,the ,history and      ,romance of      
,crime      ,,from ,,the ,,earliest     
,,times    ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day   
,illustration      ,,the ,,grolier      
,,society    ,,london    ,illustration  
,a ,prison in ,tangier                  
,oriental ,prisons      ,,prisons ,,and 
,,crime ,,in ,,india    ,,the ,,andaman 
,,islands                               
,,burmah--,,china--,,japan--,,egypt     
,,turkey      by      ,,major ,,arthur  
,,griffiths    ,late ,inspector of      
,prisons in ,great ,britain      ,author
 of    8,the ,mysteries of ,police and  
,crime    ,fifty ,years of ,public      
,service10 etc4      ,illustration      
,,the ,,grolier ,,society               
,,edition ,,nationale    ,limited to one
 thousand registered and numbered sets4 
,,number #bcd          ,,introduction   
,it is as true of crime in the ,orient  
as of other habits1 customs  and beliefs
 of the ,east1 that what has descended  
from generation to  generation and      
become not only a tradition but an      

established fact1 is  accepted as such  
by the people1 who display only a       
passive indifference  to deeds of       
cruelty and violence4 ,each country has 
its own peculiar  classes of hereditary 
criminals1 and the influence of         
tradition and  long established custom  
has made the eradication of such crimes 
a  difficult matter4    ,religion in the
 ,east has had a most notable influence 
on crime4 ,in  ,india the ,thugs or     
professional stranglers were most devout
 and their  criminal acts were preceded 
by religious rites and ceremonies4 ,in  
,china the peculiar forms of animism    
pervading the religion of the  people   
has greatly influenced criminal         
practices4 ,murder veiled in  obscurity 
is frequently attributed to some one of 
the legion of evil  spirits who are     
supposed to be omnipresent2 and to      
satisfy and appease  these demons       
innocent persons are made to suffer4 ,so
 great1 too1 is  the power of the spirit
 after death to cause good or ill1 that 

many  stories are related of victims of 
injustice who have hanged themselves  on
 their persecutors' door-posts1 thus    
converting their spirits into  wrathful 
ghosts to avenge them4 ,the firm belief 
in ghosts and their  power of vengeance 
and reward is a great restraint in the  
practice of  infanticide1 as the souls  
of murdered infants may seek vengeance  
and  bring about serious calamity4      
,oriental prison history is one long    
record of savage punishments            
culminating in the death penalty1       
aggravated by abominable tortures4  ,the
 people are of two classes1 the         
oppressed and the oppressors1 and  the  
last named have invented many devices   
for legal persecution4  ,in early ,china
 and ,japan1 relentless and ferocious   
methods were in  force4 ,one of the     
emperors of ,china invented a new kind  
of punishment1  described by ,du ,halde 
in #agch1 at the instigation of a       
favourite wife4  ,it was a column of    
brass1 twenty cubits high and eight in  

diameter1  hollow in the middle like    
,phalaris's ,bull1 with openings in     
three  places for putting in fuel4 ,to  
this they fastened the criminals1 and   
making them embrace it with their arms  
and legs1 lighted a great fire  in the  
inside2 and thus roasted them until they
 were reduced to ashes4    ,the first   
slaves in ,china were felons deprived of
 their liberty4 ,later  the very poor   
with their families sold themselves to  
the rich4 ,although  slavery has never  
been largely prevalent owing to the     
patriarchal  nature of society1 all     
modern writers agree that it exists in a
  loathsome form to-day4 ,parents sell  
their children and girls bring a  higher
 price than boys4    ,who does not know 
of the peculiar sufferings and wrongs   
inflicted  for so many generations on   
the gentle peasant in the proud land of 
the ,pharaohs1 of whom it is said 8that 
the dust which fills the air  about the 
,pyramids and the ruined temples is that
 of their remote  forefathers1 who      

swarmed over the land1 working under the
 fiery sun and  the sharp scourge for   
successive races of task-masters--the   
,ethiopian1  the ,persian1 the          
,macedonian1 the ,roman1 the ,arab1 the 
,circassian and  the ,turk40    ,during 
the reign of ,ismail ,pasha we hear of  
#aej1jjj men1 women and  children driven
 forth from their villages with whips to
 perform work  without wages on the     
,khedive's lands or in his factories4   
,it is a  heartrending picture4    ,in  
earlier times the administration of the 
country districts was in  the hands of  
governors appointed by the ,pasha and   
charged by him with  the collection of  
taxes and the regulation of the corv1 or
 system of  enforced labour1 at one time
 the universal rule in ,egypt4 ,the     
present  system established by ,great   
,britain is in striking contrast to past
  cruelties4          ,,contents        
,,chapter                               
,,page         ,i4 ,,prison ,,system    
,,in ,,india                         #i 

,,ii4 ,,the ,,crime ,,of ,,thuggee      
#db       ,,iii4 ,,ceremonies ,,of      
,,thuggee                         #gj   
,,iv4 ,,dacoity                         
#hb         ,v4 ,,characteristic        
,,crimes                        #abd    
,,vi4 ,,the ,,andaman ,,islands         
#adh       ,,vii4 ,,prisons ,,of        
,,burmah                            #agj
      ,,viii4 ,,crime ,,in ,,china      
#bje        ,,ix4 ,,enlightened         
,,methods ,,of ,,japan                  
#bbi         ,x4 ,,the ,,law ,,in       
,,egypt                             #bdc
        ,,xi4 ,,turkish ,,prisons       
#bfi          ,list of ,illustrations   
,a ,,prison ,,in ,,tangier              
,frontispiece      ,,execution ,,in     
,,india                     ,page #abd  
,,chinese ,,punishment                  
8   #bag          ,,prisons ,,of ,,india
          ,,chapter ,i    ,,prison      
,,system ,,in ,,india        ,lord      
,macaulay's work--,commission appointed 
to look into      state of              

prisons--,appointment of an             
inspector-general of      gaols--,charge
 of district gaols given into the hands 
of civil      surgeons--,treatment of   
juvenile offenders in ,india--,prison   
discipline--,the employment of convict  
overseers--,caste--,ahmedabad           
gaol--,prison industries--,alipore ,gaol
 in ,calcutta--,ameer ,khan1      the   
,wahabee--,description of the           
,montgomery gaol--,the prison           
factory--,convict officials--,the gaol  
of ,sirsah--,a native gaol of           
,orissa4      ,the prison system in     
,india developed gradually under the    
,british  rule4 ,at first but little    
attention was paid to the subject of    
penal  discipline1 and the places of    
detention were put in the charge of     
judicial officers who had complete      
control of the criminals in their       
districts4 ,the judges and magistrates  
had but little time to attend  to the   
gaols2 the administration was chiefly in
 the hands of native  subordinates1 and 

abuses of every kind prevailed1 as might
 have been  expected4    ,the first     
important step toward prison reform was 
initiated by ,lord  ,macaulay when a    
member of the ,indian ,law ,commission  
in #ahce4 ,he  suggested that a         
committee should be appointed to look   
into the  state of the prisons in ,india
 and to prepare an improved plan of     
prison discipline4 ,this suggestion was 
readily acceded to by the               
governor-general1 ,sir ,c4 ,metcalfe1   
and a committee composed of fourteen    
able and distinguished men was selected 
for the purpose4 ,an extract  from their
 report will best show the existing     
state of the prisons at  that time1 and 
runs as follows3    8,in reviewing the  
treatment of prisoners in ,indian gaols1
 although on  some points which we have 
not failed to throw into a strong light 
the  humanity of it is doubtful1 yet    
generally the care that is taken of the 
physical condition of these unfortunate 
men in the great essentials  of         

cleanliness1 attention to the sick and  
the provision of food and  clothing1    
appears to us to be highly honourable to
 the government of  ,british ,india4    
,when fair allowance has been made for  
the climate of  the country and the     
habits of the people1 we doubt whether  
,india will  not bear a comparison even 
with ,england1 where for some years past
  more money and attention has been     
expended to secure the health and       
bodily comfort of prisoners than has    
ever been the case in any other  country
 of ,europe4444 ,it appears to us that  
that which has elsewhere  been deemed   
the first step of prison reform has been
 already taken in  ,india4 ,what after  
many years was the first good effect of 
the labours  of ,howard and ,neild in   
,england has already been achieved here4
 ,there  is no systematic carelessness  
as to the circumstances of the prisoner1
  no niggardly disregard of his natural 
wants2 he is not left to starve  of cold
 or hunger or to live on the charity of 

individuals2 he is not  left in filth   
and stench to sink under disease without
 an attempt to  cure him2 he is not able
 to bribe his gaoler in order to obtain 
the  necessaries which the law allows   
him4 ,with us in ,england1 the second   
stage of prison reform seems to be      
nearly the present state of prison      
discipline in ,india4 ,the physical     
condition of the prisoner has been      
looked to1 but nothing more1 and the    
consequences here as in ,england  have  
been that a prison1 without being the   
less demoralising1 is not a  very       
pleasant place of residence4444 ,the    
proportion of distinct civil  gaols to  
all other gaols is very honourable to   
the government4 ,the  mixture of the two
 sexes in ,indian prisons is unknown1   
and in general  the separation of tried 
and untried prisoners is at least as    
complete  in ,india as in other         
countries4 ,we allude to these things1  
not to give  more credit to the ,indian 
government in these matters than it     

deserves1  but to show that although we 
have found much fault and recommend many
  reforms1 we do not overlook the fact  
that much has been already done40       
,the second stage in ,indian prison     
reform was the appointment of an        
inspector-general of gaols for every    
province4 ,this was first tried as  an  
experiment in the ,north-western        
,provinces after some hesitation  on the
 part of the government1 and it was     
proved conclusively by  comparison with 
the statistics of former years 8that the
 prisoners were  generally more healthy1
 better lodged1 fed and clothed1 that   
the gaol  discipline had been much      
improved and that the expenditure had   
been  reduced0 in those prisons which   
had been placed under the supervision   
of an inspector4 ,upon this evidence the
 government decided to make the  office 
a permanent one1 and it was finally     
established in #ahej in the             
,north-western ,provinces and shortly   
afterward in the ,punjab1 ,bengal1      

,madras and ,bombay4    ,the third      
important measure toward prison reform  
in ,india was  initiated in the         
,north-western ,provinces4 ,until #ahfj1
 the management  of the district gaols  
had been in the hands of the magistrates
 of the  surrounding country1 but it was
 found that owing to the increased      
pressure of work in the administration  
they were unable 8to find  time to      
regulate the management1 economy and    
discipline of the local  prison with the
 care and exactness which the pecuniary 
interests of  the government and the    
purposes of civil administration        
demand40  ,therefore the civil surgeon1 
who had formerly had charge of the      
medical  department only of the local   
gaol1 was now given the entire          
management4  ,this change was finally   
sanctioned by the government in #ahfd1  
after  due trial which showed that there
 had been an improved discipline  and an
 improved economy in all the gaols in   
which the experiment had  been tried4   

,in #ahfd two other important reforms   
were introduced3  first1--that no       
central gaol 7intended for all prisoners
 sentenced to a  term exceeding one     
year7 should be built to accommodate    
more than one  thousand persons2 and    
second1--that the minimum space allowed 
to each  prisoner should be #i feet by  
#f1 or #ed superficial feet1 and #i feet
 by #f  by #ab1 or #fdh cubic feet4     
,some of the many difficulties in the   
way of prison reform besides those  of  
finance are summed up in ,lord          
,auckland's resolution upon the prison  
committee's report4    8,every reform of
 prison discipline is almost of         
necessity attended at  the outset with  
extraordinary expense4 ,to exchange the 
common herding  together of prisoners of
 all descriptions for careful           
classification2  to substitute a strict 
and useful industry for idleness or for 
a light1  ill-directed labour2 to       
provide that the life which is irksome  
shall  not also be unhealthy1 and that  

the collection of the vicious shall not 
be a school of vice1--are all objects   
for the first approach of which  large  
buildings must be erected1 machinery    
formed and establishments  contrived1   
and in the perfect attainment and       
maintenance of which great              
disappointment has after every effort   
and expense in many countries  ensued4  
,in no country is it likely that greater
 difficulty will be  experienced than in
 this for the mere locality of the      
prison2 that  which is healthy in one   
season may become a pesthouse by a blast
 of  fever or cholera1 in another4 ,for 
its form--the close yard which is       
adapted for classification and is not   
unwholesome in ,england1 would be  a    
sink of malaria in ,india4 ,for food1   
for labour and for consort there  are   
habits and an inveteracy of prejudice   
bearing upon health1 opposing  the best 
management of prisons such as are not to
 be encountered  elsewhere1 and         
superadded to all this is the absence of

 fitting  instruments for control and   
management1 while it is principally upon
 a  perfect tact and judgment and an    
unwearying zeal that the success of     
every scheme of discipline has been     
found to depend40    ,the classification
 of the gaols in the ,north-western     
,provinces and ,oude  is made according 
to the number of persons they can hold1 
as follows3  the central prisons of the 
first1 second1 third and fourth class2  
the district prisons1 and the lock-ups4 
,in the central prisons1 all  prisoners 
sentenced to rigorous imprisonment for  
any period exceeding  six months are    
confined2 in the district prisons all   
prisoners  sentenced to terms not       
exceeding three months are sent for     
every kind  of crime1 also civil        
prisoners and prisoners committed for   
trial at the  sessions court2 in the    
lock-ups all prisoners under trial      
before any  court are lodged4    ,there 
are no reformatories for juvenile       
offenders in ,india4 ,the  government   

has so far considered that there is no  
need for their  establishment4 ,this    
conclusion has been arrived at by a     
comparison  between the state of        
civilisation in the ,european countries 
which have  adopted this plan of dealing
 with juvenile criminals and that of    
,india4  ,in the former there is a large
 class of vagrant1 deserted and         
neglected  children1 which is quite     
unknown in the latter country4 ,the     
following  figures will serve to show   
the truth of this assertion4 ,in        
,ireland1 in  #ahff1 out of a population
 of #f1jjj1jjj1 there were #a1jfj       
juveniles1  under sixteen years1        
committed to prison for various         
offences2 whereas  in the whole of      
,india1 with a population of more than  
#aej1jjj1jjj1 the  commitment of        
juveniles was about #b1jjj in the same  
year4    ,in the presidency of ,bombay  
there is an institution of very much the
  same nature as a reformatory1 called  
the ,david ,sasson ,industrial and      

,reformatory ,institution1 which owes   
its origin to private benevolence1  but 
which now receives some support from    
public resources4 ,it is quite  separate
 from the gaols and under different     
management and control4    ,in the      
,north-western ,provinces 8all boys and 
lads under eighteen years  of age1      
sentenced to periods of imprisonment for
 three months1 are  transferred as soon 
after sentence as possible to the       
nearest central  prison1 where they are 
placed under a regular system of        
education with  training in industrial  
labour2 they are confined in separate   
cells  at night wherever there are a    
sufficient number of these for their    
accommodation1 which is the case at     
,meerut1 ,agra and ,gorruckpore1  and at
 all prisons they attend school and     
labour for fixed periods  during the day
 under directors specially employed for 
that purpose4  ,boys1 whether confined  
in separate cells or association1 are   
kept1 day  and night1 entirely separate 

from the adult prisoners40 ,in the      
,punjab  there is a reformatory in      
connection with the gaol of ,goordaspore
 to  which boys sentenced to more than  
six months' confinement are sent4  ,this
 reformatory was first established in   
the ,sealkote gaol in #ahfb1  but was   
subsequently removed to ,goordaspore4   
,the warder in charge1  the gaol        
officials1 the inspectors and the       
teacher approved by the  educational    
department1 are the only adults allowed 
to enter this  yard4 ,in the majority of
 district gaols there is a special yard 
set  aside for juvenile prisoners1 and  
in those gaols1 where no such yard      
exists1 when juvenile prisoners are     
received they are placed in cells1  or  
other arrangements are made for         
separating them from the rest of  the   
prisoners at night1 and during the day  
they are made to work in a  part of the 
yard by themselves4 ,in the ,lahore     
central gaol there is a  separate yard  
for juveniles under a specially selected

 warder4    ,nearly every presidency and
 province of ,india has its gaol code1  
drawn up under the sanction of the      
,prison ,acts4 ,that of ,bengal was     
compiled by ,frederic ,j4 ,mouat1 ,m4   
,d41 and was introduced in the year     
#ahfd4 8,it borrowed freely10 he says1  
8from all the existing ,european  and   
,indian rules which seemed to me to be  
suited for introduction in  lower       
,bengal1 and contained some special     
provisions based upon my  personal      
experience1 and study of prison systems 
at home and abroad4444  ,it defined in  
considerable detail the duties1         
responsibilities and  powers of all     
classes of prison officers2 contained   
provisions for  the classification and  
punishment of all classes of offenders2 
their  management in sickness and in    
health2 their food1 clothing1 work1     
instruction2 and1 in fact1 every detail 
of discipline during their  residence in
 gaol1 their transfer from one prison to
 another1 their  discharge1 and in the  

execution of capital sentences40 ,since 
these  rules were framed a system of    
remission of sentence as the reward for 
good conduct in gaol has been           
introduced1 based on the principle of   
what is known as the ,irish system4     
,one of the chief peculiarities of      
,indian prison management is the        
employment of convicts in the           
maintenance of discipline4 ,from the    
earliest days1 prisoners were employed  
in the discharge of all the  menial     
duties of the gaols1 cooking1 washing1  
cleansing1 scavengering1  husking rice1 
grinding corn and the preparation of    
food4 ,the difficulty  of obtaining     
trustworthy warders on the salaries     
allowed1 and the  impossibility of      
preventing the introduction of forbidden
 articles  through their agency1 led to 
the trial in the gaol at ,alipore of    
well-behaved1 long-term convicts as     
prison guards4 ,they were found to  be  
more reliable than outsiders1 and to    
discharge their duties more             

efficiently4 ,the practice was adopted  
in other prisons1 and when  conducted   
with care and discretion1 worked so well
 that the system  has been extended     
throughout ,india4 ,special provision   
for it has been  made in all the gaol   
codes4 ,as a reward for good conduct and
 strict  obedience to prison rules1 all 
convicts whose behaviour has been       
exemplary throughout1 and who have      
completed the prescribed term of  hard  
labour1 are eligible for the offices of 
convict warder1 guard and               
work-overseer4 ,the number employed in  
these offices can never exceed  ten per 
cent4 of the criminals in custody4 ,all 
such appointments are  made with great  
care and deliberation1 and are subject  
to the sanction  of the head of the     
prison department1 by whom they are     
closely watched4  ,they are liable to   
forfeiture for serious misconduct or    
breach of duty4    ,as a measure of     
economy in diminishing the cost of      
guarding  prisons1 and as a means of    

reformation in teaching self-respect and
  self-control1 the plan has been       
successful everywhere in ,india1        
contrary to the usual experience of     
penal legislators4 ,the privilege  is   
much prized1 and few prisoners who have 
held such offices have  relapsed into   
crime1 while many have obtained         
positions of trust on the  completion of
 their sentences4    ,in the gaols of   
,bengal the privileges of caste are     
respected in  general1 but no false plea
 of caste is permitted to interfere with
  punishment4 ,with care1 tact and such 
knowledge of the people committed  to   
his charge as every officer in command  
of a prison ought to  possess1 no great 
feeling of dissatisfaction is likely to 
arise or to  be created4 ,but from the  
jealousy with which all proceedings     
within  the prisons are watched by the  
outside population1 and the rapidity    
with which intelligence regarding them  
is spread1 it is evident that  extreme  
care must continue to be observed in the

 matter4 ,while it is  well known that  
imprisonment with its enforced          
associations is always  attended with   
loss of caste1 that1 however1 is readily
 restored by the  performance of slight 
penances on release4 ,it is instructive 
to find1  on tracing them throughout the
 country1 how the same castes1 whatever 
differences of names they bear1 are most
 prone to the commission of the  same   
classes of crime4    ,again1 it is      
strange to discover that belief in      
witchcraft and the  existence of        
witch-finders is a source of crime in   
the ,east at the  present time4 ,among  
the ,kols1 an aboriginal race in the    
south-west of  ,bengal1 each village is 
supposed to have a tutelar divinity1    
generally  an evil spirit to whom is    
assigned all the sickness1 epidemics1   
diseases and misfortunes which occur in 
the village4 ,to this spirit  certain   
lands are assigned1 and the produce of  
this land is used in  propitiatory      
sacrifices4 ,the existence of this      

superstition is said to  be a frequent  
cause of murder and extortion4 ,the     
,kols believe in the  powers of         
divination of 8witch-finders10 who are  
usually consulted when  anything        
untoward occurs in a village4 ,this     
witch-finder1 who often  lives at a     
distance1 performs certain absurd       
ceremonials1 and pretends  through them 
to discover who in the village has      
caused the anger of  the tutelar deity4 
,the person denounced is generally      
called upon to  pay handsomely for the  
evil caused1 and usually does so1 but if
 he  refuses he is frequently murdered1 
and whether he pays or not1 if the      
misfortune does not cease he is driven  
from the village1 if no worse  fate     
overtakes him4 ,all this is done in the 
utmost good faith1 faith as  absolute as
 that with which witch-hunting was      
pursued by the puritans  of ,scotland   
and ,america4    ,sir ,richard ,temple1 
one of the most famous of ,india's      
recent  proconsuls1 passes an approving 

verdict upon ,indian prisons as they    
existed to the date of his volume1      
8,india in #ahhj40 ,he was of the       
opinion that they were managed          
conscientiously and as far as possible1 
with the means available1 according to  
accepted principles4 ,they erred        
perhaps in construction1 and showed many
 shortcomings as regards  sanitation and
 disciplinary supervision1 but an       
earnest desire to  improve them has     
animated the ,indian government and its 
officials4  ,native states1 a little    
tardily1 perhaps1 have followed suit1   
and  many possess prisons imitating some
 of the best points of the ,british     
system4 ,they long clung1 however1 to   
the old barbarous methods of            
punishment1 such as short periods of    
detention with flogging1 various  kinds 
of fining1 compensation to the relatives
 of murdered men1 and  mutilation in    
cases of grave robbery4 ,a capital      
sentence was very  rarely inflicted4    
,gradually public opinion in ,india     

awoke to the belief that something  more
 than mere penal detention was needed   
for the treatment of  prisoners4        
,outdoor labour1 chiefly employed       
hitherto1 was deemed  injurious to      
health and demoralising to discipline1  
entailing undue  expense in staff and   
guards2 and so employment within the    
walls was  substituted1 with organised  
industries and manufactures by hand and 
with the help of machinery4 ,the work   
done includes the weaving of  carpets1  
which have a certain value and          
reputation1 and much cotton  and other  
fibres are manufactured2 and the        
prisoners work at printing1  lithography
 and other useful trades4 ,the rules for
 wearing irons and  fetters have been   
revised1 and a consistent attempt has   
been made at  classification by         
separating the old habitual criminals   
from the less  hardened offenders4 ,the 
system of earning remission by industry 
and  good conduct1 as practised in the  
,british prisons1 has been introduced   

with good results4 ,sanitation and      
ventilation have been much improved1  so
 that mortality has greatly diminished4 
,solitary confinement is  enforced as a 
means of discipline1 but the cellular   
separation of  prisoners by night makes 
only slow progress1 and the association 
of all  classes1 good1 bad and          
indifferent has a generally injurious   
effect  upon prisoners4    ,according to
 ,sir ,richard ,temple's figures1 there 
were in his time more  than two hundred 
prisons in all ,india1 exclusive of #chf
 lock-ups1 and  the daily average of    
inmates was #aah1ejj1 of whom only      
#e1ejj were  females4 ,the annual number
 of crimes committed and charged was    
#hhj1jjj1  and as more than one person  
is often concerned1 the number of       
persons  tried amounted to #igj1jjj1 of 
whom #eej1jjj were convicted1 the       
balance  being under trial or           
discharged4 ,the labours devolving upon 
the police  were obviously severe1 and  
the prisons were always full4    ,among 

the leading ,indian prisons of to-day1  
one of the largest1 the  ,ahmedabad     
gaol1 was originally a ,mohammedan      
college and was converted  to its       
present purpose in #ahbj4 ,miss ,mary   
,carpenter1 who visited  it in #ahfh1   
describes the gaol as follows3 8,it is a
 fine-looking  building and near the    
citadel1 but not of course well adapted 
to its  present purpose1 though the     
large space enclosed by the buildings   
gives it great capabilities of          
improvement4 ,the first thing which     
struck us painfully was that the men had
 irons on their legs4 ,this  barbaric   
custom1 which has long been exploded in 
our own country1  is here preserved and 
is indeed general in ,india in          
consequence of  the usual insecurity of 
the premises4 ,the prisoners were       
working in  large open sheds with little
 appearance of confinement4 ,a number   
were occupied in weaving strong cotton  
carpets which appeared well  calculated 
for wear4 ,others were making towelling 

of various kinds1  very strong and good1
 from the cotton grown in the           
neighbourhood1  while others were       
manufacturing pretty little cocoa mats  
and baskets4  ,there was in general a   
criminal look in the culprits2 they were
  working with good-will and appeared   
interested in their occupation1  as in  
an ordinary factory4 ,except the chains1
 there was nothing of a  penal          
description in the scene around us2 and 
although this cheerful  open place1 with
 work at useful trades1 might not give  
the intended  feeling of punishment1    
still it was to be hoped that training  
these  men to useful labour1 under good 
moral influences1 must have a           
beneficial influence on their future    
lives4 ,on remarking this to the        
superintendent1 he informed me that the 
salutary effect of the day's  work under
 proper supervision was completely      
neutralised1 or even  worse1 by the     
corrupting influences of the night4     
8,there are four hundred prisoners in   

this gaol1 for whom the number  of      
sleeping cells is totally inadequate and
 three or four are  consequently locked 
up together in the dark for twelve      
hours4 ,there  is no possibility during 
this period of preventing communication 
of  the most corrupting nature1 both    
moral and physical4 ,no man convicted   
of a first offence can enter this       
place--which ought to be one of         
punishment and attempted                
reformation--without the greatest       
probability  of contamination and       
gaining experience in evil from the     
adepts in  crime who are confined with  
him2 no young boy can enter without his 
fate being sealed for life4             
8,juvenile delinquents1 casual          
offenders1 hardened thieves sentenced   
to a long term of imprisonment1 are all 
herded together without any  possibility
 of proper classification or separation4
 ,the condition of  the thirty-two whom 
,i had seen at the court on the day     
before was  even worse than the others2 

they were all penned up together without
  work4 ,there they had been for many   
months2 and still they all were  without
 any attempt being made to give them    
instruction1 which might  improve their 
moral and intellectual condition4 ,this 
state of things  was not owing to any   
neglect on the part of the              
superintendent1 a man  of enlightened   
benevolence1 who devoted himself heart  
and soul to  his work4 ,the conditions  
of this gaol are such that though able  
and  willing to remedy all these evils  
if authority and means were given to    
him1 under the existing circumstances he
 is powerless4 ,there is ample  room on 
the premises for him to construct       
separate cells for all the  prisoners   
with only the cost of material1 but this
 is not granted to  him2 he cannot      
therefore carry out the printed         
regulations that the  prisoners are not 
to be made worse while in custody4 ,the 
regulations  direct that the juveniles  
shall be separated from the adults2 this

 is  now simply impossible4 ,rules are  
made that the prisoners shall receive   
instruction1 but no salary is allowed   
for a schoolmaster2 there is  no place  
appropriated for instruction and no time
 is granted for  schooling2 there are   
ten hours for labour1 two hours are     
requisite for  meals and rest and during
 the remainder of the twenty-four hours 
the  prisoners are locked up4 ,it is    
indeed permitted by the regulations that
  some prisoners may be employed as     
instructors but with the proviso  that  
their hours of labour shall not be      
abridged for the purpose4 ,such         
instructors could not be expected to    
exercise any good moral influence  on   
the other prisoners2 yet to commence    
with these1 if any educated men  were   
among them1 might lead to some better   
arrangement4 ,the old college  hall     
might possibly be employed as a         
schoolroom for a couple of hours  after 
sunset2 but light would then be required
 and oil did not form a  part of the    

authorised expenditure4 ,there were1    
then1 obstacles to any  kind of         
instruction being imparted to the       
prisoners which no amount of            
earnestness on the part of the officials
 or the superintendent could  surmount4 
8,on inquiring whether there were any   
females in the gaol1 we were  conducted 
to a small separate court where in a    
dismal ward there were  some miserable  
women employed in drudgery work4 ,there 
were no female  attendants and indeed no
 attempt appeared to be made to improve 
their  wretched condition4 ,i felt      
grieved and shocked that in any part of 
the  ,british dominions women who were  
rendered helpless by being deprived of  
liberty1 and thus fell under our special
 responsibility1 should be so  utterly  
uncared for as to be left under the     
superintendence of male  warders and    
without any means of improvement4 ,in   
all these observations  ,i found that ,i
 had the full accordance of the         
superintendent2 who1 so  far from being 

annoyed at the discovery of so many     
evils in this place1  only rejoiced that
 some one should add force to his own   
representations  by an independent      
testimony4 ,he stated that he understood
 it to be in  contemplation to build a  
large central gaol for the              
long-sentenced  prisoners2 the removal  
of these from his own gaol would of     
course  remedy the overcrowding1 though 
it would not enable each prisoner to    
have a separate cell4 ,in the meantime  
the evils were very great from a        
sanitary as well as from a moral point  
of view4 ,on one occasion more  than a  
hundred had died owing to a want of good
 sanitary arrangements4  ,immediate     
attention to the condition of this gaol 
appeared therefore  necessary4          
,considering this as a common gaol      
without long-sentenced  prisoners1 the  
following points suggested themselves as
 necessary  to carry out the intentions 
of government4 ,first1 a number of      
well-ventilated sleeping cells should be

 constructed without delay1  so as to   
enable every prisoner to have a separate
 cell for sleeping4  ,second1 a trained 
and efficient teacher should be engaged 
to carry  out instruction2 arrangements 
should be made to provide a cheerful    
and well-lighted schoolroom4 ,educated  
prisoners may be employed as  assistant 
teachers2 these should be specially     
trained and instructed  by the          
headmaster in their labour hours so as  
to provide as efficient  a staff as     
possible4 ,third1 the mark system and   
classification should  be carried out4  
,fourth1 prisoners awaiting trial should
 be kept in  separation1 but not under  
penal condition2 the female department  
should  be completely remodelled under  
female warders2 all the advantages      
provided for the men should be given to 
the women40    ,mr4 ,routledge1 speaking
 of the ,alipore ,gaol in ,calcutta     
which he  visited in #ahgh1 says3--     
8,it contained #b1ejj persons when ,i   
saw it1 and with a few exceptions1  as  

in the case of those undergoing         
punishment1 all were employed  in       
remunerative labour4 ,there were masons 
erecting buildings1  weavers making     
gunny-bag cloth of jute1 a factory of   
jute-spinners1  lithographers1 painters1
 carpenters1 blacksmiths and many other 
classes  of workmen1 all engaged in task
 work4 ,if they exceeded the task a     
small sum was carried to their credit to
 be paid to them on leaving  gaol4 ,an  
amusing story was told of a shrewd      
,yorkshireman who when  sent out to     
8manage a jute mill0 was faced by the   
reality of some  hundreds of criminals  
not one of whom knew anything of the    
work4 ,first  he despaired2 then he     
hoped a little2 finally he succeeded and
 had a  capital jute mill4 ,dr4 ,faucus1
 the governor of the prison1 told me    
that  the men they sent out with trades 
hardly ever had returned2 and there  was
 an instance of a man whose time had    
expired begging permission to  remain a 
little longer in gaol to more completely

 learn his trade4 ,it  was to my view a 
humane and judicious system4            
8,eighteen months later ,i visited the  
,presidency ,gaol in ,calcutta1 and  the
 governor1 ,dr4 ,mackenzie1 kindly      
showed me the wonders of the place4  ,we
 saw in the yard1 #8a mild ,bengalee1'  
whom flogging1 short diet and  even the 
dreaded solitary confinement had failed 
to compel to work4  #8,he is one of the 
few prisoners who ever beat me1' the    
governor said4  ,a hundred or so of the 
prisoners were breaking stones2 some    
were on  the tread-mill1 a frightful    
punishment under such a sun2 some were  
mat-making1 on very heavy looms4 ,we    
came to a separate cell1 the inmate  of 
which was a loose-jointed1 misshapen1   
weak-looking1 thin-faced  native man1   
apparently about twenty-five years of   
age1 though he  might1 for anything one 
could judge1 have been any age from     
eighteen  to forty4 #8,that1' said the  
governor1 #8was one of the most daring  
and  relentless ,dacoits we have ever   

had4' ,in a cell a few yards distant1   
there was a grave and venerable looking 
old man who had attained the  very      
highest grade in a different            
profession--that of a forger4 ,he had   
been convicted in attempting to obtain  
money from an officer--,i think  the    
head of the police--by means of a letter
 purporting to be written  by ,mr4      
,reilly1 the well-known detective4 ,the 
forgery was perfect1 and  no one would  
have disputed the letter but for one    
small mistake2 the  two initial letters 
of ,mr4 ,reilly's ,christian name were  
transposed4  ,this interesting old      
gentleman when questioned as to the     
amount of work  he had done1 put his    
hands together and gravely confessed    
that it was  far short of the task4 ,the
 governor spoke sternly and threatened  
short  diet4 ,evidently the old artist  
was out of his vocation when attempting 
slow1 patient work4 ,when the same      
question was put to the ,dacoit he      
pleaded pitifully1 #8,only four bags1   

but ,i'll do forty to-morrow4' ,forty   
was the number required to be sewed per 
day4    8,there were many wealthy       
natives among the prisoners2 and ,i was 
sorry to find a number of ,english      
sailors and soldiers committed for      
deserting regiments or ships4 ,it was   
impossible to look upon them as         
criminals4 ,they were kept apart from   
the other prisoners4 ,some of  them were
 very fine fellows1 who probably never  
were in prison before  nor would be     
again4 ,another class was that of the   
vagrants1 termed  #8loafers4' ,there    
were some very respectable looking men  
among them1  #8turned away from the     
railways1' they said1 or #8brought from 
,australia  in charge of horses and then
 dismissed'--the most prolific source of
  #8loaferism' in ,india4    8,six young
 native boys were separated from the    
rest4 ,they had their  own yard and each
 a little garden and a division of work4
 ,one was  cook1 another housemaid1 and 
so on4 ,they were drawn up in line and  

questioned1 the cook first4    8#8,what 
are you here for8'    8#8,murder2 ,i    
struck another boy on the head and      
killed him4'    8#8,and you8'           
8#8,murder2 ,i threw a child into a     
well4'    8,the answers were given as if
 they had related to common matters4    
,we went no further in the list4 ,an    
,indian prison is marvellous for  its   
mixture of races4 ,the ,hindu cannot eat
 with the ,mussulman4 ,to  step inside a
 cookhouse is to defile it even for     
prisoners4 ,yet even  ,brahmins1 old    
offenders1 had been known to beg for the
 office of  mehtars 7sweepers1 lowest   
menials71 so great was their dread of   
the  hard labour4    8,what were called 
the #8non-habituals' were employed as at
 ,alipore and  taught trades where      
necessary4 ,i noticed particularly an   
intelligent  ,chinaman busy at the      
lathe4 ,i said1 #8,he never gave you any
 trouble8'  #8,no2 he was entrapped into
 a robbery1 caught and convicted1 and he
  immediately made the best of his      

position4 ,he is a quiet1 respectful1   
intelligent man4' ,he spoke ,english    
like an ,englishman4 ,there were        
several ,chinamen in the prison and all 
of the same class4 ,we came to a  long  
line of men1 seated on the ground1      
engaged in hand spinning2 the  fourth   
from one end was old ,ameer ,khan1 the  
,wahabee4 ,he was a tall man1  ,i should
 say nearly seventy years of age1 stout1
 with flabby cheeks1 a  rather fine     
forehead and an extraordinarily furtive 
eye40    ,the trial of ,ameer ,khan1 the
 ,wahabee1 caused a great sensation in  
the  ,indian law courts in the year     
#ahgj4 ,the ,wahabees were a sect       
founded by  a young ,arab pilgrim of    
,damascus1 named ,abd-el ,wahab1 who    
endeavoured  to reform the ,mohammedan  
faith by denouncing the corruptions that
  had crept in and by calling upon      
,mussulmans to 8return to their         
primitive church with its simplicity of 
manners and purity of morals40  ,the    
movement spread into ,india1 where it   

gained great success with  the ,sunnis1 
themselves puritans1 but it was fiercely
 hated by the  ,mohammedans1 who had    
deteriorated greatly under the ,english 
rule1 and  there was great danger of an 
insurrection4 ,in #aheh ,sir ,sydney    
,cotton  had stormed the stronghold of  
the ,wahabees at ,sittana and razed the 
villages of their allies to the ground4 
,in #ahfi the government received       
information that the ,wahabees had      
issued a propaganda from ,sittana  and  
,patna which was to be spread throughout
 ,india1 and again found it  necessary  
to take steps to suppress the ,wahabees4
 ,among others1 ,ameer  ,khan1 a        
,mussulman banker and money lender of   
,calcutta1 was suddenly  arrested in    
,july1 #ahfi1 on no stated charge4 ,he  
applied for a writ  of habeas corpus1   
but was refused4 ,he appealed to the    
,supreme ,court1  and then began the    
famous trial which lasted six months4   
,in ,december  ,ameer ,khan was released
 from ,alipore gaol1 but he was         

immediately  rearrested1 as it had been 
discovered that he had been apprehended 
by a warrant about which there was some 
question4 ,he was then tried  before a  
civilian judge at ,patna1 where the     
offences were alleged to  have been     
committed1 and was sentenced to         
imprisonment for life4 ,he was  found   
guilty of acting as agent and supplying 
money for the ,wahabee  propaganda4     
,the religious tenets of the ,wahabees  
are still professed by many of  the     
,arabs and are admitted to be orthodox  
by the most learned of the  #8ulamas of 
,egypt4 ,the ,wahabees are merely       
reformers1 who believe all  the         
fundamental points of ,el-,islam and all
 the accessory doctrines  of the ,koran 
and the 8,traditions of the ,prophets20 
in short1 their  tenets are those of the
 primitive ,moslems4 ,they disapprove of
 gorgeous  sepulchres and domes erected 
over tombs2 such they invariably destroy
  when in power4 ,they also condemn as  
idolaters those who pay peculiar        

veneration to deceased saints2 and even 
declare all other ,moslems to  be       
heretics for the extravagant respect    
which they pay to the prophet4  ,they   
forbid the wearing of silk1 gold        
ornaments and all costly apparel1  and  
also the practice of smoking tobacco4   
,for the want of this last  luxury they 
console themselves in some degree by an 
immoderate use of  coffee4 ,there are   
many learned men among them1 and they   
have collected  many valuable books1    
chiefly historical1 from various parts  
of ,arabia  and from ,egypt4    ,the    
,montgomery gaol in the ,punjab1 one of 
the largest in ,india1  was recently    
visited by ,captain ,buck of the ,indian
 army1 and his  description of the      
details of prison life there is         
exceedingly  interesting4    ,attached  
to the gateway are not only the prison  
offices1 barracks for  the warders and  
an armory1 but a queer looking room     
where well-behaved  prisoners may       
receive friends once in three months4   

,the room is divided  by bars into three
 parts4 ,in the portion at one end the  
prisoner  squats1 his visitor stays in  
the part at the other end and a gaoler  
or assistant sits in the middle space1  
where he can make sure that no          
smuggling goes on or that no attempts at
 escape are made4    ,the prisoners     
become very clever and use all sorts of 
devices to  smuggle in coins1 tobacco1  
opium and other drugs and dice4 ,they   
are  allowed to wear their own shoes1   
but these are examined very carefully1  
for the soles are frequently found to be
 made of tobacco1 four-anna  pieces and 
other things than leather4 8,a common   
dodge10 says ,captain  ,buck1 8among the
 prisoners for concealing coins and     
other small things  is to make a        
receptacle in the throat by means of a  
leaden weight about  the diameter of a  
florin and half an inch thick2 this is  
attached to a  string some six inches   
long1 a knot in the end being slipped   
between  two teeth to prevent it sliding

 down the throat4 ,by holding the head  
in  a particular position for some time 
every day1 #8waggling' the weight       
about1 and from time to time altering   
the length of the string1 a pouch  can  
be formed in the throat suitable for    
holding as many as fifteen  rupees4 ,the
 possessor of this strange #8safe' is   
able to put in and take  out his        
treasure with facility1 but it is       
exceedingly difficult to  make a man    
disgorge the contents against his will1 
or even to find out  whether he         
possesses the pouch at all without the  
use of the ,rntgen  rays40    ,the      
,montgomery gaol is as large as a small 
town1 and contains two great  enclosures
 surrounded by a high outside wall1     
three spaces at the back  for work      
shops1 a separate yard for the female   
ward and such other  buildings as       
storehouses1 pumping stations and       
granaries4 ,all of the  buildings are   
constructed of burnt brick1 but the     
walls are made of  sun-dried brick and  

are kept in repair and plastered by gaol
 labour4  ,the menial work is performed 
by the prisoners1 and caste prejudices  
have been consulted in apportioning this
 work to the different classes  of      
prisoners4 ,the lower castes do         
scavengering and general cleaning1      
while the dyer1 washerman1 barber1      
tailor1 blacksmith and weaver are  all1 
as far as possible1 employed at their   
respective professions4  ,other         
prisoners who have worked at trades     
which the gaol does not  afford are     
given work in the factories4    ,the    
factories are the most interesting part 
of the gaol at ,montgomery4  ,carpets   
are made in many beautiful patterns4 ,a 
carpet over fifty feet  wide can be     
woven on the largest loom1 and it is an 
interesting sight  to see a row of      
twenty-five men engaged in pulling the  
threads from  the many coloured balls of
 wool above their heads1 slipping them  
into  place and with a small curved     
knife cutting off the ends1 pressing    

down the stitches with a wooden fork1   
and never making a mistake4 ,the        
pattern is read out by convicts         
stationed behind a loom1 sometimes  from
 patterns1 sometimes from books and     
often from memory4 ,to the  uninitiated 
these instructions are incomprehensible1
 for there is such  a confusion of      
sounds that it is difficult to          
distinguish any one  voice4 ,the marvel 
of it is how each man knows what colours
 to use and  where4 ,somehow or other1  
in spite of all the noise and confusion1
 dust  and glare1 these lovely carpets  
are produced4 ,the ordinary woollen     
carpet costs from sixteen to twenty-four
 shillings a square yard1  according to 
the number of stitches to the inch1 but 
the prices range  higher for specially  
selected wool1 while the price of a silk
 carpet is  almost a small fortune4     
,another part of the factory contains   
the cloth looms4 ,the weavers  rig up   
their looms in the same manner as they  
would in their native  villages1 and    

consequently the yard appears to be in  
considerable  disorder2 8each weaver    
sits at his own little loom with his    
legs in  a hole in the ground and       
flashes the spindle backwards and       
forwards1  seldom wasting his time for  
fear he may not finish his day's job1   
and  thus lose marks or fail to gain    
any4 ,one man1 in training1 has to      
complete nine yards of the duster-cloth1
 three-quarters of a yard wide1  in a   
day2 fifteen yards of blanketing four   
feet1 eight inches wide1 is  another    
task2 while a man working on a carpet1  
#8munj-mat1' or cotton  mat1 has to work
 on a width of two feet and complete    
four inches1  twelve feet and two feet  
respectively in one day40 ,if a prisoner
 is  able to do extra work he obtains   
marks and gains some remission from  his
 sentence4    ,the dormitories contain  
curious looking long rooms with passages
 down  the middle and on each side rows 
of couches made of hard baked mud4 ,the 
prisoners are provided with blankets and

 mattresses made of rice straw1  and    
they can be fairly comfortable4 ,even   
beds made out of such material  have    
been diverted to other uses by the      
ingenious inmates4 ,a convict is  said  
to have made a pipe out of his bed4 ,by 
hollowing out a place near  the head of 
the bed and plastering it over1 he made 
two holes1 one to  hold the tobacco and 
ashes1 and the other to serve as a      
mouthpiece4    ,as an additional        
precautionary measure to prevent plague 
from entering  the gaol1 every prisoner 
who catches a rat and produces it alive 
is  given a reward of ten marks4 ,this  
is a distinct gain toward a shorter     
sentence1 for twenty-four marks means   
one day's remission4 ,it has  been      
surmised1 as the rats are very numerous 
in the gaol in spite  of wire netting   
everywhere placed to keep them out1 that
 either the  warders arrange to bring   
them in or the prisoners maintain       
reserves for  breeding purposes4    ,the
 cook-house is in the yard where the men

 are paraded4 ,two meals are  served    
daily1 one at #g4cj ,a4 ,m4 and the     
other after #e ,p4 ,m41 but in  addition
 a little parched boiled gram is given  
to each convict in  the middle of the   
day1 when there is a short recess from  
work4 ,besides  the large chupattis1    
made of wheat and ,indian corn1 a few   
ounces of  dal are served in the        
morning1 and vegetables with condiments 
in the  evening4 ,all the vegetables and
 condiments are produced by the convicts
  in the large garden attached to the   
gaol4    ,it is said that no convict has
 ever gotten away altogether1 but that  
those who manage to escape occasionally 
are always recaptured4 ,as  the gaol is 
situated in a large desert1 tracking the
 runaways is  comparatively easy4 ,on   
one occasion1 a man was apparently      
missing  at evening roll-call4 ,for     
considerable time his identity could not
  be ascertained1 but after a thorough  
search and re-checking1 it was          
remembered that a murderer had been     

hanged that day1 and the officials  had 
failed to strike his name from the roll4
    ,the hospital is exceedingly clean  
and well kept4 ,the routine of the  gaol
 generally runs smoothly1 and the       
character of the treatment and          
discipline in this typical prison of    
,india will bear comparison with  that  
in many institutions of a like kind at  
home and abroad4    ,some of the local  
gaols in ,india are worth a passing     
mention4 ,a good  specimen was that of  
,sirsah on the confines of the ,bikaneer
 desert4  ,colonel ,hervey visited it   
and speaks of it as a model gaol4 ,he   
says1  8,its lofty walls are shielded by
 a covered way running round its top4   
,it has an outer and an inner ditch at  
the foot of the walls1 and              
upward-sloping towers at its four       
corners1 resembling the castles of  a   
chess-board4 ,the prisoners in it were  
warmly clothed and looked  sleek1 and   
being told off to healthful although    
hard labour1 they ate  with eagerness   

their diet of curried meat1 curried     
shorwah1 or soup1  and wheaten cakes4   
,this was served out to them plentifully
 while ,i  was there4 ,they sat down on 
the ground in lines without reference to
  castes1 and all promiscuously partook 
of the food set before them4 ,i  was    
astonished at this1 for there is        
generally so much difficulty in  the    
matter of food1 owing to caste          
prejudices40    ,another interesting    
native gaol is that of ,orissa1 visited 
by ,sir  ,william ,hunter in #ahgb4 ,he 
says3 8,it consisted of a courtyard with
  low thatched sheds running round three
 sides and the guard-house on  the      
fourth4 ,the shed roofs came so low that
 a child might have jumped  on to them  
and thus got over the wall4 ,when the   
guard turned out1  moreover1 we found it
 to consist of two very old men2 and the
 ,maharaja  was rather displeased to    
find that one of them had his matchlock 
under  repair at the blacksmith's1 while
 the other had left his weapon in his   

own village1 ten miles off1 to protect  
his family during his period of  service
 at court4 ,inside were sixty-nine      
prisoners1 and ,i asked how it  came    
that they did not1 under the            
circumstances1 all jump over the  wall8 
,the question seemed to strike the      
,maharaja as a particularly  foolish    
one4 #8,where could they go8' he said4  
#8,on the rare occasion that  a prisoner
 breaks gaol1 it is only to pay a visit 
to his family2 and  the villagers1 as in
 duty bound1 return him within a few    
days4' ,the  truth is that the family   
instinct is still so strong in the      
tributary  states that imprisonment1 or 
even death itself1 seems infinitely     
preferable to running away from kindred 
and home4 ,there were no female         
prisoners1 and the ,maharaja stated that
 crime among women had not yet          
penetrated his country4    8,i found the
 gang divided into two sections1 each of
 which had a shed  to itself on the     
opposite sides of the court1 the shed of

 the third  side being set apart for    
cooking4 ,the one shed was monopolised  
by ten  men whose light complexion      
declared them to belong to the trading  
class  and who lolled at great ease and 
in good clothes in their prison house4  
,in the other shed the remaining        
fifty-nine were crowded1 packed as      
closely as sardines and with no other   
clothing except a narrow strip  round   
their waist4 ,on expressing my surprise 
at this unequal treatment  and asking   
whether the ten gentlemen who took their
 ease were confined  for lighter crimes1
 the ,maharaja explained3 #8,on the     
contrary1 these  ten men are the plagues
 of the state4 ,they consist of         
fraudulent  shop-keepers who receive    
stolen goods1 and notorious bad         
characters  who organise robberies4 ,the
 other fifty-nine are poor ,pans and    
other  jungle people imprisoned for     
petty theft1 or as the tools of the ten 
prisoners on the opposite side4 ,but    
then the ten are respectable men  and of

 good caste1 while the fifty-nine are   
mere woodmen2 and it is  only proper to 
maintain ,god's distinction of caste4'  
,all the prisoners  were in irons except
 one1 a lame man1 whose fetters had been
 struck  off on the report of the native
 doctor4 ,they looked very fat and      
comfortable1 as indeed they well might  
considering that the sixty-nine         
prisoners have an allowance of a hundred
 pounds of rice per diem1 with  goat's  
flesh once a fortnight1 fish twice a    
month1 besides the little  daily        
allowance of split peas and spices to   
season their food4 ,it did  not seem to 
have occurred to any of them to feel in 
the least ashamed  on account of being  
in gaol4 ,one of them had been          
imprisoned twice  before1 and on my     
asking him what his trade was he        
explained that the  younger brothers of 
his family were husbandmen1 but that for
 his part  he nourished his stomach by  
thieving40    ,no ,european country can 
show anything like the immunity from    

crime  which the worst district in      
,orissa enjoys4 ,in ,balasor1 the       
proportion  of persons in gaol is one to
 every #c1cge of the population1 or one 
female to every #aba1bgh of the         
population4 ,puri district1 however1 the
  seat of the so-called 8abominations of
 ,jagannath10 would blush to own  such  
an overwhelming criminal population4    
,including both the central  and the    
subdivisional gaols1 the proportion is  
one criminal always in  prison to every 
six thousand of the population and one  
woman to every  hundred thousand4       
,the gaol is a great institution in     
,indian and ,burmese stations4 ,your    
syce breaks the shaft of your dogcart2  
send it round to the gaol to  be        
repaired4 ,new matting is wanted for the
 veranda2 you can get it in  the gaol4  
,you want a piece of furniture2 whether 
it be a wardrobe or  a whist table1 you 
will find what you require in the gaol  
workshop1  and if there does not happen 
to be one ready1 you can order it to be 

made4 ,they take a longer time to do it 
than free artisans1 but you can  depend 
upon sound material1 good workmanship   
and reasonable prices2 so  the gaol     
industries flourish and the cost of     
supporting the criminal  classes falls  
with comparative lightness upon         
taxpayers4          ,,chapter ,,ii      
,,the ,,crime ,,of ,,thuggee            
,difficulties experienced in            
administering justice--,perjury         
common--,native officers delight in     
torture--,various devices used      to  
extort evidence--,characteristics of the
 ,indian criminal--,crime               
hereditary--,thugs' method of strangling
 victims--,facilities      afforded by  
the nature of the country--,the river   
,thugs--,suppression      of ,thuggee   
gangs and their operations4      ,crime 
in ,india does not differ essentially   
from that prevalent  elsewhere1 although
 some forms are indigenous to the       
country1  engendered by special physical
 and social conditions4 ,as a rule1 the 

people of ,india are law abiding1       
orderly and sober in character1 but     
there is an inherent deceitfulness in   
them that tends to interfere with  the  
course of justice4 ,this is constantly  
seen in the untrustworthy  evidence so  
often given in court4 ,witnesses are    
either reticent or  too fluent2 they    
will conceal facts or over-colour them  
according  as it serves their interests2
 they can be bought1 or intimidated1  or
 easily persuaded4 ,it has been said of 
,india that perjury is the  rule and not
 the exception2 it is a country in which
 no man desires  to tell the simple     
truth or the whole truth1 where         
exaggeration is  perfectly natural and  
mendacity revels in the incredible      
minuteness  with which false statements 
are made1 so perfect indeed as to cast  
discredit on them at once when heard4   
,perjury has long been a flagrant  evil 
thwarting the administration of justice1
 and is still frequent1  although likely
 to decrease as social standards        

improve4 ,the people  chafe at police   
investigation which worries and         
irritates them and  will say almost     
anything if it will rid them of the     
attentions of  the officers of the law4 
8,they would condone even grievous      
wrongs10  says ,sir ,richard ,temple1   
8disavow the loss of property which they
 had  suffered1 and withhold all        
assistance from their neighbours in     
similar  plights1 rather than undergo   
the trouble of attending at police      
offices  and criminal courts40 ,in the  
old days police methods for the         
detection  and proof of crime were often
 reprehensible4 ,native officers were   
ever  eager to make a case complete and 
would go to any length in colouring  and
 creating evidence4 ,an eminent judge in
 ,india found great fault with  the     
police who 8would never leave a case    
alone1 but must always prepare  it and  
patch it up by teaching the witnesses to
 learn their evidence  beforehand and to
 say more than they knew40 ,a village   

official would be  so eager to succeed  
when others had failed that he would    
threaten and  maltreat the witnesses    
till they invented merely imaginery     
evidence4 ,it  was the frequent custom  
to drug prisoners about to be charged so
 that  they could make no defence1 and  
when evidence was wanting1 the witness  
was subjected to actual torture until he
 promised to depose as required4        
,this use of torture1 secret and        
unavowed1 for the purposes of the       
prosecution1 prevailed until a recent   
date4 ,disgusted ,english officers      
vainly sought to check the pernicious   
practice1 which was common  throughout  
,india among all sects and classes1     
though strictly forbidden  by law4      
,according to one authority1 8,the poor 
practise torture on  each other1 robbers
 on their victims2 masters upon their   
servants2  zemindars on their ryots2    
schoolmasters on their pupils2 husbands 
on  their wives and even parents on     
their children40 8,the very plays of the

  populace10 says another1 8excite the  
laughter of many a rural audience  by   
the exhibition of revenue squeezed out  
of a defaulter1 coin by  coin1 through  
the appliance of familiar provocatives40
 ,some of these  as employed by the old 
police consisted of such devices as     
filling  the nose and ears of a prisoner
 with cayenne pepper1 checking the      
circulation of the blood with tight     
ligaments1 suspending a person head     
downward in a well and sometimes        
immersing the whole body in deep water  
until insensibility but not actual      
drowning was caused4    ,other processes
 are recounted by ,dr4 ,cheevers4       
,torture by heat  consisted in applying 
to the naked flesh a lighted torch1     
burning  charcoal or red hot tongs1 or  
by pouring boiling oil into the ears or 
nose4 ,torture by cold was inflicted by 
exposure of the victim naked  in the    
night air and constantly sprinkling the 
body with freezing  water4 ,other       
methods were3 suspension by the ears1   

wrists1 feet1 hair  or moustache1       
generally accompanied by severe beating 
with rods1 wet  stinging nettles1       
bunches of thorns1 or cudgels of split  
bamboo2  confinement in a cell          
containing quicklime2 rubbing the face  
on the  ground so that the nose was     
wounded1 the lips torn and the upper jaw
  fractured2 fastening offensive and    
gnawing insects under cover upon  the   
skin2 sticking pins under the nails2    
beating the ankles and other  joints    
with a soft mallet4 ,the bull's hide    
torture showed devilish  ingenuity4 ,the
 victim was sewed up in a newly flayed  
skin and exposed  to the torrid sun4    
,the outer covering contracted with the 
heat1 drawing  the live flesh with it1  
and the poor agonised creature died     
gradually  of hunger1 thirst and        
putrifaction4    ,milder tortures1 as   
they were deemed1 existed1 in which the 
punishment  was more gradual but not    
less acute4 ,roasting by exposure to sun
 or  fire1 running up and down or       

8walking about10 a process in which     
relays  of policemen keep a culprit on  
the move for hours and hours together1  
so that1 after a night's unbroken       
promenade1 the craving for rest and     
sleep becomes intolerable1 especially   
with people accustomed to sleep  for    
twelve or fourteen hours at a stretch4  
,the prolonged use of the  stocks was at
 one time very general in ,bengal1      
sometimes with the  limbs enclosed in   
small apertures too tight for them1 or  
when the  victim lay on his back with   
his feet raised high in the air for a   
period of twenty-four hours4    ,indian 
criminal annals record many curious     
forms of crime more or  less peculiar to
 the country1 and it will be interesting
 to specify  some of the best known4    
,many are as old as the hills and are   
directly  traceable to the innate       
character and distinguishing traits of  
the  various races that people the great
 peninsula of ,hindustan4 ,there  is a  
family likeness in the offences against 

morality and the rules  generally       
binding upon the community at large1 but
 some are encouraged  and facilitated by
 the condition and organisation of the  
daily life of  the people4 ,profound    
observers have penetrated to the darker 
and deeper  recesses of the criminal    
mind of the native1 both ,hindu and     
,mussulman4  ,under the often placid1   
timid1 civil-spoken and seemingly       
harmless  native there lies a strange   
but potent combination of sensuality1   
jealousy and vindictiveness1 backed by  
wild1 ineradicable superstition1        
absolute untruthfulness and ruthless    
disregard for the value of human  life4 
,this is especially true of the         
,bengali1 whose character has  been     
powerfully portrayed by ,lord ,macaulay4
 ,a feeble1 effeminate  creature of     
sedentary pursuits1 with delicate limbs1
 and without  courage1 independence or  
veracity1 he is full of tact1 ready with
  large promises1 smooth excuses1       
elaborate tissues of circumstantial     

falsehood4 ,with all his softness1 he is
 by no means placable in his  enmities  
or prone to pity1 but is pertinacious in
 his purposes and  dominated only by the
 immediate pressure of fear4    ,custom 
has been largely the parent of crime in 
,india1 and nowhere has  heredity       
exercised greater influence4 ,a large   
proportion of offences in  ,india are   
committed by persons whose ancestors    
have done the same for  centuries4      
,strong belief in the strength of family
 tradition and the  potency of inherited
 traits and tendencies have long filled 
the ,indian  gaols4 ,to these causes we 
must trace the vitality of certain      
crimes2 we  find in them the explanation
 of persistent gang-robberies1          
8,dacoity10  the drugging and poisoning 
of travellers1 the kidnapping of        
children1  the forgery1 the forest      
frauds1 the infanticide and secret      
murders2 the  whole series of offences  
against which is directed the penal code
 of  ,india1 originated by ,lord        

,macaulay and praised by the highest    
experts1  including ,sir ,james         
,stephen1 as the best system of criminal
 law in the  world4    ,when ,england's 
work in ,india is reviewed in the time  
to come1 full  credit must be given to  
the humane administration which sternly 
suppressed the atrocious malpractices   
that so long afflicted the land1  such  
as 8,suttee10 or the burning of widows  
on the funeral pyre2 the  human         
sacrifices to the bloodthirsty idol of  
,jagannath2 8,thuggee10  that vile      
organisation for secret murder which    
devastated the entire  continent and    
killed so many unsuspecting victims4 ,no
 more terrible and  widespread crime has
 obtained in any age or country4 ,it was
 fostered by  the prevailing conditions 
in a vast extent of territory1 divided  
among  many princes and powers1 each    
ruling independently and irresponsibly1 
with many kinds of governments1 and with
 their hands one against  the other1    
having no common interests1 no desire   

for combination1  no united police1 no  
uniform action in the repression of     
determined  wrong-doing4 ,everything    
conspired to favour the growth of these 
daring  and unscrupulous land pirates4  
,there were no roads in those early     
days1 no public conveyances1 no  means  
of protection for travellers4 ,the      
longest journeys from one end  of the   
continent to the other were undertaken  
of necessity on foot  or on horseback2  
parties hitherto complete strangers     
banded together  for common security1   
and mixed unreservedly with one another4
 ,the  avenues of communication were at 
best mere tracks barely beaten down  by 
the passage of wayfarers across country 
and not always easily  distinguished1 so
 that it was possible to wander into    
by-paths and get  lost among the        
forests1 jungles1 mountains and         
uncultivated tracts  where but few      
sparsely inhabited villages were        
scattered4 ,direct  encouragement was   
thus afforded to freebooters and        

highwaymen to make  all travellers their
 prey1 and many classes of robbers      
existed and  flourished4 ,of these the  
most numerous1 the most united1 the most
  secret in their horrible operations1  
the most dangerous and destructive  were
 the ,thugs4    ,the origin of ,thuggee1
 as it was commonly called1 is lost in  
fable  and obscurity4 ,mr4 ,james       
,hutton1 in his popular account of the  
,thugs1  thinks that they are of very   
ancient date and says they are 8reputed 
to  have sprung from the ,sagartii who  
contributed eight thousand horse to  the
 army of ,xerxes and are mentioned by   
,herodotus in his history4 ,these       
people led a pastoral life1 were        
originally of ,persian descent and use  
the ,persian language2 their dress is   
something betwixt a ,persian and  a     
,pactyan2 they have no offensive        
weapons1 either of iron or brass1       
except their daggers2 their principal   
dependence in action is on cords  made  
of twisted leather which they use in    

this manner4 ,when they engage  an enemy
 they throw out this cord having a noose
 at the extremity2 if  they entangle in 
this either horse or man1 they without  
difficulty put  them to death40 ,there  
is some reason to believe that in later 
times  the descendants of these         
,sagartii accompanied one of the        
,mohammedan  invaders to ,india and     
settled in the neighbourhood of ,delhi4 
,in the  latter part of the seventeenth 
century ,thevenot speaks of a strange   
denomination of robbers who infest the  
road between ,delhi and ,agra and  who  
use 8a certain rope with a running noose
 which they could cast with  so much    
sleight about a man's neck when they are
 within reach of him1  that they never  
fail2 so that they strangle him in a    
trice40 ,these  robbers were divided    
into seven principal classes or families
 from  which the innumerable smaller    
bands sprang4    ,sir ,william ,sleeman1
 a distinguished ,indian official1 whose
 signal  services in purging a large    

part of ,india of this terrible scourge 
must ever be gratefully remembered1 has 
conjectured that the first  ,thugs were 
to be found among the vagrant tribes of 
,mohammedans who  continued to plunder  
the country long after its invasion by  
the ,moguls  and ,tartars4 ,no          
historical mention is made of ,thuggee  
until the reign  of ,akbar1 when many of
 its votaries were seized and put to    
death4 ,from  that period until #ahaj1  
although known to some of the native    
princes1  who alternately protected and 
persecuted these criminals1 it entirely 
escaped the observation of the ,british 
rulers of ,india4 ,but attention  was   
finally attracted to it by the strange  
disappearance of sepoys1  or native     
soldiers in the ,british service1 when  
moving about the  country on furlough4  
,in #ahab a ,british officer1           
,lieutenant ,monsell1  was murdered by  
,thugs4 ,a punitive expedition was      
immediately sent  against the village   
where the assassins were known to       

reside1 and the  culprits1 after some   
show of resistance1 were ultimately     
dispersed4 ,no  doubt the fugitives took
 with them their traditions and their   
homicidal  principles into new lands    
where they were probably unknown        
hitherto4 ,as  early as #ahaf the veil  
of secrecy which had concealed the      
organisation  was lifted1 and a very    
complete and accurate account of the    
ceremonies  and practices of the ,thugs 
in southern ,india was published by ,dr4
  ,sherwood in the ,literary ,journal of
 ,madras4 ,it is supposed that the      
horrible story told was deemed too      
monstrous for belief1 and it is at      
least certain that no active measures   
were undertaken to suppress and  root   
out the offenders4    ,at all times many
 hundreds of predatory castes existed in
 ,india1  chiefly among the marauding   
hill and forest people1 and some of them
  are still recorded by name in the     
census papers4 ,these people lived      
openly by plunder1 and were organised   

for crime1 and for determined           
gang-robbery and murder4 ,there was no  
established police in those days  equal 
to coping with these gangs1 and the     
government of the ,east ,india  ,company
 had recourse to the savage criminal    
code of the ,mohammedan  law4 ,when     
,warren ,hastings was governor-general1 
he decreed that every  convicted        
gang-robber should be publicly executed 
in full view of his  village1 and that  
all of the villagers should be fined4   
,the miscreants  retaliated by          
incendiarism on a large scale4 ,one     
conflagration in  ,calcutta in #aghj    
burned fifteen thousand houses1 and some
 two thousand  souls perished in the    
flames4 ,a special civil department was 
created to  deal with this wholesale    
crime1 the character of which is        
described in  a state paper dated #aggb4
 8,the gang-robbers of ,bengal10 it     
says1 8are  not like the robbers in     
,england1 individuals driven to such    
desperate  courses by want or greed4    

,they are robbers by profession and even
 by  birth4 ,they are formed into       
regular communities1 and their families 
subsist on the supplies they bring home 
to them4 ,these spoils come  from great 
distances1 and peaceful villages three  
hundred miles up the  ,ganges are       
supported by housebreaking in           
,calcutta40 ,special laws were  passed  
to deal with the crime of ,dacoity or   
robbery in gangs to the  number of five 
or more4    ,by this time the word      
8,thuggee0 was becoming known and was   
applied  to the practice of 8strangling 
dexterously performed by bands of       
professional murderers disguised as     
pilgrims or travelling mendicants40     
,these hereditary assassins prided      
themselves on their descent and  their  
evil reputations1 which inspired an     
amount of awe in their  fellow          
countrymen hardly distinguishable from  
respect4 8,yes1 ,i am a  strangler10 one
 of them shamelessly told an ,english   
officer4 8,i and my  fathers before me  

have followed the business for twenty   
generations40    ,these ,phansigars1 or 
8stranglers10 were thus designated from 
the  ,hindustani word phansi1 8a noose40
 ,in the more northern parts of  ,india 
these murderers were called ,thugs1 from
 the ,hindu word thagna1  8to deceive40 
,europeans became aware of the existence
 of this class  of criminals with the   
conquest of ,seringapatam in #agii1 when
 about  a hundred were apprehended in   
the vicinity of ,bangalore4 ,little     
attention1 however1 was attracted to    
these depredators for a long  time2 they
 carried on their abominable practices  
under the protection  of different      
native rulers and local authorities1    
with whom they  shared their spoils4    
,but we read that1 with the extension of
 ,british  rule and the subjection of   
the native rulers1 active measures were 
set on foot to suppress these           
professional murderers1 who found it    
necessary to engage ostensibly in       
agriculture or some other harmless      

occupation so as to conceal their real  
business4 ,one characteristic of  the   
,phansigars was that they never         
committed a robbery unaccompanied  by   
murder1 their practice being first to   
strangle1 then to rifle their  victims4 
,it was also a principle with them to   
allow no one of a party1  however       
numerous1 to escape1 so that there might
 be no witnesses of  their proceedings2 
the only exceptions to this were in the 
case of boys  of very tender age1 whom  
they spared and adopted in order to     
bring  them up as ,phansigars1 and girls
 whom they sometimes married4 ,a gang   
of ,phansigars consisted of any number  
from ten to fifty men1 or even  more1 a 
large majority of whom were ,mussulmans1
 but ,hindus were often  associated with
 them1 and occasionally ,brahmins4      
,in common with brigands of all         
nationalities1 the ,thugs generally     
frequented districts abounding in hills 
and fastnesses which afforded  a secure 
retreat in times of danger4 ,particular 

tracts were preferred  where they could 
murder their victims with the greatest  
security4  ,they lurked by the way in   
the extensive jungles which offered     
cover  and concealment1 and where the   
soil was soft and easily turned up  for 
digging graves4 ,the ,thugs cherished   
pleasant memories of these  happy       
hunting grounds so often associated with
 their successes4 ,to  reach the scene  
of action they often performed long     
journeys and were  absent from home for 
many months at a time4 ,their game was  
almost  invariably travellers whom they 
encountered on the road1 or for whom    
they frequently laid in wait outside    
towns and villages at the ordinary      
resting places4 ,their method was to    
send scouts into the town to  find out  
whether persons of property were likely 
to be setting out  on journeys and with 
what possessions4 ,children were often  
employed  in this way4 ,each gang of    
,thugs was under a jemadar1 or chief1   
who  directed their movements2 they very

 seldom assumed any disguise1 but  had  
the appearance of ordinary travellers or
 traders4 ,they generally  put an end to
 their victims in the same manner1 that 
of strangling1  and it was the custom to
 assign three of them to perform this   
deed4  ,while moving along quietly1 one 
of the ,thugs would suddenly throw a    
cloth around the neck of the person     
doomed to death and retain hold  of one 
end of it while the other end would be  
seized by the second  accomplice2 this  
was then drawn tight1 the two           
,phansigars pressing  their victim's    
head forward1 and at the same time the  
third villain1 in  readiness behind the 
traveller1 seized his legs1 and he was  
thrown to  the ground and despatched4   
,meanwhile1 other members of the gang   
kept  watch in advance and in the rear  
to prevent interference2 if they were   
disturbed during their operation1 a     
cloth was thrown over the victim1  and  
the company pretended that one of their 
comrades had fallen sick by  the        

roadside1 and made great lamentations4  
,the bodies of the victims  were        
carefully buried so as to escape        
observation and leave no clue for       
detection4    ,in the early part of the 
nineteenth century the audacity and     
murderous  activity of the ,thugs       
increased to such a fearful extent that 
the  ,british government was roused to  
serious consideration4 ,it could not    
remain indifferent to an evil of such   
magnitude4 ,startling cases began  to   
crop up and disturb the equanimity of   
the official mind4 ,one of  the first   
revelations was secured in #ahad by an  
officer1 ,lieutenant  ,brown1 when      
appointed to investigate the            
circumstances of a murder  in the       
northern part of the province of        
,central ,india1 at no great  distance  
from ,jubbulpore1 a city closely        
connected with ,thuggee  from the       
subsequent trial and incarceration of a 
large number of  the ringleaders in the 
,jubbulpore gaol4 ,mr4 ,brown1 when     

engaged in  his inquiry at a village    
named ,sujuna1 on the road to ,hatta1   
heard  a horrible story of a            
gang-robbery in the neighbourhood4 ,a   
party of  two hundred ,thugs had        
encamped in a grove in the early morning
 of  the cold season of #ahad1 when     
seven men1 well-armed with swords and   
matchlocks1 passed1 conveying treasure  
from a bank in ,jubbulpore to  its      
correspondent in ,banda4 ,the treasure  
was ascertained to be of the  value of  
#d1ejj rupees1 and a number of ,thugs1  
well-mounted1 gave chase4  ,coming up   
with their prey at a distance of seven  
miles1 in a water  course half a mile   
from ,sujuna1 they attacked the         
treasure-bearers  with their swords1    
contrary to their common practice of    
strangling  their victims1 the latter   
plan being possible only when the       
objects  of their desire were taken     
unawares4 ,moreover1 the robbers left   
the  bodies where they lay1 unburied and
 exposed1 which was also an unusual     

proceeding4 ,a passing traveller1 who   
had seen the murderers at work1  was    
also put to death to prevent his giving 
the alarm4 ,as much rain  fell that day1
 none of the villagers approached the   
spot till the  following morning1 when  
the bodies were discovered and a large  
crowd  came to gaze at them4 ,great     
difficulty was experienced in bringing  
home  the crime to its perpetrators4    
,this often happened in such cases from 
the strong reluctance of people to give 
evidence and appear in court  for the   
purpose2 even the banker who had lost   
his cash hesitated to  come forward and 
prove his loss1 and this was no isolated
 case4 ,once  before1 the wood at       
,sujuna had been the rendezvous of      
robbers1 who had  slaughtered a party of
 treasure-bearers travelling between    
,jubbulpore  and ,saugor4 ,sixteen were 
strangled1 but the seventeenth escaped  
with  his life and running into the     
town1 gave the alarm4 ,the native rajah1
  at that time supreme1 hurried to the  

spot1 but only came upon the  bodies    
abandoned by the thieves1 who had made  
off with the treasure4    ,these        
depredations were greatly facilitated by
 the prevailing practice  of            
transmitting large amounts of cash and  
valuables from place to place  by hand4 
,remittances were made in gold and      
silver to save the rate of  exchange1   
although an admirable system of transfer
 by bank bills was  almost universal in 
,india4 ,money carriers by profession   
were to be met  with in all parts of    
,india1 who were trusted by merchants to
 convey to  distant parts enormous sums 
in cash and large parcels of jewels2    
their  fidelity1 sagacity and           
poverty-stricken appearance1 natural or 
assumed1  were relied upon as a         
sufficient security1 and it was attested
 by  ,sleeman that although he had to   
investigate hundreds of cases in which  
they had been murdered in the discharge 
of their duty1 he had never  heard of   
one who betrayed his trust4 ,the sums   

secured by the ,thugs1  after murdering 
these faithful but unfortunate servants1
 were immense1  and amounted in the few 
years between #ahbf and #ahcj to        
hundreds of  thousands of rupees4 ,they 
could not escape their fate1 being      
constantly  watched and spied upon1 and 
were often brought to light by customs  
officers in the native states1 from whom
 the lynx-eyed1 keen-witted  ,thug spies
 gained much information to assist in   
their robberies4    ,the discovery of   
this extensive organisation for murder  
was greatly  aided by the fearful       
disclosures made by some of the captured
 leaders4  ,the most noted of these     
informers was a certain ,feringhea1 who 
is  supposed to have been the original  
of the character of ,ameer ,ali1 the    
principal person and narrator in        
,colonel ,meadows-,taylor's             
8,confessions  of a ,thug40 ,he had     
fallen into the hands of the famous     
,captain ,sleeman1  then the political  
agent of the provinces bordering on the 

,nurbudda1  by whose untiring energy the
 whole system of ,thuggee as then       
practised  was laid bare4 ,through his  
efforts large gangs were apprehended    
which had assembled in ,rajputana to    
pursue their operations in that         
country1 and among the great numbers    
committed to safe custody in the        
various gaols1 especially that of       
,jubbulpore1 precise information was    
obtained leading to the breaking up of  
the diabolical conspiracy4 ,it  was then
 found that ,thuggee was actively       
practised throughout ,india4  ,the      
circle1 which seemed at first centred   
about ,jubbulpore1 gradually  widened   
until it included the whole continent1  
from the foot of the  ,himalayas to the 
waters that wash ,cape ,comorin4 ,from  
the ,gulf of ,cutch  to the tea         
plantations of ,assam1 every province   
was implicated1 and the  revelations of 
the informers were substantiated by the 
disinterment of  the dead4    ,sir      
,william ,sleeman has left a personal   

record of his own achievements4  8,while
 ,i was in the civil charge of the      
district of ,nursingpoor1 in  the valley
 of the ,nurbudda1 in the years #ahbb1  
#ahbc and #ahbd10 he  tells us1 8no     
ordinary robbery or theft could be      
committed without my  becoming          
acquainted with it2 nor was there a     
robber or a thief of the  ordinary kind 
in the district1 with whose character ,i
 had not become  acquainted in the      
discharge of my duty as magistrate2 and 
if any man  had then told me that a gang
 of assassins by profession resided in  
the village of ,kundelee1 not four      
hundred yards from my court1 and  that  
the extensive groves of the village of  
,mundesur1 only one stage  from me1 on  
the road to ,saugor and ,bhopaul1 were  
one of the greatest  beles1 or places of
 murder1 in all ,india2 and that large  
gangs from  ,hindustan and the ,dukhun  
used to rendezvous in these groves1     
remain in  them for days together every 
year1 and carry on their dreadful trade 

along all the lines of road that pass by
 and branch off from them1 with  the    
knowledge and connivance of the two     
landholders by whose ancestors  these   
groves had been planted1 ,i should have 
thought him a fool or a  madman2 and yet
 nothing could have been more true4 ,the
 bodies of a  hundred travellers lie    
buried in and around the groves of      
,mundesur2 and  a gang of assassins     
lived in and about the village of       
,kundelee while ,i  was magistrate of   
the district1 and extended their        
depredations to the  cities of ,poona   
and ,hyderabad40    ,similar to the     
preceding account1 as showing the daring
 character  of the ,thuggee operations1 
was the fact that in the cantonment of  
,hingolee1 the leader of the ,thugs of  
that district1 ,hurree ,singh1  was a   
respectable merchant of the place1 with 
whom ,captain ,sleeman1  in common with 
many other ,english officers1 had       
constant dealings4  ,on one occasion    
this man applied to the officer in civil

 charge of  the district1 ,captain      
,reynolds1 for a pass to bring some     
cloths from  ,bombay1 which he knew were
 on their way accompanied by their      
owner1 a  merchant of a town not far    
from ,hingolee4 ,he murdered this       
person1 his  attendants and             
cattle-drivers1 brought the merchandise 
up to ,hingolee  under the pass he had  
obtained and sold it openly in the      
cantonment2  nor would this ever have   
been discovered had he not confessed it 
after  his apprehension1 and gloried in 
it as a good joke4 ,many persons were   
murdered in the very bazaar of the      
cantonment1 within one hundred yards    
from the main guard1 by ,hurree ,singh  
and his gang1 and were buried  hardly   
five hundred yards from the line of     
sentries4 ,captain ,sleeman  was himself
 present at the opening of several of   
these unblessed  graves 7each containing
 several bodies71 which were pointed out
 by  the 8approvers10 one by one1 in the
 coolest possible manner1 to those  who 

were assembled1 until the spectators    
were sickened and gave up  further      
search in disgust4 ,the place was the   
dry channel of a small  water course1   
communicating with the river1 no broader
 or deeper than a  ditch2 it was near   
the road to a neighbouring village1 and 
one of the  main outlets from the       
cantonment to the country4    ,some of  
the operations in which ,thugs were     
concerned1 and the nature  of their     
proceedings1 are of especial interest4  
,in the year #ahbg1  ,girdharee ,thug   
joined a gang of seven ,thugs under     
,bukshee ,jemadar 444  and set forth on 
an expedition4 ,the party proceeded to  
,cawnpore where  they were joined by    
,runnooa ,moonshee with nine ,thug      
followers1 so that  the gang amounted to
 eighteen ,thugs1 who all went on to    
,pokraya4 ,at  this place they fell in  
with two travellers going from ,saugor  
to the  ,oude territory1 who were       
decoyed by ,runnooa ,moonshee1 and the  
next  morning1 having been escorted     

about a couple of miles towards         
,cawnpore1  they were strangled by two  
,thugs1 ,oomeid and ,davee ,deen1 who   
buried  the bodies in the bed of a      
stream4 ,after this the gang proceeded  
on  the road leading to ,mynpooree1 as  
far as ,bewur1 where they found a       
,kayet on his way from ,meerut to the   
eastward1 who was decoyed into  joining 
the company of the ,thugs4 ,after       
passing the night together1  the        
traveller was taken to a garden a short 
distance from the village1  where he was
 induced to sit down and was then       
strangled1 his body  being thrown into a
 well4 ,they went on to ,sultanpoor and 
,mynpooree1  where the number of the    
gang was increased to twenty-one by     
three more  ,thugs who joined them4 ,the
 gang advanced on the same road as far  
as  ,kurkoodda in the ,meerut district1 
but meeting with no success in their    
search for victims1 they turned back    
toward ,malagurh1 and on arriving  there
 sent one of the gang as a scout into   

the town4 ,he discovered two            
travellers1 a ,brahmin and a ,kuhar1 who
 were proceeding from ,kurnal to  the   
,oude territory1 and whom he persuaded  
to join the ,thugs4 ,early the          
following morning the ,thugs escorted   
these travellers about two miles  beyond
 the village1 where they were strangled 
and their bodies buried4  ,after this   
affair the gang passed through ,boolund 
,shuhur and stopped  to rest at a police
 station two miles from the town4 ,a    
,chuprassee from  ,meerut passed by on  
his way to ,cawnpore4 ,the ,thugs       
addressed him and  persuaded him to join
 their band1 and they all went to       
,koorja1 where  they rested for the     
night in a caravansary4 ,long before    
daylight the  gang1 accompanied by the  
traveller1 proceeded on the road to     
,muttra1  and on the way one of the     
company found an opportunity to strangle
 the  ,chuprassee4    ,the band next    
went to ,secundra and while halting     
there decoyed two  ,brahmins travelling 

from ,kurnaul toward ,lucknow4 ,runnooa 
,moonshee took  them under his own      
protection1 and the next morning they   
were escorted  in an easterly direction 
and strangled4 ,the bodies were thrown  
into a  dry well and the earth heaped   
over them4 ,after this murder1 the gang 
went to ,jullalabad1 where they rested  
in the caravansary2 and finding  that   
two travellers1 a ,brahmin and a        
,rajpoot1 had previously put up  in the 
same place1 a ,thug was deputed to decoy
 them by inviting them  to join the     
band2 the travellers agreed1 and were   
put to death in the  usual manner and   
their bodies buried4 ,in this way the   
expedition  proceeded for some weeks1   
the gang was joined by other ,thugs     
until  it amounted to sixty in number2  
then it separated into two parties1     
each going in a different direction1 but
 they joined forces again  at ,allahabad
 and commenced operations in the        
,cawnpore district4  ,twenty-seven of   
the ,thugs quitted the gang and returned

 to their  homes2 the remainder went to 
,meetapore1 where they met two          
travellers  on their way to ,agra1 whom 
they decoyed into their company4 ,two   
more  travellers were also persuaded to 
join the gang1 and besides these  four  
others were also inveigled1 among them  
two rich persons who were  staying in   
the same inn2 the last named had engaged
 a carriage in which  to continue their 
journey1 but the ,thugs1 anxious to get 
into friendly  relations1 offered horses
 on more favourable terms4 ,the         
proprietors  of the carriage1 enraged at
 this proposition1 threatened to have   
the  ,thugs arrested1 but the matter was
 arranged amicably and the travelling   
party1 with their ,thug attendants1     
proceeded on their way4 ,their fate  was
 sealed1 for on reaching a convenient   
spot in the ,mynpooree district  they   
were strangled and their bodies rifled4 
,the alarm1 however1 was  given soon    
afterward1 and all the robbers were     
taken up by order of the  ,british      

magistrate and lodged in gaol4 ,it was  
found that in the course  of this one   
expedition the ,thugs had murdered      
fifty-two victims and  gained spoil to  
the value of #e1jjj rupees4    ,the     
,thugs did not confine their operations 
to attacking travellers on  land4 ,there
 were many gangs who worked on the      
rivers and kept their  boats on the     
,nurbudda and ,ganges1 into which they  
decoyed passengers  when bent upon their
 destruction4 ,they resided chiefly in  
villages  along the banks and kept their
 boats at the principal ghats or points 
of passage1 as at ,monghyr1 ,patna1     
,cawnpore and as far up the river as    
,furuckabad4 ,their murders were always 
perpetrated in the day time4 ,a  certain
 number of them were employed as actual 
boatmen1 wearing the  dress and doing   
the work2 others acted as decoys1 having
 no connection  seemingly1 but arriving 
at the banks as well-dressed travellers1
  merchants or pilgrims bound for or    
returning from the sacred places  such  

as ,benares or ,allahabad4 ,in the      
meantime the sothas or  8inveiglers0    
sent out by the gang to bring in        
passengers1 being well  dressed and     
respectable1 would accost those they met
 upon the road and  invite them to join 
in the voyage by river4 ,the boats in   
waiting at  the ghat were invariably    
kept clean and looked inviting1 with    
other  respectably dressed travellers   
awaiting the moment of departure4       
,often enough it was at first pretended 
to be inconvenient to take the          
newcomers on board1 the captain alleging
 that he was short of room1  but at last
 he would yield to the urgent request of
 the sothas1  and the trusting          
passengers would be taken on board and  
accommodated  below4 ,after departure   
the disguised ,thugs on deck would      
commence to  sing and amuse themselves  
noisily until a quiet spot was reached1 
when  the signal was given--the         
death-warrant in this case--by three    
taps  upon the deck above4 ,the victims 

below were forthwith strangled by the   
appointed stranglers1 who were in close 
attendance upon their prey4  ,after     
death had been inflicted the murderers  
proceeded to break the  spinal bones of 
their victims by placing a knee in the  
back and pulling  over the head and     
shoulders2 this was to prevent all      
possibility of  recovery4 ,then the     
bodies were stabbed through under the   
armpits and  thrown overboard1 while the
 boat made its way to the next ghat1    
where  the 8inveiglers0 were landed to  
repeat their operations with others4 ,no
  part of the booty was retained1 lest  
it might form a clue to detection1      
except the cash found upon the dead or  
in their baggage4 ,these river  ,thugs  
often ran the risk of being captured1   
but they were generally  well known to  
the village watchmen on the river side1 
whom they were  ready to bribe4         
,their extraordinary audacity and the   
success with which they murdered  their 
victims is recorded in the memorandum   

prepared in ,march1 #ahcf1  by an       
officer1 ,captain ,lowis1 who did much  
to bring them to justice4  ,he speaks of
 repeated instances in which ten or a   
dozen persons were  put to death by     
boats' crews1 hardly more numerous than 
their victims4  ,in one case seven men  
were murdered at one and the same time  
by a crew  of nine ,thugs4 ,the victims 
were often men from the west country1   
notoriously stronger and braver than the
 natives of ,bengal4 ,strange  to say1  
the deadly business was often completed 
in small boats1 in  which there seemed  
too little room to move or plan the fell
 purpose  unperceived4 ,frequently the  
,thug boatmen made friends with their   
victims1 as in the case of a boat laden 
with tobacco and hemp1 when  the captain
 and crew persuaded their passengers to 
land on a sand bank  to cook and eat    
their dinner together4 ,after the meal1 
the ,thug leader  invited his friends to
 join in a song of praise to the ,hindu 
divinity1  and while it was being sung  

the ,thugs adroitly got behind their    
victims  and strangled them4    ,a      
shocking story was revealed in the trial
 of three ,bengalis who were  arraigned 
at ,berhampore on suspicion of having   
committed ,thuggee4 ,it  appeared that  
one of them1 ,madhub by name1 had       
arrived at the ,serai  with a large sum 
of money in the hollow of a joint of    
bamboo2 two  others1 ,gunga ,hurree     
,mitter and ,kunhaye1 quickly came upon 
the scene  in pursuit of the first whom 
they accused of having stolen the money 
from their boat4 ,madhub retorted that  
they were ,thugs and wanted to  murder  
him4 ,this squabble excited suspicion   
and ended in the arrest  of all three4  
,within a few days two ,bengali boats1  
full of suspicious  characters and laden
 with much money and property1 were     
seized between  ,monghyr and ,patna and 
news came that four travelling merchants
 had  recently disappeared4 ,it was     
strongly suspected that these merchants 
had been murdered and great efforts were

 made to obtain a clue to the  guilty   
parties4 ,gunga ,hurree ,mitter1 above  
mentioned1 seemed willing  to turn      
approver1 and although stoutly denying  
that he was concerned  in this          
particular crime he at length confessed 
to complicity in many  frightful murders
 as a river ,thug and admitted as many  
as fifty murders  between ,moorshedabad 
and ,barr1 where the boats had been     
seized4 ,about  this time another very  
notorious ,thug was arrested in the     
,burdwan  district who volunteered      
valuable information in exchange for his
 life  and confessed to being an        
accomplice in the murder of the         
merchants4    ,accounts of such affairs1
 as found in contemporary records1      
might be multiplied indefinitely4       
,colonel ,sleeman's report of  the ,thug
 depredations for a year or two when    
they were most                          
virulent--#ahcf-cg--;fills one large    
volume4 ,on a map which he made of  a   
portion of the kingdom of ,oude1 showing

 a territory one hundred  miles wide    
from north to south1 and one hundred and
 seventy miles from  east to west1 are  
marked an endless number of spots       
between ,lucknow1  ,cawnpore1           
,manickpur1 ,pertabgurh and ,fyzabad1   
all of them indicating  beles or scenes 
of murders perpetrated4 ,these places   
were pointed  out by captured ,thugs and
 8approvers0 who had been actively      
present  and taken part in the murders4 
,there were some #bgd beles in all1 or  
one for about every five miles2 the fact
 was proved by the continual            
disinterment of skulls and skeletons of 
the often nameless victims4  ,each      
recorded great atrocities and many      
wholesale murders4 ,the number  of      
deaths for which each ,thug miscreant   
was personally responsible  seems       
incredible4 ,one man1 ,buhran by name1  
killed #ica victims in forty  years of  
active ,thuggee1 and another1 ,futteh   
,khan1 killed #ejh persons  in twenty   
years1 making an average of two monthly 

for each assassin4    ,when the ,british
 government was roused to the           
determination to  suppress ,thuggee1    
nearly every village was tainted with   
the system  and no district was without 
its resident gangs of ,thugs1 or free   
from  their depredations4 ,the campaign 
once undertaken was prosecuted with     
extraordinary vigour1 and the pursuit   
organised was so keen that  very rapid  
progress was made in putting down this  
terrible scourge4  ,whole gangs were    
arrested1 one after the other2 the      
ringleaders were  quickly tried and     
executed1 or bought their lives at the  
price of  informing against and         
contributing to the capture of their    
fellows4  ,difficulties often arose in  
securing conviction4 ,fear kept         
witnesses  from testifying2 bankers were
 reluctant to acknowledge their losses2 
relations were loth to identify corpses2
 and the revelations made  by the       
approvers could not always be           
corroborated4 ,but the work of          

extermination never slackened1 and a few
 short years sufficed to  put down the  
seemingly hydra-headed evil4 ,it is     
possible that some  more distant and    
inaccessible regions escaped1 such as   
the ,concan or  ,malabar coast1 to which
 the gangs never penetrated2 and gangs  
were  not permanently located in such   
districts as ,khandeish and ,rohilcund2 
but they were visited by robbers from   
other neighbourhoods1 for a  gang       
generally avoided a district occupied by
 their own families and  friends4 ,and  
the tide of murder swept unsparingly    
year after year over  the whole face of 
,india from the ,himalayan mountains in 
the north1 to  the east1 west and south 
as far as the most remote limits of     
,madras4          ,,chapter ,,iii       
,,ceremonies ,,of ,,thuggee             
,murder a religious rite--,consulting   
the omens--,the sacred pickaxe      or  
8kussee0--,the 8goor0 or consecrated    
sugar--,certain castes      under the   
protection of the goddess ,bhowanee     

spared--,women seldom                   
killed--,belief of ,thugs that the      
neglect of omens and murder of          
women were the causes of arrest and     
downfall--,the apprenticeship of      a 
young member to the practices of        
,thuggee4      ,when and how ,thuggee   
began may not be definitely known1 but  
it is  certain that its votaries always 
attributed a divine origin to the       
practice4 ,they esteemed the wholesale  
taking of life to which they were  vowed
 a pious act1 performed under the       
immediate orders and protection  of the 
,hindu goddess1 indifferently called    
,devee or ,durga1 ,kali or  ,bhowanee4  
,murder was in fact a religious rite1   
the victim being a  sacrifice to the    
deity4 ,the strangler was troubled with 
no remorse2  on the contrary1 he gloried
 in his deed as the pious act of a      
devout  worshipper4 ,he prepared his    
murders without misgiving1 perpetrated  
them  without emotions of pity1 and     
looked back upon them with satisfaction1

  not regret4    ,the ,thugs gave free  
vent to some of the worst passions of   
perverse  humanity2 they were           
treacherous1 underhanded1 pitiless to   
those they  deemed their legitimate     
prey4 ,but yet they were seldom guilty  
of wanton  cruelty2 the pain they       
inflicted was only that caused by       
depriving  a human being of life4 ,it   
was a rule with them never to murder    
women1 and they generally spared infant 
children whom they adopted1  bringing   
them up in their traditions4 ,even if a 
woman was doomed to  suffer she was most
 scrupulously preserved from insult     
beforehand1  either by act or word4 ,in 
private life they were patterns of      
domestic  virtue1 affectionate to their 
own families1 fond of their homes2 well 
conducted1 law abiding subjects of the  
state that gave them shelter4    ,for   
two centuries at least ,thuggee         
flourished with rank luxuriance in      
,india1 a soil exactly suited to its    
growth1 fostered by the bigoted         

adherence to its tenets and a firm faith
 in the rewards vouchsafed to  close    
observance of its rites and ceremonies4 
,the ,thugs were noted  formalists in   
the performance of their dread business4
 ,when they went  out to kill1 they were
 governed by the strictest rules of     
procedure1  and steadfastly believed    
that the breach of any1 even the        
smallest1  would entail discomfiture and
 misfortune4 ,they gave the most        
unlimited  credence to superstitions1   
followed omens blindly and implicitly1  
and  undertook nothing without          
consulting their pundits1 or wise men   
versed  in precedent and traditionary   
lore4 ,no ,thug1 ,sleeman tells us1 who 
had been fully initiated in the         
mysteries1 doubted the inspiration  of  
the pickaxe 7the sacred emblem in the   
faith of ,thuggee71 when  consecrated in
 due form1 or doubted that the omens    
sought and observed  were all-sufficient
 to guide them to their prey or warn    
them from their  danger4 ,they were     

satisfied that only by the neglect of   
these and the  careless worship rendered
 to the goddess could the suppression of
  ,thuggee have become possible to the  
,british government4    ,the most       
portentous omen was that invited from   
the deity on the eve  of a new          
expedition for gang-robbery4 ,when about
 to be undertaken1 a  chief pundit was  
asked to name a day for departure and   
the road to  take4 ,on the day suggested
 the jemadar1 or leader of the party1   
would  start out holding in his right   
hand the lota1 a brass pot filled  with 
water suspended by a string from his    
mouth2 in his left hand he  carried the 
sacred pickaxe and a clean white        
handkerchief in which were  several     
coins4 ,he proceeded a short distance   
along the road named by  the pundit and 
then paused to pray to the 8great       
goddess and universal  mother0 to       
vouchsafe some signal that the proposed 
expedition met with  her approval4 ,the 
best possible omen was the braying of an

 ass and  if it was heard on the left1  
followed by a second bray on the right1 
it was believed that the expedition     
would be an entire and lasting  success 
even if continued for years4 ,the first1
 on the left1 is called  the pilhaoo2   
the second1 on the right1 the thibaoo4  
,the terms are  applied to the voices of
 any animals1 but by far the most       
effective is  deemed the braying of the 
ass1 whose voice is equal to any hundred
  birds and superior to that of any     
other animal4    ,the initial ceremony1 
after the omen1 proceeded by the        
leader's  seating himself on the ground 
with the lota before him4 ,he remained  
thus seated for seven hours while his   
followers brought him food and  made the
 necessary preparations for the journey4
 ,if the lota should  have fallen from  
his hand terrible disaster might be     
anticipated and  the jemadar would      
inevitably die during the year4 ,if any 
one was  heard weeping as they left the 
village1 great evil impended2 the same  

threatened if they met a corpse being   
carried out1 or if they met an  oil     
vendor1 a carpenter1 a potter1 a dancing
 master1 a blind or lame  man1 a fakir  
with a brown waist band or a jogi with  
long ragged  hair4 ,a corpse from any   
village but their own was a good omen4  
,the call  of a jackal1 of which there  
were three kinds1 threatened great evil1
  and if at work the gang instantly quit
 the country leaving any victims  marked
 down for slaughter untouched4 ,the call
 of the lizard was a good  omen1 that of
 a wolf or a hare crossing the path1    
bad1 entailing an  immediate halt and   
change of route4 ,if a dog was seen to  
shake his head  operations had to be    
suspended for three days4    ,in all    
,thug ceremonies the sacred pickaxe or  
kussee played a great  part4 ,it was    
treated with the utmost respect and was 
so holy that to  be sworn upon it meant 
an oath more binding than on ,ganges    
water1 and  perjury on the pickaxe would
 entail the death of the foresworn      

within  six days4 ,the superstition was 
that the perjurer would die horribly1   
with his head turned round1 his face    
toward his back1 and writhing in        
tortures till the end came4 ,the oath on
 the pickaxe was in use when the  ,thugs
 filled the gaols and it was made upon a
 piece of cloth fashioned  in the shape 
of the kussee4 ,a legend existed that   
the kussee was  the gift of the goddess 
herself when she had been greatly       
incensed  by the contravention of one of
 her laws4 ,at first the ,thugs did not 
trouble about the corpses of their      
victims but blindly left them for       
,kali's disposal4 ,one day a slave      
looked back and saw her throwing them   
in the air1 and in her rage the goddess 
condemned her votaries to  bury their   
bodies themselves1 digging the graves   
with the consecrated  pickaxe4 ,it was  
to be made by some blacksmith in the    
presence of the  jemadar4 ,the          
consecration follows a long ceremony1   
including many  washings in water1 sour 

milk and ardent spirits1 and the pickaxe
 is  first used to smash a cocoanut1 the
 kernel of which is eaten by the        
assembled worshippers4 ,the pickaxe was 
entrusted to the safe keeping of  the   
jemadar4    ,when on the road it was    
carried by the most sober and careful   
man of  the party4 ,in camp he buried it
 in a secure place with its point toward
  the intended route1 but they believed 
that when unearthed1 if another         
direction was better1 the point would be
 found supernaturally changed4  ,it was 
at one time the rule to throw the       
pickaxe down a well at the  nightly     
halt1 and many witnesses declared that  
it used to spring up  spontaneously from
 the water in the morning to come into  
the hand of  its carrier at his call4   
,several of the ,thug prisoners in      
,jubbulpore  gaol assured ,sir ,william 
,sleeman that this was absolute fact1   
and  went so far as to declare they had 
seen it happen4 ,the kussee was         
religiously worshipped every seventh    

day4    ,another important agent in the 
,thug religion was the goor or          
consecrated sugar4 ,it was an offering  
to ,bhowanee1 made as a sacrifice  of   
tupounee1 to celebrate the commission of
 any murder4 ,an exact  amount of coarse
 sugar was purchased to the worth of #a 
rupee1 #d  annas4 ,a clean place was    
selected and the sugar laid out on a    
sheet  or blanket1 on which were also   
put the sacred pickaxe and a piece  of  
silver coin4 ,the leader of the gang    
having taken his seat on the  blanket1  
surrounded by the most notable          
stranglers1 with the rest  outside1 made
 a small hole in the ground for the goor
 and then  dedicated it saying1 8,great 
goddess1 who vouchsafed #a lac and      
#fb1jjj  rupees to ,toora ,naig and     
,koduk ,bunwaree in their need1 so we   
pray  thee fulfil our desires40 7,toorah
 ,naig was a celebrated jemadar  who1   
single-handed1 with his servant1 ,koduk 
,bunwaree1 killed a man  possessed of   
plunder1 and bringing it home1 divided  

it honestly among  their assembled      
comrades as though they had all been    
present at the  murder47 ,the ,thugs    
fervently repeated the prayer and the   
goor was  distributed1 first to those on
 the blanket1 who ate in solemn silence1
  and when they had finished1 it was    
given to the rest who were entitled  by 
their rank to receive it4 ,no one but a 
man who had strangled his  victim was   
suffered to partake of the goor1 which  
had a miraculous  effect2 and the ,thugs
 were persuaded that if any human being 
tasted it  he would take forthwith to   
the trade4 ,the ,thug chief ,feringhea  
told  ,sir ,william ,sleeman that the   
goor completely changed a man's nature1 
adding1--8,it would change the nature of
 a horse4 ,let anyone taste it  and he  
will be a ,thug1 though he know all the 
trades and have all the  wealth in the  
world4 ,for my own part ,i was well to  
do2 my relations  were rich and ,i held 
high office myself in which ,i was sure 
of  promotion4 ,yet ,i was always       

miserable when absent from my gang4     
,while  ,i was still a mere boy1 my     
father made me taste that fatal sugar1  
and  if ,i were to live a thousand years
 ,i should never be able to follow any  
other trade40    ,there was a hierarchy 
in the caste of ,thuggee4 ,the first    
grade was  the kuboola1 or 8tyro10 who  
after initiation was first employed as  
scout1 then as grave-digger1 lughae2    
next in rank was the shumseea1  whose   
duty it was to hold the hands and feet  
of the victim when being  strangled by  
the bhurtote1 who is of the highest     
grade in the  organisation4 ,the        
initiation was made early2 a ,thug      
parent apprenticed  his son at thirteen 
or fourteen years4 ,the candidate having
 bathed and  dressed in new clothes1    
which had never been bleached1 was led  
by his  guru1 or spiritual director1    
into a room where the leaders of the    
band were assembled seated on a white   
cloth2 the sacred pickaxe was  placed in
 his right hand1 and raising his left on

 high1 he repeated  a fearful oath      
dictated to him and sworn on the ,koran1
 after which  he ate a small piece of   
the consecrated goor4 ,he pledged       
himself  to be faithful1 brave and      
secret1 to pursue to destruction every  
human being whom chance or his own      
ingenuity threw into his power4  ,only  
he was forbidden to kill the members of 
certain castes1 such as  sweepers1      
oil-vendors1 blacksmiths1 carpenters1   
professional musicians1  any maimed or  
leprous persons1 the carriers of ,ganges
 water or any  man travelling           
accompanied by a cow4 ,as a general rule
 women were  spared1 and many cases are 
quoted of the misfortunes that overtook 
those who disregarded this regulation4  
,feringhea stated that his gang  after  
killing many women had no luck1 and his 
family fell into great  misfortune4     
,sometimes when they encountered a rich 
old woman1 she was  sacrificed1 and even
 youth and beauty did not always escape2
 but the  consequences were always the  

same4 ,after the murder of the woman    
,kalee  ,bebee1 who was travelling with 
a gold chudur for a sacred tomb1 the    
perpetrators were severely punished by  
fate4 ,one got worms in his body  and   
died barking like a dog2 others died    
miserably in gaol or after  crossing the
 black water 7transportation to         
,penang74 ,the families  concerned      
became extinct4 ,thugs who had slain    
women admitted that they  deserved the  
worst evils that could befall them4     
,the crime of killing women was         
sometimes aggravated by the murder of   
their children4 ,in the case of the     
murder of ,bunda ,alee1 ,moonshee of    
,general ,doveton commanding at ,jhalna1
 his wife and daughters were  strangled4
 ,one of the ,thugs would have adopted  
the infant child and was  carrying it   
off1 when a comrade pressed him to kill 
it also lest they  should be detected on
 crossing the ,nurbudda4 ,whereupon the 
miscreant  threw the living child on the
 heap of dead bodies in the open grave1 

and the child was buried alive4    ,the 
apprenticeship to murder was gradual4   
,the young members saw and  heard       
nothing of the first affair after their 
initiation2 they were  ignorant of the  
exact business1 but grew to like the    
life as they were  mounted on ponies and
 received presents purchased out of     
their share of  the booty4 ,on the      
second expedition they began to suspect 
that murder  was committed1 and on the  
third they witnessed the actual deed4   
,they  accepted the horrible situation1 
and were seldom much shocked4 ,but  in  
one case told by ,feringhea1 a lad of   
fourteen1 out for the first  time and   
mounted on a pony1 was committed to the 
charge of a young  comrade1 who was to  
keep him in the rear out of sight and   
hearing of  the affair when the signal  
was given4 ,unfortunately1 the boy broke
  away and galloped up in time to       
witness the scene2 he heard the screams 
and saw them all strangled4 ,he fell off
 his pony and became delirious1         

screaming and trembling violently if    
anyone touched him or spoke  to him4    
,they sat by him when the gang went on  
and vainly attempted  to pacify him1 but
 he never recovered his senses and died 
the same  night4 ,a somewhat similar    
case is told by ,sleeman of an affair   
near  ,shikarpore1 where the place      
selected for the murder was in an       
extensive  jungle by the river side1 and
 a party of travellers were strangled1  
all but two young boys who were to be   
saved for adoption4 ,one of them1  when 
the bodies were being thrown into a     
ditch covered with earth and  bushes1   
began to scream violently1 and the ,thug
 who had intended to  adopt him1 finding
 it impossible to pacify him1 seized him
 by the legs  and dashed his brains out 
against a stone4 ,the dead boy was left 
where  he lay and his body was found by 
a fisherman1 who gave the alarm which   
led to the pursuit and arrest of the    
,thugs4    ,colonel ,meadows-,taylor in 
his 8,confessions of a ,thug0           

graphically  pictures the sufferings of 
his hero after the first affair he      
witnessed4 8,do what ,i would10 the     
,thug confesses1 8the murdered father   
and son appeared before me2 the old     
man's voice rung in my ears1 and  the   
son's large eyes seemed to be fixed on  
mine4 ,i felt as though a  thousand     
skitans 7devils7 sat on my breast1 and  
sleep would not come  to my eyes4 ,it   
appeared so cold-blooded1 so unprovoked 
a deed1 that ,i  could not reconcile    
myself in any way to having become even 
a silent  spectator of it40 ,next day   
his father reasoned with him1 making him
 eat  the goor1 and explaining that     
having put his hand to the work he must 
not turn back4 ,as soon as the kuboola  
has got over the first feelings  of     
disgust and his courage is equal to the 
blood-thirsty business1 he  becomes the 
disciple of some renowned and           
experienced member of the  gang1 and    
instruction is given in strangling4 ,he 
is entrusted with  the handkerchief1    

roomal1 and taught how to make the knot 
with a  piece of silver inserted4 ,when 
he has fully learned the process1 one   
of the travellers at the next affair is 
entrusted to him1 and with a  shumseea  
at hand to assist1 he regularly         
graduates as a bhurtote  and is eligible
 to become a leader of a gang of his    
own4    ,the stern resolve of the       
,british government to suppress         
,thuggee1 and  the energetic assistance 
of the agents employed were no doubt the
 true  cause of its being stamped out4  
,the neglect of omens1 the signs sent by
  ,bhowanee to warn her votaries of     
threatened dangers1 and the murder of   
women and persons of the protected      
castes1 brought down upon the ,thugs1   
in their own opinion1 their deserved    
retribution4 ,one leader of a gang  was 
arrested with seventeen others because1 
as they said1 he persisted  in his      
purpose when a screaming hare had       
crossed his path4 ,they pleaded  that an
 omen was an order1 and disobedience    

brought its own punishment4  ,we may    
accept such explanations for what they  
are worth1 and may  assign to a more    
reasonable cause the activity in the    
years between  #ahbf and #ahdj1 when no 
less than #c1fhi ,thugs were arrested   
and tried4  ,of these a large number    
were hanged1 transported or imprisoned  
for  life4 ,a few were acquitted or died
 before sentence2 a certain number      
became approvers or informers1 and no   
doubt a fatal blow was struck at  these 
horrid crimes which had been so long    
fostered and supported by  nearly all   
classes in the community2 landowners1   
native officers of the  courts1 police  
and village authorities4                
,,chapter ,,iv    ,,dacoity             
,commission appointed in #ahcg to       
consider means for the suppression      
of ,dacoity--,story of a daring attack  
upon government--,disguises      assumed
 by ,dacoits--,the ,brinjaras--,the     
8,byragee0 or religious                 
devotee--,professional poisoners and    

highway robbers--,the      datura--,its 
action and employment--,hereditary      
descendants      of ,thugs--,predatory  
tribes of criminal instinct--,some noted
      ,dacoits--,female leaders--,theft 
of government treasure in a ,british    
garrison--,a ,dacoit's revenge4      ,it
 has been asserted that although        
,thuggee has been ostensibly stamped    
out in ,india1 road murders are still   
committed in considerable numbers  by   
the agency of poison administered to    
travellers1 and that this is  the work  
of ,bhowanee's votaries carrying on the 
old business1 still  impelled by their  
horrible religion4 ,this impression is  
believed to be  erroneous4 ,there is no 
evidence that the gang-robbers who      
undoubtedly  use poison such as opium1  
arsenic1 datura and other drugs to      
stupefy  or kill their victims1 belong  
to the fell organisation so long a      
scourge in ,indian society2 or that the 
worship of ,bhowanee1 observed  with    
such murderous rites1 still exists in   

,india4 ,nevertheless1 the              
administration of poison by professional
 robbers1 who infested the  main roads  
and lurked in the vicinity of large     
towns1 was largely  and for the most    
part mysteriously practised until a     
comparatively  recent date1 if it is not
 indeed still prevalent4 ,it was one of 
the  forms of ,dacoity1 a crime akin to 
,thuggee1 but without its religious     
pretensions1 and ever one of the most   
serious evils combated by the  ,british 
government4 ,this widespread plague     
throve and prospered by  reason of the  
fierceness and audacity of certain      
classes and the  timidity and           
submissiveness characteristic of others4
 8,in ,bengal  proper10 says ,sir       
,richard ,temple1 8it was a crime with  
an extensive  organisation1 having      
professional ringleaders followed by    
gangs of  enrolled men40 ,it was        
repressed and to a great extent broken  
up by  the strong administrative        
machinery of the ,british government1   

but  the crime still crops up in a      
milder form and is 8one of the earliest 
symptoms of impending scarcity1         
political excitement or any social      
trouble40    ,we may pause to examine   
some of the earlier records of ,dacoity4
 ,a  commission to consider its         
suppression was instituted in ,india in 
the  year #ahcg4 ,hitherto but little   
had been ascertained of the character   
or methods employed by this class of    
criminal4 ,although ,dacoities were     
every day committed and reported by the 
magistrates1 it was thought  that these 
gangs resided for the most part between 
the ,ganges and  ,jumna rivers and in   
the kingdom of ,oude1 but information   
regarding  their habits and location was
 vague and uncertain4 ,everyone talked  
of  ,budhuk ,dacoits and their daring   
robberies1 but no one knew who or what  
they were1 whence they came or how their
 system was organised4 ,in the  course  
of this inquiry1 the magistrate of the  
,gorruckpore district1  which borders on

 the kingdom of ,oude1 informed the     
government that the  ,dacoits were not  
inhabitants of any part of the ,british 
territories  but organised banditti from
 ,oude1 and that to deal effectively    
with  this crime was altogether beyond  
the power of the magistrates of the     
district and the local police4 ,he      
instanced in proof of the strength  and 
daring of the ,dacoits the details of an
 attack made upon a party  of government
 treasure-bearers in #ahbb4 ,this story 
was related long  afterward to an       
,english official by one of the ,dacoits
 concerned in the  affair and is given  
in his own words as follows3    8,about 
eighteen years ago ,lutee ,jemadar sent 
a messenger to me to say  that he should
 like to join me in an expedition1 and  
,i went to him with  ,jugdeum and ,toke 
to settle preliminaries4 ,the first day 
was spent in  feasting and nothing was  
settled about business4 ,on the         
following day  he told me that          
remittances of government treasure went 

every month  from ,peprole to           
,gorruckpore1 and if we were prudent we 
might get some  of it4 ,it had1 however1
 become known that an escort of troopers
 and  foot-soldiers always accompanied  
these remittances and unless the  attack
 was in the nature of a surprise some   
casualties were likely to  occur4 ,after
 exploring the ground1 it was seen that 
the way passed  through an extensive    
jungle1 so thick that horsemen could not
 safely  leave the high road40 ,a point 
in this jungle was selected for the     
attack and to facilitate it strong ropes
 were fastened across the  road ahead1  
while other ropes were in readiness to  
block it behind  so soon as treasure and
 escort had passed through4 ,a gang of  
forty  was collected for the robbery1   
ten matchlock-men1 ten swordsmen and    
twenty-five spearmen1 who proceeded to  
lie in ambush awaiting news of  the     
approach of their prey4 ,on the third   
morning it was near at hand1  the ropes 
ahead were fixed and a number of men    

posted1 armed with  matchlocks loaded   
with shot1 as the ,dacoits did not      
desire to take  life4 ,as soon as the   
trap was laid and the time of retreat   
intercepted1  fire was opened from all  
sides4 ,the escort was thrown into      
confusion1  the foot soldiers sought    
refuge in the bush1 the horsemen tried  
to  escape by jumping over the ropes1   
while the thieves broke in upon the     
treasure and took possession of some    
#ab1jjj rupees4    ,daring attacks of   
this kind by gangs drawn from this great
 family  of professional and hereditary 
robbers were frequent in all parts  of  
,india4 ,no district between the        
,berhampootra1 the ,nurbudda1 the       
,sutlej and the ,himalayas was free from
 them1 and no merchant or  manufacturer 
could feel himself secure for a single  
night from  the depredations of ,budhuk 
,dacoits4 ,in #ahbb1 in the district of 
,nursingpoor in the ,nurbudda valley1 in
 the dusk of evening1 a party  of about 
thirty persons1 apparently armed with   

nothing but walking  sticks in their    
hands1 passed the picket of ,sepahees1  
who stood with  a native commissioned   
officer on the bank of a rivulet        
separating  the cantonments from the    
town of ,nursingpoor4 ,on being         
challenged  by the sentries1 they said  
they were cowherds who had been out with
  their cattle which were following     
close behind4 ,they walked up the       
street1 and having arrived in front of  
the houses of the most wealthy          
merchants1 they set their torches in a  
blaze by a sudden blow upon the  pots   
containing combustibles2 everybody who  
ventured to move or to make  the        
slightest noise was stabbed2 the houses 
were plundered1 and in ten  minutes more
 the assailants fled with their booty1  
leaving about twelve  persons dead and  
wounded on the ground4 ,a magistrate    
close at hand  despatched large parties 
of foot and horse police in all         
directions1  but no one was seized nor  
was it discovered whence the gang had   

come1  or any particulars as to their   
identities4 ,this occurred in the month 
of ,february1 when marriage processions 
take place every day in all  large      
towns2 the nights are long1 and much    
money is circulated in the  purchase of 
cotton in all cotton districts like that
 of ,nursingpoor4  ,there was a large   
police guard within twenty paces of the 
,dacoity on  one side1 and this picket  
of ,sepahees within a hundred paces on  
the  other4 ,both saw the blaze of the  
torches and heard the noise1 but both   
mistook it for a marriage procession1   
and the first intimation given  of the  
real character of the party was by a    
little boy1 who had crept  along a ditch
 unobserved by the ,dacoits1 and half   
dead with fright1  whispered to the     
officer commanding them that they were  
robbers and had  killed his father4     
,before the officer could get his men   
ready1 all were  gone and nothing more  
was heard of them until twenty years    
later1 when  the perpetrators of the    

attack were detected and brought to     
justice4    ,the ,dacoits sometimes     
assumed disguises to hide the real      
nature of  their business4 ,in #ahah a  
notorious leader named ,maheran with a  
gang  of fifty ,budhuks1 set out from   
,khyradee in the ,oude ,terai under the 
disguise of bird catchers4 ,they had    
with them falcons1 hawks of all  kinds1 
well-trained1 also mynas1 parrots and   
other varieties of  speaking and mocking
 birds4 ,at ,bareilly1 in ,oude1 they   
were joined  by another small gang1 and 
all proceeded in pursuit of some        
treasure  on its way from ,benares      
westward1 carried by ponies under charge
 of  twenty-four burkundazes1 8native   
watchmen10 and policemen4 ,they         
determined to attack the treasure party 
at their halting place between          
,allahabad and ,cawnpore4 ,a boat had   
been purchased to keep along the  bank  
of the river1 ready to help the party   
across after the attack1  and by this   
the women and children were all landed  

on the ,oude side  of the river opposite
 the ,serai4 ,maheran with two or three 
selected  men in disguise remained with 
the treasure until they saw it safely   
lodged for the night1 when he returned  
to his gang to make arrangements  for   
the attack4 ,ladders1 torches and       
handles for the spear-heads and  axes   
had been provided in the usual way1 and 
two hours after dark they  scaled the   
wall of the ,serai4 ,meanwhile          
confederates within broke open  the gate
 from the inside and stood over it to   
prevent interruption1  while the rest   
attacked the escort and secured the     
treasure4 ,they  killed six persons of  
the guards1 wounded seventeen and       
secured #gj1jjj  rupees4    ,maheran was
 captured in a later expedition and     
hanged1 but his widow  ,moneea took his 
place as leader of the gang and shortly 
afterward  fitted out another expedition
 to ,junnukpoor in the ,nepal territory 
several hundred miles to the east of    
their bivouac1 to intercept  some       

treasure on its way to the capital1     
,khatmandu4 ,this expedition  consisted 
of eighty chosen men and seven women4   
,after taking the  auspices they set out
 in small parties toward the appointed  
place  of rendezvous4 ,on the way1 one  
of the parties1 under a leader named    
,johuree1 fell in with fifteen bullocks 
laden with treasure under the  charge of
 eighty ,gorkhas4 ,the ,dacoits1 being  
in disguise1 managed  to join the escort
 without exciting suspicion and         
ascertained that  they were carrying a  
treasure to the value of #fd1jjj rupees 
from the  collector's treasury in the   
plain to the capital4 ,johuree ordered  
two  of his men to continue with the    
escort and went on himself with the     
rest to join the other leaders at the   
appointed place and to consult  with    
them4 ,he found that only a part of the 
gang had arrived and these  thought it  
wiser to postpone an attack until the   
rest came up1 saying1  8,if we succeed  
in taking the treasure1 many of our     

friends must be  seized on suspicion and
 beaten into confessions that may lead  
to the  ruin of all1 whereas if we      
forbear this time we shall be all       
collected  before the next monthly      
remittance goes up1 and we may secure it
 with  little hazard to our friends or  
to ourselves40    ,johuree urged that   
one bird in the hand was worth two in   
the bush  and at length prevailed upon  
the others to accept his counsel4 ,they 
mustered fifty men and prepared to      
follow the treasure4 ,the two scouts    
continued with the treasure escort in   
the disguise of pilgrims1 and  when they
 had seen it safely lodged at a spot    
under the first range of  hills and had 
carefully reconnoitred the position1 one
 of them hastened  to ,johuree with his 
report4 ,all now set out and reached the
 village  of ,bughalee in the evening4  
,from this place ,johuree went forward  
to  reconnoitre and found the treasure  
lodged in a fortified place with a  wall
 and ditch all around it4 ,a party of   

four or five hundred traders  who       
carried goods from the plains to the    
hills were encamped on the  edge of the 
ditch4 ,after carefully surveying the   
position1 ,johuree  returned to his     
friends and ordered that a couple of    
stout ladders  twenty feet long should  
be made out of wood cut in the forest4  
,advancing in silence1 they placed these
 ladders and got over the ditch  and    
wall close to where the treasure lay4   
,it was about midnight1 with  a good    
moon and clear sky1 but still they      
thought it necessary to  light their    
torches1 and under the blaze they       
commenced the attack4  ,the escort was  
taken by surprise and made but a feeble 
resistance4 ,the  gang took the whole   
amount of #fd1jjj rupees and effected   
their retreat  without losing a man4 ,on
 reaching a retired spot two or three   
miles  from the scene of action1 they   
divided the spoil1 but every man had    
too much to admit of rapid travelling1  
so #ag1jjj rupees were buried at  this  

place1 and with the remaining #dg1jjj   
rupees the party moved on  through the  
forest4 ,as soon as news of the loss of 
the treasure reached  the ,nepal        
cantonments at ,jalesar1 whence it had  
been despatched1 every  suspicious      
person that could be found was seized4  
,two regiments then  stationed at       
,jalesar were despatched through the    
forest to the westward  to intercept the
 robbers1 and fell in with some of      
,johuree's party1  from whom they       
recovered a portion of the treasure1    
while ,johuree got  safely home with the
 rest4    ,the precision with which     
veterans remembered and described       
,dacoities  at which they had assisted  
during their lives was often wonderful4 
,one  of the leaders of the ,oude ,terai
 gangs named ,lucke1 when arrested1     
described forty-nine ,dacoities at which
 he had been present during  his career 
of twenty-five years4 ,the local        
authorities to whom his  narratives were
 sent endorsed his account of forty-one 

as having been  perpetrated precisely as
 he described them1 though many of them 
had  taken place near ,calcutta1 some   
four or five hundred miles from the     
bivouac in ,oude forest from which the  
gang had set out4    ,reference has been
 made to the disguises assumed by the   
,dacoits4 ,the  most suitable to the    
locality in which they were about to    
work were  as a rule selected4 ,thus1   
north of the ,jumna they became carriers
 of  ,ganges1 or holy water1 because men
 of that class were continually to  be  
met with on those roads4 ,south of the  
,jumna they pretended to be  pilgrims   
journeying to some sacred shrine1 or    
relatives sadly conveying  the bones of 
the departed to the banks of the        
,ganges1 or the friends  of a bridegroom
 sent to fetch and bring home his bride4
 ,the rle of  funeral mourners was very 
popular because out of respect for their
  sorrowful business they were treated  
with much deference and subjected  to no
 inconvenient inquiries as to whence    

they came or whither they  were going4  
,the bones they carried were commonly   
those of inferior  animals1 wild or     
domestic2 they were kept in bags1--red  
for male  bones1 white for female1--and 
at their halting places these bags were 
suspended from the apex of a triangle   
formed by three stout poles1 to  be used
 later as the handles for the           
spear-heads concealed in their          
waistbands4 ,another favourite disguise 
was that of the ,brinjaras1 the         
traditional carriers of grain and salt1 
who travel long distances  conveying the
 grain to the sea coast and returning   
with the salt4 ,these  ,brinjaras were a
 peculiar and distinct race1 who were   
much employed by  the ,duke of          
,wellington 7when ,sir ,arthur          
,wellesley7 as food-carriers  in his    
,indian campaigns4 ,their appearance was
 distinctive and their  costume         
peculiar2 of intelligent countenance and
 strongly knit1 wiry  frames1 they      
dressed--the women especially--in       

fantastic parti-coloured  clothes2 the  
women's arms were completely encased    
from shoulder to  wrist in bracelets of 
bone or ivory2 they wore coins round    
their  necks and curiously interwoven in
 their hair1 which gave a strange1      
flighty1 wild air to their always       
expressive and sometimes good-looking   
faces4 ,the ,brinjaras strictly adhered 
to certain customs2 they did not        
intermarry1 and lived in no fixed abode1
 although they halted often  in the same
 encampment for some time2 they observed
 the stars and  scrupulously followed   
omens2 they spoke the languages of most 
of the  places they visited1 but had a  
peculiar dialect of their own4 ,they had
  no defined religion4    ,a good       
account of the ,brinjaras is given by   
,reginald ,heber1 ,bishop of  ,calcutta1
 in his 8,indian ,travels40 8,we passed 
a large encampment of  #8,brinjaras1'0  
he writes1 8or carriers of grain1 a     
singular wandering  race1 who pass their
 whole time in transporting this article

 from  one part of the country to       
another1 seldom on their own account1   
but  as agents for more wealthy dealers4
 ,they move about in large bodies  with 
their wives1 children1 dogs and loaded  
bullocks4 ,the men are all  armed as a  
protection against petty thieves4 ,from 
the sovereigns and  armies of ,hindustan
 they have no apprehensions4 ,even      
contending armies  allow them to pass   
and repass safely1 never taking their   
goods without  purchase1 nor even       
preventing them1 if they choose1 from   
victualling  their enemy's camp4 ,both  
sides wisely agree to respect and       
encourage a  branch of industry1 the    
interruption of which might be attended 
with  fatal consequences to both40      
,the ,brinjaras' disguise not only      
served as a convenient cloak for  the   
,dacoits1 but they sometimes followed   
the nefarious business on  their own    
account4 ,the larger number no doubt    
were fairly honest and  industrious     
people1 but some succumbed to the       

temptation of their  roving life and the
 facilities offered for criminal acts in
 their  extensive wanderings1 taking to 
,dacoity and to the kidnapping of       
children1 a profitable business1        
especially of female children for  whom 
there was a ready sale4 ,general        
,charles ,hervey1 the famous ,indian    
police officer1 had but a poor opinion  
of the ,brinjaras1 whom he called       
formidable robbers4 ,his account of them
 is1 however1 interesting as            
supplementing ,bishop ,heber's4 ,he came
 across them in large numbers  at the   
,sambhur ,salt ,lake not far from       
,jeypore1 which they visited  from the  
most distant regions1 with immense      
droves of pack bullocks1  bringing grain
 and taking away salt4 ,he says3 8,their
 animals may be  seen tethered in       
hundreds on the wide shores of the      
extensive lake1  each tanda or company  
of their sort being camped under a      
distinct  ,naik1 or headman1 in the     
centre of the drove appertaining to it1 

with  their bullock packs or panniers   
neatly collected in piles of hundreds   
in their midst4 ,in the daytime1 when   
halted1 their cattle are taken  out to  
pasture wherever pasture may be         
obtained1 tended by the fewest  men1    
often mere lads1 and not infrequently by
 girls2 at evening they  are driven     
home1 when a piece of oil-cake is given 
to each animal1  called by name1 and it 
is curious to watch the process1 how    
well each  animal knows its name and    
waits expectantly for its turn to be    
called4  ,at night the bullocks are     
tethered by means of a rope passed round
  their front feet and entwined with    
another rope fixed to the ground  with  
strong stakes4 ,they are picketed in    
this manner with their heads  turned    
inwards1 in a circle round the resting  
place of their owners in  their midst1  
and fires are kept burning throughout   
the night to scare  away tigers or other
 beasts of prey4 ,i have come upon the  
encampments  of these roving people1 in 

the wildest jungles1 or threading their 
way with their long straggling lines of 
laden cattle through the most  intricate
 ground1 whether of rock1 forest1       
sand-hills1 or marsh1 and  have been    
quite fascinated by the strangeness of  
their manner and their  quaint wild     
ways40    ,another successful disguise  
made use of by the ,dacoits in ,central 
,india was that of the garb and         
appearance of ,alkuramies1 a peculiar   
class of pilgrims who travelled in small
 parties accompanying a high  priest1   
who was represented as the leader of the
 gang4 8,they had four  or five tents1  
some of white and some of dyed cloth1   
and two or three  pairs of nakaras1 or  
#8kettle drums1' and trumpets1 with a   
great  number of buffaloes1 cows1 goats1
 sheep and ponies4 ,some were clothed1  
but the bodies of the greater part were 
covered with nothing but shoes  and a   
small cloth waistband4 ,those who had   
long hair went bareheaded  and those who
 had nothing but short hair wore a piece

 of cloth round  the head40 ,the        
pretended ,alkuramies always took the   
precaution of  hiring the services of   
half a dozen genuine ,byragees or       
ascetics1 whom  they put forward in     
difficult emergencies4    ,they are     
strange people1 these ,byragees1 or     
religious devotees1 whether  pretended  
or real4 ,there are many classes of them
 with various names3  ,jogis1 ,sunyasis1
 ,byragis1 ,aghunhotas1 and mostly all  
incorrigible  rogues4 ,when travelling  
in bands they are stalwart naked        
fellows1  strong-limbed and sturdy1     
unpleasant to meet abroad despite their 
sham  sanctity4 ,their solicitation of  
alms is more like a threat as they      
offer their begging bowls1 peremptorily 
demanding contributions4 ,they  do not  
whine or fawn like ordinary beggars1 but
 lift their voices in  execration when  
their appeals are not readily met and   
with their naked  slate-coloured bodies 
raised to their full height1 they cast  
dust into  the air to emphasise their   

maledictions4 ,whether by alms or       
thefts1 the  mendicant leads an easy1   
lazy life1 his needs are well cared for 
by the  charitable who firmly believe   
they 8acquire merit0 by ministering to  
them4    ,general ,charles ,hervey has  
given a graphic account of a ,byragee he
  came across at ,thunjna on the edge of
 ,rajputana1 whose lair or mhut  was on 
one of the hills above the town4 ,it was
 8erected nearly at  the very top of it 
among several overhanging rocks1 and    
reached only  by a long parapeted       
causeway1 all substantially constructed 
of solid  masonry1 but not yet          
completed4 ,the ascetic in possession   
was in the  usual nude condition1 four  
square inches of rag forming his entire 
personal apparel4 ,his body was covered 
with ashes1 his head folded  round and  
round with his own braided hair like a  
tall tiara1 and  his face and forehead  
plastered with white symbolic daubs4    
,sleek he  was1 and in good condition   
withal--not at all a starving mendicant1

  whatever his penances2 and he had a   
fat pony too1 in a well-littered  shed  
close by his own comfortable den1 to get
 up to and scramble into  which must    
cause the good little beast some        
trouble4 ,i asked the man  why thus     
disfigure himself8 ,i was rebuked for   
the impertinence by no  reply1 as1      
silently beholding me1 he squatted on   
his upraised hams  on the stone-built   
terrace of the lofty spot4444 ,he had1  
like most  of his kind throughout       
,india1 wandered to many distant regions
 and  sacred spots1 famed from olden    
times as places to be visited1 whatever 
the difficulties of the pilgrimage4444  
,he had1 indeed1 been a mighty          
traveller and persistent pilgrim1 this  
nude1 besmeared gymnosophist1  of small 
wants and great energy1 and the naked   
hermit became quite  attractive1 rapt as
 he was1 however unclothed and          
unbeauteous1 as he  narrated his        
#8painful marchings' and the wondrous   
sights he had beheld  and bowed down to4

    8,other equally devoted and fanatic 
individuals1 leading1 like this man1    
eremitical lives in caves and hovels in 
wild and unfrequented spots and         
inaccessible places on crags or rocky   
eminences by side of river or  sea1 or  
on temple-topped hill or difficult      
mountain peak1 held sacred  as the abode
 of their ,devi and not to be profaned1 
may be met with1  444 but few so        
observant or so communicative and       
friendly4444 ,many  are their devices of
 evil-doing when abroad2 and here ,i    
confine the  remark to those who are not
 what they seem to be4 ,thugs1 poisoners
 and  kidnappers are to be found among  
,jogis4 ,when visiting ,dwarka many     
years  ago1 ,i was loudly cursed by a   
,byragee for not readily enough yielding
  to his demand for alms1 and as ,i put 
off from the shore1 to give  point to   
his execrations1 the angered fellow1    
stark and gray1 seemed  a very blue     
devil1 as1 standing to his full height  
and with both arms  stretched upwards1  

he flung dust into the air while        
uttering his direst  maledictions40     
,professional poisoning in carrying out 
highway robbery was at one time  spread 
over every portion of the province of   
,bengal1 and there is no  doubt it was  
equally prevalent in ,bombay and        
,madras4 ,murders were  constantly      
committed along the road upon unwary    
travellers who rashly  joined company   
with strangers deliberately purposing to
 kill and rob  them2 and numbers of     
thefts were also perpetrated by the     
administration  of drugs to render their
 victims insensible and at their mercy4 
,the crime was greatly aided by the     
facility with which poison in some  form
 or other could be obtained4 ,many      
shopkeepers traded in poisons1  selling 
these goods openly and with the most    
reckless indifference4  ,even when the  
law laid restrictions on the sale of    
poisons1 the evilly  disposed could     
provide himself from the roots of trees 
in the jungle1  garden or wayside1 or   

they might be bought from the numerous  
travelling  quacks1 and the local hakims
 or 8native doctors0 were often not     
unwilling to supply the noxious drugs4  
,moreover1 in almost every  village some
 hag of evil repute1 half-witch1        
half-midwife1 given to  criminal        
practices and commonly believed to be a 
professional poisoner1  did a systematic
 business in supplying drugs4 ,upon one 
old woman1 who  was arrested near       
,sasseram in #ahce1 were found letters  
and credentials  from numerous members  
of the poisoning community at large who 
dealt  with her4    ,the drug most      
commonly used by the road poisoners is  
produced from  the datura plant1        
stramonium1 both the purple flowered and
 the white  flowered1 and is prepared   
from the seeds or the leaves4 ,its      
noxious  effects were well known to the 
ancients4 ,in 8,purchas3 ,his           
,pilgrimage10  that most famous series  
of seventeenth century travels1 we read1
 8,they  have 7in ,india7 an ,herbe     

called ,durroa which causeth distraction
  without understanding anything done in
 a man's presence2 sometimes  it maketh 
a man sleepe as if hee was dead for the 
space of four and  twenty hours and in  
much quantity it killeth40 ,it is       
referred to in  ,burton's 8,anatomy of  
,melancholy40 ,garcias ab ,horto makes  
mention of  8an herbe called daturah1   
which if it be eaten1 for twenty-four   
hours  following takes away all sense of
 grief1 makes them incline to laughter  
and mirth40 ,as an instrument in        
facilitating theft and other criminal   
designs its properties were widely      
recognised4 ,in ,bengal it was usually  
given as an ingredient of sweetmeats1 or
 mixed with bread or coffee1  sherbet1  
milk1 tari1 8native spirits10 or        
introduced into tobacco4  ,it was relied
 upon to stupefy2 not necessarily to    
kill1 but to produce  intoxication or   
delirium1 or profound lethargy          
resembling coma1 with  dilated pupils   
but natural respiration4 ,even when life

 is not seriously  endangered1 the      
effects of the poison upon the person   
are such that  they seldom recover their
 bodily vigour4 ,one was still a cripple
 after  a dose taken seven years before2
 another continued unable to articulate 
and was like a man stricken with        
paralysis4 ,memory is long impaired  and
 often never recovered2 idiocy sometimes
 supervenes4 ,the detection  of the     
crime is thus prevented4 ,if death      
occurs1 it may be attributed  to        
disease1 suicide or wild beasts2 if the 
patient survives1 he has no  clear idea 
what has happened to him4    ,the action
 of datura is generally an indication   
that it has been  administered4 ,it is  
not only a powerful narcotic1 but there 
are quite  unmistakably characteristic  
symptoms4 ,the patient1 if not incapable
  of movement1 will perform the most    
fantastic antics1 will exhibit  great   
excitement1 ramble in his talk1 fly into
 a violent rage when  questioned4 ,as it
 takes effect1 the sufferer grows very  

thirsty1 and  dry in the throat4 ,there 
are three stages or sets of symptoms    
observed3  ,first1 headache1 dryness of 
the mucous membrane1 difficulty in      
walking1  languor1 impairment of vision1
 with the pupils greatly dilated2       
second1  maniacal delirium1 flushed     
face1 eyes glistening1 violent          
perspiration  from incessant motion2    
third1 insensibility1 coma and possibly 
collapse  with fatal results4 ,in the   
last condition the sufferer becomes     
giddy1  staggers1 falls and dies4       
,some of the cases of poisoning by      
datura may be quoted here to show the   
boldness with which it was practised4   
,one crime was committed in a ,jain     
temple near ,bhagalpur in ,bengal1 where
 the victims were the priest and  two of
 his attendants4 ,the latter were found 
one morning in a state of  mad          
intoxication1 reeling about the ground1 
and the priest was missing1  but his    
body was picked up three days afterward 
in a dry well4 ,it was  the work of a   

gang of professional poisoners who had  
visited the temple  ostensibly to make  
an offering to the god but in reality to
 murder the  priest4 ,one of them bought
 sweetmeats which were doctored with    
powdered  datura-seed1 and handed them  
over to the priest for presentation4    
,according to custom1 he ate some of the
 sweetmeats1 giving a part also  to the 
two temple attendants4 ,the poisoners   
waited till the drug had  taken effect  
and then attacked the priest who was    
lying unconscious  near the shrine2 one 
of them throttled him2 a second sat     
heavily upon  his chest2 a third held   
his hands1 and a fourth trampled him    
underfoot4  ,the helpless victim soon   
died in convulsions4 ,the next act was  
to rifle  the secret treasury kept in an
 inner chamber1 and the plunder was     
stowed in sacks and carried away in a   
cart4 ,in the end by the aid of         
8approvers0 seven of the robbers were   
arrested4 ,three were sentenced to      
death1 and the others to transportation 

for life to the ,andaman ,islands4      
,numerous victims of the crime of road  
poisoning were found among the          
,powindahs or ,afghan traders who travel
 down every year from above the  passes 
on the northwest frontier and who       
brought their strings of  camels laden  
with merchandise and products of the    
soil1 or drove a good  business in      
horse-dealing4 ,they sold cloth and     
shawls1 condiments1  sun-dried fruits1  
sweetmeats1 valuable furs1 long-haired  
,persian  cats1 strong1 surefooted      
little horses called yaboos4 ,they      
visited  all parts of ,india as far as  
,cape ,comorin1 and when their goods    
were  sold1 congregated at certain      
points for the homeward journey1 and    
with  their wallets well-lined1 they    
were a likely prey for the poisoners4   
,although shrewd bargainers1 they are an
 unwary lot not difficult to  dupe and  
cajole4 ,these 8,cabulis10 as they were 
styled1 were at one time  the constant  
victims of datura poisoning in ,bombay1 

where they often  collected to enjoy the
 proceeds of their trading and purchase 
goods to  carry home4 ,numbers of them  
were admitted to the hospital suffering 
from poison1 the fatal effects of which 
they had escaped1 thanks to  their      
robust constitutions4    ,once at       
,patna1 in ,bengal1 a horse-dealer from 
,cabul1 who had disposed  of his stud   
profitably1 rashly made friends with a  
couple of rogues  whom he met by the way
 and who had so ingratiated themselves  
with him  as to be accepted as          
travelling companions4 ,on reaching     
,benares one of  them1 who passed as the
 other's servant1 went on ahead to a    
,serai to  prepare food1 which was ready
 on the arrival of the party and of     
which  the ,afghan partook with the     
others4 ,all were seized with the usual 
symptoms1 and while insensible the      
horse-dealer was robbed4 ,again1 a      
party of five1 travelling from          
,calcutta1 were beguiled on the way by  
an  obliging stranger whom they         

presently engaged to go out and buy food
  for them in the bazaar and prepare it 
for them4 ,they left the ,serai  with   
him to continue their journey by rail1  
but were found unconscious  on the way  
to the station1 having been robbed of   
their money and most  of their apparel4 
,general ,hervey quotes a curious       
instance of the heredity of the         
criminal instinct which showed itself in
 the descendants of the old  ,thugs     
settled at ,jubbulpore1 in the days of  
the active pursuit of these  murderers  
by ,sir ,william ,sleeman4 ,a generation
 of young ,thugs had  grown up around   
the ,school of ,industry1 a kind of     
reformatory for the  offspring of the   
captured criminals1 and the careers of  
some of these  have been followed4 ,many
 of the youths found employment with    
,european  gentlemen as private         
servants1 and in one particular instance
 the  inherited propensity was curiously
 illustrated4 ,a railway engineer1 ,mr4 
,upham1 employed in the construction of 

the ,indian ,peninsula ,railway1  was   
stationed at ,sleemanabad near          
,jubbulpore4 ,returning home one        
evening1 much fatigued after a long tour
 of inspection1 he lay down  to rest on 
his bed and from his tent1 the curtain  
of which was raised  for ventilation1 he
 saw two of his table servants--both of 
them lads  from the reformatory--engaged
 in cooking his dinner4 ,he presently   
noticed that they squeezed into the pot 
on the fire certain green pods  they had
 plucked from a neighbouring bush1 and  
presuming they were  herbs of some sort 
added for flavour1 he said nothing1 but 
he was  curious and having little       
appetite he dined very lightly1 chiefly 
on  rice and milk4 ,he picked some of   
the pods1 however1 and put them in  his 
pocket1 where they remained till next   
day1 when he became ill and  rode over  
to see the doctor4 ,he fainted when he  
reached the doctor's  office4           
,restoratives being promptly applied1 he
 so far recovered as to  be able to     

produce the pods which the doctor at    
once pronounced to be  of datura4       
,suspicion thus aroused1 the two        
servants were arrested and  brought to  
trial1 when the head cook was convicted 
and sentenced to six  years'            
imprisonment4 ,this boy was of the old  
,thug stock1 and obviously  the desire  
to destroy human life was in his blood1 
brought out by  greed2 for the object   
was1 of course1 to rob ,mr4 ,upham while
 he was  unconscious4    ,they were     
apparently irreclaimable1 these ,thug   
children4 ,one boy was  detained in     
prison until grown up in the hope that  
he would prove  well-conducted4 ,all his
 relations had been ,thugs2 his father  
7who  had been executed71 his uncles1   
brothers and forebears for several      
generations1 and numbers of them had    
suffered the extreme penalty4 ,he  was  
cognisant of their misdeeds and the     
retribution that overtook them1  but his
 own inclinations lay the same way1 and 
no sooner was he at  large than he      

embraced the evil trade and was soon    
known as a jemadar  with an increasing  
reputation as a daring leader of        
,dacoits4 ,eventually  he was won over  
to the side of justice and did good     
service as an  8approver40    ,a noted  
,thug poisoner of later days was a      
certain ,rora1 the ,meerasee--a  class  
of hereditary singers--who was long     
criminally active and  in the end was   
sentenced to transportation for nineteen
 years on  several counts4 ,his         
favourite victims were the drivers of   
bullock  hackeries1 which with an       
accomplice he would hire1 and after they
  were taken several stages1 he would   
become friendly with the driver1        
offering food1 drink or tobacco1 which  
was1 of course1 drugged and  produced   
the usual narcotic effects4 ,when the   
driver fell off his box  insensible1    
they left him to lie there and made off 
with the vehicle  and its beasts1       
disposing of them at the first chance4  
,this process  was repeated with other  

carts and conveyances plying for hire1  
and in  all cases datura was the drug   
employed4 ,this ,rora was arrested on   
one  occasion1 and having to pass his   
own house got permission to go in2      
after which he came out with a gift of  
poisoned sweetmeats for his  escort1 and
 easily escaped when his custodians     
yielded to the potency  of the datura4  
,a form of highway robbery was the      
8,megphunnah ,thuggee10--the poisoning  
of parents to remove them and allow of  
the kidnapping of their deserted        
children4 ,the motive of this crime was 
to become possessed of the  jewels and  
ornaments worn by the children1 or to   
sell the latter  at distant places or to
 wanderers who would carry them to      
far-off  countries for questionable     
purposes4 ,brinjaras bought male        
children  to bring up in their trade1   
and nomadic gipsies with travelling     
shows  wanted females to be reared to   
their performing business4 ,thus a gang 
of ,megphunnah thieves assembled for a  

feast fell upon a family of ,yats1      
father and mother1 with two girls and a 
boy1 and having strangled the  parents  
in good old ,thug fashion and sold the  
children1 repeated the  process         
continually as they wandered on4 ,the   
gains were small1 but the  murders were 
many and numbers were sold into slavery 
of the worst sort4    ,dacoity was      
practised on a large scale in many      
districts by whole  gangs under         
well-known leaders with adherents or    
well-wishers and  informants in every   
village4 ,at each religious festival in 
the autumn1  the band assembled at the  
summons of its acknowledged chief in    
some  deserted fort or temple1 and      
settled a plan for the coming season1   
when operations were discussed2 the     
names of the selected victims1  the     
nature of the expected booty1 the       
chances of resistance or the            
interference of the authorities4 ,new   
members were affiliated and sworn  in at
 these meetings and the work went on    

gaily by the various parties  till the  
approach of the monsoon1 when the whole 
band reassembled1  divided the spoil and
 went into winter quarters4 ,one member 
of the gang  was always a goldsmith1 who
 melted down the ornaments acquired1    
while  silks and clothes were disposed  
of to friendly shopkeepers4    ,a long  
list might be drawn up of the predatory 
peoples of ,india4 8,these  criminal    
tribes10 says ,sleeman1 8number hundreds
 of thousands of  persons and present a 
problem almost unknown in ,european     
experience4  ,the gipsies1 who are      
largely of ,indian origin1 are perhaps  
the only  ,european example of an       
hereditary criminal tribe4 ,but they are
 not  sheltered and abetted by the      
landowners as their brethren in ,india  
are40 ,most prominent among these       
peoples were the ,meenas1 or ,meena     
,rhatores1 who were found chiefly in    
,rajputana1 but who practised  their    
infamous trade in many parts of ,india4 
,the name ,rhatore is  synonymous with  

,rajput and signifies 8of royal race10  
but the blue  blood was drawn from a    
family living by plunder and ,dacoity4  
,they  were settled in considerable     
numbers at ,shajanpore near ,gurgaon1   
and  lived outwardly respectable lives1 
but their propensities were well  known4
 ,although they went far afield to carry
 out their robberies1 they  occupied    
substantial stone houses1 cultivated the
 soil and possessed  large flocks and   
herds with many swift camels1 mostly    
hidden away  till the time arrived for  
an expedition to pilfer and despoil4    
,these  ,meenas were rich and prosperous
 and wanted nothing but to be let       
alone2 they habitually lived well1 ate  
flesh1 drank much1 wore fine  raiment1  
and their women disported many trinkets 
and gorgeous clothes2  their rejoicings 
and festivals were celebrated with much 
feasting and  revelry4 ,they followed no
 ostensible occupation2 they hired      
servants  to till the ground1 and their 
villages had often a deserted appearance

  because most of the men were absent on
 some raid4 ,the remaining few1  wary   
and watchful1 looked out for possible   
detection and interference2  the women1 
even when drawing water at the well1    
were ready to give the  signal of alarm 
or send a word of warning to their      
friends engaged in  some illegal        
pursuit4 ,the ,meenas hung closely      
together1 and if any one  was by        
mischance arrested1 he might count upon 
assistance and upon  funds raised by    
subscription to provide bribes to secure
 his release1  if in the native states1 
or for the payment of fees for his      
defence4    ,another criminal class very
 formidable in their time were the      
,moghyas1  whose home was in ,meywar in 
and about the direction of ,neemuch4    
,they  were notorious for the wide range
 of their depredations1 and being of  a 
treacherous character1 they inspired    
great dread in the regions they         
infested4 ,they did not confine         
themselves to their own country1 but    

spread far and wide1 and their robberies
 were so repeated that at one  time the 
high road between ,indore and ,gwalior  
was patrolled by parties  of irregular  
cavalry in support of the inefficient   
local police4 ,these  ,moghyas came from
 a common stock of tribal thieves1 such 
as the ,budhuks  and ,khunjurs1 and were
 notable for their favourite custom of  
taking  service as village watchmen or  
chowkeydars1 a strange practice very    
general throughout ,india and based upon
 the old idea of setting a  thief to    
catch a thief4    ,the ,budhuks were    
professional ,dacoits who always        
murdered their  victims2 the ,khunjurs  
were wanderers who robbed in many widely
  separated districts both in ,madras   
and ,bombay1 and in times far back in   
,jalna1 ,bolarum near ,secunderabad1 at 
,bellary 7,madras7 and ,sholapore4  ,the
 ,mooltani robbers were assiduous in    
attacks on convoys of cargoes of  piece 
goods1 opium and sugar4 ,there were also
 ,bedowreahs1 freebooters  and          

desperados of the ,north-western        
,provinces1 ,kaim ,khanees1 camel       
postilions1 who were also ,dacoits1 and 
,khaikarees and ,lambanees1 much  given 
to crime in the ,dharwan district and so
 determined in their  misdeeds that no  
severity short of perpetual banishment  
had any effect  on them4 ,after a large 
capture1 the native magistrate sentenced
 every  offender to have his right hand 
chopped off4 ,yet they at once resumed  
their depredations when set free and    
were long recognised as members of  the 
8lop-handed0 gang4    ,the ,ooreahs1 or 
men of ,orissa1 were poisoners by       
descent1 adepts  at dissimulation and   
low cunning1 much given to the          
despoiling of  unsuspecting females of  
the oldest profession in the world1 the 
hereditary dancing girls who were       
brought up to the business by their     
mothers4 ,a troupe of these girls were  
often maintained privately by  rajahs   
and wealthy natives1 and for ceremonial 
purposes at ,hindu  temples4 ,despite   

the taint of ill-repute attaching to    
their trade1  they were often modest in 
manner and of refined tastes1 very much 
like  the old ,grecian 8,hetr02 but when
 living at large in their public        
capacity1 they were often the victims of
 greedy miscreants who coveted  their   
possessions1 their plentiful ornaments  
and jewelry1 for many  were personally  
rich4 ,the ,ooreahs worked in gangs and 
three of them  visited the house of some
 of these women in ,dum-,dum and brought
 with  them a present of food1 curry    
cooked by themselves and drugged4 ,this 
had the usual effect and ended in a     
great robbery4 ,again1 four ,ooreahs    
took lodgings with a woman in the ,sham 
,bazaar1 near ,calcutta1 and            
established friendly relations1         
exchanging sweetmeats4 ,those given by  
the ,ooreahs soon produced              
insensibility1 and the poisoners cleared
 out  the place4    ,in #ahfi           
information reached a gang of ,dacoits  
on the look-out for booty  that a large 

consignment of treasure had been        
received at ,agra by  railway from      
,calcutta4 ,it was to be transferred at 
,agra to camel-back1  to be forwarded to
 its destination at ,jeypore4 ,the      
leader of the  ,dacoits and many others 
were lurking around drawn by the scent  
of rich  prey on the skirts of the great
 ,durbar then in progress4 ,they        
prudently  resolved to delay attack     
until the spoil was upon native         
territory1  and it was watched from     
stage to stage until the convoy had     
entered a  pass or hilly gorge one march
 from ,jeypore4 ,the party halted for   
the  night to bivouac in the bazaar of a
 place called ,molumpoona1 where they   
were challenged by pretended revenue    
officers1 who were ,meena ,dacoits      
disguised1 and accused of trying to     
evade the transit dues4 ,the real       
character of the officials was soon made
 manifest when the escort1 who  were    
soldiers or policemen1 ran off1 and the 
plunder was secured4 ,it  consisted of a

 large amount in rupees and silver in   
bricks1 coral beads  and other          
valuables4    ,the audacity of these    
,dacoits reached to greater heights4    
,the royal  mails were not safe from    
their interference4 ,by maintaining     
spies  in the various post-offices1 news
 was always forthcoming of the          
approaching despatch of a valuable prize
 by the government mail carts  or ,dak  
runners from ,agra to the adjacent      
native states4 ,almost at the  same time
 as the last named robbery took place1 a
 detachment from the  main gang stopped 
the mail cart and seized its contents1  
carrying off a  quantity of bullion in  
,british sovereigns4 ,a second similar  
robbery was  also effected on the       
,ajmere frontier1 in which the          
post-office employee  was wounded4      
,these treasure ,dacoities were no doubt
 facilitated by the  niggardliness of   
the transmitters1 who sought to save the
 expense of  hiring a special escort    
notwithstanding the enormous amount at  

stake1  as much as thirty lacs of       
rupees1 or #cjj1jjj1 having been passed 
at  times from ,bombay to ,indore4      
,on one occasion in #ahfd1 a police     
confederate gave notice of a            
consignment of treasure1 #cj1jjj rupees1
 from ,bombay1 passing through  ,berar1 
which was intercepted and attacked in a 
ravine near ,mulkapore4  ,the mail cart 
arrived about dusk1 when the robbers    
fell upon it and the  drivers1 and the  
small escort of four matchlock men fled4
 ,the bullion  was loaded quickly on    
camels1 carried away and buried in the  
jungle  before the news of the theft    
reached ,mulkapore4 ,a month later1 when
 the  booty was about to be divided     
among the different gangs engaged1 they 
quarrelled fiercely over the shares and 
one of the party stole away and  brought
 the police upon the scene4 ,the        
treasure was thus recovered and  many   
important arrests were made4    ,this   
money had been forwarded up country to  
be employed in the purchase  of cotton  

at a time when the great ,american ,war 
of ,secession had  paralysed the cotton 
industry1 and great enterprise was being
 shown in  obtaining the scarce         
commodity4 ,this 8cotton hunger0        
extended to ,india1  and the productive 
cotton fields there were being despoiled
 to meet  the demand4 ,heavy remittances
 in cash were in consequence constantly 
transmitted up country1 and the         
temptation was great to highway         
robbers4 ,it was the same with regard to
 opium1 largely produced in the         
province of ,malwa4 ,not only was the   
drug itself plundered in transit to     
,bombay1 but the purchase money of the  
goods was intercepted on its way  to pay
 the cultivators4    ,many noted        
,dacoits rose into prominence when the  
crime was most  prevalent4 ,one was     
,jowahirra ,durzee1 a thief of the      
boldest type who  wandered through      
,central ,india planning and executing  
robberies4 ,there  were thirteen such   
crimes to his credit in the province of 

,berar and  eight more around ,poona4   
,he was a fine-looking man who was      
caught by  the ,nizam of ,hyderabad and 
sentenced to be beheaded1 but who       
escaped  from gaol with the connivance  
of the native guard4 ,he renewed his    
activity and made a great haul in       
,berar1 robbing a couple of country     
carts conveying cash to the value of    
#ff1jjj rupees sent from ,bombay for    
the purchase of cotton4 ,the thieves had
 only time to bury their plunder  and   
disperse1 but returned a month later to 
dig it up and divide it4  ,after making 
,poona the centre of operations1 he was 
again arrested and  committed to the    
,british lock-up at ,jalna1 from which  
he was rescued by  a daring comrade1    
,kishen ,sing1 who forced an entrance   
into the prison  by climbing the wall   
and overpowering the sentry4            
,afterward ,jowahirra1 when retaken1    
described what had occurred4 ,two  steel
 clasp knives with file blades had been 
conveyed from ,bombay and  smuggled into

 the prison4 ,with these the prisoners  
cut through their  leg-irons in six     
days1 after which their friends came and
 carried them  off to where three swift 
camels were waiting for them outside the
 town4  ,the ,indian criminals are      
ingenious in dealing with their fetters 
to  compass escape4 ,they are           
independent of files4 ,thirty of the    
worst  prisoners confined in the central
 gaol of ,agra contrived to cut through 
their irons by means of threads         
manufactured from their clothing and    
thickly coated with pounded glass or    
emery powder4 ,the threads were  first  
anointed with gum to which the powder   
adhered1 thus forming a  sawing         
instrument equal to a file4 ,jowahirra's
 subsequent depredations  were on a     
large scale4 ,he was often associated   
with the notorious  ,dacoit ,jeewun     
,sing1 7of whom more directly71 and they
 controlled large  numbers of tribal    
thieves1 ,meenas and ,rhatores and      
,rohillas1 who were  at one time        

computed to amount to nearly four       
hundred4 ,jowahirra was  in due course  
tried as a professional ,dacoit and     
sentenced to fourteen  years'           
transportation to the ,andaman ,islands4
    ,jeewun ,sing was a native of       
,bikaneer and a camel carrier who       
conveyed  specie and other consignments 
for the bankers of ,berar1 and as such  
he  enjoyed a reputation for honesty and
 fair dealing in the delivery of  goods 
entrusted to him4 ,yet he was in        
collusion with ,meena ,dacoits who  came
 down from the country in quest of      
plunder1 and whom he harboured  and hid 
in two temples near ,oomraotee until    
news came of treasure on  the move4     
,jeewun ,sing1 who had taken service    
with the ,mypore police for  his        
personal safety1 secretly directed these
 gangs and was concerned  in several of 
the heaviest robberies1 receiving always
 his share of  the proceeds1--a fourth  
or fifth4 ,he did not join personally in
 the  work1 but sent agents to represent

 him4 ,he was a general carrier1 whose  
camels travelled to ,bombay1 ,indore1   
,jeypore1 ,jubbulpore1 and who was  true
 to his employers as a cloak to his     
proceedings against others4  ,this      
police inspector1 so long the           
confederate of robbers1 lived under  a  
cloud and his arrest was often strongly 
urged1 but he was spared  through the   
protection of his police superiors1 and 
not a little on  account of his         
usefulness in securing the conviction of
 others4 ,but  this double traitor1     
disloyal to his sect and the betrayer of
 his  confederates1 was in the end      
dismissed from the service4    ,kishen  
,sing1 the noted ,rhatore leader of     
,dacoits who rescued ,jowahirra         
,durzee1 was one of the chief agents of 
this same ,jeewun ,sing4 ,kishen  ,sing 
was informed against by his confederate1
 ,choutmull1 for declining  to submit to
 his demands and was supposed to have   
died in custody at  ,aboo4 ,the story of
 this fictitious death so admirably     

illustrates  ,eastern duplicity that it 
deserves mention4 ,kishen ,sing was a   
desperate  character whose crimes were  
many and atrocious4 ,he murdered one of 
his  associates in a mail cart robbery2 
he attacked two sepoys going on         
furlough1 and in the fight which ensued 
slew one while he himself was  wounded2 
and he was in the habit of disguising   
himself as an officer  in the ,nizam's  
cavalry in order to carry out his       
robberies4 ,one of  his most daring     
deeds was rifling a treasure convoy on  
the high-road  between ,sholapore and   
,hyderabad4 ,the money was #cj1jjj      
rupees in  specie and some chests of    
bullion1 and was carried in the wagons  
of a  transit agency under escort of    
some ,arab mercenaries4 ,a fierce       
conflict  was fought1 but the ,dacoits  
got the best of it and carried off the  
treasure4 ,later ,kishen ,sing was      
arrested and laid by the heels at ,mount
  ,aboo to await trial4    ,he was      
resolved to escape his fate of certain  

transportation4 ,first  he tried to     
commit suicide with a piece of glass1   
then he simulated  madness and at last  
took to malingering4 ,he was seized with
 a terrible  hacking cough and grew     
visibly worse1 so that his release as   
incurable  was all but recommended4     
,then he apparently died4 ,leave was    
sought from  the local authorities to   
bury him and not burn him as was the    
usual  procedure with a ,hindu corpse4  
,his body was handed over for interment 
to four or five low caste men engaged by
 an old and faithful follower  of his   
who had taken the garb of a mendicant   
and occupied a small  hut just outside  
the gaol gates4 ,the undertakers were in
 the secret1  and they placed the living
 corpse in a shallow grave face         
downward1  covering it with thorns and  
brushwood1 on the top of which a thin   
layer of earth was laid4 ,the defunct   
made no move1 and after dark  the       
faithful ,gosaen1 who had been on the   
watch1 came and dug up the  8dead0      

,kishen ,sing4 ,it was thus clearly     
proved that burial did not mean  death  
and that1 provided a person is placed   
faced downwards with no  superincumbent 
weight of earth1 life may be safely     
prolonged for hours4  ,the escape of    
,kishen ,sing was not realised until he 
was discovered  alive and well in his   
native village4 ,how he imposed upon the
 medical  officer whose duty it was to  
furnish a certificate of death does not 
appear upon the record4    ,a curious   
feature in ,indian ,dacoity was that    
gangs were led in more  than one        
instance by female jemadars or captains4
 ,one of the most  notable was a certain
 ,tumbolin whose husband had met his    
deserts in  the ,madras territory and   
had been executed4 ,after his death1 his
 wife  was installed in his place by the
 universal acclaim of his followers1    
and she fully justified her appointment4
 ,she became a most capable  chief1 ably
 managed all the affairs of the gang1   
sought out the needful  information as  

to the promise of spoil1 the best       
methods of attack1  and settled every   
preliminary4 ,she went with her men to  
the point of  action1 but did not join  
personally in the fray1 leaving the     
actual  command to a trusty lieutenant1 
by name ,himtya1 chosen by herself1 and 
who became her right hand man4    ,one  
of the boldest operations ever attempted
 by ,dacoits was the  attack made by    
,tumbolin's gang upon a military        
treasure in the heart  of the military  
cantonments of ,sholapore4 ,in quest of 
booty1 she had  brought her party down  
in person from ,central ,india and had  
encamped  at ,nuldroog1 about fifteen   
miles from ,sholapore1 a wild spot      
within  the territory of the ,nizam of  
,hyderabad4 ,accompanied by her faithful
  ,himtya and others1 disguised as      
wandering minstrels1 she explored the   
neighbourhood and penetrated the        
military quarter of ,sholapore4 ,they   
sang their songs before the officers'   
bungalows and at last boldly  entered   

the general's garden in which a sentry  
was posted4 ,over the  hedge they saw a 
sentry1 and more to the purpose1 saw    
that he was in  charge of the treasure  
chest of the military force4 ,meanwhile 
,himtya  had gone off independently and 
had marked down as a hopeful prey the   
house of a wealthy tobacconist and      
banker in the town of ,sholapore4       
,the two enterprises were discussed that
 night on return to camp1 and  although 
the banker's promised to be the easiest 
job1 an attack upon a  military force   
was the most audacious and1 if          
successful1 would secure  the largest   
prestige4 ,it was decided to attempt the
 latter enterprise1  pausing for a day  
or two in order to reconnoitre their    
ground1 the  best means of approach1 and
 the surest line of retreat if pursued4 
,the  ,british garrison was large and   
consisted of a native infantry and a    
troop of ,european horse artillery4 ,it 
was an important station where  many    
high officials resided1 judge1 collector

 and magistrate1 and a  local gaol was  
established within the fort4 ,it was a  
hard nut to crack1  but ,tumbolin did   
not despair4 ,first removing their      
encampment to some  distance1 the       
rendezvous was fixed on some broken     
ground near the  deposited treasure1    
which was last seen by ,himtya when     
being locked up  in the right hand      
compartment of the tumbril4    ,at      
nightfall the sepoy sentry guard retired
 into their guard room1  leaving a      
double sentry to guard the treasure4    
,himtya's first step was  to secure the 
guard by locking them into their        
quarters2 then he and  his men crept up 
under cover of a tall cactus hedge until
 they reached  the tumbril1 when two of 
the ,dacoits rushed simultaneously upon 
the two  sentries and speared them1     
while a third robber broke off the      
padlock  of the tumbril and laid open   
the right compartment of the treasure   
chest4 ,it was empty1 for the money had 
been transferred that very day  to the  

other side4 ,by this time1 the alarm had
 been raised4 ,the sentry  in the       
general's garden adjoining opened fire1 
and some of the officers  ran up with   
shot-guns1 by which one of the robbers  
was wounded4 ,the  attack had failed and
 the tables were turned4 ,the bugles    
rang out with  a general call to arms   
and the baffled ,dacoits hastily        
decamped4    ,pursuit followed1 but the 
robbers were fleet of foot and arrived  
safely  at their encampment1 where all  
was in readiness for flight1 ponies were
  mounted1 ,tumbolin astride on her     
favourite piebald1 and they galloped    
away through the night and the next day 
until the party reached and  crossed the
 ,kistna1 after which they were beyond  
pursuit4 ,great  commotion had been     
caused in ,sholapore4 ,the troops stood 
to their arms  all night and patrols of 
cavalry scoured the whole country round4
 ,the  ,english general in command      
reported that ,sholapore had been       
attacked  by a numerous and             

well-organised banditti1 but1 as a      
matter of fact1  ,tumbolin's whole gang 
numbered no more than sixteen persons4  
,tumbolin long continued her            
depredations and her success was great4 
,ten  years after the attack on         
,sholapore1 her gang visited the city of
 ,poona  at a moment when the chief of  
police was being married and the entire 
force was in attendance upon the        
marriage procession4 ,himtya seized the 
occasion to break into the house of a   
rich ,marwaree merchant and rifle  his  
strong room4 ,the attack was made with  
flaring torches and a great  outcry and 
succeeded1 but two of the robbers were  
captured as they fled  through the town1
 one of them ,himtya himself4 ,tumbolin 
escaped and was1  indeed1 never taken1  
although a large price was put upon her 
head4 ,she  retired at length at a good 
old age to die peacefully among her own 
people in the fastnesses of the ,oude   
,terai4    ,grassia was a famous leader 
of ,khunjur ,dacoits who had become an  

approver after capture4 ,when he died   
his widow1 a woman of fine  presence and
 masculine gait1 consecrated her        
children by a solemn oath  to their     
father's profession4 ,she seemed to     
anticipate that the boys  would be worth
 little at the work1 but relied upon her
 one girl to  turn into a capable leader
 such as ,tumbolin4 ,grassia's daughter 
grew  up into a fine woman1 with no     
particular good looks1 but of imposing  
aspect4 ,she never married1 bearing in  
mind her mother's injunctions to  devote
 herself to the care of her brothers1   
and to keep ,tumbolin before  her as a  
model for imitation1 and she no doubt   
led her gang with much  energy and      
success4 ,in older times there were     
female ,thugs1 women who  accompanied   
their husbands on expeditions1 and one  
is mentioned by  ,sleeman who was the   
jemadar of a gang of her own4    ,a     
horrible story of a ,dacoit's revenge is
 told by ,mr4 ,arthur ,crawford4  ,after
 an outbreak of the ,bheels in ,october1

 #aheh1 which was commenced  by one of  
their number1 ,bhagoji ,naique1 shooting
 the superintendent  of the police near 
,sinnur1 the majority of the ,bheels    
took to ,dacoity  under the leadership  
of ,bhagoji4 ,at this time an old ,bheel
 named  ,yesoo1 a friend of ,bhagoji's1 
was living in the same neighbourhood  in
 a village which was a favourite camping
 ground for ,europeans on  account of   
the facilities it offered for sport4    
,yesoo was on very  friendly terms with 
the sportsmen and endeavoured to        
dissuade ,bhagoji  from his traitorous  
designs1 but without success4 ,after the
 murder of  the police official1 ,yesoo 
refused to join the rebels1 and was     
excused  on account of his age and      
lameness and left to live in peace in   
his  village1 ,bhagoji little thinking  
that all the while he was secretly      
supplying the ,english with valuable    
information concerning the plans  and   
whereabouts of the ,dacoits4 ,when the  
disturbance had been quelled  and an    

amnesty proclaimed1 one of ,bhagoji's   
most faithful adherents  returned to his
 home and settled down quietly in his   
native village  not far from ,yesoo1 who
 by this time was well known to have    
been a  government informer and was very
 proud of the fact4 ,this apparently did
  not affect ,hanmant1 who tried to be  
on good terms with the old man1  and    
frequently visited him1 inviting him to 
bring his family over to  his           
7,hanmant's7 village4 ,but ,yesoo was   
wary and kept the young man at  arm's   
length4 ,hanmant1 finding all attempts  
to lure the old man away  from the      
security of his own village in vain1    
conceived a diabolical  plot to bring   
about his revenge4 8,taking some fifteen
 or twenty of  his own people and a few 
more ,bheels who had sworn to be        
revenged on  ,yesoo1 he repaired one    
night to ,yesoo's village1 silently     
surrounded  the ,bheel quarter1 and then
 sent one of his men to fire the village
  stackyard at the other side of the    

village4 ,just as he anticipated1 the   
alarm was no sooner given than every    
male ,bheel in the #8,warra' 7their     
quarters outside the village proper71   
including ,yesoo and his two sons1  went
 off at best speed to the fire1 the     
women and children collecting  outside  
their huts to view the blaze4 ,in an    
instant the revengeful  gang surrounded 
the #8,warra1' and with his own hand    
,hanmant cut down  and horribly         
mutilated ,yesoo's two wives and        
daughters1 the other  women were gagged 
and bound1 and then ,hanmant and a      
select few1 armed  with matchlocks1 lay 
in ambush by the path ,yesoo and his    
sons must  return by4 ,yesoo he shot    
with the muzzle of his gun nearly       
touching  his body1 and the sons and one
 ,bheel who showed fight were disposed  
of by his comrades2 the other ,bheels   
dispersed1 while ,hanmant and his  gang 
quietly returned home4 ,suspicion1 of   
course1 immediately fell upon  ,hanmant4
 ,one of his confederates peached4      

,hanmant escaped into the  jungle1 but  
was caught half-famished about a week   
afterward4 ,ultimately  he and two      
accomplices were executed at the scene  
of the murder1  ,hanmant exulting up to 
the last moment in the dreadful deed1   
which he  had been brooding over for    
nearly five years40          ,,chapter  
,v    ,,characteristic ,,crimes         
,extended use of poison--,horrible      
stories--,the ,gaekwar of ,baroda       
charged with attempted poison of        
,british resident1 ,colonel             
,phayre--,diamond dust--,modern         
instances in ,bombay--,murders          
numerous--,police practices tending to  
concealment of                          
evidence--,decapitation--,strangulation-
-,stinging to death--,crushing      to  
death by an elephant--,leading traits in
 ,indian criminals--,frauds      and    
forging--,story of the ,black ,hole of  
,calcutta4      ,the crime of secret    
poisoning as a lethal agent has ever    
largely  prevailed among a timid and    

deceitful people inclined to prefer     
treachery to open violence4 ,under the  
,mussulman dynasty1 assassination  by   
poison flourished exceedingly4 ,it was  
effective in removing a  pestilent      
competitor or a too ambitious minister1 
a jealous or  untrustworthy wife or a   
hateful husband4 ,the action of poison  
was  often mysterious and its symptoms  
obscure in countries where the light  of
 medical knowledge burned dimly1 and    
when fatal might easily be  attributed  
to the noxious effect of the narcotics  
so largely indulged  in4 ,the facility  
with which poison could be administered 
is constantly  indicated in the ancient 
writings2 the ,shastras or sacred books 
of  the ,hindus1 illustrating and       
explaining the ,vedas1 enlarge upon  the
 precautions that should be taken to    
protect the life of the rajah  or ruler 
from the subtle attacks of those around 
him4 ,the danger of  death by poisoning 
lurks commonly in the domestic          
relations2 a great  crowd of servants   

fill the purlieus of the palace1        
actively engaged  in the preparation of 
food and often at liberty to pass freely
 to and  fro4 ,one ,shastra lays down   
the necessary qualities of a cook as    
skill1  cleanliness1 good character and 
even temper so that neither greed nor   
revengeful feeling should incite him or 
her to mix something poisonous  in the  
pot4 ,another goes further and enlarges 
thus upon the methods  of detecting the 
personal characteristics of any one     
likely to give  poison1--8,he does not  
answer questions1 or only gives evasive 
answers2  he speaks nonsense2 rubs the  
great toe along the ground and shivers2 
his face is discoloured2 he rubs the    
roots of the hair with his  fingers2 and
 he tries by every means to leave the   
house40      ,execution in ,india       
,a common mode of execution in ,india1  
for which the elephant is      easily   
trained4 ,in the early times of uprising
 or rebellion1      elephants were also 
used against the enemy1 and would make  

short      work of piling up great      
pyramids of human heads4                
,illustration    ,some horrible stories 
are preserved of the ruthless           
administration  of poison by the        
,mohammedan sovereigns in ,india4 ,thus 
,tavernier1 the  ,french traveller in   
the seventeenth century1 says of the    
great state  prison of ,gwalior that the
 emperor ,aurungzeb was so sensitive    
lest he  should be stigmatised as a     
cruel prince he never suffered any great
  subject to survive long in prison2 at 
the end of the ninth or tenth  day the  
captive was removed by poison4 ,no doubt
 ,hyder ,ali poisoned  a number of his  
,english prisoners1 and the inhuman     
murder of ,general  ,mathews by ,tippoo 
,sing is told by ,james ,bristowe1 who  
suffered a long  captivity under the    
same merciless monarch4 ,the general was
 poisoned  under the most abominable    
circumstances4 ,he was starving himself 
to  death rather than partake of the    
food issued to him1 which he had        

discovered contained poison4 ,he        
studiously abstained from food for      
several days until at length1 tortured  
by overmastering hunger1 he  devoured a 
plate of poisoned victuals and expired a
 few hours later in  violent            
convulsions4 ,another officer1 ,captain 
,romley1 who saw himself  constrained to
 swallow poison1 preferred to commit    
suicide by some  other means4 ,yet      
again1 ,lieutenant ,fraser had poison   
forcibly poured  down his throat4       
,the traditions of the native states as 
to poisoning were preserved in  at least
 one till a late date in the last       
century4 ,in ,baroda1 a ,rajput  ruler1 
the ,gaekwar ,mulhar ,rao1 was the      
centre of a nest of criminal  intrigue  
rivalling anything in the past1 as great
 a miscreant as any  one in his depraved
 court and more guilty than any of his  
subjects  in the use of his despotic    
power4 ,crime was the very breath of his
  princely house2 its members hated one 
another with bitter animosity2          

assassination1 largely by secret        
poisoning1 was the chief avenue to  the 
throne1 but all kinds of flagitious     
means were employed to secure           
succession2 charges backed by elaborate 
perjury were as often used to  upset a  
rival aspirant1 as powdered arsenic or  
diamond dust to remove  him permanently 
to another sphere4    ,in the generation
 to which ,mulhar ,rao belonged1 violent
 deaths had  constantly paved the way to
 the throne4 ,one of five sons reigned  
in  #ahdg4 ,two of his brothers died    
suddenly1 and the prince himself a few  
years later4 ,he was succeeded by the   
fourth brother1 ,khander ,rao1 whom  the
 fifth1 ,mulhar ,rao1 at once attempted 
to poison1 but he was detected  and     
taken into custody4 ,then ,khander ,rao 
sought to protect himself by  appealing 
to sorcery and black arts1 and finding  
no certain security1  consulted a       
,brahmin who strongly recommended human 
sacrifices4  ,whereupon ,khander ,rao   
selected thirty-five prisoners in his   

gaol of  ,baroda1 whom he ordered for   
execution at the rate of five daily4    
,twenty-five had suffered before the    
butchery ceased4 ,mulhar ,rao still     
lived1 and recourse was had to simpler  
methods2 his cook was suborned  and     
provided with powdered arsenic1 the most
 commonly tried drug1 but  the poison   
failed in effect because1 although the  
noxious food was  consumed1 remedies    
were applied in time4    ,false         
testimony was next adduced1 and ,mulhar 
,rao was accused by  perjured witnesses 
of plotting to have his brother ,khander
 ,rao shot  by a ,european soldier1 and 
on this flimsy pretence he was closely  
confined in the prison of ,cadra4 ,he   
had sympathisers and they soon felt  the
 weight of ,khander ,rao's hand4 ,four  
of them were seized1 accused  of holding
 secret communication with the prisoner1
 and sentenced to  various forms of     
capital punishment4 ,one was hanged1    
another beheaded1  a third blown from   
the mouth of a gun and the fourth was   

thrown under  the feet of an elephant to
 be trodden to death4 ,suddenly ,khander
 ,rao  himself died1 not without        
suspicion of foul play1 and ,mulhar ,rao
 walked  straight from the gaol to the  
throne1 where he was soon to emulate the
  misdeeds of his predecessors4    ,the 
new ,gaekwar had no claims upon the     
regard of his subjects4 ,almost  wholly 
uneducated and with no mental gifts1 he 
failed to inspire  respect or devotion4 
,he was not without astuteness1 but was 
obstinate  as a mule and fierce as a    
tiger4 ,his person was unattractive2 he 
was  undersized1 of mean appearance1    
with a coarse1 swarthy complexion2  he  
squinted1 and from his large sensual    
lips black teeth protruded  savagely4   
,unlike his brother ,khander ,rao1 he   
had no taste for field  sports1 and he  
had converted the race course at ,baroda
 into a carriage  drive for the ladies  
of his zenana4    ,mulhar ,rao's private
 life was desperately evil4 ,in his     
early years  he was often thought to be 

mad on account of his passionate and    
ungovernable temper4 ,even as a child he
 committed crimes1 impelled by  fierce  
hatred and lust for revenge4 ,his youth 
was made up of poisonings  and attempts 
to poison4 ,when he came to power he    
destroyed his  enemies1 real or fancied1
 wholesale4 ,his gaolers collected      
victims in a  row1 and one by one poison
 was poured forcibly down their throats4
 ,one  of those he most cordially       
detested was offered poisonous pills1   
and  when he refused to swallow them he 
was despatched in a more expeditious    
fashion by being squeezed to death in a 
special machine4 ,this man's  chief     
crime was that he had been a creature of
 ,khander ,rao's4    ,the new ,gaekwar's
 victims were so numerous that it was a 
current phrase  in the city1 8,has he   
killed many to-day80 ,he spared no man  
in his  anger1 no woman in his lust4    
,justice was bought and sold1 the       
claimant  who had the longest purse     
always won his case2 public business was

  neglected2 the most unworthy were     
advanced2 bribery and corruption  were  
the rule in every branch of             
administration4 ,the crown and finish   
to ,mulhar ,rao's offences was his      
alleged plot to poison the ,british     
resident1 ,colonel ,phayre4    ,there   
had long been distrust between the      
,gaekwar and the representative  of the 
,british government1 whose profound     
disapproval of the prince's  proceedings
 was soon made manifest4 ,a more serious
 difference arose  when the ,gaekwar    
insisted that his infant son1 born of   
his latest  marriage1 should be         
recognised as the next heir to the      
throne4 ,there  were grave doubts of the
 child's legitimacy4 ,his mother1       
,luxmeebee1 had  been forcibly abducted 
from another husband who was still alive
 at the  time of its birth4 ,colonel    
,phayre refused to acknowledge the child
 and  ,mulhar ,rao vowed vengeance4 ,one
 of his first dastardly attempts was to 
poison all the inmates of the residency 

by causing a pound of arsenic  to be    
mixed with the ice sent in for daily    
consumption4 ,this device  failed1 and  
the next attack was aimed directly at   
the resident through  his own body      
servants4    ,colonel ,phayre was in the
 habit of drinking a glass of sherbet   
every  morning when he came home from an
 early walk4 ,it was awaiting him on    
the hall table and was prepared with    
sugared water and fresh pumelo  juice4  
,one day he swallowed only a mouthful of
 this drink1 disliking  its taste1 and  
threw the rest out of the window1 when  
he detected a  small amount of sediment 
in the bottom of the glass4 ,when       
analysed  subsequently1 this was found  
to contain arsenic and diamond dust4    
,suspicion was at once aroused1 and the 
possession of the powder charged  with  
these ingredients was traced to a       
havildar of the military guard  of the  
residency1 who kept it concealed in his 
waist belt4 ,it was  not believed that  
any subordinate and impecunious person  

could have  afforded to buy diamond     
dust1 and attention was at once diverted
 from  the havildar to the prince1 whose
 bitter feeling toward the resident  was
 well known4    ,evidence so damnatory  
against ,mulhar ,rao was collected that 
the  government of ,india attached his  
person and decided to prosecute him4  ,a
 special court of inquiry was appointed1
 composed of three ,english  and three  
native commissioners1 the first three   
leading lights on the  ,indian bench1   
the second three ,maharajas of the      
highest rank4 ,the  ,gaekwar was        
permitted to engage counsel1 and was    
defended by one of the  most eminent of 
,british barristers at that time1       
,sergeant ,ballantine4  ,the arraignment
 of a reigning prince for the crime of  
murder by the  supreme power to whom he 
owed allegiance caused a great sensation
 in  ,india1 and the issue of the       
protracted trial was watched with great 
interest at home4 ,in the end the three 
,english commissioners were of  opinion 

that the ,gaekwar was guilty through his
 paid agents of an  attempt to poison   
,colonel ,phayre1 and on the other hand1
 their three  native colleagues         
considered that the charge was not      
proved4 ,the result  was much criticised
 and indeed condemned1 but the adverse  
finding was  accepted by the then       
viceroy1 ,lord ,northbrook1 who         
forthwith deposed  ,mulhar ,rao and     
deprived him and his issue of all rights
 to the throne4  ,the decision was based
 upon 8his notorious misconduct1 his    
gross  misgovernment of the state and   
his evident incapacity to carry into    
effect the necessary reforms10 the chief
 of all being the reform of his  own    
evil nature and personal character4     
,sergeant ,ballantine dissented from the
 view taken by the ,english             
commissioners and disapproved of ,lord  
,northbrook's action4 ,following  the   
old legal axiom that the best course of 
an advocate whose case is  bad is to    
abuse the other side1 the learned       

counsel threw the blame  chiefly upon   
,colonel ,phayre4 8,he 7,colonel        
,phayre7 was fussy1 meddlesome  and     
thoroughly injudicious10 the sergeant   
wrote in his memoirs4 8,there  were two 
adverse parties in the state1 and       
instead of holding himself  aloof from  
both1 he threw himself into that opposed
 to the ,gaekwar and  was greedy to     
listen to every accusation and complaint
 that with equal  eagerness was gossiped
 into his ears40 ,but these last were by
 no means  imaginary4 ,mulhar ,rao's    
vile conduct was never in doubt1 and it 
was  clear that he had tampered with the
 resident's servants4    ,as regards the
 diamond dust which played a somewhat   
exaggerated part  in the affair1 there  
is nothing to substantiate the common   
belief  that it is a deadly poison1 any 
more than ground glass1 which has an    
equally bad name4 ,it is an old and     
exploded superstition4 ,the notorious   
8succession powder0 of the old ,italian 
poisoners was supposed to be  diamond   

dust4 ,voltaire tells us that           
,henrietta1 ,duchess of ,orleans1  died 
of acute irritant poisoning1 the poison 
being diamond powder mixed  with pounded
 sugar and strewn over strawberries4    
,it may be noted here that the          
abominable practice of widow-burning    
seems to have originated as a check upon
 the wife's desire to get rid  of her   
husband4 ,the practice dates back to the
 time of ,strabo1 who  gives the above  
origin for it4 ,it was so common1 says  
,mr4 ,william  ,methold1 that a law was 
passed insisting that the wives should  
accompany their deceased husbands to the
 funeral pyre4 ,according to one        
authority1 poisoning by wives was so    
frequent that1 in any one year1  four   
men died to every woman4 ,originating as
 a deterrent1 the burning  of widows    
became in due course an act of pious    
devotion1 a deed of  self-immolation    
acceptable to their bloodthirsty gods4  
,but the original  reason is often      
quoted in the ancient writings1 and the 

remarks of  a traveller1 ,robert        
,coverte1 may be quoted in point4 8,the 
cause why  this law was first made was  
for that the women there were so fickle 
and inconstant that upon any slight     
occasion of dislike or spleen they      
would poison their husbands2 whereas now
 the establishing and executing  of this
 law is the cause that moveth the wife  
to love and cherish her  husband and    
wisheth not to survive him40 ,it is very
 much to the credit  of the old ,east   
,india ,company that it sternly         
suppressed the practice  of suttee with 
the other iniquitous forms of           
wrong-doing1 such as  ,thuggee1         
sacrificial suicide1 infanticide and so 
forth4 ,a crime so  largely practised   
through the ages by rulers and prominent
 personages  was likely to be generally 
imitated by commoner people4    ,the    
general use of drugs to compass murder  
which still commonly  obtains is not a  
little due to the facilities with which 
poisons may  be procured1 not only from 

the unchecked sale1 but because they may
  be picked up1 so to speak1 on every   
hedge4 ,quoting ,dr4 ,cheevers1 the     
varieties of poison used are very       
limited and may be briefly described4   
,the most common are the preparations of
 arsenic1 aconite1 nux vomica1  opium1  
oleander1 datura and ganja1 or ,indian  
hemp4 ,many more drugs are1  however1   
procurable in ,indian bazaars1 and ,dr4 
,cheevers has compiled a  list1 more or 
less incomplete1 of upwards of ninety1  
including those  already mentioned4 ,of 
late years the large increase in        
dispensaries and  the wide importation  
of chemicals has led to poisoning by    
sulphate of  zinc1 ,prussic acid1       
strychnine1 cyanide of potassium1       
belladonna and  chlorodyne4    ,some    
remarkable cases of poisoning were      
brought to light in ,bombay  a few years
 ago1 chiefly through the strenuous     
efforts of highly  intelligent native   
detectives4 ,a diabolical plot to       
destroy a whole  family1 of which four  

died and several were nearly killed1 was
 the  so-called ,de ,ga conspiracy in   
#ahgb4 ,an unknown messenger delivered  
two  confectionery cakes as a gift with 
the compliments of a near relation4     
,fatal results ensued with all who      
partook of the sweets4 ,suspicion at    
last fell upon a brother of the ,de ,ga 
family who hated his relations  and who 
accomplished the deed1 assisted by an   
accomplice and especially  by his father
 who pretended to invoke the aid of     
sorcery4    ,twenty years later a family
 of five persons was destroyed by one of
 the  sons1 ,bachoo1 a spendthrift and  
gambler1 who wished to expedite his     
inheritance4 ,strychnine was the drug   
used1 and it was administered  by the   
cook in the food he prepared4 ,bachoo's 
father was the first to  succumb1 and he
 was quickly followed by the rest of the
 family4 ,when  the strychnine was found
 in the exhumed bodies1 the police      
cleverly  traced its purchase by ,bachoo
 from the druggists1 and he and his     

confederate were tried1 convicted and   
hanged4    ,the quick-witted ,hindu     
criminal soon adopted the ,european     
method of  securing ill-gotten gains by 
the insurance and murder of unsuspecting
  victims4 ,palmer of ,rugeley and ,la  
,pommerais of ,paris had many imitators 
in the ,east4 ,a poor creature of weak  
intellect1 ,anacleto ,duarte by  name1  
was done to death in this way by a      
friend and patron who pandered  to his  
vices and often lent him small sums to  
be spent in drink4  ,at last the latter1
 who was a bailiff in one of the ,bombay
 courts1  contrived that ,duarte should 
be insured in the ,sun ,life ,office of 
,canada for the sum of #aj1jjj rupees4  
,fonseca1 the bailiff1 paid the         
premiums and was named in the policy as 
the beneficiary to receive the  amount  
insured if it became payable4 ,after    
,duarte's death the agent of  the       
insurance company1 suspecting foul play1
 refused to hand over the  amount and   
the police were called in4 ,it now      

appeared that ,fonseca and  ,duarte had 
visited a liquor shop together2 that    
when two glasses of rum  were served to 
them1 ,duarte complained that his had a 
bitter taste1  caused no doubt by the   
addition of a pill which he had seen    
,fonseca  put into his glass4 ,when     
,duarte's body was exhumed1 the         
existence of  strychnine in the viscera 
was verified1 and it was shown that     
,fonseca  had bought it ostensibly as a 
poison for rats4 ,fonseca was found     
guilty  and duly hanged4    ,the        
criminal operations of the ,dacoits who 
relied upon datura have  been already   
detailed4 ,there were also gangs in     
,bombay who made it  their business to  
arrange marriages for well-to-do men    
with suitable  spinsters of great       
attractions supposed to belong to       
respectable  families4 ,after the       
marriage the happy bridegroom found to  
his cost  that he had been deceived1 and
 he woke up one fine morning without    
his wife1 who had fled with her         

accomplices1 carrying off all his       
jewels4 ,in these cases datura again had
 been the drug used4 ,a company  of     
poisoners long flourished in the        
province ,scinde4 ,these villains  were 
in the habit of disguising themselves as
 fakirs who visited  people of known    
wealth and offered them food in ,god's  
name4 ,it was  generally accepted and   
piously consumed with fatal results1    
after which  their houses were          
plundered4 ,the impunity with which this
 crime was  everywhere perpetrated was  
one of the greatest evils from which    
,india  has suffered4    ,it is         
generally believed that many more brutal
 murders are committed  than are        
actually brought to light4 ,the police  
custom of dragging  witnesses from their
 houses for long periods encouraged     
those dwelling  in the neighbourhood of 
the crime to combine in concealing the  
circumstances and1 if possible1 the     
actual fact4 ,it was the habit  of the  
police at one time to pounce down upon a

 suspected village1  assemble the       
residents1 and harangue1 browbeat and   
threaten them with  pains and penalties 
to extort unwilling confessions4 ,worse 
still1  these witnesses were dragged    
great distances1 a hundred or a hundred 
and fifty miles1 to appear before the   
courts to give evidence4 ,a great       
improvement has1 however1 taken place in
 recent years4 ,good roads and  railways
 have greatly facilitated communication1
 the magistracy is  active and efficient
 and criminal sessions are held monthly 
even in the  most remote districts4     
,murder by violence was quite as common 
in ,india as by poisoning and  committed
 often by peculiar and unconventional   
means4 ,various kinds of  weapons were  
employed4 ,among them were the bludgeon 
and the club or  lathi1 the stout and   
weighty bamboo staff which1 when the    
thick end  is bound with iron1 becomes a
 tremendous weapon of offence4 ,the head
  is most frequently assailed1 and      
deadly blows result in broken scalps  or

 crushed-in skulls with frightful       
injuries affecting also the heart1      
liver and spleen4 ,the club is made of  
hard wood and in shape is not  unlike an
 exaggerated rolling pin4 ,in one case a
 stone pestle was used  to pound in the 
victim's head4    ,the favourite cutting
 weapon was the tulwar1 or curved sword1
 which  could slash a person almost to  
pieces with clean-cut saucer-shaped     
wounds4 ,the tulwar has a sharp point1  
but was seldom used to stab4  ,the      
halberd had a crescent blade set in a   
heavy wooden handle4 ,a  chopper could  
do terrible mischief1 the axe likewise1 
and the bill or  hatchet with a hooked  
point4 ,death could be given with a     
spear head1  arrow or dagger1 the kris  
or the aro1 a three-pronged striking    
instrument like a trident4 ,fatal wounds
 have been inflicted by a strip  of     
split bamboo long and sharp pointed4    
,strangulation has been practised in    
other ways than by throttling with  the 
handkerchief4 ,it was the custom when   

killing children for their  ornaments to
 squeeze or compress the throat with the
 hands1 assisting  the process with the 
pressure of the knee or foot1 and more  
violence  was often employed than was   
necessary to cause death4 ,sometimes one
  bamboo stick was placed over the      
throat and another under1 so that the   
compression between became fatal4       
,suicide by hanging is common in ,india1
 and sometimes murderers1 having        
accomplished their purpose by cruel     
blows1 have been known to suspend  their
 victims by the neck to give the        
impression of self-destruction4  ,murder
 by hanging is not unknown in ,india4   
,there are several cases on  record     
where persons1 after being cruelly      
misused1 were hanged while  still alive4
    ,homicide by exposing the victim to 
be bitten by poisonous snakes  was      
practised in the olden times and was    
known to the penal code  as a method of 
inflicting capital punishment4 8,witches
 were crammed  into a small chamber full

 of cobras1 where they first half died  
of  fright and then quite died of snake 
bites40 ,a ,gentu prisoner in #agji1    
after inconceivable torture in the      
scorching sun by day1 was cast by  night
 into a dungeon with venomous snakes to 
keep him company4 ,it is  mentioned in  
history that ,hannibal during a naval   
action with the  ,romans launched       
earthen pots filled with snakes into the
 enemy's ships4    ,the high            
intelligence of the elephant enabled the
 native to train it  to become the      
executioner of criminals in ,india4 ,the
 great beast would  obey the orders of  
his mahout1 whether to kill instantly by
 the  pressure of his foot or to        
protract the culprit's agony by breaking
 his  bones one by one and leaving him  
to die by inches4 ,a parricide1 bound1  
was fastened by his heels with a small  
iron chain to the hind leg of an        
elephant and dragged two miles across   
country till all the flesh was  worn    
from his bones4 ,at ,baroda1 in #ahad1 a

 slave who had murdered his  master was 
similarly made fast to the right hind   
leg of an elephant1  and at every step  
of the beast it jerked the victim       
forward so that  in a few moments every 
limb was dislocated4 ,he was as much    
broken as  on the wheel after being     
dragged five hundred yards4 ,the man1   
covered  with mud1 still showed signs of
 life1 and was suffering excruciating   
tortures4 ,in the end the elephant1 as  
he had been trained to do1  placed his  
foot on the criminal's head and at once 
killed him4    ,the criminal records are
 full of the forgery of banknotes1 the  
coining  of false money1 of daring      
robberies committed when houses are     
broken  into1 bank premises invaded and 
iron safes are forced4 ,sharpers and    
swindlers1 rivalling the most astute in 
,europe or ,america1 have  flourished   
and defied the pursuit of the police4   
,some very notable  manufacturers of    
spurious currency notes have spread     
dismay in  financial circles4 ,one of   

the most active and successful was a    
certain  ,vancutta ,chellummyab1 whose  
arrest in ,madras in #ahgb caused a     
great  sensation throughout ,india4 ,a  
vast amount of false ,madras currency   
notes were in circulation in the three  
presidencies1 to the total face  value1 
it was said1 of four lacs of rupees4    
,the fraud was discovered at  ,benares1 
when a pretended agent of a ,madras     
rajah paid for extensive  purchases of  
jewelry with spurious notes4 ,the chief 
forger1 ,vancutta  ,chellummyab1 when   
finally arrested in ,madras1 had notes  
in his  possession concealed in an old  
portmanteau to the value of upwards of  
two hundred thousand rupees4 ,a few     
years later ,bombay was the centre of   
operations1 and a large quantity of the 
most perfectly imitated notes  were     
fabricated and in circulation4          
,information was given by one of  the   
principals in the fraud to divert       
attention from himself1 and a  descent  
made by the police secured a quantity of

 tools and materials  for engraving     
counterfeit notes and coining bad       
,australian sovereigns4  ,there were    
dies1 moulds and stamps and a number of 
coins1 foreign and  native1 manufactured
 out of the baser metals4    ,one of the
 most expert forgers of any age or      
country was a man named  ,govind        
,narayen ,davira of ,bombay4 ,he came of
 a family of forgers1 the  son and      
grandson of forgers1 and did a large    
business in his nefarious  art4 ,a      
single scrap of handwriting sufficed to 
enable him to fabricate  a whole        
document4 ,he knew all about the action 
of chemicals on paper  and could erase  
all traces of original writing to give a
 clean sheet  for a fresh fraudulent    
statement4 ,he was known to have        
converted a  government promissory note 
of #e1jjj rupees into one of double the 
amount4 ,his frauds extended over a     
period of five or six years and were    
finally exposed by the failure of an    
attempt to blackmail4    ,davira was a  

popular person because he was liberal to
 his poorer  confederates4 ,but he fell 
at last into the hands of the police and
 was  lodged in ,poona gaol4 ,here1     
being resolved to avoid trial1 he       
compassed  self-destruction in a very   
reckless fashion4 ,a kerosene oil lamp  
was  kept constantly burning in his     
cell1 rather rashly4 ,he contrived to   
saturate his clothing with the oil and  
then set fire to himself with  the      
result that he was practically burned   
alive4    ,one of the cleverest frauds  
was the forgery of postage stamps in    
,bombay4 ,a forged stamp came into the  
possession of a ,london collector1  by  
whom the fact was reported to the       
postmaster-general in ,bombay4  ,the    
forgery was the work of one of ,davira's
 gang and was traced to a  ,brahmin1    
,shrida1 who had succeeded in producing 
an excellent imitation  with the        
clumsiest implements4 ,he first printed 
the stamp on a  lithographer's stone and
 then coloured it so exactly that it    

deceived  even experts4 ,many hundreds  
of these stamps were seized when ,shrida
 was  arrested4    ,the ingenuity of the
 cheats and swindlers in planning their 
frauds  was only equalled by the        
simplicity of their victims4 ,over and  
over  again the revelation of hidden    
treasure was made to dupes1 who paid    
for the knowledge of the whereabouts of 
the secret hoards1 said to be  the      
property of dead rajahs1 or the proceeds
 of great robberies which  had to be    
temporarily abandoned4 ,credulous fools 
were imposed upon  by fictitious fakirs 
claiming the alchemist's power to       
transmute  the commoner metals into gold
 and silver1 or religious impostors     
played upon their superstitious         
disciples to acquire a similar power4   
,there were at one time thirty-five     
different gangs of swindlers who  preyed
 upon goldsmiths1 pawnbrokers and money 
changers4 ,one of these  confederacies  
was called the 8golden gang10 the       
members of which  uttered false money or

 made large purchases of jewelry for    
imaginary  governors and rajahs1 for    
which they evaded payment1 or raised    
money  upon sealed packets1 the valuable
 contents having been spirited away by  
sleight of hand4    ,until the middle of
 the last century very extensive frauds 
were  practised by the misappropriation 
of timber in the large forests of       
,india4 ,the natives seemed to have     
believed in their prescriptive rights   
to what was really the exclusive        
property of the state4 ,thousands of    
people were engaged in cutting down     
trees for firewood1 when it was  within 
paying distance of removal by road or   
rail to some neighbouring  city4 ,these 
depredations have now been checked by   
the establishment  of an effective1     
well-organised forest department1 the   
officers of  which control and supervise
 large tracts of timber1 cutting down   
when  desirable and planting afresh to  
ensure future supply4 ,the reader will  
remember ,rudyard ,kipling's graphic    

account of the ,indian forest officer   
and his remarkable native assistant1    
,mowgli1 of the story1 ,in the  ,rukh1  
in the volume entitled1 8,many          
,inventions40    ,housebreaking is among
 the minor crimes of ,india which is    
especially  troublesome4 ,earthen walls 
and foundations facilitate the          
operations  of the thieves who are      
commonly known as 8wall-piercers40      
,these  depredators are in the habit of 
making a hole through the walls1        
driving a gallery1 in fact1 into the    
interior of a house through which  they 
can wriggle into the strong room1       
generally situated about the  centre4   
,as it is always understood that the    
owner of the house may  be on the alert 
and in waiting to receive the thief1 as 
a matter of  precaution he will either  
emerge feet foremost or push before him 
an  earthen vessel having something of  
the shape of a man's head to receive    
the first blow of the tulwar1 or other  
defensive weapon4 ,the ,indian          

housebreaker is a slippery customer1    
difficult to seize1 for he is  usually  
naked1 and has carefully oiled his      
person so as to easily slip  through the
 fingers of any one who lays hold of    
him4    ,i cannot bring this account of 
crime in ,india to a close without      
mention of an atrocity which is         
unequalled in the annals of human       
oppression4    ,what imprisonment may   
mean in the ,east1 when inflicted in    
defiance of  the most elementary        
conditions of health in a tropical      
climate1 has  been recorded in letters  
of blood in the awful story of the      
,black ,hole  of ,calcutta4 ,the        
miscreant responsible for the crime was 
the ,nabob of  ,bengal1 ,surajah        
,dowlah1 who had gained a fleeting      
triumph over the  early ,english        
settlers1 and having captured ,fort     
,william at the mouth  of ,hugli1 and   
made all the occupants prisoners1 he    
turned them over  to his savage         
followers4 ,for security they were      

incarcerated in one  small room or      
chamber some eighteen feet square4 ,the 
season was the  height of summer2 the   
room was closed to the eastward and     
southward by  dead walls and to the     
northward by a wall and door1 so that no
 fresh  air could enter save by two     
small windows1 strongly barred with     
iron4  ,into this limited space #adf    
human beings were crammed1 already in a 
state of exhaustion by a long day spent 
in fatiguing conflict1 and  several of  
them seriously wounded4 ,piteous        
entreaties were made to the  guards on  
duty to diminish the numbers imprisoned 
by removal elsewhere2  large sums were  
offered as the price of this boon1 but  
with no effect4  ,no step could be taken
 without the permission of the ,nabob1  
who was  asleep1 and none dared wake    
him4 ,after vain attempts to break open 
the  doors and fruitless appeals to the 
mercy of the sleeping ,nabob1 8the      
prisoners went mad with despair40 ,the  
rest of the story can best be  told in  

the words of one of the masters of the  
,english language1 ,lord  ,macaulay4    
8,they trampled each other down1 fought 
for the places at the  windows1 fought  
for the pittance of water with which the
 cruel mercy of  the murderers mocked   
their agonies1 raved1 prayed1           
blasphemed1 implored  the guards to fire
 among them4 ,the gaolers in the        
meantime held lights  to the bars1 and  
shouted with laughter at the frantic    
struggles of  their victims4 ,at length 
the tumult died away in low gaspings and
  moanings4 ,the day broke4 ,the ,nabob 
had slept off his debauch1 and          
permitted the door to be opened4 ,but it
 was some time before the  soldiers     
could make a lane for the survivors1 by 
piling up on each side  the heaps of    
corpses on which the burning climate had
 already begun to  do its loathsome     
work4 ,when at length a passage was     
made1 twenty-three  ghastly figures1    
such as their own mothers would not have
 known1  staggered one by one out of the

 charnel house4 ,a pit was instantly    
dug4  ,the dead bodies1 a hundred and   
twenty-three in number1 were flung into 
it promiscuously and covered up4        
8,but these things which1 after the     
lapse of more than eighty years1  cannot
 be told or read without horror1        
awakened neither remorse nor  pity in   
the bosom of the savage ,nabob4 ,he     
inflicted no punishment on  the         
murderers4 ,he showed no tenderness to  
the survivors4 ,some of them1  indeed1  
from whom nothing was to be got1 were   
suffered to depart2 but  those from whom
 it was thought that anything could be  
extorted were  treated with execrable   
cruelty4 ,holwell1 unable to walk1 was  
carried  before the tyrant1 who         
reproached him1 threatened him1 and sent
 him  up the country in irons1 together 
with some other gentlemen who were      
suspected of knowing more than they     
chose to tell about the treasures  of   
the ,company4 ,these persons1 still     
bowed down by the sufferings  of that   

great agony1 were lodged in miserable   
sheds1 and fed only  with grain and     
water1 till at length the intercessions 
of the female  relations of the ,nabob  
procured their release4 ,one            
,englishwoman had  survived that night4 
,she was placed in the harem of the     
prince at  ,moorshedabad40    ,it is    
told in history how the merciless ,nabob
 was eventually called  to strict       
account4 ,the ,english at ,madras vowed 
vengeance1 and an  expedition was       
forthwith fitted out for the ,hugli1    
small in numbers1  but full of undaunted
 spirit1 and led by one of the most     
famous  of ,british soldiers1 ,lord     
,clive4 ,the victory of ,plassy1 which  
consolidated the ,british power in      
,india1 overthrew ,surajah ,dowlah1 who 
expiated the crime of the ,black ,hole  
when captured and put to death by  his  
successor ,meer ,jaffier4               
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,the ,,andaman       
,,islands        ,revived as a penal    
settlement after the ,indian ,mutiny in 

#aheg--,now holds some twelve thousand  
convicts--,port ,blair system           
established--,graduated                 
treatment--,well-selected               
marriages--,lapses      from good       
order--,cases and causes--,assassination
 of ,lord ,mayo--,the      aboriginal   
,andamanese--,the ,tarawas--,escapes    
constantly effected      by ,burmese    
prisoners--,general results             
achieved--,development by               
cultivation--,clearance of forests--,tea
 plantation--,numerous                  
exports--,deportation from the ,straits 
,settlements to      ,bombay--,ratnagiri
 gaol4      ,the ,indian government long
 practised transportation beyond the    
seas  as a punishment for the most      
determined criminals4 ,the terrors of   
crossing the 8black water0 were very    
potent to the native mind1  although the
 effect of the penalty as a deterrent   
was never marked  and the practice      
gradually fell into desuetude4 ,but it  
was revived in  #aheg as a solution of  

the difficulty in dealing with the great
 body  of rebels and mutineers in       
custody charged with participation in   
the  great ,indian ,mutiny1 a special   
commission was despatched to visit the  
,andaman ,islands and report upon their 
fitness for the establishment of  a     
great penal settlement4 ,to the student 
of penal science1 the results  achieved 
in the ,indian ,ocean1 or more exactly1 
the ,sea of ,bengal1 must  be extremely 
interesting4 ,the system of             
transportation has succeeded  better    
there than anywhere else1 whether in the
 ,australian colonies1  where it        
resulted in the creation of a great     
nation at the cost of much  human       
misery1 or in the ,french experiment in 
,new ,caledonia4 ,russia has  also tried
 transportation on a gigantic scale with
 the most deplorable  results in        
,siberia and on the island of           
,saghalien4    ,the settlement on the   
,andamans1 or more precisely upon the   
northern  and principal island1 has by  

this time accomplished a very distinct  
work in penal colonisation4 ,many       
causes1 natural and artificial1 have    
contributed to this gratifying result3 a
 fertile soil1 a good1 albeit  tropical 
climate2 an intelligent administration1 
which has been backed  up by the willing
 efforts of convict labourers1 alive    
generally to  their own benefit in      
making the best of the system in        
practice4 ,the  force available for the 
cultivation and development of the main 
island  has always been large4    ,it is
 an industrious1 self-supporting and for
 the most part peaceable  population1   
where good order and a quiet demeanour  
are enforced by  stringent discipline1  
although the inherent evil nature of so 
many  criminals cannot be invariably    
held in check1 and ghastly occurrences  
have from time to time been recorded in 
almost every nook and corner  of ,port  
,blair1 the headquarters of the penal   
settlement4 ,the ,andaman  convict has  
committed some heinous offences2 he is a

 murderer in some  form or other1       
deliberate1 vindictive1 or moved by     
sudden ungovernable  passion2 he has    
been a highway robber or persistent     
,dacoit2 he has  forged notes or        
securities on a great scale4 ,he has    
betrayed a  serious trust1 has been a   
wrecker and desperado1 and has more than
  once deserved the extreme penalty of  
the law4 ,beneath the surface the       
community is a seething mass of         
depravity1 of wickedness1 generally     
latent1 but breaking out often in the   
most violent and bloodthirsty  excesses4
    ,to have held the dangerous elements
 continually in check1 to have  largely 
modified and counteracted their evil    
tendencies1 and to have  returned the   
worst characters to their homes cured   
and reformed is  a subject for          
congratulation by those who achieved it1
 and some  account of the system        
employed at the ,andamans is worth      
giving here4  ,it is right1 however1 to 
admit that this system is not entirely  

efficacious4 ,all are not amenable to   
better influences and a certain  small  
percentage remains incorrigible4 ,some  
four per cent4 of the total  population 
have shown themselves so desperately bad
 that it has been  deemed unsafe to     
suffer them to leave the precincts of   
the gaol4    ,every convict on first    
arrival is relegated to the close       
confinement  of the cellular prison by  
way of breaking him in1 and he is       
detained  there under the most irksome  
conditions for an unbroken period of six
  months4 ,he remains in his cell all   
day and all night1 save for a brief     
space spent at exercise with others1 but
 in strict silence4 ,his next  step is  
to an associated gaol where gang labour 
of a severe character  is enforced1 and 
is imposed for a year and a half4 ,then 
come three  years of unremitting toil1  
the exact counterpart of penal servitude
 as  understood in ,great ,britain--hard
 labour under supervision1 unpaid1      
unrewarded1 but he is well fed1 well    

housed and cared for1 and always        
closely guarded4 ,five years have thus  
elapsed in a painfully monotonous  and  
irksome existence1 after which his      
employment is pleasanter and his        
personal capacity is studied2 the more  
intelligent are selected for  positions 
of trust and authority4    ,comparative 
freedom comes at the end of ten years1  
the convict gains  his ticket-of-leave  
and is called in local language a       
8self-supporter40  ,he has done1 more or
 less1 with prison restraints2 he lives 
in some  small village in a house of his
 own and earns his living his own  way2 
he farms2 he keeps cattle2 he moves     
about freely unguarded and  unwatched2  
he sends home to the mainland for his   
wife and children2  or1 if single1 he   
may marry a female convict in the same  
position as  himself4 ,his condition is 
to a certain extent enviable4 ,if       
industrious1  he may make and put by    
money1 but still he is tied and bound by
  regulation2 he has no civil rights1   

and is in the hands of a paternal       
authority which prescribes his place of 
residence and will suffer him  to move  
to and fro within his village1 if well  
conducted1 but he cannot  leave the     
settlement and he must not be idle under
 pain of the loss of  privileges and    
relegation to enforced labour4          
,existence nevertheless is  tolerable1  
and in this way he completes ten or     
fifteen years more until  at length the 
time for absolute release arrives4 ,in  
the earlier period  of this last stage  
he has received assistance in the shape 
of free  gifts of food and tools and a  
roof to cover him1 but his self-reliance
  is stimulated by the obligation in    
later years to fend for himself  and    
accept all the public burdens of the    
community4 ,he must pay rent  and taxes 
and all charges exacted from the free   
population4 ,all the  disabilities are  
equally imposed upon female convicts    
with permission  to marry or enter      
domestic service after five years of    

conditional  liberation4    ,we see in  
this system a consistent effort to      
encourage self-help and  self-restraint4
 ,moral improvement is its great aim2   
good conduct is  encouraged2            
retrogression1 or lapse into            
wrong-doing1 is punished by  the        
withdrawal of privileges and a return to
 irksome restraint4 ,on  the other hand1
 substantial reward is offered to those 
who have made  the best use of their    
ticket-of-leave1 and the old convict1   
purged  of his original offence1        
emerges1 and1 backed by the small       
capital  he has saved1 has become an    
orderly and reputable member of society1
  thoroughly reformed1 broken to harness
 and reasonably certain to  continue in 
the straight road4 ,he is neither pauper
 nor gaol-bird2  he is no unwelcome     
burden on his relatives1 no menace to   
public  security1 but a source of       
strength rather than weakness to the    
body  politic4 ,penal exile has never   
before achieved such excellent results4 

,steady industry1 as we have seen1 is   
the general rule1 and morality is       
greatly encouraged4 ,convict marriages1 
such a fruitful source of evil          
elsewhere1 as in ,new ,caledonia and    
,saghalien1 where they have fallen      
largely into disuse1 are preceded by so 
many precautions that the bond  when    
entered into is seldom broken4 ,the     
fitness of the contracting  parties is  
personally inquired into by the chief   
authority of the place  who must give   
his sanction or no marriage can take    
place4 ,permission  is refused in       
certain cases as when a husband in      
,india declines to  divorce his convict 
wife1 or when the applicants are of bad 
character  or the male is an hereditary 
,dacoit1 or when there is a difference  
in  caste4 ,great care is also taken of 
the children when any are born4  ,the   
young are well cared for2 primary       
education is compulsory and  technical  
instruction is free to all4 ,thrift is  
steadily inculcated in  the rising      

generation and stimulated by the example
 of the elders4 ,no  institution is more
 flourishing at ,port ,blair than the   
savings bank1  and the self-supporting  
convicts are often considerable         
depositors from  the economies made in  
their allowance and the profits on their
 labour4  ,sanitation receives the very 
best attention in the islands1 and both 
death and sick rate are1 for the ,east1 
exceptionally low4 ,the public  health  
is seldom1 if ever1 affected by         
malignant epidemic disease2  cholera is 
a rare visitant1 and small-pox is       
constantly kept in check4  ,there is an 
abundant and most efficient medical     
staff1 and the convicts  at large1 as   
well as those actually in durance1 can  
count upon the  official doctor's       
unremitting care4    ,although the      
general tone of the settlement is       
excellent1 and good  order is preserved1
 there are occasionally lapses among the
 convicts  whose manners and            
dispositions are by no means mild and   

submissive1 nor  can their evil impulses
 be easily repressed1 or still less     
entirely  stamped out4 ,the convict     
temper is irritable and breaks out often
 into  resistance to authority and      
bitter quarrels of one with another     
which  sometimes end in murderous       
affrays4 ,there is a seamy side to ,port
  ,blair which is often shown in        
resistance to authority exercised1 as   
it mostly is1 by fellow convicts        
advanced to positions of trust2 for     
some six per cent4 of well-conducted    
convicts are regularly employed  as     
warders1 guards and overseers4 ,this is 
in accordance with the  general practice
 in ,india1 although entirely condemned 
by modern penal  science4 ,nevertheless1
 mutiny and insubordination are uncommon
 on any  large scale1 although          
vindictive feelings are aroused and     
cherished at  real or fancied injustice 
and oppression1 and in the annals of    
murders  committed one or two convict   
officials killed by comrades figure     

annually4    ,the causes of murder in   
the ,andamans hardly differ from those  
inciting  to it elsewhere4 ,murderous   
passion is swiftly aroused among men    
with  savage1 irritable tempers1 quick  
to quarrel1 quicker still to strike2    
consuming thirst for revenge will be    
slaked only in blood2 and greed  and    
covetousness are easily awakened in     
people whose self-control  is weak4 ,a  
small reason often suffices for the     
infliction of death4  ,a convict asked a
 village woman to be allowed to husk his
 rice in  her mortar and killed her     
brutally with an axe when she refused4  
,an old ,dacoit1 who had been refused   
permission to marry1 killed a  more     
fortunate rival to whom the woman of his
 choice was given4 ,two  convicts1 about
 to be granted tickets as               
self-supporters1 were eager  to obtain  
sufficient funds to give them a good    
start2 they discovered  that a convict1 
who was a notorious miser1 had a secret 
hoard1 and  his fate was sealed4 ,his   

body was picked up in a running stream  
with  his head broken in4 ,a somewhat   
similar case was that of a labouring    
convict who was in possession of a sum  
of money lent by a friend2 he  first was
 inveigled into a lonely spot and there 
knocked down by a  blow on the eye1     
after which he was strangled4 ,a convict
 employed as  a petty officer in        
hospital incurred the deadly enmity of a
 patient  for reporting him to the      
doctor1 and the patient gave vent to his
  hatred by killing his enemy with a    
thrust of a pointed bamboo4 ,the  same  
weapon was used by another convict who  
beat out the brains of a  petty officer 
for slapping him on parade in the       
presence of a hundred  men4 ,one convict
 had caught another hanging about the   
barrack room bent  upon thieving1 and   
having expressed his intention of       
denouncing him was  murdered while      
asleep on his bed4 ,a convict warder    
supervising a party  of sail-makers had 
reason to find fault with one of his    

charges for  idling1 and at the first   
opportunity1 before anyone had time to  
suspect  or prevent him1 the labourer   
picked up a knife and stabbed the       
overseer4    ,any weapon would serve to 
give effect to the homicidal frenzy2    
sometimes it was a rice pounder1        
sometimes a wooden crutch1 sometimes  an
 axe for cutting firewood1 sometimes a  
heavy mallet used in  wool-teasing4 ,the
 convicts were known to commit the      
capital offence  in order to draw down  
the death penalty when they were tired  
of life  from long brooding over fancied
 unjust treatment4 ,sentence of death by
  hanging was the invariable requital of
 murder when clearly proved1 and  it was
 passed by a sessions' judge1 subject to
 subsequent confirmation  by a court of 
reference4 ,lesser punishments were     
sometimes imposed1  such as prolonged   
transportation or relegation to the     
chain gang1 while  corporal punishment  
was ordered for lesser offences4    ,an 
atrocious murder which echoed through   

the whole world was that of  the viceroy
 of ,india1 ,lord ,mayo1 who was killed 
by an ,andaman convict  in #ahgb4 ,the  
viceroy had visited ,mount ,harriet1 a  
finely wooded  slope rising above ,port 
,blair and looking out over ,viper      
,island with  a glorious view eastward1 
in order to judge of its suitability as 
a  sanatorium4 ,he had just finished the
 descent4 8,the ship's bells had  just  
rung seven2 the launch with steam up was
 whizzing at the jetty  stairs2 a group 
of her seamen were chatting on the      
pier-end4 ,it was  now quite dark1 and  
the black line of the jungle seemed to  
touch the  water's edge4 ,the viceroy's 
party passed some large loose stones to 
the left of the head of the pier1 and   
advanced along the jetty2 two           
torchbearers in front40 ,the viceroy1   
preceding the rest1 stepped  quickly    
forward to descend the stairs to the    
launch4 ,the next moment  the people in 
the rear heard a noise1 as of 8the rush 
of some animal0  from behind the loose  

stones2 one or two saw a hand raised and
 a  knife blade suddenly glisten in the 
torchlight4 ,the viceroy's private      
secretary heard a thud1 and instantly   
turning round1 found a man  8fastened   
like a tiger0 on the back of ,lord      
,mayo4    8,in a second twelve men were 
on the assassin2 an ,english officer was
  pulling them off1 and with his        
sword-hilt keeping back the native      
guards1 who would have killed the       
assailant on the spot4 ,the torches  had
 gone out2 but the viceroy1 who had     
staggered over the pier-side1  was dimly
 seen rising up in the knee-deep water1 
and clearing the hair  off his brow with
 his hand as if recovering himself4 ,his
 private  secretary was instantly at his
 side in the surf1 helping him up the   
bank4 #8,burne1' he said quietly1       
#8they've hit me4' ,then1 in a louder   
voice1 which was heard on the pier1     
#8,it's all right1 ,i don't think ,i'm  
much hurt1' or words to that effect4 ,in
 another minute he was sitting  under   

the smoky glare of the re-lit torches1  
on a rude native cart at  the side of   
the jetty1 his legs hanging loosely     
down4 ,then they lifted  him bodily on  
to the cart1 and saw a great dark patch 
on the back of  his light coat4 ,the    
blood came streaming out1 and men tried 
to staunch  it with their handkerchiefs4
 ,for a moment or two he sat up on the  
cart1  then he fell heavily backwards4  
#8,lift up my head1' he said faintly1   
and  said no more40    ,the assassin1   
,sher ,ali1 was a very brave man        
belonging to one of  the ,afridi tribes1
 who had done excellent service to more 
than one  commissioner at ,peshawar and 
distinguished himself as a soldier4 ,he 
was completely trusted by ,colonel      
,reynolds ,taylor1 one of the best of   
our ,indian officers1 when at ,peshawar1
 and was often in attendance on  his    
family2 in fact1 he was the confidential
 servant of the house4  ,this man1      
however1 belonged to a society in which 
tribal feuds were  a hereditary custom4 

,some such feud existed in his family   
and he was  called upon to take his part
 in exacting a bloody vengeance for a   
quarrel4 ,had he committed the murder on
 his own side of the frontier1  no      
notice could have been taken of it2 and 
it would have been esteemed  a          
legitimate deed sanctioned by the       
religious feelings and customs  of the  
tribe2 but his offence was committed    
within ,british territory  and must be  
tried by ,british laws4 ,he was         
convicted and sentenced to              
transportation to the ,andamans instead 
of death1 which he would greatly  have  
preferred4 ,continually brooding under a
 sense of wrong1 he took  the first     
opportunity that offered for murderous  
retaliation and found  the death he     
desired1 on the gallows4    ,attempts to
 escape from the islands were at times  
frequent1 encouraged  by the easy access
 to the sea and the facility with which 
boats  could be seized4 ,but recaptures 
were also constantly made1 and there    

were other chances against the          
fugitives1 especially that of being  run
 down by the aboriginal ,andamanese4    
,the natives of these islands  are      
savages of a ,nigrito race allied to the
 ,papuans1 but who1 from  having had no 
connection with the outer world for     
several centuries1  have kept their     
blood absolutely pure4 ,they are of     
small stature1  the males a little under
 five feet in height1 but finely made   
and  well proportioned4 ,in colour they 
are a jet black1 and are among  the     
darkest hued specimens of mankind4 ,they
 are inveterate smokers1  men1 women and
 children1 and are bright and           
intelligent1 somewhat  childish1        
petulant and quick tempered1 but merry  
and light-hearted4  ,they constitute a  
good unofficial guard1 and as they      
constantly prowl  round the convict     
settlements are a great deterrent to    
escape4  ,being well used to jungle     
life1 they are very successful trackers1
  who frequently bring back fugitives   

dead or alive4 ,if by chance the        
evading convicts fall into the hands of 
the ,jarawa tribe1 their fate is        
sealed4 ,these ,jarawas are and always  
have been utterly irreclaimable2        
neither kindness nor force has had any  
appreciable effect in overcoming  their 
unconquerable dislike to strangers1 even
 of their own blood  belonging to other 
tribes4 ,armed with bows and arrows1    
they show fight  whenever encountered1  
and when pressed and punishment is      
attempted1  they retire into the        
impenetrable jungle4 ,with the exception
 of these  irreconcilables1 the         
,andamanese have been trained1 like     
other wild  animals1 by patience and    
kindness to treat us with entire        
confidence  and trust4    ,the strong   
yearning to escape torments more        
especially the natives of  ,burmah1 a   
large number of whom are deported to the
 ,andamans4 ,they are  a semi-amphibious
 race1 largely brought up to a life on  
the water1  expert boatmen and tireless 

swimmers4 ,precise rules are in force at
 the  ,andamans that only a limited     
number of ,burmese may be included in   
any  one boat's crew4 ,more than half   
the escapes by water were accomplished  
by ,burmese1 who boldly ventured out    
into the open sea1 risking all  its     
perils to win across to their dearly    
loved native land4 ,it is a  curious    
fact that the ,burmese ,dacoit1 who     
would face the death penalty  with      
fortitude1 has always dreaded           
imprisonment or deportation with        
overmastering terror4 ,one explanation  
of this consuming dread is the  not     
uncommon fear of the unknown4 ,again1   
the treatment of prisoners in  ,burmah  
under the native rgime was merciless2   
the most excruciating  tortures were the
 rule1 and protracted life was worse    
than a thousand  deaths4 ,exile to the  
,andaman ,islands was anticipated with  
nameless  apprehension4 ,the case of a  
famous ,dacoit may be quoted in proof of
  this4 ,he had been long in custody2 he

 awaited his trial with patience  and   
resignation1 and he would have heard a  
sentence of death unmoved1  but he was  
quite overcome when a short term of     
transportation to the  ,andamans was    
passed upon him1 although it was        
accompanied by a promise  of early      
conditional liberation4 ,when the time  
came for his departure1  he refused to  
move off with his escort1 kicking and   
even biting  everyone within reach1 and 
eventually he had to be tied with ropes 
and  carried along4    ,in this         
connection1 ,major ,e4 ,c4 ,browne1 in  
8,the ,coming of the ,great  ,queen10   
tells the following3    8,it was the    
same with other ,dacoits who had been   
taken red-handed4  ,two or three were   
shot1 others flogged and released and   
several were  detained for deportation4 
,these were the gloomiest of all and    
begged  to be killed or released4 ,one  
fellow actually succeeded in evading his
  sentence4 ,he had got hold of a       
soldier's boot-lace and with this he    

strangled himself during the night4 ,i  
should scarcely have been able  to      
credit this story if the witness of the 
dead man in the morning1  with the      
boot-lace drawn so tight that it had    
actually penetrated the  skin1 had not  
been an officer of my own regiment whose
 veracity was  unimpeachable40    ,the  
best general account of the results     
obtained in the ,andamans is  found in  
the address to the ,society of ,arts by 
,colonel ,temple1 sometime  chief       
commissioner to the ,andaman and        
,nicobar ,islands4 ,the ,andaman  penal 
system 8is the result of the constant   
attention of the government  which      
created it1 and is the outcome of the   
measures of practical men1  devised to  
meet the difficulties with which they   
have found themselves  face to face1 and
 reduced to order and rule by some of   
the keenest  intellects that have worked
 in ,india for many years past40        
,repeatedly  tinkered and patched and   
recast and remodelled though it has     

been1 the  ,andaman system is still     
inchoate1 still on its trial1 as it     
were4 ,it  could not well be otherwise1 
for in dealing with the criminal we are 
attempting to solve a mighty problem as 
old as criminality itself4    ,from the 
best estimates at hand we may take it   
that the permanent  convict strength of 
the settlement may be placed at about   
twelve  thousand1 of whom about eight   
hundred are women1 and the rule is that 
only life convicts are sent from ,india 
and life and long-term convicts  from   
,burmah4 ,the people received1          
therefore1 are the murderers who  have  
for some reason escaped the death       
penalty1 and the perpetrators  of the   
more heinous offences against person and
 property1 the men of  brutal violence1 
the highwaymen1 the robbers1 the        
habitual thieves and  the receivers of  
stolen goods1 the worst of the          
swindlers1 forgers1  cheats1 coiners    
and1 in fact1 the most unrestrained     
temperaments of  a continent4 ,these    

considerations show the scale of the    
work and the  nature of the task4 ,any  
one observing the work of the ,english  
in  the ,east may possibly be struck    
with the idea that the reason for  the  
acknowledged capacity of the race for   
colonial enterprise and  the maintenance
 of empire is the ability and the       
willingness of the  average ,englishman 
to put his hand to any kind of work that
 may come  his way1 without any special 
training1 from framing suitable laws and
  regulations and creating suitable     
organisations to making roads and       
ditches1 building houses and clearing   
land and ploughing it4 ,here in  ,port  
,blair1 the officers entrusted with the 
creation and organisation  had no       
training for the work and were without  
any special guidance  and teaching1 yet 
they managed1 with the worst possible   
material to  work upon1 to create in    
little more than forty years1 upon      
primeval  forest and swamp1 situated in 
an enervating and1 until mastered1 a    

deadly climate1 a community supporting  
itself in regard to many of its         
complicated wants4    ,they began with  
the dense forests1 the fetid swamps and 
the  pestilential coral banks of        
tropical islands1 and have made out of  
them many square miles of grass and     
arable lands1 supporting over  fifty    
villages besides convict stations4      
,miles upon miles of swamp  have been   
reclaimed1 the coral banks have been    
controlled and a place  with regard to  
which the words climate and pestilence  
were almost  synonymous has been turned 
into one favourably spoken of as to its 
healthiness4 ,the settlement now grows  
its own vegetables1 tea1 coffee1  cocoa1
 tapioca and arrowroot1 some of its     
ordinary food grains and most  of its   
fodder4 ,it supplies itself with the    
greater part of its animal  food and all
 its fuel and salt4 ,in other lines of  
work1 it makes its  own boats and       
provides from its own resources the bulk
 of the materials  for its buildings    

which are constructed and erected       
locally4 ,among  the materials produced 
are all the timber1 stone1 bricks1 lime 
and  mortar1 and most of the iron and   
metal work are made up there from raw   
material4 ,in the matter of convict     
clothing1 all that is necessary to  be  
purchased elsewhere is the roughest of  
cotton hanks and wool in the  first raw 
condition1 every other operation being  
performed on the spot4  ,it provides    
much of its own leather4    ,in         
achieving the results1 the officers have
 had first to learn for  themselves as  
best they could how to turn out the work
 to hand and then  to teach what they   
had learned to the most unpromising     
pupils that can  be imagined for the    
work required of them in ,port ,blair4  
,and they have  been hampered all along 
by the necessities of convict           
discipline1 by  the constant release of 
their men and their punishment for      
misconduct4  ,it is under such          
conditions that the corps of artificers 

and other  convicts have had to be      
utilised4 ,nevertheless1 the roads and  
drains1  the buildings and boats1 the   
embankments and reservoirs1 are as  good
 and durable as are the same class of   
structures elsewhere4 ,the              
manufacturers are sufficient for their  
purpose1 and there are among the  taught
 those who are now skilled in the use of
 many kinds of machinery4  ,cultivation 
is generally fair and some of it very   
good2 the general  sanitation is        
literally second to none4    ,first of  
all the industries of the ,andamans is  
that of timber1 and  to accelerate and  
increase it a steam tramway has been    
instituted  and there are now some      
fourteen miles of line connecting the   
forests  with the shores of ,port       
,blair4 ,as a further adjunct steam     
saw-mills  were erected in #ahif and a  
forest department that employs from five
  to six hundred men daily under its own
 officers1 not only supplies  the       
settlement with all of its requirements 

in timber from the local  forests1 but  
also exports timber and forest produce  
to various places  in ,india and        
,europe4 ,of these latter exports1      
rattans and gurjun oil  are the chief2  
other natural products of the islands   
are trepang1  tortoise-shell and edible 
birds' nests1 but they are collected    
only  in small quantities4 ,the         
principal cultivations in which convicts
  and ex-convicts are engaged are paddy1
 sugar cane1 ,indian corn and  turmeric2
 cocoanuts have during the past         
thirty-five years been  extensively     
planted1 and besides the agricultural   
products previously  mentioned1         
vegetables and fruits of various kinds  
are grown4 ,the larger  industries in   
which the penal community is engaged    
have already been  alluded to1 but there
 are many minor employments1 the        
products from  which also go toward     
making the settlement self-supporting4  
,among these  are to be found the       
manufacture of all kinds of furniture1  

cane chairs1  baskets1 many varieties of
 bamboo work and ornamental woodcarving1
  woven articles from serviettes to     
saddle-girths1 and blankets1 pottery1   
rope and mats1 silver1 tin1 brass and   
iron work1 shoes1 rickshaws and  carts1 
besides the production of such materials
 as lime1 bricks and  tiles4 ,port      
,blair is in communication three and    
often four times a  month with          
,calcutta1 ,madras and ,rangoon by the  
vessels of the ,asiatic  ,steam         
,navigation ,company4 ,the distances    
between the settlement and the  ports   
named are #gif1 #ghj and #chg miles     
respectively4    ,the earliest penal    
settlement on the ,andamans was in the  
southern  island1 where it was founded  
on the present site of ,port ,blair in  
#agib4  ,it was known as the 8old       
harbour40 ,after three years the        
establishment  was moved to the present 
,port ,cornwallis on the northern       
island1 but  this proved to be most     
unhealthy and it was closed1 the        

convicts1  numbering some two hundred   
and seventy1 being removed to ,penang1  
at the  extremity of the ,malay         
,peninsula4 ,in the early 8fifties0 the 
,straits  ,settlements sometimes sent   
their long-term convicts to ,bombay1    
from  where they were usually drafted to
 such moist and congenial climates as   
,tannah and ,ratnagiri4 ,by good        
behaviour they earned tickets-of-leave  
to  the hill stations1 ,mahabuleshwar   
and ,matheran1 where they became the    
market-gardeners of the place1 many     
preferring to remain after their  time  
had expired1 respected and respectable  
citizens1 often possessed  of           
considerable wealth4 ,at one time the   
,ratnagiri gaol contained about  three  
hundred and sixty convicts2 8at least   
two-thirds were ,chinamen  and ,malays  
from the ,straits1 great ruffians1 each 
with a record of  piracy or murder1 or  
both combined4 ,many of them were       
heavily fettered  and carefully guarded 
by armed police when at their ordinary  

work in  the #8laterite' quarries1 for  
they were mostly powerful men20 the     
tools  they used were formidable weapons
 and as there were known to be deadly   
feuds always present among them1 serious
 disturbances and outbreaks  were       
constantly dreaded4 ,nevertheless1      
misconduct was exceedingly rare2        
breaches of gaol discipline were much   
fewer among these desperadoes  than     
among the milder ,hindus in the         
work-sheds within the gaol4 ,the  fact  
having in due course created much       
surprise1 inquiries were  instituted as 
to why pirates and murderers1 usually so
 insubordinate in  other places1 were so
 well-conducted and quiet at ,ratnagiri4
    ,the riddle was presently solved4   
8,for some years one ,sheik ,kassam had 
been gaoler4 ,belonging to the fisherman
 class and possessed of very  little    
education1 he had1 nevertheless1 worked 
his way upward through  the police by   
dint of honesty1 hard work and a certain
 shrewdness  which had more than once   

brought him to the front4 ,at last1     
toward  the end of his service1 the     
gaolership falling vacant1 he was1 with 
everyone's cordial approval1 nominated  
to the post40 ,with comparative  rest   
and improved pay1 the old gentleman     
waxed fatter and jollier  and was       
esteemed one of the most genial         
companions the country could  produce4  
,the cares of state1 and the            
responsibility of three hundred         
murderous convicts1 weighed lightly on  
,sheik ,kassam4 ,he developed a         
remarkable talent or predilection for   
gardening1 almost from the first4  8,he 
laid out the quarry beds1 brought water 
down to irrigate them1  produced all the
 gaol required in the way of green      
stuff1 and made  tapioca and arrowroot  
by the ton4 ,the better plot of land    
belonging  to the gaol lay between      
,sheik ,kassam's own official residence1
 a  tiny bungalow-fashioned dwelling1   
and a walled courtyard near to the      
highroad4 ,the sheik had no difficulty  

in obtaining permission to erect  a high
 wall of rubble from the quarries along 
the whole road frontage1  so that1 as he
 urged1 the convicts at work in the     
garden would not be  gazed at by        
passers-by1 and that forbidden articles1
 such as tobacco1  sweetmeats1 liquor1  
and the like1 should not be passed or   
even thrown  over to them40             
,presently this favourite slice of      
garden was safely boxed in from the     
public view by an enclosure some eight  
feet high1 extending from the  gaol     
itself round to the gaoler's house1 the 
only entrance to it being  a little     
wicket-gate by the side of the sheik's  
back-yard4    ,at last the              
head-superintendent of the ,bombay      
prison heard that  ,sheik ,kassam's     
disciplinary system consisted in his    
bringing the  most dangerous of the     
,chinamen and ,malays quietly into his  
back-yard  from the adjoining garden1   
and there regaling them with plenty of  
sweetmeats1 sugar1 drink in moderate    

quantity1 and adding even the  joys of  
female society of a peculiar sort4 ,if  
any one became unruly  or saucy1 he was 
liable to get a dozen lashes1 but if    
they behaved  decently they all had     
their little festivals with regularity4 
,after  this discovery1 poor old ,sheik 
,kassam's character as a model gaoler   
was  gone2 he was dismissed1 but with a 
full pension which he did not live  long
 to enjoy4          ,,chapter ,,vii     
,,prisons ,,of ,,burmah        ,british 
acquisition of ,burmah--,quarrels with  
the king in #ahbd--;,his                
reprisals--,british subjects seized and 
sent to prison--,mr4 ,henry             
,gouger's narrative--,the 8,death       
,prison0--,gigantic stocks--,filthiness 
of prison--,tortures                    
inflicted--,barbarous trials--,horrible 
life--,rats and                         
vermin--,smallpox--,tobacco a valuable  
disinfectant--,another 8,black          
,hole0--,chained to a leper--,released  
by the advance of ,british              

troops--,penal code of ,burmah--,ordeals
      and punishments--,treading to     
death by elephants--,dacoity the last   
form of resistance to ,british          
rule--,prison life--,the ,burmese       
gaol-bird--,an outbreak4      ,the      
acquisition and annexation of ,burmah by
 ,great ,britain1 first the  lower      
province with three-fourths of the      
seaboard1 and then the entire  kingdom1 
were accomplished between #ahbd and     
#ahhf1 in a little more  than half a    
century1 that is to say4 ,until this    
took place the country  was generally in
 a state of anarchy1 the king was a     
bloodthirsty  despot1 and the state     
council was at his bidding no better    
than a  band of ,dacoits who plundered  
the people and murdered them wholesale4 
,the ruling powers were always anxious  
to pick a quarrel with their  powerful  
,british neighbours1 and were so        
unceasingly aggressive that  they       
brought on a war in #ahbd1 which ended  
in the capture of ,rangoon  and the     

occupation of ,pegu and ,martaban with  
the cession of the coast  province of   
,aracan4    ,the outbreak of hostilities
 led to cruel retaliation by the king of
  ,burmah upon all ,europeans who       
resided in the country1 whether as      
missionaries or merchants engaged in    
trade4 ,one of them1 an ,englishman1    
,mr4 ,henry ,gouger1 was arrested as a  
spy and arraigned before a court  of    
justice with very little hope of        
escaping with his life4 ,he was         
fortunately spared after suffering      
untold indignities and many positive    
tortures4 ,eventually he published his  
experiences1 which remain to this  day  
as a graphic record of the ,burmese     
prisons as they then existed4  ,he was  
first committed to the safe keeping of  
the king's body guard1  and confined    
with his feet in the stocks2 then he was
 transferred to  the 8death prison10    
having been barbarously robbed and      
deprived of his  clothing4 ,he was not  
entirely stripped1 but was led away with

 his arms  tied behind his back1        
bare-headed and bare-footed to the      
,let-ma-yoon1  the 8antechamber of the  
tomb40    ,let me proceed now in the    
narrator's own words3--    8,there are  
four common prisons in ,ava1 but one of 
these only was  appropriated to         
criminals likely to suffer death4 ,it   
derived its  remarkably well-selected   
name1 ,let-ma-yoon1 literally           
interpreted1  #8,hand1 shrink not1' from
 the revolting scenes of cruelty        
practised  within its walls4 ,this was  
the prison to which ,i was driven4 ,my  
heart  sank within me as ,i entered the 
gate of the prison yard which1 as it    
closed behind me1 seemed to shut me out 
forever from all the interests  and     
sympathies of the world beyond it4 ,i   
was now delivered over to  the wretches1
 seven or eight in number1 who guarded  
this gaol4 ,they  were all condemned    
malefactors1 whose lives had been spared
 on the  condition of their becoming    
executioners2 the more hideous the crime

  for which he had to suffer1 the more  
hardened the criminal1 the fitter       
instrument he was presumed to be for the
 profession he was henceforth  doomed to
 follow4 ,to render escape without      
detection impossible1 the  shape of a   
ring was indelibly tattooed on each     
cheek1 which gave rise  to the name they
 were commonly known by1 pahquet1 or    
#8ring-cheeked1'  a term detested by    
themselves as one of reproach and one we
 never  dared to apply in addressing    
them4 ,the nature of his qualification  
for the employment was written in a     
similar manner across the breast4  ,the 
chief of the gang was a lean1 wiry1     
hard-featured old man whom we  taught   
ourselves to address under the          
appellation aphe1 #8father1'  as did all
 his subordinates4 ,another bearing an  
appropriate motto had  murdered his     
brother and had hidden his body         
piecemeal under his house4  ,a third was
 branded thoo-kho1 #8thief4' ,this troop
 of wretches were  held in such         

detestation that the law prohibited     
their entering any  person's house      
except in execution of their office4 ,it
 happened1 soon  after ,i entered1 that 
the exigencies of this brotherhood were 
great  from an increase of business1 and
 no brave malefactor 7inhumanity  was   
always styled bravery here7 being ready 
to strengthen the force1  a young man   
convicted of a petty offence was        
selected to fill the  vacancy4 ,i beheld
 this poor youth doomed to the most     
debasing ignominy  for the rest of his  
life by these fatal rings1 his piteous  
cries at the  degradation he was        
undergoing being drowned by the jeers   
and ridicule  of the confederates4 ,they
 soon made him as much a child of the   
devil as  themselves4    8,the #8father'
 of this interesting family received me 
at the gate with a  smile of welcome    
like the grin of a tiger1 and with the  
most disgusting  imprecations hurried me
 to a huge block of granite embedded in 
the  centre of the yard4 ,i was made to 

sit down and place my ankles on the     
block of stone while three pairs of     
fetters were struck on with a maul1  a  
false blow of which would have maimed me
 forever4 ,but they were too  expert for
 this1 and it was not a time to care for
 minor dangers4 ,thus  shackled1 ,i was 
told1 as if in derision1 to walk to the 
entrance of the  prison-house not many  
yards distant2 but as the shortness of  
the chains  barely permitted me to      
advance the heel of one foot to the toe 
of the  other1 it was only by shuffling 
a few inches at a time that the task    
was accomplished4 ,practice1 however1   
soon made me more expert4    8,it is not
 easy to give a correct idea of the     
prison which was  destined to be my     
dwelling place for the first year of my 
captivity4  ,although it was between    
four and five o'clock on a bright sunny 
afternoon1 the rays of light only       
penetrated through the chinks and       
cracks of the walls sufficiently to     
disclose the utter wretchedness  of all 

within4 ,some time elapsed before ,i    
could clearly distinguish  the objects  
by which ,i was surrounded4 ,as my eyes 
gradually adapted  themselves to the dim
 light1 ,i ascertained it to be a room  
about forty  feet long by thirty feet   
wide1 the floor and sides made of strong
  teak-wood planks1 the former being    
raised two feet from the earth on       
posts1 which1 according to the usual    
style of ,burmese architecture1  ran    
through the body of the building1 and   
supported the tiled roof as  well as the
 rafters for the floor and the planking 
of the walls4 ,the  height of the walls 
from the floor was five or six feet1 but
 the roof  being a sloping one1 the     
centre might be double that height4 ,it 
had no  window or aperture to admit     
light or air except a closely woven     
bamboo  wicket used as a door1 and this 
was always kept closed4 ,fortunately1   
the builders had not expended much      
labour on the walls1 the planks of      
which here and there were not very      

closely united1 affording through  the  
chinks the only ventilation the         
apartment possessed1 if we except  a    
hole near the roof where1 either by     
accident or design1 nearly a  foot in   
length of decayed plank had been torn   
off4 ,this formed a  safety-valve for   
the escape of foul air to a certain     
extent2 and1 but  for this fortuitous   
circumstance1 it is difficult to see how
 life could  have been long sustained4  
8,the only articles of furniture the    
place contained were these3--,first  and
 most prominent1 was a gigantic row of  
stocks similar in its  construction to  
that formerly used in ,england1         
dilapidated specimens  of which may     
still be seen in some of the market     
places of our country  towns4 ,it was   
capable of accommodating more than a    
dozen occupants4  ,several smaller      
varieties of the same species lay       
around1 each holding  by the leg a pair 
of hapless victims consigned to its     
custody4 ,these  stocks were heavy logs 

of timber bored with holes to admit the 
feet  and fitted with wooden pins to    
hold them fast4 ,in the centre of the   
apartment was placed a tripod holding a 
large earthen cup filled with  earth oil
 to be used as a lamp during the night  
watches2 and lastly1 a  simple but      
suspicious looking piece of machinery1  
whose painful uses  it was my fate to   
test before many hours had elapsed4 ,it 
was merely a  long bamboo suspended from
 the roof by a rope at each end and     
worked by  blocks or pulleys to raise or
 depress it at pleasure4    8,the prison
 had never been washed1 nor even swept1 
since it was built4  ,so ,i was told1   
and ,i have no doubt it was true1 for1  
besides the ocular  proof from its      
present condition1 it is certain no     
attempt was made to  cleanse it during  
my subsequent tenancy of eleven months4 
,this gave a  kind of fixedness or      
permanency to the fetid odours1 until   
the very  floors and walls were         
saturated with them4 ,putrid remains of 

castaway  animal and vegetable stuff    
which needed no broom to make it #8move 
on'--the stale fumes from thousands of  
tobacco pipes--the scattered  ejections 
of the pulp and liquid from their       
everlasting betel1 and  other nameless  
abominations still more disgusting1     
which strewed the  floor--and if to this
 be added the exudation from the bodies 
of a crowd  of never-washed convicts1   
encouraged by the thermometer at #ajj   
degrees1  in a den almost without       
ventilation--is it possible to say what 
it  smelled like8 ,as might have been   
expected from such a state of things1   
the place was teeming with creeping     
vermin to an extent that very soon      
reconciled me to the plunder of the     
greater portion of my dress4    8,when  
night came on1 the #8father' of the     
establishment1 entering1  stalked       
towards our corner4 ,the meaning of the 
bamboo now became  apparent4 ,it was    
passed between the legs of each         
individual and when it  had threaded our

 number1 seven in all1 a man at each end
 hoisted it up  by the blocks to a      
height which allowed our shoulders to   
rest on the  ground while our feet      
depended from the iron rings of the     
fetters4 ,the  adjustment of the height 
was left to the judgment of our         
kind-hearted  parent1 who stood by to   
see that it was not high enough to      
endanger  life nor low enough to exempt 
from pain4 ,having settled this point to
  his satisfaction1 the venerable chief 
proceeded with a staff to count  the    
number of the captives1 bestowing a     
smart rap on the head to those  he      
disliked1 whom he made over to the      
savage with a significant hint of  what 
he might expect if the agreed tally were
 not forthcoming when the  wicket opened
 the next morning4 ,he then took his    
leave1 kindly wishing  us a good night's
 rest1 for the old wretch could be      
facetious2 the  young savage trimmed his
 lamp1 lighted his pipe1 did the same   
act of  courtesy to all who wished to   

smoke1 and the anxious community1 one by
  one1 sought a short oblivion to their 
griefs in sleep4    8,in vain1 however1 
did our little party court that         
blessing2 passing by  the torment of    
thought1 the sufferings of the body     
alone were enough to  prevent it4 ,i had
 youth on my side1 and my slender frame 
enabled me to  bear the suspension      
better than my fellow sufferers4 ,the   
tobacco smoke  was a mercy1 for it      
robbed the infliction of half its       
torment4 ,a year  afterward1 when we had
 to undergo a punishment somewhat       
similar1 though  in a purer atmosphere1 
we found the sting of the mosquitos1 on 
the  soles of our undefended feet1      
#8without the power to scare away' these
  venomous little insects1 was          
intolerable2 whereas in this well-smoked
  apartment a mosquito could not live4  
,we were not aware at the time  what a  
happy exemption this was4 ,what a night 
was that on which we  now entered6      
,death1 in its most appalling form1     

perhaps attended with  the agony of     
unknown tortures1 was thought by all to 
be our certain  lot4 ,kewet-nee1 who    
occupied the next place on the bamboo1  
excited a  horrible interest by the     
relation of a variety of exquisite      
tortures  which he had known to be      
perpetrated under that roof4    8,the   
rays of the morning sun now began to    
struggle through the chinks  of the     
prison walls and told us that day       
dawned1 bringing life and  happiness to 
the world outside1 but only the         
consciousness of misery to  all within4 
,the prisoners being counted and found  
to tally correctly  with the reckoning  
of overnight1 symptoms of the routine of
 the day  began to attract attention4   
,our considerate parent made his        
appearance  and with his customary grin 
lowered down the bamboo to within a foot
 of  the floor1 to the great relief of  
our benumbed limbs in which the blood   
slowly began again to circulate4 ,at    
eight o'clock the inmates were  driven  

out in gangs of ten or twelve at a time1
 to take the air for  five minutes1 when
 they were huddled in again1 to make way
 for others2  but no entreaty could     
secure a repetition of the same favour  
that day1  though a bribe1 which few    
could promise1 might effect it4 ,fresh  
air1  the cheapest of all the gifts of  
,providence1 was a close monopoly in    
the hands of the #8sons of the prison1' 
who sold it at the highest  price1 and  
with a niggard hand4    8,after         
breakfast the business of trying the    
prisoners began1 and  each was brought  
in turn before the myo-serai1 or        
assistant to the  governor4 ,the first  
was a young man accused of being        
concerned in the  robbery of the house  
of a person of rank4 ,whether the       
accusation was  well founded or not ,i  
had no means of judging except by the   
result2 but  certainly the man had not  
the appearance of a robber4 ,as a matter
 of  course1 he denied the crime2 but   
denial was assumed to be obstinacy1  and

 the usual mode of overcoming obstinacy 
was by some manner of  torture4 ,by     
order of the myo-serai1 therefore1 he   
was made to sit  upon a low stool1 his  
legs were bound together by a cord above
 the  knees and two poles inserted      
between them by the executioners1 one of
  whom took the command of each pole1   
the ground forming the fulcrum4  ,with  
these the legs were forced upwards and  
downwards and asunder1 and  underwent a 
peculiar kind of grinding1 inflicting   
more or less pain as  the judge gave    
direction4 ,every moment ,i expected to 
hear the thighbone  snap4 ,the poor     
fellow sustained this torture with loud 
cries but still  with firmness until the
 agony became so intense that he        
fainted4 #8,the  tender mercies of the  
wicked are cruel4' ,to restore animation
 they  resorted to cold water and       
shampooing4 ,thus revived1 he was again 
thrust back into his den with menaces of
 fresh torture on the morrow1  as no    
confession had yet been wrung from him4 

,i may as well finish the  revolting    
story at once4    8,true to his word1   
the myo-serai returned the next day to  
renew his  diabolical practices4 ,this  
time the culprit was tied by the wrists 
behind his back1 the rope which bound   
them being drawn by a pulley just  high 
enough to allow his toes to touch the   
ground1 and in this manner  he was left 
until he should become more reasonable4 
,at length1 under  the pressure of      
agonising pain1 just in time to save the
 dislocation  of the shoulder1 the      
criminal made his confession and        
criminated two  respectable persons as  
accomplices4 ,from what followed ,i     
presume this  was all that was wanted4  
,the man of justice had now two men in  
his  toils who were able to pay4 ,the   
unfortunate man1 who1 when relieved     
from the pain of the torture1           
acknowledged he had accused innocent    
people1 was returned to gaol fearfully  
mangled and maimed2 but instead  of     
meeting a felon's fate1 when time had   

been given to fleece the two  victims1  
he was released4    8,within the walls  
nothing worthy of notice occurred until 
the hour of  three in the afternoon4 ,as
 this hour approached1 we noticed that  
the  talking and jesting of the         
community gradually died away4 ,all     
seemed  to be under the influence of    
some powerful restraint1 until that     
fatal  hour was announced by the deep   
tones of a powerful gong suspended in   
the palace yard1 and a deathlike silence
 prevailed4 ,if a word was  spoken it   
was in a whisper4 ,it seemed as though  
even breathing were  suspended under the
 control of a panic terror1 too deep for
 expression1  which pervaded every      
bosom4 ,we did not long remain in       
ignorance of the  cause4 ,if any of the 
prisoners were to suffer death that day1
 the  hour of three was that at which   
they were taken out for execution4  ,the
 manner of it was the acme of           
cold-blooded cruelty4 ,the hour was     
scarcely told by the gong when the      

wicket opened1 and the hideous  figure  
of a spotted man appeared1 who1 without 
uttering a word1 walked  straight to his
 victim now for the first time probably 
made acquainted  with his doom4 ,as many
 of these unfortunate people knew no    
more than  ourselves the fate that      
awaited them1 this mystery was terrible 
and  agonising2 each one fearing1 up to 
the last moment1 that the stride  of the
 ,spot might be directed his way4 ,when 
the culprit disappeared  with his       
conductor and the prison door closed    
behind them1 those who  remained began  
again to breathe more freely2 for       
another day1 at least1  their lives were
 safe4    8,it is not my intention to   
make this narrative a chronicle of all  
the diabolical cruelties in this den of 
abominations1 but the first  specimen   
which greeted our eyes on the morrow may
 serve as a fair  sample of the         
practices which it was our fate to      
behold almost daily4  ,the routine was  
generally this3--,the magistrate takes  

his seat in the  front of the shed in   
which we occupy the background1 as      
though the  spot had been selected for  
our convenience1 as spectators to behold
 an  amusing exhibition4 ,a criminal is 
now summoned from the interior4 ,he     
hobbles out and squats down in terror   
before the judge2 the crime of  which he
 is accused is stated to him4 ,he denies
 it2 he is urged by  various motives to 
confess his guilt2 perhaps he knows that
 confession  is only another word for   
execution2 therefore he still denies4   
,the  magistrate assumes an air of      
indignation at his obstinacy and now    
begins the work of his tormentor1 the   
man with the ringed cheek who has       
hitherto stood by waiting the word of   
command4 ,he has many means at his      
disposal1 but the one selected for the  
present instance was a short  iron maul4
 ,it would simply excite disgust were ,i
 to enter into detail4  ,suffice it to  
say that after writhing and rolling on  
the ground and  screaming with agony for

 nearly half an hour1 the unfortunate   
wretch  was assisted to his den1 a mass 
of wounds and bruises pitiable to       
behold1 leaving his judge not a whit the
 wiser4    8,by degrees we settled down 
into the habits of the prison and were  
becoming familiar with such scenes as ,i
 have recounted4 ,we began also  to     
speculate on the length of time nature  
could hold out1 if we were  left to test
 it4 ,how long could we live in such a  
plight without the  use of water or     
other means of cleanliness8 ,would habit
 reconcile us to  it as it apparently   
had done many of our fellow prisoners8  
,some of them  had lived there for      
years4 ,we gradually became acquainted  
with them  and with their crimes1 real  
or imputed4 ,there were many cases in   
the  calendar that were almost          
incredible and showed that accident1    
caprice1  superstition and even         
carelessness occasioned their           
confinement4 ,one  grimy1 half-starved  
old man had been kept there three years 

and neither  knew why he was there nor  
who sent him4 ,the crime of another must
 have  been that of a madman1 or more   
probably it was a false accusation1     
preferred to gratify private revenge4   
,he was said to have made an  image of  
the king and to have walked over it4    
,the mere imputation of  practising     
necromancy against the sacred person of 
the king was a fatal  charge4 ,the poor 
fellow was taken from among us at the   
hour of midnight  and despatched by     
breaking his spine4 ,why this singular  
method of  slaughter was resorted to1 as
 well as the manner of carrying it into 
execution1 was as mysterious as the     
crime itself2 they were not at  all     
particular as to the mode of depriving  
their victims of life1 but  seemed to be
 guided altogether by caprice4    8,the 
plan of the prison yard shows that there
 were a number of small  cells used by  
the ringed brotherhood1 and the pleading
 of our amiable  protectress secured for
 us the liberty to occupy them4 ,it is  

true they  were very small1 the one ,i  
inhabited being about five feet wide    
with  just enough length to lie down in2
 it was so low that ,i could not stand  
upright except in the middle where the  
roof was highest2 but it was  ,elysium  
when compared with the suffocating choke
 of the inner prison4  ,nor could it be 
called altogether solitary confinement1 
for one of  our gaolers had a pretty    
daughter about sixteen years old1 who   
took  a wonderful fancy to me and was a 
frequent visitor in my cell4 ,she       
supplied me1 too1 with an unspeakable   
luxury1 water for ablution4 ,oh1  who   
can appreciate the gift but those who   
have been long deprived of  it8 ,a scrap
 of rag1 moistened with some of the     
water given us to drink1  only served to
 smear the grime like a plaster over our
 bodies4 ,now1  once again ,i could call
 myself comparatively clean4 ,my cell   
had other  advantages4 ,my eyes escaped 
many scenes of revolting cruelty2 my    
ears1  many foul anathemas and gross    

abuse2 my lungs and olfactories1 all    
sorts of abominations4 ,the chief loss  
was the society of my friends4  ,the    
rats1 too1 were numerous and troublesome
 at first2 but these1  though a         
disgusting nuisance1 ,i managed to turn 
to account by the fancy  of the pahquets
 for their flesh4 ,the ,burmese hold    
rats in about  the same estimation as we
 do hares1 and sell them commonly in    
their  markets for about their own      
weight in lead4 ,my cell1 therefore1    
might  be regarded as a well-stocked    
preserve for game4 ,the burrows ran in  
all  directions1 and hardly a day passed
 without my bagging a few heads of  this
 novel kind of game and handing them    
over to my pretty visitor's  father1 who
 willingly lent me his spear for the    
purpose of destroying  them4 ,the bait  
of a few grains of boiled rice at the   
entrance of the  burrows brought them   
out in shoals and gave me the           
opportunity of  spearing them4 #8,what  
do you expect will be your fate8' said  

this pious  ,buddhist as he once took   
the struggling vermin from the spear1   
#8when  the time comes for me to serve  
you as you are serving that creature8'  
,they all looked forward to the pleasure
 of decapitating us1 and when in  a mild
 humour would promise me as a favour1 to
 use their greatest skill  so that ,i   
should scarcely feel it4 ,what a        
consoling thought6    8,shut up close in
 my little cell1 ,i thought that at all 
events my  feelings would no longer be  
harrowed with the sight of deeds of     
blood4  ,to a certain extent it was so2 
but even here there was no abiding peace
  and quietness4 ,one night as ,i was   
vainly endeavouring to coax myself      
asleep1 the screams of an unfortunate   
wretch in the inner prison fell  upon my
 ear1 and the door of my cell being at  
the time unfastened and  the prison wall
 not more than three feet off1 curiosity
 prompted me  to peep through a crack to
 see what fresh mischief was on foot4   
,never  shall ,i forget the foul        

assassination ,i witnessed4 ,the inmates
 were  breathlessly silent1 evidently   
expecting some evil4 ,the cries         
proceeded  from a young man who lay     
stretched on the floor with his feet in 
the  stocks4 ,the lamp was burning      
dimly1 giving just enough light to show 
the form of a grim pahquet striding     
toward his victim4 ,without a  word1 he 
stamped several times on the mouth of   
the youth with his heavy  wooden shoes  
with a force which must have broken his 
teeth and jaws  into fragments4 ,from my
 hiding place1 where ,i stood trembling 
with  terror1 ,i heard the bones crack  
and crash4 ,still the cries were not    
altogether silenced1 when the monster   
seized the club of the savage1  and with
 repeated blows on the body and head    
pounded the poor sufferer  to death4    
,the corpse was then taken from the     
stocks and buried in the  prison yard4  
8,now news came of the defeat of the    
,burmese troops in the field1 and  the  
governor wreaked his vengeance on us4   

,we were all hustled again  from our    
cells into the inner prison1 to await   
any fresh orders that  might be issued  
from the palace4 ,a merciful ,providence
 again averted  the danger4 ,for a few  
days1 probably a week1 we were kept in  
the old  den of corruption1 when time1  
as before1 softened down asperities1    
the rage of the governor and of our     
keepers began to evaporate1 and  a      
little renewed coaxing1 backed by such  
insignificant bribes as our  people     
could yet afford to pay1 regained for us
 the favour of the cells  in which we   
were once more installed1 and my war of 
extermination  against the rats         
recommenced4    8,while we were passing 
this week in the inner prison1 a        
frightful  event took place1 which      
threatened the immediate destruction of 
the whole community2 indeed1 it is      
wonderful that the instinct of          
self-preservation did not deter our     
parent of the prison from executing  his
 order4 ,a woman was brought in covered 

with the pustules of the  small-pox4    
,our doctor looked aghast and so did we 
all1 as well we  might4 ,it was a case  
quite beyond his treatment1 though it is
 strange  the versatile doctor did not  
undertake the cure4 ,even the ,burmese  
prisoners themselves expressed their    
astonishment1 but remonstrance  was     
useless4 ,the gaolers1 however1 showed a
 little common sense by  placing the    
unfortunate creature in a clear spot by 
herself to avoid  contact with the other
 inmates of the prison1 with delicate   
threats  of punishment if she moved from
 it4 ,we never heard what induced this  
barbarity1 but she was most likely      
suffering for the misconduct of some    
relative in the war1 and the authority  
who sent her there could not  have been 
aware of the disease1 for she had not   
been among us more than  twenty-four    
hours when she was again taken away4    
8,but by what means was infection       
averted8 ,inoculation or vaccination    
was unknown4 ,here were about fifty     

persons living in the same confined     
room without ventilation1 and yet not   
one of them took the disease4 ,the  fact
 seems almost miraculous1 and ,i should 
have doubted the nature of  the malady  
had it not been acknowledged and dreaded
 by everyone1 the  natives as well as   
ourselves4 ,i can only account for our  
immunity by  the free use of tobacco4   
8,after an engagement with the ,british 
troops1 many were taken prisoners  and  
were brought to the prison4             
,unfortunately1 it so happened that one 
of the freaks1 already noticed as common
 to the gaolers1 had at this  time      
consigned all our party to the inner    
prison1 and we beheld with  horror about
 a hundred of these men step one after  
another through  the wicket into our    
already well-filled prison1 one of the  
ringed  fraternity remaining inside to  
see that they were packed as close as   
possible4 ,the floor was literally paved
 with human beings1 one touching  and   
almost overlapping the other on every   

side4 ,it soon became evident  what must
 follow4 ,difficulty in breathing1      
profuse perspiration and  other         
disagreeables1 overcame the natural     
terror of their tormentors1  and the    
suffering multitude began to cry aloud  
for air and water4  ,the horrors of the 
notorious #8black hole of ,calcutta'    
must have been  renacted had the        
building been of brick1 but the manner  
of its  construction1 before explained1 
fortunately prevented it4 ,at length the
  clamour of the captives1 working      
probably on the fears of the gaolers    
themselves1 induced them to open the    
wicket door for the night1 some of      
their number keeping ward outside as    
sentinels4 ,by this means a general     
disaster was avoided4    8,this         
temporary influx of prisoners was the   
cause of greater anxiety  to me than to 
my companions from a peculiar           
circumstance4 ,the stock  of fetters in 
the establishment ran short1 and to     
provide for this  unexpected demand our 

three pairs of fetters were taken off   
for the  night1 one ring only being left
 on the ankle1 and by this we were      
chained one to another1 two by two1 like
 hounds in couples1 only by the  leg    
instead of the neck4 ,perhaps the reader
 may think this was1 at all  events1 a  
slight respite1 for which we ought to   
have been thankful4 ,so  it was1 to all 
except myself1 for the luxury of being  
able once more  to stretch the legs     
apart was1 no doubt1 a most grateful    
refreshment4  ,but--my flesh creeps when
 ,i think of it--,i was chained to a    
leper4  ,my companion was an unfortunate
 ,greek1 whose ankles had by this time  
broken out into unmistakable open       
leprous sores1 with which a few  inches 
of chain alone prevented contact1 while 
at the same time it kept  me in terrible
 proximity4 ,the chain was kept at its  
full length all  night1 as may be       
supposed1 and sundry nervous jerkings   
from time to  time on my part to assure 
myself that it was so1 indicated the    

nature  of my alarm to the poor man1 who
 was not unconscious of his malady1     
though he would not openly admit it4 ,he
 grew irritated at my studied  avoidance
 of him1 and raised the question himself
 only to deny it4 ,this  voluntary      
allusion to it by himself1              
notwithstanding his denial1 only  tended
 to confirm the fact4 ,with what joy did
 ,i submit myself the next  day to the  
hands of my worthy parent1 while he     
again invested me with  my wonted       
complement of irons4 ,with what anxiety1
 too1 did ,i watch for  weeks1 searching
 diligently my ankles for the first     
symptoms of the  contagion1 fearing ,i  
might unwittingly have rubbed against   
the infected  man and become inoculated 
with his loathsome disease4 ,happily ,i 
escaped  without accident40    ,this    
horrible imprisonment was protracted    
into the sultry months of  ,march and   
,april1 and the wretched sufferers were 
left throughout  heavily laden with five
 pairs of fetters in a gloomy filthy    

dungeon1  without air or light1 or even 
water to wash their fevered bodies1     
constantly associated with the worst    
felons and sharing their dreadful       
expectation to be taken out and         
executed4 ,finally1 as the relieving    
army approached1 they were removed from 
,ava further into the country1  and the 
scene changed for the better as regards 
personal treatment4  ,the prisoners had 
at least fresh air1 freedom from vermin1
 lighter  chains1 water to wash in1     
exercise in the yard when their wounded 
feet  were sufficiently healed to allow 
them to walk1 and as much comfort  as   
possible in a ,burmese prison4 ,but     
fresh terrors were caused by  the       
importation of a huge lioness into the  
prison enclosure4 ,it was  confined in a
 strong cage1 but was kept in a state of
 constant fury  and grew more and more  
ferocious1 being kept continually       
without food4  ,the luckless prisoners  
began to believe that they were to be   
thrown as  a prey to the wild beast1 but

 it grew visibly weaker and weaker and  
presently died of starvation4 ,the      
reason for shutting up the lioness  with
 the human victims of the terrified king
 was never explained4  ,meanwhile the   
,british troops pressed on and          
threatened shortly to  capture the      
capital by storm4 ,the last and most    
terrible ordeal of all  was now         
impending4 ,it was openly announced that
 the white prisoners  were to be        
sacrificed to save the king by being    
buried alive before  the broken and     
dispirited ,burmese army4 ,but another  
decisive battle  intervened1 the        
prisoners were hastily released from    
gaol and carried  to ,ava1 whence they  
were borne by water to meet the ,british
 flotilla on  its way up stream1 and the
 painful captivity was at an end4       
,the penal code of old ,burmah in the   
pre-,english days was primitive and  of 
ancient origin1 being based largely upon
 the laws first promulgated  by ,menu4  
,trial by ordeal was a very general     

rule1 and many forms were  similar to   
those obtaining in other parts of the   
world4 ,one was to  plunge a finger     
wrapped in a thin palm leaf into molten 
tin2 again1  accused and accuser were   
immersed under water and the case was   
won by  the party who could remain the  
longest time below4 ,or two candles made
  of equal portions of wax1 carefully   
weighed1 were lighted by the two        
litigants1 and the one which burned     
longest was adjudged to have won4       
8,in the ,indies10 says one old         
authority1 8when one man accuses another
  of a crime punishable by death1 it is 
customary to ask the accused if  he is  
willing to go through trial by fire1 and
 if he answers in the  affirmative1 they
 heat a piece of iron till it is red    
hot2 then he is  told to put his hand on
 the hot iron1 and his hand is afterward
 wrapped  up in a bay leaf1 and if at   
the end of three days he has suffered no
  hurt he is declared innocent and      
delivered from the punishment which     

threatened him4 ,sometimes they boil    
water in a cauldron till it is  so hot  
no one may approach it2 then an iron    
ring is thrown into it  and the person  
accused is ordered to thrust in his hand
 and bring up  the ring1 and if he does 
so without injury he is declared        
innocent4  ,sometimes an iron chain or  
ball is used instead of the ring4       
,sometimes  a vessel of oil is heated1  
and a cocoanut is thrown in to test the 
temperature1 and if it cracks1 then the 
suspected person may prove  his         
innocence by taking copper coins out of 
the boiling oil40 ,another  ordeal was  
to take the accused to the tomb of a    
,mohammedan saint and  walk past1 having
 first loaded him with heavy fetters4   
,if the fetters  fall off1 he is        
declared to be clear4 8,i have heard it 
said10 is the  comment of one authority 
who had little confidence in the good   
faith  of the tribunal1 8that by some   
artful contrivance the fetters are so   
applied as to fall off at a particular  

juncture40    ,the rich expiated any    
offence by the payment of a fine1 while 
the  impecunious suffered imprisonment1 
stripes with a rattan1 mutilation1      
endless slavery1 and in the extreme     
case1 death4 ,the sentence to  slavery  
extended to all a man's belongings and  
to his descendants  forever4 ,capital   
punishment was performed by             
decapitation1 and a  fiendish           
executioner often prolonged the agony of
 the condemned  convict4 ,to throw a    
victim to be devoured by wild beasts or 
trodden to  death by elephants was a    
practice only surrendered in recent     
times4 ,in  the northern provinces      
crucifixion was common1 but the         
instrument was  not in the shape of an  
ordinary cross4 ,it was more like a     
double ladder  consisting of three      
upright bamboos crossed by three        
horizontal bars1  and upon these two    
more were laid in the shape of a ,st4   
,andrew's cross4  ,three scaffolds were 
commonly erected on river banks or on   

sand banks  in the stream1 and were     
constantly seen on the ,irrawady4       
,sometimes the  culprit was killed      
before he was affixed to the cross2     
sometimes he was  tied up and rendered  
helpless by a few spear thrusts1 or     
disembowelled  by a sword cut across the
 stomach4 ,in any case1 the body was    
left  suspended until the flesh was     
pecked off by vultures and the bones    
fell  off by decay4 ,when the mouths of 
the ,irrawady were ,burmese territory1  
the criminal was lashed to a tree stump 
at low water and left to be  drowned by 
the incoming tide4 ,the fishes1 more    
voracious than the  vultures1 were often
 more expeditious than the sea and ate  
their prey  alive4 ,the tree1 one of the
 undeveloped growth in the mangrove     
swamps1  was familiarly known as the    
8stump of hell40    ,imprisonment1 as we
 have seen from the previous pages1 was 
often  worse than death4 ,but there     
might be some relaxation of durance4    
,with money a prisoner might appease his

 gaolers4 ,he could by payment  secure  
release daily to go home1 eat his meals 
and pass his time in  comfortable       
idleness1 provided he came punctually   
back at night and  allowed himself to be
 again incarcerated4 ,nevertheless1 the 
friendless  and impecunious preferred to
 suffer a public flogging1 inflicted on 
the  culprit at all the street corners4 
,bribery and corruption1 buying ease    
from dishonest gaolers1 speedily        
disappeared under the ,british rule4    
,an equable uniform system has been     
adopted for all prisoners1 and the      
demeanour of even the worst is outwardly
 quiet4 ,they are for the most  part    
irreclaimable gaol-birds1 with all the  
traits and characteristics  of the      
congenital criminal4    ,the predatory  
instinct predominates in the character  
of the ,burman4 ,he  is consumed with a 
desire to lay violent hands upon his    
neighbours'  goods and possessions4 ,he 
is a ,dacoit1 a thief and highwayman by 
inheritance4 ,one who knew ,burmah      

intimately was convinced that the evil  
propensity was inborn in every ,burmese 
child1 and was stimulated as he  grew up
 by ,dacoit stories4 ,the example of    
others who had taken to the  business   
and become famous for enterprising      
raids1 was always before  the youth of  
every generation4 ,it was no disgrace to
 a young fellow  to be concerned in a   
,dacoity attack upon a neighbouring     
village1 but  very much the reverse1 and
 the most successful robbers were       
generally  treated with much            
consideration and respect4    ,a ,dacoit
 band for the most part numbered five or
 six2 they were not all  armed with     
firearms1 but they fired a few shots on 
making a descent  to give warning of    
their approach1 and no resistance was   
offered as  they swooped down with loud 
shouts and much waving of swords4       
,ransom  was demanded or the village1 if
 deserted1 was looted1 and the ,dacoits 
fled before the outrage became known to 
the police4 ,then pursuit was           

organised1 but was generally fruitless4 
,the ,dacoits were close at hand1  in   
the very village1 and might be easily   
seized1 but no one would give           
information1 as that would be deemed an 
unpardonable offence4 ,to betray  an    
offender into the hands of justice is a 
sin against religion much  more than    
against morality4 ,there is the utmost  
difficulty1 therefore1  in tracing crime
 in ,burmah4 ,british police officers   
were driven to  death in ceaseless      
efforts to catch ,dacoits1 hunting them 
perpetually  for months and months and  
seldom1 if ever1 laying hands on a      
single  offender4    ,summary vengeance 
was meted out to 8informers40 ,on one   
occasion1 a  well-to-do villager in     
,lower ,burmah had assisted in the      
capture of a  notorious ,dacoit4 ,some  
of the prisoner's friends1 without      
waiting for  the issue of the trial1    
visited the traitor's house and         
upbraided him  with being the cause of  
the ,dacoit's apprehension4 8,we mean to

 punish  you for this10 they said4 8,you
 shall be burned alive2 which do you    
prefer1 that the fire should be lighted 
here in your own house1 or  outside the 
village80 ,his wife offered a thousand  
rupees to buy him  off1 but it was      
sternly refused1 and he was forthwith   
put to death4 ,in  another instance1 a  
man who received a reward for securing  
the arrest  of a band was obliged to    
surrender the money to other ,dacoits1  
who  called him to account1 and to      
prevent his repeating the offence1 his  
head was cut off and exhibited on a     
pole4    ,dacoity1 when the complete    
pacification of ,burmah was so long     
delayed1  became the last form of       
resistance of the people4 ,the one time 
thieves  were promoted into rebels and  
insurgents4 ,the ,burmese did not all   
accept ,british rule very willingly1 and
 the government resolved to  finally    
crush opposition by exterminating the   
dissidents under the name  of ,dacoity4 
,many serious encounters1 costly in     

human life1 were fought2  many leaders  
of small bands long evaded pursuit and  
gave much trouble4  ,but vigorous       
measures persistently carried out       
gradually put down all  opposition1 and 
the most active ,dacoits ended on the   
gallows or found  their way to prison or
 to the penal settlements4 ,a good      
picture has  been preserved of one      
prominent ,dacoit who had long ravaged  
the country  and been guilty of many    
crimes2 and upon whom a sentence of     
penal  servitude for life was at length 
passed4 8,a small1 spare1 thin-visaged  
man1 whose features have nothing in them
 that would bear out his  character of a
 cruel ruffian and leader of men 444 yet
 such was the  power of his name that a 
sum large enough to be a fortune to any 
three  natives was offered to whoever   
should kill or capture him1 before his  
career was checked40 ,every gaol in     
,burmah has its complement of such  life
 convicts1 reckless desperadoes1 a      
source of constant anxiety to  those in 

charge of them4    ,to follow this man  
on his reception and through his        
treatment will give  a good idea of     
prison life in ,burmah4 ,his clothing   
was first issued to  him2 a loin cloth  
of coarse brown stuff and a strip of    
sacking to serve  as his bed4 ,his hair 
was close cut and his head was as smooth
 as the  palm of his hand1 save for one 
small tuft left on the crown2 his name  
was registered in the great book1 and he
 was led to the blacksmith's  shop1     
where his leg irons were riveted on him1
 anklets in the form of  a heavy ring to
 which a connecting ring with two       
straight iron bars  was attached4 ,at   
the same time a neck ring of iron as    
thick as a lead  pencil was welded on1  
with a plate attached1 nine inches by   
five1 on  which a paper recording the   
personal description of the individual  
was pasted4 ,this was called the        
thimbone1 and its adoption became       
necessary through the frauds practised  
by the convicts4    ,at one time every  

new arrival was given a tin medal       
stamped with his  number1 which was hung
 round his neck with a string4 ,but it  
was found  that these records were      
frequently exchanged among the          
prisoners4 ,a  prisoner sentenced to a  
long term often assumed the identity of 
a  short term convict1 who accepted the 
more irksome penalty for a money        
consideration4 ,at the present time1    
with the irremovable thimbone1  these   
exchanges are rendered impossible4 ,it  
is strange that such a  simple process  
of preserving identities is not enforced
 in ,siberia1  where ,russian convicts  
have long made a practice of fraudulent 
exchanges4    8,if there is a type of   
revolting human ugliness1 it is the     
,burmese  gaol-bird10 says the same     
authority1 8with his shaven head and the
  unmistakable stamp of criminal on his 
vicious face4 ,all convicts  seem to    
acquire that look of low1 half-defiant  
cunning from their  associates1 and a   
physiognomist would not hesitate to     

describe  nine-tenths of the men before 
us as bad characters if he saw them in  
any society4 ,many of this gang are     
,dacoits1 and their breasts1 arms  and  
necks are picture galleries of tattooed 
devices1 fondly cherished  by the owners
 as charms against death or capture4    
,some have rows of  unsightly warts1    
like large peas1 upon the breast and    
arms which mark  the spots where the    
charms have been inserted1--scraps of   
metal and  other substances inscribed   
with spells known only to the wise men  
who  deal in such things4 ,one or two   
natives of ,india are amongst the gang1 
and these are conspicuous by the absence
 of the tattooing universally  found on 
the ,burman's thighs4 ,a powerfully     
built convict at the end of  the rank1  
in addition to the usual irons1 has his 
ankle rings connected  by a single      
straight bar1 so that he can only stand 
with his feet  twelve inches apart4     
#8,look at that fellow1' says the       
superintendent2  #8he is in for five    

years1 and his time would have been up  
in three  months4 ,a week ago he was    
down at the creek with his gang working 
timber1 and must needs try to escape4   
,he was up to his waist in water  and   
dived under a raft1 coming to the       
surface a good fifty yards down  the    
stream4 ,the guard never missed him     
until a shout from another man  drew    
their attention1 when they saw him      
swimming as hard as he could  go1 irons 
and all1 towards a patch of jungle on   
the opposite side4'  ,amongst a         
repulsive horde this man would take     
first place without  competition4       
#8,reckless scoundrel1' is written on   
every line of his  scowling face1 and   
such he undoubtedly is4 ,after the      
severe flogging  his attempted escape   
earned for him1 he assaulted and bit his
 guards  and fellow prisoners1 and the  
bar between his anklets was the         
immediate  result4    8,conspiracies to 
break out are not uncommon1 although    
they are  seldom matured1 owing to the  

system of never allowing one batch of   
men to remain together for more than a  
night or two in succession4 ,a          
determined attempt to #8break gaol' took
 place in the great central  prison at  
,rangoon a few years ago1 resulting in a
 stand-up fight  between warders and    
convicts4 ,some twenty #8lifers'        
confined in a large  stone cell1 whose  
gate opened upon their workyard1 were   
the culprits4  ,the hammers and road    
metal which provided their daily labour 
were kept  in this yard1 and the first  
aim of the convicts was to obtain access
  to the shed where these weapons lay4  
,about midnight the attention of  the   
sentry was called to the illness of one 
of the occupants of the  cell by another
 man1 who was apparently the only       
wakeful member of  the gang besides the 
sham invalid4 ,a ,madrassee apothecary  
was called  to the grated window of the 
den1 and obtained sufficient information
  to enable him to prepare some remedy4 
,on his return with the potion1  seeing 

that all the convicts were sound asleep1
 he did not attempt to  give the        
medicine to the sick man through the    
window1 but against the  rules caused   
the guard to open the gate intending to 
take it into the  cell himself4 ,the    
instant the gate was opened1 the        
slumbering convicts  sprang to their    
feet1 rushed at the apothecary and      
knocked him down in  such a position    
that his recumbent form effectually     
prevented the guard  behind from closing
 it4 ,they quickly made their way into  
the workshed1  and arming themselves    
with hammers and stones1 prepared to    
resist the  warders who had been        
attracted by the noise and the shouts of
 a sentry  on the wall4 ,a furious      
conflict now ensued between the warders1
 big1  muscular ,punjabees armed with   
heavy cudgels1 and the convicts with    
their extemporised weapons4 ,the warders
 were reinforced until both  parties    
were fairly matched1 and the rough and  
tumble fight in the dark  progressed    

amid extraordinary confusion4 ,the      
workyard was overlooked by  two huge    
wings of the gaol in which a large      
number of prisoners were  confined2     
these men1 roused to a frantic pitch of 
excitement by the  uproar below1 dashed 
about their wards like caged animals    
with screams  and yells of encouragement
 to their fellows2 while the sentries in
  the watch towers on the main wall kept
 up a desultory fire in the air  to     
prove to the convicts the impossibility 
of escaping1 even if they  should       
succeed in scaling the high spiked iron 
railing of their yard4    8,the         
combatants fought hand-to-hand for some 
time1 neither side gaining  any         
advantage1 whilst above the roar of     
human voices and the sickening  crash of
 heavy clubs on the convicts' shaven    
skulls the alarm bell  clashed out      
warning that military assistance from   
the distant barracks  was required4     
,warders had been summoned from all     
parts of the gaol1  and a general       

outbreak seemed imminent when the       
appearance of the  superintendent with a
 revolver suddenly decided matters4     
,panic seized  the convicts2 they       
dropped their weapons with one accord   
and crowded  back into the cell1 leaving
 two of their number dead in the yard4  
,it  would be impossible to conceive a  
more ghastly sight than that row  of    
naked1 trembling convicts as the warders
 now ranged them in the  vault-like den 
to be counted4 ,the dim light of        
oil-lanterns fell upon  upturned faces1 
before repulsive enough1 but now        
positively startling  in their hideous  
disfigurement of dust and clotting      
blood4 ,every man  was streaming with   
blood from wounds about the head1 more  
or less  severe1 for the convicts had   
fought with the desperation of men to   
whom  success meant liberty4 ,they were 
doomed to drag out their lives in  that 
earthly hell2 a flogging was the worst  
that could happen to them  if their     
attempt failed1 possible freedom the    

reward if it succeeded4  ,who would not 
risk the first for the slenderest chance
 of the second8  ,they took the risk and
 fate had gone against them4 ,the       
excitement was  over1 and they huddled  
together against the wall of the cell in
 an  agony of fear for the consequences 
their night's work would bring upon     
them to-morrow1 staring enviously at    
those whose wounds necessitated  their  
removal to hospital4 ,for them1 at      
least1 a few days' reprieve was  certain
 before they suffered lash and          
punishment drill40          ,,prisons   
,,of ,,china          ,,chapter ,,viii  
,,crime ,,in ,,china        ,great      
cruelty in the administration of the law
 in ,china--,experience      of ,lord   
,loch--,iron collar1 chains and creeping
 vermin--,earth      maggot--,the 8,ling
 che10 a slow ignominious               
death--,internal      arrangement of    
prisons--,whole families detained as    
hostages      for fugitive              
offenders--,mortality large2 dead-house 

always      full--,military             
guard--,public flogging of thieves--,the
 8,cangue0      or heavy wooden         
collar--,six classes of                 
punishment--,method of                  
infliction--,chinese punishment in the  
seventeenth century--,some      cruel   
practices of to-day4      ,according to 
,chinese law1 theoretically1 no prisoner
 is punished until  he confesses his    
crime4 ,he is therefore proved guilty   
and then by  torture made to acknowledge
 the accuracy of the verdict4 ,the      
cruelty  shown to witnesses as well as  
culprits is a distinct blot on the      
administration of justice in ,china4    
,the penal code is ferocious1 the       
punishments inflicted are fiendishly    
cruel1 and the prisons' pig-stys  in    
which torture is hardly more deadly than
 the diseases engendered  by the most   
abominable neglect4 ,the commonest      
notions of justice and  fair play are   
continually ignored4 ,the story is told 
of a wretched  old man who had been     

detained years in the filthy prison of  
,peking1  dragging out a weary existence
 in the company of criminals of the     
worst description4 ,according to his own
 account1 he had been living on  his    
land with his wife and family4 ,one     
night he took out his gun to  scare     
crows and trespassers off his ripening  
crops1 in the execution  of which       
innocent design he let off his weapon   
two or three times4 ,on  the following  
day a man was found murdered on the far 
confines of his  land4 ,immediately he  
was apprehended1 not as one might       
suppose1 to  give evidence or relate    
what he knew1 but to be made to confess 
that  he himself was the author of the  
crime4 ,to extort this confession he    
was cruelly and repeatedly tortured4    
8,of course10 he said1 8,i shall  never 
leave this prison alive1 for they will  
keep me here until1  reduced to the last
 extremity by torture1 ,i confess myself
 guilty of  a crime of which ,i am      
entirely innocent1 and when ,i do       

confess they  will cut off my head on   
the strength of that confession40 ,this 
is  founded on unimpeachable fact1 and  
the case is constantly recurring  under 
different forms4 8,in ,china it is not  
the prosecution who prove  a prisoner   
guilty1 but the prisoner who has to     
prove that he is not  guilty40 ,in this 
same prison of ,peking a visitor once   
was permitted to  enter a chamber in    
which was a barred cage eight feet by   
eight1 and in  it twenty-six human      
beings were incarcerated1 of whom six   
were dying  of gaol fever4 ,he asked    
that they might be taken out of the cage
 8in  order that he might medically     
examine and if possible relieve them4   
,the gaoler opened the door of the cage 
and seizing the six by their  pig-tails1
 or by any other portion of their bodies
 that happened to  present itself1      
dragged them out one by one over the    
pavement into  the courtyard outside4   
,no doubt several of these men were     
innocent  of the crimes imputed to them 

and were waiting to be tortured into a  
confession of guilt40    ,few ,europeans
 have experienced imprisonment in       
,china4 ,one ,englishman1  ,lord ,loch1 
has given an account of the sufferings  
he endured when  treacherously captured 
during the war of #ahfj4 8,the          
discipline of  the prison was not in    
itself very strict and had it not been  
for the  starvation1 the pain arising   
from the cramped position in which the  
chains and ropes retained the arms and  
legs1 with the heavy drag of  the iron  
collar on the bones of the spine1 and   
the creeping vermin  that infested every
 place1 together with the occasional    
beatings and  tortures which the        
prisoners were from time to time taken  
away for a  few hours to endure1        
returning with bleeding legs and bodies 
and so  weak as to be scarcely able to  
crawl1 there was no very great hardship 
to be endured4444 ,there was a small    
maggot which appears to infest all      
,chinese prisons3 the earth at a depth  

of a few inches swarms with them2  they 
are the scourge most dreaded by every   
poor prisoner4 ,few enter  a ,chinese   
prison who have not on their bodies or  
limbs some wounds1  either inflicted by 
blows to which they have been subjected1
 or caused  by the manner in which they 
have been bound2 the instinct of the    
insect  to which ,i allude appears to   
lead them direct to these wounds4 ,bound
  and helpless1 the poor wretch cannot  
save himself from their approach1       
although he knows full well that if they
 once succeed in reaching his  lacerated
 skin1 there is the certainty of a      
fearful lingering and  agonising death  
before him40    ,punishment varies in   
cruelty and intensity with the crime2   
for the  murder of a father1 mother1 or 
several people of one family the        
sentence is 8ignominious and slow       
death40 ,this method is known as ling   
che1 and the victim is attached to a    
post and cut to pieces by slow  degrees1
 the pieces being thrown about among the

 crowd4 ,this cruel  death was more than
 once publicly inflicted in ,peking     
during the year  #aijc4 ,some of the    
most horrible passages in the ,peking   
,gazette are  those which announce the  
infliction of this awful punishment on  
madmen  and idiots who in sudden        
outbreaks of mania have committed       
parricide4  ,for this offence no        
infirmity is accepted1 even as a        
palliation4 ,a  culprit condemned to    
ling che is tied to a cross1 and while  
he is  yet alive gashes are made by the 
executioner on the fleshy parts of  his 
body1 varying in number according to the
 disposition of the judge4  ,when this  
part of the sentence has been carried   
out1 a merciful blow  severs the head   
from the body4 ,it is said that the     
executioner can be  bribed to put       
sufficient opium into the victim's last 
meal to make  him practically           
unconscious1 or even to inflict the     
fatal stab in the  heart at first1 which
 should ordinarily be the last4 ,common 

cases of  capital punishment are        
comparatively merciful1 for the         
executioners  are so skilful that they  
generally sever the head from the trunk 
with  one swift blow4 ,the ,chinese     
prefer death by strangulation to any    
other  form1 because it enables the body
 to appear unmutilated in the next      
world4 ,this feeling has such a hold on 
them that when four victims were        
decapitated in ,peking1 their relatives 
instantly claimed the bodies and  sewed 
on the heads4 ,the permission to do this
 was regarded by them as a  great       
privilege and a mitigation of the       
sentence4    ,the prisons of ,china are 
made up of a certain number of wards    
according  to their class4 ,thus1 for   
example1 the prisons of the respective  
counties of ,nam-hoi and ,pun-yu in the 
province of ,kwang-tung1 which  are     
first-class county prisons1 consist     
7besides chambers in which  prisoners on
 remand are confined7 of six large wards
 in each of which  are four large cells1

 making in all twenty-four cells4 ,the  
same  arrangements may be said to       
prevail in all county prisons4 ,the     
walls  of the various wards abut one    
upon another and form a parallelogram4  
,round the outer wall a paved pathway   
runs upon which the gates of  the       
various wards open4 ,this pathway is    
flanked by a large wall  which          
constitutes the boundary wall of the    
prison4 ,the cells are of  considerable 
size4 ,the four cells in each ward are  
arranged two on a  side so as to form   
the two sides of a square1 and they much
 resemble  cattle sheds1 the front of   
each being enclosed in a strong         
palisading  of wood which extends from  
the ground to the roof4 ,they are paved 
with granite1 and each is furnished with
 a raised wooden platform on  which the 
prisoners sit by day and sleep by night4
 ,they are polluted  with vermin and    
filth of almost every kind1 and the     
prisoners seldom  or never have an      
opportunity afforded them of washing    

their bodies  or even dressing their    
hair1 as water in ,chinese prisons is a 
scarce  commodity and hair-combs are    
almost unknown4 ,the approach to the    
prison  is a narrow passage at the      
entrance of which there is an ordinary  
sized door4 ,above this entrance door is
 painted a tiger's head with  large     
staring eyes and widely extended jaws4  
,upon entering1 the  visitor finds an   
altar on which stands the figure of a   
tiger hewn in  granite4 ,this image is  
regarded as the tutelary deity of the   
prison  gates4 ,the turnkeys worship it 
morning and evening1 with the view of   
propitiating it and securing its        
watchfulness1 gaolers in ,china being   
held responsible for the safe custody of
 the miserable beings who are  entrusted
 to their care4 ,at the base of the     
large wall which forms the  prison      
boundary there are several hovels--for  
by no other name can they  be           
designated--in some of which all the    
female felons are lodged and in  others 

whole families who are held as witnesses
 by the mandarins4    ,there is a law   
which admits of the seizure and         
detention as hostages  of entire        
families1 any members of which have     
broken the laws of the  empire and fled 
from justice4 ,such hostages are not    
liberated until  the offending relatives
 have been secured1 and consequently    
they are  not unfrequently imprisoned   
during a period of five1 ten or twenty  
years4 ,indeed1 many of them pass the   
period of their natural lives in        
captivity4 ,thus the mother or aunt of  
,hung ,sow-tsuen1 the leader of  the    
,taiping rebellion1 died after an       
imprisonment of several years  in the   
prison of the ,nam-hoi magistrate at    
,canton4 ,the unoffending  old woman    
grievously felt this long detention for 
no crime or offence  of her own4 ,should
 the crime of the fugitive be a very    
aggravated  and serious one1 such1 for  
example1 as an attempt upon the life of 
the sovereign of the empire1 it is not  

unusual to put the immediate1  although 
perfectly innocent1 relations of the    
offender to death1 while  those who are 
not so nearly related to him are sent   
into exile4 ,in #ahjc  an attempt was   
made to assassinate the emperor         
,ka-hing4 ,the assassin  was no sooner  
apprehended than he was sentenced to be 
put to death by  torture2 and his sons  
who were young children were put to     
death by  strangling4 ,the mortality in 
,chinese prisons is very great4 ,the    
bodies  of all who die in prison are    
thrown into the dead-house and remain   
there until the necessary preliminaries1
 which are of a very simple  kind1 have 
been arranged for their interment4 ,in  
the prisons of ,canton  these           
receptacles may be seen full of corpses 
and presenting the most  revolting and  
disgusting appearance4 ,some of the     
unhappy victims have  died from the     
effects of severe and often repeated    
floggings4 ,others  have fallen victims 
to one or other of the various diseases 

which such  dens are only too well      
fitted to create and foster4 ,in the    
prison  of ,pun-yu there were on one    
occasion in the dead-house five bodies1 
all with the appearance of death from   
starvation--a form of capital           
punishment which in ,china is frequently
 inflicted upon kidnappers and  other   
grave offenders4 ,directly in front of  
the door of the dead-house  and at the  
base of the outer boundary wall of the  
prison there is  a small door of        
sufficient size to admit of a corpse    
being passed  through4 ,the corpses of  
all who die in prison are carried       
through this  aperture into the         
adjoining street for burial4 ,it would  
be paying  too much reverence to the    
deceased prisoner to allow the remains  
to  be carried through the gates of the 
yamun to which the prison is  attached4 
,in point of appearance the unfortunate 
inmates of ,chinese prisons are  perhaps
 of all men the most abject and         
miserable4 ,their death-like            

countenances1 emaciated forms and long  
coarse black hair1 which1  according to 
prison rules1 they are not allowed to   
shave1 give them  the appearance rather 
of demons than of men1 and strike the   
mind of  the beholder with impressions  
of gloom and sorrow that are not easily 
forgotten4 ,prisoners in every ward with
 one exception only wear  fetters4 ,the 
exception is the prisoner who is        
supposed to be more  respectable and who
 conducts himself better than any of his
 fellows  in crime4 ,he is allowed the  
full freedom of his limbs and as a mark 
of confidence and trust the privilege is
 conferred upon him of acting  as       
overseer and guardian of his comrades4  
,the dress worn by ,chinese  prisoners  
consists of a coat and trousers of a    
coarse red fabric4 ,on  the back of the 
coat is printed in large indelible      
characters the name  of the prison in   
which its wearer is confined so that    
should he escape  from durance he would 
at once be recognised as a runaway or   

prison  breaker1 and his recapture      
facilitated4 ,each prison is presided   
over  by a governor who has under him a 
considerable number of turnkeys4  ,thus 
each large prison in ,canton has a      
governor1 twenty-four turnkeys1         
thirty-seven watchmen and fifteen       
spearmen4 ,in a barrack beyond  the     
doors or gates of each prison is a      
resident guard of soldiers4  ,the       
turnkeys1 watchmen1 spearmen1 and so    
forth1 become the most  casehardened and
 incorrigible of the criminals from the 
great amount  of misery which they daily
 witness4 ,the policemen who are        
attached to  the yamun are also men of  
vile character1 and it is unfortunately 
too common for them to share the booty  
with the thief and hoodwink or  deceive 
the magistrate4    ,the governor of a   
,chinese prison purchases his           
appointment from  the local government4 
,he receives no salary from the state   
and is  compelled1 therefore1 to recoup 
himself by exacting money from such     

relatives or friends of prisoners as are
 in good circumstances and  naturally   
anxious that their unhappy friends      
should escape as far as  possible the   
sad deprivations and cruelties for which
 ,chinese prisons  are so notorious4 ,to
 each prison a granary is attached in   
which rice  of the cheapest and coarsest
 kind is stored by the governor4 ,this  
rice  is one of his perquisites1 and he 
retails it to the prisoners at a        
remunerative price4 ,vegetables and     
firewood for culinary purposes1 both  of
 which are daily offered for sale to the
 prisoners1 are also supplied  by him4  
,as the government daily allowance to   
each prisoner does not  exceed          
twenty-five cash1 the prisoners who are 
without friends are  not often able to  
buy even vegetables and firewood4       
,besides the prison in which convicts   
are confined there is also within  the  
precincts of the yamun a house of       
detention4 ,this is neither so  large   
nor so strongly enclosed as the common  

gaol4 ,generally1 in such a  house of   
detention there is a large chamber which
 is set apart for the  reception of     
prisoners on remand1 who have friends   
able and willing to  satisfy the demands
 of the governor4 ,by this arrangement  
such prisoners  avoid the misery of     
being shut up in the same ward with men 
of the  vilest character and often most 
loathsome condition1 covered with filth 
or suffering from various kinds of      
cutaneous diseases4 ,the arrangement  is
 a great advantage to the governor of   
the gaol and to all prisoners  who can  
afford to pay for it1 but a great       
disadvantage to other  inmates4 ,the    
space required for the convenience of   
prisoners who have  friends to look     
after their wants leaves very little    
room indeed for  the reception of the   
great majority of the poorer criminals1 
who are  huddled together in a common   
ward sometimes too crowded to allow its 
occupants to lie down4 ,in the city of  
,canton1 on the streets adjoining  the  

yamuns1 there are other houses of       
detention1 all densely crowded4         
,imprisonment is not the only penalty   
inflicted2 cases of petty larceny  are  
generally dealt with by flogging4 ,the  
culprit is handcuffed and  with the     
identical article which he stole1 or one
 similar1 suspended  from his neck1 is  
marched through the streets of the      
neighbourhood in  which the theft was   
committed4 ,he is preceded by a man     
beating a gong1  and at each beat of the
 gong an officer who walks behind gives 
him a  severe blow with a double rattan 
across the shoulders1 exclaiming1       
8,this is the punishment due to a       
thief40 ,as the culprit has to pass     
through three or four streets his       
punishment1 although regarded by the    
,chinese as a minor one1 is certainly   
not lacking in severity1 and is  often  
accompanied by a considerable flow of   
blood4    ,a thief who had stolen a     
watch from one of his countrymen was    
flogged  through the ,honam suburb of   

,canton1 but the officer appointed to   
flog him was very corpulent1 and from   
his great earnestness in the  discharge 
of his duty became quite breathless     
before the various  streets along which 
the culprit was sentenced to pass had   
been fully  traversed4 ,the person from 
whom the watch had been stolen1 seeing  
that  the thief might escape the full   
severity of his penalty1 snatched the   
double rattan from the hand of the      
exhausted officer and applied it        
himself most unmercifully to the thief's
 back4 ,women who are convicted  of     
thieving are in some instances punished 
in this way4 ,occasionally  a long      
bamboo is used in cases of petty        
larceny4 ,when this is the  case1       
however1 the culprit receives his       
flogging in court in front of  the      
tribunal4 ,he is at once denuded of his 
trousers and the number of  blows varies
 according to the nature of the larceny1
 from ten to three  hundred4    ,mr4    
,henry ,norman1 who witnessed a most    

cruel flogging in court1 which  left the
 prisoner in a pitiable state1 asserts  
that when a policeman  was called to    
suffer the same punishment1 it was seen 
that he had  bound strips of wood on    
himself to catch the full force of the  
bamboo4  ,the prescribed number of      
strokes were administered1 but the fraud
 was  plainly apparent to the magistrate
 and all the spectators1 and the        
policeman1 who was none the worse for   
the flogging1 went about his  duties as 
usual when the ordeal was over4         
,spectacles of this kind1 says  the same
 authority1 seem to be highly enjoyed by
 a ,chinese audience4      ,chinese     
,punishment        ,the cangue1 or      
square and heavy wooden collar1 is one  
of the      modes by which petty        
offenders are punished in ,china4 ,the  
weight      varies with the offence1 and
 they are worn from a fortnight to      
three months1 during which time the     
cangue is not removed by      day or    
night4 ,this device inflicts severe     

punishment1 preventing      the culprit 
from assuming any position of rest4 ,the
 name of the      prisoner and the      
nature of his offence are written on the
 cangue      in large letters1 so that  
8he who runs may read10 and he is often 
made to stand at one of the principal   
gates or in some other      conspicuous 
place as an object of universal         
contempt4    ,illustration    ,the      
cangue1 or square1 heavy wooden collar1 
is another mode by which  petty         
offenders in ,china are punished4       
,cangues vary in weight1 some  being    
considerably larger and heavier than    
others4 ,the period for which  an       
offender is sentenced to wear this      
collar varies from a fortnight  to three
 months4 ,during the whole of this time 
the cangue is not  removed from the neck
 of the prisoner either by day or by    
night4 ,its  form prevents the wearer   
from stretching himself on the ground at
  full length1 and to judge from the    
attenuated appearance of prisoners  who 

have undergone it1 the punishment must  
be terribly severe4 ,the  name of the   
lawbreaker and the nature of his offence
 are written on  the cangue in large    
letters1 8so that all the world may     
read40 ,the  authorities often make the 
victim stand from sunrise to sunset at  
one of the principal gates or in front  
of one of the chief temples  or public  
halls of the city1 where he is regarded 
as an object of  universal scorn and    
contempt4    ,another mode of punishing 
a criminal is that of confining him in a
  cage4 ,the cages are of different     
forms1 the worst being too short to     
allow the occupants to place themselves 
in a recumbent position and too  low to 
admit of their standing4 ,to the top of 
one kind is attached a  wooden collar or
 cangue by which the neck of the        
criminal1 which it  is made to fit1 is  
firmly held4 ,another cage resembles the
 former in  all respects but one4 ,the  
difference consists in its being higher 
than  its occupant1 so that while his   

neck is held fast by the wooden collar  
attached to the top of the cage1 the    
tips of his toes barely touch the       
floor4 ,indeed1 the floor1 which is only
 a few inches from the ground1  is      
sometimes removed so that the prisoner  
may be suspended by the neck4  ,this    
punishment almost invariably proves     
fatal4 ,the victims are as a  rule      
thieves and robbers4 ,they are often    
punished by being bound to  stones by   
means of long chains passed round their 
necks4 ,the stones are  not large1 but  
sufficiently heavy to inconvenience them
 as they walk  to and from the prison to
 the entrance gates of the yamun1 in    
front  of which they are daily exposed4 
,these stones are their inseparable     
companions by night and by day          
throughout the whole period of their    
incarceration4 ,in some instances they  
are bound to long bars of iron  and are 
daily exposed to the scorn of all       
passers by4    ,for capital and other   
offences of a serious nature there are  

six  classes of punishment4 ,the first1 
called ling che1 has already been       
mentioned4 ,it is inflicted upon        
traitors1 parricides1 matricides1       
fratricides and murderers of husbands1  
uncles and tutors4 ,the criminal  is cut
 into either one hundred and twenty1    
seventy-two1 thirty-six or  twenty-four 
pieces4 ,should there be extenuating    
circumstances1 his  body1 as a mark of  
imperial clemency1 is divided into eight
 portions  only4 ,the punishment of     
twenty-four cuts is inflicted as        
follows3 the  first and second cuts     
remove the eyebrows2 the third and      
fourth the  shoulders2 the fifth and    
sixth the breasts2 the seventh and      
eighth  the parts between each hand and 
elbow2 the ninth and tenth the parts    
between each elbow and shoulder2 the    
eleventh and twelfth the flesh of  each 
thigh2 the thirteenth and fourteenth the
 calf of each leg2 the  fifteenth       
pierces the heart2 the sixteenth severs 
the head from the  body2 the seventeenth

 and eighteenth cut off the hands2 the  
nineteenth  and twentieth the arms2 the 
twenty-first and twenty-second the feet2
  the twenty-third and twenty-fourth the
 legs4 ,that of eight cuts is  inflicted
 as follows2 the first and second cuts  
remove the eyebrows2  the third and     
fourth the shoulders2 the fifth and     
sixth the breasts2  the seventh pierces 
the heart2 the eighth severs the head   
from the  body4 ,a great many political 
offenders underwent executions of the   
first class at ,canton during the       
vice-royalty of ,his ,excellency1 ,yeh4 
,on the fourteenth day of ,december1    
#ahfd1 the famous ,hakka rebel leader1  
,tai ,chee-kwei by name1 was put to     
death at ,canton in the same manner4    
,the second class of capital punishment1
 which is called chan or  decapitation1 
is the penalty due to murderers1 rebels1
 pirates1  burglars1 etc4 ,prisoners who
 are sentenced to decapitation are kept 
in  ignorance of the hour fixed for     
their execution until the preceding     

day4 ,occasionally they have only a few 
hours' and in some instances  only a few
 minutes' warning4 ,when the time has   
arrived for making  the condemned man   
ready for execution1 an officer in full 
costume1  carrying in his hand a board  
on which is pasted a list of the names  
of  the prisoners who are that day to   
atone for their crimes1 enters the      
prison1 and in the hearing of all the   
prisoners assembled in the ward1  reads 
aloud the list of the condemned4 ,each  
prisoner whose name is  called at once  
answers to it1 and he is then made to   
sit in a basket  to be carried once more
 into the presence of a judge4 ,as he is
 taken  through the outer gate1 he is   
interrogated through an interpreter by  
an  official who acts on the occasion as
 the viceroy's representative4    ,mr4  
,henry ,norman described in #ahie an    
execution of fifteen offenders  of this 
class which he had witnessed4 ,the      
condemned were carried into  the place  
of execution in flat baskets suspended  

from bamboo poles1 and  literally dumped
 out1 bound hand and foot4 ,a slip of   
paper was stuck  in the queue of each   
condemned man1 which described the      
nature of the  crime4 ,these were taken 
out and stacked up by one of the        
executioners1  and then the work of     
severing the heads began1 one of the    
executioners  holding the victim's      
shoulders while the other used the      
knife4 ,all  of those about to be       
beheaded witnessed the decapitation of  
their  comrades1 and the spectators     
yelled with delight and frenzy4 ,when   
the  last head had been severed1 the    
place was ankle-deep in blood and the   
executioner1 who used the knife1 was    
covered with it4 ,the bodies were       
thrown into a pond and the heads were   
put in earthenware jars and  stacked up 
with others surrounding this potter's   
field4    ,a third punishment is called 
nam-kow1 or death by strangulation4     
,this  is inflicted on kidnappers and   
all thieves who with violence steal     

articles the value of which amounts to  
five hundred dollars and upward4  ,the  
manner in which this form of capital    
punishment is inflicted is as           
follows3--,a cross is erected in the    
centre of the execution ground1 at  the 
foot of which a stone is placed1 and    
upon this the prisoner stands4  ,his    
body is made fast to the perpendicular  
beam of the cross by a band  passing    
round the waist1 while his arms are     
bound to the transverse  beam4 ,the     
executioner then places round the neck  
of the prisoner a thin  but strong piece
 of twine1 which he tightens to the     
utmost and then  ties in a firm knot    
round the upper part of the             
perpendicular beam4  ,death by this     
cruel process is very slow and is       
apparently attended  with extreme agony4
 ,the body remains on the cross during a
 period of  twenty-four hours1 the      
sheriff before leaving the execution    
ground  taking care to attach his seal  
to the knot of the twine which passes   

round the neck of the malefactor4       
,the fourth class of punishment is      
called man-kwan1 or transportation  for 
life4 ,the criminals who are thus       
punished are embezzlers1  forgers1 etc4 
,the places of banishment in the north  
of ,china and  ,tartary are named       
respectively ,hack-loong-kong1 ,elee    
,ning-koo-tap and  ,oloo-muk-tsze4 ,all 
convicts from the midland and southern  
provinces  are sent to one or the other 
of these places1 where the unhappy men  
are  employed in a great measure        
according to their former circumstances 
of  life4 ,those who are of a robust    
nature and who have been accustomed to  
agricultural pursuits are daily occupied
 in reclaiming and cultivating  waste   
lands4 ,others1 more especially those   
who have been sent from the  southern   
provinces1 where the heat in summer is  
almost tropical1 are1  in consequence of
 the severity of the cold which prevails
 in northern  latitudes1 made to work in
 government iron foundries4 ,the aged   

and  those who have not been accustomed 
to manual labour are daily employed  in 
sweeping the state temples and other    
public buildings4    ,the fifth class of
 punishment is termed man-low1 or       
transportation  for ten or fifteen      
years4 ,the criminals of this class are 
petty  burglars and persons who harbour 
those who have broken the laws4 ,such   
offenders are generally sent to the     
midland provinces of the empire1  where 
the arrangements for convict labour are 
similar to those of the  penal          
settlements of the north4 ,convicts of  
this class who are natives  of the      
midland provinces are sent either to the
 eastern1 western or  southern provinces
 of the empire4 ,the barbarous practice 
of tattooing  the cheeks is also        
resorted to with these prisoners4 ,the  
sixth class is  called man-tow1 or      
transportation for three years4 ,a      
punishment of  this nature is the       
portion of gamblers1 salt smugglers1    
etc4 ,a convict  of this class is       

transported to one of the provinces     
immediately  bordering upon that of     
which he is a native or in which his    
crime was  committed4    ,oppression by 
the ruling class was always rife in     
,china1 and instances  might be         
multiplied recording the cruel misusage 
of inferiors by  the mandarins4 ,one    
case in which ample vengeance was       
exacted by the  aggrieved victim may be 
quoted here4 ,the story is told by ,lady
 ,susan  ,townley in her 8,chinese ,note
 ,book40    8,a well-to-do farmer called
 ,chiang-lo lived happily on his estate 
with  a pretty wife whom he loved1 until
 one day1 as ill luck would have it1  a 
rich ,mandarin passed that way1 who1    
seeing the fair dame1 straightway       
desired her4 ,anxious to get rid of the 
husband by fair means or foul1  he      
trumped up a charge against him1 and the
 farmer was condemned #8to  be a slave  
to a soldier1' which meant that he would
 be marched in  heavy chains from       
,peking to the northern frontier of     

,china1 cruelly  beaten at every station
 7they occur about every eighteen       
miles71 and  ill-treated at will by the 
soldier in charge of him4 ,this sentence
 is  usually equivalent to death1 for   
few can survive the hardships of such  a
 journey1 the fatigue1 heat1 cold1      
hunger and torture4 ,but our friend     
with hatred in his heart resolved to    
live in order to be revenged upon  his  
enemy4 ,so he bore all his sufferings   
with superhuman courage1 and  finally   
arrived at his destination on the       
frontier1 where he was put  to work in a
 mine40 ,after he had been there about  
three years ,his  ,majesty ,kwang ,hsu  
assumed the reins of government1 and    
accorded a  general pardon to all       
criminals4 ,thus in a night ,chiang-lo  
recovered  his freedom1 and without a   
moment's hesitation set off to trudge   
back  to ,peking4 8,this time there was 
hope in his heart for he meant to kill  
his enemy and the wife who had betrayed 
him4 ,when he saw her again1  however1  

all his old love for her returned and   
though she refused to go  with him1 and 
though he knew that if he killed them   
both1 ,chinese law  would account him   
guiltless1 whereas if he killed her     
lover and spared  her1 he would be      
considered guilty of murder1 and would  
have to bear  the penalty1 he did not   
hesitate one moment1 but left her and   
went to  find her seducer4    8,for days
 he tracked him about the town1 waiting 
for a favourable  opportunity4 ,at last 
it came1 as his rival passed him in the 
deep  embrasure of the ,chien-men gate4 
,springing from his place of            
concealment he challenged him to fight1 
but the coward refused4 ,then           
,chiang-lo 444 drew his knife and       
repeatedly stabbed him in the heart4    
,when he saw his enemy lying dead at his
 feet1 the apathy of despair  fell upon 
him4 ,wiping his knife on his sleeve he 
bowed his head1 and  turning his steps  
to the nearest police station calmly    
gave himself up4  ,a few weeks later he 

was beheaded40    ,it is interesting to 
read that the prevailing method of      
punishment in  ,china in the seventeenth
 century differed little from that in   
force  at a very recent date4 ,in the   
memoirs of the ,jesuit ,louis le ,comte1
  published in #afih1 he says3 8,they   
have several ways of inflicting  death4 
,mean and ignoble persons have their    
heads cut off1 for in  ,china the       
separation of the head from the body is 
disgraceful4 ,on the  contrary1 persons 
of quality are strangled1 which among   
them is a death  of more credit4444     
,rebels and traitors are punished with  
the utmost  severity2 that is1 to speak 
as they do1 they cut them into ten      
thousand  pieces4 ,for after that the   
executioner hath tied them to a post1 he
  cuts off the skin all round their     
forehead which he tears by force till   
it hangs over their eyes1 that they may 
not see the torments they are  to       
endure4 ,afterwards he cuts their bodies
 in what places he thinks  fit1 and when

 he is tired of this barbarous          
employment1 he leaves them  to the      
tyranny of their enemies and the insults
 of the mob40    ,cruelty1 which is one 
of the strongest characteristics of the 
,chinese  nature1 manifests itself not  
only in the application of criminal law1
  but with a peculiar callousness they  
delight to torture dumb animals  and    
enjoy witnessing the sufferings of      
children and adults of their  own race4 
,a common practice of the professional  
kidnapper is to blind  a child after    
stealing it1 and then carry it away to  
another town and  sell it for a         
professional beggar4 ,infant life is    
still being destroyed  by parents in    
some districts of ,china1 and the       
abominable custom is  difficult to      
eradicate1 as the children are simply   
abandoned and left  to starve1 and if   
the crime is discovered it is difficult 
to prove  deliberate murder4    ,cases  
have been known of ,chinese boatmen     
refusing to rescue persons  who had     

thrown themselves overboard from a      
sinking craft and were  drowning1 unless
 they agreed to pay an exorbitant sum   
asked as the  price of rescue4 ,they    
have even been known to look on         
passively while  their fellow-countrymen
 were struggling for life in the water1 
without  raising a hand to help them4   
,it is but natural to expect that in a  
country where such occurrences  are     
common1 the punishments inflicted on the
 really guilty should  exceed anything  
known in the practices of the           
enlightened nations of  to-day4         
,,prisons ,,of ,,japan                  
,,chapter ,,ix    ,,enlightened         
,,methods ,,of ,,japan                  
,enlightened ,japan has striven to      
establish a perfect      prison         
system--,new prisons--,deportation to   
the island of      ,yezo--,agricultural 
labour and work in coal mines--,two fine
 prisons      in ,tokio--,description by
 ,mr4 ,norman--,the gallows--,training  
school      for prison                  

officials--,disciplinary punishments and
 rewards4      ,japan as an enlightened 
and progressive country has made        
strenuous  efforts to establish 8as     
perfect a prison system as possible2 one
  which is in harmony with the          
advancement of science and the results  
of  experience40 ,these reforms were    
commenced in #ahga and were continued   
in various new prisons at ,tokio1       
,kobold1 ,kiogo and upon the island of  
,yezo1 all admirably organised and      
maintained4 ,this movement was hurried  
on by the great overcrowding of the     
small provincial prisons on account  of 
the accumulation of long-term prisoners4
 ,no proper discipline could  be applied
 and there was absolutely no room for   
short-term offenders4  ,most of those   
sentenced to hard labour and deportation
 are now sent to  the penal settlement  
on the island of ,yezo1 where they are  
employed  both within the prisons and at
 agriculture in the open air4 ,every    
advantage is taken of the natural       

aptitudes of the ,japanese1 and the     
inmates of gaols prove the most expert  
and artistic workmen4 ,the very  worst  
criminals are sent to the prison of     
,sorachi in the remote island  of ,yezo1
 beyond ,poronaibuto--a bleak1 desolate 
spot surrounded by  the usual bamboo    
fence--which holds about sixteen hundred
 convicts4  ,they are to be seen        
squatted on mats at work1 each in front 
of his  own sleeping place1 and on a    
shelf above are his wadded bed-quilt1   
with a mosquito curtain on top of each4 
,the place is so isolated  and          
surrounded by such an impenetrable      
jungle that escapes are out  of the     
question4 ,a little further on is the   
prison of ,poronai1 in a  delightful    
spot1 where the most extensive coal     
fields of ,japan are  located4 ,a small 
building houses some six hundred        
convicts who work  in the coal seams on 
the side of the hill4 8,hard labour     
indeed10  says ,mr4 ,wingfield4         
8,heavily chained1 by light of a safety 

lamp the  wretched convicts were        
crouching in holes where there was no   
room to  raise the head or stretch the  
limbs1 and here they had to remain for  
eighteen hours at a time40 ,their       
sentences were for twelve years1        
although remission might by good conduct
 be secured after seven4 ,yet  these    
luckless ,japanese bore their irksome   
lot with a light heart4 8,as  we were   
leaving ,poronai at #e ,a4 ,m410 says   
the same observer1 8we met  a batch of  
miners marching to face their ordeal and
 many after the  eighteen hours are     
completed have to be removed to         
hospital4 ,they  were clanking their    
chains right merrily1 talking and       
laughing loudly1  bandying quips and    
jokes40    ,japan is a land of rapid    
transition and nothing has changed more 
completely in recent years than         
,japanese prisons4 ,still there was some
  system1 even in ancient days4 ,the    
sexes were kept apart1 the penalty  of  
the log worn round the neck and fastened

 to the ankle was not  imposed upon the 
aged or juvenile offender1 nor upon     
dwarfs1 invalids  or pregnant women4 ,in
 the sixteenth century a prison reformer
 arose  who organised five new prisons  
in ,yeddo for five different classes of 
prisoners1 comprising females and       
persons of different conditions of      
life4 ,proper prison officers were      
appointed1 and security was obtained    
without despising sanitary needs4 ,still
 there must have been much  mutual      
contamination1 owing to the             
indiscriminate herding together1  and   
the maintenance of internal order was   
left to the prisoners who  chose among  
themselves a nanoushi1 or head1 with    
eleven assistants  to control the whole 
body4 ,flogging was inflicted and       
handcuffs were  universally worn4 ,in   
#agij a house of correction was         
established on the  island of ,yshikavoy
 in the ,bay of ,yeddo1 to which were   
committed all  vagabonds or incorrigible
 prisoners whom it was thought unsafe to

 set  free lest they should relapse into
 crime4 ,the work on this island was    
chiefly the manufacture of oil4 ,in     
cases of escape and recapture the       
fugitives were branded with a certain   
tattoo mark on the left arm4    ,even in
 the middle of the nineteenth century   
the same brutal methods  of torture     
prevailed as in ,china 7from where their
 bloody codes were  mostly borrowed71   
and there are preserved collections of  
instruments  of torture as diabolical as
 any known to history4 ,crime1 too1 was 
not  lacking in those 8isles of the     
blest10 and every species of moral      
filth and corruption abounded1 which was
 shown in its true colours  when the    
liberty of the press was granted1 in    
#ahgb-ahgd4 ,the number of  executions  
and deaths in the native prisons at that
 time was said to  average three        
thousand per annum4    ,the chief prison
 of the empire1 in ,tokio1 as described 
by ,mr4 ,william  ,m4 ,griffis1 who     
visited it in #ahge1 was very different 

in its sanitary  appointments and       
general condition from the prisons of   
,tokio to-day4  ,a curious feature was a
 small roofed in structure in the prison
 yard1  with open sides1 where condemned
 men of rank were allowed to expiate    
their crimes by plunging the dirk into  
their own bodies1 after which  the      
executioner cut off their heads4 ,the   
head1 laid on a tray1 was  then         
inspected by an officer of justice4     
,there were very few of such  executions
 after #ahga4 ,the ordinary criminal was
 beheaded in the  blood-pit1 so-called1 
which was a pit surrounded with a much  
stained  and slashed wooden curb1 and   
kept covered by a sort of trap-door4 ,in
  the pit were mats1 one above the      
other1 which had been soaked with the   
blood of many criminals4 8,the faint    
odour that ascended10 says ,mr4         
,griffis1 8was more horrible in the     
awful cloud of associations which  it   
called up than the mere stench40 ,it was
 then ,april and twenty-five  heads had 

fallen there since the year began4 ,the 
criminal was led to  the pit blindfolded
 and was beheaded with an ordinary      
sword1 sharp as a  razor4 ,death        
followed frequently on the day of       
sentence and never later  than the day  
after4    ,tokio has now two prisons2   
the first and chief is situated upon the
  island of ,oshikawa at the south of   
the city1 and the second1 the  convict  
and female prison of ,ichigawa1 is in   
the centre of the city4  ,the former is 
completely isolated1 all communication  
with the mainland  being by police      
ferry1 and can accommodate two thousand 
men and boys1  who are serving terms of 
ten years or less4 ,the prison of       
,ichigawa  usually contains fifteen     
hundred men and about one hundred women1
  among whom are many serving life      
sentences4 ,attached to the prison is  a
 convict farm1 and it is here that      
capital punishment is carried out4      
,otherwise the two prisons resemble each
 other closely and a description  of one

 will answer for both1 says ,mr4        
,norman1 who described them in  #ahib1  
and gives the following account3        
8,the entrance is through a massive     
wooden gateway1 into a guard-room       
adjoining which are the offices of the  
director and officials4 ,the  prison    
itself consists of a score or more of   
detached one-story  buildings1 all of   
wood and some of them merely substantial
 sheds1  under which the rougher labour1
 like stone-breaking1 is performed4 ,the
  dormitories are enormous wooden cages1
 the front and part of the back  formed 
of bars as thick as one's arm1 before   
which again is a narrow  covered        
passage1 where the warder on guard walks
 at night4 ,there is not  a particle of 
furniture or a single article of any    
kind upon the floor1  which is polished 
till it reflects your body like a       
mirror4 ,no boot1 of  course1 ever      
touches it4 ,the thick quilts1 or futon1
 which constitute  everywhere the       
,japanese bed1 are all rolled up and    

stacked on a broad  shelf running round 
the room overhead4 ,each dormitory holds
 ninety-six  prisoners1 and there is a  
long row of them4 ,the sanitary         
arrangements  are situated in a little  
addition at the back1 and ,i was assured
 that  these had not been made pleasant 
for my inspection4 ,if not1 ,i can  only
 say that in this most important respect
 a ,japanese prison could  not well be  
improved4 ,in fact1 the whole dormitory1
 with its perfect  ventilation1 its     
construction of solid1 highly-polished  
wood1 in which  there is no chance for  
vermin to harbour1 and its combined     
simplicity  and security1 is an almost  
ideal prison structure4 ,of course the  
fact  that every ,japanese1 from the    
emperor to the coolie1 sleeps upon      
quilts  spread out on the floor1 greatly
 simplifies the task of the prison      
architect in ,japan4    8,on leaving the
 dormitories we passed a small1 isolated
 square  erection1 peaked and gabled    
like a little temple4 ,the door was     

solemnly unlocked and flung back1 and ,i
 was motioned to enter4 ,it was  the    
punishment cell1 another spotless wooden
 box1 well ventilated1 but  perfectly   
dark1 and with walls so thick as to     
render it practically  silent4 #8,how   
many prisoners have been in it during   
the last month8' ,i  asked4 ,the        
director summoned the chief warder1 and 
repeated my question  to him4 #8,none   
whatever1' was the reply4 #8,what other 
punishments have  you8' #8,none         
whatever4' #8,no flogging8' ,when this  
question was translated  the director   
and the little group of officials all   
laughed together at  the bare idea4 ,i  
could not help wondering whether there  
was another  prison in the world with no
 method of punishment for two thousand  
criminals except one dark cell1 and that
 not used for a month4 ,and the         
recollection of the filthy and          
suffocating sty used as a punishment    
cell in the city prison of ,san         
,francisco came upon me like a nausea40 

,in ,japan a prison consists of two     
parts--dormitories and workshops4       
,there is nothing whatever of cells or  
regulation prison buildings  properly   
speaking4 ,it is a place of detention1  
of reformation1 and of  profitable work4
 ,the visitors found in the first       
workshop1 to their  great surprise1 a   
couple of hundred prisoners making      
machinery and  steam boilers4 ,one      
warder1 carrying only a sword1 was in   
charge of  every fifteen men4 ,the      
prisoners were working on contract      
orders for  private firms1 under the    
supervision of one skilled master and   
one  representative of the firm giving  
the contract4 ,they work nine hours a   
day1 and are dressed in cotton suits of 
a peculiar terra-cotta colour4  ,when   
the foreigners entered1 the warder on   
guard came to attention  and cried1     
8,pay attention60 ,every one ceased work
 and bowed with his  forehead to the    
floor1 remaining in that attitude until 
a second order  bade them rise4 ,they   

were making large brass and iron steam  
pumps1 and  the workshop1 with its buzz 
of machinery and its intelligent labour1
  was much like a part of an arsenal    
here or in ,europe4    ,another shop    
contained the wood-carvers1 where more  
than a hundred  men1 with blocks of wood
 between their knees1 were carving with 
keen  interest upon all sorts of things1
 from simple trays and bowls to  fragile
 and delicate long-legged storks4 8,i   
bought10 says our author1  8an          
admirably-carved tobacco box1           
representing the ,god of ,laughter      
being dragged along by his cloak by six 
naked boys1 and afterward  ,i asked some
 ,japanese friends who supposed ,i had  
picked it up at a  curio-dealer's1 how  
much it was worth4 ,they guessed ten    
yen--thirty  shillings4 ,i paid         
sixty-eight sen for it--less than two   
shillings4  ,it is a piece of work that 
would be admired anywhere1 and yet it   
was  the work of a common burglar who   
had made the acquaintance of a carving  

tool and a prison at the same time40    
,there were also paper-makers1 weavers  
7who were making the fabric  for the    
prison clothing71 fan-makers1           
lantern-makers and workers in  baskets1 
mats1 and nets4 ,a printing shop1 too1  
there was1 where the  proof-reader was a
 criminal of more than ordinary         
interest4 ,he had  been secretary of    
legation in ,france and had absconded   
with a large  sum1 leaving his shoes on 
the river bank to lead the authorities  
to  believe he had committed suicide1   
but he had been arrested eventually  in 
,germany with his mistress4    ,in one  
of the shops jinrikishas were being     
made1 in another umbrellas  were being  
carved elaborately and in another every 
kind of pottery  was being turned out4  
,to the amazement of the visitors1 they 
found  sixty men1 common thieves and    
burglars1 making the exquisite cloisonn 
ware--8cutting by eye-measurement only  
the tiny strips of copper to  make the  
outline of a bird's beak or the shading 

of his wing or the  articulations of his
 toe1 sticking these upon the rounded   
surface of  the copper vase1 filling up 
the interstices with pigment1 coat upon 
coat1 and firing and filing and         
polishing it40 ,the finished work was   
true and beautiful and it was difficult 
to believe that these men knew  nothing 
at all about it before they were        
sentenced4 ,it would be hard to  imagine
 teaching such a thing to the convicts  
at ,dartmoor or at ,sing  ,sing4 ,in the
 prison at ,tokio the convict is taught 
to do whatever is  the limit of his     
natural ability4 ,if he cannot make     
cloisonn1 he is  assigned to the        
wood-carving department1 or perhaps to  
make pottery4  ,if he cannot do these1  
he can possibly make fans or            
basket-work1 or set  type or cast brass4
 ,and for those who cannot reach so high
 a limit as  these occupations there is 
left the rice mill or stone-breaking1   
but of  two thousand men only thirty    
were unable to do any other work but    

that  of breaking stones4    ,prisoners 
receive one-tenth of the sum their      
handiwork earns4 ,a curious  custom is  
that every adult prisoner is kept for an
 additional six  months after his       
sentence expires unless he is claimed by
 friends in  the meantime1 and if he has
 not reached adult age he is detained   
until  that is attained4 ,during the    
added six months these prisoners wear   
blue  instead of the universal reddish  
garb4    8,the women's quarter at       
,ichigawa10 continues ,norman1 8is      
separated from  the men's by a high     
wooden fence and gateway guarded by a   
sentinel1  and consists of two or three 
dormitories and one large comfortable   
workshop1 where all are employed        
together at labour let out by  contract4
 ,when ,i was there they were all       
hemming silk handkerchiefs1  each seated
 upon the matted floor before a little  
table1 and very neat  they all looked1  
and very pretty some of them1 with their
 loose red  gowns and simply twisted    

hair4 #8,those are forgers1' said the   
officer1  pointing to three of them2    
#8,i do not like them to be so pretty4' 
,one  of the women had a young baby     
playing beside her1 and another of  them
 as she glanced up at us showed a face  
entirely different from  the rest1 pale1
 sad and refined1 and ,i saw that her   
hands were small  and very white4 ,it   
was ,hanai ,ume1 the once famous geisha 
of ,tokio1  famous for her beauty1 her  
samisen-playing1 her dancing1 her pride1
  and most famous of all for her affaire
 d'amour4 ,two years ago a  man-servant 
managed to make trouble between herself 
and her lover1 whom  she expected to buy
 her out of the life of a professional  
musician at  anybody's call1 and then   
offered to make peace again between them
 on  his own terms4 ,so one night she   
called him out of the house and stabbed 
him to death with a kitchen knife4 ,now 
music is mute for her and song  is      
silent and love is left behind4    8,to 
the gallows is an easy transition1 as it

 is a natural conclusion4  ,in a        
secluded part of the grounds at         
,ichigawa1 there is a forbidding  object
 like a great black box1 raised six feet
 from the earth at the  foot of a long  
incline cut in the grass4 ,a sloping    
walk of black boards  leads into the box
 on the left-hand side4 ,the condemned  
criminal is led  up this and finds      
himself inside upon the drop4 ,the rope 
is adjusted  and the cap fitted1 and    
then at a signal the bottom of the box  
falls  back4 ,thus the ,japanese method 
is exactly the opposite of our own1  the
 official spectators1 including a couple
 of privileged reporters1  being spared 
the ghastly details of the toilette on  
the scaffold1 and  seeing nothing until 
an unrecognisable corpse is suddenly    
flung out and  dangles before them40    
,the state of ,japanese advancement in  
matters of penology is shown by  the    
fact that in ,tokio a school is         
maintained for the training of  prison  
officials in theory and practice1 with  

an annual attendance of  from eighty to 
one hundred students4 ,they are         
instructed in the laws  relating to     
prisons and prisoners1 in the general   
outline of the penal  code1 the sanitary
 care of prisons1 the treatment of      
criminal patients1  and kindred         
subjects4    ,the number of felons and  
misdemeanants is decreasing annually1   
while  there has been a slight increase1
 on the other hand1 in the number of    
contraveners4 ,there are three          
disciplinary punishments in the prisons3
  first1 solitary confinement in a      
windowed cell2 second1 reduction of     
food supply2 third1 solitary confinement
 in a dark room4    ,medals are granted 
by the prison governors as rewards to   
any prisoners  who have worked          
diligently and conducted themselves     
properly in  prison1 but no medal can be
 awarded more than three times to any   
one individual4 ,medallists enjoy       
certain privileges and leniency of      
treatment1 and pardons are based on the 

medal system4          ,,prisons ,,of   
,,egypt          ,,chapter ,x    ,,the  
,,law ,,in ,,egypt        ,penal code in
 ,egypt of ,mohammedan origin and       
derived from the      ,koran--,the law  
of talion--,price of blood--,blood feuds
 and blood      revenge--,the courbash  
freely used to raise taxes--,old police 
in      ,cairo--,extensive              
reforms--,oppressive                    
governors--,tyrannical rule of          
,ismail ,pasha--,protection and security
 guaranteed to the fellaheen      by    
,british occupation--,prison            
reform--,tourah near ,cairo--,labour    
at the quarries--,profitable            
workshops--,assiut prison--,life at     
,tourah--,attempts to escape--,convicts 
employed on the communication      line 
in the ,sudan campaign--,excellent      
sanitation and good hospital            
arrangements4      ,the land of the     
,pharaohs has ever been governed by the 
practices and  influenced by the        
traditions of the ,east4 ,from the time 

of the ,arab  conquest1 ,mohammedan law 
has generally prevailed1 and the old    
penal  code was derived directly from   
the ,koran4 ,its provisions were most   
severe1 but followed the dictates of    
common sense and were never             
outrageously cruel4 ,the law of talion  
was generally enforced1 a life  for a   
life1 an eye for an eye1 a tooth for a  
tooth4 ,murder entailed  the punishment 
of death1 but a fine might be paid to   
the family of the  deceased if they     
would accept it2 this was only permitted
 when the  homicide was attended by     
palliating circumstances4 ,the price of 
blood  varied4 ,it might be the value of
 a hundred camels2 or if the culprit    
was the possessor of gold1 a sum equal  
to #ejj was demanded1 but if he         
possessed silver only1 the price asked  
was a sum equal to #cjj4 ,the           
accomplices and accessories were also   
liable to death4 ,compensation in  the  
form of a fine is not now permitted4 ,a 
man who killed another in  self-defence 

or to defend his property from a        
depredator was exempt  from punishment4 
,unintentional homicide might be        
expiated by a fine4  ,the price of blood
 was incumbent upon the whole tribe or  
family to  which the murderer belonged4 
,a woman convicted of a capital crime   
was  generally drowned in the ,nile4    
,blood-revenge was a common practice    
among the ,egyptian people4 ,the        
victim's relations claimed the right to 
kill the perpetrator1 and  relationship 
was widely extended1 for the blood      
guiltiness included  the homicide1 his  
father1 grandfather1 great-grandfather  
and  great-great-grandfather1 and all   
these were liable to retaliation  from  
any of the relatives of the deceased1   
who in times past1 killed  with their   
own hands rather than appeal to the     
government1 and often  did so with      
disgusting cruelty1 even mangling and   
insulting the  corpse4 ,animosity       
frequently survived even after          
retaliation had  been accomplished1 and 

blood-revenge sometimes subsisted       
between  neighbouring villages for      
several years and through many          
generations4  ,revengeful mutilation was
 allowed by the law in varying degrees4 
,cutting off the nose was equivalent to 
the whole price of blood1 or of  any two
 members1--two arms1 two hands1 or two  
legs2 the removal of one  was valued at 
half the price of blood4 ,the fine of a 
man for maiming or  wounding a woman was
 just half of that inflicted for        
injuring a man1 if  free2 if a slave the
 fine was fixed according to the        
commercial value  of the slave4 ,the    
whole price of blood was demanded if the
 victim had  been deprived of any of his
 five senses or when he had been        
grievously  wounded or disfigured for   
life4    ,the ,koran prescribed that for
 a first offence of theft the thief's   
right hand should be cut off1 and for a 
second1 his left foot2 for  a third1 the
 left hand2 and for a fourth1 the right 
foot4 ,further  offences of this kind   

were punished by flogging1 or beating   
with the  courbash--a whip of           
hippopotamus hide hammered into a       
cylindrical  form--or a stick upon the  
soles of the feet4 ,the bastinado1 in   
fact1  was the familiar punishment of   
the ,east4 ,religious offences1 such as 
apostacy and blasphemy1 were very       
rigorously punished4 ,in ,cairo a       
person accused of thefts1 assaults and  
so forth used to be carried by  a       
soldier before the kadi1 or chief       
magistrate of the metropolitan  police1 
and sent on trial before a court of     
judicature1 or if he denied  his        
offence1 or the evidence seemed         
insufficient for conviction1  although  
good grounds for suspicion existed1 he  
was bastinadoed to  extort confession4  
,he generally admitted his guilt with   
the common  formula in the case of      
theft1 8the devil seduced me and ,i took
 it40 ,the  penalties inflicted less    
than death included hard labour on the  
public  works1 digging canals and the   

removal of rubbish or compulsory        
military  service4    ,the modern       
traveller in ,egypt will bear witness to
 the admirable  police system introduced
 under ,british rule1 and to the        
security  afforded to life and property 
in town and country by a well organised1
  well conducted force4 ,in former days1
 under the ,pashas1 the whole           
administration of justice was corrupt   
from the judge in his court  to the     
police armed with arbitrary powers of   
oppression4 ,the chief  of police in    
,cairo was charged with the apprehension
 of thieves  and criminals and with his 
myrmidons made constant rounds nightly  
through the city4 ,he was accompanied by
 the public executioner and a           
torch-bearer who carried a curious light
 that burned without flame  unless waved
 through the air1 when it burst suddenly
 forth2 the burning  end was sometimes  
hidden in a small pot or jar and when   
exposed served  the purpose of a dark   
lantern4 ,the smell of the burning torch

 often  gave timely warning to thieves  
to make off4 ,the chief of the police   
arrogated to himself arbitrary powers1  
and often put a criminal to  death when 
caught1 even for offences not deserving 
capital punishment4  ,a curious custom  
obtained in old ,cairo2 it was the rule 
for the  community of thieves to be     
controlled by and to obey one of their  
number1 who was constituted their sheik 
and who was required by the  authorities
 to hunt up offenders and surrender them
 to justice4    ,in old times the       
administration of the country districts 
was in the  hands of governors appointed
 by the ,pasha and charged by him with  
the  collection of taxes and the        
regulation of the corvee1 or system of  
enforced or unremunerated labour1 at one
 time the universal rule in  ,egypt4    
,the prompt and excessive use of the    
stick or courbash was the  stimulus by  
which the contributions demanded were   
extorted1 and the  sheik1 or headman of 
a village1 might be severely bastinadoed

 when the  sum demanded ran short4      
,everything was taxed1 particularly the 
land and  its products1 wholly or in    
part1 or they were sometimes seized     
outright  and sold at a fixed price1 but
 impounded to make good the debts of the
  cultivators to the government4 ,taxes 
were also levied in kind1--butter1      
honey1 wax1 wood1 baskets of palm leaves
 and grain4 ,the government  granaries  
were kept full by the last named        
exaction and in this regard  an amazing 
story is told4    ,the governor of the  
district and town of ,tanta1 when       
visiting the  granary1 saw two fellaheen
 resting who had just deposited their   
tale  of corn4 ,one had brought in #acj 
ardebbs 7equivalent to five ,english    
bushels7 from a village at a distance1  
the other only #fj ardebbs from  some   
land adjoining the town4 ,the governor  
at once fell foul of the  defaulter1 and
 utterly ignoring the townsman's protest
 that his was a  daily and the          
countryman's a weekly contribution1     

ordered the man of  ,tanta to be        
forthwith hanged4 ,the next day the     
governor paid a second  visit to the    
granary and saw a peasant delivering a  
large quantity of  corn4 ,being much    
pleased1 he inquired who the man was and
 heard that  it was he who had been     
summarily executed the day before and   
who now  produced #afj ardebbs of grain4
 8,what1 has he risen from the dead80   
cried the governor1 astounded4 8,no1    
,sir2 ,i hanged him so that his toes    
touched the ground2 and when you were   
gone1 ,i untied the rope2 you did  not  
order me to kill him10 replied his      
subordinate4 8,aha10 answered the       
governor1 8hanging and killing are      
different things4 ,next time ,i will    
say kill40    8,to relate all the       
oppressions which the peasantry of      
,egypt endure10  says ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4      
,lane1 the authority for the foregoing1 
8from the  dishonesty of the officials  
would require too much space in the     
present  work4 ,it would be scarcely    

possible for them to suffer more and    
live40  ,yet a worse time was           
approaching1 when the notorious ,ismail 
,pasha  became practically supreme ruler
 and used his unchecked power for  the  
complete enslavement of ,egypt4 ,his    
methods of misgovernment1 his  robbery1 
spoliation and cruel oppression are now 
matters of history4  ,this modern       
,sardanapalus1 as he has been aptly     
styled1 lavishly wasted  the wealth he  
wrung out of his helpless subjects by   
the intolerable  rapacity of his        
ferocious tax gatherers4 ,the fellaheen 
were stripped to  the skin to fill his  
coffers and feed the boundless          
extravagance of  a vain and licentious  
prince4 ,his private property was       
enormous2 his  estates and factories    
were valued at sixty millions sterling2 
he owned  forty-three palaces and was   
building more when1 in a few short      
years1  he had brought ,egypt to the    
brink of ruin1 and the people starved at
  his door4    ,the people of ,egypt not

 only paid taxes1 but their possessions 
were  seized ruthlessly1 their lands    
misappropriated1 their cattle and goods 
confiscated2 they were mere slaves whose
 right to work on their own  account was
 forfeited2 and the whole population was
 driven forth from  their villages with 
whips1 hundreds of thousands of men1    
women and  children1 under the          
iniquitous system of enforced labour1 to
 make  roads through the ,khedive's     
estates1 till the cotton fields and     
build  embankments to control the       
distribution of the life-giving ,nile4  
,no  escape from these hardships was    
possible1 no relief from this most      
grievous ,egyptian bondage4 ,the        
arbitrary despot backed his demands by  
a savage system of punishments1 and when
 the courbash was ineffectual1  he      
banished malcontents to the remote      
provinces of central ,africa1  where1   
after a terrible journey1 they expiated 
their offences at  ,fazoglo or ,fashoda4
 ,sometimes the highest officials were  

arrested and  despatched in chains1     
without any form of trial1 and were     
detained for  years in this tropical    
,siberia4 ,to speak of the ,nemesis that
 eventually  overtook ,ismail and       
deprived him with ignominy of a power he
 so  shamefully misused is beyond the   
scope of this work4 ,but reference must 
be made in some detail to the many      
merciful changes introduced into  the   
administration of justice under the     
,british protectorate that has          
succeeded to ,egyptian rule4    ,in     
,egypt1 at the present time1 every son  
of the soil is safe from  arbitrary and 
illegal arrest2 the imposition of taxes 
is regulated  strictly according to law2
 there is no enforced labour1--the      
corvee  has been absolutely swept out of
 existence4 ,every peaceably disposed   
citizen may live sheltered and protected
 from outrage and in the  undisturbed   
enjoyment of his possessions1 waxing    
rich by his own  exertion1 safe from the
 attack or interference of evil-doers4  

,it was  not always so1 and the great   
boons of personal security and humane1  
equitable treatment now guaranteed to   
every soul in the land have been  only  
slowly acquired4 ,until #ahdd the       
,egyptian police was ineffective1  the  
law was often a dead letter1 and the    
prisons were a disgrace to  humanity and
 civilisation4 ,before that date the    
country was covered  with zaptiehs1 or  
small district prisons1 in which illegal
 punishment  and every form of cruelty  
were constantly practised4 ,it was quite
  easy for anyone in authority to       
consign a fellah to custody4 ,one of    
the first of the many salutary reforms  
introduced by the new prison  department
 established under ,british predominance
 was an exact  registration of every    
individual received at the prison gate1 
and  the enforcement of the strict rule 
that no one should be admitted  without 
an order of committal duly signed by    
some recognised judicial  authority4    
,to-day1 of course1 any such outrage as 

illegal imprisonment  is out of the     
question4 ,another form of oppression in
 the old days  was the unconscionable   
delay in bringing the accused to trial4 
,hundreds were thus detained awaiting   
gaol delivery for six or nine  months1  
sometimes for one or two years4 ,at that
 time1 too1 there was  no separation of 
classes2 the innocent were herded with  
the guilty1  children with grown men2   
only the females1 as might be expected  
in a  ,mohammedan country1 were kept    
apart1 but their number then and since  
has always been exceedingly few4    ,the
 first step taken by the new rgime was  
to concentrate prisoners  in a certain  
number of selected prisons1 such as they
 were1 but the  best that could be      
found4 ,in these1 twenty-one in number1 
strenuous  efforts were made to         
introduce order2 cleanliness was        
insisted upon and  disinfectants were   
largely used1 while medical men were    
appointed at  each place1 who attended  
daily to give medicine and move the sick

 into  hospital4 ,the health of the     
prisoners was so much improved that they
  constituted one per cent4 of the daily
 average of prisoners1 and this  ratio  
has been maintained1 so that in the     
cholera epidemic in #ahif only  a few   
convicts died4    ,a good prison system 
could only be introduced in improved    
prisons1  and the first created was the 
great convict establishment at ,tourah1 
a village about eight miles above ,cairo
 on the banks of the ,nile and  at the  
foot of the great limestone quarries    
that have supplied the  city with its   
building material from the earliest     
days4 ,in #ahhe the  old military       
hospital at ,tourah was handed over to  
be converted into a  public works       
prison2 a few of the wards were         
converted into cells1 and  a draft of   
#bej convicts was brought from the      
arsenal at ,alexandria to  occupy them4 
,these proved skilful workmen1 as the   
fellaheen1 whether  captive or free1    
invariably are1 and with the help of a  

few paid  stone-masons they restored the
 half-ruined upper story of the ancient 
building and converted it into a        
satisfactory prison to hold one  hundred
 and fifty more inmates4 ,the four      
hundred steadfastly continued  their    
labours and to such good purpose1       
demolishing1 removing1  cleaning1 and   
constructing new roads and approaches1  
that in ,may1  #ahhf1 an entirely new   
prison for five hundred convicts was    
completed  and occupied4 ,many forms of 
industry were carried on with excellent 
financial results1 as will be seen from 
the following details4    ,all the lime 
for buildings was burned in two lime    
kilns constructed  for the purpose2 all 
the furniture and woodwork1 the tables1 
beds and  doors were made by convict    
carpenters2 all the ironwork1 the bolts 
and bars for safe custody1 the very     
leg-irons1 their own inalienable  livery
 under the old ,egyptian prison code1   
were turned out by convict  blacksmiths2
 and hundreds of baskets for carrying   

earth and stone  have been manufactured4
 ,the industrial labour at ,tourah is   
now of many  useful kinds4 ,new prison  
clothing1 new boots 7although these     
usually  indispensable articles are only
 issued to a favoured few prisoners  in 
,egypt71 the baking of bread and biscuit
 for home consumption1 or  to be sent to
 out-stations1 plate laying and engine  
fitting1 stone  dressing for prison     
buildings1 both at ,tourah and          
elsewhere1--all  these are constantly in
 progress at the ,tourah prison4 ,the   
money made  in the prison provides funds
 for many things necessary for further  
development1 such as tram lines1        
locomotives1 improved tools and         
machinery of all kinds4    ,a visit to  
,tourah is both interesting and         
instructive4 ,the chief  employment of  
the convicts is in the quarries1 a      
couple of miles from  the prison1 to    
which the gangs proceed every morning at
 daylight and  where they remain every  
day of the week but ,friday1 which is   

their  ,sabbath1 until four o'clock in  
the afternoon4 ,there is no time wasted 
in marching to and fro4 ,the dinner1 or 
midday meal1 is carried out  to the     
quarries by the cooks1 and after it is  
eaten the convicts are  allowed an      
hour's rest in such shade as can be     
found in the nearly  blinding heat of   
the dazzling white quarries4 ,as this   
midday siesta is  the common hour for   
trains to pass on to the neighbouring   
health resort  of ,helouan1 casual      
observers might think that rest and     
refreshment  formed a great part of the 
,egyptian convict's daily life4 ,but    
that  would be a grievous mistake4      
,during the hours of labour1 ceaseless  
activity is the rule2 all around the    
picks resound upon the unyielding       
stone2 some are busy with the levers    
raising huge blocks1 stimulated  by the 
sing-song1 monotonous chant1 without    
which ,arabs1 like sailors1  cannot work
 with any effect4 ,the burden of the    
song varies1 but it is  generally an    

appeal for divine or heavenly           
assistance1 8,allahiteek60  8,may ,god  
give it10 the phrase used by the        
initiated to silence the  otherwise too 
importunate beggar1 or 8,halimenu10     
8,hali ,elisa10 ending  in an abrupt    
8,hah60 or 8,hop60 at the moment of     
supreme effort4    ,a visitor of kindly 
disposition is not debarred from        
encouraging  effort by the gift of a few
 cigarettes to the convicts4 ,tobacco is
  not forbidden in the prisons of       
,egypt4 ,it is issued to convicts in    
the works prisons in small rations as a 
reward1 according to the  governor's    
judgment4 ,the unconvicted and civil    
prisoners undergoing  merely detention  
are at liberty to purchase it4 ,i was   
the witness1 the  cause indeed1 of a    
curious and unwonted scene in the small 
prison at  ,assiut when ,i inspected it 
in #ahih4 ,the sale of tobacco was in   
progress  in the prison yard1 where all 
of the prisoners1 a hundred and more1   
were at exercise4 ,an official stood    

behind a small table on which lay  the  
little screws of tobacco for disposal1  
each for a few milliems1  the smallest  
of ,egyptian coins1 the fractional part 
of a farthing4  ,the eagerness with     
which the poor prisoners eyed the       
precious weed  excited my generosity1   
and ,i bought up the whole table load1  
then and  there1 for a couple of        
shillings4 ,the prisoners crowding      
around saw the  deal and understood it4 
,hardly had ,i put down the ten piastres
 when  the whole body 8rushed0 the      
table1 overset it1 threw the screws of  
tobacco upon the ground1 and all hands  
pounced down on the scattered  weed in  
one great struggling1 scrambling1       
combatant medley4 ,the tobacco  was     
quite wasted1 of course1 and ,i have no 
idea who got the money4  ,the mle was so
 unmanageable that it was necessary to  
call out the  guard to drive the        
prisoners back to their wards4 ,i was   
aghast at my  indiscretion and ready to 
admit that ,i should have known better4 

,the daily unremitting toil of ,tourah  
must be preferable to all but the       
incurably idle4 ,yet the terror of      
8,tourah0 is now universal up and  down 
,egypt4 ,it is the great 8bogey0 of the 
daily life among the lower  classes1 the
 threat held over the fractious child or
 the misconducted  donkey boy who claims
 an exorbitant 8bakshish40 ,to accuse   
any decent  fellah of having been in    
,tourah is the worst sort of insult and 
at once  indignantly denied4 ,when my   
own connection with the ,english prisons
  became known1 ,i was generally called 
the pasha of the ,english ,tourah1  and 
my official position gained me very     
marked respect among classes  spoiled by
 many thousands of annual tourists1--the
 greedy guides and  donkey boys1 the    
shameless vendors of sham curiosities1  
the importunate  beggars that infest    
hotel entrances1 swarm in the villages  
and make  hideous the landing stages up 
the ,nile4 ,an old hand will best       
silence  a persistent cry for alms or   

the wail of miski 7poverty stricken71   
of 8,halas6 finish father1 finish       
mother0 7the ornate expression for an   
orphan71 by talking of the caracol1     
8police station10 and a promise  of     
8,tourah0 to follow4    ,life in ,tourah
 must be hard4 ,the monotonous routine  
from daylight to  sundown1 the long     
nights of thirteen or fourteen hours1   
from early  evening to morning1 caged up
 with forty or fifty others tainted     
with every vice and crime1 must be a    
heavy burden upon all but the           
absolutely debased4 ,the evils of       
association1 of herding criminals       
together1 left to their own wicked      
devices1 without supervision1 were      
present in the highest degree in        
,egyptian prisons4 ,at last1 however1 a 
move was made to provide separate cells 
for a certain number1 and a new  prison 
of #a1bjj cells was built by convict    
labour at ,tourah immediately  opposite 
the new hospitals and at some distance  
from the old prison4  ,much mischievous 

conspiracy of the worst kind is         
prevented by keeping  individuals apart 
during the idle hours of the night1 for 
it was then  that those concerted       
escapes of large numbers were planned1  
which have  occurred more than once at  
,tourah1 but have been generally        
abortive1  ending only in bloodshed2 for
 the black ,sudanese1 who form the      
convict  guards1 are expert marksmen and
 surely account for a large part of the 
fugitives4    ,there must be something  
very tempting to the untutored mind--and
 many  of these ,tourah convicts are    
half-wild creatures1 ,bedouins of the   
desert or the lowest scum of the        
cities--in the seeming freedom of  their
 condition during so many hours of the  
day4 ,liberty seems within  easy reach4 
,not a mile from the quarries are great 
overhanging cliffs1  honey-combed with  
caves1 deep1 cavernous recesses         
affording secure  hiding places1 and it 
is for these that the rush is made4 ,in 
,august of  #ahif there was a serious   

attempt of this kind1 and success was   
achieved  by some of the runaways4 ,the 
hour chosen was that of the break-off   
from labour1 when the gangs1 surrounded 
by their guards1 converge on a  central 
point1 very much as may be seen on any  
working-day at ,portland  or ,dartmoor1 
and thence march home in one compact    
body to the distant  prison4 ,it is a   
curiously picturesque scene4 ,the       
convicts1 mostly fine1  stalwart men1   
their ragged1 dirty white robes flying  
in the wind and  their chains rattling1 
swing past1 two by two1 in an almost    
endless  procession4 ,below1 the mighty 
river1 flowing between its belt of palm 
and narrow fringe of green1 shines like 
burnished silver under the  declining   
sun2 beyond stretches the wide desert to
 the foot of the  ,pyramids1 those of   
,sakhara at one end of the landscape1   
those of ,cheops  at the                
other1--colossal monuments of enforced  
labour very similar to  that now        
surviving at ,tourah4    ,such was the  

moment chosen for a general stampede4   
,about sixty or  seventy convicts agreed
 to cut and run simultaneously1 all     
toward the  shelter of the hills4 ,a few
 were told off to try conclusions with  
the  armed guards1 to wrest away the    
rifles and thus secure both immunity    
from fire and the power to use the      
weapon in self-defence4 ,the attempt    
appears to have been fairly successful  
at first4 ,a few rifles were  seized1   
and the fugitives1 turning on their     
pursuers1 made some  pretty practice1   
during which a few of the more fortunate
 got away4  ,but authority finally      
asserted itself4 ,many were shot down2  
the rest  were overtaken and immediately
 surrendered4 ,the absence of 8grit10   
so characteristic of the race1 showed   
itself at once1 and these poor          
wretches1 who had been bold enough to   
make the first rush under a hail  of    
bullets1 now squatted down and with     
uplifted hands implored for  mercy or   
declared it was all a mistake4 8,malesh1

 it does not matter10  was their cry    
then4 ,but they no doubt found that it  
mattered a great  deal when a few days  
later ,nemesis overtook them in the     
shape of  corporal punishment2 for the  
lash1 a cat of six tails1 is used in the
  ,egyptian prisons as a last resort in 
the maintenance of discipline and  good 
order4 ,it is only inflicted1 however1  
under proper safeguards and  by direct  
sentence of a high official4 ,there is  
no courbash now in the  prisons1 and no 
warder or guard is permitted to raise   
his hand against  a prisoner4 ,tyranny  
and ill-usage are strictly forbidden4   
,escapes have happened at other places4 
,when military operations were  in      
progress on the frontier leading to the 
revindication of the  ,sudan1 an immense
 amount of good work was done by large  
detachments  of convicts at stations    
high up the river4 ,there were rough and
 ready  8,tourahs0 at ,assuan1 ,wady    
,halfa1 ,korosko1 ,suakin1 ,el ,teb1    
points of  considerable importance in   

the service of the campaign1 where      
supplies  were constantly being landed1 
stored or sent forward to the front4    
,the  ,egyptian prison authorities very 
wisely and intelligently utilised  the  
labour at their disposal to assist in   
unloading boats and in  reshipping      
stores and railway plant4 ,numbers of   
convicts were employed  to construct the
 railway ahead in the direction of ,abu 
,hamed by which  the advance was        
presently made4 ,the ,nile above ,merawi
 flows through the  most difficult      
country in its whole course1 the very   
8worst water10  and no navigation in    
that length was possible by steamers1   
little or  none by small boats except at
 high ,nile and then only by haulage4   
,it  was necessary1 therefore1 to       
complete the railway to ,abu ,hamed1 so 
that  gunboats might be sent up in      
sections over the line1 to be put       
together  above the cataracts and then  
utilised in the final advance1 for the  
river is more or less open to ,berber   

and on to ,khartum1 and the success  of 
the campaign was greatly facilitated    
thereby4    ,egyptian convicts did much 
good work of a superior kind4 ,now and  
again  a trained handicraftsman was     
found who was willing to put forward his
  best skill and there was always a     
smart man ready to act as leader and    
foreman of the rest1 as is very much the
 case1 indeed1 with convicts  all over  
the world4 ,one man in particular at    
,wady ,halfa was well  known as a most  
industrious and intelligent worker4 ,he 
so gained the  good-will of the ,british
 officers that1 not knowing his         
antecedents1  many of them strongly     
recommended him for release as a reward 
for his  usefulness4 ,but the prison    
authorities were unable to accede to    
this  seemingly very justifiable        
request4 ,this best of prisoners 7again 
following experience elsewhere7 was the 
worst of criminals4 ,he had  committed  
no fewer than eight murders1 possibly   
not with malicious  motives1 or he would

 hardly have escaped the gallows4 ,the  
death penalty  is not1 however1         
inflicted very frequently in ,egypt4 ,in
 one case worth  mentioning as          
illustrating the almost comical side of 
,egyptian justice1  a man sentenced to  
death was held to serve a short term of 
imprisonment  for some minor offence    
before he was considered ripe for       
execution4  ,when the short sentence was
 completed1 he was incontinently hanged4
    ,at ,assuan during war time hundreds
 of convicts were engaged all day  long 
under the windows of the hotel4 ,their  
rattling chains were heard  soon after  
dawn mixed with their unmelodious       
sing-song as described  above4 ,they    
could be seen constantly and freely     
approached1 as they  clustered around   
the great crane that raised the heaviest
 weights1  locomotives1 tender1 and     
boilers1 from the boats moored below1 or
 as  they passed along in single file   
backward and forward between the beach  
and the railway station or storehouses  

near-by4 ,all were in picturesque  rags1
 except the military prisoners1 dressed 
in a startling uniform  of bright       
orange2 all wore the inevitable         
leg-irons riveted on their  spare1      
shrunken brown ankles4 ,it was the      
custom once1 as in the old  ,french     
bagnes1 to chain the ,egyptian convicts 
in couples1 a long-term  man newly      
arrived being chained with one whose    
sentence had nearly  expired4    ,this  
practice has now been discontinued1 and 
each unfortunate bears  his burden      
alone4 ,much ingenuity is exercised to  
prevent the basils  or anklets from     
chafing the skin4 ,the most effective   
method1 employed  no doubt by the most  
affluent1 was a leather pad inserted    
within the  iron ring2 others without   
resources1 owning not a single milliem  
in  the world1 used any filthy rags or  
scraps of sacking they could beg  or    
steal4 ,pads of this kind have been worn
 from time immemorial by  all prisoners 
and captives2 no doubt the galley slaves

 chained to the  oar in classical days  
invented them1 and they were known until
 quite  lately in the ,french bagnes of 
,rochefort and ,toulon by the name  of  
patarasses1 which the old hands         
manufactured and sold to the  newcomers4
 ,another old-fashioned device among the
 ,egyptian convicts is  the short hook  
hanging from a waistband1 which catches 
up one link of  the irons1 a simple     
necessity where the chain is of such    
length that it  drags inconveniently    
along the ground4    ,the general use of
 fetters is not now approved by         
civilised nations4  ,but in ,egypt they 
appear to be nearly indispensable for   
safe custody4  ,the removal of the      
leg-irons from convicts has often       
encouraged them  to effect escape4 ,once
 sixteen of them at ,assuan were astute 
enough to  sham illness4 ,it was during 
the cholera epidemic1 and they knew     
enough  of the symptoms to counterfeit  
some of them cleverly4 ,the medical     
officer in charge was compassionate and 

thought it cruel that his  patients     
should die in their chains1 so he had   
them struck off4 ,within  a few hours   
the unshackled convicts gave their      
guardians leg-bail1 and  escaped from   
the hospital into the desert1 and so    
down the river4 ,these  very men        
afterward formed the nucleus of the band
 of harami1 the  robbers and brigands   
who terrorised the lower province for   
some months  and were only disposed of  
at last by summary action4 ,the story of
 the  subsequent burning of the brigands
 at ,belianah became public property    
and was made the occasion of one of     
those virulent attacks upon ,british    
rule that often found voice under the   
unrestrained license of the  ,egyptian  
press4 ,these out-laws were pursued and 
overtaken at last by  the police in a   
house where they had barricaded         
themselves4 ,it was  impossible to break
 in1 and the assailants therefore set   
fire to the  thatched roof4 ,the robbers
 used this as their private arsenal1 and

 the  fire soon ignited their cartridges
 with a terrific explosion in which     
most of the defenders lost their lives4 
,this practice of concealing  explosives
 in the roof was not uncommon during the
 days of conflict  with the ,mahdi4     
,when the sheik of ,derowi was arrested 
on a charge of  conveying contraband    
ammunition into the ,sudan1 he contrived
 to send  back a message to his wife to 
make away with all damaging evidence4   
,she  thought the safest way to dispose 
of the gunpowder stored in the house    
was by fire and at the same time she    
also disposed1 very effectually1  of    
herself4    ,a striking feature at      
,tourah was the admirable prison        
hospital1  which would compare          
favourably with the best in the world4  
,it is a  two-storied building with     
lofty1 well-ventilated wards1 beds and  
bedding1 all in the most approved style2
 a well-stocked dispensary and  a fully 
qualified medical man in daily          
attendance4 ,the patients1 unless  too  

ill to rise1 sit up on their beds rather
 like poultry roosting1 and  suffer from
 most of the ills to which humanity is  
heir4 ,the complaints  most prevalent   
are eczema1 tuberculosis 7the great     
scourge of the black  prisoners from the
 south71 ophthalmia1 and dysentery4     
8,stone0 is a  malady very prevalent and
 showing itself in the most aggravated  
form1  due no doubt to the constant     
drinking of lime-affected water4 ,i saw 
calculi of almost colossal size1 the    
result of some recent operations1       
extracted by the prison surgeons1 whose 
skill is evidently remarkable4    ,too  
much praise can hardly be accorded the  
,egyptian prison  administration for its
 prompt and effective treatment of the  
cholera  epidemic when it appeared in   
,egypt in #ahif4 ,although the mortality
  was serious in the general population1
 the percentage of deaths was           
relatively small in the prisons4 ,out of
 a total of #g1ied prison inmates  7this
 number did not include the convicts at 

the seat of war or on the  ,red ,sea7   
there were only one hundred and sixteen 
cases and seventy  deaths4 ,in six of   
the prisons the disease did not appear2 
in others1  although situated in the    
heart of infected towns1 and prisoners  
were  being constantly received from    
infected districts1 the cases were few4 
,in ,tourah1 with a total population of 
thirteen hundred and fifty1 there  were 
but twenty-two2 at ,assiut1 a new       
building with good sanitation1  only    
two2 the average was largest at ,keneh1 
,mansourah and ,assuan4 ,not  a single  
female prisoner was attacked2 an        
immunity attributed to the  fact that   
the females in custody receive regular  
prison diet1 while  the males1 except at
 ,tourah and ,ghizeh1 are fed1 often    
indifferently1  by their friends        
outside4 ,these excellent results were  
undoubtedly  due to the strict isolation
 of the inmates of any prison in which  
the  cholera had appeared4 ,whenever a  
case showed1 the introduction of food   

or clothing from outside was strictly   
forbidden1 and friends were not         
admitted when cholera existed in the    
neighbourhood4 ,much credit was due     
also to the unselfish devotion of the   
,egyptian medical staff1 who were       
unremitting in their care and of whom   
two died of the disease at their  posts4
    ,it was officially stated in #aijc  
that such crimes as robbery with        
violence1 petty thefts and brigandage   
had increased materially since  #ahii4  
,the reason given for this was the      
failure of the police machinery  to     
bring out the truth and the practice of 
bribes which was everywhere  prevalent4 
,the corruption of magistrates and the  
terrorism held over  witnesses make it  
exceedingly difficult to bring a man to 
justice or  obtain satisfactory         
convictions4 ,but we may well conclude  
that the  prison system as established  
in ,egypt to-day is of the most modern  
and  satisfactory character4            
,,prisons ,,of ,,turkey                 

,,chapter ,,xi    ,,turkish ,,prisons   
,old castles used as prisons--,the      
,castle of ,europe--,the      ,seven    
,towers and the 8,well of ,blood0--,the 
,seraglio and the      ,bagnio--,the    
,zaptie--,lack of prison                
discipline--,midhat ,pasha      and the 
,constitution--,his disgrace and        
death--,the ,young ,turk                
movement--,horrible massacres at        
,adana--,the provincial prisons all     
bad--,fetters and other modes of        
torture--,little improvement under      
new sultan4      ,there are few notable 
buildings in ,turkey constructed        
primarily as  prisons4 ,in fact there   
are few buildings of any sort           
constructed for  that purpose4 ,but     
every palace had1 and one may almost    
say1 still has  its prison chambers2 and
 every fortress has its dungeons1 the   
tragedies  of which are chiefly a matter
 of conjecture4 ,few were present at the
  tortures1 and in a country where      
babbling is not always safe1 witnesses  

were likely to be discreet4    ,in and  
around ,constantinople1 if walls had    
only tongues1 strange and  gruesome     
stories might be told4 ,on the ,asiatic 
side of the ,bosporus  still stand the  
ruins of a castle built by ,bayezid ,i1 
known as 8the  ,thunderbolt0 when the   
,ottoman princes were the dread of      
,europe4  ,sigismund1 ,king of ,hungary1
 had been defeated1 and ,constantinople 
was  the next object of attack1 though  
not to fall for a half century4 ,this   
castle was named 8the ,beautiful10 but  
so many prisoners died there of  torture
 and ill-treatment that the name 8,black
 ,tower0 took its place in  common      
speech4    ,directly opposite1 on the   
,european side of the ,bosporus1 is     
,rumili  ,hissar1 or the ,castle of     
,europe1 which ,muhammad ,,ii1 8the     
,conqueror10  built in #adeb when he    
finally reached out to transform the    
headquarters  of ,eastern ,christendom  
into the centre of ,islam4 ,the castle  
was built  upon the site of the state   

prison of the ,byzantine emperors1 which
 was  destroyed to make room for it4    
,the three towers of the castle1 and the
  walls thirty feet thick1 still stand4 
,in the ,tower of ,oblivion which  now  
has as an incongruous neighbour1 the    
,protestant institution1 ,robert        
,college1 is a fiendish reminder of days
 hardly yet gone4 ,a smooth  walled     
stone chute reaches from the interior of
 the tower down into the  ,bosporus4    
,into the mouth of this the hapless     
victim1 bound and gagged  perhaps1 with 
weights attached to his feet1 was       
placed4 ,down he shot  and bubbles      
marked for a few seconds the grave      
beneath the waters4    ,the ,conqueror  
built also the ,yedi ,kuleh1 or the     
8,seven ,towers10 at  the edge of the   
old city4 ,this imperial castle1 like   
the ,bastile or  the ,tower of ,london1 
was also a state prison1 though its     
glory and  its shame have both departed4
 ,the ,janissaries who guarded this     
castle  used to bring thither the       

sultans whom they had dethroned either  
to  allow them to linger impotently or  
to cause them to lose their heads4  ,a  
cavern where torture was inflicted and  
the rusty machines which tore  muscles  
and cracked joints1 may still be seen4  
,the dungeons in which  the prisoners   
lay are also shown4 ,a small open court 
was the place of  execution and to this 
day it is called the 8place of heads0   
while a  deep chasm into which the heads
 were thrown is the 8well of blood40    
,several sultans1 7the exact number is  
uncertain7 and innumerable  officers of 
high degree have suffered the extreme   
penalty here4 ,it was  here too that    
foreign ambassadors were always         
imprisoned in former  days1 when ,turkey
 declared war against the states they   
represented4 ,the  last confined here   
was the ,french representative in #agih4
    ,another interesting survival of    
early days is the ,seraglio1 the old    
palace of the sultans1 and its          
subsidiary buildings1 scattered over a  

considerable area4 ,in the court of the 
treasury is the ,kafess1 or  cage1 in   
which the imperial children were        
confined from the time of  ,muhammad    
,,iii1 lest they should aspire to the   
throne4 ,sometimes however  the brothers
 and sons of the reigning sultan were   
confined1 each in a  separate pavilion  
on the grounds4 ,a retinue of women1    
pages and eunuchs  was assigned to each 
but the soldiers who guarded them were  
warned to  be strict4 ,the present      
sultan was confined by his brother      
,abdul ,hamid  within the grounds of the
 ,yildiz ,kiosk1 where he had many      
liberties  but was a prisoner           
nevertheless4 ,absolutism breeds        
distrust of all1 no  matter how closely 
connected by ties of blood4    ,an      
interesting prison was the old ,bagnio1 
once the principal prison  of           
,constantinople4 ,the ,english          
economist1 ,n4 ,w4 ,senior1 describes it
  as it was sixty years ago1 in his     
8,journal40 ,it was simply an open      

court at one end of which was a         
two-story building4 ,each story was     
composed of one long room divided into  
stalls by wooden partitions1 the  whole1
 dark1 unventilated and dirty beyond    
description4 ,some turbulent  prisoners 
were chained in their stalls which they 
were not permitted to  leave4    ,the   
chief interest lay in the court-yard1   
however1 which was the common  meeting  
place4 ,no rules as to cleanliness or   
regularity of hours  existed4 ,no one   
was compelled to work and the great     
majority preferred  to lounge in the    
sun4 ,in the court were coffee and      
tobacco shops1 while  sellers of        
sweetmeats made their way through the   
crowds4 ,though capital  punishment was 
nominally inflicted1 it was never       
imposed unless there  were eye witnesses
 of the crime1 and seldom then4 ,so of  
the eight  hundred inmates of the       
,bagnio1 six hundred were murderers1    
some of them  professionals4 ,nearly all
 wore chains1 some of which were heavy1 

and  as several prisoners were attached 
to one chain occasionally conflicts     
arose as different members of the group 
exhibited divergent desires4    ,another
 visitor about the same time saw the    
picturesque side4  ,he mentions the     
robbers1 chiefs from ,smyrna1 stalking  
about the  enclosure1 the voluble       
,greeks and ,armenians1 the secretive   
,jews1 and an  ,irishman or two1        
mingling with the stolid ,turks4        
,inmates were sipping  coffee1 smoking1 
playing cards1 disputing1 fighting1     
while a furtive  pickpocket made his    
rounds4 ,in a corner a fever patient was
 stretched  out oblivious to his        
surroundings1 though the clamour        
sometimes was  deafening4 ,he goes on to
 say3    8,yet physically the wretches  
were not ill-treated2 they need not ever
  work unless they like4 ,the court is  
small and so is the two-storied  stable 
where they sleep upon the earth2 but    
then these are men who  perhaps never   
got between sheets nor lay on a bed in  

their lives4  ,they may talk what they  
like1 and when they like4 ,they have a  
,mosque1  a ,greek chapel and a ,roman  
,catholic chapel4 ,they can have coffee 
and  tobacco1 and if they work they are 
supposed to be paid for it4 ,there is   
no treadmill1 no crank1 there are no    
solitary cells40    ,the same observer  
describes the ,zaptie or ,house of      
,detention as it  then existed1 and     
though the building as it exists to-day 
is improved1  conditions are not        
essentially different4 ,then there were 
two  communicating courts1 where        
pickpockets1 ordinary thieves1          
participants  in affrays1 and even      
murderers were confined4 ,at night they 
were locked  in rooms4 ,one of these    
sleeping rooms1 eleven by seventeen     
feet1 was  occupied at night by twelve  
men4 ,in such places prisoners were kept
 an  indefinite time awaiting trial1 and
 perhaps then discharged without  trial 
and without explanation4    ,a large    
number of ,turkish prisoners have been  

confined either for  conspiracy against 
the government1 or for daring to exhibit
 a certain  amount of independence4 ,an 
officer apparently high in favour to-day
  might be degraded on the next without 
warning4 ,an interesting case of  this  
kind is the case of ,midhat ,pasha1 one 
of the best known men in  ,turkey thirty
 or forty years ago4    ,he was one of  
the little group of ,turks who adopted  
,european ideas  after the ,crimean war4
 ,he was a friend of ,england as opposed
 to ,russia  and the influence of the   
latter state was thrown against him4 ,he
 was  one of the ministers by whom the  
sultan1 ,abdul ,aziz1 was dethroned4    
,this prince soon afterward died1       
possibly by suicide1 though ugly        
rumours were heard4 ,when ,murad1 the   
incompetent1 was also deposed  ,midhat  
had a hand in the affair4 ,on the       
accession of ,abdul ,hamid he was  again
 made ,grand ,vizier1 and secured the   
promulgation of the famous  ,turkish    
constitution of #ahgf1 against the will 

of the sultan4    ,when ,abdul ,hamid   
felt himself firm in his seat in #ahgg1 
he banished  ,midhat1 but recalled him  
the next year1 and made him             
governor-general1  first of ,syria and  
then of ,smyrna4 ,the constitution was  
practically  abrogated by this time4    
,then without warning he was arrested in
 ,may1  #ahha1 charged with being       
concerned in the murder of ,abdul ,aziz4
 ,he  with others was quickly tried by a
 special court1 was found guilty and    
condemned to death4    ,the sentence was
 changed to imprisonment for life1 and  
the place of  confinement was fixed at  
,taf1 in ,arabia1 a small place south of
  ,mecca4 ,there he and his companions  
who had received similar sentence1      
including a former ,sheikh-ul-,islam1   
,hassan ,haroullah1 were at first       
allowed the freedom of the castle4      
,their servants bought and cooked  their
 food1 and though the rude              
accommodations were somewhat trying to  
the old men1 conditions were endurable4 

,a change in treatment was foreshadowed 
by a change in gaolers4 ,the  privilege 
of buying food was taken away1 and they 
were expected to  eat the coarse fare of
 the common soldier4 ,they were         
forbidden to  communicate with one      
another4 ,for a time the faithful       
servant was  refused access to ,midhat's
 person1 though this order was afterward
  revoked4 ,poison was discovered in the
 milk1 and in a pot of food4  ,the      
servant was offered large sums to poison
 him1 but the faithful  attendant only  
redoubled his vigilance4 ,finally when  
hardship1  separation from family and   
friends1 and dread of the future1 seemed
  unable to destroy his life more       
primitive measures were taken4 ,after   
enduring two years of such treatment he 
was strangled one morning while  still  
in bed1 together with two of his        
friends4 ,such was the dread  inspired  
by the sultan1 that no one dared to     
inquire or to make public  his fate4 ,a 
letter from his friend1 the             

,sheikh-ul-,islam1 to the family  of    
,midhat was1 however1 published a few   
years ago and then the whole  truth     
became known4    ,the case of ,midhat   
was not exceptional1 except for his     
prominence in  ,european circles4 ,the  
same fate has overtaken many others4    
,fishermen in  the ,bosporus1 every now 
and then1 pulled up a sack in which a   
body was  sewn1 and those who reasoned  
might remember that it had been         
announced  that a one time favourite at 
the ,court had set out on a journey to  
,london or ,paris1 though somehow he had
 mysteriously failed to arrive4    ,but 
though ,midhat ,pasha and others who    
struggled to introduce ,western         
institutions into the borders of the    
,east died their work lived4 ,one  by   
one1 those suspected of having advanced 
ideas were degraded4 ,a man  might be   
,grand ,vizier for a month or a week1 or
 even for a day1 and  then without      
warning1 be dismissed in disgrace4 ,the 
suspicious sultan  trusted no one4 ,he  

set brother to watch brother1 father to 
spy upon  son1 and then believed none of
 them1 though he always guarded himself 
lest they might be telling the truth4   
,paris received the larger number of    
those who fled from the clutches  of    
,abdul the ,damned4 ,in the life of the 
,french capital1 some gave  themselves  
up to the manifold dissipations which   
that city offers  for her visitors4     
,others loosely organised1 worked and   
watched for  that better day1 when the  
,turk should no longer be a byword among
  civilised peoples4 ,a newspaper edited
 by ,ahmed ,riza was published and      
thousands of copies were smuggled into  
the dominions4 ,hundreds of  thousands  
of pamphlets somehow passed the ,turkish
 frontiers and found  readers1 though   
their possession if discovered meant    
imprisonment and  degradation1 but the  
8,young ,turks0 were undismayed4        
,into the harems the new ideas crept4   
,one read to the others during the  long
 days1 and the forbidden books passed   

from hand to hand1 and from  house to   
house4 ,women high in rank1 the         
daughters of court officials1  carried  
messages4 ,where a man seemed           
approachable on that side1 some  member 
of his harem was converted1 or else some
 woman was placed in his  way1 even sold
 to him1 perhaps4 ,dozens of women sold 
into the harems  of prominent men went  
as apostles of the new faith4 ,women    
deliberately  sacrificed their          
reputations1 since free association with
 men1 unless  supposedly lovers1 would  
have aroused suspicion4    ,the army    
became infected1 the officers first4    
,during #aijg1 the third  army corps in 
,macedonia became thoroughly permeated4 
,of course  the cruel autocrat knew     
something of all this1 for his spies    
were  everywhere1 but he misjudged the  
extent4 ,he had seen dissatisfaction    
and unrest before1 and he had crushed   
them by sudden blows4 ,perhaps he  was  
tired1 and less acute than he had been  
twenty years before4 ,at any  rate he   

waited too long before taking vigorous  
action4    ,early in #aijh he ordered   
the higher officers of the army to quiet
 the  unrest4 ,a beloved officer raised 
the standard of revolt in ,macedonia1   
and the soldiers refused to fire upon   
the rebels4 ,the ,committee of  ,union  
and ,progress1 as the 8,young ,turk0    
movement was called1 assumed  charge of 
the revolt and demanded the restoration 
of the constitution1  which the sultan  
refused4 ,agents were sent to enforce   
his commands1 but  they were forced to  
flee for their lives1 and officers not  
in sympathy  with the movement were     
threatened4 ,thoroughly alarmed by the  
defection  of the army1 the cowardly    
sultan pretended to yield and on ,july  
#bd1  #aijh1 the constitution was       
restored4    ,too much perhaps was      
expected of the ,parliament4 ,the       
fanatical ,moslem  leaders spread       
rumours of every sort1 and the sultan's 
agents were  everywhere active1         
distilling doubt and suspicion into the 

soldiers  and populace4 ,in ,april1     
#aiji1 the garrison at ,constantinople  
rose1  dispersed the ,parliament1 and   
the wily sultan seemed again in control4
  ,the army in ,macedonia was still     
loyal to the new ideas1 and was         
promptly mobilised4 ,within ten days    
,constantinople was again in control  of
 the ,young ,turks4    ,abdul ,hamid was
 evidently not to be trusted4 ,the die  
was cast4 ,his  deposition was voted by 
the reassembled ,parliament1 and his    
brother  who had long been a prisoner   
was placed on the throne1 though the    
,young  ,turks1 warned by their mishap1 
kept an effective veto on reaction in   
the form of the army4    ,but the wily  
,abdul not only plotted to gain back his
 authority in  ,europe1 but his agents  
fanned the flames of religious and      
racial hatred  in ,asia ,minor4 ,the    
,armenians were once a great nation1 and
 though they  have long been ground     
beneath the heel of the oppressor1 they 
still  cherish the idea that another    

great ,christian nation will arise in   
,asia4 ,they saw hope in the new rgime  
and began to speak more freely1  to     
exhibit pictures of their old kings1 and
 to buy arms4    ,the fierce ,turks1    
,kurds1 ,arabs and ,circassians looked  
upon the  presumption of the 8,christian
 dogs0 with rage4 ,meanwhile agents of  
the  ,mohammedan ,league were everywhere
 stirring passion to fever heat1 and  on
 ,tuesday1 ,april #ac1 #aiji1 the       
conflict began in ,adana1 though not    
until the next day was the fighting     
general4 ,for three days the contest    
raged1 when soldiers appeared and a     
semblance of order was restored4        
,similar scenes had taken place in      
,osmanieh1 ,hamedieh1 while at ,tarsus  
the ,armenians stood like sheep to be   
slain4    ,on ,sunday1 ,april #beth1 the
 slaughter again broke out at ,adana4   
,this  time it was a massacre pure and  
simple1 for the few ,armenians who owned
  weapons had either fled1 or else were 
almost without ammunition4 ,men1  women1

 children were indiscriminately killed1 
houses were robbed and  burned1 until   
hardly a ,christian home was left       
standing4 ,over the whole  country fire 
and sword made a waste of what had been 
the home of a  prosperous population4   
,how many were killed can only be       
estimated4 ,some  say thirty thousand4  
,no estimate is less than half that     
number4    ,an investigation was set on 
foot by ,parliament after the instigator
 of  the massacre had been sent with    
eight of his wives to live a prisoner   
at ,salonica4 ,the commission reported  
that it had hanged fifteen              
persons--fifteen persons for slaying    
fifteen thousand4    ,though much       
reduced during later years1 the ,turkish
 empire still  stretches over three     
continents and the islands of the sea4  
,though  penal conditions around        
,constantinople are bad1 where diverse  
races and  religions1 far away from     
central control1 must live together1    
trouble  constantly exists4 ,the ,turk  

has always been weak in administration1 
and  it is in these provincial prisons  
that the chief horrors are seen4    ,for
 administrative purposes ,turkey is     
divided into vilayets1 which  are       
subdivided into sanjaks or livas1 and   
these into kazas4 ,each  division has   
its prison4 ,that of the last named     
corresponds roughly to  the county gaol 
of the ,united ,states4 ,in it accused  
persons awaiting  trial and prisoners   
sentenced to short terms are confined4  
,graver  crimes are punished by         
confinement in the prison of the sanjak 
or  the vilayet4 ,for special crimes and
 for certain kinds of political         
offences prisoners may be sent to       
,rhodes1 ,sinope1 ,tripoli and other    
similar points where old castles are    
usually the prisons4    ,there is no    
common form of prison4 ,generally they  
are old ugly  buildings1 though in a few
 larger towns new and elegant structures
 have  taken their place4 ,in only one  
particular are they alike--they are all 

dirty1 and are generally damp and       
unhealthful1 because of slovenly        
attention and overcrowding4 ,the prisons
 are usually in charge of the  zaptiehs1
 though special officers1 chosen for the
 purpose control  others4 ,where these  
gardiens have charge1 matters are       
usually less  bad than in the general   
run4    ,prisoners are expected to feed 
themselves4 ,with the exception of      
alcoholic beverages1 friends or         
relatives may send any articles of      
food1 or the prisoner may buy them from 
his own means4 ,even alcohol is         
smuggled in by the connivance of the    
guards who are always willing to  accept
 a bribe4 ,tobacco of course is         
considered a necessity4 ,to the  very   
poor coarse bread is usually furnished1 
but the allowance for this  purpose is  
often embezzled by the officials1 and   
then the poor must  live upon the       
charity of their fellow prisoners4      
,the indiscriminate congregate system is
 still in vogue as in the  days of the  

,bagnio4 ,a dozen1 a score1 or more1 are
 assigned to one  room where they live  
and sleep4 ,sanitary arrangements are   
usually  primitive1 if not outrageously 
bad1 and the atmosphere is trying to a  
sensitive nose4 ,there is no prison     
costume4 ,a prisoner wears what he      
likes1 eats what he likes1 and spends   
his time as he likes1 within the  limits
 of the prison4 ,there is no pretence of
 reform4 ,the prisoners  live idle1     
useless lives4 ,though1 according to    
law1 a prisoner may work  if he desires1
 in fact1 work is not encouraged because
 of the disputes  likely to arise over  
the sale of his product1 and hardly one 
per cent4  is occupied4    ,yet strange 
as it may appear at first glance1 a     
great number are  perfectly content4    
,leisure1 food1 tobacco are theirs and  
they wish  little more4 ,when two-thirds
 of the sentence has been served1 it is 
the  custom to release the tractable    
prisoners4 ,many ,turks however prefer  
life in prison to life outside1 and     

refuse to leave4 ,it is a home where    
they are free from care1 exempt from    
taxes1 and from military service4  ,they
 avoid thus all duties of citizenship   
and live like parasites upon  their     
relatives or upon any property to which 
they have a claim4    ,theoretically all
 forms of physical punishment are       
forbidden1 though in  every ancient     
prison the old fetters are preserved1   
rusted and stiff  to be sure1 but still 
painful4 ,where differences of race and 
religion  between prisoner and keeper   
appear they are undoubtedly often used  
to  make harder the lot of the 8infidel0
 or of the suspected conspirator4       
,while all charges of ill usage and     
torture made by ,armenian1 ,jew1 or     
,greek can not be sustained1 there is a 
foundation of truth4    ,some of the    
handcuffs are of iron1 while others are 
simply heavy blocks  of wood with two   
grooves for the wrists4 ,when the heavy 
blocks are  nailed together1 the arms   
are held in a most uncomfortable        

position1  and the obstructed           
circulation may cause intense pain4 ,the
 ,reverend ,g4  ,thoumaian1 an ,armenian
 clergyman1 tells of wearing these      
handcuffs for  fifteen hours on the     
journey from ,marsovan to ,chorum1 and  
for five days  thereafter4    ,he and   
his companion also wore iron collars1   
connected by chains1 for  twenty-five   
days while in prison at ,chorum4        
,fetters are also worn1  connected by   
chains1 and where the guards are        
especially brutal or the  prisoners are 
hated for any reason the latter may be  
chained to the  wall by neck and feet1  
sometimes so closely that the irons cut 
into the  flesh4    ,as is the case in  
,spain the convict warder flourishes in 
,turkey4 ,to him  is sometimes confided 
the other forms of torture4 ,a prisoner 
from whom  a confession is desired may  
be taken to a lonely cell where the lash
 is  plied until blood collects in a    
huge blister under the skin4 ,this is   
punctured and intense pain results as   

the raw surface comes in contact  with  
the air4 ,worse tales than this are     
told--of prisoners hanged by  the feet  
from a beam during the beating1 of naked
 prisoners thrust into  cold cells and  
drenched with icy water1 and even of the
 application of  hot irons4    ,finally 
,mr4 ,thoumaian declares that to his own
 personal knowledge a  severe torture   
was applied to an acquaintance of his1 a
 young graduate  of ,anatolia ,college4 
,the young man's head was shaved1 and on
 the bare  skin in a sensitive spot was 
placed a nutshell filled with vermin4   
,as  they began to struggle and tore    
deeper and deeper into the sensitive    
nerves1 the torture was exquisite4      
,sometimes prisoners to whom  this test 
is applied lose all control of          
themselves and confess to  participation
 in any plot no matter how incredible1  
caring only for the  removal of the     
horrible pain4    ,these accounts all   
deal with the last years of ,abdul      
,hamid's reign1  when the demand for    

8free ,armenia0 was strong1 when        
,macedonia was  restless1 and when the  
loyalty of large part of the army was   
suspected4  ,prisoners charged with     
ordinary crimes lived much the same     
lives as the  inmates of the ,bagnio    
sixty years before1 except perhaps that 
they were  better fed in the later      
years4 ,since the accession of the new  
sultan1  vigilance has been relaxed so  
far as politics are concerned4 ,whether 
the leopard has really changed his      
spots1 and the ,turk has become  humane 
is a question that only the future can  
settle4      ,transcriber's ,note3      
,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation  
are as in the original4