ( sodium4 ,f ^! figures express+ ! relation betwe5 ! comb9+ weights ( *lor9e1 silv]1 & sodium1 x w\ld be possible to det]m9e _! atomic weights--t is1 ! comb9+ quantity ( ^! elem5ts ) respect to "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 or #af p>ts ( oxyg51 if !re exi/$ a s]ies ( simil>ly accurate det]m9ations = ! reactions betwe5 hydrog5 or oxyg5 & "o ( ^! elem5ts--*lor9e1 sodium1 or silv]4 ,if we det]m9e ! quantity ( silv] *loride :i* is obta9$ f silv] *lorate1 ,ag,cl,o#c1 we %all "k ! relation betwe5 ! comb9+ weights ( silv] *loride & oxyg51 s t1 tak+ ! quantity ( oxyg5 z a con/ant magnitude1 we c le>n f ?is reaction ! comb9+ weight ( silv] *loride1 & f ! prec$+ numb]s ! comb9+ weights ( *lor9e & silv]4 ,= ?is purpose x 0 fir/ necess>y to obta9 pure silv] *lorate4 ,?is ,/as did by act+ on silv] oxide or c>bonate1 susp5d$ 9 wat]1 ) gase\s *lor9e4#bf #bf ,! ph5om5on :i* !n takes place is describ$ by ,/as z foll[s1 9 a mann] :i* is p]fect 9 its cle>ness & accuracy3 if silv] oxide or c>bonate be susp5d$ 9 wat]1 & an excess ( wat] saturat$ ) *lor9e be add$1 all ! silv] is conv]t$ into *loride1 j z is ! case ) oxide or c>bonate ( m]cury1 & ! wat] !n conta9s1 besides ! excess ( *lor9e1 only pure hypo*lor\s acid )\t ! lea/ trace ( *loric or *lor\s acid4 ,if a /ream ( *lor9e be pass$ into wat] conta9+ an excess ( silv] oxide or silv] c>bonate :ile ! liquid is cont9ually agitat$1 ! reaction is ! same z ! prec$+2 silv] *loride & hypo*lor\s acid are =m$4 ,b ?is acid does n long rema9 9 a free /ate3 x gradually acts on ! silv] oxide & gives silv] hypo*lorite1 i4e4 ,ag,cl,o4 ,if1 aft] "s "t1 ! curr5t ( *lor9e be /opp$ b ! %ak+ cont9u$1 ! liquid loses its *>act]i/ic od\r ( hypo*lor\s acid1 :ile pres]v+ its en]getic decoloris+ prop]ty1 because ! silv] hypo*lorite :i* is =m$ is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( silv] oxide ?is salt c be kept = sev]al days )\t decomposition1 b x is exce$+ly un/able :5 no excess ( silv] oxide or c>bonate is pres5t4 ,s long z ! solution ( silv] hypo*lorite is %ak5 up ) ! silv] oxide1 x pres]ves its transp>5cy & blea*+ prop]ty1 b directly x is all[$ to /&1 & ! silv] oxide settles1 x becomes rapidly cl\dy & deposits l>ge flakes ( silv] *loride1 s t ! black silv] oxide :i* _h settl$ becomes cov]$ ) ! :ite precipitate4 ,! liquid !n loses its blea*+ prop]ties & conta9s silv] *lorate1 i4e4 ,ag,cl,o#c1 9 solution1 :i* has a slightly alkal9e reaction1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( dissolv$ oxide4 ,9 ?is mann] ! reactions :i* are consecutively accompli%$ may be express$ by ! equations3 #f;,cl#b #c;,ag#b,o #c;,h#b,o #f;,ag,cl #f;,h,cl,o2 #f;,h,cl,o #c;,ag#b,o #c;,h#b,o #f;,ag,cl,o2 #f;,ag,cl,o #d;,ag,cl #b;,ag,cl,o#c4 ,h5ce1 ,/as gives ! foll[+ me?od = ! prep>ation ( silv] *lorate3 ,a sl[ curr5t ( *lor9e is caus$ to act on oxide ( silv]1 susp5d$ 9 wat] :i* is kept 9 a /ate ( cont9ual agitation4 ,! %ak+ is cont9u$ aft] ! supply ( *lor9e has be5 /opp$1 9 ord] t ! free hypo*lor\s acid %\ld pass into silv] hypo*lorite1 & ! resultant solution ( ! hypo*lorite is drawn (f f ! s$im5t ( ! excess ( silv] oxide4 ,?is solution decomposes spontane\sly into silv] *loride & *lorate4 ,! pure silv] *lorate1 ,ag,cl,o#c1 does n *ange "u ! action ( light4 ,! salt is prep>$ = fur!r use by dry+ x 9 dry air at #aej4 ,x is necess>y dur+ dry+ to prev5t ! access ( any organic matt]2 ?is is done by filt]+ ! air ?r\gh cotton wool1 & pass+ x ov] a lay] ( r$-hot copp] oxide4 ,! decomposition ( ! silv] *lorate ?us obta9$ 0 accompli%$ by ! action ( a solution ( sulphur\s anhydride on x4 ,! salt 0 fir/ fus$ by c>efully heat+ x at #bdc4 ,! solution ( sulphur\s anhydride us$ 0 "o saturat$ at #j4 ,sulphur\s anhydride 9 dilute solutions is oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( silv] *lorate1 ev5 at l[ temp]atures1 ) great ease if ! liquid be cont9ually %ak51 sulphuric acid & silv] *loride be+ =m$3 ,ag,cl,o#c #c,,s#b #c;,h#b,o ,ag,cl #c;,h#b,,s#d4 ,aft] decomposition1 ! resultant liquid 0 evaporat$1 & ! residue ( silv] *loride weigh$4 ,?us ! process consi/$ 9 tak+ a kn[n weight ( silv] *lorate1 conv]t+ x into silv] *loride1 & det]m9+ ! weight ( ! latt]4 ,! analysis conduct$ 9 ?is mann] gave ! foll[+ results1 :i*1 l ! prec$+1 designate ! weight 9 a vacuum calculat$ f ! weights obta9$ 9 air3 ,9 ! fir/ exp]im5t x appe>$ t #achghij grams ( silv] *lorate gave #ajcigie p>ts ( silv] *loride1 & 9 ! second exp]im5t t #beiebhg gra9s ( *lorate gave #aidddeae grams ( silv] *loride1 & aft] fusion #aidddce grams4 ,! mean result ( bo? exp]im5ts1 conv]t$ into p]c5tages1 %[s t #ajj p>ts ( silv] *lorate conta9 #gdibje ( silv] *loride & #bejgie p>ts ( oxyg54 ,f ?is x is possible to calculate ! comb9+ weight ( silv] *loride1 because 9 ! decomposition ( silv] *lorate !re are obta9$ ?ree atoms ( oxyg5 & "o molecule ( silv] *loride3 ,ag,cl,o#c ,ag,cl #c,o4 ,tak+ ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg5 to be #af1 we f9d f ! mean result t ! equival5t weight ( silv] *loride is equal to #adccie4 ,?us if ,o #af1 ,ag,cl #adccie1 & z ! prec$+ exp]im5ts %[ t silv] *loride conta9s #cbhdde p>ts ( *lor9e p] #ajj p>ts ( silv]1 ! weight ( ! atom ( silv]#bf bis mu/ be #ajgid & t ( *lor9e #cede4 ,! weight ( ! atom ( sodium is det]m9$ f ! fact t #bacfcc p>ts ( sodium *loride comb9e ) #cbhdde p>ts ( *lor9e2 consequ5tly ,na #bcje4 ,?is conclusion1 arriv$ at by ! analysis ( silv] *lorate1 0 v]ifi$ by means ( ! analysis ( potassium *lorate by decompos+ x by heat & det]m9+ ! weight ( ! potassium *loride =m$1 & also by effect+ ! same decomposition by ignit+ ! *lorate 9 a /ream ( hydro*loric acid4 ,! comb9+ weight ( potassium *loride 0 ?us det]m9$1 & ano!r s]ies ( det]m9ations confirm$ ! relation betwe5 *lor9e1 potassium1 & silv]1 9 ! same mann] z ! relation betwe5 sodium1 *lor9e1 & silv] 0 det]m9$ above4 ,consequ5tly1 ! comb9+ weights ( sodium1 *lor9e1 & potassium c\ld be d$uc$ by comb9+ ^! data ) ! analysis ( silv] *lorate & ! syn!sis ( silv] *loride4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ! results %[$ t ! det]m9ations made by ! la/ me?od 7 p]fectly correct1 & did n dep5d 9 any consid]able degree on ! me?ods :i* 7 employ$ 9 ! prec$+ det]m9ations1 z ! comb9+ weights ( *lor9e & silv] obta9$ 7 ! same z be=e4 ,!re 0 naturally a diff]5ce1 b s small a "o t x und\bt$ly dep5d$ on ! errors incid5tal to e process ( weigh+ & exp]im5t4 ,! atomic weight ( silv] 0 also det]m9$ by ,/as by means ( ! syn!sis ( silv] sulphide & ! analysis ( silv] sulphate4 ,! comb9+ weight obta9$ by ?is me?od 0 #ajgibj4 ,! syn!sis ( silv] iodide & ! analysis ( silv] iodate gave ! figure #ajgibh4 ,! syn!sis ( silv] bromide ) ! analysis ( silv] bromate gave ! figure #ajgiba4 ,! syn!sis ( silv] *loride & ! analysis ( silv] *lorate gave a mean result ( #ajgicg4 ,h5ce !re is no d\bt t ! comb9+ weight ( silv] is at lea/ z mu* z #ajgi--;great] ?an #ajgij & less ?an #ajgie1 & probably equal to ! mean #ajgib4 ,/as det]m9$ ! comb9+ weights ( _m o!r elem5ts 9 ?is mann]1 su* z li?ium1 potassium1 sodium1 brom9e1 *lor9e1 iod9e1 & also nitrog51 = ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( silv] nitrate obta9$ f a giv5 am\nt ( silv] gives directly ! comb9+ weight ( nitrog54 ,tak+ t ( oxyg5 z #af1 he obta9$ ! foll[+ comb9+ weights = ^! elem5ts3 nitrog5 #adjd1 silv] #ajgic1 *lor9e #cedf1 brom9e #giie1 iod9e #abfhe1 li?ium #gjb1 sodium #bcjd1 potassium #ciae4 ,^! figures diff] slightly f ^? :i* are usually employ$ 9 *emical inve/igations4 ,!y mu/ be reg>d$ z ! result ( ! be/ obs]vations1 :il/ ! figures usually us$ 9 practical *emi/ry are only approximate--are1 s to speak1 r\nd numb]s = ! atomic weights :i* diff] s little f ! exact figures 7= in/ance1 = ,ag #ajh in/ead ( #ajgib1 = ,na #bc in/ead ( #bcjd7 t 9 ord9>y det]m9ations & calculations ! diff]5ce falls )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error insep>able f su* det]m9ations4 #bf bis ,! results giv5 by ,/as' det]m9ations h rec5tly be5 recalculat$ & c]ta9 corrections h be5 introduc$4 ,we give 9 ! context ! av]age results ( van d] ,plaats & ,?oms5's calculations1 z well z 9 ,table ,,iii4 neglect+ ! d\btful ?\s&?s4 ,! exhau/ive inve/igations conduct$ by ,/as on ! atomic weights ( ! above-nam$ elem5ts h great significance 9 ! solution ( ! problem z to :e!r ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts c be express$ 9 :ole numb]s if ! unit tak5 be ! atomic weight ( hydrog54 ,pr\t1 at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury1 /at$ t ?is 0 ! case1 & held t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts are multiples ( ! atomic weight ( hydrog54 ,! subsequ5t det]m9ations ( ,b]zelius1 ,p5ny1 ,m>*&1 ,m>ignac1 ,dumas1 & m especially ( ,/as1 prov$ ?is conclusion to be unt5able2 s9ce a :ole s]ies ( elem5ts prov$ to h fractional atomic weights--= example1 *lor9e1 ab\t #cee4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is1 ,m>ignac & ,dumas /at$ t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts are express$ 9 relation to hydrog51 ei!r by :ole numb]s or by numb]s ) simple fractions ( ! magnitudes #a_/b & #a_/d4 ,b ,/as's rese>*es refute ?is supposition also4 ,ev5 betwe5 ! comb9+ weight ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 !re is n1 s f> z is yet kn[n1 t simple relation :i* is requir$ by ,pr\t's hypo!sis1#bg i4e41 tak+ ,o #af1 ! atomic weight ( hydrog5 is equal n to #a b to a great] numb] some:]e betwe5 #ajjb & #ajjh or mean #ajje4 ,su* a conclusion arriv$ at by direct exp]im5t _c b be reg>d$ z hav+ great] weight ?an ,pr\t's supposition 7hypo!sis7 t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts are 9 multiple proportion to ea* o!r1 :i* w\ld give reason = surmis+ 7b n ass]t+7 a complexity ( nature 9 ! elem5ts1 & _! common orig9 f a s+le prim>y mat]ial1 & = expect+ _! mutual conv]sion into ea* o!r4 ,all su* ideas & hopes mu/ n[1 ?anks m especially to ,/as1 be plac$ 9 a region void ( any exp]im5tal support :atev]1 & !re=e n subject to ! discipl9e ( ! positive data ( sci5ce4 #bg ,?is hypo!sis1 = ! e/abli%m5t or refutation ( :i* s _m rese>*es h be5 made1 is exce$+ly important1 & fully des]ves ! att5tion :i* has be5 giv5 to x4 ,inde$1 if x appe>$ t ! atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts c\ld be express$ 9 :ole numb]s ) ref]5ce to hydrog51 or if !y at lea/ prov$ to be comm5surable ) "o ano!r1 !n x c\ld be affirm$ ) confid5ce t ! elem5ts1 ) all _! div]sity1 7 =m$ ( "o mat]ial cond5s$ or gr\p$ 9 v>i\s mann]s into ! /able1 &1 "u kn[n conditions1 undecomposable gr\ps :i* we call ! atoms ( ! elem5ts4 ,at fir/ x 0 suppos$ t all ! elem5ts 7 no?+ else b cond5s$ hydrog51 b :5 x appe>$ t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts c\ld n be express$ 9 :ole numb]s 9 relation to hydrog51 x 0 /ill possible to imag9e ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 mat]ial f :i* bo? hydrog5 & all ! o!r elem5ts 7 =m$4 ,if x %\ld transpire t f\r atoms ( ?is mat]ial =m an atom ( hydrog51 !n ! atom ( *lor9e w\ld pres5t itself z consi/+ ( #adb atoms ( ?is sub/ance1 ! weight ( ^: atom w\ld be equal to #jbe4 ,b 9 ?is case ! atoms ( all ! elem5ts %\ld be express$ 9 :ole numb]s ) respect to ! weight ( ! atom ( ?is orig9al mat]ial4 ,let u suppose t ! atomic weight ( ?is mat]ial is equal to unity1 !n all ! atomic weights %\ld be expressible 9 :ole numb]s relatively to ?is unit4 ,?us ! atom ( "o elem5t1 let u suppose1 w\ld weigh m1 & ( ano!r n1 b1 z bo? m & n mu/ be :ole numb]s1 x foll[s t ! atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts w\ld be comm5surable4 ,b x is suffici5t to glance ov] ! results obta9$ by ,/as1 & to be assur$ ( _! accuracy1 especially = silv]1 9 ord] to entirely de/roy1 or at lea/ /rongly und]m9e1 ?is attractive hypo!sis4 ,we mu/ !re=e refuse our ass5t to ! doctr9e ( ! build+ up f a s+le sub/ance ( ! elem5ts kn[n to u4 ,?is hypo!sis is n support$ ei!r by any kn[n trans=mation 7= "o elem5t has nev] be5 conv]t$ into ano!r elem5t71 or by ! comm5surability ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts4 ,al?\gh ! hypo!sis ( ! =mation ( all ! elem5ts f a s+le sub/ance 7= :i* ,crookes has sugge/$ ! "n protyle7 is mo/ attractive 9 its compreh5siv5ess1 x c nei!r be d5i$ nor accept$ = want ( suffici5t data4 ,m>ignac endeav\r$1 h[ev]1 to ov]come ,/as's conclusions z to ! incomm5surability ( ! atomic weights by suppos+ t 9 81 z 9 ! det]m9ations ( all o!r obs]v]s1 !re 7 unp]ceiv$ errors :i* 7 q indep5d5t ( ! mode ( obs]vation--= example1 silv] nitrate might be suppos$ to be an un/able sub/ance :i* *anges1 "u ! heat+s1 evaporations1 & o!r processes to :i* x is subject$ 9 ! reactions = ! det]m9ation ( ! comb9+ weight ( silv]4 ,x might be suppos$1 = in/ance1 t silv] nitrate conta9s "s impurity :i* _c be remov$ by any means2 x might also be suppos$ t a portion ( ! elem5ts ( ! nitric acid are dis5gag$ 9 ! evaporation ( ! solution ( silv] nitrate 7ow+ to ! decompos+ action ( wat]71 & 9 its fusion1 & t we h n to deal ) normal silv] nitrate1 b ) a slightly basic salt1 or p]haps an excess ( nitric acid :i* _c be remov$ f ! salt4 ,9 ?is case ! obs]v$ comb9+ weight w n ref] to an actually def9ite *emical comp\nd1 b to "s mixture = :i* !re does n exi/ any p]fectly exact comb9+ relations4 ,m>ignac upholds ?is proposition by ! fact t ! conclusions ( ,/as & o!r obs]v]s respect+ ! comb9+ weights det]m9$ ) ! greate/ exactitude v ne>ly agree ) ! proposition ( ! comm5surability ( ! atomic weights--= example1 ! comb9+ weight ( silv] 0 %[n to be equal to #ajgic1 s t x only diff]s by #jjh f ! :ole numb] #ajh1 :i* is g5]ally accept$ = silv]4 ,! comb9+ weight ( iod9e prov$ to be equal to #abfhe--t is1 x diff]s f #abg by #jae4 ,! comb9+ weights ( sodium1 nitrog51 brom9e1 *lor9e1 & li?ium are /ill ne>] to ! :ole or r\nd numb]s :i* are g5]ally accept$4 ,b ,m>ignac's proposition w h>dly be> criticism4 ,inde$ if we express ! comb9+ weights ( ! elem5ts det]m9$ by ,/as 9 relation to hydrog51 ! approximation ( ^! weights to :ole numb]s disappe>s1 because "o "p ( hydrog5 9 reality does n comb9e ) #af p>ts ( oxyg51 b ) #aeib p>ts1 & !re=e we %all obta91 tak+ ,h #a1 n ! above-cit$ figures1 b = silv] #ajgch1 = brom9e #giee1 magnitudes :i* are /ill fur!r remov$ f :ole numb]s4 ,besides :i*1 if ,m>ignac's proposition 7 true ! comb9+ weight ( silv] det]m9$ by "o me?od--e4g4 by ! analysis ( silv] *lorate comb9$ ) ! syn!sis ( silv] *loride--w\ld n agree well ) ! comb9+ weight det]m9$ by ano!r me?od--e4g4 by means ( ! analysis ( silv] iodate & ! syn!sis ( silv] iodide4 ,if 9 "o case a basic salt c\ld be obta9$1 9 ! o!r case an acid salt might be obta9$4 ,!n ! analysis ( ! acid salt w\ld give diff]5t results f t ( ! basic salt4 ,?us ,m>ignac's argum5ts _c s]ve z a support = ! v9dication ( ,pr\t's hypo!sis4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i ?9k x w n be out ( place to cite ! foll[+ passage f a pap] ,i read be=e ! ,*emical ,society ( ,london 9 #ahhi 7,app5dix ,,ii471 ref]r+ to ! hypo!sis ( ! complexity ( ! elem5ts recognis$ 9 *emi/ry1 ow+ to ! fact t _m h endeav\r$ to apply ! p]iodic law to ! ju/ification ( ?is idea 'dat+ f a remote antiquity1 :5 x 0 f\nd conv5i5t to admit ! exi/5ce ( _m gods b only "o matt]4' ',:5 we try to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! idea ( a unique prim>y matt]1 we easily trace t1 9 ! abs5ce ( d$uctions f exp]im5t1 x d]ives its orig9 f ! sci5tifically philosophical attempt at discov]+ "s k9d ( unity 9 ! imm5se div]sity ( individualities :i* we see ar\nd4 ,9 classical times su* a t5d5cy c\ld only be satisfi$ by conceptions ab\t ! immat]ial _w4 ,z to ! mat]ial _w1 our ance/ors 7 compell$ to resort to "s hypo!sis1 & !y adopt$ ! idea ( unity 9 ! =mative mat]ial1 because !y 7 n able to evolve ! conception ( any o!r possible unity 9 ord] to connect ! multif>i\s relations ( matt]4 ,respond+ to ! same legitimate sci5tific t5d5cy1 natural sci5ce has discov]$ ?r\gh\t ! univ]se a unity ( plan1 a unity ( =ces1 & a unity ( matt]2 & ! conv9c+ conclusions ( mod]n sci5ce compel e "o to admit ^! k9ds ( unity4 ,b :ile we admit unity 9 _m ?+s1 we none ! less mu/ also expla9 ! individuality & ! app>5t div]sity :i* we _c fail to trace ev]y:]e4 ,x 0 said ( old ,give u a fulcrum & x w become easy to displace ! e>?4 ,s also we mu/ say1 ,give u some?+ t is individualis$1 & ! app>5t div]sity w be easily und]/ood4 ,o!rwise1 h[ c\ld unity result 9 a multitude4 ',aft] a long & pa9/ak+ rese>*1 natural sci5ce has discov]$ ! individualities ( ! *emical elem5ts1 & !re=e x is n[ capable1 n only ( analys+1 b also ( syn!sis+2 x c und]/& & grasp g5]ality & unity1 z well z ! individualis$ & multif>i\s4 ,! g5]al & univ]sal1 l "t & space1 l =ce & motion1 v>y uni=mly4 ,! uni=m admit ( int]polations1 reveal+ e int]m$iate phase2 b ! multitud9\s1 ! individualis$--su* z ourselves1 or ! *emical elem5ts1 or ! memb]s ( a peculi> p]iodic function ( ! elem5ts1 or ,dalton's multiple proportions--is *>act]is$ 9 ano!r way4 ,we see 9 x--side by side ) a g5]al connect+ pr9ciple--leaps1 breaks ( cont9uity1 po9ts :i* escape f ! analysis ( ! inf9itely small--an abs5ce ( complete int]m$iate l9ks4 ,*emi/ry has f\nd an answ] to ! "q z to ! causes ( multitudes1 & :ile reta9+ ! conception ( _m elem5ts1 all submitt$ to ! discipl9e ( a g5]al law1 x (f]s an escape f ! ,indian ,nirvana--! absorption 9 ! univ]sal--replac+ x by ! individualis$4 ,h[ev]1 ! place = individuality is s limit$ by ! all-grasp+1 all-p[]ful univ]sal1 t x is m]ely a po9t ( support = ! und]/&+ ( multitude 9 unity4' ,among ! plat9um metals ru!nium1 rhodium1 & palladium1 by _! atomic weights & prop]ties1 approa* silv]1 j z iron & its analogues 7cobalt & nickel7 approa* copp] 9 all respects4 ,gold /&s 9 exactly ! same position 9 relation to ! heavy plat9um metals1 osmium1 iridium1 & plat9um1 z copp] & silv] d to ! two prec$+ s]ies4 ,! atomic weight ( gold is ne>ly equal to _! atomic weights2#bh x is d5se l ^! metals4 ,x also gives v>i\s grades ( oxidation1 :i* are feeble1 bo? 9 a basic & an acid s5se4 ,:il/ ne> to osmium1 iridium1 & plat9um1 gold at ! same "t is able1 l copp] & silv]1 to =m comp\nds :i* answ] to ! type ,,rx--t is1 oxides ( ! composition ,r#b,o4 ,cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl1 silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 & aur\s *loride1 ,au,cl1 are sub/ances :i* are v mu* alike 9 _! physical & *emical prop]ties4#bh bis ,!y are insoluble 9 wat]1 b dissolve 9 hydro*loric acid & ammonia1 9 potassium cyanide1 sodium ?iosulphate1 c4 ,j z copp] =ms a l9k betwe5 ! iron metals & z9c1 & z silv] unites ! light plat9um metals ) cadmium1 s also gold pres5ts a transition f ! heavy plat9um metals to m]cury4 ,copp] gives sal9e comp\nds ( ! types ,cu,x & ,cu,x#b1 silv] ( ! type ,ag,x1 :il/ gold1 besides comp\nds ( ! type ,au,x1 v easily & mo/ frequ5tly =ms ^? ( ! type ,au,cl#c4 ,! comp\nds ( ?is type frequ5tly pass into ^? ( ! l[] type1 j z ,pt,x#d passes into ,pt,x#b1 & ! same is obs]vable 9 ! elem5ts :i*1 9 _! atomic weights1 foll[ gold4 ,m]cury gives ,hg,x#b & ,hg,x1 ?allium gives ,tl,x#c & ,tl,x1 lead gives ,pb,x#d & ,pb,x#b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 gold 9 a qualitative respect diff]s f silv] & copp] 9 ! extreme ease ) :i* all its comp\nds are r$uc$ to metal by _m means4 ,?is is n only accompli%$ by _m r$uc+ ag5ts1 b also by ! action ( heat4 ,?us its *lorides & oxides lose _! *lor9e & oxyg5 :5 heat$1 &1 if ! temp]ature be suffici5tly high1 ^! elem5ts are entirely expell$ & metallic gold alone rema9s4 ,its comp\nds1 !re=e1 act z oxidis+ ag5ts4#bi #bh ,x might be expect$ f ! p]iodic law & analogies ) ! s]ies iron1 cobalt1 nickel1 copp]1 z9c1 t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts ( ! s]ies osmium1 iridium1 plat9um1 gold1 m]cury1 w\ld rise 9 ?is ord]1 & at ! "t ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! p]iodic law 7#ahfi71 ! det]m9ations ( ,b]zelius1 ,rose1 & o!rs gave ! foll[+ values = ! atomic weights3 ,os #bjj1 ,ir #aig1 ,pt #aih1 ,au #aif1 ,hg #bjj4 ,! fulfilm5t ( ! expectations ( ! p]iodic law 0 giv5 9 ! fir/ place by ! fre% det]m9ations 7,seub]t1 ,dittm>1 & ,ar?ur7 ( ! atomic weight ( plat9um1 :i* prov$ to be ne>ly #aif1 if ,o #af 7z ,m>ignac1 ,braun]1 & o!rs propose72 9 ! second place1 by ! fact t ,seub]t prov$ t ! atomic weight ( osmium is really less ?an t ( plat9um1 & approximately ,os #aia2 &1 9 ! ?ird place1 by ! fact t aft] ! rese>*es ( ,krss1 ,?orpe1 & ,laurie !re 0 no d\bt t ! atomic weight ( gold is great] ?an t ( plat9um--namely1 ne>ly #aig4 #bh bis ,9 ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #dj1 we gave ! !rmal data = c]ta9 ( ! comp\nds ( copp] ( ! type ,cu,x#b2 we w n[ cite c]ta9 data = ! cupr\s comp\nds ( ! type ,cu,x1 :i* pres5t an analogy to ! correspond+ comp\nds ,ag,x & ,au,x1 "s ( :i* 7 inve/igat$ by ,?oms5 9 8 classical "w1 ',!rmo*emis*e ,unt]su*ung5' 7,vol4 iii41 #ahhc74 ,! data are giv5 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! above-m5tion$ note3 ,r ,cu ,ag ,au ,r ,cl #cc #bi #f ,r ,br #be #bc #j ,r ,i #af #ad -#f ,r ,o #da #f -8 ,?us we see 9 ! fir/ place t gold1 :i* possesses a mu* small] aff9ity ?an ,ag1 evolves f> less heat ?an an equival5t am\nt ( copp]1 giv+ ! same comp\nd1 & 9 ! second place t ! comb9ation ( copp] ) "o atom ( oxyg5 dis5gages m heat ?an its comb9ation ) "o atom ( a halog51 :il/ ) silv] ! rev]se is ! case4 ,?is is connect$ ) ! fact t ,cu#b,o is m /able "u ! action ( heat ?an ,ag#b,o4 #bi ,heavy atoms & molecules1 al?\gh !y may pres5t _m po9ts ( analogy1 are m easily isolat$2 ?us ,c#af;,h#cb1 al?\gh1 l ,c#b;,h#d1 x comb9es ) ,br#b1 & has a simil> composition1 yet reacts ) mu* great] difficulty ?an ,c#b;,h#d1 & 9 ?is x resembles gold2 ! heavy atoms & molecules are1 s to say1 in]t1 & already saturat$ by !mselves4 ,gold 9 its high] grade ( oxidation1 ,au#b,o#c1 pres5ts feeble basic prop]ties & weakly-develop$ acid prop]ties1 s t ?is oxide ( gold1 ,au#b,o#c1 may be ref]r$ to ! class ( feeble acid oxides1 l plat9ic oxide4 ,?is is n ! case 9 ! highe/ kn[n oxides ( copp] & silv]4 ,b 9 ! l[] grade ( oxidation1 aur\s oxide1 ,au#b,o1 gold1 l silv] & copp]1 pres5ts basic prop]ties1 al?\gh !y are n v pron\nc$4 ,9 ?is respect x /&s v close 9 its prop]ties1 al?\gh n 9 its types ( comb9ation 7,au,x & ,au,x#c71 to plat9um 7,pt,x#b & ,pt,x#d7 & its analogues4 ,z yet ! g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics ( gold & its comp\nds h n be5 fully inve/igat$4 ,?is is p>tly due to ! fact t v few rese>*es h be5 und]tak5 on ! comp\nds ( ?is metal1 ow+ to its inaccessibility = work+ 9 l>ge quantities4 ,z ! atomic weight ( gold is high 7,au #aig71 ! prep>ation ( its comp\nds requires t x %\ld be tak5 9 l>ge quantities1 :i* =ms an ob/acle to its be+ fully /udi$4 ,h5ce ! facts conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( ?is metal are r>ely di/+ui%$ by t exactitude ) :i* _m facts h be5 e/abli%$ conc]n+ o!r elem5ts m accessible1 & long kn[n 9 use4 ,9 nature gold occurs 9 ! prim>y & *iefly 9 qu>tzose rocks1 & especially 9 qu>tz ve9s1 z 9 ! ,urals 7at ,b]ez(fsk71 9 ,au/ralia1 & 9 ,cali=nia4 ,! native gold is extract$ f ^! rocks by subject+ !m to a me*anical treatm5t consi/+ ( cru%+ & wa%+4#bi bis ,nature has already accompli%$ a simil> dis9tegration ( ! h>d rocky matt] conta9+ gold4#cj ,^! dis9tegrat$ rocks1 wa%$ by ra9 & o!r wat]1 h =m$ gold-be>+ deposits1 :i* are kn[n z alluvial gold deposits4 ,gold-be>+ soil is sometimes met ) on ! surface & sometimes "u ! upp] soil1 b m frequ5tly along ! banks ( dri$-up wat]-c\rses & runn+ /reams4 ,! s& ( _m riv]s conta9s1 h[ev]1 a v small am\nt ( gold1 :i* x is n pr(itable to "w2 = example1 t ( ! ,alp9e riv]s conta9s #e p>ts ( gold 9 #aj1jjj1jjj p>ts ( s&4 ,! ri*e/ gold deposits are ^? ( ,sib]ia1 especially 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,y5iseisk1 ! ,s\? ,urals1 ,mexico1 ,cali=nia1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,au/ralia1 & !n ! comp>atively poor] alluvial deposits ( _m c\ntries 7,hung>y1 ! ,alps1 & ,spa9 9 ,europe74 ,! extraction ( ! gold f alluvial deposits is bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( levigation2 ! e>? is wa%$1 :ile con/antly agitat$1 by a /ream ( wat]1 :i* c>ries away ! light] portion ( ! e>?1 & leaves ! co>s] p>ticles ( ! rock & heavi] p>ticles ( ! gold1 toge!r ) c]ta9 sub/ances :i* accompany x1 9 ! wa%+ app>atus4 ,! extraction ( ?is wa%$ gold only necessitates me*anical appliances1#ca & x is n !re=e surpris+ t gold 0 kn[n to savages & 9 ! mo/ remote p]iod ( hi/ory4 ,x sometimes occurs 9 cry/als belong+ to ! regul> sy/em1 b 9 ! majority ( cases 9 nuggets or gra9s ( great] or less magnitude4 ,x always conta9s silv] 7f v small quantities up to #cj p4c41 :5 x is call$ 'electrum'7 & c]ta9 o!r metals1 among :i* lead & rhodium are sometimes f\nd4 #bi bis ,son/adt 7#ahgb7 %[$ t sea wat]1 besides silv]1 always conta9s gold4 ,mun/] 7#ahib7 %[$ t ! wat] ( ! ,norwegian fiords conta9s ab\t #e milligrams ( gold p] ton 7or #e milli>d?s7--i4e4 a quantity des]v+ practical att5tion1 & ,i ?9k x may be already said t1 consid]+ ! immeasurable am\nt ( sea wat]1 9 "t means w be discov]$ = pr(itably extract+ gold f sea wat] by br++ x into contact ) sub/ances capable ( deposit+ gold ^u _! surface4 ,! fir/ ef=ts might be made ^u ! extraction ( salt f sea wat]1 & z ! total am\nt ( sea wat] may be tak5 z ab\t #b1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons1 x foll[s t x conta9s ab\t #aj1jjj million tons ( gold4 ,! ye>ly production ( gold is ab\t #bjj tons = ! :ole _w1 ( :i* ab\t "o qu>t] is extract$ 9 ,russia4 ,x is suppos$ t gold is dissolv$ 9 sea wat] ow+ to ! pres5ce ( iodides1 :i*1 "u ! action ( animal organisms1 yield free iod9e4 ,x is ?\ght 7z ,pr(essor ,konoval(f m5tions 9 8 "w ^u ',! ,indu/ries ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1' #ahid7 t iod9e facilitates ! solution ( ! gold1 & ! organic matt] its precipitation4 ,^! facts & consid]ations to a c]ta9 ext5t expla9 ! di/ribution ( gold 9 ve9s or rock fissures1 *iefly fill$ ) qu>tz1 because !re is suffici5t reason = suppos+ t ^! rocks once =m$ ! ocean bottom4 ,r4 ,d5trie1 & subsequ5tly ,wilk9son1 %[$ t organic matt]--= in/ance1 cork--& pyrites are able to precipitate gold f its solutions 9 t metallic =m & /ate 9 :i* x occurs 9 qu>tz ve9s1 :]e 7especially 9 ! deep] p>ts ( ve9 deposits7 gold is frequ5tly f\nd on ! surface ( pyrites1 *iefly ars5ical pyrites4 ,kazantseff 79 ,ekat]9burg1 #ahia7 ev5 supposes1 f ! di/ribution ( ! gold 9 ^! pyrites1 t x occurr$ 9 solution z a comp\nd ( sulphide ( gold & sulphide ( ars5ic :5 x p5etrat$ into ! ve9s4 ,x is f su* consid]ations t ! orig9 ( ve9 & pyritic gold is1 at ! pres5t "t1 attribut$ to ! reaction ( solutions ( ?is metal1 ! rema9s ( :i* are se5 9 ! gold /ill pres5t 9 sea wat]4 #cj ,h[ev]1 9 rec5t times1 especially s9ce ab\t #ahgj1 :5 *lor9e 7ei!r z a solution ( ! gas or z blea*+ p[d]7 & brom9e began to be appli$ to ! extraction ( f9ely-divid$ gold f poor ores 7previ\sly roa/$ 9 ord] to drive (f ars5ic & sulphur1 & oxidise ! iron71 ! extraction ( gold f qu>tz & pyrites1 by ! wet me?od1 increases f ye> to ye>1 & beg9s to equal ! am\nt extract$ f alluvial deposits4 ,s9ce ! n9eties ! cyanide process 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #ac bis7 has tak5 an important place among ! wet me?ods = extract+ gold f its ores4 ,x consi/s 9 p\r+ a dilute solution ( cyanide ( potassium 7ab\t #ejj p>ts ( wat] & #a to #d p>ts ( cyanide ( potassium p] #a1jjj p>ts ( ore1 ! am\nt ( cyanide dep5d+ ^u ! ri*ness ( ! ore7 & a mixture ( x ) ,na,c,n1 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #ab7 ov] ! cru%$ ore 7:i* ne$ n be roa/$1 :il/ roa/+ is indisp5sable 9 ! *lor9ation process1 z o!rwise ! *lor9e is us$ up 9 oxidis+ ! sulphur1 ars5ic1 c47 ,! gold is dissolv$ v rapidly ev5 f pyrites1 :]e x g5]ally occurs on ! surface 9 su* f9e & adh]5t p>ticles t x ei!r _c be me*anically wa%$ away1 or1 m frequ5tly is c>ri$ away by ! /ream ( wat]1 & _c be caught by me*anical means or by ! m]cury us$ = cat*+ ! gold 9 ! sluices4 ,*lor9ation _h already giv5 ! possibility ( extract+ ! f9e/ p>ticles ( gold2 b ! cyanide process enables su* pyrites to be treat$ z c\ld be sc>cely work$ by o!r means4 ,! treatm5t ( ! cru%$ ore by ! ,,kcn is c>ri$ on 9 simple wood5 vats 7coat$ ) p>aff9 or t>7 ) ! greate/ possible rapidity 79 ord] t ! ,,kcn solution %\ld n h "t to *ange7 by a me?od ( sy/ematic lixiviation1 & is complet$ 9 #aj to #ab h\rs4 ,! resultant solution ( gold1 conta9+ ,au,k7,,cn7#b1 is decompos$ ei!r ) fre%ly-made z9c fil+s 7b :5 ! gold settles on ! ,zn1 ! cyanide solution reacts ^u ! ,zn ) ! evolution ( ,h#b & =mation ( ,zn,h#b,o#b7 or by sodium amalgam prep>$ at ! mom5t ( reaction by ! action ( an electric curr5t ^u a solution ( ,na,h,o p\r$ into a vessel p>tially imm]s$ 9 m]cury 7! ,na,c,n is r5ew$ cont9ually by ?is means74 ,! silv] 9 ! ore passes into solution1 toge!r ) ! gold1 z 9 amalgamation4 #ca ,b ! p>ticles ( gold are sometimes s small t a l>ge am\nt is lo/ dur+ ! wa%+4 ,x is !n pr(itable to h rec\rse to ! extraction by *lor9e & ,,kcn 7,note #cj74 ,9 speak+ ( ! extraction ( gold ! foll[+ rem>ks may n be out ( place3 ,9 ,cali=nia advantage is tak5 ( wat] suppli$ f high altitudes 9 ord] to h a p[]ful head ( wat]1 ) :i* ! rocks are directly wa%$ away1 ?us avoid+ ! great] portion ( ! me*anical lab\r requir$ = ! exploitation ( ^! deposits4 ,! la/ residues ( gold are sometimes extract$ f s& by wa%+ !m ) m]cury1 :i* dissolves ! gold4 ,! s& mix$ ) wat] is caus$ to come into contact ) m]cury dur+ ! wa%+4 ,! m]cury is !n di/ill$4 ,_m sulphur\s ores1 ev5 pyrites1 conta9 a small am\nt ( gold4 ,comp\nds ( gold ) bismu?1 ,bi,au#b1 tellurium1 ,au,te#b 7calv]ite71 c41 h be5 f\nd1 al?\gh r>ely4 ,among ! m9]als :i* accompany gold1 & f :i* ! pres5ce ( gold may be expect$1 we may m5tion :ite qu>tz1 titanic & magnetic iron ores1 & also ! foll[+1 :i* are ( r>] occurr5ce3 zircon1 topaz1 g>net1 & su* l4 ,! conc5trat$ gold wa%+s fir/ und]go a me*anical treatm5t1 & ! impure gold obta9$ is treat$ = pure gold by v>i\s me?ods4 ,if ! gold conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( =eign metals1 especially lead & copp]1 x is sometimes cupell$1 l silv]1 s t ! oxidisable metals may be absorb$ by ! cupel 9 ! =m ( oxides1 b 9 e case ! gold is obta9$ toge!r ) silv]1 because ! latt] metal also is n oxidis$4 ,sometimes ! gold is extract$ by means ( m]cury1 t is1 by amalgamation 7& ! m]cury subsequ5tly driv5 (f by di/illation71 or by smelt+ x ) lead 7:i* is aft]w>ds remov$ by oxidation7 & processes l ^? employ$ = ! extraction ( silv]1 because gold1 l silv]1 does n oxidise1 is dissolv$ by lead & m]cury1 & is non-volatile4 ,if copp] or any o!r metal conta9 gold & x be employ$ z an anode1 pure copp] w be deposit$ ^u ! ca?ode1 :ile all ! gold w rema9 at ! anode z a slime4 ,?is me?od (t5 amply repays ! :ole co/ ( ! process1 s9ce x gives1 besides ! gold1 a pure electrolytic copp]4 ,! sep>ation ( ! silv] f gold is g5]ally c>ri$ on ) great precision1 z ! pres5ce ( ! silv] 9 ! gold does n increase its value = ex*ange1 & x c be sub/itut$ by o!r less valuable metals1 s t ! extraction ( ! silv]1 z a preci\s metal1 f its alloy ) gold1 is a pr(itable op]ation4 ,?is sep>ation is conduct$ by diff]5t me?ods4 ,sometimes ! arg5tif]\s gold is melt$ 9 crucibles1 toge!r ) a mixture ( common salt & p[d]$ bricks4 ,! great] portion ( ! silv] is ?us conv]t$ into ! *loride1 :i* fuses & is absorb$ by ! slags1 f :i* x may be extract$ by ! usual me?ods4 ,! silv] is also extract$ f gold by treat+ x ) boil+ sulphuric acid1 :i* does n act on ! gold b dissolves ! silv]4 ,b if ! alloy does n conta9 a l>ge proportion ( silv] x _c be extract$ by ?is me?od or at all ev5ts ! sep>ation w be imp]fect1 & !re=e a fre% am\nt ( silv] is add$ 7by fusion7 to ! gold1 9 su* quantity t ! alloy conta9s twice z mu* silv] z gold4 ,! silv] :i* is add$ is pref]ably su* z conta9s gold1 :i* is v frequ5tly ! case4 ,! alloy ?us =m$ is p\r$ 9 a ?9 /ream into wat]1 by :i* means x is obta9$ 9 a granulat$ =m2 x is !n boil$ ) /rong sulphuric acid1 ?ree p>ts ( acid be+ us$ to "o "p ( alloy4 ,! sulphuric acid extracts all ! silv] )\t act+ on ! gold4 ,x is be/1 h[ev]1 to p\r (f ! fir/ portion ( ! acid1 :i* has dissolv$ ! silv]1 & !n treat ! residue ( /ill imp]fectly pure gold ) a fre% quantity ( sulphuric acid4 ,! gold is ?us obta9$ 9 ! =m ( p[d]1 :i* is wa%$ ) wat] until x is q free f silv]4 ,! silv] is precipitat$ f ! solution by means ( copp]1 s t cupric sulphate & metallic silv] are obta9$4 ,?is process is c>ri$ out 9 _m c\ntries1 z 9 ,russia1 at ! ,gov]nm5t m9ts4 ,gold is g5]ally us$ alloy$ ) copp]2 s9ce pure gold1 l pure silv]1 is v s(t1 & !re=e soon worn away4 ,9 assay+ or det]m9+ ! am\nt ( pure gold 9 su* an alloy x is usual to add silv] to ! gold 9 ord] to make up an alloy conta9+ ?ree p>ts ( silv] to "o ( gold 7?is is kn[n z qu>tation because ! alloy conta9s #a_/d ( gold71 & ! resultant alloy is treat$ ) nitric acid4 ,if ! silv] be n 9 excess ov] ! gold1 x is n all dissolv$ by ! nitric acid1 & ?is is ! reason = ! qu>tation4 ,! am\nt ( pure gold 7assay7 is det]m9$ by weigh+ ! gold :i* rema9s aft] ?is treatm5t4 ,engli% gold 7 #bb c>ats7 co9age is compos$ ( an alloy conta9+ #iaff p4c4 ( gold1 b = _m articles gold is frequ5tly us$ conta9+ a l>g] am\nt ( =eign metals4 ,pure gold may be obta9$ f gold alloys by dissolv+ 9 aqua regia1 & !n add+ f]r\s sulphate to ! solution or heat+ x ) a solution ( oxalic acid4 ,^! deoxidis+ ag5ts r$uce ! gold1 b n ! o!r metals4 ,! *lor9e comb9$ ) ! gold !n acts l free *lor9e4 ,! gold1 ?us r$uc$1 is precipitat$ z an exce$+ly f9e br[n p[d]4#ca bis ,x is !n wa%$ ) wat]1 & fus$ ) nitre or borax4 ,pure gold reflects a yell[ light1 & 9 ! =m ( v ?9 %eets 7gold leaf71 into :i* x c be hamm]$ & roll$1#ca tri x transmits a blui%-gre5 light4 ,! specific gravity ( gold is ab\t #aie1 ! sp4 gr4 ( gold co9 is ab\t #aga4 ,x fuses at #ajij--;at a high] temp]ature ?an silv]--& c be drawn into exce$+ly f9e wires or hamm]$ into ?9 %eets4 ,) its s(tness & ductility1 gold is di/+ui%$ = its t5acity1 & a gold wire two millimetres ?ick breaks only "u a load ( #fh kilograms4 ,gold vaporises ev5 at a furnace heat1 & imp>ts a gre5i% col\r to a flame pass+ ov] x 9 a furnace4 ,gold alloys ) copp] almo/ )\t *ang+ its volume4#cb ,9 its *emical aspect1 gold pres5ts1 z is already se5 f its g5]al *>act]i/ics giv5 above1 an example ( ! s-call$ noble metals--i4e4 x is incapable ( be+ oxidis$ at any temp]ature1 & its oxide is decompos$ :5 calc9$4 ,only *lor9e & brom9e comb9e directly ) x at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b _m o!r metals & non-metals comb9e ) x at a r$ heat--= example1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 & ars5ic4 ,m]cury dissolves x ) great ease4 ,x dissolves 9 potassium cyanide 9 ! pres5ce ( air2 a mixture ( sulphuric acid ) nitric acid dissolves x ) ! aid ( heat1 al?\gh 9 small quantity4 ,x is also soluble 9 aqua regia & 9 sel5ic acid4 ,sulphuric1 hydro*loric1 nitric1 & hydr(luoric acids & ! cau/ic alkalis d n act on gold1 b a mixture ( hydro*loric acid ) su* oxidis+ ag5ts z evolve *lor9e naturally dissolves x l aqua regia4#cb bis #ca bis ,s*ottlnd] 7#ahic7 obta9$ gold 9 a soluble colloid =m 7! solution is violet7 by ! action ( a mixture ( solutions ( c]ium acetate & ,na,h,o ^u a solution ( ,au,cl#c4 ,! gold sep>ates out f su* a solution 9 exactly ! same mann] z ,ag does f ! solution ( colloid silv] m5tion$ above4 ,!re always rema9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( a high] oxide ( c]ium1 ,ce,o#b1 9 ! solution--i4e4 ! gold is r$uc$ by conv]t+ ! c]ium into a high] grade ( oxidation4 ,besides :i* ,krss & ,h(mann %[$ t sulphide ( gold precipitat$ by ! action ( ,h#b,s ^u a solution ( ,au,k,cy#b mix$ ) ,h,cl easily passes into a colloid solution aft] be+ prop]ly wa%$ 7l ,z#b,s#c1 ,cu,s1 c41 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #eg74 #ca tri ,gold-leaf is us$ = gild+ wood 7lea!r1 c>dbo>d1 & su*like1 ^u :i* x is glu$ by means ( v>ni%1 c471 & is ab\t #jjjc millimetre ?ick4 ,x is obta9$ f ?9 %eets 7weigh+ at fir/ ab\t #a_/d grm4 to a squ>e in*71 roll$ betwe5 gold roll]s1 by gradually hamm]+ !m 79 packets ( a numb] at once7 betwe5 %eets ( moi/ 7b n wet7 p>*m5t1 & !n1 aft] cutt+ !m into f\r pieces1 betwe5 a specially prep>$ membrane1 :i*1 :5 at ! "r degree ( moi/ure1 does n te> or /ick toge!r "u ! bl[s ( ! hamm]4 #cb ,! =mation ( ! alloys ,cu ,zn1 ,cu ,sn1 ,cu ,bi1 ,cu ,sb1 ,pb ,sb1 ,ag ,pb1 ,ag ,sn1 ,au ,zn1 ,au ,sn1 c41 is accompani$ by a contraction 7& evolution ( heat74 ,! =mation ( ! alloys ,fe ,sb1 ,fe ,pb1 ,cu ,pb1 ,pb ,sn1 ,pb ,sb1 ,zn ,sb1 ,ag ,cu1 ,au ,cu1 ,au ,pb1 takes place ) a c]ta9 increase 9 volume4 ,) reg>d to ! alloys ( gold1 x may be m5tion$ t gold is only slightly dissolv$ by m]cury 7ab\t #jjf p4c41 ,dudley1 #ahij72 ! rema9+ portion =ms a granul> alloy1 ^: composition has n be5 def9itely det]m9$4 ,alum9ium 7& silicon7 also h ! capacity ( =m+ alloys ) gold4 ,! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( alum9ium l[]s ! melt+ po9t ( gold consid]ably 7,rob]ts-,au/51 #ahib72 ?us ! addition ( #d p4c4 ( alum9ium l[]s x by #adbh1 ! addition ( #aj p4c4 ,al by #dag4 ,! latt] alloy is :ite4 ,! alloy ,au,al#b has a *>act]i/ic purple col\r1 & its melt+ po9t is #cbe above t ( gold1 :i* %[s x to be a def9ite comp\nd ( ! two metals4 ,! melt+ po9ts ( alloys ri*] 9 ,al gradually fall to #ffj--t is1 bel[ t ( alum9ium 7#ffe74 ,heycock & ,neville 7#ahib71 9 /udy+ ! triple alloys ( ,au1 ,cd1 & ,sn1 obs]v$ a t5d5cy 9 ! gold to give comp\nds ) ,cd1 & by seal+ a mixture ( ,au & ,cd 9 a tube1 f :i* ! air _h be5 exhau/$1 & heat+ x1 !y obta9$ a grey cry/all9e brittle def9ite alloy ,au,cd4 #cb bis ,cald]on 7#ahib71 at ! reque/ ( "s jewell]s1 inve/igat$ ! cause ( a peculi> alt]ation sometimes f\nd on ! surface ( dead-gold articles1 !re appe>+ br[ni% & blacki% spots1 :i* wid5 & alt] _! =m 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,he came to ! conclusion t ^! spots are due to ! appe>ance & developm5t ( peculi> micro-organisms 7,asp]gillus nig] & ,micrococcus cimb>eus7 on ! gold1 spores ( :i* 7 f\nd 9 abundance on ! cotton-wool 9 :i* ! gold articles _h be5 kept4 ,z reg>ds ! comp\nds ( gold1 !y belong1 z 0 said above1 to ! types ,au,x#c & ,au,x4 ,auric *loride or gold tri*loride1 ,au,cl#c1 :i* is =m$ :5 gold is dissolv$ 9 aqua regia1 belongs to ! =m] & high] ( ^! types4 ,! solution ( ?is sub/ance 9 wat] has a yell[ col\r1 & x may be obta9$ pure by evaporat+ ! solution 9 aqua regia to dryness1 b n to ! po9t ( decomposition4 ,if ! evaporation proce$ to ! po9t ( cry/allisation1 a comp\nd ( gold *loride & hydro*loric acid1 ,au,h,cl#d1 is obta9$1 l ! alli$ comp\nds ( plat9um2 b x easily p>ts ) ! acid & leaves auric *loride1 :i* fuses into a r$-br[n liquid1 & !n solidifies to a cry/all9e mass4 ,if dry *lor9e be pass$ ov] gold 9 p[d] x =ms a mixture ( aur\s & auric *lorides1 b ! aur\s *loride is also decompos$ by wat] into gold & auric *loride4 ,auric *loride cry/allises f its solutions z ,au,cl#c1b;,h#b,o1 :i* easily loses wat]1 & ! dry *loride loses two-?irds ( its *lor9e at #ahe1 =m+ aur\s *loride1 :il/ above #cjj ! latt] *loride also loses its *lor9e & leaves metallic gold4 ,auric *loride is ! usual =m 9 :i* gold occurs 9 solutions1 & 9 :i* its salts are us$ 9 ! arts & = *emical purposes4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r4 ,light has a r$uc+ action on ^! solutions1 & aft] a "t metallic gold is deposit$ ^u ! sides ( vessels conta9+ ! solution4 ,hydrog5 :5 nasc5t1 & ev5 9 a gase\s =m1 r$uces gold f ?is solution to a metallic /ate4 ,! r$uction is m conv5i5tly & usually effect$ by f]r\s sulphate1 & 9 g5]al by ! action ( f]r\s salts4#cc #cc ,/ann\s *loride z a r$uc+ ag5t also acts on auric *loride1 & gives a r$ precipitate kn[n z purple ( ,cassius4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* probably conta9s a mixture or comp\nd ( aur\s oxide & t9 oxide1 is us$ z a r$ pigm5t = *9a & glass4 ,oxalic acid1 on heat+1 r$uces metallic gold f its salts1 & ?is prop]ty may be tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ x f its solutions4 ,! oxidation :i* !n takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 #b;,au,cl#c #c;,c#b;,h#b,o#d #b;,au #f;,h,cl #f;,,co#b4 ,ne>ly all organic sub/ances h a r$uc+ action on gold1 & solutions ( gold leave a violet /a9 on ! sk94 ,auric *loride1 l plat9ic *loride1 is di/+ui%$ = its cle>ly-develop$ prop]ty ( =m+ d\ble salts4 ,^! d\ble salts1 z a rule1 belong to ! type ,au,m,cl#d4 ,! comp\nd ( auric *loride ) hydro*loric acid m5tion$ above evid5tly belongs to ! same type4 ,! comp\nds #b,k,au,cl#d1e;,h#b,o1 ,na,au,cl#d1b;,h#b,o1 ,au,n,h#d;,cl#d1;,h#b,o1 ,mg7,au,cl#d7b1b;,h#b,o1 & ! l are easily cry/allis$ 9 well-=m$ cry/als4 ,wells1 ,:eel]1 & ,p5field 7#ahib7 obta9$ ,rb,au,cl#d 7r$di% yell[7 & ,cs,au,cl#d 7gold5 yell[71 & correspond+ bromides 7d>k col\r$74 ,au,br#c is extremely l ! *loride4 ,auric cyanide is obta9$ easily 9 ! =m ( a d\ble salt ( potassium1 ,k,au7,,cn7#d by mix+ saturat$ & hot solutions ( potassium cyanide ) auric *loride & !n cool+4 ,if a solution ( potassium hydroxide be add$ to a solution ( auric *loride1 a precipitate is fir/ =m$1 :i* re-dissolves 9 an excess ( ! alkali4 ,on be+ evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 ?is solution yields yell[ cry/als1 :i* pres5t ! same composition z ! d\ble salts ,au,m,cl#d1 ) ! sub/itution ( ! *lor9e by oxyg5--t is to say1 potassium aurate1 ,au,k,o#b1 is =m$ 9 cry/als conta9+ #c;,h#b,o4 ,! solution has a di/9ctly alkal9e reaction4 ,auric oxide1 ,au#b,o#c1 sep>ates :5 ?is alkal9e solution is boil$ ) an excess ( sulphuric acid4 ,b x !n /ill reta9s "s alkali2 h[ev]1 x may be obta9$ 9 a pure /ate z a br[n p[d] by dissolv+ 9 nitric acid & dilut+ ) wat]4 ,! br[n p[d] decomposes bel[ #bej into gold & oxyg54 ,x is insoluble 9 wat] & 9 _m acids1 b x dissolves 9 alkalis1 :i* %[s ! acid "* ( ?is oxide4 ,an hydroxide1 ,au7,,oh7#c may be obta9$ z a br[n p[d] by add+ magnesium oxide to a solution ( auric *loride & treat+ ! resultant precipitate ( magnesium aurate ) nitric acid4 ,?is hydroxide loses wat] at #ajj1 & gives auric oxide4#cd #cd ,if ammonia be add$ to a solution ( auric *loride1 x =ms a yell[ precipitate ( ! s-call$ fulm9at+ gold1 :i* conta9s gold1 *lor9e1 hydrog51 nitrog51 & oxyg51 b its =mula is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty4 ,x is probably a sort ( ammonio-metallic comp\nd1 ,au#b,o#c1d,,nh#c1 or amide 7l ! m]cury comp\nd74 ,?is precipitate explodes at #adj1 b :5 left 9 ! pres5ce ( solutions conta9+ ammonia x loses all its *lor9e & becomes non-explosive4 ,9 ?is =m ! composition ,au#b,o#c1b,,nh#c1;,h#b,o is ascrib$ to x1 b ?is is unc]ta94 ,auric sulphide1 ,au#b,s#c1 is obta9$ by ! action ( hydrog5 sulphide on a solution ( auric *loride1 & also directly by fus+ sulphur ) gold4 ,x has an acid "*1 & !re=e dissolves 9 sodium & ammonium sulphides4 ,! />t+-po9t ( ! comp\nds ( ! type ,au,x#ce is gold mono*loride or aur\s *loride1 ,au,cl1 :i* is =m$1 z m5tion$ above1 by heat+ auric *loride at #ahe4 ,aur\s *loride =ms a yell[i%-:ite p[d]2 ?is1 :5 heat$ ) wat]1 is decompos$ into metallic gold & auric *loride1 :i* passes into solution3 #c;,au,cl ,au,cl#c #b;,au4 ,?is decomposition is accel]at$ by ! action ( light4 ,h5ce x is obvi\s t ! comp\nds correspond+ ) aur\s oxide are comp>atively un/able4 ,b ?is only ref]s to ! simple comp\nds ,au,x2 "s ( ! complex comp\nds1 on ! contr>y1 =m ! mo/ /able comp\nds ( gold4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! cyanide ( gold & potassium1 ,au,k7,,cn7#b4 ,x is =m$1 = in/ance1 :5 f9ely-divid$ gold dissolves 9 ! pres5ce ( air 9 a solution ( potassium cyanide3 #d,,kcn #b;,au ,h#b,o ,o #b,k,au7,,cn7#b #b,,kho 7?is reaction also proce$s ) solid pieces ( gold1 al?\gh v sl[ly74 ,! same comp\nd is =m$ 9 solution :5 _m comp\nds ( gold are mix$ ) potassium cyanide1 because if a high] comp\nd ( gold be tak51 x is r$uc$ by ! potassium cyanide into aur\s oxide1 :i* dissolves 9 potassium cyanide & =ms ,k,au7,,cn7#b4 ,?is sub/ance is soluble 9 wat]1 & gives a col\rless solution1 :i* c be kept = a long "t1 & is employ$ 9 electro-gild+--t is1 = coat+ o!r metallic objects ) a lay] ( gold1 :i* is deposit$ if ! object be connect$ ) ! negative pole ( a batt]y & ! positive pole consi/ ( a gold plate4 ,:5 an electric curr5t is pass$ betwe5 !m1 ! gold f ! latt] w dissolve1 :il/ a coat+ ( gold f ! solution w be deposit$ on ! object4 #ce ,_m d\ble salts ( suboxide ( gold belong to ! type ,au,x--= in/ance1 ! cyanide correspond+ to ! type ,au,k,x#b1 l ,pt,k#b,x#d1 ) :i* we became acqua9t$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,we w enum]ate sev]al ( ! repres5tatives ( ?is class ( comp\nds4 ,if auric *loride1 ,au,cl#c1 be mix$ ) a solution ( sodium ?iosulphate1 ! gold passes into a col\rless solution1 :i* deposits col\rless cry/als1 conta9+ a d\ble ?iosulphate ( gold & sodium1 :i* are easily soluble 9 wat] b are precipitat$ by alcohol4 ,! composition ( ?is salt is ,na#c;,au7,s#b,o#c7b1b;,h#b,o4 ,if ! sodium ?iosulphate be repres5t$ z ,na,s#b,o#c,na1 ! d\ble salt 9 "q w be ,au,na7,s#b,o#c,na7#b1b;,h#b,o1 accord+ to ! type ,au,na,x#b4 ,! solution ( ?is col\rless & easily cry/allisable salt has a sweet ta/e1 & ! gold is n sep>at$ f x ei!r by f]r\s sulphate or oxalic acid4 ,?is salt1 :i* is kn[n z ,=dos & ,gelis's salt1 is us$ 9 m$ic9e & photography4 ,9 g5]al1 aur\s oxide exhibits a di/9ct incl9ation to ! =mation ( simil> d\ble salts1 z we saw also ) ,pt,x#b--;= example1 x =ms simil> salts ) sulphur\s acid4 ,?us if a solution ( sodium sulphite be gradually add$ to a solution ( oxide ( gold 9 sodium hydroxide1 ! precipitate at fir/ =m$ re-dissolves to a col\rless solution1 :i* conta9s ! d\ble salt ,na#c;,au7,,s#c7b ,au,na7,,s#c,na7#b4 ,! solution ( ?is salt1 :5 mix$ ) b>ium *loride1 fir/ =ms a precipitate ( b>ium sulphite1 & !n a r$ b>ium d\ble salt :i* corresponds ) ! above sodium salt4 ,! oxyg5 comp\nd ( ! type ,au,x1 aur\s oxide1 ,au#b,o1 is obta9$ z a gre5i% violet p[d] on mix+ aur\s *loride ) potassium *loride 9 ! cold4 ,) hydro*loric acid ?is oxide gives gold & auric *loride1 & :5 heat$ x easily splits up into oxyg5 & metallic gold4 ,,app5dix ,i ,,an ,,attempt ,,to ,,apply ,,to ,,*emi/ry ,,"o ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,newton',s ,,natural ,,philosophy ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m5del,,eff ,a ,,lecture ,,deliv]$ ,,at ,,! ,,royal ,,in/itution ,,( ,,great ,,brita9 ,,on ,,friday1 ,,may #ca1 #ahhi ,nature1 in]t to ! eyes ( ! anci5ts1 has be5 reveal$ to u z full ( life & activity4 ,! conviction t motion p]vad$ all ?+s1 :i* 0 fir/ realis$ ) respect to ! /ell> univ]se1 has n[ ext5d$ to ! unse5 _w ( atoms4 ,no soon] _h ! human und]/&+ d5i$ to ! e>? a fix$ position & laun*$ x along its pa? 9 space1 ?an x 0 s\ght to fix immovably ! sun & ! />s4 ,b a/ronomy has demon/rat$ t ! sun moves ) unsw]v+ regul>ity ?r\gh ! />-set univ]se at ! rate ( ab\t #ej kilometres p] second4 ,among ! s-call$ fix$ />s are n[ disc]n$ manifold *anges & v>i\s ord]s ( movem5t4 ,light1 heat1 electricity--l s\nd--h be5 prov$ to be modes ( motion2 to ! realisation ( ?is fact mod]n sci5ce is indebt$ = p[]s :i* h be5 us$ ) su* brilliant success1 & :i* h be5 exp\nd$ s cle>ly at ?is lecture table by ,f>aday & by 8 successors4 ,z1 9 ! imag9ation ( ,dante1 ! invisible air became peopl$ ) spiritual be+s1 s be=e ! eyes ( e>ne/ inve/igators1 & especially be=e ^? ( ,cl]k ,maxwell1 ! invisible mass ( gases became peopl$ ) p>ticles3 _! rapid movem5ts1 _! collisions1 & impacts became s manife/ t x seem$ almo/ possible to c\nt ! impacts & det]m9e _m ( ! peculi>ities or laws ( _! collisions4 ,! fact ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! invisible motions may at once be made app>5t by demon/rat+ ! diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( diffusion ?r\gh por\s bodies ( ! light & rapidly mov+ atoms ( hydrog5 & ! heavi] & m sluggi% p>ticles ( air4 ,)9 ! masses ( liquid & ( solid bodies we h be5 =c$ to ackn[l$ge ! exi/5ce ( p]si/5t ?\gh limit$ motion ( _! ultimate p>ticles1 = o!rwise x w\ld be impossible to expla91 = example1 ! celebrat$ exp]im5ts ( ,graham on diffusion ?r\gh liquid & colloidal sub/ances4 ,if !re 71 9 our times1 no belief 9 ! molecul> motion 9 solid bodies1 c\ld ! fam\s ,spr+ h hop$ to atta9 any result by mix+ c>efully-dri$ p[d]s ( pota%1 saltpetre & sodium acetate1 9 ord] to produce1 by pressure1 a *emical reaction betwe5 ^! sub/ances ?r\gh ! int]*ange ( _! metals1 & h d]iv$1 = ! conviction ( ! incr$ul\s1 a mixture ( two hygroscopic ?\gh solid salts--sodium nitrate & potassium acetate8 ,9 ^! invisible & app>5tly *aotic movem5ts1 rea*+ f ! />s to ! m9ute/ atoms1 !re reigns1 h[ev]1 a h>moni\s ord] :i* is commonly mi/ak5 = complete re/1 b :i* is really a consequ5ce ( ! cons]vation ( t dynamic equilibrium :i* 0 fir/ disc]n$ by ! g5ius ( ,newton1 & :i* has be5 trac$ by 8 successors 9 ! detail$ analysis ( ! p>ticul> consequ5ces ( ! great g5]alisation1 namely1 relative immovability 9 ! mid/ ( univ]sal & active movem5t4 ,b ! unse5 _w ( *emical *anges is closely analog\s to ! visible _w ( ! heav5ly bodies1 s9ce our atoms =m di/9ct portions ( an invisible _w1 z planets1 satellites1 & comets =m di/9ct portions ( ! a/ronom]'s univ]se2 our atoms may !re=e be comp>$ to ! sol> sy/ems1 or to ! sy/ems ( d\ble or ( s+le />s3 = example1 ammonia 7,,nh#c7 may be repres5t$ 9 ! simple/ mann] by suppos+ ! sun1 nitrog51 surr\nd$ by its planets ( hydrog52 & common salt 7,na,cl7 may be look$ on z a d\ble /> =m$ ( sodium & *lor9e4 ,besides1 n[ t ! inde/ructibility ( ! elem5ts has be5 ackn[l$g$1 *emical *anges _c o!rwise be expla9$ ?an z *anges ( motion1 & ! production by *emical reactions ( galvanic curr5ts1 ( light1 ( heat1 ( pressure1 or ( /eam p[]1 demon/rates visibly t ! processes ( *emical reaction are inevitably connect$ ) enorm\s ?\gh unse5 displacem5ts1 orig9at+ 9 ! movem5ts ( atoms 9 molecules4 ,a/ronom]s & natural philosoph]s1 9 /udy+ ! visible motions ( ! heav5ly bodies & ( matt] on ! e>?1 h und]/ood & h e/imat$ ! value ( ?is /ore ( en]gy4 ,b ! *emi/ has _h to pursue a contr>y c\rse4 ,obs]v+ 9 ! physical & me*anical ph5om5a :i* accompany *emical reactions ! quantity ( en]gy manife/$ by ! atoms & molecules1 he is con/ra9$ to ackn[l$ge t )9 ! molecules !re exi/ atoms 9 motion1 end[$ ) an en]gy :i*1 l matt] itself1 is nei!r be+ creat$ nor capable ( be+ de/roy$4 ,!re=e1 9 *emi/ry1 we mu/ seek dynamic equilibrium n only betwe5 ! molecules1 b also 9 _! mid/ among _! compon5t atoms4 ,_m conditions ( su* equilibrium h be5 det]m9$1 b mu* rema9s to be done1 & x is n uncommon1 ev5 9 ^! days1 to f9d t "s *emi/s =get t !re is ! possibility ( motion 9 ! int]ior ( molecules1 & !re=e repres5t !m z be+ 9 a condition ( dea?-l inactivity4 ,*emical comb9ations take place ) s mu* ease & rapidity1 possess s _m special *>act]i/ics1 & are s num]\s1 t _! simplicity & ord] 7 = a long "t hidd5 f inve/igators4 ,sympa?y1 relation%ip1 all ! caprices or all ! fancifulness ( human int]c\rse1 seem$ to h f\nd complete analogies 9 *emical comb9ations1 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! *>act]i/ics ( ! mat]ial sub/ances--su* z silv]1 = example1 or ( any o!r body--rema9 un*ang$ 9 e subdivision f ! l>ge/ masses to ! smalle/ p>ticles1 & consequ5tly ^! *>act]i/ics mu/ be prop]ties ( ! p>ticles4 ,b ! _w ( heav5ly lum9>ies appe>$ equally fanciful at man's fir/ acqua9tance ) x1 s mu* s1 t ! a/rolog]s imag9$ a connection betwe5 ! individualities ( m5 & ! conjunctions ( planets4 ,?anks to ! g5ius ( ,lavoisi] & ( ,dalton1 man has be5 able1 9 ! unse5 _w ( *emical comb9ations1 to recognise laws ( ! same simple ord] z ^? :i* ,cop]nicus & ,kepl] prov$ to exi/ 9 ! planet>y univ]se4 ,man discov]$1 & cont9ues e h\r to discov]1 :at rema9s un*ang$ 9 *emical evolution1 & h[ *anges take place 9 comb9ations ( ! un*angeable4 ,he has le>n$ to pr$ict1 n only :at possible comb9ations may take place1 b also ! v exi/5ce ( atoms ( unkn[n elem5t>y sub/ances1 & has besides succe$$ 9 mak+ innum]able practical applications ( 8 k to ! great advantage ( 8 race1 & has accompli%$ ?is not)/&+ t notions ( sympa?y & aff9ity /ill pres]ve a /rong vitality 9 sci5ce4 ,at pres5t we _c apply ,newton's pr9ciples to *emi/ry1 because ! soil is only be+ n[ prep>$4 ,! invisible _w ( *emical atoms is /ill wait+ = ! creator ( *emical me*anics4 ,= him our age is collect+ a mass ( mat]ials1 ! inductions ( well-dige/$ facts1 & _m-sid$ inf]5ces simil> to ^? :i* exi/$ = ,a/ronomy & ,me*anics 9 ! days ( ,newton4 ,x is well also to rememb] t ,newton devot$ mu* "t to *emical exp]im5ts1 & :ile consid]+ que/ions ( cele/ial me*anics1 p]si/5tly kept 9 view ! mutual action ( ^? inf9itely small worlds :i* are conc]n$ 9 *emical evolutions4 ,= ?is reason1 & also to ma9ta9 ! unity ( laws1 x seems to me t we mu/1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 seek to h>monise ! v>i\s phases ( contempor>y *emical !ories ) ! immortal pr9ciples ( ! ,newtonian natural philosophy1 & s ha/5 ! adv5t ( true *emical me*anics4 ,let ! above consid]ations s]ve z my ju/ification = ! attempt :i* ,i propose to make to act z a *ampion ( ! univ]sality ( ! ,newtonian pr9ciples1 :i* ,i believe are compet5t to embrace e ph5om5on 9 ! univ]se1 f ! rotation ( ! fix$ />s to ! int]*anges ( *emical atoms4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,i consid] x indisp5sable to be> 9 m9d t1 up to q rec5t times1 only a "o-sid$ aff9ity has be5 recognis$ 9 *emical reactions4 ,?us1 = example1 f ! circum/ance t r$-hot iron decomposes wat] ) ! evolution ( hydrog51 x 0 conclud$ t oxyg5 _h a great] aff9ity = iron ?an = hydrog54 ,b hydrog51 9 pres5ce ( r$-hot iron scale1 appropriates its oxyg5 & =ms wat]1 :5ce an exactly opposite conclusion may be =m$4 ,dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s a gradual1 sc>cely p]ceptible1 b mo/ important *ange has tak5 place 9 ! views1 & consequ5tly 9 ! rese>*es1 ( *emi/s4 ,!y h s\ght ev]y:]e1 & h always f\nd1 sy/ems ( cons]vation or dynamic equilibrium sub/antially simil> to ^? :i* natural philosoph]s h long s9ce discov]$ 9 ! visible _w1 & 9 virtue ( :i* ! position ( ! heav5ly bodies 9 ! univ]se is det]m9$4 ,!re :]e "o-sid$ aff9ities only 7 at fir/ detect$1 n only second>y or lat]al ones h be5 f\nd1 b ev5 ^? :i* are diametrically opposite2 yet among ^!1 dynamical equilibrium e/abli%es itself n by exclud+ "o or o!r ( ! =ces1 b regulat+ !m all4 ,s ! *emi/ f9ds 9 ! flame ( ! bla/ furnace1 9 ! =mation ( e salt1 &1 ) especial cle>ness1 9 d\ble salts & 9 ! cry/allisation ( solutions1 n a fight end+ 9 ! victory ( "o side1 z us$ to be suppos$1 b ! conjunction ( =ces2 ! peace ( dynamic equilibrium result+ f ! action ( _m =ces & aff9ities4 ,c>bonace\s matt]s1 = example1 burn at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 yield+ a quantity ( heat1 & =m+ products ( combu/ion1 9 :i* x 0 ?\ght t ! aff9ities ( ! oxyg5 ) ! combu/ible elem5ts 7 satisfi$4 ,b x appe>$ t ! heat ( combu/ion 0 compet5t to decompose ^! products1 to dissociate ! oxyg5 f ! combu/ible elem5ts1 & !re=e to expla9 combu/ion fully x is necess>y to take into acc\nt ! equilibrium betwe5 opposite reactions1 betwe5 ^? :i* evolve & ^? :i* absorb heat4 ,9 ! same way1 9 ! case ( ! solution ( common salt 9 wat]1 x is necess>y to take into acc\nt1 on ! "o h&1 ! =mation ( comp\nd p>ticles g5]at$ by ! comb9ation ( salt ) wat]1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! dis9tegration or scatt]+ ( ! new p>ticles =m$1 z well z ( ^! orig9ally conta9$4 ,at pres5t we f9d two curr5ts ( ?\ght1 app>5tly antagoni/ic to ea* o!r1 dom9at+ ! /udy ( solutions3 accord+ to ! "o1 solution seems a m]e act ( build+ up or association2 accord+ to ! o!r1 x is only dissociation or dis9tegration4 ,! tru? lies1 evid5tly1 betwe5 ^! views2 x lies1 z ,i h endeav\r$ to prove by my inve/igations into aque\s solutions1 9 ! dynamic equilibrium ( p>ticles t5d+ to comb9e & also to fall asund]4 ,! l>ge majority ( *emical reactions :i* appe>$ to act victori\sly along "o l9e h be5 prov$ capable ( act+ z victori\sly ev5 along an exactly opposite l9e4 ,elem5ts :i* utt]ly decl9e to comb9e directly may (t5 be =m$ into comp>atively /able comp\nds by indirect means1 z1 = example1 9 ! case ( *lor9e & c>bon2 & consequ5tly ! sympa?ies & antipa?ies :i* x 0 ?\ght to transf] f human relations to ^? ( atoms %\ld be laid aside until ! me*anism ( *emical relations is expla9$4 ,let u rememb]1 h[ev]1 t *lor9e1 :i* does n =m ) c>bon ! *loride ( c>bon1 is /rongly absorb$1 or1 z x 71 dissolv$1 by c>bon1 :i* leads u to suspect incipi5t *emical action ev5 9 an ext]nal & purely surface contact1 & involunt>ily gives rise to conceptions ( t unity ( ! =ces ( nature :i* has be5 s en]getically insi/$ on by ,sir ,william ,grove & =mulat$ 9 8 fam\s p>adox4 ,grove notic$ t plat9um1 :5 fus$ 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame1 dur+ :i* op]ation wat] is =m$1 :5 all[$ to drop into wat] decomposes ! latt] & produces ! explosive oxyhydrog5 mixture4 ,! explanation ( ?is p>adox1 z ( _m o!rs :i* arose dur+ ! p]iod ( *emical r5aissance1 has l$1 9 our "t1 to ! promulgation by ,h5ri ,sa9te-,claire ,deville ( ! conception ( dissociation & ( equilibrium1 & has recall$ ! tea*+ ( ,b]?ollet1 :i*1 not)/&+ its brilliant confirmation by ,he9ri* ,rose & ,dr4 ,glad/one1 _h n1 up to t p]iod1 be5 includ$ 9 receiv$ *emical views4 ,*emical equilibrium 9 g5]al1 & dissociation 9 p>ticul>1 are n[ be+ s fully work$ out 9 detail1 & suppli$ 9 su* v>i\s ways1 t ,i d n allude to !m to develop1 b only use !m z examples by :i* to indicate ! correctness ( a t5d5cy to reg>d *emical comb9ations f po9ts ( view diff]+ f ^? express$ by ! t]m hi!rto appropriat$ to def9e *emical =ces1 namely1 'aff9ity4' ,*emical equilibria1 dissociation1 ! spe$ ( *emical reactions1 !rmo*emi/ry1 spectroscopy1 &1 m ?an all1 ! det]m9ation ( ! influ5ce ( masses & ! se>* = a connection betwe5 ! prop]ties & weights ( atoms & molecules--9 "o ^w1 ! va/ mass ( ! mo/ important *emical rese>*es ( ! pres5t day--cle>ly indicate ! ne> approa* ( ! "t :5 *emical doctr9es w submit fully & completely to ! doctr9e :i* 0 fir/ ann\nc$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia ( ,newton4 ,9 ord] t ! application ( ^! pr9ciples may be> fruit x is evid5tly insuffici5t to assume t /atical equilibrium reigns alone 9 *emical sy/ems or *emical molecules3 x is necess>y to grasp ! conditions ( possible /ates ( dynamical equilibria1 & to apply to !m k9etic pr9ciples4 ,num]\s consid]ations compel u to r5\nce ! idea ( /atical equilibrium 9 molecules1 & ! rec5t yet /rongly-support$ appeals to dynamic pr9ciples con/itute1 9 my op9ion1 ! f\ndation ( ! mod]n tea*+ relat+ to atomicity1 or ! val5cy ( ! elem5ts1 :i* usually =ms ! basis ( inve/igations into organic or c>bon comp\nds4 ,?is tea*+ has l$ to brilliant explanations ( v _m *emical relations & to cases ( isom]ism1 or ! diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties ( sub/ances hav+ ! same composition4 ,x has be5 s fruitful 9 its _m applications & 9 ! =e%ad[+ ( remote consequ5ces1 especially respect+ c>bon comp\nds1 t x is impossible to d5y its claims to be rank$ z a great a*ievem5t ( *emical sci5ce4 ,its practical application to ! syn!sis ( _m sub/ances ( ! mo/ complicat$ composition ent]+ into ! /ructure ( organis$ bodies1 & to ! creation ( an unlimit$ numb] ( c>bon comp\nds1 among :i* ! col\rs d]iv$ f coal t> /& prom95tly =w>d1 surpass ! syn!tical p[]s ( ,nature itself4 ,yet ?is tea*+1 z appli$ to ! /ructure ( c>bon comp\nds1 is n on ! face ( x directly applicable to ! inve/igation ( o!r elem5ts1 because 9 exam9+ ! fir/ x is possible to assume t ! atoms ( c>bon h always a def9ite & equal numb] ( aff9ities1 :il/ 9 ! comb9ations ( o!r elem5ts ?is is evid5tly inadmissible4 ,?us1 = example1 an atom ( c>bon yields only "o comp\nd ) f\r atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ) f\r atoms ( *lor9e 9 ! molecule1 :il/ ! atoms ( *lor9e & hydrog5 unite only 9 ! proportions ( "o to "o4 ,simplicity is "h evid5t1 & =ms a po9t ( dep>ture f :i* x is easy to move =w>d ) firm & secure tread4 ,o!r elem5ts are ( a diff]5t nature4 ,phosphorus unites ) ?ree & ) five atoms ( *lor9e1 & consequ5tly ! simplicity & %>pness ( ! application ( /ructural conceptions are lo/4 ,sulphur unites only ) two atoms ( hydrog51 b ) oxyg5 x ent]s into high] ord]s ( comb9ation4 ,! p]iodic relation%ip :i* exi/s among all ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts--su*1 = example1 z _! ability to ent] into v>i\s comb9ations--& _! atomic weights1 indicate t ?is v>iation 9 atomicity is subject to "o p]fectly exact & g5]al law1 & x is only c>bon & its ne> analogues :i* con/itute cases ( p]man5tly pres]v$ atomicity4 ,x is impossible to recognise z con/ant & fundam5tal prop]ties ( atoms1 p[]s :i*1 9 sub/ance1 h prov$ to be v>iable4 ,b by ab&on+ ! idea ( p]man5ce1 & ( ! con/ant saturation ( aff9ities--t is to say1 by ackn[l$g+ ! possibility ( free aff9ities--_m reta9 a compreh5sion ( ! atomicity ( ! elem5ts '"u giv5 conditions2' & on ?is frail f\ndation !y build up /ructures compos$ ( *emical molecules1 evid5tly only because ! conception ( manifold aff9ities gives1 at once1 a simple /atical me?od ( e/imat+ ! composition ( ! mo/ complicat$ molecules4 ,i %all ent] nei!r into details1 nor into ! v>i\s consequ5ces foll[+ f ^! views1 nor into ! disputes :i* h sprung up respect+ !m 7& relat+ especially to ! numb] ( isom]ides possible on ! assumption ( free aff9ities71 because ! f\ndation or orig9 ( !ories ( ?is nature suff]s f ! radical defect ( be+ 9 opposition to dynamics4 ,! molecule1 z ev5 ,laur5t express$ himself1 is repres5t$ z an ar*itectural /ructure1 ! /yle ( :i* is det]m9$ by ! fundam5tal arrangem5t ( a few atoms1 :il/ ! decorative details1 :i* are capable ( be+ v>i$ by ! same =ces1 are =m$ by ! elem5ts ent]+ into ! comb9ation4 ,x is on ?is acc\nt t ! t]m '/ructural' is s appropriate to ! contempor>y views ( ! above ord]1 & t ! '/ructurali/s' seek to ju/ify ! tetrah$ric1 plane1 or prismatic disposition ( ! atoms ( c>bon 9 b5z5e4 ,x is evid5t t ! consid]ation relates to ! /atical position ( atoms & molecules & n to _! k9etic relations4 ,! atoms ( ! /ructural type are l ! lifeless pieces on a *ess bo>d3 !y are end[$ b ) ! voices ( liv+ be+s1 & are n ^? liv+ be+s !mselves2 act+1 inde$1 accord+ to laws1 yet ea* possess$ ( a /ore ( en]gy :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,9 ! days ( ,hay1 cry/als 7 consid]$ 9 ! same /atical & /ructural light1 b mod]n cry/allograph]s1 hav+ become m ?or\ghly acqua9t$ ) _! physical prop]ties & _! actual =mation1 h ab&on$ ! e>li] views1 & h made _! doctr9es dep5d5t on dynamics4 ,! imm$iate object ( ?is lecture is to %[ t1 />t+ ) ,newton's ?ird law ( motion1 x is possible to pres]ve to *emi/ry all ! advantages aris+ f /ructural tea*+1 )\t be+ oblig$ to build up molecules 9 solid & motionless figures1 or to ascribe to atoms def9ite limit$ val5cies1 directions ( cohesion1 or aff9ities4 ,! wide ext5t ( ! subject obliges me to treat only a small portion ( x1 namely ( sub/itutions1 )\t specially consid]+ comb9ations & decompositions1 & ev5 !n limit+ myself to ! simple/ examples1 :i*1 h[ev]1 w ?r[ op5 prospects embrac+ all ! natural complexity ( *emical relations4 ,= ?is reason1 if x %\ld prove possible to =m gr\ps simil>1 = example1 to ,h#d or ,,*#f z ! remnants ( molecules ,,*#d or ,c#b;,h#g we %all n pause to consid] !m1 because1 z f> z we "k1 !y fall asund] into two p>ts1 ,h#b ,h#b or ,,*#d ,h#b1 z soon z !y are ev5 tempor>ily =m$1 & are incapable ( sep>ate exi/5ce1 & !re=e c take no "p 9 ! elem5t>y act ( sub/itution4 ,) respect to ! simple/ molecules :i* we %all select--t is to say1 ^? ( :i* ! p>ts h no sep>ate exi/5ce1 & !re=e _c appe> 9 sub/itutions--we %all consid] !m accord+ to ! p]iodic law1 arrang+ !m 9 direct dep5d5ce on ! atomic weight ( ! elem5ts4 ,?us1 = example1 ! molecules ( ! simple/ hydrog5 comp\nds-- ,,hf ,h#b,o ,h#c,n ,h#d;,c hydr(luoric acid wat] ammonia me?ane correspond ) elem5ts ! atomic weights ( :i* decrease consecutively ,f #ai1 ,o #af1 ,n #ad1 ,c #ab4 ,nei!r ! ari?metical ord] 7#a1 #b1 #c1 #d atoms ( hydrog57 nor ! total in=mation we possess respect+ ! elem5ts w p]mit u to int]polate into ?is typical s]ies "o m additional elem5t2 & !re=e we h "h1 = hydrog5 comp\nds1 a natural base on :i* are built up ^? simple *emical comb9ations :i* we take z typical4 ,b ev5 !y are compet5t to unite ) ea* o!r1 z we see1 = in/ance1 9 ! prop]ty :i* hydr(luoric acid has ( =m+ a hydrate--t is1 ( comb9+ ) wat]2 & a simil> attribute ( ammonia1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( a cau/ic alkali1 ,,nh#c1;,h#b,o1 or ,,nh#d,,oh4 ,hav+ made ^! indisp5sable prelim9>y obs]vations1 ,i may n[ attack ! problem itself & attempt to expla9 ! s-call$ /ructure or r con/ruction1 ( molecules--t is to say1 _! con/itution & trans=mations--)\t hav+ rec\rse to ! tea*+ ( '/ructurali/s1' b on ,newton's dynamical pr9ciples4 ,( ,newton's ?ree laws ( motion1 only ! ?ird c be appli$ directly to *emical molecules :5 reg>d$ z sy/ems ( atoms among :i* x mu/ be suppos$ t !re exi/ common influ5ces or =ces1 & result+ comp\nd$ relative motions4 ,*emical reactions ( e k9d are und\bt$ly accompli%$ by *anges 9 ^! int]nal movem5ts1 respect+ ! nature ( :i* no?+ is kn[n at pres5t1 b ! exi/5ce ( :i* ! mass ( evid5ce collect$ 9 mod]n times =ces u to ackn[l$ge z =m+ "p ( ! common motion ( ! univ]se1 & z a fact fur!r e/abli%$ by ! circum/ance t *emical reactions are always *>act]is$ by *anges ( volume or ! relations betwe5 ! atoms or ! molecules4 ,newton's ?ird law1 :i* is applicable to e sy/em1 decl>es t1 'action is also associat$ ) reaction1 & is equal to x4' ,! brevity ( concis5ess ( ?is axiom 01 h[ev]1 qualifi$ by ,newton 9 a m exp&$ /atem5t1 '! action ( bodies "o ^u ano!r are always equal1 & 9 opposite directions4' ,?is simple fact con/itutes ! po9t ( dep>ture = expla9+ dynamic equilibrium--t is to say1 sy/ems ( cons]vancy4 ,x is capable ( satisfy+ ev5 ! duali/s1 & ( expla9+1 )\t additional assumptions1 ! pres]vation ( ^? *emical types :i* ,dumas1 ,laur5t1 & ,g]h>dt creat$ unit types1 & ^? views ( atomic comb9ations :i* ! /ructurali/s express by atomicity or ! val5cy ( ! elem5ts1 &1 9 connection ) !m1 ! v>i\s numb]s ( aff9ities4 ,9 reality1 if a sy/em ( atoms or a molecule be giv51 !n 9 x1 accord+ to ! ?ird law ( ,newton1 ea* portion ( atoms acts on ! rema9+ portion 9 ! same mann]1 & ) ! same =ce z ! second set ( atoms acts on ! fir/4 ,we inf] directly f ?is consid]ation t bo? sets ( atoms1 =m+ a molecule1 are n only equival5t ) reg>d to !mselves1 z !y mu/ be accord+ to ,dalton's law1 b also t !y may1 if unit$1 replace ea* o!r4 ,let !re be a molecule conta9+ atoms ,a ,b ,c1 x is cle> t1 accord+ to ,newton's law1 ! action ( ,a on ,b ,c mu/ be equal to ! action ( ,b ,c on ,a1 & if ! fir/ action is direct$ on ,b ,c1 !n ! second mu/ be direct$ on ,a1 & consequ5tly !n1 :]e ,a c exi/ 9 dynamic equilibrium1 ,b ,c may take its place & act 9 a l mann]4 ,9 ! same way ! action ( ,c is equal to ! action ( ,a ,b4 ,9 "o ^w e two sets ( atoms =m+ a molecule are equival5t to ea* o!r1 & may take ea* o!r's place 9 o!r molecules1 or1 hav+ ! p[] ( balanc+ ea* o!r1 ! atoms or _! complem5ts are end[$ ) ! p[] ( replac+ ea* o!r4 ,let u call ?is consequ5ce ( an evid5t axiom '! pr9ciple ( sub/itution1' & let u apply x to ^? typical =ms ( hydrog5 comp\nds :i* we h already discuss$1 & :i*1 on acc\nt ( _! simplicity1 & regul>ity1 h s]v$ z />t+-po9ts ( *emical argum5t long be=e ! appe>ance ( ! doctr9e ( /ructure4 ,9 ! type ( hydr(luoric acid1 ,,hf1 or 9 sy/ems ( d\ble />s1 are includ$ a multitude ( ! simple/ molecules4 ,x w be suffici5t = our purpose to recall a few3 = example1 ! molecules ( *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 & ( hydrog51 ,h#b1 & hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 :i* is famili> to all 9 aque\s solution z spirits ( salt1 & :i* has _m po9ts ( resemblance ) ,,hf1 ,h,br1 ,,hi4 ,9 ^! cases division into two p>ts c only be made 9 "o way1 & !re=e ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution r5d]s x probable t ex*anges betwe5 ! *lor9e & ! hydrog5 c take place1 if !y are compet5t to unite ) ea* o!r4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 no *emi/ w\ld ev5 admit ! idea ( any su* action2 x 0 !n ?\ght t ! p[] ( comb9ation indicat$ a pol> diff]5ce ( ! molecules 9 comb9ation1 & ?is ?\ght set aside all idea ( ! sub/itution ( "o compon5t elem5t by ano!r4 ,?anks to ! obs]vations & exp]im5ts ( ,dumas & ,laur5t fifty ye>s ago1 su* fallacies 7 dispell$1 & 9 ?is mann] ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution 0 exhibit$4 ,*lor9e & brom9e act+ on _m hydrog5 comp\nds1 occupy imm$iately ! place ( _! hydrog51 & ! displac$ hydrog51 ) ano!r atom ( *lor9e or brom9e1 =ms hydro*loric acid or bromide ( hydrog54 ,?is takes place 9 all typical hydrog5 comp\nds4 ,?us *lor9e acts on ?is pr9ciple on gase\s hydrog5--reaction1 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid4 ,*lor9e act+ on ! alkalis1 con/itut$ simil>ly to wat]1 & ev5 on wat] itself--only1 h[ev]1 "u ! influ5ce ( light & only p>tially because ( ! in/ability ( ,h,cl,o--=ms by ?is pr9ciple blea*+ salts1 :i* are ! same z ! alkalis1 b ) _! hydrog5 replac$ by *lor9e4 ,9 ammonia & 9 me?ane1 *lor9e c also replace ! hydrog54 ,f ammonia is =m$ 9 ?is mann] ! s-call$ *loride ( nitrog51 ,n,cl#c1 :i* decomposes v readily ) viol5t explosion on acc\nt ( ! evolv$ gases1 & falls asund] z *lor9e & nitrog54 ,out ( m>% gas1 or me?ane1 ,,*#d1 may be obta9$ consecutively1 by ?is me?od1 e possible sub/itution1 ( :i* *lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c1 is ! be/ kn[n1 & c>bon tetra*loride1 ,c,cl#d1 ! mo/ in/ructive4 ,b by virtue ( ! fact t *lor9e & brom9e act1 9 ! mann] %[n1 on ! simple/ typical hydrog5 comp\nds1 _! action on ! m complicat$ ones may be assum$ to be ! same4 ,?is c be easily demon/rat$4 ,! hydrog5 ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 reacts feebly "u ! influ5ce ( light on liquid brom9e1 b ,gu/avson has %[n t ! addition ( ! smalle/ quantity ( metallic alum9ium causes en]getic action & ! evolution ( l>ge volumes ( hydrog5 bromide4 ,if we pass on to ! second typical hydrog5 comp\nd--t is to say1 wat]--its molecule1 ,,hoh1 may be split up 9 two ways3 ei!r into an atom ( hydrog5 & a semi-molecule ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 ,,ho1 or into oxyg51 ,o1 & two atoms ( hydrog51 ,h2 & !re=e1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution1 x is evid5t t "o atom ( hydrog5 c ex*ange ) hydrog5 oxide1 ,,ho1 & two atoms ( hydrog51 ,h1 ) "o atom ( oxyg51 ,o4 ,bo? ^! =ms ( sub/itution w con/itute me?ods ( oxidation--t is to say1 ( ! entrance ( oxyg5 into ! comp\nd--a reaction :i* is s common 9 nature z well z 9 ! arts1 tak+ place at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air or by ! aid ( v>i\s oxidis+ sub/ances or bodies :i* "p easily ) _! oxyg54 ,!re is no occasion to reckon up ! unlimit$ numb] ( cases ( su* oxidis+ reactions4 ,x is suffici5t to /ate t 9 ! fir/ ( ^! oxyg5 is directly transf]r$1 & ! position1 ! *emical function1 :i* hydrog5 orig9ally occupi$1 is1 aft] ! sub/itution1 occupi$ by ! hydroxyl4 ,?us ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 yields hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh#b7,,oh71 a sub/ance :i* reta9s _m ( ! prop]ties ( ammonia4 ,me?ane & a numb] ( o!r hydroc>bons yield1 by sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 by its oxide1 me?yl alcohol1 ,,*#c7,,oh71 & o!r alcohols4 ,! sub/itution ( "o atom ( oxyg5 = two atoms ( hydrog5 is equally common ) hydrog5 comp\nds4 ,by ?is means alcoholic liquids conta9+ e?yl alcohol1 or spirits ( w9e1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh71 are oxidis$ until !y become v9eg>1 or acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#c,o7,,oh74 ,9 ! same way cau/ic ammonia1 or ! comb9ation ( ammonia ) wat]1 ,,nh#c1;,h#b,o1 or ,,nh#d7,,oh71 :i* conta9s a great deal ( hydrog51 by oxidation ex*anges f\r atoms ( hydrog5 = two atoms ( oxyg51 & becomes conv]t$ into nitric acid1 ,,no#b7,,oh74 ,?is process ( conv]sion ( ammonium salts into saltpetre goes on 9 ! fields e summ]1 & ) especial rapidity 9 tropical c\ntries4 ,! me?od by :i* ?is is accompli%$1 ?\gh complex1 ?\gh involv+ ! ag5cy ( all-p]meat+ micro-organisms1 is1 9 sub/ance1 ! same z t by :i* alcohol is conv]t$ into acetic acid1 or glycol1 ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b1 into oxalic acid1 if we view ! process ( oxidation 9 ! light ( ! ,newtonian pr9ciples4 ,b :ile speak+ ( ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution to wat]1 we ne$ n multiply in/ances1 b mu/ turn our att5tion to two special circum/ances :i* are closely connect$ ) ! v me*anism ( sub/itutions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! replacem5t ( two atoms ( hydrog5 by "o atom ( oxyg5 may take place 9 two ways1 because ! hydrog5 molecule is compos$ ( two atoms1 & !re=e1 "u ! influ5ce ( oxyg51 ! molecule =m+ wat] may sep>ate be=e ! oxyg5 has "t to take its place4 ,x is = ?is reason t we f9d1 dur+ ! conv]sion ( alcohol into acetic acid1 t !re is an int]val dur+ :i* is =m$ aldehyde1 ,c#b;,h#d,o1 :i*1 z its v "n implies1 is 'alcohol dehydrog5atum1' or alcohol depriv$ ( hydrog54 ,h5ce aldehyde comb9$ ) hydrog5 yields alcohol2 & unit$ to oxyg51 acetic acid4 ,= ! same reason !re %\ld be1 & !re actually are1 int]m$iate products betwe5 ammonia & nitric acid1 ,,no#b7;,,ho71 conta9+ ei!r less hydrog5 ?an ammonia1 less oxyg5 ?an nitric acid1 or less wat] ?an cau/ic ammonia4 ,accord+ly we f9d1 among ! products ( ! deoxidation ( nitric acid & ! oxidation ( ammonia1 n only hydroxylam9e1 b also nitr\s oxide1 nitr\s & nitric anhydrides4 ,?us1 ! production ( nitr\s acid results f ! removal ( two atoms ( hydrog5 f cau/ic ammonia & ! sub/itution ( ! oxyg5 = ! hydrog51 ,,no7,,oh72 or by ! sub/itution1 9 ammonia1 ( ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 by hydroxyl1 ,n7,,oh7#c1 & by ! removal ( wat]3 ,n7,,oh7#c - ,h#b,o ,,no7,,oh74 ,! peculi>ities & prop]ties ( nitr\s acid--z1 = in/ance1 its action on ammonia & its conv]sion1 by oxidation1 into nitric acid--are ?us cle>ly reveal$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 speak+ ( ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution z appli$ to wat]1 x is necess>y to obs]ve t hydrog5 & hydroxyl1 ,h & ,,oh1 are n only compet5t to unite1 b also to =m comb9ations ) !mselves1 & ?us become ,h#b & ,h#b,o#b2 & su* are hydrog5 & ! p]oxide !re(4 ,9 g5]al1 if a molecule ,a ,b exi/s1 !n molecules ,a ,a & ,b ,b c exi/ also4 ,a direct reaction ( ?is k9d does n1 h[ev]1 take place 9 wat]1 !re=e und\bt$ly1 at ! mom5t ( =mation1 hydrog5 reacts on hydrog5 p]oxide1 z we c %[ at once by exp]im5t2 & fur!r because hydrog5 p]oxide1 ,h#b,o#b1 exhibits a /ructure conta9+ a molecule ( hydrog51 ,h#b1 & "o ( oxyg51 ,o#b1 ei!r ( :i* is capable ( sep>ate exi/5ce4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 may n[ be tak5 z ?or\ghly e/abli%$1 t1 at ! mom5t ( combu/ion ( hydrog5 or ( ! hydrog5 comp\nds1 hydrog5 p]oxide is always =m$1 & n only s1 b 9 all probability its =mation inv>iably prec$es ! =mation ( wat]4 ,?is 0 to be expect$ z a consequ5ce ( ! law ( ,avogadro & ,g]h>dt1 :i* leads u to expect ?is sequ5ce 9 ! case ( equal int]actions ( volumes ( vap\rs & gases2 & 9 hydrog5 p]oxide we actually h su* equal volumes ( ! elem5t>y gases4 ,! in/ability ( hydrog5 p]oxide--t is to say1 ! ease ) :i* x decomposes into wat] & oxyg51 ev5 at ! m]e contact ( por\s sub/ances--acc\nts = ! circum/ance t x does n =m a p]man5t product ( combu/ion1 & is n produc$ dur+ ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,i may m5tion ?is additional consid]ation t1 ) respect to hydrog5 p]oxide1 we may look = its effect+ /ill fur!r sub/itutions ( hydrog5 by means ( :i* we may expect to obta9 /ill m highly oxidis$ wat] comp\nds1 su* z ,h#b,o#c & ,h#b,o#d4 ,^! ,s*nbe9 & ,buns5 h long be5 seek+1 & ,b]!lot is inve/igat+ !m at pres5t4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ! reaction w /op at ! la/ comp\nd1 because we f9d t1 9 a numb] ( cases1 ! addition ( f\r atoms ( oxyg5 seems to =m a limit4 ,?us1 ,os,o#d1 ,k,cl,o#d1 ,k,mn,o#d1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,na#c,,po#d1 & su* l1 repres5t ! highe/ grades ( oxidation4#a #a ,because m ?an f\r atoms ( hydrog5 nev] unite ) "o atom ( ! elem5ts1 & because ! hydrog5 comp\nds 7e4g4 ,h,cl1 ,h#b,s1 ,h#c,p1 ,h#d,si7 always =m _! highe/ oxides ) f\r atoms ( oxyg51 & z ! highe/ =ms ( oxides 7,os,o#d1 ,ru,o#d7 also conta9 f\r ( oxyg51 & eight gr\ps ( ! p]iodic sy/em1 correspond+ to ! highe/ basic oxides ,r#b,o1 ,,ro1 ,r#b,o#c1 ,,ro#b1 ,r#b,o#e1 ,,ro#c1 ,r#b,o#g1 & ,,ro#d1 imply ! above relation%ip1 & because ( ! ne>e/ analogues among ! elem5ts--su* z ,mg1 ,zn1 ,cd1 & ,hg2 or ,cr1 ,mo1 ,w1 & ,u2 or ,si1 ,ge1 ,sn1 & ,pt2 or ,f1 ,cl1 ,br1 & ,i1 & s =?--n m ?an f\r are kn[n1 x seems to me t 9 ^! relation%ips !re lies a deep int]e/ & mean+ ) reg>d to *emical me*anics4 ,b because1 to my imag9ation1 ! idea ( unity ( design 9 ,nature1 ei!r act+ 9 complex cele/ial sy/ems or among *emical molecules1 is v attractive1 especially because ! atomic tea*+ at once acquires its true mean+1 ,i w recall ! foll[+ facts relat+ to ! sol> sy/em4 ,!re are eight major planets1 ( :i* ! f\r inn] ones are n only sep>at$ f ! f\r out] by a/]oids1 b diff] f !m 9 _m respects1 z1 = example1 9 ! smallness ( _! diamet]s & _! great] d5sity4 ,saturn ) 8 r+ has eight satellites1 ,jupit] & ,uranus h ea* f\r4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ! sol> sy/ems also we meet ) ^! high] numb]s f\r & eight :i* appe> 9 ! comb9ation ( *emical molecules4 ,z = ! la/ =ty ye>s1 f ! times ( ,b]zelius1 ,dumas1 ,liebig1 ,g]h>dt1 ,williamson1 ,frankl&1 ,kolbe1 ,kekul1 & ,butl](f1 mo/ !oretical g5]alisations h c5tr$ r\nd organic or c>bon comp\nds1 we w1 = ! sake ( brevity1 leave out ! discussion ( ammonia d]ivatives1 not)/&+ _! simplicity ) respect to ! doctr9e ( sub/itutions2 we w dwell m especially on its application to c>bon comp\nds1 />t+ f me?ane1 ,,*#d1 z ! simple/ ( ! hydroc>bons1 conta9+ 9 its molecule "o atom ( c>bon4 ,accord+ to ! pr9ciples enum]at$ we may d]ive f ,,*#d e comb9ation ( ! =m ,,*#c,x1 ,,*#b,x#b1 ,,*x#c1 & ,,cx#d1 9 :i* ,x is an elem5t1 or radicle1 equival5t to hydrog5--t is to say1 compet5t to take its place or to comb9e ) x4 ,su* are ! *lor9e sub/itutes already m5tion$1 su* is wood-_s1 ,,*#c7,,oh71 9 :i* ,x is repres5t$ by ! residue ( wat]1 & su* are num]\s o!r c>bon d]ivatives4 ,if we cont9ue1 ) ! aid ( hydroxyl1 fur!r sub/itutions ( ! hydrog5 ( me?ane we %all obta9 successively ,,*#b7,,oh7#b1 ,,*7,,oh7#c1 & ,c7,,oh7#d4 ,b if1 9 proce$+ ?us1 we be> 9 m9d t ,,*#b7,,oh7#b conta9s two hydroxyls 9 ! same =m z hydrog5 p]oxide1 ,h#b,o#b or 7,,oh7#b1 conta9s !m--& moreov] n only 9 "o molecule1 b toge!r1 atta*$ to "o & ! same atom ( c>bon--s "h we mu/ look = ! same decomposition z t :i* we f9d 9 hydrog5 p]oxide1 & accompani$ also by ! =mation ( wat] z an indep5d5tly exi/+ molecule2 !re=e ,,*#b7,,oh7#b %\ld yield1 z x actually does1 imm$iately wat] & ! oxide ( me?yl5e1 ,,*#b,o1 :i* is me?ane ) oxyg5 sub/itut$ = two atoms ( hydrog54 ,exactly 9 ! same mann] out ( ,,*7,,oh7#c are =m$ wat] & =mic acid1 ,,*o7,,oh71 & out ( ,c7,,oh7#d is produc$ wat] & c>bonic acid1 or directly c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 :i* w !re=e be no?+ else ?an me?ane ) ! d\ble replacem5t ( pairs ( hydrog5 by oxyg54 ,z no?+ leads to ! supposition t ! f\r atoms ( hydrog5 9 me?ane diff] "o f ! o!r1 s x does n matt] by :at means we obta9 any "o ( ! comb9ations indicat$--!y w be id5tical2 t is to say1 !re w be no case ( actual isom]ism1 al?\gh !re may easily be su* cases ( isom]ism z h be5 di/+ui%$ by ! t]m metam]ism4 ,=mic acid1 = example1 has two atoms ( hydrog51 "o atta*$ to ! c>bon left f ! me?ane1 & ! o!r atta*$ to ! oxyg5 :i* has ent]$ 9 ! =m ( hydroxyl1 & if "o ( !m be replac$ by "s sub/ance ,x x is evid5t t we %all obta9 sub/ances ( ! same composition1 b ( diff]5t con/ruction1 or ( diff]5t ord]s ( movem5t among ! molecules1 & !re=e end[$ ) o!r prop]ties & reactions4 ,if ,x be me?yl1 ,,*#d--t is to say1 a gr\p capable ( replac+ hydrog5 because x is actually conta9$ ) hydrog5 9 me?ane itself--!n by sub/itut+ ?is gr\p = ! orig9al hydrog5 we obta9 acetic acid1 ,,c*#c,o7,,oh71 out ( =mic1 & by sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 9 its oxide or hydroxyl we obta9 me?yl =mate1 ,,*o7,,o*#c74 ,^! sub/ances diff] s mu* f ea* o!r physically & *emically t at fir/ sight x is h>dly possible to admit t !y conta9 ! same atoms 9 id5tically ! same proportions4 ,acetic acid1 = example1 boils at a high] temp]ature ?an wat]1 & has a high] specific gravity ?an x1 :il/ its metam]ide1 me?yl =mate1 is light] ?an wat]1 & boils at #cj--t is to say1 x evaporates v easily4 ,let u n[ turn to c>bon comp\nds conta9+ two atoms ( c>bon to ! molecule1 z 9 acetic acid1 & proce$ to evolve !m f me?ane by ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution4 ,?is pr9ciple decl>es at once t me?ane c only be split up 9 ! f\r foll[+ ways3-- #a4 ,into a gr\p ,,*#c equival5t ) ,h4 ,let u call *anges ( ?is nature me?ylation4 #b4 ,into a gr\p ,,*#b & ,h#b4 ,we w call ?is ord] ( sub/itutions me?yl5ation4 #c4 ,into ,,* & ,h#c1 :i* commutations we w call acetyl5ation4 #d4 ,into ,c & ,h#d1 :i* may be call$ c>bonation4 ,x is evid5t t hydroc>bon comp\nds conta9+ two atoms ( c>bon c only proce$ f me?ane1 ,,*#d1 :i* conta9s f\r atoms ( hydrog5 by ! fir/ ?ree me?ods ( sub/itution2 c>bonation w\ld yield free c>bon if x c\ld take place directly1 & if ! molecule ( free c>bon--:i* is 9 reality v complex1 t is to say /rongly polyatomic1 z ,i h long s9ce be5 prov+ by v>i\s means--c\ld conta9 only ,c#b l ! molecules ,o#b1 ,h#b1 ,n#b1 & s on4 ,by me?ylation we %\ld evid5tly obta9 f m>% gas1 e?ane1 ,,*#c;,,*#c ,c#b;,h#f4 ,by me?yl5ation--t is1 by sub/itut+ gr\p ,,*#b = ,h#b--me?ane =ms e?yl5e1 ,,*#b;,,*#b ,c#b;,h#d4 ,by acetyl5ation--t is1 by sub/itut+ ?ree atoms ( hydrog51 ,h#c1 9 me?ane--by ! remnant ,,*1 we get acetyl5e1 ,,** ,c#b;,h#b4 ,if we h appli$ ! pr9ciples ( ,newton correctly1 !re %\ld n be any o!r hydroc>bons conta9+ two atoms ( c>bon 9 ! molecule4 ,all ^! comb9ations h long be5 kn[n1 & 9 ea* ( !m we c n only produce ^? sub/itutions ( :i* an example has be5 giv5 9 ! case ( me?ane1 b also all ! phases ( o!r sub/itutions1 z we %all f9d f a few m in/ances1 by ! aid ( :i* ,i tru/ t ,i %all be able to %[ ! great complexity ( ^? d]ivatives :i*1 on ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution1 c be obta9$ f ea* hydroc>bon4 ,let u cont5t ourselves ) ! case ( e?ane1 ,,*#c;,,*#c1 & ! sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 by hydroxyl4 ,! foll[+ are ! possible *anges3-- #a4 ,,*#c;,,*#b7,,oh73 ?is is no?+ m ?an _s ( w9e1 or e?yl alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh7 or ,c#b;,h#f,o4 #b4 ,,*#b7,,oh7,,*#b7,,oh73 ?is is ! glycol ( ,wrtz1 :i* has %$ s mu* light on ! hi/ory ( alcohol4 ,its isom]ide may be ,,*#c;,,*7,,oh7#b1 b z we h se5 9 ! case ( ,,*7,,oh7#b1 x decomposes1 giv+ (f wat]1 & =m+ aldehyde1 ,,*#c;,,*o1 a sub/ance capable ( yield+ alcohol by unit+ ) hydrog51 & ( yield+ acetic acid by unit+ ) oxyg54 ,if glycol1 ,,*#b7,,oh7,,*#b7,,oh71 loses its wat]1 x may be se5 at once t x w n n[ yield aldehyde1 ,,*#c;,,*o1 b its isom]ide1 ,,*#b;,,*#b_/,o1 ! oxide ( e?yl5e4 ,i h "h indicat$ 9 a special mann] ! oxyg5 :i* has tak5 ! place ( two atoms ( ! hydrog5 ( e?ane tak5 f diff]5t atoms ( ! c>bon4 #c4 ,,*#c;,c7,,oh7#c decompos$ z ,,*7,,oh7#c1 =m+ wat] & acetic acid1 ,,*#c;,,co7,,oh74 ,x is evid5t t ?is acid is no?+ else ?an =mic acid1 ,,*o7,,oh71 ) its hydrog5 replac$ by me?yl4 ,)\t exam9+ fur!r ! va/ numb] ( possible d]ivatives1 ,i w direct y\r att5tion to ! circum/ance t 9 dissolv+ acetic acid 9 wat] we obta9 ! maximum contraction & ! greate/ viscosity :5 to ! molecule ,,*#c;,,co7,,oh7 is add$ a molecule ( wat]1 :i* is ! proportion :i* w\ld =m ! hydrate ,,*#c;,c7,,oh7#c4 ,x is probable t ! d\bl+ ( ! molecule ( acetic acid at temp]atures approa*+ its boil+-po9t has "s connection ) ?is p[] ( unit+ ) "o molecule ( wat]4 #d4 ,,*#b7,,oh7,c7,,oh7#c is evid5tly an alcoholic acid1 & inde$ ?is comp\nd1 aft] los+ wat]1 answ]s to glycolic acid1 ,,*#b7,,oh7,,co7,,oh74 ,)\t inve/igat+ all ! possible isom]ides1 we w note only t ! hydrate ,,*7,,oh7#b;,,*7,,oh7#b has ! same composition z ,,*#b7,,oh7,c7,,oh7#c1 & al?\gh correspond+ to glycol1 & be+ a symmetrical sub/ance1 x becomes1 on p>t+ ) its wat]1 ! aldehyde ( oxalic acid1 or ! glyoxal ( ,debus1 ,,*o*o4 #e4 ,,*7,,oh7#b;,c7,,oh#c71 f ! t5d5cy ( all ! prec$+1 corresponds ) glyoxylic acid1 an aldehyde acid1 ,,*oco7,,oh71 because ! gr\p ,,co7,,oh71 or c>boxyl1 ent]s into ! compositions ( organic acids1 & ! gr\p ,,*o def9es ! aldehyde function4 #f4 ,c7,,oh7#c;,c7,,oh7#c ?r\gh ! loss ( #b;,h#b,o yields ! bibasic oxalic acid ,,co7,,oh7,,co7,,oh71 :i* g5]ally cry/allises ) #b;,h#b,o1 foll[+ ?us ! normal type ( hydration *>act]i/ic ( e?ane4#b #b ,"o m isom]ide1 ,,*#b;,,*7,,oh71 is possible--t is1 second>y v9yl alcohol1 :i* is relat$ to e?yl5e1 ,,*#b;,,*#b1 b d]iv$ by ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution f ,,*#d4 ,o!r isom]ides1 ( ! composition ,c#b;,h#d,o1 su*1 = example1 z ,,c*#c7,,oh71 are impossible1 because x w\ld correspond ) ! hydroc>bon ,,**#c ,c#b;,h#d1 :i* is isom]ic ) e?yl5e1 & x _c be d]iv$ f me?ane4 ,if su* an isom]ide exi/$ x w\ld be d]iv$ f ,,*#b1 b su* products are1 up to ! pres5t1 unkn[n4 ,9 su* cases ! insuffici5cy ( ! po9ts ( dep>ture ( ! /atical /ructural tea*+ is %[n4 ,x fir/ admits con/ant atomicity & !n rejects x1 ! facts s]v+ to e/abli% ei!r "o or ! o!r view2 & !re=e x seems to me t we mu/ come to ! conclusion t ! /ructural me?od ( reason+1 hav+ done a s]vice to sci5ce1 has outliv$ ! age1 & mu/ be reg5]at$1 z 9 _! "t 0 ! tea*+ ( ! electro-*emi/s1 ! radicali/s1 & ! adh]5ts ( ! doctr9e ( types4 ,z we _c n[ lean on ! views above /at$1 x is "t to ab&on ! /ructural !ory4 ,!y w all be unit$ 9 *emical me*anics1 & ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution mu/ be look$ on only z a prep>ation = ! com+ epo* 9 *emi/ry1 :]e su* cases z ! isom]ism ( fum>ic & maleic acids1 :5 expla9$ dynamically1 z propos$ by ,le ,bel & ,van't ,h(f1 may yield po9ts ( dep>ture4 ,?us1 by apply+ ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution1 we c1 9 ! simple/ mann]1 d]ive n only e k9d ( hydroc>bon comp\nd1 su* z ! alcohols1 ! aldehyde-alcohols1 aldehydes1 alcohol-acids1 & ! acids1 b also comb9ations analog\s to hydrat$ cry/als :i* usually are disreg>d$4 ,b ev5 ^? unsaturat$ sub/ances1 ( :i* e?yl5e1 ,,*#b;,,*#b1 & acetyl5e1 ,,**1 are types1 may be evolv$ ) equal simplicity4 ,) respect to ! ph5om5a ( isom]ism1 !re are _m possibilities among ! hydroc>bon comp\nds conta9+ two atoms ( c>bon1 & )\t go+ into details x w be suffici5t to indicate t ! foll[+ =mul1 ?\gh n id5tical1 w be isom]ic sub/antially among !mselves3--,,*#c;,,*x#b & ,,*#b,,x*#b,x1 al?\gh bo? conta9 ,c#b;,h#d,x#b2 or ,,*#b;,,cx#b & ,,*x*x1 al?\gh bo? conta9 ,c#b;,h#b,x#b1 if by ,x we indicate *lor9e or g5]ally an elem5t capable ( replac+ "o atom ( hydrog51 or capable ( unit+ ) x4 ,to isom]ism ( ?is k9d belongs ! case ( aldehyde & ! oxide ( e?yl5e1 to :i* we h already ref]r$1 because bo? h ! composition ,c#b;,h#d,o4 ,:at ,i h said appe>s to me suffici5t to %[ t ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution adequately expla9s ! composition1 ! isom]ism1 & all ! div]sity ( comb9ation ( ! hydroc>bons1 & ,i %all limit ! fur!r developm5t ( ^! views to prep>+ a complete li/ ( e possible hydroc>bon comp\nd conta9+ ?ree atoms ( c>bon 9 ! molecule4 ,!re are eight 9 all1 ( :i* only five are kn[n at pres5t4#c #c ,conc$+ v>iable atomicity1 ! /ructurali/s mu/ expect an incomp>ably l>g] numb] ( isom]ides1 & !y _c n[ decl9e to ackn[l$ge ! *ange ( atomicity1 7 x only = ! examples ,hg,cl & ,hg,cl#b1 ,,co & ,,co#b1 ,p,cl#c & ,p,cl#e4 ,among ^? possible = ,c#c;,h#f !re %\ld be two isom]ides1 propyl5e & trime?yl5e1 & !y are bo? already kn[n4 ,= ,c#c;,h#d !re %\ld be ?ree isom]ides3 allyl5e & all5e are kn[n1 b ! ?ird has n yet be5 discov]$2 & = ,c#c;,h#b !re %\ld be two isom]ides1 ?\gh nei!r ( !m is kn[n z yet4 ,_! composition & /ructure are easily d$uc$ f e?ane1 e?yl5e1 & acetyl5e1 by me?ylation1 by me?yl5ation1 by acetyl5ation & by c>bonation4 #a4 ,c#c;,h#h ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,*#c out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by me?ylation4 ,?is hydroc>bon is nam$ propane4 #b4 ,c#c;,h#f ,,*#c;,,**#b out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by me?yl5ation4 ,?is sub/ance is propyl5e4 #c4 ,c#c;,h#f ,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by me?yl5ation4 ,?is sub/ance is trime?yl5e4 #d4 ,c#c;,h#d ,,*#c;,,c* out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by acetyl5ation or f ,,** by me?ylation4 ,?is hydroc>bon is nam$ allyl5e4 #e4 ,c#c;,h#d ,,**_/,,*#b out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by acetyl5ation1 or f ,,*#b;,,*#b by me?yl5ation1 because ,,*#b;,,*_/,,* ,,**_/,,*#b4 ,?is body is z yet unkn[n4 #f4 ,c#c;,h#d ,,*#b;,,c*#b out ( ,,*#b;,,*#b by me?yl5ation4 ,?is hydroc>bon is nam$ all5e1 or iso-allyl5e4 #g4 ,c#c;,h#b ,,**_/,c out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by symmetrical c>bonation1 or out ( ,,*#b;,,*#b by acetyl5ation4 ,?is comp\nd is unkn[n4 #h4 ,c#c;,h#b ,,cc_/,,*#b out ( ,,*#c;,,*#c by c>bonation1 or out ( ,,** by me?yl5ation4 ,?is comp\nd is unkn[n4 ,if we be> 9 m9d t = ea* hydroc>bon s]v+ z a type 9 ! above tables !re are a numb] ( correspond+ d]ivatives1 & t e comp\nd obta9$ may1 by fur!r me?ylation1 me?yl5ation1 acetyl5ation1 & c>bonation1 produce new hydroc>bons1 & ^! may be foll[$ by a num]\s suite ( d]ivatives & an imm5se numb] ( isom]ic sub/ances1 x is possible to und]/& ! limitless numb] ( c>bon comp\nds1 al?\gh !y all h ! "o sub/ance1 me?ane1 = _! orig94 ,! numb] ( sub/ances is s enorm\s t x is no long] a "q ( enl>g+ ! possibilities ( discov]y1 b r ( f9d+ "s means ( te/+ !m analog\s to ! well-kn[n two :i* = a long "t h s]v$ z gauges = all c>bon comp\nds4 ,i ref] to ! law ( ev5 numb]s & to t ( limits1 ! fir/ enunciat$ by ,g]h>dt "s =ty ye>s ago1 ) respect to hydroc>bons1 namely1 t _! molecules always conta9 an ev5 numb] ( atoms ( hydrog54 ,b by ! me?od :i* ,i h us$ ( d]iv+ all ! hydroc>bons f me?ane1 ,,*#d1 ?is law may be d$uc$ z a direct consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( sub/itutions4 ,accord+ly1 9 me?ylation1 ,,*#c takes ! place ( ,h1 & !re=e ,,*#b is add$4 ,9 me?yl5ation ! numb] ( atoms ( hydrog5 rema9s un*ang$1 & at ea* acetyl5ation x is r$uc$ by two1 & 9 c>bonation by f\r1 atoms--t is to say1 an ev5 numb] ( atoms ( hydrog5 is always add$ or remov$4 ,& because ! fundam5tal hydroc>bon1 me?ane1 ,,*#d1 conta9s an ev5 numb] ( atoms ( hydrog51 all its d]ivative hydroc>bons w also conta9 ev5 numb]s ( hydrog51 & ?is con/itutes ! law ( ev5 numb]s4 ,! pr9ciple ( sub/itutions expla9s ) equal simplicity ! conception ( ! limit+ compositions ( hydroc>bons ,cn,h#bn #b1 :i* ,i d]iv$1 9 #ahfa1d 9 an empirical mann] f accumulat$ mat]ials available at t "t1 & on ! basis ( ! limits to comb9ations work$ out by ,dr4 ,frankl& = o!r elem5ts4 #d ',essai d'une ?orie sur les limites des comb9aisons organiques1' p> ,d4 ,m5deleff1 #b_/aa aot #ahfa1 ,bullet9 de l',acadmie i4 d4 ,sc4 de ,/4 ,pt]sb\rg1 t4 v ,( all ! v>i\s sub/itutions ! highe/ proportion ( hydrog5 is yield$ by me?ylation1 because 9 t op]ation alone does ! quantity ( hydrog5 increase2 h5ce1 tak+ me?ane z a po9t ( dep>ture1 if we imag9e me?ylation effect$ 7n - #a7 times we obta9 hydroc>bon comp\nds conta9+ ! highe/ quantities ( hydrog54 ,x is evid5t t !y w conta9 ,,*#d 7n - #a7;,,*#b1 or ,cn,h#bn #b1 because me?ylation leads to ! addition ( ,,*#b to ! comp\nd4 ,x w ?us be se5 t by ! pr9ciple ( sub/itution--t is to say1 by ! ?ird law ( ,newton--we are able to d$uce1 9 ! simple/ mann]1 n only ! individual composition1 ! isom]ism1 & relations ( sub/ances1 b also ! g5]al laws :i* gov]n _! mo/ complex comb9ations )\t hav+ rec\rse ei!r to /atical con/ructions1 to ! def9ition ( atomicities1 to ! exclusion ( free aff9ities1 or to ! recognition ( ^? s+le1 d\ble or treble bonds :i* are s indisp5sable to /ructurali/s 9 ! explanation ( ! composition & con/ruction ( hydroc>bon comp\nds4 ,& yet1 by ! application ( ! dynamical pr9ciples ( ,newton1 we c atta9 to t *ief & fundam5tal object1 ! compreh5sion ( isom]ism 9 hydroc>bon comp\nds1 & ! =eca/+ ( ! exi/5ce ( comb9ations z yet unkn[n1 by :i* ! edifice rais$ by /ructural tea*+ is /r5g!n$ & support$4 ,besides--& ,i c\nt ?is = a circum/ance ( special importance--! process :i* ,i advocate w make no diff]5ce 9 ^? special cases :i* h be5 already s well work$ out1 su* z1 = example1 ! isom]ism ( ! hydroc>bons & alcohols1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( n int]f]+ ) ! nom5clature :i* has be5 adopt$1 & ! /ructural sy/em w reta9 all ! glory ( hav+ work$ up1 9 a ?or\ghly sci5tific mann]1 ! /ore ( in=mation :i* ,g]h>dt _h accumulat$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fifties1 & ! /ill high] glory ( e/abli%+ ! rational syn!sis ( organic sub/ances4 ,no?+ w be lo/ to ! /ructural doctr9e except its /atical orig92 & z soon z x w embrace ! dynamic pr9ciples ( ,newton1 & suff] itself to be guid$ by !m1 ,i believe t we %all atta9 = *emi/ry t unity ( pr9ciple :i* is n[ want+4 ,_m an adept w be attract$ to t brilliant & fasc9at+ ent]prise1 ! p5etration into ! unse5 _w ( ! k9etic relations ( atoms1 to ! /udy ( :i* ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s h contribut$ s mu* lab\r & su* high inv5tive faculties4 ,d',alemb]t f\nd 9 me*anics t if in]tia be tak5 to repres5t =ce1 dynamic equations may be appli$ to /atical que/ions1 :i* are !reby r5d]$ m simple & m easily und]/ood4 ,! /ructural doctr9e 9 *emi/ry has unconsci\sly foll[$ ! same c\rse1 & !re=e its t]ms are easily adopt$2 !y may reta9 _! pres5t =ms provid$ t a truly dynamical--t is to say1 ,newtonian--mean+ be ascrib$ to !m4 ,be=e f9i%+ my task & demon/rat+ ! possibility ( adapt+ /ructural doctr9es to ! dynamics ( ,newton1 ,i consid] x indisp5sable to t\* on "o "q :i* naturally arises1 & :i* ,i h he>d discuss$ m ?an once4 ,if brom9e1 ! atom ( :i* is eighty times heavi] ?an t ( hydrog51 takes ! place ( hydrog51 x w\ld seem t ! :ole sy/em ( dynamic equilibrium mu/ be de/roy$4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! m9ute analysis ( ?is "q1 ,i ?9k x w be suffici5t to exam9e x by ! light ( two well-kn[n ph5om5a1 "o ( :i* w be f\nd 9 ! dep>tm5t ( *emi/ry & ! o!r 9 t ( cele/ial me*anics1 & bo? w s]ve to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( t unity 9 ! plan ( creation :i* is a consequ5ce ( ! ,newtonian doctr9es4 ,exp]im5ts demon/rate t :5 a heavy elem5t is sub/itut$ = a light "o 9 a *emical comp\nd--= example1 = magnesium1 9 ! oxide ( t metal1 an atom ( m]cury1 :i* is #h-a_/c times heavi]--! *ief *emical *>act]i/ics or prop]ties are g5]ally1 ?\gh n always1 pres]v$4 ,! sub/itution ( silv] = hydrog51 ?an :i* x is #ajh times heavi]1 does n affect all ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance1 ?\gh x does "s4 ,!re=e *emical sub/itutions ( ?is k9d--! sub/itution ( light = heavy atoms--ne$ n necess>ily entail *anges 9 ! orig9al equilibrium2 & ?is po9t is /ill fur!r elucidat$ by ! consid]ation t ! p]iodic law indicates ! degree ( influ5ce ( an increm5t ( weight 9 ! atom z affect+ ! possible equilibria1 & also :at degree ( increase 9 ! weight ( ! atoms reproduces "s1 ?\gh n all1 ( ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance4 ,?is t5d5cy to repetition--^! p]iods--may be lik5$ to ^? annual or diurnal p]iods ) :i* we are s famili> on ! e>?4 ,days & ye>s foll[ ea* o!r1 b1 z !y d s1 _m ?+s *ange2 & 9 l mann] *emical evolutions1 *anges 9 ! masses ( ! elem5ts1 p]mit ( mu* rema9+ undi/urb$1 ?\gh _m prop]ties und]go alt]ation4 ,! sy/em is ma9ta9$ accord+ to ! laws ( cons]vation 9 nature1 b ! motions are alt]$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! *ange ( p>ts4 ,next1 let u take an a/ronomical case--su*1 = example1 z ! e>? & ! moon--& let u imag9e t ! mass ( ! latt] is con/antly increas+4 ,! "q is1 :at w !n occur8 ,! pa? ( ! moon 9 space is a wave-l9e simil> to t :i* geometricians h nam$ epicycloidal1 or ! locus ( a po9t 9 a circle roll+ r\nd ano!r circle4 ,b 9 consequ5ce ( ! influ5ce ( ! moon x is evid5t t ! pa? ( ! e>? itself _c be a geometric ellipse1 ev5 suppos+ ! sun to be immovably fix$2 x mu/ be an epicycloidal curve1 ?\gh n v f> remov$ f ! true ellipse--t is to say1 x w be impress$ ) b fa9t undulations4 ,x is only ! common c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? & ! moon :i* describes a true ellipse r\nd ! sun4 ,if ! moon 7 to increase1 ! relative undulations ( ! e>?'s pa? w\ld increase 9 amplitude1 ^? ( ! moon w\ld also *ange1 & :5 ! mass ( ! moon _h increas$ to an equality ) t ( ! e>?1 ! pa? w\ld consi/ ( epicycloidal curves cross+ ea* o!r1 & hav+ opposite phases4 ,b a simil> relation exi/s betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 because ! =m] is also mov+ 9 space4 ,we may apply ^! views to ! _w ( atoms1 & suppose t 9 _! movem5ts1 :5 heavy ones take ! place ( ^? t are light]1 simil> *anges take place1 provid$ t ! sy/em or ! molecule is pres]v$ ?r\gh\t ! *ange4 ,x seems probable t 9 ! heav5ly sy/ems1 dur+ incalculable a/ronomical p]iods1 *anges h tak5 place & are /ill go+ on simil> to ^? :i* pass rapidly be=e our eyes dur+ ! *emical reaction ( molecules1 & ! progress ( molecul> me*anics may--we hope w--9 c\rse ( "t p]mit u to expla9 ^? *anges 9 ! /ell> _w :i* h m ?an once be5 notic$ by a/ronom]s1 & :i* are n[ s c>efully /udi$4 ,a com+ ,newton w discov] ! laws ( ^! *anges4 ,^? laws1 :5 appli$ to *emi/ry1 may exhibit peculi>ities1 b ^! w c]ta9ly be m]e v>iations on ! gr& h>moni\s !me :i* reigns 9 nature4 ,! discov]y ( ! laws :i* produce ?is h>mony 9 *emical evolution w only be possible1 x seems to me1 "u ! bann] ( ,newtonian dynamics1 :i* has s long wav$ ov] ! doma9s ( me*anics1 a/ronomy1 & physics4 ,9 call+ *emi/s to take _! /& "u its peaceful & ca?olic %ad[ ,i imag9e t ,i am aid+ 9 e/abli%+ t sci5tific union :i* ! manag]s ( ! ,royal ,in/itution wi% to effect1 :o h %[n _! desire to d s by ! flatt]+ invitation :i* has giv5 me--a ,russian--! opportunity ( lay+ be=e ! c\ntrym5 ( ,newton an attempt to apply to *emi/ry "o ( 8 immortal pr9ciples4 ,,app5dix ,,ii ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,elem5ts ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m5del,,eff ,,f>aday ,,lecture ,,deliv]$ ,,be=e ,,! ,,fell[s ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,society ,,9 ,,! ,,!atre ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,in/itution1 ,,on ,,tuesday1 ,,june #d1 #ahhi ,! high hon\r be/[$ by ! ,*emical ,society 9 invit+ me to pay a tribute to ! _w-fam$ "n ( ,f>aday by deliv]+ ?is lecture has induc$ me to take = its subject ! ,p]iodic ,law ( ! ,elem5ts--?is be+ a g5]alisation 9 *emi/ry :i* has ( late attract$ mu* att5tion4 ,:ile sci5ce is pursu+ a /eady onw>d movem5t1 x is conv5i5t f "t to "t to ca/ a glance back on ! r\te already trav]s$1 & especially to consid] ! new conceptions :i* aim at discov]+ ! g5]al mean+ ( ! /ock ( facts accumulat$ f day to day 9 our laboratories4 ,ow+ to ! possession ( laboratories1 mod]n sci5ce n[ be>s a new "*1 q unkn[n1 n only to antiquity1 b ev5 to ! prec$+ c5tury4 ,bacon's & ,desc>tes' idea ( submitt+ ! me*anism ( sci5ce simultane\sly to exp]im5t & reason+ has be5 fully realis$ 9 ! case ( *emi/ry1 x hav+ become n only possible b always cu/om>y to exp]im5t4 ,"u ! all-p5etrat+ control ( exp]im5t1 a new !ory1 ev5 if crude1 is quickly /r5g!n$1 provid$ x be f\nd$ on a suffici5t basis2 ! asp]ities are remov$1 x is am5d$ by degrees1 & soon loses ! phantom light ( a %ad[y =m or ( "o f\nd$ on m]e prejudice2 x is able to lead to logical conclusions1 & to submit to exp]im5tal pro(4 ,will+ly or n1 9 sci5ce we all mu/ submit n to :at seems to u attractive f "o po9t ( view or f ano!r1 b to :at repres5ts an agreem5t betwe5 !ory & exp]im5t2 9 o!r words1 to demon/rat$ g5]alisation & to ! approv$ exp]im5t4 ,is x long s9ce _m refus$ to accept ! g5]alisations involv$ 9 ! law ( ,avogadro & ,ampre1 s widely ext5d$ by ,g]h>dt8 ,we /ill may he> ! voices ( its oppon5ts2 !y enjoy p]fect fre$om1 b va9ly w _! voices rise s long z !y d n use ! language ( demon/rat$ facts ,! /rik+ obs]vations ) ! spectroscope :i* h p]mitt$ u to analyse ! *emical con/itution ( di/ant worlds1 seem$1 at fir/1 applicable to ! task ( det]m9+ ! nature ( ! atoms !mselves2 b ! work+ out ( ! idea 9 ! laboratory soon demon/rat$ t ! *>act]s ( spectra are det]m9$1 n directly by ! atoms1 b by ! molecules into :i* ! atoms are pack$2 & s x became evid5t t m v]ifi$ facts mu/ be collect$ be=e x w be possible to =mulate new g5]alisations capable ( tak+ _! place beside ^? ord9>y ones bas$ ^u ! conception ( simple sub/ances & atoms4 ,b z ! %ade ( ! leaves & roots ( liv+ plants1 toge!r ) ! relics ( a decay$ vegetation1 fav\r ! gr[? ( ! se$l+ & s]ve to promote its luxuri\s developm5t1 9 l mann] s\nd g5]alisations--toge!r ) ! relics ( ^? :i* h prov$ to be unt5able--promote sci5tific productivity1 & ensure ! luxuri\s gr[? ( sci5ce "u ! influ5ce ( rays emanat+ f ! c5tres ( sci5tific en]gy4 ,su* c5tres are sci5tific associations & societies4 ,be=e "o ( ! olde/ & mo/ p[]ful ( ^! ,i am ab\t to take ! lib]ty ( pass+ 9 review ! tw5ty ye>s' life ( a g5]alisation :i* is kn[n "u ! "n ( ! ,p]iodic ,law4 ,x 0 9 ,m>* #ahfi t ,i v5tur$ to lay be=e ! !n y\?ful ,russian ,*emical ,society ! ideas ^u ! same subject :i* ,i _h express$ 9 my j writt5 ',pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry4' ,)\t ent]+ into details1 ,i w give ! conclusions ,i !n arriv$ at 9 ! v words ,i us$3-- '#a4 ,! elem5ts1 if arrang$ accord+ to _! atomic weights1 exhibit an evid5t p]iodicity ( prop]ties4 '#b4 ,elem5ts :i* are simil> z reg>ds _! *emical prop]ties h atomic weights :i* are ei!r ( ne>ly ! same value 7e4g4 plat9um1 iridium1 osmium7 or :i* increase regul>ly 7e4g4 potassium1 rubidium1 csium74 '#c4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts1 or ( gr\ps ( elem5ts1 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights1 corresponds to _! s-call$ val5cies z well z1 to "s ext5t1 to _! di/9ctive *emical prop]ties--z is app>5t1 among o!r s]ies1 9 t ( li?ium1 b]yllium1 b>ium1 c>bon1 nitrog51 oxyg51 & iron4 '#d4 ,! elem5ts :i* are ! mo/ widely diffus$ h small atomic weights4 '#e4 ,! magnitude ( ! atomic weight det]m9es ! "* ( ! elem5t1 j z ! magnitude ( ! molecule det]m9es ! "* ( a comp\nd4 '#f4 ,we mu/ expect ! discov]y ( _m yet unkn[n elem5ts--= example1 elem5ts analog\s to alum9ium & silicon1 ^: atomic weight w\ld be betwe5 #fe & #ge4 '#g4 ,! atomic weight ( an elem5t may sometimes be am5d$ by a k ( ^? ( ! contigu\s elem5ts4 ,?us1 ! atomic weight ( tellurium mu/ lie betwe5 #abc & #abf1 & _c be #abh4 '#h4 ,c]ta9 *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts c be =etold f _! atomic weights4 ',! aim ( ?is communication w be fully atta9$ if ,i succe$ 9 draw+ ! att5tion ( inve/igators to ^? relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! atomic weights ( dissimil> elem5ts1 :i*1 s f> z ,i "k1 h hi!rto be5 almo/ completely neglect$4 ,i believe t ! solution ( "s ( ! mo/ important problems ( our sci5ce lies 9 rese>*es ( ?is k9d4' ,to-day1 tw5ty ye>s aft] ! above conclusions 7 =mulat$1 !y may /ill be consid]$ z express+ ! ess5ce ( ! n[ well-kn[n p]iodic law4 ,rev]t+ to ! epo* t]m9at+ ) ! sixties1 x is prop] to indicate ?ree s]ies ( data )\t ! k ( :i* ! p]iodic law c\ld n h be5 discov]$1 & :i* r5d]$ its appe>ance natural & intelligible4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x 0 at t "t t ! num]ical value ( atomic weights became def9itely kn[n4 ,t5 ye>s e>li] su* k did n exi/1 z may be ga!r$ f ! fact t 9 #ahfj *emi/s f all p>ts ( ! _w met at ,k>lsruhe 9 ord] to come to "s agreem5t1 if n ) respect to views relat+ to atoms1 at any rate z reg>ds _! def9ite repres5tation4 ,_m ( ^? pres5t probably rememb] h[ va9 7 ! hopes ( com+ to an und]/&+1 & h[ mu* gr\nd 0 ga9$ at t ,congress by ! foll[]s ( ! unit>y !ory s brilliantly repres5t$ by ,cannizz>o4 ,i vividly rememb] ! impression produc$ by 8 spee*es1 :i* admitt$ ( no compromise1 & seem$ to advocate tru? itself1 bas$ on ! conceptions ( ,avogadro1 ,g]h>dt1 & ,regnault1 :i* at t "t 7 f> f be+ g5]ally recognis$4 ,& ?\gh no und]/&+ c\ld be arriv$ at1 yet ! objects ( ! meet+ 7 atta9$1 = ! ideas ( ,cannizz>o prov$1 aft] a few ye>s1 to be ! only ones :i* c\ld /& criticism1 & :i* repres5t$ an atom z--'! smalle/ portion ( an elem5t :i* ent]s into a molecule ( its comp\nd4' ,only su* real atomic weights--n conv5tional ones--c\ld af=d a basis = g5]alisation4 ,x is suffici5t1 by way ( example1 to indicate ! foll[+ cases 9 :i* ! relation is se5 at once & is p]fectly cle>3-- ,k #ci ,rb #he ,cs #acc ,ca #dj ,sr #hg ,ba #acg :]eas ) ! equival5ts !n 9 use-- ,k #ci ,rb #he ,cs #acc ,ca #bj ,sr #dce ,ba #fhe ! consecutiv5ess ( *ange 9 atomic weight1 :i* ) ! true values is s evid5t1 completely disappe>s4 ,secondly1 x _h become evid5t dur+ ! p]iod #ahfj-gj1 & ev5 dur+ ! prec$+ decade1 t ! relations betwe5 ! atomic weights ( analog\s elem5ts 7 gov]n$ by "s g5]al & simple laws4 ,cooke1 ,crem]s1 ,glad/one1 ,gmel91 ,l5ss51 ,pett5k(]1 & especially ,dumas1 _h already e/abli%$ _m facts be>+ on t view4 ,?us ,dumas comp>$ ! foll[+ gr\ps ( analog\s elem5ts ) organic radicles3-- ,diff4 ,diff4 ,diff4 ,diff4 ,mg #ab ,p #ca ,o #h #h #dd #h ,li #g ,ca #bj ,z #ge ,s #af #af #c #h #dd #c #h ,na #bc ,sr #dd ,sb #aai ,se #dj #af #c #h #b #dd #c #h ,k #ci ,ba #fh ,bi #bjg ,te #fd & po9t$ out "s really /rik+ relation%ips1 su* z ! foll[+3-- ,f #ai4 ,cl #cee #ai #afe4 ,br #hj #ai #b #afe #bh4 ,i #abg #b x #ai #b #afe #b #bh4 ,a4 ,/reck]1 9 8 "w ',!ori5 und ,exp]im5te zur ,be/immung d] ,atomgewi*te d] ,elem5te' 7,brauns*weig1 #ahei71 aft] summ>is+ ! data relat+ to ! subject1 & po9t+ out ! rem>kable s]ies ( equival5ts-- ,cr #bfb ,mn #bgf ,fe #bh ,ni #bi ,co #cj ,cu #cag ,zn #cbe rem>ks t3 ',x is h>dly probable t all ! above-m5tion$ relations betwe5 ! atomic weights 7or equival5ts7 ( *emically analog\s elem5ts are m]ely accid5tal4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 leave to ! future ! discov]y ( ! law ( ! relations :i* appe>s 9 ^! figures4'#a #a ',es i/ wohl kaum anzunehm51 dass alle im ,vorh]geh5d5 h]vorgehob55 ,beziehung5 zwis*5 d5 ,atomgewi*t5 7od] ,aequival5t57 9 *emis*5 ,v]hltniss5 e9&] hnli*e ,elem5te bloss zufllig s9d4 ,die ,auff9dung d] 9 dies5 ,zahl5 gesetzli*5 ,beziehung5 mss5 wir j$o* d] ,zukunft b]lass54' ,9 su* attempts at arrangem5t & 9 su* views are to be recognis$ ! real =]unn]s ( ! p]iodic law2 ! gr\nd 0 prep>$ = x betwe5 #ahfj & #ahgj1 & t x 0 n express$ 9 a det]m9ate =m be=e ! end ( ! decade may1 ,i suppose1 be ascrib$ to ! fact t only analog\s elem5ts _h be5 comp>$4 ,! idea ( seek+ = a relation betwe5 ! atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts 0 =eign to ! ideas !n curr5t1 s t nei!r ! vis tellurique ( ,de ,*anc\rtois1 nor ! law ( octaves ( ,newl&s1 c\ld secure anybody's att5tion4 ,& yet bo? ,de ,*anc\rtois & ,newl&s l ,dumas & ,/reck]1 m ?an ,l5ss5 & ,pett5k(]1 _h made an approa* to ! p]iodic law & _h discov]$ its g]ms4 ,! solution ( ! problem advanc$ b sl[ly1 because ! facts1 b n ! law1 /ood =emo/ 9 all attempts2 & ! law c\ld n awak5 a g5]al int]e/ s long z elem5ts1 hav+ no app>5t connection ) ea* o!r1 7 includ$ 9 ! same octave1 z = example3-- #a/ octave ( ,newl&s ,h ,f ,cl ,co ,ni ,br ,pd ,i ,pt ,ir #g? ,ditto ,o ,s ,fe ,se ,rh ,ru ,te ,au ,os or ,? ,analogies ( ! above ord] seem$ q accid5tal1 & ! m s z ! octave conta9$ occasionally t5 elem5ts in/ead ( eight1 & :5 two su* elem5ts z ,ba & ,v1 ,co & ,ni1 or ,rh & ,ru1 occupi$ "o place 9 ! octave4#b ,nev]!less1 ! fruit 0 rip5+1 & ,i n[ see cle>ly t ,/reck]1 ,de ,*anc\rtois1 & ,newl&s /ood =emo/ 9 ! way t[>ds ! discov]y ( ! p]iodic law1 & t !y m]ely want$ ! boldness necess>y to place ! :ole "q at su* a height t its reflection on ! facts c\ld be cle>ly se54 #b ,to judge f ,j4 ,a4 ,r4 ,newl&s's "w1 ,on ! ,discov]y ( ! ,p]iodic ,law1 ,london1 #ahhd1 p4 #adi2 ',on ! ,law ( ,octaves' 7f ! ,*emical ,news1 #ab1 #hc1 ,augu/ #ah1 #ahfe74 ,a ?ird circum/ance :i* reveal$ ! p]iodicity ( *emical elem5ts 0 ! accumulation1 by ! end ( ! sixties1 ( new in=mation respect+ ! r>e elem5ts1 disclos+ _! _m-sid$ relations to ! o!r elem5ts & to ea* o!r4 ,! rese>*es ( ,m>ignac on niobium1 & ^? ( ,roscoe on vanadium1 7 ( special mom5t4 ,! /rik+ analogies betwe5 vanadium & phosphorus on ! "o h&1 & betwe5 vanadium & *romium on ! o!r1 :i* became s app>5t 9 ! inve/igations connect$ ) t elem5t1 naturally induc$ ! comp>ison ( ,v #ea ) ,cr #eb1 ,nb #id ) ,mo #if1 & ,ta #aib ) ,w #aid2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ,p #ca c\ld be comp>$ ) ,s #cb1 ,z #ge ) ,se #gi1 & ,sb #abj ) ,te #abe4 ,f su* approximations !re rema9$ b "o /ep to ! discov]y ( ! law ( p]iodicity4 ,! law ( p]iodicity 0 ?us a direct outcome ( ! /ock ( g5]alisations & e/abli%$ facts :i* _h accumulat$ by ! end ( ! decade #ahfj-ahgj2 x is an embodim5t ( ^? data 9 a m or less sy/ematic expression4 ,:]e1 !n1 lies ! secret ( ! special importance :i* has s9ce be5 atta*$ to ! p]iodic law1 & has rais$ x to ! position ( a g5]alisation :i* has already giv5 to *emi/ry unexpect$ aid1 & :i* promises to be f> m fruitful 9 ! future & to impress ^u sev]al bran*es ( *emical rese>* a peculi> & orig9al /amp8 ,! rema9+ "p ( my communication w be an attempt to answ] ?is "q4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h ! circum/ance t1 z soon z ! law made its appe>ance1 x dem&$ a revision ( _m facts :i* 7 consid]$ by *emi/s z fully e/abli%$ by exi/+ exp]i5ce4 ,i %all return1 lat] on1 briefly to ?is subject1 b ,i wi% n[ to rem9d y t ! p]iodic law1 by insi/+ on ! necessity = a revision ( suppos$ facts1 expos$ itself at once to de/ruction 9 its v orig94 ,its fir/ requirem5ts1 h[ev]1 h be5 almo/ entirely satisfi$ dur+ ! la/ #bj ye>s2 ! suppos$ facts h yield$ to ! law1 ?us prov+ t ! law itself 0 a legitimate induction f ! v]ifi$ facts4 ,b our inductions f data h (t5 to d ) su* details ( a sci5ce s ri* 9 facts1 t only g5]alisations :i* cov] a wide range ( important ph5om5a c attract g5]al att5tion4 ,:at 7 ! regions t\*$ on by ! p]iodic law8 ,?is is :at we %all n[ consid]4 ,! mo/ important po9t to notice is1 t p]iodic functions1 us$ = ! purpose ( express+ *anges :i* are dep5d5t on v>iations ( "t & space1 h be5 long kn[n4 ,!y are famili> to ! m9d :5 we h to deal ) motion 9 clos$ cycles1 or ) any k9d ( deviation f a /able position1 su* z occurs 9 p5dulum-oscillations4 ,a l p]iodic function became evid5t 9 ! case ( ! elem5ts1 dep5d+ on ! mass ( ! atom4 ,! prim>y conception ( ! masses ( bodies1 or ( ! masses ( atoms1 belongs to a category :i* ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce =bids u to discuss1 because z yet we h no means ( dissect+ or analys+ ! conception4 ,all t 0 kn[n ( functions dep5d5t on masses d]iv$ its orig9 f ,galileo & ,newton1 & indicat$ t su* functions ei!r decrease or increase ) ! increase ( mass1 l ! attraction ( cele/ial bodies4 ,! num]ical expression ( ! ph5om5a 0 always f\nd to be proportional to ! mass1 & 9 no case 0 an increase ( mass foll[$ by a recurr5ce ( prop]ties su* z is disclos$ by ! p]iodic law ( ! elem5ts4 ,?is con/itut$ su* a novelty 9 ! /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( nature t1 al?\gh x did n lift ! veil :i* conceals ! true conception ( mass1 x nev]!less indicat$ t ! explanation ( t conception mu/ be se>*$ = 9 ! masses ( ! atoms2 ! m s1 z all masses are no?+ b aggregations1 or additions1 ( *emical atoms :i* w\ld be be/ describ$ z *emical individuals4 ,let me rem>k1 by ! way1 t ?\gh ! ,lat9 ^w 'individual' is m]ely a translation ( ! ,greek ^w 'atom1' nev]!less hi/ory & cu/om h drawn a %>p di/9ction betwe5 ! two words1 & ! pres5t *emical conception ( atoms is ne>] to t def9$ by ! ,lat9 ^w ?an by ! ,greek1 al?\gh ?is latt] also has acquir$ a special mean+ :i* 0 unkn[n to ! classics4 ,! p]iodic law has %[n t our *emical individuals display a h>monic p]iodicity ( prop]ties dep5d5t on _! masses4 ,n[ natural sci5ce has long be5 accu/om$ to deal ) p]iodicities obs]v$ 9 nature1 to seize !m ) ! vice ( ma!matical analysis1 to submit !m to ! rasp ( exp]im5t4 ,& ^! in/rum5ts ( sci5tific ?\ght w\ld surely1 long s9ce1 h ma/]$ ! problem connect$ ) ! *emical elem5ts1 7 x n = a new feature :i* 0 br\ght to light by ! p]iodic law1 & :i* gave a peculi> & orig9al "* to ! p]iodic function4 ,if we m>k on an axis ( absciss a s]ies ( l5g?s proportional to angles1 & trace ord9ates :i* are proportional to s9es or o!r trigonometrical functions1 we get p]iodic curves ( a h>monic "*4 ,s x might seem1 at fir/ sight1 t ) ! increase ( atomic weights ! function ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts %\ld also v>y 9 ! same h>moni\s way4 ,b 9 ?is case !re is no su* cont9u\s *ange z 9 ! curves j ref]r$ to1 because ! p]iods d n conta9 ! inf9ite numb] ( po9ts con/itut+ a curve1 b a f9ite numb] only ( su* po9ts4 ,an example w bett] illu/rate ?is view4 ,! atomic weights-- ,ag #ajh ,cd #aab ,9 #aac ,sn #aah ,sb #abj ,te #abe ,i #abg /eadily increase1 & _! increase is accompani$ by a modification ( _m prop]ties :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! p]iodic law4 ,?us1 = example1 ! d5sities ( ! above elem5ts decrease /eadily1 be+ respectively-- #aje #hf #gd #gb #fg #fd #di :ile _! oxides conta9 an increas+ quantity ( oxyg5-- ,ag#b,o ,cd#b,o#b ,9#b,o#c ,sn#b,o#d ,sb#b,o#e ,te#b,o#f ,i#b,o#g ,b to connect by a curve ! summits ( ! ord9ates express+ any ( ^! prop]ties w\ld involve ! rejection ( ,dalton's law ( multiple proportions4 ,n only are !re no int]m$iate elem5ts betwe5 silv]1 :i* gives ,ag,cl1 & cadmium1 :i* gives ,cd,cl#b1 b1 accord+ to ! v ess5ce ( ! p]iodic law1 !re c be none2 9 fact a uni=m curve w\ld be inapplicable 9 su* a case1 z x w\ld lead u to expect elem5ts possess$ ( special prop]ties at any po9t ( ! curve4 ,! p]iods ( ! elem5ts h ?us a "* v diff]5t f ^? :i* are s simply repres5t$ by geomet]s4 ,!y correspond to po9ts1 to numb]s1 to sudd5 *anges ( ! masses1 & n to a cont9u\s evolution4 ,9 ^! sudd5 *anges de/itute ( int]m$iate /eps or positions1 9 ! abs5ce ( elem5ts int]m$iate betwe51 say1 silv] & cadmium1 or alum9ium & silicon1 we mu/ recognise a problem to :i* no direct application ( ! analysis ( ! inf9itely small c be made4 ,!re=e1 nei!r ! trigonometrical functions propos$ by ,ridb]g & ,flavitzky1 nor ! p5dulum-oscillations sugge/$ by ,crookes1 nor ! cubical curves ( ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,haughton1 :i* h be5 propos$ = express+ ! p]iodic law1 f ! nature ( ! case1 c repres5t ! p]iods ( ! *emical elem5ts4 ,if geometrical analysis is to be appli$ to ?is subject1 x w require to be modifi$ 9 a special mann]4 ,x mu/ f9d ! means ( repres5t+ 9 a special way1 n only su* long p]iods z t compris+ ,k ,ca ,sc ,ti ,v ,cr ,mn ,fe ,co ,ni ,cu ,zn ,ga ,ge ,z ,se ,br1 b %ort p]iods l ! foll[+3-- ,na ,mg ,al ,si ,p ,s ,cl4 ,9 ! !ory ( numb]s only d we f9d problems analog\s to ours1 & two attempts at express+ ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts by algebraic =mul seem to be des]v+ ( att5tion1 al?\gh nei!r ( !m c be consid]$ z a complete !ory1 nor z promis+ f9ally to solve ! problem ( ! p]iodic law4 ,! attempt ( ,e4 ,j4 ,mills 7#ahhf7 does n ev5 aspire to atta9 ?is end4 ,he consid]s t all atomic weights c be express$ by a log>i?mic function1 #ae7n - #jicget71 9 :i* ! v>iables n & t are :ole numb]s4 ,?us1 = oxyg51 n #b1 & t #a1 :5ce its atomic weight is #aeid2 9 ! case ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e1 n has respective values ( #c1 #f1 & #i1 :il/ t #g1 #f1 & #i2 9 ! case ( potassium1 rubidium1 & csium1 n #d1 #f1 & #i1 & t #ad1 #ah1 & #bj4 ,ano!r attempt 0 made 9 #ahhh by ,b4 ,n4 ,t*it*r94 ,its au?or places ! problem ( ! p]iodic law 9 ! fir/ rank1 b z yet he has inve/igat$ ! alkali metals only4 ,t*it*r9 fir/ notic$ ! simple relations exi/+ betwe5 ! atomic volumes ( all alkali metals2 !y c be express$1 accord+ to 8 views1 by ! =mula ,a7#b - #jjjece;,an71 :]e ,a is ! atomic weight1 & n is equal to #h = li?ium & sodium1 to #d = potassium1 to #c = rubidium1 & to #b = csium4 ,if n rema9$ equal to #h dur+ ! increase ( ,a1 ! volume w\ld become z]o at ,a #df-b_/c1 & x w\ld rea* its maximum at ,a #bc-a_/c4 ,! close approximation ( ! numb] #df-b_/c to ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! atomic weights ( analog\s elem5ts 7su* z ,cs - ,rb1 ,i - ,br1 & s on72 ! close correspond5ce ( ! numb] #bc-a_/c to ! atomic weight ( sodium2 ! fact ( n be+ necess>ily a :ole numb]1 & sev]al o!r aspects ( ! "q1 induce ,t*it*r9 to believe t !y af=d a clue to ! und]/&+ ( ! nature ( ! elem5ts2 we mu/1 h[ev]1 await ! full developm5t ( 8 !ory be=e pron\nc+ judgm5t on x4 ,:at we c at pres5t only be c]ta9 ( is ?is3 t attempts l ! two above nam$ mu/ be repeat$ & multipli$1 because ! p]iodic law has cle>ly %[n t ! masses ( ! atoms increase abruptly1 by /eps1 :i* are cle>ly connect$ 9 "s way ) ,dalton's law ( multiple proportions2 & because ! p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts f9ds expression 9 ! transition f ,,rx to ,,rx#b1 ,,rx#c1 ,,rx#d1 & s on till ,,rx#h1 at :i* po9t1 ! en]gy ( ! comb9+ =ces be+ exhau/$1 ! s]ies beg9s anew f ,,rx to ,,rx#b1 & s on4 ,:ile connect+ by new bonds ! !ory ( ! *emical elem5ts ) ,dalton's !ory ( multiple proportions1 or atomic /ructure ( bodies1 ! p]iodic law op5$ = natural philosophy a new & wide field = speculation4 ,kant said t !re are 9 ! _w 'two ?+s :i* nev] cease to call = ! admiration & rev]5ce ( man3 ! moral law )9 ourselves1 & ! /ell> sky above u4' ,b :5 we turn our ?\ghts t[>ds ! nature ( ! elem5ts & ! p]iodic law1 we mu/ add a ?ird subject1 namely1 '! nature ( ! elem5t>y individuals :i* we discov] ev]y:]e ar\nd u4' ,)\t !m ! /ell> sky itself is inconceivable2 & 9 ! atoms we see at once _! peculi> individualities1 ! inf9ite multiplicity ( ! individuals1 & ! submission ( _! seem+ fre$om to ! g5]al h>mony ( ,nature4 ,hav+ ?us indicat$ a new my/]y ( ,nature1 :i* does n yet yield to rational conception1 ! p]iodic law1 toge!r ) ! revelations ( spectrum analysis1 h contribut$ to aga9 revive an old b rem>kably long-liv$ hope--t ( discov]+1 if n by exp]im5t1 at lea/ by a m5tal ef=t1 ! prim>y matt]--:i* _h its g5esis 9 ! m9ds ( ! ,grecian philosoph]s1 & has be5 transmitt$1 toge!r ) _m o!r ideas ( ! classic p]iod1 to ! heirs ( _! civilisation4 ,hav+ gr[n1 dur+ ! times ( ! al*emi/s up to ! p]iod :5 exp]im5tal pro( 0 requir$1 ! idea has r5d]$ good s]vice2 x induc$ ^? c>eful obs]vations & exp]im5ts :i* lat] on call$ into be+ ! works ( ,s*eele1 ,lavoisi]1 ,prie/ley1 & ,cav5di%4 ,x !n slumb]$ a:ile1 b 0 soon awak5$ by ! attempts ei!r to confirm or to refute ! ideas ( ,pr\t z to ! multiple proportion relation%ip ( ! atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts4 ,& once aga9 ! inductive or exp]im5tal me?od ( /udy+ ,nature ga9$ a direct advantage f ! old ,py?agorean idea3 because atomic weights 7 det]m9$ ) an accuracy =m]ly unkn[n4 ,b aga9 ! idea c\ld n /& ! ordeal ( exp]im5tal te/1 yet ! prejudice rema9s & has n be5 uproot$1 ev5 by ,/as2 nay1 x has ga9$ a new vig\r1 = we see t all :i* is imp]fectly work$ out1 new & unexpla9$1 f ! /ill sc>cely /udi$ r>e metals to ! h>dly p]ceptible nebul1 h be5 us$ to ju/ify x4 ,z soon z spectrum analysis appe>s z a new & p[]ful weapon ( *emi/ry1 ! idea ( a prim>y matt] is imm$iately atta*$ to x4 ,f all sides we see attempts to con/itute ! imag9>y sub/ance helium#c ! s mu* long$ = prim>y matt]4 ,no att5tion is paid to ! circum/ance t ! helium l9e is only se5 9 ! spectrum ( ! sol> protub]ances1 s t its univ]sality 9 ,nature rema9s z problematic z ! prim>y matt] itself2 nor to ! fact t ! helium l9e is want+ among/ ! ,fraunh(] l9es ( ! sol> spectrum1 & ?us does n answ] to ! brilliant fundam5tal conception :i* gives its real =ce to spectrum analysis4 #c ,t is1 a sub/ance hav+ a wave-l5g? equal to #jjjjehge millimetre4 ,& f9ally1 no notice is ev5 tak5 ( ! indubitable fact t ! brilliancies ( ! spectral l9es ( ! simple sub/ances v>y "u diff]5t temp]atures & pressures2 s t all probabilities are 9 fav\r ( ! helium l9e simply belong+ to "s long s9ce kn[n elem5t plac$ "u su* conditions ( temp]ature1 pressure1 & gravity z h n yet be5 realis$ 9 our exp]im5ts4 ,aga91 ! idea t ! excell5t inve/igations ( ,locky] ( ! spectrum ( iron c be int]pret$ 9 fav\r ( ! comp\nd nature ( t elem5t1 evid5tly mu/ h aris5 f "s misund]/&+4 ,! spectrum ( a comp\nd c]ta9ly does n appe> z a sum ( ! spectra ( its compon5ts2 & !re=e ! obs]vations ( ,locky] c be consid]$ precisely z a pro( t iron und]goes no o!r *anges at ! temp]ature ( ! sun ?an ^? :i* x exp]i5ces 9 ! voltaic arc--provid$ ! spectrum ( iron is pres]v$4 ,z to ! %ift+ ( "s ( ! l9es ( ! spectrum ( iron :ile ! o!r l9es ma9ta9 _! positions1 x c be expla9$1 z %[n by ,m4 ,kleib] 7',j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,*emical & ,physical ,society1' #ahhe1 #adg71 by ! relative motion ( ! v>i\s /rata ( ! sun's atmosph]e1 & by ,zlln]'s laws ( ! relative brilliancies ( diff]5t l9es ( ! spectrum4 ,moreov]1 x ought n to be =gott5 t if iron 7 really prov$ to consi/ ( two or m unkn[n elem5ts1 we %\ld simply h an increase 9 ! numb] ( our elem5ts--n a r$uction1 & /ill less a r$uction ( all ( !m to "o s+le prim>y matt]4 ,feel+ t spectrum analysis w n yield a support to ! ,py?agorean conception1 its mod]n promot]s are s b5t ^u its be+ confirm$ by ! p]iodic law1 t ! illu/ri\s ,b]!lot1 9 8 "w ',les orig9es de l',al*imie1' #ahhe1 #cac1 has simply mix$ up ! fundam5tal idea ( ! law ( p]iodicity ) ! ideas ( ,pr\t1 ! al*emi/s1 & ,democritus ab\t prim>y matt]4#d ,b ! p]iodic law1 bas$ z x is on ! solid & :olesome gr\nd ( exp]im5tal rese>*1 has be5 evolv$ indep5d5tly ( any conception z to ! nature ( ! elem5ts2 x does n 9 ! lea/ orig9ate 9 ! idea ( a unique matt]2 & x has no hi/orical connection ) t relic ( ! torm5ts ( classical ?\ght1 & !re=e x af=ds no m indication ( ! unity ( matt] or ( ! comp\nd "* ( our elem5ts1 ?an ! law ( ,avogadro1 or ! law ( specific heats1 or ev5 ! conclusions ( spectrum analysis4 ,none ( ! advocates ( a unique matt] h ev] tri$ to expla9 ! law f ! /&po9t ( ideas tak5 f a remote antiquity :5 x 0 f\nd conv5i5t to admit ! exi/5ce ( _m gods--& ( a unique matt]4 #d ,he ma9ta9s 7on p4 #cji7 t ! p]iodic law requires two new analog\s elem5ts1 hav+ atomic weights ( #dh & #fd1 occupy+ positions betwe5 sulphur & sel5ium1 al?\gh no?+ ( ! k9d results f any ( ! diff]5t read+s ( ! law4 ,:5 we try to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! idea ( a unique prim>y matt]1 we easily trace t 9 ! abs5ce ( inductions f exp]im5t x d]ives its orig9 f ! sci5tifically philosophical attempt at discov]+ "s k9d ( unity 9 ! imm5se div]sity ( individualities :i* we see ar\nd4 ,9 classical times su* a t5d5cy c\ld only be satisfi$ by conceptions ab\t ! immat]ial _w4 ,z to ! mat]ial _w1 our ance/ors 7 compell$ to resort to "s hypo!sis1 & !y adopt$ ! idea ( unity 9 ! =mative mat]ial1 because !y 7 n able to evolve ! conception ( any o!r possible unity 9 ord] to connect ! multif>i\s relations ( matt]4 ,respond+ to ! same legitimate sci5tific t5d5cy1 natural sci5ce has discov]$ ?r\gh\t ! univ]se a unity ( plan1 a unity ( =ces1 & a unity ( matt]1 & ! conv9c+ conclusions ( mod]n sci5ce compel e "o to admit ^! k9ds ( unity4 ,b :ile we admit unity 9 _m ?+s1 we none ! less mu/ also expla9 ! individuality & ! app>5t div]sity :i* we _c fail to trace ev]y:]e4 ,x has be5 said ( old1 ',give u a fulcrum1 & x w become easy to displace ! e>?4' ,s also we mu/ say1 ',give u some?+ t is individualis$1 & ! app>5t div]sity w be easily und]/ood4' ,o!rwise1 h[ c\ld unity result 9 a multitude8 ,aft] a long & pa9/ak+ rese>*1 natural sci5ce has discov]$ ! individualities ( ! *emical elem5ts1 & !re=e x is n[ capable n only ( analys+1 b also ( syn!sis+2 x c und]/& & grasp g5]ality & unity1 z well z ! individualis$ & ! multif>i\s4 ,! g5]al & univ]sal1 l "t & space1 l =ce & motion1 v>y uni=mly2 ! uni=m admit ( int]polations1 reveal+ e int]m$iate phase4 ,b ! multitud9\s1 ! individualis$--su* z ourselves1 or ! *emical elem5ts1 or ! memb]s ( a peculi> p]iodic function ( ! elem5ts1 or ,dalton's multiple proportions--is *>act]is$ 9 ano!r way3 we see 9 x1 side by side ) a connect+ g5]al pr9ciple1 leaps1 breaks ( cont9uity1 po9ts :i* escape f ! analysis ( ! inf9itely small--an abs5ce ( complete int]m$iate l9ks4 ,*emi/ry has f\nd an answ] to ! "q z to ! causes ( multitudes2 & :ile reta9+ ! conception ( _m elem5ts1 all submitt$ to ! discipl9e ( a g5]al law1 x (f]s an escape f ! ,indian ,nirvana--! absorption 9 ! univ]sal1 replac+ x by ! individualis$4 ,h[ev]1 ! place = individuality is s limit$ by ! all-grasp+1 all-p[]ful univ]sal1 t x is m]ely a po9t ( support = ! und]/&+ ( multitude 9 unity4 ,hav+ t\*$ ^u ! metaphysical bases ( ! conception ( a unique matt] :i* is suppos$ to ent] into ! composition ( all bodies4 ,i ?9k x necess>y to dwell ^u ano!r !ory1 ak9 to ! above conception--! !ory ( ! comp\nd "* ( ! elem5ts n[ admitt$ by "s--& especially ^u "o p>ticul> circum/ance :i*1 be+ relat$ to ! p]iodic law1 is consid]$ to be an argum5t 9 fav\r ( t hypo!sis4 ,dr4 ,pelopidas1 9 #ahhc1 made a communication to ! ,russian ,*emical & ,physical ,society on ! p]iodicity ( ! hydroc>bon radicles1 po9t+ out ! rem>kable p>allelism :i* 0 to be notic$ 9 ! *ange ( prop]ties ( hydroc>bon radicles & elem5ts :5 class$ 9 gr\ps4 ,pr(essor ,c>nelley1 9 #ahhf1 develop$ a simil> p>allelism4 ,! idea ( ,m4 ,pelopidas w be easily und]/ood if we consid] ! s]ies ( hydroc>bon radicles :i* conta91 say1 #f atoms ( c>bon3-- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,c#f;,h#ac ,c#f;,h#ab ,c#f;,h#aa ,c#f;,h#aj ,c#f;,h#i ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,c#f;,h#h ,c#f;,h#g ,c#f;,h#f ,! fir/ ( ^! radicles1 l ! elem5ts ( ! #a/ gr\p1 comb9es ) ,cl1 ,,oh1 & s on1 & gives ! d]ivatives ( hexyl alcohol1 ,c#f;,h#ac7,,oh72 b1 9 proportion z ! numb] ( hydrog5 atoms decreases1 ! capacity ( ! radicles ( comb9+ )1 say1 ! halog5s increases4 ,c#f;,h#ab already comb9es ) #b atoms ( *lor9e2 ,c#f;,h#aa1 ) #c atoms1 & s on4 ,! la/ memb]s ( ! s]ies comprise ! radicles ( acids3 ?us ,c#f;,h#h1 :i* belongs to ! #f? gr\p1 gives1 l sulphur1 a bibasic acid1 ,c#f;,h#h,o#b7,,oh7#b1 :i* is homolog\s ) oxalic acid4 ,! p>allelism c be trac$ /ill fur!r1 because ,c#f;,h#e appe>s z a monoval5t radicle ( b5z5e1 & ) x beg9s a new s]ies ( aromatic d]ivatives1 s analog\s to ! d]ivatives ( ! aliphatic s]ies4 ,let me also m5tion ano!r example f among ^? :i* h be5 giv5 by ,m4 ,pelopidas4 ,/>t+ f ! alkal9e radicle ( monome?ylammonium1 ,n7,,*#c7;,h#c1 or ,,n*#f1 :i* pres5ts _m analogies ) ! alkal9e metals ( ! #a/ gr\p1 he arrives1 by successively dim9i%+ ! numb] ( ! atoms ( hydrog51 at a #g? gr\p :i* conta9s cyanog51 ,,cn1 :i* has long s9ce be5 comp>$ to ! halog5s ( ! #g? gr\p4 ,! mo/ important consequ5ce :i*1 9 my op9ion1 c be drawn f ! above comp>ison is t ! p]iodic law1 s app>5t 9 ! elem5ts1 has a wid] application ?an might appe> at fir/ sight2 x op5s up a new vi/a ( *emical evolutions4 ,b1 :ile admitt+ ! fulle/ p>allelism betwe5 ! p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts & t ( ! comp\nd radicles1 we mu/ n =get t 9 ! p]iods ( ! hydroc>bon radicles we h a decrease ( mass z we pass f ! repres5tatives ( ! fir/ gr\p to ! next1 :ile 9 ! p]iods ( ! elem5ts ! mass increases dur+ ! progression4 ,x ?us becomes evid5t t we _c speak ( an id5tity ( p]iodicity 9 bo? cases1 unless we put aside ! ideas ( mass & attraction1 :i* are ! real corn]-/ones ( ! :ole ( natural sci5ce1 & ev5 ent] into ^? v conceptions ( simple sub/ances :i* came to light a full hundr$ ye>s lat] ?an ! immortal pr9ciples ( ,newton4#e #e ,x is notewor?y t ! ye> 9 :i* ,lavoisi] 0 born 7#agdc7--! au?or ( ! idea ( elem5ts & ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]--is lat] by exactly "o c5tury ?an ! ye> 9 :i* ! au?or ( ! !ory ( gravitation & mass 0 born 7#afdc ,n4,s474 ,! affiliation ( ! ideas ( ,lavoisi] & ^? ( ,newton is beyond d\bt4 ,f ! =ego+1 z well z f ! failures ( s _m attempts at f9d+ 9 exp]im5t & speculation a pro( ( ! comp\nd "* ( ! elem5ts & ( ! exi/5ce ( primordial matt]1 x is evid5t1 9 my op9ion1 t ?is !ory mu/ be class$ among m]e utopias4 ,b utopias c only be combat$ by fre$om ( op9ion1 by exp]im5t1 & by new utopias4 ,9 ! republic ( sci5tific !ories fre$om ( op9ions is gu>ante$4 ,x is precisely t fre$om :i* p]mits me to criticise op5ly ! widely-diffus$ idea z to ! unity ( matt] 9 ! elem5ts4 ,exp]im5ts & attempts at confirm+ t idea h be5 s num]\s t x really w\ld be in/ructive to h !m all collect$ toge!r1 if only to s]ve z a w>n+ aga9/ ! repetition ( old failures4 ,& n[ z to new utopias :i* may be helpful 9 ! /ruggle aga9/ ! old ones1 ,i d n ?9k x q useless to m5tion a phantasy ( "o ( my /ud5ts :o imag9$ t ! weight ( bodies does n dep5d ^u _! mass1 b ^u ! "* ( ! motion ( _! atoms4 ,! atoms1 accord+ to ?is new utopian1 may all be homog5e\s or het]og5e\s1 we "k n :i*2 we "k !m 9 motion only1 & t motion !y ma9ta9 ) ! same p]si/5ce z ! /ell> bodies ma9ta9 !irs4 ,! weights ( atoms diff] only 9 consequ5ce ( _! v>i\s modes & quantity ( motion2 ! heavie/ atoms may be mu* simpl] ?an ! light] ones3 ?us an atom ( m]cury may be simpl] ?an an atom ( hydrog5--! mann] 9 :i* x moves causes x to be heavi]4 ,my int]locutor ev5 sugge/$ t ! view :i* attributes ! great] complexity to ! light] elem5ts f9ds confirmation 9 ! fact t ! hydroc>bon radicles m5tion$ by ,pelopidas1 :ile becom+ light] z !y lose hydrog51 *ange _! prop]ties p]iodically 9 ! same mann] z ! elem5ts *ange !irs1 accord+ z ! atoms gr[ heavi]4 ,! ,fr5* prov]b1 ,la critique e/ facile1 mais l'art e/ difficile1 h[ev]1 may well be rev]s$ 9 ! case ( all su* ideal views1 z x is mu* easi] to =mulate ?an to criticise !m4 ,aris+ f ! virg9 soil ( newly-e/abli%$ facts1 ! k relat+ to ! elem5ts1 to _! masses1 & to ! p]iodic *anges ( _! prop]ties has giv5 a motive = ! =mation ( utopian hypo!ses1 probably because !y c\ld n be =ese5 by ! aid ( any ( ! v>i\s metaphysical sy/ems1 & exi/1 l ! idea ( gravitation1 z an indep5d5t outcome ( natural sci5ce1 requir+ ! ackn[l$gm5t ( g5]al laws1 :5 ^! h be5 e/abli%$ ) ! same degree ( p]si/5cy z is indisp5sable = ! acceptance ( a ?or\ghly e/abli%$ fact4 ,two c5turies h elaps$ s9ce ! !ory ( gravitation 0 enunciat$1 & al?\gh we d n und]/& its cause1 we /ill mu/ reg>d gravitation z a fundam5tal conception ( natural philosophy1 a conception :i* has enabl$ u to p]ceive mu* m ?an ! metaphysicians did or c\ld ) _! seem+ omnisci5ce4 ,a hundr$ ye>s lat] ! conception ( ! elem5ts arose2 x made *emi/ry :at x n[ is2 & yet we h advanc$ z little 9 our compreh5sion ( simple sub/ances s9ce ! times ( ,lavoisi] & ,dalton z we h 9 our und]/&+ ( gravitation4 ,! p]iodic law ( ! elem5ts is only tw5ty ye>s old2 x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t1 kn[+ no?+ ab\t ! causes ( gravitation & mass1 or ab\t ! nature ( ! elem5ts1 we d n compreh5d ! rationale ( ! p]iodic law4 ,x is only by collect+ e/abli%$ laws--t is1 by work+ at ! acquirem5t ( tru?--t we c hope gradually to lift ! veil :i* conceals f u ! causes ( ! my/]ies ( ,nature & to discov] _! mutual dep5d5cy4 ,l ! telescope & ! microscope1 laws f\nd$ on ! basis ( exp]im5t are ! in/rum5ts & means ( enl>g+ our m5tal horizon4 ,9 ! rema9+ "p ( my communication ,i %all endeav\r to %[1 & z briefly z possible1 9 h[ f> ! p]iodic law contributes to enl>ge our range ( vision4 ,be=e ! promulgation ( ?is law ! *emical elem5ts 7 m]e fragm5t>y1 incid5tal facts 9 ,nature2 !re 0 no special reason to expect ! discov]y ( new elem5ts1 & ! new ones :i* 7 discov]$ f "t to "t appe>$ to be possess$ ( q novel prop]ties4 ,! law ( p]iodicity fir/ enabl$ u to p]ceive undiscov]$ elem5ts at a di/ance :i* =m]ly 0 inaccessible to *emical vision2 & long ere !y 7 discov]$ new elem5ts appe>$ be=e our eyes possess$ ( a numb] ( well-def9$ prop]ties4 ,we n[ "k ?ree cases ( elem5ts ^: exi/5ce & prop]ties 7 =ese5 by ! in/rum5tality ( ! p]iodic law4 ,i ne$ b m5tion ! brilliant discov]y ( gallium1 :i* prov$ to correspond to eka-alum9ium ( ! p]iodic law1 by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran2 ( sc&ium1 correspond+ to ekaboron1 by ,nilson2 & ( g]manium1 :i* prov$ to correspond 9 all respects to ekasilicon1 by ,w9kl]4 ,:51 9 #ahga1 ,i describ$ to ! ,russian ,*emical ,society ! prop]ties1 cle>ly def9$ by ! p]iodic law1 :i* su* elem5ts ought to possess1 ,i nev] hop$ t ,i %\ld live to m5tion _! discov]y to ! ,*emical ,society ( ,great ,brita9 z a confirmation ( ! exactitude & ! g5]ality ( ! p]iodic law4 ,n[ t ,i h _h ! happ9ess ( do+ s1 ,i unhesitat+ly say t1 al?\gh greatly enl>g+ our vision1 ev5 n[ ! p]iodic law ne$s fur!r improvem5ts 9 ord] t x may become a tru/wor?y in/rum5t 9 fur!r discov]ies4#f #f ,i =esee "s m new elem5ts1 b n ) ! same c]titude z be=e4 ,i %all give "o example1 & yet ,i d n see x q di/9ctly4 ,9 ! s]ies :i* conta9s ,hg #bjd1 ,pb #bjf1 & ,bi #bjh1 we c imag9e ! exi/5ce 7at ! place ,,vi-#aa7 ( an elem5t analog\s to tellurium1 :i* we c describe z dvi-tellurium1 ,dt1 hav+ an atomic weight ( #bab1 & ! prop]ty ( =m+ ! oxide ,dt,o#c4 ,if ?is elem5t really exi/s1 x ought 9 ! free /ate to be an easily fusible1 cry/all9e1 non-volatile metal ( a grey col\r1 hav+ a d5sity ( ab\t #ic1 capable ( giv+ a dioxide1 ,dt,o#b1 equally end[$ ) feeble acid & basic prop]ties4 ,?is dioxide mu/ give on active oxidation an un/able high] oxide1 ,dt,o#c1 :i* %\ld resemble 9 its prop]ties ,pb,o#b & ,bi#b,o#e4 ,dvi-tellurium hydride1 if x be f\nd to exi/1 w be a less /able comp\nd ?an ev5 ,h#b,te4 ,! comp\nds ( dvi-tellurium w be easily r$uc$1 & x w =m *>act]i/ic def9ite alloys ) o!r metals4 ,i w v5ture to allude to "s o!r matt]s :i* *emi/ry has disc]n$ by means ( its new in/rum5t1 & :i* x c\ld n h made out )\t a k ( ! law ( p]iodicity1 & ,i w conf9e myself to simple sub/ances & to oxides4 ,be=e ! p]iodic law 0 =mulat$ ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts 7 purely empirical numb]s1 s t ! magnitude ( ! equival5t1 & ! atomicity1 or ! value 9 sub/itution possess$ by an atom1 c\ld only be te/$ by critically exam9+ ! me?ods ( det]m9ation1 b nev] directly by consid]+ ! num]ical values !mselves2 9 %ort1 we 7 compell$ to move 9 ! d>k1 to submit to ! facts1 in/ead ( be+ ma/]s ( !m4 ,i ne$ n rec\nt ! me?ods :i* p]mitt$ ! p]iodic law at la/ to ma/] ! facts relat+ to atomic weights1 & ,i w\ld m]ely call to m9d t x compell$ u to modify ! val5cies ( indium & c]ium1 & to assign to _! comp\nds a diff]5t molecul> composition4 ,det]m9ations ( ! specific heats ( ^! two metals fully confirm$ ! *ange4 ,! trival5cy ( yttrium1 :i* makes u n[ repres5t its oxide z ,y#b,o#c in/ead ( z ,,yo1 0 also =ese5 79 #ahgj7 by ! p]iodic law1 & x has n[ become s probable t ,clve1 & all o!r subsequ5t inve/igators ( ! r>e metals1 h n only adopt$ x1 b h also appli$ x )\t any new demon/ration to sub/ances s imp]fectly kn[n z ^? ( ! c]ite & gadol9ite gr\p1 especially s9ce ,hillebr& det]m9$ ! specific heats ( lan?anum & didymium & confirm$ ! expectations sugge/$ by ! p]iodic law4 ,b "h1 especially 9 ! case ( didymium1 we meet ) a s]ies ( difficulties long s9ce =ese5 ?r\gh ! p]iodic law1 b only n[ becom+ evid5t1 & *iefly aris+ f ! relative r>ity & insuffici5t k ( ! elem5ts :i* usually accompany didymium4 ,pass+ to ! results obta9$ 9 ! case ( ! r>e elem5ts b]yllium1 sc&ium1 & ?orium1 x is f\nd t ^! h _m po9ts ( contact ) ! p]iodic law4 ,al?\gh ,avdeff long s9ce propos$ ! magnesia =mula to repres5t b]yllium oxide1 yet !re 0 s mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ! alum9a =mula1 on acc\nt ( ! specific heat ( ! metals & ! isomorphism ( ! two oxides1 t x became g5]ally adopt$ & seem$ to be well e/abli%$4 ,! p]iodic law1 h[ev]1 z ,braun] repeat$ly insi/$ 7',b]i*te1' #ahgh1 #hgb2 #ahha1 #ec71 0 aga9/ ! =mula ,be#b,o#c2 x requir$ ! magnesia =mula ,be,o--t is1 an atomic weight ( #i--;because !re 0 no place 9 ! sy/em = an elem5t l b]yllium hav+ an atomic weight ( #ace4 ,?is div]g5ce ( op9ion la/$ = ye>s1 & ,i (t5 he>d t ! "q z to ! atomic weight ( b]yllium ?reat5$ to di/urb ! g5]ality ( ! p]iodic law1 or1 at any rate1 to require "s important modifications ( x4 ,_m =ces 7 op]at+ 9 ! controv]sy reg>d+ b]yllium1 evid5tly because a mu* m important "q 0 at issue ?an m]ely t involv$ 9 ! discussion ( ! atomic weight ( a relatively r>e elem5t3 & dur+ ! controv]sy ! p]iodic law became bett] und]/ood1 & ! mutual relations ( ! elem5ts became m app>5t ?an ev] be=e4 ,x is mo/ rem>kable t ! victory ( ! p]iodic law 0 won by ! rese>*es ( ! v obs]v]s :o previ\sly _h discov]$ a numb] ( facts 9 support ( ! trival5cy ( b]yllium4 ,apply+ ! high] law ( ,avogadro1 ,nilson & ,pett]son h f9ally %[n t ! d5sity ( ! vap\r ( ! b]yllium *loride1 ,be,cl#b1 obliges u to reg>d b]yllium z bival5t 9 con=mity ) ! p]iodic law4#g ,i consid] ! confirmation ( ,avdeff's & ,braun]'s view z important 9 ! hi/ory ( ! p]iodic law z ! discov]y ( sc&ium1 :i*1 9 ,nilson's h&s1 confirm$ ! exi/5ce ( ekaboron4 #g ,let me m5tion ano!r pro( ( ! bival5cy ( b]yllium :i* may h pass$ unnotic$1 z x 0 only publi%$ 9 ! ,russian *emical lit]ature4 ,hav+ rem>k$ 79 #ahhd7 t ! d5sity ( su* solutions ( *lorides ( metals1 ,m,cln1 z conta9 #bjj mols4 ( wat] 7or a l>ge & con/ant am\nt ( wat]7 regul>ly increases z ! molecul> weight ( ! dissolv$ salt increases1 ,i propos$ to "o ( our "y *emi/s1 ,m4 ,burdak(f1 t he %\ld inve/igate b]yllium *loride4 ,if its molecule be ,be,cl#b its weight mu/ be #hj2 & 9 su* a case x mu/ be heavi] ?an ! molecule ( ,k,cl #gde1 & light] ?an t ( ,mg,cl#b1 #ic4 ,on ! contr>y1 if b]yllium *loride is a tri*loride1 ,be,cl#c #abj1 its molecule mu/ be heavi] ?an t ( ,ca,cl#b #aaa1 & light] ?an t ( ,mn,cl#b #abf4 ,exp]im5t has %[n ! correctness ( ! =m] =mula1 ! solution ,be,cl#b #bjj;,h#b,o hav+ 7at #ae_/d7 a d5sity ( #ajach1 ?is be+ a high] d5sity ?an t ( ! solution ,k,cl #bjj;,h#b,o 7 #ajaba71 & l[] ?an t ( ,mg,cl#b #bjj;,h#b,o 7 #ajbjc74 ,! bival5cy ( b]yllium 0 ?us confirm$ 9 ! case bo? ( ! dissolv$ & ! vaporis$ *loride4 ,! circum/ance t ?orium prov$ to be quadrival5t1 & ,? #bcb1 9 accordance ) ! views ( ,*yd5ius & ! requirem5ts ( ! p]iodic law1 pass$ almo/ unnotic$1 & 0 accept$ )\t opposition1 & yet bo? ?orium & uranium are ( great importance 9 ! p]iodic sy/em1 z !y are its la/ memb]s1 & h ! highe/ atomic weights ( all ! elem5ts4 ,! alt]ation ( ! atomic weight ( uranium f ,u #abj into ,u #bdj attract$ m att5tion1 ! *ange hav+ be5 made on acc\nt ( ! p]iodic law1 & = no o!r reason4 ,n[ t ,roscoe1 ,rammelsb]g1 ,zimm]mann1 & sev]al o!rs h admitt$ ! v>i\s claims ( ! p]iodic law 9 ! case ( uranium1 its high atomic weight is receiv$ )\t objection1 & x end[s t elem5t ) a special int]e/4 ,:ile ?us demon/rat+ ! necessity = modify+ ! atomic weights ( sev]al insuffici5tly kn[n elem5ts1 ! p]iodic law enabl$ u also to detect errors 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! atomic weights ( sev]al elem5ts ^: val5cies & true position among o!r elem5ts 7 already well kn[n4 ,?ree su* cases are especially notewor?y3 ^? ( tellurium1 titanium & plat9um4 ,b]zelius _h det]m9$ ! atomic weight ( tellurium to be #abh1 :ile ! p]iodic law claim$ = x an atomic weight bel[ t ( iod9e1 :i* _h be5 fix$ by ,/as at #abfe1 & :i* 0 c]ta9ly n high] ?an #abg4 ,braun] !n und]took ! inve/igation1 & he has %[n t ! true atomic weight ( tellurium is l[] ?an t ( iod9e1 be+ ne> to #abe4 ,= titanium ! ext5sive rese>*es ( ,?orpe h confirm$ ! atomic weight ( ,ti #dh1 indicat$ by ! law1 & already =ese5 by ,rose1 b contradict$ by ! analyses ( ,pi]re & sev]al o!r *emi/s4 ,an equally brilliant confirmation ( ! expectations bas$ on ! p]iodic law has be5 giv5 9 ! case ( ! s]ies osmium1 iridium1 plat9um1 & gold4 ,at ! "t ( ! promulgation ( ! p]iodic law1 ! det]m9ations ( ,b]zelius1 ,rose1 & _m o!rs gave ! foll[+ figures3-- ,os #bjj2 ,ir #aig2 ,pt #aih2 ,au #aif4 ,! expectations ( ! p]iodic law#h h be5 confirm$1 fir/1 by new det]m9ations ( ! atomic weight ( plat9um 7by ,seub]t1 ,dittm>1 & ,m',ar?ur1 :i* prov$ to be ne> to #aif 7tak+ ,o #af1 z propos$ by ,m>ignac1 ,braun]1 & o!rs72 secondly1 by ,seub]t hav+ prov$ t ! atomic weight ( osmium is really l[] ?an t ( plat9um1 be+ ne> to #aia2 & ?irdly1 by ! inve/igations ( ,krss1 ,?orpe & ,laurie1 prov+ t ! atomic weight ( gold exce$s t ( plat9um1 & approximates to #aig4 ,! atomic weights :i* 7 ?us f\nd to require correction 7 precisely ^? :i* ! p]iodic law _h indicat$ z affect$ ) errors2 & x has be5 prov$1 !re=e1 t ! p]iodic law af=ds a means ( te/+ exp]im5tal results4 ,if we succe$ 9 discov]+ ! exact "* ( ! p]iodic relation%ips betwe5 ! increm5ts 9 atomic weights ( alli$ elem5ts discuss$ by ,ridb]g 9 #ahhe1 & aga9 by ,baz>(f 9 #ahhg1 we may expect t our in/rum5t w give u ! means ( /ill m closely controll+ ! exp]im5tal data relat+ to atomic weights4 #h ,i po9t$ !m out 9 ! ,liebig's ,annal51 ,supplem5t ,b&41 viii4 #ahga1 p4 #baa4 ,let me next call to m9d t1 :ile disclos+ ! v>iation ( *emical prop]ties1#i ! p]iodic law1 has also enabl$ u to sy/ematically discuss _m ( ! physical prop]ties ( elem5t>y bodies1 & to %[ t ^! prop]ties are also subject to ! law ( p]iodicity4 ,at ! ,mosc[ ,congress ( ,russian ,naturali/s 9 ,augu/1 #ahfi1 ,i dwelt ^u ! relations :i* exi/$ betwe5 d5sity & ! atomic weight ( ! elem5ts4 ,! foll[+ ye> ,pr(essor ,lo?> ,mey]1 9 8 well-kn[n pap]1#aj /udi$ ! same subject 9 m detail1 & ?us contribut$ to spread in=mation ab\t ! p]iodic law4 ,lat] on1 ,c>nelley1 ,laurie1 ,l4 ,mey]1 ,rob]ts-,au/51 & sev]al o!rs appli$ ! p]iodic sy/em to repres5t ! ord] 9 ! *anges ( ! magnetic prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 _! melt+ po9ts1 ! heats ( =mation ( _! haloid comp\nds1 & ev5 ( su* me*anical prop]ties z ! coeffici5t ( ela/icity1 ! break+ /ress1 c41 c4 ,^! d$uctions1 :i* h receiv$ fur!r support 9 ! discov]y ( new elem5ts end[$ n only ) *emical b ev5 ) physical prop]ties1 :i* 7 =ese5 by ! law ( p]iodicity1 are well kn[n2 s ,i ne$ n dwell ^u ! subject1 & may pass to ! consid]ation ( oxides4#aa #i ,?us1 9 ! typical small p]iod ( ,li1 ,be1 ,b1 ,c1 ,n1 ,o1 ,f1 we see at once ! progression f ! alkali metals to ! acid non-metals1 su* z are ! halog5s4 #aj ,liebig's ,annal51 ,supplem5t ,b&41 vii4 #ahgj4 #aa ,a di/9ct p]iodicity c also be discov]$ 9 ! spectra ( ! elem5ts4 ,?us ! rese>*es ( ,h>tley1 ,ciamician1 & o!rs h disclos$1 fir/1 ! homology ( ! spectra ( analog\s elem5ts3 secondly1 t ! alkali metals h simpl] spectra ?an ! metals ( ! foll[+ gr\ps2 & ?irdly1 t !re is a c]ta9 lik5ess betwe5 ! complicat$ spectra ( manganese & iron on ! "o h&1 & ! no less complicat$ spectra ( *lor9e & brom9e on ! o!r h&1 & _! lik5ess corresponds to ! degree ( analogy betwe5 ^? elem5ts :i* is indicat$ by ! p]iodic law4 ,9 indicat+ t ! gradual increase ( ! p[] ( elem5ts ( comb9+ ) oxyg5 is accompani$ by a correspond+ decrease 9 _! p[] ( comb9+ ) hydrog51 ! p]iodic law has %[n t !re is a limit ( oxidation1 j z !re is a well-kn[n limit to ! capacity ( elem5ts = comb9+ ) hydrog54 ,a s+le atom ( an elem5t comb9es ) at mo/ f\r atoms ( ei!r hydrog5 or oxyg52 & :ile ,,*#d & ,si,h#d repres5t ! highe/ hydrides1 s ,ru,o#d & ,os,o#d are ! highe/ oxides4 ,we are ?us l$ to recognise types ( oxides1 j z we h _h to recognise types ( hydrides4#ab #ab ,=m]ly x 0 suppos$ t1 be+ a bival5t elem5t1 oxyg5 c ent] into any gr\p+ ( ! atoms1 & !re 0 no limit =ese5 z to ! ext5t to :i* x c\ld fur!r ent] into comb9ation4 ,we c\ld n expla9 :y bival5t sulphur1 :i* =ms comp\nds su* z ,o ,o _/ _/ ,s & ,s ,o1 _/ _/ ,o ,o c\ld n also =m oxides su* z-- ,o--,o ,o--,o _/ _/ ,s or ,s ,o1 _/ _/ ,o--,o ,o--,o :ile o!r elem5ts1 z1 = in/ance1 *lor9e1 =m comp\nds su* z-- ,cl--,o--,o--,o--,o--,k ,! p]iodic law has demon/rat$ t ! maximum ext5t to :i* diff]5t non-metals ent] into comb9ation ) oxyg5 is det]m9$ by ! ext5t to :i* !y comb9e ) hydrog51 & t ! sum ( ! numb] ( equival5ts ( bo? mu/ be equal to #h4 ,?us *lor9e1 :i* comb9es ) #a atom or #a equival5t ( hydrog51 _c fix m ?an #g equival5ts ( oxyg51 giv+ ,cl#b,o#g2 :ile sulphur1 :i* fixes #b equival5ts ( hydrog51 _c comb9e ) m ?an #f equival5ts or #c atoms ( oxyg54 ,x ?us becomes evid5t t we _c recognise z a fundam5tal prop]ty ( ! elem5ts ! atomic val5cies d$uc$ f _! hydrides2 & t we mu/ modify1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! !ory ( atomicity if we desire to raise x to ! dignity ( a g5]al pr9ciple capable ( af=d+ an insight into ! con/itution ( all comp\nd molecules4 ,9 o!r words1 x is only to c>bon1 :i* is quadrival5t ) reg>d bo? to oxyg5 & hydrog51 t we c apply ! !ory ( con/ant val5cy & ( bond1 by means ( :i* s _m /ill endeav\r to expla9 ! /ructure ( comp\nd molecules4 ,b ,i %\ld g too f> if ,i v5tur$ to expla9 9 detail ! conclusions :i* c be drawn f ! above consid]ations4 ,/ill1 ,i ?9k x necess>y to dwell ^u "o p>ticul> fact :i* mu/ be expla9$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! p]iodic law 9 ord] to cle> ! way to its ext5sion 9 t p>ticul> direction4 ,! high] oxides yield+ salts ! =mation ( :i* 0 =ese5 by ! p]iodic sy/em--= in/ance1 9 ! %ort s]ies beg9n+ ) sodium-- ,na#b,o1 ,mg,o1 ,al#b,o#c1 ,si,o#b1 ,p#b,o#e1 ,,s#c1 ,cl#b,o#g1 mu/ be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ! high] degrees ( oxidation :i* correspond to hydrog5 p]oxide & be> ! true "* ( p]oxides4 ,p]oxides su* z ,na#b,o#b1 ,ba,o#b1 & ! l h long be5 kn[n4 ,simil> p]oxides h also rec5tly become kn[n 9 ! case ( *romium1 sulphur1 titanium1 & _m o!r elem5ts1 & ,i h sometimes he>d x said t discov]ies ( ?is k9d weak5 ! conclusions ( ! p]iodic law 9 s f> z x conc]ns ! oxides4 ,i d n ?9k s 9 ! lea/1 & ,i may rem>k1 9 ! fir/ place1 t all ^! p]oxides are end[$ ) c]ta9 prop]ties obvi\sly common to all ( !m1 :i* di/+ui% !m f ! actual1 high]1 salt-=m+ oxides1 especially _! easy decomposition by means ( simple contact ag5cies2 _! incapability ( =m+ salts ( ! common type2 & _! capability ( comb9+ ) o!r p]oxides 7l ! faculty :i* hydrog5 p]oxide possesses ( comb9+ ) b>ium p]oxide1 discov]$ by ,s*o5e74 ,aga91 we rem>k t "s gr\ps are especially *>act]is$ by _! capacity ( g5]at+ p]oxides4 ,su* is1 = in/ance1 ! case 9 ! six? gr\p1 :]e we f9d ! well-kn[n p]oxides ( sulphur1 *romium1 & uranium2 s t fur!r inve/igation ( p]oxides w probably e/abli% a new p]iodic function1 =e%ad[+ t molybd5um & tung/5 w assume p]oxide =ms ) comp>ative read9ess4 ,to appreciate ! con/itution ( su* p]oxides1 x is en\gh to notice t ! p]oxide =m ( sulphur 7s-call$ p]sulphuric acid7 /&s 9 ! same relation to sulphuric acid z hydrog5 p]oxide /&s to wat]3-- ,h7,,oh71 or ,h#b,o1 responds to 7,,oh77,,oh71 or ,h#b,o#b1 & s also-- ,h7,,hso#d71 or ,h#b,,s#d1 responds to 7,,hso#d77;,,hso#d71 or ,h#b,s#b,o#h4 ,simil> relations are se5 ev]y:]e1 & !y correspond to ! pr9ciple ( sub/itutions :i* ,i long s9ce endeav\r$ to repres5t z "o ( ! *emical g5]alisations call$ into life by ! p]iodic law4 ,s also sulphuric acid1 if consid]$ ) ref]5ce to hydroxyl1 & repres5t$ z foll[s3-- ,,ho7,,s#b,,oh71 has its correspond+ comp\nd 9 di?ionic acid-- 7,,s#b,,oh77,,s#b,,oh71 or ,h#b,s#b,o#f4 ,!re=e1 also1 phosphoric acid1 ,,ho7,,poh#b,o#b71 has1 9 ! same s5se1 its correspond+ comp\nd 9 ! subphosphoric acid ( ,saltz]3-- 7,,poh#b,o#b77,,poh#b,o#b71 or ,h#d,p#b,o#f2 & we mu/ suppose t ! p]oxide comp\nd correspond+ to phosphoric acid1 if x be discov]$1 w h ! foll[+ /ructure3-- 7,h#b,,po#d7b or ,h#d,p#b,o#h #b;,h#b,o #b,,po#c4ac ,s f> z is kn[n at pres5t1 ! highe/ =m ( p]oxides is met ) 9 ! p]oxide ( uranium1 ,,uo#d1 prep>$ by ,fairley2#ad :ile ,os,o#d is ! highe/ oxide giv+ salts4 ,! l9e ( argum5t :i* is inspir$ by ! p]iodic law1 s f> f be+ weak5$ by ! discov]y ( p]oxides1 is ?us actually /r5g!n$1 & we mu/ hope t a fur!r exploration ( ! region "u consid]ation w confirm ! applicability to *emi/ry g5]ally ( ! pr9ciples d$uc$ f ! p]iodic law4 #ac ,9 ?is s5se1 oxalic acid1 7,,cooh7#b1 also corresponds to c>bonic acid1 ,,oh7,,cooh71 9 ! same way t di?ionic acid corresponds to sulphuric acid1 & subphosphoric acid to phosphoric2 h5ce1 if a p]oxide correspond+ to c>bonic acid be obta9$1 x w h ! /ructure ( 7,,hco#c7b1 or ,h#b;,c#b,o#f ,h#b,o ,c#b,o#e4 ,s also lead mu/ h a real p]oxide1 ,pb#b,o#e4 #ad ,! comp\nds ( uranium prep>$ by ,fairley seem to me especially in/ructive 9 und]/&+ ! p]oxides4 ,by ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide on uranium oxide1 ,,uo#c1 a p]oxide ( uranium1 ,,uo#d1d;,h#b,o1 is obta9$ 7,u #bdj7 if ! solution be acid2 b if hydrog5 p]oxide act on uranium oxide 9 ! pres5ce ( cau/ic soda1 a cry/all9e deposit is obta9$ :i* has ! composition ,na#d,,uo#h1d;,h#b,o1 & evid5tly is a comb9ation ( sodium p]oxide1 ,na#b,o#b1 ) uranium p]oxide1 ,,uo#d4 ,x is possible t ! =m] p]oxide1 ,,uo#d1d;,h#b,o1 conta9s ! elem5ts ( hydrog5 p]oxide & uranium p]oxide1 ,u#b,o#g1 or ev5 ,u7,,oh7#f1;,h#b,o#b1 l ! p]oxide ( t9 rec5tly discov]$ by ,spr+1 :i* has ! con/itution ,sn#b,o#e1;,h#b,o#b4 ,p]mit me n[ to conclude my rapid sket* ( ! oxyg5 comp\nds by ! obs]vation t ! p]iodic law is especially br\ght into evid5ce 9 ! case ( ! oxides :i* con/itute ! imm5se majority ( bodies at our disposal on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! oxides are evid5tly subject to ! law1 bo? z reg>ds _! *emical & _! physical prop]ties1 especially if we take into acc\nt ! cases ( polym]ism :i* are s obvi\s :5 comp>+ ,,co#b1 ) ,sin,o#bn4 ,9 ord] to prove ?is ,i give ! d5sities s & ! specific volumes v ( ! high] oxides ( two %ort p]iods4 ,to r5d] comp>ison easi]1 ! oxides are all repres5t$ z ( ! =m ,r#b,on4 ,9 ! column head$ ,delta ! diff]5ces are giv5 betwe5 ! volume ( ! oxyg5 comp\nd & t ( ! p>5t elem5t1 divid$ by n--t is1 by ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! comp\nd3--#ae s4 v4 ,delta ,na#b,o #bf #bd -#bb ,mg#b,o#b #cf #bb -#c ,al#b,o#c #dj #bf #ac ,si#b,o#d #bfe #de #eb ,p#b,o#e #bci #ei #fb ,s#b,o#f #aif #hb #hg ,k#b,o #bg #ce -#ee ,sc#b,o#c #chf #ce #j ,li#b,o#d #db #ch #e ,v#b,o#e #cdi #eb #fg ,cr#b,o#f #bgd #gc #ie #ae ,delta ?us repres5ts ! av]age increase ( volume = ea* atom ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! high] salt-=m+ oxide4 ,! acid oxides give1 z a rule1 a high] value ( ,delta1 :ile 9 ! case ( ! /rongly alkal9e oxides its value is usually negative4 ,i h no?+ to add to ^! figures1 except t l relations appe> 9 o!r p]iods z well4 ,! above relations 7 precisely ^? :i* made x possible = me to be c]ta9 t ! relative d5sity ( ekasilicon oxide w\ld be ab\t #dg2 g]manium oxide1 actually obta9$ by ,w9kl]1 prov$1 9 fact1 to h ! relative d5sity #dgjc4 ,! =ego+ acc\nt is f> f be+ an exhau/ive "o ( all t has already be5 discov]$ by means ( ! p]iodic law telescope 9 ! b\ndless realms ( *emical evolution4 ,/ill less is x an exhau/ive acc\nt ( all t may yet be se51 b ,i tru/ t ! little :i* ,i h said w acc\nt = ! philosophical int]e/ atta*$ 9 *emi/ry to ?is law4 ,al?\gh b a rec5t sci5tific g5]alisation1 x has already /ood ! te/ ( laboratory v]ification1 & appe>s z an in/rum5t ( ?\ght :i* has n yet be5 compell$ to und]go modification2 b x ne$s n only new applications1 b also improvem5ts1 fur!r developm5t1 & pl5ty ( fre% en]gy4 ,all ?is w surely come1 see+ t su* an assembly ( m5 ( sci5ce z ! ,*emical ,society ( ,great ,brita9 has express$ ! desire to h ! hi/ory ( ! p]iodic law describ$ 9 a lecture d$icat$ to ! glori\s "n ( ,f>aday4 ,,app5dix ,,iii ,,argon1 ,a ,,new ,,con/itu5t ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,writt5 ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,m5del,,eff ,,9 ,,febru>y #ahie ,! rem>ks made 9 ,*apt] ,v41 ,note #af bis respect+ ! newly discov]$ con/itu5t ( ! atmosph]e are "h supplem5t$ by data 7tak5 f ! publications ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london7 giv5 by ! discov]]s ,"l ,rayleigh & ,pr(essor ,ramsay 9 ,janu>y #ahie1 toge!r ) obs]vations made by ,crookes & ,olszewsky ^u ! same subject4 ,?is gas1 :i* 0 discov]$ by ,rayleigh & ,ramsay 9 atmosph]ic nitrog51 0 nam$ argon#a by !m1 & ^u ! supposition ( its be+ an elem5t1 !y gave x ! symbol ,a4 ,b its true *emical nature is n yet fully kn[n1 = n only has no comp\nd ( x be5 yet obta9$1 b x has n ev5 be5 br\ght into any reaction4 ,f all t is kn[n ab\t x at ! pres5t "t1 we may conclude ) ! discov]]s t argon belongs to ^? gases :i* are p]man5t con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 & t x is a new elem5t4 ,! latt] /atem5t1 h[ev]1 requires confirmation4 ,we %all pres5tly see1 h[ev]1 t ! negative *emical "* ( argon 7its incapacity to react ) any sub/ance71 & ! small am\nt ( x pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e 7ab\t #a-a_/d p] c5t4 by volume 9 ! nitrog5 ( air1 & consequ5tly ab\t #a p] c5t4 by volume 9 air71 z well z ! rec5t date ( its discov]y 7#ahid7 & ! difficulty ( its prep>ation1 are q suffici5t reasons = ! incomplet5ess ( ! exi/+ k respect+ ?is elem5t4 ,b s9ce1 s f> z is yet kn[n1 we are deal+ ) a normal con/itu5t ( ! atmosph]e#a bis1 ! exi/+ data1 not)/&+ _! insuffici5tly def9ite nature1 %\ld f9d a place ev5 9 su* an elem5t>y "w z ! pres5t1 all ! m z ! names ( ,rayleigh1 ,ramsay1 ,crookes & ,olszewsky1 :o h work$ ^u argon1 are among ! highe/ 9 our sci5ce1 & _! rese>*es among ! mo/ difficult4#b ,^! rese>*es1 moreov]1 7 direct$ /raight to ! goal1 :i* 0 only p>tly rea*$ ow+ to ! unusual prop]ties ( argon itself4 #a ,f ! ,greek ,greek3 ,argon--in]t4 #a bis ,9 ,note #af bis1 ,*apt] ,v41 ,i m5tion$ t1 judg+ f ! specific gravity ( argon1 x might possibly be polym]is$ nitrog51 ,n#c1 be>+ ! same relation%ip to nitrog51 ,n#b1 t ozone1 ,o#c1 be>s to ord9>y oxyg54 ,if ?is idea 7 confirm$1 /ill "o w\ld n imag9e t argon 0 =m$ f ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 by ^? reactions by :i* x 0 obta9$ by ,rayleigh & ,ramsay1 b r t x arises f ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e "u natural conditions4 ,al?\gh ?is proposition is n q de/roy$ by ! m rec5t results1 /ill x is contradict$ by ! fact t ! ratio ( ! specific heats ( argon 0 f\nd to be #aff1 :i*1 z f> z is n[ kn[n1 c\ld n be ! case = a gas conta9+ #c atoms 9 its molecule1 s9ce su* gases 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #g7 give ! ratio approximately #ac 7= example1 ,,co#b74 ,9 ab/a9+ f fur!r conclusions1 = !y mu/ inevitably be purely conjectural1 ,i consid] x advisable to sugge/ t 9 conduct+ fur!r rese>*es ^u argon x might be well to subject x to z high a temp]ature z possible4 ,& ! possibility ( nitrog5 polym]is+ is all ! m admissible f ! fact t ! aggregation ( its atoms 9 ! molecule is n at all unlikely1 & t polym]is$ nitrog51 judg+ f _m examples1 might be in]t if ! polym]isation 7 accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat4 ,9 ! foll[+ footnotes ,i frequ5tly return to ?is hypo!sis1 n only because ,i h n yet met any facts def9itely contradictory to x1 b also because ! *ief prop]ties ( argon agree ) x to a c]ta9 ext5t4 #b ,! *ief difficulty 9 inve/igat+ argon lies 9 ! fact t its prep>ation requires ! employm5t ( a l>ge quantity ( air1 :i* has to be treat$ ) a numb] ( diff]5t reag5ts1 ^: p]fect purity 7especially t ( magnesium7 w always be d\btful1 & argon has n yet be5 transf]r$ to a sub/ance 9 :i* x c\ld be easily purifi$4 ,p]haps ! consid]able solubility ( argon 9 wat] 7or 9 o!r suitable liquids1 :i* h n app>5tly yet be5 tri$7 may give ! means ( do+ s1 & x may be possible1 by collect+ ! air expell$ f boil+ wat]1 to obta9 a ri*] s\rce ( argon ?an ord9>y air4 ,:5 x became kn[n 7,*apt] ,v41 ,note #d bis7 t ! nitrog5 obta9$ f air 7by remov+ ! oxyg51 moi/ure & ,,co#b1 by v>i\s reag5ts7 has a great] d5sity ?an t obta9$ f ! v>i\s 7oxyg51 hydrog5 & metallic7 comp\nds ( nitrog51 x 0 a plausible explanation t ! latt] conta9$ an admixture ( hydrog51 or ( "s o!r light gas l[]+ ! d5sity ( ! mixture4 ,b su* an assumption is refut$ n only by ! fact t ! nitrog5 obta9$ f its v>i\s comp\nds 7aft] purification7 has always ! same d5sity 7al?\gh ! suppos$ impurities mix$ ) x %\ld v>y71 b also by ,rayleigh & ,ramsay's exp]im5t ( artificially add+ hydrog5 to nitrog51 & !n pass+ ! mixture ov] r$-hot oxide ( copp]1 :5 x 0 f\nd t ! nitrog5 rega9$ its orig9al d5sity1 i4e4 t ! :ole ( ! hydrog5 0 remov$ by ?is treatm5t4 ,!re=e ! diff]5ce 9 ! d5sity ( ! two v>ieties ( nitrog5 _h to be expla9$ by ! pres5ce ( a heavi] gas 9 admixture ) ! nitrog5 obta9$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,?is hypo!sis 0 confirm$ by ! fact t ,rayleigh & ,ramsay hav+ obta9$ purifi$ nitrog5 7by remov+ ! ,o#b1 ,,co#b1 & ,h#b,o71 bo? f ord9>y air & f air :i* _h be5 previ\sly subject$ to atmolysis1 t is :i* _h be5 pass$ ?r\gh por\s tubes 7( burnt clay1 e4g4 pipe-/em71 surr\nd$ by a r>efi$ space1 & s depriv$ ( its light] con/itu5ts 7*iefly nitrog571 f\nd t ! nitrog5 f ! air :i* _h be5 subject$ to atmolysis 0 heavi] ?an t obta9$ f air :i* _h n be5 s treat$4 ,?is exp]im5t %[$ t ! nitrog5 ( air conta9s an admixture ( a gas :i*1 be+ heavi] ?an nitrog5 itself1#c diffuses m sl[ly ?an nitrog5 ?r\gh ! por\s mat]ial4 ,x rema9$1 !re=e1 to sep>ate ?is impurity f ! nitrog54 ,to d ?is ,rayleigh & ,ramsay adopt$ two me?ods1 conv]t+ ! nitrog5 into solid & liquid sub/ances1 ei!r by absorb+ ! nitrog5 by heat$ magnesium 7,*apt] ,v41 ,note #f1 & ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ad71 ) ! =mation ( nitride ( magnesium1 or else by conv]t+ x into nitric acid by ! action ( electric sp>ks or ! pres5ce ( an excess ( air & alkali1 z 9 ,cav5di%'s me?od4#c bis ,9 bo? cases ! nitrog5 ent]$ into reaction1 :ile ! heavi] gas mix$ ) x rema9$ in]t1 & 0 ?us able to be isolat$4 ,t is1 ! argon c\ld be sep>at$ by ^! means f ! excess ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 accompany+ x4#d ,z an illu/ration we w describe h[ argon 0 obta9$ f ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 by means ( magnesium4#e ,to beg9 )1 x 0 discov]$ t :5 atmosph]ic nitrog5 0 pass$ ?r\gh a tube conta9+ metallic magnesium heat$ to r$ness1 its specific gravity rose to #adhh4 ,z ?is %[$ t "p ( ! gas 0 absorb$ by ! magnesium1 a m]cury gasomet] fill$ ) atmosph]ic nitrog5 0 tak51 & ! gas drawn ov] soda-lime1 ,p#b,o#e1 heat$ magnesium#f & !n ?r\gh tubes conta9+ r$-hot copp] oxide1 soda-lime & phosphoric anhydride to a second m]cury gasomet]4 ,e "t ! gas 0 repass$ ?r\gh ! tubes1 x decreas$ 9 volume & increas$ 9 d5sity4 ,aft] repeat+ ?is = t5 days #a1ejj c4c4 ( gas 7 r$uc$ to #bjj cc41 & ! d5sity increas$ to #afa 7if t ( ,h#b #a & ,n#b #ad74 ,fur!r treatm5t ( ! rema9d] br\ght ! d5sity up to #aiji4 ,aft] add+ a small quantity ( oxyg5 & repass+ ! gas ?r\gh ! app>atus1 ! d5sity rose to #bjj4 ,to obta9 argon by ?is process ,ramsay & ,rayleigh 7employ+ a m]cury air pump & m]cury gasomet]s7 once treat$ ab\t #aej litres ( atmosph]ic nitrog54 ,on ano!r occasion !y treat$ #g1ibe c4c4 ( air by ! oxidation me?od & obta9$ #fe c4c4 ( argon1 :i* corresponds to #jhb p] c5t4 ,! d5sity ( ! argon obta9$ by ?is means 0 ne>ly #aig1 :ile t obta9$ by ! magnesium me?od v>i$ betwe5 #aiji & #bjch4 #c ,x might also be suppos$ t ?is heavy gas is sep>at$ by ! copp] :5 ! latt] absorbs ! oxyg5 ( ! air2 b su* a supposition is n only improbable 9 itself1 b does n agree ) ! fact t nitrog5 may be obta9$ f air by absorb+ ! oxyg5 by v>i\s o!r sub/ances 9 solution 7= in/ance1 by ! l[] oxides ( ! metals1 l ,fe,o7 besides r$-hot copp]1 & t ! nitrog5 obta9$ is always j z heavy4 ,besides :i*1 nitrog5 is also set free f its oxides by copp]1 & ! nitrog5 ?us obta9$ is light]4 ,!re=e x is n ! copp] :i* produces ! heavy gas--i4e4 argon4 #c bis ,x is wor?y ( note t ,cav5di% obta9$ a small residue ( gas 9 conv]t+ nitrog5 into nitric acid2 b he paid no att5tion to x1 al?\gh probably he _h 9 8 h&s ! v argon rec5tly discov]$4 #d ,:5 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 in/ead ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 ! gas obta9$ f its comp\nd 0 tak51 an in]t residue ( a heavy gas1 hav+ ! prop]ties ( argon1 0 also rem>k$1 b its am\nt 0 v small4 ,rayleigh & ,ramsay ascribe ! =mation ( ?is residue to ! fact t ! gas 9 ^! exp]im5ts 0 collect$ ov] wat]1 & a portion ( ! dissolv$ argon 9 x might h pass$ into ! nitrog54 ,z ! au?ors ( ?is supposition did n prove x by any special exp]im5ts1 x =ms a weak po9t 9 _! classical rese>*4 ,if x be admitt$ t argon is ,n#c1 ! fact ( its be+ obta9$ f ! nitrog5 ( comp\nds might be expla9$ by ! polym]isation ( a portion ( ! nitrog5 9 ! act ( reaction1 al?\gh x is impossible to refute ,rayleigh & ,ramsay's hypo!sis ( its be+ evolv$ f ! wat] employ$ 9 ! manipulation ( ! gases4 ,?ree ?\s& volumes ( nitrog5 extract$ f its comp\nds gave ab\t ?ree volumes ( argon1 :ile ?irty volumes 7 yield$ by ! same am\nt ( atmosph]ic nitrog54 #e ,! prep>ation ( argon by ! conv]sion ( nitrog5 into nitric acid is complicat$ by ! necessity ( add+ a l>ge proportion ( oxyg5 & alkali1 ( pass+ an electric dis*>ge ?r\gh ! mixture = a long p]iod1 & !n remov+ ! rema9+ oxyg54 ,all ?is 0 repeat$ly done by ! au?ors1 b ?is me?od is f> m complex1 bo? 9 practice & !ory1 ?an ! prep>ation ( argon by means ( magnesium4 ,f #ajj volumes ( air subject$ to conv]sion into ,,hno#c1 #jgf volume ( argon 7 obta9$ aft] absorb+ ! excess ( oxyg54 #f ,9 ^! & ! foll[+ exp]im5ts ! magnesium 0 plac$ 9 an ord9>y h>d glass tube1 & heat$ 9 a gas furnace to a temp]ature almo/ suffici5t to s(t5 ! glass4 ,! curr5t ( gas mu/ be v sl[ 7a tube conta9+ a small quantity ( sulphuric acid s]v$ z a met]71 z o!rwise ! heat evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ! ,mg#c,n#b 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ad7 w melt ! tube4 ,?us ! fir/ positive & v important fact respect+ argon is t its specific gravity is ne>ly #bj--t is1 t x is #bj times heavi] ?an hydrog51 :ile nitrog5 is only #ad times & oxyg5 #af times heavi] ?an hydrog54 ,?is expla9s ! diff]5ce obs]v$ by ,rayleigh betwe5 ! d5sities ( nitrog5 obta9$ f its comp\nds & f ! atmosph]e 7,*apt] ,v41 ,note #d bis74 ,at #j & #gfj mm4 a litre ( ! =m] gas weighs #abeje grm41 :ile a litre ( ! latt] weighs #abegb1 or tak+ ,h #a1 ! d5sity ( ! fir/ #aciaf1 & ( ! latt] #aciia4 ,if ! d5sity ( argon be tak5 z #bj1 x is conta9$ 9 atmosph]ic nitrog5 to ! ext5t ( ab\t #abc p] c5t4 by volume1 :il/ air conta9s ab\t #jig p] c5t4 by volume4 ,:5 argon _h be5 isolat$ ! "q naturally arose1 0 x a new homog5e\s sub/ance hav+ def9ite prop]ties or 0 x a mixture ( gases8 ,! =m] may n[ be positively ass]t$1 namely1 t argon is a peculi> gas previ\sly unkn[n to *emi/ry4 ,su* a conviction is 9 ! fir/ place e/abli%$ by ! fact t argon has a great] numb] ( negative prop]ties1 a small] capacity = reaction1 ?an any o!r simple or comp\nd body kn[n4 ,! mo/ in]t gas kn[n is nitrog51 b argon f> exce$s x 9 ?is respect4 ,?us nitrog5 is absorb$ at a r$ heat by _m metals1 ) ! =mation ( nitrides1 :ile argon1 z is se5 9 ! mode ( its prep>ation & by direct exp]im5t1 does n possess ?is prop]ty4 ,nitrog51 "u ! action ( electric sp>ks1 comb9es ) hydrog5 9 ! pres5ce ( acids & ) oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 :ile argon is unable to d s1 z is se5 f ! me?od ( sep>ation f nitrog54 ,rayleigh & ,ramsay also prov$ t argon is unable to react ) *lor9e 7dry or moi/7 ei!r directly or "u ! action ( an electric dis*>ge1 or ) phosphorus or sulphur1 at a r$ heat4 ,sodium1 potassium1 & tellurium may be di/ill$ 9 an atmosph]e ( argon )\t *ange4 ,fus$ cau/ic soda1 inc&esc5t soda-lime1 molt5 nitre1 r$-hot p]oxide ( sodium1 & ! polysulphides ( calcium & sodium also d n react ) argon4 ,plat9um black does n absorb x1 & spongy plat9um is unable to excite its reaction ) oxyg5 or *lor9e4 ,aqua regia1 brom9e wat]1 & a mixture ( hydro*loric acid & ,k,mn,o#d 7 also )\t action ^u argon4 ,besides :i* x is evid5t f ! me?od ( its prep>ation t x is n act$ ^u by r$-hot oxide ( copp]4 ,all ^! facts exclude any possibility ( argon conta9+ any already kn[n body1 & prove x to be ! mo/ in]t ( all ! gases kn[n4 ,b besides ^! negative po9ts1 ! indep5d5cy ( argon is confirm$ by f\r obs]v$ positive prop]ties possess$ by x1 :i* are3-- #a4 ,! spectrum ( argon obs]v$ by ,crookes "u a l[ pressure 79 ,geissl]-,plck] tubes7 di/+ui%es x f o!r gases4#g ,x 0 prov$ by ?is means t ! argon obta9$ by means ( magnesium is id5tical ) t :i* rema9s aft] ! conv]sion ( ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 into nitric acid4 ,l nitrog51 argon pres5ts two spectra produc$ at diff]5t pot5tials ( ! induc$ curr5t1 "o be+ orange-r$1 ! o!r /eel-blue2 ! latt] is obta9$ "u a high] degree ( r>efaction & ) a batt]y ( ,leyd5 j>s4 ,bo? ! spectra ( argon 79 contradi/9ction to ^? ( nitrog57 are di/+ui%$ by cle>ly def9$ l9es4#h ,! r$ 7ord9>y7 spectrum ( argon has two p>ticul>ly brilliant & *>act]i/ic r$ l9es 7n f> f ! bright r$ l9e ( li?ium1 on ! opposite side to ! orange b&7 hav+ wave-l5g?s #gjefd & #fifef 7see ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #efe74 ,betwe5 ^! bright l9es !re are 9 addition l9es ) wave l5g?s #fjch1 #efea1 #efaj1 #eeeg1 #eaheh1 #eafe1 #dejie1 #dbjaj1 #daeie & #cidhe4 ,altoge!r #hj l9es h be5 obs]v$ 9 ?is spectrum & #aai 9 ! blue spectrum1 ( :i* #bf are common to bo? spectra4#i #g ,! greate/ brilliancy ( ! spectrum ( argon is obta9$ at a t5sion ( #c mm41 :ile = nitrog5 x is ab\t #ge mm4 7,crookes74 ,9 ,*apt] ,v41 ,note #af bis1 x is said t ! same blue l9e obs]v$ 9 ! spectrum ( argon is also obs]v$ 9 ! spectrum ( nitrog54 ,?is is a mi/ake1 s9ce !re is no co9cid5ce betwe5 ! blue l9es ( ! argon & nitrog5 spectra4 ,h[ev]1 we may add t = nitrog5 ! foll[+ mod]ately bright l9es are kn[n ( wave-l5g?s #ehe1 #egd1 #edd1 #eaf1 #deg1 #ddb1 #dcf1 & #dbf1 :i* are repeat$ 9 ! spectra 7r$ & blue7 ( argon1 judg+ by ,crookes' rese>*es 7#ahie72 b x is naturally impossible to ass]t t !re is p]fect id5tity until "s special comp>ative "w has be5 done 9 ?is subject1 :i* is v desirable1 & m especially = ! blui%-violet portion ( ! spectrum1 m p>ticul>ly betwe5 ! l9es #ddb-dcf1 z ^! l9es are di/+ui%$ by _! brilliancy 9 bo? ! argon & nitrog5 spectra4 ,! above-m5tion$ supposition ( argon be+ polym]is$ nitrog5 7,n#c71 =m$ f nitrog5 7,n#b71 ) ! evolution ( heat1 might f9d "s support %\ld x be f\nd aft] c>eful comp>ison t ev5 a limit$ numb] ( spectral l9es co9cid$4 #h ,at fir/ ! spectrum ( argon exhibits ! nitrog5 l9es1 b aft] a c]ta9 "t ^! l9es disappe> 7"u ! influ5ce ( ! plat9um1 & also ( ,al & ,mg1 b ) ! latt] ! spectrum ( hydrog5 appe>s7 & leave a pure argon spectrum4 ,x does n appe> cle> to me :e!r a polym]isation "h takes place or a simple absorption4 ,p]haps ! elucidation ( ?is "q w\ld prove important 9 ! hi/ory ( argon4 ,x w\ld be desirable to "k1 = in/ance1 :e!r ! volume ( argon *anges :5 x is fir/ subject$ to ! action ( ! electric dis*>ge4 #i ,crookes supposes t argon conta9s a mixture ( two gases1 b z he gives no reasons = ?is1 beyond c]ta9 peculi>ities ( a spectroscopic "*1 we w n consid] ?is hypo!sis fur!r4 #b4 ,accord+ to ,rayleigh & ,ramsay ! solubility ( argon 9 wat] is approximately #d volumes 9 #ajj volumes ( wat] at #ac4 ,?us argon is ne>ly #b-a_/b times m soluble ?an nitrog51 & its solubility approa*es t ( oxyg54 ,direct exp]im5t proves t nitrog5 obta9$ f air f boil$ wat] is heavi] ?an t obta9$ /raight f ! atmosph]e4 ,?is aga9 is an indirect pro( ( ! pres5ce ( argon 9 air4 #c4 ,! ratio k ( ! two specific heats 7at a con/ant pressure & at a con/ant volume7 ( argon 0 det]m9$ by ,rayleigh & ,ramsay by ! me?od ( ! velocity ( s\nd 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #g & ,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #bf7 & 0 f\nd to be ne>ly #aff1 t is great] ?an = ^? gases ^: molecules conta9 two atoms 7= in/ance1 ,,co1 ,h#b1 ,n#b1 air1 c41 = :i* k is ne>ly #ad7 or ^? ^: molecules conta9 ?ree atoms 7= in/ance1 ,,co#b1 ,n#b,o1 c41 = :i* k is ab\t #ac71 b closely approximate to ! ratio ( ! specific heats ( m]cury vap\r 7,kundt & ,w>burg1 k #afg74 ,& z ! molecule ( m]cury vap\r conta9s "o atom1 s x may be said t argon is a simple gase\s body ^: molecule conta9s "o atom4#aj ,a comp\nd body %\ld give a small] ratio4 ,! exp]im5ts ^u ! liquefaction ( argon1 :i* we %all pres5tly describe1 speak aga9/ ! supposition t argon is a mixture ( two gases4 ,! importance ( ! results 9 "q makes "o wi% t ! det]m9ations ( ! ratio ( ! specific heats 7& o!r physical prop]ties7 might be confirm$ ) all possible accuracy4#aa ,if we admit1 z we are oblig$ to d = ! pres5t1 t argon is a new elem5t1 its d5sity %[s t its atomic weight mu/ be ne>ly #dj1 t is1 ne> to t ( ,k #ci & ,ca #dj1 :i* does n correspond to ! exi/+ data respect+ ! p]iodicity ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts 9 dep5d5ce ^u _! atomic weights1 = !re is no reason on ! basis ( exi/+ data = admitt+ any int]m$iate elem5ts betwe5 ,cl #cee & ,k #ci1 & all ! positions above potassium 9 ! p]iodic sy/em are occupi$4 ,?is r5d]s x v desirable t ! velocity ( s\nd 9 argon %\ld be re-det]m9$4#ab #aj ,?is portion ( ,rayleigh & ,ramsay's rese>*es des]ves p>ticul> att5tion z1 s f>1 no gase\s sub/ance is kn[n ^: molecule conta9s b "o atom4 ,7 x n = ! above det]m9ations1 x might be ?\ght t argon1 hav+ a d5sity #bj1 has a complex molecule1 & may be a comp\nd or polym]is$ body1 = in/ance1 ,n#c or ,,nxn1 or 9 g5]al ,xn2 b z ! matt] /&s1 x c only be said t ei!r 7#a7 argon is a new1 peculi>1 & q unusual elem5t>y sub/ance1 s9ce !re is no reason = assum+ x to conta9 two simple gases1 or 7#b7 ! magnitude1 k 7! ratio ( ! specific heats7 does n only dep5d ^u ! numb] ( atoms conta9$ 9 ! molecules1 b also ^u ! /ore ( int]nal en]gy 7int]nal motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecule74 ,%\ld ! latt] be admitt$1 x w\ld foll[ t ! molecules ( v active gase\s elem5ts w\ld correspond to a small] k ?an ^? ( o!r gases hav+ an equal numb] ( atoms 9 _! molecule4 ,su* a gas is *lor9e1 = :i* k #acc 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #g74 ,= gases hav+ a small *emical en]gy1 on ! contr>y1 a l>g] magnitude w\ld be expect$ = k4 ,i ?9k ^! que/ions might be p>tially settl$ by det]m9+ k = ozone 7,o#c7 & sulphur 7,s#f7 7at ab\t #ejj74 ,9 o!r words1 ,i w\ld sugge/1 ?\gh only provisionally1 t ! magnitude1 k #af1 obta9$ = argon might prove to agree ) ! hypo!sis t argon is ,n#c1 =m$ f ,n#b ) ! evolution ( heat or loss ( en]gy4 ,"h argon gives rise to que/ions ( prim>y importance1 & x is to be hop$ t fur!r rese>* w ?r[ "s light ^u !m4 ,9 mak+ ^! rem>ks1 ,i only wi% to cle> ! road = fur!r progress 9 ! /udy ( argon1 & ( ! que/ions dep5d+ on x4 ,i may also rem>k t if argon is ,n#c =m$ ) ! evolution ( heat1 its conv]sion into nitrog51 ,n#b1 & into nitride comp\nds 7= in/ance1 boron nitride or nitride ( titanium7 might only take place at a v high temp]ature4 #aa ,)\t hav+ ! slighte/ reason = d\bt+ ! accuracy ( ,rayleigh & ,ramsay's det]m9ations1 ,i ?9k x necess>y to say t z yet 7,febru>y #ahie7 ,i am only acqua9t$ ) ! %ort memoir ( ! above *emi/s 9 ! ',proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society1' :i* does n give any description ( ! me?ods employ$ & results obta9$1 :ile at ! end 79 ! g5]al conclusions7 ! au?ors !mselves express "s d\bt z to ! simple nature ( argon4 ,moreov]1 x seems to me t 7,note #aj7 !re mu/ be a dep5d5ce ( k ^u ! *emical en]gy4 ,besides :i*1 x is n cle> :at d5sity ( ! gas ,rayleigh & ,ramsay took 9 det]m9+ k4 7,if argon be ,n#c1 its d5sity w\ld be ne> to #ba47 ,h5ce ,i p]mit myself to express "s d\bt z to :e!r ! molecule ( argon conta9s b "o atom4 #ab ,if x %\ld be f\nd t k = argon is less ?an #ad1 or t k is dep5d5t ^u ! *emical en]gy1 x w\ld be possible to admit t ! molecule ( argon conta9s n "o1 b sev]al atoms--= in/ance1 ei!r ,n#c 7!n ! d5sity w\ld be #ba1 :i* is ne> to ! obs]v$ d5sity7 or ,x#f1 if ,x /& = an elem5t ) an atomic weight ne> to #fg4 ,no elem5ts are kn[n betwe5 ,h #a & ,li #g1 b p]haps !y may exi/4 ,! hypo!sis ,a #dj does n admit argon into ! p]iodic sy/em4 ,if ! molecule ( argon be tak5 z ,a#b--;i4e4 ! atomic weight z ,a #bj--;argon app>5tly f9ds a place 9 ,gr\p ,,viii41 betwe5 ,f #ai & ,na #bc2 b su* a position c\ld only be ju/ifi$ by ! consid]ation t elem5ts ( small atomic weight belong to ! category ( typical elem5ts :i* (f] _m peculi>ities 9 _! prop]ties1 z is se5 on comp>+ ,n ) ! o!r elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,v41 or ,o ) ^? ( ,gr\p ,,vi4 ,ap>t f ?is !re appe>s to me to be little probability1 9 ! light ( ! p]iodic law1 9 ! position ( an in]t sub/ance l argon 9 ,gr\p ,,viii41 betwe5 su* active elem5ts z fluor9e & sodium1 z ! repres5tatives ( ?is gr\p by _! atomic weights & also by _! prop]ties %[ di/9ct transitions f ! elem5ts ( ! la/ gr\ps ( ! unev5 s]ies to ! elem5ts ( ! fir/ gr\ps ( ! ev5 s]ies--= in/ance1 ,gr\p ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,cr ,mn ,fe1 ,co1 ,ni ,cu ,zn ,:ile if we place argon 9 a simil> mann]1 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,o #af ,f #ai ,a #bj ,na #bc ,mg #bd al?\gh f a num]ical po9t ( view !re is a simil> sequ5ce to ! above1 /ill f a *emical & physical po9t ( view ! result is q diff]5t1 z !re is no su* resemblance betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ,o1 ,f & ,na1 ,mg1 z betwe5 ,cr1 ,mn1 & ,cu1 ,zn4 ,i repeat t only ! typical "* ( ! elem5ts ) small atomic weights c ju/ify ! atomic weight ,a #bj1 & ! plac+ ( argon 9 ,gr\p ,,viii4 among/ ! typical elem5ts2 !n ,n1 ,o1 ,f1 ,a are a s]ies ( gases4 ,x appe>s to me simpl] to assume t argon conta9s ,n#c1 especially z argon is pres5t 9 nitrog5 & accompanies x1 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 none ( ! obs]v$ prop]ties ( argon are contradictory to ?is hypo!sis4 ,^! obs]vations 7 writt5 by me 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,febru>y #ahie1 & on ! #bi? ( t mon? ,i receiv$ a lett]1 dat$ ,febru>y #be1 f ,pr(essor ,ramsay in=m+ me t '! p]iodic classification entirely corresponds to its 7argon's7 atomic weight1 & t x ev5 gives a fre% pro( ( ! p]iodic law1' judg+ f ! rese>*es ( my ,engli% fri5ds4 ,b 9 :at ^! rese>*es consi/$1 & h[ ! above agreem5t betwe5 ! atomic weight ( argon & ! p]iodic sy/em 0 arriv$ at1 is n ref]r$ to 9 ! lett]1 & we rema9 9 expectation ( a fir/ publication ( ! "w ( ,"l ,rayleigh & ,pr(essor ,ramsey4 ,= m complete in=mation see pap]s read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 ,janu>y #ca1 #ahie1 ,febru>y #ac1 ,m>* #aj1 & ,may #ba1 #ahif1 & a pap] publi%$ 9 ! ,*emical ,society's ,transactions1 #ahie1 p4 #fhd4 ,= ab/racts ( ^! & o!r pap]s on argon & helium1 & correspond5ce1 see ',nature1' #ahie & #ahif4 #d4 ,argon 0 liquefi$ by ,pr(essor ,olszewsky1 :o is well kn[n = 8 classical rese>*es ^u liquefi$ gases4 ,^! rese>*es h an especial int]e/ s9ce !y %[ t argon exhibits a p]fect con/ancy 9 its prop]ties 9 ! liquid & critical /ates1 :i* almo/#ac disposes ( ! supposition t x conta9s a mixture ( two or m unkn[n gases4 ,z ! fir/ exp]im5ts %[$1 argon rema9s a gas "u a pressure ( #ajj atmosph]es & at a temp]ature ( -#ij2 ?is indicat$ t its critical temp]ature 0 probably bel[ ?is temp]ature1 z 0 inde$ f\nd to be ! case :5 ! temp]ature 0 l[]$ to -#abhfad by means ( liquid e?yl5e4 ,at ?is temp]ature argon easily liquefies to a col\rless liquid "u #ch atmosph]es4 ,! m5iscus beg9s to disappe> at betwe5 -#aaih & -#abaf1 mean -#aba at a pressure ( #ejf atmosph]es4 ,! vap\r t5sion ( liquid argon at -#abhf1 is #chj atmosph]es1 at -#ahg x is "o atmosph]e1 & at -#ahif x solidifies to a col\rless sub/ance l ice4 ,! specific gravity ( liquid argon at ab\t -#ahg is ne>ly #ae1 :i* is f> above t ( o!r liquefi$ gases ( v l[ absolute boil+ po9t4 ,! discov]y ( argon is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable *emical acquisitions ( rec5t times1 & we tru/ t ,"l ,rayleigh & ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 :o made ?is wond]ful discov]y1 w fur!r elucidate ! true nature ( argon1 z ?is %\ld wid5 ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( *emi/ry1 to :i* ! *emi/s ( ,great ,brita9 h f e>ly times made su* valuable contributions4 ,x w\ld be premature n[ to give any def9ite op9ions ^u s new a subject4 ,only "o ?+ c be said2 argon is s in]t t its rle 9 nature _c be consid]able1 not)/&+ its pres5ce 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,b z ! atmosph]e itself plays su* a va/ "p 9 ! life ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 e addition to our k ( its composition mu/ directly or indirectly react ^u ! sum total ( our k ( nature4 #ac ,!re only rema9s ! v remote possibility t argon consi/s ( a mixture ( two gases hav+ v ne>ly ! same prop]ties4 #ad ,! foll[+ data1 giv5 by ,olszewsky1 supplem5t ! data giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bi1 ^u liquefi$ gases4 7tc7 7pc7 t t#a s ,n#b -#adf #ce -#aidd -#bad #jhhe ,,co -#acie #cee -#aij -#bjg 8 ,a -#aba #ejf -#ahg -#ahif #ae ,o#b -#aahh #ejh -#ahbg 8 #aabd ,,no -#ice #gab -#aecf -#afg 8 ,,*#d -#hah #edi -#afd -#aehh #jdae :]e tc is ! absolute 7critical7 boil+ po9t1 pc ! pressure 7critical7 9 atmosph]es correspond+ to x1 t ! boil+ po9t 7"u a pressure ( #gfj mm471 t#a ! melt+ po9t1 & s ! specific gravity 9 a liquid /ate at t4 ,! above %[s t argon 9 its prop]ties 9 a liquid /ate /&s ne> to oxyg5 7z x also does 9 its solubility71 b t all ! temp]atures relat+ to x 7tc1 t1 & t#a7 are high] ?an = nitrog54 ,?is fully answ]s1 n only to ! high] d5sity ( argon1 b also to ! hypo!sis t x conta9s ,n#c4 ,& z ! boil+ po9t ( argon diff]s f t ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 by less ?an #aj1 & its am\nt is small1 x is easy to und]/& h[ ,dew> 7#ahid71 :o tri$ to sep>ate x f liquid air & nitrog5 by fractional di/illation1 0 unable to d s4 ,! fir/ & la/ portions 7 id5tical1 & nitrog5 f air %[$ no diff]5ce 9 its liquefaction f t obta9$ f its comp\nds1 or f t :i* _h be5 pass$ ?r\gh a tube conta9+ inc&esc5t magnesium4 ,/ill1 x is n q cle> :y bo? k9ds ( nitrog51 aft] be+ pass$ ov] ! magnesium 9 ,dew>'s exp]im5ts1 exhibit$ an almo/ simil> alt]ation 9 _! prop]ties1 indep5d5t ( ! appe>ance ( a small quantity ( hydrog5 9 !m4 ,conclud+ ,rem>ks 7,m>* #ca1 #ahie74--,! ',comptes r5dus' ( ! ,p>is ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,m>* #ah1 #ahie1 conta9s a memoir by ,b]!lot ^u ! reaction ( argon ) ! vap\r ( b5z5e "u ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge4 ,9 8 exp]im5ts1 ,b]!lot succe$$ 9 treat+ #hc p] c5t4 ( ! argon tak5 = ! purpose1 & suppli$ to him by ,ramsay 7#cg c4c4 9 all74 ,! composition ( ! product c\ld n be det]m9$ ow+ to ! small am\nt obta9$1 b 9 its outw>d appe>ance x q resembl$ ! product =m$ "u simil> conditions by nitrog54 ,?is obs]vation ( ! fam\s ,fr5* *emi/ to "s ext5t supports ! supposition t argon is a polym]is$ v>iety ( nitrog5 ^: molecule conta9s ,n#c1 :ile ord9>y nitrog5 conta9s ,n#b4 ,%\ld ?is supposition be ev5tually v]ifi$1 ! int]e/ 9 argon w n only n less51 b become great]4 ,= ?is1 h[ev]1 we mu/ wait = fur!r obs]vations & detail$ exp]im5tal data f ,rayleigh & ,ramsay4 ,! late/ in=mation obta9$ by me f ,london is t ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 by treat+ cleveite 7conta9+ ,pb,o1 ,,uo#c1 ,y#b,o#c1 c47 ) sulphuric acid1 obta9$ argon1 &1 judg+ by ! spectrum1 helium also4 ,! accumulation ( simil> data may1 aft] detail$ & div]sifi$ rese>*1 consid]ably increase ! /ock ( *emical k :i*1 con/antly wid5+1 _c be exhau/ively treat$ 9 ^! ',pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry1' al?\gh v probably furni%+ fre% pro( ( ! 'p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,( ,,au?orities ,aba%eff1 i4 #ge ,abel1 ii4 #ef1 #cbf1 #daj ,a*eson1 ii4 #ajg ,adie1 ii4 #ahf ,alexeff1 i4 #ge1 #id ,allu>d1 i4 #deh ,amagat1 i4 #acb1 #ace1 #adj ,amat1 ii4 #aga ,amm]mll]1 i4 #ejd ,ampre1 i4 #cji ,&reff1 i4 #bea ,&rews1 i4 #acf1 #bjc ,angeli1 i4 #bff ,ansdell1 i4 #dea ,arfv$son1 i4 #ege ,arrh5ius1 i4 #hi1 #ib1 #chi ,as*(f1 ii4 #cac ,ask5asy1 i4 #ejh ,aubel1 ii4 #de ,aub91 i4 #bch ,avdeff1 i4 #fah2 ii4 #dhd ,avogadro1 i4 #cji ,babo1 v41 i4 #ic1 #bjj1 #bjc ,ba*1 i4 #cid ,ba*metieff1 ii4 #ca ,baey]1 v41 i4 #ejg ,bag\ski1 i4 #chd ,bailey1 i4 #ddi2 ii4 #bi ,bak]1 i4 #cah1 #djc ,bal>d1 i4 #dhj1 #did1 #die1 #eje ,ball1 ii4 #dad ,bann(f1 i4 #ejf ,b>fo$1 ii4 #ec ,b>oni1 i4 #cca ,b>reswill1 ii4 #bhb ,baudrimont1 ii4 #ce ,baum1 i4 #aic ,baumgau]1 ii4 #bj ,baumhau]1 i4 #die ,bay]1 ii4 #gf1 #aei ,baz>(f1 i4 #dji2 ii4 #bd1 #fh1 #dhf ,be*]1 i4 #ag ,beck]1 i4 #af ,beckmann1 i4 #ia1 #dif2 ii4 #aef ,becqu]el1 i4 #bbh2 ii4 #ig1 #bbj ,beilby1 i4 #ga ,beil/e91 i4 #cgc2 ii4 #ahh ,beket(f1 i4 #abj1 #abb1 #abd1 #adf1 #djc1 #dei1 #dff1 #ecd1 #eda1 #egd1 #egg2 ii4 #hg1 #ajb1 #bhi1 #dbi ,b5d]1 i4 #dgf ,b5$ict1 ii4 #fe ,b]glund1 ii4 #bbi ,b]gman1 i4 #bg1 #dce2 ii4 #ajj ,b]l91 i4 #ie ,b]n\illi1 i4 #ha ,b]n?s51 ii4 #bbh ,b]t1 i4 #hf1 #aec ,b]!im1 ii4 #ccg ,b]!lot1 i4 #aga1 #agc1 #ahi1 #aii1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #beh1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgb1 #hc1 #bhi1 #cea1 #cgb1 #cic1 #cid1 #dje1 #dae1 #dbd1 #dch1 #deg1 #dfc1 #ejb1 #ejf1 #ejg1 #eah1 #ebi1 #ecg1 #ehb2 ii4 #bc1 #eg1 #bjg1 #bji1 #bea1 #bec1 #bei1 #cde1 #cfg ,b]?i]1 ii4 #h ,b]?ollet1 i4 #bg1 #ca1 #aje1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #dei1 #dgj1 #ejb1 #fji ,b]zelius1 i4 #aca1 #adh1 #aid1 #bee1 #cgi2 ii4 #h1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #adg1 #adh1 #bai1 #bha1 #cjj1 #dhe ,besson1 i4 #bhh2 ii4 #fg1 #gj1 #aje1 #agi ,beudant1 ii4 #g1 #h ,b9eau1 i4 #ajj1 #bga1 #deb1 #ejd2 ii4 #bci ,b+et1 i4 #ge ,blaese1 ii4 #ahh ,blagd51 i4 #ia1 #dbh ,blake1 ii4 #cj ,blitz1 ii4 #ahd ,blom/r&1 ii4 #bii ,bo]wald1 ii4 #bgi ,bttg]1 i4 #eie ,bogorodsky1 i4 #egd ,boilleau1 i4 #dae ,boisbaudran1 ,l4 de1 i4 #ig1 #ajb1 #egb1 #fjj2 ii4 #f1 #bf1 #ij1 #hb1 #bhd1 #dhc ,bornemann1 i4 #eji ,botk91 ii4 #cj ,b\*>dat1 ii4 #de ,b\llay1 ii4 #ee ,b\rdiak(f1 i4 #ehd1 #fag ,b\ss+ault1 i4 #aca1 #aeg1 #bcc1 #bce1 #ebe1 #fae ,boyle1 i4 #abd ,br&1 ii4 #aej ,br&au1 i4 #dha ,br&es1 i4 #gb ,bravais1 i4 #bcc ,braun]1 i4 #dij1 #dia2 ii4 #bf1 #ei1 #id1 #if1 #ig1 #acd1 #add1 #aid1 #bga1 #dhc ,brew/]1 i4 #efi ,brigham1 ii4 #aic ,brodie1 i4 #bab1 #cea1 #dje2 ii4 #beb ,brooke1 ii4 #ceg ,br[n1 i4 #ha1 #hh ,brugellmann1 i4 #faf ,brunn1 ii4 #ahb1 #ahi ,bruyn1 i4 #bfb ,brhl1 i4 #bfc1 #ccg ,brunn]1 i4 #abd1 #adf1 #bfc2 ii4 #bcj1 #cji1 #ecd ,bu*n]1 i4 #fae ,buckton1 ii4 #adc ,buff1 ii4 #ajc ,bunge1 i4 #bhh ,buns51 i4 #dc1 #fi1 #gh1 #aag1 #ahj1 #dfe1 #efh1 #ege1 #egf1 #egg2 ii4 #bg1 #bhi ,bussy1 i4 #ge1 #eid1 #fai ,butl](f1 i4 #adc ,by/rom1 i4 #ehe ,cagni>d de ,lat\r1 i4 #ace1 #cde ,cah\rs1 ii4 #adc1 #agc ,cailletet1 i4 #acb1 #ach2 ii4 #de ,cald]on1 i4 #eif ,call5d]1 i4 #acd ,calv]t1 i4 #dhd2 ii4 #de ,cannizz>o1 i4 #ehd1 #ehg ,c>ey-,lea1 ii4 #dbj1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dcb ,c>ius1 i4 #fi1 #dha ,c>nelley1 i4 #dhc1 #eae1 #eee2 ii4 #bb1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #fd1 #adc1 #dhf ,c>not1 ii4 #bid1 #cfa ,c>on1 i4 #eie1 #fjd1 #faj2 ii4 #ccf ,c>r>a1 i4 #bac ,cass1 ii4 #he ,ca/n]1 i4 #dca1 #ece1 #eda ,cavazzi1 ii4 #afj1 #agb1 #ahb ,cav5di%1 i4 #aac1 #abe1 #bbh2 ii4 #dic ,*abri1 i4 #bbi ,*appuis1 i4 #ej1 #aii1 #bje1 #bfd ,*apuy1 i4 #ei ,*eltz(f1 i4 #cic1 #deg1 #ehb2 ii4 #da1 #bdg ,*]ik(f1 ii4 #ajb ,*]tel1 ii4 #bde ,*evillot1 ii4 #caa ,*evreul1 i4 #ecj ,*igeffsky1 ii4 #fb ,*ri/omanos1 i4 #eaa ,*r\/*(f1 i4 #cec1 #ddd2 ii4 #abb ,*yd5ius1 ii4 #adh1 #dhe ,ciamician1 i4 #efe1 #egc2 ii4 #dhf ,cl>k1 i4 #bf ,class51 ii4 #adf ,clausius1 i4 #ha1 #ic1 #adj1 #adb1 #bab1 #cji1 #dia ,clem5t1 i4 #did ,clve1 ii4 #bf1 #id1 #ig1 #dhd ,cloez1 i4 #bjg1 #bdf1 #cgg ,cl[es1 i4 #bdb ,coll5d>1 i4 #acd ,comaille1 i4 #eif ,comb1 ii4 #ha ,connell1 i4 #ejh ,coppet1 i4 #ia1 #dbh1 #fja ,cor5w9d]1 i4 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,moissan1 i4 #bjb1 #cdi1 #cec1 #dij1 #efd1 #ehe1 #fba2 ii4 #ff1 #fg1 #gj1 #hh1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #adg1 #agd1 #aif1 #bhi1 #bie1 #cji1 #caa1 #cac1 #cba ,mond1 i4 #abi1 #djj1 #dje2 ii4 #cde1 #cfg ,monge1 i4 #aad ,monni]1 i4 #faa ,montem>t9i1 i4 #bgi ,moraht1 ii4 #chd ,moreau1 ii4 #bih ,morel1 i4 #edi ,mos&]1 ii4 #ig ,mhlhus]1 ii4 #ff1 #ajg ,muir1 ii4 #aic ,muld]1 i4 #eae ,mll]-,erzba*1 i4 #ajc ,mll]1 i4 #dbg2 ii4 #dbe ,mun/]1 ii4 #ddc ,mntz1 i4 #bch1 #bda1 #dbj1 #eec ,mu?mann1 ii4 #bgc ,mylius1 ii4 #cge1 #chi ,nas*old1 i4 #dhc ,nas9i1 i4 #dif2 ii4 #aef ,natanson1 i4 #bhb1 #dji ,natt]]1 i4 #acb1 #ace1 #ada1 #che ,naumann1 i4 #cii1 #djh ,n]n/1 i4 #fb1 #adh2 ii4 #c1 #ej ,n5sky1 i4 #bde ,neville1 i4 #ecg2 ii4 #abh1 #ddh ,newl&s1 ii4 #ba1 #bf ,new?1 i4 #eje ,newton1 i4 #g1 #bi ,nickls1 ii4 #aj ,nikoluk91 i4 #dia2 ii4 #add ,nilson1 i4 #fah2 ii4 #bf1 #cg1 #hj1 #hc1 #ia1 #id1 #ie1 #bga1 #cgh1 #dhc ,nord5skild1 i4 #bda ,norton1 i4 #gf2 ii4 #id ,nuricsn1 ii4 #bfd ,odl+1 ii4 #eb ,(f]1 i4 #ii ,ogi]1 i4 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#ccc1 #deb1 #eag1 #ebe1 #ebi1 #fac2 ii4 #bda1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdg ,pictet1 i4 #ha1 #abi1 #acg2 ii4 #ca1 #bda ,picton1 ii4 #bbc ,pi]re1 i4 #deb1 #die2 ii4 #bbf1 #dhe ,pi]son1 i4 #ic ,pigeon1 ii4 #cgg ,pion*on1 i4 #ehe ,pi/or1 i4 #cii ,plantam\r1 ii4 #e ,plaset1 ii4 #bhi ,plessy1 ii4 #beg ,plck]1 i4 #egb ,poggiale1 i4 #dbg ,poiseuille1 i4 #cee ,poleck1 ii4 #bif ,poluta1 ii4 #cj ,popp1 ii4 #bcb ,potilitz91 i4 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #dde1 #dhf1 #dii1 #ejb1 #eji1 #fab2 ii4 #bi1 #ceg ,pott1 ii4 #ajj ,p\l5c1 ii4 #agd1 #bhi ,prange1 ii4 #dbb ,prel+]1 ii4 #caj ,prie/ley1 i4 #ag1 #aed1 #aei1 #big1 #cgi1 #djb ,pr+%eim1 i4 #dfe ,pro/1 i4 #ih1 #dhf ,pr\t1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #dci ,pu*ot1 i4 #deb ,pull+]1 ii4 #chi ,qu9cke1 i4 #dbg1 #die ,rammelsb]g1 i4 #dcj1 #eaj1 #ebe2 ii4 #bf1 #afa1 #dhe ,ramsay1 i4 #acc1 #adj1 #ada1 #bcb1 #bdg1 #ccc1 #die1 #dif1 #eha2 ii4 #abh1 #dia ,rant%eff1 ii4 #bj ,ra\lt1 i4 #ia1 #bgd1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccb1 #dbi ,ras*]1 ii4 #he ,ras*ig1 i4 #bfc2 ii4 #bbi ,ra?ke1 i4 #cii ,ray1 i4 #ag ,rayleigh1 i4 #bbf1 #bcb1 #dia ,rebs1 ii4 #bac1 #bag ,rec\ra1 i4 #ccb2 ii4 #bhi ,regnault1 i4 #dj1 #ec1 #ed1 #ij1 #ic1 #aca1 #acc1 #big1 #ddc1 #die1 #ehd1 #ehg1 #ehh2 ii4 #ej1 #bjh1 #bch ,rei*1 ii4 #ia ,reiset1 i4 #bch ,rems51 ii4 #cce ,retg]s1 ii4 #aeg1 #aeh1 #ahj ,rey*l]1 ii4 #fe ,reynolds1 i4 #eha ,ri*>ds1 i4 #ebf1 #ehe2 ii4 #cb1 #dcb ,ri*e1 i4 #eji2 ii4 #abg1 #bib ,ri*t]1 i4 #aic1 #aid2 ii4 #ia ,ridb]g1 ii4 #ba1 #bd1 #dhf ,riddle1 i4 #ace ,rideal1 ii4 #big ,rob]ts-,au/51 ii4 #dhf ,rob9son1 i4 #eae ,rodg]1 ii4 #bac1 #bfc ,rodwell1 i4 #ag ,roebuck1 i4 #bid ,rggs1 ii4 #aai ,rohr]1 ii4 #cdc ,roozeboom1 i4 #ajf1 #deb1 #dec1 #dfd1 #dif1 #ejf1 #eaa1 #eii1 #fac2 ii4 #c1 #bbf1 #cda1 #daj ,roscoe1 i4 #hj1 #ajj1 #aja1 #cgi1 #deb1 #dfc1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #efh1 #egb2 ii4 #bf1 #aid1 #aif1 #aig1 #big1 #cjc1 #dhe ,rose1 i4 #dcf1 #dcg1 #eah1 #ebe1 #fjh1 #fab2 ii4 #h1 #bcj1 #bce1 #bdh1 #bha1 #cfc1 #dbh1 #dhe ,ros5b]g1 ii4 #cea ,rossetti1 i4 #dbh ,r\>t1 ,le1 ii4 #hf ,r\sseau1 i4 #ced2 ii4 #ccg1 #cff1 #cgh ,r\x1 ii4 #ha ,rudb]g1 ii4 #acf ,rck]1 i4 #adb ,rdorff1 i4 #ia1 #dbh1 #eih1 #fja ,rybalk91 i4 #dee ,sabaneff1 i4 #cga ,sabati]1 i4 #bhd2 ii4 #ff ,sa9t ,edm1 ii4 #cce ,sa9t ,gilles1 i4 #dca ,sakurai1 i4 #cca ,salz]1 ii4 #afa ,s>as91 ii4 #abb ,s>rau1 i4 #adj1 #adb ,saund]s1 ii4 #ahi ,s*>ples1 i4 #egf ,s*eele1 i4 #aee1 #afa1 #dab1 #dei1 #dfb1 #fjh2 ii4 #ajj1 #aej1 #bia ,s*eff]1 i4 #dec ,s*eibl]1 ii4 #bib1 #bif ,s*]]1 ii4 #h ,s*iap>elli1 ii4 #cah ,s*idl(fsky1 i4 #bch ,s*il(f1 i4 #bab ,s*lamp1 i4 #ccb ,s*iff1 i4 #dcj1 #ehh2 ii4 #ajf1 #bfg ,s*loes+1 i4 #bch1 #bci1 #bdj1 #eec1 #faj ,s*midt1 i4 #eci ,s*neid]1 i4 #hi ,s*ne1 i4 #bjh1 #bji1 #baa1 #cid1 #fag2 ii4 #ae1 #gb1 #bai1 #bea1 #dhh ,s*nebe91 i4 #aih1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #bab1 #eji2 ii4 #bbh1 #dfc ,s*ottlnd]1 ii4 #ddg ,s*rd]1 i4 #ge ,s*ro$]]1 ii4 #cff ,s*rtt]1 ii4 #aec1 #bhd ,s*tz5b]g]1 i4 #eaa1 #egi2 ii4 #ajb1 #ajg1 #bbh1 #cfg1 #chi ,s*ulia*5ko1 i4 #fjh ,s*ull]1 ii4 #ahj ,s*ultz1 i4 #eah2 ii4 #bgc ,s*ulze1 i4 #ih2 ii4 #bae ,s*u/]1 i4 #egb ,s*wick]1 ii4 #bbg1 #bcj ,scott1 i4 #dje1 #ecg1 #eeh ,se*5(f1 i4 #hj1 #hf ,seelheim1 ii4 #cgi ,sef/rm1 ii4 #aig ,selivan(f1 i4 #dgf1 #ejg1 #ejh ,s5d]5s1 i4 #bhd ,s]ullas1 i4 #dhe ,sett]b]g1 i4 #egf ,seub]t1 ii4 #bg1 #hc1 #cdc1 #ddb ,sewits*1 i4 #cgb ,%affgots*1 i4 #eee ,%apleigh1 ii4 #ie ,%5/one1 i4 #faa ,%ields1 i4 #ccc ,%i%k(f1 i4 #bgf2 ii4 #ef ,silb]man1 i4 #abj1 #agb2 ii4 #bei ,sims1 ii4 #bfh ,skraup1 ii4 #cdf ,smi?1 i4 #bga ,smi?son1 ii4 #ajj ,snyd]s1 ii4 #ajj ,sokol(f1 ii4 #he1 #abb ,solet1 i4 #eji ,son/adt1 ii4 #ddc ,sorby1 i4 #hh ,soret1 i4 #ff1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #dbg ,spr+1 i4 #ch1 #ih1 #dcd1 #dhf2 ii4 #de1 #ej1 #acc1 #bbc1 #beh1 #bhh1 #cad1 #dbc1 #dbg ,/adion1 i4 #dhe ,/ahl1 i4 #af ,/as1 i4 #g1 #bcc1 #cgi1 #dbh1 #dih1 #eha2 ii4 #dbj1 #dcd1 #dhe ,/aud5mai]1 ii4 #afh ,/*]bak(f1 i4 #ig1 #dbh1 #deh1 #fja ,/ohmann1 i4 #cei1 #cfj1 #cif ,/okes1 i4 #cee ,/ort5bek]1 i4 #eaa ,/romey]1 ii4 #dg ,/ruv1 i4 #bjh1 #fab ,tait1 i4 #bjc ,tammann1 i4 #ia1 #adh2 ii4 #agj1 #bdg ,tanat>1 i4 #eaa ,t*it*r91 ii4 #ba ,t]reil1 ii4 #cac ,?an1 i4 #cag ,?n>d1 i4 #bjg1 #bbi1 #dfj1 #dfd1 #ecd1 #eci2 ii4 #bea ,?illot1 ii4 #agj ,?ilori]1 i4 #che ,?oms51 i4 #aaa1 #abj1 #abd1 #aca1 #agc1 #ahi1 #bfg1 #cei1 #chi1 #cif1 #dda1 #dec1 #dff1 #dgb1 #did1 #ejb1 #eae1 #ebi1 #eee1 #ehb2 ii4 #i1 #cb1 #ej1 #ee1 #aje1 #afe1 #bjh1 #bbd1 #bfd1 #cfh1 #cgj1 #dch1 #ddb ,?orpe1 i4 #adb1 #bhe1 #dde1 #dic2 ii4 #bg1 #afj1 #agc1 #bac1 #bei1 #bfc1 #bfh1 #cja1 #cac1 #ddb1 #dhf ,?\ne1 i4 #bid1 #bie ,tiemman1 i4 #bac ,tild51 i4 #eaf ,tim]aseff1 i4 #agj ,tim(eff1 i4 #gh ,tessi du ,motay1 i4 #aeh ,tiss&i]1 i4 #gh ,ti!rley1 i4 #eci ,tivoli1 ii4 #ahc ,tomassi1 ii4 #cci ,topse1 i4 #ejf ,t\rbaba1 i4 #hh2 ii4 #bdg ,trapp1 i4 #eaa ,traub1 i4 #cab1 #faa2 ii4 #bgj ,troo/1 i4 #fd1 #bgd1 #bha1 #cbj1 #dji1 #dad1 #ejj1 #ech2 ii4 #hj1 #hc1 #ajb1 #adg1 #aef1 #bed1 #cgi ,ts*]ba*eff1 i4 #egg ,tutton1 i4 #edc2 ii4 #afj1 #agd1 #dab ,um(f1 i4 #dbi ,unv]dorb51 ii4 #bhj ,urlaub1 ii4 #cja ,val5t9e1 i4 #ag ,van d] ,heyd1 i4 #eii ,van d] ,plaats1 i4 #dif2 ii4 #dch ,van d] ,waals1 i4 #hb1 #adj ,van ,dev5t]1 i4 #eii ,van ,helmont1 i4 #cgi ,van ,m>um1 i4 #aih ,van't ,h(f1 i4 #fd1 #fe1 #cca1 #eii2 ii4 #c ,v>e1 ii4 #ee ,vauquel91 i4 #aad1 #fai2 ii4 #g ,ve]51 i4 #fab2 ii4 #de ,veley1 i4 #bgi ,v]neuille1 ii4 #bbe ,v]non1 ii4 #aea ,vzes1 ii4 #cia ,vi>d1 ii4 #bhe ,vignon1 ii4 #abf1 #aca ,vill>d1 i4 #ajf1 #bif1 #big ,villi]s1 ii4 #bei ,violette1 i4 #cdb1 #cde ,violle1 i4 #cja ,vogt1 i4 #faa ,volkovit*1 ii4 #bja ,voskres5sky1 i4 #cde ,waage1 i4 #dci ,wa*t]1 i4 #ejh ,wagn]1 i4 #ceg ,wahl1 ii4 #caj ,wald51 ii4 #eg ,walk]1 ii4 #adc ,walm]1 i4 #egc ,walt]1 ii4 #bef ,walt]s1 ii4 #bcd ,wanklyn1 i4 #ajj1 #eci ,w>burg1 i4 #ehi2 ii4 #dif ,w>d]1 i4 #dej ,w>r51 ii4 #ajb ,watson1 i4 #ebg2 ii4 #afi ,watts1 i4 #ebf ,web]1 i4 #bhj1 #ehc2 ii4 #hc1 #abi1 #aca1 #ahf1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bdi ,wei?1 i4 #ejb ,weitz1 ii4 #eg ,wel*1 ii4 #dbe ,well]1 ii4 #adf ,wells1 i4 #dgg1 #ede2 ii4 #eg1 #cgj ,welsba*1 ii4 #if1 #ig ,weltzi51 i4 #bjd1 #eie ,w5zel1 i4 #aic ,w]ub(f 7see ,wyrub(f71 ii4 #d ,weselski1 i4 #ejg ,weyl1 i4 #bee ,:eel]1 i4 #ede ,wi*elhaus1 ii4 #agi ,wi$emann1 i4 #dci1 #ehh ,wilhelmj1 ii4 #cae ,willg]odt1 i4 #ejh2 ii4 #bi ,williamson1 ii4 #bfh ,wilm1 ii4 #cgf1 #chh ,w9kl]1 i4 #gh1 #gi1 #egg1 #eid1 #fba2 ii4 #be1 #cj1 #ff1 #ig1 #ajb1 #abd1 #abe1 #adg1 #bcd1 #bdf1 #cee1 #dhc ,wis*91 ii4 #chd ,wislic5us1 i4 #bfg1 #bid ,witt1 ii4 #c ,whl]1 i4 #daj1 #fai2 ii4 #he1 #ajc1 #ajg1 #adf1 #bhe1 #bhi1 #dbj1 #dbe ,wolla/on1 i4 #h ,wr$51 i4 #ejg ,wright1 ii4 #cba ,wroblewski1 i4 #gi1 #hj1 #ajf1 #aci1 #chg2 ii4 #bbf ,wlf+1 ii4 #aai ,wln]1 i4 #ia1 #egb ,wrtz1 i4 #cja1 #dgf2 ii4 #aga1 #agc1 #bac1 #bfg ,wyrub(f1 ii4 #d1 #i ,"y1 i4 #acd1 #acf1 #adj1 #ada1 #bdg1 #die1 #dif ,zab\dsky1 i4 #ced ,za5*effsky1 i4 #adj ,zimm]mann1 ii4 #bf1 #cjc1 #cee1 #dhe ,z991 i4 #bgf ,zr5s51 i4 #bhd ,zorn1 i4 #bie 99 99 99 99 99 ,,subject ,,index ,acid1 acetic sp4 gr4 ( solutions (1 i4 #ei -- ars5ic1 ii4 #aha -- bismu?ic1 ii4 #aij -- boric1 ii4 #fd -- c>bamic1 i4 #djh -- *amb]1 i4 #bid -- *loric1 i4 #dhb -- *loroplat9o-phosphor\s1 ii4 #cij -- *lorosulphonic1 ii4 #bfh -- *lor\s1 i4 #dha -- *romic1 i4 #bjh2 ii4 #bhb -- *romo-sulphuric1 ii4 #bhh -- cyanic1 i4 #dji -- cyanuric1 i4 #dji -- di?ionic1 ii4 #bef -- f]ric1 ii4 #cdd -- fluoboric1 ii4 #fi -- graphitic1 i4 #cea -- hydriodic1 i4 #eja1 #ejc1 #eje1 #ejf -- hydrobor(luoric1 ii4 #fi -- hydrobromic1 i4 #hj1 #ejc1 #eje1 #ejf -- hydro*loric1 i4 #ddh1 #dea1 #dec -- hydrocyanic1 i4 #djf1 #daa -- hydr(]rocyanic1 ii4 #cdh -- hydr(luoric1 i4 #di -- hydr(luosilic1 ii4 #ajf -- hydroplat9ocyanic1 ii4 #chf -- hydrosulphur\s1 ii4 #bbh -- hydroru!nocyanic1 ii4 #chh -- hypo*lor\s1 i4 #dgi1 #dha -- hyponitr\s1 i4 #bfe1 #bid -- hypophosphoric1 ii4 #afa -- hypophosphor\s1 ii4 #agb -- iodic1 i4 #ajj1 #ejh -- ise?ionic1 ii4 #bej -- metantimonic1 ii4 #ahh -- metaphosphoric1 ii4 #afb1 #afi -- meta/annic1 ii4 #aca -- molybdic1 ii4 #bib -- nitric1 i4 #bfh1 #bgb -- ,nordhaus51 ii4 #bcc -- or?ophosphoric1 ii4 #afb -- osmic1 ii4 #chd -- p5ta?ionic1 ii4 #beg -- p]c>bonic1 i4 #cid -- p]*loric1 i4 #dhd -- p]iodic1 i4 #eaj -- p]manganic1 ii4 #cac -- p]molybdic1 ii4 #big -- p]nitric1 i4 #bfd -- p]sulphuric1 ii4 #bea -- p]tung/ic1 ii4 #big -- phosphamic1 ii4 #agi -- phosphamolybdic1 ii4 #bic -- phosphor\s1 ii4 #aga -- polysilicic1 ii4 #aag -- pyrophosphoric1 ii4 #afi -- pyrosulphuric1 ii4 #bcd -- sil5ic1 ii4 #bgb -- silicotung/ic1 ii4 #bie -- /annic1 ii4 #acj -- sulphonic1 ii4 #bdi -- sulphuric1 i4 #gf1 #gg1 #hi1 #aaa1 #bij1 #bid2 ii4 #bce1 #bch1 #bda -- telluric1 ii4 #bgb -- tetra?ionic1 ii4 #beg -- ?ioc>bonic1 ii4 #bfc -- ?iocyanic1 ii4 #bfc -- ?ionic1 ii4 #bee -- ?iosulphuric1 ii4 #bcj -- tri?ionic1 ii4 #beg -- tung/ic1 ii4 #bib1 #bid -- vanadic1 ii4 #aif ,acids1 i4 #ahe -- avidity (1 i4 #chi1 #ddb -- basicity (1 i4 #chg -- complex1 i4 #aig2 ii4 #bic -- fum+1 i4 #ajb -- organic1 i4 #cid1 #cif1 #dje ,acetyl5e1 i4 #cgb ,act9ium1 ii4 #ei ,aff9ity1 *emical1 i4 #bf1 #chi ,air1 i4 #aca1 #bca1 #bcc ,al*emy1 i4 #ad ,alcohol1 i4 #ec1 #hh ,alkali1 metals1 i4 #eeh1 #egg -- wa/e1 ii4 #bjd ,alkalis1 i4 #ahf ,allotropism1 i4 #bjg ,alloys1 i4 #ecg2 ii4 #abh ,alum9a1 ii4 #ge ,alum9ium1 ii4 #gj1 #he -- bromide1 ii4 #hd -- bronze1 ii4 #hh -- c>bide1 ii4 #hh -- *loride1 ii4 #hj1 #hc -- d\ble *lorides1 ii4 #hd -- fluoride1 ii4 #hc -- hydroxide1 ii4 #ge -- iodide1 ii4 #he -- nitrate1 ii4 #hj -- sulphate1 ii4 #hb ,alums1 ii4 #e1 #hb1 #cdc ,alunite1 ii4 #hj ,amalgams1 ii4 #eh ,amides1 i4 #beh1 #djf ,amidog51 i4 #beh -- hydrate1 i4 #beh ,am9es1 i4 #daf ,ammonia1 i4 #bbi1 #bdf -- ( cry/allisation1 i4 #beg -- heat ( solution (1 i4 #gd -- 9 air1 i4 #bdj -- liquefaction (1 i4 #bej -- salts1 i4 #bed -- soda process1 i4 #ebd -- solutions (1 i4 #hj1 #beb ,ammonium1 i4 #bed -- amalgam1 i4 #bee -- bic>bonate1 i4 #ebg -- c>bamate1 i4 #djg1 #djh -- c>bonate1 i4 #djg -- cobalt salts1 ii4 #cei -- di*romate1 ii4 #bgi -- molybdate1 ii4 #bib -- nitrate1 i4 #bgc1 #bgd -- nitrite1 i4 #bhd -- phosphates1 ii4 #afg -- sulphate1 ii4 #bfi -- sulphide1 ii4 #bah ,analogy ( elem5ts1 i4 #egc1 #egh ,an?racite1 i4 #cde ,antimoniurett$ hydrog51 ii4 #ahi ,antimony1 ii4 #ahf -- *lorides1 ii4 #ahi -- oxides1 ii4 #ahg1 #ahh -- sulphides1 ii4 #bba ,aqua ,regia1 i4 #dfg ,aque\s radicle1 i4 #bac ,argon1 i4 #bbf1 #bcb2 ,app4 ,,iii4 ,ars5ic1 ii4 #agi -- anhydride1 ii4 #aha -- sulphides1 ii4 #bba -- tribromide1 ii4 #aha -- tri*loride1 ii4 #ahj -- trifluoride1 ii4 #aha ,ars5i\s anhydride1 ii4 #ahd -- oxy*loride1 ii4 #ahj ,ars5ites1 ii4 #ahe ,ars5iurett$ hydrog51 ii4 #ahb ,a/rakhanite1 i4 #ei ,atmolysis1 i4 #aef ,atomic !ory1 i4 #baf -- volumes1 ii4 #cc -- weights1 i4 #ba ,atoms & molecules1 i4 #cbb ,b>ium1 i4 #fad1 #fag -- *lorate1 i4 #dhc -- *loride1 i4 #fae -- hydroxide1 i4 #faf -- metatung/ate1 ii4 #bie -- nitrate1 i4 #fae -- oxide1 i4 #faf -- p]oxide1 i4 #aeg1 #afj1 #bji1 #fag -- sulphate1 i4 #fad1 #fae ,bauxite1 ii4 #gf ,b5zalaz9e1 i4 #beh ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 i4 #dcc ,b]yllium1 i4 #fah -- atomic weight (1 i4 #cbe1 #fah -- *loride1 i4 #ehd -- oxide1 i4 #fai ,b9>y !ory1 i4 #aie ,bismu?1 ii4 #ahi -- nitrates1 ii4 #aib -- oxides1 ii4 #aij1 #aia ,bla/ furnace1 ii4 #cbd ,blea*+1 i4 #dfi -- p[d]1 i4 #afb1 #dgg ,boil+ po9t1 absolute1 i4 #acj ,borates1 ii4 #fc ,borax1 ii4 #fa ,boric anhydride1 ii4 #fd ,boron1 ii4 #fj1 #ff -- *loride1 ii4 #fi -- fluoride1 ii4 #fg1 #fh -- iodide1 ii4 #gj -- nitride1 i4 #bbg2 ii4 #fg -- oxide1 ii4 #fj -- specific heat (1 i4 #ehe -- sulphide1 ii4 #fb ,bromides1 ii4 #cb ,brom9e1 i4 #did ,bronze1 ii4 #abg ,butyl alcohol1 solubility (1 i4 #ge ,cadmium1 ii4 #dg -- iodide1 ii4 #dh -- oxide1 ii4 #dh -- sulphide1 ii4 #dg ,csium1 i4 #egf ,calcium1 i4 #eij1 #fjd -- c>bonate1 i4 #eib1 #fjh1 #fji1 #faj -- *loride1 i4 #bcg1 #fab -- -- cry/allohydrates (1 i4 #fac -- fluoride1 i4 #dia -- hypo*lorite1 i4 #afb -- iodide1 i4 #fjd -- p]oxide1 i4 #fjg -- phosphate1 ii4 #afg -- sulphate1 i4 #faa -- sulphide1 ii4 #bbj ,calomel1 ii4 #ed ,c>bamide1 i4 #dji ,c>bides1 i4 #cdi1 #cec ,c>bon1 i4 #cch -- bisulphide1 ii4 #beh -- molecule (1 i4 #ced -- oxysulphide1 ii4 #bfd -- tetra*loride1 i4 #dgc ,c>bonic anhydride1 i4 #cgi -- -- assimilation ( by plants1 i4 #cic -- -- dissociation (1 i4 #cib1 #cic1 #cii -- -- 9 air1 i4 #bch1 #bdb -- -- liquid1 i4 #che -- -- solutions (1 i4 #hj1 #hf -- -- specific heat (1 i4 #cic ,c>bonic oxide1 i4 #cif -- -- & nickel1 i4 #dje ,c>borundum1 ii4 #ajg ,c>boxyl1 i4 #cie ,c>nallite1 i4 #dba1 #edd1 #efj ,catalytic ph5om5a1 i4 #baa ,cau/ic pota%1 i4 #eej -- soda1 i4 #ebi ,cem5ts1 ii4 #abb ,c]ite metals1 ii4 #ic ,c]ium1 ii4 #ic ,*amb] cry/als1 i4 #bij2 ii4 #bcj ,*>coal1 i4 #cdc ,*emical *ange1 rate (1 ii4 #cad -- trans=mations1 i4 #c ,*loranhydrides1 i4 #dfh2 ii4 #agd1 #age1 #agg ,*lorates1 i4 #dhb ,*lorides1 i4 #dee1 #dff2 ii4 #ca ,*lor9e1 i4 #dfc -- comp\nds1 heat ( =mation (1 i4 #dd -- cry/allohydrates (1 i4 #dfd -- oxides1 i4 #dgi -- prep>ation (1 i4 #dfj -- solubility (1 i4 #dfc ,*lor(orm1 i4 #dgc ,*lorophosphamide1 ii4 #agi ,*loryl comp\nds1 i4 #dgf ,*rome alum1 ii4 #bhc ,*romic acid1 i4 #bjh -- anhydride1 ii4 #bhj -- oxide1 ii4 #bhd1 #bhe ,*romium1 ii4 #bgf1 #bhi -- *lorides1 ii4 #bhe -- fluorides1 ii4 #bhj1 #bhi ,*romyl *loride1 ii4 #bha ,*ryseone1 ii4 #ajh ,clay1 ii4 #gj ,coal1 i4 #cde ,cobalt1 ii4 #cec -- dioxide1 ii4 #cff -- fluoride1 ii4 #ceh ,cobaltam9e salts1 ii4 #cei ,cobaltic oxide1 ii4 #cfb ,cobalto-am9e1 ii4 #cei ,cobalt\s hydroxide1 ii4 #ceh ,cohesion ( liquids1 i4 #eb ,coke1 i4 #cde ,collodion cotton1 i4 #bge ,colloids1 i4 #fc2 ii4 #gg1 #dbc ,comb9ation1 *emical1 i4 #c ,comb9+ weights1 i4 #ba2 ii4 #dci ,combu/ion1 imp]fect1 i4 #cda -- heat (1 i4 #agb1 #agf1 #cii1 #djj ,comp\nds1 def9ite & indef9ite1 i4 #ca -- types (1 ii4 #aj ,compressibility ( solutions1 i4 #hh ,conductivity1 electro-molecul>1 i4 #chi ,contact reactions1 i4 #afc1 #bij ,copp]1 ii4 #djj -- c>bonate1 ii4 #daa -- complex salts (1 ii4 #dab -- nitrate1 ii4 #daa -- nitride1 ii4 #dji -- sulphate1 ii4 #dac ,corundum1 ii4 #ge ,critical po9ts1 i4 #ada ,cryohydrates1 i4 #ii ,cryoscopic inve/igations ( solutions1 i4 #ij1 #ccb ,cry/als1 i4 #ea ,cry/all9e =m1 ii4 #g ,cry/allo-hydrates1 i4 #ajb ,cry/alloids1 i4 #fc ,cupellation1 ii4 #dag ,cyanides1 i4 #djf ,cyanog51 i4 #djf1 #dad -- *loride1 ii4 #agf ,decomposition1 *emical1 i4 #d ,deliquesc5ce1 i4 #ajd ,delta metal1 ii4 #dad ,desiccator1 i4 #eh ,detonat+ gas1 i4 #aae1 #agj1 #agc ,depression ( freez+ po9t ( solutions1 i4 #ij1 #ib1 #ccj ,dialysis1 i4 #fc2 ii4 #aad ,diamond1 i4 #cej1 #cec ,didymium1 ii4 #ic ,diffusion1 rate (1 i4 #fc ,dimorphism1 i4 #faj1 ii4 #agh ,dis9fectants1 i4 #bde ,disodium or?ophosphate1 ii4 #aff ,dissociation1 i4 #cf1 #bhb1 #fjh ,di/illation1 dry1 i4 #d1 #bdg1 #cdb ,du/1 atmosph]ic1 i4 #bda ,effloresc5ce1 i4 #ajc ,ekacadmium1 ii4 #ei ,ekasilicon1 ii4 #be ,electro-*emical !ory1 i4 #aie ,electric en]gy & !rmal units1 i4 #ehb ,electrolysis1 i4 #aaf ,elem5ts1 i4 #bj -- gr\p+ (1 ii4 #a -- typical1 ii4 #ai ,emulsions1 i4 #ih ,en]gy1 *emical1 i4 #bi ,equations1 *emical1 i4 #bgh ,equival5ts1 law (1 i4 #aid ,equival5t weights1 i4 #eha ,e?ane1 i4 #cff ,e!r1 critical po9ts (1 i4 #ada ,e?yl5e1 i4 #cgj ,e?yl silicates1 i4 #ajd ,eu*lor9e1 i4 #dhd ,eudiomet]1 i4 #afi ,expansion1 l9e>1 ( elem5ts1 ii4 #ca ,explosion1 rate ( transmission (1 i4 #aga ,explosives1 i4 #bge1 #bgf ,felsp>1 ii4 #abb ,f]m5tation1 i4 #bdb ,f]ric *loride1 i4 #eeh2 ii4 #cdj -- hydrates1 ii4 #cci -- nitrate1 ii4 #cdj -- or?ophosphate1 ii4 #cdb -- oxide1 ii4 #cci ,f]r\s *loride1 ii4 #cce -- sulphate1 ii4 #cce -- -- solubility (1 i4 #gb -- sulphide1 ii4 #baj ,flame1 i4 #agg1 #agi ,fluoborates1 ii4 #fi ,fluorides1 i4 #dia1 #dic ,fluor9e1 i4 #bjc1 #dhi ,fluorsp>1 i4 #dia ,=mula1 *emical1 i4 #aea1 #cbf ,freez+ mixtures1 i4 #gf ,fuel1 calorific capacity (1 i4 #cfj ,furnace1 electrical1 i4 #ceb ,fusco-cobaltic salts1 ii4 #cfj ,gadol9ite metals1 ii4 #ic ,gallium1 ii4 #hh1 #ij ,gas1 illum9at+1 i4 #cfa -- produc]s1 i4 #cig ,gases1 absorption (1 i4 #cdh -- diffusion (1 i4 #hc -- expansion (1 i4 #acc -- liquefaction (1 i4 #acd1 #ace1 #acg -- measurem5t (1 i4 #gh1 #cjj -- solution (1 i4 #fh1 #gh1 #hf -- !ory (1 i4 #ha1 #hc1 #adj ,g]manium1 ii4 #bf1 #abd -- *loride1 ii4 #abe -- oxide1 ii4 #abe ,glass1 i4 #abc -- soluble1 ii4 #aaj ,glaub]'s salt1 i4 #eag ,glycols1 ii4 #aag ,gold1 ii4 #ddb -- alloys1 i4 #ddf1 #ddg -- *lorides1 ii4 #ddh1 #dej -- colloid1 ii4 #ddg -- cyanide1 ii4 #dej -- extraction (1 ii4 #ddd1 #dde -- fulm9at+1 ii4 #dej -- oxides1 ii4 #ddh -- ref9+1 ii4 #ddf ,graduators1 i4 #dbd ,graphite1 i4 #cej1 #cea ,gros' salt1 ii4 #cic ,guignet's gre51 ii4 #bhe ,gunp[d]1 i4 #eeg ,gypsum1 i4 #eic1 #faa ,halog5s1 i4 #dde1 #dhg1 #dii ,halog5 comp\nds1 heat ( =mation (1 i4 #did1 #ejb2 ii4 #cb -- -- boil+-po9ts (1 i4 #ejb ,hausmannite1 ii4 #aj ,helium1 i4 #egj2 ii4 #dih ,hemimorphism1 ii4 #i ,homeomorphism1 ii4 #h ,homolog\s comp\nds1 i4 #ceh ,humus1 i4 #cdd ,hydrates1 i4 #aji1 #ahe ,hydraz9e1 i4 #beh ,hydrides1 i4 #fba2 ii4 #bc ,hydroc>bons1 i4 #cee1 #cei ,hydrog51 i4 #abc1 #abi1 #acj1 #adb1 #adc1 #adf -- p5tasulphide1 ii4 #bag -- p]oxide1 i4 #bjg1 #cab ,hydrosols1 i4 #ih ,hydroxyl1 i4 #aib1 #bac ,hydroxylam9e1 i4 #bfb ,hypo*lorites1 i4 #dha ,hyponitrites1 i4 #bid ,imides1 i4 #beh ,indium1 ii4 #bg1 #cg1 #hh1 #ig ,iodates1 i4 #eji ,iodides1 ii4 #cb -- ( nitrog51 i4 #ejg ,iod9e1 i4 #cbj1 #cba1 #dif1 #dig1 #dih -- *lorides (1 i4 #eaa ,iodosob5zol1 i4 #ejh ,iridi\s oxide1 ii4 #chb ,iridium1 ii4 #chb ,iron1 i4 #ehe2 ii4 #cag1 #cbb -- & c>bonic oxide1 ii4 #cde -- ca/1 ii4 #cbe -- nitride1 ii4 #cdf -- ores1 ii4 #cai -- sulphate1 ii4 #cce ,ise?ionic acid1 ii4 #bej ,isomorphism1 i4 #bjc1 #cfh2 ii4 #a1 #d1 #h ,kaol91 ii4 #gj ,lakes1 ii4 #gg ,lan?anum1 ii4 #ic ,laugh+ gas1 ii4 #big ,law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 i4 #cji -- -- ,b]?ollet1 i4 #dde -- -- ,boyle & ,m>iotte1 i4 #acb -- -- comb9+ weights1 i4 #bba -- -- ,dulong & ,petit1 i4 #ehd -- -- equival5ts1 i4 #aid -- -- ev5 numb]s1 i4 #ceg -- -- ,gay ,lussac1 i4 #acc1 #cjd1 #cjg -- -- ,guldb]g & ,waage1 i4 #dda -- -- ,h5ry & ,dalton1 i4 #gh -- -- inde/ructibility ( matt]1 i4 #f -- -- ,kir*(f1 i4 #efh -- -- limits1 i4 #ceg -- -- maximum "w1 i4 #abj -- -- multiple proportions1 i4 #aji1 #bad -- -- p>tial pressures1 i4 #hb -- -- p]iodic1 ii4 #ag -- -- phases1 ii4 #daj -- -- rev]s$ spectra1 i4 #efh -- -- specific heats1 i4 #ehd -- -- sub/itution1 i4 #bfj1 #cfe -- -- volumes1 i4 #cjd ,lead1 ii4 #acd -- acetate1 ii4 #acg -- c>bonate1 ii4 #adj -- *loride1 ii4 #aci -- *romate1 ii4 #acf1 #bgi -- dioxide1 ii4 #adb -- nitrate1 ii4 #aci -- oxide1 ii4 #acg -- r$1 ii4 #adb -- salts (1 i4 #dia -- tetra*loride1 ii4 #add -- tetrafluoride1 ii4 #add -- :ite1 ii4 #adj ,leucone1 ii4 #ajg ,levigation1 ii4 #gb ,light1 *emical action (1 i4 #dfe ,lime1 i4 #fje ,liquids1 boil+ po9ts (1 i4 #ace ,li?ium1 i4 #egd -- c>bonate1 i4 #ege ,li?>ge1 ii4 #acg ,litmus1 i4 #ahe ,lixiviation1 me?odical1 i4 #eba ,luteocobaltic salts1 ii4 #cei ,magnus' salt1 ii4 #cib ,magnesia1 i4 #eig ,magnesium1 i4 #eij1 #eid -- c>bonate1 i4 #eib1 #fjb -- *loride1 i4 #fjb -- cry/allohydrates (1 i4 #fja -- d\ble salts (1 i4 #eig -- nitride1 i4 #eie -- silicide1 ii4 #ajb -- sulphate1 i4 #fjj ,manganese1 ii4 #cjc -- nitrides1 ii4 #caj -- oxides1 ii4 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #cac -- p]oxide1 i4 #aei2 ii4 #cje -- sulphate1 ii4 #cjg ,mass1 influ5ce (1 i4 #cb1 #dcf ,mat*es1 ii4 #aed ,matt]1 prim>y1 ii4 #ddj -- transmutability (1 i4 #ad ,m]cury1 ii4 #dh -- ammonia comp\nds1 ii4 #eg -- basic salts (1 ii4 #ed -- *lorides1 ii4 #eb1 #ec1 #ed -- comp\nds1 heat ( =mation1 ii4 #ej -- cyanide1 ii4 #ee -- fulm9at+1 ii4 #ef -- iodide1 ii4 #ee -- nitrates1 ii4 #ea -- nitrides1 ii4 #ef -- oxides1 ii4 #ec -- sulphate1 ii4 #eg -- sulphides1 ii4 #bba ,metalepsis1 i4 #bh1 #dga ,metalloids1 i4 #bc ,metals1 i4 #bc -- ( alkal9e e>?s1 i4 #fd1 #eij1 #eia -- ( alkalis1 i4 #edc -- displacem5t (1 ii4 #dbg ,me?ane1 i4 #cfj ,moi/ure1 det]m9ation (1 9 gases1 i4 #dj -- influ5ce ^u reaction1 i4 #djc ,molecul> volumes1 ii4 #cg -- weight & boil+ po9t1 i4 #cca -- -- -- coeffici5t ( refraction1 i4 #ccf -- -- -- lat5t heat1 i4 #cbi -- -- -- specific gravity ( solutions1 i4 #cce -- -- -- surface t5sion1 i4 #ccd ,molecules1 i4 #cai1 #cbb ,molybdates1 ii4 #bib ,molybd5um1 ii4 #bij -- anhydride1 ii4 #bia -- fluo-comp\nds1 ii4 #bih -- sulphides1 ii4 #big ,monophosphamide1 ii4 #agh ,monosodium or?ophosphate1 ii4 #afg ,morphotropy1 ii4 #aj ,naph?a1 i4 #cgc1 #cgg ,nasc5t /ate1 i4 #cc1 #ade1 #adf ,neodymium1 ii4 #ig ,nickel1 ii4 #cec -- alloys1 ii4 #cfg -- & c>bonic oxide1 ii4 #cfg -- fluoride1 ii4 #ceh -- hydroxide1 ii4 #ceh -- oxide1 ii4 #cfe -- sulphate1 i4 #ig2 ii4 #cei -- tetra-c>boxyl1 ii4 #cfg ,niobium1 i4 #aii2 ii4 #aid1 #aih ,nitrates1 i4 #bgc ,nitres1 i4 #bfh1 #eee ,nitric anhydride1 i4 #bhj -- oxide1 i4 #bhf ,nitrides1 i4 #bbg1 #beh1 #fbj ,nitriles1 i4 #djf ,nitrites1 i4 #bhd ,nitro-cellulose1 i4 #bge ,nitro-comp\nds1 i4 #bgd ,nitrog51 i4 #bbc1 #bbe1 #dge -- *loride1 i4 #dgf -- iodide1 i4 #ejg -- oxides (1 i4 #bfg1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #bid1 #bie -- sulphide1 ii4 #bgj ,nitro-prussides1 ii4 #cea ,nitroso-comp\nds1 i4 #bhh ,nitrosulphates1 ii4 #bbi ,nitrosyl *loride1 ii4 #agf ,norwegium1 ii4 #ei ,occlusion1 i4 #adc ,olefiant gas1 i4 #cgj ,organo-metallic comp\nds1 i4 #cef ,osmium1 ii4 #cgb1 #chb1 #chd ,osmotic pressure1 i4 #fd ,osmuridium1 ii4 #chc ,oxamide1 i4 #djf ,oxidation1 i4 #af ,oxides1 i4 #ahc2 ii4 #cf ,oxycobaltam9e salts1 ii4 #cei ,oxyg51 i4 #aeb1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afc -- comp\nds1 heat ( =mation (1 i4 #abj1 #dff ,ozone1 i4 #aih1 #bbi ,palladium1 ii4 #cfi -- hydride1 i4 #adc2 ii4 #chj ,pallad\s *loride1 ii4 #cgi -- iodide1 ii4 #cgi ,p>acyanog51 i4 #dad ,p>amorphism1 ii4 #i ,p>asulphatammon1 ii4 #bfi ,peat1 i4 #cdd ,peligot's salt1 ii4 #bha ,p]c5tage composition1 i4 #cbf ,p]*loric anhydride1 ii4 #bhb ,p]iodates1 i4 #eaj ,p]manganic anhydride1 ii4 #cac ,p]molybdates1 ii4 #big ,p]oxide1 *loric1 i4 #dhd ,p]oxides1 i4 #aei2 ii4 #ae1 #bc ,p]/annic oxide1 ii4 #acc ,p]sulphates1 ii4 #bec ,petroleum1 i4 #cgc ,ph5ol1 solubility (1 i4 #ge ,phlogi/on1 i4 #ag ,phosg5e gas1 ii4 #age ,phospham1 ii4 #agh ,phosphides1 ii4 #aeg ,phosph9e1 ii4 #aeh1 #afj ,phosphonium iodide1 ii4 #aei ,phosphoric anhydride1 ii4 #afa ,phosphor\s anhydride1 ii4 #afj ,phosphorus1 ii4 #adi -- ammonium comp\nds1 ii4 #agh -- *lorides1 ii4 #agd -- fluorides1 ii4 #agc -- iodides1 i4 #eje1 #ejf2 ii4 #agb -- oxy*lorides1 ii4 #age -- sulphides1 ii4 #bac -- sulpho*loride1 ii4 #bac -- !rmo-*emical data =1 ii4 #aec ,phosphurett$ hydrog51 ii4 #aeh1 #afj ,photography1 ii4 #dca ,photo-salts1 ii4 #dcb ,plants1 *emical reactions 91 i4 #edg -- & nitrog51 i4 #bcj ,plat9ic *loride1 ii4 #cgg -- hydroxide1 ii4 #cgi ,plat9o-ammonium comp\nds1 ii4 #cia -- *lorides1 i4 #dfg2 ii4 #cgh -- cyanides1 ii4 #chf -- nitrites1 ii4 #cij -- sulphites1 ii4 #cij ,plat9\s *loride1 ii4 #cgi ,plat9um1 ii4 #cgf -- alloys1 ii4 #cgc -- black1 ii4 #cgf -- metals1 ii4 #cfi1 #cge -- oxide1 ii4 #cgh ,poly-haloid salts1 i4 #ede ,polym]ism1 i4 #bjg1 #cfg ,polysulphides1 ii4 #bag ,potassium1 i4 #edd1 #eeh -- aurate1 ii4 #ddi -- bromide1 i4 #eej -- c>bonate1 i4 #edi -- *lorate1 i4 #afa1 #dhb -- *loride1 i4 #gb1 #edc -- *romate1 ii4 #bhj -- cyanide1 i4 #dab1 #eea -- di*romate1 ii4 #bgh -- f]ricyanide1 ii4 #cdf -- f]rocyanide1 i4 #cdf1 #dab -- hydrosulphide1 ii4 #bai -- hydroxide1 i4 #edh -- iodide1 i4 #eej -- manganate1 ii4 #caj -- nitrate1 i4 #eec -- oxides1 i4 #eei -- p]manganate1 ii4 #caa -- /annate1 ii4 #acc -- sulphate1 i4 #gb1 #edi -- sulphide1 ii4 #bai -- telluride1 ii4 #bgd ,praseocobaltic salts1 ii4 #cfa ,praseodidymium1 ii4 #ig ,proteid sub/ances1 i4 #bbd ,pr\t's hypo!sis1 ii4 #dci ,prussian blue1 i4 #dai2 ii4 #cdi ,purpureocobaltic salts1 ii4 #cfa ,purpureotetram9e salts1 ii4 #cfa ,pyrocollodion1 i4 #bge ,pyronaph?a1 i4 #cge ,pyrosulphuryl *loride1 i4 #cba2 ii4 #bce ,reactions1 *emical1 i4 #c -- -- conditions =1 i4 #cd -- -- contact1 i4 #ci -- -- endo!rmal1 i4 #cj -- -- exo!rmal1 i4 #cj -- -- limit (1 i4 #dcg -- -- rate (1 ii4 #aeb ,recalesc5ce1 ii4 #ccc ,r$uction1 i4 #af ,refraction equival5t1 i4 #ccf ,reg5]ative furnaces1 i4 #cih ,reiset's salts1 ii4 #cid ,respiration1 i4 #aeb1 #aed1 #chg ,rhodium1 ii4 #cha ,rock salt1 i4 #dba ,roseocobaltic salts1 ii4 #cfj ,rosetetram9e salts1 ii4 #cfa ,rubidium1 i4 #egf ,ru!nium1 ii4 #cgb1 #chb1 #chd ,sal-ammoniac1 i4 #bdh1 #cah1 #deg -- solubility (1 i4 #deh -- vap\r d5sity (1 i4 #cag ,salts1 i4 #ahg1 #dai -- acid1 i4 #aic1 #ecc -- basic1 i4 #aic1 #ecc2 ii4 #ed -- d\ble1 i4 #eih -- electrolysis (1 i4 #aia -- heat ( =mation1 i4 #ahi -- melt+ po9ts (1 i4 #ace -- pyro1 i4 #aic -- !ory (1 i4 #aic ,saponification1 i4 #ecj ,sc&ium1 ii4 #id ,sel5ium1 ii4 #bgc -- *lorides1 ii4 #bge ,sel5i\s anhydride1 ii4 #bga ,silica1 i4 #ajj2 ii4 #ajh -- soluble1 ii4 #aac ,silicates1 i4 #edd2 ii4 #aaf ,silicon1 ii4 #ii -- *loride1 ii4 #ajc1 #ajd -- *lor(orm1 ii4 #ajc -- bromide1 ii4 #ajd -- fluoride1 ii4 #aje -- hydride1 ii4 #ajb1 #ajc -- iodide1 ii4 #aje -- iod(orm1 ii4 #aje ,silv]1 ii4 #dah -- allotropic v>ieties (1 ii4 #dba -- bromide1 ii4 #dbi -- *lorate1 ii4 #dcg -- *loride1 ii4 #dbi -- cyanide1 ii4 #dcc -- fluoride1 ii4 #dcj -- fulm9at+1 ii4 #dbf -- hyponitrite1 i4 #bid -- iodide1 ii4 #dbi -- nitrate1 ii4 #dbf -- nitrite1 i4 #bhd -- or?ophosphate1 ii4 #afd -- oxides1 ii4 #dbd -- p]oxide1 ii4 #dbb -- plat+1 ii4 #dcd -- soluble1 ii4 #dbj -- sub*loride1 ii4 #dcb ,slags1 ii4 #cbc ,smalt1 ii4 #ced ,soaps1 i4 #eca ,soda a%1 i4 #eai -- cau/ic1 i4 #ebg -- manufacture (1 i4 #dei -- wa/e1 i4 #ebb ,soda lime1 i4 #bcg ,sodamide1 i4 #eci ,sodium1 i4 #eac1 #ecc -- alloys1 i4 #eei -- amalgams1 i4 #ecg -- bic>bonate1 i4 #ebf -- c>bonate1 i4 #eai1 #ebe -- -- cry/allohydrates (1 i4 #ajh -- -- manufacture (1 i4 #ebc -- -- solutions (1 i4 #ebe -- *loride1 i4 #dai -- -- d\ble salts (1 i4 #dcj -- -- solutions (1 i4 #hh1 #ii1 #dbi -- hydride1 i4 #ecg -- hydroxide1 i4 #ebh1 #ebi -- -- solutions (1 i4 #ebi -- nitrate1 i4 #bfi -- -- solutions (1 i4 #gb -- organo comp\nds (1 i4 #edj -- oxides1 i4 #edj1 #eda -- phosphates1 ii4 #aff -- plat9ate1 ii4 #cgh -- pyrosulphate1 i4 #eah -- sesquic>bonate1 i4 #ebf -- /annate1 ii4 #acc -- sub*loride1 i4 #edj -- sulphate1 i4 #eac -- -- acid salt1 i4 #eah -- -- cry/allohydrates (1 i4 #eae -- -- solutions (1 i4 #gc1 #eae1 #eaf -- sulphite1 ii4 #bbf -- ?iosulphate1 ii4 #bcj -- -- solutions (1 i4 #gd -- tung/ate1 ii4 #bid ,soils1 i4 #cdd2 ii4 #gc ,solubility1 coeffici5t (1 i4 #fg1 #ga ,solutions1 i4 #ccj -- aque\s1 i4 #ei -- boil+ po9ts (1 i4 #id1 #ajj -- cry/allisation (1 i4 #dbg -- col\r (1 i4 #ie -- diffusion (1 i4 #fa1 #dbi -- ( d\ble salts1 i4 #eii -- =mation ( ice f1 i4 #ia1 #dbh -- heat ( =mation (1 i4 #gd1 #ge1 #gf -- ( gases1 i4 #fh -- isotonic1 i4 #fd -- saturat$1 i4 #fe -- specific gravity (1 i4 #dbi1 #ehd -- sup]saturat$1 i4 #if -- !ory (1 i4 #fd1 #hi1 #ib1 #ig1 #ajf1 #bae1 #cbc1 #fjh2 ii4 #c1 #afd -- vap\r t5sion (1 i4 #ij1 #ib -- volumes (1 i4 #hg -- ,specific heat1 i4 #ehe1 #ehf1 #ehh ,spectra absorption1 i4 #eff ,spectrum analysis1 i4 #efj1 #efa ,/annic *loride1 ii4 #acb -- fluoride1 ii4 #acb -- oxide1 ii4 #acj -- sulphide1 ii4 #acb ,/ann\s *loride1 ii4 #acj -- oxide1 ii4 #abi -- salts1 ii4 #abi ,/eam1 vap\r t5sion (1 i4 #ed ,/eel1 ii4 #cbg1 #cbh1 #ccj ,/rontium1 i4 #fae -- *loride1 i4 #fae -- hydroxide1 i4 #fae -- nitrate1 i4 #fae -- oxide1 i4 #fag ,sub/itution *emical1 i4 #e ,sulphamide1 ii4 #bgj ,sulphatammon1 ii4 #bfi ,sulphates1 ii4 #bdh ,sulphides1 i4 #ih2 ii4 #bac ,sulphonitrites1 ii4 #bbi ,sulphoxyl1 ii4 #bej ,sulphur1 ii4 #bjj -- *lorides (1 ii4 #bfd ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 ii4 #bjh ,sulphuric anhydride1 ii4 #bcb -- p]oxide1 ii4 #bea ,sulphur\s anhydride1 ii4 #bbd ,sulphuryl *loride1 ii4 #bfh ,sup]phosphates1 ii4 #afh ,tantalum1 ii4 #aid1 #aih ,tellurium1 ii4 #bgd -- bromide1 ii4 #bge -- *lorides1 ii4 #bge ,tellur\s anhydride1 ii4 #bga ,temp]ature1 critical1 i4 #aca ,te/ pap]s1 i4 #ahe ,?allium1 ii4 #hh1 #ia ,?allic oxide1 ii4 #ic ,?all\s hydroxide1 ii4 #ib -- oxide1 ii4 #ib ,?ioc>bonates1 ii4 #bfb ,?ionyl *loride1 ii4 #bfg ,?iophosg5e1 ii4 #bfb ,?iophosphoryl fluoride1 ii4 #bfc ,!ory1 atomic1 i4 #baf -- unit>y1 i4 #aie -- vortex1 i4 #bag ,!rmo*emi/ry1 i4 #agc ,?orium1 ii4 #adh ,t91 ii4 #abe -- alloys1 ii4 #abg ,titanium1 ii4 #add -- *loride1 ii4 #ade -- nitride1 ii4 #adf -- nitrocyanide1 ii4 #adf -- oxides1 ii4 #ade ,tripoli1 ii4 #aaj ,trisodium or?ophosphate1 ii4 #aff ,tung/ates1 ii4 #bib ,tung/51 ii4 #bij -- anhydride1 ii4 #bia -- nitride1 ii4 #big -- sulphide1 ii4 #big ,turnbull's blue1 ii4 #cej ,types ( comb9ation1 ii4 #aj ,ultram>9e1 ii4 #hd ,uranium1 ii4 #cj1 #big -- atomic weight (1 ii4 #bf -- dioxide1 ii4 #cja -- oxides1 ii4 #bih -- tetra*loride1 ii4 #cja ,urano-alkali comp\nds1 ii4 #bih ,uranyl1 ii4 #cja -- ammonium c>bonate1 ii4 #cjj -- nitrate1 ii4 #cjj -- phosphate1 ii4 #cjj ,urea1 i4 #dji ,val5cy ( elem5ts1 i4 #djd1 #dah1 #eha ,van d] ,waal's =mula1 i4 #hb1 #adj ,vanadic anhydride1 ii4 #aif ,vanadium1 ii4 #aid -- oxy*loride1 ii4 #aie ,vap\r d5sity1 det]m9ation (1 i4 #cja ,v5tilation1 i4 #bdd ,viscosity1 i4 #cee ,volumes1 molecul>1 ii4 #d -- gases1 i4 #cjj ,wat]1 i4 #dj -- composition (1 i4 #aad1 #aah1 #adh1 #afi1 #cje1 #ccc -- compressibility (1 i4 #ec -- ( con/itution1 i4 #aji -- ( cry/allisation1 i4 #ie1 #eaj -- dissociation (1 i4 #aah -- expansion (1 i4 #ec -- gas1 i4 #abi1 #djj1 #dja -- h>d1 i4 #dg -- hygroscopic1 i4 #ef -- m9]al1 i4 #de -- ra91 i4 #dc -- riv]1 i4 #dc -- sea1 i4 #df -- specific heat (1 i4 #eb -- -- gravity (1 i4 #ej -- spr+1 i4 #dd ,wave l5g?s1 i4 #efd ,wood1 i4 #cci ,ytt]bium1 ii4 #ic ,yttrium1 ii4 #ic ,z9c1 ii4 #ci -- ammonia-*lorides1 ii4 #da -- *loride1 ii4 #dj1 #da -- comp\nds1 heat ( =mation (1 ii4 #ea -- oxide1 ii4 #ci1 #dj -- sulphate1 ii4 #ci ,zirconium1 ii4 #adf -- *loride1 ii4 #adg -- hydroxide1 ii4 #adg -- oxide1 ii4 #adg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,& ,,co41 ,,new-,,/reet ,,squ>e ,,london 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,classifi$ ,,catalogue ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,works ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,co4 ,,london3 #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york3 #ia #ic ,,fif? ,,av5ue4 ,,bombay3 #cb ,,hornby ,,road4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,advanc$ ,,sci5ce ,,manuals #cj ,,agriculture ,,& ,,g>d5+ #bf ,,a/ronomy #ad ,,biology #bd ,,botany #be ,,build+ ,,con/ruction #aj ,,*emi/ry #b ,,dynamics #f ,,electricity #aa ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,manuals #cj ,,eng9e]+ #ab ,,evolution #ah ,,geology #ag ,,heal? ,,& ,,hygi5e #ag ,,heat #h ,,hydro/atics #f ,,light #h ,,london ,,sci5ce ,,class-,,books #cb ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies #ac ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design #ac ,,magnetism #aa ,,manufactures #ag ,,me*anics #f ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,surg]y #ai ,,metallurgy #ad ,,m9]alogy #ad ,,natural ,,hi/ory #ah ,,navigation #ad ,,optics #h ,,photography #h ,,physics #e ,,physiography #ag ,,physiology #bd ,,proctor',s 7,r4 ,a47 ,,works #ae ,,s\nd #h ,,/atics #f ,,/eam1 ,,oil1 ,,& ,,gas ,,eng9es #i ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials #ab ,,te*nology #ag ,,telegraphy #ab ,,telephone #ab ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,sci5ce #bh ,,!rmodynamics #h ,,tyndall',s 7,,john7 ,,works #bg ,,work%op ,,appliances #ad 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*emi/ry4 ,,corni%4--,,practical ,,pro(s ,,( ,,*emical ,,laws3 ,a ,c\rse ( ,exp]im5ts ^u ! ,comb9+ ,proportions ( ! ,*emical ,elem5ts4 ,by ,,vaughan ,,corni%1 ,m4,sc41 ,associate ( ! ,ow5s ,college1 ,man*e/]4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,crookes4--,,select ,,me?ods ,,9 ,,*emical ,,analysis1 *iefly ,inorganic4 ,by ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,?ird ,edition1 ,rewritt5 & ,enl>g$4 ,) #fg ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,cross ,,& ,,bevan4--,,cellulose3 an ,outl9e ( ! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,/ructural ,elem5ts ( ,plants4 ,) ,ref]5ce to _! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,indu/rial ,uses4 ,by ,,cross & ,,bevan 7,c4 ,f4 ,cross1 ,e4 ,j4 ,bevan1 & ,c4 ,beadle74 ,) #ad ,plates4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,furneaux4--,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry1 ,inorganic & ,organic4 ,by ,w4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry1 ,london ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,) #fe ,illu/rations & #aee ,exp]im5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hjelt4--,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,g5]al ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,,hjelt1 ( ,hels+=s4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,j4 ,,bi%op ,,t+le1 ,ph4,d41 ,assi/ant 9 ! ,laboratory ( ! ,h]iot ,watt ,college1 ,ed9burgh4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,jago4--,works by ,w4 ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,) an ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,analysis1 ,inorganic & ,organic4 ,) #fc ,woodcuts & num]\s ,que/ions & ,ex]cises4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #gh ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,kolbe4--,a ,,%ort ,,textbook ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,dr4 ,,h]mann ,,kolbe4 ,translat$ & ,edit$ by ,t4 ,s4 ,,humpidge1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #ff ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,m5del,,eff4--,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,d4 ,,m5del,,eff1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,translat$ by ,,george ,,kam5sky1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ( ! ,imp]ial ,m9t1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & ,edit$ by ,a4 ,j4 ,,gre5away1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,sub-,editor ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,*emical ,society4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,mey]4--,,outl9es ,,( ,,!oretical ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,lo?> ,,mey]1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,tb+54 ,translat$ by ,pr(essors ,p4 ,,phillips ,,b$son1 ,d4,sc41 & ,w4 ,,c>leton ,,williams1 ,b4,sc4 #hvo41 #is4 ,,mill]4--,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,w4 ,,all5 ,,mill]1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,) #ga ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,new?4--,works by ,g4 ,s4 ,,new?1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,demon/rator 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,,*emical ,,lecture ,,exp]im5ts1 ,,non-,,metallic ,,elem5ts4 ,) #bcj ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,) #adf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,*emi/ry3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,) #ajh ,illu/rations & #bed ,exp]im5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,o/wald4--,,solutions4 ,by ,w4 ,,o/wald1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig4 ,be+ ! ,f\r? ,book1 ) "s additions1 ( ! ,second ,edition ( ,o/wald's ',lehrbu* d] allgeme95 ,*emie'4 ,translat$ by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,fell[ ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,pay54--,,indu/rial ,,*emi/ry4 ,a ,manual = use 9 ,te*nical ,colleges & ,s*ools1 bas$ ^u a ,translation ( ,/ohmann & ,engl]'s ,g]man ,edition ( ,,pay5',s ,prcis de ,*imie ,indu/rielle4 ,edit$ by ,b4 ,h4 ,,paul1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #fih ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #dbs4 ,,reynolds4--,,exp]im5tal ,,*emi/ry ,,= ,,junior ,,/ud5ts4 ,by ,j4 ,,em]son ,,reynolds1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ( ,dubl92 ,exam9] 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ( ,london4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 ) num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,"p ,i4 ,introductory4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,non-,metals1 ) an ,app5dix on ,sy/ematic ,te/+ = ,acids4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,metals1 & ,alli$ ,bodies4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iv4 ,c>bon ,comp\nds4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 ,,%5/one4--,works by ,w4 ,a4 ,,%5/one1 ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry 9 ,clifton ,college4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,glass-,,bl[+4 ,= ! use ( ,physical & ,*emical ,/ud5ts4 ,) #db ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,a ,,practical ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emi/ry4 ,int5d$ to give a ,practical acqua9tance ) ! ,elem5t>y ,facts & ,pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry4 ,) #be ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,?orpe4--,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,appli$ ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,b4,sc4 7,vict471 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,treas4 ,c4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,assi/$ by ,em95t ,contributors4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii41 #dbs4 ea*4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 #fcs4 ,,?orpe4--,,quantitative ,,*emical ,,analysis4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #hh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,?orpe ,,& ,,muir4--,,qualitative ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,& ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #eg ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,tild54--,works by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc4 ,london1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,*emical ,,philosophy4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,!oretical & ,sy/ematic ,*emi/ry4 ,) #e ,woodcuts4 ,) or )\t ! ,,answ]s ( ,problems4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,*emi/ry4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,h9ts ,,on ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,s*ools ,,& ,,sci5ce ,,classes4 ,) #g ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,watts' ,,diction>y ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,revis$ & entirely ,re-writt5 by ,h4 ,,=/] ,,morley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,fell[ (1 & lately ,assi/ant-,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,fell[1 & ,prlector 9 ,*emi/ry1 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,assi/$ by ,em95t ,contributors4 #d vols4 #hvo4 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii41 #dbs4 ea*4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 #ejs4 ,vol4 ,,iv41 #fcs4 ,,:iteley4--,works by ,r4 ,,lloyd ,,:iteley1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,pr9cipal ( ! ,municipal ,sci5ce ,s*ool1 ,we/ ,bromwi*4 ,,*emical ,,calculations4 ,) ,explanatory ,notes1 ,problems & ,answ]s1 specially adapt$ = use 9 ,colleges & ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,) a ,preface by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,,cl[es1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,fatty ,comp\nds4 ,) #de ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,physics1 ,,etc4 ,,e>l4--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,laboratory ,,"w3 a ,c\rse ( ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,,e>l1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,c4,s41 late ,s*ol> ( ,*ri/'s ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,) #eg ,diagrams & num]\s ,ex]cises & ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,ganot4--,works by ,,pr(essor ,,ganot4 ,translat$ & ,edit$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,physics1 ,exp]im5tal & ,appli$4 ,) #i ,col\r$ ,plates & ,maps1 & #ajbh ,woodcuts1 & ,app5dix ( ,problems & ,examples ) ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,natural ,,philosophy ,,= ,,g5]al ,,read]s ,,& ,,"y ,,p]sons4 ,) #g ,plates1 #fbd ,woodcuts1 & an ,app5dix ( ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,glazebrook ,,& ,,%aw4--,,practical ,,physics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,w4 ,n4 ,,%aw1 ,m4,a4 ,) #acd ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,gu?rie4--,,molecul> ,,physics ,,& ,,s\nd4 ,by ,f4 ,,gu?rie1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #ia ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,physical ,,& ,,electrical ,,eng9e]+ ,,laboratory ,,manuals4--,vol4 #a4 ,,h5d]son4--,,elem5t>y ,,physics4 ,by ,,john ,,h5d]son1 ,b4,sc4 7,ed9471 ,a4,i4,e4,e41 ,lectur] 9 ,physics1 ,man*e/] ,municipal ,te*nical ,s*ool4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,helmholtz4--,,popul> ,,lectures ,,on ,,sci5tific ,,subjects4 ,by ,,h]mann ,,von ,,helmholtz4 ,translat$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce1 ,/aff ,college4 ,) #fh ,illu/rations4 #b vols41 cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,cont5ts4--,vol4 ,i4--,! ,relation ( ,natural ,sci5ce to ,sci5ce 9 ,g5]al--,goe!'s ,sci5tific ,rese>*es--,! ,physiological ,causes ( ,h>mony 9 ,music--,ice & ,glaci]s--,! ,int]action ( ! ,natural ,=ces--,! ,rec5t ,progress ( ! ,!ory ( ,vision--,! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce--,! ,aim & ,progress ( ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,,cont5ts4--,vol4 ,,ii4--,gu/av ,magnus4 ,9 ,memoriam--,! ,orig9 & ,significance ( ,geometrical ,axioms--,! ,relation ( ,optics to ,pa9t+--,! ,orig9 ( ! ,planet>y ,sy/em--,?\ght 9 ,m$ic9e--,academic ,fre$om 9 ,g]man ,univ]sities--,h]mann ,von ,helmholtz--,an ,autobiographical ,sket*4 ,,watson4--,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,physics3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,w4 ,,watson ,b4,sc4 ,demon/rator 9 ,physics 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,physics1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aai ,illu/rations & #aic ,ex]cises4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,wor?+ton4--,a ,,fir/ ,,c\rse ,,( ,,physical ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,conta9+ #bfd ,exp]im5ts4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,wor?+ton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,wright4--,,elem5t>y ,,physics4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,pr(essor ( ,normal ,education1 ,durham ,college ( ,sci5ce4 ,) #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics1 ,,dynamics1 ,,/atics1 ,,hydro/atics1 ,,etc4 ,,ball4--,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d4 #hi ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,geld>d4--,,/atics ,,& ,,dynamics4 ,by ,c4 ,,geld>d1 ,m4,a41 =m]ly ,s*ol> ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,goodeve4--,works by ,t4 ,m4 ,,goodeve1 ,m4,a41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,me*anics at ! ,normal ,s*ool ( ,sci5ce1 & ! ,royal ,s*ool ( ,m9es4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,me*anism4 ,) #cdb ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,) #bec ,woodcuts & num]\s ,examples4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,me*anics3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book = ,/ud5ts ( ,appli$ ,me*anics4 ,) #ach ,illu/rations & ,diagrams1 & #ahh ,examples tak5 f ! ,sci5ce ,dep>tm5t ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,grieve4--,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,me*anics4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,grieve1 ,p4,s4,a41 late ,eng9e]1 ,r4,n41 ,sci5ce ,demon/rator = ! ,london ,s*ool ,bo>d1 etc4 ,/age #a4 ,) #afe ,illu/rations & a l>ge numb] ( ,examples4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,/age #b4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,/age #c4 ,) #ajc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,magnus4--,works by ,,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a4 ,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,me*anics4 ,introductory to ! /udy ( ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,design$ = ! ,use ( ,s*ools1 & ( ,c&idates = ! ,london ,matriculation & o!r ,exam9ations4 ,) num]\s ,ex]cises1 ,examples1 ,exam9ation ,que/ions1 & ,solutions1 etc41 f #ahgj-ahie4 ,) ,answ]s1 & #aca ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,key = ! use ( ,tea*]s only1 price #es4 #c-a_/b;d4 ,,hydro/atics ,,& ,,pneumatics4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d42 or1 ) ,answ]s1 #bs4 ,! ,work$ ,solutions ( ! ,problems1 #bs4 ,,rob9son4--,,elem5ts ,,( ,,dynamics 7,k9etics & ,/atics74 ,) num]\s ,ex]cises4 ,a ,text-book = ,junior ,/ud5ts4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,rob9son1 ,b4,a4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,smi?4--,works by ,j4 ,,hambl9 ,,smi?1 ,m4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,elem5t>y ,,hydro/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,key ,,to ,,/atics ,,& ,,hydro/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,tate4--,,ex]cises ,,on ,,me*anics ,,& ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,by ,,?omas ,,tate1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 ,key1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,taylor4--,works by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,c5tral ,high] ,grade & ,sci5ce ,s*ool1 ,%effield4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics1 includ+ ,hydro/atics & ,pneumatics4 ,) #age ,diagrams & ,illu/rations1 & #ebb ,exam9ation ,que/ions & ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4--,,solids4 ,) #afc ,illu/rations1 #abj ,work$ ,examples & ov] #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4--,,fluids4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations1 num]\s ,work$ ,examples1 & ab\t #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,?ornton4--,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,solids4 ,includ+ ,k9ematics1 ,/atics1 & ,k9etics4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,) #bjj ,illu/rations1 #acj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ijj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,twisd54--,works by ! ,rev4 ,,john ,f4 ,,twisd51 ,m4,a4 ,,practical ,,me*anics2 an ,elem5t>y ,introduction to _! ,/udy4 ,) #hee ,ex]cises1 & #ahd ,figures & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,) #agb ,examples1 num]\s ,ex]cises1 & #aed ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,williamson4--,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,ma!matical ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/ress ,,& ,,/ra9 ,,( ,,ela/ic ,,solids4 ,by ,,b5jam9 ,,williamson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,williamson ,,& ,,t>leton4--,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,dynamics4 ,conta9+ ,applications to ,!rmodynamics1 ) num]\s ,examples4 ,by ,,b5jam9 ,,williamson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,,francis ,a4 ,,t>leton1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,wor?+ton4--,,dynamics ,,( ,,rotation3 an ,elem5t>y introduction to ,rigid ,dynamics4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,wor?+ton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,optics ,,& ,,photography4 ,,abney4--,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,photography4 ,by ,capta9 ,w4 ,,de ,,wiveleslie ,,abney1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director = ,sci5ce 9 ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aae ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,glazebrook4--,,physical ,,optics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ & ,lectur] ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,demon/rator ( ,physics at ! ,cav5di% ,laboratory1 ,cambridge4 ,) #ahc ,woodcuts ( ,app>atus1 etc4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,wright4--,,optical ,,projection3 a ,treatise on ! ,use ( ! ,lant]n 9 ,exhibition & ,sci5tific ,demon/ration4 ,by ,,lewis ,,wright1 ,au?or ( ',light3 a ,c\rse ( ,exp]im5tal ,optics'4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,heat1 ,,& ,,!rmodynamics4 ,,alex&]4--,,treatise ,,on ,,!rmodynamics4 ,by ,,pet] ,,alex&]1 ,m4,a4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,cumm+4--,,heat4 ,= ! ,use ( ,s*ools & ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,l9n,,u ,,cumm+1 ,m4,a4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,day4--,,num]ical ,,examples ,,9 ,,heat4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,day1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,emtage4--,,light4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,a4 ,,emtage1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,helmholtz4--,,on ,,! ,,s5sations ,,( ,,tone ,,z ,a ,,physiological ,,basis ,,= ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,music4 ,by ,,h]mann ,,von ,,helmholtz4 ,royal #hvo41 #bhs4 ,,madan4--,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,heat4 ,= ! ,use ( ,s*ools4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,madan1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,fell[ ( ,que5's ,college1 ,ox=d2 late ,assi/ant ,ma/] at ,eton ,college4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #is4 ,,maxwell4--,,!ory ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,cl]k ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 & ,e4 ,) ,corrections & ,additions by ,"l ,,rayleigh4 ,) #ch ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,smi?4--,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,hambl9 ,,smi?1 ,m4,a41 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,tyndall4--,works by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see p4 #bg4 ,,wormell4--,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,!rmodynamics4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,wormell1 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,wright4--,works by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,& ,,heat4 ,) #afj ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,heat4 ,) #acf ,diagrams & num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,/eam1 ,,oil1 ,,& ,,gas ,,eng9es4 ,,bale4--,a ,,h&book ,,= ,,/eam ,,us]s2 be+ ,rules = ,eng9e ,driv]s & ,boil] ,att5dants1 ) ,notes on ,/eam ,eng9e & ,boil] ,managem5t & ,/eam ,boil] ,explosions4 ,by ,m4 ,,p[is ,,bale1 ,m4,i4,m4,e41 ,a1,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,bolton4--,,motive ,,p[]s ,,& ,,_! ,,practical ,,selection4 ,by ,,reg9ald ,,bolton1 ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,cl]k4--,,! ,,gas ,,& ,,oil ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,dugald ,,cl]k1 ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 ,fell[ ( ! ,*emical ,society1 ,memb] ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,fell[ ( ! ,in/itute ( ,pat5t ,ag5ts4 ,) #bbh ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,,holmes4--,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,v4 ,,holmes1 ,:itwor? ,s*ol>1 ,secret>y ( ! ,in/itution ( ,naval ,ar*itects4 ,) #bab ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,norris4--,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ',,otto' ,,cycle ,,gas ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,william ,,norris1 ,m4,i4,me*4,e4 ,) #bjg ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,ripp]4--,,/eam4 ,by ,,william ,,ripp]1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s2 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,%effield ,te*nical ,s*ool4 ,) #adb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,s5nett4--,,! ,,m>9e ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,a ,treatise = ! ,use ( ,eng9e]+ ,/ud5ts & ,(fic]s ( ! ,royal ,navy4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,s5nett1 ,r4,n41 late ,eng9e]-9-,*ief ( ! ,royal ,navy4 ,) #bfa ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,/romey]4--,,m>9e ,,boil] ,,managem5t ,,& ,,con/ruction4 ,be+ a ,treatise on ,boil] ,tr\bles & ,repairs1 ,corrosion1 ,fuels1 & ,heat1 on ! proporties ( ,iron & ,/eel1 on ,boil] ,me*anics1 ,work%op ,practices1 & ,boil] ,design4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,/romey]1 ,graduate ( ! ,royal ,te*nical ,college at ,aix-la-,*apelle1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,naval ,ar*itects1 etc4 #hvo41 #ahs4 net4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,,advanc$ ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ! ,au?or ( ',riv+ton's' ,notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction'4 ,) #che ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,burrell4--,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,edw>d ,j4 ,,burrell1 ,second ,ma/] ( ! ,p's ,palace ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,london4 ,) #cjc ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,s$don4--,,build]',s ,,"w ,,& ,,! ,,build+ ,,trades4 ,by ,col4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,s$don1 ,r4,e41 ,sup]9t5d+ ,eng9e]1 ,h4,m4's ,docky>d1 ,portsm\?2 ,exam9] 9 ,build+ ,con/ruction1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton2 ) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #afs4 ,,riv+ton',s ,,c\rse ,,( ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,,notes ,,on ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,arrang$ to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! syllabus ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,committee ( ,c\ncil on ,education1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,m$ium #hvo4 ,"p ,i4 ,fir/ ,/age1 or ,elem5t>y ,c\rse4 ,) #eeb ,woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,comm5cem5t ( ,second ,/age1 or ,advanc$ ,c\rse4 ,) #dgi ,woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,mat]ials4 ,advanc$ ,c\rse1 & ,c\rse = ,hon\rs4 ,) #ahh ,woodcuts1 #bas4 ,"p ,,iv4 ,calculations = ,build+ ,/ructures4 ,c\rse = ,hon\rs4 ,) #eig ,woodcuts1 #aes4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,,cumm+4--,,electricity ,,treat$ ,,exp]im5tally4 ,= ! ,use ( ,s*ools & ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,l9n,,u ,,cumm+1 ,m4,a41 ,assi/ant ,ma/] 9 ,rugby ,s*ool4 ,) #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,day4--,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,electrical ,,& ,,magnetic ,,measurem5ts1 ) ,answ]s4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,day4 #abmo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,du ,,bois4--,,! ,,magnetic ,,circuit ,,9 ,,!ory ,,& ,,practice4 ,by ,dr4 ,h4 ,,du ,,bois1 ,privatdoc5t 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,translat$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce 9 ! ,/aff ,college1 ,s&hur/4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,gore4--,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy1 includ+ all kn[n ,processes ( ,electro-,deposition4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,j5k94--,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,by ,,fleem+ ,,j5k91 ,f4,r4,s4,s41 ,l4 & ,e41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #agg ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,j\b]t4--,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,f\nd$ on ,,j\b]t',s ',trait lm5taire d'lectricit'4 ,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,fo/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,qua9 ,pr(essor ( ,physics 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 & ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce 9 ! ,/aff ,college1 ,s&hur/4 ,) #cha ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,l>d54--,,electricity ,,= ,,public ,,s*ools ,,& ,,colleges4 ,by ,w4 ,,l>d51 ,m4,a4 ,) #bae ,illu/rations1 & a ,s]ies ( ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,m]rifield4--,,magnetism ,,& ,,deviation ,,( ,,! ,,compass4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts 9 ,navigation & ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,,john ,,m]rifield1 ,l4,l4,d41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 #ahmo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,poys]4--,works by ,a4 ,w4 ,,poys]1 ,m4,a41 ,gramm> ,s*ool1 ,wisbeck4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,) #bce ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,) #cag ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,sl+o ,,& ,,brook]4--,works by ,w4 ,,sl+o & ,a4 ,,brook]4 ,,electrical ,,eng9e]+ ,,= ,,electric ,,light ,,artisans ,,& ,,/ud5ts4 ,) #cdf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,problems ,,& ,,solutions ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,embrac+ a ,complete ,set ( ,answ]s to ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,pap]s = ! ye>s #ahhe-ahid1 & a ,s]ies ( ,orig9al ,que/ions4 ,) #fg ,orig9al ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,tyndall4--,works by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see p4 #bg4 ,,telegraphy ,,& ,,! ,,telephone4 ,,b5nett4--,,! ,,telephone ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,europe4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,b5nett1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s2 late ,g5]al ,manag] 9 ,scotl& ( ! ,national ,telephone ,company1 & ,g5]al ,manag] & ,electrician ( ! ,mutual & ,new ,telephone ,companies4 ,) #afi ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,culley4--,a ,,h&book ,,( ,,practical ,,telegraphy4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,,culley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 late ,eng9e]-9-,*ief ( ,telegraphs to ! ,po/ ,(fice4 ,) #ace ,woodcuts & #ag ,plates4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,preece ,,& ,,sivewright4--,,telegraphy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,v4,p4,in/41 ,c4,e41 etc41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief & ,electrician ,po/ ,(fice ,telegraphs2 & ,sir ,j4 ,,sivewright1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,g5]al ,manag]1 ,s\? ,african ,telegraphs4 ,) #beh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,eng9e]+1 ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials1 ,,etc4 ,,&]son4--,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,/ructures3 ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials z dep5d+ on _! ,quality & z asc]ta9$ by ,te/+ ,app>atus4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,&]son1 ,c4,e41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,) #ff ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,b>ry4--,,railway ,,appliances3 a ,description ( ,details ( ,railway ,con/ruction subsequ5t to ! completion ( ! ,e>?works & ,/ructures4 ,by ,,john ,,wolfe ,,b>ry1 ,c4,b41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #bah ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,smi?4--,,graphics1 or ! ,art ( ,calculation by ,draw+ ,l9es1 appli$ especially to ,me*anical ,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,rob]t ,h4 ,,smi?1 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,mason ,college1 ,birm+ham4 ,"p ,i4 ,) sep>ate ,atlas ( #bi ,plates conta9+ #ig ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,,/oney4--,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/resses ,,on ,,gird]s ,,& ,,simil> ,,/ructures4 ,) ,practical ,obs]vations on ! ,/r5g? & o!r ,prop]ties ( ,mat]ials4 ,by ,,b9don ,b4 ,,/oney1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #e ,plates & #adc ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,royal #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,unw94--,works by ,,william ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,s4,c4 ,,! ,,te/+ ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,con/ruction4 ,embrac+ ! description ( ,te/+ ,ma*9]y & ,app>atus ,auxili>y to ,me*anical ,te/+1 & an ,acc\nt ( ! mo/ ,important ,rese>*es on ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials4 ,) #ada ,woodcuts & #e ,fold+-out ,plates4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,on ,,! ,,developm5t ,,& ,,transmission ,,( ,,p[] ,,f ,,c5tral ,,/ations3 be+ ! ,h[>d ,lectures deliv]$ at ! ,society ( ,arts 9 #ahic4 ,) #ha ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,w>r54--,,eng9e]+ ,,con/ruction ,,9 ,,iron1 ,,/eel1 ,,& ,,timb]4 ,by ,,william ,,h5ry ,,w>r51 ,*allis ,pr(essor ( ,civil & ,me*anical ,eng9e]+1 ,univ]sity ( ,sydney4 ,) #ac ,fold+ ,plates1 & #cge ,diagrams4 ,royal #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,,l[ ,,& ,,bevis4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,p's ,palace1 ,london2 & ,,alfr$ ,,william ,,bevis 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,director ( ,manual ,tra9+ to ! ,birm+ham ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,) ov] #gjj ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,l[4--,works by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[1 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,p's ,palace1 ,london4 ,,improv$ ,,draw+ ,,scales4 #d;d4 9 case4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,unw94--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ at ! ,c5tral ,in/itute ( ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,"p ,i4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples1 ,fa/5+s1 & ,transmissive ,ma*9]y4 ,) #cjd ,diagrams1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,*iefly on ,eng9e ,details4 ,) #agd ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies4 ,edit$ by ! ,au?or ( ',notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction'4 ,,tidal ,,riv]s3 _! 7#a7 ,hydraulics1 7#b7 ,improvem5t1 7#c7 ,navigation4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,:eel]1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 au?or ( ',! ,dra9age ( ,f5s & ,l[ ,l&s by ,gravitation & ,/eam ,p[]'4 ,) #ge ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,notes ,,on ,,docks ,,& ,,dock ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,c4 ,,colson1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,assi/ant ,director ( ,works1 ,admiralty4 ,) #cfe ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,h>b\r ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,william ,,%ield1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 & ,executive ,eng9e]1 ,national ,h>b\r ( ,refuge1 ,pet]head1 ,n4,b4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #aes4 net4 ,,calculations ,,= ,,eng9e]+ ,,/ructures4 ,by ,t4 ,,claxton ,,fidl]1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,dundee2 ,au?or ( ',a ,practical ,treatise on ,bridge ,con/ruction'4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,civil ,,eng9e]+4 ,by ,l4 ,f4 ,,v]non-,,h>c\rt1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,civil ,eng9e]+ at ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,railway ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,mills1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief1 ,great ,nor!rn ,railway1 ,irel&4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,work%op ,,appliances1 ,,etc4 ,,nor?cott4--,,la!s ,,& ,,turn+1 ,simple1 ,me*anical & ,ornam5tal4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,nor?cott4 ,) #cch ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,%elley4--,,work%op ,,appliances1 includ+ ,descriptions ( "s ( ! ,gaug+ & ,measur+ ,in/rum5ts1 ,h&-cutt+ ,tools1 ,la!s1 ,drill+1 ,pla9+1 & o!r ,ma*9e ,tools us$ by ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,%elley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) an additional ,*apt] on ,mill+ by ,r4 ,r4 ,,li/]4 ,) #cbc ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,m9]alogy1 ,,metallurgy1 ,,etc4 ,,bau]man4--,works by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,) #cgc ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,descriptive ,,m9]alogy4 ,) #bcf ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,bloxam ,,& ,,hunt+ton4--,,metals3 _! ,prop]ties & ,treatm5t4 ,by ,c4 ,l4 ,,bloxam & ,a4 ,k4 ,,hunt+ton1 ,pr(essors 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london4 ,) #acj ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,gore4--,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy1 includ+ all kn[n ,processes ( ,electro-,deposition4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,mit*ell4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,practical ,,assay+4 ,by ,,john ,,mit*ell1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,revis$1 ) ! ,rec5t ,discov]ies incorporat$4 ,by ,w4 ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bja ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,rhead4--,,metallurgy4 ,an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,rhead1 ,lectur] on ,metallurgy at ! ,municipal ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,man*e/]4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,rutley4--,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,rocks3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-book ( ,petrology4 ,by ,f4 ,,rutley1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) #f ,plates & #hh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,a/ronomy1 ,,navigation1 ,,etc4 ,,abbott4--,,elem5t>y ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,tides3 ! ,fundam5tal ,!orems ,demon/rat$ )\t ,ma!matics & ! ,influ5ce on ! ,l5g? ( ! ,day ,discuss$4 ,by ,t4 ,k4 ,,abbott1 ,b4,d41 ,fell[ & ,tutor1 ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,ball4--,works by ,sir ,,rob]t ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #acj ,figures & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #da ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,br9kley4--,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,f4 ,,br9kley1 =m]ly ,a/ronom] ,royal = ,irel&4 ,re-edit$ & ,revis$ by ,j4 ,w4 ,,/ubbs1 ,d4,d41 & ,f4 ,,br,,nn[1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #di ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,cl]ke4--,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,! ,,/>s4 ,by ,,agnes ,m4 ,,cl]ke4 ,) #f ,plates1 & num]\s ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,goodw94--,,azimu? ,,tables ,,= ,,! ,,high] ,,decl9ations4 7,limits ( ,decl9ation #bd to #cj1 bo? inclusive47 ,betwe5 ! ,p>allels ( ,latitude #j & #fj4 ,) ,examples ( ! ,use ( ! ,tables 9 ,engli% & ,fr5*4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,,goodw91 ,naval ,in/ructor1 ,royal ,navy4 ,royal #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,h]s*el4--,,outl9es ,,( ,,a/ronomy4--,by ,sir ,,john ,f4 ,w4 ,,h]s*el1 ,b>t41 ,k4,h41 etc4 ,) #i ,plates1 & num]\s ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,l[ell4--,,m>s4 ,by ,,p]cival ,,l[ell1 ,fell[ ,am]ican ,academy1 ,memb] ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 etc4 ,) #bd ,plates4 #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,m>t94--,,navigation ,,& ,,nautical ,,a/ronomy4 ,compil$ by ,/aff ,comm&] ,w4 ,r4 ,,m>t91 ,r4,n4 ,royal #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,m]rifield4--,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,navigation4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,j4 ,,m]rifield1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,m4,s4 ,) ,*>ts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,p>k]4--,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) ,num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,by ,,george ,w4 ,,p>k]1 ,m4,a41 ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,) #hd ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #es4 net4 ,,webb4--,,cele/ial ,,objects ,,= ,,common ,,telescopes4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,webb1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,fif? ,edition1 ,revis$ & greatly ,enl>g$ by ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,e4 ,,esp91 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 7,two ,volumes47 ,vol4 ,i41 ) ,portrait & a ,rem9isc5ce ( ! ,au?or1 #b ,plates1 & num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,works ,,by ,,ri*>d ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,old ,,& ,,new ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #ba ,plates & #dgb ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #dto41 #bas4 ,,my?s ,,& ,,m>vels ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,moon3 ,h] ,motions1 ,aspect1 ,sc5]y1 & ,physical ,condition4 ,) _m ,plates & ,*>ts1 ,wood ,engrav+s1 & #b ,lun> ,photographs4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,! ,,univ]se ,,( ,,/>s3 ,rese>*es into1 & ,new ,views respect+ ! ,con/itution ( ! ,heav5s4 ,) #bb ,*>ts 7#d ,col\r$71 & #bb ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,o!r ,,worlds ,,?an ,,ours3 ! ,plurality ( ,worlds ,/udi$ ,"u ! ,light ( ,rec5t ,sci5tific ,rese>*es4 ,) #ad ,illu/rations2 ,map1 ,*>ts1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,orbs ,,ar\nd ,,u2 ,essays on ! ,moon & ,planets1 ,meteors & ,comets1 ! ,sun & ,col\r$ ,pairs ( ,suns4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,light ,,sci5ce ,,= ,,leisure ,,h\rs3 ,famili> ,essays on ,sci5tific ,subjects4 ,natural ,ph5om5a1 etc4 #c vols41 cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ea*4 ,,! ,,expanse ,,( ,,heav53 ,essays on ! ,wond]s ( ! ,firmam5t4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,o!r ,,suns ,,?an ,,ours3 a ,s]ies ( ,essays on ,suns--,old1 ,"y1 & ,dead4 ,) o!r ,sci5ce ,glean+s4 ,two ,essays on ,:i/1 & ,correspond5ce ) ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,) #i ,/>-,maps & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,half-,,h\rs ,,) ,,! ,,telescope3 a ,popul> ,guide to ! ,use ( ! ,telescope z a means ( ,amusem5t & ,in/ruction4 ,) #g ,plates4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,new ,,/> ,,atlas ,,= ,,! ,,libr>y1 ! ,s*ool1 & ! ,obs]vatory1 9 ,twelve ,circul> ,maps 7) ,two ,index-,plates74 ,) an ,introduction on ! ,/udy ( ! ,/>s4 ,illu/rat$ by #i ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,! ,,s\!rn ,,skies3 a ,pla9 & ,easy ,guide to ! ,con/ellations ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,%[+ 9 #ab ,maps ! position ( ! pr9cipal ,/>-,gr\ps night aft] night ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,) an ,introduction & a sep>ate ,explanation ( ea* ,map4 ,true = e ,ye>4 #dto41 #es4 ,,half-,,h\rs ,,) ,,! ,,/>s3 a ,pla9 & ,easy ,guide to ! ,k ( ! ,con/ellations4 ,%[+ 9 #ab ,maps ! position ( ! pr9cipal ,/>-,gr\ps night aft] night ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,) ,introduction & a sep>ate ,explanation ( ea* ,map4 ,true = e ,ye>4 #dto41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,l>g] ,,/> ,,atlas ,,= ,,obs]v]s ,,& ,,/ud5ts4 ,9 ,twelve ,circul> ,maps1 %[+ #fjjj ,/>s1 #aejj ,d\ble ,/>s1 ,nebul1 etc4 ,) #b ,index-,plates4 ,folio1 #aes4 ,,! ,,/>s ,,9 ,,_! ,,seasons3 an ,easy ,guide to a ,k ( ! ,/>-,gr\ps4 ,9 #ab ,l>ge ,maps4 ,imp]ial #hvo41 #es4 ,,r\gh ,,ways ,,made ,,smoo?4 ,famili> ,essays on ,sci5tific ,subjects4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,9 ,,sci5ce4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,nature ,,/udies4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,,grant ,,all51 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,fo/]1 & ,e4 ,,clodd4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,leisure ,,read+s4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,e4 ,,clodd1 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,fo/]1 & ,a4 ,c4 ,,rany>d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,manufactures1 ,,te*nology1 ,,etc4 ,,bell4--,,jacqu>d ,,weav+ ,,& ,,design+4 ,by ,f4 ,t4 ,,bell1 ,m$alli/ 9 ,hon\rs & ,c]tificat$ ,tea*] 9 ',l95 ,manufactur+' & 9 ',weav+ & ,patt]n ,design+1' ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,) #aii ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,cross ,,& ,,bevan4--,,cellulose3 an ,outl9e ( ! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,/ructural ,elem5ts ( ,plants4 ,) ,ref]5ce to _! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,indu/rial ,uses4 ,by ,,cross & ,,bevan 7,c4 ,f4 ,cross1 ,e4 ,j4 ,bevan1 & ,c4 ,beadle74 ,) #ad ,plates4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,taylor4--,,cotton ,,weav+ ,,& ,,design+4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,taylor4 ,) #cgc ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lupton4--,,m9+4 ,an ,elem5t>y ,treatise on ! ,gett+ ( ,m9]als4 ,by ,,arnold ,,lupton1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,) #eif ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #is4 net4 ,,watts4--,,an ,,introductory ,,manual ,,= ,,sug> ,,gr[]s4 ,by ,,francis ,,watts1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #bj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiography ,,& ,,geology4 ,,bird4--,works by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,geology4 ,) ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,geology4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes & = ,g5]al ,read]s4 ,) ov] #cjj ,illu/rations1 a ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7col\r$71 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,gre54--,,physical ,,geology ,,= ,,/ud5ts ,,& ,,g5]al ,,read]s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,,gre51 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,?ornton4--,works by ,j4 ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,physiography3 an ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,nature4 ,) #ab ,maps & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,) ,app5dix on ,a/ronomical ,in/rum5ts & ,measurem5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,physiography4 ,) #f ,maps & #ahj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,heal? ,,& ,,hygi5e4 ,,bray4--,,physiology ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?1 91 ,easy ,lessons = ,s*ools4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,*>les ,,bray4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 ,,brodribb4--,,manual ,,( ,,heal? ,,& ,,temp]ance4 ,by ,t4 ,,brodribb1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,extracts f ,g\gh's ',temp]ance ,orations'4 ,revis$ & ,edit$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,,ru?v5 ,,pym1 ,m4,a41 ,memb] ( ! ,%effield ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,buckton4--,,heal? ,,9 ,,! ,,h\se2 ,tw5ty-five ,lectures on ,elem5t>y ,physiology4 ,by ,mrs4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,buckton4 ,) #da ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,corfield4--,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,corfield1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,frankl&4--,,micro-,,organisms ,,9 ,,wat]1 ,,_! ,,significance1 ,,id5tification1 ,,& ,,removal4 ,toge!r ) an ,acc\nt ( ! ,bact]iological ,me?ods ,involv$ 9 _! ,inve/igation4 ,specially ,design$ = ! ,use ( ^? connect$ ) ! ,sanit>y ,aspects ( ,wat] ,supply4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,p]cy ,,frankl&1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ ( ! ,*emical ,society2 & ,mrs4 ,,p]cy ,,frankl&4 ,) #b ,plates & num]\s ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,nott] ,,& ,,fir?4--,,hygi5e4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,nott]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 & ,r4 ,h4 ,,fir?1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,) #ie ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,poore4--,,essays ,,on ,,rural ,,hygi5e4 ,by ,,george ,,vivian ,,poore1 ,m4,d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,wilson4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,heal?-,,sci5ce3 adapt$ = use 9 ,s*ools & ,colleges1 & suit$ to ! requirem5ts ( ,/ud5ts prep>+ = ! ,exam9ations 9 ,hygi5e ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t1 etc4 ,by ,,&rew ,,wilson1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,l4,s41 etc4 ,) #gd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 ,,evolution1 ,,etc4 ,,clodd4--,works by ,,edw>d ,,clodd4 ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,creation3 ,a ,pla9 ,acc\nt ( ,evolution4 ,) #gg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,prim] ,,( ,,evolution3 be+ a ,popul> ,abridg$ ,edition ( ',! ,/ory ( ,creation'4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,furneaux4--,works by ,,william ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,,! ,,outdoor ,,_w2 or1 ,! ,"y ,collector's ,h&book4 ,) #ah ,plates1 #af ( :i* are col\r$1 & #edi ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,butt]flies ,,& ,,mo?s 7,briti%74 ,) #ab ,col\r$ ,plates & #bda ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,life ,,9 ,,ponds ,,& ,,/reams4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates & #caa ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,hudson4--,,briti% ,,birds4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson1 ,c4,m4,z4,s4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates f ,orig9al ,draw+s by ,a4 ,,?orburn1 & #h ,plates & #ajj ,figures 9 black & :ite f ,orig9al ,draw+s by ,c4 ,e4 ,,lodge1 & #c ,illu/rations f ,photographs by ,r4 ,b4 ,,lodge4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,romanes4--,works by ,,george ,,john ,,romanes1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,d>w91 ,,& ,,aft] ,,d>w93 an ,exposition ( ! ,d>w9ian ,!ory1 & a ,discussion on ,po/-,d>w9ian ,que/ions4 ,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,d>w9ian ,,!ory4 ,) ,portrait ( ,d>w9 & #abe ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,,po/-,,d>w9ian ,,que/ions3 ,h]$ity & ,utility4 ,) ,portrait ( ! ,au?or & #e ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,weismannism4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,surg]y4 ,,a%by ,,& ,,wright4--,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,*ildr51 ,,m$ical ,,& ,,surgical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,a%by1 ,m4,d41 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 & ,g4 ,a4 ,,wright1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,b41 ,oxon41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,eng4 ,) #aib ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bes4 ,,b5nett4--,works by ,,william ,h4 ,,b5nett1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,george's ,hospital4 ,,cl9ical ,,lectures ,,on ,,v>icose ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,extremities4 ,) #c ,plates4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,on ,,v>icocele2 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise4 ,) #d ,tables & a ,diagram4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,cl9ical ,,lectures ,,on ,,abdom9al ,,h]nia3 *iefly 9 relation to ,treatm5t1 includ+ ! ,radical ,cure4 ,) #ab ,diagrams 9 ! ,text4 #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,cl>ke4--,,po/-,,mortem ,,exam9ations ,,9 ,,m$ico-,,legal ,,& ,,ord9>y ,,cases4 ,) ,special ,*apt]s on ! ,legal ,aspects ( ,po/-,mortems1 & on ,c]tificates ( ,dea?4 ,by ,j4 ,,jackson ,,cl>ke1 ,m4,b4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,coats4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,pa?ology4 ,by ,,joseph ,,coats1 ,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,revis$ ?r\gh\t4 ,) #ejg ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,cooke4--,works by ,,?omas ,,cooke1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng41 ,b4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,d41 ,p>is4 ,,tablets ,,( ,,anatomy4 ,be+ a ,synopsis ( ,demon/rations giv5 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,hospital ,m$ical ,s*ool 9 ! ye>s #ahga-ge4 ,t5? ,?\s&1 be+ a selection ( ! ,tablets believ$ to be mo/ useful to ,/ud5ts g5]ally4 ,po/ #dto41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,aphorisms ,,9 ,,appli$ ,,anatomy ,,& ,,op]ative ,,surg]y4 ,includ+ #ajj ,typical viva voce ,que/ions on ,surface ,m>k+1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,dissection ,,guides4 ,aim+ at ,ext5d+ & ,facilitat+ su* ,practical "w 9 ,anatomy z w be specially useful 9 connection ) an ord9>y ,hospital ,curriculum4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,dick9son4--,works by ,w4 ,,h[%ip ,,dick9son1 ,m4,d4 ,cantab41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4 ,,on ,,r5al ,,& ,,ur9>y ,,affections4 ,complete 9 ,?ree ,p>ts1 #hvo41 ) #ab ,plates & #abb ,woodcuts4 ,price #c #ds4 #f;d4 clo?4 a/]ism ,! ,p>ts c also be _h sep>ately1 ea* complete 9 itself1 z foll[s3-- ,"p ,i4 ,diabetes1 #ajs4 #f;d4 sew$1 #abs4 clo?4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,album9uria1 #a sew$1 #a #as4 clo?4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,miscellane\s ,affections ( ! ,kidneys & ,ur9e1 #a #ajs4 sew$1 #a #aas4 #f;d4 clo?4 ,,! ,,tongue ,,z ,,an ,,indication ,,( ,,disease2 be+ ! ,lumleian ,lectures deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians 9 ,m>*1 #ahhh4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,h>veian ,,oration ,,on ,,h>vey ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,& ,,mod]n ,,m$ic9e4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,occasional ,,pap]s ,,on ,,m$ical ,,subjects1 #ahee-ahif4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,eri*s54--,,! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,( ,,surg]y2 a ,treatise on ,surgical ,injuries1 ,diseases1 & ,op]ations4 ,t5? ,edition4 ,revis$ by ! late ,,m>cus ,,beck1 ,m4,s41 & ,m4,b4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 & by ,,raymond ,,johnson1 ,m4,b4 & ,b4,s4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,illu/rat$ by ne>ly #ajjj ,engrav+s on ,wood4 #b vols41 royal #hvo41 #bhs4 ,,g>rod4--,works by ,,sir ,,alfr$ ,,b>+ ,,g>rod1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,g\t ,,& ,,rheumatic ,,g\t 7,,rheumatoid ,,ar?ritis74 ,) #f ,plates1 compris+ #ba ,figures 7#ad ,col\r$71 & #bg ,illu/rations engrav$ on ,wood4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,mat]ia ,,m$ica ,,& ,,!rapeutics4 ,revis$ & ,edit$1 "u ! sup]vision ( ! ,au?or1 by ,,ne/or ,,tir>d1 ,m4,d41 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,pr(essor ( ,mat]ia ,m$ica & ,!rapeutics 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,gray4--,,anatomy1 ,,descriptive ,,& ,,surgical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,gray1 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,lectur] on ,anatomy at ,/4 ,george's ,hospital4 ,! ,?irte5? ,edition1 re-edit$ by ,t4 ,,pick]+ ,,pick1 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,george's ,hospital2 ,memb] ( ! ,c\rt ( ,exam9]s1 ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons ( ,engl&4 ,) #fcf l>ge ,woodcut ,illu/rations1 a l>ge proportion ( :i* are col\r$1 ! ,art]ies be+ col\r$ r$1 ! ,ve9s blue1 & ! ,n]ves yell[4 ,! atta*m5ts ( ! muscles to ! bones1 9 ! section on ,o/eology1 are also %[n 9 col\r$ outl9e4 ,royal #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,halliburton4--,works by ,w4 ,d4 ,,halliburton1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,r4,c4,p4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,*emical ,,physiology ,,& ,,pa?ology4 ,) #ajd ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,*emical ,,physiology4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,lang4--,,! ,,me?odical ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,eye4 ,be+ ,"p ,i4 ( a ,guide to ! ,practice ( ,oph?almology = ,/ud5ts & ,practition]s4 ,by ,,william ,,lang1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,eng41 ,surgeon to ! ,royal ,london ,oph?almic ,hospital1 ,moorfields1 etc4 ,) #ae ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,live+4--,works by ,,rob]t ,,live+1 ,m4,a4 & ,m4,d4 ,cantab41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,lond41 etc41 ,physician to ! ,dep>tm5t = ,diseases ( ! ,sk9 at ! ,middlesex ,hospital1 etc4 ,,h&book ,,on ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,sk94 ,) especial ref]5ce to ,diagnosis & ,treatm5t4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,elephantiasis ,,gr,,corum1 ,,or ,,true ,,leprosy2 ,be+ ! ,g\l/onian ,lectures = #ahgc4 ,cr4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,longmore4--,works by ,surgeon-,g5]al ,sir ,t4 ,,longmore 7,retir$71 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,,! ,,illu/rat$ ,,optical ,,manual2 ,,or1 ,,h&book ,,( ,,in/ructions ,,= ,,! ,,guidance ,,( ,,surgeons ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,quality ,,& ,,range ,,( ,,vision1 ,,& ,,9 ,,di/+ui%+ ,,& ,,deal+ ,,) ,,optical ,,defects ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,illu/rat$ by #gd ,draw+s & ,diagrams by ,inspector-,g5]al ,dr4 ,,macdonald1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,c4,b4 #hvo41 #ads4 ,,gun%ot ,,injuries4 ,_! ,hi/ory1 ,*>act]i/ic ,features1 ,complications1 & ,g5]al ,treatm5t2 ) ,/ati/ics conc]n+ !m z !y h be5 met ) 9 ,w>f>e4 ,) #gh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,luff4--,,text-,,book ,,( ,,=5sic ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,toxicology4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,p4 ,,luff1 ,m4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,physician 9 ,*>ge ( ,out-,pati5ts & ,lectur] on ,m$ical ,jurisprud5ce & ,toxicology 9 ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital2 ,exam9] 9 ,=5sic ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london2 ,ext]nal ,exam9] 9 ,=5sic ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,victoria ,univ]sity2 ,(ficial ,analy/ to ! ,home ,(fice4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #b vols41 cr[n #hvo41 #bds4 ,,newman4--,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,kidney ,,am5able ,,to ,,surgical ,,treatm5t4 ,lectures to ,practition]s4 ,by ,,david ,,newman1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon to ! ,we/]n ,infirm>y ,out-,door ,dep>tm5t2 ,pa?ologi/ & ,lectur] on ,pa?ology at ! ,glasg[ ,royal ,infirm>y2 ,exam9] 9 ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[2 ,vice-,presid5t ,glasg[ ,pa?ological & ,cl9ical ,society4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,ow54--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,anatomy ,,= ,,s5ior ,,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,edmund ,,ow51 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4,c41 ,s5ior ,surgeon to ! ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr51 ,great ,ormond ,/reet1 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital1 ,london1 & co-,lectur] on ,surg]y1 late ,lectur] on ,anatomy 9 its ,m$ical ,s*ool4 ,) #baj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,poole4--,,cook]y ,,= ,,! ,,diabetic4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 & ,mrs4 ,,poole4 ,) ,preface by ,dr4 ,,pavy4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,qua94--,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,m$ic9e2 ,includ+ ,g5]al ,pa?ology1 ,g5]al ,!rapeutics1 ,hygi5e1 & ! ,diseases ( ,wom5 & ,*ildr54 ,by ,v>i\s ,writ]s4 ,edit$ by ,,ri*>d ,,qua91 ,b>t41 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,,ll4,d4 ,ed941 7,hon47 ,f4,r4,s41 ,physician ,extraord9>y to ,h4,m4 ! ,que51 ,presid5t ( ! ,g5]al ,m$ical ,c\ncil1 ,memb] ( ! ,s5ate ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 etc4 ,assi/$ by ,,fr$]ick ,,?omas ,,rob]ts1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,b4,sc41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 ,fell[ ( ,univ]sity ,college1 ,pr(essor ( ,mat]ia ,m$ica & ,!rapeutics1 ,univ]sity ,college1 c42 & ,j4 ,,mit*ell ,,bruce1 ,m4,a4 ,abdn41 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians ( ,london1 ,physician & ,lectur] on ! ,pr9ciples & ,practice ( ,m$ic9e1 ,*>+ ,cross ,hospital1 c4 ,new ,edition1 ,revis$ ?r\gh\t & ,enl>g$4 ,9 #b ,vols41 m$ium #hvo41 clo?1 r$ edges1 price #djs4 net4 ,,qua94--,,qua9',s 7,,jones7 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,anatomy4 ,! ,t5? ,edition4 ,edit$ by ,,edw>d ,,alb]t ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,physiology & ,hi/ology 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 & ,,george ,,danc] ,,?ane1 ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,9 #c ,vols4 a/]ism ,! sev]al p>ts ( ?is "w =m ,,complete ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,_! ,,respective ,,subjects4 ,!y c be obta9$ sep>ately z foll[s3-- ,,vol4 ,i41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,embryology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bjj ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,i41 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,g5]al ,,anatomy ,,or ,,hi/ology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bia ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,vol4 ,,ii41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,o/eology4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #afh ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,ii41 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,ar?rology--,,myology--,,angeiology4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #bee ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord ,,& ,,bra94 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #aci ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,n]ves4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #ajb ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,s5ses4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #agh ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,splan*nology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,,johnson ,,sym+ton1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ccg ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #afs4 ,,app5dix4 ,,sup]ficial ,,& ,,surgical ,,anatomy4 ,by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane & ,pr(essor ,r4 ,j4 ,,godlee1 ,m4,s4 ,) #bi ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,s*,,f]4--,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,hi/ology4 ,descriptive & ,practical4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,jodrell ,pr(essor ( ,physiology 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 ,editor ( ! ,hi/ological ,portion ( ,qua9's ',anatomy'4 ,illu/rat$ by m ?an #cjj ,figures1 _m ( :i* are new4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 7,int]leav$1 #ajs47 ,,s*5k4--,,manual ,,( ,,bact]iology4 ,= ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) especial ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,s*5k1 ,pr(essor 7,extraord9>y7 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,vi5na4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man1 ) an ,app5dix1 by ,w4 ,r4 ,,dawson1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,univ4 ,dub42 late ,univ]sity ,travell+ ,prizeman 9 ,m$ic9e4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations1 "s ( :i* are col\r$4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,smale ,,& ,,coly]4 ,,diseases ,,& ,,injuries ,,( ,,! ,,tee?1 includ+ ,pa?ology & ,treatm5t3 a ,manual ( ,practical ,d5ti/ry = ,/ud5ts & ,practition]s4 ,by ,,morton ,,smale ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4,s4,a41 ,l4,d4,s41 ,d5tal ,surgeon to ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital1 ,dean ( ! ,s*ool1 ,d5tal ,hospital ( ,london1 etc42 & ,j4 ,f4 ,,coly]1 ,l4,r4,c4,p41 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4,d4,s41 ,assi/ant ,d5tal ,surgeon to ,*>+ ,cross ,hospital1 & ,assi/ant ,d5tal ,surgeon to ! ,d5tal ,hospital ( ,london4 ,) #ccd ,illu/rations4 ,l>ge ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,smi? 7,h4 ,f474 ,,! ,,h&book ,,= ,,midwives4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,fly ,,smi?1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,b4 ,oxon41 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 ,) #da ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 price #es4 ,,/eel4--,works by ,,john ,,h5ry ,,/eel1 ,f4,r4,c4,v4,s41 ,f4,z4,s41 ,a4,v4,d4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,dog2 be+ a ,manual ( ,can9e ,pa?ology4 ,especially adapt$ = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 #hh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,ox2 be+ a ,manual ( ,bov9e ,pa?ology4 ,especially adapt$ = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 #b ,plates & #aag ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,%eep2 be+ a ,manual ( ,ov9e ,pa?ology = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) ,col\r$ ,plate & #ii ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,outl9es ,,( ,,equ9e ,,anatomy2 a ,manual = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,/ud5ts 9 ! ,dissect+ ,room4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ',,/oneh5ge4'--,,! ,,dog ,,9 ,,heal? ,,& ,,disease4 ,by ',,/oneh5ge'4 ,) #hd ,wood ,engrav+s4 ,squ>e ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,wall]4--,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,,augu/us ,d4 ,,wall]1 ,m4,d41 ,lectur] on ,physiology at ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,london2 late ,ext]nal ,exam9] at ! ,victorian ,univ]sity4 ,second ,edition1 ,revis$4 ,) #cje ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,wei*selbaum4--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,pa?ological ,,hi/ology4 ,) ,special ,ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,,anton ,,wei*selbaum1 ,pr(essor ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,vi5na4 ,translat$ by ,w4 ,r4 ,,dawson1 ,m4,d4 7,dub471 ,demon/rator ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons1 ,irel&1 late ,m$ical ,travell+ ,prizeman ( ,dubl9 ,univ]sity1 c4 ,) #bba ,figures1 p>tly 9 ,col\rs1 a ,cromo-li?ographic ,plate1 & #g ,photographic ,plates4 ,royal #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,wilks ,,& ,,moxon4--,,lectures ,,on ,,pa?ological ,,anatomy4 ,by ,,samuel ,,wilks1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,consult+ ,physician to1 & =m]ly ,lectur] on ,m$ic9e & ,pa?ology at ,guy's ,hospital1 & ! late ,,walt] ,,moxon1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to1 & "s "t ,lectur] on ,pa?ology at ,guy's ,hospital4 ,?ird ,edition1 ?or\ghly ,revis$4 ,by ,,samuel ,,wilks1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,y\att4--,works by ,,william ,,y\att4 ,,! ,,horse4 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ by ,w4 ,,watson1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s4 ,) #eb ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,dog4 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,) #cc ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiology1 ,,biology1 ,,etc4 ,,a%by4--,,notes ,,on ,,physiology1 = ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts ,prep>+ = ,exam9ation4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,a%by1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ada ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,b>nett4--,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,! ,,body3 a ,*ildr5's ,book on ,anatomy & ,physiology1 = ,s*ool & ,home ,use4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,b>nett4 ,) #aac ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #i;d4 ,,bidgood4--,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,practical ,,elem5t>y ,,biology4 ,by ,,john ,,bidgood1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #bbf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,bray4--,,physiology ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?1 9 ,easy ,lessons = ,s*ools4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,*>les ,,bray4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 ,,frankl&4--,,micro-,,organisms ,,9 ,,wat]4 ,toge!r ) an ,acc\nt ( ! ,bact]iological ,me?ods involv$ 9 _! ,inve/igation4 ,specially design$ = ! use ( ^? connect$ ) ! ,sanit>y ,aspects ( ,wat]-,supply4 ,by ,,p]cy ,,frankl&1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,mrs4 ,,p]cy ,,frankl&4 ,) #b ,plates & ,num]\s ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,furneaux4--,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,w4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hudson ,,& ,,gosse4--,,! ,,rotif]a1 or ',,:eel-,,animalcules'4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,,hudson1 ,,ll4,d41 & ,p4 ,h4 ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #cj ,col\r$ & #d ,uncol\r$ ,plates4 ,9 #f ,p>ts4 #dto41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ea*2 ,supplem5t #abs4 #f;d4 ,complete 9 #b vols41 ) ,supplem5t1 #dto41 #d #ds4 ,,macali/]4--,works by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d4 ,,zoology ,,& ,,morphology ,,( ,,v]tebrata4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,inv]tebrate ,,animals4 ,) #ei ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,) #gg ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,morgan4--,,animal ,,biology3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book4 ,by ,c4 ,,lloyd ,,morgan4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,s*5k4--,,manual ,,( ,,bact]iology1 = ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts1 ) ,especial ,ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,s*5k4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations1 "s ( :i* are ,col\r$4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,?ornton4--,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bfg ,illu/rations1 "s ,col\r$4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,botany4 ,,aitk54--,,elem5t>y ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,botany4 ,= ! use ( ,s*ools4 ,by ,,edi? ,,aitk51 late ,s*ol> ( ,girton ,college4 ,) ov] #djj ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,b5nett ,,& ,,murray4--,,h&book ,,( ,,cryptogamic ,,botany4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,lectur] on ,botany at ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital2 & ,,george ,,murray1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,keep] ( ,botany1 ,briti% ,museum4 ,) #cgh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,cross ,,& ,,bevan4--,,cellulose3 an ,outl9e ( ! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,/ructural ,elem5ts ( ,plants4 ,) ,ref]5ce to _! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,indu/rial ,uses4 ,by ,,cross & ,,bevan 7,c4 ,f4 ,cross1 ,e4 ,j4 ,bevan1 & ,c4 ,beadle74 ,) #ad ,plates4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,edmonds4--,works by ,,h5ry ,,edmonds1 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,,elem5t>y ,,botany1 ,!oretical & ,practical4 ,) #cai ,diagrams & ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,botany ,,= ,,beg9n]s4 ,) #he ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,kit*5]4--,a ,,ye>',s ,,botany4 ,adapt$ to ,home & ,s*ool ,use4 ,) ,illu/rations by ! ,au?or4 ,by ,,frances ,,anna ,,kit*5]4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,l9dley ,,& ,,moore4--,,! ,,treasury ,,( ,,botany2 or1 ,popul> ,diction>y ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom3 ) :i* is incorporat$ a ,gloss>y ( ,botanical ,t]ms4 ,edit$ by ,j4 ,,l9dley1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,t4 ,,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #bj ,/eel ,plates & num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,two p>ts1 fcp4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,mc,n,a,b4--,,class-,,book ,,( ,,botany4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab4 ,,morphology ,,& ,,physiology4 ,) #db ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,classification ,,( ,,plants4 ,) #aah ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,?om ,,& ,,b5nett4--,,/ructural ,,& ,,physiological ,,botany4 ,by ,dr4 ,,otto ,,wilhelm ,,?om & by ,,alfr$ ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) ,col\r$ ,map & #fjj ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,watts4--,a ,,s*ool ,,flora4 ,= ! use ( ,elem5t>y ,botanical ,classes4 ,by ,w4 ,,m>%all ,,watts1 ,d4,sc4 ,lond4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture ,,& ,,g>d5+4 ,,addyman4--,,agricultural ,,analysis4 ,a ,manual ( ,quantitative ,analysis = ,/ud5ts ( ,agriculture4 ,by ,,frank ,t4 ,,addyman1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c41 ,lectur] on ,agricultural ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,nott+ham1 etc4 ,) #di ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 net4 ,,coleman ,,& ,,addyman4--,,practical ,,agricultural ,,*emi/ry4 ,= ,elem5t>y ,/ud5ts1 adapt$ = use 9 ,agricultural ,classes & ,colleges4 ,by ,j4 ,,b]n>d ,,coleman1 ,a4,r4,c4,sc41 ,f4,i4,c41 & ,,frank ,t4 ,,addyman1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #bd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,l\don4--,,encyclop,,dia ,,( ,,agriculture2 ! ,lay+-out1 ,improvem5t1 & ,managem5t ( ,l&$ ,prop]ty2 ! ,cultivation & ,economy ( ! ,productions ( ,agriculture4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,l\don1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #aajj ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,sorau]4--,a ,,popul> ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,physiology ,,( ,,plants4 ,= ! use ( ,g>d5]s1 or = ,/ud5ts ( ,horticulture & ( ,agriculture4 ,by ,dr4 ,,paul ,,sorau]4 ,translat$ by ,f4 ,e4 ,,weiss1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #cc ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #is4 net4 ,,webb4--,works by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 late ,pr9cipal ( ! ,agricultural ,college1 ,aspatria4 ,,elem5t>y ,,agriculture4 ,a ,text-,book specially adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t1 ! ,junior ,exam9ation ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 & o!r ,elem5t>y ,exam9ations4 ,) #cd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,a ,manual = ,advanc$ ,sci5ce ,/ud5ts4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,works ,,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,fragm5ts ,,( ,,sci5ce3 a ,s]ies ( ,deta*$ ,essays1 ,addresses1 & ,reviews4 #b vols4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #afs4 ,vol4 ,i4--,! ,con/itution ( ,nature--,radiation--,on ,radiant ,heat 9 ,relation to ! ,col\r & ,*emical ,con/itution ( ,bodies--,new ,*emical ,reactions produc$ by ,light--,on ,du/ & ,disease--,voyage to ,alg]ia to obs]ve ! ,eclipse--,niag>a--,! ,p>allel ,roads ( ,gl5 ,roy--,alp9e ,sculpture--,rec5t ,exp]im5ts on ,fog-,signals--,on ! ,/udy ( ,physics--,on ,cry/all9e & ,slaty ,cleavage--,on ,p>amagnetic & ,diamagnetic ,=ces--,physical ,basis ( ,sol> ,*emi/ry--,elem5t>y ,magnetism--,on ,=ce--,contributions to ,molecul> ,physics--,life & ,lett]s ( ,,f>aday--,! ,copley ,m$alli/ ( #ahgj--,! ,copley ,m$alli/ ( #ahga--;,dea? by ,lightn+--,sci5ce & ! ,spirits4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,reflections on ,pray] & ,natural ,law--,miracles & ,special ,provid5ces--,on ,pray] z a ,=m ( ,physical ,en]gy--,vitality--,matt] & ,=ce--,sci5tific ,mat]ialism--,an ,address to ,/ud5ts--,sci5tific ,use ( ! ,imag9ation--,! ,belfa/ ,address--,apology = ! ,belfa/ ,address--,! ,rev4 ,,james ,,m>t9eau & ! ,belfa/ ,address--,f]m5tation1 & its ,be>+s on ,surg]y & ,m$ic9e--,spontane\s ,g5]ation--,sci5ce & ,man--,pr(essor ,,vir*[ & ,evolution--,! ,electric ,light4 ,,new ,,fragm5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,cont5ts4--,! ,sabba?--,goe!'s ',f>b5lehre'--,atoms1 ,molecules1 & ,e!r ,waves--,c\nt ,rum=d--,l\is ,pa/eur1 8 ,life & ,lab\rs--,! ,ra9b[ & its ,cong5]s--,address deliv]$ at ! ,birkbeck ,in/itution on ,octob] #bb1 #ahhd--,?omas ,"y--,life 9 ! ,alps--,ab\t ,common ,wat]--,p]sonal ,recollections ( ,?omas ,c>lyle--,on ,unveil+ ! ,/atue ( ,?omas ,c>lyle--,on ! ,orig91 ,propagation1 & ,prev5tion ( ,ph?isis--,old ,alp9e ,jott+s--,a ,morn+ on ,alp ,lusg54 ,,lectures ,,on ,,s\nd4 ,) ,frontispiece ( ,fog-,syr51 & #bjc o!r ,woodcuts & ,diagrams 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,heat1 ,a ,,mode ,,( ,,motion4 ,) #abe ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,light ,,deliv]$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,9 #ahgb ,,& #ahgc4 ,) ,portrait1 ,li?ographic ,plate1 & #ei ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,essays ,,on ,,! ,,float+ ,,matt] ,,( ,,! ,,air ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,putrefaction ,,& ,,infection4 ,) #bd ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,rese>*es ,,on ,,diamagnetism ,,& ,,magnecry/allic ,,action2 includ+ ! ,"q ( ,diamagnetic ,pol>ity4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,notes ,,( ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,n9e ,,lectures ,,on ,,light1 deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita91 #ahfi4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,notes ,,( ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,sev5 ,,lectures ,,on ,,electrical ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,!ories1 deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita91 #ahgj4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,lessons ,,9 ,,electricity ,,at ,,! ,,royal ,,in/itution #ahge-ahgf4 ,) #eh ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,glaci]s ,,( ,,! ,,alps3 be+ a ,n>rative ( ,excursions & ,asc5ts4 ,an ,acc\nt ( ! ,orig9 & ,ph5om5a ( ,glaci]s1 & an ,exposition ( ! ,physical ,pr9ciples to :i* !y are relat$4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,f>aday ,,z ,a ,,discov]]4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,photography4 ,by ,capta9 ,w4 ,,de ,,wiveleslie ,,abney1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director = ,sci5ce 9 ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aee ,woodcuts4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,/ructures3 ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials z dep5d+ on _! quality & z asc]ta9$ by ,te/+ ,app>atus2 ! ,/r5g? ( ,/ructures1 z dep5d+ on _! =m & arrangem5t1 & on ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,&]son1 ,c4,e41 etc4 ,) #ff ,woodcuts4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,railway ,,appliances4 ,a ,description ( ,details ( ,railway ,con/ruction subsequ5t to ! completion ( ,e>?works & ,/ructures1 includ+ a %ort ,notice ( ,railway ,roll+ ,/ock4 ,by ,,john ,,wolfe ,,b>ry1 ,c4,b41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #bah ,woodcuts4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,william ,,all5 ,,mill]1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #gb ,woodcuts4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,quantitative ,,*emical ,,analysis4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,ph4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london4 ,) #hh ,woodcuts4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,qualitative ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,& ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr9cipal ,*emi/ ( ! ,gov]nm5t ,laboratories1 ,london1 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #eg ,woodcuts4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,*emical ,,philosophy4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,!oretical & ,sy/ematic ,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc41 ,london1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce4 ,) #e ,woodcuts4 ,) or )\t ,answ]s to ,problems4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,l[ndean ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 ,) #acj ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 #f;d4 ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,associate ( ! ,royal ,s*ool ( ,m9es4 ,) #cgc ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,descriptive ,,m9]alogy4 ,by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,) #bcf ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,metals1 ,,_! ,,prop]ties ,,& ,,treatm5t4 ,by ,c4 ,l4 ,,bloxam & ,a4 ,k4 ,,hunt+ton1 ,pr(essors 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london4 ,) #acj ,woodcuts4 ,price #es4 ,,physical ,,optics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ & ,lectur] ( ,tr9ity ,college1 & ,demon/rator ( ,physics at ! ,cav5di% ,laboratory1 ,cambridge4 ,) #ahc ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,practical ,,physics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,w4 ,n4 ,,%aw1 ,m4,a4 ,) #acd ,woodcuts4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4 ,,prelim9>y ,,survey4 ,by ,,!odore ,,graham ,,gribble1 ,civil ,eng9e]4 ,includ+ ,elem5t>y ,a/ronomy1 ,r\te ,survey+1 ,ta*eometry1 ,curv]ang+1 ,graphic ,m5suration1 ,e/imates1 ,hydrography1 & ,in/rum5ts4 ,) #acj ,illu/rations1 ,quantity ,diagrams1 & a ,manual ( ! ,slide-,rule4 ,price #f,s4 ,,algebra ,,& ,,trigonometry4 ,by ,,william ,,na?aniel ,,griff91 ,b4,d4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,notes on1 ) ,solutions ( ! m difficult ,que/ions4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,v4 ,,holmes 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,secret>y ( ! ,in/itution ( ,naval ,ar*itects4 ,) #bab ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,by ,,fleem+ ,,j5k91 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 ,e41 late ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,) #agg ,woodcuts4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy1 includ+ all kn[n ,processes ( ,electro-,deposition4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,telegraphy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,v4,p4,in/41 ,c4,e41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief1 & ,electrician1 ,po/ ,(fice ,telegraphs1 & ,sir ,j4 ,,sivewright1 ,m4,a41 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,) #beh ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,cl]k ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,ed941 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 ,e4 ,new ,edition4 ,) ,corrections & ,additions by ,,"l ,,rayleigh1 ,sec4 ,r4 ,s4 ,) #ch ,woodcuts4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,te*nical ,,ari?metic ,,& ,,m5suration4 ,by ,,*>les ,w4 ,,m]rifield1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,key1 by ! ,rev4 ,,john ,,hunt]1 ,m4,a4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,rocks1 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book ( ,petrology4 ,by ,,frank ,,rutley1 ,f4,g4,s41 ( ,h] ,maje/y's ,geological ,survey4 ,) #f ,plates & #hh ,woodcuts4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,work%op ,,appliances1 includ+ ,descriptions ( "s ( ! ,gaug+ & ,measur+ ,in/rum5ts--,h&-,cutt+ ,tools1 ,la!s1 ,drill+1 ,plan+1 & o!r ,ma*9e ,tools us$ by ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,%elley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) an additional ,*apt] on ,mill+4 ,by ,r4 ,r4 ,,li/]4 ,) #cbc ,woodcuts4 ,price #es4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,,"p ,i4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples1 ,fa/5+s1 & ,transmissive ,ma*9]y4 ,) #cjd ,woodcuts4 ,price #fs4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,*iefly on ,eng9e ,details4 ,) #agd ,woodcuts4 ,price #ds4 #f;d4 ,,/ructural ,,& ,,physiological ,,botany4 ,by ,dr4 ,,otto ,,wilhelm ,,?om1 ,rector ( ! ,high ,s*ool1 ,cologne1 & ,a4 ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #fjj ,woodcuts & a col\r$ ,map4 ,price #fs4 ,,plane ,,& ,,solid ,,geometry4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,watson1 ,m4,a41 =m]ly ,fell[ ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,sci5ce ,,manuals4 a/]ism ,writt5 specially to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! ,,advanc$ ,,/age ( ,sci5ce ,subjects z laid d[n 9 ! ,syllabus ( ! ,directory ( ! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,dep>tm5t1 ,,s\? ,,k5s+ton4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ! ,au?or ( ',riv+ton's ,notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction'4 ,) #che ,illu/rations & an ,app5dix ( ,exam9ation ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,solids1 includ+ ,k9ematics1 ,/atics1 & ,k9etics4 ,by ,a4 ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,) #bbj ,illu/rations1 #acj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ijj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,heat4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc4 ,lond4 ,) #acf ,illu/rations & num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,light4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,emtage1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,william ,,poys]1 ,m4,a4 ,) #cag ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & art ,dep>tm5t4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #gh ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,geology3 a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes & = ,g5]al ,read]s4 ,by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a4 7,lond471 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ov] #cjj ,illu/rations1 a ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7col\r$71 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,human ,,physiology3 a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bfh ,illu/rations1 "s ( :i* are ,col\r$1 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiography4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #f ,maps1 #ahj ,illu/rations1 & ,col\r$ ,plate ( ,spectra4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,by ,dr4 ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,manuals4 ,,practical1 ,,plane1 ,,& ,,solid ,,geometry1 includ+ ,graphic ,ari?metic4 ,by ,i4 ,h4 ,,morris4 ,fully ,illu/rat$ ) ,draw+s prep>$ specially = ! book4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,geometrical ,,draw+ ,,= ,,art ,,/ud5ts4 ,embrac+ ,plane ,geometry & its ,applications1 ! ,use ( ,scales1 & ! ,plans & ,elevations ( ,solids1 z requir$ 9 ,section ,i4 ( ,sci5ce ,subject ,i4 ,by ,i4 ,h4 ,,morris4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,practical1 ,,solid1 ,,or ,,descriptive ,,geometry4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>74 ,"p ,i4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>74 ,) #ig ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,edw>d ,j4 ,,burrell1 ,second ,ma/] ( ! ,te*nical ,s*ool ( ! ,p's ,palace1 ,mile ,end4 ,) #cjh ,illu/rations & ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,c\rse ,,( ,,ma!matics4 ,conta9+ ,ari?metic2 ,euclid 7,book ,i41 ) ,d$uctions & ,ex]cises72 & ,algebra4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,includ+ ,hydro/atics & ,pneumatics4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,) num]\s ,examples & ,answ]s1 & #age ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,solids4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,) #afc ,illu/rations1 #abj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,fluids4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations1 num]\s ,work$ ,examples1 & ab\t #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,me*anics3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book = ,/ud5ts ( ,appli$ ,me*anics4 ,) #ach ,illu/rations & ,diagrams1 & #ahh ,examples tak5 f ! ,sci5ce ,dep>tm5t ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,by ,t4 ,m4 ,,goodeve1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,& ,,heat4 ,by ,,m>k4 ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,) ,examples1 ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 & #afe ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,physics4 ,alt]native ,c\rse4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,) ,examples1 ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 & #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,*emi/ry3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,g4 ,s4 ,,new?1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,demon/rator 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #ajh ,illu/rations & #bed ,exp]im5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,physics3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,w4 ,,watson1 ,b4,sc4 ,demon/rator 9 ,physics 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,physics1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aai ,illu/rations & #aic ,ex]cises4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,poys]1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,exam9ation ,pap]s & #bce ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,problems ,,& ,,solutions ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,embrac+ a ,complete ,set ( ,answ]s to ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,pap]s = ! ,ye>s #ahhe-ahid1 & a ,s]ies ( ,orig9al ,que/ions4 ,by ,w4 ,,sl+o & ,a4 ,,brook]4 ,) #fg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,) an ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,analysis4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #fc ,woodcuts & num]\s ,que/ions & ,ex]cises4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry1 ,inorganic & ,organic4 ,by ,,william ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) ,exam9ation ,que/ions1 & #fe ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,fatty ,comp\nds4 ,by ,r4 ,,lloyd ,,:iteley1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,) #de ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,geology4 ,by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ,col\r$ ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,,william ,s4 ,,furneaux4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,biology4 ,by ,,john ,,bidgood1 ,b4,sc4 ,) #bbf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,botany1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,edmonds1 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,) #cai ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,metallurgy4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,rhead1 ,lectur] on ,metallurgy at ! ,municipal ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,man*e/]4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,/eam4 ,by ,,william ,,ripp]1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,%effield ,te*nical ,s*ool4 ,) #adb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,physiography4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #ab ,maps & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,late ,pr9cipal ( ! ,agricultural ,college1 ,aspatria4 ,) #cd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hygi5e4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,,nott]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,fell[ & ,memb] ( ,c\ncil ( ! ,sanit>y ,in/itute ( ,great ,brita91 ,exam9] 9 ,hygi5e1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t2 ,exam9] 9 ,public ,heal? 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge & 9 ! ,victoria ,univ]sity1 ,man*e/]2 & ,r4 ,h4 ,,fir?1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,assi/ant ,pr(essor ( ,hygi5e1 9 ! ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,netley4 ,) #ie ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,london ,,sci5ce ,,class-,,books4 ,edit$ by ,g4 ,,c>ey ,,fo/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & by ,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a41 ( ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,sir ,,rob]t ,,/awell ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #da ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics4 ,by ,,sir ,,rob]t ,,/awell ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #hi ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,corfield1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4 ,) #bb ,illu/rations4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,molecul> ,,physics ,,& ,,s\nd4 ,by ,,fr$4 ,,gu?rie1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ia ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,geometry1 ,,congru5t ,,figures4 ,by ,o4 ,,h5rici1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ada ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,inv]tebrate ,,animals4 ,by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ei ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d4 ,) #gg ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,hydro/atics ,,& ,,pneumatics4 ,by ,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a4 #gi ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 7,to be _h also ) ,answ]s1 #bs474 ,! ,work$ ,solutions ( ! ,problems4 #bs4 ,,botany4 ,outl9es ( ! ,classification ( ,plants4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab1 ,m4,d4 ,) #aah ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,botany4 ,outl9es ( ,morphology & ,physiology4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab1 ,m4,d4 ,) #db ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,!rmodynamics4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,wormell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc4 #da ,diagrams4 #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,! half-title has be5 delet$4 ,spell+ & punctuation ( ! orig9al text 7 tak5 ov] & obvi\s errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,inconsi/ant hyph5ation 0 kept z x is4 ,table ,,iii has be5 split 9 ?ree p>ts4 ,text 9 italics has be5 m>k$ ) und]scores 7text74 ,! ligature oe has be5 m>k$ z oe4 ,! a/]ism sign has be5 m>k$ z a/]ism4 ,! #croot sign has be5 m>k$ z #croot4 ,! sign has be5 us$ z a sup]script4