,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation from the original has been retained with the exception of apparent printer's errors4 ,italic text is marked thus4 ,,ocean ,,steamships ,illustration3 ,a ,,drama ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,,ocean ,,steamships ,a ,,popular ,,account ,,of ,,their ,,construction ,,development1 ,,management ,,and ,,appliances ,,by ,f4 ,e4 ,,chadwick1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,j4 ,d4 ,j4 ,,kelley1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,,ridgely ,,hunt1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,,john ,h4 ,,gould ,,william ,h4 ,,rideing ,a4 ,e4 ,,seaton ,,with ,,ninety-,,six ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahia ,,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,trow ,,directory ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,contents4 ,,page ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,steamship #a ,,by ,,commander ,f4 ,e4 ,,chadwick1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,slow ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,steam ,,propulsion--,,models ,,shown ,,at ,,the ,,liverpool ,,exhibition ,,in #ahhf--;,,claims ,,of ,,precedence ,,in ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,steamboats--,,what ,,fulton ,,accomplished--,,the ,,clermont--,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,savannah ,,in #ahai--,,the ,,first ,,war ,,steamer--,,the ,,atlantic ,,crossed ,,by ,,the ,,sirius ,,and ,,great ,,western ,,in #ahch--;,,founding ,,of ,,the ,,cunard ,,company--,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller--,,its ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,archimedes ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,britain--,,early ,,fleet ,,of ,,the ,,cunard ,,company--,,american ,,enterprises--,,the ,,screw ,,steamer ,,princeton--,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,mail--,,the ,,collins ,,line--,,its ,,success ,,and ,,ultimate ,,failure--,,the ,,great ,,eastern--,,beginning ,,of ,,great ,,rivalry ,,in ,,speed--,,triple ,,expansion ,,engines--,,important ,,changes ,,in ,,design4 ,,speed ,,in ,,ocean ,,steamers #eg ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,seaton4 ,,the ,,viking',s ,,craft ,,and ,,the ,,modern 8,,greyhound0--,,problems ,,of ,,inertia ,,and ,,resistance--,,primary ,,condition ,,for ,,high ,,speed--,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by 8,,coefficient ,,of ,,fineness0 ,,and 8,,indicated ,,horse-,,power0--,,advance ,,in ,,economical ,,engines--,,what ,,the ,,compound ,,engine ,,effected--,a ,,comparison ,,of ,,fast ,,steamers ,,from #ahcf ,,to #ahij--,,prejudice ,,against ,,propellers ,,and ,,high ,,pressures--,,advantages ,,of ,,more ,,than ,,one ,,screw ,,propeller--,,attempts ,,at ,,propulsion ,,by ,,turbine ,,wheels1 ,,ejections1 ,,and ,,pumps--,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,siemens-,,martin ,,steel ,,in #ahge ,,the ,,chief ,,factor ,,in ,,the ,,success ,,of ,,modern ,,fast ,,steamers--,,decrease ,,in ,,coal ,,consumption--,,importance ,,of ,,forced ,,draughts--,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,mechanical ,,stoking--,,possibilities ,,of ,,liquid ,,fuel--,,is ,,the ,,present ,,speed ,,likely ,,to ,,be ,,increased8 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,an 8,,ocean ,,greyhound0 #ia ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,rideing4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,an ,,ocean ,,racer--,,intricate 8,,financing0 ,,of ,,such ,,an ,,undertaking--,,the ,,contract ,,with ,,the ,,ship-,,builders--,,the ,,uncertain ,,element ,,in ,,designing--,,great ,,ship ,,yards ,,along ,,the ,,clyde--,,the ,,plans ,,of ,a ,,steamer ,,on ,,paper--,,enlargement ,,of ,,plans ,,in ,,the 8,,mould ,,loft0--,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by 8,,fairing ,,the ,,ship0--,,the 8,,scrive ,,board0--,,laying ,,down ,,the ,,keel--,,making ,,the ,,huge ,,ribs--,,when ,a ,,ship ,,is 8,,in ,,frame0--,,shaping ,,and ,,trimming ,,the ,,plates--,,riveting ,,and ,,caulking--,,ready ,,for ,,launching--,,the ,,great 8,,plant0 ,,which ,,is ,,necessary ,,for ,,the ,,building ,,of ,a ,,ship--,,description ,,of ,a ,,typical ,,yard--,,works ,,covering ,,seventy-,,four ,,acres--,,where ,,the ,,shaft ,,is ,,forged--,,the ,,lathes ,,at ,,work--,,the ,,adjustment ,,of ,,parts--,,seven ,,thousand ,,workmen4 ,,ocean ,,passenger ,,travel #aab ,,by ,,john ,h4 ,,gould4 ,,the ,,first ,,ocean ,,race--,,passenger ,,traffic ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,clipper ,,days--,,state-,,rooms ,,and ,,table ,,fare ,,in ,,early ,,days--,,the ,,first ,,ocean ,,mail ,,contract--,,discomforts ,,fifty ,,years ,,ago--,,american ,,transatlantic ,,lines--,,government ,,subsidies--,,novelties ,,on ,,the ,,collins ,,line--,,when ,,steerage ,,passengers ,,were ,,allowed ,,on ,,ocean ,,steamships--,,important ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,comfort ,,of ,,passengers ,,wrought ,,by ,,the ,,oceanic ,,in #ahgj--,,the ,,present ,,era ,,of ,,twin-,,screw ,,ships--,,their ,,advantages--,,the ,,fastest ,,voyages ,,east ,,and ,,west--,,records ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,racers--,,modern ,,conveniences ,,and ,,luxuries--,,the ,,increase ,,in ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,cabin ,,passengers ,,from #ahha ,,to #ahij--;,,how ,,the ,,larder ,,is ,,supplied--,,electric ,,lights1 ,,libraries1 ,,and ,,music-,,rooms--,,customs ,,peculiar ,,to ,,the ,,french1 ,,german1 ,,and ,,british ,,lines--,,life ,,in ,,the ,,steerage--,,immigration ,,statistics--,,government ,,regulations4 ,,the ,,ship',s ,,company #adi ,,by ,,lieutenant ,j4 ,d4 ,,jerrold ,,kelley1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,has ,,steam ,,ruined ,,the ,,genuine ,,sailors ,,of ,,story ,,and ,,song8--,,hauling ,a ,,liner ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,liverpool ,,docks--,,the ,,traits ,,of ,,master-,,mariners--,,education ,,of ,,junior ,,officers--,a ,,fire ,,drill--,,stowing ,,the ,,cargo--,,down ,,the ,,channel ,,in ,a ,,fog--,,the ,,routine ,,life ,,at ,,sea--,,the ,,trials ,,of ,,keeping ,,watch--,a ,,bo',s',n',s ,,right ,,to ,,bluster--,,steering ,,by ,,steam--,,scrubbing ,,the ,,decks ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,watches--,,formalities ,,of ,,inspection--,,the ,,magic ,,domain ,,of ,,the ,,engine-,,room--,,picturesqueness ,,of ,,the ,,stoke-,,hole--,,messes ,,of ,,the ,,crew--,,the ,,noon ,,observation--,,life ,,among ,,the ,,cabin ,,passengers--,,boat ,,drill--,,pleasures ,,toward ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,voyage--,,the ,,concert--,,scenes ,,in ,,the ,,smoking-,,room--,,wagers ,,on ,,the ,,pilot-,,boat ,,number--,,fire ,,island ,,light1 ,,and ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4 ,,safety ,,on ,,the ,,atlantic #ahe ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,rideing4 ,,the ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,sea--,,precautions ,,in ,a ,,fog--,,anxieties ,,of ,,the ,,captain--,,creeping ,,up ,,the ,,channel--8,,ashore ,,at ,,south ,,stack0--,,narrow ,,escape ,,of ,,the ,,baltic--,,some ,,notable ,,shipwrecks--,,statistics ,,since #ahch--,,the ,,region ,,of ,,icebergs--,,when ,,they ,,are ,,most ,,frequent--,,calamities ,,from ,,ice--,,safety ,,promoted ,,by ,,speed--,,modern ,,protection ,,from ,,incoming ,,seas--,,bulkheads ,,and ,,double ,,bottoms--,,water ,,tight ,,compartments--,,the ,,special ,,advantage ,,of ,,the ,,longitudinal ,,bulkhead--,,the ,,value ,,of ,,twin ,,screws--,,dangers ,,from ,a ,,broken ,,shaft--,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,mariner',s ,,compass1 ,,the ,,patent ,,log1 ,,and ,,sounding ,,machine--,,manganese ,,bronze ,,for ,,propellers--,,lights1 ,,buoys1 ,,and ,,fog ,,signals--,,the ,,remarkable ,,record ,,of #ahij4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,steamship ,,as ,a ,,freight ,,carrier #bag ,,by ,,john ,h4 ,,gould4 ,,revenue ,,of ,,the ,,ship',s ,,cargo--,,amount ,,of ,,freight ,,carried ,,by ,,express ,,steamships--,,gross ,,tonnage ,,of ,,important ,,lines ,,running ,,from ,,new ,,york--,,the ,,merchant ,,marine ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states--,,the 8,,atlantic ,,limited0--,,the ,,sea ,,post-,,office--,,in ,,the ,,specie ,,room--,,enormous ,,refrigerators--,,the ,,new ,,class ,,of 8,,freighters0--,,large ,,cargoes ,,and ,,small ,,coal ,,consumption--,,the ,,ocean 8,,tramp0--,,advantages ,,of ,,the 8,,whaleback0--,,vessels ,,for ,,carrying ,,grain--,,floating ,,elevators--,,the ,,fruit ,,steamship--,,tank ,,steamships ,,for ,,carrying ,,oil--,,peculiarities ,,of ,,their ,,construction--,,the ,,molasses ,,ship--,,scenes ,,on ,,the ,,piers ,,when ,,steamships ,,are ,,loading--,,steam ,,hoisting ,,apparatus--,,how ,,the ,,freight ,,is ,,stowed--,,coaling--,,the ,,loading ,,of ,,cattle ,,ships--8,,cowboys ,,of ,,the ,,sea0--,,ocean ,,traffic ,,the ,,index ,,of ,a ,,nation',s ,,prosperity4 ,,steamship ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,world #bec ,,by ,,lieutenant ,,ridgely ,,hunt1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,important ,,part ,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in ,,establishing ,,ocean ,,routes--,,rivalry ,,in ,,sailing ,,vessels ,,with ,,england--,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,gold ,,in ,,california--,,the ,,cape ,,horn ,,route--,,australian ,,packet ,,lines--,,the ,,problem ,,of ,a ,,short ,,route ,,to ,,india--,,four ,,main ,,routes ,,of ,,steamship ,,traffic--,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,regular ,,service ,,between ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,east--,,port ,,said ,,and ,,the ,,suez ,,canal--,,scenes ,,at ,,aden ,,and ,,at ,,bombay--,,the ,,run ,,to ,,colombo1 ,,ceylon--,,some ,,of ,,the ,,by-,,ways ,,of ,,travel ,,from ,,singapore--,,the ,,pacific ,,mail--,,from ,,yokohama ,,to ,,san ,,francisco--,,two ,,routes ,,from ,,panama ,,to ,,new ,,york--,,south ,,american ,,ports--,,magnificent ,,scenery ,,of ,,the ,,magellan ,,straits--,,beauties ,,of ,,the ,,port ,,of ,,rio--,,the ,,great ,,ocean ,,route ,,from ,,london ,,to ,,australia4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,full-,,page ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,a ,,drama ,,of ,,the ,,sea1 ,frontispiece ,,specifications ,,of ,,early ,,patents ,,taken ,,out ,,in ,,england1 #ae ,,the ,,etruria1 #cg ,,triple-,,expansion ,,engine ,,of ,,the ,,aller1 ,,trave1 ,,and ,,saale1 #da ,,the ,,giovanni ,,bausan1 ,,of ,,the ,,italian ,,navy1 #di ,,the ,,north ,,german ,,lloyd ,,steamer ,,kaiser ,,wilhelm ,,ii41 #fe ,,the ,,white ,,star ,,steamer ,,majestic1 #ge ,,the ,,inman ,,line ,,steamer ,,city ,,of ,,paris1 #ha ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,frames ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york--,,june #be1 #ahhg1 #ii ,,in ,,the ,,grand ,,saloon ,,of ,,an ,,inman ,,steamer1 #aae ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,voyage1 #aci ,,in ,,the ,,steerage1 #ade ,,on ,,the ,,bridge ,,in ,a ,,gale1 #afa 8,,muster1 ,,all ,,hands10 #afg ,,night ,,signalling1 #agg ,,out ,,of ,,reckoning4--,a ,,narrow ,,escape1 #ahg ,,landing ,,stages ,,at ,,liverpool1 #aia ,,at ,,close ,,quarters1 ,,among ,,the ,,icebergs1 #bja ,,the ,,deep-,,sea ,,sounding ,,machine ,,at ,,work1 #bjg ,,loading ,,grain ,,from ,a ,,floating ,,elevator1 #bba ,,unloading ,,and ,,loading ,a ,,coastwise ,,steamer ,,by ,,electric ,,light1 #bbg ,,the 8,,whaleback0 ,,steamship ,,for ,,grain ,,and ,,other ,,freight1 #bce ,,unloading ,a ,,banana ,,steamship1 #bda ,a ,,cattle ,,steamship ,,at ,,sea1 #bdi ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,world1 ,,showing ,,the ,,principal ,,steamship ,,routes1 #beg ,,deck ,,quoits ,,on ,a ,p4 ,,and ,o4 ,,liner1 #bfa ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,suez ,,canal ,,at ,,port ,,said1 #bfg ,,the ,,port ,,of ,,valparaiso ,,in ,a ,,norther1 #bhe ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text4 ,,the ,,great ,,western1 ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,painting1 #aj ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western1 #aa ,,the ,,great ,,britain1 #ac ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,hibernia ,,and ,,cambria1 #bb ,,model ,,of ,,the ,,persia ,,and ,,scotia1 #ca ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,warship ,,duilio1 #cc ,,the ,,britannic1 #cd ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,oregon1 #dj ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,the ,,servia1 #dj ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,champagne1 #db ,,the ,,chilian ,,cruiser ,,esmeralda1 #dg ,,the ,,belted ,,cruiser ,,orlando1 ,,with ,,twin ,,screws1 #ea ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,rome1 #ed ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,polyphemus ,,at ,,full ,,speed--#ah-e_/h ,,knots1 #ei ,,the ,,imp,,rieuse ,,going ,,at ,,full ,,speed1 #fd ,,passenger ,,steamer ,,princesse ,,henriette ,,at ,,full ,,speed--#bd-a_/b ,,miles ,,per ,,hour1 #fi ,,engines ,,of ,,the ,,comet1 #gj ,,passenger ,,steamer ,,duchess ,,of ,,hamilton ,,at ,,full ,,speed--#ba ,,miles ,,per ,,hour1 #ga ,,passenger ,,steamer ,,columba ,,at ,,full ,,speed--#ba ,,miles ,,per ,,hour1 #gb ,,the ,,twin ,,screws ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york1 #hd ,,the ,,propeller ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,german ,,lloyd ,,steamer ,,havel1 #he ,,recent ,,naval ,,engine1 #hg ,,italian ,,cruiser ,,piemonte ,,at ,,full ,,speed--#bb4c ,,knots #be-c_/d ,,miles ,,per ,,hour1 #hi ,,the ,,umbria ,,just ,,before ,,launching1 #id ,,frames ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york1 ,,looking ,,aft--,,july #ai1 #ahhg1 #ajb ,,frames ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york1 ,,looking ,,forward--,,july #ai1 #ahhg1 #ajc ,,the ,,manganese ,,bronze ,,propeller-,,blade ,,of ,,the ,,wrecked ,,steamer ,,mosel1 ,,after ,,it ,,had ,,beaten ,,upon ,a ,,reef1 #ajf ,a ,,stern ,,view1 ,,showing ,,twin ,,screws1 #ajh ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,ready ,,for ,,launching1 #aji ,,model ,,of ,a ,,steamer ,,designed ,,to ,,cross ,,the ,,atlantic ,,in ,,five ,,days1 #aaj ,,the ,,steamer',s ,,barber-,,shop1 #aba ,,more ,,comfortable ,,on ,,deck1 #abc ,a ,,quiet ,,flirtation1 #abe ,,smoking-,,room ,,of ,a ,,french ,,liner1 #abg ,,the ,,gang ,,plank--,,just ,,before ,,sailing1 #acb ,,the ,,saloon ,,of ,a ,,hamburg ,,steamer1 #acd ,,the ,,pilot ,,boarding1 #ace ,,revenue ,,officer ,,boarding1 ,,new ,,york ,,bay1 #adb ,,down ,,the ,,channel ,,in ,a ,,fog--,a ,,narrow ,,escape1 #aeg ,,the ,,skipper1 #aeh ,,the ,,deck ,,lookout--8,,danger ,,ahead10 #afj ,,the ,,boatswain',s ,,whistle1 #afd ,,the ,,cook1 #afe ,,washing ,,down ,,the ,,decks1 #afi ,,the ,,stoke ,,hole1 #agb ,,in ,,the ,,fo',,castle1 #agd ,,watching ,,for ,,the ,,sun ,,on ,a ,,cloudy ,,day1 #agf ,,the ,,deck ,,steward1 #ahj ,,captain',s ,,breakfast1 #aha ,,the ,,night ,,signal ,,of ,a ,,disabled ,,steamer1 #ahc ,,eddystone ,,lighthouse1 ,,english ,,channel1 #aid ,a ,,whistling ,,buoy1 #aie ,,lighthouse1 ,,atlantic ,,city1 ,n4 ,j41 #aig ,a ,,bell ,,buoy1 #aii ,,lighthouse1 ,,sanibel ,,island1 ,,fla41 #bje ,,off ,,fire ,,island1 ,,new ,,york1 #baj ,,gedney',s ,,channel1 ,,outside ,,new ,,york ,,harbor1 ,,at ,,night1 #baa ,,the ,,lightship1 ,,off ,,sandy ,,hook1 #bac ,,broken ,,bow ,,of ,,la ,,champagne1 ,,after ,,her ,,collision ,,outside ,,new ,,york ,,harbor1 ,,december1 #ahij1 #bad ,a ,,sunken ,,schooner1 #bae ,,the ,,specie-,,room ,,of ,a ,,passenger ,,steamship1 #bcb ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,a ,,tank ,,steamship1 ,,showing ,,the ,,expansion ,,tank1 #bdd ,,loading ,a ,,tank ,,steamship ,,with ,,oil1 ,,by ,,force ,,pumps1 #bde ,,the ,,port ,,of ,,aden1 ,,arabia1 #bgj ,a ,,deck-,,bath ,,in ,,the ,,tropics1 #bga ,,promenade ,,deck ,,of ,,an ,,orient ,,liner1 #bgd ,,landing ,,passengers ,,at ,,natal1 ,,south ,,africa1 #bgi ,,steamer ,,at ,,anchor1 ,,simon',s ,,bay1 ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope1 #bia ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,steamship4 ,,by ,,commander ,f4 ,e4 ,,chadwick1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,slow ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,steam ,,propulsion--,,models ,,shown ,,at ,,the ,,liverpool ,,exhibition ,,in #ahhf--;,,claims ,,of ,,precedence ,,in ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,steamboats--,,what ,,fulton ,,accomplished--,,the ,,clermont--,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,savannah ,,in #ahai--,,the ,,first ,,war ,,steamer--,,the ,,atlantic ,,crossed ,,by ,,the ,,sirius ,,and ,,great ,,western ,,in #ahch--;,,founding ,,of ,,the ,,cunard ,,company--,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,screw ,,propeller--,,its ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,archimedes ,,and ,,the ,,great ,,britain--,,early ,,fleet ,,of ,,the ,,cunard ,,company--,,american ,,enterprises--,,the ,,screw ,,steamer ,,princeton--,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,mail--,,the ,,collins ,,line--,,its ,,success ,,and ,,ultimate ,,failure--,,the ,,great ,,eastern--,,beginning ,,of ,,great ,,rivalry ,,in ,,speed--,,triple ,,expansion ,,engines--,,important ,,changes ,,in ,,design4 ,it is a wonderful fact in the swift expansion of mechanical knowledge and appliances of the last hundred years that while for unknown ages the wind was the only propelling force used for purposes of navigation1 apart from the rude application of power through oars worked by men1 the whole scheme of steam transport has grown1 practically1 to its present wonderful perfection within the lifetime of men yet living4 ,of course1 the idea1 as is that of all great inventions1 was one of slow growth4 ,it cropped up at various stages through the eighteenth century1 and there are faint evidences of gropings in this direction in the latter part of the seventeenth2 but these latter were not much more definite than the embodiment of the idea of the telegraph in ,puck's girdle round the earth1 and the evidence that men really thought of propelling boats by steam is very meagre until we come to the pamphlet written by ,jonathan ,hulls1 in #agcg1 in which he gave utterance to a very clear and distinct idea in the matter4 ,it struggled through a very backward infancy of fifty years and more1 certain memorable names appearing now and then to help it along1 as that of ,watt 7without whose improvements in the steam-engine it must still have remained in swaddling-clothes71 ,fitch1 ,de ,jouffroy1 ,rumsey1 ,symington1 and finally ,fulton1 who1 however much he may have learned from his predecessors1 has unquestionably the credit of putting afloat the first commercially successful steamboat4 ,he is thus worthy of all the honor accorded him2 much of it came too late1 as he died at the comparatively early age of fifty1 after passing through the harassments which seem naturally to lie in the path of the innovator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a graphic history of the wonderful changes wrought in this great factor of the world's progress was set forth during the summer of #ahhf1 at the ,international ,exhibition at ,liverpool1 where1 by model and drawing1 the various steps were made more completely visible and tangible than1 perhaps1 ever before4 ,true1 the relics of the earlier phases of the steamship age1 when its believers were but few and generally of small account1 were sparse1 but the exhibits of later models1 from the date of the inception of transatlantic traffic1 preparations for which were begun in earnest by laying down the steamship ,great ,western in #ahcf1 were frequent enough1 and the whole of the steps in the development of the means of ocean traffic from then till now were sufficiently well shown4 ,the exhibition1 of course1 did not confine itself to the steam era alone4 ,it even had a model of an ,egyptian vessel1 which was exhibited by the ,liverpool ,library ,society1 as taken from ,thebes1 and estimated to date about #a1ejj years ,b4,c41 and which ,moses himself might thus have seen4 ,it was a long stretch1 however1 to the next in date1 as no others antedated #agjj ,a4,d4 ,there were many of the handsome and dignified eighteenth-century men-of-war1 built at a time when men began to preserve a record of their work in the miniature ships which are now esteemed an essential addition to almost every vessel of importance put afloat4 ,firms now exist whose only business it is to make the various minute fittings--the ports1 chains1 anchors1 blocks1 etc4--of the ,liliputian craft1 so that every detail of the original is given with an exact verisimilitude in very often most beautiful and elaborate work4 ,it would have been very interesting had the early struggles of the steamboat been thus illustrated in extenso1 but there is nothing of its concrete history earlier than a small model of the original ,comet1 built by ,henry ,bell1 at ,glasgow1 in #ahab1 and so named because of the extraordinary comet of that year1 and the engines of her successor1 built in #ahbj4 ,these recall1 however1 the vessel which was the first steamer engaged in passenger traffic in ,europe1 and are thus worthy of honor4 ,in looking over the beautiful array of models then exhibited1 which thus represented almost every stage of progress in ,british steamship building1 from the ,comet onward1 one could not help regretting that an effort had not been made by our government to bring together models1 of which there must have been some1 at least1 available1 illustrative of our earlier practice1 particularly as there is much in it peculiar to us1 and which would have been most interesting to the great public which visited the exhibition4 ,models of the ,clermont2 of the ,stevens experimental screw boat2 a later ,mississippi steamer2 the ,savannah--the first vessel using steam which ever crossed the ,atlantic2 the ,washington1 the pioneer of regular transatlantic steam traffic under our flag2 the ,adriatic2 the ,hudson ,river and great ,sound steamers of to-day1 would1 apart from any war-ship models of interest which could have been sent1 have made a most interesting and attractive collection4 ,the only things1 however1 which were visible were the drawings of a ,new ,york ferry-boat 7the type of which1 by the way1 we owe to ,fulton71 so placed as to be scarcely discoverable4 ,these boats are so typical1 so different from anything found in ,europe1 and so interesting to any student of steam ferriage as a thorough adaptation of means to an end1 that a complete model of the boat and its ferry slip would have been a most satisfactory addition4 ,it must be remembered that the steamboat had in its earlier days a much greater extension in ,america than elsewhere4 ,our great rivers were an especially attractive field for its use4 ,the ,mississippi had but lately come under our control1 and the beginning of the great tide of ,western emigration and exploration was almost coincident with the steamboat's advent1 so that through these favoring conditions it had a much more rapid growth among us than elsewhere4 ,the display1 however1 of ,british models was as complete as it could well be made4 ,private owners and builders1 the ,admiralty1 and ,lloyds' ,registry1 united to make the collection a very complete and perfect one4 ,of continental ,european exhibits1 that of the ,italian ,government1 which sent a very splendid collection of models of its great war-ships1 was the most important4 ,associated with it was the exhibit of the ,fratelli ,orlando of ,leghorn1 who have done much of both the public and private building of ,italy4 ,the only ,french exhibit was that of the ,bureau ,veritas1 which followed the example of its ,english rival1 ,lloyds1 in making a very striking and instructive show4 ,the only exhibits of modern war-ships were those of ,england and ,italy1 unless we except the numerous vessels built for foreign powers by ,english builders4 ,the remainder of the display was chiefly connected with the strife of commerce1 and in this it is likely to remain as complete and comprehensive as can be made in some time to come4 ,it was one also in which ,britain might well take pride1 as1 however great the ,united ,states were as pioneers or as more than equals in the beginning of the race1 we have long since been distanced by our kinsmen1 and we must refer1 for some years at least1 to ,great ,britain to study the principal changes in hull and machinery of the last half-century1 though the great strides of the last six years1 accomplished through our war-ship construction1 bid fair to once more put us in our old and honorable place4 ,the ,liverpool exhibition was the forerunner of a number of others of like character1 which have culminated in the 8,naval ,exhibition0 of #ahia in ,london1 which1 however1 is more concerned with war than was its predecessor1 and does not enter so fully into the details of early practice4 ,it is useless to draw comparisons between the value of claims of precedence in the history of steam navigation4 ,the fact that ,fulton's efforts finally started the world to building steamboats for actual service is indisputable4 ,all preceding cases were simply sporadic1 and had none of the contagious power possessed by the experiments on the ,hudson4 ,fulton himself had already built six steamboats before one was built elsewhere than in ,america4 ,his boats1 from the beginning1 were of practical value1 and not small experiments1 the ,clermont herself being #acf feet long1 #ah feet broad1 #g feet deep1 of #afj tons2 and the diameter of her wheels was #ae feet4 ,in #ahji the first steamboat1 the ,accommodation1 was seen on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and in #ahaa the first 7built at ,pittsburgh7 appeared on the ,mississippi4 ,a year after this the ,comet1 already alluded to1 was put upon the ,clyde by ,henry ,bell4 ,she was only #dj feet long on the keel1 and #aj-a_/b broad1 with two small paddle-wheels on each side1 driven by a gearing which geared into a wheel on the axle of each set of paddle-wheels4 ,her original engines are still in existence1 and are deposited in the ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 where they were set up by the same engineer 7,mr4 ,john ,robertson7 who placed them in the ,comet4 ,fulton also has the honor of being the first to design and build a war steamer1 which for her time was a most remarkable production1 and by far the largest steam vessel built before #ahch4 ,she was a fitting monument to the genius of the man who unfortunately did not live to see her completion and successful trials4 ,the ,demologos1 or ,fulton the ,first1 was laid down ,june #bj1 #ahad1 and launched ,october #bith of the same year4 8,her dimensions were3 length1 #aej feet2 breadth1 #ef feet2 depth1 #bj feet2 water-wheel1 #af feet diameter1 length of bucket #ad feet1 dip #d feet2 engine1 #dh-;inch cylinder1 #e feet stroke2 boiler length #bb feet1 breadth #ab feet1 and depth #h feet2 tonnage1 #b1dge40 ,the commissioners appointed to examine her say in their report3 8,she is a structure resting upon two boats1 keels separated from end to end by a canal #ae feet wide and #ff feet long4 ,one boat contains the caldrons of copper to prepare her steam4 ,the vast cylinder of iron1 with its piston1 levers1 and wheels1 occupies a part of its fellow3 the great water-wheel revolves in the space between them3 the main or gun deck supporting her armament is protected by a bulwark four feet ten inches thick of solid timber4 ,this is pierced by #cj port-holes1 to enable as many #cb-pounders to fire red-hot balls4 444 ,she is rigged with #b short masts1 each of which supports a large lateen yard and sails4 ,she has #b bowsprits and jibs1 and #d rudders1 #b at each extremity of the boat1 so that she can be steered with either end foremost4 ,her machinery is calculated for the addition of an engine which will discharge an immense column of water1 which is intended to throw upon the decks and through the ports of an enemy40 ,she was also intended to carry four #ajj-pounders4 ,she made her first trial on ,june #a1 #ahae1 and on the ,fourth of ,july she steamed outside of ,sandy ,hook and back1 a distance of #ec miles1 in #h hours and #bj minutes4 ,she was then supposably light1 as it is stated that she was again tried ,september #aa1 #ahae1 with #bf of her guns on board1 and ammunition and stores to bring her down to nearly #aa feet draught4 ,she steamed from #d-a_/b to #e miles an hour1 ,fulton having only promised #c1 and may certainly be considered to have been a success4 ,she was never commissioned1 but was used as a receiving ship at ,new ,york until ,june #d1 #ahbi1 when she accidentally blew up4 ,the general slowness with which men in the early part of the century received the idea of the mighty changes impending may be recognized when we look over the few publications connected with navigation then published4 ,mind seemed to move more slowly in those days2 communication was tedious and difficult4 ,edinburgh was as far from ,london in length of time taken for the journey as is now ,new ,york from ,new ,orleans2 few papers were published2 there were no scientific journals of value2 no great associations of men given to meeting and discussing scientific questions excepting the few ponderous societies which dealt more in abstract questions than in the daily advances of the mechanical world4 ,it was thus that the steam vessel came slowly to the front1 and that it took more than a third of the whole time which has elapsed since ,fulton's successful effort to convince men that it might be possible to carry on traffic by steam across the ,atlantic4 ,dr4 ,lardner is almost chiefly remembered by his famous unwillingness to grant the possibility of steaming directly from ,liverpool to ,new ,york2 and by his remark1 8,as to the project1 however1 which was announced in the newspapers1 of making the voyage directly from ,new ,york to ,liverpool1 it was1 he had no hesitation in saying1 perfectly chimerical1 and that they might as well talk of making a voyage from ,new ,york or ,liverpool to the moon40#a ,he strongly urged dividing the transit by using ,ireland as one of the intermediate steps1 and going thence to ,newfoundland4 ,he curiously limited the size of ships which might be used1 and their coal-carrying powers4 ,though a philosopher1 he did not seem to grasp that if the steamship had grown to what it was in #ahce from the small beginnings of #ahjg it might grow even more1 and its machinery be subject to development in later times as it had been in the earlier4 ,lardner seems to have typified the general state of mind when in #ahcf the ,great ,western ,steamship ,company was formed1 from which really dates transatlantic traffic4 ,a slight retrospect is necessary to enable us to understand the status of steam at the time4 ,little really had been done beyond the establishment of coast1 river1 and lake navigation in the ,united ,states and coastwise traffic in ,great ,britain2 a few small vessels had been built for the ,british navy4 ,in #ahbe the ,enterprise 7#abb feet length of keel and #bg feet beam7 had gone to ,calcutta from ,london in #aac days1 #aj of which had been spent in stoppages2 and steam mail communication with ,india was about being definitely established when the keel of the ,great ,western was laid4 ,up to this time ,america had undergone much the greater development1 both in number of steam vessels and tonnage4 ,in #ahbi our enrolled tonnage was #ed1jcg tons1 or rather more than twice that of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,charleston and ,savannah had regular steam communication with our northern ports4 ,a few years later1 in #ahch1 returns show that the former had #ad steamers1 the largest being of #dff tons2 ,philadelphia had #aa1 the largest being of #efc tons2 ,new ,york had #gg1 of which #ci were of a large class1 exceeding generally #cjj tons--the largest was the ,president1 of #fae tons1 built in #ahbi4 ,liverpool had at this date #da steamers2 the largest was of #eei tons1 #d others exceeded #bjj tons1 and all the others were much smaller4 ,london had #afi1 of which the largest was the ,british ,queen1 just built1 of #a1jec tons2 the next largest was of #dig tons4 ,glasgow and ,belfast had been in regular steam communication since #ahah2 ,glasgow and ,liverpool1 ,london and ,leith1 since #ahbb4 ,the first ferry-boat on the ,mersey1 it may be noted1 the ,etna1 #fc feet long1 with a paddle-wheel in the centre1 began her trips in #ahaf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahai the ,atlantic was first crossed by a ship using steam4 ,this was the ,savannah1 of #chj tons1 launched at ,corlear's ,hook1 ,new ,york1 ,august #bb1 #ahah4b ,she was built to ply between ,new ,york and ,savannah as a sailing-packet4 ,she was1 however1 purchased by ,savannah merchants and fitted with steam machinery1 the paddle-wheels being constructed to fold up and be laid upon the deck when not in use1 her shaft also having a joint for that purpose4 ,she left ,savannah on the #bfth of ,may1 and reached ,liverpool in #be days1 using steam #ah days4 ,the log-book1 still preserved1 notes several times taking the wheels in on deck in thirty minutes4 ,in ,august she left ,liverpool for ,cronstadt4 ,an effort was made to sell her to ,russia1 which failed4 ,she sailed for ,savannah1 touching at ,copenhagen and ,arendal1 and arrived in #ec days4 ,her machinery later was taken out1 and she resumed her original character as a sailing-packet1 and ended her days by being wrecked on the south coast of ,long ,island4 ,but steam-power had by #ahcj grown large enough to strike out more boldly4 ,the ,savannah's effort was an attempt in which steam was only an auxiliary1 and one1 too1 of a not very powerful kind4 ,our coastwise steamers1 as well as those employed in ,great ,britain1 as also the voyage of the ,enterprise to ,calcutta in #ahbe 7though she took #aac days in doing it71 had settled the possibility of the use of steam at sea1 and the question had now become whether a ship could be built to cross the ,atlantic depending entirely on her steam power4 ,it had become wholly a question of fuel consumption4 ,the ,savannah1 it may be said1 used pitch-pine on her outward voyage1 and wood was for a very long time the chief fuel for steaming purposes in ,america4 ,how very important this question was will be understood when it is known that ,mr4 ,mc,gregor ,laird1 the founder of the ,birkenhead firm1 in #ahcd1 laid before the ,committee of the ,house of ,commons on ,steam ,navigation to ,india the following estimate of coal consumption3 ,under #abj horse-power1 #aj-a_/b lbs4 per horse-power4 #afj #i-a_/b #bjj #h-a_/b #bdj #h ,or more than four times what is consumed to-day in moderately economical ships4 ,in other words1 to steam at her present rate across the ,atlantic the ,city of ,new ,york1 of #ah1jjj horse-power1 would need to start with something like #g1ejj tons of coal on board were her consumption per indicated horse-power equal to that of the best sea practice of that date1 which could hardly have been under #f pounds per indicated horse-power per hour4 ,this may be said to have been the status of affairs when1 in #ahcf1 under the influence of ,brunei's bold genius1 the ,great ,western ,steamship ,company was founded as an off-shoot of the ,great ,western ,railway1 whose terminus was then ,bristol4 ,brunel wished to know why the line should not extend itself to ,new ,york1 and the result of his suggestion was the formation of the steamship company and the laying down at ,bristol of their first ship1 the ,great ,western4 ,brunel's large ideas were shown in this ship1 though in comparatively a less degree1 as well as in his later ones4 ,she was of unprecedented size1 determined on by ,brunel as being necessary for the requisite power and coal-carrying capacity4 ,the following were her principal dimensions3 ,length over all1 #bcf ft42 length between perpendiculars1 #bab ft42 length of keel1 #bje ft42 breadth1 #ce ft4 #d in42 depth of hold1 #bc ft4 #b in42 draught of water1 #af ft4 #h in42 length of engine-room1 #gb ft42 tonnage by measurement1 #a1cdj tons2 displacement at load-draught1 #b1cjj tons4 ,illustration3 ,the ,great ,western1 from an old painting4 ,dimensions of engines3 ,diameter of cylinders1 #gc-a_/b in42 length of stroke1 #g ft42 weight of engines1 wheels1 etc41 #caj tons2 number of boilers1 #d2 weight of boilers1 #ij tons2 weight of water in boilers1 #hj tons2 diameter of wheel1 #bh ft4 #i in42 width of floats1 #aj ft4 ,her engines 7side-lever7 were built by the great firm of ,maudslay ,field1 who had been for some time one of the most notable marine-engine building firms of the period in ,great ,britain4 ,they had1 up to #ahcf1 built #ff engines for steamers2 the first being in #ahae1 when they built those of the ,richmond1 of #ag horse-power4 ,the indicated power of the ,great ,western was #gej2 and a notable measure of the stride which steam has taken in the half-century since they undertook this contract is that they have since constructed twin-screw engines from which they have guaranteed to produce #ai1ejj horse-power4 ,these drive a great armor-clad1 which has six times the displacement of the ,great ,western and twice her ordinary speed4 ,the ,great ,western was launched on ,july #ai1 #ahcg1 and was towed from ,bristol to the ,thames to receive her machinery1 where she was the wonder of ,london4 ,she left for ,bristol on ,march #ca1 #ahch2 and arrived1 after having had a serious fire on board1 on ,april #b;d4 ,in the meantime others had been struck with the possibility of steaming to ,new ,york2 and a company1 of which the moving spirit was ,mr4 ,j4 ,laird1 of ,birkenhead1 purchased the ,sirius1 of #gjj tons1 employed between ,london and ,cork1 and prepared her for a voyage to ,new ,york4 ,the completion of the ,great ,western was consequently hastened2 and she left ,bristol on ,sunday1 ,april #h1 #ahch1 at #aj ,a4,m4 with #g passengers on board1 and reached ,new ,york on ,monday1 the #bc;d1 the afternoon of the same day with the ,sirius1 which had left ,cork ,harbor 7where she had touched en route from ,london7 four days before the ,great ,western had left ,bristol4 ,the latter still had nearly #bjj tons of coal1 of the total of #hjj1 on board on arrival2 the ,sirius had consumed her whole supply1 and was barely able to make harbor4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of the ,great ,western4 ,it is needless to speak of the reception of these two ships at ,new ,york4 ,it was an event which stirred the whole country1 and with reason2 it had practically1 at one stroke1 reduced the breadth of the ,atlantic by half1 and brought the ,old and ,new ,world by so much the nearer together4 ,the ,great ,western started on her return voyage1 ,may #gth1 with #ff passengers4 ,this was made in #ad days1 though one was lost by a stoppage at sea4 ,her average daily run out was #bjb miles1 or about #h-a_/b knots per hour2 in returning she made an average of close upon #i4 ,her coal consumption to ,new ,york was #fee tons1 though in returning it was #cib tons--due no doubt to the aid from the westerly winds which generally prevail in the ,north ,atlantic in the higher latitudes4 ,she made in all1 between #ahch and #ahdc1 #fd voyages across the ,atlantic1 her average time from ,bristol or ,liverpool to ,new ,york1 with an average distance of #c1jfb-a_/b knots1 being #ae days #ab hours1 and from ,new ,york eastward1 over an average distance of #c1aje knots1 #ac days #f hours4 ,her fastest westward passage was in #ab days #ah hours2 her longest in #bb days #f hours4 ,her fastest eastward was in #ab days #g-a_/b hours2 and longest1 in #ae days4 ,the largest number of passengers carried was #aeb1 and she averaged throughout #he4 ,in #ahdg she was sold to the ,west ,india ,steam ,packet ,company1 and in #aheg1 about the time that ,mr4 ,brunel was launching his last and greatest ship1 she was broken up at ,vauxhall2 and her final province no doubt was to feed the drawing-room fires of the ,west ,end of ,london1 a fate to which many a worn-out wayfarer of the seas is yearly devoted4 ,illustration3 ,the ,great ,britain4 ,steam communication between ,england and ,america had thus been demonstrated as possible beyond a doubt1 and others were not slow to make the venture4 ,the ,great ,western ,company themselves determined to lay down a second ship2 and it having been quickly seen that the mails must be henceforth carried by steam1 a gentleman from ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia1 appeared upon the scene1 who was destined to connect his name indelibly with the history of steam upon the ,atlantic4 ,this was ,mr4 ,samuel ,cunard1 who had nursed the idea of such a steam line for some years1 and who now1 with ,mr4 ,george ,burns1 of ,glasgow1 and ,mr4 ,david ,mc,iver1 of ,liverpool1 founded the great company known by ,mr4 ,cunard's name4 ,the establishment of this line and the building of the ,great ,britain by the ,great ,western ,company are two most notable events in steam navigation the one putting the steam traffic between the two countries on a firm and secure basis2 the other marking a notable step in the revolution in construction and means of applying the propelling power1 destined before many years to be completely accepted to the exclusion of the wooden hull and the paddle-wheel4 ,it is not fair to speak of the use of iron in the ,great ,britain for the hull1 in a general way1 as the beginning of the change2 she was only the first large ship to be built of this material4 ,the credit of the introduction of iron is largely to be awarded to ,mr4 ,john ,laird1 of ,birkenhead1 who in #ahbi built a lighter #fj feet long1 #ac feet #d inches in breadth1 and #f feet depth of hold2 and in #ahcc1 a paddle-wheel steamer1 the ,lady ,lansdowne1 of #adh tons1 #acc feet long1 #ag feet broad and #i feet #f inches deep4 8,in the following year ,mr4 ,laird constructed a second paddle-steamer1 for ,g4 ,b4 ,lamar1 ,esq41 of ,savannah1 ,united ,states1 called the ,john ,randolph4 ,this was the first iron vessel ever seen in ,american waters4 ,she was shipped in pieces at ,liverpool1 and riveted together in the ,savannah ,river1 where for several years afterward she was used as a tug-boat40 ,though ,mr4 ,laird was the ablest upholder of iron as a material for ship-building1 and was the largest builder in it1 the idea existed before him--,richard ,trevithick and ,robert ,stevenson so early as #ahji proposing iron vessels1 8and even suggested #8masts1 yards1 and spars to be constructed in plates1 with telescope-joints or screwed together2 and in #ahae ,mr4 ,dickenson patented an invention for vessels1 or rather boats1 to be built of iron1 with a hollow water-tight gunwale0 7,lindsay1 vol4 iv41 p4 #he74 ,but nothing came of these proposals1 and the first iron vessel mentioned was built in #ahah by ,thomas ,wilson1 near ,glasgow--the first steam vessel being the ,aaron ,manby1 8constructed in #ahba at ,horsley0 7,lindsay74 8,up to #ahcd1 ,mr4 ,laird had constructed six iron vessels altogether20 the largest of these was the ,garryowen1 of #cjj tons1 for the ,city of ,dublin ,steam ,packet ,company4 ,others of considerable size by the same builder followed1 and the material began to come into use elsewhere4 ,in #ahcg the ,rainbow1 of #fjj tons1 by far the largest iron steamer which had yet been built1 was laid down at ,birkenhead4 ,it will thus be seen how bold was the step taken by ,mr4 ,brunel when1 in #ahch1 he advised the ,great ,western ,company to use iron as the material for their new ship1 which was to be of the startling size of #c1ddc tons displacement4 ,nor were his innovations to stop with size and material4 ,on his earnest recommendation to the company it was decided1 in #ahci1 to change from the first design of the usual paddle-wheels to a screw4 ,illustration3 ,ericsson's ,first ,arrangement of ,underwater ,propeller 7,oct4 #aj1 #ahcd74 ,ericsson's ,propeller 7,july #ac1 #ahcf74 ,smith's ,amended ,specification 7,may #ah1 #ahci74 ,smith's ,specification 7,may #ca1 #ahcf74 ,cammerow's ,specification 7,dec4 #aj1 #ahbh74 ,specifications of ,early ,patents taken out in ,england4 ,three years before 7in #ahcf71 a ,swede1 whose name was destined to become much more famous in our own land1 had successfully shown the practicability of screw propulsion1 in the ,francis ,b4 ,ogden1 on the ,thames4 8,she was #de feet long and #h feet wide1 drawing #b feet #c inches of water4 ,in this vessel he fitted his engine and two propellers1 each of #e feet #c inches diameter0 7,lindsay74 ,she made ten miles an hour1 and showed her capabilities by towing a large packetship at good speed4 ,there was no question of the success of this little vessel1 which was witnessed on one occasion by several of the lords of the admiralty4 ,notwithstanding her unqualified success1 ,ericsson had no support in ,england4 ,it happened1 however1 that ,commodore ,stockton1 of our navy1 was then in ,london2 and witnessing a trial of the ,ogden1 ordered two small boats of him4 ,one1 the ,robert ,f4 ,stockton1 was built1 in #ahch1 of iron1 by ,laird--#fc feet #e inches in length1 #aj feet in breadth1 and #g feet in depth4 ,she was taken--,april1 #ahci--under sail1 to the ,united ,states by a crew of a master and four men4 ,this little vessel was the forerunner of the famous ,princeton1 built after the designs of ,ericsson1 who had been induced by ,commodore ,stockton to come to ,america as offering a more kindly field for his talents4 ,in the same year with ,ericsson's trial of the ,ogden1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,pettit ,smith took out a patent for a screw2 and it was by the company formed by ,smith that the screw propeller was first tried on a large scale1 in the ,archimedes1 of #bcg tons1 in #ahci4 ,of course the names mentioned by no means exhaust the list of claimants to this great invention4 ,nor can it be said to have been invented by either of these two1 but they were the first to score decisive successes and convince the world of its practicability4 ,in #aggj1 ,watt wrote to ,dr4 ,smalls 7who1 a ,scot1 was at one time a professor at ,william and ,mary ,college1 in ,virginia1 but returned to ,england in #aghe7 regarding the latter's experiments in relation to canal navigation1 asking him1 8,have you ever considered a spiral oar for that purpose1 or are you for two wheels80 ,in the letter is the sketch1 a fac-simile of which is here shown3 ,illustration3 ,sketch of spiral oar ,dr4 ,smalls answers that1 8,i have tried models of spiral oars1 and have found them all inferior to oars of either of the other forms0 7,muirhead's 8,life of ,watt10 p4 #bjc74 ,joseph ,bramah1 in #aghe1 took out a patent for propelling vessels by steam1 wherein1 after describing the method figured in his specification of using a wheel at the stern of a vessel1 in which he places the rudder at the bow1 he proceeds as follows3 8,instead of this wheel ,a may be introduced a wheel with inclined fans1 or wings1 similar to the fly of a smoke-jack1 or the vertical sails of a wind-mill4 ,this wheel1 or fly1 may be fixed on the spindle ,c alone1 and may be wholly under water1 when it would1 by being turned round either way1 cause the ship to be forced backward or forward1 as the inclination of the fans1 or wings1 will act as oars with equal force both ways2 and their power will be in proportion to the size and velocity of the wheel1 allowing the fans to have a proper inclination4 ,the steam-engine will also serve to clear the ship of water with singular expedition1 which is a circumstance of much consequence40 ,bramah thus very clearly describes the screw1 and in so doing must unquestionably be numbered as one of the many fathers of this system of propulsion4 ,fitch1 as before stated1 is recorded1 on most trustworthy evidence1 to have been another3 and ,mr4 ,stevens1 of ,hoboken1 not only carried out successful experiments with the screw in #ahjd1 at ,new ,york1 but even experimented with twin screws4 ,charles ,cummerow1 8in the ,city of ,london1 merchant10 patented1 in #ahbh1 8certain improvements in propelling vessels1 communicated to me by a certain foreigner residing abroad10 in which the screw is set forth in a manner not to be questioned4 ,who the 8certain foreigner0 was1 who communicated the invention to ,mr4 ,cummerow1 has not come down to us4 ,it had1 however1 like the steamboat as a whole1 to wait for a certain preparedness in the human intellect4 ,invention knocked hard1 and sometimes often1 in the early years of the century1 before the doors of the mind were opened to receive it2 and too frequently then the reception was but a surly one1 and attention deferred from visitor to visitor until one came1 as did ,fulton1 or ,ericsson1 who would not be denied4 ,the transfer of ,ericsson to ,america left an open field for ,mr4 ,pettit ,smith1 and the experiments carried out by the ,screw ,propeller ,company had the effect of permanently directing the attention in ,great ,britain of those interested in such subjects4 ,the screw used in the ,archimedes 8consisted of two half-threads1 of an #h feet pitch1 #e feet #i inches in diameter4 ,each was #d feet in length1 and they were placed diametrically opposite each other at an angle of about #de degrees on the propeller-shaft0 7,lindsay74 ,she was tried in #ahci1 and in #ahdj ,mr4 ,brunel spent some time in investigating her performance4 ,his mind1 bold and original in all its own conceptions1 was quick to appreciate the new method2 and1 although the engines of the ,great ,britain were already begun1 designed for paddle-wheels1 he brought the directors of the company1 who had undertaken the building of their own machinery1 to consent to a change4 ,the following details of the ship are taken from the 8,life of ,brunel30 ,total length1 #cbb ft42 length of keel1 #bhi ft42 beam1 #ea ft42 depth1 #cb ft4 #f in42 draught of water1 #af ft42 tonnage measurement1 #c1ddc tons2 displacement1 #b1ihd tons2 number of cylinders1 #d2 diameter of cylinder1 #hh in42 length of stroke1 #f ft42 weight of engines1 #cdj tons2 weight of boilers1 #bjj tons2 weight of water in boilers1 #bjj tons2 weight of screw-shaft1 #ch tons2 diameter of screw1 #ae ft4 #f in42 pitch of screw1 #be ft42 weight of screw1 #d tons2 diameter of main drum1 #ah ft42 diameter of screw-shaft drum1 #f ft42 weight of coal1 #a1bjj tons4 8,in the construction of the ,great ,britain1 the same care which had been spent in securing longitudinal strength in the wooden hull of the ,great ,western was now given to the suitable distribution of the metal40 ,a balanced rudder and bilge keels were parts of her original construction1 and an unusual method of lapping the plates was used4 8,apart from their size1 the design of the engines of the ,great ,britain necessarily presented many peculiarities4 ,the boilers1 which were #f in number1 were placed touching each other1 so as to form one large boiler about #cc feet square1 divided by one transverse and two longitudinal partitions4 8,it would seem that the boiler was worked with a pressure of about #h pounds on the square inch4 8,the main shaft of the engine had a crank at either end of it1 and was made hollow2 a stream of water being kept running through it1 so as to prevent heating in the bearings4 ,an important part in the design was the method by which motion was transmitted from the engine-shaft to the screw-shaft1 for the screw was arranged to go three revolutions to each revolution of the engines4 ,where the engines do not drive the screw directly1 this is now universally effected by means of toothed gearing2 but when the engines of the ,great ,britain were made1 it was thought that this arrangement would be too jarring and noisy4 ,after much consideration1 chains were used1 working round different-sized drums1 with notches in them1 into which fitted projections on the chains40 ,on ,july #aj1 #ahdc1 this 7for the time7 great ship was floated out of dock2 but it was not until ,january #bc1 #ahde1 that she left ,bristol for ,london1 making on her voyage an average of #ab-a_/c knots an hour4 ,she left ,liverpool for ,new ,york on ,august #bfth1 and arrived on ,september #ajth1 having made the passage out in #ad days and #ba hours2 she returned in #ae-a_/b days4 ,during the next winter1 after one more voyage to ,new ,york1 alterations were made1 to give a better supply of steam1 and a new screw was fitted4 ,she made two voyages to ,new ,york in #ahdf2 and on ,september #bb;d she left ,liverpool on a third1 but overran her reckoning and stranded in ,dundrum ,bay1 on the northeast coast of ,ireland1 when it was supposed she was only rounding the ,isle of ,man4 ,this unfortunate event completed the ruin of the company1 already in financial straits through the competition of the ,cunard line2 and the ship after her rescue1 effected ,august #bg1 #ahdg1 almost a year after grounding1 was 8sold to ,messrs4 ,gibbs1 ,bright ,co41 of ,liverpool1 by whom she was repaired and fitted with auxiliary engines of #ejj nominal horse-power4 ,on a general survey being made it was found that she had not suffered any alteration of form1 nor was she at all strained4 ,she was taken out of dock in ,october1 #ahea1 and since that time she has made regular voyages between ,liverpool and ,australia40 ,these last few lines appear in the 8,life of ,brunel10 published in #ahgj4 ,but she was later changed into a sailing-ship1 and only in #ahhf stranded again at the ,falkland ,islands4 ,she was floated2 but being badly injured1 was sold to serve as a hulk1 and there no doubt will be passed the last days of what may be regarded one of the famous ships of the world4 ,she was1 for the time1 as bold a conception as was her great designer's later venture1 the ,great ,eastern4 ,the acceptance by the ,english ,government of the ,cunard company's bid for the contract for carrying the mails to ,america resulted in putting afloat1 in #ahdj1 the ,acadia1 ,britannia1 ,columbia1 and ,caledonia4 ,the first vessels of the ,cunard line were all wooden paddle-wheel steamers1 with engines by ,napier1 of ,glasgow1 of the usual side-lever class2 the return-flue boilers and jet-condensers were used1 the latter holding their place for many years to come1 though surface condensation had already appeared as an experiment4 ,the company was to carry the mails fortnightly between ,liverpool1 ,halifax1 and ,boston1 regular sailings to be adhered to1 and four vessels to be employed1 for the sum of #ha1jjj 7#djj1jjj7 per annum4 ,the contract was made for seven years1 but was continued from time to time for forty-six--no break occurring in this nearly half-century's service1 when the ,umbria--,november #d1 #ahhf--was the first ship in the history of the company to leave ,liverpool on the regular day of sailing for ,america without mails4 ,this break1 however1 was but momentary1 and the line almost at once resumed its ancient duty4 ,the ,britannia was the first of the fleet to sail2 and1 strange to say 7from the usual seaman's point of view71 ,friday1 ,july #d1 #ahdj1 was the day selected4 ,she arrived at ,boston in #ad days and #h hours1 a very successful passage for the time4 ,it must have required considerable moral courage in the projectors to inaugurate such an undertaking on a day of the week which has been so long on the black-list of sailor superstition1 notwithstanding it had the advantage of being the anniversary of the ,declaration of ,american ,independence4 ,the success of this line ought certainly to rehabilitate ,friday to a position of equality among the more fortunate days1 though it will be observed that none of the transatlantic lines have yet selected it as a day of sailing4 ,the ,britannia1 which was representative of the quartette1 was of the following dimensions3 ,length of keel and fore rake1 #bjg ft42 breadth of beam1 #cd ft4 #b in42 depth of hold1 #bb ft4 #d in42 mean draught1 #af ft4 #aj in42 displacement1 #b1jej tons2 diameter of cylinder1 #gb-a_/b in42 length of stroke1 #hb in42 number of boilers1 #d2 pressure carried1 #i lbs4 per sq4 in42 number of furnaces1 #ab2 fire-grate area1 #bbb ft42 indicated horse-power1 #gdj2 coal consumption per indicated horse-power per hour1 #e4a lbs42 coal consumption per day1 #ch tons2 bunker capacity1 #fdj tons2 cargo capacity1 #bbe tons2 cabin passengers carried1 #ij2 average speed1 #h4e knots4 ,it will thus be seen that these ships were not an advance upon the ,great ,western1 but were even slightly smaller1 with about the same coal consumption and with rather less speed4 ,illustration3 ,plan of the ,hibernia and ,cambria4 ,a1 saloon2 ,b1 pantry2 ,c1 centre state-rooms2 ,d1 gentlemen's cabin2 ,e1 ladies' cabin2 ,s1 stairs2 ,f1 wine cellar2 ,g1 ,g1 ,g1 goods2 ,k1 stewards' berths in centre2 ,h1 ,h1 coal ho'd2 ,p1 ,p1 fore-cabin2 ,q1 steerage2 ,l1 forecastle2 ,r1 store-room2 ,m1 mail-room2 ,o1 sail-room2 ,v1 engineers and firemen4 ,the ,hibernia and ,cambria followed in #ahdc and #ahde1 #ecj tons larger in displacement1 with #a1jdj indicated horse-power1 and steaming about #i-a_/b knots per hour4 ,the plan gives an idea of these vessels which is far from fulfilling the ideas of the present ,atlantic traveller1 who considers himself a much-injured person if he has not electric lights and bells1 baths ad libitum1 and a reasonable amount of cubic space in which to bestow himself4 ,none of the least of these existed in the earlier passenger ships2 a narrow berth to sleep in and a plentiful supply of not over well prepared food were afforded1 but beyond these there was little--notwithstanding the whole of the ship was given up to first-cabin passengers1 emigrants not being carried in steamers until #ahej1 and it was not until #ahec that any steamer of the ,cunard line was fitted for their accommodation4 ,how little it was possible to do for the wanderer to ,europe in those days may be seen when comparison shows the ,britannia to have been but half the length of the ,umbria1 but two-thirds her breadth1 but six-tenths her depth1 with much less than half her speed1 and less than one-twentieth her power4 ,the establishment of the ,cunard line marked the setting of ocean steam traffic firmly on its feet4 ,what in #ahce had been stated by one of the most trusted scientific men of that time as an impossibility1 and even in #ahch was in doubt1 had become an accomplished fact2 and while the proof of the practicability of the ,american route was making1 preparations were in progress for the extension of steam lines which were soon to reach the ends of the world4 ,a detailed statement of historic events is1 of course1 here out of place1 but a mere mention of other prominent landmarks in steam navigation is almost a necessity4 ,the founding of the ,peninsular ,company1 in #ahcg1 soon to extend its operations1 under the name of the ,peninsular and ,oriental1 to ,india1 and the establishment1 in #ahdj1 of the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company1 are dates not to be passed by4 ,the establishment of the latter line was due to one of our own countrymen--,william ,wheelwright1 of ,newburyport1 who1 when consul at ,guayaquil1 grasped the conditions of the coast1 and through his foresight became one of its greatest benefactors1 and at the same time one of its most successful men4 ,he failed in interesting our own people in the venture1 and turned to ,london1 where his success was greater4 ,the ,chili and ,peru1 the first vessels of this now great fleet1 despatched in #ahdj1 were but #aih feet long and of #gjj tons4 ,it was not until #ahfh that the line was brought into direct communication with ,england by the establishment of monthly steamers from ,liverpool to ,valparaiso1 via the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,they had to await the diminished fuel consumption1 which the company itself did so much to bring about through compound engines and surface condensation4 ,in the following years we ourselves were not idle4 ,in #ahdc the celebrated screw steamer ,princeton--whose name is connected in so melancholy a manner with the bursting of the 8,peacemaker0 and the death of the then ,secretary of the ,navy1 when he and a number of other high officials were visiting the ship--was built for the navy after ,ericsson's designs1 and fitted with one of his propellers4 ,she was #afd feet long1 with #cj feet #f inches beam1 and a displacement1 at #ah feet draught1 of #a1jdf tons4 ,she had a very flat floor1 with great sharpness forward and excessive leanness aft4 ,she may almost be taken as representative of the later type in model4 ,she had three boilers1 each #bf feet long1 #i feet #d inches high1 and #g feet wide1 with a grate surface of #acd square feet4 ,in #ahde1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,forbes1 of ,boston1 so long known for his intimate and successful connection with shipping interests1 built the auxiliary screw steamers ,massachusetts and ,edith for transatlantic trade4 ,the former was somewhat the larger1 and was #agh feet long and #cb broad4 ,her machinery was designed by ,ericsson1 and had #b cylinders1 #be inches diameter1 working nearly at right angles to each other4 ,the machinery was built by ,hogg ,delamater1 of ,new ,york1 and had the peculiarity of having the shaft pass through the stern at the side of the stern-post1 under a patent of ,ericsson's4 ,the propeller1 on ,ericsson's principle1 was #i-a_/b feet diameter1 and could be hoisted when the ship was under sail4 ,she made but one voyage to ,liverpool1 and was then chartered by our ,government to carry troops to ,mexico1 in #ahdf2 but was later bought into the naval service and known as the ,farralones4 ,in ,june1 #ahdg1 the same year which witnessed the establishment of the ,pacific ,mail ,company1 the ,washington1 of #d1jjj tons displacement1 and of #b1jjj indicated horse-power1 was the pioneer of a line between ,new ,york and ,bremen1 touching at ,southampton4 ,the ,hermann followed a little later1 but was somewhat larger1 the dimensions of the two ships being3 ,washington4 ,hermann4 ,total length #bcf #bda ,beam #ci #dj ,depth #ca #ca ,their displacement was about #d1jjj tons4 ,the ,franklin followed in #ahdh1 and the ,humboldt in #ahej1 both being a good deal larger than the two preceding4 ,the latter two were1 however1 employed only between ,new ,york and ,havre4 ,in #ahej the ,collins line was formed1 with a large ,government subsidy4 ,in the same year the ,inman line was established1 with screw steamers built of iron--two differences from the prevailing construction1 which were to bear so powerful an influence in a few years against the success of steamers of the type brought out by the ,collins company4 ,in #aheh came the ,north ,german ,lloyd1 with the modest beginnings of its now great fleet1 and in #ahfa the ,french ,compagnie ,transatlantique4 ,in #ahfc the ,national line was established2 in #ahff the ,williams ,guion 7now the ,guion71 which had previously existed as a line of sailing-packets2 and in #ahgj the ,white ,star4 ,these are those in which we are most interested1 as they touch our shores2 but in the interval other lines were directed to all parts of the world1 few seaports remaining1 of however little importance1 or lying however far from civilization1 that cannot now be reached by regular steam communication4 ,the establishment of the ,collins line was one of the great events of steamship history4 ,we had been so successful upon our coasts1 rivers1 and lakes1 that it was but natural we should make some effort to do our part with steam upon the greater field of international trade4 ,it was impossible that the monopoly which had existed for ten years in the hands of the ,cunard company should not be combated by some one1 and with the advent of the ,collins line came a strife for supremacy1 the memories of which are still vivid in the minds of thousands on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,the ,cunard company at this time had increased their fleet by the addition of the ,america1 ,niagara1 ,europa1 and ,columbia1 all built in #ahdh4 ,their machinery did not differ materially from that of the preceding ships1 in general design1 but there had1 in the course of practice1 come better workmanship and design of parts1 and the boiler pressure had been increased to #ac pounds1 bringing the expenditure per horse-power down to #c4h pounds per hour4 ,in these ships the freight capacity had been nearly doubled1 fifty per cent4 had been added to their passenger accommodation1 and the company was altogether pursuing the successful career which was due a line which could command #ce a ton for freight from ,liverpool to ,new ,york--a reminiscence which must make it appear the ,golden ,age to the unfortunate steamship-owner of to-day1 who is now most happy with a seventh of such earnings4 ,the ,collins steamers were a new departure in model and arrangement2 they were built by ,william ,h4 ,brown1 a famous builder of the time2 exceeded in size and speed anything then afloat1 and reduced the journey in #ahea and #aheb to about #aa days--though some voyages were made in less than #aj days4 ,the ,cunard line put afloat the ,asia and ,africa as competitors1 but they neither equalled the ,american steamers in size nor speed4 ,the former were of #c1fbj tons displacement1 with #a1jjj indicated horse-power4 ,the comparison of size between them and the ,collins steamers is as follows3 ,length4 ,depth4 ,beam4 ,draught4 ft4 ft4 in4 ft4 ft4 in4 ,arctic #bhb #cb #de #bj ,asia #bff #bg #b #dj #ah #i ,the three other vessels of the ,collins line were the ,baltic1 ,atlantic1 and ,pacific4 ,they formed a notable fleet1 and fixed for many years to come the type of the ,american steamship in model and arrangement4 ,they were the work of a man of genius who had the courage to cast aside tradition where it interfered with practical purposes4 ,the bowsprit was dispensed with2 the vertical stem1 now so general1 was adopted1 and everything subordinated to the use of the ships as steamers4 ,but great disaster was in store for these fine ships4 ,the ,arctic1 on ,september #ba1 #ahed1 while on her voyage out1 was struck by the ,french steamer ,vesta1 in a fog off ,cape ,race1 and but #df out of the #bfh persons on board were saved4 ,the ,pacific left ,liverpool on ,june #bc1 #ahef1 and was never heard of after4 ,the ,adriatic1 a much finer ship than any of her predecessors1 was put afloat2 but the line was doomed4 ,extravagance in construction and management1 combined with the losses of two of their ships and a refusal of further aid from the ,government1 were too much for the line to bear1 and in #aheh the end came4 ,ever since1 the ,european companies1 with the exception of the time during which the line from ,philadelphia has been running and the time during which some desultory efforts have been put forth1 have had to compete among themselves4 ,the sworn statement of the ,collins company had shown the first four ships to have cost #b1idd1adb4ga4 ,the actual average cost of each of the first #bh voyages was #fe1bae4fd2 and the average receipts1 #dh1bhf4he--showing a loss on each voyage of #af1ibh4gi4 ,to discuss the causes of our failure to hold our own in the carrying trade of the world may seem somewhat out of place1 but the subject is so interesting in many ways that a few words may not be amiss4 ,the following is a comparative table showing the steam tonnage of the ,united ,states and of the ,british ,empire1 beginning with the year in which ocean steam navigation may be said to have been put fairly on its feet4 ,our own is divided into 8oversea10 or that which can trade beyond ,united ,states waters1 and 8enrolled10 which includes all in home waters3 ------------------------------------- ,years ,united ,states ,british ,total ,empire -------------------- 7including ,oversea,enrolled ,colonies7 ------------------------------------- #ahchb1gia #aij1fcb #aic1dbc #hb1gaf #ahdjd1aee #aih1ahd #bjb1cci #ie1hjg #ahdbd1gja #bbd1ifj #bbi1fha #aah1icj #ahddf1iji #bfe1bgj #bgb1agi #abe1fge #ahdff1bhg #cda1fjf #cdg1hic #add1ghd #ahdhaf1jfh #daa1hbc #dbg1hia #afh1jhg #ahejdd1idb #dha1jje #ebe1idg #ahg1fca #ahebgi1gjd #efc1ecf #fdc1bdj #bbg1cjf #ahedie1jcf #eha1ega #fgf1fjg #cbf1dhd #aheeaae1jde 444 444 444 #ahefhi1gae #ehc1cfb #fgc1jgg #dag1gag #ahehgh1jbg #fea1cfc #gbi1cij #dhh1dae #ahfjig1bfi #ggj1fda #ejj1add #ejj1add ------------------------------------- ,it will be seen from this table how great the extension of the use of the steamboat had been in the ,united ,states in these earlier years1 as compared with that elsewhere4 ,in #aheb our enrolled tonnage had grown to more than half a million tons1 or well on to three times the whole of that of the ,british ,empire1 and our oversea tonnage was about one-third of that of ,great ,britain and her dependencies4 ,one reason for this very rapid increase in the enrolled tonnage was1 of course1 the fact that railroads had not yet begun to seam the ,west1 as they were shortly to do3 the steamboat was the great and absolutely necessary means of transport1 and was to hold its prominence in this regard for some years yet to come4 ,when this change came1 there came with it a change in circumstances which went far beyond all other causes in removing our shipping from the great place it had occupied in the first half of this century4 ,but great as was the effect worked by this change1 there were certain minor causes which have to be taken into account4 ,we had grown in maritime power through the events of the ,napoleonic wars--which1 though they worked ruin to many an unlucky owner1 enriched many more--as we were for some years almost the only neutral bottoms afloat2 we had rapidly increased this power during the succeeding forty years1 during which time our ships were notably the finest models and the most ably commanded on the seas2 the best blood of ,new ,england went into the service1 and one has but to read the reports of the ,english parliamentary commissions upon the shipping subject to realize the proud position which our ships and1 above all1 our ships' captains held in the carrying trade4 ,we had entered the steam competition with an energy and ability that promised much1 but we gave little or no heed to changes in construction until long after they had been accepted by the rest of the world2 and it is to this conservatism1 paradoxical as the expression may seem applied to our countrymen1 that part of our misfortune was due4 ,the first of the changes we were so unwilling to accept was that from wood to iron2 the other was that from paddle to screw4 ,even so late as the end of the decade #ahfj-gj1 while all the world else was building ships of iron1 propelled by screws1 some of which were driven by compound engines1 our last remaining great company1 the ,pacific ,mail1 put afloat four magnificent failures 7from the commercial point of view71 differing scarcely in any point1 except in size1 from those of #ahej-ef4 ,they were of wood1 and had the typically national over-head beam engine4 ,they were most comfortable and luxurious boats2 but the sending them into the battle of commerce at such a date1 was like pitting the old wooden three-decker with her sixty-four pounders against the active steel cruiser of to-day and her modern guns4 ,many of the iron screws built at the same time are still in active service2 but the fine old ,china1 ,america1 ,alaska1 and ,japan are long since gone1 and with them much of the company's success and fortune4 ,of course1 one great reason for this non-acceptance was the fact that1 with us1 wood for ship-building was still plentiful1 and that it was cheaper so to build than to build in iron1 to which material ,english builders were driven by an exact reversal of these conditions2 and the retention of the paddle over the screw was due in a certain degree to the more frequent necessity of repair of wooden screw ships1 to which it is not possible to give the necessary structural strength at the stern to withstand successfully the jarring action of the screw at high speeds4 ,the part in advancing the ,british commercial fleet played by the abrogation of the navigation laws1 in #ahdi1 which had their birth in the time of ,cromwell 7and to which we have held with such tenacity1 as ours were modelled upon theirs71 need only be barely mentioned4 ,british ship-owners were in despair at the change1 and many sold off their ship property to avoid what they expected to be the ruin of the shipping trade1 but the change was only to remove the fetters which they had worn so long that they did not know them as such4 ,but the great and overwhelming cause1 to which the effect of our navigation laws were even secondary1 was the opening up of the vast region lying west of the earlier formed ,states2 the building of our gigantic system of railways2 the exploitation1 in a word1 of the great interior domain1 of the possibilities of which1 preceding #ahej1 we were only dimly conscious1 and so much of which had only just been added by the results of the ,mexican ,war4 ,it is so difficult1 from the present standpoint1 to realize the mighty work which has been done on the ,american continent in this short space of forty years1 that its true bearings on this subject are sometimes disregarded4 ,the fact that the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railroad1 at this date1 was not running its trains beyond ,cumberland1 ,md41 will give an impression of the vastness of the work which was done later4 ,the period #ahej-fj cannot be passed over without a mention of the ,great ,eastern1 though she can hardly be said to have been in the line of practical development1 which was not so much in enlargement of hull as in change in character of machinery4 ,brunel's son1 in his 8,life0 of his father1 says3 8,it was no doubt his connection with the ,australian ,mail ,company 7#ahea-ec7 that led ,mr4 ,brunel to work out into practical shape the idea of a great ship for the ,indian or ,australian service1 which had long occupied his mind40 ,the ,great ,eastern was to attempt to solve by her bulk the problem of coal capacity which was later to be solved by high pressures and surface condensation4 ,the ship finally determined on was #fhj feet long1 #hc feet broad1 with a mean draught of #be feet1 with screw engines of #d1jjj indicated horse-power and paddle-engines of #b1fjj1 to work with steam from #ae to #be pounds pressure--thus curiously uniting in herself at this transition period the two rival systems of propulsion4 ,she was begun at ,millwall1 ,london1 in the spring of #ahed1 and was finally launched1 after many difficulties1 on ,january #cj1 #aheh4 ,her history is too well known to be dwelt upon here4 ,she has experienced many vicissitudes and misfortunes1 and it is well that her great projector 7who paid for her with his life1 as he died the year after her launching7 did not live to see her used as an exhibit1 in #ahhf1 in the ,river ,mersey1 her great sides serving to blazon the name and fame of a ,liverpool clothing establishment4 ,she was sold the next year for the pitiful sum of #h1jjj and broken up4 ,the year #ahee marks the high-water mark of the paddle-steamer era4 ,in that year were built the ,adriatic1 by the ,collins line1 and the ,persia1 as a competitor 7and the twenty-eighth ship of the company71 by the ,cunard4 ,but the former was of wood1 the latter of iron4 ,she was among the earlier ships of this material to be built by the ,cunard company1 and1 with the slightly larger ,scotia1 built in #ahfb1 was1 for some years after the cessation of the ,collins line1 the favorite and most successful steamer upon the ,atlantic4 ,she was #cgf feet long1 #de feet #c inches broad1 and of about #e1ejj tons displacement4 ,her cylinders were #ajj-a_/b inches diameter1 with #abj inches stroke1 and she had--as also the preceding ship1 the ,arabia--tubular boilers instead of the old flue4 ,illustration3 ,model of the ,persia and ,scotia4 #ahcj ------------------------------------ #i lbs4 #ahdj ---------------------- #e-a_/b #ahej ---------------- #d #ahfj ------------ #c4a #ahgj ---------- #b4f #ahhj -------- #b4b #ahhf ------ #a4e and since ,diagram showing ,decrease in ,expediture of ,coal per indicated ,horse-power per hour based on ,good ,average ,practice #ahcj-- #b #c lbs4 -- #ahce-- #e lbs4 -- #ahdj-- #h -- #ahde--aj -- #ahej--ad --- #ahee--ba ---- #ahfj--cj ----- #ahfe--dj ------- #ahgj--ej --------- #ahge--fj ----------- #ahhj--gj ------------- #ahhb--hj --------------- #ahhe-f--aej #ahj lbs4 -------------------------------- and since ,diagram showing increase in ,steam-pressures based on good average ,practice ,how great an advantage she was upon their first ship will be seen by the following comparison3 ,britannia4 ,persia4 ,coal necessary to steam to ,new ,york #egj tons #a1djj tons ,cargo carried #bbd #gej ,passengers #ij #bej ,indicated power #gaj #c1fjj ,pressure per square inch #i lbs4 #cc lbs4 ,coal per indicated horse-power per hour #e4a #c4h ,speed #h4e knots #ac4a knots ,thus1 for two and a half times the quantity of coal nearly three and a half times the cargo was carried1 and nearly three times the number of passengers4 ,this result was due partially to increased engine efficiency1 and partially to increased size of ship2 and thus to a relative reduction of the power necessary to drive a given amount of displacement4 ,the ,scotia was almost a sister ship to the ,persia1 slightly exceeding her in size1 but with no radical differences which would mark her as an advance upon the latter4 ,she was the last of the old rgime in the ,atlantic trade1 and the same year in which she was built saw the complete acceptance by the ,cunard company of the newer order of things1 in the building of the iron screw steamer ,china1 of #d1jjj tons displacement1 with oscillating geared screw engines of #b1bjj indicated horse-power1 with an average speed of #ab4i knots on a daily expenditure of #hb tons of coal4 ,she was the first of their ships to be fitted with a surface condenser4 ,the ,scotia had been built as a paddle steamer rather in deference to the prejudices of passengers than in conformity to the judgment of the company1 which had put afloat iron screw ships for their ,mediterranean trade as early as #aheb and #ahec4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the introduction of surface condensation and of higher pressures were the two necessary elements in a radical advance in marine engineering4 ,neither of these was a new proposal2#c several patents had been taken out for the former at a very early date1 both in ,america and in ,england2 and in #ahch the ,wilberforce1 a boat running between ,london and ,hull1 was so fitted4 ,very high pressures1 from almost the very beginning1 had been carried in the steamers on our ,western waters2 and in #ahaa ,oliver ,evans published1 in ,philadelphia1 a pamphlet dealing with the subject1 in which he advocated pressures of at least #ajj to #abj pounds per square inch1 and patented a boiler which was the parent of the long1 cylindrical type which came into such general use in our river navigation4 ,the sea-going public resolutely resisted the change to high pressures for nearly forty years1 there being a very slow and gradual advance from #a and #b pounds to the #h and #i carried by the ,great ,britain and ,britannia4 ,in #ahej the ,arctic carried #ah and in #ahef #be was not uncommon4 ,some of the foremost early engineers favored cast-iron boilers 7see evidence before parliamentary committee1 #ahag72 and the boiler in general use in ,england up to #ahej was a great rectangular box1 usually with three furnaces and flues1 all the faces of which were planes4#d ,illustration3 ,longitudinal ,section of the ,warship ,duilio4 ,though tubular boilers did not displace the flue boiler in ,british practice to any great degree before #ahej1 many examples were in use in ,america at that date1 but chiefly in other than sea-going steamers4 ,robert ,l4 ,stevens1 of ,hoboken1 built as early as #ahcb 8the now standard form of return tubular boilers for moderate pressures0 7,professor ,r4 ,h4 ,thurston74 ,but it worked its way into sea practice very slowly2 and the multitubular boiler1 in any of its several forms1 cannot be said to have been fairly adopted in either ,american or ,british sea-going ships before the date first mentioned1 though employed in the ,hudson ,river and ,long ,island ,sound steamers1 in one of the former of which1 the ,thomas ,powell1 built in #ahej1 a steam pressure of #ej pounds was used4 ,illustration3 ,the ,britannic4 ,there had been this slow and gradual advance in ocean steam pressures1 with a consequent reduction in coal expenditure1 when in #ahef came a movement in the direction of economy by the introduction of the compound engine1 by ,messrs4 ,randolph ,elder ,co4 7later ,john ,elder ,co471 which was soon to develop into a revolution in marine steam enginery4 ,the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company has the credit of first accepting this change in applying it to their ships1 the ,valparaiso and ,inca4 ,the original pressure used was #be pounds to the inch3 the cylinders were #ej and #ij inches in diameter1 and the piston speed from #bcj to #bej feet per minute4 ,the idea of using steam expansively by this means was of course not new1 as it dates back to ,hornblower 7#agha71 but with the low pressures which had been used at sea there was no reason for its adoption afloat4 ,difficulties were experienced by the ,pacific company with their earlier engines1 but the line adhered to their change1 and for nearly fourteen years were almost alone in their practice4 ,these changes made the use of a cylindrical boiler necessary1 as the form best able to withstand the increased pressure4 ,the old box-like shape has disappeared2 and if the shade of ,oliver ,evans is ever able to visit us1 it must be with an intense feeling of satisfaction to find his ideas of eighty years since now accepted by all the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the date #ahgj marks the advent of a new type of ship1 in those of the ,oceanic ,company1 better known as the ,white ,star line1 built of iron by ,harland ,wolff1 of ,belfast--engined with compound engines1 and of extreme length as compared with their breadth4 ,they established a new form1 style1 and interior arrangement1 which has largely been followed by other lines1 though the extreme disproportion of length and beam is now disappearing4 ,the ,britannic and ,germanic1 the two largest of the earlier of this line1 are #dfh feet in length and #de feet #c inches in beam1 carrying #bbj cabin passengers and #a1ajj in the steerage1 besides #aej crew4 ,they develop #e1jjj indicated horse-power1 and make their passage1 with remarkable regularity1 in about #h days #aj hours to ,queenstown4 ,the earlier ships of this line1 when first built1 had a means of dropping their propeller-shaft so as to immerse more deeply the screw2 so many inconveniences1 however1 were associated with this that it was given up4 ,their general arrangement was a most marked advance upon that of their predecessors--an excellent move was placing the saloon forward instead of in the stern1 a change almost universally followed4 ,in the same year with the ,britannic came out the ,city of ,berlin1 of the ,inman line1 for some years the largest steamer afloat 7after the ,great ,eastern71 being #ebj feet in length by #dd feet beam1 of #e1jjj indicated power1 and in every way a magnificent ship4 ,the ,bothnia and ,scythia were also built in #ahgd1 by the ,cunard company1 as representatives of the new type1 but were smaller than the ships of the same period built by the ,inman and ,white ,star lines4 ,they were of #f1jhj tons displacement and #b1ghj indicated horse-power1 with a speed of #ac knots4 ,the pressure carried was #fj pounds4 ,these ships had by far the largest cargo-carrying capacity 7#c1jjj tons measurement7 and passenger accommodation 7#cdj first-cabin7 of any yet built by the company4 ,with the addition of this great number of steamers1 change was not to be expected for some years2 and it was not until #ahgi1 when the ,guion company put afloat the ,arizona1 that a beginning was made of the tremendous rivalry which has resulted in putting upon the seas1 not only the wonderful ships which are now running upon the ,atlantic1 but in extending greatly the size and speed of those employed in other service4 ,several things had combined in the latter part of this decade to bring about this advance4 ,the great change between #ahfj and #ahgb1 from the causes already noted1 which had reduced coal consumption by one-half1 was followed by the introduction of corrugated flues and steel as a material for both boilers and hull4 ,with this came still higher pressures1 which were carried from #fj to #hj and #ij pounds4 ,in ,august1 #ahha1 a very interesting paper was read by ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,marshall1 of ,newcastle1 before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 in which he showed that a saving of #ac4cg per cent4 in fuel had been arrived at since #ahgb4 ,the general type of engine and boiler had remained the same in these nine years1 but the increased saving had been due chiefly to increased pressures4 ,it is curious that at the reading of both the paper by ,sir ,frederick ,bramwell1 in #ahgb1 and that of ,mr4 ,marshall1 in #ahha1 there should have been pretty generally expressed a feeling that something like a finality had been reached4 ,so little was this opinion true that1 though over thirteen per cent4 saving had been effected between these two dates1 a percentage of gain more than double this was to be recorded between the latter date and #ahhf4 ,in these matters it is dangerous to prophesy2 it is safer to believe all things possible4 ,certainly the wildest dreamer of #ahgb did not look forward to crossing the ,atlantic at #bj knots as a not unusual speed4 ,illustration3 ,the ,etruria ,in #ahgd triple-expansion engines had been designed for the ,propontis by ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,kirk1 of ,napier ,sons1 of ,glasgow1 which1 on account of failure in the boilers which were used1 did not give at first the results hoped for4 ,in #ahha the ,messrs4 ,napier fitted the ,aberdeen with engines of the same kind1 steam at #abe pounds pressure per square inch being used4 ,in the next two years the change proceeded slowly1 but by #ahhe the engineering mind had so largely accepted it that a very large proportion of the engines built in that year were on this principle1 and at the present it may be regarded as being fully accepted as was the compound engine ten years since4 ,the saving in fuel is generally reckoned at from twenty to twenty-five per cent41 or1 to put it more graphically1 in the words of ,mr4 ,parker1 ,chief ,engineer ,surveyor of ,lloyds1 in his interesting paper1 read in ,july1 #ahhf1 before the ,institution of ,naval ,architects3 8,two large passenger steamers1 of over #d1ejj gross tonnage1 having engines of about #f1jjj indicated horse-power1 built of the same dimensions1 from the same lines1 with similar propellers1 are exactly alike in every respect1 except so far as their machinery is concerned4 ,one vessel is fitted with triple-expansion engines1 working at a pressure of #ade pounds per square inch2 while the other vessel is fitted with ordinary compound engines1 working at a pressure of #ij pounds per square inch4 ,both vessels are engaged in the same trade and steam at the same rate of speed1 viz41 #ab knots an hour4 ,the latter vessel in a round voyage of #hd days burns #a1bjj tons more coal than the former40 ,in the epoch #ahgi to #ahhg the following great ships had been placed upon the ,liverpool and ,new ,york lines1 their best speeds to that date being as shown3 ,days4 ,hours4 ,minutes4 #a4 ,etruria #f #e #ca #b4 ,umbria 7sister ship7 slightly longer #c4 ,oregon #f #aj #ce #d4 ,america #f #ac #dd #e4 ,city of ,rome #f #ah #j #f4 ,alaska #f #ah #cg #g4 ,servia #f #bc #ee #h4 ,aurania #g #a #a ,the time had thus been shortened much more than half since #ahdj1 and had been lessened forty per cent4 since #ahfj4 ,in addition to the ships mentioned1 there had been placed upon the line from ,bremen to ,new ,york 7between #ahgi and #ahhf7 touching at ,southampton1 ,england1 eight new ships of the ,north ,german ,lloyd1 which form #bh altogether1 the most compact and uniform fleet upon the ,atlantic4 ,the ,trave1 ,saale1 and ,aller1 were then marvels of splendor and comfort1 ranking in speed and power very little short of the fastest of the ,liverpool ships4 ,they1 as were the others of the company's eight 8express0 steamers1 were built by the great firm of ,john ,elder ,co41 of ,glasgow1 their machinery being designed by ,mr4 ,bryce-,douglas1 to whose genius was also due that of the ,etruria and ,umbria1 the ,oregon1 ,arizona1 and ,alaska4 ,the engines of the ,trave1 ,saale1 and ,aller1 however1 were triple-expansion1 as were the ,gascogne1 ,bourgogne1 and ,champagne 7their equals in speed and equipment71 of the ,french ,compagnie ,transatlantique1 which were built in ,france4 ,all these steamers are of steel1 with cellular bottoms carefully subdivided1 and fitted with a luxury and comfort quite unknown thirty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of the ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of the ,servia4 ,illustration3 ,triple-expansion ,engine of the ,aller1 ,trave1 and ,saale4 ,it was difficult1 if not almost impossible1 to go beyond them without a change to twin screws4 ,if more than the ,umbria's power was to be developed it was safer to use it through two shafts1 and the depth of water on the ,new ,york bar is a hindrance to the use of a much greater diameter of screw4 ,mr4 ,griscom1 of ,philadelphia1 was the bold manager to take the first step by laying down the ,inman ,company's ships in #ahhg1 the first of which1 the ,city of ,new ,york1 was ready for trial in thirteen months after the signing of the contract with ,messrs4 ,james ,george ,thompson1 of ,clydebank3 a wonderful performance4 ,the ,teutonic and ,majestic quickly after took shape in the yard of ,messrs4 ,harland ,wolff1 of ,belfast1 the place of birth of all of the ,white ,star fleet4 ,these two lines were thus the first to accept the changed conditions1 and the ,city of ,new ,york and ,city of ,paris of the former1 and the ,teutonic and ,majestic of the latter1 still mark the high-water mark of achievement1 both as regards performance as a machine and the comfort and luxury of the passenger4 ,the 8,cities10 as they are familiarly termed1 are #efj feet in length1 by #fc feet broad1 displace #ac1jjj tons1 and indicate over #ah1jjj horse-power4 ,the two ,white ,stars are #ehb feet long1 by #eg feet #f inches broad1 of #ab1jjj tons displacement1 and of nearly equal horse-power with their two great competitors4 ,in less than twenty years these lines had thus nearly doubled the size of their ships1 and more than tripled their power4 ,illustration3 ,longitudinal ,section of the ,champagne4 ,it may be of interest to the ,american public to know that the ,city of ,new ,york and ,city of ,paris are but two of the largest fleet under one management on the ,north ,atlantic4 ,though under one control it is under three flags--,english1 ,belgian1 and ,american--our own1 thanks to the wisdom of ,congress1 covering but a small contingent1 though our law-makers for several years have been besieged to allow them to become ,american in nationality as well as ownership4 ,it would certainly seem that they were quite as worthy of it as some of our importations of another kind1 but we shall probably have to wait for a little more breadth of thought and idea under the dome at ,washington before this change can be brought about4 ,the building of these four ships seems to have given an impetus to the whole of the steamship world3 the ,hamburg-,american lines started into new life with the ,columbia1 ,normannia1 ,augusta ,victoria1 and ,fuerst ,bismarck1 twin screws of #i1ejj and #aj1ejj displacement1 which have averaged in their best runs from ,new ,york to ,southampton #ai4ja1 #ah4ia1 #ah4ca1 and #ai4gh knots in the order named1 the distance being about #c1jge knots4 ,the ,french ,company has added the twin-screw ,touraine of #aa1fge tons and #ah-a_/b knots sustained speed to their already splendid fleet1 and the ,north ,german ,lloyds have since #ahhg built the ,lahn1 ,spree1 and ,havel1 all single screws2 and the two last of #g1jjj tons with #ac1jjj horse-power and a speed of #ah-a_/b knots4 ,these latter ships would probably have been twin screws had the docks of ,bremerhaven afforded sufficient width of entrance2 but whether this be the case or not1 the probability is that in the future it will be the dock which will yield and not the ship4 ,there is no need to make comparison of these ships in equipment4 ,luxury has been carried as far as the present human invention and imagination can take it4 ,suites for families are arranged with private sitting-rooms and private tables1 so that1 barring the roll so uneasy to the unhappy landsman1 one could scarce know the change from the most luxurious apartment of the ,brevoort4 ,such are the ships of to-day1 but displacement from their eminence is already in discussion4 ,the builders of the ,city of ,new ,york are guaranteeing a vessel to cross the ,atlantic in #e days1 or at a speed of #bc-a_/b knots1 the probable elements of this projected vessel being given by ,engineering as a length of #fcj feet and a beam of #gj1 with #cc1jjj indicated horse-power4 ,it is a long step1 but one can hardly doubt it will soon be taken4 ,but that this step will be greatly aided by any material change in the marine steam engine in the very near future is not probable1 the difficulty is now not with the engine but with the boiler2 forced draught and the higher pressures call imperatively for a new development in the steam producer2 leaky tubes and joints and a rapid deterioration through the effort to keep up the high pressures necessary for the successful performance of the new type of engine are the shortcomings which must be successfully combated before we can make another great advance4 ,unfortunately there is another draw-back1 for which the remedy will be even more difficult1 the suffering of the firemen induced by the greater heat of the higher pressures4 ,let us hope that genius will yet invent a mechanical stoker and that we may not of necessity subject our fellow-beings to the #adj too frequently found in our modern fire-rooms4 ,we may fitly place here a tabulation of the very wonderful achievements of the ships first mentioned1 based on official data in ,engineering of ,june #ai and ,july #aj1 #ahia1 and covering1 in the case of the ,liverpool ships1 the season of #ahij1 except for the ,city of ,paris1 which is for #ahhi4 7,see table on p4 #de47 ,the coal consumption is also officially stated by the journal from which the above is compiled as follows3 ,the ,city of ,new ,york1 #cbh tons3 ,teutonic1 #caf tons3 ,etruria1 #ccj tons4 ,this shows an actual expenditure of about #a4f lb4 per hour in the case of the ,teutonic3 slightly greater for the ,city of ,new ,york1 and over #a4i for the ,etruria4 ,but in the month of ,august1 #ahia1 both the ,teutonic and ,majestic won still greater laurels1 the latter crossing from ,queenstown to ,new ,york in #e days #ah hours and #h minutes2 the former in #e days #af hours and #ca minutes1 and averaging for the run of #b1ggh miles #bj4ce knots per hour1 the best day's run being #eag knots4 ,fastest ,passages of the more ,important ,steamers between ,new ,york and ,english ,ports during the ,season of #ahij4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,name ,dimensions3 ,displace-,piston,boiler ,length1 ,breadth1 ment ,stroke,heating ,depth ,surface ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,new ,york and ,tons4 ,feet4 ,sq4 ,ft4 ,queenstown ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,city of ,paris #efj #fc #dc #ac1jjj #e #ej1bfe ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,city of ,new ,york #efj #fc #dc #ac1jjj #e #ej1jdj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,majestic #ehbeg-a_/bei-a_/h #ab1jjj #e #dj1igb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,teutonic #ehbeg-a_/bei-a_/h #ab1jjj #e #dj1igb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,etruria #eja-a_/beg4bch4b #aj1ejj #f #ch1hag ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,umbria #eja-a_/beg4bch4b #aj1ejj #f #ch1hag ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,city of ,rome #edf #eb #eh-c_/d #aa1bcj #f #bi1bhf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,new ,york and ,southampton ,inches ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,columbia #dhj #ef #ch #i1ejj #ff #cd1iaf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,normannia #ebj #eg-a_/d #ch #aj1ejj #ff #df1dij ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,augusta ,victoria #dhj #ef #cf #i1ejj #fc #cf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,lahn #ddh #di #cf-a_/b #g1gjj #gb 444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,name ,grate ,area ,steam ,i4,h4,p4,fastest ,direction ,pressure ,trip ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,new ,york and ,square ,feet4,lbs4 ,d4 ,h4 ,m4 ,queenstown ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,city of ,paris was #a1bic #aej #ah1ceje #ai #ah ,westward now #a1jbf ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,city of ,new ,york was #a1jhj #aej #ah1ajje #ba #ai ,westward now #a1jif ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,majestic #a1aed #ahj #ah1jjje #ba #bj ,westward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,teutonic #a1aed #ahj #ah1jjje #ai #e ,westward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,etruria #a1fjf #aaj #ad1cjjf #f #eg ,westward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,umbria #a1fjf #aaj #ad1cjjf #c #bi ,westward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,city of ,rome #a1cih #ij #aa1hijf #bb #cj ,eastward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,new ,york and ,southampton ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,columbia #a1bbf #aej #ac1fhjf #ae #j ,eastward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,normannia #a1deb #afj #af1cebf #ag #b ,westward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,augusta ,victoria #a1abj #aej #ad1aajf #bb #cb ,eastward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,lahn 444 #aej #i1ejjg #c #j ,eastward ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,name ,month ,distance,average,average,fastest ,speed for ,day's ,eight ,run ,months during ,season ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,new ,york and ,knots ,knots ,knots ,knots ,queenstown ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,city of ,paris ,august #b1ghh #bj4ja #ai4jb #eae ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,city of ,new ,york ,october #b1gge #ai4fd #ai4jb #ejb ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,majestic ,september #b1ghj #ai4fd #ai4jj 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,teutonic ,august #b1hjf #bj4ah #ah4hd #eab ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,etruria ,july #b1hde #ah4hj #ah4bi #dha ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,umbria ,august #b1hce #ai4bj #ah4ae #dih ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,city of ,rome ,aug4-,sep4 #b1ghg #af4gc #af4ah #dbd ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,new ,york and ,southampton ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,columbia ,october #c1jde #ai4ae #ah4fh #dib ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,normannia ,august #c1jde #ah4ia #ah4da #dhf ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,augusta ,victoria ,september #c1jdi #ah4ca #ag4eb #dgj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,lahn ,october 444 444 #ag4bi 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,note4--,the nautical mile is one-sixtieth of a degree of the ,equator1 and is usually reckoned #f1jhj feet1 the statute mile being #e1bhj2 twenty nautical miles are thus about twenty-three statute miles4 ,the shortest distance is the arc of the great circle of the ,earth passing through the two ports2 any deviation from this by varying the course on account of intervening land or ice increases the distance to be run4 ,the crown is thus for the moment with the ,white ,star1 nor is it likely to be torn away by anything short of the tremendous effort involved in putting afloat a new1 a bigger1 and a more costly ship4 ,owners must1 of course1 count the cost of such rivalry and must put against the gain of say sixteen hours1 in order to come to the desired five days and twenty-three knots1 the cost of the thousand or twelve hundred tons more of coal which will have to be burned1 the doubled number of engine and fire-room force1 the larger crew1 the interest on the greater investment4 ,it is a large price to pay for a gain of so small a bit of that we generally hold so cheap--but it will be paid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it has been impossible1 of course1 in a single chapter to do more than touch upon the vast changes1 and their causes1 which have had place in this great factor of human progress4 ,higher pressures and greater expansions3 condensation of the exhaust steam1 and its return to the boiler without the new admixture of sea-water1 and the consequent necessity of frequent blowing off1 which comparatively but a few years ago was so common2 a better form of screw2 the extensive use of steel in machinery1 by which parts have been lightened1 and by the use of which higher boiler-pressures are made possible--these are the main steps4 ,but in addition to steel1 high pressures1 and the several other elements named which have gone to make up this progress1 there was another cause in the work chiefly done by the late ,w4 ,froude1 to be specially noticed as being that which has done more than the work of any other man to determine the most suitable forms for ships1 and to establish the principles governing resistance4 ,the ship-designer has1 by this work1 been put upon comparatively firm ground1 instead of having a mental footing as unstable1 almost1 as the element in which his ships are destined to float4 ,it is not possible to go below the surface of such a subject in a popular paper1 and it must suffice to speak of ,mr4 ,froude's deductions1 in which he divided the resistances met by ships into two principal parts3 the surface or skin friction1 and the wave-making resistance 7which latter has no existence in the case of a totally submerged body--only begins to exist when the body is near the surface1 and has its full effect when the body is only partially submerged74 ,he showed that the surface friction constitutes almost the whole resistance at moderate speeds1 and a very great percentage at all speeds2 that the immersed midship section area which formerly weighed so much in the minds of naval architects was of much less importance than was supposed1 and that ships must have a length corresponding in a degree to the length of wave produced by the speed at which they are to be driven4 ,illustration3 ,the ,chilian ,cruiser ,esmeralda4 ,he showed that at high speeds waves of two different characters are produced3 the one class largest at the bow1 which separate from the ship1 decreasing in successive undulations without afterward affecting her progress2 the other1 those in which the wave-crests are at right angles to the ship's course1 and the positions of these crests have a very telling effect upon the resistance4 ,as the ship's speed is increased the spaces between the crests of these lengthen in unison with the speed1 and it has been shown that when the speed is such that a wave-crest would be at the middle point of the after body 7or quarter7 the wave-making resistance is least1 and that it is greatest when the hollow appears at this point4 ,a ship must therefore be of a length that depends largely upon the length of wave which at a high speed she will tend to produce in order that she may be driven at such a speed without an expenditure of power disproportionate to the effect produced4 ,this length1 if very high speeds are desired1 is best wholly taken up in fining the entrance and run1 leaving no parallelism of middle body1 and broadening and deepening the ship to keep the necessary displacement4 ,the wave-action at several speeds is well shown in the illustrations1 which are from instantaneous photographs1 showing the ,chilian cruiser ,esmeralda at her full speed of #ah knots1 when on her trial off ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 the ,giovanni ,bausan1 of the ,italian navy 7almost a sister ship to the ,esmeralda71 at a moderate speed1 and ,h4,m4,s4 ,imprieuse1 at about #ag-a_/d knots4 ,see illustration1 p4 #fd4 ,the following are the principal details of the ,esmeralda and ,imprieuse3 ,displacement4 ,length4 ,beam4 ,draught4 ,horse-power4 ,esmeralda #c1jjj #bgj #db #ah4c #f1ejj ,imprieuse #g1cij #cae #fb #bf4j #aj1ahj ,the eddy-making resistance is greater or less1 of course1 as the form is blunted or finer1 and there is less resistance with a blunt bow and finely formed after-body than were the two reversed4 ,our practical towing friends will be glad to know that ,mr4 ,froude substantiates their oft-reiterated assertion that a log tows more easily butt-end foremost4 ,in the ,merkara1 a merchant ship built by ,mr4 ,denny1 of #c1ihj tons1 #cfj feet length1 #cg4b feet breadth1 and #af4be feet draught1 this resistance is1 at all speeds1 about eight per cent4 of the surface friction1 which at the maximum speed of thirteen knots1 at which she was intended to be run1 still formed nearly eighty per cent4 of the whole resistance4 ,a very wonderful result of these experiments has been to show 7in the words of ,mr4 ,froude7 8what an exceedingly small force1 after all1 is the resistance of a ship compared with the apparent magnitude of the phenomena involved4 ,scarcely anyone1 ,i imagine1 seeing the new frigate ,shah 7of #f1bej tons displacement7 steaming at full speed 7from sixteen to seventeen knots7 would be inclined1 at first sight1 to credit what is nevertheless a fact1 that the whole propulsive force necessary to produce that apparently tremendous effect is only #bg tons--in fact1 less than one two-hundredth part of the weight of the vessel--and of this small propulsive force at least #ae tons1 or more than one-half1 is employed in overcoming surface friction simply40 ,illustration3 ,the ,giovanni ,bausan1 of the ,italian ,navy4 7,from an instantaneous photograph47 ,of course1 very small vessels1 as torpedo-boats1 have been driven at very high speeds1 but the power necessary is in enormous disproportion as compared with the above1 a development in #ace-;foot torpedo boats of from #a1jjj to #a1ejj horse-power and more being not uncommon4 ,the acceptance of the results of ,mr4 ,froude's deductions has naturally led to an increase in the beam of fast ocean steamers2 we find all the later-built to be much broadened1 and there is a still increasing tendency in that direction4 ,it is needless to say how much this means in many ways to the passenger4 ,illustration3 ,the ,belted ,cruiser ,orlando1 with ,twin ,screws4 ,collision will and must remain the great and really almost the one danger which the ,north ,atlantic traveller need fear4 ,he can rarely hope to cross in the usual steam route without experiencing a run of some hundreds of miles through fog1 especially on leaving or approaching our coast4 ,so long as the ,gulf ,stream and the cold inlying current from the north move in juxtaposition as they do1 so long will the fog be almost always present upon the border-land dividing them4 ,how easy it is for a great ship to be sunk was shown in the case of the ,oregon4 ,a blow from a pygmy schooner not more than one-tenth her size1 and a hole was opened through her side which unfortunate circumstances combined to make fatal1 and the great vessel1 a triumph of human skill in hull and machinery1 is lying in a few hours upon the bottom of the sea1 with a million days of skilled labor1 as represented by ship and cargo1 in this moment made valueless4 ,who can over estimate the care and responsibility upon the man who commands such a ship8 ,in what other calling are they found as such a constant part of daily life8 ,the only remedy for such an accident as that which befell the unluckly ,oregon seems to be a subdivision such as is carried out in all the greater ships of late years2 and that this has been carried to a degree which has made the finer passenger ships practically unsinkable1 unless under most exceptional circumstances1 would seem quite sure4#f 99 99 99 99 99 ,how wonderful has been the scale upon which this great industry of carriage by steam vessels has grown can only be shown by tables of statistics4 ,the steam tonnage in the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany1 beginning with #ahdj1 was as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,united ,states4 ----------------------------- ,years4,registered ,enrolled for and ,total4 ,united ,france4 ,german oversea4 licensed4 ,kingdom4 ,empire4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,gross ,gross ,gross tons4 tons4 tons4 ,net tons4,net tons4 ,net tons4 #ahdj #d1aee #aih1ahd #bjb1cci #hg1eci #i1ece 444 #ahej #dd1idb #dha1jje #ebe1idg #afg1fih #ac1ibe 444 #ahfj #ig1bif #ggj1fda #hfg1icg #deb1ceb #fh1jbe 444 #ahgj #aib1edd #hhb1eea #a1jge1jiea1aaa1cge #aed1dae #ha1iid #ahge #aia1fhi #igf1igi #a1afh1ffha1idc1aig #bje1dbj #ahc1efi #ahhj #adf1fjd #a1jfd1ifd #a1baa1eehb1gbj1eea #bgg1gei #bae1geh 7#ahhd7 7#ahhd7 #ahhe #ahf1djf #a1cjh1eaa #a1did1iagc1ifi1gbh #eaa1jgb #dac1idc #aig1fcj #a1ffa1deh #a1hei1jhhe1aab1fhc #ejc1gia #gbb1eba #ahij ,gross ,gross ,gross tons4 tons4 tons4 #h1afg1gfb #hdh1ebb #a1jed1hii ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,this statement1 showing our steam tonnage registered for foreign trade to be #f1jjj tons less in #ahhe than in #ahgj1 is not an encouraging one1 especially when taken in connection with the fact that our tonnage in foreign trade has steadily lessened1 and the percentage of our imports carried in ,american vessels has dwindled from #ge4b per cent4 in #ahef to #ff4e in #ahfj2 to #ce4f per cent4 in #ahgj2 and to #ab4bi per cent4 in #ahij4 ,even during the civil war it never fell below #bg4e per cent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the amount of steam tonnage built in the ,united ,states and in ,great ,britain at intervals of five years from #ahee is as follows3 ---------------------------------- ,united ,states4 --------------------------- ,years4,number4 ,tonnage4 ,average tonnage4 --------------------------------- ,gross tons4 #ahee #bdf #gb1gfj #bif #ahfj #bge #fi1cgj #bei #ahfe #daa #ade1fif #cef #ahgj #bij #gj1fba #bdd #ahge #cbc #fb1dfj #aic #ahhj #cdh #gh1hec #bbi #ahhe #cch #hd1ccc #bdi #ahij #daj #aei1jde --------------------------------- ,united ,kingdom4 --------------------------- ,years4,number4 ,tonnage4 ,average tonnage4 --------------------------------- ,net tons4 #ahee #bgh #ajf1hgb #che #ahfj #bcd #fg1fii #bhi #ahfe #dec #baa1ffe #dfg #ahgj #eab #bfg1hif #ebc #ahge #dbh #bbf1gja #ecj #ahhj #fbi #dad1hca #ffj #ahhe #dhg #bba1iah #def ,gross tons4 #ahij #fcb #a1jgf1bbjg #a1gjj --------------------------------- ,the startling steam tonnage of #ahhc 7nearly three-quarters of a million tons7 built in ,great ,britain1 of which #acd1ghe were built at ,glasgow1 #abe1hgj at the ,tyne ports1 and #aag1ggfh at ,sunderland1 was followed by a great depression4 ,in #ahhd but a little over half that of the preceding year was built 7#dae1jie tons72 and in #ahhe this was again almost halved1 the output falling to only #bba1iah tons1 and the average size also falling off from #gbd tons in #ahhc to #def in #ahhe4 ,but in the last five years ,great ,britain has moved forward with a constantly accelerated pace1 culminating in the vast figures of #ahij1 when she put afloat over #hj per cent4 of the world's production for the year4 ,nearly or1 practically1 quite all of the vast fleet represented by these figures are of iron or steel2 the tonnage of the wooden steamers generally falling in later years in ,great ,britain to a total of #a1jjj tons or less1 and this made up of vessels averaging not more than #cj tons each4 ,illustration3 ,the ,city of ,rome4 ,steel may be said to have almost supplanted iron as a material2 in #ahhj but #aj per cent4 of ,british steam vessels were built of this1 as against #ij per cent4 of iron2 in #ahij but #d per cent4 were of the latter metal4 ,there is1 however1 a tendency on the part of some owners to return to iron as less liable to the pitting caused by the galvanic action arising from want of homogeneity in the steel2 a vessel's bottom1 unless well guarded by protective compositions1 being frequently severely corroded1 generally in small pits the size of a pea1 but often extending to large patches4 ,one would think that this immense yearly addition of steamships represented in the foregoing tables would soon go beyond the world's needs1 but the almost incredible losses from wrecks1 casualties1 and other reasons for disappearance from the register1 must be considered4 ,there were lost or abandoned1 in the fiscal year ending ,june #ahij1 #bch steamers and #ehh sailing vessels of our fleet1 a total of #afe1ejh tons2 #caa1bbj tons disappearing in the same period from the ,british ,register1 going to swell the gigantic total of #f1gie vessels1 representing #b1cdi1jcd tons of ,british shipping totally lost at sea in the ten years #ahhj-hi inclusive4 ,in the face of these tremendous figures the ship-builder need not despair--he need only wait2 a few slack years and the gaps in the ranks become so great that building of necessity must re-begin4 ,the lives of ships are indeed more precarious than those of us mortals4 ,they perish at the annual rate of about #cj in the #a1jjj1 whereas our general chances are one-third better4 ,but these losses of ships carry with them the lives of many brave men2 with the wrecks above enumerated more than #bj1jjj persons perished4 ,in this bald statement what vistas of suffering1 incapacity1 carelessness1 negligence1 misfortune1 and heroism are opened up6 ,despite the danger of prophecy it would seem safe to say that we shall not go1 in the next five years1 far beyond the changes which had taken pretty complete shape by #ahhg4 ,for a while at least the startling transitions of the last decade are not to be looked for1 and we can only expect greater power in greater ships on the lines already established4 ,it is well these great transitions should not come too frequently2 the ship-owner should be allowed a little breathing time1 and should not be continually oppressed by a nightmare of obsolete ships4 ,we may safely say1 too1 that our own country will have a greater share in shipbuilding than in past years4 ,our output since #ahhe has been steadily increasing1 and though the amount has not been great1 the change wrought in our shipyards has been revolutionary4 ,the demands of the navy have enabled them to extend and reorganize their plant and staff until they are now on a plane with the best of the world4 ,coincident with the transformation of the shipyards1 and for the same reason1 has been that of our steel industry1 whereby we now have establishments which it is not ,chauvinistic to say are more perfectly equipped than elsewhere4#i ,if the rebuilding of the navy had served no other purpose1 it had been money well spent4 ,having reached this stage our builders can now take large orders much more cheaply than a few years since1 and which in #ahhg they could not have taken at all had it been required to supply all parts from our own industrial establishments4 ,this fact1 taken with the dawn of a new era in our commercial relations1 wherein the ship-owner will have a fair chance of carrying both ways1 gives good prospect of an early rehabilitation of our ancient power upon the sea4 ,footnotes3 #a ,report of ,lecture in the ,liverpool ,albion1 delivered in ,liverpool1 ,december1 #ahce4 #b ,the account given of the ,savannah is condensed from ,admiral ,preble's ,notes for a ,history of ,steam ,navigation4 #c ,daniel ,dod1 an ,american citizen1 was granted a patent ,november #bi1 #ahaa1 in which he states3 8,i form the condenser of a pipe or number of pipes condensed together2 and condense the steam by immersing the pipes in cold water1 either with or without an injection of water40 ,the present surface condenser consists essentially of a great number of small brass tubes1 about three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 passing through an air-tight chamber4 ,the exhaust steam from the cylinders enters the chambers1 and cold water is constantly pumped through the tubes4 ,the steam is condensed by contact with the cold tubes1 and the water thus obtained pumped back to the boiler in a fresh state1 instead of being mixed with about thirty times its weight of salt water1 as in the old jet condenser4 ,practice varies1 the steam sometimes being passed through the tubes and the water around them4 #d ,the ,naval ,chronicle of #ahah1 vol4 xxxix41 p4 #bgg1 speaking of the steamers on the ,clyde1 says3 8,no serious accident has occurred since their introduction1 which is more than two years4 ,the secret of security consists in using large steam-engines of great power and small pressure4 ,if the boilers of cast-iron should in any part give way1 a piece of cloth is firmly wedged in the hole1 and the vessel proceeds without any danger or inconvenience to the passengers40 #e ,compiled from official data in ,engineering1 ,june #ai and ,july #aj1 #ahia4 #f ,a fuller discussion of this subject is given in the chapter on 8,safety on the ,atlantic40 #g ,this is as shown by ,lloyd's ,register1 #ahia-ib2 the official returns1 dealing with the official year1 give #fji vessels and #ecg1fje net tons2 our own net tonnage is about #gd per cent1 of the gross shown4 #h ,the figures for these three ports are exclusive of the tonnage built on foreign account4 #i ,i use here the opinion1 expressed to the writer1 by a great ,english steel manufacturer1 whose establishment stands at the head of the industry abroad4 ,,speed ,,in ,,ocean ,,steamers4 ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,seaton4 ,,the ,,viking',s ,,craft ,,and ,,the ,,modern 8,,greyhound0--,,problems ,,of ,,inertia ,,and ,,resistance--,,primary ,,condition ,,for ,,high ,,speed--,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by 8,,coefficient ,,of ,,fineness0 ,,and 8,,indicated ,,horse-,,power0--,,advance ,,in ,,economical ,,engines--,,what ,,the ,,compound ,,engine ,,effected--,a ,,comparison ,,of ,,fast ,,steamers ,,from #ahcf ,,to #ahij--,,prejudice ,,against ,,propellers ,,and ,,high ,,pressures--,,advantages ,,of ,,more ,,than ,,one ,,screw ,,propeller--,,attempts ,,at ,,propulsion ,,by ,,turbine ,,wheels1 ,,ejections1 ,,and ,,pumps--,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,siemens-,,martin ,,steel ,,in #ahge ,,the ,,chief ,,factor ,,in ,,the ,,success ,,of ,,modern ,,fast ,,steamers--,,decrease ,,in ,,coal ,,consumption--,,importance ,,of ,,forced ,,draughts--,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,mechanical ,,stoking--,,possibilities ,,of ,,liquid ,,fuel--,,is ,,the ,,present ,,speed ,,likely ,,to ,,be ,,increased8 ,from the earliest days the question of the speed of ships has been one of interest to those associated with nautical matters1 both from its commercial value1 its value in times of emergency1 and its forming the chief attraction of a pastime common to all maritime nations4 ,there is no doubt that the emulation excited by the yacht-race of to-day does not exceed that of the ancients in their galley races4 ,the skill of the naval architect is always more or less directed to getting the best possible speed permitted by the other conditions imposed upon him in the designing of ships of all classes1 and his reputation has been1 and is to-day1 perhaps1 more dependent on this than on any other subject connected with his profession4 ,to-day he is faced with a competition that did not exist in the past1 and his ears are constantly assailed by the cry for higher speed2 and whereas a few years ago it was a common impression that the maximum limit had been reached1 we have witnessed1 during the past three or four years1 performances by ships1 both large and small1 of speeds then undreamed of4 ,it is quite true that there has existed in the minds of visionaries1 whose chief occupation is to add to the receipts of the patent offices1 speeds even beyond those now attained1 and although it is possible that some of their predictions may be verified1 it is at the same time certain that success will not be achieved by the means suggested by these gentlemen4 ,it is common experience with shipowners and shipbuilders to have propounded to them means whereby even thirty knots per hour may be realized1 and these backed up by very elaborate calculations as proof1 but which1 when investigated1 are found1 like those of a well-known writer of scientific romance1 to be wanting in some little detail1 insignificant at first sight1 but absolutely essential to complete the proof4 ,so far no great departure from the existing form of ship1 nor from the method of propulsion1 has resulted in obtaining a higher speed than is common with ordinary ships of the same dimensions2 and in nearly every case such departures have mortified the inventors as well as disappointed the public by turning out absolute failures2 and there is no good reason to suppose that further successes than have already been attained will be achieved in any other way than by improving the conditions that now obtain1 both as regards form of ship and method of propulsion1 inasmuch as the physical causes which combine to retard the motion of a vessel1 and the physical forces which are employed in overcoming that resistance1 remain to-day as they ever were1 and are--in fact1 ,nature's immutable laws4 ,the commercial question is also one that presses very hardly at all times and must continue to do so more and more1 as will be seen later on4 ,the ,atlantic greyhound of to-day is1 in immersed form1 substantially that of the viking's craft of more than a thousand years ago4 ,and if we look to ,nature for our study we shall find that the swiftest fish are not unlike in general form to the submerged part of a ship2 and the comparison is the more easily accepted when it is remembered that the fish is wholly submerged while the ship is only partially so4 ,the one has to contend with waves and other surface disturbances1 and must perforce keep above the water1 while the other is free from such disturbing elements and conditions1 and pursues its course in practically smooth water4 ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,polyphemus is the nearest approach to the fish conditions in a sea-going ship that has proved successful4 ,illustration3 ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,polyphemus at ,full ,speed--#ah-e_/h knots4 ,in order to produce motion at all1 the inertia of the ship1 or that quality which every concrete body possesses of remaining at rest until disturbed1 has to be overcome1 and when the ship is in motion through the water there is resistance of a two-fold kind--that due to the disturbance of the water1 and that due to the frictional resistance of the immersed surface4 ,if a thin sheet of metal is moved edgewise through water it offers a decided resistance1 even if its surface be smooth and bright2 it will also be noted that this resistance increases very rapidly as the speed is increased1 and that the larger the area the greater is the resistance4 ,if this sheet of metal is moved in a direction at right angles to its surface the resistance is of course great3 in fact1 it is very great compared with that of the previous experiment1 and the disturbance of the water is considerable4 ,if a log of timber is to be towed from one place to another1 it is a common observation that an experienced boatman causes it to move with its big end first1 because he finds it easier work that way than with the smaller end first2 in the latter case he has the same section of timber offering resistance to the log's passage1 but owing to its wedge-like form the pressure on its long sides is greater than when towed the other way1 and the friction of the water past these sides--which are generally more or less rough--causes very great resistance2 no doubt1 for the same reason1 those forms of ships adopted for centuries by some ,european nations1 and known to mariners as 8cod's-head and mackerel-tail0 shape1 were such good sailers2 and if to-day we were content with the maximum speed attained by such vessels1 it is possible we might copy their form with advantage4 ,if1 however1 we attempted to move them1 either by sail or mechanical power1 at a higher rate1 we should find the increase in speed to be of no account1 but the increase in wave disturbance would be great2 in other words1 the greater portion of the additional power would be used up in producing this water disturbance1 or waves1 instead of propelling the ship4 ,when the propeller of a steamer is first set in motion it does little else than project a stream of water in the direction opposite to that in which it is desired to move the vessel2 it is presently seen that the latter begins to move1 indicating that the inertia of the ship has been overcome by the reaction of that stream of water from the propeller2 the propeller still continues to project the stream1 the ship in the meanwhile increasing in speed1 or1 as sailors term it1 8gathering way10 showing that the power expended is still in excess of the resistance of the ship1 inasmuch as something is producing an augmentation of speed2 it is afterward noticed that the ship continues to move at a uniform rate1 and that the stream of water is still projected by the propeller1 but at a lower velocity compared with the surrounding still water than was the case when the vessel was at rest4 ,this means that the power and the resistance are evenly balanced1 and that the work done by the ship in moving forward is exactly equal to that of the water moving in the opposite direction through the surrounding water4 ,the vessel has now stored up in herself what is called energy1 which is the power developed in overcoming the inertia1 so that if the engine stops she still progresses forward and does not come to a standstill until the whole of that stored-up power is expended4 ,if the vessel is a large and heavy one1 its speed will be1 when under way1 virtually uniform1 in spite of casual changes of resistance due to wind and waves2 and this is one of the reasons for large ships being a necessity for successful passages on stations like the ,north ,atlantic1 and it is likewise one of the reasons why light craft like torpedo-boats show such a poor performance in stormy weather4 ,the primary condition for high speed is fineness of form1 so that the water at the bow of the vessel may be separated and thrown to one side1 and brought to rest again at the stern and behind the vessel with the least possible disturbance1 and the measure of efficiency of form for the maximum speed intended is inversely as the height of the waves of disturbance4 ,a ship that has been designed to attain a speed of #ae knots will1 when moving at #ab knots1 show a very slight disturbance indeed1 and in one designed for #ah knots1 when moving at this lower speed1 it will be scarcely observable2 but however fine the lines of a ship may be1 she must at every speed produce some disturbance1 although it may be very slight1 as the water displaced by her must be raised above the normal level and replaced at the normal level2 hence1 at or near the bow of a ship there is always the crest of a wave1 and at or near the stern the hollow of one4 ,when a vessel is going at its maximum speed1 and is properly designed for that speed1 the wave should not be very high1 nor should it extend beyond the immediate neighborhood of the bow2 likewise the wave of replacement should be the same at or near the stern of a ship1 and the 8wake10 or disturbance of water left behind in the track of the ship1 should be narrow4 ,among naval architects and others it is usual to judge of the forms of ships by the relation they bear to rectangular blocks of the same dimensions2 that is to say1 a ship whose dimensions are--length1 #ajj feet2 breadth1 #bj feet1 and draft of water1 #aj feet1 and whose displacement is #ab1jjj cubic feet1 would be said to have a coefficient of fineness of #j4f1 or that her fineness was sixty per cent41 inasmuch as that of a rectangular block#aj of the same dimensions would be #bj1jjj cubic feet4 ,modern experience has shown that for speeds not exceeding #i knots1 and with ships of the tonnage now common for general ocean work1 the bow may be very bluff and the stern only sufficiently fine to allow free access of water to the propeller1 so that the coefficient of such vessels is frequently #j4gh1 whereas that of our fastest warships is only #j4e1 and of our large modern passenger steamers #j4ee4 ,as already stated1 in the ship whose coefficient is #j4gh any increase of power produces very little gain in speed1 and if such a ship were fitted with engines and boilers of the same size and developing the same power as those of a #bj-knot ,atlantic greyhound1 the increase in speed would be very insignificant1 but the disturbance in its immediate neighborhood would be very great2 in fact1 if any vessel is driven beyond a speed for which her form is suitable1 she produces waves#aa both numerous and high1 as may be seen by reference to the illustration of ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,imprieuse being driven at her full speed of #ag-a_/d knots when laden much deeper than the designed draft p4 #fd4 ,as before mentioned1 when speaking of the experiment with a thin sheet of metal1 the resistance to passage through the water increases very rapidly with the increase of speed1 and careful observation has shown that such increase is proportionate to the square of the speed1 so that an immersed body has four times the resistance when moving at twice the speed1 and since it will travel double the distance in the same time the power required is eight times as great2 that is1 the power needed to propel a ship varies as the cube of the speed4 ,it was also discovered that the power varied with the cube root of the square of the displacement2 although more correct modern experiment has shown that this variation is not strictly true1 it is sufficient for the purpose of this article to assume that it is so4 ,illustration3 ,the ,imprieuse going at ,full ,speed4 7,from an instantaneous photograph47 ,illustration3 ,the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,steamer ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,,ii4 ,the indicated horse-power called ,i4 ,h4-,p4 for brevity1 or that power developed by the engine as registered by the indicator1 is not all usefully applied to the propulsion of a steamship4 ,a large portion of it is used up in overcoming the resistance of the engine itself1 as well as the necessary adjuncts of it1 amounting often to thirteen per cent4 ,then1 again1 another portion is absorbed in overcoming the resistance of the propeller and its shafting2 and as at present there is no accurate method of determining these portions1 the net effective horse-power1 or that usefully employed in propelling the vessel1 can only be guessed at1 or approximated to by calculations more or less abstruse4 ,it is1 however1 the gross1 or indicated1 horse-power that has to be obtained and paid for1 and that1 therefore1 is the element that has to be considered in practice2 so that1 from this consideration alone1 any great increase in speed has to be very dearly paid for4 ,moreover1 as has already been said1 to admit of a higher speed the ship must be made much finer1 which means that her carrying capacity for cargo and fuel has to be decreased2 besides which the greater engine-power will add to the dead load1 thus still further diminishing the vessel's capability for carrying4 ,this may be better understood by taking a steamer of moderate dimensions1 and such as for many years was deemed sufficient for the ,atlantic trade1 say #cjj feet long1 #dj feet beam1 and having a draft of water of #bj feet4 ,such a craft would have a displacement of about #d1hjj tons1 could steam #aj knots per hour with #a1jjj ,i4 ,h4-,p41 and carry #c1jjj tons of cargo1 fuel1 stores1 and equipment4 ,taking the distance to be steamed at #c1bjj knots1 and the consumption of fuel at #d pounds per ,i4 ,h4-,p41 it will be seen that the net consumption of coal is #ega tons2 adding to this twenty-five per cent4 for contingencies of weather1 for raising steam1 cooking1 heating1 etc41 the ship would have to leave port with #gad tons of fuel and rather less than #b1cjj tons of cargo1 stores1 etc41 on board4 ,if a steamship of similar dimensions were required to do the voyage at #ae knots1 her design would have to be such that the displacement would not be more than #d1ajj tons1 the ,i4 ,h4-,p4 at least #c1djj1 and the amount of fuel stored at the commencement of the voyage #a1fah tons4 ,the machinery would probably have to be at least #djj tons heavier1 so that the capacity for cargo1 stores1 etc41 would now be reduced to #a1jjj tons4 ,the cost1 too1 would be greatly increased on account of the extra engine-power1 and the expense in fuel would be more than doubled4 ,the engine-and boiler-room staff would likewise be materially increased1 while the earning power of the vessel would be less than half4 ,seeing1 however1 that the power required for a certain speed varies with the cube root of the displacement squared1 the proportion of power to tonnage will decrease considerably with the increase in the size1 so that if1 instead of the steamer above referred to of #d1ajj tons1 one were taken of #h1bjj tons1 the ,i4 ,h4-,p4 for #ae knots--all other things remaining the same--would be very little more than #e1jjj2 i4 e41 with a ship of twice the size the increase of engine-power is only forty-seven per cent4 ,the carrying capacity and consequent earning power of such a boat is immeasurably more than that of the small one4 ,the larger ship will1 moreover1 make better passages1 and generally be much more economical in working1 as the officers and crew will not very largely exceed that of the smaller vessel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was1 however1 owing to the more economical engine that advances in speed were rendered possible1 and this is seen by referring back to the original ship1 and supposing that instead of engines burning #d pounds of coal per ,i4 ,h4-,p41 it had ones consuming only #b-a_/b pounds per ,i4 ,h4-,p4 in which case the expenditure on the voyage would be reduced from #a1fah tons to #a1jjd tons2 so that #fjj tons more cargo could be taken and the cost of #fjj tons of fuel per voyage saved4 ,this was actually the case on the substitution of compound for old-fashioned low-pressure jet-injection engines fitted to the ,cunard ,company's steamers as late as #ahfb1 when their largest1 fastest1 and most improved steamer1 the ,scotia1 was put on the service4 ,but it was not until many years after the advent of the ,scotia that such economic engines were in general use on the ,atlantic1 and it was only in #ahgd-ge1 when the ,inman ,company and ,white ,star ,company placed steamships having these engines in competition with the old-fashioned ones1 that the day of the latter was gone4 ,illustration3 ,passenger ,steamer ,princesse ,henriette at ,full ,speed--#bd-a_/b miles per hour4 7,built by ,william ,denny ,co41 ,dumbarton47 ,the first pioneers of steamship construction were apparently satisfied to find their efforts result in some motion1 for we find exultation rather than disappointment in the accounts extant of ,patrick ,miller's experiments with a small steamer on a ,scotch canal in the year #aghg2 and later1 in #aghi1 when1 with a larger and better boat and machinery1 he was able to obtain a speed of #g miles an hour 7equivalent to #f4jg knots#ab7 it was deemed a great achievement2 later still1 in #ahjg1 ,fulton's first attempt with the steamship ,clermont1 in a run from ,albany to ,new ,york and back1 the average speed was only #e miles an hour4 ,in those days so long as a steamer was able to face wind and tide she was deemed a success4 ,the competition of steamers in early times 7when there was any7 was with sailing ships1 or with land conveyances whose maximum rate would be #aj miles an hour1 and that effected at considerable cost in horse-flesh4 ,it is1 however1 true that sailing ships did then1 and can now1 sail1 under favorable circumstances1 at very much higher rates than we have just mentioned1 and even as much as #ae knots can be obtained with one of fine lines with a favoring wind2 but a sailing ship is not always free to traverse the shortest distance from port to port1 and even when wind and weather permit of this1 the average speed falls far below #ae knots with the best-designed vessels2 hence if a steamer could do #i knots she would make shorter passages than any sailer2 and from the nearer approach to uniformity in the time occupied1 passengers were attracted to steamships1 and the passenger sailing vessel1 except for very long voyages1 became a thing of the past4 ,the ,clermont1 constructed by ,fulton in ,america1 and supplied by him with engines made by ,messrs4 ,bolton ,watt1 in ,birmingham1 ,england1 was #acc feet long1 #ah feet broad1 and #i feet deep2 the engine had a diameter of piston of #bd inches with #d feet stroke2 she took #cb hours performing the voyage from ,albany to ,new ,york1 and #cj hours in returning--the journey can now be done in one-fourth that time4 ,in #ahae the steamship ,caledonia was placed on the service between ,margate 7,england7 and ,holland1 and her speed did not exceed #g-a_/b knots per hour4 ,steamships now perform the passage at double that speed1 and the most recent additions to the continental service between ,dover and ,ostend are steamboats that can travel at nearly three times the pace of the ,caledonia4 ,the ,princesse ,henriette is #cjj feet long1 #ch feet broad1 and #ac feet #f inches deep1 and has engines whose cylinders are #eh inches and #ajd inches diameter1 with a stroke of #f feet1 and on page #fi is shown a drawing of her1 taken from a photograph when travelling on her trial trip at a speed of #ba4bh knots1 or #bd-a_/b statute miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,engines of the ,comet4 ,the first steamboat constructed and used for serviceable purposes in ,great ,britain was the ,comet1 built by ,henry ,bell1 on the ,clyde1 in #ahab4 ,she was only #dj feet long1 #aj feet broad1 of #bd tons measurement2 her engines were of #d nominal horse-power1 and of very curious design1 as shown by the engraving on page #gj2 her speed under favorable conditions was only #e miles an hour4 ,she continued to ply for some years between ,glasgow and ,greenock1 and was doubtless a very great convenience to the public at that time2 but the advance that has been made in the construction of river steamers for service on the ,clyde and its estuary is seen by reference to the illustration of the steamer ,duchess of ,hamilton1 whose dimensions are length1 #bej feet2 breadth1 #cj feet2 and depth #aj feet2 her engines having cylinders #cd-a_/b inches and #fj inches diameter1 with a piston-stroke of #e feet4 ,her speed is over #ah knots1 or very nearly #ba miles per hour1 at which rate she was going when the photograph was taken4 ,illustration3 ,passenger ,steamer ,duchess of ,hamilton at ,full ,speed--#ba miles per hour4 7,built for service on the ,clyde47 ,the paddle steamer ,puritan is another example of the very great progress made since the days of the ,clermont1 and is also a marked advance in many ways on the ,bristol1 which was the wonder of a few years ago2 and another noted case is the steamship ,columba1 built for service on the ,clyde4 ,the first steamships to cross the ,atlantic from ,england were the ,sirius and ,great ,western1#ac names never to be forgotten4 ,the ,great ,western was built at ,bristol1 ,england1 and completed in the year #ahch4 ,she was #bab feet long1 #ce feet #d inches broad1 and #a1cdj tons burden1 and had engines of #dej nominal horse-power4 ,she did the voyage from ,bristol to ,new ,york in #ae days4 ,the time of her quickest passage1 given in the table on page #hj as #aj days1 #aj hours1 and #ae minutes1 is not the actual passage1 but is the equivalent of a passage reckoned from ,queenstown to ,sandy ,hook4 ,illustration3 ,passenger ,steamer ,columba at ,full ,speed--#ba miles per hour4 7,built for ,clyde passenger service47 ,in #ahdj the ,britannia1 the first of the ,cunard steamers1 was put on her station4 ,she was a paddle boat1 built of wood1 and was #bjg feet long4 ,her speed on service was about eight and a half knots1 so that she did the passage in #ae days4 ,ten years later the now renowned ,inman ,line commenced with an iron screw steamer named the ,city of ,glasgow1 of #a1fjj tons burden1 and #cej nominal horse-power1 a new departure in both ship and propeller4 ,it was not until #ahee that the ,cunard ,company built an iron steamer1 and they continued to employ paddle boats until #ahfb1 when the celebrated steamship ,scotia was completed4 ,it is interesting to note1 in passing1 that the average length of voyage in the ,cunard ,line1 in #ahef1 from ,liverpool to ,new ,york was #ab4fgf days1 and from ,new ,york to ,liverpool #aa4jcf days4 ,thirteen years after the ,scotia was built the ,white ,star ,company placed on the station two vessels that were very great advances on anything then existing2 they were marvels of the ship-builder's and marine engineer's skill1 and even to-day hold their own in many respects with the most modern ships4 ,that these should compete successfully1 and eventually drive off the line such a ship as the ,scotia is easily seen by reference to contrasted particulars in the table on page #gh4 ,the ,britannic is a screw vessel #dee feet long2 her ,i4 ,h4-,p4 on trial trip was #e1djj1 and at sea is about four thousand nine hundred1 or practically the same as that of the ,scotia2 but the speed on trial was nearly two knots more1 and the average of eleven voyages gives a mean of #ae4jde knots per hour2 while as recently as ,september1 #ahij1 in her old age1 she traversed the ,atlantic from ,new ,york to ,queenstown at an average speed of #af4jh knots4 ,she has compound engines with #d cylinders1 the two high-pressure being each #dh inches diameter1 and the two low-pressure each #hc inches diameter1 with a stroke of #e feet4 ,her consumption of coal will be about one hundred and thirty tons per day1 and on leaving port she will have on board1 say #a1cjj tons of fuel4 ,she can carry a considerable cargo4 ,the weight of her machinery is #a1aab tons4 ,she and her sister ship1 the ,germanic1 were in their day admitted to be all that could be desired2 almost as much as was physically possible1 and certainly as much as was then possible commercially4 ,since then1 however1 many changes have taken place that will be alluded to later on1 so that to-day we have numerous boats running on the ,atlantic at an average speed of #ai to #bj knots1 with a reputation for being commercial successes as well as triumphs of engineering skill4 ,the most recent and noteworthy of these are the steamships ,teutonic and ,majestic1 owned by the same enterprising gentlemen1 and constructed by the same famed builders as the ,britannic and ,germanic2 and the ,city of ,paris and ,city of ,new ,york1 sailing under the same house flag as the steamship ,city of ,berlin1 which was a worthy competitor of the ,britannic4 ,the ,majestic is a twin-screw steamer of #i1hea tons gross1 #efe feet long 7or #aaj feet more than the ,britannic74 ,each screw is driven by a set of triple-expansion engines4 ,her consumption of fuel is about two hundred and ninety tons per day1 while on leaving port she will have on board about two thousand four hundred tons of coal4 ,her ,i4 ,h4-,p4 on trial trip was #ag1jjj4 ,her best speed on service is a mean of #bj4ah1 and taking the mean of ten voyages it is #ai4gb knots4 ,a picture of the ship1 taken while afloat on the ,mersey1 is shown on page #ge4 ,the ,city of ,paris is #aj1dii tons gross register1 and is #ebg feet long3 she also is a twin-screw vessel4 ,it will be observed by comparison with the ,majestic see table1 p4 #gh that the ,city of ,paris is the larger ship1 although she is #ch feet shorter1 her extra beam of #e4d feet giving her this advantage4 ,her speed with #bj1ajj ,i4 ,h4-,p4 is #ba4ieb knots1 her best run on service being #bj4ja knots2 and her daily consumption of coal is about three hundred and twenty tons1 which necessitates her leaving port with over two thousand seven hundred tons of fuel on board for the trip4 ,illustration3 ,the ,white ,star ,steamer ,majestic4 ,previous to the advent of these vessels the ,cunard ,company's steamships ,etruria and ,umbria were the fastest boats on the ,atlantic1 and their performances are highly creditable to all concerned4 ,the best voyage from ,queenstown to ,sandy ,hook by the ,etruria was done in #f days1 #e hours1 #c minutes1 and the best from ,sandy ,hook to ,queenstown in #f days1 #g hours1 #cb minutes1 and the average in #ahhf was about #f days1 #ae hours1 as compared with the #aa days1 #ai hours of #ahef4 ,the average of the ,britannic for ten years was #h days1 #i hours1 #cf minutes1 ,queenstown to ,new ,york2 and #h days1 #a hour1 #dh minutes1 ,new ,york to ,queenstown4 ,,comparative ,,table ,,of ,,atlantic ,,steamships ,,and ,,their ,,speeds4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,length ,paddle on or ,when ,water- ,horse- ,ton- ,,name ,,of ,,ship4 ,screw4,built4 line4 ,breadth4 ,draft4 power4 nage4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,ft4 ,ins4,ft4 ,ins4,ft4 ,ins4 ,nominal4 ,sirius ,paddle #ahcf #agj #j #bgj #gjj ,british ,queen #ahci #bcd #j #dj #d #af #j #ejj #b1jaf ,liverpool #ahci #baj #j #cf #j #djd #a1aej ,great ,western #ahch #bab #j #ce #d #af #j #dej #a1cdj ,britannia #ahdj #bjf #j #cd #f #dej #a1aee ,scotia #ahfb #cff #j #dg #i #bb #j #a1jjj #b1ceh ,city of ,richmond,screw4 #ahgc #ddj #j #dc #f #gjj #d1ghj ,city of ,berlin #ahgd #dhh #f #dd #b #a1jjj #e1ebf ,indicated ,germanic #ahgd #dee #j #de #b #bc #g #e1djj #e1jjh ,britannic #ahgd #dee #j #de #b #bc #g #e1djj #e1jjd ,arizona #ahgi #dej #j #de #a #ah #i #f1cjj #e1afd ,servia #ahha #eae #j #eb #j #bc #c-a_/b #aj1cjj #g1cib ,city of ,rome #ahha #edb #f #eb #j #ba #e-a_/b #aa1hij #h1add ,alaska #ahha #ejj #j #ej #j #ba #j #aj1jjj #f1icb ,america #ahhc #dcb #j #ea #j #bf #g #g1ced #e1ebh ,oregon #ahhc #eja #j #ed #b #bc #h #ac1cjj #g1cge ,umbria #ahhd #ejj #j #eg #b #ad1cbj #h1abh ,etruria #ahhd #ejj #j #eg #b #ad1cbj #h1abj ,city of ,new ,york #ahhh #ebg #j #fc #j #ah1djj #aj1ejj ,city of ,paris #ahhh #ebg #j #fc #j #bj1ajj #aj1ejj ,majestic #ahhi #efe #j #eg #f #bf #j #ag1jjj #i1hfa ,teutonic #ahhi #efe #j #eg #f #bf #j #ag1jjj #i1fhf ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,cylinders4 ------------------------------- ,time ,stroke occupied ,trial in ,working on ,quickest ,,name ,,of ,,ship4 ,speed4 ,diameter in ,inches4 ,inches4,pressure4 ,passage4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,knots4 ,lbs4 ,d4 ,h4 ,m4 ,sirius #ah #aa #ae ,british ,queen #h4e ,two #gg-a_/b #hd #ac #ah #aj ,liverpool ,two #ge #hd #aa #ah #e ,great ,western ,two #gc #hd #aj #aj #ae ,britannia ,two #gb #hb ,scotia #ac4i ,two #ajj #add #h #d #cj ,city of ,richmond #fh and #abj #fj #g #ah #ej ,city of ,berlin #da1 #fe1 and #aja #ff #g #ad #ab ,germanic #af4j ,two #dh and two #hc #fj #gj #g #aa #cg ,britannic #af4j ,two #dh and two #hc #fj #gj #g #aj #ec ,arizona #ag4j ,one #fb and two #ij #ff #ij #g #c #cj ,servia #af4i ,one #gb and two #ajj #gh #f #bc #ej ,city of ,rome #ah4bc ,three #df and three #hf #gb #ij #f #ba #d ,alaska #ah4j ,one #fh and two #ajj #gb #ajj #f #ah #cg ,america #ag4h ,one #fc and two #ia #ff #f #ad #ah ,oregon #ah4c ,one #gj and two #ajd #gb #aaj #f #i #ea ,umbria #ai4j ,one #ga and two #aje #gb #aaj #f #c #d ,etruria #ai4e ,one #ga and two #aje #gb #aaj #f #a #ej ,city of ,new ,york#bj4ac ,two sets #de1 #ga1 and #aac #fj #aej #e #ba #ai ,city of ,paris #ba4ieb,two sets #de1 #ga1 and #aac #fj #aej #e #ai #ah ,majestic #ai4hg ,two sets #dc1 #fh1 and #aaj #fj #ahj #e #ah #h ,teutonic #ba4j ,two sets #dc1 #fh1 and #aaj #fj #ahj #e #af #cj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,it may well be asked how what seemed to be an impossibility in #ahgf has been achieved so successfully in #ahij1 and it is perhaps less interesting to note the changed conditions than the causes that have produced them4 ,in the very early days of steam navigation the engines were substantially those used for pumping and other purposes on land4 ,had the genius of ,trevithick exerted itself in the direction of improvements in ship propulsion as much as it did in abortive efforts to make the locomotive a success1 there is no doubt we should have had fast passenger steamers before we had railway trains2 and had not the prejudice of ,watt hung over the engineering world as a cloud which obscured the clear light of science1 some other engineer would have accomplished the same result4 ,it is disappointing to find that a man of ,watt's genius and reputation should have attempted to damp the ardor of men like ,symington and ,miller by predicting failure for an engine when applied to marine propulsion1 and by threatening the pains and penalties of the law for infringement of patent should those enterprising geniuses disprove his predictions4 ,there can be no doubt that the statement from a man of his position1 that ,trevithick and others who were experimenting1 as well as working1 with steam of high pressure deserved hanging for their diabolical inventions1 would have great effect on the engineering world1 then in its infancy2 and the few accidents that in later years occurred on steamboats1 through the crass ignorance or the reckless negligence of those placed in charge1 recalled to the mind of another generation the words of ,watt1 and made them doubly impressive as well as deterrent to further progress4 ,even in our own days the use of steam at such pressures as have enabled the present wonderful monuments of mechanical skill to be commercial successes has been animadverted upon1 and prophesied about1 and openly denounced1 and it is only those who are engaged in this pioneer warfare who know how depressing and discouraging such language is1 or who appreciate the great responsibility taken in advancing into the unknown--that is1 unknown to the world at large4 ,moreover1 the body of every nation is more or less conservative and slow to comprehend1 much less to appreciate1 new inventions or new forms of old inventions4 ,hence1 no doubt1 it was that an enterprising company like that presided over by ,sir ,samuel ,cunard should refrain from building its ships of the superior material1 iron1 and adhere to the inferior propeller1 the paddle4 ,illustration3 ,the ,inman ,line ,steamer ,city of ,paris4 ,the paddle-wheel was obviously the first instrument accepted by the early engineers as a means of propulsion4 ,long after the experiment of ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,rattler had demonstrated the contrary1 the public faith in the visible wheel was greater in reality and more sincere than that in the invisible screw2 and it is probable that it was more the question of cost than anything else that gained the victory for the screw for ocean and general service4 ,the paddle engine is in itself heavier and occupies more room than the screw engine2 it is as a rule more expensive per ,i4 ,h4-,p42 and in wear and tear--especially of the propeller itself--it far exceeds the screw4 ,it occupies the best part of the ship1 and its position is not a matter of choice1 as with the screw engine1 but is1 of necessity1 at or near the middle of the ship4#ad ,it is evident that a paddle steamer must require more room1 and that in moving among ships or other obstructions the liability to damage the propeller is greater than with the screw steamer1 and in the case of a long voyage the paddle generally worked at a disadvantage1 as at the commencement it was too deeply immersed1 and at the end not immersed enough for efficient working4 ,if the sails were set so as to steady the vessel1 or if set in sufficient quantity to be of any use in quickening the speed1 she was inclined until the lee wheel was 8buried0 and the 8weather0 wheel doing very little work2 besides there was a general tendency on the part of the ship to turn round1 which had to be counterbalanced by the rudder4 ,the race of water from the wheels past the ship being at a high velocity1 and raised above the normal level1 causes a resistance to the ship beyond that due to her passage through the water1 as in the case of a screw ship4 ,on the other hand1 the paddle boat is more readily got into motion and her speed more rapidly arrested than is the case with the screw steamer2 and it is claimed for the paddle-wheel--although the foundation for such a claim is rather nebulous--that when the engines are working at full speed the ship is prevented from the excessive rolling observable with a screw vessel4 ,but against this it must not be forgotten that the paddle engine is far more trying to the structure of the ship1 on account of the great weight of the wheels being taken on the sides of the hull1 as well as from the effort of the wheels in propelling being applied at the same place4 ,then there is the additional danger1 and that not a remote one1 that in case of the shaft breaking and a wheel falling clear of the ship1 she would upset4 ,an accident of this kind has occurred more than once1 but there is no record of the actual result being so calamitous as just stated1 owing to other fortuitous circumstances4 ,that which retains the paddle-wheel in favor to-day1 and renders it a necessity in spite of argument or prejudice1 is the fact that the screw requires that the draft of the ship shall not be less than its own diameter1 whereas in the largest paddle boats a dip of wheel of six feet is generally sufficient4 ,hence it is that nearly all fast steamers plying on rivers or shallow estuaries1 and channel steamers running to ports where there is little water when the tide is low1 are of necessity paddle-wheel4 ,by employing two screws 7one on each side instead of one amidships7 the draft of water can be reduced by at least thirty per cent4 ,likewise1 by increasing the number of revolutions smaller screws will do1 and the draft of water may be still less1 so that some thirty years ago1 on the introduction of twin-screws1 there were soon many ships built for services that had hitherto been monopolized by paddle boats2#ae and to-day1 when there is a demand for higher speed and more power1 and where paddle-wheels are not admissible1 three screws are being employed4 ,ships have also been employed with four screws1 viz41 two at the bow and two at the stern1 and1 for the purpose for which they were required1 answered very well indeed2 but the worst possible place for a propeller is obviously at the bow1 and therefore in these ships the bow screws were not very efficient1 but they undoubtedly added somewhat to the power of the ship4 ,in the same way some tug-boats have been fitted with a screw at each end4 ,all attempts at propulsion with internal propellers--that is1 by turbine wheels1 pulsometers1 ejectors1 or by pumps--have failed in consequence of the great friction set up by the water in its rapid passage through the pipes from and to the sea2 the motion must be rapid owing to the size of the pipes being necessarily restricted4 ,the best experiment with this kind of propeller was made on a costly scale by the ,british ,admiralty in #ahff1 when they fitted the iron-clad gun-boat ,waterwitch1 of #a1bjj tons displacement1 with a ,ruthven's hydraulic propeller1 consisting of a horizontal turbine wheel drawing its water through the bottom of the ship and discharging it fore-and-aft-ways at each side1 and driven by an engine of #afj nominal horse-power2 and although this vessel was only #afb feet long1 #cb feet broad1 and drew #aa feet #d inches of water1 her speed was only a little over #i knots1 with an indicated horse-power of #hja4 ,the speed co-efficients whereby her performances could be compared with that of other ships were most disappointing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,twin ,screws of the ,city of ,new ,york ,but the achievements of screw steamers are not always satisfactory at first1 and time has shown some curious instances where what appeared at first sight a little thing prevented great results4 ,to-day we know somewhat of the screw propeller1 but it is very difficult1 if not impossible1 for the cleverest and most experienced engineer to define his knowledge or to classify his facts so as to deduce any rules from them that shall enable him to lay down fixed laws for the practical guidance of others4 ,in past years more was professed1 but still less was actually known1 and that which was to be a panacea for the ills of every screw ship proved useless in many instances1 and aggravated the evil in others4 ,the patents for propellers are numerous1 and some of the specifications interesting and amusing1 but of them all there are less than can be counted on the fingers of one hand that have any practical value1 or that have influenced the commerce of the world2 and we find to-day that the propeller which gives the best results is very simple in form and its working surface a true helix4 ,what is better understood1 however1 are the proportions1 and in them lies the success of the instrument4 ,it is quite true that the blades may be of such a shape and so arranged as to give bad results1 but it is very difficult to alter the propeller blade now most generally used and get much improvement thereby4 ,illustration3 ,the ,propeller of the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,steamer ,havel4 7,from a photograph of the steamship in ,handren ,robins's ,erie ,basin ,dry ,docks1 ,brooklyn47 ,in #ahfe ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,amazon was found to fall short of her designed speed by nearly a knot1 although the indicated horse-power was in excess of the requirements4 ,with a four-bladed ,mangin propeller1 #ab feet #f inches pitch1 it took #a1idj ,i4 ,h4-,p4 to drive the vessel #ab knots4 ,a two-bladed ,griffith's screw of #ac feet #i inches pitch was substituted1 when #ab4d knots were obtained with only #a1ffd ,i4 ,h4-,p4 ,but the most remarkable case was that of ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,iris1 which had been designed for a speed of #ag-a_/b knots1 but on her first trial trip1 although the #g1jjj ,i4 ,h4-,p4 was exceeded1 the speed was only #af4eh knots4 ,a series of trials was then entered upon to find out the cause of this deficiency1 with the result that the screws were discovered to be too large2 others of #b feet #c inches less diameter were substituted1 when a speed of #ah4eg knots was attained with the same ,i4 ,h4-,p4 ,similar instances could be adduced1 if necessary1 to show how comparatively slight changes in the propeller can produce marked improvements in speed4 ,it has already been shown that the frictional resistance of the skin of the ship is very great1 and generally speaking1 in fast steamers1 is by far the largest portion of the whole resistance4 ,it necessarily follows1 therefore1 that for high speed it is essential that the submerged portion shall be as smooth as possible2 and to that end ships are coated with enamel paints which1 when dry1 are perfectly smooth and glassy1 or remain in a smooth1 slimy condition4 ,they do not1 however1 remain long in this state1 as the action of sea-water destroys them1 and even the best of these compositions admits1 at times1 of marine plant growth1 and sometimes barnacles4 ,the effect of a coating of weed is very serious indeed2 the resistance induced thereby being greater than if the vessel were rough1 from the fact that each filament of weed has to be towed through the water1 and the total surface thereby exposed may be two or three times that of the ship herself4 ,it is a sound economy in any vessel to keep the bottom perfectly clean and smooth1 but in the case of high-speed steamers it is absolutely essential1 inasmuch as a very moderate amount of foulness will reduce their speed by #b or #c knots4 ,the introduction of ,siemens-,martin steel1 about the year #ahge1 and its continued and extended use since1 have however been really the means of rendering possible the construction of steamships of all sizes with high rates of speed now so common1 and are undoubtedly the means whereby those ships can be so economically built and worked as to pay as commercial ventures4 ,the construction of their hulls with a material fifty per cent4 stronger than iron has rendered it possible to make such appreciable decrease in weight as to admit of fining their lines suitably for high speed without sacrificing carrying capacity4 ,with this same steel1 boilers can be constructed for a pressure of #aej pounds per square inch without weighing very much more than iron ones for #ge pounds4 ,by using steel for castings1 forgings1 etc41 the weight of the machinery has been reduced from #e hundredweight to #b hundredweight per ,i4 ,h4-,p41 and when forced draught is employed it is as low as #a4f hundredweight per ,i4 ,h4-,p4 for large powers1 and less still for such engines as are used in torpedo boats and catchers4 ,illustration3 ,recent ,naval ,engine4 7,made by ,earle's ,shipbuilding ,company1 ,hull1 ,england1 for twin-screw fast cruiser for the ,british ,navy1 of #i1jjj ,i4 ,h4-,p47 ,it has already been remarked that the consumption of coal1 which enters as a most important factor into the question of high speed1 both from the weight and cost1 had been reduced1 by the introduction of the compound engine1 from #d pounds to #b-a_/b pounds per ,i4 ,h4-,p41 and latterly1 as that engine was improved and higher pressures used1 the consumption was further reduced to #b pounds1 and in some cases as low as #a-c_/d pound per ,i4 ,h4-,p4 ,the triple expansion engine1 developed within the past eight years1 and later the quadruple expansion1 have effected a still further saving1 until with them and such other means as are now employed1 the consumption is under #a-a_/b pound of coal per ,i4 ,h4-,p4 ,the success of the locomotive was very questionable until the exhaust steam was turned into the chimney so as to create a rapid draught1 and the steam-blast to-day enables the locomotive to travel at its great speed by causing the comparatively small boiler to generate such a large amount of steam4 ,when this form of boiler was tried on board ship its power would have been very much crippled had not some other means been adopted for forcing the draught1 as the steam could not in this case be allowed to escape through the funnel1 but must be condensed into water for the use of the boiler4 ,by closing the stoke-hole and forcing into it by mechanical means a plentiful supply of air1 this boiler was made to be as efficient for a torpedo boat as for a locomotive4 ,this forced draught has now been adopted on large ships1 and to-day the very high speed of naval vessels1 and of many mercantile steamers1 is due to it4 ,consequently1 with the same weight of machinery1 higher powers are developed with a corresponding increase in speed1 and the cruiser ,piemonte1 constructed by ,sir ,william ,armstrong ,co41 of which an illustration is shown on p4 #ia1 had her speed increased by means of forced draught from #bj knots to #bb4c knots1 at which speed she was going when the picture was taken4 ,mr4 ,james ,howden patented a forced draught process by which the incoming air is warmed by the heat 7which would otherwise be wasted7 in the uptakes and funnels1 and then conducted direct to the furnaces2 and he claims by this to be able to do with still smaller boilers1 besides avoiding the danger to the tubes now sometimes experienced in war ships with closed stoke-holes4 ,illustration3 ,italian ,cruiser ,piemonte at ,full ,speed--#bb4c knots#be-c_/d miles per hour4 ,but there still remains the problem of how to feed the furnaces by mechanical methods1 so as to save the very large staff now required in the boiler-room of our large steamships4 ,so far all means hitherto adopted with success on shore have proved failures at sea1 and at present there is no reason to suppose that any one of them can be so adapted as to prove generally efficient for service4 ,it is necessary for such a purpose that the gear can go continuously for many days1 and the coal be small and tolerably uniform1 and the supply regular4 ,such coal is not convenient for passenger ships1 and if the demand for the present supply of small coal were increased the price would preclude its use4 ,some success1 however1 has been achieved in saving labor in the stoke-hole1 and the most noticeable invention to this end is that of ,mr4 ,thomas ,henderson1 whose now well-known self-cleaning fire-bars do away with the necessity for the firemen raking the fires out to remove the clinkers which adhere to the grates and obstruct the air-passages4 ,by means of this apparatus1 the alternate bars having a very slight movement1 the coal gradually travels to the back end of the grate together with the clinker1 which latter is eventually deposited behind the bridges4 ,thus not only is considerable labor saved1 but the fires are always in such good condition that the full pressure of steam is maintained1 and so a better speed kept up by the vessel herself4 ,on shore the tendency is to substitute gas for solid fuel1 or to use the coke resulting from gas manufacture4 ,that something of the same kind might be done on shipboard is possible1 although not at present probable4 ,the higher efficiency of the coal when treated in this way would enable still more power to be obtained from a pound of it1 and there would be savings in other ways of a beneficial nature4 ,then1 again1 if petroleum1 or other liquid of a similar nature1 could be obtained at a fairly low price1 it might be used on shipboard2 and as it has a heating power twenty-five per cent4 higher than the best coal1 and fifty per cent4 higher than some of the commonest kinds weight for weight1 the substitution of it would be a means of obtaining better speed4 ,but it is always a question of cui bono1 and when it is taken into consideration that the voyage between ,sandy ,hook and ,queenstown is now done in #adj hours1 and to do the distance in #e days would require a speed of nearly #bc-a_/b knots1 with an increase in power of sixty-two per cent41 and in fuel consumption of thirty-eight per cent41 the cry must be regarded as a very far one at present4 ,at the same time it is not desirable to believe that there is now finality in the speed of steamships1 although by analogy with railway trains that conclusion might be arrived at4 ,footnotes3 #aj ,this1 however1 is not an absolute test of the fineness of the water-lines of a vessel1 and it can only be used as such on the assumption that the midship sections of ships are of similar form4 ,the best test of the fineness of water-lines is made by taking the displacement as a percentage of the prism whose length is that of the ship and whose section is the same as the midship section of a ship1 assuming1 however1 that the midship section of all ships is approximately that found in general practice to-day2 in speaking of coefficients it will mean the percentage of the rectangular block above named4 #aa ,more than thirty years ago this matter had been observed by the officers of the ,british navy1 and experiments were ordered to be tried with ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,s4 ,flying ,fish1 a #a1ajj-ton cruiser1 her length being #bjj feet1 breadth #cj feet #d inches1 and her draft of water #aj feet #f inches forward and #ac feet aft4 ,with #a1bij ,i4 ,h4-,p4 her speed was only #aa4fd knots1 whereas with #egg ,i4 ,h4-,p4 it was #i4ibc knots1 and a speed of #aa4bja was obtained with but #hgh ,i4 ,h4-,p4 ,a false bow #ah feet long was then fitted1 so as to give finer lines forward1 or1 as sailors describe it1 8a better entrance10 when it was found that with #a1bhe ,i4 ,h4-,p4 a speed of #ab-a_/b knots was attained1 and with #a1cde very nearly #ab-c_/d knots4 ,there is also every reason to suppose that could the stern have been altered in a similar way1 the speed would have been still higher1 in spite of the ship being larger and with a consequent increase of immersed surface to cause resistance4 ,it has1 besides1 been observed on many occasions that when steamers have been cut in two and lengthened there has been no diminution of the speed1 but1 on the contrary1 in some cases there has actually been a gain2 so that in these two instances there is an apparent anomaly1 viz41 that with the same power the larger ship is propelled at a quicker speed4 ,the late ,dr4 ,froude investigated this matter some years ago1 and showed that such results were quite possible1 independently of any fining of the lines1 owing to the effect on the ship of the waves set up when in motion4 ,one very curious illustration of how such waves may seriously affect a vessel is in that of a yacht built many years ago by an eminent firm on the ,clyde1 which failed to come anywhere near the performances guaranteed owing to the fact that as the speed increased the hollow following the wave formed at the bow increased and approached nearer and nearer to the paddle-wheels1 until the water dropped below the floats and allowed the wheels to spin in the air2 the propelling effect was thus entirely lost until the vessel slowed down sufficiently for the water to rise again to the level of the paddle-wheels4 ,such a thing could scarcely happen with a screw steamer2 but the very bad steering qualities of certain naval ships is due to the fact that the inrush of water at the stern causes currents to flow with the ship1 and therefore to produce quite different results with the rudder from those which generally obtain4 #ab ,a nautical mile is #f1jhj feet1 the land mile being #e1bhj feet4 ,the knot is a measure of rate of speed per hour4 ,a vessel makes #bj knots when she is travelling at the rate of #bj nautical miles per hour4 #ac ,the dimensions1 speed1 etc41 of the steamers here referred to1 as well as other representative steamers from #ahcf to #ahij1 are shown in the table on page #gh4 #ad ,in the case of river steamers of moderate size there is not the same restriction on the position of the wheel1 and as a matter of fact1 as in the case of stern-wheelers1 it is altogether at one end4 #ae ,it is now claimed for the twin-screw ship that she is not only capable of entering shallower harbors1 but that she is in every way much safer1 and it is most unfortunate that1 owing to an act of carelessness1 this was not conclusively shown in the recent accident to the ,city of ,paris4 ,but there is safety in the twin-screw beyond that which is rendered possible1 as in the cases of the ,city of ,paris and ,majestic1 by the division of the engine-rooms1 viz41 the fact that if one engine breaks down it is improbable that the other would do so at the same time1 and that the vessel1 although somewhat crippled in speed1 would still be able to pursue her voyage2 also1 that in the event of accident to the steering apparatus the passage could be continued and the direction of the ship guided by regulating with one or both of the engines4 ,each of these features is pronounced1 and the advantages have been proved on many occasions4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,an 8,,ocean ,,greyhound40 ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,rideing4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,an ,,ocean ,,racer--,,intricate 8,,financing0 ,,of ,,such ,,an ,,undertaking--,,the ,,contract ,,with ,,the ,,ship-,,builders--,,the ,,uncertain ,,element ,,in ,,designing--,,great ,,ship ,,yards ,,along ,,the ,,clyde--,,the ,,plans ,,of ,a ,,steamer ,,on ,,paper--,,enlargement ,,of ,,plans ,,in ,,the 8,,mould ,,loft0--,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by 8,,fairing ,,the ,,ship0--,,the 8,,scrive ,,board0--,,laying ,,down ,,the ,,keel--,,making ,,the ,,huge ,,ribs--,,when ,a ,,ship ,,is 8,,in ,,frame0--,,shaping ,,and ,,trimming ,,the ,,plates--,,riveting ,,and ,,caulking--,,ready ,,for ,,launching--,,the ,,great 8,,plant0 ,,which ,,is ,,necessary ,,for ,,the ,,building ,,of ,a ,,ship--,,description ,,of ,a ,,typical ,,yard--,,works ,,covering ,,seventy-,,four ,,acres--,,where ,,the ,,shaft ,,is ,,forged--,,the ,,lathes ,,at ,,work--,,the ,,adjustment ,,of ,,parts--,,seven ,,thousand ,,workmen4 ,i4 ,as often as the 8record is broken10 and the ,atlantic voyage is reduced by some unprecedentedly fast passage1 we may be sure that there is a flutter in the offices of the rival lines which have thus been left behind4 ,between the ,cunard1 the ,guion1 the ,inman1 and the ,white ,star lines there has been a constant race for supremacy1 now one1 and then the other1 taking the first place4 ,no ship has been allowed to keep the lead for more than a year or two4 ,when sixteen knots have been developed by one line1 seventeen knots have been aimed at by another1 and the ship of that speed is no longer a wonder4 ,so when we read in the newspapers of the 8fastest passage0 we may take it for granted that it is no sooner heard of in ,liverpool than the managers of the lines momentarily surpassed are preparing to beat it4 ,if the triumph belongs to the ,cunard line1 at the very next meeting of the directors of the ,white ,star and ,inman lines it will be discussed1 and though an order for another ship may not be given there and then1 it is sure to follow4 ,an order for a new ship of the class required to compete in the modern passenger service of the ,atlantic is not by any means a matter to be determined on without grave consideration4 ,speed is costly1 and as you increase it it is generally necessary to also increase the tonnage4 ,thus if the problem before you is to beat the record of a seven-thousand-ton ship1 which has developed eighteen knots with engines of twelve thousand five hundred horse-power1 you must 7principally for economic reasons7 have a larger hull as well as more powerful engines for your competing vessel4 ,this forces upon your consideration tides1 channels1 harbor-bars1 and dock accommodations1 all of which impose limitations upon you4 ,and then the cost of the ship herself is not a matter which even the wealthiest of corporations can provide for at a moment's notice3 it is not one hundred thousand dollars1 or five hundred thousand dollars that the work calls for1 but about five times the latter sum1 for it is safe to say that a vessel superior to the ,city of ,new ,york or the ,etruria could not be built for less than two million and a half of dollars4 ,the 8financing0 of such an undertaking requires time3 there are long consultations between the directors1 bankers1 and ship-builders4 ,if we could follow the steps of the gentleman to whom these negotiations are intrusted1 we might see him flying off from ,liverpool for ,euston3 closeted in a private office down in ,lombard ,street or ,cornhill with some capitalists who are expected to contribute to the necessary funds2 again1 after dinner1 engaged in argument with these same capitalists in a ,west ,end mansion to which they have adjourned1 and then racing off in the precarious hansom cab to catch the night train from ,king's ,cross for ,glasgow4 ,sometimes the ship-builders are willing to become part owners of the projected vessel2 sometimes they take as part payment for the work some older vessels of the line1 which they refit1 re-engine1 modernize1 and sell again4 ,the ability of the builders to make an arrangement of this kind1 of course1 influences the placing of the contract1 in a measure1 but they must also be able to give certain guarantees4 ,they must enter into an engagement that the projected ship shall be able to carry so many passengers and so many tons of cargo1 and to attain a specified speed on a given consumption of coal per day4 ,let us say1 for instance1 that the stipulations are these3 ,accommodations for #fjj saloon passengers1 #aej intermediate passengers1 and #a1ejj steerage passengers2 registered tonnage1 #f1jjj1 speed1 #ai knots on a consumption of #cjj tons per day4 ,if the ship fails to fulfil these conditions the builders agree to forfeit a part of the amount they would otherwise receive for her1 or they may be compelled to take her back altogether4 ,this was the case with the ,city of ,rome1 which was built for the ,inman line by the ,barrow ,ship-building ,company4 ,a beautiful ship in every way2 of exquisite model2 fitted with a degree of luxury unsurpassed at the time she was launched1 she proved to have neither the speed nor the carrying capacity which had been guaranteed1 and the ,inman line refused to accept her4 ,in a very few instances only are such guarantees omitted from the contract4 ,now1 ship-building is not an exact science1 and the closest calculations are often upset in the result by unforeseen and inexplicable causes4 ,it can never be said with absolute certainty just what speed a ship will attain1 or exactly what quantity of cargo she will carry4 ,the most ingenious and patient of experiments have not yet succeeded in eliminating the mysterious variability of result which the ship-builder finds1 however closely he repeats his well-defined formulas4 ,two ships1 like the ,umbria and the ,etruria1 may be built side by side1 of identical materials1 lines1 and dimensions2 engines1 boilers1 and propellers may be the same1 yet one will turn out to be a knot or two faster than the other1 and neither the designer nor the builder is able to say why4 ,it is apparent1 then1 that in guaranteeing an exceptionally high rate of speed the builder assumes no little risk4 ,the designing of a fast ship is indeed more of an art than a science1 and each designer proceeds on a theory more or less his own4 ,if the reader has an opportunity to compare models of the ,servia1 the ,alaska1 and the ,city of ,rome1 three ships built at the same time1 each intended to rival the others1 he will see by the varying proportions of length or breadth1 and by other contrasts1 how the opinions of the architects have differed as to the best lines for obtaining speed4 ,true1 it is not possible to ignore formulas altogether1 but the designer's intuitions or inspirations are not less serviceable to him than his technical knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,the ,umbria just before ,launching4 ,we will suppose1 however1 that the designer sees his way to build such a ship as the specifications submitted to him call for1 and that the contract is awarded to him1 or to the firm he represents4 ,the ship is now tentatively on paper1 though her essential features are well defined1 and the next step takes us to ,glasgow and the ,clyde4 ,,ii4 ,if in crossing the ,atlantic for the first time you choose ,glasgow for your port of disembarkation1 the sail up the ,firth of the ,clyde and the river is likely to be full of agreeable and memorable surprises4 ,the beauties of that route are not advertised1 and one hears so little of them in advance that they gain impressiveness from the absence of expectation4 ,the ,firth itself is like a great ,fjord1 a land-locked bay hollowed between hills and crags1 among which vapory clouds are always shifting1 and its deep salt waters are ploughed by fleets of vessels of every class1 and especially by yachts1 sea-going steamers1 and the most rakish-looking excursion boats in the world2 it is not unlike the ,hudson above ,peekskill1 though much wider2 the rounded hills have the same soft and civilized outlines1 and the same appearance of reclamation for man's use and delectation2 modern villas crown their heights and watering-places cluster at their feet4 ,just below ,greenock the passage narrows1 and above that we enter the river1 which1 though not beautiful1 is more of a surprise than even the ,firth4 ,it meanders through fields1 and from the towering deck upon which we stand we look down upon ploughmen at work1 cattle grazing1 and snug farm-houses4 ,so narrow is the stream1 and so low are the banks1 that the big steamer seems curiously out of place4 ,how1 one asks1 has ,glasgow ever prospered with so small a river as its only outlet to the sea8 ,we have thought of the ,clyde as a wide and capacious stream like the ,mersey opposite ,birkenhead1 or the ,hudson opposite ,new ,york2 but1 instead1 it is scarcely as wide as the ,east ,river at ,brooklyn1 and there are reaches where two large vessels have no room to spare in passing each other4 ,such as it is1 all sorts of dredging operations are necessary to keep it open1 and it has been said to be as much an artificial channel as the ,suez ,canal4 ,the first steamboat to navigate it was the ,comet1 in #ahab1 and though she drew but four feet of water she could leave ,glasgow only on the flood tide4 ,even then she sometimes ran aground1 and her passengers had to wade or swim ashore1 or wait twelve hours for the next tide4 ,its depth is ample now1 however1 and it is the breadth that astonishes us3 it seems as though a venturesome jumper might easily spring from the deck to either bank4 ,the farms are alternated by shipyards in which the hulls of ships in various stages of construction loom up1 with ant-like specks of humanity swarming upon them4 ,some of them are nearly twice as long as the river is wide1 and it puzzles the stranger to say how they can be launched1 until someone1 wiser than he is1 tells him that they slide into the stream obliquely and thus overcome the difficulty4 ,nearly all the steamers that have earned fame in the ,atlantic trade have been built and engined at one or the other of these ship-yards1 from the first ,cunarder to the ,city of ,paris2 the ,cunard1 ,inman1 ,guion1 and ,north ,german ,lloyd lines have come to this little river for their ships4 ,and as we approach ,glasgow1 burrowing into the dark that envelops the town1 it becomes narrower still1 and within the limits of the port is nothing more than a long canal with ships huddled together along the banks4 ,the ,clyde is1 in fact1 like one of those heroic personages who triumph over natural disadvantages which to the common mind are insuperable1 and its inferiority in depth and breadth has been counterbalanced by excellences in other directions4 ,in the first place ,glasgow is the natural outlet of a great mineral field1 so that after iron and steel became the principal materials of the ship-builder1 he could find them on the banks of the little river unburdened by the increased price asked for them when it has been necessary to carry them long distances4 ,in the second place the ,clyde was the scene of the earliest attempts at steam navigation in ,great ,britain1 by ,miller1 ,symington1 and ,bell1 and descending from them the genius of ship-building has become hereditary with the inhabitants of the town4 8,practice makes perfect10 and the ship-builders of ,glasgow have more practice than any people of their craft in the kingdom4 ,in #ahhf forty-five vessels were built at ,london1 measuring #c1fif tons2 sixteen vessels at ,liverpool1 measuring #ah1bfh tons1 and on the ,tyne1 fifty vessels1 measuring #di1fda tons4 ,on the ,clyde1 during the same period1 one hundred and fifty-one vessels were built1 measuring #ace1fei tons--nearly double the work done by all the other ship-yards combined4 ,thus1 when after various conclaves and the discussion of ways and means1 the directors decide to put a new vessel on their line1 the order is pretty sure to go to ,glasgow4 ,,iii4 ,we have assumed the work of the naval architect to be complete2 all the specifications have been made out1 and every part of the prospective ship has been drawn on paper4 ,there are three plans3 a 8sheer plan10 showing all lines of length and height from stem to stern2 a 8half-breadth plan10 showing the lines of length and breadth1 or1 in other words1 those lines which would be visible in looking down upon her decks from an elevation2 and a 8body plan10 which shows all lines of breadth and height1 and represents the ship looked at 8end on40 ,these are called the 8construction drawings10 and with them in his hand the ship-builder can see in his mind's eyes the vessel as she will appear when built4 ,he does not work directly from these1 however4 ,they are carried up into the 8mould loft10 the floor of which represents an enormous blackboard1 and upon this they are reproduced to correspond with the exact dimensions of the ship4 ,a foot is scaled down on the paper to a quarter of an inch1 but in the mould loft a foot is a foot1 and plate1 girder1 and rib are drawn to their full size4 ,this enlargement leads to the detection of errors which are not apparent in the reduced drawings1 and which must be eliminated4 ,straight lines are made with chalk by cords and rules1 and curves by bending laths into the desired position and then tracing the sweep upon the floor4 ,every measurement has to be verified and checked1 and 8fairing the ship10 as this work is called1 may take six or seven weeks4 ,all errors having been corrected1 still another drawing is made on a 8scrive board10 and in this the lines1 full-sized1 are sunk in the wood so that they cannot be rubbed out4 ,the 8scrive board0 is the plan from which the ship-builder works1 and when it is complete the actual construction of the ship is begun4 ,illustration3 ,general ,view of the ,frames of the ,city of ,new ,york--,june #be1 #ahhg4 ,the keel is laid down on blocks1 four or five feet apart1 which form a slope toward the water1 so that the hull may glide down easily when the time for launching comes4 ,it is not a keel at all1 in the sense in which the word was formerly used3 a modern ship has a smooth bottom1 without any projecting ridge or break to the curve of her sides2 it is simply the central series of plates1 from which an inner keel is built up like an enormous backbone1 and to this the ribs are attached4 ,the metal is delivered at the yard in the shape of angle iron or angle steel1 the latter being the material which would be used in a ship of the class we have in mind4 ,heated to a white heat1 the angle-bars are drawn out of the furnace into a perfectly level iron floor1 upon which they are bent to the needed curve1 and that which has been a line of ink in the original drawing1 a chalk mark on the floor of the mould loft1 and a groove in the surface of the 8scrive board10 is now embodied in the heavy rib of the ship4 ,the bending is done thus3 the metal floor is perforated with thousands of holes1 into which iron pegs are inserted until they form the curvature required1 and the long1 pliable bar of steel is pressed against them until it corresponds exactly with the line exhibited in the 8scrive board10 which is always in sight of the workmen for guidance and comparison4 ,in handling the metal the men use pitchforks1 and with the prongs inserted in the holes they get purchase enough to make the bar yield2 if it bends upward a hammer is used upon it4 ,each rib has1 of course1 to be duplicated with the utmost precision1 in order that it shall be the same on both sides of the ship1 and each1 after it has cooled1 is laid upon the 8scrive board0 and compared with the lines thereon1 every variation being corrected before it is passed4 ,having already been punched for rivets1 it is then marked with a chisel to show where rib-bands1 stringers1 and deck-beams are to fit into it4 ,two or three months or less after the completion of the 8fairing10 the ship is probably 8in frame10 and looks like the skeleton of some ,brobdignagian monster that has stranded on the bank of the river4 ,the ribs have been hoisted into position at right angles with the keel1 and strung together by 8rib-bands10 and already there are signs of the coming subdivision by decks and bulkheads of the hollow space within4 ,you can still see through her1 however2 she is like1 to make yet another comparison1 a great oblong wicker-basket1 the supple willows being represented by the net-work of steel4 ,the next step is the clothing of the ribs with plates4 ,as they reach the yard the plates are square and flat1 but they are passed through rollers of various kinds1 from which they issue in any shape desired--hollowed like a spoon1 curved lengthwise or breadthwise or diagonally1 as the contour of the ship may call for4 ,a steam or hydraulic plane smooths them down as though they were the softest of whitewood2 another machine trims the edges as easily as a woman cuts silk with a pair of scissors4 ,then1 suspended by iron chains1 they are thrust between the jaws of a punching machine1 which has a resemblance to a sinister human face with a flat nose1 a long upper lip1 and a small chin4 ,the jaws close upon them and bite out1 ten at a time1 the holes for the rivets by which they are to be fastened to the frame4 ,as they are hoisted up to the workmen1 each fits the exact place designed for it and takes its part in the softly swelling lines of the ship4 ,they are put on in rows1 or1 as rows are technically called in this connection1 8strakes10 which are lettered alphabetically1 ,a being the row riveted to the keel4 ,the upper edge of ,a overlaps the lower edge of ,b1 and the lower edge of ,c overlaps the upper edge of ,b1 and thus while one row of plates like ,b has both edges hidden1 the row above it has both edges exposed1 which minimizes resistance to the progress of the ship4 ,we all know what caulking a wooden vessel is--the wedging of all seams between the planks with oakum and tar4 ,an iron or steel ship is also caulked1 but in her case the word has a different meaning4 ,the sharp edges of the plates are merely turned in with a chisel1 and they meet so closely that no insertion is necessary to exclude the water4 ,illustration3 ,frames of the ,city of ,new ,york1 looking aft--,july #ai1 #ahhg4 ,first held in place by bolts and nuts1 the plates are finally secured by the rivets1 the holes for which have previously been countersunk by machinery1 so that there are no protuberances4 ,the rivets go right through1 and have double heads3 millions of them are used1 and every one of them is examined and checked before the work is passed as satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,frames of the ,city of ,new ,york1 looking forward--,july #ai1 #ahhg4 ,at last the hull is closed in1 and hundreds of artisans toil upon it1 inside and out4 ,at the end of a year1 perhaps1 the ship is ready for launching1 by which time1 if she is of the same dimensions as the ,city of ,new ,york or the ,city of ,paris1 seven thousand tons of material have been placed in position1 one casting alone--the sternpost--weighing twenty-six tons4 ,she is a steel ship1 but in addition to the metal1 one hundred and twenty thousand cubic feet of timber1 brought from all parts of the world1 have been used in her4 ,from the cradle in which she lies to the promenade deck she rises to a height of fifty feet or more1 and she looks as immovable as a fortress4 ,nothing is more wonderful than the launching of such a vessel4 ,imminent peril seems to attend the operation2 she must topple over1 thinks the uninitiated observer1 or if she succeeds in reaching the water1 she must plunge against the opposite bank of the narrow river4 ,but at the appointed time she glides into the water as smoothly as an eel1 and once afloat she is held in check by cables attached to the shore4 ,her engines have got to be put on board1 and fully six months more elapse before she is ready for sea4 ,if she is complete within two years of the day the contract for her was awarded1 her builders have done well4 ,let us now look at the 8plant0 which is necessary for building such a ship1 and to see this in perfection we will visit ,fairfield1 which divides honors with the great ship-yard of ,messrs4 ,james ,george ,thomson1 at ,clydebank4 ,,iv4 ,a wonderful place is ,fairfield4 ,when a ship is taken in hand for construction the design for each and every part is proceeded with simultaneously4 ,it is not the keel first1 then the frames1 then the reverse frames1 then the flooring1 and so on1 as it is in smaller ship-yards4 ,keel1 frames1 flooring are put in hand together1 and the hull plates are ready before the keel is in position4 ,simultaneously1 too1 the sawmill is preparing the planks which are to cover the steel decks3 the joiners are at work on the saloon and cabins2 the upholsterers are cutting and stitching the brocades1 plushes1 and silks which are so freely used in modern ocean steamers2 the chain-maker is forging the cables1 and each department is busying itself with its own share1 conscious that what it produces will presently be sought to take its place in the rapidly progressing whole4 ,how rapid the progress is may be judged from the fact that on ,august #ad1 #ahhe1 the steel intended for a ,north ,german ,lloyd steamer began to enter the yard1 and exactly one month later the ship was in frame with keelsons and beams in position1 and the plating for the hull1 rolled to waterline shape1 lying alongside4 ,the works cover nearly seventy-four acres1 and lie on the south side of the ,clyde1 about three miles from ,glasgow1 with which city they are connected by a continuous chain of docks1 warehouses1 and other ship-yards4 ,not very long ago this great inclosure was arable land attached to a comfortable mansion which still retains a few vestiges of its former dignity4 ,but now the verdure has been trampled down and the face of the earth is hidden by paving-stones and iron rails4 ,the river is inky1 and the smoke lying in a brown fog over-head is ever being replenished from the high chimneys of the neighborhood4 ,the scene within the high brick walls which keep out idlers is exhilarating but scarcely picturesque4 ,all the materials which enter into the construction of a modern ship are visible in profusion4 ,a bird's-eye view reveals great stacks of timber1 iron1 and steel2 a net-work of rails which connect the works with all the principal lines converging at ,glasgow2 long brick sheds1 and edging the water-front the launching-slips1 where as many as fifteen vessels have been in course of construction at the same time4 ,there the great hulls of many of the most famous ,atlantic liners have been put together2 this was the birthplace of all the new ships of the ,north ,german ,lloyd line2 of the ,arizona1 the ,alaska1 the ,oregon1 the ,umbria1 and the ,etruria4 ,running at right angles from the river1 a dock has been excavated1 large enough to accommodate a vessel of twelve thousand tons1 and after launching1 the steamers are hauled in here to receive their engines and boilers4 ,immediately in the rear of the launching-slips there is an enormous shed1 with a roof of glass and iron1 where all the iron-work for the hulls of fifteen ships has been handled at one time4 ,within it gangs of workmen1 each skilled in a specialty1 carry on that part of the work which belongs to them4 ,some are carriers of angle steel or iron1 others receivers of angle iron1 which they place in the furnaces until the metal is at such a heat that it can be shaped to suit the water-lines of the vessel for which it is intended4 ,others still are busy with reverse frames and with the bending of plates2 others with funnels1 ventilators1 and skylights4 ,illustration3 ,the ,manganese ,bronze ,propeller-,blade of the ,wrecked ,steamer ,mosel1 after it had beaten upon a reef4 ,there is a special department for the casting of manganese bronze1 which is used for the blades of propellers4 ,standing against a wall not far off is a blade saved from the propeller of the wrecked steamer ,mosel4 ,she ran ashore on a rocky coast1 and her propeller played upon the reef like a flail upon a threshing-floor without break or fracture2 so great is the strength of the bronze that the only effect upon it was a feathering of the edges as revealed by the blade in question4 ,then we see the engineering1 forge1 and pattern shops4 ,forgings of steel are made which weigh as much as thirty tons1 as in the case of the crank-shafts of the new ,north ,german ,lloyd steamers4 ,a shafting of that weight is lifted as easily1 and with as little commotion1 as a bar of angle iron1 and placed on a table to be finished4 ,all the tools are of enormous size1 and nearly all of them are adaptations of the well-known turning-lathe4 ,either the tool turns or the work turns4 ,a steamer's cylinders are bored out with a bar1 the bar moving4 ,in turning a thrust-shaft the shaft moves1 not the tool4 ,in facing a condenser the tool moves1 not the condenser4 ,cutting1 planing1 and turning are all accomplished by modifications of the lathe4 ,there are in all nearly forty lathes1 vertical1 horizontal1 and oblique1 each gnawing at some vital part of a ship1 and there--there is the 8devil40 ,this is the name given by the workmen to an immense metallic disk1 over sixteen feet in diameter1 which bores through solid steel at the rate of two and a quarter inches in four minutes4 ,the workmen fill what standing room there is between propeller blades1 cylinder liners1 piston-valves1 and sole-plates2 they swarm like ants1 each gang carrying on its specified work with diligence and singleness of purpose4 ,let the reader figure to himself the gleaming tools1 the whirring machinery for the distribution of power1 the begrimed toilers1 the ponderous masses of iron and steel--now swinging in mid-air1 then clutched to the breast of an excoriating monster like the 8devil20 let his eye rest on those forty lathes all busy at once1 eating with unwearying jaws into the metal fed them1 and on the plane which shaves an armor-plate as if it were a deal board2 then let him fill his ears with the groaning1 creaking1 hissing1 grinding1 shrieking of all this activity1 and add to it the battle-like din of the boiler-makers4 ,thus he may know what ,fairfield is like4 ,ranging up and down these work-shops1 and pausing before this or that lathe1 we see in undistinguishable fragments the engines that are designed to propel the seven or eight thousand-ton ship2 then the pieces are gathered together and united in a pit2 power is applied from an auxiliary engine1 and the work of final adjustment is proceeded with4 ,that completed1 the engines are again taken apart and transferred to the vessel for which they have been built4 ,illustration3 ,a ,stern ,view1 showing ,twin ,screws4 ,has the reader ever stood in the engine-room of an ocean steamer when she was plunging through an ,atlantic gale at the rate of seventeen or more knots an hour8 ,even if he has done so1 and been awed by the experience1 it is not likely that he has been able to fully realize the immensity of the power exerted4 ,he needs some standard of comparison1 and for that purpose we may offer him the ancient galley1 and repeat a passage from the address made by ,sir ,frederick ,bramwell at the meeting of the ,british ,association last ,september3 8,compare a galley1 a vessel propelled by oars1 with the modern ,atlantic liner4444 ,take her length as some #fjj feet1 and assume that place be found for as many as #djj oars on each side1 each oar worked by three men1 or #b1djj men2 and allow that six men under these conditions could develop work equal to one horse-power2 we should have #djj horse-power4 ,double the number of men1 and we should have #hjj horse-power1 with #d1hjj men at work1 and at least the same number in reserve1 if the journey is to be carried on continuously4 ,contrast the puny result thus obtained with the #ai1ejj horse-power given forth by a large prime-mover of the present day1 such a power requiring on the above mode of calculation #aag1jjj men at work and #aag1jjj men in reserve2 and these to be carried in a vessel less than #fjj feet in length4 ,even if it was possible to carry this number of men in such a vessel1 by no conceivable means could their power be utilized so as to impart to it a speed of twenty knots an hour40 ,illustration3 ,the ,city of ,new ,york ready for ,launching4 ,illustration3 ,model of a ,steamer ,designed to ,cross the ,atlantic in ,five ,days4 ,huge as the several parts are1 their adjustment is a matter of extreme delicacy1 and yet so carefully is it accomplished that a steamer may leave the builder's hand at ,fairfield and proceed on a voyage of twenty days or more without once having to slacken speed on account of her engines4 ,it is a fair sight to see the men come to work when the bell rings in the morning4 ,when the yard is fully occupied there are between six and seven thousand of them1 and the wages paid have amounted in one year to one million eight hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars4 ,the head and front of all this industry--,sir ,william ,pearce--was himself in early life a workman in the yard4 ,i met him soon after his elevation by the ,queen to the baronetage4 ,he was then1 apparently1 in the best of health1 and was full of plans for building still faster steamers for the ,atlantic4 ,that he would have soon put afloat a vessel of greater speed than his own ,etruria1 there is no doubt in the minds of those who knew his genius as a naval architect1 and the indomitable and imperious will with which he carried out all his plans4 ,but he died suddenly in #ahhh1 and though his work was incomplete1 he had already done wonders in minimizing the discomfort and duration of the now familiar passage of the ,atlantic4 ,,ocean ,,passenger ,,travel4 ,,by ,,john ,h4 ,,gould4 ,,the ,,first ,,ocean ,,race--,,passenger ,,traffic ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,clipper ,,days--,,state-,,rooms ,,and ,,table ,,fare ,,in ,,early ,,days--,,the ,,first ,,ocean ,,mail ,,contract--,,discomforts ,,fifty ,,years ,,ago--,,american ,,transatlantic ,,lines--,,government ,,subsidies--,,novelties ,,on ,,the ,,collins ,,line--,,when ,,steerage ,,passengers ,,were ,,allowed ,,on ,,ocean ,,steamships--,,important ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,comfort ,,of ,,passengers ,,wrought ,,by ,,the ,,oceanic ,,in #ahgj--,,the ,,present ,,era ,,of ,,twin-,,screw ,,ships--,,their ,,advantages--,,the ,,fastest ,,voyages ,,east ,,and ,,west--,,records ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,racers--,,modern ,,conveniences ,,and ,,luxuries--,,the ,,increase ,,in ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,cabin ,,passengers ,,from #ahha ,,to #ahij--;,,how ,,the ,,larder ,,is ,,supplied--,,electric ,,lights1 ,,libraries1 ,,and ,,music-,,rooms--,,customs ,,peculiar ,,to ,,the ,,french1 ,,german1 ,,and ,,british ,,lines--,,life ,,in ,,the ,,steerage--,,immigration ,,statistics--,,government ,,regulations4 ,there are1 undoubtedly1 many men and women in ,new ,york to-day who went down to the ,battery and cheered and waved their hands in greeting to the first steamship that entered this port from ,europe4 ,this important event took place on ,april #bc1 #ahch1 and it was doubly interesting and significant because not only the first transatlantic steamship came to anchor in the harbor on that day1 but the second also2 steam travel across the sea thus beginning with a race that was earnestly contested and brilliantly won4 ,furthermore1 it was a race that attracted infinitely more attention than any of the contests that have succeeded it4 ,two steam-vessels had crossed the ,atlantic in years previous1 both having started from this side2 the ,savannah1 from ,savannah1 in #ahai2af and the ,royal ,william from ,quebec1 in #ahca2 but neither of these voyages had demonstrated the feasibility of abandoning the fine sailing packets and clippers for steamers when it came to a long voyage4 ,the ,savannah used both steam and sail during eighteen of the twenty-five days required for a passage to ,liverpool1 and more than one clipper overtook and passed her during the voyage4 ,the ,royal ,william had to utilize all her hold for coal in order to carry sufficient fuel to insure a completion of the voyage4 ,the reasons for the commercial failure of such craft are1 therefore1 apparent2 but they proved to be available and profitable for coastwise traffic1 and meantime inventive genius was at work on plans and models and theories1 all intended for the construction of a steamship capable of carrying goods and passengers between ,europe and ,america1 and of outrunning the packets4 ,public interest1 accordingly1 was deeply stirred on both sides of the ocean when1 in #ahcg1 it was learned that two steam-vessels were on the stocks1 building for the ,american service4 ,these were the ,sirius1 at ,london1 and the ,great ,western1 at ,bristol4 ,it was these vessels that made the first race2 the ,sirius making the trip1 measured from ,queenstown1 in eighteen and a half days1 and the ,great ,western in fourteen and a half days4 ,the ,sirius1 having had nearly four days' start1 came in a few hours ahead of the winner4 ,she brought seven passengers1 and whether the ,great ,western had others than her crew on board cannot now be ascertained4 ,at this time there were several lines of sailing vessels in operation between ,america and ,europe1 among the most important of which were ,williams ,guion's ,old ,black ,star line1 afterward merged into the ,guion line of ,steamships2 ,grimshaw ,co4's ,black ,star line2 ,c4 ,h4 ,marshall ,co4's ,black ,ball line2 and ,tapscott's line4 ,all these concerns conducted a profitable business in carrying passengers1 and the ships were provided with accommodations for the three classes into which travellers have been divided from early times4 ,it is impossible at this day to determine with exactness the volume of passenger traffic in clippers1 for no complete records were kept2 but that it was comparatively light may be inferred from the fact that provision was made in the large ships for from ten to thirty first-cabin and twenty second-cabin passengers4 ,the steerage capacity varied from eight hundred to one thousand1 and it was a long time after steamship lines had been established before immigrants ceased to come over in clippers4 ,in fact1 for ten years after the inauguration of the first steam line the immigrants had no choice--the steamships carrying none but cabin passengers4 ,the rates were1 #cj for first cabin2 #h for second cabin2 and #e to #h for steerage4 ,the appointments of cabins and state-rooms were meagre as compared with the great steamships of to-day1 but the table fare was substantially the same that is provided now4 ,the first-cabin passengers fared as they might in a good hotel2 those in the second cabin1 or 8intermediates10 as they were called1 had a plentiful supply of plain well-prepared food1 and the needs of the steerage passengers were looked after by the ,british ,government1 which instituted an official bill of fare4 ,these matters will be described in greater detail farther on4 ,in the ,marine ,news of ,april #d1 #ahch1 published in ,new ,york1 the agents of the ,sirius advertise her as a 8,new and ,powerful ,steamship1 #gjj tons burden1 #cbj horse-power40 ,the advertisement continues3 ,this vessel has superior accommodations1 and is fitted with separate cabins for the accommodation of families1 to whom every possible attention will be given4 ,cabin1 #adj4jj1 including provisions1 wines1 etc4 ,second cabin1 #hj4jj1 including provisions4 ,commenting upon the arrival of the ,sirius and ,great ,western1 the ,new ,york ,courier and ,enquirer of ,april #bd1 #ahch1 said3 ,what may be the ultimate fate of this excitement--whether or not the expenses of equipment and fuel will admit of the employment of these vessels in the ordinary packet service--we cannot pretend to form an opinion2 but of the entire feasibility of the passage of the ,atlantic by steam1 as far as regards safety1 comfort1 and despatch1 even in the roughest and most boisterous weather1 the most sceptical must now cease to doubt4 ,illustration3 ,in the ,grand ,saloon of an ,inman ,steamer4 ,the 8fate of the experiment10 as far as the ,sirius was concerned1 was decided by the initial voyage4 ,she had taken on four hundred and fifty tons of coal at ,queenstown1 all of which had been consumed before passing ,sandy ,hook1 and had it not been for the sacrifice of spare spars and forty-three barrels of rosin to the demands of the furnace1 she would not have entered the upper bay under steam4 ,nevertheless there were people who trusted her capability to get back to ,queenstown with the same quantity of coal1 and among these confident1 not to say venturesome1 travellers1 were the ,chevalier ,wyckoff and ,james ,gordon ,bennett1 ,sr4 ,the ,sirius made better time on the eastward trip1 but she never again crossed the ocean4 ,for many years she plied between ,cork and ,dublin4 ,as a business venture the ,great ,western was more successful1 and she made in all thirty-seven round voyages between ,bristol1 or ,liverpool1 and ,new ,york4 ,sixty-six passengers sailed in her on her first voyage from ,new ,york4 ,enthusiastic reporters of that day record that at least one hundred thousand persons crowded the ,battery and other points of view to see her off4 ,she had been advertised as follows3 ,,british ,,steam-,,packet ,,ship ,,great ,,western1 ,,james ,,hosken1 ,r4,n41 ,commander3 ,having arrived yesterday from ,bristol1 which place she left on the #hth inst41 at noon1 will sail from ,new ,york for ,bristol on ,monday1 ,may #gth1 at #b o'clock ,p4,m4 ,she takes no ,steerage ,passengers4 ,rates in the ,cabin1 including ,wines and ,provisions of every kind1 #cj guineas2 a whole ,state-room for one person1 #ej guineas4 ,steward's fee for each passenger1 #a #ajs4 sterling4 ,children under #ac years of age1 half price4 ,no charge for ,letters or ,papers4 ,the ,captain and ,owners will not be liable for any ,package1 unless a ,bill of ,lading has been given for it4 ,one to two hundred tons can be taken at the lowest current rates4 ,passage or freight can be engaged1 a plan of cabin may be seen1 and further particulars learned1 by applying to ,,richard ,,irvin1 #ih ,front ,st4 ,other steamships made experimental voyages across the ,atlantic after this1 and several attempts were made to establish regular lines1 that is1 a service with stated times of sailing from one year's end to another2 but none of these succeeded until #ahdj1 when the ,british ,north ,american ,royal ,mail ,steam-,packet ,company was organized4 ,the chief promoter of this concern was ,mr4 ,samuel ,cunard1 of ,halifax1 and the name of the corporation was speedily forgotten in the popular adoption of his name to designate the line4 ,mr4 ,cunard and his associates had been keen observers of the various experiments in steam navigation1 and naturally they profited by others' failures4 ,by no means the least important feature of their enterprise1 by which it differed from previous ventures1 and by which it secured a fighting chance for prosperity1 was an arrangement with the ,british ,government for carrying the mails4 ,the first mail contract covered a period of seven years at #fj1jjj annually4 ,this service was monthly in the beginning1 afterward fortnightly1 and the points touched were ,liverpool1 ,halifax1 and ,boston4 ,eventually1 with increased subventions from the ,government1 a weekly service was established between ,liverpool and ,new ,york1 as well as a semi-monthly service between ,liverpool and ,boston4 ,the first fleet of the ,cunard line consisted of four vessels--the ,britannia1 ,acadia1 ,caledonia1 and ,columbia4 ,another steamship1 the ,unicorn1 made what was probably a voyage of announcement for the company4 ,the ,unicorn was the first steam-vessel from ,europe to enter ,boston ,harbor1 where she arrived on ,june #b1 #ahdj4 ,although ,boston made as much fuss over this event as ,new ,york had over the arrival of the ,sirius and ,great ,western two years before1 regular communication with ,europe was not established until the arrival of the ,britannia1 the real pioneer of the ,cunard line4 ,she left ,liverpool on ,friday1 ,july #d1 #ahdj1 and made the voyage to ,boston1 including the dtour to ,halifax and delay there of twelve hours1 in fourteen days and eight hours4 ,that ,mr4 ,cunard was correct in believing that transportation by steam would stimulate travel between the continents is clear enough to us now2 but he and his associates must have felt justified in the undertaking by the fact that the ,britannia carried ninety cabin passengers on her first trip4 ,although the passengers had 8the run0 of the entire ship1 their accommodations were little1 if any1 better than those provided in the clippers4 ,the saloon and state-rooms were all in the extreme after-part of the vessel1 and there were no such things as comfortable smoking-rooms on deck1 libraries1 sitting-rooms1 electric lights and annunciators1 automatic windows to port-holes2 and there were no baths to be obtained except through the kind offices of the boatswain or his mate1 who vigorously applied the hose on such passengers as came dressed for the occasion when the decks were being washed in the early morning4 8,state-room0 was much more of a misnomer then than it is now4 ,on the most unpretentious modern steamship there is room enough in the chambers to put a small trunk1 and even other articles of convenience to the traveller2 and one may dress1 if he takes reasonable care1 without knocking his knuckles and elbows against the wall or the edges of his berth4 ,nowadays1 too1 the state-room is usually large enough to accommodate three or four persons1 while some are arranged to hold more1 if the ship is crowded4 ,the pioneer steamship had chambers so narrow that there was just room enough for a stool to stand between the edge of the two-feet-wide berth and the wall--mere closets4 ,there were two berths in each room1 one above the other4 ,by paying somewhat less than double fare a passenger given to luxury might have a room to himself1 according to the advertisement of the ,great ,western4 ,within such narrow quarters1 however1 everything possible was done for the passenger's comfort4 ,a gentleman1 now in business in ,new ,york1 who crossed in the earliest days of the ,cunard line1 and who has since sailed on the modern racers1 says that the difference is by no means as great as might be expected4 ,he puts it this way3 8,the table was as good then as it is now1 and the officers and stewards were just as attentive4 ,there is more costly ornamentation now2 but that aside1 the two great improvements over the liners of forty-five years ago are in speed and space4 ,there is more room now to turn around in1 and the service is somewhat better40 ,this is a very good-humored view of the matter4 ,it is not probable that latter-day travellers would be content to put up with narrow rooms1 smoking lamps1 low ceilings1 and plain edibles1 all of which are now entirely changed4 ,the traveller to-day demands more than comfort and safety4 ,travelling is in the main itself a luxury1 and as more and more ,americans have found themselves with sufficient means to indulge in it1 they have demanded more and more luxurious surroundings and appointments4 ,it is in response to this demand and the growth of the traffic1 that within the last few years there has been placed upon the transatlantic lines a fleet of steamships that surpass in every respect anything that the world has seen4 ,for several years the ,cunard line enjoyed what was substantially a monopoly of the steam carrying trade between ,england and ,america1 although individual vessels made trips back and forth at irregular intervals1 and various and unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a regular service4 ,the first enterprise of this kind that originated in the ,united ,states was the ,ocean ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,in #ahdg this corporation undertook to carry the ,american mails between ,new ,york and ,bremen twice a month4 ,the ,government paid #bjj1jjj a year for this service1 and the vessels touched at ,cowes1 ,isle of ,wight1 on each trip4 ,two steamships were built for this line1 the ,washington and ,herman4 ,when the contract with the ,government expired both were withdrawn and the project was abandoned4 ,about the same time ,c4 ,h4 ,marshall ,co41 proprietors of the ,black ,ball line of packet-ships1 built a steamship1 the ,united ,states1 to supplement their transatlantic business1 but the venture proved to be unprofitable4 ,then came the ,new ,york ,havre ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,this line was also subsidized by the ,government for carrying the ,united ,states mails between ,new ,york1 ,southampton1 and ,havre1 fortnightly1 at #aej1jjj annually4 ,the two steamships built for this purpose were wrecked1 and two others were chartered in order to carry out the mail contract1 until the ,fulton and the ,arago1 two new steamships built for the line1 were ready for service in #ahef4 ,illustration3 ,the ,steamer's ,barber-,shop4 ,the most important ,american rival which foreign corporations have encountered in transatlantic steam navigation was the famous ,collins line4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,k4 ,collins had grown up in the freight and passenger business between ,new ,york and ,liverpool1 and in #ahdg he began to interest ,new ,york merchants in a plan to establish a new steamship line4 ,two years later a company which he had organized launched four vessels--the ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 ,arctic1 and ,baltic4 ,they were liberally subsidized2 the ,government paying to the company #heh1jjj yearly for carrying the mails2 conditions imposed being that the vessels should make twenty-six voyages every year1 and that the passage from port to port should be better in point of time than that made by the ,cunarders4 ,the ,collins line met the conditions successfully2 its vessels making westward trips that averaged eleven days1 ten hours1 and twenty-one minutes1 as compared with twelve days1 nineteen hours1 and twenty-six minutes by the ,british steamships4 ,the vessels of the ,collins line cost upward of #gjj1jjj each4 ,this was a great deal of money to put into a steamship in those days1 and as the largest of the fleet was considerably smaller than the smallest of the steamships that now ply between ,new ,york and ,european ports1 there was naturally a good percentage of cost in the appointments for the comfort of the passengers4 ,many features that have since come to be regarded as indispensable on board ship were introduced by the ,collins vessels4 ,among them none attracted more comment when the ,atlantic arrived at ,liverpool1 at the end of her first voyage1 ,may #aj1 #ahdi1 than the barber-shop4 ,english visitors to the vessel1 as she lay at anchor in the ,mersey1 saw for the first time the comfortable chair1 with its movable head-rest and foot-rest1 in which ,americans are accustomed to recline while undergoing shaving4 ,another novelty was a smoking-room in a house on the after-part of the deck4 ,in the predecessors of the ,atlantic smokers had to get on as well as might be in an uninviting covered hatchway known as the 8fiddley40 ,the ,collins line vessels had not only a dining-room sixty feet long by twenty feet broad1 but had a general saloon sixty-seven feet by twenty feet4 ,these were divided by the steward's pantry4 ,rose1 satin1 and olive woods figured prominently in the decorations2 there were rich carpets1 marble-topped tables1 expensively upholstered chairs and sofas2 a profusion of mirrors2 all the panels and the saloon windows were ornamented with coats-of-arms and other designs emblematic of ,american freedom2 all of which made1 according to an ,english writer1 a 8general effect of chasteness and a certain kind of solidity40 ,the ,collins line obtained its share of a steadily increasing passenger traffic between the ,old and ,new ,worlds4 ,it carried freight at from #cj to #dj a ton2 it had the advantage of an immense subsidy2 but to all intents and purposes the corporation was bankrupt at the end of six years4 ,it cost too much to maintain the high rate of speed required by the ,government4 ,moreover1 two vessels were lost2 the ,arctic1 which went down after a collision with a ,french steamer off ,cape ,race1 in ,september1 #ahed1 when two hundred and twenty-two of the two hundred and sixty-eight people on board were drowned2 and the ,pacific1 which was never heard from after she left ,liverpool on ,june #bc1 #ahef4 ,almost simultaneously with the inauguration of the ,collins line another candidate for ocean business appeared1 bringing with it two innovations of great importance to all travellers4 ,this was the ,liverpool1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia ,steamship ,company1 better known1 even in its own offices1 as the ,inman line4 ,it was the original plan of this company to establish a line between ,liverpool and ,philadelphia1 and for several years1 beginning in #ahej1 no calls were made at ,new ,york4 ,the ,inman ,company was successful in securing a contract from the ,british and ,canadian ,governments for carrying the mails via ,halifax1 and was the successor to the ,cunard line on that route2 the company then settled down1 with a comfortable mail contract1 to carrying passengers1 freight1 and mail between ,liverpool and ,new ,york1 calling at ,queenstown on every trip4 ,illustration3 ,more ,comfortable on ,deck4 ,during the ,crimean ,war the transatlantic trade received a severe check1 as more than half the steamships were withdrawn and placed in the service of the ,british and the ,french ,governments as transports4 ,during that time the ,collins line and other ,american lines received quite an impetus by many of the vessels of both the ,cunard and ,inman lines being required for transport duty4 ,at the close of the ,crimean ,war1 however1 a reaction set in when these ships were again put in commission1 with a decidedly disastrous effect on the ,american lines4 ,in #ahee ,commodore ,vanderbilt endeavored to get a subsidy from the ,american ,government for a mail line to ,europe1 but1 notwithstanding his failure to procure this contract1 he placed three or four vessels on the route between ,new ,york1 ,southampton1 and ,havre1 and later on the ,bremen route4 ,the venture was more or less profitable4 ,almost the last remnants of ,american enterprise in ,atlantic passenger traffic disappeared with the steamships ,fulton and ,arago of the ,new ,york and ,havre line1 which were withdrawn in #ahfh4 ,mention should1 however1 be made of the ,american line1 with four iron screw steamers1 which began to run between ,philadelphia and ,liverpool in #ahgc1 and ran regularly since its inception1 without any ,government subsidy4 ,two innovations introduced by the ,inman line became prominent features of ocean business1 and it may be left an open question as to which was the more important4 ,one was the use of the screw-propeller1 and the other was the carrying of steerage1 or third-class1 passengers4 ,previous to #ahej all steamships built for transatlantic voyages had been side-wheelers1 and even as late as #ahgj there were steam-vessels that came into the port of ,new ,york with the walking-beam1 familiar to patrons of modern ferry-boats and river steamers4 ,the principle of the screw-propeller had been known and utilized for many years2 but it was not believed that a steamship could cross the ocean in safety unless side-paddles were employed4 ,the first iron transatlantic screw steamship was the ,city of ,glasgow 7except the ,great ,britain1 which first arrived in ,new ,york on ,september #aj1 #ahde1 making but two transatlantic trips1 and therefore not entering as a factor into this trade71 built on the ,clyde by ,tod ,mc,gregor4 ,she made four successful voyages between ,glasgow and ,new ,york before she was purchased by the corporation that afterward became known as the ,inman line4 ,this innovation1 although it did not result at first in any marked increase of speed1 soon found approbation in the policies of rival companies4 ,illustration3 ,a ,quiet ,flirtation4 ,the other innovation was equally long in finding acceptance among oceanic steamship companies1 but it eventually prevailed1 even to the extermination of the clipper ship as a passenger carrier4 ,it may be remarked just here that the introduction of the screw-propeller added to the discomforts of the cabin passengers2 for in the first vessels of the ,inman line the state-rooms and saloons were retained in the after-part of the ships1 where the motion of the sea and the noise of the screw were most apparent4 ,leaving this matter for the present1 it is worth noting that the steady increase in passenger traffic between the two continents led to the organization of many other companies that tried to find a share in the carrying business4 ,the ,glasgow ,new ,york ,steamship ,company was started in #ahed by ,tod ,mc,gregor1 ship-builders2 the service was fortnightly4 ,in #ahei they decided to confine their business to ship-building1 and the fleet and good-will were then sold out to the ,inman line1 who continued the service for a year or two1 but finally withdrew the fleet from ,glasgow and concentrated their entire business between ,liverpool1 ,queenstown1 and ,new ,york4 ,during the period from #ahej to #ahfj many ,atlantic lines were established1 several of which are in successful operation to-day4 ,the new-comers during that decade1 as well as in the following decade1 adopted generally the innovations ventured by the ,inman line2 but it was not until after #ahgj that the side-wheeler disappeared from the ocean1 and it was not until #ahgd that clipper ships ceased to bring immigrants4 ,it is said that the life of an iron steamship is unlimited2 that time enough has not elapsed since the first iron ships were floated to determine how long they would naturally last under good usage4 ,the importance1 therefore1 of the innovation introduced by the ,inman line may be readily inferred when it is stated that the oldest steamship belonging to any of the regular lines now in the passenger service between ,new ,york and ,european ports was built in #ahfg4 ,within the last year or two steel has been almost entirely substituted for iron1 it being lighter and more durable4 ,although the transatlantic lines multiplied rapidly1 and the business induced by foreign traffic increased steadily1 there was no other marked improvement in the service until #ahgj1 when the ,oceanic ,steam ,navigation ,company entered upon its career4 ,in this case also the legal title of the corporation has been forgotten in the popular adoption of a short name to designate the line2 and this new enterprise has been known almost from the beginning as the ,white ,star line4 ,their first steamship was the ,oceanic1 and its model and appointments throughout became the pioneer of the great fleet that now plies regularly between this country and ,europe4 ,it was not so much that the proprietors of the ,white ,star line endeavored to outdo their rivals in conveniences for passengers1 table-fare1 and the like1 but that they heeded the complaints of the travellers who suffered from the noise and motion in their state-rooms in the after-part of the boat4 ,in the old style of steamships the passenger who desired to sleep had to contend against the noise of the screw1 the creaking of the steering apparatus1 and the most extreme motion possible upon the vessel4 ,the ,white ,star line arranged its saloons and state-rooms so as to bring them as near as possible to the centre of gravity2 placing them1 therefore1 amidships4 ,illustration3 ,smoking-room of a ,french ,liner4 ,it is not essential now to state what mechanical improvements this change involved further than to say that previous to this date the cabin quarters in sailing-vessels and steamships1 both naval and mercantile1 were located in the after-part of the ship1 and this for the reason that it enabled the passengers to fully occupy that part of the ship which was not invaded by the crew for working purposes4 ,the year #ahgj1 therefore1 marks an epoch in steam navigation1 and the vessels of all the principal lines1 built since that date have been conformed to the model set by the ,oceanic1 and the best ships of to-day are so arranged that the passengers who pay the highest rates are located in all their necessary movements in the central part of the vessel4 ,from year to year the speed has been improved1 until so many steamships are classed as racers that the rivalry has come to be centred in appointments and luxurious accommodation4 ,the inauguration of the ,oceanic ,company marked the beginning of what may be called the second epoch in transatlantic travel1 and with the first voyage of the ,city of ,new ,york a third epoch was begun4 ,this last period1 into which we have hardly entered1 is distinguished by the twin-screw steamship4 ,there are now nine great vessels of this class in the passenger service between ,european ports and ,new ,york3 the ,city of ,new ,york and the ,city of ,paris1 of the ,inman line2 the ,majestic and the ,teutonic1 of the ,white ,star line2 the ,augusta ,victoria1 the ,columbia1 the ,normannia1 and the ,frst ,bismarck1 of the ,hamburg-,american line2 and ,la ,touraine of the ,french line4 ,these new vessels are not remarkably superior to the best single-screw steamships in the matter of speed1 and any advantage gained in this respect may be attributed to their having greater horse-power4 ,as may be seen from the record of fast passages1 the ,etruria and the ,umbria1 of the ,cunard line1 are not only very close seconds to the best twin-screw ships1 but are even ahead of several of the new type of vessel4 ,the great merit of the twin-screw ship lies in the increased safety which its mechanism insures4 ,it admits of avoiding obstacles that would surely wreck a single-screw vessel1 of better handling in case of collision1 and of surer progress in the event of the breaking of a shaft4 ,such steamships as the ,city of ,new ,york and the ,city of ,paris1 of the ,inman line 7which is now controlled by ,american capital1 and may in a sense be regarded as an ,american enterprise71 are designed so as to carry about #ejj first-cabin passengers each1 and the ,etruria and ,umbria1 of the ,cunard line1 about #fjj2 but these vessels carry less steerage passengers than other ships1 which adds greatly to the comfort of saloon passengers4 ,it is not probable that the #gjj1jjj expended for the construction of a vessel of the ,collins line would much more than suffice to pay for the decorations and conveniences afforded to passengers on the ,inman ships4 ,in correspondence with modern ideas they are subdivided into twenty-four water-tight compartments1 and this1 with due allowance for the architect's notions1 has led to the supplying of bath-rooms about the ship1 according to the number of passengers carried2 several suites of rooms on the promenade and saloon decks are arranged with bath-rooms and toilet-rooms4 ,the second-class passengers have also their own bath-rooms1 smoking-room1 and saloon dining-room4 ,the steerage is so divided that the third-class passengers are not only away forward1 but aft also2 and they have the whole of one deck to themselves for promenading and getting glimpses of ocean view4 ,these are features that apply to so many of the best steamships now plying between ,new ,york and ,european ports1 that it would be unjust to describe any one ship as against another2 but as the ,city of ,new ,york in #ahij made the highest average speed of all the ,atlantic 8greyhounds10 and for that matter the highest average speed of any steamship in the world1 it is but fair to mention her wonderful performance4 ,during the year #ahij she made eight trips to the eastward1 and the average of each trip from ,sandy ,hook lightship to ,roche's ,point1 ,queenstown ,harbor1 was six days1 four hours1 and five minutes2 the average of her eight trips to the westward from ,roche's ,point to ,sandy ,hook lightship was six days1 five hours1 and forty-four minutes4 ,on the four trips each way from ,august to ,november1 inclusive1 her average west-bound voyages were six days and forty-two minutes1 and the east-bound voyages six days and fifty-three minutes4 ,for the whole season on her trips to the eastward she averaged #ai4ab knots per hour1 and to the westward #ah4ia knots per hour4 ,she has made a slightly better average than her sister1 the favorite ,city of ,paris1 and she beat her powerful rival1 the ,teutonic1 seven times out of ten during the season of #ahij4 ,the fastest westward trip on record is that of the ,teutonic1 her time of #e days1 #af hours1 and #cj minutes being made in ,august1 #ahia4 ,her best eastward trip was made in ,september1 #ahia1 in #e days1 #ba hours1 and #bb minutes1 which is also the fastest trip on record to the eastward4 ,the following table gives the records of fourteen of the most important transatlantic steamships3 ,best ,records up to ,october #a1 #ahia4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,name4 ,fastest ,direction4 ,date4 ,line4 passage4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,d4 ,h4 ,m4 ,teutonic #e #af #cj ,westward ,august1 #ahia ,white ,star4 #e #ba #bb ,eastward ,september1 #ahia ,majestic #e #ah #h ,westward ,august1 #ahia ,white ,star4 #e #bc #ac ,eastward ,september1 #ahij ,city of ,paris #e #ai #ah ,westward ,august1 #ahhi ,inman4 #e #bb #ej ,eastward ,december1 #ahhi ,city of ,new ,york #e #ba #ai ,westward ,october1 #ahij ,inman4 #e #bb #ej ,eastward ,september1 #ahia ,etruria #f #a #ej ,westward ,september1 #ahhi;,cunard4 #f #d #dj ,eastward ,april1 #ahhh ,umbria #f #c #bi ,westward ,august1 #ahij ,cunard4 #f #c #d ,eastward ,november1 #ahhh #f #ad #ae ,westward ,may1 #ahia ,frst ,bismarck 7,maiden trip7 ,hamburg4 #f #ab #eh ,eastward ,september1 #ahia ,columbia #f #af #b ,westward ,june1 #ahij ,hamburg4 #f #ae #j ,eastward ,october1 #ahij ,normannia #f #ag #b ,westward ,august1 #ahij ,hamburg4 #f #ag #bj ,eastward ,september1 #ahij ,augusta ,victoria #f #bb #dj ,westward ,october1 #ahij ,hamburg4 #f #bb #cb ,eastward ,september1 #ahij ,havel #f #bc #eb ,westward ,may1 #ahia ,north #f #ai #e ,eastward ,september1 #ahia;,german4 ,spree #f #ba #bj ,westward ,august1 #ahia ,north #f #bj #aj ,eastward ,july1 #ahia ,german4 ,lahn #f #bb #db ,westward ,august1 #ahhi ,north #f #bc #ah ,eastward ,october1 #ahhi ,german4 #f #bc #eh ,westward ,june1 #ahia ,la ,touraine 7,maiden trip7 ,french4 #g #d #af ,eastward ,july1 #ahia ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,note4--,for table of records in #ahij1 see page #de2 for a comparison of records from the ,sirius to the ,teutonic1 see page #gh4 ,the trips of the first six vessels in the above table are measured between ,sandy ,hook lightship and ,roche's ,point1 the entrance to ,queenstown ,harbor2 the ,north ,german ,lloyd and the ,hamburg-,american lines measure the trips between ,sandy ,hook lightship and the ,needles1 near ,southampton2 and the ,french line1 between ,sandy ,hook lightship and ,havre4 ,the fast ships of several lines now make a seven-days' journey from port to port2 these lines are the ,cunard1 ,inman1 ,white ,star1 ,north ,german ,lloyd1 ,hamburg-,american1 ,french1 ,guion1 and ,anchor4 ,their vessels are well fitted1 the passengers find every convenience at hand1 and1 barring extremely bad weather1 the traveller may imagine that he is confined but a few days to a first rate hotel on land4 ,nevertheless1 it may be worth while to mention one or two comparatively minor features that have been introduced lately to make the journey to ,europe comfortable4 ,the ,midland ,railway ,company of ,england and the ,london ,northwestern ,railway ,company have both adopted the ,american system of checking baggage1 and it is now possible to have your trunks checked at your house for delivery in ,london1 although the steamship may terminate its journey at ,liverpool4 ,this service naturally calls for a small extra fee1 but it is hardly more than would be charged by an expressman who would take your trunks to the dock where the steamship lies awaiting your departure4 ,it is quite the custom now1 also1 for steamship companies to issue letters of credit to passengers1 who1 for one reason or another1 may not care to deposit their moneys with the banking houses4 ,on one line1 at least1 passengers can rent steamer-chairs previous to sailing at fifty cents each for the trip1 and when they arrive on board they simply apply to the deck-steward for their chairs4 ,at the offices of all the principal lines steamer-chairs may be engaged at the time tickets are procured1 but the price charged for the trip is one dollar2 the enterprise being managed by an independent concern who have obtained the privilege from the different lines4 ,every traveller may have at least one interesting souvenir of the voyage across the ,atlantic4 ,the names of the passengers1 and in some cases their home addresses1 are neatly printed upon folios along with a blank chart for recording the progress of the voyage1 and more or less information about the company1 the vessel1 and the fleet of which it is a member4 ,a sufficient number of these passenger lists are printed to assure one at least for every cabin passenger1 and the lists are usually distributed in the saloon soon after the vessel leaves her dock4 ,they are not only prized as souvenirs1 but they are invaluable in assisting one to make acquaintances--or avoid them1 for that matter4 ,it is the custom of the ,inman and ,guion lines to distribute passenger lists at the gang-plank just previous to the sailing of the vessel1 so that friends of passengers may carry away a token of the great journey1 and speculate as to how companionable this or another person will prove to the party in which they are especially interested4 ,on nearly all the larger vessels there is a miniature newspaper printed by the ship's printer1 which gives the usual amount of 8local0 gossip and happenings peculiar to the surroundings2 articles are contributed by the passengers1 and sometimes there is a good deal of talent on board4 ,reports of concerts and domestic entertainments1 etc41 are given4 ,illustration3 ,the ,gang-plank--just before sailing4 ,rivalry between the various lines has led to the establishment of agencies in various parts of this country and ,europe4 ,abroad the agents seek mainly1 if not exclusively1 to induce emigration4 ,in this country the agents deal almost exclusively with those to whom travel has become a well-earned luxury4 ,the central point of agencies is in ,chicago4 ,the agents there control the territory west of ,chicago1 and are in constant communication with the head-offices in ,new ,york1 and they have their sub-agents scattered about everywhere1 but especially in the ,northwest4 ,the ,new ,york offices are promptly informed by the ,chicago agents concerning the number of people booked for certain steamships1 and the chief stewards make provision accordingly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before showing how the steward has to provide for his passengers1 it will be interesting to note1 as well as may be1 the increase in transatlantic voyaging4 ,exact records of cabin passengers have not been kept until within a few years2 but it will be remembered that in the time of the clipper ships ten first-cabin passengers was the average on a ship4 ,as it is now1 the different steamship lines entering the port of ,new ,york employ several men to look after the landing of passengers4 ,their duties are mainly directed to steerage people2 but recently they have also kept records of those who come over in either first or second class4 ,from these records1 kept in the ,barge ,office in ,new ,york ,city1 it appears that ocean travel varies according to the business situation in this country4 ,following is an exhibit of the number of cabin passengers that arrived at this port during the years between #ahha and #ahij1 inclusive3 #ahha1 #ea1bbi2 #ahhb1 #eg1idg2 #ahhc1 #eh1eif2 #ahhd1 #ei1ejc2 #ahhe1 #ee1afj2 #ahhf1 #fh1gdb2 #ahhg1 #gh1gib2 #ahhh1 #hf1cjb2 #ahhi1 #if1fhf2 #ahij1 #ii1ahi4 ,from one point of view1 at least1 these figures are very striking4 ,in #ahhi there was a great show in ,paris that attracted world-wide attention and interest4 ,in the spring of that year every steamship agent announced to prospective passengers that all vessels would be crowded1 and that the volume of passenger traffic between the continents would swamp the capacity of every line4 ,but the figures speak for themselves4 ,viewing the increase of oceanic travel1 it appears that the financial depression of #ahhd kept many people at home who otherwise might have crossed the ocean4 ,after that distressing season had passed travel resumed its normal condition1 and an increase may be noted with each year4 ,when finances in this country had been somewhat adjusted we find that #hf1cjb cabin passengers landed at ,new ,york in #ahhh4 ,then came the ,paris ,exposition1 and the record for #ahhi is #if1fhf4 ,that was the greatest year for ocean travel known theretofore4 ,yet #ahij came along1 and the record of #ahhi had been broken4 ,the total number of arrivals of cabin passengers for that year being #ii1ahi4 ,illustration3 ,the ,saloon of a ,hamburg ,steamer4 ,these figures mean that ,americans are getting rich enough to travel3 nothing more4 ,an agent of an excursion company said to me during #ahhi3 8,it doesn't need an ,exposition in ,paris to induce travel4 ,europe is the loadstone6 ,all we have to do is to show people that they can get to ,europe at a moderate cost1 and that fetches 'em40 ,the same men who keep these records at the ,barge ,office say that at least eighty per cent4 of the arrivals from ,europe represent people who live in this country2 that is1 that not more than #bj1jjj people during #ahij arrived in ,new ,york who did not live here1 or who were not returning to their homes4 ,furthermore1 it should be noted here that ,new ,york has become to so great a degree the port to which transatlantic business tends1 that not more than fifteen per cent4 of either immigrants or cabin passengers land at any other port4 ,a few go to ,boston1 or ,philadelphia1 or ,baltimore2 and a few come in via ,quebec and the northern border2 but the figures at ,new ,york really represent the volume of passenger traffic4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pilot ,boarding4 ,it is not possible to give an exact comparison between the traffic now and when passenger steamships first began to run between this country and ,europe2 but it will be remembered that the ,cunards1 beginning in #ahdj1 had only four regular vessels4 ,now there are twelve steamship lines who have regular sailing days each week1 and some have sailings twice and three times a week2 they all terminate or begin in ,new ,york1 and on these lines there are eighty-five steamships which carry saloon and steerage passengers4 ,these lines make landings at ,queenstown1 ,liverpool1 ,southampton1 ,havre1 ,bremen1 ,hamburg1 ,moville 7,londonderry71 ,glasgow1 ,antwerp1 ,boulogne1 ,rotterdam1 ,amsterdam1 and ,copenhagen4 ,no line employs less than four boats1 and the ,hamburg-,american line keeps nineteen in commission4 ,the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,company has the largest fleet of express steamships2 there are twelve in commission between ,new ,york1 ,southampton1 and ,bremen4 ,this great fleet of eighty-five vessels is composed of the following lines1 given in the order in which they were established3 ,cunard line1 #ahdj2 ,inman line1 #ahej2 ,allan line1 #ahec2 ,hamburg-,american line1 #ahef2 ,anchor line1 #ahef2 ,north ,german ,lloyd line1 #aheg2 ,french line 7,compagnie ,gnrale ,transatlantique71 #ahfb2 ,guion line1 #ahfd2 ,white ,star line1 #ahgj2 ,netherlands line1 #ahgb2 ,red ,star line1 #ahgc2 ,thingvalla line1 #ahgi4 ,besides these lines there is also the ,anchor line1 ,fabre line1 and the ,florio line to ,mediterranean ports2 ,wilson line to ,london1 and also to ,hull2 ,national line to ,london1 and also to ,liverpool2 ,hill line to ,london2 ,union line to ,hamburg2 and ,baltic line to ,stettin4 ,all these lines carry passengers4 ,this record1 of course1 takes no account of the lines to the ,south ,american continent or to ,pacific ports4 ,freight lines1 of which there are several1 are out of the question for the moment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a great many passengers are more anxious about the table-fare upon an ocean steamship than about the state-rooms1 saloons1 smoking-rooms1 and other matters of transient comfort4 ,there is really no need for worry about the table4 ,there is always enough1 and on the best boats there is always a great variety4 ,on one of the recent departures of a great liner from this port her larder was stocked as follows3 #bj1jjj pounds of fresh beef 7a portion of this1 although all was available1 was intended for the return trip1 beef being cheaper here than in ,liverpool72 fresh pork1 #ejj pounds2 mutton1 #c1ejj pounds2 lamb1 #dej pounds2 veal1 #ejj pounds2 sausage1 #bjj pounds2 liver1 #bcj pounds2 corned beef1 #b1ijj pounds2 salt pork1 #b1bjj pounds2 bacon1 #dgi pounds2 hams1 #ejj pounds2 tongues1 #h dozen2 sweetbreads1 #bjj2 fish1 assorted1 #b1ajj pounds2 oysters1 #e1jjj2 clams1 #e1jjj2 soft-shell crabs1 #ejj2 green turtle1 #bjj pounds2 turkeys1 #ej2 geese1 #ej2 fowls1 #bdh2 chickens1 #aej2 squabs1 #cjj2 snipe1 #ejj2 quail1 #ejj2 ducklings1 #baf2 wild game1 #ajh pair4 ,butter1 #a1ejj pounds2 eggs1 #a1bjj2 condensed milk1 #djj quarts2 fresh milk1 #a1jjj quarts2 ice cream1 #djj quarts4 ,apples1 #ab barrels2 pears1 #aj boxes2 musk-melons1 #ajj2 water melons1 #fj2 oranges1 #af boxes2 peaches1 #aj crates2 bananas1 #aj bunches2 huckleberries1 #ajj quarts2 gooseberries1 #ajj quarts2 cherries1 #bej quarts2 currants1 #ajj pounds2 grapes1 #ge pounds2 lemons1 #ad cases2 pineapples1 #ajj2 plums1 #aej quarts2 strawberries1 #bej quarts2 raspberries1 #bej quarts4 ,flour1 #abe barrels2 potatoes1 #adj barrels2 lettuce1 #gb dozen2 asparagus1 #cj dozen2 green peas1 beans1 tomatoes1 #ae crates each2 ,brussels sprouts1 #aj baskets4 ,crackers1 cakes in large variety1 and a quantity of pickles1 sauces1 spices1 extracts1 pts de foie gras1 truffles1 caviare1 canned and dried and fresh vegetables1 and general groceries in the most generous quantity4 ,about #ejj other items appeared on her list of stores1 besides wines1 spirits1 beer1 mineral waters1 cigars1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the bills of fare presented to first-cabin passengers from such a commissariat is here given4 ,,soups4 ,turtle and ,spring4 ,,fish4 ,scotch ,salmon and ,sauce ,hollandaise4 ,,entr,,es4 ,blanquettes de ,poulet aux ,champignons4 ,filets de ,buf la ,bordelaise4 ,cailles sur ,canaps4 ,,joints4 ,saddle of ,mutton and ,jelly4 ,beef and ,yorkshire ,pudding4 ,york ,ham and ,champagne ,sauce4 ,,poultry4 ,roast ,turkey and ,truffles4 ,spring ,ducklings4 ,,vegetables4 ,pommes de ,terre ,duchesse4 ,asparagus4 ,potatoes4 ,parsnips4 ,,sweets4 ,international ,pudding4 ,rhubarb with ,custard4 ,strawberry ,jam4 ,tartlets4 ,sandwich4 ,,pastry4 ,genoese ,pastry4 ,marlborough ,pudding4 ,gooseberry ,souffls4 ,lemon ,cream4 ,,dessert4 ,seville ,oranges4 ,black ,hamburg ,grapes4 ,english ,walnuts4 ,madeira ,nuts4 ,cantaloupes4 ,caf ,noir4 ,following is a literal copy of a bill of fare for a second-cabin dinner on a favorite steamship3 ,,soup4--,julienne4 ,,fish4--,boiled ,rock ,fish1 butter sauce4 ,,meats4--,haricot of mutton2 roast beef1 baked potatoes2 boiled mutton1 caper sauce2 mashed turnips2 potatoes4 ,rice pudding2 apple tart2 small pastry4 ,biscuits and cheese4 ,so the accommodations on board ship have kept pace with the growing traffic and the increasing demand for luxurious appointments4 ,vessels now are lighted by electricity in every quarter1 including even the steerage2 there is ample room for exercises and games on deck2 there are well-stocked libraries and music-rooms1 no well-ordered ship being without a piano or organ1 and some have both2 smoking-rooms are usually on the upper deck2 electric annunciators are handy2 bath-rooms are numerous2 the thrashing of the screw is heard faintly at the worst2 there is plenty and a variety of food2 and in short1 the majority of cabin passengers fare for a week better1 and are surrounded by more appointments of wealth and luxury1 than they are accustomed to in their own homes4 ,illustration3 ,the ,end of the ,voyage4 ,some specialty interesting features have been introduced into the ,north ,german ,lloyd service1 and also on the express steamers of the ,hamburg-,american line to make a voyage attractive4 ,among these is the band that accompanies every vessel4 ,the performers are the stewards of the second cabin1 who must not only be good waiters but also musicians as well4 ,they play through the long first-cabin dinner1 which lasts from one to two hours1 and again on deck in the evening4 ,there are no ,sunday services on these boats1 but in the morning the band plays hymn tunes1 and in the evening there is a 8sacred0 concert4 ,all ,german and ,american holidays are observed on board1 special attention being paid to the ,fourth of ,july and ,washington's ,birthday1 and particularly so on an eastward trip if the holiday occurs when the vessel is only a day or so out from ,new ,york2 when ,christmas comes to the travellers at sea1 they find themselves in the midst of a ,german festival1 in which there is no lack of a brightly adorned and illuminated tree4 ,the steerage passengers are not forgotten on these occasions2 amusements and a special feast are provided for them4 ,the ,french line has some remarkable features of its own4 ,baggage may be checked by it to any point in ,france4 ,the company provides a special train that waits on the steamship dock in ,havre1 and on the arrival of the vessel from ,new ,york takes the passengers and baggage to ,paris at once1 and puts them in close connection with trains for other parts of the continent4 ,this system of transfer and checking baggage applies not only to cabin passengers1 but to those in the steerage as well1 and the ,french line is the only line that makes such arrangements4 ,it is also the only line 7except the ,netherlands which touches at ,boulogne for ,paris7 that supplies immigrants with all necessary utensils1 including bedding2 and1 more than that1 it provides a wholesome wine at all meals in the steerage1 and cognac once a day4 ,for the last eight years the ,french ,government have permitted some of their naval officers to command the steamships of the ,french line1 and in case of war they would retain command of these ships1 which are specially constructed armed cruisers4 ,all the crew must have served a certain time on a ,french man-of-war4 ,french festivals and ,american holidays are celebrated on board by concerts1 balls1 dinner-parties1 and extra luxuries at the regular meals4 ,entertainment is provided for the steerage passengers1 and a special menu is furnished for the festal days4 ,on such occasions1 too1 the ships are gayly decorated with bunting from stem to stern4 ,another unique and pleasant feature of the voyage on the ,french line is the 8,captain's ,dinner40 ,this takes place just previous to the termination of the trip4 ,on the ,british lines ,sunday is suitably observed2 the captain1 in full uniform1 supported by his officers1 reads the ,church of ,england services1 to which all on board are invited4 ,american and ,british holidays are also observed in a fitting manner1 the vessels being always 8dressed0 for the occasion4 ,these lines also have a parting dinner1 usually one or two evenings before arrival in port4 ,illustration3 ,revenue ,officer ,boarding1 ,new ,york ,bay4 ,all incoming steamers are signalled off ,fire ,island or ,sandy ,hook1 their arrival is telegraphed to the ,quarantine station and the ship-news office1 and in about three hours the vessel reaches ,quarantine from ,fire ,island1 or about one hour from ,sandy ,hook4 ,at ,quarantine the health officer boards her1 and if it is found that she has no case of contagious disease on board she is permitted to proceed to her dock1 which she reaches in about one hour and a half1 including the time of examination by the health officer2 but if she has any serious case on board she is detained at ,quarantine until she receives orders from the health officer to land her passengers4 ,as soon as the vessel is reported inside ,sandy ,hook the revenue cutter starts down the bay to meet her1 with the customs officers on board4 ,the boarding officer places several staff officers on board1 who go immediately to the saloon1 where declarations are made and signed by the saloon passengers as to the contents of their trunks1 etc41 and all baggage is searched on arrival of the vessel at her dock1 when those who attempt 8monkeying0 with the customs officials will find out that the little trick does not pay4 ,meantime1 how do the steerage folk get on8 ,mention has been made of the ,british ,government bill of fare4 ,this was instituted when clipper ships were in vogue4 ,it was ordered that a minimum weekly allowance of raw food should be provided for every adult third-class passenger as follows3 #c-a_/b pounds bread1 or biscuit1 not inferior in quality to navy biscuit2 #a pound flour2 #a-a_/b pound oatmeal2 #a-a_/b pound rice2 #a-a_/b pound peas2 #a-a_/d pound beef2 #a pound pork2 #b pounds potatoes2 #b ounces tea2 #a pound sugar2 #a_/b ounce mustard2 #a_/d ounce ground black pepper2 #b ounces salt2 #a gill vinegar4 ,a government inspector saw to it that these items or their equivalents were provided upon the departure of every ship carrying third-class passengers1 and that no ship went to sea without being provisioned for thirty days4 ,the allowance1 however1 proved not to be altogether generous1 and many passengers brought stores of their own along4 ,in any event1 each passenger had to prepare his own meals at the cook's galley1 for the number of cooks furnished was always insufficient4 ,the kitchen is never commodious at the best1 aboard ship1 and it needs no imagination to picture the struggle of immigrants1 one against another1 for a turn at the fire4 ,the government requisition is still in force1 but it is substantially a dead letter1 for not only the ,british but all ,european steamship companies now provide ample fare properly cooked and served1 for all steerage passengers4 ,a young man who crossed in the steerage last year described his fare to the writer1 thus3 8,at breakfast10 he said1 8we usually had oatmeal porridge and molasses1 with coffee in plenty1 and rolls and butter4 ,this was varied by hash instead of porridge on some days1 or perhaps an ,irish stew2 but fresh baked rolls and butter were always in abundance4 ,there was always soup at dinner1 and some boiled beef1 pork1 or fish with potatoes and bread4 ,supper did not amount to much1 but there was plenty of plain1 good stuff to eat4 ,roast beef and plum duff were served at ,sunday's dinner40 ,this food was served to the steerage passengers by stewards1 but there was no placing of dishes opposite the passenger's plate4 ,the general meal was set down in the middle of the table1 and 8help yourself0 was the order of the day4 ,the steerage passengers do not cook their own food now1 but they have to provide their own cups1 plates1 and other utensils1 as well as their own bedding4 ,all captains of passenger steamships are scrupulously attentive to the needs of their steerage passengers4 ,not a day passes that they do not make a personal inspection of this department1 and they are always approachable in the event of complaints arising on the part of the poorest travellers4 ,it is related of one old-time commander--,captain ,john ,mirehouse--that in order to assure himself of the proper quality and preparation of the steerage food1 he invariably had his lunch served from the steerage galley at the dinner hour2 and he used to declare that his lunches were as wholesome and palatable as he could desire4 ,it must not be supposed that steerage passengers are all immigrants4 ,odd as it may seem1 there are many world wanderers who cross and recross in the steerage1 who travel over great parts of the world1 and who1 in their class1 are as independent as the more luxuriously accommodated cabin people4 ,besides these curious characters there are ,scottish carpenters and other mechanics who come over here for a few months at a time to take advantage of higher wages1 and who return as they came when ,christmas draws nigh4 ,it will doubtless cause astonishment to most readers to learn that when the ,teutonic made her last voyage to ,europe1 in ,december1 #ahij1 she carried #a1djj passengers1 more than #a1jjj of whom were in the steerage4 ,illustration3 ,in the ,steerage4 ,the immigrant business has come to be so important a feature in transatlantic passenger traffic1 that it may not be uninteresting to conclude this article with a few figures that show somewhat of its growth and proportions1 and also the method of handling the immigrants4 ,at least eighty-five per cent4 of all immigration to the ,united ,states comes through the port of ,new ,york4 ,the ,board of ,immigration was not established until #ahdg1 and previous to that time records were rather loosely kept4 ,the official figures1 however1 have been obtained1#ag showing that between #aghc and #ahdg1 #a1jfc1efg immigrants came to this country2 between #ahdg and #ahgc there were #d1icc1efb2 a marked falling off in the annual average occurring during the ,war of the ,rebellion2 between #ahgc and #ahij1 inclusive1 #d1iaj1hfd4 ,immigration was heaviest in the years #ahha1 #ahhb1 and #ahhc1 the figures being #dda1jfd2 #dee1dej2 and #chh1bfg1 respectively4 ,the greatest arrival of immigrants in any one day was on ,may #aa1 #ahhg1 when nearly #aj1jjj were landed at this port4 ,the greatest number ever brought by a single ship was #a1gfg1 by the ,egypt1 ,national line1 in #ahgc4 ,this good ship was destroyed by fire1 ,july1 #ahij1 in midocean1 on her way to the eastward1 but fortunately not a life was lost4 ,on the arrival of each vessel at her dock she is boarded by the ,immigration ,department boarding officer1 and the ,customs inspector and his assistants2 the latter examine the immigrants' baggage1 and sometimes add considerable to ,uncle ,samuel's bank account in the way of duties or the confiscation of smuggled articles4 ,their baggage is then checked and placed on board the transfer boats and barges1 which convey them to the ,barge ,office1 where they are examined by a medical staff and then passed to the registration department in that building2 here they give their name1 age1 occupation1 nationality1 and destination2 if they appear as though they were liable to become a public charge1 in compliance with an ,act of ,congress1 they are returned1 by the same vessel on which they arrived1 to the place from which they came4 ,but an opportunity is given to their friends1 if any should call1 to guarantee that they will not become a public charge1 and they are then allowed to leave the department in the custody of their friends4 ,parties seeking friends call at the information bureau1 and if they satisfy the clerk as to their identity they are allowed to take their friends away4 ,on leaving the steamship checks are given to them for their baggage1 and it is stored at the ,barge ,office free of charge1 and kept till called for4 ,there is a railroad ticket office in the ,barge ,office1 where all the trunk lines are represented by one general agent1 a sort of pool1 and here the immigrant can secure tickets to any point and have baggage checked to destination2 and at no other place can tickets be procured at such low rates1 nor can anyone but an immigrant get such a low rate4 ,each immigrant is allowed #aej pounds of baggage free1 and the railroad companies transfer them and their baggage from the ,barge ,office to their respective depots free of charge4 ,a temporary hospital is located in the ,barge ,office1 where immigrants not seriously ill are kept1 and those who may have any serious illness are sent to hospitals under contract with the department for such patients4 ,each steamship company was formerly required to pay to the ,united ,states ,treasury a head tax of #b4ej for each alien steerage passenger2 this fee was reduced to #a4jj1 and some years ago it was still further reduced to fifty cents1 the present rate4 ,this tax goes to what is known as the ,immigrant ,fund4 ,in conclusion ,i might truly say that the modern ocean steamship of the great lines ,i have mentioned is the embodiment of the latest achievements of science and art of this enlightened age4 ,so recent are many of the inventions that such a ship as the ,city of ,paris or the ,majestic could not have been built ten years ago at any price4 ,the practical effect of all this to the traveller is to bring him very much nearer to the ,old ,world than his father was1 and to make the time spent in crossing the once dreaded ocean a delightful series of summer holidays4 ,footnotes3 #af ,see the chapter on ,the ,development of the ,ocean ,steamship4 #ag ,through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,george ,w4 ,esslinger1 assistant to ,captain ,john ,e4 ,moore1 landing agent4 ,,the ,,ship's ,,company4 ,,by ,,lieutenant ,j4 ,d4 ,,jerrold ,,kelley1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,has ,,steam ,,ruined ,,the ,,genuine ,,sailors ,,of ,,story ,,and ,,song8--,,hauling ,a ,,liner ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,liverpool ,,docks--,,the ,,traits ,,of ,,master-,,mariners--,,education ,,of ,,junior ,,officers--,a ,,fire ,,drill--,,stowing ,,the ,,cargo--,,down ,,the ,,channel ,,in ,a ,,fog--,,the ,,routine ,,life ,,at ,,sea--,,the ,,trials ,,of ,,keeping ,,watch--,a ,,bo',s',n',s ,,right ,,to ,,bluster--,,steering ,,by ,,steam--,,scrubbing ,,the ,,decks ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,watches--,,formalities ,,of ,,inspection--,,the ,,magic ,,domain ,,of ,,the ,,engine-,,room--,,picturesqueness ,,of ,,the ,,stoke-,,hole--,,messes ,,of ,,the ,,crew--,,the ,,noon ,,observation--,,life ,,among ,,the ,,cabin ,,passengers--,,boat ,,drill--,,pleasures ,,toward ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,voyage--,,the ,,concert--,,scenes ,,in ,,the ,,smoking-,,room--,,wagers ,,on ,,the ,,pilot-,,boat ,,number--,,fire ,,island ,,light1 ,,and ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4 ,when the breeze is piping free and the tide is running strong none but a master-seaman may be trusted to haul out of the ,liverpool docks a great ,atlantic liner4 ,should it be a leeward ebb1 with the ,mersey spinning under a flurry of squalls and snarling in angry eddies1 a quick eye must mate a clear wit to make the trick a deft one4 ,the manuvre is always a delight to the mariner1 let bo's'ns1 hopelessly spliced to such traditions as topsails reefed in stays bawl what they may about the dead days of seamanship4 ,for here are unfolded the mysteries of the art1 and here are exercised all the higher qualities of the sailor1 and just as much1 believe me1 as in the old times when the gray piers and oozy quays were crowded to cheer our famous clippers warping in and out to the music of barbaric 8chanties40 ,beach-combers1 shore-huggers--mere ,abraham's men--will tell you the poetry is gone out of it all1 and will1 with much damning of their eyes1 and shifting of their quids1 and hitching of their tarry trousers1 try to persuade you that steam has ruined the genuine sailors of story and of song4 ,but this is mere transpontine nonsense1 for above and beyond everything he who commands a ship1 smoker or sailer1 as it may chance1 must first of all be a seaman4 ,the demands of modern sea life have increased the responsibilities of the mariner1 and in like measure the professional attainments required are deeper1 broader1 and higher than ever before4 ,what the task of hauling out is1 you may best judge by noting the bulk to be moved1 for you can never measure properly the enormous dimensions of these great steamers until you see them looming in their true proportions above the walls1 and undwarfed1 as they are in the open1 by the frame of sea and sky4 ,the bulwarks tower like the walls of a fortress2 the enormous decks sweep with a sheer knowing no broken curve2 the wheel-house lifts its windows above the life-boats1 swarming sternward like a school of pilot-fish2 still higher the bridges1 often double-tiered1 span and grip the sturdy stanchions2 and dominating all1 the elliptical funnels rake jauntily1 and the yardless spars taper till they fine away at their shining trucks into graceful coach-whips4 ,shipshape and ,bristol fashion1 point-device in paint and polish1 the massive hull glides over the quiet waters of the basin2 you catch the sheen of gleaming brasses1 of glistening air-ports1 of glazed white1 and lacquered black4 ,obedient as a broken colt to the touch of the helm1 quick in response as a high-bred dog in a leash to the guiding hawsers1 she moves calmly--fit exemplar of strength rightly tempered by even will--toward the sharp turn where the gateway opens to the river4 ,winches chatter noisily2 windlasses clink1 clink musically2 capstans rattle with slacking cables2 jets of steam dart viciously2 ripples stream sternward to the bubbles of the foamless wake2 the tremulous minor1 more a wail than a song1 of the docking gangs working the warps1 answer the cheery 8,yo heave-ohs0 of the people on shipboard2 and the quick1 sharp orders from the bridge are echoed by high-pitched answers from the mates1 watching with wary eyes everywhere4 ,one screw turns clumsily ahead1 the other circles astern1 and then the ship swings easily1 rounding the jagged corner in the hedge of stone with a gentleness leaving feet to spare4 ,the bow and stern enter fairly1 straight as a mason's level1 the open gateway2 a strain is taken on the line leading from the quarter to the pier end2 a moment of rest1 of expectation1 succeeded by one of doubt1 follows1 and then the hail rings out blithely from the after-whaleback1 8,all clear1 sir40 ,the handle of the annunciator connected with the engine-room is jammed to 8hard astern20 8ding6 ding60 rings the signal from below2 the water gushes in a turbulent torrent from the outboard deliveries1 the engines throb fiercely1 backing with all their strength1 and as the lines are rendered1 slacked1 eased1 let go1 the steamer clears the pier-end with a rush1 shoots far into midstream1 and thus begins1 wrong end foremost1 her voyage westward4 ,in the optimism of the moment the chief officer and the bo's'n grow garrulous upon the recondite subject of anchor gear2 the junior officers feel they quite deserve the good luck which makes them the hustling1 bustling mates of a crack racer2 and maritime ,jack1 still a little groggy and very much unwashed1 blesses the stars that have let begin another 8v'yage with an 'arf crown left of his hadvance10 and the prospects of 8some bloomin' ,american tobaccy0 as soon as he's clear of the tideway4 8,not a bad job1 sir10 said the pilot1 as the anchor takes the bottom and the ship straightens astern from her cable2 8seemed ticklish a bit for a minute when they 'eld onto the spring so long1 sir2 but 'ere we are1 bung up and bilge free1 and with the looks of a good run1 barrin' the fog per'aps1 for the morrer40 ,the captain answers smilingly1 for these two are old friends1 and1 what is more1 the hauling out has been a joint enterprise1 though the senior gets the credit1 as he should4 ,after a careful survey of the anchorage and a word with the chief officer1 the captain enters his cabin and buckles down to the routine work1 and there is always plenty of that awaiting him4 ,he glows pleasurably over the handy1 seamanlike way they have left the dock1 for nautical critics are plenty and keen1 and if he had not taken up his berth in the river so cleverly1 the ill news would have grown apace1 till1 with unfair variations1 it reached the ears of their high nobilities--the directors4 ,clear-headed1 brainy1 driving men1 are these master-mariners1 and bearing patiently a responsibility that needs an iron will and a courage faltering at nothing4 ,there is no royal road to their station1 nor can willing hands make them what they must be4 ,they cannot crawl through cabin windows1 nor1 for that matter1 come flying in a pier-head jump through the gangway with one leg forward and the other aft4 ,they have to fight their way over the bows1 and struggle out of the ruck and smother in the fo'ks'le1 by sturdy buffeting and hard knocks1 by the persistent edging of stout shoulders backed by strong hearts and steady brains4 ,if it is in them they will make their way in the end surely1 and may set the course and stump to windward as they please1 while others haul the weather-ear-rings1 and drink their grog protestingly4 ,no2 master-mariners are made1 not born1 and1 unlike many of their brothers in the government service1 have to rise by energy1 pluck1 merit--why enumerate them8--by a hundred qualities the world is better for owning4 ,old ,pepys knew how this sea-kissing goes1 and tells us of his favors in this wise3 8,that10 he writes1 8which puts me in a good humor both at noon and night1 is the fancy that ,i am this day 7,march #ac1 #affi7 made a captain of one of the ,king's ships1 ,mr4 ,wren having sent me the ,duke of ,york's commission to be captain of the ,jerzy1 444 which doth give me the occasion of much mirth and may be of some use to me40 ,think of that1 you venturesome die-hards1 who linger all your lives at the lower sheerpole1 a post-captain by the scratch of a pen1 and above all men given to a lubberly scrivener and an ,admiralty clerk at that4 ,all these elder merchant-masters are sailor-men1 some so deep and dyed in it that if you scratch them they ooze tar1 and this briny saturation has been invariably acquired under sail4 ,after they have had their ships and made many a voyage1 deep water and home1 round both ,capes1 east and west1 wherever winds may blow and freight1 the mother of wages1 may linger1 they shift into steam1 but always in a subordinate place4 ,should they stick by one employ they are sent from ship to ship1 working their way upward until they become chief officers of the choicest vessels in the line4 ,here they must wait for dead men's shoes1 or resignation1 or forced retirement2 but when the chance comes they are given the command of the smaller and less important steamers upon some subsidiary route4 ,then they enter a new line of promotion1 and weary are the years of waiting1 and bitter sometimes the disappointment1 before they reach the high-water mark of their service4 ,and1 with this hardly earned promotion1 do not come1 as in other professions1 ease1 comfort1 and proper recompense for duty well done1 but heavier responsibilities1 harder work1 and greater self-sacrifice2 what is worse1 and this to the shame of the great steamship corporations1 these gallant men1 even at their prime1 receive the most inadequate pecuniary recognition for the burden imposed1 for the mental and physical qualities exercised1 for the experience brought to bear2 indeed1 in no other trade or profession is equal ability so badly paid4 ,the junior officers belong to all sorts and conditions of men4 ,most of them have had to fight their way1 though some have parents who could well afford to pay a handsome premium for their sea education in the training-ships stationed off the principal ports4 ,here they are given a strict man-of-war tuition1 though the routine of studies and drills is1 of course1 modified to suit the results expected4 ,after their apprenticeship is served they go to sea1 usually in sailing ships2 and when later they choose steam1 they join as fourth or fifth officers1 and enter upon a career where their future is a hard but an assured one4 ,in the large employs they are encouraged to enter the ,naval ,reserve1 and are given time for their drills and opportunities to qualify for the higher certificates of the merchant service2 and so much are these privileges esteemed that you often find on the best steamers of the transatlantic liners one-half of the officers holding masters' certificates and junior commissions in the auxiliary government service4 ,under the new regulations some of these officers have1 besides the guard-ship drill1 taken a regular tour of duty as lieutenants and sub-lieutenants on board sea-going men-of-war1 and so far this has proved a capital plan for both services4 ,the nationality of the officers is ,british1 naturally1 though ,english and ,irish predominate1 the ,scotch1 somehow1 taking more kindly to the engineering part of the business1 and the ,welshmen staying at home4 ,there is a well-founded belief that the deck people are not sailor-men2 nor1 indeed1 are they in the majority of ships1 that is1 not sailors in the true meaning of the word2 but1 on the other hand1 neither are they the mere swabbers of decks1 scrubbers of paint-work1 handlers of the forward and after ends of trunks1 or reefers of hat-boxes and travelling-rugs their critics would have us believe4 ,they belong to a special class1 not a very high one from the maritime point of view1 and are reasonably well fitted for the work expected4 ,this you may see at fire quarters1 for example1 a drill which1 in these times1 is always held before the passengers come on board4 ,as the alarm is sounded by the rapid ringing of the ship's bell1 and the commands are hoarsely shouted along the decks1 you may notice1 as the men rush to their stations1 the absence of the alertness1 neatness1 forehandedness which characterize the man-of-war's men2 but they are sturdy and strong and willing1 and the echoes of the orders1 8,fire forward6 ,main deck4 ,quick's your play10 have scarcely ceased1 before a dozen hose are coupled and run out1 bucket and fire-extinguisher lines are formed1 axemen and smotherers are gathered1 and hand and steam pumps started with an energy promising a world of water4 ,grimy greasers and stokers rush from below2 stewards hop about as none but a steward can2 and butchers1 bakers1 and electric-light-makers rally in their appointed places1 eager for work1 but in the motley of ,falstaff's draft4 ,the captain1 watch in hand1 receives the reports that all the departments have assembled and that abundant streams have been in operation 7overboard1 of course1 but in the neighborhood of the fire7 in blank minutes--let us say three1 as a fair average--from the time the alarm was first given4 ,do you wonder if he smiles and says to his chief officer1 8,very creditable1 sir2 very well done4 ,you may secure1 sir80 ,very well done it is1 and when you remember this is the first drill and many of the hands are new1 you may feel reasonably assured1 should any ordinary fire break out1 that it is all ,lombard ,street to a ,tahiti orange it will be subdued most promptly4 ,the pumps stop1 the hose are uncoupled1 under-run1 and reeled1 and1 everything being secured1 the ship returns to its normal condition4 ,but not to rest1 for there is no rest fore and aft when a voyage is begun4 ,cargo and stores have to be hoisted out of the lighters1 holds have to be stowed1 gear secured4 ,all day long the cargo winches rattle1 and the tackles rise and fall complainingly4 ,alongside a double bank of lighters cling1 and through cargo-ports and over the rails the freight pours ceaselessly4 ,the twilight deepens with stars2 ashore the roar and traffic of the busy town are hushed2 the river banks are deserted4 ,but under the dazzling arc-lights on shipboard1 and far into the night1 toiling men and swaying bales and boxes cast fantastic shadows on the breezy water1 and about the decks1 and in the cavernous holds gaping unsatisfied for the fruits of trade and barter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the next day the passengers come on board1 and the company's servants in the tenders and lighters gleefully escape1 after banging about and muddling the baggage so mercilessly that state-room trunks yawn bruisedly in the holds1 and huge chests1 bursting with useless trophies of travel1 lumber up your narrow quarters below--this1 to the despair and tears of forlorn women who pursue the hapless purser with unrelenting fury when they learn that nothing can be unearthed until after the ship has left ,queenstown1 and that until then they must hopelessly shift for themselves4 ,steam is spluttering and flickering in little curls at the escape-pipes1 the officers--every button of their best coats on duty--are at their stations1 the pilot is looking wiser than ever pilot could be1 and on the bridge with the impatient captain lingers a representative of the company4 ,by and by1 after the final instructions are given1 this person departs1 and as he goes over the side the captain waves his hand in salute and then gives a quiet order to the chief officer4 ,the wheel is shifted1 the capstan reels noisily1 and link by link the chain comes home4 ,at last1 after a vicious tug or two on the cable1 the ground is broken1 and1 smothered and sputtering with cleansing water from the hose1 the anchor1 ring and stock1 appears above the foam-streams rippling at the bow4 ,when the cat-fall is hooked the ship's head swings around with graceful sheer1 the engines slightly increase their speed1 the wake straightens its curves1 the ensign dips in answer to salutes1 and a long blast from the whistle sonorously claims the right of channel4 ,slowly1 carefully1 the gallant ship threads her way among the fleet of inward and outward bound shipping2 the shores darken with moist shadows and gleam in broad bands of fading sundrift2 the lights of ,birkenhead and ,liverpool glisten1 blaze1 twinkle1 fade2 the breeze blows with spice of salt and briny coolness2 the stars blink from silvery steel into points of golden fire2 and in the west1 where the splendor and warmth deepen seaward1 the rolling mists1 as yet resplendent in borrowed radiance1 close1 broodingly1 as a pall4 ,sails burn in the heart of the sunset1 and long trails of smoke show where other ships have sunk below the verge4 ,finally the bar is crossed1 the lanterns on board the ,northwest ,light-ship flame in the star-gemmed dusk1 and with a swinging grip of the wheel the ship is headed1 at half speed1 just as night is falling1 to clear the lights of ,holyhead4 ,illustration3 ,down the ,channel in a ,fog--,a ,narrow ,escape4 ,upon the bridge the pilot and the officer of the watch peer 8ahead and astern1 look to windward and to lee20 the ship slips and slides1 now to port and now to starboard1 dodging the fleet inter-shooting this marvellous waterway with a wealth of craft no other waters know2 and the lookouts glue their eyes to their quadrants of observation1 reporting lights and sails till the confusion would be inextricable1 save to these steady nerves finding the pathway safely4 ,down the coast the vessel runs in the darkness1 fearing naught while the stars shine and the horizon circles clean cut above the foam-capped waters4 ,but as the night grows the air loses its briskness1 a light haze shrouds the sea1 and the ,channel fog rolls1 ghostlike1 landward4 ,soon only the upper stars glimmer1 the moisture drips from the rigging1 the iron rails and deck-houses are damp and clammy1 and the lights are aureoled with a dull cloud of gray and yellowish mist4 ,illustration3 ,the ,skipper4 ,the captain takes his place upon the bridge1 the engines are eased until1 to the worried landsman's ears1 their labored throbbing seems a devil's tattoo answering the grumbling and rumbling of the fog-whistle4 ,below1 brawny1 silent men stand at the levers1 ready at an instant to stop and back1 or go ahead1 just as the emergency may direct4 ,outside the pilot-house the quarter-master strains his ears and peers nervously into the gloom1 yet alert to pass any command given to the junior officer and to his messmate at the wheel4 ,signals from fog-whistles drift into them from other groping ships1 and1 at times1 spectral hulls and ghostly sails loom close aboard1 creeping out of the curtained night or slipping landward or seaward in search of hidden port or roadway4 ,at regular intervals the lead is cast and the depth of water read from the scale by the unhooded glare of a lantern1 and on the chart the positions given by the soundings are pricked1 to guard against the tricks of treacherous currents4 ,and so the cheerless night drifts sadly into a wan morning1 and the ship creeps warily down ,channel1 the weary vigil taxing the brains and bodies of those who must seek no rest because of the lives entrusted to their care4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the pilot has been discharged and the mails received at ,queenstown1 and the ship has taken her departure from the ,roche ,point ,light-ship everybody settles into the routine of life at sea4 ,from the beginning watches have been kept rigorously1 and the interior discipline and rules are so well-jointed that the ship seems to run herself4 ,you hear no jarring of the cogs1 feel on rough edges in the mosaic1 though the government is1 as it must always be1 the hand of steel in the glove of velvet4 ,the care of the ship is unremitting1 even in details which if set down here would seem trivial and finicky1 and every hour of the day has duties which are performed heartily and thoroughly to the foot of the letter by the officers4 ,the number of these may vary on each line1 even in different ships of the same employ1 but in the largest steamers there are1 besides the captain1 three seniors and two juniors4 ,the three seniors keep the watches1 and each during his tour of duty has1 as the captain's representative1 the direct charge of the ship4 ,the two juniors stand watch and watch1 that is1 four hours on duty and four hours off1 with a swing at the dog-watches1 and carry on1 under the direction of the senior officers1 the routine of the ship4 ,normally the officer of the watch takes his station on the forward bridge1 and the junior officer sticks by the wheel-house1 where1 after collecting the data he writes the log-slate hourly1 and sees that the quartermaster steers the given course to a nicety4 ,the first night at sea the starboard watch 7the captain's in marine law7 has the eight hours out1 that is1 from #h ,p4,m4 to midnight and from #d to #h ,a4,m42 and on the home voyage the mate's watch 7the port7 enjoys the same sweet privilege1 thus sanctifying the ancient saw1 which insists1 under penalties dire1 that the captain must take her out and the mate must take her home again4 ,the officers vary in their methods of keeping watch1 new ships having new rules1 as ,simple ,simon is supposed to have said when he was hustled aft to stow the jib4 ,but to my mind1 those favored in the larger steamers of the ,white ,star ,company are the best4 ,here the chief officer stands the watches from six to eight and from twelve to two o'clock1 night and day respectively2 the second officer keeps the watches from eight to ten and two to four o'clock2 and the third officer those from ten to twelve and from four to six o'clock4 ,this watch-keeping seems easy enough1 even interesting and exciting1 at least so ,i have heard not only from the casual gentleman who worries about critically in fine weather1 but from that uneasy-minded shuttler who skips across the ,western ,ocean half a dozen times a year for no reason any sane man has yet discovered4 ,but1 dearly beloved idlers1 do not deceive yourselves1 getting out of bed and walking on a roof is anything but gay1 even in fine weather4 ,in stormy seasons it is such wretched work that then be mine rather to woo my bucolics1 my farms and gardens1 my forest glades4 ,illustration3 ,the ,deck ,lookout--8,danger ,ahead40 ,illustration3 ,on the ,bridge in a ,gale4 ,leaving out of question the responsibility1 try and measure the physical misery when gales are howling1 and spray is flying1 and icy seas are shooting over the weather bulwarks1 and the ship is slamming along1 wallowing in the hollows or wriggling on zenith-seeking billows4 ,it may be at night1 when you cannot see a ship's length ahead1 and around you1 threatening disaster and death1 are a dozen vessels2 it may be when the ice is moving and the towering bergs lie in your pathway4 ,then those dreadful middle watches1 when1 after a hard tour of duty1 you are roused out of a comfortable bed1 and jumped1 half awakened1 into the chill and misery of the gale-blown night with every nerve and muscle strained to the breaking-point4 ,no1 it is1 believe me1 the hardest kind of hard work1 and it so saps the body1 and warps the temper1 and makes the best old before their day1 that no self-respecting mother will let her daughter marry a man who knows an oar from a fence-rail1 if he has learned their differences--watch-keeping4 ,the fourth and fifth officers1 being young and hardy1 and presumably with much to learn and suffer--for suffering somehow is considered an essential in sea-training--are not supposed to need adequate rest or sleep1 and if that is not wearing on shipboard1 go find me a ballad-monger to weave a rhyme for their comfort4 ,the crew stand watch and watch2 but as they can always steal a comforting nap1 and have no responsibility1 they know little of the mental wear and tear4 ,the bo's'n and his mate look out for the pulling and hauling1 and for the dreary singing which the 8chanty0 man weds to them4 ,their tempers are always on edge1 and it is their part to buffet and bluster4 ,these are the gentlemen you usually hear1 in season and out1 bellowing about decks a highly garnished sea argot which no one attempts to translate or deems of serious meaning4 ,occasionally1 too1 you may detect them to leeward of the houses1 skylarking gloomily1 in moments of forced gayety1 with skulkers and sea-lawyers1 8fetching them10 as they describe the pastime1 8a belt under the jaw10 or airily promising to 8knock0 their 8blooming 'eds off40 ,these1 of course1 are the vagaries of delegated authority1 and should not lessen your regard for them1 as they are generally good sailor-men after the heavy insular fashion4 ,you must remember1 also1 they enjoy a prescriptive privilege of being most noisy1 of wearing tremendous boots and very shabby clothes1 and of trilling1 like sea-larks1 upon little silvery whistles1 which are known indiscriminately as 8pipes0 or 8calls40 ,illustration3 ,the ,boatswain's ,whistle4 ,in each watch there are three quartermasters1 generally fine specimens of the ,british tar1 a joy to the eye and a comfort to the soul1 notably in bad weather1 when they cheer you with a smile that soothes as the words they may not utter2 for by a maritime fiction they are always supposed to be at the wheel1 and you must not1 under fear of keelhauling1 talk to them4 ,how patronizing and sympathetic they look1 what a lot they seem to know1 what beautiful guernseys they wear1 and with what ease they guide the mighty vessel6 ,before the introduction of steam steering-gear two men were always required at the wheel1 and in bad weather there were four1 and sometimes six1 with frequent reliefs2 and yet1 with all this beef1 many a poor fellow has been maimed for life by being tossed over the wheel-barrel or jammed by the spokes when the ship swung off with sudden lurch or broached to before the fury of the gale4 ,to-day it requires hardly the strength of a boy to 8restrain the rudder's ardent thrill10 even in the heaviest blows1 for the wheel in evidence is merely the purchasing end of a mechanical system that opens and shuts the valve governing the steam admitted to the steering cylinders4 ,but be it lever or not1 the sailor grasps it still with the old familiar pose1 swaying it1 8for the good ship's woe and the good ship's weal10 with curved arm and gripping fingers as he pores over his compass and keeps its lubber's point1 in fair weather or in foul1 plumb on a course marked to a degree of the circle4 ,he stands a two-hours' trick and then changes places with his relief1 whose station has been outside the wheel-house door4 ,the third quartermaster keeps his watch under the after-whaleback1 ready to throw into action the hand steering-wheel when the signal is given1 and as this happens seldom1 his watch is apt to be a dreary one4 ,the pump-wells are sounded regularly by a carpenter1 so that possible leaks are sure of rapid detection2 and hourly every light and every corner of the ship is inspected by one of the two masters-at-arms1 who constitute the police force of the ship4 ,they have under their special care the steerages1 and a part of their duty is--as their phrase goes--8to chase0 the steerage female passengers off the upper deck at dusk1 and to see that they remain in their own apartments until sunrise4 ,illustration3 ,the ,cook4 ,first-class ships muster from twelve to fifteen men in each watch1 and all of these are shipped as seamen4 ,of course the majority are such only in name1 though there is always a definite number of sailors among them4 ,indeed1 to fly the blue flag at least ten of the crew1 in addition to the captain1 must be enrolled in the ,naval ,reserve1 and to be an ,a ,b there1 one must hand1 reef1 and steer deftly4 ,these are the people who in port stand by the ship2 that is1 those who take1 as required by law1 their discharges in ,liverpool on the return voyage and continue to work on board at fixed wages per day while the ship refits and loads4 ,all hands1 from the skipper to the scullion's mate1 must ship at the beginning of each run--must 8sign articles0 as it is called--before a ,board of ,trade shipping-master4 ,as the law has always regarded ,jack as 8particularly in need of its protection1 because he is particularly exposed to the wiles of sharpers10 great stress is laid in these articles upon his treatment1 and therefore they exhibit in detail the character of the voyage1 the wages1 the quantity and quality of the food1 and a dozen other particulars which evidence the safeguards thrown about these 8wards of the ,admiralty0 by a quasi-paternal government4 ,jack knows all this1 and be sure he stands up most boldly and assertively1 at times with a great deal of unnecessary swagger and bounce1 for all the articles--8his articles0--allow him4 ,the boatswain selects the ship's company1 and the sea-birds flutter on board usually a few hours before the vessel hauls into the stream4 ,they fly light1 these ,western ,ocean sailors1 and their kits are such as beggars would laugh at even in ,ratcliffe ,highway4 ,generally they are in debt to the ,sailor's ,home--they pay seventeen bob a week for their grub and lodging--and many of them just touch their advance money1 as a guarantee of receipt1 and then see most of it disappear1 for goods fairly furnished1 into the superintendent's monk-bag4 ,but they are philosophers in their sad way1 and are apt1 if they find themselves safely on board with a couple of shillings in their 'baccy pouches1 with a pan1 an extra shirt1 a pannikin1 a box of matches1 and a bar of soap1 to feel that the anchor cannot be tripped too soon1 as they are equipped for an adventure anywhere1 even to the 8,hinjies1 heast or west10 as their doleful ditty announces4 ,under way or at anchor they do not have many idle moments4 ,in the middle watches the decks are scrubbed with sand and brooms and brushes1 for the old1 heroic days of holy-stones are over1 and a hundred pounds of effort are no longer expended for an ounce of result4 ,illustration3 8,muster1 all hands40 ,illustration3 ,washing ,down the ,decks4 ,it might interest the passengers--especially those who look upon a sailor as so much unthinking brawn--to hear the archaic vocabulary and the emphatic dialects in which many of them are sworn at by these same mariners4 ,indeed1 passengers are a careless1 slovenly1 and untidy lot1 and there is scarcely a sin in the maritime decalogue of cleanliness they do not commit unthinkingly4 ,the particularly offensive ones are soon singled out and labelled with briny1 offensive names2 and though they know it not1 the forecastle is at times lurid with the blood-curdling anathemas launched upon them4 ,in the morning watch the paint-work is scrubbed1 and a deft cleaner is ,jackie2 and finally1 when the weather permits1 the brass work--bane of every true sailor--is polished till it blinks like the rising sun in the tropics4 ,this scrubbing and burnishing and cleansing runs in appointed grooves through every department1 and in no perfunctory way1 for each day the ship is inspected thoroughly1 and upon the result depend the reputation and the advancement of the subordinates4 ,very formal indeed is the inspection1 when1 at eleven o'clock in the forenoon1 the captain1 accompanied by the doctor1 begins his royal progress4 ,at the borders of each province he is received by its governor1 who conducts him through its highways and its byways1 through its lanes and shaded groves4 ,the purser and the chief steward are answerable for all concerning the passengers1 and scrupulous and minute is the examination given to the saloons1 store-rooms1 pantries1 kitchens1 bakeries1 closets1 bath-rooms1 and to such cabins and state-rooms as may be visited4 ,then follow the steerages and the 8glory hole0--this last a den sacred to the discomfort of the perennially nimble1 of the tip-extracting1 uncannily cheerful1 and sorely tried stewards4 ,the chief officer is responsible for the boatswain's locker1 the forecastles1 the upper decks1 the boats1 the whalebacks2 in short1 above and below1 wherever dirt might breed disease1 no nook nor corner is omitted1 not even that seething cauldron where the lungs of the ship breathe steam and her ponderous muscles drive the mighty screws4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the engine-rooms and stoke-holes of a great steamer are forbidden ground1 are lands taboo1 save to those specially asked to visit them4 ,here no interruptions may enter1 for speed is the price of ceaseless vigilance1 and horse-power spells fame and dividends4 ,when you come to measure the region fairly1 it broadens into a wonder-land2 it shapes itself into a twilight island of mysteries1 into a laboratory where grimy alchemists practise black magic and white4 ,at first all seems confusion1 but when the brain has co-ordinated certain factors1 harmony is wooed from discord and order emerges from chaos4 ,it is in the beginning all noise and tangled motion1 and shining steel and oily smells2 then succeeds a vague sense of bars moving up and down1 and down and up1 with pitiless regularity2 of jiggering levers1 keeping time rhythmically to any stray patter you may fit to their chanting2 and1 at last1 the interdependence of rod grasping rod1 of shooting straight lines seizing curved arms1 of links limping backward and wriggling forward upon queer pivots1 dawns upon you2 and in the end you marvel at the nicety with which lever1 weight1 and fulcrum work1 opening and closing hidden mechanisms1 and functioning with an exactness that dignifies the fraction of a second into an appreciable quantity4 ,cranks whirl and whirl and whirl incessantly1 holding in moveless grip the long shafting turning the churning screws2 pumps pulsate and throb with muffled beat2 gauge-arms vibrate jerkingly about narrow arcs1 setting their standards of performance2 and everywhere1 if your ear be trained to this mechanical music1 to this symphony in steam and steel1 you see the officers and greasers conducting harmoniously the smoothly moving parts1 as soothed with oil and caressed with waste they work without jar or friction1 and despite the gales tossing the ship like a jolly-boat1 on the angry ocean4 ,it is a magic domain1 and one may well wonder at the genius which1 piling precedent upon precedent1 chains these forces and makes them labor1 even on an unstable platform1 as their masters will4 ,in the stoke-hole1 however1 one leaves behind the formal and mathematical1 and sees the picturesque with all its dirt unvarnished1 with all its din and clangor unsubdued4 ,under the splintering silver of the electric lamps cones of light illuminate great spaces garishly and leave others in unbroken masses of shadow4 ,through bulkhead doors the red and gold of the furnaces chequer the reeking floor1 and the tremulous roar of the caged fires dominates the sibilant splutter of the stream4 ,figures nearly naked1 gritty and black with coal1 and pasty with ashes1 and soaked with sweat1 come and go in the blazing light and in the half gloom1 and seem like nightmares from fantastic tales of demonology4 ,illustration3 ,the ,stoke ,hole4 ,when the furnace-doors are opened1 thirsty tongues of fire gush out1 blue spirals of gas spin and reel over the bubbling mass of fuel1 and great sheets of flame suck half-burnt carbon over the quivering fire-wall into the flues4 ,with averted heads and smoking bodies the stokers shoot their slice-bars through the melting hillocks1 and twist and turn them until they undulate like serpents4 ,the iron tools blister their hands1 the roaring furnaces sear their bodies2 their chests heave like those of spent swimmers1 their eyes tingle in parched sockets--but work they must1 there is no escape1 no holiday in this maddening limbo4 ,steam must be kept up1 or perhaps a cruel record must be lowered4 ,facing the furnaces1 the hollow up-scooping of the stoker's shovel echoes stridently on the iron floor1 and these speed-makers pile coal on coal until the fire fairly riots1 and1 half blinded1 they stagger backward for a cooling respite4 ,but it is only a moment at the best1 for their taskmasters watch and drive them1 and the tale of furnaces must do its stint4 ,the noise and uproar are deafening2 coal-trimmers trundle their barrows unceasingly from bunker to stoke-hole1 or1 if the ship's motion be too great for the wheels1 carry it in baskets1 and during the four long hours there is no rest for those who labor here4 ,in the largest ships the engineer force numbers one hundred and seventy men1 and in vessels with double engines these are divided into two crews with a double allowance of officers for duty4 ,one engineer keeps a watch in each fire-room1 and two are stationed on each engine-room platform4 ,watches depend upon the weather1 but1 as a rule1 the force1 officers and men1 serves four out of every twelve hours4 ,should1 however1 the weather be foggy or the navigation hazardous1 the service may be more onerous2 for then officers stand at the throttles with peremptory orders to do no other work4 ,in relieving each other great care is taken2 those going on the platforms feeling the warmth of the bearings1 examining the condition of the pins and shafting1 testing the valves1 locating the position of the throttles1 counting the revolutions1 and by every technical trial satisfying themselves before assuming charge that all is right4 ,in the stoke-hole the same precautions are taken1 the sufficiency and saturation of the water1 the temperature of the feed1 injection1 and discharge1 and the steam-pressure being verified independently by both officers4 ,the pay of the chief engineer is said to be about #cj per month1 in addition to a commission upon the saving made in a fixed allowance of coal for a given horse-power and an assumed speed4 ,as some ships are economical1 this reaches at times a handsome bonus4 ,and it is well this pay should be large1 for many of these officers have given their best days to one employ and deserve much of it in every way4 ,it is said that some of the old chiefs are the greatest travellers in the world1 so far as miles covered may count4 ,here1 for example1 is one who has made in one line #acb round trips1 or traversed #hda1jjj shore miles--a distance four times that between the earth and the moon2 and still higher is the record of another1 who completed before his retirement #aed round trips1 or made in distance over one million of statute miles4 ,illustration3 ,in the ,fo'castle4 ,the messes of the crew are divided into three classes3 ,first1 that of the seamen1 quartermaster1 carpenter1 etc42 secondly1 that of lamp-trimmers and servants and miscellaneous people2 and thirdly1 that of the stokers1 greasers1 and trimmers4 ,the seamen sleep and mess in the forecastle1 the stewards in the glory hole1 and the engineer force in the port forecastle1 or1 on board the new ships1 in an apartment just forward of the stoke-hole4 ,in all these quarters the mess-tables trice up to the under side of the upper deck1 and the bunks are two or three tiers deep4 ,as a rule the men provide their own bedding and table-gear1 the company agreeing to give good food in plenty1 but nothing more4 ,this seems shabby1 even if in these degenerate days we need not hope to find a ship's husband like ,sir ,francis ,drake1 who not only 8procured a complete set of silver for the table1 and furnished the cook-room with many vessels of the same metal1 but engaged several musicians to accompany them40 ,i am afraid the only music you will hear in these dreary quarters is the shout when the 8snipes10 as my lieges the stokers call the coal-trimmers1 rush in at eight in the evening with the high feast known as the black pan4 ,this olla podrida consists of the remains of the saloon dinner1 and is always saved for the watch by the cooks and bakers in payment for the coal hoisted for the kitchens and galleys4 ,it is a grewsome feast1 as one may well imagine1 but it is the supreme luxury in the sea life of the stoker and his pals1 and is enjoyed point1 blade1 and hilt4 ,thrown together as the people are for a run only1 you find little of the messmate kinship which is so strong in longer voyages among seafaring men4 ,should any one of them become unfit for work through sickness 7and very ill he must be when the doctor excuses him from duty71 his mates1 the one he should have relieved and the other who would have relieved him1 each stand two hours of his watch4 ,but as the attendant abuse is great1 and the curses are loud and deep and bitterly personal1 no one1 save a very hard case1 will leave his work as long as he can stand up to it4 ,as for kindness and usefulness1 or any other saving grace1 they are unknown2 are1 in the grim pessimism of this iron trade1 never expected4 ,it is a hard1 hard life1 measured by decent standards1 and messieurs1 when you stray below1 and1 as tradition demands1 they 8chalk you0--ring you about with the mystic circle which means drink-money--be sure the ransom is not niggard1 be certain that with it you lend them from your brighter world the sunshine of a cheery greeting1 the tonic of a friendly smile4 ,for1 ,god help them1 they need it always4 ,the inspection is finished a little after seven bells1 and one by one the officers straggle on deck with their sextants4 ,should it be a fine day1 with moderate weather1 the noon observation for latitude is a simple one and is always sought2 though1 in the open1 these people running in regular lanes can place great dependence on their engine revolutions1 their well-tried compasses1 and1 if the speed is not excessive1 upon their taffrail logs4 ,when the sun crosses the meridian twelve o'clock is reported1 and 8eight bells are made0 by the captain1 for no lesser personage dare trifle with the astronomical proprieties hedging about this occult ceremony4 ,the ship's time1 however1 remains unaltered1 until the clocks are corrected at midnight from calculations based upon the chronometer ticking stolidly in the chart-room4 ,in the sweep of modern progress the sacred rite of heaving the log is no longer celebrated4 ,the speed is now too great for that rough-and-ready hit-and-miss at distance run3 and with its disuse1 worse luck1 a fund of old-time pleasant raillery has been eclipsed4 8,how fast are you going1 my man80 was an invariable question of the inevitable1 curious passenger to the ,jackie walking away with the dripping log-line4 8,fourteen and a ,dutchman1 sir10 would be his answer1 or1 if again pressed1 8,thirteen and a marine10 he would reply1 gravely1 to the joy of his grinning shipmates and to the mystification of the questioner4 ,but now no longer does the reel turn swift1 no longer does the sand run dry1 no more the chip dances on the waves or tugging line strain brawny muscles4 ,to-day the speed is read off from a little cylinder which twists its dials on the weather rail4 ,illustration3 ,watching for the ,sun on a ,cloudy ,day4 ,illustration3 ,night ,signalling4 ,the observations are worked out independently by the chief and second officers1 and the former submits his results to the captain4 ,of course these calculations cannot have the exactness of astronomical work ashore1 and luckily on the high sea this is not needed4 ,on the contrary1 over-precision often multiplies the error1 and it is good navigation if you can say with assurance that the ship is anywhere within an enclosing circle five miles in diameter4 ,of course it is widely different when a vessel is running in for the land or coasting1 for then the soundings1 the cross-bearings of well-known marks1 and the contour lines1 enable the position to be marked with very great accuracy4 ,the noon position of the ship is--next to dinner--the great event of the day1 and many are the pools and bets made on the figures of the run2 not only as to the distance1 but as to the probable time of arrival4 ,for if the voyage be now half over1 the novelty of sea life is at low ebb1 and the passengers1 save a few irrepressible spirits1 have lapsed into a gentle melancholy induced by the monotony of water1 water1 water everywhere4 ,they are tired of the sea1 of the ship1 of the cooking1 of each other1 in short1 of everything1 and are anxious only to arrive4 ,they have divided and subdivided1 and differentiated into cliques1 and have nursed dislikes1 usually founded on feminine fancies1 until these have become mortal antipathies4 ,in a perfunctory way they follow a routine which finally drags a lengthening chain4 ,they get up and pitchfork on their clothes1 and eat1 lounge about1 doze1 muffled to the eyes1 in lashed steamer chairs1 read languidly1 gossip spitefully1 and eat1 and eat1 and eat1 and then1 wearied to bitter boredom1 go to bed again4 ,the men drink more than is good for them1 indeed some of them have an eager and a nipping air all day long2 and as for smoking1 why1 those who can are blowing moist and soggy weeds and fondling explosive pipes from morn till dewy eve4 ,the noisy ones--and what nuisances they are with their aggressively robust health and unfailing cheerfulness--play all manner of stupid sea-games1 horse-billiards1 quoits1 and shuffle-board1 and sometimes venture upon such silly practical joking that you wish a sea would wash them overboard4 ,no one sees much of the ship's officers except perhaps the ubiquitous purser and the amiable doctor1 and how these two1 harried and beset as they are by a hundred cares1 by the little miseries of other people1 can present an unfailing front of courtesy1 can go smilingly and cheerily about their duties1 is one of the sea mysteries yet unsolved4 ,blow high or low1 and in fair weather or foul1 they are ever the same1 bright1 beaming1 optimistic1 encouraging--8fresh as a garden rose1 soothing as an upland wind0--and knowing the strain put upon you by silly men and fretful women1 gentlemen1 ,i salute you1 chapeau bas4 ,illustration3 ,the ,deck ,steward4 ,in the beginning there was a struggle for seats at the captain's table1 and heartburnings are not unknown to those who sit a little lower at the feast4 ,but these are not the wise or wary ones1 not the tough and devilish sly travellers who know their bread will be best buttered by rallying around the purser or forming in hollow squares about the shrine where the doctor sits enthroned4 ,the captain's duties permit him to go below rarely save at dinner-time1 and as for the other officers1 they live and mess alone and are as cloistered1 so far as the passengers count1 as the preaching friars of ,saint ,dominic4 ,illustration3 ,captain's ,breakfast4 ,once in every voyage boat drill is held1 and sadly insufficient for the people on board is this same boat equipment4 ,but the drill is usually a passably fair one1 and1 given time1 adequate perhaps for any demands made upon the ship by outside distress4 ,and let it be added that never yet1 when the word has been given1 have those gallant men who walk their watches so quietly and so uncomplainingly1 been known to fail if succor were needed by helpless mariners4 ,it may be that death stares them in the face1 that their mission may be another tragedy1 but they never question4 ,honor to them and to all the unrecorded heroes1 the uncrowned martyrs of that western passage4 ,who may number them8 who tell their gallant deeds8 ,true descendants are they of those 8who first went out across the unknown seas1 fighting1 discovering1 colonizing1 and graving out channels through which the commerce and enterprise of ,england have flowed out over all the world40 ,you may count1 as a rule1 upon disagreeable weather in the ,western ,ocean1 and this tries the temper of people who might be saints ashore2 and1 say what you will1 even under the most promising environments1 women are out of place on shipboard4 ,however1 if the days are reasonably pleasant as the voyage shortens1 the monotony becomes so much a habit as to be no longer a burden4 ,the little animosities which seemed eternal disappear1 and friendships are made1 and toward the end all but the hardened cases1 the mental dyspeptics1 or those to whom sea-sickness is a serious matter1 really enjoy the voyage4 ,the tonic of the sea-air courses like an elixir in the blood3 young women begin to take notice1 and you hear rippling laughter1 and see1 in place of gloom1 the sunshine of happy smiles4 ,this is usually the season when the concert is given1 and the uneasy spirits of the ship exploit the talent they have discovered4 ,usually there are a dozen mild rows over this performance1 and invariably a great dispute as to the distribution of the money4 ,this is apt to divide the ship temporarily into two warring camps1 but in the end the ship's officers have their way1 and the ,american dollars jingle musically in ,english contribution boxes4 ,more or less jollity is always afloat in the smoking-room1 for here eddy the flotsam and jetsam of the ship4 ,here1 too1 the speculative gentlemen1 their friends and lambs1 usually play cards from early forenoon till the lights are turned out4 ,there is not much growling among these industrious workmen1 though at times when jack-pots go one way1 and the kitty or widow is large enough to make the losers boisterously assertive1 you may hear sharp words over the reckoning4 ,as for those who enjoy a quiet rubber1 they must find another retreat2 the smoking-room is ruled by the gods of clamor4 ,illustration3 ,the ,night ,signal of a ,disabled ,steamer4 ,and so the last days are apt to rush along pleasantly enough2 the solitude cheered by passing vessels and the lazy routine of the ship enlivened by congenial companionships newly found4 ,the edge of the ,grand ,banks is skirted happily without injury to the daring fishermen2 the ,georges are rounded1 and then1 oh1 happy hour for many homesick hearts6 the cry 8,sail ho0 rings out with newer meaning1 and a graceful pilot-boat wings toward them like the fabled sea-bird4 ,how they greet the bluff pilot1 coming as he does to their seeming helplessness out of the known and the enduring4 ,the speculative passengers find an especial interest in the incident1 for no pools are more favored than those made on the number of the boat1 no bets more frequent than whether the figures are odd or even4 ,after the assurance that the 8pilot is really on board0 over-sanguine and inexperienced females madly rush below and pack their trunks and get ready for an immediate shore-flitting1 afraid1 perhaps1 they will be late2 but there is many and many a tossing mile yet to steam ere the services of the adventurous pilot will be needed4 ,still1 a new delight possesses everybody1 and it grows as the hours fly1 until at last1 it may be at night1 perhaps1 some one bursts breathlessly into the crowded smoking-room or bar1 and cries exultingly3 8,there she is1 ,fire ,island ,light1 right over the starboard bow40 ,joyous faces gather near the crowded bulwarks1 and eager eyes hail with gladness the shining petals of that rose of flame which blossoms unfailingly above the shoaling waters2 for the voyage is nearly over1 and the morrow means to some the marvels of an unknown land1 to others1 luckiest and happiest of all1 home and dear ones4 ,,safety ,,on ,,the ,,atlantic4 ,,by ,,william ,h4 ,,rideing4 ,,the ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,sea--,,precautions ,,in ,a ,,fog--,,anxieties ,,of ,,the ,,captain--,,creeping ,,up ,,the ,,channel--8,,ashore ,,at ,,south ,,stack0--,,narrow ,,escape ,,of ,,the ,,baltic--,,some ,,notable ,,shipwrecks--,,statistics ,,since #ahch--,,the ,,region ,,of ,,icebergs--,,when ,,they ,,are ,,most ,,frequent--,,calamities ,,from ,,ice--,,safety ,,promoted ,,by ,,speed--,,modern ,,protection ,,from ,,incoming ,,seas--,,bulkheads ,,and ,,double ,,bottoms--,,water ,,tight ,,compartments--,,the ,,special ,,advantage ,,of ,,the ,,longitudinal ,,bulkhead--,,the ,,value ,,of ,,twin ,,screws--,,dangers ,,from ,a ,,broken ,,shaft--,,improvements ,,in ,,the ,,mariner',s ,,compass1 ,,the ,,patent ,,log1 ,,and ,,sounding ,,machine--,,manganese ,,bronze ,,for ,,propellers--,,lights1 ,,buoys1 ,,and ,,fog ,,signals--,,the ,,remarkable ,,record ,,of #ahij4 ,it is not when the seas come pounding over the bows that the captain's face lengthens4 ,even when it is necessary to keep the passengers below1 and the spray is carried as high as the foretop1 his confidence in his ship is unabated4 ,his spirits do not fall with the barometer1 and though the clouds hang low1 and the air is filled with stinging moisture flying like sleet from the hissing sea--even when boats are torn out of the davits1 and iron bitts and ventilators are snapped from their fastenings like pipe-stems1 he has no misgiving as to the ability of the ship to weather the gale1 or the fiercest hurricane that can blow4 ,give him an open sea1 without haze1 or fog1 or snow1 and neither wind nor wave can alarm him4 ,he knows very well1 as all who are experienced in such matters do1 that the modern steamers of the great ,atlantic lines are so carefully constructed1 and of such strength1 that the foundering of one of them through stress of weather alone is well-nigh inconceivable4 ,but when a fog descends1 then it is that his face and manner change1 and he who has been the most sociable and gayest of men suddenly becomes the most anxious and taciturn4 ,his seat at the head of the table is vacant2 look for him and you will not find him1 as in fair weather1 diverting groups of girls tucked up in steamer-chairs on the promenade-deck1 but pacing the bridge and puffing a cigar which apparently has not been allowed to go out since it was lighted as the big ship backed from her wharf into the ,north ,river4 ,wherever and whenever it occurs1 fog is a source of danger from which neither prudence nor skill can guarantee immunity3 and whether the ship is slowed down or going at full speed1 there is cause for fear while this gray blindness baffles the eyes4 ,with plenty of sea-room the danger is least1 and it increases near land1 especially where the coast is wild and broken1 like that of ,ireland and ,wales1 and where there are many vessels as well as rocks to be passed4 ,probably the captain dreads but one thing more than a fog which comes down when he is making land4 ,when he can see the familiar lights and promontories1 he can verify the position of the ship and check his daily observations of the sun4 ,then it is plain sailing into port4 ,but when the strongest light is quenched and every well-known landmark is hidden1 and he has to feel his way with only the compass and the sounding machine to guide him1 the consciousness that a slight divergence from the proper course may lead to disaster1 keeps him on the pins and needles of anxiety1 and sears his brain to constant wakefulness1 as with a branding-iron4 ,illustration3 ,out of ,reckoning4--,a ,narrow ,escape4 ,a startling experience may be recalled3 ,the ship had swept down from the 8nor'ard0 like an arrow following the curve of its own bow1 and it was promised that we should see land early in the afternoon and reach ,queenstown soon after sundown4 ,the weather could not have been better2 it was clear and mild1 and the air1 the water1 and the sky were tinged with the silvery pinks and grays which often appear1 like mother-of-pearl1 in the atmospheric effects of that southern coast4 ,flocks of birds were resting on the surface of the calm sea and wheeling around the ship1 the gulls swinging within arm's length of the passengers leaning against the rail4 ,we steamed in among a fleet of fishing-boats with red sails--close enough to hear the greetings of the men1 and these voices made the assurance of land doubly sure4 ,then it was whispered that land could be seen1 and the searchers swept the eastern horizon with their glasses to find it4 ,they made many mistakes about it1 and explored the clouds1 deluding themselves with the idea that forms of rosy vapor were the ,kerry ,mountains4 ,they insisted upon it1 but presently the coast defined itself to a certainty1 coming out of the distance in bold masses of peak and precipice1 fringed with a line of surf4 ,the captain was in his gayest mood4 ,the baggage of the passengers for ,queenstown was whipped out of the hold by the steam winch and piled up on the main deck1 and they themselves were smartly dressed to go ashore4 ,already farewells were spoken and reunions planned4 ,we could see the black-fanged pyramids of the ,blaskets1 and the mountain-bound sweep of ,bantry ,bay4 ,fastnet would soon be visible over the starboard bow--perhaps the men in the foretop could already see it--and a little to the northward of that lay ,brow ,head1 whence in an hour or so our safe arrival would be flashed in an instant under the capricious sea which we had just crossed4 ,these were our anticipations1 but they were not fulfilled4 ,the strong1 piercing light of ,fastnet did not reach us that night1 nor any glimpse of the splendid beacons which blaze1 each in its own distinctive way1 for the guidance of the mariner along that ,channel4 ,we were not seen from ,brow ,head1 and the passengers for ,queenstown did not go ashore4 ,the captain's manner changed again from its wonted gayety to severe silence4 ,before it was noticed on deck1 those on the bridge discovered1 rolling down the ,channel1 a reddish-brown fog1 like a cloud from a battle-field1 which swallowed everything in its path--fishing-boats and all vessels in sight2 mountains1 cliffs1 and surf3 every light and every landmark4 ,in half an hour it had enveloped us and washed out with its sepia all the pearly iridescence which had filmed the sea4 ,nothing definite remained2 all became vague1 spectral1 curtailed4 ,the heart of the ship seemed to cease beating1 and then could be heard only in faint throbs as the engine was slowed down4 ,illustration3 ,landing ,stages at ,liverpool4 ,for the rest of the night everything was dubious4 ,the passengers gathered in knots on the wet decks1 talking in undertones4 ,you could hear the swash of the becalmed sea along the sides of the ship in the intervals of the blasts of the fog-horn1 which pierced the ear like a knife2 it was only when that demon was raging that the other sounds which had become familiar on board the ship were not more acute--the hum of the forced draft1 the asthma of escaping steam1 the voices on the bridge1 and the whirr of the bell in the engine-room4 ,the bell had been silent since it rang out1 8,turn ahead1 full speed60 when the pilot was picked up by the station boat of ,sandy ,hook1 but now the hand which recorded its messages was constantly going from side to side of the clock-faced dial4 ,at every stroke a fresh apprehension thrilled along the deck and imaginary shapes loomed up in the fog1 the rumors were wild and contradictory1 no sooner spoken than discredited4 ,see that blur of yellow ahead6 ,that must be a light--,queenstown1 perhaps1 and the tender coming alongside4 ,yes1 the bell has rung 8,stop her60 ,half of the passengers can see the blur of yellow1 half are not quite certain--all are mistaken3 the light burns only in their imaginations4 ,then they see the sails of a ship blotted on the fog2 they hear bells and whistles2 they listen for confirmation from the bridge4 ,little wonder that they are confused3 the engine-room bell tells a different story every few minutes--now 8,ahead60 then 8,astern60 now 8,full speed60 then 8,dead slow60 ,again the engine stops altogether2 in a minute or two the churnings of the screw1 sweeping toward the bow instead of in the wake1 show that the ship is backing1 and the fear of reefs1 of collision1 of running ashore1 deepens the silence of the anxious groups along the rail4 ,the escaping steam roars out of the copper-pipes riveted to the funnel2 louder and shriller the whistle drives its warning through the obscurity which surrounds us4 ,then we move 8,ahead60 once more1 and at midnight all hope of seeing ,queenstown is abandoned4 ,the passengers retreat to their cabins1 and the decks are left to the sailors and the officers1 who come in and out of the ghostly atmosphere--their oil-skins dripping with moisture and shining momentarily in the lamp-light4 ,never for an instant does the captain leave the bridge2 his cigar feeds its bluish wreaths to the fog2 he watches the glowing face of the compass1 and listens to the cry of the men who are working the sounding machine4 ,so the great ship creeps up the ,channel4 ,once in a while an answering blast is borne over the water1 a bell is heard tolling afar1 but never a thing is in sight4 ,it is a weary night for the captain1 but in the morning all is clear2 we are off ,holyhead2 the pulse of the engine has recovered its regularity2 the faces of the passengers are beaming1 and ,snowdon is visible over the starboard bow1 piled up in white vapor4 ,the navigation of the ,channel in foggy weather can never be free from danger1 and more fine steamers of the great transatlantic lines have been lost between ,fastnet and ,liverpool through fogs than through any other cause4 ,it was only last summer that the ,city of ,rome ran in a dense fog against ,fastnet itself--that perilous1 shore-less1 horn-shaped rock which stands in the direct pathway of all ingoing and outgoing ships--and barely escaped destruction4 ,a few years earlier1 when the ,cunarder ,aurania was approaching land in a fog1 the passengers who were smoking their after-dinner cigars suddenly saw looming above them1 and above the topmasts1 the cliffs which were supposed to be many miles away4 ,the captain was far out of his reckoning1 but was going so slowly that he was able to back into the ,channel with slight damage4 ,a similar accident to this happened to the ,white ,star steamer ,baltic when she was proceeding up the ,channel to ,liverpool4 ,one of the most brilliant lights in the ,channel is that of the ,south ,stack1 which lies under the flank of the mountainous precipice of ,holyhead4 ,the ,stack is an egg of rock1 much higher and much bolder than ,fastnet1 which has become detached from the main-land1 and its apex is crowned with the white tower and crouching buildings of the lighthouse keepers4 ,the sea is eating it away1 and has already scooped out a vast cavern which they call the ,parliament ,hall4 ,it is wider and loftier than any chamber at ,westminster1 and there is more justification for its name in the babble of the sea-birds flitting in and out of it than in its dimensions4 ,from the foot of it to the low1 white wall which encircles the light1 it is a sheer precipice of dark1 exfoliating rock1 forbidding and hopeless1 without a resting-place for any living thing less secure than the birds1 which cluster like beads on a string upon the edges of the shale4 ,the sea frets itself around it and gurgles in the cavern2 ledges and reefs abut on it4 ,all vessels aim to give it a wide berth1 and usually keep at such a distance that a glass has to be used to discover its destructive points4 ,to say 8ashore at ,south ,stack0 is as good as to say a 8total wreck40 ,there is hardly one chance in a hundred that the luckless ship which strikes here will live4 ,illustration3 ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 ,english ,channel4 7,tower about one hundred feet high47 ,the ,baltic was feeling her way up the ,channel1 and was supposed to be two or three miles off-shore4 ,the creaming of the breakers1 flowing and dissolving over the ledges like puffs of steam1 gave the first hint of danger1 and before the warning was of avail1 the dark shape1 darker than the fog1 sprang upon the dimmed vision of those on deck--a precipice that seemed to be toppling over them4 8,good ,god6 ,it is the ,south ,stack60 a voice cried out1 and there was no thought but of doom4 ,the bells in the engine-room and wheel-house pealed1 and the reversal of the screw sent the latherings surging toward the bow4 ,a moment of panic among the passengers2 a scurrying of figures on the bridge2 the resonant1 pistol-like snap of bending iron plates2 a sudden resistance to progress suddenly withdrawn--a confusion of ideas1 a murmur of relief1 comparative tranquillity again4 ,the hundredth chance was in favor of the ,baltic1 and backing into deep water1 she proceeded on her way to ,liverpool4 ,illustration3 ,a ,whistling ,buoy4 ,the three accidents described were without serious consequences1 but in most cases the same difficulty of fog and mistaken reckoning ends in disaster4 ,no less than five large steamers of the ,guion line have been wrecked between ,fastnet and ,liverpool--the ,chicago1 the ,colorado1 the ,montana1 the ,dakota1 and the ,idaho--representing a value of fully two and a half million dollars1 without cargo4 ,the ,cunard line lost the ,tripoli on the ,irish coast1 north of ,queenstown1 and the ,city of ,new ,york 7the first ,inman ship of that name7 came to grief on ,daunt's ,rock1 near ,roche's ,point4 ,the ,city of ,brussels1 of the same line1 had nearly completed her voyage and was lying off the ,liverpool bar1 waiting for the weather to clear1 the captain acting with the utmost prudence1 when an insufficiently manned and badly managed steamer1 the ,kirby ,hall1 ran her down and sank her4 ,account is taken here only of the passenger steamers of the well-known lines2 the record would be much expanded if it included the disasters to freight lines1 and to those uncared-for ocean tramps which when they go down often yield a better profit to their unscrupulous owners1 through insurance money1 than they do by carrying cargo while afloat4 ,from #ahch1 when the ,sirius crossed the ocean1 till #ahgi1 one hundred and forty-four steamers1 counting all classes1 were lost in the transatlantic trade4 ,the first was the ,president1 which disappeared mysteriously in #ahda4 ,during the thirteen years following only one life was lost by the wreck of an ,atlantic steamer1 that steamer being the ,cunarder ,columbia1 which went ashore in #ahdc4 ,in #ahed1 however1 the ,city of ,glasgow sailed with about four hundred and eighty souls on board1 and was never seen or heard from again2 and in the same year the ,collins line steamer ,arctic1 one of the fastest and finest vessels then afloat1 was sunk in collision with the steamer ,vesta during a dense fog1 off ,cape ,race1 and five hundred and sixty-two persons perished4 ,two years later the ,pacific1 of the same line1 went to sea with one hundred and eighty-six persons on board1 and was never heard from again4 ,between #aheg and #ahfd the ,allan line lost no fewer than nine steamers4 ,in #aheh the ,hamburg-,american steamer ,austria was burned at sea1 with a loss of four hundred and seventy-one lives2 in #ahgj the ,city of ,boston left port with over two hundred persons on board1 never more to be heard from4 ,on a dark night in ,april1 #ahgc1 the ,white ,star steamer ,atlantic ran ashore near ,sambro1 and five hundred and sixty lives were lost--some by drowning and some by freezing in the rigging into which they had scrambled1 or upon the ice-bound shore upon which they were cast4 ,note must be made also of the wreck of the ,german steamer ,schiller on the ,scilly ,rocks1 by which two hundred lives were lost2 of the running ashore in the ,north ,sea of the ,north ,german ,lloyd steamer ,deutschland1 by which one hundred and fifty-seven lives were lost2 of the sinking through collision of the ,hamburg-,american steamer ,pomerania1 by which over fifty lives were lost2 of a similar disaster to the ,cimbria1 of the same line1 by which eighty-four were lost2 and of yet another collision1 which sent the beautiful ,ville du ,havre1 of the ,french line1 to the bottom of the ,english ,channel1 with two hundred and thirty of her passengers and crew4 ,illustration3 ,lighthouse1 ,atlantic ,city1 ,n4 ,j4 ,of the one hundred and forty-four vessels lost up to #ahgi1 more than one-half were wrecked4 ,twenty-four never reached the ports for which they sailed1 their fate still being unknown2 ten were burned at sea2 eight were sunk in collisions1 and three were sunk by ice4 ,since #ahgi1 the most memorable disasters1 besides those already referred to1 have been the burning at sea of the ,egypt1 of the ,national line1 and the ,city of ,montreal1 of the ,inman line1 both without loss of life2 the stranding of the ,state of ,virginia1 of the ,state line1 on the quicksands of ,sable ,island1 which quickly entombed her2 the sinking of the ,state of ,florida1 of the same line1 by collision with a sailing ship2 the disappearance of the ,national line steamer ,erin1 which is supposed to have foundered at sea2 and the sinking of the magnificent ,cunarder ,oregon in collision with a coal schooner1 off ,fire ,island4 ,no line in existence has been wholly free from calamity2 no line in existence has not at least one page in its history to tell of anxious crowds besieging its wharves and offices for news of a ship that has never come in4 ,one speculates in vain as to the end of those ships which1 sailing from port in a seaworthy condition1 have disappeared without leaving a survivor to record their fate4 ,was it fire that consumed1 or ice that crushed1 or seas that swallowed them8 ,it may have been collision in a fog1 or an explosion of the boilers1 or the collapse of the engine1 or the bursting on board of some tremendous wave from which recovery has been impossible4 ,possibly boats and rafts have been lowered1 and when the ship herself has sunk1 there has still been hope of reaching land2 days of suffering2 glimpses of passing ships that have failed to see2 agony spun out1 and death at the end4 ,for all the patient waiting and listening of those ashore no whisper of the secret has come1 and no fuller account can be written than the word 8missing40 ,the region of fogs on the ,atlantic is also the region of ice2 fog and ice together are a greater source of peril than fog alone is1 even when a ship is making land4 ,under the latter condition there is the chance of hearing the warning voice of the 8syren10 the reverberation of the signal gun1 or the tolling of the fog-bell2 steam 8syrens10 guns1 or explosives of some kind1 and bells1 are all used as auxiliaries to the lighthouses in overcoming1 through the medium of sound1 the difficulties which fog opposes against the transmission of light4 ,the sounding machine comes into play1 and by registering the depth of water1 and bearing testimony to the character of the bottom1 affords further protection to the navigator4 ,but the shoals and islands of ice1 which1 with their outreaching1 submerged spurs1 come drifting down from the ,arctic into the track of the transatlantic steamers1 are unprovided with anything which might tell the ship bearing upon them in thick weather of their proximity4 ,sometimes they may be detected by the echo from the whistle or fog-horn1 and by the rapid lowering of the temperature of the water in their vicinity4 ,these signs cannot be always counted on1 however4 ,the whistle may be going every twenty or thirty seconds1 and the quartermaster posted to the leeward with the little canvas bag and the thermometer with which the sea is tested for temperature2 all due precaution may be taken1 and yet no warning come of the ice that is ahead4 ,on a clear night a berg rising above the horizon will have the effulgence of a star2 on a clear day it will notch the horizon with its dazzling whiteness2 in a fog it looms up in the gray like a shadow upon a shadow1 and is invisible till the ship is close upon it4 ,illustration3 ,a ,bell ,buoy4 ,the ,hydrographic ,bureau at ,washington1 which is in many ways useful in transatlantic navigation1 issues a series of charts of an area of ocean reaching eastward from ,newfoundland4 ,there are twelve of them1 one for each month of the year1 and they differ only in certain pencillings which vary from month to month4 ,let us examine the set issued for a recent year4 ,in the chart for ,january five little pyramids are clustered together in the sea1 with a sixth to the north of them2 in ,february the pyramidal little figures can be counted by the score1 surrounded by zig-zag lines--they look like an encampment2 in ,march the zig-zag lines have disappeared1 and the tents1 so to speak1 are more scattered2 in ,april they are much the same as in ,march1 but in ,may they have increased enormously and can be counted by the hundred1 reaching from the far north to over a hundred miles southward of the ,grand ,banks4 ,in ,june they are fewer1 and in ,july fewer still4 ,in ,august only about twenty are visible2 in ,september not more than ten2 in ,october two1 in ,november one1 and in ,december two4 ,the zig-zag lines disappear earlier than the pyramids2 the former represent field-ice1 the latter ice-bergs2 and thus it is seen that during one year there was not a single month in which the transatlantic route was entirely free from danger from those sources4 ,in #ahhb the bergs appeared in ,february and disappeared in ,august2 ,february1 ,march1 and ,april are the months for their appearance1 and they often linger till ,october or ,november4 ,illustration3 ,at ,close ,quarters1 ,among the ,icebergs4 ,field-ice has its source in the ,arctic basin and along the coasts of ,labrador and ,newfoundland1 and is carried south either by the current from the ,arctic or that from ,east ,greenland4 ,fully eighty per cent4 of the bergs have their origin in ,west ,greenland1 and most of them are fragments of glaciers1 broken off in a process known as 8calving10 as the glaciers slide into the deep water along-shore4 ,thousands are thus set adrift each year1 and once adrift they begin their journey southward4 ,only a small proportion of the whole number ever reach the track of the steamers2 some ground in the ,arctic basin and break up in the frigid zone1 to which they properly belong2 they are very fragile1 and the concussion of a gunshot is occasionally sufficient to shatter them2 some are borne across from ,greenland to ,labrador1 and lodge there until they dissolve1 or crumble to pieces with the noise of thunder4 ,the journey of those that escape disintegration in the north is slow4 ,if they drifted directly south and met with no obstructions1 they would be four or five months in reaching the transatlantic routes2 and being liberated in ,july and ,august they would consequently beset the path of the steamers in ,december and ,january4 ,few of them1 however1 are not delayed1 and most of them have been adrift at least a year from the time of 8calving0 before they arrive south enough to trouble the steamers4 ,some are several years in making the journey2 they are held for a season in a shallow2 locked up during the ,arctic winter2 released with the return of summer2 caught again for another winter1 and when once again liberated1 retarded in their southward course by the necessity of ploughing through the field-ice before them4 ,not only are there wide variations in the date of the appearance and disappearance of the bergs in the transatlantic routes from year to year1 but in different years they reach a different southern limit4 ,it is this variability which causes mischief4 ,if their movements were always the same1 it would be easy for the captain to choose a course which would avoid them1 but a course which may be entirely safe one year is often beset the next season by large quantities of ice1 both in the forms of bergs and of field-ice4 ,the list of calamities from ice is a long one4 ,it was only a few years ago that the ,arizona1 when going full speed1 crashed into a berg and stove in her bows4 ,from her stem to a point about thirty feet aft nothing remained of her but a tangle of shapeless iron1 and that she did not sink immediately was due to the smoothness of the sea and the strength of her forward bulkhead1 which withstood the pressure of the water and enabled her to reach ,st4 ,johns1 ,newfoundland4 ,in the records of the ,hydrographic ,office it appears that1 from #ahhb to #ahij1 thirty-six steamers were more or less injured by ice in the ,north ,atlantic1 though some of these were freighting and coastwise vessels1 and not of the class to which this article particularly refers2 and the commonest explanation offered of the fate of the missing ships is collision with ice in fog or in the darkness of night4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having come to this point1 the reader is probably of the opinion that the heading of this chapter is a mistake1 but the reverse of the picture has yet to be shown4 ,notwithstanding all the peril from fog and ice1 and from the fury of cyclones and hurricanes1 the steamers of the transatlantic lines are so staunchly built and so capably handled1 that a man is less likely to meet with accidents on board one of them than he would be in walking the streets of a crowded city4 ,never before have so many passengers been carried as are carried now4 ,the ships that were regarded as leviathans fifteen or sixteen years ago are as yachts compared with more recent additions to the various fleets4 ,scarcely more than ten years have elapsed since sixteen knots was the maximum speed2 now it is twenty knots1 with the certainty of an almost immediate increase to twenty-one or twenty-two knots4 ,the tonnage has been increased within the same period from a maximum of five thousand to ten thousand five hundred1 and while ten years ago two hundred cabin passengers were as many as any steamer could accommodate with a reasonable degree of comfort on one voyage1 it is not uncommon now to find over five hundred as the complement of one steamer4 ,when steamers of sixteen and seventeen knots were built1 it was said that they were too large and too fast1 and that they would surely come to grief1 but experience has proved them to be as safe as any4 ,in fact1 those who are best qualified to know1 declare that the augmentation of speed promotes safety4 ,this point was fully discussed by the captains of the principal lines not long ago1 and the opinions expressed were almost unanimously in favor of the faster ships4 ,they not only diminish the period of exposure to such dangers as there may be in the transatlantic voyage1 but from the superior power of their engines and boilers they are better fitted for overcoming those dangers4 ,they are able to escape from areas of fog and storm sooner than slower vessels1 and are more easily handled in thick and in heavy weather4 ,from the rapidity with which they can be manuvred1 they can avoid collisions which would be inevitable under some conditions with slower ships2 if a collision becomes unavoidable their impetus enables them to cut the obstructing vessel in two with comparatively little injury to themselves4 ,it is not conceivable that the element of danger can ever be wholly eliminated from the navigation of the ,atlantic1 but notwithstanding the extent and difficulty of the traffic1 and the size and speed of the ships1 which1 flying to and fro in all kinds of weather1 arrive in port at all seasons with a promptness and regularity quite equal to that of express trains on land1 the number of accidents in proportion to the number of passengers is constantly diminishing4 ,more cabin passengers are carried from ,new ,york to ,european ports in one summer now than were carried in the whole of the first quarter of a century of steam navigation on this ocean2 but while the latter period was full of disasters1 such as the loss of the ,arctic with four hundred and sixty-two lives1 and the loss of the ,austria1 with four hundred and seventy-one lives1 we now see hundreds of thousands of passengers crossing1 with a sense of security which a remarkable record of immunity from accident fully justifies4 ,illustration3 ,lighthouse1 ,sanibel ,island1 ,fla4 ,the improvements in the character of the accommodations have not been greater than the improvements designed to reduce the dangers of the transatlantic trip to a minimum2 they are found in the structure of the hulls1 the engines1 and the boilers2 in the apparatus of navigation2 in the numbers and discipline of the crews1 and in the appliances for life-saving1 such as rafts and life-boats4 ,the old ships of twenty years and more ago were built on the lines of sailing vessels1 and a poop extended with scarcely a break from the fo'c's'le to the quarter-deck4 ,when a sea came on board it was held as in a sluice between the high bulwarks and the poop1 swashing fore and aft with the pitch of the ship1 until it drained off through the scuppers4 ,most of the state-rooms were then situated below the main deck1 and after such a sea they were likely to be flooded2 many old passengers will remember how frequent an occurrence it was to find their cabins inundated4 ,this was the least mischief it did1 and when several seas were shipped in rapid succession1 the vessel was in danger of foundering4 ,the modern steamer is much better protected from incoming seas1 and the main deck is completely covered in1 instead of the bulwarks there is a simple rail and netting1 and any water shipped flows overboard as quickly as it comes on board4 ,but the greatest improvement of all in the direction of safety is the system of bulkheads and double bottoms introduced by the builders of the ,city of ,new ,york and the ,city of ,paris4 ,for many years past it has been the custom to divide all steamers by transverse bulkheads into so-called water-tight compartments1 the purpose of which is to increase their buoyancy and stability in case of collision4 ,the ,etruria1 the ,umbria1 the ,britannic1 the ,germanic1 and the ,arizona have nine compartments each4 ,excellent as the theory is1 the feeling of everybody acquainted with the subject has been distrustful of the manner of its application1 the chief objection being the inadequacy of the number of subdivisions4 ,sometimes1 as when the ,arizona ran into the iceberg1 the bulkheads have saved the ship1 but in other cases they have been of little or no use1 as in the case of the ,oregon4 ,the ,oregon was divided into ten compartments1 but she sank in a few hours after her collision with a coal schooner off ,fire ,island light4 ,the compartments have invariably proved useless when the ship has been struck amidships with sufficient force to open her engine and boilers to the sea1 though when the weather has been calm and the injury forward or astern1 they have kept her afloat4 ,the insufficiency of their number in proportion to the size of the ships has not been their only defect1 moreover4 ,in order to give an unobstructed passage along the decks it has been the custom to cut doors in the bulkheads1 and it has frequently happened that in the confusion following a collision these have been left open1 allowing the sea to rush from compartment to compartment1 either because they were forgotten or because they refused to work4 ,illustration3 ,the ,deep-sea ,sounding ,machine at ,work4 ,in the newest type of ship1 as represented by the ,city of ,paris and the ,city of ,new ,york1 there are no fewer than twenty water-tight compartments separated by solid transverse bulkheads1 which rise from the keel to the saloon deck1 eighteen feet above the waterline1 and which have no doors or openings of any kind whatever4 ,a few feet from the stem there is a collision bulkhead of extraordinary strength to protect the ship1 should she run 8bow-on0 against any obstacle--a reef1 a derelict1 or a vessel attempting to cross her path2 next1 aft of this come three compartments for steerage passengers or cargo2 then two compartments for saloon passengers2 then four compartments for boilers1 coal bunkers1 kitchens1 and machinery2 two more for saloon passengers2 one for second-cabin passengers1 and two1 those farthest aft of all1 for steerage passengers or cargo4 ,each compartment is thus isolated1 and only by a blow in the line of the dividing bulkhead could two compartments be flooded at once2 the bulkheads also serve in case of fire to prevent the flames from spreading4 ,still another safeguard becomes possible through the adoption of the twin screw4 ,the propellers are worked by two complete and entirely independent sets of boilers and engines1 and these are separated by a longitudinal bulkhead in addition to the transverse bulkheads already described4 ,in a single-screw ship this longitudinal bulkhead is impossible1 and the space in which her engine and boilers are situated is her most vulnerable point2 if she is struck there with sufficient force to make a fissure large enough to admit any considerable quantity of water1 nothing will save her from sinking4 ,in the case of the twin-screw ship1 however1 we have had the best of evidence1 within the past two years1 that with one of her engine-rooms flooded and open to the sea1 she will still float and be navigable4 ,for many years past the value of the twin screw has been debated by the builders1 the managers1 the captains1 and the engineers of the great transatlantic lines1 to whom it did not commend itself so readily as to the ,admiralty4 ,it was adopted for war-ships several years before any of the well-known passenger lines ventured to use it1 and its first appearance in this service was in the ,city of ,new ,york1 four years ago4 ,since then it has been adopted by the ,white ,star and the ,hamburg-,american lines1 and though the ,north ,german ,lloyd has not yet applied it to the recent accessions to its fleet1 its advantages over the single screw for passenger vessels1 as well as for war-ships1 are more generally conceded now than ever before4 ,the ,admiralty adopted it for the security it afforded1 and for its superior capacity for rapid manuvring4 ,another feature which recommends it is that1 should one of the two sets of engines become disabled from the breaking of the shaft1 or any other cause1 the opposite engine would be equal to taking the ship into port2 while a similar accident on a single-screw ship would compel her to make port under sail 7a very difficult feat with the modern type of ocean steamers71 or to wait for another steamer to take her in tow4 ,illustration3 ,off ,fire ,island1 ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,gedney's ,channel1 outside ,new ,york ,harbor1 at ,night4 7,lighted by electric buoys47 ,until quite recently1 the breaking of the shaft was more frequent than any other kind of accident to the transatlantic steamers4 ,when1 perhaps1 the ship was sailing along at full-speed1 a jar would come and shake her from end to end1 as though a rock or a submerged wreck had been struck4 ,the engine would rattle and the sails flap loosely in the wind1 and the familiar tremor of propulsion change to a softer heaving motion1 like that of a sailing vessel4 ,when the accident occurred in darkness and a gale1 it was more alarming than in daylight and a calm sea4 ,after a few minutes of uncertainty the news would fly that the shaft was broken1 and that the captain and the chief engineer were consulting in the engine-room4 ,then would come days1 and sometimes weeks1 of drifting1 with a corresponding and ever-increasing alarm on shore as the ship became overdue4 ,under favorable circumstances some headway could be made with sails1 and occasionally the disabled vessel reached port without assistance4 ,oftener1 however1 she would drift helplessly in the vacant sea until she was sighted by another steamer powerful enough to tow her4 ,left to herself1 she was in danger of falling into the trough of the sea and foundering1 and near land she was exposed to the perils of a strong current and a lee-shore4 ,arriving in port1 a claim for salvage was sure to be presented against her1 and in some instances the amount awarded was as much as thirty thousand pounds4 ,a broken shaft is still a disagreeable possibility1 but if one of the two shafts in a twin-screw ship breaks1 the other1 as with the engines1 remains to avert complete disablement4 ,an ingenious device has lately been patented to prevent a repetition of one of the most serious of recent disasters1 which was caused by the wearing away of the bracket upon which rests the final bearing of the shaft4 ,as this bracket is1 in the largest ships1 fully sixty feet from the stuffing-box1 a new danger is created from the fact that it is far outside the hull and out of sight of the engineers4 ,the invention referred to consists simply of a couple of completely insulated wires1 positive and negative1 connected by a battery1 an indicator1 and an alarm-bell in the engine-room4 ,the wires run under the shaft out through the stuffing-box1 and through the casing which protects the shaft from the sea2 then they enter the bracket1 where they turn from the horizontal to the perpendicular1 and terminate about three-quarters of an inch from the surface of the bearing4 ,should the surface wear away so as to imperil the shaft1 the latter would instantly come in contact with the ends of the wires1 the insulation would be broken1 the current closed1 and the alarm-bell rung4 ,then1 of course1 the engine would be stopped until an examination could be made4 ,though it promotes safety and is winning favor1 the twin screw has been applied so far only to the ,city of ,paris1 the ,city of ,new ,york1 the ,teutonic1 the ,majestic1 the ,columbia1 the ,normannia1 the ,frst ,bismarck1 and the ,augusta-,victoria4 ,credit for the infrequency of broken shafts does not belong wholly to this device1 therefore1 but in a much larger measure to the substitution of steel for iron and other improvements in the form and materials of the marine engine4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lightship1 off ,sandy ,hook4 ,the ,city of ,new ,york and the ,city of ,paris are also provided with double bottoms1 so that1 should the outer skin be torn1 the inner one would still exclude the sea2 and the efficacy of oil in calming the troubled waters has been so well established that apparatus for its distribution is placed in the bows4 ,the number of officers and seamen has been augmented1 so that the staff of navigating officers now comprises the captain1 the chief officer1 two second officers1 two third officers1 and two fourth officers4 ,great improvements have also been made in the mariner's compass and in the patent log and sounding machine4 ,the latter can be used when the ship is going at a high rate of speed1 and it records not only the depth of water but the character of the bottom1 which is nearly always a clue to the position of the ship when other signs fail4 ,had these instruments been less perfect1 we could not have made our way1 with so little delay1 past ,fastnet and up the ,channel to ,holyhead1 when the fog descended as we were making land4 ,illustration3 ,broken ,bow of ,la ,champagne1 after her ,collision outside ,new ,york ,harbor1 ,december1 #ahij4 ,still another improvement is in the material of which the propellers are cast4 ,in the new ships it is manganese bronze1 which has nearly double the strength of steel and is practically unbreakable4 ,sixteen or seventeen years ago the principal lines began to adopt the system of 8steam lanes0 originally suggested by ,professor ,m4 ,f4 ,maury1 as long ago as #ahee--that is1 to prescribe definite courses for their steamers1 based on calculations as to probable areas of fog and ice4 ,in following these fixed courses the steamers pass each other at an hour and a point on the ocean which can be foretold almost to a certainty1 and should one of them meet with an accident1 there is every probability that succor will reach her through one of her companion ships4 ,illustration3 ,a ,sunken ,schooner4 ,so keen is the rivalry between the various lines1 and so much does their success depend on a reputation for safety1 that self-interest1 in the absence of a higher motive1 is sufficient to stimulate them to leave nothing undone1 in the construction and manning of their vessels1 which may in any way be the means of averting disaster4 ,in furtherance of their efforts1 the ,british and ,american governments unite in giving them the most perfect system of lights1 buoys1 and fog-signals in the world4 ,when twenty or more miles at sea1 the captain may discern the rays of the first light1 and as he nears port and enters the ,channel1 there are nearly as many beacons as lamp-posts in a city street4 ,no testimony to the efficiency of the transatlantic service is more convincing than the record of #ahij4 ,the steamers were exposed1 as they must be every year1 to dangers from collision1 from ice1 from hurricanes1 from drifting derelicts1 on their way up and down the crowded ,channel and through the shifting sands at the estuary of the ,mersey2 they were constantly embarrassed by fogs4 ,nearly two thousand trips were made from ,new ,york alone to various ,european ports3 about two hundred thousand cabin passengers were carried to and fro1 in addition to nearly three hundred and seventy-two thousand immigrants who were landed at ,castle ,garden4 ,this enormous traffic was conducted without accident1 and no more comforting assurance can be given than this of safety on the ,atlantic4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,steamship ,,as ,a ,,freight ,,carrier4 ,,by ,,john ,h4 ,,gould4 ,,revenue ,,of ,,the ,,ship',s ,,cargo--,,amount ,,of ,,freight ,,carried ,,by ,,express ,,steamships--,,gross ,,tonnage ,,of ,,important ,,lines ,,running ,,from ,,new ,,york--,,the ,,merchant ,,marine ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states--,,the 8,,atlantic ,,limited0--,,the ,,sea ,,post-,,office--,,in ,,the ,,specie ,,room--,,enormous ,,refrigerators--,,the ,,new ,,class ,,of 8,,freighters0--,,large ,,cargoes ,,and ,,small ,,coal ,,consumption--,,the ,,ocean 8,,tramp0--,,advantages ,,of ,,the 8,,whaleback0--,,vessels ,,for ,,carrying ,,grain--,,floating ,,elevators--,,the ,,fruit ,,steamship--,,tank ,,steamships ,,for ,,carrying ,,oil--,,peculiarities ,,of ,,their ,,construction--,,the ,,molasses ,,ship--,,scenes ,,on ,,the ,,piers ,,when ,,steamships ,,are ,,loading--,,steam ,,hoisting ,,apparatus--,,how ,,the ,,freight ,,is ,,stowed--,,coaling--,,the ,,loading ,,of ,,cattle ,,ships--8,,cowboys ,,of ,,the ,,sea0--,,ocean ,,traffic ,,the ,,index ,,of ,a ,,nation',s ,,prosperity4 ,interesting as the ocean fleet is from the point of view of the passenger who crosses the seas on business or pleasure bent1 the part that steamships play in the commerce of the world is even more worthy of consideration4 ,there is a vast region between decks and down in the lower hold of which the ordinary traveller knows little4 ,and yet the ship's cargo brings to the owners a large portion of their revenue1 and makes possible the magnificent steamships of to-day4 ,there are #ejj1jjj1jjj invested in ocean-going steamships sailing from the port of ,new ,york alone6 ,the figures are appalling1 yet they are a conservative estimate of the wealth intrusted to the mercies of the ocean4 ,there are twenty-nine regular lines of steamships running between ,new ,york and ,european ports4 ,of these1 eight lines run express steamships1 and twenty-three lines carry passengers and freight4 ,the other six lines transport freight only1 and there are still other lines running to the ,west ,indies1 ,central and ,south ,america1 and our own ,atlantic coast and ,gulf ports4 ,seven steamship companies--the ,white ,star1 ,inman1 ,cunard1 ,north ,german ,lloyd1 ,hamburg-,american1 ,guion1 and the ,french line--have the record-breakers4 ,the ,teutonic and the ,majestic of the ,white ,star line1 and the new ,french liner ,la ,touraine1 are said to have cost #b1jjj1jjj each4 ,the ,city of ,paris and the ,city of ,new ,york1 of the ,inman line1 and the new ,hamburg-,american steamship ,first ,bismarck are supposed to have cost considerably over #a1ejj1jjj each4 ,the ,white ,star line steamships ,majestic and ,teutonic each carry1 in addition to their #a1ejj passengers1 some #b1ejj tons of freight4 ,this line has in all ten steamships--six devoted to passengers and freight1 and four to freight exclusively4 ,the ,inman line steamships ,city of ,paris and ,city of ,new ,york carry #a1bjj passengers each1 and still have room for #b1gjj tons of freight4 ,the ,cunarders ,etruria and ,umbria have each accommodations for about #a1fjj passengers1 and also take about #hjj tons of freight4 ,the ,north ,german ,lloyd line has twelve express steamships in the service1 with an average passenger capacity of #a1aej for all classes4 ,the freight capacity varies from #b1jjj to #b1ejj tons3 the line has three sailing days each week4 ,there are nine other steamships of the line sailing between this port1 ,baltimore1 and ,europe1 making the total number of their vessels twenty-one4 ,in ,october1 #ahia1 the line inaugurated a ,mediterranean service4 ,at all times there are eight of the express steamships belonging to this line at sea1 and two are in port at ,new ,york and two in the ,european port4 ,the ,hamburg-,american ,packet ,company has four express steamships1 forming a weekly service from ,new ,york1 and which is almost entirely devoted to the passenger business4 ,these vessels each accommodate about #a1bej passengers of all classes4 ,they have a small freight capacity--from about #fjj to #gjj tons of light cargo being the limit4 ,no perishable goods are taken4 ,the ,guion line steamships ,alaska and ,arizona have passenger accommodations for #a1cjj and #a1ajj1 respectively1 and their freight capacity is about #b1jjj tons4 ,the ,compagnie ,gnrale ,transatlantique1 or1 as it is more frequently called1 the ,french line1 has six express steamships1 with a freight capacity of #b1ejj tons each1 as well as accommodations for about #a1jjj passengers4 ,the ,wilson line1 with its thirty steamships1 is one of the greatest freight carriers in the world4 ,there are four distinct lines from ,new ,york1 one running to ,hull1 one to ,antwerp1 one to ,newcastle1 and one to ,london4 ,the latter is known as the ,wilson-,hill line4 ,the ,atlantic fleet1 flying the ,wilson flag1 has #aad1jjj gross tonnage4 ,some of the steamships of this line have passenger accommodations1 but the company confines itself almost exclusively to the carrying of freight4 ,the number and gross tonnage of steamships of the different lines are shown in the following table1 the tonnage being from 8,lloyd's ,register30 ,transatlantic ,lines4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,number of ,total ,lines4 ,steam- ,gross ships4,tonnage4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,wilson #cj #aad1jjj ,north ,german ,lloyd 7#ab direct and #i calling at ,baltimore7 #ba #aaa1ehe ,hamburg-,american 7including ,baltic line7 #ai #hb1ehi ,anchor 7including ,mediterranean service7 #ae #fc1jhc ,netherlands 7#i direct and #d calling at ,baltimore7 #ac #dc1cad ,national #ab #ed1jfb ,sumner #ab #db1hjj ,white ,star #aj #eh1afb ,florio #i #bb1ejj ,red ,star #g #cc1iei ,fabre #g #bc1fjj ,mediterranean ,new ,york ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #g #ae1jjj ,inman #f #da1bgf ,cunard #f #dj1bec ,french #f #df1ibg ,allan #f #bc1gch ,liverpool1 ,brazil ,river ,plate 7,atlantic service7 #f #ab1jjj ,guion #e #bb1fea ,bristol ,city #e #bd1jjj ,beaver1 during winter months #e #ag1ejj ,arrow #e #ac1jjj ,thingvalla #d #aa1ihe ,union 7,sloman's7 #d #aa1gej ,marseilles #d #ab1jjj ,great ,western ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #d #aj1jjj ,bordeaux #c #f1jjj ,white ,cross #b #e1afi ,linha de ,vapores ,portuguezes #b #c1ggg ,insular ,navigation ,co4 #a #b1hic ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,this list gives only the regular lines engaged in the freight and passenger business1 besides which there are the tank steamships1 the tramp steamships1 and a large number of vessels which call for orders from other ports1 as well as steamships which are chartered for special freights4 ,central and ,south ,american1 ,west ,indian1 and other ,lines from ,new ,york4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,number of ,total ,lines4 ,steam- ,gross ships4,tonnage4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,atlas #ab #bb1jjj ,booth's #aj #ad1jjj ,red ,cross #aj #af1bbe ,new ,york ,cuba ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #i #be1cjj ,red 8,d0 #f #aa1jbj ,quebec ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #f #i1jid ,royal ,dutch ,west ,indian ,mail #f #aj1aef ,united ,states ,brazil ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #e #af1djj ,compaia ,trasatlantica #e #aj1hff ,earn #e #ab1ejj ,union 7,sloman's7 #d #h1jjj ,clyde 7,west ,indian7 #d #f1fjj ,waydell's #d #d1ejj ,trinidad #d #d1jjj ,atlantic ,pacific ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #d #i1ijd ,pacific ,mail #c #h1hjj ,wessell's #c #d1ejj ,liverpool1 ,brazil ,river ,plate#ah #c #g1ejj ,honduras ,central ,american #b #c1jjj ,anchor 7,west ,indian ,service7 #b #b1jgg ,maryland #b #f1jjj ,new ,york ,porto ,rico ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #b #b1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,illustration3 ,loading ,grain from a ,floating ,elevator4 ,besides the regular lines there is a big fleet of tramp steamships4 ,during the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #ahia1 #acf of these steamships1 with #ajb1hef net registered tonnage1 entered at the port of ,new ,york4 ,this did not include the tramps who found their way here from ,west ,indian and ,south ,american ports1 or our own domestic ports1 or those who may have drifted in from provincial ports4 ,many foreign tramps find their way to this port in ballast1 seeking cargo1 or for orders4 ,aside from all these lines to foreign ports1 there are our coastwise steamships1 operated by a dozen or more lines1 prominent among them being the ,old ,dominion1 the ,savannah1 the ,clyde1 the ,mallory1 the ,cromwell1 the ,morgan1 the ,new ,york ,steamship ,company1 and the ,red ,cross lines4 ,the ocean steamship lines require an auxiliary fleet of harbor vessels as tenders to them4 ,of these1 the most numerous are the tow-boats1 or tugs1 as they are popularly called4 ,there are #cge tow-boats registered at ,new ,york1 but fully #djj float on the waters in the vicinity of the city4 ,about #ej tow-boats have a gross tonnage of over #ajj tons4 ,among the largest are the ,amboy1 of #bgb tons1 and the ,luckenback1 an ocean tug1 of #bee tons4 ,still larger than these are the ,vanderbilt and ,oswego1 the side-wheelers which pull the long strings of canal-boats up and down the ,hudson4 ,the tow-boats are fitted with powerful engines1 and the facility with which one little tug will pull a ship many times her size1 or a dozen canal-boats1 is a marvel to the visitor from inland districts4 ,the most powerful of these tugs have engines of #ijj indicated horse-power1 and of the type known as the fore-and-aft1 or tandem4 ,two of these harbor tugs1 the ,amboy and the ,raritan1 both belonging to the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company1 have been operated with twin screws for twenty years at least4 ,less than twenty-five per cent4 of the freight trade of the country is carried on by ships flying the ,stars and ,stripes4 ,during the calendar year of #ahij1 #cc1cei vessels engaged in foreign trade entered at the ports of the ,united ,states4 ,their total tonnage was #ah1eaj1cgd4 ,american vessels1 to the number of #aa1jcc1 carried #d1ccd1ggd tons of the total amount1 and foreign ships handled #ad1age1fjj tons4 ,the merchant marine of the ,united ,states has a total tonnage of #d1dbd1dig4 ,the coastwise fleet has an aggregate tonnage of #c1dji1dce2 the foreign trade1 #ibh1jfb2 and vessels registering #hg1jjj tons are engaged in the cod and whale fisheries4 ,the vessels belonging to the port of ,new ,york in #ahij were #a1igf sailing vessels1 of #dji1dfh tons2 #a1jcb steam vessels1 of #cgd1fgc tons2 #bcj canal boats1 of #bc1gji tons2 and #fga barges1 of #adc1edj tons4 ,the volume of the ocean freight is enormous4 ,some idea of it can be gathered from the statistics of imports and exports issued by the ,united ,states ,government4 ,of cotton alone1 the vast quantity of #b1ijg1cjh1jjj pounds was shipped from ,american ports during the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #ahia4 ,this is the largest quantity of cotton sent out of the country in any one year4 ,the value of the cotton exported was #bij1gjh1hih1 which is nearly half the value of the sum total of the four leading agricultural products4 ,this amounted to #ehh1bea1iab4 ,next to cotton1 the most important agricultural products exported were breadstuffs1 including grain1 which were valued at #abg1ffh1jib4 ,provisions1 including meats and dairy products1 amounted to #ca1fif1bcd4 ,it is worth noting that the total value of the exports of these five leading products was #ae1bfc1iea in excess of the same products in the previous year4 ,the total value of exports and imports of merchandise1 during the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #ahia1 was #a1gbi1ccj1hif1 an increase of #hb1aia1hjc over the previous year1 and of #bda1gig1hfi since #ahhi4 ,the foreign commerce of the ,united ,states for the year #ahij was the largest in the history of the country4 ,the movement of the vast quantities of agricultural products and manufactured goods kept the ocean fleet busy4 ,forty per cent4 of the total export trade of the ,united ,states goes from the port of ,new ,york4 ,during #ahij the export business from the five principal ports was as follows3 ,new ,york1 #cgj1cbb1dcj2 ,new ,orleans1 #ajg1cjj1fcg2 ,baltimore1 #gc1ifg1gif2 ,boston1 #gj1cfd1iee2 and ,philadelphia1 #cg1bda1fde4 ,the total from all ports was #hha1jgf1jag4 ,the imports in #ahij amounted to a total of #hbc1bhf1gce1 out of which ,new ,york received #ebg1dig1aif1 considerably over one-half4 ,it might be noted in passing1 that of the total amount of customs duties collected by the ,government in #ahij1 #fg4ag per cent4 came from ,new ,york4 ,time is a great factor in ocean freight transportation1 as well as in the passenger business4 ,in the old days when the clipper ship was considered a perfect type of ocean travel1 twenty days was a quick passage between ,new ,york and ,liverpool1 and when the ,red ,jacket made her famous trip in #ac days1 #a hour1 and #be minutes1 the feat created as much excitement as the breaking of a record by an ocean greyhound does in these days of marine triumphs4 ,the trip was made in #ahed1 and was an eastward one1 the sailer logging #c1jag miles from ,sandy ,hook to ,liverpool4 ,in the following year the clipper ship ,mary ,whitredge ran from ,baltimore to ,liverpool in #ac days and #g hours2 she travelled #c1djj miles4 ,another remarkable trip was made by the ,dreadnaught in #ahfj4 ,she sighted the ,irish coast in #i days and #ag hours after leaving ,new ,york2 but it took her three days longer to reach ,liverpool4 ,an instance showing the sailing quality of the old clipper ships occurred in #ahfd4 ,the ,adelaide1 of the ,williams ,guion line1 while on her way down ,new ,york ,bay1 was passed by the steamship ,sidon1 of the ,cunard line2 but the ,adelaide arrived in the ,mersey before the ,sidon1 having made the passage in #ab days and #h hours4 ,the clipper ship was the ocean greyhound of the ,fifties4 ,her lines were those of a racer1 her towering masts and broad expanse of canvas gave her the benefit of every breeze4 ,she carried only the better class of freight in addition to her passengers1 and it was not until some time after steamships had become an established fact that the passengers abandoned the clippers to the freight traffic4 ,for a time the sailing vessels held their own as freight carriers1 but the improvements in steamships of recent years have robbed them of the bulk of their trade4 ,they still hold their own for long sea voyages4 ,there is a limit to the use of steam1 and it is reached when the distance to be travelled makes the cost of coal and the space it occupies greater than the value of the cargo will warrant4 ,until some new motive power replaces steam1 or steam is produced by the use of petroleum or other concentrated fuel1 the clipper ship still has an occupation1 and the hearts of all old-time skippers will be gladdened by the sight of her white wings upon the seas4 ,in #ahej a #a1djj-ton sailing vessel was considered a big ship1 but some of the new ,british four-masted steel ships sailing between ,europe and ,america carry from #e1jjj to #f1jjj tons of cargo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,great as have been the changes in ocean transportation1 still greater changes are pending4 ,the transatlantic business shows the most marked changes4 ,from the old time packetship to the early type of steamship was but the first step4 ,faster vessels were built1 and the space devoted to cargo was encroached upon by enormous engines and boilers1 by big coal bunkers1 and by large saloons and an increased number of state-rooms4 ,the hulls changed from the bulging sides of the first types to the narrow1 racing pattern of to-day4 ,speed and the arrangements for the comfort of a large list of passengers robbed the vessels of their freight capacity1 and now the freight of an ocean greyhound is a secondary consideration4 ,this necessitated the creation of a distinct class1 known as the freighter4 ,the first railway cars having compartments for passengers1 baggage1 and freight were changed to express trains1 where speed and comfort are the first considerations1 and freight trains1 where carrying capacity is the main object4 ,in just the same manner1 and for the same reasons1 the ocean traffic is undergoing changes4 ,the day cannot be far distant when the passenger ships will take only passengers1 mails1 specie1 and express packages4 ,the best-informed nautical men to-day declare that the progress of the last five years1 remarkable as it has been1 is but a circumstance compared with the possibilities of the future4 ,illustration3 ,unloading and ,loading a ,coastwise ,steamer by ,electric ,light4 ,the ocean greyhound is simply an exponent of the times4 ,what the limited express trains are on land1 the racer is upon the sea--the 8,atlantic ,limited40 ,expense is no object4 ,the faster the ship1 the greater the rush for passage in her4 ,she is1 of course1 a floating palace of magnificence1 but speed is the main object1 and speed is at times as important for certain classes of freight as it is for passengers4 ,the hue and cry that steamship companies are endangering the lives of their passengers by ocean racing is pointed in the wrong direction4 ,it is the public who are to blame1 if blame it is to annihilate time and space by the genius of man4 ,the owners of these vessels spend millions to build ships1 and then risk both their capital invested1 and the reputation of their line for safety1 in order to satisfy their patrons4 ,people of the nineteenth century--,americans in particular--are in a hurry1 and never stop to consider the enormous expense1 the immense consumption of coal1 the fearful and terrible strain on the firemen and coal-passers down in the bowels of the great vessel4 ,everything is done with a rush4 ,lightning express trains across continents and racers upon the oceans are necessities of the day4 ,the love of record-breaking is universal4 ,the performance of the ,majestic on ,august #e1 #ahia1 thrilled the people of every nation4 ,her triumph of crossing the ,atlantic in #e days1 #ah hours1 and #h minutes was echoed round the world4 ,hardly had the echoes died out when her sister-ship--twin in size and type--the ,teutonic1 came into ,new ,york ,harbor with a better record still4 ,it was #e days1 #af hours1 and #cj minutes1 and the ,teutonic was crowned 8,queen of the ,seas40 ,but for how long8 ,the ,city of ,paris held her record for upward of two years2 the ,etruria and the ,umbria each was the crack racer for a year2 but the ,majestic only held the coveted place at the head of the ,atlantic fleet for just two weeks4 ,at the rate of increase of speed since #ahhj1 when the ,arizona was champion1 with a record of #g days1 #h hours1 and #h minutes1 we should have a five-day ship before many years1 and perhaps eventually a four-day ship4 ,at a #be-knot gait a steamship would cross from ,daunt's ,rock to ,sandy ,hook in #d days and #ae hours4 ,the ,teutonic averaged #bj4cdi knots for the entire trip1 and on a #bd-;hour run she averaged over #ba knots4 ,the success of the ,white ,star ships is bound to have a marked effect upon the future of ocean navigation4 ,the ,cunard ,company has already contracted for the construction of two steamships which are promised to outdo any of the present greyhounds2 and rumor has it that the ,inman line is about to add two new vessels to its fleet1 the plans of which are now prepared1 and it is expected that these new ships will go 8one better40 ,should this promise be fulfilled1 there is little doubt but that ,europeans who visit ,chicago's ,columbian ,fair in #ahic may cross the ,atlantic in five days1 or even less4 ,the freight capacity of the ocean greyhound1 however1 is small compared with her gross tonnage4 ,the engines1 boiler1 and coal bunkers1 and the space devoted to passengers1 leave but little room for general cargo4 ,thus the gross tonnage of the ,teutonic is #i1fhf1 and her net tonnage #d1bdd1 considerably less than half2 while the ,cufic1 a freight boat of the same line1 with a gross tonnage of #d1fci1 has a net tonnage of #c1jee4 ,the fast steamships therefore constitute the ocean express4 ,they carry the mails1 specie1 and freights of a perishable nature1 like meats and provisions1 or of a character that requires speedy delivery4 ,the mail is placed in a capacious compartment about #ej feet long1 #ae feet wide1 and #g feet high4 ,it is located on the lower orlop deck1 forward of the forehatch1 and is capable of holding about #a1jjj bags of mail4 ,the bags for the different countries are separated in transit1 and on arrival at ,queenstown the mails are landed1 provided there is time to catch the #ab4cj ,a4,m4 special train1 which is made up to connect with the mail-boat leaving ,kingstown early the same morning for ,holyhead4 ,should this connection be missed1 only the ,irish and ,scotch mails are landed at ,queenstown4 ,the other mails are landed at ,liverpool4 ,to the steamship ,trave belongs the honor of having carried the largest ,european mail ever shipped from the port of ,new ,york1 being #a1jjb bags1 in ,december1 #ahhi4 ,the largest ,european mail ever received at the port of ,new ,york was #a1jfb bags1 brought by the ,servia in ,december1 #ahij4 ,the system of sorting the mails on board ship1 which was recently inaugurated by the ,united ,states and ,german governments1 is a success4 ,it is in operation on eight vessels of the ,north ,german ,lloyd line and the four express ships of the ,hamburg-,american line4 ,this system is termed the 8sea post-office10 and is similar to a post-office on land4 ,the space required on board ship for the manipulation of the mails is equal to about three or four state-rooms4 ,for each vessel the ,united ,states provides one official1 and ,germany supplies another4 ,the latter has an assistant4 ,all disbursements are made at present by the ,german ,government1 but at the end of the year the two governments divide the expenses4 ,on the eastern trip all mails1 except the newspaper mail1 are landed at ,southampton4 ,only the ,german mail1 and that for countries beyond ,germany1 is sorted4 ,the ,british mail is put ashore unsorted1 in the same manner that it is on the ,british steamship lines4 ,the sorting of the mail during the passage enables the packages for each country to be forwarded direct from the nearest landing-point to their ultimate destination without delay4 ,the saving of time at ,new ,york ,city alone is from #d to #f hours1 and for ,pittsburg and for points west and south of that place1 where an immediate reply is required1 a saving of from #bd to #dh hours is effected4 ,the day cannot be far distant when all foreign mails will be sorted at sea2 the system indeed has been in operation for many years on the ,p4 ,o4 ships sailing to ,india and ,australia4 ,in these days of heavy gold shipments1 the specie-room on the steamship is a very important institution4 ,it is located in an out-of-the-way place amidships1 under the saloon4 ,few of the passengers know of its existence1 or of the valuable treasure that is carried across the ocean with them4 ,the room varies slightly on different ships1 but is usually about #af feet long1 by #aj feet wide1 and #h feet high4 ,it is constructed of steel plates one-quarter of an inch thick1 and strongly riveted together4 ,the floor1 the ceiling1 and the walls are all of steel plates4 ,there is a heavy door1 also made of steel4 ,it is provided with two ,english 8,chubb0 locks1 a variety of combination lock that is said to be burglar-proof4 ,the gold and silver is usually in bars1 but occasionally a quantity of coin in bags is shipped4 ,this was the case when the heavy shipments of gold were made last spring4 ,the ,majestic is credited with carrying the largest quantity1 her strong box having #d1ejj1jjj intrusted to it for safe keeping4 ,illustration3 ,the ,specie-room of a ,passenger ,steamship4 ,the fast steamships are provided with enormous refrigerators for carrying dressed beef and mutton4 ,the temperature is kept at about #cj degrees4 ,fruits1 vegetables1 butter1 cheese1 and bacon are shipped in large quantities in summer1 and apples1 oranges1 oysters1 and hops are sent over in the winter4 ,space is always reserved for the various ,european express companies4 ,next to the ocean greyhound comes a class of steamships requiring from #g to #h days to cross the ,atlantic1 and having accommodation for from #hjj to #a1jjj passengers of all classes1 and from #b1jjj to #e1jjj tons of freight4 ,both passenger and freight rates are slightly less than on the greyhounds1 a preference being given to the latter at certain times1 according to the condition of the market4 ,the slower ships are patronized by people to whom the saving of a few dollars is an object1 and by some who enjoy the ocean trip too much to be in a hurry about landing1 and by others who imagine all sorts of dreadful things are going to happen to the racers4 ,the class of freight carried varies but little from the faster ships1 except that the mails1 specie1 and express goods are usually lacking4 ,cotton1 tobacco1 and merchandise1 including manufactured goods and machinery1 form the bulk of the general cargo4 ,the next grade of steamship is the new type1 called the freighter4 ,it is the result of the tendency to build express ships1 and its object is to accommodate the freight which is crowded out by the speed requirements4 ,these ships combine enormous freight capacity with a high rate of speed and minimum coal consumption4 ,they have reduced the time of freighters between ,new ,york and ,liverpool from #af to #aj days without materially increasing the rate of freight4 ,they carry heavy goods of all kinds to the amount of #e1jjj tons1 and from #fjj to #hjj head of cattle4 ,to this class belong the four new ,white ,star ships1 the ,tauric1 the ,nomadic--both of which have twin screws--the ,runic1 and the ,cufic2 also the ,europe and ,america1 of the ,national line4 ,the ,nomadic has the record of carrying the largest amount of freight in one trip4 ,in ,august1 #ahia1 she carried #i1eia tons1 including coal necessary for the voyage4 ,the ,america1 of the ,national line1 left the port of ,new ,york1 ,march #ag1 #ahia1 with #h1egg tons1 including her coal1 which was the largest cargo on record at that time1 and until surpassed by the ,nomadic4 ,the ,england1 also of the ,national line1 carried #a1jbb head of cattle from this port on ,september #ah1 #ahhi4 ,this is the largest cargo of cattle ever carried by any ship4 ,just previous to the heavy duty on tin-plate going into effect on ,july #a1 #ahia1 the ,cufic brought the largest cargo of tin-plate on record1 being #gf1ebi boxes4 ,a type of ship which was at one time considered a first-class passenger vessel has been gradually forced from the trade by faster ships more luxuriously fitted1 and is now engaged in carrying general freight4 ,to this class belong the entire fleet of the ,national line1 some of which1 like the ,spain1 were at one time favorite passenger boats4 ,another class of freight steamship is that wanderer of the seas1 the 8tramp40 ,belonging to no regular line1 identified with no particular class of cargo1 having no regularity as to time of departure or ports of destination1 and with a hold that takes anything from cotton to guano1 from guano to bananas1 and from bananas to petroleum1 this nomad of the deep is a peculiar institution4 ,what more appropriate name than 8tramp0 can you suggest8 ,she is often a ship of considerable size1 and is usually chartered for cargoes of a heavy character1 but will take anything that offers4 ,she usually has engines of low power1 and her coal consumption is small4 ,she requires from #ae to #bj days to cross the ,atlantic4 ,in the summer of #ahia men who go down to the sea in ships were startled by seeing something new4 ,a type of vessel of which much is promised1 even to a revolution of the entire ocean freight business of the world1 successfully made the trip from the head of ,lake ,superior to ,liverpool1 and returned to this country4 ,this is the 8whaleback0 ,charles ,w4 ,wetmore4 ,built at ,west ,superior1 ,mich41 this original craft1 having more the appearance of a large barge than an ocean steamship1 has taken #hg1jjj bushels of grain1 from the heart of the grain-producing region1 through the lakes and the rapids of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 to the ocean and across to ,liverpool4 ,the vessel is shaped like a huge cigar1 pointed at both ends2 her deck is arched and without any obstructions1 save for a small turret forward1 and a deck-house aft4 ,the latter contains the cabin1 wheel-house1 and quarters for the captain1 officers1 and engineers4 ,when loaded1 the hatches1 which are huge iron plates1 are bolted down and form a smooth deck surface1 over which the waves have full play1 saving ,jack ,tar the trouble of using the holy-stone or swab4 ,the crew is quartered in the turret forward4 ,the machinery1 which is located directly aft1 consists of a compound engine of #hjj horse-power1 with a #bf-;inch high-pressure cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,whaleback0 ,steamship for ,grain and other ,freight4 ,the hull is made of steel1 and is #bfe feet in length1 #ch feet in breadth1 and the depth of hold is #bd feet4 ,four feet above the keel is an inner skin for additional safety1 and between this skin and the hull are nine compartments1 which are buoyant air-chambers when the ship is loaded1 and serve to hold water ballast when she has a light cargo4 ,a railing made of wire rope extends the length of the hull on each side1 and is intended as a protection for the men when they have occasion to visit their shipmates in the after part of the vessel4 ,the hold is one large compartment1 with a bulkhead forward1 where the men's quarters are1 and one aft1 where the machinery is located1 and also the firemen's quarters4 ,the ,wetmore draws #ag feet of water1 and her capacity is said to be #ajj1jjj bushels of grain1 or #c1jjj tons of other cargo4 ,the advantages claimed for the whaleback are her low cost of construction1 which is one-third less than that of an ,english tramp steamship of the same capacity2 her elongated1 elliptical form1 which offers less resistance to the wind and waves1 so that she can be propelled with less power than the ordinary steamship2 her small consumption of coal1 but from twelve to thirteen tons a day1 or about half that of an ordinary steamship1 being used2 and a crew of twenty men navigating the ,wetmore1 as against a crew of thirty men required to man another ship4 ,it is also stated that the ,wetmore can be discharged more quickly of grain or other cargo1 and that there is less rolling and tossing at sea than in the ordinary type of steamships4 ,but it must be remembered that as yet the ,wetmore is only an experiment4 ,her transatlantic trip was taken in ,august1 when the sea was most tranquil4 ,how she will behave in midwinter1 when her arched back will be coated with ice1 and her deck-works perhaps washed away1 is not quite clear4 ,her lack of life-boats and other life-saving appliances is also noticeable4 ,this type of vessel in some modified form will no doubt be a great success as a carrier of grain1 coal1 oil1 molasses1 and other bulky freights2 but the ,wetmore must be furnished with hoisting machinery or other devices in order to facilitate the quick loading of heavy materials1 before she becomes what may be regarded as a complete success4 ,to the three classes of steamships last mentioned1 the carrying of grain is a large item4 ,but there are at all seasons of the year vessels engaged almost exclusively in carrying grain4 ,about #b1jjj vessels loaded with grain sailed from the port of ,new ,york during #ahij4 ,the number was even greater in #ahia1 owing to the abundance and quality of the grain crop of the ,united ,states1 the small crops abroad1 and the action of the ,russian ,government in prohibiting the export of rye from its territory4 ,the sailing vessel is rapidly disappearing from the grain-carrying trade4 ,ten years ago there were #a1ghb sailing ships engaged in the grain trade1 now there are only about thirty cargoes in a year from ,new ,york4 ,the total amount of grain and breadstuffs exported from the ,united ,states in #ahij was valued at #ada1fjb1hdg4 ,of this ,new ,york shipped #cb-a_/d per cent41 and yet fears are entertained that ,new ,york will lose her grain business1 owing to the heavy port and storage charges compared with those of other seaports4 ,in #ahij1 ,new ,york handled #de1fdi1gfe worth of grain4 ,corn led in the amount shipped1 there being a total of #bd1cgd1gde bushels4 ,wheat came next with #ab1fjg1dhd bushels1 and there were #i1aib1bjc bushels of oats and #a1chi1dai bushels of rye4 ,there were #c1fic1eih barrels of wheat flour shipped from ,new ,york out of a total for the ,united ,states of #aa1cai1def barrels4 ,barley1 buckwheat1 and rice were exported in smaller quantities1 and cornmeal1 oatmeal1 and other preparations1 not included in the above figures1 were sent to foreign ports4 ,ships are specially fitted up for carrying grain4 ,the hold is divided into compartments by a longitudinal bulkhead in addition to the ordinary bulkheads4 ,this is done to prevent the cargo from shifting4 ,the hold is ceiled in order to prevent any waste of grain which is shipped in bulk in the lower hold2 shifting planks are placed on each side of the keelson and fitted to side stanchions between the beams1 and care is taken to secure the planks so that they will hold their places even in a rough sea4 ,the ,british ,board of ,trade requires that the hatches of the lower hold shall be supplied with a feeder or hopper capable of holding a sufficient quantity of grain to fill the hold completely as the grain settles2 these feeders extend above the lower deck4 ,the space between decks is filled with grain in bags4 ,care is taken in loading to stow these bags so that the space between decks will be entirely filled4 ,these requirements have been adopted by ship-owners and shippers generally4 ,with the exception of the ,american line from ,philadelphia1 ,united ,states vessels cut but a small figure in grain traffic4 ,their four vessels are the only ,american steamships engaged in the business4 ,in one year ,great ,britain carried #faf shiploads of grain1 or an aggregate of nearly #be1jjj1jjj bushels2 ,germany carried #afg shiploads1 or nearly #d1jjj1jjj bushels2 ,belgium carried #gj shiploads2 ,france1 #cc2 ,denmark1 #ba2 ,italy1 #ae2 ,spain1 #h2 ,austria1 #aj2 ,portugal1 #i2 and ,norway1 #f4 ,the handling of all this grain1 by the time it arrives by canal-boat or by railway from the ,west1 to the time that the ship sails from the harbor1 requires a large number of elevators and many men4 ,there are #ca floating elevators in the port of ,new ,york1 which are towed alongside of grain ships in order to fill in bulk4 ,the grain is simply pumped from the capacious bins of the elevator to the hold of the ship4 ,the large stationary grain elevators are used as much for storage as for loading vessels4 ,the number of stationary elevators in the port of ,new ,york is #bb1 and the total storage capacity of this port is #bf1jjj1jjj bushels4 ,some idea of the quantity of grain stored in one of these elevators may be gained from the fact that when the elevators of the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad ,company1 at ,sixtieth ,street and the ,north ,river1 were burned1 the loss on the grain alone amounted to at least #ge1jjj4 ,the elevators had a total capacity of #b1cjj1jjj bushels1 and contained only #ajj1jjj bushels at the time of the fire4 ,only one elevator was rebuilt4 ,the transfer capacity at the port of ,new ,york1 or the rate at which grain ships can be loaded1 is #deh1jjj bushels per hour4 ,another type of vessel is the fruit steamship4 ,there are about #ij in the tropical fruit trade between the ,united ,states1 ,west ,indies1 and ,central ,america4 ,bananas form the great bulk of the trade2 cocoa-nuts1 oranges1 pineapples1 and other fruits make up the balance of the cargoes4 ,the principal fruit ports in the ,united ,states1 besides ,new ,york1 are ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 and ,new ,orleans4 ,the steamships are built expressly for the fruit trade1 and are all1 or nearly so1 under the ,norwegian and ,english flags1 the ,norwegian ships predominating4 ,the hull is of steel lined with wood2 the space between the steel plates 7or outer skin of the vessel7 and the wood is filled in with charcoal1 which makes the ship a huge floating refrigerator4 ,the vessels are provided with all the latest improvements in motive power1 including triple-expansion engines and steam steering-gear4 ,some of the best ships devoted exclusively to the fruit trade have twin screws1 and have accommodation for from #aj to #ab saloon passengers4 ,their average speed is from #aa to #ac knots4 ,many of the ships have their engines and boilers further aft than is the case in ordinary freighters4 ,illustration3 ,unloading a ,banana ,steamship4 ,fruit steamships have three decks1 all open1 with a space of about two inches between each of the deck planks4 ,this arrangement assures a free circulation of air at all times1 and thus the fruit is preserved from heating and decay4 ,these ships carry from #ae1jjj to #be1jjj bunches of bananas1 each bunch averaging in weight from #fj to #hj pounds1 but some bunches have been found to weigh over #bjj pounds4 ,the fruit is 8stowed0 by an experienced stevedore1 who devotes himself exclusively to the fruit trade4 ,the bunches are placed on end along the decks1 until all the space is filled2 then a second and a third tier of bunches are laid flat1 one over the other1 in a manner that allows plenty of ventilation4 ,great care is taken to prevent the fruit from contact with salt-water1 which causes the black spots frequently seen on bananas4 ,after the vessels discharge the fruit they return in ballast for another cargo4 ,the bulk of the crop is shipped during the five months from ,february to ,august4 ,at the expiration of the season about one-third of the fruit vessels return to tropical ports and continue in the trade between there and the ,united ,states fruit ports during the winter4 ,the other ships return to ,europe with a grain cargo1 and are chartered for general freight until the next fruit season4 ,besides these vessels already mentioned1 there are also three or four regular steamship lines which are largely engaged in the tropical fruit trade4 ,the principal lines are the ,atlas line1 the ,pacific ,mail1 the ,anchor line1 and the ,honduras ,central ,american line4 ,the vessels of the ,atlas line are fitted with the most modern appliances for the preservation of the fruit4 ,all these lines have excellent passenger accommodation1 and carry a general cargo as well4 ,the total receipts of bananas at all ,united ,states ports in #ahij was #ac1bhd1gef bunches1 ,new ,york alone receiving #e1dcc1bie bunches of the fruit4 ,the principal ports of shipments were ,jamaica1 #b1ajh1ige bunches2 ,baracoa1 #a1dgh1eif bunches2 ,port ,limon1 #edg1igf bunches2 ,honduras1 #bje1bij bunches2 and other ports1 #abe1jjj bunches4 ,the ,mediterranean fruit trade requires a large fleet of steamships during the autumn and winter months4 ,oranges1 lemons1 limes1 ,malaga grapes1 raisins1 currants1 and nuts form the bulk of the cargoes4 ,sicily alone sends us #a1jjj1jjj boxes of oranges a year1 and half as many boxes of lemons4 ,spanish grapes1 to the amount of #fjj1jjj barrels annually1 and dried fruits in vast quantities from the various ,mediterranean ports1 make up an enormous import trade4 ,there are no steamships specially devoted to this business1 as the season lasts only a portion of the year4 ,the vessels employed are steamships which are well ventilated1 and having a good rate of speed1 as they all1 or nearly so1 carry passengers and a general cargo4 ,the ,florio line1 the ,mediterranean fleet of the ,anchor line1 and the ,mediterranean and ,new ,york ,steamship ,company1 handle nearly all of this class of trade4 ,the tank steamship1 for carrying oil in bulk1 is an ,american invention4 ,ship-builders declared for years that no vessel with a shifting cargo1 like oil in bulk1 would live through a gale1 but an enterprising ,yankee demonstrated the fact that petroleum could be pumped from the pipe line directly into the hold of a steamship and transported across the ocean in safety4 ,the cost of barrelling the oil is saved1 and there is also considerable economy in loading4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section of a ,tank ,steamship1 showing the ,expansion ,tank4 ,the tank steamship can always be distinguished by her odd appearance1 the funnel being placed a little forward of the mizzen-mast4 ,she has two decks2 the hold is divided into from #g to #i compartments or tanks for oil2 each tank has a capacity of about #d1jjj barrels4 ,an empty space of about two feet1 called a safety well1 is forward of the boilers and engines1 separating them from the cargo hold4 ,this empty space1 which has a bulkhead on each side1 is sometimes filled with water4 ,the depth of the tanks or hold is about #bd feet4 ,on the top of these tanks are expansion tanks1 about #e feet square1 reaching to the upper deck1 and provided with hatches4 ,the tanks are filled quite full1 but sufficient space is left unfilled in the expansion tanks to allow for the expansion of the oil1 which is one per cent4 in volume for every #bj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the tanks are filled by means of a very powerful pump1 situated at varying distances1 from a few yards to one-eighth of a mile from the ship4 ,the greatest care is taken in loading the vessel4 ,a man with a flag is stationed on the ship's deck1 and another man with a flag is placed at the tank4 ,the signal to start and to stop pumping is passed from one to the other4 ,the largest vessel can be filled in about twelve hours4 ,the balance of space between decks is used for storing coal1 the ship's fuel4 ,when the cargo is discharged in ,europe the tanks are filled with water ballast for the return trip4 ,illustration3 ,loading a ,tank ,steamship with ,oil1 by ,force ,pumps4 ,some of these steamships have been very lucky in picking up disabled passenger steamships1 which1 of course1 means a substantial salvage4 ,there are now about #gj of these tank steamships in the trade1 the majority of which are employed by the ,standard ,oil ,company and their connections1 and new ones are being constantly added to meet the increasing trade4 ,they are all under foreign flag--,english1 ,german1 and ,dutch--but the ,standard ,oil ,company owns a large interest in them4 ,these steamships are all supplied with triple expansion engines1 and are capable of maintaining a speed of from #h to #aa knots per hour on the small coal consumption of about #be tons for each #bd hours4 ,the ,bayonne is the fastest2 she made the trip from ,england to ,new ,york in #aa days1 averaging #aa4aj knots per hour4 ,they average from #b1jjj to #c1jjj tons gross1 and carry from #c1jjj to #d1jjj tons of cargo4 ,aft of the engine-room is the cabin and officers' quarters1 which are comfortable in every particular4 ,the crew is located in the forecastle1 as is usual on all vessels4 ,the crew number about #cj1 all told4 ,another type of steamship1 which is an outcome of the tank idea1 is the molasses ship4 ,these have been used with success in carrying molasses in bulk between ,havana and ,new ,york4 ,the ,circassian ,prince is a notable instance of this type4 ,the traffic in molasses is not very great at present1 but when the trade increases tank steamships will1 no doubt1 be largely employed4 ,the loading of an ocean steamship is a sight well worth a visit to one of the city piers to witness4 ,with the exception of the ,north ,german ,lloyd1 the ,hamburg-,american1 the ,netherlands1 and the ,thingvalla lines1 whose piers are in ,hoboken1 and the ,red ,star ,line1 and some of the ,inman vessels1 in ,jersey ,city1 the great transatlantic steamships dock along the ,north ,river1 from ,canal ,street up to ,twenty-fourth ,street4 ,the length of the steamships1 some of them being nearly #fjj feet1 make very long piers necessary4 ,these piers on a sailing day present an animated scene4 ,a long line of trucks1 loaded with all sorts of merchandise1 moves slowly down the pier1 each truck delivering its packages opposite the particular hatchway down which they are to be lowered4 ,the big ships load at four different hatchways at the same time4 ,steam-hoisting apparatus at each1 and separate gangs of men1 all1 however1 under the direction of one stevedore1 load and stow the immense cargo in an incredibly short space of time4 ,all prominent lines handle their own freight1 but some of the smaller lines give it out by contract to a stevedore1 who employs his own men4 ,about six gangs of twenty-five men each1 and about twelve foremen and dock-clerks are employed4 ,as many men are employed as can work to advantage4 ,the day men are relieved by other gangs of men who work at night4 ,in rush times a few men are added to each gang4 ,from #aj1jjj to #ajj1jjj packages constitute an ocean steamship's cargo4 ,the largest number of packages are carried at the season of the year when the ,bordeaux fruit canning trade is on1 and the proportion of small packages is increased4 ,some big packages1 such as a street-car completely boxed1 or a steam-launch enclosed in a case1 require considerable power and much skill to load4 ,heavy machinery and enormous cases are lifted from the dock1 swung over the open hatchway1 and lowered to the cavernous depths as quickly and easily as though they weighed but a hundred pounds instead of several tons4 ,the stowing of the freight requires experience and judgment4 ,the weight must be arranged so that the vessel stands upon an even keel1 and she must not be down at the bow1 or too low at the stern4 ,then the cargo must be stowed so that it will not shift4 ,the importance of this is seen when the rolling and plunging of the ship in a heavy sea is considered4 ,the cargo would not only be seriously injured if it tumbled about1 but the vessel would be unmanageable4 ,the stevedores and the 'longshoremen who attend to this work are experienced men1 and the difficulty of loading ships with inexperienced men caused the owners of many steamships to permit them to remain idle at the time of the great ,london dock strikes4 ,particular attention is paid to stowing the cargo of an ocean racer4 ,every package is fitted into place1 so that the cargo will be a solid part of the vessel1 and serve to ballast and trim her to the best advantage4#ai ,the ,north ,german ,lloyd line holds the record for rapid loading and unloading of cargo4 ,the ,eider arrived at #aj ,a4,m41 one day in ,january1 #ahij1 and in twenty-nine hours her freight was discharged1 and a full cargo1 the mails1 and her complement of passengers were on board1 and the lines cast off for a return trip to ,europe4 ,the ocean steamships are coaled at their docks4 ,the barges containing the coal are towed alongside1 on both sides of the vessel1 and the work of coaling commences immediately after her arrival in port4 ,it is hoisted up by iron buckets1 coaling on both sides going on at the same time4 ,it requires about four and a half days to coal one of the big greyhounds4 ,there are eight coal barges employed in the work2 each of these barges contains from #bej to #cjj tons of coal4 ,some of the lines get their coal from ,baltimore1 and others from ,norfolk4 ,the coaling1 as now conducted1 is a tedious as well as a dirty process1 and it is difficult to understand why lines have not adopted the elevator method which was tried on some of the naval and coastwise vessels some two years ago1 and proved a success1 both as to economy1 rapidity1 and cleanliness4 ,the experiment showed that #ejj tons of coal could be stowed away in the bunkers by chutes in one hour4 ,illustration3 ,a ,cattle ,steamship at ,sea4 ,the loading of cattle-ships is interesting4 ,the vessels are tied up to the docks in ,jersey ,city and ,weehawken1 where the stock-yards are located1 and the cattle are driven up a narrow gang-plank4 ,when steamships take grain or other cargo in the hold and cattle on deck1 the latter are usually loaded from barges at the wharf1 or while the vessel is at anchor in the bay4 ,occasionally a fractious steer breaks away from the drivers1 and1 plunging over the side of the gang-plank1 takes a bath in the water4 ,a sailor jumps in and passes a rope around the animal1 which is then hoisted on board by means of a block and tackle4 ,the cattle are placed in strongly constructed pens between decks1 as well as on the upper deck4 ,the space for each head of cattle is fixed by law at #b feet #f inches by #h feet4 ,the pens hold half a dozen cattle each4 ,experience has shown that there was greater loss when more room than this was allowed for the cattle4 ,a steer with plenty of room in his pen would roll from side to side and become bruised or crippled when a heavy sea was encountered4 ,by packing the cattle tightly1 they serve as buffers for each other1 and the loss is diminished4 ,within the last two or three years the methods of shipping cattle have been improved1 so that the loss is now less than two per cent4 ,the cost of shipping cattle from ,new ,york to ,liverpool is about half a cent per pound1 live weight4 ,this includes the care and the feed during the voyage4 ,from ten to a dozen men are employed to look after the cattle on the trip4 ,very low wages are paid these men1 as there are always a number of applications on hand from impecunious men who are desirous of working their passage to ,europe by taking care of the cattle4 ,a few men are regularly engaged in the business of taking care of cattle at sea4 ,they are known as 8cowboys of the sea10 and are big burly fellows who are used to rough living and to facing danger4 ,the work of feeding and watering the cattle is not an easy task in fair weather1 and with a rough sea on it is dangerous4 ,when severe storms are met1 the cattle become panic-stricken1 and the men are obliged to go among them and quiet them4 ,sometimes the pens are broken down in a gale1 and there is pandemonium aboard4 ,cattle-ships have arrived in port with only a small portion of the number of cattle taken on board1 but as the losses fall upon the shippers and the reputation of the steamship line is to some extent at stake1 they are1 therefore1 more interested in the safety of cattle at sea than anyone else4 ,the efforts of ,samuel ,plimsoll1 ,m4,p41 and the cattle inspectors of ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states1 have materially improved the methods of this traffic4 ,ocean freights are lower than those by rail4 ,they fluctuate from day to day1 and are affected by the supply1 and by the available tonnage in port4 ,grain was carried from ,new ,york to ,liverpool in #ahij for three shillings a quarter2 the increased shipments in #ahia advanced the price to from four shillings to four shillings and ninepence a quarter1 an advance of fifty per cent4 ,the increased rate on grain affects all other rates1 as the steamships vary their cargo according to the demands of the trade4 ,just previous to the time the ,mc,kinley ,bill went into effect1 space on the fast steamships commanded seven times the usual rate1 and hundreds of thousands of dollars depended upon the arrival of big consignments of dutiable goods within the time limit4 ,the demand for space on the ,north ,german ,lloyd line was so great that on one of the ships due to arrive in ,new ,york just before the new law went into effect1 when shippers could not obtain room in the hold1 several state-rooms were hired1 and filled full of cutlery and other goods on which there was a considerable advance of duty4 ,it will be remembered that in some instances tugs were sent out beyond ,sandy ,hook to meet steamships and sailing vessels which had been delayed1 and hasten their arrival4 ,the ,etruria reached ,quarantine at #aa ,p4,m4 on ,october #d1 #ahij4 ,captain ,haines was taken off on a tug1 which ploughed her way up the ,bay4 ,at the ,battery a team of fast horses was waiting1 and the captain rushed breathless into the ,custom ,house1 with barely one minute to spare1 before midnight1 when the new law went into effect4 ,thousands of dollars were saved by the timely arrival of the ,etruria4 ,the ,zaandam1 which had been chartered to bring over a large cargo of ,sumatra tobacco1 on which the duty was advanced #a4be per pound1 arrived a few hours late1 although she sailed three days ahead of the ,werkendam1 of the same line1 with a similar cargo1 which arrived in time to save the increased duty4 ,every nation is interested in the extension of its ocean freight-carrying business4 ,the welfare of the farmer1 the artisan1 and the merchant is interwoven with that of men who live on the sea4 ,commerce and the industries go hand in hand1 and the magnificent showing that the former makes is only an indication of the prosperity of the latter4 ,no more apt illustration of the growth of the ,american nation in the last quarter of a century can be pointed out than the development of her ocean traffic4 ,footnotes3 #ah ,there are several other lines1 like the ,liverpool1 ,brazil ,river ,plate1 and ,john ,norton's ,son1 which usually send out from four steamships a year to one a month1 but which are doing very little just now1 owing to the disorganized condition of trade in the ,river ,plate region4 ,reciprocity with ,brazil is counted upon to increase their trade4 ,there is one line of steamships from ,new ,york direct to ,indian1 ,chinese1 and ,japanese ports by way of the ,mediterranean ,sea and the ,suez ,canal4 ,it is operated by ,edward ,perry ,co41 and case oil forms the bulk of the trade4 ,about one vessel a month is sent out1 and this vessel has a tonnage of about #c1jjj gross4 ,carter1 ,hawley ,co41 and ,carter1 ,macy ,co41 had during the year #ahia about #be steamships consigned to them from ,china and ,japan1 the tonnage of which was about #fj1jjj gross4 ,inward these vessels are tea-laden1 but on the return trip they are usually chartered by other firms for general cargo4 #ai ,certain kinds of freight admit of peculiar packing1 of which an instance occurs to me in the loading of ,american cheeses4 ,the side-ports of the ship are opened1 and a series of inclined chutes are arranged so that the cheeses roll by their own weight from the truck on the pier through the open port1 and are switched off on side chutes1 which carry them to their final resting place1 where men stow them in solid layers4 ,some vessels1 not provided with side-ports1 hoist the packages on deck in nets and lower them down the hatchways4 ,some of these products of the ,american dairy return to us as ,english manufacture--the 8,cheshire0 and 8,double ,gloucester40 ,,steamship ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,,by ,,lieutenant ,,ridgely ,,hunt1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy4 ,,important ,,part ,,taken ,,by ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in ,,establishing ,,ocean ,,routes--,,rivalry ,,in ,,sailing ,,vessels ,,with ,,england--,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,gold ,,in ,,california--,,the ,,cape ,,horn ,,route--,,australian ,,packet ,,lines--,,the ,,problem ,,of ,a ,,short ,,route ,,to ,,india--,,four ,,main ,,routes ,,of ,,steamship ,,traffic--,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,regular ,,service ,,between ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,east--,,port ,,said ,,and ,,the ,,suez ,,canal--,,scenes ,,at ,,aden ,,and ,,at ,,bombay--,,the ,,run ,,to ,,colombo1 ,,ceylon--,,some ,,of ,,the ,,by-,,ways ,,of ,,travel ,,from ,,singapore--,,the ,,pacific ,,mail--,,from ,,yokohama ,,to ,,san ,,francisco--,,two ,,routes ,,from ,,panama ,,to ,,new ,,york--,,south ,,american ,,ports--,,magnificent ,,scenery ,,of ,,the ,,magellan ,,straits--,,beauties ,,of ,,the ,,port ,,of ,,rio--,,the ,,great ,,ocean ,,route ,,from ,,london ,,to ,,australia4 ,writers of maritime history give to the ,united ,states the credit of establishing long lines of communication by sea with far-distant countries4 ,as early as #aghi the merchants of ,boston despatched their ships direct to ,china and the ,east ,indies1 some time before ,england entered on this trade2 for the ,american vessels not only brought their cargoes to the home markets1 but also trans-shipped spices1 silks1 teas1 sugar1 coffee1 and cotton to ,europe4 ,in those times a skipper felt satisfied if he made the outward voyage of #ae1jjj miles1 by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in #aej days1 and came back via ,cape ,horn1 some #ag1jjj miles1 in the same time4 ,the development of the resources of the ,east by the ,east ,india ,company1 and the richness of the freights carried by the ,united ,states vessels--the proceeds of a single voyage often defraying the first cost of the ship--induced ,england to enter into competition2 thus starting that rivalry between the sailing fleets of the two nations that was long the admiration of the world4 ,in #ahde the ,american clippers1 long1 low1 of good beam1 very fine lines1 and with yards so square and spars so lofty as to set a greater spread of canvas in proportion to their tonnage than any ship hitherto sailed1 entered the race and left all rivals far astern4 ,then followed the days of which the old 8sad sea-dogs0 still love to tell1 when every stitch of sail was carried until the fierce wind blew it from the bolt-ropes2 when for weeks the lee scuppers lay buried in the seething waters and the flying jibboom plunged deep into the white-capped waves2 when the good ship ,sovereign of the ,seas came into port #ij days from ,hong-,kong1 and the town gathered on the wharf to welcome the daring navigators2 while the cargo of teas and coffees was sold at fabulous prices4 ,and these old salts still discuss the dinner given to the bold captain that night1 when the log of the voyage would be read and men would sit amazed at hearing that in #bb days the ship had sailed over #e1cia miles1 that for four days her daily run had been #cda4h miles1 and that in one day she had done #cge miles1 at the rate of #ae4f knots4 ,the discovery of gold in ,california started a line of travel #ad1jjj miles long from ,europe and the ,eastern seaboard of the ,united ,states via ,cape ,horn to the western coast of ,north ,america4 ,ships on this line took out merchandise of every description to be used in building and maintaining the city of ,san ,francisco1 and after landing this freight1 for which they received #be a ton1 they sailed for ,china1 whence1 after loading with teas and sugars at #be and #cj a ton for freight1 they returned direct to the ,united ,states or ,england4 ,in the meantime ,australia had been opened up1 and the ,australian packet lines1 leaving ,london for ,melbourne #ab1jjj miles away1 were making #ajj-;days voyages by way of the ,cape1 8with a chance of being drowned40 ,this line carried many passengers1 but it was not until #ahej that this traffic began to assume such importance that vessels were run on regular schedules for its accommodation4 ,during the time of the ,crimean war this trade was enormous1 and the ,liverpool packet lines between ,england and ,new ,york reaped a rich remuneration in spite of serious accidents4 ,it is reported that in the year #ahed no less than nine emigrant ships foundered at sea4 ,the day of the sailing ship on short routes was now closing1 for the steamship entering into competition1 gradually absorbed the lucrative passenger traffic and much of the more valuable freight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in looking over the history of the lines of the world1 none is found to have exerted more influence upon subsequent progress than the old route between ,india and ,england4 ,this route at first doubled the ,cape of ,good ,hope--a distance of #ad1jjj miles1 so long and uncertain that the ,east ,india ,company frequently sent their despatches by way of the ,persian ,gulf and then overland between ,bagdad and ,constantinople4 ,the successful crossing of the ,atlantic ,ocean by the steamship ,savannah suggested the possibility of a like means of communication with ,india4 ,accordingly1 the ,english side-wheel steamship ,enterprise1 of #dgj tons1 #abb feet long1 bark-rigged1 left ,falmouth in the year #ahbe and reached ,calcutta1 after a voyage of #ac1gjj miles1 in #aac days1 of which #fd were steaming days4 ,this result1 though unsatisfactory1 stimulated efforts looking toward remunerative steam navigation in the ,east4 ,the first steamship arrived at ,macao1 ,china1 in #ahcj4 ,as an inducement to people to choose this novel mode of travelling1 a ,canton paper contained the following notice of a steamer3 8,she carries a crew1 a surgeon1 a band of music1 and has rooms elegantly fitted up for cards and opium smoking40 ,the problem of a short route to ,europe from ,india was practically solved in #ahcj1 by sending a steamer from ,bombay to ,suez1 a distance of #c1jjj miles1 in #be days4 ,in a few years a regular line was established between the two places1 connecting with steamers at ,alexandria by means of a camel service across the desert4 ,the camel post was succeeded by four-horse vans1 and later these were followed by the ,suez ,canal and the railway4 ,with the progress of time sailing-ships have given way to steamships1 and the routes of communication which they1 after years of navigation1 did so much to establish1 have become the highways of an enormous trade1 along which large and swift steamships are constantly going to and fro with the certainty and regularity of railway trains4 ,a steamer to-day leaves her wharf at the moment of time set forth in her schedule1 and arrives at the terminus of her voyage--it may be many thousand miles away--with almost equal promptitude4 ,like railway traffic1 steamer traffic follows certain main routes or grand trunk lines1 having numerous feeders or subsidiary lines4 ,the great ocean thoroughfares of the world are3 #a4 ,the route across the ,atlantic1 through the ,mediterranean ,sea1 ,suez ,canal1 and ,red ,sea1 to ,india1 ,china1 ,australia1 and eastern ,africa4 #b4 ,the route by the ,pacific ,ocean to ,japan1 ,china1 and ,australia4 #c4 ,the route by the ,atlantic ,ocean down the east coast of ,south ,america1 and around ,cape ,horn1 to western ,america and ,australasia2 and #d4 ,the route down the ,atlantic and the west coast of ,africa1 around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 to ,east ,africa1 ,australasia1 and the ,east4 ,the number of steamers traversing these grand routes1 and those tributary to them1 is estimated to be more than #aa1jjj4 ,in order to emphasize the importance of ocean navigation1 the appended table#bj of the number of steam vessels1 their money value1 and the value of the merchandise they carry1 is given for the five greatest nations of the globe3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,number ,gross ,value of ,value of of ,steam ,tons4 ,vessels4 ,trade carried ,vessels4 in ,vessels4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,great ,britain #f1djc #h1bce1hed #eej1jjj1jjj #c1dgf1ejj1jjj ,germany #gda #ibh1iaa #fc1ejj1jjj #a1fbd1jjj1jjj ,france #ebf #hji1eih #dh1ejj1jjj #a1dga1jjj1jjj ,united ,states #daf #eag1cid #db1jjj1jjj #a1dfb1ejj1jjj ,italy #bab #cjj1fbe #bb1jjj1jjj #dae1jjj1jjj ,russia #bcf #ajf1aee #ab1ejj1jjj #fj1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,showing ,,the ,principal ,steamship ,routes4 ,owing to the various lines of communication which have been opened up1 the traveller is now offered the choice of a number of routes1 each vying with the other in attractiveness and interest4 ,for instance1 the whole journey from ,london to ,constantinople can be performed with no more than #ag hours of sea-passage2 or1 if a more leisurely way be preferred1 the whole journey can be made by water4 ,therefore the first thing to be done is to determine the route to be followed1 and the time to be given the trip4 ,then the dates of sailing should be settled4 ,these preliminaries concluded1 there comes the question of the selection of steamers4 ,if ,england is to be visited1 passage must be booked on some line bound to that country4 ,if1 however1 the objective point be on the ,continent1 a room should be engaged on some line bound for ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 or the ,mediterranean4 ,the number of steamers engaged in the regular passenger service between the ,eastern seaboard of the ,united ,states and the ,old ,world is probably greater than most travellers imagine4 ,at the present time there are upward of thirty-five distinct lines1 each with a larger or smaller fleet of steamers regularly engaged in ,atlantic transport4 ,six of these1 the ,cunard1 the ,white ,star1 the ,anchor1 the ,guion1 the ,national1 and the ,inman1 sail between ,new ,york and ,liverpool4 ,four others1 the ,norddeutscher ,lloyd1 the ,hamburg-,american ,packet ,company1 the ,union line1 and the ,baltic line1 trade between ,new ,york and ,german ports4 ,the ,national line1 the ,hill line1 and the ,wilson line go to ,london2 two others1 the ,allan-,state and the ,anchor1 to ,glasgow4 ,two ,french lines1 the ,general ,transatlantic and the ,french ,commercial ,steamship ,company sail for ,havre and ,marseilles4 ,two lines communicate with ,dutch ports1 the ,netherlands-,american ,steam ,navigation ,company1 and the ,royal ,netherlands ,steamship ,company2 two more1 the ,red ,star and the ,white ,cross lines1 leave for ,antwerp2 one line1 the ,thingvalla1 steams to ,copenhagen1 and the ,general ,italian ,navigation ,company1 and the ,anchor line1 make ,italian ports4 ,the regular service by steam between ,europe and the rich and varied ,east1 by way of the ,mediterranean1 ,suez ,canal1 and ,india1 is carried on by several different companies1 the best known of which are the ,peninsular ,oriental ,company of ,england1 the ,messageries ,maritimes of ,france1 the ,norddeutscher ,lloyd of ,germany1 and the ,austrian ,lloyd of ,austria4 ,each of these mail lines offers to travellers all that can be desired in the way of food1 quarters1 comforts1 and facilities for seeing strange lands and peoples2 so the selection of any particular one must be decided by personal considerations4 ,the ,p4 ,o4 7as the ,peninsular ,oriental ,steam ,navigation ,company is commonly called7 is one of the most extensive steamship organizations in the world1 the yearly distance run on all its lines1 main and subsidiary1 exceeding #b1ejj1jjj miles4 ,in #ahdj the company began the carrying of ,english mails in steamers between ,alexandria and ,london1 receiving for this service a subsidy of #afj1jjj a year4 ,to-day the fleet numbers #ej vessels1 which touch at ports of importance in the ,mediterranean1 ,egypt1 the ,indian ,ocean1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,australia1 and the subsidy received for the transportation of mails to and from all these parts is #a1gej1jjj per annum4 ,if the traveller wishes to go by this line1 he may commence his journey from either ,london or ,plymouth1 cross the ,bay of ,biscay1 where the chances of getting an ugly sea and perhaps a gale of wind are about even1 and entering the ,mediterranean1 make ,gibraltar his first port1 #e days and #a1cjj miles distant from ,london4 ,a stay of #d hours will allow a short run on shore4 ,a drive around the superb ,rock is worth the taking1 also a visit to the battery1 where the #af-;inch #ajj-ton guns keep watch over the threshold of the blue sea4 ,loquacious guides tell of an under-the-sea tunnel between the fortress and ,apes ,hill1 ,africa1 through which monkeys have passed1 and that once upon a time five venturesome sailors started down this subway2 three of them soon turned back1 those remaining--but 8that is another story40 ,illustration3 ,deck ,quoits on a ,p4 and ,o4 ,liner4 ,from ,gibraltar the ,p4 ,o4 steamers steer for ,malta1 #ihj miles away1 generally through a smooth sea1 though in winter northwesters blow at times with great violence off the ,sicilian coast1 raising a heavy sea in the channel4 ,in summer the winds are from the southward1 hot1 humid1 and prostrating1 but they are not of frequent occurrence nor of long duration4 ,on the fourth day the traveller is landed in ,valetta1 with #h or #aj hours at his disposal4 ,he should see the interior of the ,church of ,st4 ,john1 where the floor is made of mosaic tablets in memory of the old knights1 each tablet bearing a coat of arms formed by the most skilful inlaying of marble tiles4 ,from ,malta to ,port ,said is #ice miles1 made in #d days4 ,in winter there may be a norther4 ,the traveller has now1 after having gone #c1bjj miles in #ac days1 reached the port to which all ships bound southward make their way4 ,here will be found ,p4 ,o4 steamers that have come from ,brindisi with the ,indian mails1 having stopped at ,alexandria to ship them by rail to ,suez4 ,this route1 known as the ,indian ,mail1 is the quickest of all between ,europe and ,india4 ,the train service runs from ,london to ,brindisi in less than #ej hours4 ,from ,brindisi1 where the steamer is waiting1 and where the mails and passengers are hurried aboard1 the run is made to ,alexandria1 #hbe miles away1 in #c-a_/b days4 ,at ,alexandria mails and through passengers are transported by rail to ,suez in #af hours1 and from ,suez a steamer leaves for ,bombay via ,aden1 arriving #ab days later2 the whole journey from ,london to ,bombay1 #d1jbj miles1 having taken #ah days4 ,a second great ,english line that makes for ,port ,said is the ,british ,india ,steam ,navigation ,company1 incorporated in #ahef to open up the coasting trade of ,india4 ,this organization1 upon the opening of the ,suez ,canal1 despatched the first steamer through to ,london that carried an ,indian cargo4 ,shortly afterward regular routes were inaugurated between ,london1 ,aden1 and the ,persian ,gulf2 and between ,aden and the ,african coast to ,zanzibar4 ,also a trunk route was established for the various coasting lines of ,india1 extending from ,london to ,calcutta4 ,a further extension was begun about ten years ago1 when ,batavia1 ,thursday ,island1 ,brisbane1 and ,sydney in ,australia were added to its itinerary4 ,the ,british ,india ,steam ,navigation ,company employs on its main and auxiliary routes a fleet of over #ajj vessels1 large and small1 that traverse about #c1jjj1jjj miles a year4 ,if the traveller has reached ,port ,said from ,marseilles1 he has doubtless come in the ,messageries ,maritimes steamer4 ,this great ,french undertaking began its first over-sea contract in #ahea1 carrying mails as far as ,egypt4 ,the next extension of operations was a line to ,brazil and the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,finally a mail contract established the route to ,india1 ,china1 and ,australia4 ,to-day the ,messageries fleet comprises #fe superb vessels that have cost about #bg1jjj1jjj2 and the aggregate distance they steam amounts to #b1ebj1jjj miles every year4 ,the ships bound for ,china leave ,marseilles and ,naples1 and make the ports of ,aden1 ,colombo1 ,singapore1 ,saigon1 ,hong-,kong1 and ,shanghai4 ,a second main line stretches from ,aden down to the ,seychelles ,islands1 ,mauritius1 ,melbourne1 ,sydney1 and ,new ,caledonia4 ,the ,messageries ,company also operates lines to the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america4 ,to ,port ,said comes also the ,norddeutscher ,lloyd ,imperial ,steamship ,company1 better known as the ,german ,mail4 ,the ,east ,asian mail line of this company was established only in #ahhf1 and is rapidly growing in importance and favor4 ,the steamers leave ,bremen1 call at ,antwerp1 ,southampton1 and ,genoa1 thence through the canal to ,aden1 ,colombo1 ,singapore1 and ,hong-,kong1 to ,shanghai4 ,the mail route to ,australasia reaches the ports of ,adelaide1 ,melbourne1 and ,sydney1 whence a branch line leads to the ,samoan ,islands and ,tongatabu4 ,the ,german ,lloyd also operate a line from ,trieste via ,brindisi to ,alexandria4 ,for carrying the mails on the above three lines1 in accordance with government stipulations1 the ,german ,lloyd receives a subsidy of #a1jdg1fai per annum4 ,some of the other long lines operated by this efficient organization1 which owns more than #ge ocean steamers1 are those between ,bremen and the ,united ,states1 between ,bremen and ,brazil1 and between ,bremen and ,montevideo and ,buenos ,ayres4 ,table of ,distances1 ,days1 and ,approximate ,prices from ,london ,eastward by ,sea to ,san ,francisco4 ,from ,new ,york to ,london is #c1jjj miles1 #g-h days1 and #ajj4 ,from ,san ,francisco to ,new ,york by rail is #c1jjj miles1 #f days1 and #bjj4 ------------------ ,london4 ---------------- ,miles4,days4,price ------------------------------- #a1bii #e #de ,gibraltar4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #b1bhj #i #ge #iha #d #cj ,malta4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #c1bae #ac #ajj #a1iaf #h #fj #ice #d #ce ,port ,said4 --------------- --------------- #d1faj #bj #abe #c1caaae #abe #b1ccjaa #abj ,aden4 --------------- --------------- #f1bgd #bg #bej #d1igebb #bdj #c1iidah #bbj ,bombay4 --------------- --------------- #f1gjc #ca #bej #e1djdbf #bej #d1dbcbb #bdj ,colombo4 --------------- --------------- #h1cfb #ch #bij #g1jfccc #bgj #f1jhbbi #bej ,singapore4 --------------- --------------- #i1gii #de #cdj #h1ejjdj #cdj #g1eaicf #cdj ,hong-,kong4 --------------- --------------- #aa1fja #ec #cij #aj1cjbdh #cij #i1cbadd #cij ,yokohama4 --------------- --------------- #af1fjj #ga #eij #ae1ghjff #eij #ad1hjjfb #ehj ,san ,francisco4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ------------------ ,port ,said4 ---------------- ,miles4,days4,price ------------------------------- #a1cie #g #abj ,aden4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #c1jei #ad #bjj #a1ffd #g #ij ,bombay4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #c1dhh #ah #bcj #b1jicaa #ajj #hge #d #dj ,colombo4 --------------- --------------- #e1adg #be #cjj #c1gebah #bbj #b1ecdaa #acj ,singapore4 --------------- --------------- #f1ehd #cb #cdj #e1ahibe #bej #c1igaah #aij ,hong-,kong4 --------------- --------------- #h1chf #dj #cgj #f1iiacc #cjj #e1ggcbf #bdj ,yokohama4 --------------- --------------- #ac1hfj #eh #eej #ab1dfjea #dej #aj1ggedd #cfj ,san ,francisco4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ------------------ ,colombo4 ---------------- ,miles4,days4,price ------------------------------- #a1fei #g #ij ,singapore4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #c1jif #ad #aej #a1dcg #g #fj ,hong-,kong4 ------------- ,miles4,d4,price ---------------------------- #d1hih #bb #bjj #c1bciae #ajj #a1hjb #h #gj ,yokohama4 --------------- --------------- #i1ijj #dj #cce #h1bdjcc #bej #f1hjjbf #bjj ,san ,francisco4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ------------------ ,yokohama4 ---------------- ,miles4,days4,price ------------------------------- #e1jjj #ah #bjj ,san ,francisco4 ------------------------------- ,the ,austro-,hungarian ,lloyd's ,steam ,navigation ,company1 the fourth great main line passing through the ,suez ,canal1 was organized about the year #ahdj1 with #g steamers for ,mediterranean trade4 ,in time1 the company prolonged its lines1 until1 under a liberal government bounty1 routes were established between ,trieste and ,hong-,kong1 and between ,trieste and ,brazil4 ,for the proper performance of all these services the ,austrian ,lloyds are paid an annuity by the ,government amounting to #hjj1jjj4 ,the fleet1 all told1 numbers #ge ships1 valued at about #aj1jjj1jjj1 and steams over #a1cjj1jjj miles every year4 ,of the different steamship corporations that despatch their vessels by way of the ,suez ,canal to ,australia1 the ,orient ,steam ,navigation ,company of ,london deserves special mention4 ,in #ahgh it founded a first-class line to ,australia1 which to-day is a formidable rival of the ,peninsular ,oriental ,company1 receiving a like subsidy of #dbe1jjj for transporting the mails between ,naples and ,adelaide in #cb days1 a distance of #i1jjj miles4 ,there are many other companies sending vessels1 via the ,canal1 to ,india1 to ,china1 and to ,australasia2 on nearly all of them the traveller can find comfort and good cheer1 should he desire to be longer at sea and longer in port4 ,the names of a few of the most important of these companies are as follows3 ,under the ,english flag3 the ,ducal1 the ,hall1 the ,harrison1 the ,clan1 the ,star1 the ,city1 the ,direct1 the ,mac,iver1 and the ,anchor lines2 the ,national ,navigation ,company of ,france2 the ,navigatione ,generale ,italiana 7,italian mail7 of ,genoa2 the ,compaia ,trasatlantica1 from ,barcelona1 ,spain2 the ,nederland ,india line from ,amsterdam2 a ,russian line2 and a ,turkish line4 ,some of these steamers make the east coast of ,africa for cargoes2 some go to ,australia2 some to the ,spice ,islands1 ,java and the ,philippines2 some go no farther than ,india2 and1 finally1 some reach ,japan1 ,corea1 and ,vladivostock4 ,illustration3 ,entrance to the ,suez ,canal at ,port ,said4 ,port ,said1 the product of the canal1 is built on the flat sands at the entrance of the ,suez ,canal4 ,its harbor1 formed by two long breakwaters1 contains one of the largest coaling depots in the world1 where vessels are supplied at the rate of #bjj tons an hour4 ,the place is noted for its wickedness2 it abounds in ,french cafs and dance-halls where wine1 women1 and music continue the night long4 ,the traveller should purchase a white helmet at ,port ,said2 these hats are cheap1 and add considerably to personal comfort4 ,the steam traffic of the place is enormous2 last year #c1chi vessels traversed the canal4 ,the average time of transit by day is #bd hours2 by night with electric lights it is #ai hours1 and has been done in #ae hours4 ,in order to navigate by night1 a vessel must light the way by carrying an electric projector at her bow as close to the water as possible1 and pay the closest attention to the orders from the passing stations or gares4 ,three white lights shown vertically indicate 8slow down20 then the display of two white lights is the order to stop and haul in to the gare4 ,the steamer presently hauls in1 makes fast1 puts out all lights1 and lies snug in her berth alongside the desert1 while the oncoming vessel1 looking like a locomotive at night1 passes by4 ,one white light from the gare and lines are let go1 and the journey continued until ,suez is reached4 ,suez is an uninteresting collection of shipping-houses and squalid native huts1 with a few tumble-down mosques4 ,donkeys and donkey-boys swarm along the docks1 and if the vessel stop an hour or two the novelty of such a ride may be enjoyed4 ,the heat of the day is intense1 but the nights1 especially in the canal1 have a 8soft1 warm witchery0 about them that is delicious4 ,after leaving ,suez the way lies through the ,gulf of the same name1 into the ,red ,sea1 where the water is blue1 the background light brown1 the hazy atmosphere pink1 and the temperature red-hot4 ,vessels spread double awnings and hang up side curtains1 but there is no escaping the intolerable heat experienced day and night going down this sea with the wind aft4 ,far away to the left1 in the dim distance1 is the fast-receding brown peak of ,mount ,sinai2 other well-remembered biblical places stretch along the indistinct coast line2 the ship speeds southward2 the constellations in the blue heavens of night begin to change2 the ,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb are passed2 and as the four points of the ,southern ,cross arise bright and sparkling1 the anchor is let go off ,aden1 in ,arabia4 ,aden1 on its rocky and bare volcanic peninsula1 is the ,gibraltar of the ,red ,sea4 ,it interests the traveller because of the big black ,somalis1 the oily1 avaricious ,jews1 and the thin1 ungainly camels moving up and down the streets4 ,the town is too hot for enjoyment2 it is better to stay on board ship1 buy an imitation ostrich feather from a cheating ,jew1 and throw coppers into the water for little shave-headed naked negro boys to dive after4 ,illustration3 ,the ,port of ,aden1 ,arabia4 ,during a stay of a few hours vessels fill up with coal and fresh provisions1 land a small cargo of naval stores1 cotton1 and cotton-twist1 and after taking on board coffee 7nearly all ,mocha is shipped here71 dye-stuffs1 feathers1 dates1 etc41 depart for ,bombay1 for ,colombo1 for ,australia1 and for ,africa4 ,the weather along the highways of the ,indian ,ocean is generally fair and warm1 with a smooth sea1 though1 during the southwest monsoon1 from ,may to ,september1 there is a perceptible swell1 and when this trade-wind sets in1 in ,may1 it is sure to bring gales1 rain1 lightning and thunder4 ,august is the best summer month for cruising in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the northeast monsoon1 the winter trade-wind1 is less violent than the southwest1 and has clear skies and a milder temperature4 ,however1 in going round the world1 passengers1 like ships1 should take their chances with the weather1 for having it fair at ,bombay may bring it foul at ,calcutta4 ,illustration3 ,a ,deck-bath in the ,tropics4 ,vessels make ,bombay1 #a1fgj miles eastward of ,aden1 in #g days1 and go alongside the docks when the tide permits4 ,the traveller should at once hurry ashore to gaze with wonder at the infinite variety before him4 ,for here are congregated ,indian princes dressed in flowing robes of richest colors2 ,brahmins and ,buddhists with turbans of softest texture bound about their brows2 ,parsees in long1 white1 full-skirted coats and odd-shaped-high hats2 ,turks in fezzes2 ,chinamen in silks2 ,persians in white trousers1 loose alpaca coats1 and shako astrakhan hats2 effeminate ,cinghalese1 ,jews1 ,mohammedans1 and ,europeans from ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,russia4 ,along the water front pass unceasingly women1 straight as javelins1 tall1 lithe1 and graceful1 their breasts covered by tight sleeveless tunics1 their waists and hips wound in light flowing gauze4 ,silver bangles adorn their arms and legs1 and rings glisten in their noses and ears1 and on their toes and fingers4 ,bare-legged1 bare-footed1 their black hair tucked loosely up upon their shapely heads1 on which are poised high brass water-jugs burnished like gold1 these graceful creatures walk the streets like the queens of an ,oriental fable4 ,many lines of vessels converge at ,bombay3 the ,p4 ,o41 the ,british ,india1 and three or four others of less importance2 two ,french lines1 a ,german line1 the ,austrian ,lloyd1 the ,italian ,mail1 and a ,dutch line1 are some of those to be seen during a stay of a fortnight4 ,the ,british ,india offers the largest number of routes to the sight-seeing traveller4 ,one of its lines leads to ,kurrachee1 the northern port of ,india2 another goes to ,calcutta1 stopping at way ports2 a third extends to ,zanzibar and ,mozambique1 and a fourth reaches places on the ,persian ,gulf4 ,this fourth route the tourist should certainly take if he has the time1 though it carry him into the most trying climate imaginable4 ,before starting he should get ,moore's 8,lalla ,rookh10 it can be bought at an excellent ,english bookstore in ,bombay1 and read it on the way1 as some of the scenes are laid in these waters4 ,the passengers on these ,gulf steamers are of as many types as those seen on ,change in ,bombay4 ,it is not unlikely that of the twenty or more who sit down to dinner1 no two will be of the same color1 costume1 nationality1 or religion4 ,even the crew ceases to be ,european2 ,chinamen usually cook and wait1 and ,indians handle cargo and work the ship4 ,about #fjj miles and #d days from1 ,kurrachee1 ,ormuz is made1 dirty1 dilapidated1 with absolutely no remains of its historic wealth4 ,the first place of importance is ,bushire1 #cjj miles farther up4 ,it is the principal seaport of ,persia1 and does considerable trade1 long caravans of camels transporting merchandise to and from the interior4 ,persian cats can be got here2 a pair offered for #be was sold finally for #e2 with more time they could have been bought for #b4 ,from ,bushire to ,bassorah1 on the ,euphrates1 is #ahj miles4 ,a narrow canal-like stream leads from the river to the native village where ,sindbad the ,sailor is said to have roamed4 ,connection can be made at ,bassorah with a steamboat going up the river past the ,garden of ,eden1 a disappointing1 flat1 uncared-for plain1 to ,bagdad2 and thence1 by camel to points in the interior4 ,steamers in the ,persian ,gulf trade take in dates1 grain1 and wool1 leaving cotton fabrics1 rice1 opium1 etc4 ,on returning to ,kurrachee1 the traveller would do well to take the railway to ,agra1 and the ,taj1 ,benares1 and other places1 and so back again to ,bombay and the ocean highways4 ,henceforth1 the character of the passengers on board ship changes somewhat2 many of the ,europeans leave for extended tours by rail to ,calcutta and other ,indian cities1 their places being taken by ,parsee merchants1 rich ,indians1 and enterprising ,chinamen1 bound away on business4 ,the run to ,colombo1 ,ceylon1 #hge miles to the southward1 is made over a warm1 smooth sea1 and on the evening of the fifth day the harbor is entered4 ,colombo is a steamship centre where all the vessels of the long trunk lines rendezvous to coal1 provision1 exchange passengers and frequently freight4 ,they come from the four quarters of the globe1 from ,calcutta and ,bombay in the north1 from ,china and ,singapore in the east1 from ,australia1 ,mauritius1 and ,africa in the south1 and from ,aden and the ,suez ,canal in the west4 ,colombo has much to attract a traveller during the #bd or #dh hours the steamer stays1 but usually the ,oriental ,hotel claims his time and attention1 for this is the place of meeting of all who go upon the waters1 and high wassail is apt to be the order of the night4 ,the dining-room of the ,oriental is the refreshment-room at the intersection of the chief steam lines of the world4 ,it is1 as it were1 the restaurant of a ,union depot where everyone must go for a meal2 at its tables travellers from opposite points of the world meet1 ,chinese bound for ,europe1 ,englishmen to report for ,indian duty1 ,french soldiers en route for ,saigon1 and ,australians making the grand tour4 ,if the traveller has stayed in the same ship all the way from ,london1 he has1 by the time he arrives at ,colombo1 been #cj days en voyage and navigated a distance of #f1gjj miles4 ,by whatever line he has come1 he should have enjoyed his life on board ship1 for after the first day or two out from port acquaintances are made that rapidly ripen into good fellowship4 ,deck cricket1 quoits1 and cock-fighting enliven the forenoons2 a novel and a nap wear away the afternoons2 an innocent rubber with the ladies brightens the evenings2 a good chorus begins the nights merrily1 and a small game of draw shortens the dying hours4 ,illustration3 ,promenade ,deck of an ,orient ,liner4 ,at ,colombo often the best of friends must part1 some to stay in the country1 others to go to a different ship2 for the choice of routes is varied1 there being some #ae steamship lines radiating hence toward the attractive countries of ,australia1 ,africa1 the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,india1 and ,europe4 ,the run up the coast from ,ceylon past the ,french settlement of ,pondicherry1 where the ,french steamers touch1 to ,madras1 #fad miles to the northward1 is smooth sailing if the monsoon months of ,april1 ,june1 ,november1 and ,december be avoided4 ,a day in port is sufficient for landing the cargo1 brought off in lighters manned by stalwart lascars1 naked except for the narrowest of breech-clouts and the most enormous of turbans4 ,the traveller1 while at ,madras1 should see the ,indian jugglers1 and to do this comfortably1 should make arrangements to have the exhibition held on board ship4 ,two or three natives1 sitting on the open deck at his feet1 place a mango-stone with a handful of dirt under an old cotton sheet1 which1 after talking gibberish1 they remove1 disclosing a small green sprout about #h inches high4 8,big mango80 is then inquired by the head juggler2 8big mango80 ,receiving assent1 the twig is carefully recovered and incantations follow1 while the jugglers slowly raise the centre of the sheet higher and higher1 until finally1 on removing it1 there stands a mango-bush #e feet high1 bearing fruit which the juggler will pick and distribute4 ,the trick is worth the #aj it has cost4 ,from ,madras to ,calcutta the distance is #ggj miles4 ,the most interesting feature of the journey is the difficult navigation of the ,hoogly1 or ,calcutta ,river1 under the direction of the skilful pilots2 each of whom brings his own leadsman on board1 sometimes two of them1 and his own native servant1 so as to be quite independent of the ship and her crew4 ,the river front of ,calcutta is one long wharf with vessels moored in columns of twos1 threes1 and fours for a couple of miles4 ,the steamer traffic is large1 nearly #a1jjj foreign ships coming and going within a year1 and as many coasting steamers4 ,the import trade is principally in cotton goods1 metals1 and malt liquors2 the exports are borax1 rice1 opium1 gums1 gunny-cloth1 etc4 ,from ,calcutta several short sea routes may be taken to strange countries3 the ,british ,india ships go to ,rangoon1 in ,burmah1 and then down the ,malay ,peninsula to ,penang1 one of the ,strait ,settlements4 ,penang is on the road from ,ceylon to ,singapore1 and some of the great liners stop for a couple of hours to take in a mail1 some tin1 and a few spices4 ,the harbor is one of singular beauty1 but not otherwise of much interest to the traveller1 hurrying on through the picturesque ,straits of ,malacca to ,singapore4 ,singapore is the half-way house on the great highway between ,india and ,china1 where all ships1 large and small1 stop4 ,its position is a most important one1 not only as a large coaling and docking station1 but to a greater extent as an immense entrept for goods1 the trade being largely one of transit4 ,the shipping business done is enormous2 the docks and streets are full of bustle and activity1 of hurrying1 running1 hard-working ,chinese1 ,javanese1 ,moluccans1 and ,europeans1 unmindful of a temperature averaging #hf ,fahrenheit4 ,this town of such activity and go lies almost under the equator1 in latitude #a #ag north2 its longitude is nearly #ajd east2 just #ab hours and #i minutes ahead of ,new ,york1 from which city it is separated by #ab1jjj miles of water1 requiring about #dc days of ocean navigation4 ,singapore has steam communication with #aeb different ports1 far and near4 ,during the year1 #c1fjj foreign ships enter the harbor1 and nearly the same number clear1 representing a shipping movement of over #e1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the regular liners make connection at ,singapore with the ,netherland-,india ,steamship ,company--8,de ,nederlandsch-,indische ,stoomvaart ,maatschappij0--an efficient organization with headquarters at ,batavia1 ,java4 ,some of the by-ways of travel over which the tourist can agreeably saunter by means of the #cj or more good steamers of this company lead to all the ports on the coasts of the islands of ,java1 ,sumatra1 and ,borneo1 to the ,moluccas1 ,philippines1 ,celebes1 and so back to ,singapore1 where the traveller boards the steamer bound for ,hong-,kong4 ,the mail1 and other full-powered steamships1 leaving ,singapore for the northward1 head straight up the ,china ,sea for ,hong-,kong1 #a1dce miles away4 ,during this run of #f days the most learned discussions are held concerning the weather4 ,typhoons are most prevalent from ,july to ,december2 from ,december to ,may they seldom happen1 still they have been known to occur in every month of the year4 ,the ,september equinox is a very precarious period2 therefore1 if the tourist is anxious to make sure of smooth weather1 he should time his voyaging so as to be in these waters in early ,june1 when the southwest monsoon is lightest4 ,but this brings the ship to ,hong-,kong at the beginning of the warm weather and rainy season1 whereas the months of ,december and ,january are the most delightful1 the mean temperature being #fe ,f4 ,in the wet or damp season the traveller must keep watch of his clothes1 books1 shoes1 etc41 or they will get injured by mildew4 ,this supervision of one's effects is necessary throughout the entire voyage around ,india1 the dew at night being penetrating and saturating4 ,two serviceable suits of flannel should be taken to be worn alternately1 so that one suit can be drying4 ,leather shoes1 particularly blacked boots1 are damaged by the mould that forms on them when exposed2 the proper foot-gear is the canvas shoe with rubber sole4 ,hong-,kong is attractive because of the high peak1 #b1jjj feet above the water1 the forts half-way down the mountain's side1 and the city built on the long easy slope running into the capacious bay1 where the wharfs1 docks1 mooring-buoys1 and the like give unmistakable evidences of the maritime importance of the place4 ,the men at the clubs on shore1 both ,english and ,german1 will tell the traveller that ,hong-,kong ranks as the fourth port in the world in the amount of shipping that annually passes through its waters3 a few years ago this was estimated to be above #ab1jjj1jjj tons1 which1 if correct1 would give ,hong-,kong nearly as much as ,new ,york4 ,should the traveller desire to visit ,china and ,japan1 he must disembark at ,hong-,kong4 ,this he will do regretfully1 for he has become attached to his ship1 her officers1 and his messmates4 ,he has been well and courteously treated throughout a long and at times tedious voyage1 during which everything has been done to make him comfortable and contented4 ,really1 the main differences existing between the steamers of the different companies are those of route and time4 ,for instance1 the ,p4 ,o4 lands the passenger at ,hong-,kong1 #dd days from ,london1 via ,gibraltar1 ,malta1 the ,canal1 ,bombay1 ,colombo1 and ,singapore1 a total distance of #i1hjj miles4 ,at every main port touched en route1 no matter by what line1 at least #f hours1 oftener #ab or #bd hours1 can be had on shore in which to see the place1 and there are no annoyances or vexations as to custom-house duties or inspections4 ,the ,m4 ,m4 line1 which departs from ,marseilles1 touches at ,naples1 and reaches ,hong-,kong via the ,canal1 ,aden1 ,colombo1 ,singapore1 and ,saigon1 goes over #h1afj miles of water in #cf days4 ,the ,german mail1 leaving ,bremen and ,antwerp and going by way of the ,canal via ,colombo and ,singapore1 traverses #aj1bbc miles in #dc days4 ,the ,austrian ,lloyd1 from ,trieste via ,bombay1 makes port in #ej days1 after a journey of #h1cde miles4 ,to visit ,canton the steamboat should be taken that leaves ,hong-,kong daily4 ,the trip of #g hours' duration will be enlivened by the noisy ,chinese passengers on board1 and by the numerous ,chinese junks constantly passed as they are going up and down the river under sails and oars4 ,the traveller will also encounter some ,europeans1 who will gladly tell him good stories and put him up at their snug little club-house on the ,shameen1 the island connected with ,canton1 where the white population resides4 ,canton should be seen2 it is a typical ,chinese city into which modern civilization has made no visible headway4 ,returning to ,hong-,kong1 the water-front offers much that is attractive4 ,thousands of junks lie in rows1 anchored off the harbor1 and thousands more are moored along the sea-wall2 the noise made by the crews of these boats1 beating gongs1 firing crackers1 singing1 shouting1 and burning papers and joss-sticks to their favorite ,buddhas1 is pandemonium4 ,on shore coolies trot about in couples1 with long bamboo-poles on their shoulders1 transporting chests of tea1 silk1 matting1 etc41 from the junks to the big storehouses and from the storehouses to the lighters to be towed alongside the steamers1 where the bales are hoisted into the holds4 ,illustration3 ,landing ,passengers at ,natal1 ,south ,africa4 ,at this port the traveller will find a newly organized transpacific service1 running by way of ,yokohama to ,vancouver1 where connection is made with the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway to ,quebec and ,halifax1 and thence to ,london4 ,the line1 as at present formed1 consists of three magnificent steamers1 sailing monthly4 ,the ,empress of ,india1 the pioneer of the line1 made the voyage early in #ahia from ,yokohama to ,vancouver in the unprecedented time of #aj days and #ae hours4 ,observing the steamers closely1 the traveller will discover that one of them is flying a different flag from those he has been accustomed to see while on the journey along the great ,indian ,ocean highway3 the stars-and-stripes belong to one of the vessels of the ,pacific ,mail ,steamship ,company of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,pacific ,mail ,steamship ,company was organized in #ahdg1 at the time of the colonization of the ,pacific ,states1 and gained notoriety by despatching one of its first vessels1 the ,california1 from ,new ,york1 in #ahdh1 to ,san ,francisco by way of ,cape ,horn4 ,the successful termination of this extraordinary performance1 in those early days of steam navigation1 enabled the company to inaugurate a steamship service between ,panama and ,san ,francisco4 ,the route thus opened was from ,new ,york to ,colon 7,aspinwall71 and thence across the ,isthmus to ,panama1 where the steamer was in waiting to run up the ,mexican coast to ,california4 ,the transpacific route was commenced in #ahfg1 soon after the opening of the ,pacific ,railroad1 and is now worked in conjunction with an ,english line1 the ,oriental ,occidental4 ,the traveller bound from ,hong-,kong for ,yokohama can take either the ,canadian ,pacific steamers or the ,pacific ,mail4 ,if1 however1 he is anxious to see the ports of ,china and ,japan before entering on the great thoroughfare of the ,pacific ,ocean1 he has at his choice several efficient lines of local and coasting steamers1 that will bear him safely to the different treaty ports and afford him all the time he will require for sight-seeing4 ,most of the ,european mail lines go to ,shanghai1 and the coasting lines of both ,china and ,japan make it a stopping-place4 ,shanghai is worth a visit because of the different ,european ways of living in ,china4 ,the city is composed of sections where each nation has established its own settlement1 contiguous to1 but quite distinct from1 that of any other nation4 ,there is an ,american town1 an ,english town1 a ,french town1 a ,german town1 and a ,chinese town1 each preserving its own language and society1 and as far as possible its own architecture4 ,the ,mitsu ,bishe line of steamers1 the ,nippon ,yusen1 and two or three others1 ply between the ports of ,japan along the really beautiful inland passage1 and up the ,japan ,sea4 ,if one be interested in ,japanese ceramics1 swords1 armor1 and antiquities1 he should take this way trip2 eventually bringing up at ,yokohama1 whence a railway ride of an hour will land him in ,tokio4 ,at ,yokohama passage is secured for ,san ,francisco1 #e1jjj miles to the eastward1 across the broadest part of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,this route is one of the longest direct lines between two places that is steamed over by the ships of any company4 ,it is a dull and monotonous voyage2 nothing but blue water for #ah days1 no land is seen1 no strange sail sighted1 rarely even do gales of wind blow hard enough to make things lively4 ,the cabin passengers are principally ,americans returning to their native land1 a few ,englishmen making the round of the world1 a couple of ,australians full of talk of the greatness of their own country and sceptical as to the advance and improvement of any other2 some ,japanese1 curious1 polite1 intelligent2 one or two rich ,chinamen who keep to themselves1 and a sprinkling of other nationalities4 ,this heterogeneous crowd gets on well together1 plays cards1 makes pools on each day's run1 discusses the #ahjth meridian question1 as to why the week is one day longer than seven1 jokes1 laughs1 reads1 smokes1 and drinks4 ,the steerage passengers are mostly ,chinamen returning to ,california after a visit home4 ,special accommodations are fitted for them4 ,not infrequently the ,chinese in large numbers take passage on the ,pacific ,mail to be landed at ,honolulu4 ,this will give the traveller a day in port1 when he should go on shore to enjoy ,sandwich ,island hospitality1 and see the ,hoola-hoola--a native dance that must be prearranged and paid for1 since it is interdicted by the ,government because of its supposed demoralizing influence--on the native4 ,after a voyage of #b1jjj miles in #g days to the northeast1 the steamer enters the ,golden ,gate1 and passes up to the city of ,san ,francisco4 ,a six-day run by railroad1 and the traveller is once again back in ,new ,york4 ,the whole distance travelled by the way described is1 in round numbers1 #bc1jjj miles1 and the time taken to do this may have been but #hj or #ij days1 or more2 the longer the better1 for it requires plenty of time to enjoy a trip around the world4 ,it also requires money4 ,about #a1jjj would be necessary for passage money alone2 double this amount would be sufficient to take the traveller in comfort and ease1 and upon his arrival home he would consider it money admirably spent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the traveller reaching ,san ,francisco by the above highway of circumnavigation can further add to his knowledge of strange countries by selecting a sea journey to ,new ,york1 instead of a land run by railroad across the continent4 ,to go by sea passage must be secured on board a ,pacific ,mail coasting steamer1 the only line running to ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and ,panama4 ,steaming down the beautiful coast of ,california1 stopping at picturesque harbors in ,mexico1 anchoring off roadsteads of ,central ,america1 taking on and off a few passengers1 an ,englishman1 a ,german1 an ,american1 handling cargo--such is the rough log of the cruise of #bj days and #c1bjj miles until the splendid ,bay of ,panama is reached4 ,the eight or ten ports of call are better seen from the ship than from the shore4 ,the enchantment of distance gives way upon close examination to pity and disgust1 for dirt1 indigence1 and a total ignorance of how to live decently are noticeable everywhere4 ,at ,panama two widely different routes leading to the ,united ,states are offered3 the one goes over the ,isthmus of ,panama by rail and thence to ,new ,york by sea2 the other stretches away down the west coast of ,south ,america1 through the ,straits of ,magellan1 and up the ,atlantic highway4 ,by the first route the railway journey over the #de miles of land separating the ,pacific from the ,atlantic ,ocean1 crosses1 recrosses1 and runs beside the deserted canal1 affording ocular proof of the failure of the scheme4 ,at both ,panama and ,colon the same appearance of being left is noticeable4 ,the business of the two ports is one of transit only1 but is sufficiently great to furnish employment to some thousands of ,americans and ,jamaicans4 ,nearly a dozen steamship lines leave ,colon for ports in the ,united ,states1 ,europe1 the ,west ,indies1 and the neighboring coasts1 and by one or two of them the traveller can run up to ,greytown1 where he will have an opportunity to see the ,nicaraguan ,canal4 ,this canal1 when completed1 will make important changes in existing routes between the ,united ,states and ,europe at one end of the line1 and the west coast of the ,american ,continent1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,australasia at the other4 ,for instance1 the route from ,london to ,sydney is #ab1ejj miles1 via the ,suez ,canal2 by the ,nicaraguan ,canal the distance will be less than #ab1jjj miles4 ,and if the lengths of the routes from the ,atlantic seaboards to the ,pacific seaboards1 both east and west1 be compared with those now followed1 the great saving by the ,nicaraguan gateway becomes still more apparent4 ,returning to ,colon1 the traveller boards the north-bound steamer1 and lands in ,new ,york1 #b1jjj miles distant1 in #h days4 ,it may be1 however1 that the traveller decides upon proceeding by the second route1 leading from ,panama to ,new ,york4 ,if so1 he books on board a steamer belonging to the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company of ,england1 a powerful organization having the contract for carrying the mails1 and controlling almost exclusively the ,isthmian trade to and from ,south ,america4 ,the ships of the ,company run into all the ports of consequence on the west coast1 and the lines extend from ,valparaiso by way of ,magellan ,straits to the river ,plate and ,brazil ports1 and thence to ,lisbon and ,england4 ,an important point for consideration in connection with this southern trip is the probability of there being a revolution in progress in some of the countries to be visited1 which might interfere with going on shore4 ,at length the steamer leaves ,panama1 and the passenger for the ,united ,states begins his long journey4 ,his companions are very few1 ,south ,americans1 principally1 bound for ports along the coast1 so he is left to his own resources4 ,he can read1 and lounge1 and make good friends with the officers of the ship1 who are ,englishmen4 ,at night he can stretch out in his steamer chair and dream away the warm hours gazing at the 8majestical roof fretted with golden fire40 ,from ,panama to ,valparaiso1 some #c1ajj miles1 #be ports are touched at1 which1 ,callao excepted1 are of no special interest4 ,callao1 the seaport of ,peru1 is in itself unattractive1 the town and the people are dirty2 the empty docks1 the lazy inhabitants1 the atmosphere of laissez aller1 confirm the opinion that the place and all around it have had their day4 ,from ,callao the traveller should go to ,lima1 #g miles distant by rail1 and take the ,oroya ,railway to the top of the ,andes1 #ae1jjj feet above the sea-level3 the wonderful engineering ability displayed in constructing this road will prove quite as impressive as the truly magnificent mountain scenery4 ,two days will suffice to make the excursion and bring him back to ,lima1 an old ,spanish city with many interesting corners4 ,the cathedral should be visited2 in the crypt lie the bones of the great ,pizarro4 ,a dirty ,cholo shows them4 ,reverently pulling aside a ragged curtain from before a dingy stone bench1 he exclaims1 8,behold the bones of ,francisco ,pizarro60 ,their state of perfect preservation and symmetry of arrangement might incline one to doubt the truth of the statement4 ,illustration3 ,the ,port of ,valparaiso in a ,norther4 ,leaving ,callao1 en route for ,valparaiso1 the steamer makes several ports2 some of them interesting because of the recent war operations1 but otherwise they had better be viewed from the ship's deck1 for the same low adobe dwellings and squalid existence characterize them all4 ,after #aa days of pleasant weather ,valparaiso is reached4 ,valparaiso is built on several hill slopes running to the water from a high ridge back of the city4 ,it is a place of great activity2 the docks are piled high with freight1 the people move about with spirit1 the harbor is full of ships1 and there is that general air which betokens financial soundness and commercial prosperity4 ,the streets are noticeably clean1 the buildings are of good architecture1 the stores are inviting1 and the frequently recurring signs in ,english1 ,french1 and ,german1 and the people met1 are indicative of the cosmopolitan nature of the inhabitants4 ,the ,bay of ,valparaiso is open to the northward1 from which point the heavy gales blow1 raising a long rolling sea that works considerable damage to shipping4 ,steamers weigh and stand out when these blows come on4 ,valparaiso has connection1 via ,magellan ,straits1 with ,montevideo1 #b1gej miles distant1 by means of four or five lines of good steamships4 ,the ,p4 ,s4 ,n4--as the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company is called--runs vessels over this route4 ,so do the ,cosmos and ,hamburg ,companies1 ,german lines2 there are besides ,french and ,italian lines4 ,since leaving ,panama1 #ba days ago1 the weather along the ,pacific highway has been uniformly pleasant--for northers are infrequent--the breezes have been light and warm from the southward1 the sea long and smooth1 and the ship seldom out of sight of the bare sandy hills running along the shore1 or the towering ,andes stretching away in the background4 ,to the south from ,valparaiso1 however1 this changes4 ,it grows colder1 the sea gets rougher1 and by the time the ,gulf of ,peas1 the entrance to the inside passage1 is reached1 the chances are it will be thick and unsettled1 with every prospect of a foul gale4 ,when the storm breaks it is tremendous2 in no other part of the world do winds blow harder or seas rise higher2 lofty ships carry low sails hereabouts1 and steamers frequently have to lie to4 ,the mad ocean is left astern when the ship enters the inside passage leading along the coast of ,patagonia and the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,here the scene is one of unparalleled magnificence4 ,high bare walls of stone1 towering barren cliffs1 lofty snow-capped peaks1 weather-scarred mountains down whose furrowed sides extend steel-blue glaciers--all reveal nature in her most majestic and awe-inspiring form4 ,from ,sandy ,point1 a small settlement midway in the strait1 where coal can be obtained1 to ,cape ,virgins1 #aej miles beyond1 the lay of the land is less varied and attractive4 ,at the ,cape the ship enters on the tempestuous ,atlantic highway1 and heads northward for ,montevideo1 #a1cjj miles away4 ,five days later the anchor is let go about #c miles off the city4 ,the traveller must remember1 when going on shore at ,montevideo1 that pamperos blow frequently1 raising a nasty cross-sea which makes boating very uncertain4 ,several well-known lines of foreign vessels make ,montevideo a port of call2 among them the ,messageries ,maritimes2 the ,north ,german ,lloyds1 the ,austro-,hungarian ,lloyds1 and the ,italian ,mail4 ,of the many other lines1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 and ,brazilian1 to be seen in the harbor1 none is of more importance than the ,royal ,mail ,steam ,packet ,company1 of ,southampton4 ,in #ahdb this steamship company was the first that carried mails to the ,west ,indies from ,europe4 ,it began the ,brazilian and ,river ,plate 7,rio de la ,plata7 mail service in #ahej4 ,to-day its routes include the ,west ,india ,islands1 ,mexico1 and ,central and ,south ,america4 ,the regular liners to ,montevideo1 and the several local and coasting steamers1 come to off ,buenos ,ayres1 #ajj miles to the southeastward4 ,the extensive harbor works1 for the purpose of making the city a deep-water port1 at once excite admiration4 ,both ,montevideo and ,buenos ,ayres are attractive cities of regular streets1 many substantial houses1 public buildings with ,italian marble faades1 ,spanish cathedrals1 and extensive suburbs of handsome residences surrounded by beautiful gardens4 ,the mean temperature of the two places1 #fc1 corresponds with that of ,palermo and ,rome4 ,the business of ,montevideo is good1 the imports of merchandise1 machinery1 and manufactured articles exceeding #bb1jjj1jjj1 and the exports of hides1 horns1 wool1 and beef being valued at #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,the trade of ,buenos ,ayres is much larger1 the imports being valued at #hh1jjj1jjj1 the exports at #fe1jjj1jjj4 ,the traveller for ,rio ,janeiro can take a coasting line if he desires to visit southern ,brazil2 otherwise1 any one of the big mail ships will make the run of #a1aej miles in #f days4 ,the port of ,rio1 large1 deep1 and the most beautiful in the world1 is entered by a channel a mile and a half wide1 defended by forts4 ,inside the bay is #ag miles long by #aj miles broad4 ,the town is most attractive from the water4 ,it is especially picturesque at night1 when the arrangement of the innumerable gas-lights distinctly outlines the entire city1 built on a gentle incline toward the bay4 ,the streets are narrow1 badly paved1 and not over-clean4 ,the traveller will find that he can get on well enough if he talk ,french1 for there is a certain ,french air about the community4 ,many of the stores have ,french signs1 nearly all the shopkeepers speak ,french1 it is the language of the hotel clerks1 the opera bouffe sings it1 and the black-eyed seoritas murmur it4 ,rio is connected with ,europe by #ab regular lines of steamships1 and with the ,united ,states by #c4 ,new ,york being the traveller's objective port1 he should take passage on board one of the vessels of the ,united ,states ,brazil ,mail ,steamship ,company1 flying the ,american flag4 ,since leaving ,panama1 #dj odd days ago1 the tourist has steamed over #g1jjj miles of ocean highway1 yet throughout all this time and distance1 he has never once seen the stars-and-stripes4 ,the ships of the ,united ,states ,brazil ,mail ,steamship ,company are despatched monthly from ,rio1 making stops at ,bahia1 ,pernambuco1 ,maranham1 and ,para in ,brazil4 ,at ,para a most interesting route is offered by regular steamers running up the ,amazon to ,manaos1 #a1jjj miles away2 thence1 irregular vessels go #b1jjj miles farther4 ,from ,para the ,united ,states ,brazil ,company makes ,barbadoes1 of the ,windward ,isles1 in #e days--a healthy1 delightful winter resort1 where a mean daily temperature of #hj is tempered by the steady northeast trade-winds4 ,the weather along the ,atlantic highway1 from the river ,plate to the ,windward ,islands1 is for the most part fine1 clear1 and warm1 with occasional rain-squalls when on the line1 and possibly a stiff blow when rounding ,cape ,st4 ,roque4 ,excepting the pleasure incident to being at sea1 there is little to excite the traveller1 for the passengers are few1 ,americans and ,south ,americans1 and are not addicted to much amusement4 ,lounging1 reading1 smoking1 and walking the deck1 conversation and cards pass the time4 ,at ,barbadoes the traveller enters the waters of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,these islands present a great contrast to ,south ,america1 not only in physical features1 but in weather and population4 ,during the winter months the northeast trades blow at times with force enough to raise a rough sea4 ,during the summer season hurricanes are to be feared4 ,the differences of race characteristics are more noticeable than those of the weather4 ,instead of the lazy1 polite1 cruel ,south ,americans1 the traveller encounters the ubiquitous ,west ,indian darky1 celebrated for his insolence1 chaff1 and annoying persistence4 ,from ,barbadoes the steamer shapes her course for the ,island of ,st4 ,thomas1 a day's run of #cjj miles4 ,st4 ,thomas is a place of great shipping activity4 ,it communicates with ,europe by lines running to ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain4 ,it is the ,west ,india head-quarters of the ,royal ,mail ,steam ,packet ,company1 and the central point from which branch lines radiate that will take the traveller to any or all of the islands1 as he desires4 ,now that the ,west ,indies1 the ,bahamas1 and ,cuba are growing in favor as winter resorts1 the lines and routes of steamers from the ,west ,indies are many and various4 ,for instance1 to reach ,new ,york the ,clyde and ,atlas lines sail from ,hayti2 the ,new ,york ,cuba line from ,cuba and the ,bahamas2 the ,new ,york ,porto ,rico line from ,st4 ,johns2 the ,red ,d line from ,curaao and ,colombian ports2 the ,quebec ,steamship ,company from ,st4 ,kitts and other ,windward ,islands and ,bermuda2 the ,atlas1 ,honduras1 ,central ,america and ,wessels lines from ,jamaica1 and the ,trinidad line from ,port of ,spain1 ,grenada1 and ,guiana4 ,the ,plant line from ,jamaica lands the traveller in ,tampa1 ,fla41 a place in communication with ,havana1 as is ,new ,orleans4 ,if1 however1 the traveller has taken none of these minor routes1 but stayed by the ,united ,states ,brazil steamer at ,st4 ,thomas1 he is landed in ,new ,york1 #a1dej miles distant1 in #f days4 ,the whole voyage from ,san ,francisco around the ,american continent to ,new ,york1 along the ocean highways commonly navigated by the larger steamships1 is #af1ejj miles long4 ,the time taken to make this distance is about #ajj days4 ,the cost of the journey for tickets1 transfers1 and unavoidable delays is #a1jjj2 #b1jjj will enable the passenger to do it comfortably4 ,illustration3 ,steamer at ,anchor1 ,simon's ,bay1 ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the traveller from ,new ,york has been gone from start to finish1 by the ocean highways to ,europe1 ,india1 ,china1 ,san ,francisco1 ,south ,america1 and back to ,new ,york1 nearly #bjj days2 has steamed over about #dj1jjj miles of water1 and has spent #d1jjj4 ,he has learned that there are other lands and other peoples than his own worthy his admiration and study4 ,let him take a year and #e1jjj for this rounding the world1 and he will be better satisfied and better informed1 and appreciate more fully that 8going to sea clears a man's head of much nonsense of his wigwam40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fourth great ocean thoroughfare1 the route around the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,africa1 ,australia1 and the ,east1 is traversed by many fine steamers4 ,the way lies from ,europe via ,madeira1 ,cape ,verd1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,west ,africa1 and ,cape ,town1 thence to ,east ,africa via ,mauritius to ,australia1 whence the ,occident line leaves for ,new ,zealand1 ,samoa1 ,sandwich ,islands1 and ,san ,francisco4 ,this long route covers #cj1jjj miles4 ,to reach the ,cape1 #f1jjj miles from ,england1 the two well-known ,english mail lines1 the ,union ,steamship ,company and the ,castle ,mail ,packets ,company offer the most attractive routes2 the steamer service of both is of the highest order4 ,the time out is #ah days1 the fare about #ahj4 ,two ,english lines1 the ,new ,zealand ,shipping ,company and the ,shaw1 ,savill ,albion ,company deserve special mention1 because the route they follow gives the longest possible stretch of ocean navigation1 each vessel making a complete circuit of the world on the round voyage4 ,the fleet of each company comprises #e large1 well-appointed steamships1 despatched alternately every two weeks over the following route3 ,from ,plymouth to ,teneriffe1 #a1dbj miles in #e days1 where a stay of #f hours for coaling gives opportunity for a trip on shore4 ,then a run of #d1dej miles in #ae days brings the steamer to ,cape ,town1 where an #h or #aj hour stay is made4 ,passengers for ,african ports transfer here4 ,from ,cape ,town a run of #e1djj miles in #ag days brings the steamer to ,hobart1 where ,tasmanian and ,australian passengers leave the vessel4 ,after a few hours in this beautiful harbor a #d days' run of #a1bgj miles lands the traveller in ,wellington1 ,new ,zealand4 ,for the homeward voyage a course is shaped for ,cape ,horn1 a #ad days' run4 ,once around this point the ship makes ,rio1 #bb days and #f1hbj miles distant from ,wellington4 ,the next port of call is ,teneriffe1 #c1cfj miles and #ab days distant1 whence a #e days' run is sufficient to cover the #a1dbj miles that again lands the traveller in ,plymouth1 after having been gone #ha days and travelled over #be1aej miles4 ,the price of a ticket over this longest of great sea routes is about #fej4 ,footnote3 #bj ,the table is from ,lloyd's ,register1 #ahij-ia4 ,,index4 ,aaron ,manby1 the1 first iron steamship1 #ad4 ,accommodation1 the1 first steamboat on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 #e4 ,adelaide1 the1 a famous clipper ship1 #bbe4 ,aden1 #bgj4 ,agents1 steamship1 at home and abroad1 #acb4 ,aller1 the1 #dj4 ,america1 the1 as a freight carrier1 #bcc4 ,american enterprise in first establishing long ocean routes1 #bec4 ,anchor1 heaving the1 #aef4 ,anchor line1 the1 #bdc4 ,arctic1 the1 loss of1 #bf4 ,arizona1 the1 #cf4 collision of1 with an iceberg1 #bjc4 speed of1 #bbi4 ,atlas line1 the1 #bdc4 ,austro-,hungarian ,lloyd ,steam ,navigation ,company1 #bfd4 ,banana trade1 the1 #bdj1 et seq4 receipts of bananas in #ahij1 #bdc4 ,barges1 coaling1 #bdh4 ,bassorah1 #bgc4 ,bayonne1 the1 a tank steamer1 record of1 #bde4 ,bennett1 ,james ,gordon1 ,sr41 a passenger on the ,sirius's first return voyage1 #bag4 ,bill of fare of a transatlantic liner1 #acg4 required by the ,british ,government1 #adc4 ,black ,ball line4 ,see ,marshall1 ,c4 ,h41 ,co4 ,black ,star line4 ,see ,grimshaw ,co4 ,black ,star line1 old4 ,see ,guion line4 ,boat drill on shipboard1 #aha4 ,boilers1 tubular1 the first1 #cc4 ,bombay1 description of1 #bga4 steamship lines converging at1 #bgb4 ,bothnia1 the1 #ce4 ,bramah1 ,joseph1 proposes the plan of a screw propeller1 #ag4 ,bramwell1 ,sir ,frederick1 #cf4 his comparison of an ancient galley to an ,atlantic liner1 #ajh4 ,breadstuffs and provisions1 value of export of1 in #ahij-ia1 #bbd4 ,britannia1 the first of the ,cunard ships to sail for ,america1 #ba4 her dimensions1 #bb1 #ca1 #gc4 the pioneer of the ,cunard line1 #aah4 ,britannic1 the1 #ce4 description of1 #gc4 average speed of1 #gg4 ,british ,india ,steam ,navigation ,company1 the1 #bfc4 ,brown1 ,wm4 ,h41 builder of the ,collins vessels1 #bf4 ,brunel1 designer of the ,great ,western1 #aj4 and of the ,great ,britain1 #ai4 plans the ,great ,eastern1 #cj4 ,buenos ,ayres1 #bhh4 ,bulkheads and double bottoms in steamships1 #bjf4 ,bureau ,veritas1 exhibit of1 at the ,liverpool naval exhibition1 #d4 ,burns1 ,mr4 ,george1 #ab4 ,bushire1 #bgb4 ,calcutta1 first steamship to arrive in1 #bee4 ,california1 early sea travel to1 #bed4 ,callao1 #bhd4 ,canton1 #bgh4 ,castle ,mail ,packets ,company1 #bib4 ,cattle ships1 loading of1 #bdh4 cost of shipping cattle1 #bea4 ,caulking an iron ship1 #ajb4 ,charles ,w4 ,wetmore1 the1 the 8whaleback10 description of1 #bcd1 et seq4 ,checking of baggage1 system of transatlantic1 #aca1 #ada4 ,china1 the1 #cb4 ,chinese passenger traffic to ,california1 #bha4 ,city of ,berlin1 the1 #ce4 ,city of ,glasgow1 the1 #gc1 #abd4 ,city of ,new ,york1 the1 #db4 highest average speed made by1 #abi4 ,city of ,paris1 the1 #db4 description of1 #gd4 bulkhead system of1 #bjf4 as a record breaker1 #bbi4 ,city of ,rome1 the1 rejected by the ,inman ,company1 #ic4 ,clermont1 the1 speed of1 #fh4 description of1 #gj4 ,clipper ships1 famous1 #bbe4 early ,american1 #bed4 ,clyde1 ,firth of the1 #ie4 ,coal1 consumption of1 on steamers1 #ci1 #dd1 #fg4 reduced by the employment of improved engines1 #hg4 ,coaling ocean steamers1 #bdh4 ,coal-trimmers1 feast of1 #age4 ,coastwise steamships1 lines of1 #bbc4 ,collins1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,k41 founder of the ,collins line1 #abj4 ,collins line1 establishment of1 #be1 #aba4 vessels of1 #bj1 #ca1 #aba4 rates of1 #abb4 bankruptcy of1 #bg1 #abb4 ,colombo1 #bgc4 ,columba1 the1 #gb4 ,comet1 the1 model of1 #c4 description of1 #e1 #gj1 #if4 ,compagnie ,gnrale ,transatlantique1 the1 establishment of1 #be1 #dc4 freight capacity of ships of1 #bah4 ,condenser1 surface1 #cb4 ,conveniences and luxuries of transatlantic travel1 #acg1 et seq4 ,cotton1 value of export of1 #bbd4 ,cufic1 the1 tonnage of1 #bcj4 ,cunard1 ,mr4 ,samuel1 #ab1 #aah4 ,cunard line1 foundation of1 #ab4 first fleet of1 #ba1 #aah4 a monopoly at the start1 #abj4 freight capacity of their largest ships1 #bah4 ,demologos the1 ,fulton's war steamer1 description of1 #e4 ,distances1 prices1 etc41 from ,london to ,san ,francisco eastward1 table of1 #bfe4 ,draught1 forced1 #hh4 ,dreadnaught1 the1 a famous clipper ship1 #bbe4 ,duchess of ,hamilton1 the1 #ga4 ,eider1 the1 rapid freighting of1 #bdg4 ,elder1 ,john1 ,co41 introduce the compound engine1 #cd1 #dj4 ,elevators1 floating capacity of1 #bci4 ,engineer force on a large steamship1 duties1 #agc4 ,engine-room of a steamship1 #agj4 ,engines1 marine1 of the ,great ,britain1 #ai1 #cc1 #cf4 triple expansion1 #ci1 #df4 compound1 #fh1 #hg4 ,enterprise1 the1 first steamship to arrive in ,india1 #g1 #bee4 ,ericsson1 ,john1 shows the practicability of the screw propeller1 #ad4 ,esmeralda1 the1 wave-action in the case of1 #dh4 ,etruria1 the1 best voyage of1 #gg4 timely arrival of1 #beb4 ,evans1 ,oliver1 advocates high pressures1 #cc1 #ce4 ,export business in #ahij from the principal ,atlantic ports1 #bbd4 ,fairfield1 ship-yard1 description of1 #ajd4 8,fairing the ship10 #ih4 ,fastnet light1 #aid4 ,ferry-boat1 the ,new ,york1 #c4 ,fire-drill on a steamship1 #aed4 ,firemen on the ocean steamships1 #dd4 ,florio line1 the1 #bdc4 ,fog at sea1 dangers of1 #ahf4 narrow escapes in1 #ahi1 et seq4 ,forbes1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,b41 of ,boston1 builds screw steamers for transatlantic trade1 #bd4 ,freighters1 as a class of ocean steamships1 #bbf1 #bcc4 ,freights1 ocean1 rate of1 #bea4 volume of1 #bbd4 how handled1 #bdf4 ,froude1 ,mr4 ,w41 investigations of1 on the best forms for ships1 #df1 #fc4 ,fruit steamship1 the1 #bci1 et seq4 description of1 #bdj4 ,fulton1 the maker of the first successful steamboats1 #b1 #e4 first war steamer designed by1 #e4 ,germanic1 the1 #ce1 #gd4 ,gibraltar1 description of1 #bfj4 ,glasgow ,new ,york ,steamship ,co41 #abe4 ,glasgow1 the shipbuilders of1 #if4 ,grain-carrying1 vessels designed for1 #bcd1 et seq4 ,great ,britain1 the1 building of1 #ac4 details of1 #ai4 fate of1 #bj4 ,great ,eastern1 the1 #cj4 ,great ,western1 the1 #gb4 description of1 #aj4 her voyage to ,new ,york and return1 #aa1 #aac1 #aag4 her career and end1 #ab4 built of iron and with a screw1 #ad4 ,great ,western ,steamship ,company1 formation of1 #g4 ,brunel the founder of1 #i4 ,grimshaw ,co4's line1 #aac4 ,guion line1 establishment of1 #be1 #aac4 steamers of1 lost between ,fastnet and ,liverpool1 #aie4 the freight capacity of1 #bah4 ,hamburg-,american line1 ships of1 #dc4 their freight capacity1 #bah4 ,henderson1 ,thomas1 self-cleaning fire-bars of1 #hi4 ,henriette1 ,princesse1 the1 description of1 #gj4 ,honduras ,central ,american line1 the1 #bdc4 ,hong-,kong1 #bgg4 ,hoogly ,river1 navigation of1 #bge4 ,horse-power1 #fd4 increase of1 not in proportion to increase in size of vessel1 #fg4 ,howden1 ,james1 forced draught process of1 #hh4 ,hulls1 ,jonathan1 pamphlet of1 on propelling boats by steam1 #a4 ,hydrographic ,bureau1 charts issued by1 #aii4 ,ice at sea1 perils of1 #aih1 et seq4 ,icebergs1 origin and dangers of1 #bjj4 ,immigrant passenger traffic1 proportions of1 #adg4 how handled1 #adh4 ,imprieuse1 the1 #fc4 ,india1 short route to1 from ,europe1 #bee4 ,inman line1 ships of1 #db4 beginning of the1 #abb4 the first to use the screw propeller and to carry steerage passengers1 #abd4 the freight capacity of the largest ships of1 #bah4 ,iron vessels1 the first1 #ac4 ,thomas ,wilson1 the first builder of1 #ad4 ,japanese steamship lines1 #bha4 ,john ,randolph1 the1 first iron vessel in the ,united ,states1 #ac4 ,kirk1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,c41 triple expansion engines of1 #ci4 ,kurrachee1 #bgb4 ,laird1 ,mr4 ,j41 #aa4 builder of the first iron vessels on a large scale1 #ac4 ,laird1 ,mr4 ,mc,gregor1 estimate of coal consumption in steam navigation1 #i4 ,lardner1 ,dr41 his declaration of the impossibility of steam navigation1 #g4 ,lima1 #bhd4 ,liverpool1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia ,steamship ,co4 ,see ,inman line4 ,log1 patent1 #bac4 ,london1 table of distances and prices from and to ,san ,francisco1 #bfe4 ,madras1 #bge4 ,mails1 accommodations for1 on ocean steamships1 #bcj1 et seq4 sorting1 on board ship1 #bca4 largest ,european1 brought by the ,servia1 #bca4 ,majestic1 the1 fast trip of1 #dd4 description of1 #gd4 breaks the record1 #bbi4 ,marshall1 ,c4 ,h41 ,co4's line1 #aac1 #abj4 ,marshall1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,c41 paper of1 #cf4 ,mary ,whitredge1 the1 a famous clipper ship1 #bbe4 ,maudslay ,field1 builders of marine engines1 #aa4 ,mc,iver1 ,mr4 ,david1 #ab4 ,mc,kinley bill1 influence of1 on freight rates1 #bea4 ,mediterranean fruit trade1 the1 #bdc4 ,merchandise1 value of export of1 in #ahij-ahia1 #bdd4 ,messageries ,maritimes1 the fleet of1 #bfd4 ,miller1 ,patrick1 #fh4 ,mirehouse1 ,captain ,john1 #add4 ,models of ,british boats1 display of1 #b1 #d4 ,molasses ship1 the1 #bdf4 ,montevideo1 #bhh4 ,national line1 the establishment of1 #be4 as a freight carrier1 #bcc4 ,naval ,exhibition1 at ,liverpool1 in #ahhf1 #b4 models of ,italian and ,french ships at1 #d4 at ,london1 #d4 ,netherland-,india ,steamship ,company1 #bgf4 ,new ,york ,havre ,steam ,navigation ,co41 #abj4 ,new ,zealand ,shipping ,company1 #bib4 ,nomadic1 the1 carried the largest amount of freight1 #bcc4 ,noon position of the ship1 finding the1 #agi4 ,north ,german ,lloyd1 establishment of1 #be4 ships of1 #dc4 freight capacity of the express steamships of1 #bah4 rapid handlers of freight1 #bdg1 #bfd4 ,observations for latitude at sea1 #agf4 ,ocean ,steam ,navigation ,co41 the1 #abj4 ,oceanic ,company4 ,see ,white ,star line4 ,officers of a steamship1 #aeb1 et seq4 ,oil for calming troubled waters1 use of1 #bac4 ,oregon1 the1 sinking of1 #ea1 #aih4 ,orient ,steam ,navigation ,company1 #bff4 ,ormuz1 #bgb4 ,pacific ,mail ,steamship ,company1 the1 ships of1 #bi1 #bdc1 #bhj4 ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,company of ,england1 #bc1 #bhc4 ,packet lines1 the ,liverpool1 #bee4 to ,australia1 #bed4 ,paddle-steamer1 high-water mark of1 #ca4 ,paddle-wheel compared with screw1 #gi4 when necessary1 #hj4 ,panama1 #bhc4 ,parker1 ,mr41 his comparison of triple expansion engines with ordinary ones1 #ci4 ,passenger capacity of the early steamships1 #aad4 accommodations then1 #aai4 and now1 #abg4 ,passenger lists1 #aca4 ,passengers1 cabin1 statistics of1 #acc4 ,pearce1 ,sir ,william1 of the ,fairfield ship-yard1 #aaj4 ,peninsular ,oriental ,steam ,navigation ,company1 the1 #bc1 #bfj4 an imaginary trip by1 #bfj4 ,persia1 the1 description of1 #ca4 ,plimsoll1 ,samuel1 #bea4 ,polyphemus1 ,h4,b4,m4,s41 #ei4 ,princeton1 the1 description of1 #bc4 ,propellers1 failure of1 internal1 #hc4 material of1 #bad4 ,puritan1 the1 #ga4 ,quarantine regulations1 #adb4 ,quartermasters1 duties of1 #afd4 ,randolph ,elder ,co4 ,see ,elder1 ,john1 ,co4 ,red ,sea1 the passage through1 #bfi4 ,refrigerators on steamships1 #bcb4 ,rio ,janeiro1 #bhh4 ,ruthven's hydraulic propeller1 #hc4 ,saale1 the1 #dj4 ,said1 ,port1 harbor of1 #bfc1 #bff4 traffic of1 #bfi4 ,sailors1 on a steamship1 #afe1 et seq4 messes of1 #agd4 ,savannah1 the first steamship to cross the ocean1 #h4 ,scotia1 the1 #ca1 #cb1 #gc4 ,screw propeller1 used by ,ericsson1 #af4 invented or proposed by others1 #ag1 et seq4 early prejudice against1 #gi4 compared with paddle-wheel1 #gi4 twin screws1 #dc1 #hj1 #bji1 #bab4 triple screws1 #hj4 form and nature of1 #hd4 instances of change of form1 #he4 ,scythia1 the1 #ce4 ,servia1 the1 largest mail brought by her1 #bca4 ,shaft1 breaking of a steamer's1 #baj4 ,shanghai1 #bhj4 ,shaw1 ,savill ,albion ,company1 the1 #bib4 ,ship1 investigations into the resistance of a1 in motion1 #df1 #fc4 ,ships1 forms of1 how judged of1 #fb4 life of1 #ee4 speed of1 visionary schemes to increase1 #eh4 the speed of1 primary conditions for1 #fa4 ,singapore1 #bgf4 ,sirius1 the1 first steamer to cross from ,europe to ,new ,york1 #aa1 #aab4 ,skin of ship1 frictional resistance of1 #df1 #hf4 ,smith1 ,thomas ,pettit1 invents a screw propeller1 #ag1 #ah4 ,sorting mails on shipboard1 #bca4 ,south ,stack lighthouse1 #aid4 ,sovereign of the ,seas1 the1 quick run of1 #bed4 ,specie-room on a steamship1 #bca4 ,speed of ship1 schemes to increase1 #eh4 conditions for1 #fa4 increases safety1 #bjd4 ,standard ,oil ,co41 the1 tank steamers of1 #bde4 8,steam lanes10 #bae4 ,steamboat had at first the greatest use in ,america1 #d1 #bh4 ,steamship1 a first-class1 cost of1 #ib4 construction of1 first stages1 #ig1 et seq4 variability of results in its construction1 #ic4 lines1 number and statistics of1 #ace1 et seq4 records of fast trips of1 #acj4 passenger1 table fare of1 #acf4 incoming1 how signalled1 #adb4 hauling out a1 #adi4 expert seamanship required to manage a1 #aej4 officers1 junior1 #afc4 fire drill on1 #aed4 care of1 at sea1 #aei4 crew of1 #afe4 inspection of1 #agj4 travel1 perils of1 #ahf1 et seq4 wrecked1 list of1 #aie1 et seq4 burned at sea1 #aig4 speed of increases safety1 #bjd4 safety of1 #bje1 et seq4 freight and passenger1 #bag4 ,steamships1 the fastest1 cost of1 #bah4 list of transatlantic1 #bai4 routes long1 first established by ,boston merchants1 #bec2 to ,india1 ,china1 and ,australia1 list of1 #bff2 traffic main of1 #bef4 number and nationality of1 #bef4 lines of transatlantic1 #bei4 between ,europe and the ,east1 #bfj4 ,steel1 use of1 in naval construction1 #ed4 industry in the ,united ,states1 #ef1 #hf4 ,steerage passengers1 fare of1 #adc4 inspection of1 #add4 ,steering gear1 steam1 #afd4 ,stevens1 ,mr41 of ,hoboken1 experiments of1 with the screw propeller1 #ah4 return tubular boilers built by1 #cc4 ,stockton1 ,commodore ,robert ,f41 orders screw boats of ,ericsson1 #ag4 ,stoke-hole of a steamship1 #aga4 ,stokers1 at work1 #agb4 their quarters1 #age4 ,suez ,canal1 passage of1 #bfi4 ,sunday on steamship1 #adb4 ,tank steamers1 #bdc1 et seq4 ,tapscott's line1 #bac4 ,teutonic1 breaks the record1 #dd1 #abi1 #bbi4 tonnage of1 #bcj4 ,thomas ,powell1 the1 #cd4 ,tonnage of the ,united ,states in #ahbi and subsequently1 #g4 of ,london and ,liverpool1 #h4 of foreign and domestic ships in #ahij1 #bbc4 steam1 in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 #ec4 ,tow-boats1 statistics of1 #bbc4 ,tramp steamships1 tonnage of1 in #ahij-ia1 #bbc4 description of1 #bcd4 ,trave1 the1 #dj4 largest mail carried by her1 #bcj4 ,travel1 transatlantic1 increasing1 #acd4 ,trevithick opposed by ,watt1 #gg4 ,triple-expansion engines1 the first1 #ci4 ,tripoli1 ,cunard steamer1 loss of1 #aie4 ,twin screws1 #dc4 safety secured by the system of1 #bji4 steamers having1 #bab4 ,unicorn1 the1 first steamship to enter ,boston from ,europe1 #aah4 ,union ,steamship ,company1 the1 #bib4 ,united ,states and ,brazil ,mail ,steamship ,company1 #bhi4 ,valparaiso1 #bhd4 ,vanderbilt1 ,commodore1 starts a line of transatlantic steamers1 #abd4 ,ville du ,havre1 loss of1 #aig4 ,water1 resistance of1 to a moving vessel1 #df1 #dh1 #fc4 ,waterwitch1 the1 experiments with1 #hc4 ,watt1 proposes a spiral oar1 #ag4 his prejudice against steam applied to marine propulsion1 #gg4 ,wave-action in the case of ships at full speed1 #df1 et seq4 ,waves produced by a ship in motion1 #dg1 #fa4 ,west ,indies1 steamship lines touching at1 #bij4 8,whaleback0 steamer1 description of1 #bcd4 ,wheelwright1 ,william1 the instigator of ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,co41 #bc4 ,white ,star line1 establishment of1 #be4 build a new type of ship1 #ce4 conveniences for passengers in1 #abf4 the freight capacity of the largest ships of1 #bah4 influence of1 on ocean navigation1 #bcj4 ,williams ,guion4 ,see ,guion line4 ,wilson line1 the1 as freight carriers1 #bai4 ,wilson1 ,thomas1 builds the first iron vessel1 #ad4 ,world1 a trip round the1 #bef1 et seq4 ,wrecked steamships1 list of1 #aie1 et seq4 ,wyckoff1 ,chevalier1 a passenger on the ,sirius's return voyage1 #aag4 8,a reference to the several titles will convince any one at all familiar with the general subject that the particular topic is treated in every instance by an expert1 entitled as such to speak with authority40--,,judge ,,thomas ,m4 ,,cooley4 ,,the ,,american ,,railway ,,its ,,construction1 ,,development1 ,,management1 ,,and ,,appliances4 ,,written ,,by ,,the ,,most ,,eminent ,,authorities ,,in ,,all ,,branches ,,of ,,railway ,,work4 ,the book is divided into the following chapters1 each being complete and full in the treatment of its subject4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,judge ,,thomas ,m4 ,,cooley1 ,chairman of the ,inter-state ,commerce ,commission4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,a ,,railway4 ,,by ,,thomas ,,curtis ,,clarke1 ,civil ,engineer4 ,,feats ,,of ,,railway ,,engineering4 ,,by ,,john ,,bogart1 ,state ,engineer of ,new ,york4 ,,american ,,locomotives ,,cars4 ,,by ,m4 ,n4 ,,forney1 ,author of the 8,catechism of the ,locomotive10 ,editor 8,railroad and ,engineering ,journals10 etc4 ,,railway ,,management4 ,,by ,,gen4 ,e4 ,p4 ,,alexander1 ,president ,georgia ,central ,r4 ,r4 ,,safety ,,in ,,railroad ,,travel4 ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,prout1 ,editor 8,the ,railroad ,gazette40 ,,railway ,,passenger ,,travel4 ,,by ,,gen4 ,,horace ,,porter1 ,vice-,pres4 ,pullman ,palace ,car ,co4 ,,the ,,freight ,,car ,,service4 ,,by ,,theodore ,,voorhees1 ,asst4 ,supt4 ,n4 ,y4 ,central ,r4 ,r4 ,,the ,,prevention ,,of ,,railway ,,strikes4 ,,by ,,charles ,,francis ,,adams1 ,president ,union ,pacific ,r4 ,r4 ,,how ,,to ,,feed ,a ,,railway4 ,,by ,,benjamin ,,norton1 ,second ,vice-,pres4 ,l4 ,i4 ,r4 ,r4 ,,the ,,railway ,,mail ,,service4 ,,by ,,thomas ,l4 ,,james1 ,ex-,postmaster-,general4 ,,the ,,railway ,,in ,,its ,,business ,,relations4 ,,by ,,arthur ,t4 ,,hadley1 ,professor ,yale ,college2 ,author of 8,railroad ,transportation40 ,,every-,,day ,,life ,,of ,,railroad ,,men4 ,,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,adams1 ,,jr41 ,associate ,editor 8,the ,railroad ,gazette40 ,,statistical ,,railway ,,studies4 ,,by ,,fletcher ,w4 ,,hewes1 ,author of 8,scribner's ,statistical ,atlas40 ,with #bbe ,illustrations1 #ac ,maps1 and #ai ,charts1 many being ,colored4 ,a ,full ,index adds much to the ,value of the ,volume as a ,book of ,reference4 ,substantially bound in ,half ,leather1 ,octavo1 #f4jj1 net4 ,for the first time there is presented in this book an adequate account of the ,american ,railway1 an industry representing over nine thousand million dollars in its one hundred and fifty thousand miles of road4 ,the above enumeration of the subjects1 which are treated in the volume1 is sufficient to show its value and importance1 and in preparing it nothing has been left undone which might add to the lasting value and interest of the work4 8,a large and handsome volume4 ,the various chapters are all by specialists well known as authorities1 each in his own field1 and the information given1 while attractive in form1 may be depended upon as entirely trustworthy40--,,boston ,,beacon4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,daily ,,life ,a ,,popular ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,applications ,,of ,,electricity ,,to ,,every ,,day ,,uses ,in this work1 the plan of which is similar to 8,the ,american ,railway0 published a year ago1 are to be found elaborately illustrated papers by ten writers who were selected for their expert acquaintance with every phase of this important subject4 ,acknowledged authorities in their respective fields1 these writers have described both the theoretical and practical aspects of the different branches of electrical science in a singularly entertaining and instructive manner4 ,the scope and importance of the work are shown by the following list of topics and eminent authors3 ,,electricity ,,in ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,man4 ,,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,brackett1 ,henry ,professor of ,physics in ,princeton ,college4 ,,the ,,electric ,,motor ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,,by ,,franklin ,l4 ,,pope1 ,past ,president of the ,american ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers4 ,,the ,,electric ,,railway ,,of ,,to-,,day4 ,,by ,,joseph ,,wetzler1 ,editor of the 8,electrical ,engineer10 ,new ,york4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,lighting4 ,,by ,,henry ,,morton1 ,president of the ,stevens ,institute of ,technology4 ,,the ,,telegraph ,,of ,,to-,,day4 ,,by ,,charles ,l4 ,,buckingham1 ,patent ,attorney and ,counsel for the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,co4 ,,the ,,making ,,and ,,laying ,,of ,a ,,cable4 ,,by ,,herbert ,l4 ,,webb1 ,assistant ,electrician1 ,metropolitan ,telephone ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,naval ,,warfare4 ,,by ,,walter ,s4 ,,hughes1 ,lieutenant ,u4,s4,n4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,land ,,warfare4 ,,by ,,john ,,millis1 ,first ,lieutenant1 ,corps of ,engineers1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,the ,,household4 ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,kennelly1 ,electrician of ,mr4 ,t4 ,a4 ,edison's ,laboratory4 ,,electricity ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,human ,,body4 ,,by ,m4 ,,allen ,,starr1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,nervous ,diseases1 ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons1 ,new ,york4 ,with #abe illustrations1 ,square #hvo1 #c4jj4 ,,charles ,,scribner's ,,sons1 ,,publishers1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,brief ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,,travel1 ,,exploration ,,and ,,adventure1 ,,published ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner's ,,sons1 #gdc #gde ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,rev4 ,james ,bassett4 ,,persia2 ,the ,land of the ,imams 7,with ,map4 #abmo1 #a4ej47 8,scarcely inferior1 in general interest1 to ,o',donovan's 8,merv10 or ,stech's two volumes on ,persia1 and superior to either in interest for a reader concerned in the evangelization of the country4 ,his pages are crowded with facts and replete with indications of intelligent observations and natural interpretations4 ,we have not found a dull page in it4 ,it is a small book with much in it1 and that much good40--,new ,york ,independent4 ,capt4 ,john ,g4 ,bourke4 ,,the ,,snake ,,dance ,,of ,,the ,,moquis ,,of ,,arizona4 ,with a ,description of the ,manners and ,customs of this ,peculiar ,people 7,with ,colored ,plates4 #hvo1 #e4jj47 8,a valuable contribution to the study of native ,american ethnology1 while its vivid descriptions of weird scenes1 stirring incidents of travel1 and characteristic anecdotes1 make it very agreeable reading40--,london ,academy4 ,william ,t4 ,brigham4 ,,guatemala2 ,the ,land of the ,quetzal 7,with #bf full-page ,illustrations4 #hvo1 #e4jj47 8,mr4 ,brigham made a very extensive trip through ,guatemala1 and he brought to all that met his eye a trained intelligence which detected everything1 revealed and promised4 ,he discerned and comprehended much more than any of the natives have divined or hoped for1 and his book is the only one extant in any language which discloses what the ,guatemalan ,republic is or might be40--,new ,york ,sun4 ,henry ,w4 ,elliott4 ,,our ,,arctic ,,province1 ,,alaska ,,and ,,the ,,seal ,,islands 7,illust4 #hvo1 #d4ej47 8,nothing so complete and satisfactory has ever before appeared in print in this country as this absorbingly interesting and minutely accurate account of the great ,alaskan ,seal ,islands1 and the book must now be regarded as the standard authority on #8,our ,arctic ,province4'0--,chicago ,herald4 ,rev4 ,henry ,m4 ,field1 ,d4,d4 ,,from ,,the ,,lakes ,,of ,,killarney ,,to ,,the ,,golden ,,horn 7#hvo1 #b4jj74 ,,from ,,egypt ,,to ,,japan 7#hvo1 #b4jj74 ,,on ,,the ,,desert 7#hvo1 #b4jj74 ,,among ,,the ,,holy ,,hills 7,with a ,map4 #hvo1 #a4ej74 ,,the ,,greek ,,islands1 and ,turkey after the ,war 7,with ,illustrations and ,maps4 #hvo1 #a4ej74 ,,old ,,spain ,,and ,,new ,,spain 7,with ,map4 #hvo1 #a4ej74 ,,bright ,,skies ,,and ,,dark ,,shadows 7,with ,maps4 #hvo1 #a4ej74 ,,gibraltar 7,illustrated4 #dto1 #b4jj74 8,dr4 ,field has an eye that sees very clearly4 ,he knows also how to describe just those things in the different places visited by him which an intelligent man wants to know about4 ,he has1 besides1 a singularly clear and pleasing style1 so that the attention of his reader is never for a moment detained over any obscurity or infelicity of expression1 but is at once rewarded by the clear perception of his meaning40--,dr4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,taylor4 ,henry ,t4 ,finck4 ,,the ,,pacific ,,coast ,,scenic ,,tour 7,with #bj full-page ,illustrations4 #hvo1 #b4ej74 ,,spain ,,and ,,morocco2 ,studies in ,local ,color 7#abmo1 #a4be47 8,the writer combines very happily the faculty of close observation and minute description with real literary skill4 ,thus while his book contains details which make it eminently useful and a source of exact information1 it is also a pleasurable work for the reader40--,the ,christian ,union4 ,james ,anthony ,froude4 ,,the ,,english ,,in ,,the ,,west ,,indies 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #a4ge74 ,,oceana3 ,england and ,her ,colonies 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #a4ge47 8,mr4 ,froude is the master of an exquisite prose style1 and if not a foremost master he is very near to that rank among living ,englishmen4 ,not since #8,eothen' captivated all its readers1 not since ,waterton narrated the story of his wanderings1 has the romance of travel been treated with happier1 abler1 or more entertaining hands40--,new ,york ,times4 ,william ,h4 ,gilder4 ,,schwatka's ,,search 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #c4jj74 ,,icepack ,,and ,,tundra 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #d4jj47 8,no recent book gives so vivid an idea of the perils and hardships which necessarily accompany all attempts at arctic exploration1 as this of ,mr4 ,gilder's4 ,the accounts of the people of the various places visited1 and their peculiar customs1 show keen powers of observation as well as skill of description40--,boston ,transcript4 ,gen4 ,a4 ,w4 ,greely4 ,,three ,,years ,,of ,,arctic ,,service4 ,an ,account of the ,lady ,franklin ,bay ,expedition of #ahha-ahhd 7,with over #ajj ,illustrations1 ,maps1 and ,charts4 #b vols41 #hvo74 ,sold only by subscription4 8,in every respect--the interest of the narrative1 the fullness and accuracy of the departments of ethnology1 of natural history1 of meteorology1 geology1 auroral displays1 of all matters of scientific interest--this work is incomparably the most valuable one on the subject ever published40--,chicago ,interior4 ,william ,elliot ,griffis4 ,,corea2 ,,the ,,hermit ,,nation 7,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 #b4ej47 8,the work bears witness to a vast amount of well directed labor2 and while it is clothed with a rare charm for the general reader1 whose curiosity regarding a long isolated nation will for the first time be satisfied1 it is also sure of a respectful and grateful reception from the student of history1 ethnology1 and philology40--,new ,york ,sun4 ,william ,t4 ,hornaday4 ,,two ,,years ,,in ,a ,,jungle 7,new ,edition4 #hvo1 #c4jj47 ,,taxidermy ,,and ,,zoological ,,collecting 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #b4ej net47 8,he describes with skill and fidelity4 ,here we have the hunter's sport1 the naturalist's descriptions1 and the traveler's observations4 ,we need not say that the combination is rare and very inviting40--,chicago ,interior4 ,a4 ,j4 ,mounteney-,jephson4 ,,emin ,,pasha ,,and ,,the ,,rebellion ,,at ,,the ,,equator 7#hvo74 ,sold only by subscription4 8,you have commenced your story where a great gap occurred in my own narrative1 a gap which you alone could fill up4 ,there is within the covers of your volume much matter that is quite new to me1 much that is extremely thrilling and exciting1 and the whole is related with very enviable literary tact and skill4 ,with all my heart ,i commend to ,american and ,english readers this true tale of work manfully and nobly done and so modestly told40--,henry ,m4 ,stanley4 ,carl ,lumholtz4 ,,among ,,cannibals 7,fully ,illustrated4 #hvo1 #e4jj47 8,we have all read the book with immense interest4 ,it is a work which will have a very long life1 for it is full of wisdom and useful knowledge2 besides1 it represents everything so lively before the reader's eyes that he forgets he is reading a mere description1 and thinks he is at the author's side1 and shares with him the hardships1 dangers1 and joys of a life among cannibals in the wilderness of ,australia4 ,the whole civilized world must be grateful to you for this really wonderful work40--,dr4 ,henry ,schliemann4 ,selah ,merrill4 ,,east ,,of ,,the ,,jordan 7,with ,illustrations and ,map4 ,new ,edition1 #hvo1 #b4ej47 ,no other ,american is so much at home in the ,east ,jordan country as ,mr4 ,merrill1 and there does not exist in any other language so much fresh and valuable information respecting it4 ,the illustrations which embellish the book are fresh and original1 and the style of the narrative is graphic and entertaining4 ,the work is exceedingly interesting as an account of exploration in this field1 rich in historic associations4 ,william ,agnew ,paton4 ,,down ,,the ,,islands 7,illustrated4 ,square #hvo1 #b4ej47 8,an exceedingly entertaining book of travels1 containing nearly seventy illustrations1 including sixteen full-page plates4 ,mr4 ,paton relates what he has seen in the ,windward ,islands1 from ,st4 ,kitt's to ,trinidad1 and with this he interweaves a vast amount of official and historical information1 yet without making the book a formal affair4 ,the story is highly romantic and makes good reading40--,boston ,beacon4 ,w4 ,s4 ,schley and ,prof4 ,j4 ,r4 ,soley4 ,,the ,,rescue ,,of ,,greely 7,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 #b4jj47 8,the work has been singularly well done4 ,the whole story is told in plain facts1 plainly and intellectually stated1 and the adjectives are few4 ,rarely is a great story narrated so simply and yet so effectively40--,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,dr4 ,henry ,schliemann4 ,,ancient ,,mycen 7,illustrated4 #dto1 cloth extra1 #g4ej74 ,,tiryns 7,illustrated4 ,royal #hvo1 #aj4jj74 8,dr4 ,schliemann has made the most important contribution of the present century to ,greek archology40--,the ,nation4 8,the interest of the work is not confined to either ,england or ,america4 ,every enlightened nation will welcome it1 for it opens up a new world to the modern generation4 ,no work of the time has attracted wider attention40--,boston ,post4 ,eugene ,schuyler4 ,,turkistan 7,new ,edition4 #b vols41 #hvo1 #e4jj47 8,one of the most valuable and fascinating of publications4 ,the author has the eye and pen of a journalist1 and sees at once what is worth seeing1 and recites his impressions in the most graphic manner40--,n4 ,y4 ,world4 ,herbert ,h4 ,smith4 ,,brazil2 ,,the ,,amazons ,,and ,,the ,,coast 7,illustrated4 #hvo1 #e4jj47 8,mr4 ,smith1 an ,american who has lived and traveled for the greater part of eight years in ,brazil1 gives so excellent an account of that country that we cannot regret this addition to the already extensive literature of the subject4 ,the book is a very successful attempt to present a comprehensive picture1 drawn both from the experience of the author and from that of previous ,brazilian and foreign writers1 of the present state of ,brazil40--,london ,academy4 ,henry ,m4 ,stanley4 ,,in ,,darkest ,,africa 7,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #b vols41 #hvo1 #g4ej47 ,sold only by subscription4 ,,how ,i ,,found ,,livingstone4 7,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 #c4ej47 8,this is the noblest record of the achievements of a man of action which this generation has known4 ,mr4 ,stanley writes his book very much as he marches through ,africa--with the irresistible energy of an imperious will4 ,these volumes have descriptive passages of singular excellence2 the style is trenchant1 vigorous and clear2 and the literary workmanship is markedly superior to that of any of his previous work40--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,thomas ,stevens4 ,,around ,,the ,,world ,,on ,a ,,bicycle 7#bjj ,illustrations4 #b vols41 #hvo1 #h4jj47 8,this book will be found very interesting4 ,all wheelmen will want to have the history of the greatest bicycle journey ever accomplished2 the lover of adventure will find it richly to his taste2 and the general reader will find in the descriptions of persons1 places and customs in far-off lands1 much to please and interest40--,the ,boston ,times4 ,bayard ,taylor4 ,,illustrated ,,library ,,of ,,travel--,,travels ,,in ,,japan1 ,,arabia1 ,,south ,,africa1 ,,central ,,asia1 ,,central ,,africa1 ,,siam 7,six volumes1 each ,illustrated4 #abmo1 #a4be47 8,authenticated accounts of countries1 peoples1 modes of living and being1 curiosities in natural history1 and personal adventure in travels and explorations1 suggest a rich fund of solid instruction combined with delightful entertainment4 ,the editorship1 by one of the most observant and well-traveled men of modern times1 at once secures the high character of the #8,library' in every particular40--,the ,sunday ,school ,times4 ,edward ,l4 ,wilson4 ,,in ,,scripture ,,lands 7,with #aej ,illustrations from photographs4 ,large #hvo1 #c4ej47 8,here we have a man with the courageous spirit of an explorer1 a good pair of eyes1 a good camera1 and a good literary style4 ,we have seen no work of exploration and travel in those lands which gives so clear an idea of them and of the historic remains and scenes as this40--,chicago ,interior4