,,essays3 ,,scientific1 ,,political1 ,,speculative4 ,,by ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,,library ,,edition1 7,,otherwise ,,fifth ,,thousand17 ,containing ,seven ,essays not before ,republished1 and various other additions4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate1 #ad1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london2 ,,and #bj1 ,,south ,,frederick ,,street1 ,,edinburgh4 #ahia4 ,,london3 ,g4 ,,norman ,,and ,,son1 ,,printers1 ,,hart ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,page ,,manners ,,and ,,fashion #a ,,railway ,,morals ,,and ,,railway ,,policy #eb ,,the ,,morals ,,of ,,trade #aac ,,prison-,,ethics #aeb ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,kant #aib ,,absolute ,,political ,,ethics #bag ,,over-,,legislation #bbi ,,representative ,,government--,,what ,,is ,,it ,,good ,,for8 #bhc ,,state-,,tamperings ,,with ,,money ,,and ,,banks #cbf ,,parliamentary ,,reform3 ,,the ,,dangers ,,and ,,the ,,safeguards #ceh 8,,the ,,collective ,,wisdom0 #chg ,,political ,,fetichism #cic ,,specialized ,,administration #dja ,,from ,,freedom ,,to ,,bondage #dde ,,the ,,americans #dga ,,the ,,index4 #a ,,manners ,,and ,,fashion4 ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,april #ahed4 ,whoever has studied the physiognomy of political meetings1 cannot fail to have remarked a connexion between democratic opinions and peculiarities of costume4 ,at a ,chartist demonstration1 a lecture on ,socialism1 or a soire of the ,friends of ,italy1 there will be seen many among the audience1 and a still larger ratio among the speakers1 who get themselves up in a style more or less unusual4 ,one gentleman on the platform divides his hair down the centre1 instead of on one side2 another brushes it back off the forehead1 in the fashion known as 8bringing out the intellect20 a third has so long forsworn the scissors1 that his locks sweep his shoulders4 ,a sprinkling of moustaches may be observed2 here and there an imperial2 and occasionally some courageous breaker of conventions exhibits a full-grown beard4#a ,this nonconformity in hair is countenanced by various nonconformities in dress1 shown by others of the assemblage4 ,bare necks1 shirt-collars la ,byron1 waistcoats cut ,quaker fashion1 wonderfully shaggy great coats1 numerous oddities in form and colour1 destroy the monotony usual in crowds4 ,even those exhibiting no conspicuous peculiarity1 frequently indicate by something in the pattern of their clothes1 that they pay small regard to what their #b tailors tell them about the prevailing taste4 ,and when the gathering breaks up1 the varieties of head gear displayed--the number of caps1 and the abundance of felt hats--suffice to prove that were the world at large like-minded1 the black cylinders which tyrannize over us would soon be deposed4 #a ,this was written before moustaches and beards had become general4 ,this relationship between political discontent and disregard of customs exists on the ,continent also4 ,red republicanism is everywhere distinguished by its hirsuteness4 ,the authorities of ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,italy1 alike recognize certain forms of hat as indicative of disaffection1 and fulminate against them accordingly4 ,in some places the wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being classed among the suspects2 and in others1 he who would avoid the bureau of police1 must beware how he goes out in any but the ordinary colours4 ,thus1 democracy abroad1 as at home1 tends towards personal singularity4 ,nor is this association of characteristics peculiar to modern times1 or to reformers of the ,state4 ,it has always existed2 and it has been manifested as much in religious agitations as in political ones4 ,the ,puritans1 disapproving of the long curls of the ,cavaliers1 as of their principles1 cut their own hair short1 and so gained the name of 8,roundheads40 ,the marked religious nonconformity of the ,quakers was accompanied by an equally-marked nonconformity of manners--in attire1 in speech1 in salutation4 ,the early ,moravians not only believed differently1 but at the same time dressed differently1 and lived differently1 from their fellow ,christians4 ,that the association between political independence and independence of personal conduct1 is not a phenomenon of to-day only1 we may see alike in the appearance of ,franklin at the ,french court in plain clothes1 and in the white hats worn by the last generation of radicals4 ,originality of nature is sure to show itself in more ways than one4 ,the mention of ,george ,fox's suit of leather1 or ,pestalozzi's school name1 8,harry ,oddity10 will at once suggest the #c remembrance that men who have in great things diverged from the beaten track1 have frequently done so in small things likewise4 ,minor illustrations may be gathered in almost every circle4 ,we believe that whoever will number up his reforming and rationalist acquaintances1 will find among them more than the usual proportion of those who in dress or behaviour exhibit some degree of what the world calls eccentricity4 ,if it be a fact that men of revolutionary aims in politics or religion1 are commonly revolutionists in custom also1 it is not less a fact that those whose office it is to uphold established arrangements in ,state and ,church1 are also those who most adhere to the social forms and observances bequeathed to us by past generations4 ,practices elsewhere extinct still linger about the head quarters of government4 ,the monarch still gives assent to ,acts of ,parliament in the old ,french of the ,normans2 and ,norman ,french terms are still used in law4 ,wigs1 such as those we see depicted in old portraits1 may yet be found on the heads of judges and barristers4 ,the ,beefeaters at the ,tower wear the costume of ,henry ,v,i,ith's body-guard4 ,the ,university dress of the present year varies but little from that worn soon after the ,reformation4 ,the claret-coloured coat1 knee-breeches1 lace shirt-frills1 white silk stockings1 and buckled shoes1 which once formed the usual attire of a gentleman1 still survive as the court-dress4 ,and it need scarcely be said that at leves and drawing-rooms1 the ceremonies are prescribed with an exactness1 and enforced with a rigour1 not elsewhere to be found4 ,can we consider these two series of coincidences as accidental and unmeaning8 ,must we not rather conclude that some necessary relationship obtains between them8 ,are there not such things as a constitutional conservatism1 and a constitutional tendency to change8 ,is there not a class which clings to the old in all things2 and another class so in love with progress as often to mistake novelty for #d improvement8 ,do we not find some men ready to bow to established authority of whatever kind2 while others demand of every such authority its reason1 and reject it if it fails to justify itself8 ,and must not the minds thus contrasted tend to become respectively conformist and nonconformist1 not only in politics and religion1 but in other things8 ,submission1 whether to a government1 to the dogmas of ecclesiastics1 or to that code of behaviour which society at large has set up1 is essentially of the same nature2 and the sentiment which induces resistance to the despotism of rulers1 civil or spiritual1 likewise induces resistance to the despotism of the world's usages4 ,all enactments1 alike of the legislature1 the consistory1 and the saloon--all regulations1 formal or virtual1 have a common character3 they are all limitations of men's freedom4 8,do this--,refrain from that10 are the blank forms into which they may severally be written2 and throughout the understanding is that obedience will bring approbation here and paradise hereafter2 while disobedience will entail imprisonment1 or sending to ,coventry1 or eternal torments1 as the case may be4 ,and if restraints1 however named1 and through whatever apparatus of means exercised1 are one in their action upon men1 it must happen that those who are patient under one kind of restraint1 are likely to be patient under another2 and conversely1 that those impatient of restraint in general1 will1 on the average1 tend to show their impatience in all directions4 ,that ,law1 ,religion1 and ,manners are thus related1 and that they have in certain contrasted characteristics of men a common support and a common danger1 will1 however1 be most clearly seen on discovering that they have a common origin4 ,little as from present appearances we should suppose it1 we shall yet find that at first1 the control of religion1 the control of laws1 and the control of manners1 were all one control4 ,strange as it now seems1 we believe it to be demonstrable that the rules of etiquette1 the provisions of the statute-book1 and the commands of the #e decalogue1 have grown from the same root4 ,if we go far enough back into the ages of primeval ,fetishism1 it becomes manifest that originally ,deity1 ,chief1 and ,master of the ,ceremonies were identical4 ,to make good these positions1 and to show their bearing on what is to follow1 it will be necessary here to traverse ground that is in part somewhat beaten1 and at first sight irrelevant to our topic4 ,we will pass over it as quickly as consists with the exigencies of the argument4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the earliest social aggregations were ruled solely by the will of the strong man1 few dispute4#b ,that from the strong man proceeded not only ,monarchy1 but the conception of a ,god1 few admit3 much as ,carlyle and others have said in evidence of it4 ,if1 however1 those who are unable to believe this1 will lay aside the ideas of ,god and man in which they have been educated1 and study the aboriginal ideas of them1 they will at least see some probability in the hypothesis4 ,let them remember that before experience had yet taught men to distinguish between the possible and the impossible2 and while they were ready on the slightest suggestion to ascribe unknown powers to any object and make a fetish of it2 their conceptions of humanity and its capacities were necessarily vague1 and without specific limits4 ,the man who by unusual strength1 or cunning1 achieved something that others had failed to achieve1 or something which they did not understand1 was considered by them as differing from themselves2 and1 as we see in the belief of some ,polynesians that only their chiefs have souls1 or in that of the ancient ,peruvians that their nobles were divine by birth1 the ascribed difference was apt to be not one of degree only1 but one of kind4 ,let them remember next1 how gross were the notions of ,god1 or #f rather of gods1 prevalent during the same era and afterwards--how concretely gods were conceived as men of specific aspects dressed in specific ways--how their names were literally 8the strong10 8the destroyer10 8the powerful one10--how1 according to the ,scandinavian mythology1 the 8sacred duty of blood-revenge0 was acted on by the gods themselves1--and how they were not only human in their vindictiveness1 their cruelty1 and their quarrels with each other1 but were supposed to have amours on earth1 and to consume the viands placed on their altars4 ,add to which1 that in various mythologies1 ,greek1 ,scandinavian1 and others1 the oldest beings are giants2 that according to a traditional genealogy the gods1 demi-gods1 and in some cases men1 are descended from these after the human fashion2 and that while in the ,east we hear of sons of ,god who saw the daughters of men that they were fair1 the ,teutonic myths tell of unions between the sons of men and the daughters of the gods4 ,let them remember1 too1 that at first the idea of death differed widely from that which we have2 that there are still tribes who1 on the decease of one of their number1 attempt to make the corpse stand1 and put food into its mouth2 that the ,peruvians had feasts at which the mummies of their dead ,incas presided1 when1 as ,prescott says1 they paid attention 8to these insensible remains as if they were instinct with life20 that among the ,fijians it is believed that every enemy has to be killed twice2 that the ,eastern ,pagans give extension and figure to the soul1 and attribute to it all the same members1 all the same substances1 both solid and liquid1 of which our bodies are composed2 and that it is the custom among most barbarous races to bury food1 weapons1 and trinkets along with the dead body1 under the manifest belief that it will presently need them4 ,lastly1 let them remember that the other world1 as originally conceived1 is simply some distant part of this world--some ,elysian fields1 some happy hunting-ground1 accessible even to the living1 and to which1 #g after death1 men travel in anticipation of a life analogous in general character to that which they led before4 ,then1 co-ordinating these general facts--the ascription of unknown powers to chiefs and medicine men2 the belief in deities having human forms1 passions1 and behaviour2 the imperfect comprehension of death as distinguished from life2 and the proximity of the future abode to the present1 both in position and character--let them reflect whether they do not almost unavoidably suggest the conclusion that the aboriginal god is the dead chief3 the chief not dead in our sense1 but gone away1 carrying with him food and weapons to some rumoured region of plenty1 some promised land1 whither he had long intended to lead his followers1 and whence he will presently return to fetch them4 ,this hypothesis once entertained1 is seen to harmonize with all primitive ideas and practices4 ,the sons of the deified chief reigning after him1 it necessarily happens that all early kings are held descendants of the gods2 and the fact that alike in ,assyria1 ,egypt1 among the ,jews1 ,phnicians1 and ancient ,britons1 kings' names were formed out of the names of the gods1 is fully explained4 ,the genesis of ,polytheism out of ,fetishism1 by the successive migrations of the race of god-kings to the other world--a genesis illustrated in the ,greek mythology1 alike by the precise genealogy of the deities1 and by the specifically-asserted apotheosis of the later ones--tends further to bear it out4 ,it explains the fact that in the old creeds1 as in the still extant creed of the ,otaheitans1 every family has its guardian spirit1 who is supposed to be one of their departed relatives2 and that they sacrifice to these as minor gods--a practice still pursued by the ,chinese and even by the ,russians4 ,it is perfectly congruous with the ,grecian myths concerning the wars of the ,gods with the ,titans and their final usurpation2 and it similarly agrees with the fact that among the ,teutonic gods proper was one ,freir who came among them by adoption1 8but was born #h among the ,vanes1 a somewhat mysterious other dynasty of gods1 who had been conquered and superseded by the stronger and more warlike ,odin dynasty40 ,it harmonizes1 too1 with the belief that there are different gods to different territories and nations1 as there were different chiefs2 that these gods contend for supremacy as chiefs do2 and it gives meaning to the boast of neighbouring tribes--8,our god is greater than your god40 ,it is confirmed by the notion universally current in early times1 that the gods come from this other abode1 in which they commonly live1 and appear among men--speak to them1 help them1 punish them4 ,and remembering this1 it becomes manifest that the prayers put up by primitive peoples to their gods for aid in battle1 are meant literally--that their gods are expected to come back from the other kingdom they are reigning over1 and once more fight the old enemies they had before warred against so implacably2 and it needs but to name the ,iliad1 to remind every one how thoroughly they believed the expectation fulfilled4#c #b ,the few who disputed it would be right however4 ,there are stages preceding that in which chiefly power becomes established2 and in many cases it never does become established4 #c ,in this paragraph1 which ,i have purposely left standing word for word as it did when republished with other essays in ,dec4 #aheg1 will be seen the outline of the ghost-theory4 ,though there are references to fetishism as a primitive form of belief1 and though at that time ,i had passively accepted the current theory 7though never with satisfaction1 for the origin of fetishism as then conceived seemed incomprehensible7 yet the belief that inanimate objects may possess supernatural powers 7which is what was then understood as fetishism7 is not dwelt upon as a primitive belief4 ,the one thing which is dwelt upon is the belief in the double of the dead man as continuing to exist1 and as becoming an object of propitiation and eventually of worship4 ,there are clearly marked out the rudiments which1 when supplied with the mass of facts collected in the ,descriptive ,sociology developed into the doctrine elaborated in ,part ,i4 of ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,all government1 then1 being originally that of the strong man who has become a fetish by some manifestation of superiority1 there arises1 at his death--his supposed departure on a long-projected expedition1 in which he is accompanied by the slaves and concubines sacrificed at his tomb--there arises1 then1 the incipient division of religious #i from political control1 of spiritual rule from civil4 ,his son becomes deputed chief during his absence2 his authority is cited as that by which his son acts2 his vengeance is invoked on all who disobey his son2 and his commands1 as previously known or as asserted by his son1 become the germ of a moral code3 a fact we shall the more clearly perceive if we remember1 that early moral codes inculcate mainly the virtues of the warrior1 and the duty of exterminating some neighbouring tribe whose existence is an offence to the deity4 ,from this point onwards1 these two kinds of authority1 at first complicated together as those of principal and agent1 become slowly more and more distinct4 ,as experience accumulates1 and ideas of causation grow more precise1 kings lose their supernatural attributes2 and1 instead of ,god-king1 become ,god-descended king1 ,god-appointed king1 the ,lord's anointed1 the vicegerent of ,heaven1 ruler reigning by ,divine right4 ,the old theory1 however1 long clings to men in feeling1 after it has disappeared in name2 and 8such divinity doth hedge a king10 that even now1 many1 on first seeing one1 feel a secret surprise at finding him an ordinary sample of humanity4 ,the sacredness attaching to royalty attaches afterwards to its appended institutions--to legislatures1 to laws4 ,legal and illegal are synonymous with right and wrong2 the authority of ,parliament is held unlimited2 and a lingering faith in governmental power continually generates unfounded hopes from its enactments4 ,political scepticism1 however1 having destroyed the divine prestige of royalty1 goes on ever increasing1 and promises ultimately to reduce the ,state to a purely secular institution1 whose regulations are limited in their sphere1 and have no other authority than the general will4 ,meanwhile1 the religious control has been little by little separating itself from the civil1 both in its essence and in its forms4 ,while from the ,god-king of the barbarian have arisen in one direction1 secular rulers who1 age by age1 have been losing #aj the sacred attributes men ascribed to them2 there has arisen in another direction1 the conception of a deity1 who1 at first human in all things1 has been gradually losing human materiality1 human form1 human passions1 human modes of action3 until now1 anthropomorphism has become a reproach4 ,along with this wide divergence in men's ideas of the divine and civil ruler has been taking place a corresponding divergence in the codes of conduct respectively proceeding from them4 ,while the king was a deputy-god--a governor such as the ,jews looked for in the ,messiah--a governor considered1 as the ,czar still is1 8our ,god upon earth10--it1 of course1 followed that his commands were the supreme rules4 ,but as men ceased to believe in his supernatural origin and nature1 his commands ceased to be the highest2 and there arose a distinction between the regulations made by him1 and the regulations handed down from the old god-kings1 who were rendered ever more sacred by time and the accumulation of myths4 ,hence came respectively1 ,law and ,morality3 the one growing ever more concrete1 the other more abstract2 the authority of the one ever on the decrease1 that of the other ever on the increase2 originally the same1 but now placed daily in more marked antagonism4 ,simultaneously there has been going on a separation of the institutions administering these two codes of conduct4 ,while they were yet one1 of course ,church and ,state were one3 the king was arch-priest1 not nominally1 but really--alike the giver of new commands and the chief interpreter of the old commands2 and the deputy-priests coming out of his family were thus simply expounders of the dictates of their ancestry3 at first as recollected1 and afterwards as ascertained by professed interviews with them4 ,this union between sacred and secular--which still existed practically during the middle ages1 when the authority of kings was mixed up with the authority of the pope1 when there were bishop-rulers having all the powers of feudal lords1 and when priests punished #aa by penances--has been1 step by step1 becoming less close4 ,though monarchs are still 8defenders of the faith10 and ecclesiastical chiefs1 they are but nominally such4 ,though bishops still have civil power1 it is not what they once had4 ,protestantism shook loose the bonds of union2 ,dissent has long been busy in organizing a mechanism for religious control1 wholly independent of law2 in ,america1 a separate organization for that purpose already exists2 and if anything is to be hoped from the ,anti-,state-,church ,association--or1 as it has been newly named1 8,the ,society for the ,liberation of ,religion from ,state ,patronage and ,control0--we shall presently have a separate organization here also4 ,thus1 in authority1 in essence1 and in form1 political and spiritual rule have been ever more widely diverging from the same root4 ,that increasing division of labour which marks the progress of society in other things1 marks it also in this separation of government into civil and religious2 and if we observe how the morality which now forms the substance of religions in general1 is beginning to be purified from the associated creeds1 we may anticipate that this division will be ultimately carried much further4 ,passing now to the third species of control--that of ,manners--we shall find that this1 too1 while it had a common genesis with the others1 has gradually come to have a distinct sphere and a special embodiment4 ,among early aggregations of men before yet social observances existed1 the sole forms of courtesy known were the signs of submission to the strong man2 as the sole law was his will1 and the sole religion the awe of his supposed supernaturalness4 ,originally1 ceremonies were modes of behaviour to the god-king4 ,our commonest titles have been derived from his names4 ,and all salutations were primarily worship paid to him4 ,let us trace out these truths in detail1 beginning with titles4 ,the fact already noticed1 that the names of early kings among divers races are formed by the addition of certain #ab syllable to the names of their gods--which certain syllables1 like our ,mac and ,fitz1 probably mean 8son of10 or 8descended from0--at once gives meaning to the term ,father as a divine title4 ,and when we read1 in ,selden1 that 8the composition out of these names of ,deities was not only proper to ,kings3 their ,grandees and more honorable ,subjects0 7no doubt members of the royal race7 8had sometimes the like20 we see how the term ,father1 properly used by these also1 and by their multiplying descendants1 came to be a title used by the people in general4 ,as bearing on this point1 it is significant that in the least advanced country of ,europe1 where belief in the divine nature of the ruler still lingers1 ,father in this higher sense1 is still a regal distinction4 ,when1 again1 we remember how the divinity at first ascribed to kings was not a complimentary fiction but a supposed fact2 and how1 further1 the celestial bodies were believed to be personages who once lived among men2 we see that the appellations of oriental rulers1 8,brother to the ,sun10 c41 were probably once expressive of a genuine belief2 and have simply1 like many other things1 continued in use after all meaning has gone out of them4 ,we may infer1 too1 that the titles ,god1 ,lord1 ,divinity1 were given to primitive rulers literally--that the nostra divinitas applied to the ,roman emperors1 and the various sacred designations that have been borne by monarchs1 down to the still extant phrase1 8,our ,lord the ,king10 are the dead and dying forms of what were once living facts4 ,from these names1 ,god1 ,father1 ,lord1 ,divinity1 originally belonging to the ,god-king1 and afterwards to ,god and the king1 the derivation of our commonest titles of respect is traceable4 ,there is reason to think that these titles were originally proper names4 ,not only do we see among the ,egyptians1 where ,pharaoh was synonymous with king1 and among the ,romans1 where to be ,csar1 meant to be ,emperor1 that the proper names of the greatest men were transferred to their successors1 and so became class-names2 #ac but in the ,scandinavian mythology we may trace a human title of honour up to the proper name of a divine personage4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon bealdor1 or baldor1 means ,lord2 and ,balder is the name of the favourite of ,odin's sons4 ,how these names of honour became general is easily understood4 ,the relatives of the primitive kings--the grandees described by ,selden as having names formed on those of the gods1 and shown by this to be members of the divine race--necessarily shared in the epithets descriptive of superhuman relationships and nature4 ,their ever-multiplying offspring inheriting these1 gradually rendered them comparatively common4 ,and then they came to be applied to every man of power3 partly from the fact that1 in those early days when men conceived divinity simply as a stronger kind of humanity1 great persons could be called by divine epithets with but little exaggeration2 partly from the fact that the unusually potent were apt to be considered as unrecognised or illegitimate descendants of 8the strong1 the destroyer1 the powerful one20 and partly1 also1 from compliment and the desire to propitiate4 ,as superstition diminished1 this last became the sole cause4 ,and if we remember that it is the nature of compliment1 to attribute more than is due--that in the ever widening application of 8esquire10 in the perpetual repetition of 8your honour0 by the fawning ,irishman1 and in the use of the name 8gentleman0 to any coalheaver or dustman by the lower classes of ,london1 we have current examples of the depreciation of titles consequent on compliment--and that in barbarous times1 when the wish to propitiate was stronger than now1 this effect must have been greater2 we shall see that there naturally arose from this cause an extensive misuse of all early distinctions4 ,hence the facts that the ,jews called ,herod a god2 that ,father1 in its higher sense1 was a term used among them by servants to masters2 that ,lord was applicable to any person of worth and power4 ,hence1 too1 the fact that1 in the later periods of the ,roman ,empire1 every man saluted his neighbour as #ad ,dominus or ,rex4 ,but it is in the titles of the middle ages1 and in the growth of our modern ones out of them1 that the process is most clearly seen4 ,herr1 ,don1 ,signor1 ,seigneur1 ,seor1 were all originally descriptive names of rulers4 ,by the complimentary use of these names to all who could1 on any pretence1 be supposed to merit them1 and by successive descents to still lower grades1 they have come to be common forms of address4 ,at first the phrase in which a serf accosted his despotic chief1 mein ,herr is now familiarly applied in ,germany to ordinary people4 ,the ,spanish title ,don1 once proper to noblemen and gentlemen only1 is now accorded to all classes4 ,so1 too1 is it with ,signor in ,italy4 ,seigneur and ,monseigneur1 by contraction in ,sieur and ,monsieur1 have produced the term of respect claimed by every ,frenchman4 ,and whether ,sire be or be not a like contraction of ,signor1 it is clear that1 as it was borne by sundry of the ancient feudal lords of ,france1 who1 as ,selden says1 8affected rather to bee stiled by the name of ,sire than ,baron1 as ,le ,sire de ,montmorencie1 ,le ,sire de ,beaujeu1 and the like10 and as it has been commonly used to monarchs1 our word ,sir1 which is derived from it1 originally meant lord or king4 ,thus1 too1 is it with feminine titles4 ,lady1 which1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 means exalted1 and was at first given only to the few1 is now given to all women of education4 ,dame1 once an honourable name to which1 in old books1 we find the epithets of 8high-born0 and 8stately0 affixed1 has now1 by repeated widenings of its application1 become relatively a term of contempt4 ,and if we trace the compound of this1 ma ,dame1 through its contractions--,madam1 ma'am1 mam1 mum1 we find that the 8,yes'm0 of ,sally to her mistress is originally equivalent to 8,yes1 my exalted10 or 8,yes1 your highness40 ,throughout1 therefore1 the genesis of words of honour has been the same4 ,just as with the ,jews and with the ,romans1 has it been with the modern ,europeans4 ,tracing these everyday names to their primitive significations of lord and king1 and #ae remembering that in aboriginal societies these were applied only to the gods and their descendants1 we arrive at the conclusion that our familiar ,sir and ,monsieur are1 in their primary and expanded meanings1 terms of adoration4 ,further to illustrate this gradual depreciation of titles1 and to confirm the inference drawn1 it may be well to notice in passing1 that the oldest of them have1 as might be expected1 been depreciated to the greatest extent4 ,thus1 ,master--a word proved by its derivation1 and by the similarity of the connate words in other languages 7,fr41 matre for maistre2 ,dutch1 meester2 ,dan41 mester2 ,ger41 meister7 to have been one of the earliest in use for expressing lordship--has now become applicable to children only1 and1 under the modification of 8,mister10 to persons next above the labourer4 ,again1 knighthood1 the oldest kind of dignity1 is also the lowest2 and ,knight ,bachelor1 which is the lowest order of knighthood1 is more ancient than any other of the orders4 ,similarly1 too1 with the peerage3 ,baron is alike the earliest and least elevated of its divisions4 ,this continual degradation of all names of honour has1 from time to time1 made it requisite to introduce new ones having the distinguishing effects which the originals had lost by generality of use2 just as our habit of misapplying superlatives has1 by gradually destroying their force1 entailed the need for fresh ones4 ,and if1 within the last thousand years1 this process has worked results thus marked1 we may readily conceive how1 during previous thousands1 the titles of gods and demi-gods came to be used to all persons exercising power2 as they have since come to be used to persons of respectability4 ,if from names of honour we turn to phrases of honour1 we find similar facts4 ,the oriental styles of address1 applied to ordinary people--8,i am your slave10 8,all ,i have is yours10 8,i am your sacrifice0--attribute to the individual spoken to the same greatness that ,monsieur and ,my ,lord do3 they ascribe to him the character of an #af all-powerful ruler1 so immeasurably superior to the speaker as to be his owner4 ,so1 likewise1 with the ,polish expressions of respect--8,i throw myself under your feet10 8,i kiss your feet40 ,in our now meaningless subscription to a formal letter--8,your most obedient servant0--the same thing is visible4 ,nay1 even in the familiar signature 8,yours faithfully10 the 8yours10 if interpreted as originally meant1 is the expression of a slave to his master4 ,all these dead forms were once living embodiments of fact2 were primarily the genuine indications of that submission to authority which they verbally assert2 were afterwards naturally used by the weak and cowardly to propitiate those above them2 gradually grew to be considered the due of such2 and1 by a continually wider misuse1 have lost their meanings1 as ,sir and ,master have done4 ,that1 like titles1 they were in the beginning used only to the ,god-king1 is indicated by the fact that1 like titles1 they were subsequently used in common to ,god and the king4 ,religious worship has ever largely consisted of professions of obedience1 of being ,god's servants1 of belonging to him to do what he will with4 ,like titles1 therefore1 these common phrases of honour had a devotional origin4 ,perhaps1 however1 it is in the use of the word you as a singular pronoun that the popularizing of what were once supreme distinctions is most markedly illustrated4 ,this addressing of a single individual in the plural1 was originally an honour given only to the highest--was the reciprocal of the imperial 8we0 assumed by such4 ,yet now1 by being applied to successively lower and lower classes1 it has become all but universal4 ,only by one sect of ,christians1 and in a few secluded districts1 is the primitive thou still used4 ,and the you1 in becoming common to all ranks1 has simultaneously lost every vestige of the distinction once attaching to it4 ,but the genesis of ,manners out of forms of allegiance and worship1 is above all shown in modes of salutation4 ,note first the significance of the word4 ,among the ,romans1 the #ag salutatio was a daily homage paid by clients and inferiors to their superiors4 ,this was alike the case with civilians and in the army4 ,the very derivation of our word1 therefore1 is suggestive of submission4 ,passing to particular forms of obeisance 7mark the word again71 let us begin with the ,eastern one of baring the feet4 ,this was1 primarily1 a mark of reverence1 alike to a god and a king4 ,the act of ,moses before the burning bush1 and the practice of ,mahometans1 who are sworn on the ,koran with their shoes off1 exemplify the one employment of it2 the custom of the ,persians1 who remove their shoes on entering the presence of their monarch1 exemplifies the other4 ,as usual1 however1 this homage1 paid next to inferior rulers1 has descended from grade to grade4 ,in ,india it is a common mark of respect2 the lower orders of ,turks never enter the presence of their superiors but in their stockings2 and in ,japan1 this baring of the feet is an ordinary salutation of man to man4 ,take another case4 ,selden1 describing the ceremonies of the ,romans1 says3--8,for whereas it was usuall either to kiss the ,images of their ,gods1 or1 adoring them1 to stand somewhat off before them1 solemnly moving the right hand to the lips1 and then1 casting it as if they had cast kisses1 to turne the body on the same hand 7which was the right forme of ,adoration71 it grew also by custom1 first that the ,emperors1 being next to ,deities1 and by some accounted as ,deities1 had the like done to them in acknowledgment of their ,greatness40 ,if1 now1 we call to mind the awkward salute of a village school-boy1 made by putting his open hand up to his face and describing a semicircle with his forearm2 and if we remember that the salute thus used as a form of reverence in country districts1 is most likely a remnant of the feudal times2 we shall see reason for thinking that our common wave of the hand to a friend across the street1 represents what was primarily a devotional act4 ,similarly have originated all forms of respect depending #ah upon inclinations of the body4 ,entire prostration is the aboriginal sign of submission4 ,the passage of ,scripture--8,thou hast put all under his feet10 and that other one1 so suggestive in its anthropomorphism--8,the ,lord said unto my ,lord1 sit thou at my right hand1 until ,i make thine enemies thy footstool10 imply1 what the ,assyrian sculptures bear out1 that it was the practice of the ancient god-kings of the ,east to trample on the conquered4 ,as there are existing savages who signify submission by placing the neck under the foot of the person submitted to1 it becomes obvious that all prostration1 especially when accompanied by kissing the foot1 expressed a willingness to be trodden upon--was an attempt to mitigate wrath by saying1 in signs1 8,tread on me if you will40 ,remembering1 too1 that kissing the foot1 as of the ,pope and of a saint's statue1 still continues in ,europe to be a mark of extreme reverence2 that prostration to feudal lords was once general1 and that its disappearance must have taken place1 not abruptly1 but by gradual change into something else2 we have ground for deriving from these deepest of humiliations all inclinations of respect3 especially as the transition is traceable4 ,the reverence of a ,russian serf1 who bends his head to the ground1 and the salaam of the ,hindoo1 are abridged prostrations2 a bow is a short salaam2 a nod is a short bow4 ,should any hesitate to admit this conclusion1 then perhaps1 on being reminded that the lowest of these obeisances are common where the submission is most abject2 that among ourselves the profundity of the bow marks the amount of respect2 and lastly1 that the bow is even now used devotionally in our churches--by ,catholics to their altars1 and by ,protestants at the name of ,christ--they will see sufficient reason for thinking that this salutation also was originally worship4 ,the same may be said1 too1 of the curtsy1 or courtesy1 as it is otherwise written4 ,its derivation from courtoisie1 courteousness1 that is1 behaviour like that at court1 at once #ai shows that it was primarily the reverence paid to a monarch4 ,and if we call to mind that falling on the knees1 or on one knee1 has been a common obeisance of subjects to rulers2 that in ancient manuscripts and tapestries1 servants are depicted as assuming this attitude while offering the dishes to their masters at table2 and that this same attitude is assumed towards our own queen at every presentation2 we may infer1 what the character of the curtsy itself suggests1 that it is an abridged act of kneeling4 ,as the word has been contracted from courtoisie into curtsy2 so the motion has been contracted from a placing of the knee on the floor1 to a lowering of the knee towards the floor4 ,moreover1 when we compare the curtsy of a lady with the awkward one a peasant girl makes1 which1 if continued1 would bring her down on both knees1 we may see in this last a remnant of that greater reverence required of serfs4 ,and when1 from considering that simple kneeling of the ,west1 still represented by the curtsy1 we pass ,eastward1 and note the attitude of the ,mahommedan worshipper1 who not only kneels but bows his head to the ground1 we may infer that the curtsy also1 is an evanescent form of the aboriginal prostration4 ,in further evidence of this it may be remarked1 that there has but recently disappeared from the salutations of men1 an action having the same proximate derivation with the curtsy4 ,that backward sweep of the right foot with which the conventional stage-sailor accompanies his bow--a movement which prevailed generally in past generations1 when 8a bow and a scrape0 went together1 and which1 within the memory of living persons1 was made by boys to their master when entering school1 with the effect of wearing a hole in the floor--is pretty clearly a preliminary to going on one knee4 ,a motion so ungainly could never have been intentionally introduced2 even if the artificial introduction of obeisances were possible4 ,hence we must regard it as the remnant of something antecedent3 and #bj that this something antecedent was humiliating may be inferred from the phrase1 8scraping an acquaintance20 which1 being used to denote the gaining of favour by obsequiousness1 implies that the scrape was considered a mark of servility--that is1 of servile position4 ,consider1 again1 the uncovering of the head4 ,almost everywhere this has been a sign of reverence1 alike in temples and before potentates2 and it yet preserves among us some of its original meaning4 ,whether it rains1 hails1 or shines1 you must keep your head bare while speaking to the monarch2 and no one may keep his hat on in a place of worship4 ,as usual1 however1 this ceremony1 at first a submission to gods and kings1 has become in process of time a common civility4 ,once an acknowledgment of another's unlimited supremacy1 the removal of the hat is now a salute accorded to very ordinary persons2 and that uncovering originally reserved for entrance into 8the house of ,god0 or the residence of the ruler1 good manners now dictates on entrance into a labourer's cottage4 ,standing1 too1 as a mark of respect1 has undergone like extensions in its application4 ,shown1 by the practice in our churches1 to be intermediate between the humiliation signified by kneeling and the self-respect which sitting implies1 and used at courts as a form of homage when more active demonstrations of it have been made1 this posture is now employed in daily life to show consideration2 as seen alike in the attitude of a servant before a master1 and in that rising which politeness prescribes on the entrance of a visitor4 ,many other threads of evidence might have been woven into our argument4 ,as1 for example1 the significant fact1 that if we trace back our still existing law of primogeniture--if we consider it as displayed by ,scottish clans1 in which not only ownership but government devolved from the beginning on the eldest son of the eldest--if we look further back1 and observe that the old titles of lordship1 #ba ,signor1 ,seigneur1 ,seor1 ,sire1 ,sieur1 all originally mean senior1 or elder--if we go ,eastward1 and find that ,sheick has a like derivation1 and that the ,oriental names for priests1 as ,pir1 for instance1 are literally interpreted old man--if we note in ,hebrew records how far back dates the ascribed superiority of the first-born1 how great the authority of elders1 and how sacred the memory of patriarchs--and if1 then1 we remember that among divine titles are 8,ancient of ,days10 and 8,father of ,gods and men20--we see how completely these facts harmonize with the hypothesis1 that the aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently great to become a tradition1 the earliest whose power and deeds made him remembered2 that hence antiquity unavoidably became associated with superiority1 and age with nearness in blood to 8the powerful one20 that so there naturally arose that domination of the eldest which characterizes the history of all the higher races1 and that theory of human degeneracy which even yet survives4 ,we might further dwell on the facts1 that ,lord signifies high-born1 or1 as the same root gives a word meaning heaven1 possibly heaven-born2 that1 before it became common1 ,sir or ,sire1 as well as ,father1 was the distinction of a priest2 that worship1 originally worth-ship--a term of respect that has been used commonly1 as well as to magistrates--is also our term for the act of attributing greatness or worth to the ,deity2 so that to ascribe worth-ship to a man is to worship him4 ,we might make much of the evidence that all early governments are more or less distinctly theocratic2 and that among ancient ,eastern nations even the commonest forms and customs had religious sanctions4 ,we might enforce our argument respecting the derivation of ceremonies1 by tracing out the aboriginal obeisance made by putting dust on the head1 which symbolizes putting the head in the dust2 by affiliating the practice found in certain tribes1 of doing another honour by presenting him with a portion of hair torn from the head--an act which #bb seems tantamount to saying1 8,i am your slave20 by investigating the ,oriental custom of giving to a visitor any object he speaks of admiringly1 which is pretty clearly a carrying out of the compliment1 8,all ,i have is yours40 ,without enlarging1 however1 on these and minor facts1 we venture to think that the evidence assigned is sufficient4 ,had the proofs been few1 or of one kind1 little faith could have been placed in the inference4 ,but numerous as they are1 alike in the case of titles1 in that of complimentary phrases1 and in that of salutes--similar and simultaneous1 too1 as the process of depreciation has been in all of these2 the evidences become strong by mutual confirmation4 ,and when we recollect1 also1 that not only have the results of this process been visible in various nations and in all times1 but that they are occurring among ourselves at the present moment1 and that the causes assigned for previous depreciations may be seen daily working out others--when we recollect this1 it becomes scarcely possible to doubt that the process has been as alleged2 and that our ordinary words1 acts1 and phrases of civility originally expressed submission to another's omnipotence4 ,thus the general doctrine1 that all kinds of government exercised over men were at first one government--that the political1 the religious1 and the ceremonial forms of control are divergent branches of a general and once indivisible control--begins to look tenable4 ,when1 with the above facts fresh in mind1 we read that in ,eastern traditions ,nimrod1 among others1 figures in all the characters of hero1 king1 and divinity--when we turn to the sculptures exhumed by ,mr4 ,layard1 and contemplating in them the effigies of kings driving over enemies1 and adored by prostrate slaves1 then observe how their actions correspond to the primitive names for gods1 8the strong10 8the destroyer10 8the powerful one0--and when1 lastly1 we discover that among races of men still living1 there are current #bc superstitions analogous to those which old records and old buildings indicate2 we begin to realize the probability of the hypothesis that has been set forth4 ,representing to ourselves the conquering chief as figured in ancient myths1 and poems1 and ruins2 we may see that all rules of conduct spring from his will4 ,alike legislator and judge1 quarrels among his subjects are decided by him2 and his words become the ,law4 ,awe of him is the incipient ,religion2 and his maxims furnish his first precepts4 ,submission is made to him in the forms he prescribes2 and these give birth to ,manners4 ,from the first1 time developes political allegiance and the administration of justice2 from the second1 the worship of a being whose personality becomes ever more vague1 and the inculcation of precepts ever more abstract2 from the third1 forms and names of honour and the rules of etiquette4 ,in conformity with the law of evolution of all organized bodies1 that general functions are gradually separated into the special functions constituting them1 there have grown up in the social organism for the better performance of the governmental office1 an apparatus of law-courts1 judges1 and barristers2 a national church1 with its bishops and priests2 and a system of caste1 titles1 and ceremonies1 administered by society at large4 ,by the first1 overt aggressions are cognized and punished2 by the second1 the disposition to commit such aggressions is in some degree checked2 by the third1 those minor breaches of good conduct which the others do not notice1 are denounced and chastised4 ,law and ,religion control behaviour in its essentials2 ,manners control it in its details4 ,for regulating those daily actions which are too numerous and too unimportant to be officially directed there comes into play this subtler set of restraints4 ,and when we consider what these restraints are--when we analyze the words1 and phrases1 and movements employed1 we see that in origin as in effect1 the system is a setting up of temporary #bd governments between all men who come in contact1 for the purpose of better managing the intercourse between them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the proposition1 that these several kinds of government are essentially one1 both in genesis and function1 may be deduced several important corollaries1 directly bearing on our special topic4 ,let us first notice1 that there is not only a common origin and office for all forms of rule1 but a common necessity for them4 ,the aboriginal man1 coming fresh from the killing of bears and from lying in ambush for his enemy1 has1 by the necessities of his condition1 a nature requiring to be curbed in its every impulse4 ,alike in war and in the chase1 his daily discipline has been that of sacrificing other creatures to his own needs and passions4 ,his character1 bequeathed to him by ancestors who led similar lives1 is moulded by this discipline--is fitted to this existence4 ,the unlimited selfishness1 the love of inflicting pain1 the blood-thirstiness1 thus kept active1 he brings with him into the social state4 ,these dispositions put him in constant danger of conflict with his equally savage neighbour4 ,in small things as in great1 in words as in deeds1 he is aggressive2 and is hourly liable to the aggressions of others like natured4 ,only1 therefore1 by rigorous control exercised over all actions1 can the primitive unions of men be maintained4 ,there must be a ruler strong1 remorseless1 and of indomitable will2 there must be a creed terrible in its threats to the disobedient2 there must be servile submission of inferiors to superiors4 ,the law must be cruel2 the religion must be stern2 the ceremonies must be strict4 ,the co-ordinate necessity for these several kinds of restraint might be largely illustrated from history were there space4 ,suffice it to point out that where the civil power has been weak1 the multiplication of thieves1 assassins1 and banditti1 has indicated the approach of social dissolution2 that when1 #be from the corruptness of its ministry1 religion has lost its influence1 as it did just before the ,flagellants appeared1 the ,state has been endangered2 and that the disregard of established social observances has ever been an accompaniment of political revolutions4 ,whoever doubts the necessity for a government of manners proportionate in strength to the co-existing political and religious governments1 will be convinced on calling to mind that until recently even elaborate codes of behaviour failed to keep gentlemen from quarrelling in the streets and fighting duels in taverns2 and on remembering that even now people exhibit at the doors of a theatre1 where there is no ceremonial law to rule them1 an aggressiveness which would produce confusion if carried into social intercourse4 ,as might be expected1 we find that1 having a common origin and like general functions1 these several controlling agencies act during each era with similar degrees of vigour4 ,under the ,chinese despotism1 stringent and multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in the enforcement of them1 and associated with which there is an equally stern domestic despotism exercised by the eldest surviving male of the family1 there exists a system of observances alike complicated and rigid4 ,there is a tribunal of ceremonies4 ,previous to presentation at court1 ambassadors pass many days in practising the required forms4 ,social intercourse is cumbered by endless compliments and obeisances4 ,class distinctions are strongly marked by badges4 ,and if there wants a definite measure of the respect paid to social ordinances1 we have it in the torture to which ladies submit in having their feet crushed4 ,in ,india1 and indeed throughout the ,east1 there exists a like connexion between the pitiless tyranny of rulers1 the dread terrors of immemorial creeds1 and the rigid restraint of unchangeable customs4 ,caste regulations continue still unalterable2 the fashions of clothes and furniture have remained the same for ages2 suttees are so ancient as to be mentioned by ,strabo and #bf ,diodorus ,siculus2 justice is still administered at the palace-gates as of old2 in short1 8every usage is a precept of religion and a maxim of jurisprudence40 ,a similar relationship of phenomena was exhibited in ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,while its governments1 general and local1 were despotic1 while the ,church was unshorn of its power1 while the criminal code was full of horrors and the hell of the popular creed full of terrors1 the rules of behaviour were both more numerous and more carefully conformed to than now4 ,differences of dress marked divisions of rank4 ,men were limited by law to certain widths of shoe-toes2 and no one below a specified degree might wear a cloak less than so many inches long4 ,the symbols on banners and shields were carefully attended to4 ,heraldry was an important branch of knowledge4 ,precedence was strictly insisted on4 ,and those various salutes of which we now use the abridgments1 were gone through in full4 ,even during our own last century1 with its corrupt ,house of ,commons and little-curbed monarchs1 we may mark a correspondence of social formalities4 ,gentlemen were still distinguished from lower classes by dress2 and children addressed their parents as ,sir and ,madam4 ,a further corollary naturally following this last1 and almost1 indeed1 forming part of it1 is1 that these several kinds of government decrease in stringency at the same rate4 ,simultaneously with the decline in the influence of priesthoods1 and in the fear of eternal torments--simultaneously with the mitigation of political tyranny1 the growth of popular power1 and the amelioration of criminal codes2 has taken place that diminution of formalities and that fading of distinctive marks1 now so observable4 ,looking at home1 we may note that there is less attention to precedence than there used to be4 ,no one in our day ends an interview with the phrase 8your humble servant40 ,the employment of the word ,sir1 once general in social intercourse1 is at present considered bad breeding2 and on the occasions #bg calling for them1 it is held vulgar to use the words 8,your ,majesty10 or 8,your ,royal ,highness10 more than once in a conversation4 ,people no longer formally drink one another's healths2 and even the taking wine with one another at dinner has ceased to be fashionable4 ,it is remarked of us by foreigners1 that we take off our hats less than any other nation in ,europe--a remark which should be coupled with the other1 that we are the freest nation in ,europe4 ,as already implied1 this association of facts is not accidental4 ,these modes of address and titles and obeisances1 bearing about them1 as they all do1 something of that servility which marks their origin1 become distasteful in proportion as men become more independent themselves1 and sympathize more with the independence of others4 ,the feeling which makes the modern gentleman tell the labourer standing bareheaded before him to put on his hat--the feeling which gives us a dislike to those who cringe and fawn--the feeling which makes us alike assert our own dignity and respect that of others--the feeling which thus leads us more and more to discountenance forms and names which confess inferiority and submission2 is the same feeling which resists despotic power and inaugurates popular government1 denies the authority of the ,church and establishes the right of private judgment4 ,a fourth fact1 akin to the foregoing1 is1 that with decreasing coerciveness in these several kinds of government1 their respective forms lose their meanings4 ,the same process which has made our monarch put forth as his own acts what are the acts of ministers approved by the people1 and has thus changed him from master into agent--the same process which1 making attendance at church very much a matter of respectability1 has done away with the telling of beads1 the calling on saints1 and the performance of penances2 is a process by which titles and ceremonies that once had a meaning and a power have been reduced to empty forms4 ,coats of arms which served to distinguish #bh men in battle1 now figure on the carriage panels of retired merchants4 ,once a badge of high military rank1 the shoulder-knot has become1 on the modern footman1 a mark of servitude4 ,the name ,banneret1 which originally marked a partially-created ,baron--a ,baron who had passed his military 8little go0--is now1 under the modification of ,baronet1 applicable to any one favoured by wealth or interest or party feeling4 ,knighthood has so far ceased to be an honour1 that men honour themselves by declining it4 ,the military dignity ,escuyer has1 in the modern ,esquire1 become a wholly unmilitary affix4 ,but perhaps it is in that class of social observances comprehended under the term ,fashion 7which we must here discuss parenthetically7 that this process is seen with the greatest distinctness4 ,as contrasted with ,manners1 which dictate our minor acts in relation to other persons1 ,fashion dictates our minor acts in relation to ourselves4 ,while the one prescribes that part of our deportment which directly affects our neighbours2 the other prescribes that part of our deportment which is primarily personal1 and in which our neighbours are concerned only as spectators4 ,thus distinguished as they are1 however1 the two have a common source4 ,for while1 as we have shown1 ,manners originate by imitation of the behaviour pursued towards the great2 ,fashion originates by imitation of the behaviour of the great4 ,while the one has its derivation in the titles1 phrases1 and salutes used to those in power2 the other is derived from the habits and appearances exhibited by those in power4 ,the ,carrib mother who squeezes her child's head into a shape like that of the chief2 the young savage who makes marks on himself similar to the scars carried by the warriors of his tribe2 the ,highlander who adopts the plaid worn by the head of his clan2 the courtiers who affect greyness1 or limp1 or cover their necks1 in imitation of their king1 and the people who ape the courtiers2 are alike acting under a kind of government connate with that of ,manners1 #bi and1 like it too1 primarily beneficial4 ,for notwithstanding the numberless absurdities into which this copying has led people1 from nose-rings to ear-rings1 from painted faces to beauty-spots1 from shaven heads to powdered wigs1 from filed teeth and stained nails to bell-girdles1 peaked shoes1 and breeches stuffed with bran1 it must yet be concluded that as the men of will1 intelligence1 and originality1 who have got to the top1 are1 on the average1 more likely to show judgment in their habits and tastes than the mass1 the imitation of such is advantageous4 ,by and by1 however1 ,fashion1 decaying like these other forms of rule1 almost wholly ceases to be an imitation of the best1 and becomes an imitation of quite other than the best4 ,as those who take orders are not those having a special fitness for the priestly office1 but those who hope to get livings2 as legislators and public functionaries do not become such by virtue of their political insight and power to rule1 but by virtue of birth1 acreage1 and class influence2 so1 the self-elected clique who set the fashion1 do this1 not by force of nature1 by intellect1 by higher worth or better taste1 but solely by unchecked assumption4 ,among the initiated are to be found neither the noblest in rank1 the chief in power1 the best cultured1 the most refined1 nor those of greatest genius1 wit1 or beauty2 and their reunions1 so far from being superior to others1 are noted for their inanity4 ,yet1 by the example of these sham great1 and not by that of the truly great1 does society at large now regulate its habits1 its dress1 its small usages4 ,as a natural consequence1 these have generally little of that suitableness which the theory of fashion implies they should have4 ,instead of a progress towards greater elegance and convenience1 which might be expected to occur did people copy the ways of the really best1 or follow their own ideas of propriety1 we have a reign of mere whim1 of unreason1 of change for the sake of change1 of wanton oscillations from either extreme to the other4 ,and so life la mode1 instead of being life conducted in the #cj most rational manner1 is life regulated by spendthrifts and idlers1 milliners and tailors1 dandies and silly women4 ,to these several corollaries--that the various orders of control exercised over men have a common origin and a common function1 are called out by co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in like stringency1 decline together and decay together--it now only remains to add that they simultaneously become less needful4 ,the social discipline which has already wrought out great changes in men1 must go on eventually to work out greater ones4 ,that daily curbing of the lower nature and culture of the higher1 which out of cannibals and devil-worshippers has evolved philanthropists1 lovers of peace1 and haters of superstition1 may be expected to evolve out of these1 men as much superior to them as they are to their progenitors4 ,the causes that have produced past modifications are still in action2 must continue in action as long as there exists any incongruity between men's desires and the requirements of the social state2 and must eventually make them organically fit for the social state4 ,as it is now needless to forbid man-eating1 so will it ultimately become needless to forbid murder1 theft1 and the minor offences of our criminal code4 ,along with growth of human nature into harmony with the moral law1 there will go decreasing need for judges and statute-books2 when the right course has become the course spontaneously chosen1 prospects of future reward or punishment will not be wanted as incentives2 and when due regard for others has become instinctive1 there will need no code of ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be regulated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus1 then1 may be recognized the meaning of those eccentricities of reformers which we set out by describing4 ,they are not accidental2 they are not mere personal caprices4 ,they are inevitable results of the law of relationship above illustrated4 ,that community of genesis1 function1 #ca and decay which all forms of restraint exhibit1 is simply the obverse of the fact at first pointed out1 that they have in two sentiments of human nature a common preserver and a common destroyer4 ,awe of power originates and cherishes them all2 love of freedom undermines and weakens them all4 ,the one defends despotism and asserts the supremacy of laws1 adheres to old creeds and supports ecclesiastical authority1 pays respect to titles and conserves forms2 the other1 putting rectitude above legality1 achieves periodical instalments of political liberty1 inaugurates ,protestantism and works out its consequences1 ignores the senseless dictates of ,fashion and emancipates men from dead customs4 ,to the true reformer no institution is sacred1 no belief above criticism4 ,everything shall conform itself to equity and reason2 nothing shall be saved by its prestige4 ,conceding to each man liberty to pursue his own ends and satisfy his own tastes1 he demands for himself like liberty2 and consents to no restrictions on this1 save those which other men's equal claims involve4 ,no matter whether it be an ordinance of one man1 or an ordinance of all men1 if it trenches on his legitimate sphere of action1 he denies its validity4 ,the tyranny that would impose on him a particular style of dress and a set mode of behaviour1 he resists equally with the tyranny that would limit his buyings and sellings1 or dictate his creed4 ,whether the regulation be formally made by a legislature1 or informally made by society at large--whether the penalty for disobedience be imprisonment1 or frowns and social ostracism1 he sees to be a question of no moment4 ,he will utter his belief notwithstanding the threatened punishment2 he will break conventions spite of the petty persecutions that will be visited on him4 ,show him that his actions are inimical to his fellow-men1 and he will pause4 ,prove that he is disregarding their legitimate claims1 and he will alter his course4 ,but until you do this--until you demonstrate that his proceedings are essentially inconvenient or #cb inelegant1 essentially irrational1 unjust1 or ungenerous1 he will persevere4 ,some1 indeed1 argue that his conduct is unjust and ungenerous4 ,they say that he has no right to annoy other people by his whims2 that the gentleman to whom his letter comes with no 8,esq40 appended to the address1 and the lady whose evening party he enters with gloveless hands1 are vexed at what they consider his want of respect or want of breeding2 that thus his eccentricities cannot be indulged save at the expense of his neighbours' feelings2 and that hence his nonconformity is in plain terms selfishness4 ,he answers that this position1 if logically developed1 would deprive men of all liberty whatever4 ,each must conform all his acts to the public taste1 and not his own4 ,the public taste on every point having been once ascertained1 men's habits must thenceforth remain for ever fixed2 seeing that no man can adopt other habits without sinning against the public taste1 and giving people disagreeable feelings4 ,consequently1 be it an era of pig-tails or high-heeled shoes1 of starched ruffs or trunk-hose1 all must continue to wear pig-tails1 high-heeled shoes1 starched ruffs1 or trunk-hose to the crack of doom4 ,if it be still urged that he is not justified in breaking through others' forms that he may establish his own1 and so sacrificing the wishes of many to the wishes of one1 he replies that all religious and political changes might be negatived on like grounds4 ,he asks whether ,luther's sayings and doings were not extremely offensive to the mass of his cotemporaries2 whether the resistance of ,hampden was not disgusting to the time-servers around him2 whether every reformer has not shocked men's prejudices and given immense displeasure by the opinions he uttered4 ,the affirmative answer he follows up by demanding what right the reformer has1 then1 to utter these opinions--whether he is not sacrificing the feelings #cc of many to the feelings of one2 and so he proves that1 to be consistent1 his antagonists must condemn not only all nonconformity in actions1 but all nonconformity in beliefs4 ,his antagonists rejoin that his position1 too1 may be pushed to an absurdity4 ,they argue that if a man may offend by the disregard of some forms1 he may as legitimately do so by the disregard of all2 and they inquire--,why should he not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt1 and with an unshorn chin8 ,why should he not spit on the drawing-room carpet1 and stretch his heels up to the mantle-shelf8 ,the convention-breaker answers1 that to ask this1 implies a confounding of two widely-different classes of actions--the actions which are essentially displeasurable to those around1 with the actions which are but incidentally displeasurable to them4 ,he whose skin is so unclean as to offend the nostrils of his neighbours1 or he who talks so loudly as to disturb a whole room1 may be justly complained of1 and rightly excluded by society from its assemblies4 ,but he who presents himself in a surtout in place of a dress-coat1 or in brown trousers instead of black1 gives offence not to men's senses1 or their innate tastes1 but merely to their bigotry of convention4 ,it cannot be said that his costume is less elegant or less intrinsically appropriate than the one prescribed2 seeing that a few hours earlier in the day it is admired4 ,it is the implied rebellion1 therefore1 which annoys4 ,how little the cause of quarrel has to do with the dress itself1 is seen in the fact that a century ago black clothes would have been thought preposterous for hours of recreation1 and that a few years hence some now forbidden style may be nearer the requirements of ,fashion than the present one4 ,thus the reformer explains that it is not against the natural restraints1 but against the artificial ones1 that he protests2 and that manifestly the fire of angry glances which he has to bear1 #cd is poured upon him because he will not bow down to the idol which society has set up4 ,should he be asked how we are to distinguish between conduct which is in itself disagreeable to others1 and conduct which is disagreeable by its implication1 he answers1 that they will distinguish themselves1 if men will let them4 ,actions intrinsically repugnant will ever be frowned upon1 and must ever remain as exceptional as now4 ,actions not intrinsically repugnant will establish themselves as proper4 ,no relaxation of customs will introduce the practice of going to a party in muddy boots1 and with unwashed hands2 for the dislike of dirt would continue were ,fashion abolished to-morrow4 ,that love of approbation which now makes people solicitous to be en rgle would still exist--would still make them careful of their personal appearance--would still induce them to seek admiration by making themselves ornamental--would still cause them to respect the natural laws of good behaviour1 as they now do the artificial laws4 ,the change would simply be from a repulsive monotony to a picturesque variety4 ,and if there be any regulations respecting which it is uncertain whether they are based on reality or on convention1 experiment will soon decide1 if due scope be allowed4 ,when at length the controversy comes round1 as controversies often do1 to the point whence it started1 and the 8party of order0 repeat their charge against the rebel1 that he is sacrificing the feelings of others to gratify his own wilfulness1 he replies once for all that they cheat themselves by mis-statements4 ,he accuses them of being so despotic1 that1 not content with being masters over their own ways and habits1 they would be masters over his also2 and grumble because he will not let them4 ,he merely asks the same freedom which they exercise2 they1 however1 propose to regulate his course as well as their own--to cut and clip his mode of life into #ce agreement with their approved pattern2 and then charge him with wilfulness and selfishness1 because he does not quietly submit6 ,he warns them that he shall resist1 nevertheless2 and that he shall do so1 not only for the assertion of his own independence1 but for their good4 ,he tells them that they are slaves1 and know it not2 that they are shackled1 and kiss their chains2 that they have lived all their days in prison1 and complain because the walls are being broken down4 ,he says he must persevere1 however1 with a view to his own release2 and1 in spite of their present expostulations1 he prophesies that when they have recovered from the fright which the prospect of freedom produces1 they will thank him for aiding in their emancipation4 ,unamiable as seems this find-fault mood1 offensive as is this defiant attitude1 we must beware of overlooking the truths enunciated1 in dislike of the advocacy4 ,it is an unfortunate hindrance to all innovation1 that in virtue of their very function1 the innovators stand in a position of antagonism2 and the disagreeable manners1 and sayings1 and doings1 which this antagonism generates1 are commonly associated with the doctrines promulgated4 ,quite forgetting that whether the thing attacked be good or bad1 the combative spirit is necessarily repulsive2 and quite forgetting that the toleration of abuses seems amiable merely from its passivity2 the mass of men contract a bias against advanced views1 and in favour of stationary ones1 from intercourse with their respective adherents4 8,conservatism10 as ,emerson says1 8is debonnair and social2 reform is individual and imperious40 ,and this remains true1 however vicious the system conserved1 however righteous the reform to be effected4 ,nay1 the indignation of the purists is usually extreme in proportion as the evils to be got rid of are great4 ,the more urgent the required change1 the more intemperate is the vehemence of its promoters4 ,let no one1 then1 confound with the principles #cf of this social nonconformity the acerbity and the disagreeable self-assertion of those who first display it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most plausible objection raised against resistance to conventions1 is grounded on its impolicy1 considered even from the progressist's point of view4 ,it is urged by many of the more liberal and intelligent--usually those who have themselves shown some independence of behaviour in earlier days--that to rebel in these small matters is to destroy your own power of helping on reform in greater matters4 8,if you show yourself eccentric in manners or dress1 the world10 they say1 8will not listen to you4 ,you will be considered as crotchety1 and impracticable4 ,the opinions you express on important subjects1 which might have been treated with respect had you conformed on minor points1 will now inevitably be put down among your singularities2 and thus1 by dissenting in trifles1 you disable yourself from spreading dissent in essentials40 ,only noting1 as we pass1 that this is one of those anticipations which bring about their own fulfilment--that it is because most who disapprove these conventions do not show their disapproval1 that the few who do show it look eccentric--and that did all act out their convictions1 no such argument as the above would have force2--noting this as we pass1 we go on to reply that these social restraints are not small evils but among the greatest4 ,estimate their sum total1 and we doubt whether they would not exceed most others4 ,could we add up the trouble1 the cost1 the jealousies1 vexations1 misunderstandings1 the loss of time and the loss of pleasure1 which these conventions entail--we should perhaps come to the conclusion that the tyranny of ,mrs4 ,grundy is worse than any other tyranny4 ,let us look at a few of its hurtful results2 beginning with those of minor importance4 ,it produces extravagance4 ,the desire to be comme il faut1 which underlies all conformities1 whether of manners1 #cg dress1 or styles of entertainment1 is the desire which makes many a spendthrift and many a bankrupt4 ,to 8keep up appearances10 to have a house in an approved quarter furnished in the latest taste1 to give expensive dinners and crowded soires1 is an ambition forming the natural outcome of the conformist spirit4 ,it is needless to enlarge on these follies3 they have been satirized by hosts of writers1 and in every drawing-room4 ,all which here concerns us1 is to point out that the respect for social observances1 which men think so praiseworthy1 has the same root with this effort to be fashionable in mode of living2 and that1 other things equal1 the last cannot be diminished without the first being diminished also4 ,if1 now1 we consider what this extravagance entails--if we count up the robbed tradesmen1 the stinted governesses1 the ill-educated children1 the fleeced relatives1 who have to suffer from it--if we mark the anxiety and the many moral delinquencies which its perpetrators involve themselves in2 we shall see that this regard for conventions is not quite so innocent as it looks4 ,again1 it decreases the amount of social intercourse4 ,passing over the reckless1 and those who make a great display on speculation with the occasional result of getting on in the world to the exclusion of better men1 we come to the far larger class who1 being prudent and honest enough not to exceed their means1 and yet wishing to be 8respectable10 are obliged to limit their entertainments to the smallest possible number2 and that each of these may be turned to the greatest advantage in meeting the claims on their hospitality1 issue their invitations with little or no regard to the comfort or mutual fitness of their guests4 ,a few inconveniently-large assemblies1 made up of people mostly strange to each other or but distantly acquainted1 are made to serve in place of many small parties of friends intimate enough to have some bond of sympathy4 ,thus the quantity of intercourse is diminished1 and the quality deteriorated4 ,because it is the custom to make costly #ch preparations and provide costly refreshments2 and because it entails both less expense and less trouble to do this for many persons on few occasions than for few persons on many occasions2 the reunions of our less wealthy classes are rendered alike infrequent and tedious4 ,let it be further observed1 that the existing formalities of social intercourse drive away many who most need its refining influence2 and drive them into injurious habits and associations4 ,not a few men1 and not the least sensible men either1 give up in disgust this going out to stately dinners and stiff evening-parties2 and instead1 seek society in clubs1 and cigar-divans1 and taverns4 8,i'm sick of this standing about in drawing-rooms1 talking nonsense1 and trying to look happy10 will answer one of them when taxed with his desertion4 8,why should ,i any longer waste time and money1 and temper8 ,once ,i was ready enough to rush home from the office to dress2 ,i sported embroidered shirts1 submitted to tight boots1 and cared nothing for tailors' and haberdashers' bills4 ,i know better now4 ,my patience lasted a good while2 for though ,i found each night pass stupidly1 ,i always hoped the next would make amends4 ,but ,i'm undeceived4 ,cab-hire and kid gloves cost more than any evening party pays for2 or rather--it is worth the cost of them to avoid the party4 ,no1 no2 ,i'll no more of it4 ,why should ,i pay five shillings a time for the privilege of being bored80 ,if1 now1 we consider that this very common mood tends towards billiard-rooms1 towards long sittings over cigars and brandy-and-water1 towards ,evans's and the ,coal ,hole2 it becomes a question whether these precise observances which hamper our set meetings1 have not to answer for much of the prevalent dissoluteness4 ,men must have excitements of some kind or other2 and if debarred from higher ones will fall back upon lower4 ,it is not that those who thus take to irregular habits are essentially those of low tastes4 ,often it is quite the reverse4 ,among half a dozen intimate friends1 abandoning #ci formalities and sitting at ease round the fire1 none will enter with greater enjoyment into the highest kind of social intercourse--the genuine communion of thought and feeling2 and if the circle includes women of intelligence and refinement1 so much the greater is their pleasure4 ,it is because they will no longer be choked with the mere dry husks of conversation which society offers them1 that they fly its assemblies1 and seek those with whom they may have discourse that is at least real1 though unpolished4 ,the men who thus long for substantial mental sympathy1 and will go where they can get it1 are often1 indeed1 much better at the core than the men who are content with the inanities of gloved and scented party-goers--men who feel no need to come morally nearer to their fellow-creatures than they can come while standing1 tea-cup in hand1 answering trifles with trifles2 and who1 by feeling no such need1 prove themselves shallow-thoughted and cold-hearted4 ,it is true1 that some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement1 and that they would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints4 ,but it is not less true that1 by adding to the legitimate restraints1 which are based on convenience and a regard for others1 a host of factitious restraints based only on convention1 the refining discipline1 which would else have been borne with benefit1 is rendered unbearable1 and so misses its end4 ,excess of government defeats itself by driving away those to be governed4 ,and if over all who desert its entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality1 society thus loses its salutary influence--if such not only fail to receive that moral culture which the company of ladies1 when rationally regulated1 would give them1 but1 in default of other relaxation1 are driven into habits and companionships which often end in gambling and drunkenness2 must we not say that here1 too1 is an evil not to be passed over as insignificant8 ,then consider what a blighting effect these #dj multitudinous preparations and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to subserve4 ,who1 on calling to mind the occasions of his highest social enjoyments1 does not find them to have been wholly informal1 perhaps impromptu8 ,how delightful a pic-nic of friends1 who forget all observances save those dictated by good nature6 ,how pleasant the unpretending gatherings of small book-societies1 and the like2 or those purely accidental meetings of a few people well known to each other6 ,then1 indeed1 we may see that 8a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend40 ,cheeks flush1 and eyes sparkle4 ,the witty grow brilliant1 and even the dull are excited into saying good things4 ,there is an overflow of topics2 and the right thought1 and the right words to put it in1 spring up unsought4 ,grave alternates with gay3 now serious converse1 and now jokes1 anecdotes1 and playful raillery4 ,everyone's best nature is shown2 everyone's best feelings are in pleasurable activity2 and1 for the time1 life seems well worth having4 ,go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner1 or some ten o'clock 8at home20 and present yourself in spotless attire1 with every hair arranged to perfection4 ,how great the difference6 ,the enjoyment seems in the inverse ratio of the preparation4 ,these figures1 got up with such finish and precision1 appear but half alive4 ,they have frozen each other by their primness2 and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the atmosphere the moment you enter it4 ,all those thoughts1 so nimble and so apt awhile since1 have disappeared--have suddenly acquired a preternatural power of eluding you4 ,if you venture a remark to your neighbour1 there comes a trite rejoinder1 and there it ends4 ,no subject you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences4 ,nothing that is said excites any real interest in you2 and you feel that all you say is listened to with apathy4 ,by some strange magic1 things that usually give pleasure seem to have lost all charm4 ,you have a taste for art4 ,weary of frivolous #da talk1 you turn to the table1 and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of photographs are as flat as the conversation4 ,you are fond of music4 ,yet the singing1 good as it is1 you hear with utter indifference2 and say 8,thank you0 with a sense of being a profound hypocrite4 ,wholly at ease though you could be1 for your own part1 you find that your sympathies will not let you4 ,you see young gentlemen feeling whether their ties are properly adjusted1 looking vacantly round1 and considering what they shall do next4 ,you see ladies sitting disconsolately1 waiting for some one to speak to them1 and wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their fingers4 ,you see the hostess standing about the doorway1 keeping a factitious smile on her face1 and racking her brain to find the requisite nothings with which to greet her guests as they enter4 ,you see numberless traits of weariness and embarrassment2 and1 if you have any fellow feeling1 these cannot fail to produce a sense of discomfort4 ,the disorder is catching2 and do what you will1 you cannot resist the general infection4 ,you struggle against it2 you make spasmodic efforts to be lively2 but none of your sallies or your good stories do more than raise a simper or a forced laugh3 intellect and feeling are alike asphyxiated4 ,and when1 at length1 yielding to your disgust1 you rush away1 how great is the relief when you get into the fresh air1 and see the stars6 ,how you 8,thank ,god1 that's over60 and half resolve to avoid all such boredom for the future6 ,what1 now1 is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and disappointment8 ,does not the fault lie with these needless adjuncts--these elaborate dressings1 these set forms1 these expensive preparations1 these many devices and arrangements that imply trouble and raise expectation8 ,who that has lived thirty years in the world has not discovered that ,pleasure is coy2 and must not be too directly pursued1 but must be caught unawares8 ,an air from a street-piano1 heard while at work1 will often gratify more than the #db choicest music played at a concert by the most accomplished musicians4 ,a single good picture seen in a dealer's window1 may give keener enjoyment than a whole exhibition gone through with catalogue and pencil4 ,by the time we have got ready our elaborate apparatus by which to secure happiness1 the happiness is gone4 ,it is too subtle to be contained in these receivers1 garnished with compliments1 and fenced round with etiquette4 ,the more we multiply and complicate appliances1 the more certain are we to drive it away4 ,the reason is patent enough4 ,these higher emotions to which social intercourse ministers1 are of extremely complex nature2 they consequently depend for their production upon very numerous conditions2 the more numerous the conditions1 the greater the liability that one or other of them will not be fulfilled4 ,it takes a considerable misfortune to destroy appetite2 but cordial sympathy with those around may be extinguished by a look or a word4 ,hence it follows1 that the more multiplied the unnecessary requirements with which social intercourse is surrounded1 the less likely are its pleasures to be achieved4 ,it is difficult enough to fulfil continuously all the essentials to a pleasurable communion with others3 how much more difficult1 then1 must it be continuously to fulfil a host of non-essentials also6 ,what chance is there of getting any genuine response from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in taking her in to dinner on the wrong arm8 ,how are you likely to have agreeable converse with the gentleman who is fuming internally because he is not placed next to the hostess8 ,formalities1 familiar as they may become1 necessarily occupy attention--necessarily multiply the occasions for mistake1 misunderstanding1 and jealousy1 on the part of one or other--necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and feelings which should occupy them--necessarily1 therefore1 subvert those conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be had4 ,and this1 indeed1 is the fatal mischief which these #dc conventions entail--a mischief to which every other is secondary4 ,they destroy those pleasures which they profess to subserve4 ,all institutions are alike in this1 that however useful1 and needful even1 they originally were1 they in the end cease to be so1 but often become detrimental4 ,while humanity is growing1 they continue fixed2 daily get more mechanical and unvital2 and by and by tend to strangle what they before preserved4 ,old forms of government finally grow so oppressive1 that they must be thrown off even at the risk of reigns of terror4 ,old creeds end in being dead formulas1 which no longer aid but distort and arrest the general mind2 while the ,state-churches administering them1 come to be instruments for subsidizing conservatism and repressing progress4 ,old schemes of education1 incarnated in public schools and colleges1 continue filling the heads of new generations with what has become relatively useless knowledge1 and1 by consequence1 excluding knowledge which is useful4 ,not an organization of any kind--political1 religious1 literary1 philanthropic--but what1 by its ever-multiplying regulations1 its accumulating wealth1 its yearly addition of officers1 and the creeping into it of patronage and party feeling1 eventually loses its original spirit1 and sinks into a lifeless mechanism1 worked with a view to private ends--a mechanism which not merely fails of its first purpose1 but is a positive hindrance to it4 ,thus is it1 too1 with social usages4 ,we read of the ,chinese that they have 8ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial10 which make social intercourse a burden4 ,the court forms prescribed by monarchs for their own exaltation1 have1 in all times and places1 ended in consuming the comfort of their lives4 ,and so the artificial observances of the dining-room and saloon1 in proportion as they are many and strict1 extinguish that agreeable communion which they were intended to secure4 ,the dislike with which people commonly speak of society that is 8formal10 and 8stiff10 and 8ceremonious10 #dd implies a general recognition of this fact2 and this recognition involves the inference that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural requirements1 are injurious4 ,that these conventions defeat their own ends is no new assertion4 ,swift1 criticising the manners of his day1 says--8,wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and mechanics40 ,but it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of our arrangements is traceable2 it is traceable in the very substance and nature of them4 ,our social intercourse1 as commonly managed1 is a mere semblance of the reality sought4 ,what is it that we want8 ,some sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures3--some converse that shall not be mere dead words1 but the vehicle of living thoughts and feelings--converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak1 and the tones of the voice be full of meaning--converse which shall make us feel no longer alone1 but shall draw us closer to others1 and double our own emotions by adding their's to them4 ,who is there that has not1 from time to time1 felt how cold and flat is all this talk about politics and science1 and the new books and the new men1 and how a genuine utterance of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it8 ,mark the words of ,bacon3--8,for a crowd is not company1 and faces are but a gallery of pictures1 and talk but a tinkling cymbal1 where there is no love40 ,if this be true1 then it is only after acquaintance has grown into intimacy1 and intimacy has ripened into friendship1 that the real communion which men need becomes possible4 ,a rationally-formed circle must consist almost wholly of those on terms of familiarity and regard1 with but one or two strangers4 ,what folly1 then1 underlies the whole system of our grand dinners1 our 8at homes10 our evening parties--crowds made up of many who never met before1 many who just bow to one another1 many who though well known feel mutual indifference1 with just a few #de real friends lost in the general mass6 ,you need but look round at the artificial expressions of face1 to see at once how it is4 ,all have their disguises on2 and how can there be sympathy between masks8 ,no wonder that in private every one exclaims against the stupidity of these gatherings4 ,no wonder that hostesses get them up rather because they must than because they wish4 ,no wonder that the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than from fear of giving offence4 ,the whole thing is an organized disappointment4 ,and then note1 lastly1 that in this case1 as in others1 an organization inoperative for its proper purpose1 it is employed for quite other purposes4 ,what is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious assemblies8 8,i admit that they are dull and frivolous enough10 replies every man to your criticisms2 8but then1 you know1 one must keep up one's connexions40 ,and could you get from his wife a sincere answer1 it would be--8,like you1 ,i am sick of these formal parties2 but then1 we must get our daughters married40 ,the one knows that there is a profession to push1 a business to extend2 or parliamentary influence1 or county patronage1 or votes1 or office1 to be got3 position1 berths1 favours1 profit4 ,the other's thoughts run upon husbands and settlements1 wives and dowries4 ,worthless for their ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable relations with each other1 these cumbrous appliances of our social intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce4 ,who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is unimportant8 ,when we see how this system induces fashionable extravagance1 with its occasional ruin--when we mark how greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less wealthy classes--when we find that many who most need to be disciplined by mixing #df with the refined are driven away by it1 and led into bad courses--when we count up the many minor evils it inflicts1 the extra work which its costliness entails on all professional and mercantile men1 the damage to public taste in dress and decoration by the setting up of its absurdities as standards for imitation1 the injury to health indicated in the faces of its devotees at the close of the ,london season1 the mortality of milliners and the like1 which its sudden exigencies yearly involve2--and when to all these we add its fatal sin1 that it withers up and kills that high enjoyment it professedly ministers to--shall we not conclude that to rationalize etiquette and fashion1 is an aim yielding to few in urgency8 99 99 99 99 99 ,there needs1 then1 a protestantism in social usages4 ,forms which have ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive--have to be swept away4 ,signs are not wanting that some change is at hand4 ,a host of satirists1 led on by ,thackeray1 have long been engaged in bringing our sham-festivities1 and our fashionable follies1 into contempt2 and in their candid moods1 most men laugh at the frivolities with which they and the world in general are deluded4 ,ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent4 ,institutions that have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are doomed2 and the day of their dissolution is not far off4 ,the time is approaching1 then1 when our system of social observances must pass through some crisis1 out of which it will come purified and comparatively simple4 ,how this crisis will be brought about1 no one can say4 ,whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests1 or whether by the union of many persons for the practice and diffusion of better usages1 the future alone can decide4 ,the influence of dissentients acting without co-operation1 seems inadequate4 ,frowned on by conformists1 and expostulated with even by those who secretly sympathize with them2 subject to petty persecutions1 and #dg unable to trace any benefit produced by their example2 they are apt1 one by one1 to give up their attempts as hopeless4 ,the young convention-breaker eventually finds that he pays too heavily for his nonconformity4 ,hating1 for example1 everything that bears about it any remnant of servility1 he determines1 in the ardour of his independence1 that he will uncover to no one4 ,but what he means simply as a general protest1 he finds that ladies interpret into a personal disrespect4 ,in other cases his courage fails him4 ,such of his unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity1 he has no qualms about2 for1 on the whole1 he feels rather complimented than otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion4 ,but when they are liable to be put down to ignorance1 to ill-breeding1 or to poverty1 he becomes a coward4 ,however clearly the recent innovation of eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread practice to have had little but caprice for its basis1 yet he dares not wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it4#d ,though he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for drawing-room use as a white cambric one1 he is not altogether at ease in acting out his opinion4 ,then1 too1 he begins to perceive that his resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he had not calculated upon4 ,he had expected that it would save him from a great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it would offend the silly people1 but not the sensible people2 and so would serve as a self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from those not worth knowing4 ,but the silly people prove to be so greatly in the majority that1 by offending them1 he closes against himself nearly all the avenues through which the sensible people are to be reached4 ,thus he finds1 that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted2 that there are but few directions in which he dares #dh to carry it consistently out2 that the disadvantages it entails are greater than he anticipated2 and that the chances of his doing any good are very remote4 ,hence he gradually loses resolution1 and lapses1 step by step1 into the ordinary routine of observances4 #d ,this was written before the introduction of silver fish-knives4 ,abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out1 it may possibly be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some organized resistance to this invisible despotism1 by which our modes and habits are dictated4 ,it may happen1 that the government of ,manners and ,fashion will be rendered less tyrannical1 as the political and religious governments have been1 by some antagonistic union4 ,alike in ,church and ,state1 men's first emancipations from excesses of restriction were achieved by numbers1 bound together by a common creed or a common political faith4 ,what remained undone while there were but individual schismatics or rebels1 was effected when there came to be many acting in concert4 ,it is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of freedom could not have been obtained in any other way2 for so long as the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong1 there could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to produce the desired results4 ,only in these later times1 during which the secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive1 and the tendency towards individual liberty greater1 has it become possible for smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established creeds and laws2 until now men may safely stand even alone in their antagonism4 ,the failure of individual nonconformity to customs1 suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be gone through in this case also4 ,it is true that the lex non scripta differs from the lex scripta in this1 that1 being unwritten1 it is more readily altered2 and that it has1 from time to time1 been quietly ameliorated4 ,nevertheless1 we shall find that the analogy holds substantially good4 ,for in this case1 as #di in the others1 the essential revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any other1 but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes restraints4 ,just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the ,reformation1 was not a superseding of one creed by another1 but an ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds--just as the fundamental change which ,democracy long ago commenced1 was not from this particular law to that1 but from the despotism of one to the freedom of all2 so1 the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary government of which we are treating1 is not the replacing of absurd usages by sensible ones1 but the dethronement of that power which now imposes our usages1 and the assertion of the rights of individuals to choose their own usages4 ,in rules of living1 a ,west-end clique is our ,pope2 and we are all papists1 with but a mere sprinkling of heretics4 ,on those who decisively rebel1 comes down the penalty of excommunication1 with its long catalogue of disagreeable and1 indeed1 serious consequences4 ,the liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution1 and ever on the increase1 has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny4 ,the right of private judgment1 which our ancestors wrung from the church1 remains to be claimed from this dictator of our habits4 ,or1 as before said1 to free us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities1 there has still to come a protestantism in social usages4 ,parallel1 therefore1 as is the change to be wrought out1 it seems not improbable that it may be wrought out in an analogous way4 ,that influence which solitary dissentients fail to gain1 and that perseverance which they lack1 may come into existence when they unite4 ,that persecution which the world now visits upon them from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or disrespect1 may diminish when it is seen to result from principle4 ,the penalty which exclusion now entails may disappear when they become numerous enough to form #ej visiting circles of their own4 ,and when a successful stand has been made1 and the brunt of the opposition has passed1 that large amount of secret dislike to our observances which now pervades society1 may manifest itself with sufficient power to effect the desired emancipation4 ,whether such will be the process1 time alone can decide4 ,that community of origin1 growth1 supremacy1 and decadence1 which we have found among all kinds of government1 suggests a community in modes of change also4 ,on the other hand1 ,nature often performs substantially similar operations1 in ways apparently different4 ,hence these details can never be foretold4 99 99 99 99 99 ,meanwhile1 let us glance at the conclusions that have been reached4 ,on the one side1 government1 originally one1 and afterwards subdivided for the better fulfilment of its function1 must be considered as having ever been1 in all its branches--political1 religious1 and ceremonial--beneficial2 and1 indeed1 absolutely necessary4 ,on the other side1 government1 under all its forms1 must be regarded as subserving an office1 made needful by the unfitness of aboriginal humanity for social life2 and the successive diminutions of its coerciveness in ,state1 in ,church1 and in ,custom1 must be looked upon accompanying the increasing adaptation of humanity to its conditions4 ,to complete the conception1 there requires to be borne in mind the third fact1 that the genesis1 the maintenance1 and the decline of all governments1 however named1 are alike brought about by the humanity to be controlled2 from which may be drawn the inference that1 on the average1 restrictions of every kind cannot last much longer than they are wanted1 and cannot be destroyed much faster than they ought to be4 ,society1 in all its developments1 undergoes the process of exuviation4 ,these old forms which it successively throws off1 have all been once vitally united with it--have severally served as the protective envelopes within which a higher humanity #ea was being evolved4 ,they are cast aside only when they become hindrances--only when some inner and better envelope has been formed2 and they bequeath to us all that there was in them of good4 ,the periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left the administration of justice not only uninjured1 but purified4 ,dead and buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality they contained1 which still exists1 uncontaminated by the sloughs of superstition4 ,and all that there is of justice and kindness and beauty1 embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette1 will live perennially when the forms themselves have been forgotten4 #eb ,,railway ,,morals ,,and ,,railway ,,policy4 ,first published in the ,edinburgh ,review for ,october #ahed4 ,believers in the intrinsic virtues of political forms1 might draw an instructive lesson from the politics of our railways4 ,if there needs a conclusive proof that the most carefully-framed constitutions are worthless1 unless they be embodiments of the popular character--if there needs a conclusive proof1 that governmental arrangements in advance of the time will inevitably lapse into congruity with the time2 such proof may be found over and over again repeated in the current history of joint-stock enterprises4 ,as devised by ,act of ,parliament1 the administrations of our public companies are almost purely democratic4 ,the representative system is carried out in them with scarcely a check4 ,shareholders elect their directors1 directors their chairman2 there is an annual retirement of a certain proportion of members of the board1 giving facilities for superseding them2 and1 by this means1 the whole ruling body may be changed in periods varying from three to five years4 ,yet1 not only are the characteristic vices of our political state reproduced in each of these mercantile corporations--some even in an intenser degree--but the very form of government1 while remaining nominally democratic1 is substantially so remodelled as to become a miniature of our national constitution4 ,the direction1 ceasing to fulfil its theory as a #ec council formed of members who possess equal powers1 falls under the control of some one member of superior cunning1 will1 or wealth1 to whom the majority become so subordinate1 that the decision on every question depends on the course he takes4 ,proprietors1 instead of constantly exercising their franchise1 allow it to become on all ordinary occasions a dead letter4 ,retiring directors are so habitually re-elected without opposition1 and have so great a power of insuring their own election when opposed1 that the board becomes practically a close body2 and it is only when the misgovernment grows extreme enough to produce a revolutionary agitation among the shareholders1 that any change can be effected4 ,thus1 a mixture of the monarchic1 the aristocratic1 and the democratic elements1 is repeated with such modifications only as the circumstances involve4 ,the modes of action1 too1 are substantially the same2 save in this1 that the copy outruns the original4 ,threats of resignation1 which ministries hold out in extreme cases1 are commonly made by railway-boards to stave off disagreeable inquiries4 ,by no means regarding themselves as servants of the shareholders1 directors rebel against dictation from them2 and construe any amendment to their proposals into a vote of want of confidence4 ,at half-yearly meetings1 disagreeable criticisms and objections are met by the chairman with the remark1 that if the shareholders cannot trust his colleagues and himself1 they had better choose others4 ,with most1 this assumption of offended dignity tells2 and1 under fear that the company's interests may suffer from any disturbance1 measures quite at variance with the wishes of the proprietary are allowed to be carried4 ,the parallel holds yet further4 ,if it be true of national administrations1 that those in power have the support of public employs2 it is not less true of incorporated companies1 that the directors are aided by the officials in their struggles with shareholders4 ,if1 in times past1 there have been ministries who spent public money to secure party ends2 there are1 in #ed times present1 railway-boards who use the funds of the shareholders to defeat the shareholders4 ,nay1 even in detail1 the similarity is maintained4 ,like their prototype1 joint-stock companies have their expensive election contests1 managed by election committees1 employing election agents2 they have their canvassing with its sundry illegitimate accompaniments2 they have their occasional manufacture of fraudulent votes4 ,and1 as a general result1 that class-legislation1 which has been habitually charged against statesmen1 is now habitually displayed in the proceedings of these trading associations3 constituted though they are on purely representative principles4 ,these last assertions will surprise not a few4 ,the general public who never see a railway-journal1 and who skip the reports of half-yearly meetings which appear in the daily papers1 are under the impression that dishonesties like those gigantic ones so notorious during the mania1 are no longer committed4 ,they do not forget the doings of stags and stock-jobbers and runaway-directors4 ,they remember how men-of-straw held shares amounting to #ajj1jjj1 and even #bjj1jjj2 how numerous directorates were filled by the same persons--one having a seat at twenty-three boards2 how subscription-contracts were made up with signatures bought at #ajs and even #ds each1 and porters and errand-boys made themselves liable for #cj1jjj and #dj1jjj a-piece4 ,they can narrate how boards kept their books in cipher1 made false registries1 and refrained from recording their proceedings in minute-books2 how in one company1 half-a-million of capital was put down to unreal names2 how in another1 directors bought for account more shares than they issued1 and so forced up the price2 and how in many others1 they repurchased for the company their own shares1 paying themselves with the depositors' money4 ,but1 though more or less aware of the iniquities which have been practised1 the generality think of them solely as the accompaniments #ee of bubble schemes4 ,more recent enterprises they know to have been bon fide ones1 mostly carried out by old-established companies2 and knowing this1 they do not suspect that in the getting-up of branch lines and extensions1 there are chicaneries near akin to those of ,capel ,court2 and quite as disastrous in their ultimate results4 ,associating the ideas of wealth and respectability1 and habitually using respectability as synonymous with morality1 it seems to them incredible that many of the large capitalists and men of station who administer railway affairs1 should be guilty of indirectly enriching themselves at the expense of their constituents4 ,true1 they occasionally meet with a law-report disclosing some enormous fraud2 or read a ,times leader1 characterising directorial acts in terms which are held libellous4 ,but they regard the cases thus brought to light as entirely exceptional2 and1 under that feeling of loyalty which ever idealises men in authority1 they constantly tend towards the conviction1 if not that directors can do no wrong1 yet that they are very unlikely to do wrong4 ,a history of railway management and railway intrigue1 however1 would quickly undeceive them4 ,in such a history1 the tricks of projectors and the mysteries of the share-market would occupy less space than the analysis of the multiform dishonesties which have been committed since #ahde1 and the genesis of that elaborate system of tactics by which companies are betrayed into ruinous undertakings which benefit the few at the cost of the many4 ,such a history would not only have to detail the doings of the personage famed for 8making things pleasant20 nor would it have merely to add the misdeeds of his colleagues2 but it would have to describe the kindred corruptness of other railway administrations4 ,from the published report of an investigation-committee1 it would be shown how1 not many years since1 the directors of one of our lines allotted among themselves #ae1jjj new shares then at a premium in the #ef market2 how to pay the deposits on these shares they used the company's funds2 and how one of their number thus accommodated himself in meeting both deposits and calls to the extent of more than #hj1jjj4 ,we should read in it of one railway chairman who1 with the secretary's connivance1 retained shares exceeding a quarter of a million in amount1 intending to claim them as his allotment if they rose to a premium2 and who1 as they did not do so1 left them as unissued shares on the hands of the proprietors1 to their vast loss4 ,we should also read in it of directors who made loans to themselves out of the company's floating balances at a low rate of interest1 when the market rate was high2 and who paid themselves larger salaries than those assigned3 entering the difference in an obscure corner of the ledger under the head of 8petty disbursements40 ,there would be a description of the manuvres by which a delinquent board1 under impending investigation1 gets a favourable committee nominated--8a whitewashing committee40 ,there would be documents showing that the proxies enabling boards to carry contested measures1 have in some cases been obtained by garbled statements2 and1 again1 that proxies given for a specified purpose have been used for other purposes4 ,one of our companies would be proved to have projected a line1 serving as a feeder1 for which it obtained shareholders by offering a guaranteed dividend1 which1 though understood by the public to be unconditional1 was really contingent upon a condition not likely to be fulfilled4 ,the managers of another company would be convicted of having carried party measures by the aid of preference-shares standing in the names of station-masters2 and of being aided by the proxies of the secretary's children too young to write4 ,that the corruptions here glanced at are not exceptional evils1 but result from some deep-seated vice in our system of railway-government1 is sufficiently proved by the fact1 that notwithstanding the falling of railway-dividends #eg produced by the extension policy1 that policy has been year after year continued4 ,does any tradesman1 who1 having enlarged his shop1 finds a proportionate diminution in his rate of profits1 go on1 even under the stimulus of competition1 making further enlargements at the risk of further diminutions8 ,does any merchant1 however strong his desire to take away an opponent's markets1 make successive mortgages on his capital1 and pay for each sum thus raised a higher interest than he gains by trading with it8 ,yet this course1 so absurd that no one would insult a private individual by asking him to follow it1 is the course which railway-boards1 at meeting after meeting1 persuade their clients to pursue4 ,since #ahde1 when the dividends of our leading lines ranged from #h to #aj per cent41 they have1 notwithstanding an ever-growing traffic1 fallen from #aj per cent4 to #e1 from #h to #d1 from #i to #c #a_/d2 and yet the system of extensions1 leases1 and guarantees1 notoriously the cause of this1 has been year by year persevered in4 ,is there not something needing explanation here--something more than the world is allowed to see8 ,if there be any one to whom the broad fact of obstinate persistence in unprofitable expenditure does not alone carry the conviction that sinister influences are at work1 let him read the seductive statements by which shareholders are led to authorize new projects1 and then compare these with the proved results4 ,let him look at the estimated cost1 anticipated traffic1 and calculated dividend on some proposed branch line2 let him observe how the proprietary before whom the scheme is laid1 are induced to approve it as promising a fair return2 and then let him contemplate1 in the resulting depreciation of stock1 the extent of their loss4 ,is there any avoiding the inference8 ,railway-shareholders can never have habitually voted for new undertakings which they knew would be injurious to them4 ,every one knows1 however1 that these new undertakings have almost uniformly proved injurious to them4 ,obviously1 therefore1 railway-shareholders have been #eh continually deluded by false representations4 ,the only possible escape from this conclusion is in the belief that boards and their officers have been themselves deceived2 and were the discrepancies between promises and results occasional only1 there would be grounds for this lenient interpretation4 ,but to suppose that a railway-government should repeatedly make such mistakes1 and yet gain no wisdom from disastrous experiences--should after a dozen disappointments again mislead half-yearly meetings by bright anticipations into dark realities1 and all in good faith--taxes credulity somewhat too far4 ,even1 then1 were there no demonstrated iniquities to rouse suspicion1 we think that the continuous depreciation in the value of railway-stock1 the determined perseverance of boards in the policy which has produced this depreciation1 and the proved untruth of the statements by which they have induced shareholders to sanction this policy1 would of themselves suffice to show the viciousness of railway-administration4 ,that the existing evils1 and the causes conspiring to produce them1 may be better understood1 it will be needful to glance at the mode in which the system of extensions grew up4 ,earliest among the incentives to it was a feeling of rivalry4 ,even while yet their main lines were unfinished1 a contest for supremacy arose between our two greatest companies4 ,this presently generated a confirmed antagonism2 and the same impulse which in election contests has sometimes entailed the squandering of a fortune to gain a victory1 has largely aided to make each of these great rivals submit to repeated sacrifices rather than be beaten4 ,feuds of like nature are in other cases perpetually prompting boards to make aggressions on each other's territories--every attack on the one side leading to a reprisal on the other2 and so violent is the hostility occasionally produced1 that directors might be pointed out whose votes are wholly determined by the desire to be revenged on their opponents4 #ei ,among the first methods used by leading companies to strengthen themselves and weaken their competitors1 was the leasing or purchase of subordinate neighbouring lines4 ,of course those to whom overtures were made1 obtained bids from both sides2 and it naturally resulted that the first sales thus effected1 being at prices far above the real values1 brought great profits to the sellers4 ,what resulted8 ,a few recurrences of this proceeding1 made it clear to quick-witted speculators1 that constructing lines so circumstanced as to be bid for by competing companies1 would be a lucrative policy4 ,shareholders who had once pocketed these large and easily-made gains1 were eager to repeat the process2 and cast about for districts in which it might be done4 ,even the directors of the companies by whom these high prices were given1 were under the temptation to aid in this2 for it was manifest to them that by obtaining a larger interest in any such new undertaking than they possessed in the purchasing company1 and by using their influence in the purchasing company to obtain a good price or guarantee for the new undertaking1 a great advantage would be gained4 ,that this motive has been largely operative1 railway history abundantly proves4 ,once commenced1 sundry other influences conspired to stimulate this making of feeders and extensions4 ,the non-closure of capital-accounts rendered possible the 8cooking0 of dividends1 which was at one period carried to a great extent4 ,expenditure that should have been charged against revenue was charged against capital2 works and rolling stock were allowed to go unrepaired1 or insufficient additions made to them1 by which means the current expenses were rendered delusively small2 long-credit agreements with contractors permitted sundry disbursements that had virtually been made1 to be kept out of the accounts2 and thus the net returns were made to appear greater than they really were4 ,naturally new undertakings put before the moneyed world by companies whose stock and dividends had been thus artificially raised1 #fj were received with proportionate favour4 ,under the prestige of their parentage their shares came out at high premiums1 bringing large profits to the projectors4 ,the hint was soon taken2 and it presently became an established policy1 under the auspices of a prosperity either real or mock1 to get up these subsidiary lines--8calves10 as they were called in the slang of the initiated--and to traffic in the premiums their shares commanded4 ,meanwhile had been developing1 a secondary set of influences which also contributed to foster unwise enterprises2 namely1 the business interests of the lawyers1 engineers1 contractors1 and others directly or indirectly employed in railway construction4 ,the ways of getting up and carrying new schemes1 could not fail1 in the course of years1 to become familiar to all concerned2 and there could not fail to grow up among them a system of concerted tactics for achieving their common end4 ,thus1 partly from the jealousy of rival boards1 partly from the greediness of shareholders in purchased lines1 partly from the dishonest schemings of directors1 partly from the manuvres of those whose occupation it is to carry out the projects legally authorized1 partly1 and perhaps mainly1 from the delusive appearance of prosperity maintained by many established companies1 there came the wild speculations of #ahdd and #ahde4 ,the consequent disasters1 while they pretty well destroyed the last of these incentives1 left the rest much as they were4 ,though the painfully-undeceived public have ceased to aid as they once did1 the various private interests that had grown up have since been working together as before--have developed their methods of co-operation into still more complex and subtle forms2 and are even now daily thrusting unfortunate shareholders into losing undertakings4 ,before proceeding to analyze the existing state of things1 however1 we would have it clearly understood that we do not suppose those implicated to be on the average morally lower than the community at large4 ,men taken at random #fa from any class1 would1 in all probability1 behave much in the same way when placed in like positions4 ,there are unquestionably directors grossly dishonest4 ,unquestionably also there are others whose standard of honour is far higher than that of most persons4 ,and for the remainder1 they are1 doubtless1 as good as the mass4 ,of the engineers1 parliamentary agents1 lawyers1 contractors1 and others concerned1 it may be admitted that though custom has induced laxity of principle1 yet they would be harshly judged were the transactions which may be recorded against them1 used as tests4 ,those who do not see how in these involved affairs1 bad deeds may be wrought out by men not correspondingly bad1 will readily do so on considering all the conditions4 ,in the first place1 there is the familiar fact that the corporate conscience is inferior to the individual conscience--that a body of men will commit as a joint act1 that which each one of them would shrink from1 did he feel personally responsible4 ,and it may be remarked that not only is the conduct of a corporate body thus comparatively lax1 but also the conduct towards one4 ,there is ever a more or less distinct perception1 that a broad-backed company scarcely feels what would be ruinous to a private person2 and this perception is in constant operation on all railway-boards and their employs1 as well as on all contractors1 landowners1 and others concerned3 leading them to show a want of principle foreign to their general behaviour4 ,again1 the indirectness and remoteness of the evils produced1 greatly weaken the restraints on wrongdoing4 ,men's actions are proximately caused by mental representations of the results to be anticipated2 and the decisions come to1 largely depend on the vividness with which these results can be imagined4 ,a consequence1 good or bad1 that is immediate and clearly apprehended1 influences conduct far more potently than a consequence that has to be traced through a long chain of actions or influences1 and1 as eventually reached1 is not a particular and #fb readily conceivable one1 but a general and vaguely conceivable one4 ,hence1 in railway affairs1 a questionable share-transaction1 an exorbitant charge1 a proceeding which brings great individual advantage without apparently injuring any one1 and which1 even if traced to its ultimate results1 can but very circuitously affect unknown persons living no one knows where1 may be brought home to men who1 could the results be embodied before them1 would be shocked at the cruel injustices they had committed--men who in their private business1 where the results can be thus embodied1 are sufficiently equitable4 ,further1 it requires to be noted that most of these great delinquencies are ascribable not to the extreme dishonesty of any one man or group of men1 but to the combined self-interest of many men and groups of men1 whose minor delinquencies are cumulative4 ,much as a story which1 passing from mouth to mouth1 and receiving a slight exaggeration at each repetition1 comes round to the original narrator in a form scarcely to be recognised2 so1 by a little improper influence on the part of landowners1 a little favouritism on the part of members of ,parliament1 a little intriguing of lawyers1 a little manuvring by contractors and engineers1 a little self-seeking on the part of directors1 a little under-statement of estimates and over-statement of traffic1 a little magnifying of the evils to be avoided and the benefits to be gained--it happens that shareholders are betrayed into ruinous undertakings by grossly untrue representations1 without any one being guilty of more than a small portion of the fraud4 ,bearing in mind then1 the comparative laxity of the corporate conscience2 the diffusion and remoteness of the evils which malpractices produce2 and the composite origin of these malpractices2 it becomes possible to understand how1 in railway affairs1 gigantic dishonesties can be perpetrated by men who1 on the average1 are little if at all below the generality in moral character4 ,with this preliminary mitigation we proceed to detail the #fc various illegitimate influences by which these seemingly insane extensions and this continual squandering of shareholders' property are brought about4 99 99 99 99 99 ,conspicuous among these is the self-interest of landowners4 ,once the greatest obstacles to railway enterprise1 owners of estates have of late years been among its chief promoters4 ,since the ,liverpool and ,manchester line was first defeated by landed opposition1 and succeeded with its second bill only by keeping out of sight of all mansions1 and avoiding game preserves--since the time when the ,london and ,birmingham ,company1 after seeing their project thrown out by a committee of peers who ignored the evidence1 had to 8conciliate0 opponents by raising the estimate for land from #bej1jjj to #gej1jjj--since the time when ,parliamentary counsel justified resistance by the flimsiest excuses1 even to reproaching engineers with having 8trodden down the corn of widows0 and 8destroyed the strawberry-beds of gardeners0--since then1 a marked change of policy has taken place4 ,nor was it in human nature that it should be otherwise4 ,when it became known that railway-companies commonly paid for 8land and compensation10 sums varying from #djjj to #hjjj per mile2 that men were indemnified for supposed injury to their property1 by sums so inordinate that the greater part has been known to be returned by the heir as conscience-money2 that in one case #abj1jjj was given for land said to be worth but #ejjj--when it was noised abroad that large bonuses in the shape of preference shares and the like1 were granted to buy off opposition--when it came to be an established fact that estates are greatly enhanced in value by the proximity of railways2 it is not surprising that country gentlemen should have become active friends of schemes to which they were once the bitterest enemies4 ,on considering the many temptations1 we shall see nothing wonderful in the fact that in #ahde they were zealous #fd provisional committee-men2 nor in the fact that their influence as promoters enabled them to get large sums for their own acres4 ,if we are told of squires soliciting interviews with the engineer of a projected railway2 prompting him to take their side of the country2 promising support if he did1 and threatening opposition if he did not2 dictating the course to be followed through their domains2 and hinting that a good price would be expected2 we are simply told of the special modes in which certain private interests show themselves4 ,if we hear of an extensive landowner using his influence as chairman of a board of directors1 to project a branch running for many miles through his own estate1 and putting his company to the cost of a parliamentary contest to carry this line2 we hear only of that which was likely to occur under such circumstances4 ,if we find now before the public1 a line proposed by a large capitalist1 serving among other ends to effect desirable communications with his property1 and the estimates for which line1 though considered by the engineering world insufficient1 are alleged by him to be ample2 we have but a marked case of the distorted representations which under such conditions self-interest is sure to engender4 ,if we discover of this or that scheme1 that it was got up by the local nobility and gentry--that they employed to make the survey a third-rate engineer1 who was ready in anticipation of future benefit to do this for his bare expenses--that principals and agent wearied the directors of an adjacent trunk-line to take up their project2 threatened that if they did not their great rival would2 alarmed them into concession2 asked for a contribution to their expenses2 and would have gained all these points but for shareholders' resistance--we do but discover the organized tactics which1 in course of time1 naturally grow up under such stimuli4 ,it is not that these facts are particularly remarkable4 ,from the gross instance of the landowner who asked #hjjj for that which he eventually accepted #hj for1 down to the #fe every-day instances of influence used to get railway accommodation for the neighbourhood1 the acts of the landed class are simply manifestations of the average character acting under special conditions4 ,all that it now behoves us to notice1 is1 that we have here a large and powerful body whose interests are ever pressing on railway extension1 irrespective of its intrinsic propriety4 ,the great change in the attitude of the ,legislature towards railways1 from 8the extreme of determined rejection or dilatory acquiescence1 to the opposite extreme of unlimited concession10 was simultaneous with the change above described4 ,it could not well fail to be so4 ,supplying1 as the landowning community does1 so large a portion of both ,houses of ,parliament1 it necessarily follows that the play of private interests seen in the first1 repeats itself in the last under modified forms1 and complicated by other influences4 ,remembering the extent to which legislators were themselves implicated in the speculations of the mania1 it is unlikely that they should since have been free from personal bias4 ,a return proved1 that in #ahde there were #aeg members of ,parliament whose names were on the registers of new companies for sums varying from #bia1jjj downwards4 ,the supporters of new projects boasted of the numbers of votes they could command in the ,house4 ,members were personally canvassed1 and peers were solicited4 ,it was publicly complained in the upper chamber1 that 8it was nearly impossible to bring together a jury1 some members of which were not interested in the railway they were about to assess40 ,doubtless this state of things was in a great degree exceptional2 and there has since been not only a diminution of the temptations1 but a marked increase of equitable feeling4 ,still1 it is not to be expected that private interests should cease to act4 ,it is not to be expected that a landowner who1 out of ,parliament1 exerts himself to get a railway for his district1 should1 when in ,parliament1 not employ the power his new position gives him to the same #ff end4 ,it is not to be expected that the accumulation of such individual actions should leave the legislative policy unchanged4 ,hence the fact1 that the influence once used to throw out railway bills is now used to carry them4 ,hence the fact1 that railway committees no longer require a good traffic case to be made out in justification for the powers asked4 ,hence the fact1 that railway directors having seats in the ,house of ,commons1 are induced to pledge their companies to carry out extensions4 ,we could name a member of ,parliament who1 having bought an estate fitly situated1 offered to an engineer1 also in ,parliament1 the making of a railway running through it2 and having obtained the ,act 7in doing which the influence of himself and his friend was of course useful71 pitted three railway companies against each other for the purchase of it4 ,we could name another member of ,parliament who1 having projected and obtained powers for an extension through his property1 induced the directors of the main line1 with whom he had great influence1 to subscribe half the capital for his extension1 to work it for fifty per cent4 of the gross receipts1 and to give up all traffic brought by it on to the main line until he received four per cent4 on his capital2 which was tantamount to a four per cent4 guarantee4 ,but it is not only1 nor indeed mainly1 from directly personal motives that legislators have of late years unduly fostered railway enterprises4 ,indirectly personal motives of various kinds have been largely operative4 ,the wish to satisfy constituents has been one4 ,inhabitants of an unaccommodated district1 are naturally urgent with their representatives to help them to a line4 ,not unfrequently such representatives are conscious that their next elections may perhaps turn upon their successful response to this appeal4 ,even when there is no popular pressure there is the pressure of their leading political supporters--of large landholders whom it will not do to neglect2 of local lawyers1 important as electioneering friends1 to whom a railway always brings #fg business4 ,thus1 without having immediately private ends1 members of ,parliament are often almost coerced into urging forward schemes which1 from a national point of view1 or from a shareholder's point of view1 are very unwise ones4 ,then there come the still less direct stimuli4 ,where neither personal nor political ends are to be gained1 there are still the interests of a relative to be subserved2 or1 if not those of a relative1 still those of a friend4 ,and where there is no decided impulse to the contrary1 these motives1 of course1 have their weight4 ,moreover1 it requires in fairness to be said1 that possessed as most members of ,parliament are1 with the belief that all railway-making is nationally beneficial1 there exist in their minds few or no reasons for resisting the influences brought to bear on them4 ,true1 shareholders may be injured2 but that is their own affair4 ,the public will be better served2 constituents will be satisfied2 friends will be pleased2 perhaps private ends gained3 and under some or all of these incentives1 affirmative votes are readily given4 ,thus1 from the ,legislature also1 there has of late years proceeded a factitious stimulus to railway extensions4 ,from ,parliament to ,parliamentary agents1 and the general body of lawyers concerned in railway enterprise1 is a ready transition4 ,with these1 the getting up and carrying of new lines and branches is a matter of business4 ,whoever traces the process of obtaining a railway ,act1 or considers the number of legal transactions involved in the execution of railway works1 or notes the large sums that figure in half-yearly reports under the head of 8law charges20 will at once see how strong are the temptations which a new project holds out to solicitors1 conveyancers1 and counsel4 ,it has been shown that in past years1 parliamentary expenses have varied from #fej to #cjjj per mile2 of which a large proportion has gone into the pockets of the profession4 ,in one contest1 #eg1jjj was spent among six counsel and twenty solicitors4 ,at a late #fh meeting of one of our companies it was pointed out1 that the sum expended in legal and parliamentary expenses during nine years1 had reached #dhj1jjj2 or had averaged #ec1ejj a-year4 ,with these and scores of like facts before them1 it would be strange did not so acute a body of men as lawyers use vigorous efforts and sagacious devices to promote fresh enterprises4 ,indeed1 if we look back at the proceedings of #ahde1 we shall suspect1 not only that lawyers are still the active promoters of fresh enterprises1 but often the originators of them4 ,many have heard how in those excited times the projects daily announced were not uncommonly set afloat by local solicitors--how these looked over maps to see where plausible lines could be sketched out--how they canvassed the local gentry to obtain provisional committeemen--how they agreed with engineers to make trial surveys--how1 under the wild hopes of the day1 they found little difficulty in forming companies--and how most of them managed to get as far as the ,committee on ,standing ,orders1 if no farther4 ,remembering all this1 and remembering that those who were successful are not likely to have forgotten their cunning1 but rather to have yearly exercised and increased it1 we may expect to find railway lawyers among the most influential of the many parties conspiring to urge railway proprietaries into disastrous undertakings2 and we shall not be deceived4 ,to a great extent they are in league with engineers4 ,from the proposal to the completion of a new line1 the lawyer and the engineer work together2 and their interests are throughout identical4 ,while the one makes the survey1 the other prepares the book of reference4 ,the parish plans which the one gets ready1 the other deposits4 ,the notices to owners and occupiers which the one fills in1 the other serves upon those concerned4 ,and there are frequent consultations between them as to the dealing with local opposition and the obtainment of local support4 ,in the getting up of #fi their case for ,parliament1 they necessarily act in concert4 ,while1 before committee1 the one gets his ten guineas per day for attending to give evidence1 the other makes profits on all the complicated transactions which carrying a bill involves4 ,during the execution of the works they are in constant correspondence2 and alike profit by any expansion of the undertaking4 ,thus there naturally arises in each1 the perception that in aiding the other he is aiding himself2 and gradually as1 in course of years1 the proceedings come to be often repeated1 and a perfect familiarity with railway politics gained1 there grows up a well-organized system of co-operation between them--a system rendered the more efficient by the wealth and influence which each has year by year accumulated4 ,among the manuvres employed by railway solicitors thus established and thus helped1 not the least remarkable is that of getting their own nominees elected as directors4 ,it is a fact1 which we state on good authority1 that there are puppet-directors who vote for this or that at the instigation of the company's lawyer4 ,the obtainment of such tools is not difficult4 ,vacancies are about to occur in the directorate4 ,almost always there are men over whom a solicitor1 conducting the extensive law-business of a railway1 has considerable power3 not only connexions and friends1 but persons to whom in his legal capacity he can do great benefit or great injury4 ,he selects the most suitable of these2 giving the preference1 if other things are equal1 to one living in the country near the line4 ,on opening the matter to him1 he points out the sundry advantages attendant on a director's position--the free pass and the many facilities it gives2 the annual #ajj or so which the office brings2 the honour and influence accruing2 the opportunities for profitable investment that are likely to occur2 and so forth4 ,should ignorance of railway affairs be raised as an objection1 the tempter1 in whose eyes this ignorance is a chief recommendation1 #gj replies that he shall always be at hand to guide his votes4 ,should non-possession of a due amount of the company's stock be pleaded1 the tempter meets the difficulty by offering himself to furnish the needful qualification4 ,thus incited and flattered1 and perhaps conscious that it would be dangerous to refuse1 the intended puppet allows himself to be put in nomination2 and as it is the habit of half-yearly meetings1 unless under great indignation1 to elect any one proposed to them by those in authority1 the nomination is successful4 ,on subsequent occasions this proceeding can1 of course1 be repeated2 and thus the company's legal agent and those leagued with him1 may command sufficient votes to turn the scale in their own favour4 ,then1 to the personal interest and power of the head solicitor1 have to be added those of the local solicitors1 with whom he is in daily intercourse4 ,they1 too1 profit by new undertakings2 they1 therefore1 are urgent in pressing them forwards4 ,acting in co-operation with their chief1 they form a dispersed staff of great influence4 ,they are active canvassers2 they stimulate and concentrate the feeling of their districts2 they encourage rivalry with other lines2 they alarm local shareholders with rumours of threatened competition4 ,when the question of extension or non-extension comes to a division1 they collect proxies for the extension party4 ,they bring pressure to bear on their shareholding clients and relatives4 ,nay1 so deep an interest do they feel in the decision1 as sometimes to create votes with the view of influencing it4 ,we have before us the case of a local solicitor1 who1 before the special meeting called to adopt or reject a contemplated branch1 transferred portions of his own shares into the names of sundry members of his family1 and so multiplied his seventeen votes into forty-one2 all of which he recorded in favour of the new scheme4 ,the morality of railway engineers is not much above #ga that of railway lawyers4 ,the gossip of ,great ,george ,street is fertile in discreditable revelations4 ,it tells how ,so-and-so1 like others before him1 testified to estimates which he well knew were insufficient4 ,it makes jocose allusion to this man as being employed to do his senior's 8dirty work0--his hard-swearing2 and narrates of the other that1 when giving evidence before committee1 he was told by counsel that he was not to be believed even on his knees4 ,it explains how cheaply the projector of a certain line executed the parliamentary survey1 by employing on it part of the staff in the pay of another company to which he was engineer4 ,now it alludes to the suspicion attaching to a certain member of the fraternity from his having let a permanent-way contract1 for a term of years1 at an extravagant sum per mile4 ,again it rumours the great profits which some of the leaders of the profession made in #ahde1 by charging for the use of their names at so much the prospectus3 even up to a thousand guineas4 ,and then1 it enlarges on the important advantages possessed by engineers who have seats in the ,house of ,commons4 ,thus lax as is the ethical code of engineers1 and greatly as they are interested in railway enterprise1 it is to be expected that they should be active and not very scrupulous promoters of it4 ,to illustrate the vigour and skill with which they further new undertakings1 a few facts may be cited4 ,not far from ,london1 and lying between two lines of railway1 is an estate lately purchased by one of our engineers4 ,he has since obtained ,acts for branches to both of the adjacent lines4 ,one of these branches he has leased to the company whose line it joins2 and he has tried to do the like with the other1 but as yet without success4 ,even as it is1 however1 he is considered to have doubled the value of his property4 ,again1 an engineer of celebrity once nearly succeeded in smuggling through ,parliament1 in the bill for a proposed railway1 a clause extending the limits of deviation1 to several miles on each side of the line1 #gb throughout a certain district--the usual limits being but five chains on each side2 and the attempt is accounted for by the fact1 that this engineer possessed mines in this district4 ,to press forward extensions by the companies with which they are connected1 they occasionally go to great lengths4 ,not long since1 at a half-yearly meeting1 certain projects which the proprietary had already once rejected1 were again brought forward by two engineers who attended in their capacity of shareholders4 ,though known to be personally interested1 one of them moved and the other seconded1 that some new proposals from the promoters of these schemes be considered without delay by the directors4 ,the motion was carried2 the directors approved the proposals2 and again1 the proprietors negatived them4 ,a third time a like effort was made2 a third time a conflict arose2 and within a few days of the special meeting at which the division was to take place1 one of these engineers circulated among the shareholders a pamphlet denying the allegations of the dissentient party and making counter-statements which it was then too late to meet4 ,nay1 he did more3 he employed agents to canvass the shareholders for proxies in support of the new undertaking2 and was obliged to confess as much when charged with it at the meeting4 ,turn we now to contractors4 ,railway-enterprise has given to this class of men a gigantic development2 not only in respect of numbers1 but in respect of the vast wealth to which some of them have acquired4 ,originally1 half a dozen miles of earthwork1 fencing1 and bridges1 was as much as any single contractor undertook4 ,of late years1 however it has become common for one man to engage to construct an entire railway2 and deliver it to the company in a fit condition for opening4 ,great capital is required for this4 ,great profits are made by it4 ,and the fortunes accumulated in course of time have been such1 that sundry contractors are named as being each able to make a railway at his own #gc cost4 ,but they are as insatiable as millionaires in general2 and so long as they continue in business at all1 are1 in some sort1 forced to provide new undertakings to keep their plant employed4 ,as may be imagined1 enormous stocks of working appliances are needed3 many hundreds of earth-waggons and of horses2 many miles of temporary rails and sleepers2 some dozen locomotive engines1 and several fixed ones2 innumerable tools2 besides vast stores of timber1 bricks1 stone1 rails1 and other constituents of permanent works1 that have been bought on speculation4 ,to keep the capital thus invested1 and also a large staff of employs1 standing idle1 entails loss1 partly negative1 partly positive4 ,the great contractor1 therefore1 is both under a strong stimulus to get fresh work1 and enabled by his wealth to do this4 ,hence the not unfrequent inversion of the old arrangement under which companies and engineers employed contractors1 into an arrangement under which contractors employ engineers and form companies4 ,many recent undertakings have been thus set on foot4 ,the most gigantic project which private enterprise has yet dared1 originated with a distinguished contracting firm4 ,in some cases this mode of procedure may1 perhaps1 be advantageous2 but in far more numerous cases its results are disastrous4 ,interested in promoting railway extensions1 even in a greater degree than engineers and lawyers1 contractors habitually co-operate with these1 either as agents or as coadjutors4 ,lines are fostered into being1 which it is known from the beginning1 will not pay4 ,of late1 it has become common for landowners1 merchants1 and others personally interested1 who1 under the belief that their indirect gains will compensate for their meagre dividends1 have themselves raised part of the capital for a local railway1 but cannot raise the rest--it has become common for such to make an agreement with a wealthy contractor to construct the line1 taking in part payment a portion of the shares1 amounting to perhaps a third of the whole1 and to charge for his work according to #gd a schedule of prices to be thereafter settled between himself and the engineer4 ,by this last clause the contractor renders himself secure4 ,it would never answer his purpose to take part payment in shares likely to return some #b per cent41 unless he compensated himself by unusually high profits2 and this subsequent settlement of prices with one whose interests1 like his own1 are wrapped up in the prosecution of the undertaking1 ensures him high profits4 ,meanwhile1 it is noised abroad that all the capital has been subscribed and the line contracted for2 these facts unduly raise the public estimate of the scheme2 the shares are quoted at much above their true worth2 unwary persons buy2 the contractor from time to time parts with his moiety at fair prices2 and the new shareholders ultimately find themselves part owners of a railway which1 unprofitable as it originally promised to be1 had been made yet more unprofitable by expensiveness of construction4 ,nor are these the only cases in which contractors gain after this fashion4 ,they do the like with lines of their own projecting4 ,to obtain ,acts for these1 they sign the subscription-contracts for large amounts2 knowing that in the way above described1 they can always make it answer to do this4 ,so general had the practice latterly become1 as to attract the attention of committees4 ,as was remarked by a personage noted for his complicity in these transactions--8,committees are getting too knowing2 they won't stand that dodge now40 ,nevertheless1 the thing is still done under a disguised form4 ,though contractors no longer enter their own names on subscription lists for thousands of shares2 yet they effect the same end by making nominal holders of their foremen and others3 themselves being the real ones4 ,of directorial misdoings some samples have already been given2 and more might be added4 ,besides those arising from directly personal aims1 there are sundry others4 ,one of these is the increasing community between railway #ge boards and the ,house of ,commons4 ,there are eighty-one directors sitting in ,parliament2 and though some of these take little part in the affairs of their respective railways1 many of them are the most active members of the boards to which they belong4 ,we have but to look back a few years1 and mark the unanimity with which companies adopted the policy of getting themselves represented in the ,legislature1 to see that the furtherance of their respective interests--especially in cases of competition--was the incentive4 ,how well this policy is understood by the initiated1 may be judged from the fact1 that gentlemen are now in some cases elected on boards1 simply because they are members of ,parliament4 ,of course this implies that railway legislation is affected by a complicated play of private influences2 and that these influences generally work towards the facilitation of new enterprises1 is obvious4 ,it naturally happens that directors having seats in the ,house of ,commons can more or less smooth the way of their annual batch of new bills through committees4 ,it naturally happens that those whose companies are not opposed1 exchange good offices4 ,not only do they aid the passing of schemes in which they are interested1 but they are solicited to undertake further schemes by those around them4 ,it is a common-sense conclusion that representatives of small towns and country districts needing railway accommodation1 who are daily thrown in contact with the chairman of a company capable of giving this accommodation1 do not neglect the opportunity of furthering their ends4 ,it is a common-sense conclusion that by hospitalities1 by favours1 by flattery1 by the many means used to bias men1 they seek to obtain his assistance4 ,and it is an equally common-sense conclusion that in many cases they succeed--that by some complication of persuasions and temptations they swerve him from his calmer judgment2 and so introduce into the company he represents1 influences at variance with its welfare4 ,under some motives however--whether those of direct #gf self-interest1 of private favour1 or of antagonistic feeling1 matters not here--it is certain that directors are constantly committing their constituents to unwise enterprises2 and that they frequently employ unjustifiable means for either eluding or overcoming their opposition4 ,shareholders occasionally find that their directors have given to ,parliament1 pledges of extension much exceeding any they were authorised to give2 and they are then persuaded that they are bound to endorse the promises made for them by their agents4 ,in some cases1 among the misleading statements laid before shareholders to obtain their consent to a new project1 will be found an abstract of the earnings of a previously-executed branch to which the proposed one bears some analogy4 ,these earnings are shown 7not always without 8cooking07 to be tolerably good and improving2 and it is argued that the new project1 having like prospects1 offers a fair investment4 ,meanwhile1 it is not stated that the capital for this previously-executed branch was raised on debentures or by guaranteed shares at a higher rate of interest than the dividend pays2 it is not stated that as the capital for this further undertaking will be raised on like terms1 the annual interest on debt will swallow up more than the annual revenue2 and thus unsuspecting shareholders--some unacquainted with the company's antecedents1 some unable to understand its complicated accounts--give their proxies1 or raise their hands1 for new works which will tell with disastrous effect on their future dividends4 ,in pursuit of their ends1 directors will from time to time go directly in the teeth of established regulations4 ,where it has been made a rule that proxies shall be issued only by order of a meeting of the proprietors1 they will yet issue them without any such order1 when by so doing they can steal a march on dissentients4 ,if it suits their purpose1 they will occasionally bring forward most important measures without due notice4 ,in stating the amount of the company's stock which has #gg voted with them on a division1 they have been known to include thousands of shares on which a small sum only was paid up1 counting them as though fully paid up4 ,to complete the sketch1 something must be said on the management of board meetings and meetings of shareholders4 ,for the first--their decisions are affected by various manuvres4 ,of course1 on fit occasions1 there is a whipping-up of those favourable to any project which it is desired to carry4 ,were this all1 there would be little to complain of2 but something more than this is done4 ,there are boards in which it is the practice to defeat opposition by stratagem4 ,the extension party having summoned their forces for the occasion1 and having entered on the minutes of business a notice worded with the requisite vagueness1 shape their proceedings according to the character of the meeting4 ,should their antagonists muster more strongly than was expected1 this vaguely-worded notice serves simply to introduce some general statement or further information concerning the project named in it2 and the matter is passed over as though nothing more had been meant4 ,on the contrary1 should the proportion of the two sides be more favourable1 the notice becomes the basis of a definite motion committing the board to some important act4 ,if due precautions have been taken1 the motion is passed2 and once passed1 those who1 if present1 would have resisted it1 have no remedy2 for in railway government there is no 8second reading10 much less a third4 ,so determined and so unscrupulous are the efforts sometimes made by the stronger party to overcome and silence their antagonists1 that when a contested measure1 carried by them at the board1 has to go before a general meeting for confirmation1 they have been known to pass a resolution that their dissentient colleagues shall not address the proprietary6 ,that1 at half-yearly and special meetings1 shareholders should be so readily misled by boards1 even after repeated #gh experience of their untrustworthiness1 seems at first sight difficult to understand4 ,the mystery disappears1 however1 on inquiry4 ,very frequently1 contested measures are carried against the sense of the meetings before which they are laid1 by means of the proxies previously collected by the directors4 ,these proxies are obtained from proprietors scattered everywhere throughout the kingdom1 who are mostly weak enough to sign the first document sent to them4 ,then1 of those present when the question is brought to an issue1 not many dare attempt a speech4 ,of those who dare1 but few are clear-headed enough to see the full bearings of the measure they are about to vote upon2 and such as can see them are often prevented by nervousness from doing justice to the views they hold4 ,moreover1 it must be borne in mind that proprietors displaying antagonism to the board are usually regarded by their brother proprietors with more or less reprobation4 ,unless the misconduct of the governing body has been very glaring and very recent1 there ever arises in the mass a prejudice against all playing the part of an opposition4 ,they are condemned as noisy1 and factious1 and obstructive2 and often only by determined courage avoid being put down4 ,besides these negative reasons for the general inefficiency of shareholders' resistance1 there are sundry positive ones4 ,as writes to us a ,member of ,parliament who has been an extensive holder of stock in many companies from the first days of railway enterprise3--8,my large and long acquaintance with ,railway ,companies' affairs1 enables me to say1 that a large majority of shareholders trust wholly to their directors1 having little or no information1 nor caring to have any opinion of their own4 4 4 4 4 ,some others1 better informed but timid1 are afraid1 by opposing the directors1 of causing a depreciation of the value of their stock in the market1 and are more alarmed at the prospect of this temporary depreciation than at the permanent loss entailed on the company by the useless1 and therefore #gi unprofitable1 outlay of additional capital4 4 4 4 4 ,others again1 believing that the impending permanent evil is inevitable1 resolve on the spot to sell out immediately1 and to keep up the prices of their shares1 also give their support to the directors40 ,thus1 from lack of organization and efficiency among those who express their opposition1 and from the timidity and double-facedness of those who do not1 it happens that extremely unwise projects are carried by large majorities4 ,nor is this all4 ,the tactics of the aggressive party are commonly as skilful as those of their antagonists are bungling4 ,the chairman1 who is generally the chief promoter of the contested scheme1 has it in his power to favour those who take his own side1 and to throw difficulties in the way of opponents2 and this he not unfrequently does to a great extent--refusing to hear1 putting down on some plea of breach of order1 browbeating1 even using threats4#e ,it generally turns out too1 that1 whether intentionally or not1 some of the most important motions are postponed until nearly the close of the meeting1 when the greater part of the shareholders are gone4 ,large money-votes1 extensive powers1 unlimited permits to directors to take1 in certain matters1 8such steps as in their judgment they may deem most expedient10--these1 and the like1 are hurried over during the last half-hour1 when the tired and impatient remnant will no longer listen to objectors2 and when those who have personal ends to serve by outstaying the rest1 carry everything their own way4 ,indeed1 in some cases1 the arrangements are such as almost ensure the meeting becoming a pro-extension one towards the end4 #hj ,this result is brought about thus3--,a certain portion of the general body of proprietors are also proprietors of some subordinate work--some branch line1 or canal1 or steamboats1 which the ,company has purchased or leased2 and as holders of guaranteed stock1 ready to take up further such stock if they can get it1 these lean towards projects that are to be executed on the preference-share system4 ,they hold their meeting for the declaration of dividend1 c41 as soon as the meeting of the ,company at large has been dissolved2 and in the same room4 ,hence it happens that being kept together by the prospect of subsequent business1 they gradually1 towards the close of the general meeting1 come to form the majority of those present2 and the few ordinary shareholders who have been patient enough to stay1 are outvoted by those having interests distinct from their own and quite at variance with the welfare of the ,company4 #e ,we may remark in passing1 that the practice of making the chairman of the board also chairman of the half-yearly meetings1 is a very injudicious one4 ,the directors are the servants of the proprietary2 and meet them from time to time to render an account of their stewardship4 ,that the chief of these servants1 whose proceedings are about to be examined1 should himself act as chief of the jury is absurd4 ,obviously1 the business of each meeting should be conducted by some one independently chosen for the purpose2 as the ,speaker is chosen by the ,house of ,commons4 ,and here this allusion to the preference-share system1 introduces us to a fact which may fitly close this detail of private interests and questionable practices--a fact serving at once to illustrate the subtlety and concert of railway officialism1 and the power it can exert4 ,that this fact may be fully appreciated1 it must be premised1 that though preference-shares do not usually carry votes1 they are sometimes specially endowed with them2 and further1 that they occasionally remain unpaid up until the expiration of a time after which no further calls can be legally made4 ,in the case in question1 a large number of #ej preference-shares had thus long stood with but #e paid4 ,promoters of extensions1 c41 had here a fine opportunity of getting great power in the ,company at small cost2 and1 as we shall see1 they duly availed themselves of it4 ,already had their party twice tried to thrust the proprietors into a new undertaking of great magnitude4 ,twice had they entailed on them an expensive and harassing contest4 ,a third time1 notwithstanding a professed relinquishment of it1 they #ha brought forward substantially the same scheme1 and were defeated only by a small majority4 ,the following extracts from the division lists we take from the statement of one of the scrutineers4 #ejl4 ,recorded ,total ,number ,preference ,additional ,stock or ,stock at actual of ,votes ,shares ,shares the ,poll,capital scored with #el4 as held4paid up4 for the paid up4 ,extension4 #g1ejjl4 stock1 and ,the ,company's solicitor #ejj #ajj #ejl4 shares1 with #dbl4 #ajs4 paid up4 #ge1fej #ah1adj #ahh ,ditto in joint account with another #ggh ,none4 ,the solicitor's partner #fj ,none4 #c1jjj #cjj #bj ,the ,company's engineer #aej ,none4 #g1ejj #gej #cc ,the engineer's partner #a1ced #d1bffl4 stock4 #ga1iff #aa1jcf #afa ,one of the ,company's parliamentary counsel #bjj #a1jjjl4 stock4 #aa1jjj #b1jjj #dj ,another ditto1 ditto #abe #bjjl4 stock4 #f1dej #hbe #cj ,local solicitor for the proposed extension #g ,none4 #cej #ce #g ,the ,company's contractor for permanent-way #cdg #eb1hccl4 #gj1ahc #ed1efh #aeh ,the ,company's conveyancer #a1jjc #cccl4 stock4 #ej1dhc #e1cdh #aah ,the ,company's furniture printer #ce #aj1jjjl4 stock4 #aa1gej #aj1age #da ,the ,company's surveyor #cfj #a1bejl4 stock4 #ai1bej #c1jej #ef ,the ,company's architect #bag #ad1iafl4 stock2 #aai #cb1bcj #bj1daf #hb #ejl4 shares1 with #dbl4 #ajs4 paid up2 and #ac #djl4 shares1 with #cdl4 paid up4 ,one of the ,company's carriers4 #ag #hccl4 stock4 #a1fhc #iah #ad ,the ,company's bankers3-- ,one ,partner 44 44 44 44 #cc1fff #cb1cff #ij ,another partner 44 44 44 44 #b1ejj #b1ejj #ah ,ditto in joint account with another 44 44 44 44 #a1jjj #hej #ab ,to this list1 some seven or eight of the ,company's tradesmen1 similarly armed1 might be added2 raising the number of the almost factitious shares held by functionaries to about #ebjj1 and increasing the votes commanded by them1 from its present total of #ajfh to upwards of #aajj4 ,if now we separate the #chj1jjj1 which these gentlemen bring to bear against their brother shareholders1 into real and nominal2 we find that while not quite #abj1jjj of it is bon fide property invested1 the remaining #bfj1jjj is nine #hb parts shadow and one part substance4 ,and thus it results1 that by virtue of certain stock actually representing but #bf1jjj1 these lawyers1 engineers1 counsel1 conveyancers1 contractors1 bankers1 and others interested in the promotion of new schemes1 outweigh more than a quarter of a million of the real capital held by shareholders whom these schemes will injure6 99 99 99 99 99 ,need we any longer wonder1 then1 at the persistence of ,railway ,companies in seemingly reckless competition and ruinous extensions8 ,is not this obstinate continuance of a policy that has year after year proved disastrous1 sufficiently explicable on contemplating the many illegitimate influences at work8 ,is it not manifest that the small organized party always out-manuvres the large unorganized one8 ,consider their respective characters and circumstances4 ,here are the shareholders diffused throughout the kingdom1 in towns and country houses2 knowing nothing of each other1 and too remote to co-operate were they acquainted4 ,very few of them see a railway journal2 and scarcely any know much of railway politics4 ,necessarily a fluctuating body1 only a small number are familiar with the ,company's history--its acts1 engagements1 policy1 management4 ,a great proportion are incompetent to judge of the matters that come before them1 and lack decision to act out such judgments as they may form--executors who do not like to take steps involving much responsibility2 trustees fearful of interfering with the property under their care1 lest possible loss should entail a lawsuit2 widows who have never in their lives acted for themselves in any affair of moment2 maiden ladies1 alike nervous and innocent of all business knowledge2 clergymen whose daily discipline has been little calculated to make them acute men of the world2 retired tradesmen whose retail transactions have given them small ability for grasping large considerations2 servants possessed of #hc accumulated savings and cramped notions2 with sundry others of like helpless characters--all of them rendered more or less conservative by ignorance or timidity1 and proportionately inclined to support those in authority4 ,to these should be added the temporary shareholders1 who1 having bought stock on speculation1 and knowing that a revolution in the ,company is likely to depress prices for a time1 have an interest in supporting the board irrespective of the goodness of its policy4 ,turn now to those whose efforts are directed to railway expansion4 ,consider the constant pressure of local populations--of small towns1 of rural districts1 of landowners3 all of them eager for branch accommodation2 all of them with great and definite advantages in view2 few of them conscious of the loss those advantages may entail on others4 ,remember the influence of legislators1 prompted1 some by their constituents1 some by personal aims1 and encouraged by the belief that additional railway facilities are in every case nationally beneficial2 and then infer the extent to which as stated to ,mr4 ,cardwell's committee1 ,parliament has 8excited and urged forward0 ,companies into rivalry4 ,note the temptations under which lawyers are placed--the vast profits accruing to them from every railway contest1 whether ending in success or failure2 and then imagine the range and subtlety of their extension manuvring4 ,conceive the urgency of engineers2 to the richer of whom more railway-making means more wealth2 to the mass of whom more railway-making means daily bread4 ,estimate the capitalist-power of contractors2 whose unemployed plant brings heavy loss2 whose plant when employed brings great gain4 ,then recollect that to lawyers1 engineers1 and contractors the getting up and executing of new undertakings is a business--a business to which every energy is directed2 in which many years of practice have given great skill2 and to the facilitation of which1 all means tolerated by men of the world are thought justifiable4 #hd ,finally1 consider that the classes interested in carrying out new schemes1 are in constant communication1 and have every facility for combined action4 ,a great part of them live in ,london1 and most of these have offices at ,westminster--in ,great ,george ,street1 in ,parliament ,street1 clustering round the ,legislature4 ,not only are they thus concentrated--not only are they throughout the year in frequent business intercourse2 but during the session they are daily together1 in ,palace-,yard ,hotels1 in the lobbies1 in the committee-rooms1 in the ,house of ,commons itself4 ,is it any wonder then1 that the wide-spread1 ill-informed unorganized body of shareholders1 standing severally alone1 and each pre-occupied with his private affairs1 should be continually out-generalled by the comparatively small but active1 skilful1 combined body opposed to them1 whose very occupation is at stake in gaining the victory8 8,but how about the directors80 it will perhaps be asked4 8,how can they be parties to these obviously unwise undertakings8 ,they are themselves shareholders2 they gain by whatever benefits the proprietary at large2 they lose by whatever injures it4 ,and if without their consent1 or rather their agency1 no new scheme can be adopted by the ,company1 the classes interested in fostering railway enterprise are powerless to do harm40 ,this belief in the identity of directorial and proprietary interests1 is the fatal error commonly made by shareholders4 ,it is this which1 in spite of bitter experiences1 leads them to be so careless and so trustful4 8,their profit is our profit2 their loss is our loss2 they know more than we do2 therefore let us leave the matter to them40 ,such is the argument which more or less definitely passes through the shareholding mind--an argument of which the premises are delusive1 and the inference disastrous4 ,let us consider it in detail4 ,not to dwell on the disclosures that have in years past #he been made respecting the share-trafficking of directors1 and the large profits realized by it--disclosures which alone suffice to disprove the assumed identity between the interests of board and proprietary--and taking for granted that little1 if any1 of this now takes place2 let us go on to notice the still-prevailing influences which render this apparent community of aims illusive4 ,the immediate interests which directors have in the prosperity of the ,company1 are often much less than is supposed4 ,occasionally they possess only the bare qualification of #ajjj worth of stock4 ,in some instances even this is partly nominal4 ,admitting1 however1 as we do frankly1 that in the great majority of cases the full qualification1 and much more than the qualification1 is held2 yet it must be borne in mind that the indirect advantages which a wealthy member of a board may gain from the prosecution of a new undertaking1 will often far outweigh the direct injury it will inflict on him by lowering the value of his shares4 ,a board usually consists1 to a considerable extent1 of gentlemen residing at different points throughout the tract of country traversed by the railway they control3 some of them landowners2 some merchants or manufacturers2 some owners of mines or shipping4 ,almost always some or all of them are advantaged by a new branch or feeder4 ,those in close proximity to it1 gain either by enhanced value of their lands1 or by increased facilities of transit for their commodities4 ,those at more remote parts of the main line1 though less directly interested1 are still frequently interested in some degree2 for every extension opens up new markets either for produce or raw materials2 and if it is one effecting a junction with some other system of railways1 the greater mercantile conveniences afforded to directors thus circumstanced1 become important4 ,obviously1 therefore1 the indirect profits accruing to such from one of these extensions1 may more than counterbalance the direct loss upon their railway investments2 #hf and though there are1 doubtless1 men too honourable to let such considerations sway them1 yet the generality can scarcely fail to be affected by temptations so strong4 ,then we have to remember the influences brought to bear upon directors having seats in ,parliament4 ,already these have been noticed2 and we recur to them only for the purpose of pointing out that the immediate evil of an increased discount on his #ajjj worth of stock1 may be to a director of much less consequence than the favours1 patronage1 connexions1 which his aid in carrying a new scheme will bring him4 ,so that here too the supposed identity of interests between directors and shareholders does not hold4 ,moreover1 this disunion of interests is increased by the system of preference-stock4 ,were there no other cause in action1 the raising of capital for supplementary undertakings1 by issuing shares bearing a guaranteed interest of #e1 #f1 and #g per cent41 would destroy that community of motives supposed to exist between a railway proprietary and its executive4 ,little as the fact is recognized1 it is yet readily demonstrable that by raising one of these mortgages1 a ,company is forthwith divided into two classes2 the one consisting of the richer shareholders1 inclusive of the directors1 and the other of the poorer shareholders2 of which classes the richer one can protect itself from the losses which the poorer one has to bear--nay1 can even profit by the losses of the poorer one4 ,this assertion1 startling as it will be to many1 we will proceed to prove4 ,when the capital required for a branch or extension is raised by means of guaranteed shares1 it is the custom to give each proprietor the option of taking up a number of such shares proportionate to the number of his original shares4 ,by availing himself of this offer1 he partially protects himself against any loss which the new undertaking may entail4 ,should this1 not fulfilling the promises of its advocates1 diminish in some degree the general #hg dividend2 yet1 a high dividend on the due proportion of preference-stock1 may nearly or quite compensate for this4 ,hence1 it becomes the policy of all who can do so1 to take up as many guaranteed shares as they can get4 ,but what happens when the circular announcing this apportionment of guaranteed shares is sent round8 ,those who possess much stock1 being generally capitalists1 accept as many as are allotted to them4 ,on the other hand1 the smaller holders1 constituting as they do the bulk of the ,company1 having no available funds with which to pay the calls on new shares1 are obliged to part with their letters of allotment4 ,what results8 ,when this additional line has been opened1 and it turns out1 as usual1 that its revenue is insufficient to meet the guaranteed dividend on its shares--when the general income of the ,company is laid under contribution to make up this guaranteed dividend--when as a consequence1 the dividend on the original stock is diminished2 then the poorer shareholders who possess original stock only1 find themselves losers2 while the richer ones1 possessing guaranteed shares in addition1 find that their gain on preference-dividends nearly or quite counterbalances their loss on general dividends4 ,indeed1 as above hinted1 the case is even worse4 ,for as the large share-proprietor who has obtained his proportion of guaranteed stock1 is not obliged to retain his original stock--as1 if he doubts the paying character of the new undertaking1 he can always sell such of his shares as will suffer from it2 it is obvious that he may1 if he pleases1 become the possessor of preference-shares only2 and may so obtain a handsome return for his money at the expense of the ,company at large and the small shareholders in particular4 ,how far this policy is pursued we do not pretend to say2 though the table given some pages back suggests extensive pursuit of it4 ,all which it here concerns us to notice1 is1 that directors1 being mostly men of large means1 and being therefore able to avail themselves of this guaranteed #hh stock1 are liable to be swayed by motives different from those of the general proprietary4 ,and that they often are so swayed there cannot be a doubt4 ,without assuming that any of them deliberately intend to benefit at the cost of their co-proprietors2 and believing1 as we do1 that few of them duly perceive that the protection they will have1 is a protection not available by the shareholders at large2 we think it is a rational deduction from common experience1 that this prospect of compensation often turns the scale in the minds of those who are hesitating1 and diminishes the opposition of those who disapprove4 ,thus1 the belief which leads most railway shareholders to place implicit faith in their directors1 is an erroneous one4 ,it is not true that there is an identity of interest between the proprietary and its executive4 ,it is not true that the board forms an efficient guard against the intrigues of lawyers1 engineers1 contractors1 and others who profit by railway-making4 ,contrariwise1 its members are not only liable to be drawn from their line of duty by various indirect motives1 but by the system of guaranteed shares they are placed under a positive temptation to betray their constituents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now what is the proximate origin of these corruptions8 and what is the remedy for them8 ,what error in railway legislation is it that has made possible such complicated chicaneries8 ,whence arises this facility with which interested persons thrust companies into unwise enterprises8 ,we believe there is a very simple answer to these questions4 ,it is an answer1 however1 which will at first sight seem quite irrelevant2 and we doubt not that the corollary we propose drawing from it1 will be forthwith condemned by so-called practical men4 ,nevertheless1 we are not without hope of showing1 both that the evils laboured under would be excluded were this corollary recognized1 and that recognition of it is not only feasible1 but would #hi even open the way out of sundry perplexities in which railway legislation is at present involved4 ,we conceive1 then1 that the fundamental vice of our system1 as hitherto carried out1 lies in the misinterpretation of the proprietary contract--the contract tacitly entered into between each shareholder and the body of shareholders with whom he unites2 and that the remedy for these evils which have now become so great1 lies simply in the enforcement of an equitable interpretation of this contract4 ,in reality the contract is a strictly limited one4 ,in practice it is treated as altogether unlimited4 ,and the thing needed is1 that it should be clearly defined and abided by4 ,our popular form of government has so habituated us to seeing public questions decided by the voice of the majority1 and the system is so manifestly equitable in the cases daily before us1 that there has been produced in the general mind1 an unhesitating belief that the majority's right is unbounded4 ,under whatever circumstances men co-operate1 it is held that if difference of opinion arises among them1 justice requires that the will of the greater number shall be executed rather than that of the smaller number2 be the question at issue what it may4 ,so confirmed is this conviction1 that to most this mere suggestion of a doubt will cause astonishment4 ,yet it needs but a brief analysis to show that the conviction is little better than a political superstition4 ,instances may readily be selected which prove1 by reductio ad absurdum1 that the right of a majority is a purely conditional right1 valid only within specific limits4 ,let us take a few4 ,suppose that at the general meeting of some philanthropic association1 it was resolved that in addition to relieving distress the association should employ home-missionaries to preach down popery4 ,might the subscriptions of ,catholics1 who had joined the body with charitable views1 be rightfully used for this end8 ,suppose that of the members of a book-club1 the greater number1 thinking #ij that under existing circumstances rifle-practice is more important than reading1 should decide to change the purpose of their union1 and to apply the funds in hand for the purchase of powder1 ball1 and targets4 ,would the rest be bound by this decision8 ,suppose that under the excitement of news from ,australia1 the majority of a ,freehold ,land ,society should determine1 not simply to start in a body for the gold diggings1 but to use their accumulated capital to provide outfits4 ,would this appropriation of property be just to the minority8 and must these join the expedition8 ,scarcely any one would venture an affirmative answer even to the first of these questions2 much less to the others4 ,and why8 ,because everyone must perceive that by joining with others1 no man can equitably be committed to acts utterly foreign to the purpose for which he joined them4 ,each of these supposed minorities would properly reply to those seeking to coerce them3--8,we combined with you for a defined object2 we gave money and time for the furtherance of that object2 on all questions thence arising1 we tacitly agreed to conform to the will of the greater number2 but we did not agree to conform on any other questions4 ,if you induce us to join you by professing a certain end1 and then undertake some other end of which we were not apprised1 you obtain our support under false pretences2 you exceed the expressed or understood compact to which we committed ourselves2 and we are no longer bound by your decisions40 ,clearly this is the only rational interpretation of the matter4 ,the general principle underlying the right government of every incorporated body1 is1 that its members contract with each other severally to submit to the will of the majority in all matters concerning the fulfilment of the objects for which they are incorporated2 but in no others4 ,to this extent only can the contract hold4 ,for as it is implied in the very nature of a contract1 that those entering into it must know what they contract to do2 and as those who unite with others for a specified object1 #ia cannot contemplate all the unspecified objects which it is hypothetically possible for the union to undertake2 it follows that the contract entered into cannot extend to such unspecified objects4 ,and if there exists no expressed or understood contract between the union and its members respecting unspecified objects1 then for the majority to coerce the minority into undertaking them1 is nothing less than gross tyranny4 ,now this almost self-evident principle is wholly ignored1 alike in our railway legislation and the proceedings of our companies4 ,definite as is the purpose with which the promoters of a public enterprise combine1 many other purposes not dreamed of at the outset are commonly added to it2 and this1 apparently1 without any suspicion that such a course is unwarrantable1 unless taken with the unanimous consent of the proprietors4 ,the unsuspecting shareholder who signed the subscription contract for a line from ,greatborough to ,grandport1 did so under the belief that this line would not only be a public benefit but a good investment4 ,he was familiar with the country4 ,he had been at some trouble to estimate the traffic4 ,and1 fully believing that he knew what he was embarking in1 he put down his name for a large amount4 ,the line has been made2 a few years of prosperity have justified his foresight2 when1 at some fatal special meeting1 a project is put before him for a branch from ,littlehomestead to ,stonyfield4 ,the will of the board and the intrigues of the interested1 overbear all opposition2 and in spite of the protests of many who like him see its impolicy1 he presently finds himself involved in an undertaking which1 when he joined the promoters of the original line1 he had not the remotest conception would ever be proposed4 ,from year to year this proceeding is repeated4 ,his dividends dwindle and his shares go down2 and eventually the congeries of enterprises to which he is committed1 grows so vast that the first enterprise of the series becomes but a small fraction of the whole4 ,yet it is in virtue of his #ib consent to this first of the series1 that all the rest are thrust upon him4 ,he feels that there is injustice somewhere2 but1 believing in the unlimited right of a majority1 fails to detect it4 ,he does not see that when the first of these extensions was proposed1 he should have denied the power of his brother-shareholders to implicate him in an undertaking not named in their deed of incorporation4 ,he should have told its proposers that they were perfectly free to form a separate ,company for the execution of it2 but that they could not rightfully compel dissentients to join in a new undertaking1 any more than they could rightfully have compelled dissentients to join in the original4 ,had such a shareholder united with others for the specified purpose of making railways1 he would have had no ground for protest4 ,but he united with others for the specified purpose of making a particular railway4 ,yet such is the confusion of ideas on the subject1 that there is absolutely no difference recognized between these cases6 ,it will doubtless be alleged in defence of all this1 that these secondary enterprises are supplementary to the original one--are in part undertaken for the furtherance of it2 professedly minister to its prosperity2 cannot1 therefore1 be regarded as altogether separate enterprises4 ,and it is true that they have this for their excuse4 ,but if it is a sufficient excuse for accessories of this kind1 it may be made a sufficient excuse for any accessories whatever4 ,already1 ,companies have carried the practice beyond the making of branches and extensions4 ,already1 under the plea of bringing traffic to their lines1 they have constructed docks2 bought lines of steam-packets2 built vast hotels2 deepened river-channels4 ,already1 they have created small towns for their workmen2 erected churches and schools2 salaried clergymen and teachers4 ,are these warranted on the ground of advancing the ,companies' interests8 ,then thousands of other undertakings are similarly warranted4 ,if a view to the development of traffic1 justifies the making #ic of a branch to some neighbouring coal-mines2 then1 should the coal-mines be inefficiently worked1 the same view would justify the purchase of them--would justify the ,company in becoming coal-miner and coal-seller4 ,if anticipated increase of goods and passengers is a sufficient reason for carrying a feeder into an agricultural district2 then1 it is a sufficient reason for organizing a system of coaches and waggons to run in connexion with this feeder2 for making the requisite horse-breeding establishments2 for hiring the needful farms2 for buying estates2 for becoming agriculturists4 ,if it be allowable to purchase steamers plying in conjunction with the railway2 it must be allowable to purchase merchant vessels to trade in conjunction with it2 it must be allowable to set up a yard for building such vessels2 it must be allowable to erect depts at foreign ports for the receipt of goods2 it must be allowable to employ commission agents for collecting such goods2 it must be allowable to extend a mercantile organization all over the world4 ,from making its own engines and carriages1 a ,company may readily progress to manufacturing its own iron and growing its own timber4 ,from giving its employs secular and religious instruction1 and providing houses for them1 it may go on to supply them with food1 clothing1 medical attendance1 and all the needs of life4 ,beginning simply as a corporation to make and work a railway between ,a and ,b2 it may become a miner1 manufacturer1 merchant1 shipowner1 canal-proprietor1 hotel-keeper1 landowner1 house-builder1 farmer1 retail-trader1 priest1 teacher--an organization of indefinite extent and complication4 ,there is no logical alternative between permitting this1 and strictly limiting the corporation to the object first agreed upon4 ,a man joining with others for a specific purpose1 must be held to commit himself to that purpose only2 or else to all purposes whatever which they may choose to undertake4 ,but proprietors dissenting from one of these supplementary projects are told that they have the option of #id selling out4 ,so might the dissentients from a new ,state-enforced creed be told1 that if they did not like it they might leave the country4 ,the one reply is little more satisfactory than the other would be4 ,the opposing shareholder sees himself in possession of a good investment--one perhaps which1 as an original subscriber1 he ran some risk in obtaining4 ,this investment is about to be endangered by an act not named in the deed of incorporation4 ,and his protests are met by saying1 that if he fears the danger he may part with his investment4 ,surely this choice between two evils scarcely meets his claims4 ,moreover1 he has not even this in any fair sense4 ,it is often an unfavourable time to sell4 ,the very rumour of one of these extensions frequently causes a depreciation of stock4 ,and if many of the minority throw their shares on the market1 this depreciation is greatly increased2 a fact which further hinders them from selling4 ,so that each is in a dilemma3 he has to part with a good investment at much less than its value2 or to run the risk of having its value greatly diminished4 ,the injustice thus inflicted on minorities is1 indeed1 already recognized in a vague way4 ,the recently-established ,standing ,order of the ,house of ,lords1 that before a ,company carry out any new undertaking1 three-fourths of the votes of the proprietors shall be recorded in its favour1 clearly implies a perception that the usual rule of the majority does not apply4 ,and again1 in the case of ,the ,great ,western ,railway ,company versus ,rushout1 the decision that the funds of the ,company could not be used for purposes not originally authorized1 without a special legislative permit1 involves the doctrine that the will of the greater number is not of unlimited validity4 ,in both these cases1 however1 it is taken for granted that a ,state-warrant can justify an act which without it would be unjustifiable4 ,we must take leave to question this4 ,if it be held that an ,act of ,parliament can make murder proper1 or can give rectitude to robbery2 it may be consistently held that it #ie can sanctify a breach of contract2 but not otherwise4 ,we are not about to enter upon the vexed question of the standard of right and wrong2 and to inquire whether it is the function of a government to make rules of conduct1 or simply to enforce rules deducible from the laws of social life4 ,we are content1 for the occasion1 to adopt the expediency-hypothesis2 and adopting it1 must yet contend that1 rightly interpreted1 it gives no countenance to this supposed power of a ,government to alter the limits of an equitable contract against the wishes of some of the contracting parties4 ,for1 as understood by its teachers and their chief disciples1 the doctrine of expediency is not a doctrine implying that each particular act is to be determined by the particular consequences that may be expected to flow from it2 but that the general consequences of entire classes of acts having been ascertained by induction from experience1 rules shall be framed for the regulation of such classes of acts1 and each rule shall be uniformly applied to every act coming under it4 ,our whole administration of justice proceeds on this principle of invariably enforcing an ordained course1 regardless of special results4 ,were immediate consequences to be considered1 the verdict gained by the rich creditor against the poor debtor would generally be reversed2 for the starvation of the last is a much greater evil than the inconvenience of the first4 ,most thefts arising from distress would go unpunished2 a large proportion of men's wills would be cancelled2 many of the wealthy would be dispossessed of their fortunes4 ,but it is clearly seen that were judges thus guided by proximate evils and benefits1 the ultimate result would be social confusion2 that what was immediately expedient would be ultimately inexpedient2 and hence the aim at rigorous uniformity1 spite of incidental hardships4 ,now1 the binding nature of agreements is one of the commonest and most important principles of civil law4 ,a large part of the causes daily heard in our courts1 involve the #if question1 whether in virtue of some expressed or understood contract1 some of those concerned are1 or are not1 bound to certain acts or certain payments4 ,and when it has been decided what the contract implies1 the matter is settled4 ,the contract itself is held sacred4 ,this sacredness of a contract being1 according to the expediency-hypothesis1 justified by the experience of all nations in all times that it is generally beneficial1 it is not competent for a ,legislature to declare that contracts are violable4 ,assuming that the contracts are themselves equitable1 there is no rational system of ethics which warrants the alteration or dissolving of them1 save by the consent of all concerned4 ,if then it be shown1 as we think it has been shown1 that the contract tacitly entered into by railway shareholders with each other1 has definite limits2 it is the function of the ,government to enforce1 and not to abolish1 those limits4 ,it cannot decline to enforce them without running counter1 not only to all theories of moral obligation1 but to its own judicial system4 ,it cannot abolish them without glaring self-stultification4 ,returning1 now1 to the manifold evils of which the cause was asked2 it only remains to point out that1 were the just construction of the proprietary contract insisted upon1 such evils would1 in great part1 be excluded4 ,the various illicit influences by which ,companies are daily betrayed into disastrous extensions1 would necessarily be inoperative when such extensions could not be undertaken by them4 ,when such extensions had to be undertaken by independent bodies of shareholders1 with no one to guarantee them good dividends1 those who are locally and professionally interested would find it a less easy matter than at present to aggrandize themselves at the expense of others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now as to the policy of thus modifying railway legislation--the commercial policy we mean4 ,leaving out of sight the more general social interests1 let us glance at #ig the effects on business interests--the proximate instead of the ultimate effects4 ,the implication contained in the last paragraph1 that the making of supplementary lines would no longer be so facile1 will be thought to prove the disadvantage of any such limit as the one advocated4 ,many will argue1 that to restrict ,companies to their original undertakings would fatally cripple railway enterprise4 ,many others will remark1 that1 however detrimental to shareholders this extension system may have been1 it has manifestly proved beneficial to the public4 ,both these positions seem to us more than questionable4 ,we will first look at the last of them4 ,even were travelling accommodation the sole thing to be considered1 it would not be true that prodigality in new lines has been advantageous4 ,the districts supplied have1 in many cases1 themselves been injured by it4 ,it is shown by the evidence given before the ,select ,committee on ,railway and ,canal ,bills1 that in ,lancashire1 the existence of competing lines has1 in some cases1 both diminished the facilities of communication and increased the cost4 ,it is further shown by this evidence1 that a town obtaining branches from two antagonist ,companies1 by-and-by1 in consequence of a working arrangement between these ,companies1 comes to be worse off than if it had but one branch2 and ,hastings is quoted as an example4 ,it is again shown that a district may be wholly deprived of railway accommodation by granting a superfluity of lines2 as in the case of ,wilts and ,dorset4 ,in #ahdd-e1 the ,great ,western and the ,south ,western ,companies projected rival systems of lines1 supplying these and parts of the adjacent counties4 ,the ,board of ,trade1 8asserting that there was not sufficient traffic to remunerate an outlay for two independent railways10 reported in favour of the ,great ,western schemes2 and bills were granted for them3 a certain agreement1 suggested by the ,board of ,trade1 being at the same time made with the ,south ,western1 which1 in #ih return for specified advantages1 conceded this district to its rival4 ,notwithstanding this agreement1 the ,south ,western1 in #ahdg1 projected an extension calculated to take most of the traffic from the ,great ,western extensions2 and in #ahdh1 ,parliament1 though it had virtually suggested this agreement1 and though the ,great ,western ,company had already spent a million and a half in part execution of the new lines1 authorized the ,south ,western project4 ,the result was1 that the ,great ,western ,company suspended their works2 the ,south ,western ,company were unable1 from financial difficulties1 to proceed with theirs2 the district has remained for years unaccommodated2 and only since the powers granted to the ,south ,western have expired from delay1 has the ,great ,western recommenced its long-suspended undertakings4 ,and if this undue multiplication of supplementary lines has often directly decreased the facilities of communication1 still more has it done this indirectly1 by maintaining the cost of travelling on the main lines4 ,little as the public are conscious of the fact1 it is nevertheless true1 that they pay for the accommodation of unremunerative districts1 by high fares in remunerative districts4 ,before this reckless branch-making commenced1 #h and #i per cent4 were the dividends returned by our chief railways2 and these dividends were rapidly increasing4 ,the maximum dividend allowed by their ,acts is #aj per cent4 ,had there not been unprofitable extensions1 this maximum would have been reached many years since2 and in the absence of the power to undertake new works1 the fact that it had been reached could not have been hidden4 ,lower rates for goods and passengers would necessarily have followed4 ,these would have caused much additional traffic2 and with the aid of the natural increase otherwise going on1 the maximum would shortly again have been reached4 ,there can scarcely be a doubt that repetitions of this process would1 before now1 have reduced the fares and #ii freights on our main lines by at least one-third4 ,this reduction1 be it remembered1 would have affected those railways which subserve commercial and social intercourse in the greatest degree--would1 therefore1 have applied to the most important part of the traffic throughout the kingdom4 ,as it is1 however1 this greater proportion of the traffic has been heavily taxed for the benefit of the smaller proportion4 ,that the tens who travel on branches might have railway communication1 the hundreds who travel along main lines have been charged #cj1 or #dj per cent4 extra4 ,nay1 worse3 that these few might be accommodated1 the many who would have been brought on to the main lines by lower fares have gone unaccommodated4 ,is it then so clear that undertakings which have been disastrous to shareholders have yet been beneficial to the public8 ,but it is not only in greater cost of transit that the evil has been felt2 it has been felt also in diminished safety4 ,the multiplication of railway accidents1 which has of late years drawn so much attention1 has been in no inconsiderable degree caused by the extension policy4 ,the relation is not obvious2 and we had ourselves no conception that such a relation existed1 until the facts illustrative of it were furnished to us by a director who had witnessed the whole process of causation4 ,when preference-share dividends and guarantees began to make large draughts upon half-yearly returns--when original stock was greatly depreciated1 and the dividends upon it fell from #i and #h per cent4 to #d #a_/b and #d and #c #a_/b1 great dissatisfaction necessarily arose among shareholders4 ,there were stormy meetings1 motions of censure1 and committees of investigation4 ,retrenchment was the general cry2 and retrenchment was carried to a most imprudent extent4 ,directors with an indignant proprietary to face1 and under the fear that their next dividend would be no greater1 perhaps less1 than the last1 dared not to lay out money for the needful repairs4 #ajj ,permanent way1 reported to them as requiring to be replaced1 was made to serve awhile longer4 ,old rolling stock was not superseded by new to the proper extent2 nor increased in proportion to the demand4 ,committees1 appointed to examine where the expenditure could be cut down1 went round discharging a porter here1 dispensing with a clerk there1 and diminishing the salaries of the officials in general4 ,to such a length was this policy carried1 that in one case1 to effect a saving of #abjj per annum1 the working staff was so crippled as to cause1 in the course of a few years1 a loss of probably #ajj1jjj3 such1 at least1 is the opinion of the gentleman on whose authority we make this statement1 who was himself one of the retrenchment committee4 ,what1 now1 was the necessary result of all this8 ,with the line out of condition2 with engines and carriages neither sufficient in number nor in the best working order2 with drivers1 guards1 porters1 clerks1 and the rest1 decreased to the smallest number with which it was possible to work2 with inexperienced managers in place of the experienced ones driven away by reduced salaries2 what was likely to occur8 ,was it not certain that an apparatus of means just competent to deal with the ordinary traffic1 would be incompetent to deal with extraordinary traffic8 that a decimated body of officials under inferior regulation1 would fail in the emergencies sure from time to time to occur8 that with way and works and rolling stock all below par1 there would occasionally be a concurrence of small defects1 permitting something to go wrong8 ,was not a multiplication of accidents inevitable8 ,no one can doubt it4 ,and if we trace back this result step by step to its original cause--the reckless expenditure on new lines--we shall see further reason to doubt whether such expenditure has been as advantageous to the public as is supposed4 ,we shall hesitate to indorse the opinion of the ,select ,committee on ,railway and ,canal ,bills1 that it is #aja desirable 8to increase the facility for obtaining lines of local convenience40 ,still more doubtful becomes the alleged benefit accruing to the public from extensions which cause loss to shareholders1 when1 from considering the question as one of traffic1 we turn to consider it as a general commercial question--a question of political economy4 ,were there no facts showing that the travelling facilities gained were counterbalanced1 if not more than counterbalanced1 by the travelling facilities lost2 we should still contend that the making of branches which do not return fair dividends1 is a national evil1 and not a national good4 ,the prevalent error committed in studying matters of this nature1 consists in looking at them separately1 rather than in connexion with other social wants and social benefits4 ,not only does one of these undertakings1 when executed1 affect society in various ways1 but the effort put forth in the execution of it affects society in various ways2 and to form a true estimate1 the two sets of results must be compared4 ,the axiom that 8action and re-action are equal1 and in opposite directions10 is true1 not only in mechanics--it is true everywhere4 ,no power can be put forth by a nation to achieve a given end1 without producing1 for the time being1 a corresponding inability to achieve some other end4 ,no amount of capital can be abstracted for one purpose1 without involving an equivalent lack of capital for another purpose4 ,every advantage wrought out by labour1 is purchased by the relinquishment of some alternative advantage which that labour might else have wrought out4 ,in judging1 therefore1 of the benefits flowing from any public undertaking1 it is requisite to consider them not by themselves1 but as compared with the benefits which the invested capital would otherwise have secured4 ,but how can these relative benefits be measured8 it may be asked4 ,very simply4 ,the rate of interest which the capital will bring as thus respectively #ajb employed1 is the measure4 ,money which1 if used for a certain end1 gives a smaller return than it would give if otherwise used1 is used disadvantageously1 not only to its possessors1 but to the community4 ,this is a corollary from the commonest principles of political economy--a corollary so obvious that we can scarcely understand how1 after the free-trade controversy1 a committee1 numbering among its members ,mr4 ,bright and ,mr4 ,cardwell1 should have overlooked it4 ,have we not been long ago taught1 that in the mercantile world capital goes where it is most wanted--that the business which is at any time attracting capital by unusually high returns1 is a business proved by that very fact to be unusually active--that its unusual activity shows society to be making great demands upon it2 giving it high profits2 wanting its commodities or services more than other commodities or services8 ,do not comparisons among our railways demonstrate that those paying large dividends are those subserving the public needs in a greater degree than those paying small dividends8 and is it not obvious that the efforts of capitalists to get these large dividends led them to supply the greater needs before the lesser needs8 ,surely1 the same law which holds in ordinary commerce1 and also holds between one railway investment and another1 holds likewise between railway investments and other investments4 ,if the money spent in making branches and feeders is yielding an average return of from #a to #b per cent42 while if employed in land-draining or ship-building1 it would return #d or #e per cent42 it is a conclusive proof that money is more wanted for land-draining and ship-building than for branch-making4 ,and the general conclusions to be drawn are1 that that large proportion of railway capital which does not pay the current rate of interest1 is capital ill laid out2 that if the returns on such proportion were capitalized at the current rate of interest1 the resulting sum would represent its real value2 and that #ajc the difference between this sum and the amount expended1 would indicate the national loss--a loss which1 on the lowest estimate1 would exceed #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,and however true it may be that the sum invested in unprofitable lines will go on increasing in productiveness2 yet as1 if more wisely invested1 it would similarly have gone on increasing in productiveness1 perhaps even at a greater rate1 this vast loss must be regarded as a permanent and not as a temporary one4 ,again then1 we ask1 is it so obvious that undertakings which have been disastrous to shareholders have been advantageous to the public8 ,is it not obvious1 rather1 that1 in this respect1 as in others1 the interests of shareholders and the public are in the end identical8 ,and does it not seem that instead of recommending 8increased facilities for obtaining lines of local convenience10 the ,select ,committee might properly have reported that the existing facilities are abnormally great1 and should be decreased8 ,there remains still to be considered the other of the two objections above stated as liable to be raised against the proposed interpretation of the proprietary contract--the objection1 namely1 that it would be a serious hindrance to railway enterprise4 ,after what has already been said1 it is scarcely needful to reply1 that the hindrance would be no greater than is natural and healthful--no greater than is requisite to hold in check the private interests at variance with public ones4 ,this notion that railway enterprise will not go on with due activity without artificial incentives--that bills for local extensions 8rather need encouragement10 as the ,committee say1 is nothing but a remnant of protectionism4 ,the motive which has hitherto led to the formation of all independent railway companies--the search of capitalists for good investments--may safely be left to form others as fast as local requirements become great enough to promise fair returns--as fast1 that is1 as local requirements #ajd should be satisfied4 ,this would be manifest enough without illustration2 but there are facts proving it4 ,already we have incidentally referred to the circumstance1 that it has of late become common for landowners1 merchants1 and others locally interested1 to get up railways for their own accommodation1 which they do not expect to pay satisfactory dividends2 and in which they are yet content to invest considerable sums1 under the belief that the indirect profits accruing to them from increased facilities of traffic1 will outbalance the direct loss4 ,to so great an extent is this policy being carried that1 as stated to the ,select ,committee1 8in ,yorkshire and ,northumberland1 where branch lines are being made through mere agricultural districts1 the landowners are giving their land for the purpose1 and taking shares40 ,with such examples before us1 it cannot rationally be doubted that there will always be capital forthcoming for making local lines as soon as the sum of the calculated benefits1 direct and indirect1 justifies its expenditure4 8,but10 it will be urged1 8a branch that would be unremunerative as an independent property1 is often remunerative to the company which has made it1 in virtue of the traffic it brings to the trunk line4 ,though yielding meagre returns on its own capital1 yet1 by increasing the returns on the capital of the trunk line1 it compensates1 or more than compensates4 ,were the existing company1 however1 forbidden to extend its undertaking1 such a branch would not be made2 and injury would result40 ,this is all true1 with the exception of the last assertion1 that such a branch would not be made4 ,though in its corporate capacity the company owning the trunk line would be unable to execute a work of this nature1 there would be nothing to prevent individual shareholders in the trunk line from uniting to execute it2 and were the prospects as favourable as is assumed1 this course1 being manifestly advantageous to individual shareholders1 would be pursued by many of them4 ,if1 acting in concert with others similarly #aje circumstanced1 the owner of #aj1jjj worth of stock in the trunk line1 could aid the carrying out of a proposed feeder promising to return only #b per cent4 on its cost1 by taking shares to the extent of #ajjj1 it would answer his purpose to do this1 providing the extra traffic it brought would raise the trunk-line dividend by one-fourth per cent4 ,thus1 under a limited proprietary contract1 companies would still1 as now1 foster extensions where they were wanted3 the only difference being that1 in the absence of guaranteed dividends1 due caution would be shown2 and the poorer shareholders would not1 as at present1 be sacrificed to the richer4 ,in brief1 our position is1 that whenever1 by the efforts of all parties to be advantaged--local landowners1 manufacturers1 merchants1 trunk-line shareholders1 c41 the capital for an extension can be raised--whenever it becomes clear to all such1 that their indirect profits plus their direct profits will make the investment a paying one2 the fact is proof that the line is wanted4 ,on the contrary1 whenever the prospective gains to those interested are insufficient to induce them to undertake it1 the fact is proof that the line is not wanted so much as other things are wanted1 and therefore ought not to be made4 ,instead1 then1 of the principle we advocate being objectionable as a check to railway enterprise1 one of its merits is1 that by destroying the artificial incentives to such enterprise1 it would confine it within normal limits4 ,a perusal of the evidence given before the ,select ,committee will show that it has sundry other merits1 which we have space only to indicate4 ,it is estimated by ,mr4 ,laing--and ,mr4 ,stephenson1 while declining to commit himself to the estimate1 8does not believe he has overstated it10--that out of the #bhj1jjj1jjj already raised for the construction of our railways1 #gj1jjj1jjj has been needlessly spent in contests1 in duplicate lines1 in 8the multiplication of an immense number of schemes prosecuted at an almost reckless #ajf expense20 and ,mr4 ,stephenson believes that this sum is 8a very inadequate representative of the actual loss in point of convenience1 economy1 and other circumstances connected with traffic1 which the public has sustained by reason of parliamentary carelessness in legislating for railways40 ,under an equitable interpretation of the proprietary contract1 the greater part of this would have been avoided4 ,the competition between rival companies in extension and branch-making1 which has already done vast injury1 and the effects of which1 if not stopped1 will1 in the opinion of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 be such that 8property now paying #e #a_/b per cent4 will in ten years be worth only #c per cent41 and that on twenty-one millions of money0--this competition could never have existed in its intense and deleterious form under the limiting principle we advocate4 ,prompted by jealousy and antagonism1 our companies have obtained powers for #bjjj miles of railway which they have never made4 ,the millions thus squandered in surveys and parliamentary contests--8food for lawyers and engineers0--would nearly all have been saved1 had each supplementary line been obtainable only by an independent body of proprietors with no one to shield them from the penalties of reckless scheming4 ,it is admitted that the branches and feeders constructed from competitive motives have not been laid out in the best directions for the public4 ,to defeat1 or retaliate upon1 opponents1 having been one of the ends--often the chief end--in making them1 routes have been chosen especially calculated to effect this end2 and the local traffic has in consequence been ill provided for4 ,had these branches and feeders1 however1 been left to the enterprise of their respective districts1 aided by such other enterprise as they could attract1 the reverse would have been the fact2 seeing that on the average1 in these smaller cases as in the greater ones1 the routes which most accommodate the public must be the routes most profitable to projectors4 ,were the illegitimate competition in extension-making #ajg done away1 there would remain between companies just that normal competition which is advantageous to all4 ,it is not true1 as is alleged1 that there cannot exist between railways a competition analogous to that which exists between traders4 ,the evidence of ,mr4 ,saunders1 the secretary of the ,great ,western ,company1 proves the contrary4 ,he shows that where the ,great ,western and the ,north ,western railways communicate with the same towns1 as at ,birmingham and ,oxford1 each has tacitly adopted the fare which the other was charging2 and that while there is thus no competition in fares1 there is competition in speed and accommodation4 ,the results are1 that each takes that portion of the traffic which1 in virtue of its position and local circumstances1 naturally falls to its share2 that each stimulates the other to give the greatest advantages it can afford2 and that each keeps the other in order by threatening to take away its natural share of the traffic if1 by ill-behaviour or inefficiency1 it counterbalances the special advantages it offers4 ,now1 this is just the form which competition eventually assumes between traders4 ,after it has been ascertained by underselling what is the lowest remunerative price at which any commodity can be sold1 the general results are1 that that becomes the established price2 that each trader is content to supply those only who1 from proximity or other causes1 naturally come to him2 and that only when he treats his customers ill1 need he fear that they will inconvenience themselves by going elsewhere for their goods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is there not1 then1 pressing need for an amendment of the laws affecting the proprietary contract--an amendment which shall transform it from an unlimited into a limited contract2 or rather--not transform it into such1 but recognize it as such8 ,if there be truth in our argument1 the absence of any limitation has been the chief cause of the manifold evils of our railway administration4 ,the share-trafficking #ajh of directors2 the complicated intrigues of lawyers1 engineers1 contractors1 and others2 the betrayal of proprietaries--all the complicated corruptions which we have detailed1 have primarily arisen from it1 have been made possible by it4 ,it has rendered travelling more costly and less safe than it would have been2 and while apparently facilitating traffic1 has indirectly hindered it4 ,by fostering antagonism1 it has led to the ill laying-out of supplementary lines2 to the wasting of enormous sums in useless parliamentary contests2 to the loss of an almost incredible amount of national capital in the making of railways for which there is no due requirement4 ,regarded in the mass1 the investments of shareholders have been reduced by it to less than half the average productiveness which such investments should possess2 and1 as all authorities admit1 railway property is1 even now1 kept below its real value1 by the fear of future depreciations consequent on future extensions4 ,considering1 then1 the vastness of the interests at stake--considering that the total capital of our companies will soon reach #cjj1jjj1jjj--;considering1 on the one hand1 the immense number of persons owning this capital 7many of them with no incomes but what are derived from it71 and1 on the other hand1 the great extent to which the community is concerned1 both directly as to its commercial facilities1 and indirectly as to the economy of its resources--considering all this1 it becomes extremely important that railway property should be placed on a secure footing1 and railway enterprise confined within normal bounds4 ,the change is demanded alike for the welfare of shareholders and the public4 ,no charge of over-legislation can be brought against it4 ,it is simply an extension to joint-stock contracts1 of the principle applied to all other contracts2 it is merely a fulfilment of the ,state's judicial function in cases hitherto neglected2 it is nothing but a better administration of justice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,that the proprietary contract should be #aji strictly adhered to1 and no undertakings beyond those specified in the deed of incorporation entered upon1 is a doctrine unpalatable to those in authority4 ,a friend who1 as chairman of one of our great railway-companies1 has been familiar with railway-politics and parliamentary usages in connexion with them1 contends that such a restrictive interpretation would be unworkable2 and1 further1 that the legislature would never allow itself to be shackled in the implied way4 ,that he is right in the last of these assertions ,i think highly probable4 ,in face of the currently accepted dogma that an ,act of ,parliament can do anything1 it is foolish to expect that ,parliament would1 by ethical considerations1 be restrained from breaking contracts and authorizing the breaking of contracts4 ,when we see this dogma habitually acted upon to the extent of trampling under foot ,state-guarantees 7as in the case of those who purchased land under the ,irish ,encumbered ,estates ,act1 or as in the case of agreements originally entered into with companies to confer on them certain powers under certain conditions7 it would be absurd to suppose that any tender regard for the claims of dissentient proprietors would deter the ruling body from cancelling the understanding under which shareholders consented to co-operate4 ,men must be much more conscientious than they are before any such check is likely to be effective4 ,to the other objection--that such a restriction would entail an unworkable complication--,i entirely demur4 ,that its consequences would be awkward under our present form of railway-administration may be true2 but it is also true that had such a restriction been insisted on1 another and better form of railway-administration would have arisen4 ,this will probably be thought an unwarranted assertion4 ,nevertheless ,i make it with some confidence1 since the form of administration to which ,i refer is one which was1 in a different guise1 contemplated when railways #aaj were originally authorized4 ,to those whose only conception of the mode of carrying on railway-traffic is that derived from their daily observations1 this will be an incomprehensible statement2 but those who remember how railways were originally intended to be used will know what ,i mean4 ,novel schemes are always more or less shaped by old habits4 ,at the time when the first railways were authorized1 the experience men had of coach-travelling on high roads1 affected in various ways the structures of the new appliances and the natures of the new arrangements4 ,the railway gauge was determined by the width between the wheels of a stage-coach4 ,early first-class carriages were made to appear like the central parts of three stage-coaches joined together3 preserving their convex panels and curved outlines1 and frequently having1 on the centre one1 the words 8,tria juncta in uno40 ,the inside of the first-class carriage was fitted up to resemble the inside of a stage-coach2 and the original second-class carriage1 having bare wooden seats over which1 on vertical iron rods1 was supported a roof allowing the wind and rain to blow through from side to side1 was so designed as to be scarcely more comfortable than the outside of a coach4 ,for some years the guard had a seat on the outside1 at the end of a carriage1 as on a coach2 and for many years the luggage1 covered with tarpaulin1 was placed on the roofs of carriages1 as on the outsides of coaches4 ,once more the booking-offices were at first like the booking-offices for stage-coaches--places where passengers entered their names to secure seats4 ,little as the fact is now recognized1 this kinship of ideas extended to the contemplated arrangements for working4 ,men thought that traffic on railways might be carried on after the same manner as traffic on high roads4 ,it was assumed that on lines of rails1 where the passing of vehicles going in the same direction is impracticable1 the system pursued might be like that in use on high roads1 #aaa where vehicles can pass and re-pass in any direction and join or leave the stream at will4 ,does the reader ask proof of this8 ,the proof lies in the fact1 well-known to those who were adult in the early days of railways1 that in the office or waiting-room of every railway-station was fixed up a table of tolls1 like that which was fixed up at every toll-gate2 but in this case specifying the rate chargeable per mile for all things carried--passengers1 horses1 cattle1 goods1 c4 ,this table of tolls implied that it was within the power of others besides the company to run vehicles on the company's line1 and pay them at such and such rates for the privilege of doing so--a privilege which1 so far as ,i know1 was never made use of1 for the sufficient reason that it would have been impossible to carry on business amid the confusion which would have resulted4 ,but while this arrangement1 in the form implied1 would have been impracticable1 it foreshadows an arrangement which would have been practicable2 and one which would have grown up had each railway company been limited to the undertaking specified in its deed of incorporation4 ,after experience of inefficient co-operation1 when so many independent bodies owning branches and extensions had to adjust their train services1 c41 there would1 in all probability1 have been formed what we may call running-companies or traffic-companies1 separate from the original railway-companies4 ,each one of these would have proposed to the companies owning the various main lines1 extensions1 and branches1 within some large district conveniently delimited1 to undertake the working of their various lines3 either taking them severally on lease1 or agreeing to give a specified share of the net returns annually received1 or agreeing to pay certain tolls for passengers and goods4 ,under such an arrangement the original companies1 standing in the position of landlords1 would have had for their chief business to keep the embankments1 cuttings1 bridges1 permanent way1 stations1 c41 in working #aab order2 while the running-companies1 standing in the position of tenants1 but owning the rolling-stock1 would have had for their business to conduct the passenger and goods traffic throughout the whole area1 with power to arrange the workings of the various subdivisions of the system in a harmonious manner4 ,clearly1 if there is an advantage in division of labour in other cases1 there would have been an advantage in this case4 ,the fixed works constituting each of these inter-connected railways would have been kept in more perfect repair1 had preservation of them been the exclusive business of the companies owning them2 while the running-companies1 with nothing to attend to beyond the keeping in order of their rolling-stock and the management of train-services c4 would have done this more satisfactorily4 ,a further reason for believing that better results would have been achieved than are now achieved1 is that under such circumstances there would have been no absorption of directors' time in carrying on railway-wars and getting new acts of parliament--a business which1 under the existing system1 has chiefly occupied the attention of boards4 ,the enforcement of equitable arrangements is often fraught with unanticipated benefits2 and there seems reason to think that unanticipated benefits would have resulted in this case also4 #aac ,,the ,,morals ,,of ,,trade4 ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,april #ahei4 ,we are not about to repeat1 under the above title1 the often-told tale of adulterations3 albeit1 were it our object to deal with this familiar topic1 there are not wanting fresh materials4 ,it is rather the less-observed and less-known dishonesties of trade1 to which we would here draw attention4 ,the same lack of conscientiousness which shows itself in the mixing of starch with cocoa1 in the dilution of butter with lard1 in the colouring of confectionery with chromate of lead and arsenite of copper1 must of course come out in more concealed forms2 and these are nearly1 if not quite1 as numerous and as mischievous4 ,it is not true1 as many suppose1 that only the lower classes of the commercial world are guilty of fraudulent dealing4 ,those above them are to a great extent blameworthy4 ,on the average1 men who deal in bales and tons differ but little in morality from men who deal in yards and pounds4 ,illicit practices of every form and shade1 from venial deception up to all but direct theft1 may be brought home to the higher grades of our commercial world4 ,tricks innumerable1 lies acted or uttered1 elaborately-devised frauds1 are prevalent3 #aad many of them established as 8customs of the trade20 nay1 not only established1 but defended4 ,passing over1 then1 the much-reprobated shopkeepers1 of whose delinquencies most people know something1 let us turn our attention to the delinquencies of the classes above them in the mercantile scale4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the business of wholesale houses--in the clothing-trades at least--is chiefly managed by a class of men called 8buyers40 ,each wholesale establishment is usually divided into several departments2 and at the head of each department is placed one of these functionaries4 ,a buyer is a partially-independent sub-trader4 ,at the beginning of the year he is debited with a certain share of the capital of his employers4 ,with this capital he trades4 ,from the makers he orders for his department such goods as he thinks will find a market2 and for the goods thus bought he obtains as large a sale as he can among the retailers of his connexion4 ,the accounts show at the end of the year what profit has been made on the capital over which he has command2 and1 according to the result1 his engagement is continued--perhaps at an increased salary--or he is discharged4 ,under such circumstances1 bribery would hardly be expected4 ,yet we learn1 on unquestionable authority1 that buyers habitually bribe and are bribed4 ,giving presents1 as a means of obtaining custom1 is an established practice between them and all with whom they have dealings4 ,their connexions among retailers they extend by treating and favours2 and they are themselves influenced in their purchases by like means4 ,it might be presumed that self-interest would in both cases negative this4 ,but apparently1 no very obvious sacrifice results from yielding to such influences4 ,when1 as usually happens1 there are many manufacturers producing articles of like goodness at the same prices1 or many buyers between whose commodities and whose terms there is little room for choice1 there exists no #aae motive to purchase of one rather than another2 and then the temptation to take some immediate bonus turns the scale4 ,whatever be the cause1 however1 the fact is testified to us alike in ,london and the provinces4 ,by manufacturers1 buyers are sumptuously entertained for days together1 and are plied throughout the year with hampers of game1 turkeys1 dozens of wine1 etc43 nay1 they receive actual money-bribes2 sometimes1 as we hear from a manufacturer1 in the shape of bank-notes1 but more commonly in the shape of discounts on the amounts of their purchases4 ,the extreme prevalence--universality we might say--of this system1 is proved by the evidence of one who1 disgusted as he is1 finds himself inextricably entangled in it4 ,he confessed to us that all his transactions were thus tainted4 8,each of the buyers with whom ,i deal10 he said1 8expects an occasional bonus in one form or other4 ,some require the bribe to be wrapped up2 and some take it without disguise4 ,to an offer of money1 this one replies--#8,oh1 ,i don't like that sort of thing1' but nevertheless1 does not object to money's-worth2 while my friend ,so-and-so1 who promises to bring me a large trade this season1 will1 ,i very well know1 look for one per cent4 discount in cash4 ,the thing is not to be avoided4 ,i could name sundry buyers who look askance at me1 and never will inspect my goods2 and ,i have no doubt about the cause--,i have not bought their patronage40 ,and then our informant appealed to another of the trade1 who agreed in the assertion that in ,london their business could not be done on any other terms4 ,so greedy do some of these buyers become1 that their perquisites absorb a great part of the profits1 and make it a question whether it is worth while to continue the dealing with them4 ,next1 as above hinted1 there comes a like history of transactions between buyers and retailers--the bribed being now the bribers4 ,one of those above referred to as habitually expecting douceurs1 said to the giver of them1 whose testimony we have just repeated--8,i've spent pounds and pounds over #aaf 7naming a large tailor71 and now ,i think ,i have gained him over40 ,to which confession this buyer added the complaint1 that his house did not make him any allowance for sums thus disbursed4 ,under the buyer1 who has absolute control of his own department in a wholesale house1 come sundry assistants1 who transact the business with retail traders2 much as retail trader's assistants transact the business with the general public4 ,these higher-class assistants1 working under the same pressure as the lower1 are similarly unscrupulous4 ,liable to prompt dismissal as they are for failure in selling2 gaining higher positions as they do in proportion to the quantities of goods they dispose of at profitable rates2 and finding that no objections are made to any dishonest artifices they use1 but rather that they are applauded for them2 these young men display a scarcely credible demoralization4 ,as we learn from those who have been of them1 their duplicity is unceasing--they speak almost continuous falsehood2 and their tricks range from the simplest to the most ,machiavellian4 ,take a few samples4 ,when dealing with a retailer1 it is an habitual practice to bear in mind the character of his business2 and to delude him respecting articles of which he has least experience4 ,if his shop is in a neighbourhood where the sales are chiefly of inferior goods 7a fact ascertained from the traveller71 it is inferred that1 having a comparatively small demand for superior goods1 he is a bad judge of them2 and advantage is taken of his ignorance4 ,again1 it is usual purposely to present samples of cloths1 silks1 etc41 in such order as to disqualify the perceptions4 ,as1 when tasting different foods or wines1 the palate is disabled by something strongly flavoured1 from appreciating the more delicate flavour of another thing afterwards taken2 so with the other organs of sense1 a temporary disability follows an excessive stimulation4 ,this holds not only with the eyes in judging of colours1 but also1 as we are told by one who has been in the trade1 it holds with the fingers in judging of textures2 and cunning #aag salesmen are in the habit of thus partially paralysing the customers' perceptions1 and then selling second-rate articles as first-rate ones4 ,another common manuvre is that of raising a false belief of cheapness4 ,suppose a tailor is laying in a stock of broad cloths4 ,he is offered a bargain4 ,three pieces are put before him--two of good quality1 at1 perhaps1 #ads4 per yard2 and one of much inferior quality1 at #hs4 per yard4 ,these pieces have been purposely a little tumbled and creased1 to give an apparent reason for a pretended sacrifice upon them4 ,and the tailor is then told that he may have these nominally-damaged cloths as 8a job lot10 at #abs4 per yard4 ,misled by the appearances into a belief of the professed sacrifice2 impressed1 moreover1 by the fact that two of the pieces are really worth considerably more than the price asked2 and not sufficiently bearing in mind that the great inferiority of the third just balances this2 the tailor probably buys2 and he goes away with the comfortable conviction that he has made a specially-advantageous purchase1 when he has really paid the full price for every yard4 ,a still more subtle trick has been described to us by one who himself made use of it1 when engaged in one of these wholesale-houses--a trick so successful that he was often sent for to sell to customers who could be induced to buy by none other of the assistants1 and who ever afterwards would buy only of him4 ,his policy was to seem extremely simple and honest1 and1 during the first few purchases1 to exhibit his honesty by pointing out defects in the things he was selling2 and then1 having gained the customer's confidence1 he proceeded to pass off upon him inferior goods at superior prices4 ,these are a few out of the various manuvres in constant practice4 ,of course there is a running accompaniment of falsehoods1 uttered as well as acted4 ,it is expected of the assistant that he will say whatever is needed to effect a sale4 8,any fool can sell what is wanted10 said a master in reproaching a shopman for not having persuaded a customer to buy something quite unlike that which he asked #aah for4 ,and the unscrupulous mendacity thus required by employers1 and encouraged by example1 grows to a height of depravity that has been described to us in words too strong to be repeated4 ,our informant was obliged to relinquish his position in one of these establishments1 because he could not lower himself to the required depth of degradation4 8,you don't lie as though you believe what you say10 observed one of his fellow-assistants4 ,and this was uttered as a reproach6 ,as those subordinates who have fewest qualms of conscience are those who succeed the best1 are soonest promoted to more remunerative posts1 and have therefore the greatest chances of establishing businesses of their own2 it may be inferred that the morality of the heads of these establishments1 is much on a par with that of their employs4 ,the habitual malpractices of wholesale houses1 confirm this inference4 ,not only1 as we have just seen1 are assistants under a pressure impelling them to deceive purchasers respecting the qualities of the goods they buy1 but purchasers are also deceived in respect to the quantities2 and that1 not by an occasional unauthorized trick1 but by an organized system1 for which the firm itself is responsible4 ,the general practice is to make up goods1 or to have them made up1 in lengths that are shorter than they profess to be4 ,a piece of calico nominally thirty-six yards long1 never measures more than thirty-one yards--is understood throughout the trade to measure only so much4 ,and the long-accumulating delinquencies which this custom indicates--the successive diminutions of length1 each introduced by some adept in dishonesty1 and then imitated by his competitors--are now being daily carried to a still greater extent1 wherever they are not likely to be immediately detected4 ,articles that are sold in small bundles1 knots1 packets1 or such forms as negative measurement at the time of sale1 are habitually deficient in quantity4 ,silk-laces called six quarters1 or fifty-four #aai inches1 really measure four quarters1 or thirty-six inches4 ,tapes were originally sold in grosses containing twelve knots of twelve yards each2 but these twelve-yard-knots are now cut of all lengths1 from eight yards down to five yards1 and even less--the usual length being six yards4 ,that is to say1 the #add yards which the gross once contained1 has now in some cases dwindled down to #fj yards4 ,in widths1 as well as in lengths1 this deception is practised4 ,french cotton-braid1 for instance 7,french only in name71 is made of different widths2 which are respectively marked #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 etc43 each figure indicating the number of threads of cotton which the width includes1 or rather should include1 but does not4 ,for those which should be marked #e are marked #g2 and those which should be marked #g are marked #i3 out of three samples from different houses shown to us by our informant1 only one contained the alleged number of threads4 ,fringe1 again1 which is sold wrapped on card1 will often be found two inches wide at the end exposed to view1 but will diminish to one inch at the end next the card2 or perhaps the first twenty yards will be good1 and all the rest1 hidden under it1 will be bad4 ,these frauds are committed unblushingly1 and as a matter of business4 ,we have ourselves read in an agent's order-book1 the details of an order1 specifying the actual lengths of which the articles were to be cut1 and the much greater lengths to be marked on the labels4 ,and we have been told by a manufacturer who was required to make up tapes into lengths of fifteen yards1 and label them 8warranted #ah yards10 that when he did not label them falsely1 his goods were sent back to him2 and that the greatest concession he could obtain was to be allowed to send them without labels4 ,it is not to be supposed that in their dealings with manufacturers1 these wholesale-houses adopt a code of morals differing much from that which regulates their dealings with retailers4 ,the facts prove it to be much the #abj same4 ,a buyer for instance 7who exclusively conducts the purchases of a wholesale-house from manufacturers7 will not unfrequently take from a first-class maker1 a small supply of some new fabric1 on the pattern of which much time and money have been spent2 and this new-pattern fabric he will put into the hands of another maker1 to have copied in large quantities4 ,some buyers1 again1 give their orders orally1 that they may have the opportunity of afterwards repudiating them if they wish2 and in a case narrated to us1 where a manufacturer who had been thus deluded1 wished on a subsequent occasion to guarantee himself by obtaining the buyer's signature to his order1 he was refused it4 ,for other unjust acts of wholesale-houses1 the heads of these establishments are1 we presume1 responsible4 ,small manufacturers working with insufficient capital1 and in times of depression not having the wherewith to meet their engagements1 are often obliged to become dependants on the wholesale-houses with which they deal2 and are then cruelly taken advantage of4 ,one who has thus committed himself1 has either to sell his accumulated stock at a great sacrifice--thirty to forty per cent4 below its value--or else to mortgage it2 and when the wholesale-house becomes the mortgagee1 the manufacturer has little chance of escape4 ,he is obliged to work at the wholesale-dealer's terms2 and ruin almost certainly follows4 ,this is especially the case in the silk-hosiery business4 ,as was said to us by one of the larger silk-hosiers1 who had watched the destruction of many of his smaller brethren--8,they may be spared for a time as a cat spares a mouse2 but they are sure to be eaten up in the end40 ,and we can the more readily credit this statement from having found that a like policy is pursued by some provincial curriers in their dealings with small shoe-makers2 and also by hop-merchants and maltsters in their dealings with small publicans4 ,we read that in ,hindostan the ryots1 when crops fall short1 borrow from the ,jews to buy seed2 and #aba once in their clutches are doomed4 ,it seems that our commercial world can furnish parallels4 ,of another class of wholesale-traders--those who supply grocers with foreign and colonial produce--we may say that though1 in consequence of the nature of their business1 their malpractices are less numerous and multiform1 as well as less glaring1 they bear the same stamp as the foregoing4 ,unless it is to be supposed that sugar and spices are moral antiseptics as well as physical ones1 it must be expected that wholesale dealers in them will transgress much as other wholesale dealers do1 in those directions where the facilities are greatest4 ,and the truth is that1 both in the qualities and quantities of the articles they sell1 they take advantage of the retailers4 ,the descriptions they give of their commodities are habitually misrepresentations4 ,samples sent round to their customers are characterized as first-rate when they are really second-rate4 ,the travellers are expected to endorse these untrue statements2 and unless the grocer has adequate keenness and extensive knowledge1 he is more or less deceived4 ,in some cases1 indeed1 no skill will save him4 ,there are frauds that have grown up little by little into customs of the trade1 which the retailer must submit to4 ,in the purchase of sugar1 for example1 he is imposed on in respect alike of the goodness and the weight4 ,the history of the dishonesty is this4 ,originally the tare allowed by the merchant on each hogshead1 was #ad per cent4 of the gross weight4 ,the actual weight of the wood of which the hogshead was made1 was at that time about #ab per cent4 of the gross weight4 ,and thus the trade-allowance left a profit of #b per cent4 to the buyer4 ,gradually1 however1 the hogshead has grown thicker and heavier2 until now1 instead of amounting to #ab per cent4 of the gross weight1 it amounts to #ag per cent4 ,as the allowance of #ad per cent4 still continues1 the result is that the retail grocer loses #c per cent43 to the extent of #c per cent4 he buys wood #abb in place of sugar4 ,in the quality of the sugar1 he is deluded by the practice of giving him a sample from the best part of the hogshead4 ,during its voyage from ,jamaica or elsewhere1 the contents of a hogshead undergo a slow drainage4 ,the molasses1 of which more or less is always present1 filters from the uppermost part of the mass of sugar to the lowermost part2 and this lowermost part1 technically known as the 8foots10 is of darker colour and smaller value4 ,the quantity of it contained in a hogshead varies greatly2 and the retailer1 receiving a false sample1 has to guess what the quantity of 8foots0 may be2 and1 to his cost1 often under-estimates it4 ,as will be seen from the following letter1 copied from the ,public ,ledger for the #bjth ,oct41 #aheh1 these grievances1 more severe even than we have represented them1 are now exciting an agitation4 8,to the ,retail ,grocers of the ,united ,kingdom4 8,gentlemen1--,the time has arrived for the trade at once to make a move for the revision of tares on all raw sugars4 ,facts prove the evil of the present system to be greatly on the increase4 ,we submit a case as under1 and only one out of twenty4 ,on the #cjth ,august1 #aheh1 we bought #c hogsheads of ,barbados1 mark ,,tg ,k ,invoice ,tares4 ,re ,tares4 ,no4 cwt4 qrs4 lb4 lb4 ,no4 cwt4 qrs4 lb4 #a #a #b #ad #f drft4 #a #a #c #bg #g #a #b #g #g #a #c #bj #c #a #b #ba #c #a #c #bg #d #c #bj #e #c #ah ,deduct #d #c #bj s4 s4 d4 #j #c #bf at #db -- #b #a #c 8,we make a claim for #b4 #as4 #c;d42 we are told by the wholesale grocer there is no redress4 8,there is another evil which the retail grocer has to contend with1 that is1 the mode of sampling raw sugars3 the foots are excluded from the merchants' samples4 ,facts will prove that in thousands of hogsheads of ,barbados this season there is an average of #e cwt4 of foots in each2 we have turned out some with #aj cwt41 which are at least #es4 per cwt4 less value than sample1 and in these cases we are told again there is no redress4 8,these two causes are bringing hundreds of hard-working men to ruin #abc and will bring hundreds more unless the trade take it up1 and we implore them to unite in obtaining so important a revision4 8,we are1 ,gentlemen1 your obedient servants1 8,,walker and ,,staines4#f 8,birmingham1 ,october #ai1 #aheh40 #f ,the abuses described in this letter have now1 we believe1 been abolished4 ,a more subtle method of imposition remains to be added4 ,it is the practice of sugar-refiners to put moist1 crushed sugar into dried casks4 ,during the time that elapses before one of these casks is opened by the retailer1 the desiccated wood has taken up the excess of water from the sugar2 which is thus brought again into good condition4 ,when the retailer1 finding that the cask weighs much more than was allowed as tare by the wholesale dealer1 complains to him of this excess1 the reply is--8,send it up to us1 and we will dry it and weigh it1 as is the custom of the trade40 ,without further detailing these malpractices1 of which the above examples are perhaps the worst1 we will advert only to one other point in the transactions of these large houses--the drawing-up of trade-circulars4 ,it is the habit of many wholesale dealers to send round to their customers1 periodic accounts of the past transactions1 present condition1 and prospects of the markets4 ,serving as checks on each other1 as they do1 these documents are prevented from swerving very widely from the truth4 ,but it is scarcely to be expected that they should be quite honest4 ,those who issue them1 being in most cases interested in the prices of the commodities referred to in their circulars1 are swayed by their interests in the representations they make respecting the probabilities of the future4 ,far-seeing retailers are on their guard against this4 ,a large provincial grocer1 who thoroughly understands his business1 said to us--8,as a rule1 ,i throw trade-circulars on the fire40 ,and that this estimate of their trustworthiness is not unwarranted1 we gather from the expressions of those engaged in other businesses4 ,from two leather-dealers1 one in the country and one in ,london1 we have heard the same complaint #abd against the circulars published by houses in their trade1 that they are misleading4 ,not that they state untruths2 but that they produce false impressions by leaving out facts which they should have stated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in illustrating the morality of manufacturers1 we shall confine ourselves to one class--those who work in silk4 ,and it will be the most convenient method of arranging facts1 to follow the silk through its various stages2 from its state when imported1 to its state when ready for the wearer4 ,bundles of raw silk from abroad--not uncommonly weighted with rubbish1 stones1 or rouleaux of ,chinese copper coin1 to the loss of the buyer--are disposed of by auction4 ,purchases are made on behalf of the silk-dealers by 8sworn brokers20 and the regulation is1 that these sworn brokers shall confine themselves to their functions as agents4 ,from a silk-manufacturer1 however1 we learn that they are currently understood to be themselves speculators in silk1 either directly or by proxy2 and that as thus personally interested in prices1 they become faulty as agents4 ,we give this1 however1 simply as a prevailing opinion1 for the truth of which we do not vouch4 ,the silk bought by the ,london dealer1 he sends into the manufacturing districts to be 8thrown20 that is1 to be made into thread fit for weaving4 ,in the established form of bargain between the silk-dealer and the silk-throwster1 we have a strange instance of an organized and recognized deception2 which has seemingly grown out of a check on a previous deception4 ,the throwing of silk is necessarily accompanied by some waste1 from broken ends1 knots1 and fibres too weak to wind4 ,this waste varies in different kinds of silk from #c per cent4 to #bj per cent43 the average being about #e per cent4 ,the per-centage of waste being thus variable1 it is obvious that in the absence of restraint1 a dishonest silk-throwster might abstract a portion of the silk2 and1 on returning the rest to the dealer1 might plead #abe that the great diminution in weight had resulted from the large amount of loss in the process of throwing4 ,hence there has arisen a system1 called 8working on cost10 which requires the throwster to send back to the dealer the same weight of silk which he receives3 the meaning of the phrase being1 we presume1 that whatever waste the throwster makes must be at his own cost4 ,now1 as it is impossible to throw silk without some waste--at least #c per cent41 and ordinarily #e per cent4--this arrangement necessitates a deception2 if1 indeed1 that can be called a deception which is tacitly understood by all concerned4 ,the silk has to be weighted4 ,as much as is lost in throwing1 has to be made up by some foreign substance introduced4 ,soap is largely used for this4 ,in small quantity1 soap is requisite to facilitate the running of the threads in the process of manufacture2 and the quantity is readily increased4 ,sugar also is used4 ,and by one means or other1 the threads are made to absorb enough matter to produce the desired weight4 ,to this system all silk-throwsters are obliged to succumb2 and some of them carry it to a great extent1 as a means of hiding either carelessness or something worse4 ,the next stage through which silk passes1 is that of dyeing4 ,here1 too1 impositions have grown chronic and general4 ,in times past1 as we learn from a ribbon-manufacturer1 the weighting by water was the chief dishonesty4 ,bundles returned from the dyer's1 if not manifestly damp1 still1 containing moisture enough to make up for a portion of the silk that had been kept back2 and precautions had to be taken to escape losses thus entailed4 ,since then1 however1 there has arisen a method of deception which leaves this far behind--that of employing heavy dyes4 ,the following details have been given us by a silk-throwster4 ,it is now1 he says1 some five-and-thirty years since this method was commenced4 ,before that time silk lost a considerable part of its weight in the copper4 ,the ultimate fibre of silk is coated1 in issuing from the spinneret of the silk-worm1 with #abf a film of varnish which is soluble in boiling water4 ,in dyeing1 therefore1 this film1 amounting to #be per cent4 of the entire weight of the silk1 is dissolved off2 and the silk is rendered that much lighter4 ,so that originally1 for every sixteen ounces of silk sent to the dyer's1 only twelve ounces were returned4 ,gradually1 however1 by the use of heavy dyes1 this result has been reversed4 ,the silk now gains in weight2 and sometimes to a scarcely credible extent4 ,according to the requirement1 silk is sent back from the dyer's of any weight1 from twelve ounces to the pound up to forty ounces to the pound4 ,the original pound of silk1 instead of losing four ounces1 as it naturally would1 is actually1 when certain black dyes are used1 made to gain as much as twenty-four ounces6 ,instead of #be per cent4 lighter1 it is returned #aej per cent4 heavier--is weighted with #age per cent4 of foreign matter6 ,now as1 during this stage of its manufacture1 the transactions in silk are carried on by weight1 it is manifest that in the introduction and development of this system1 we have a long history of frauds4 ,at present all in the trade are aware of it1 and on their guard against it4 ,like other modes of adulteration1 in becoming established and universal1 it has ceased to be profitable to any one4 ,but it still serves to indicate the morals of those concerned4 ,the thrown and dyed silk passes into the hands of the weaver2 and here again we come upon dishonesties4 ,manufacturers of figured silks sin against their fellows by stealing their patterns4 ,the laws which have been found necessary to prevent this species of piracy1 show that it has been carried to a great extent4 ,even now it is not prevented4 ,one who has himself suffered from it1 tells us that manufacturers still get one another's designs by bribing the workmen4 ,in their dealings with 8buyers10 too1 some manufacturers resort to deceptions3 perhaps tempted to do so by the desire to compensate themselves for the heavy tax paid in treating1 etc4 ,goods which have already been seen #abg and declined by other buyers1 are brought before a subsequent one with artfully-devised appearances of secrecy1 accompanied by professions that these goods have been specially reserved for his inspection3 a manuvre by which an unwary man is sometimes betrayed4 ,that the process of production has its delusions1 scarcely needs saying4 ,in the ribbon-trade1 for example1 there is a practice called 8top-ending20 that is1 making the first three yards good1 and the rest 7which is covered when rolled up7 of bad or loose texture--#hj 8shutes0 to the inch instead of #ajh4 ,and then there comes the issuing of imitations made of inferior materials--textile adulterations as we may call them4 ,this practice of debasement1 not an occasional but an established one1 is carried to a surprising extent1 and with surprising rapidity4 ,some new fabric1 first sold at #gs4 #f;d4 per yard1 is supplanted by successive counterfeits2 until at the end of eighteen months a semblance of it is selling at #ds4 #c;d4 per yard4 ,nay1 still greater depreciations of quality and price take place--from #ajs4 down to #cs41 and even #bs4 per yard4 ,until at length the badness of these spurious fabrics becomes so conspicuous1 that they are unsaleable2 and there ensues a reaction1 ending either in the reintroduction of the original fabric1 or in the production of some novelty to supply its place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among our notes of malpractices in trade1 retail1 wholesale1 and manufacturing1 we have many others that must be passed over4 ,we cannot here enlarge on the not uncommon trick of using false trade-marks2 or of imitating another maker's wrappers4 ,we must be satisfied with simply referring to the doings of apparently-reputable houses1 which purchase goods known to be dishonestly obtained4 ,and we are obliged to refrain from particularizing certain established arrangements1 existing under cover of the highest respectability1 which seem intended to facilitate these nefarious transactions4 ,the frauds we have detailed #abh are but samples of a state of things which it would take a volume to describe in full4 ,the further instances of trading-immorality which it seems desirable here to give1 are those which carry with them a certain excuse3 showing as they do how insensibly1 and almost irresistibly1 men are thrust into vicious practices4 ,always1 no doubt1 some utterly unconscientious trader is the first to introduce a new form of fraud4 ,he is by-and-by followed by others who wear their moral codes but loosely4 ,the more upright traders are continually tempted to adopt this questionable device which those around them are adopting4 ,the greater the number who yield1 and the more familiar the device becomes1 the more difficult is it for the remainder to stand out against it4 ,the pressure of competition upon them becomes more and more severe4 ,they have to fight an unequal battle3 debarred as they are from one of the sources of profit which their antagonists possess4 ,and they are finally almost compelled to follow the lead of the rest4 ,take for example what has happened in the candle-trade4 ,as all know1 the commoner kinds of candles are sold in bunches1 supposed to weigh a pound each4 ,originally1 the nominal weight corresponded with the real weight4 ,but at present the weight is habitually short by an amount varying from half an ounce to two ounces--is sometimes depreciated #ab #a_/b per cent4 ,if1 now1 an honest chandler offers to supply a retailer at1 say1 six shillings for the dozen pounds1 the answer he receives is--8,oh1 we get them for five-and-eightpence40 8,but mine10 replies the chandler1 8are of full weight2 while those you buy at five-and-eightpence are not40 8,what does that matter to me80 the retailer rejoins--8a pound of candles is a pound of candles3 my customers buy them in the bunch1 and won't know the difference between yours and another's40 ,and the honest chandler1 being everywhere met with this argument1 finds that he must either make his bunches of short weight1 or give up business4 ,take another case1 which1 #abi like the last1 we have direct from the mouth of one who has been obliged to succumb4 ,it is that of a manufacturer of elastic webbing1 now extensively used in making boots1 etc4 ,from a ,london house with which he dealt largely1 this manufacturer recently received a sample of webbing produced by some one else1 accompanied by the question1 8,can you make us this at ------ per yard80 7naming a price below that at which he had before supplied them72 and hinting that if he could not do so they must go elsewhere4 ,on pulling to pieces the sample 7which he showed to us71 this manufacturer found that sundry of the threads which should have been of silk were of cotton4 ,indicating this fact to those who sent him the sample1 he replied that1 if he made a like substitution1 he could furnish the fabric at the price named2 and the result was that he eventually did thus furnish it4 ,he saw that if he did not do so1 he must lose a considerable share of his trade4 ,he saw further1 that if he did not at once yield1 he would have to yield in the end2 for that other elastic-webbing-makers would one after another engage to produce this adulterated fabric at correspondingly diminished prices2 and that when at length he stood alone in selling an apparently-similar article at a higher price1 his business would leave him4 ,this manufacturer we have the best reasons for knowing to be a man of fine moral nature1 both generous and upright2 and yet we here see him obliged1 in a sense1 to implicate himself in one of these processes of vitiation4 ,it is a startling assertion1 but it is none the less a true one1 that those who resist these corruptions often do it at the risk of bankruptcy2 sometimes the certainty of bankruptcy4 ,we do not say this simply as a manifest inference from the conditions1 as above described4 ,we say it on the warrant of instances which have been given to us4 ,from one brought up in his house1 we have had the history of a draper who1 carrying his conscience into his shop1 refused to commit the current frauds of the trade4 ,he would not represent his #acj goods as of better quality than they really were2 he would not say that patterns were just out1 when they had been issued the previous season2 he would not warrant to wash well1 colours which he knew to be fugitive4 ,refraining from these and the like malpractices of his competitors2 and1 as a consequence1 daily failing to sell various articles which his competitors would have sold by force of lying2 his business was so unremunerative that he twice became bankrupt4 ,and in the opinion of our informant1 he inflicted more evil upon others by his bankruptcies1 than he would have done by committing the usual trade-dishonesties4 ,see1 then1 how complicated the question becomes2 and how difficult to estimate the trader's criminality4 ,often--generally indeed--he has to choose between two wrongs4 ,he has tried to carry on his business with strict integrity4 ,he has sold none but genuine articles1 and has given full measure4 ,others in the same business adulterate or otherwise delude1 and are so able to undersell him4 ,his customers1 not adequately appreciating the superiority in the quality or quantity of his goods1 and attracted by the apparent cheapness at other shops1 desert him4 ,inspection of his books proves the alarming fact that his diminishing returns will soon be insufficient to meet his engagements1 and provide for his increasing family4 ,what then must he do8 ,must he continue his present course2 stop payment2 inflict heavy losses on his creditors2 and1 with his wife and children1 turn out into the streets8 ,or must he follow the example of his competitors2 use their artifices2 and give his customers the same apparent advantages8 ,the last not only seems the least detrimental to himself1 but also may be considered the least detrimental to others4 ,moreover1 the like is done by men regarded as respectable4 ,why should he ruin himself and family in trying to be better than his neighbours8 ,he will do as they do4 ,such is the position of the trader2 such is the reasoning by which he justifies himself2 and it is hard to visit him #aca with harsh condemnation4 ,of course this statement of the case is by no means universally true4 ,there are businesses in which1 competition being less active1 the excuse for falling into corrupt practices does not hold2 and here1 indeed1 we find corrupt practices much less prevalent4 ,many traders1 too1 have obtained connexions which secure to them adequate returns without descending to small rogueries2 and they have no defence if they thus degrade themselves4 ,moreover1 there are the men--commonly not prompted by necessity but by greed--who introduce these adulterations and petty frauds2 and on these should descend unmitigated indignation3 both as being themselves criminals without excuse1 and as causing criminality in others4 ,leaving out1 however1 these comparatively small classes1 most traders by whom the commoner businesses are carried on1 must receive a much more qualified censure than they at first sight seem to deserve4 ,on all sides we have met with the same conviction1 that for those engaged in the ordinary trades there are but two courses--either to adopt the practices of their competitors1 or to give up business4 ,men in different occupations and in different places--men naturally conscientious1 who manifestly chafed under the degradations they submitted to1 have one and all expressed to us the sad belief that it is impossible to carry on trade with strict rectitude4 ,their concurrent opinion1 independently given by each1 is that the scrupulously honest man must go to the wall4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but that it has been1 during the past year1 frequently treated by the daily press1 we might here enter at some length on the topic of banking-delinquencies4 ,as it is1 we may presume all to be familiar with the facts1 and shall limit ourselves to making a few comments4 ,in the opinion of one whose means of judging have been second to those of few1 the directors of joint-stock-banks have rarely been guilty of direct dishonesty4 ,admitting #acb notorious exceptions1 the general fact appears to be that directors have had no immediate interests in furthering these speculations which have proved so ruinous to depositors and shareholders2 but have usually been among the greatest sufferers4 ,their fault has rather been the less flagitious1 though still grave fault1 of indifference to their responsibilities4 ,often with very inadequate knowledge they have undertaken to trade with property belonging in great part to needy people4 ,instead of using as much care in the investment of this property as though it were their own1 many of them have shown culpable recklessness3 either themselves loaning the entrusted capital without adequate guarantee1 or else passively allowing their colleagues to do this4 ,sundry excuses may doubtless be made for them4 ,the well-known defects of a corporate conscience1 caused by divided responsibility1 must be remembered in mitigation4 ,and it may also be pleaded for such delinquents that if shareholders1 swayed by reverence for mere wealth and position1 choose as directors1 not the most intelligent1 the most experienced1 and those of longest-tried probity1 but those of largest capital or highest rank1 the blame must not be cast solely on the men so chosen1 but must be shared by the men who choose them4 ,nay1 further1 it must fall on the public as well as on shareholders2 seeing that this unwise selection of directors is in part determined by the known bias of depositors4 ,but after all allowances have been made1 it must be admitted that these bank-administrators who risk the property of their clients by lending it to speculators1 are near akin in morality to the speculators themselves4 ,as these speculators risk other men's money in undertakings which they hope will be profitable2 so do the directors who lend them the money4 ,if these last plead that the money thus lent is lent with the belief that it will be repaid with good interest1 the first may similarly plead that they expect their investment to return the borrowed capital along with a #acc handsome profit4 ,in each case the transaction is one of which the evil consequences1 if they come1 fall more largely on others than on the actors4 ,and though it may be contended1 on behalf of the director1 that what he does is done chiefly for the benefit of his constituents1 whereas the speculator has in view only his own benefit2 it may be replied that the director's blameworthiness is not the less because he took a rash step with a comparatively weak motive4 ,the truth is that when a bank-director lends the capital of shareholders to those to whom he would not lend his own capital1 he is guilty of a breach of trust4 ,in tracing the gradations of crime1 we pass from direct robbery to robbery one1 two1 three1 or more degrees removed4 ,though a man who speculates with other people's money is not chargeable with direct robbery1 he is chargeable with robbery one degree removed3 he deliberately stakes his neighbour's property1 intending to appropriate the gain1 if any1 and to let his neighbour suffer the loss1 if any3 his crime is that of contingent robbery4 ,and hence any one who1 standing like a bank-director in the position of trustee1 puts the money with which he is entrusted into a speculator's hands1 must be called an accessory to contingent robbery4 ,if so grave a condemnation is to be passed on those who lend trust-money to speculators1 as well as on the speculators who borrow it1 what shall we say of the still more delinquent class who obtain loans by fraud--who not only pawn other men's property when obtained1 but obtain it under false pretences8 ,for how else than thus must we describe the doings of those who raise money by accommodation-bills8 ,when ,a and ,b agree1 the one to draw and the other to accept a bill of #ajjj for 8value received20 while in truth there has been no sale of goods between them1 or no value received2 the transaction is not simply an embodied lie1 but it becomes thereafter a living and active lie4 ,whoever discounts the bill1 does so in the #acd belief that ,b1 having become possessed of #ajjj worth of goods1 will1 when the bill falls due1 have either the #ajjj worth of goods or some equivalent1 with which to meet it4 ,did he know that there were no such goods in the hands of either ,a or ,b1 and no other property available for liquidating the bill1 he would not discount it--he would not lend money to a man of straw without security4 ,had ,a taken to the bank a forged mortgage-deed1 and obtained a loan upon it1 he would not have committed a greater wrong4 ,practically1 an accommodation-bill is a forgery4 ,it is an error to suppose that forgery is limited to the production of documents that are physically false--that contain signatures or other symbols which are not what they appear to be3 forgery1 properly understood1 equally includes the production of documents that are morally false4 ,what constitutes the crime committed in forging a bank-note8 ,not the mere mechanical imitation4 ,this is but a means to the end2 and1 taken alone1 is no crime at all4 ,the crime consists in deluding others into the acceptance of what seems to be a representative of so much money1 but which actually represents nothing4 ,it matters not whether the delusion is effected by copying the forms of the letters and figures1 as in a forged bank-note1 or by copying the form of expression1 as in an accommodation-bill4 ,in either case a semblance of value is given to that which has no value2 and it is in giving this false appearance of value that the crime consists4 ,it is true that generally1 the acceptor of an accommodation-bill hopes to be able to meet it when due4 ,but if those who think this exonerates him1 will remember the many cases in which1 by the use of forged documents1 men have obtained possession of moneys which they hoped presently to replace1 and were nevertheless judged guilty of forgery1 they will see that the plea is insufficient4 ,we contend1 then1 that the manufacturers of accommodation-bills should be classed as forgers4 ,that if the law so classed them1 much good would result1 we are #ace not prepared to say4 ,several questions present themselves3--,whether such a change would cause inconvenience1 by negativing the many harmless transactions carried on under this fictitious form by solvent men8 ,whether making it penal to use the words 8value received10 unless there had been value received1 would not simply originate an additional class of bills in which these words were omitted8 ,whether it would be an advantage if bills bore on their faces proofs that they did or did not represent actual sales8 ,whether a restraint on undue credit would result1 when bankers and discounters saw that certain bills coming to them in the names of speculative or unsubstantial traders1 were avowed accommodation-bills8 ,but these are questions we need not go out of our way to discuss4 ,we are here concerned only with the morality of the question4 ,duly to estimate the greatness of the evils indicated1 however1 we must bear in mind both that the fraudulent transactions thus entered into are numerous1 and that each generally becomes the cause of others4 ,the original lie is commonly the parent of further lies1 which again give rise to an increasing progeny2 and so on for successive generations1 multiplying as they descend4 ,when ,a and ,b find their #ajjj bill about to fall due1 and the expected proceeds of their speculation not forthcoming--when they find1 as they often do1 either that the investment has resulted in a loss instead of a gain2 or that the time for realizing their hoped-for profits1 has not yet come2 or that the profits1 if there are any1 do not cover the extravagances of living which1 in the meantime1 they have sanguinely indulged in--when1 in short1 they find that the bill cannot be taken up2 they resort to the expedient of manufacturing other bills with which to liquidate the first4 ,and while they are about it1 they usually think it will be as well to raise a somewhat larger sum than is required to meet their outstanding engagements4 ,unless it happens that great success enables #acf them to redeem themselves1 this proceeding is repeated1 and again repeated4 ,so long as there is no monetary crisis1 it continues easy thus to keep afloat2 and1 indeed1 the appearance of prosperity which is given by an extended circulation of bills in their names1 bearing respectable indorsements1 creates a confidence in them which renders the obtainment of credit easier than at first4 ,and where1 as in some cases1 this process is carried to the extent of employing men in different towns throughout the kingdom1 and even in distant parts of the world1 to accept bills1 the appearances are still better kept up1 and the bubble reaches a still greater development4 ,as1 however1 all these transactions are carried on with borrowed capital1 on which interest has to be paid2 as1 further1 the maintenance of this organized fraud entails constant expenses1 as well as occasional sacrifices2 and as it is in the very nature of the system to generate reckless speculation2 the fabric of lies is almost certain ultimately to fall2 and1 in falling1 to ruin or embarrass others besides those who had given credit4 ,nor does the evil end with the direct penalties from time to time inflicted on honest traders4 ,there is also a grave indirect penalty which they suffer from the system4 ,these forgers of credit are habitually instrumental in lowering prices below their natural level4 ,to meet emergencies1 they are obliged every now and then to sell goods at a loss3 the alternative being immediate stoppage4 ,though with each such concern1 this is but an occasional incident1 yet1 taking the whole number of them connected with any one business1 it results that there are generally some who are making sacrifices--generally some who are unnaturally depressing the market4 ,in short1 the capital fraudulently obtained from some traders is1 in part1 dissipated in rendering the business of other traders deficiently remunerative3 often to their serious embarrassment4 ,if1 however1 the whole truth must be said1 the condemnation visited on these commercial vampires is not to be #acg confined to them2 but is in some degree deserved by a much more numerous class4 ,between the penniless schemer who obtains the use of capital by false pretences1 and the upright trader who never contracts greater liabilities than his estate will liquidate1 there lie all gradations4 ,from businesses carried on entirely with other people's capital1 obtained by forgery1 we pass to businesses in which there is a real capital of one-tenth and a credit-capital of nine-tenths2 to other businesses in which the ratio of real to fictitious capital is somewhat greater2 and so on until we reach the very extensive class of men who trade but a little beyond their means4 ,to get more credit than would be given were the state of the business known1 is in all cases the aim2 and the cases in which this credit is partially unwarranted1 differ only in degree from those in which it is wholly unwarranted4 ,as most are beginning to see1 the prevalence of this indirect dishonesty has not a little to do with our commercial disasters4 ,speaking broadly1 the tendency is for every trader to hypothecate the capital of other traders1 as well as his own4 ,and when ,a has borrowed on the strength of ,b's credit2 ,b on the strength of ,c's2 and ,c on the strength of ,a's--when1 throughout the trading world1 each has made engagements which he can meet only by direct or indirect aid--when everybody is wanting help from some one else to save him from falling2 a crash is certain4 ,the punishment of a general unconscientiousness may be postponed1 but it is sure to come eventually4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the average commercial morality cannot1 of course1 be accurately depicted in so brief a space4 ,on the one hand1 we have been able to give but a few typical instances of the malpractices by which trade is disgraced4 ,on the other hand1 we have been obliged to present these alone2 unqualified by the large amount of honest dealing throughout which they are dispersed4 ,while1 by accumulating such evidences1 the indictment may be made heavier2 by diluting them #ach with the immense mass of equitable transactions daily carried on1 the verdict would be mitigated4 ,after making every allowance1 however1 we fear that the state of things is very bad4 ,our impression on this point is due less to the particular facts above given1 than to the general opinion expressed by our informants4 ,on all sides we have found the result of long personal experience1 to be the conviction that trade is essentially corrupt4 ,in tones of disgust or discouragement1 reprehension or derision1 according to their several natures1 men in business have one after another expressed or implied this belief4 ,omitting the highest mercantile classes1 a few of the less common trades1 and those exceptional cases where an entire command of the market has been obtained1 the uniform testimony of competent judges is1 that success is incompatible with strict integrity4 ,to live in the commercial world it appears necessary to adopt its ethical code3 neither exceeding nor falling short of it--neither being less honest nor more honest4 ,those who sink below its standard are expelled2 while those who rise above it are either pulled down to it or ruined4 ,as1 in self-defence1 the civilized man becomes savage among savages2 so1 it seems that in self-defence1 the scrupulous trader is obliged to become as little scrupulous as his competitors4 ,it has been said that the law of the animal creation is--8,eat and be eaten20 and of our trading community it may similarly be said that its law is--,cheat and be cheated4 ,a system of keen competition1 carried on1 as it is1 without adequate moral restraint1 is very much a system of commercial cannibalism4 ,its alternatives are--,use the same weapons as your antagonists or be conquered and devoured4 ,of questions suggested by these facts1 one of the most obvious is--,are not the prejudices which have ever been entertained against trade and traders1 thus fully justified8 do not these meannesses and dishonesties1 and the moral degradation they imply1 warrant the disrespect shown to men in business8 ,a prompt affirmative answer will #aci probably be looked for2 but we very much doubt whether it should be given4 ,we are rather of opinion that these delinquencies are products of the average character placed under special conditions4 ,there is no reason for assuming that the trading classes are intrinsically worse than other classes4 ,men taken at random from higher and lower ranks1 would1 most likely1 if similarly circumstanced1 do much the same4 ,indeed the mercantile world might readily recriminate4 ,is it a solicitor who comments on their misdoings8 ,they may quickly silence him by referring to the countless dark stains on the reputation of his fraternity4 ,is it a barrister8 ,his frequent practice of putting in pleas which he knows are not valid1 and his established habit of taking fees for work he does not perform1 make his criticism somewhat suicidal4 ,does the condemnation come through the press8 ,the condemned may remind those who write1 of the fact that it is not quite honest to utter a positive verdict on a book merely glanced through1 or to pen glowing eulogies on the mediocre work of a friend while slighting the good one of an enemy2 and they may further ask whether those who1 at the dictation of an employer1 write what they disbelieve1 are not guilty of the serious offence of adulterating public opinion4 ,moreover1 traders might contend that many of their delinquencies are thrust on them by the injustice of their customers4 ,they1 and especially drapers1 might point to the fact that the habitual demand for an abatement of price1 is made in utter disregard of their reasonable profits2 and that1 to protect themselves against attempts to gain by their loss1 they are obliged to name prices greater than those they intend to take4 ,they might also urge that the straits to which they are often brought by non-payment of large sums due from their wealthier customers1 is itself a cause of their malpractices3 obliging them1 as it does1 to use all means1 illegitimate as well as legitimate1 for getting the wherewith to meet their engagements4 ,and then1 after proving that those without #adj excuse show this disregard of other men's claims1 traders might ask whether they1 who have the excuse of having to contend with a merciless competition1 are alone to be blamed if they display a like disregard in other forms4 ,nay1 even to the guardians of social rectitude--members of the legislature--they might use the tu quoque argument3 asking whether bribery of a customer's servant1 is any worse than bribery of an elector8 or whether the gaining of suffrages by clap-trap hustings-speeches1 containing insincere professions adapted to the taste of the constituency1 is not as bad as getting an order for goods by delusive representations respecting their quality8 ,no2 few if any classes are free from immoralities which are as great1 relatively to the temptations1 as these we have been exposing4 ,of course they will not be so petty or so gross where the circumstances do not prompt pettiness or grossness2 nor so constant and organized where the class-conditions have not tended to make them habitual4 ,but1 taken with these qualifications1 we think that much might be said for the proposition that the trading classes1 neither better nor worse intrinsically than other classes1 are betrayed into their flagitious habits by external causes4 ,another question1 here naturally arising1 is--,are not these evils growing worse8 ,many of the facts we have cited seem to imply that they are4 ,yet there are many other facts which point as distinctly the other way4 ,in weighing the evidence1 we must bear in mind that the greater public attention at present paid to such matters1 is itself a source of error--is apt to generate the belief that evils now becoming recognized are evils that have recently arisen2 when in truth they have merely been hitherto disregarded1 or less regarded4 ,it has been clearly thus with crime1 with distress1 with popular ignorance2 and it is very probably thus with trading-dishonesties4 ,as it is true of individual beings1 that their height in the scale of creation may be measured by the degree of their self-consciousness2 #ada so1 in a sense1 it is true of societies4 ,advanced and highly-organized societies are distinguished from lower ones by the evolution of something that stands for a social self-consciousness4 ,among ourselves there has1 happily1 been of late years a remarkable growth of this social self-consciousness2 and we believe that to this is chiefly ascribable the impression that commercial malpractices are increasing4 ,such facts as have come down to us respecting the trade of past times1 confirm this view4 ,in his ,complete ,english ,tradesman1 ,defoe mentions1 among other manuvres of retailers1 the false lights which they introduced into their shops1 for the purpose of giving delusive appearances to their goods4 ,he comments on the 8shop rhetorick10 the 8flux of falsehoods10 which tradesmen habitually uttered to their customers2 and quotes their defence as being that they could not live without lying4 ,he says1 too1 that there was scarce a shopkeeper who had not a bag of spurious or debased coin1 from which he gave change whenever he could2 and that men1 even the most honest1 triumphed in their skill in getting rid of bad money4 ,these facts show that the mercantile morals of that day were1 at any rate1 not better than ours2 and if we call to mind the numerous ,acts of ,parliament passed in old times to prevent frauds of all kinds1 we perceive the like implication4 ,as much may1 indeed1 be safely inferred from the general state of society4 ,when1 reign after reign1 governments debased the coinage1 the moral tone of the middle classes could scarcely have been higher than now4 ,among generations whose sympathy with the claims of fellow-creatures was so weak1 that the slave-trade was not only thought justifiable1 but the initiator of it was rewarded by permission to record the feat in his coat of arms1 it is hardly possible that men respected the claims of their fellow-citizens more than at present4 ,times characterized by an administration of justice so inefficient1 that there were in ,london nests of criminals who defied the law1 and on all high roads robbers who eluded it1 cannot #adb have been distinguished by just mercantile dealings4 ,while1 conversely1 an age which1 like ours1 has seen so many equitable social changes thrust on the legislature by public opinion1 is very unlikely to be an age in which the transactions between individuals have been growing more inequitable4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 it is undeniable that many of the dishonesties we have described are of modern origin4 ,not a few of them have become established during the last thirty years2 and others are even now arising4 ,how are these seeming contradictions to be reconciled8 ,the reconciliation is not difficult4 ,it lies in the fact that while the direct frauds have been diminishing1 the indirect frauds have been increasing3 alike in variety and in number4 ,and this admission we take to be consistent with the opinion that the standard of commercial morals is higher than it was4 ,for if we omit1 as excluded from the question1 the penal restraints--religious and legal--and ask what is the ultimate moral restraint to the aggression of man on man1 we find it to be--sympathy with the pain inflicted4 ,now the keenness of the sympathy1 depending on the vividness with which this pain is realized1 varies with the conditions of the case4 ,it may be active enough to check misdeeds which will manifestly cause great suffering1 and yet not be active enough to check misdeeds which will cause but slight annoyance4 ,while sufficiently acute to prevent a man from doing that which will entail immediate injury on a known person1 it may not be sufficiently acute to prevent him from doing that which will entail remote injuries on unknown persons4 ,and we find the facts to agree with this deduction1 that the moral restraint varies according to the clearness with which the evil consequences are conceived4 ,many a one who would shrink from picking a pocket does not scruple to adulterate his goods2 and he who never dreams of passing base coin will yet be a party to joint-stock-bank deceptions4 ,hence1 as we say1 the multiplication of the more subtle and complex forms of #adc fraud1 is consistent with a general progress in morality2 provided it is accompanied with a decrease in the grosser forms of fraud4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the question which most concerns us is1 not whether the morals of trade are better or worse than they have been8 but rather--why are they so bad8 ,why in this civilized state of ours1 is there so much that betrays the cunning selfishness of the savage8 ,why1 after the careful inculcations of rectitude during education1 comes there in after-life all this knavery8 ,why1 in spite of all the exhortations to which the commercial classes listen every ,sunday1 do they next morning recommence their evil deeds8 ,what is this so potent agency which almost neutralizes the discipline of education1 of law1 of religion8 ,various subsidiary causes that might be assigned1 must be passed over1 that we may have space to deal with the chief cause4 ,in an exhaustive statement1 something would have to be said on the credulity of consumers1 which leads them to believe in representations of impossible advantages2 and something1 too1 on their greediness1 which1 ever prompting them to look for more than they ought to get1 encourages sellers to offer delusive bargains4 ,the increased difficulty of living consequent on growing pressure of population1 might perhaps come in as a part cause2 and that greater cost of bringing up a family1 which results from the higher standard of education1 might be added4 ,but the chief inciter of these trading malpractices is intense desire for wealth4 ,and if we ask--,why this intense desire8 the reply is--,it results from the indiscriminate respect paid to wealth4 ,to be distinguished from the common herd--to be somebody--to make a name1 a position--this is the universal ambition2 and to accumulate riches is alike the surest and the easiest way of fulfilling this ambition4 ,very early in life all learn this4 ,at school1 the court paid to one whose #add parents have called in their carriage to see him1 is conspicuous2 while the poor boy whose insufficient stock of clothes implies the small means of his family1 soon has burnt into his memory the fact that poverty is contemptible4 ,on entering the world1 the lessons which may have been taught about the nobility of self-sacrifice1 the reverence due to genius1 the admirableness of high integrity1 are quickly neutralized by experience3 men's actions proving that these are not their standards of respect4 ,it is soon perceived that while abundant outward marks of deference from fellow-citizens may almost certainly be gained by directing every energy to the accumulation of property1 they are but rarely to be gained in any other way2 and that even in the few cases in which they are otherwise gained1 they are not given with entire unreserve1 but are commonly joined with a more or less manifest display of patronage4 ,when1 seeing this1 the young man further sees that while the acquisition of property is possible with his mediocre endowments1 the acquirement of distinction by brilliant discoveries1 or heroic acts1 or high achievements in art1 implies faculties and feelings which he does not possess2 it is not difficult to understand why he devotes himself heart and soul to business4 ,we do not mean to say that men act on the consciously reasoned-out conclusions thus indicated2 but we mean that these conclusions are the unconsciously-formed products of their daily experiences4 ,from early childhood the sayings and doings of all around them have generated the idea that wealth and respectability are two sides of the same thing4 ,this idea1 growing with their growth1 and strengthening with their strength1 becomes at last almost what we may call an organic conviction4 ,and this organic conviction it is which prompts the expenditure of all their energies in money-making4 ,we contend that the chief stimulus is not the desire for the wealth itself1 but for the applause and position which the wealth brings4 ,and in this belief1 we #ade find ourselves at one with various intelligent traders with whom we have talked on the matter4 ,it is incredible that men should make the sacrifices1 mental and bodily1 which they do1 merely to get the material benefits which money purchases4 ,who would undertake an extra burden of business for the purpose of getting a cellar of choice wines for his own drinking8 ,he who does it1 does it that he may have choice wines to give his guests and gain their praises4 ,what merchant would spend an additional hour at his office daily1 merely that he might move into a house in a more fashionable quarter8 ,he submits to the tax not to gain health and comfort but for the sake of the increased social consideration which the new house will bring him4 ,where is the man who would lie awake at nights devising means of increasing his income1 in the hope of being able to provide his wife with a carriage1 were the use of the carriage the sole consideration8 ,it is because of the clat which the carriage will give1 that he enters on these additional anxieties4 ,so manifest1 so trite1 indeed1 are these truths1 that we should be ashamed of insisting on them1 did not our argument require it4 ,for if the desire for that homage which wealth brings1 is the chief stimulus to these strivings after wealth1 then the giving of this homage 7when given1 as it is1 with but little discrimination7 is the chief cause of the dishonesties into which these strivings betray mercantile men4 ,when the shopkeeper1 on the strength of a prosperous year and favourable prospects1 has yielded to his wife's persuasions1 and replaced the old furniture with new1 at an outlay greater than his income covers--when1 instead of the hoped-for increase1 the next year brings a decrease in his returns--when he finds that his expenses are out-running his revenue2 then does he fall under the strongest temptation to adopt some newly-introduced adulteration or other malpractice4 ,when1 having by display gained a certain recognition1 the wholesale trader begins to give dinners #adf appropriate only to those of ten times his income1 with other expensive entertainments to match--when1 having for a time carried on this style at a cost greater than he can afford1 he finds that he cannot discontinue it without giving up his position2 then is he most strongly prompted to enter into larger transactions1 to trade beyond his means1 to seek undue credit1 to get into that ever-complicating series of misdeeds which ends in disgraceful bankruptcy4 ,and if these are the facts then is it an unavoidable conclusion that the blind admiration which society gives to mere wealth1 and the display of wealth1 is the chief source of these multitudinous immoralities4 ,yes1 the evil is deeper than appears--draws its nutriment from far below the surface4 ,this gigantic system of dishonesty1 branching out into every conceivable form of fraud1 has roots which run underneath our whole social fabric1 and1 sending fibres into every house1 suck up strength from our daily sayings and doings4 ,in every dining-room a rootlet finds food1 when the conversation turns on ,so-and-so's successful speculations1 his purchase of an estate1 his probable worth--on this man's recent large legacy1 and the other's advantageous match2 for being thus talked about is one form of that tacit respect which men struggle for4 ,every drawing-room furnishes nourishment in the admiration awarded to costliness--to silks that are 8rich10 that is1 expensive2 to dresses that contain an enormous quantity of material1 that is1 are expensive2 to laces that are hand-made1 that is1 expensive2 to diamonds that are rare1 that is1 expensive2 to china that is old1 that is1 expensive4 ,and from scores of small remarks and minuti of behaviour which1 in all circles1 hourly imply how completely the idea of respectability involves that of costly externals1 there is drawn fresh pabulum4 ,we are all implicated4 ,we all1 whether with self-approbation or not1 give expression to the established feeling4 ,even he who disapproves this feeling finds himself unable to #adg treat virtue in threadbare apparel with a cordiality as great as that which he would show to the same virtue endowed with prosperity4 ,scarcely a man is to be found who would not behave with more civility to a knave in broadcloth than to a knave in fustian4 ,though for the deference which they have shown to the vulgar rich1 or the dishonestly successful1 men afterwards compound with their consciences by privately venting their contempt2 yet when they again come face to face with these imposing externals covering worthlessness1 they do as before4 ,and so long as imposing worthlessness gets the visible marks of respect1 while the disrespect felt for it is hidden1 it naturally flourishes4 ,hence1 then1 is it that men persevere in these evil practices which all condemn4 ,they can so purchase a homage which1 if not genuine1 is yet1 so far as appearances go1 as good as the best4 ,to one whose wealth has been gained by a life of frauds1 what matters it that his name is in all circles a synonym of roguery8 ,has he not been conspicuously honoured by being twice elected mayor of his town8 7we state a fact7 and does not this1 joined to the personal consideration shown him1 outweigh in his estimation all that is said against him2 of which he hears scarcely anything8 ,when1 not many years after the exposure of his inequitable dealing1 a trader attains to the highest civic distinction which the kingdom has to offer1 and that1 too1 through the instrumentality of those who best know his delinquency1 is not the fact an encouragement to him1 and to all others1 to sacrifice rectitude to aggrandizement8 ,if1 after listening to a sermon that has by implication denounced the dishonesties he has been guilty of1 the rich ill-doer finds1 on leaving church1 that his neighbours cap to him1 does not this tacit approval go far to neutralize the effect of all he has heard8 ,the truth is that with the great majority of men1 the visible expression of social opinion is far the most efficient of incentives and restraints4 ,let any one who wishes to estimate the strength #adh of this control1 propose to himself to walk through the streets in the dress of a dustman1 or hawk vegetables from door to door4 ,let him feel1 as he probably will1 that he had rather do something morally wrong than commit such a breach of usage and suffer the resulting derision4 ,he will then better estimate how powerful a curb to men is the open disapproval of their fellows1 and how1 conversely1 the outward applause of their fellows is a stimulus surpassing all others in intensity4 ,fully realizing which facts1 he will see that the immoralities of trade are in great part traceable to an immoral public opinion4 ,let none infer1 from what has been said1 that the payment of respect to wealth rightly acquired and rightly used1 is deprecated4 ,in its original meaning1 and in due degree1 the feeling which prompts such respect is good4 ,primarily1 wealth is the sign of mental power2 and this is always respectable4 ,to have honestly-acquired property1 implies intelligence1 energy1 self-control2 and these are worthy of the homage that is indirectly paid to them by admiring their results4 ,moreover1 the good administration and increase of inherited property1 also requires its virtues2 and therefore demands its share of approbation4 ,and besides being applauded for their display of faculty1 men who gain and increase wealth are to be applauded as public benefactors4 ,for he who1 as manufacturer or merchant1 has1 without injustice to others1 realized a fortune1 is thereby proved to have discharged his functions better than those who have been less successful4 ,by greater skill1 better judgment1 or more economy than his competitors1 he has afforded the public greater advantages4 ,his extra profits are but a share of the extra produce obtained by the same outlay3 the other share going to the consumers4 ,and similarly1 the landowner who1 by judicious investment of money1 has increased the value 7that is1 the productiveness7 of his estate1 has thereby added to the stock of national capital4 ,by all means1 then1 #adi let the right acquisition and proper use of wealth have their due share of admiration4 ,but that which we condemn as the chief cause of commercial dishonesty1 is the indiscriminate admiration of wealth--an admiration that has little or no reference to the character of the possessor4 ,when1 as generally happens1 the external signs are reverenced where they signify no internal worthiness--nay1 even where they cover internal unworthiness2 then does the feeling become vicious4 ,it is this idolatry which worships the symbol apart from the thing symbolized1 that is the root of all these evils we have been exposing4 ,so long as men pay homage to those social benefactors who have grown rich honestly1 they give a wholesome stimulus to industry2 but when they accord a share of their homage to those social malefactors who have grown rich dishonestly1 then do they foster corruption--then do they become accomplices in all these frauds of commerce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as for remedy1 it manifestly follows that there is none save a purified public opinion4 ,when that abhorrence which society now shows to direct theft1 is shown to theft of all degrees of indirectness2 then will these mercantile vices disappear4 ,when not only the trader who adulterates or gives short measure1 but also the merchant who over-trades1 the bank-director who countenances an exaggerated report1 and the railway-director who repudiates his guarantee1 come to be regarded as of the same genus as the pickpocket1 and are treated with like disdain2 then will the morals of trade become what they should be4 ,we have little hope1 however1 that any such higher tone of public opinion will shortly be reached4 ,the present condition of things appears to be1 in great measure1 a necessary accompaniment of our present phase of progress4 ,throughout the civilized world1 especially in ,england1 and above all in ,america1 social activity is almost wholly expended in material development4 ,to subjugate ,nature #aej and bring the powers of production and distribution to their highest perfection1 is the task of our age1 and probably will be the task of many future ages4 ,and as in times when national defence and conquest were the chief desiderata1 military achievement was honoured above all other things2 so now1 when the chief desideratum is industrial growth1 honour is most conspicuously given to that which generally indicates the aiding of industrial growth4 ,the ,english nation at present displays what we may call the commercial diathesis2 and the undue admiration for wealth appears to be its concomitant--a relation still more conspicuous in the worship of 8the almighty dollar0 by the ,americans4 ,and while the commercial diathesis1 with its accompanying standard of distinction1 continues1 we fear the evils we have been delineating can be but partially cured4 ,it seems hopeless to expect that men will distinguish between that wealth which represents personal superiority and benefits done to society1 from that which does not4 ,the symbols1 the externals1 have all the world through swayed the masses1 and must long continue to do so4 ,even the cultivated1 who are on their guard against the bias of associated ideas1 and try to separate the real from the seeming1 cannot escape the influence of current opinion4 ,we must therefore content ourselves with looking for a slow amelioration4 ,something1 however1 may even now be done by vigorous protest against adoration of mere success4 ,and it is important that it should be done1 considering how this vicious sentiment is being fostered4 ,when we have one of our leading moralists preaching1 with increasing vehemence1 the doctrine of sanctification by force--when we are told that while a selfishness troubled with qualms of conscience is contemptible1 a selfishness intense enough to trample down everything in the unscrupulous pursuit of its ends is worthy of admiration--when we find that if it be sufficiently great1 power1 no matter of what kind or how directed1 is held up for our reverence2 we may fear lest the prevalent applause #aea of mere success1 together with the commercial vices which it stimulates1 should be increased rather than diminished4 ,not at all by this hero-worship grown into brute-worship is society to be made better1 but by exactly the opposite--by a stern criticism of the means through which success has been achieved1 and by according honour to the higher and less selfish modes of activity4 ,and happily the signs of this more moral public opinion are showing themselves4 ,it is becoming a tacitly-received doctrine that the rich should not1 as in bygone times1 spend their lives in personal gratification2 but should devote them to the general welfare4 ,year by year is the improvement of the people occupying a larger share of the attention of the upper classes4 ,year by year are they voluntarily devoting more energy to furthering the material and mental progress of the masses4 ,and those among them who do not join in the discharge of these high functions1 are beginning to be looked upon with more or less contempt by their own order4 ,this latest and most hopeful fact in human history--this new and better chivalry--promises to evolve a higher standard of honour1 and so to ameliorate many evils3 among others those which we have detailed4 ,when wealth obtained by illegitimate means inevitably brings nothing but disgrace--when to wealth rightly acquired is accorded only its due share of homage1 while the greatest homage is given to those who consecrate their energies and their means to the noblest ends2 then may we be sure that1 along with other accompanying benefits1 the morals of trade will be greatly purified4 #aeb ,,prison-,,ethics4 ,first published in ,the ,british ,quarterly ,review for ,july #ahfj4 ,the two antagonist theories of morals1 like many other antagonist theories1 are both right and both wrong4 ,the a priori school has its truth2 the a posteriori school has its truth2 and for the proper guidance of conduct1 there must be due recognition of both4 ,on the one hand1 it is asserted that there is an absolute standard of rectitude2 and1 respecting certain classes of actions1 it is rightly so asserted4 ,from the fundamental laws of life and the conditions of social existence1 are deducible certain imperative limitations to individual action--limitations which are essential to a perfect life1 individual and social2 or1 in other words1 essential to the greatest happiness4 ,and these limitations1 following inevitably as they do from undeniable first principles1 deep as the nature of life itself1 constitute what we may distinguish as absolute morality4 ,on the other hand it is contended1 and in a sense rightly contended1 that with men as they are and society as it is1 the dictates of absolute morality are impracticable4 ,legal control1 which involves infliction of pain1 alike on those who are restrained and on those who pay the cost of restraining them1 is proved by this fact to be not absolutely moral2 seeing that absolute morality is the regulation of conduct in such way that pain shall not be inflicted4 #aec ,wherefore1 if it be admitted that legal control is at present indispensable1 it must be admitted that these a priori rules cannot be immediately carried out4 ,and hence it follows that we must adapt our laws and actions to the existing character of mankind--that we must estimate the good or evil resulting from this or that arrangement1 and so reach1 a posteriori1 a code fitted for the time being4 ,in short1 we must fall back on expediency4 ,now1 each of these positions being valid1 it is a grave mistake to adopt either to the exclusion of the other4 ,they should be respectively appealed to for mutual qualification4 ,progressing civilization1 which is of necessity a succession of compromises between old and new1 requires a perpetual readjustment of the compromise between the ideal and the practicable in social arrangements3 to which end both elements of the compromise must be kept in view4 ,if it is true that pure rectitude prescribes a system of things too good for men as they are2 it is not less true that mere expediency does not of itself tend to establish a system of things any better than that which exists4 ,while absolute morality owes to expediency the checks which prevent it from rushing into utopian absurdities2 expediency is indebted to absolute morality for all stimulus to improvement4 ,granted that we are chiefly interested in ascertaining what is relatively right2 it still follows that we must first consider what is absolutely right2 since the one conception presupposes the other4 ,that is to say1 though we must ever aim to do what is best for the present times1 yet we must ever bear in mind what is abstractedly best2 so that the changes we make may be towards it1 and not away from it4 ,unattainable as pure rectitude is1 and will long continue to be1 we must keep an eye on the compass which tells us whereabout it lies2 or we shall otherwise wander in the opposite direction4 ,illustrations from our recent history will show very conclusively1 we think1 how important it is that #aed considerations of abstract expediency should be joined with those of concrete expediency--how immense would be the evils avoided and the benefits gained1 if a posteriori morality were enlightened by a priori morality4 ,take first the case of free trade4 ,until recently it has been the practice of all nations1 artificially to restrict their commerce with other nations4 ,throughout past centuries this course was defensible as conducing to safety4 ,without saying that law-givers had the motive of promoting industrial independence1 it may yet be said that in ages when national quarrels were perpetual1 it would not have been well for any people to be much dependent on others for necessary commodities4 ,but though there is this ground for asserting that commercial restrictions were once expedient1 it cannot be asserted that our corn-laws were thus justified3 it cannot be alleged that the penalties and prohibitions which1 until lately1 hampered our trade1 were needful to prevent us from being industrially disabled by a war4 ,protection in all its forms was established and maintained for other reasons of expediency2 and the reasons for which it was opposed and finally abolished were also those of expediency4 ,calculations of immediate and remote consequences were set forth by the antagonist parties2 and the mode of decision was by a balancing of these various anticipated consequences4 ,and what1 after generations of mischievous legislation and long years of arduous struggle1 was the conclusion arrived at1 and since justified by the results8 ,exactly the one which abstract equity plainly teaches4 ,the moral course proves to be the politic course4 ,that ability to exercise the faculties1 the total denial of which causes death--that liberty to pursue the objects of desire1 without which there cannot be complete life--that freedom of action which his nature prompts every individual to claim1 and on which equity puts no limit save the like freedom of action of other individuals1 involves1 among other corollaries1 freedom of exchange4 #aee ,government which1 in protecting citizens from murder1 robbery1 assault or other aggression1 shows us that it has the all-essential function of securing to each this free exercise of faculties within the assigned limits1 is called on1 in the due discharge of its function1 to maintain this freedom of exchange2 and cannot abrogate it without reversing its function1 and becoming aggressor instead of protector4 ,thus1 absolute morality would all along have shown in what direction legislation should tend4 ,qualified only by the consideration that in turbulent times they must not be so carried out as to endanger national life1 through suspensions in the supply of necessaries1 these a priori principles would have guided statesmen1 as fast as circumstances allowed1 towards the normal condition4 ,we should have been saved from thousands of needless restrictions4 ,such restrictions as were needful would have been abolished as soon as was safe4 ,an enormous amount of suffering would have been prevented4 ,that prosperity which we now enjoy would have commenced much sooner4 ,and our present condition would have been one of greater power1 wealth1 happiness1 and morality4 ,our railway-politics furnish another instance4 ,a vast loss of national capital has been incurred1 and great misery has been inflicted1 in consequence of the neglect of a simple principle clearly dictated by abstract justice4 ,whoso enters into a contract1 though he is bound to do that which the contract specifies1 is not bound to do some other thing which is neither specified nor implied in the contract4 ,we do not appeal to moral perception only in warranty of this position4 ,it is one deducible from that first principle of equity which1 as above pointed out1 follows from the laws of life1 individual and social2 and it is one which the accumulated experience of mankind has so uniformly justified1 that it has become a tacitly-recognized doctrine of civil law among all nations4 ,in cases of disputes about agreements1 the question in each case brought to trial #aef always is1 whether the terms bind one or other of the contracting parties to do this or that2 and it is assumed1 as a matter of course1 that neither of them can be called upon to do more than is expressed or understood in the agreement4 ,now this almost self-evident principle has been wholly ignored in railway-legislation4 ,a shareholder1 uniting with others to make and work a line from one specified place to another specified place1 binds himself to pay certain sums in furtherance of the project2 and1 by implication1 agrees to yield to the majority of his fellow-shareholders on all questions raised respecting the execution of this project4 ,but he commits himself no further than this4 ,he is not required to obey the majority concerning things not named in the deed of incorporation4 ,though with respect to the specified railway he has bound himself1 he has not bound himself1 with respect to any unspecified railway which his co-proprietors may wish to make2 and he cannot be committed to such unspecified railway by a vote of the majority4 ,but this distinction has been wholly passed over4 ,shareholders in joint-stock undertakings have been perpetually involved in other undertakings subsequently decided on by their fellow-shareholders2 and1 against their will1 have had their properties heavily mortgaged for the execution of projects that were ruinously unremunerative4 ,in every case the proprietary contract for making a particular railway1 has been dealt with as though it were a proprietary contract for making railways6 ,not only have directors thus misinterpreted it1 and not only have shareholders allowed it to be thus misinterpreted1 but legislators have so little understood their duties as to have endorsed the misinterpretation4 ,to this simple cause has been owing most of our railway-companies' disasters4 ,abnormal facilities for getting capital have caused reckless competition in extension-making and branch-making1 and in needless opposition lines1 got up to be purchased by the companies they threatened4 ,had each new scheme been #aeg executed by an independent body of shareholders1 without any guarantee from another company--without any capital raised by preference shares--there would have been little or none of the ruinous expenditure we have seen4 ,something like a hundred millions of money would have been saved1 and thousands of families preserved from misery1 had the proprietary-contract been enforced according to the dictates of pure equity4 ,these cases go far to justify our position4 ,the general reasons we gave for thinking that the ethics of immediate experience must be enlightened by abstract ethics1 to ensure correct guidance1 are strongly enforced by these instances of the gigantic errors which are made when the dictates of abstract ethics are ignored4 ,the complex estimates of relative expediency1 cannot do without the clue furnished by the simple deductions of absolute expediency4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we propose to study the treatment of criminals from this point of view4 ,and first1 let us set down those temporary requirements which have hitherto prevented1 and do still1 in part1 prevent the establishment of a just system4 ,the same average popular character which necessitates a rigorous form of government1 necessitates also a rigorous criminal code4 ,institutions are ultimately determined by the natures of the citizens living under them2 and when these citizens are too impulsive or selfish for free institutions1 and unscrupulous enough to supply the requisite staff of agents for maintaining tyrannical institutions1 they are proved by implication to be citizens who will tolerate1 and will probably need1 severe forms of punishment4 ,the same mental defect underlies both results4 ,the character which originates and sustains political liberty1 is a character swayed by remote considerations--a character not at the mercy of immediate temptations1 but one which contemplates the consequences likely to arise in future4 ,we have only to remember that1 among ourselves1 a political encroachment is #aeh resisted1 not because of any direct evil it inflicts1 but because of the evils likely hereafter to flow from it1 to see how the maintenance of freedom presupposes the habit of weighing distant results1 and being chiefly guided by them4 ,conversely1 it is manifest that men who dwell only in the present1 the special1 the concrete--who do not realize with clearness the contingencies of the future--will put little value on those rights of citizenship which profit them nothing1 save as a means of warding off unspecified evils that can possibly affect them only at a distant time in an obscure way4 ,well1 is it not obvious that the forms of mind thus contrasted1 will require different kinds of punishment for misconduct8 ,to restrain the second1 there must be penalties which are severe1 prompt1 and specific enough to be vividly conceived2 while the first may be deterred by penalties which are less definite1 less intense1 less immediate4 ,for the more civilized1 dread of a long1 monotonous1 criminal discipline may suffice2 but for the less civilized there must be inflictions of bodily pain and death4 ,thus we hold1 not only that a social condition which generates a harsh form of government1 also generates harsh retributions2 but also1 that in such a social condition1 harsh retributions are requisite4 ,and there are facts which illustrate this4 ,witness the case of one of the ,italian states1 in which the punishment of death having been abolished in conformity with the wish of a dying duchess1 assassinations increased so greatly that it became needful to re-establish it4 ,besides the fact that in the less-advanced stages of civilization1 a bloody penal code is both a natural product of the time and a needful restraint for the time1 there must be noted the fact that a more equitable and humane code could not be carried out from want of fit administration4 ,to deal with delinquents not by short and sharp methods but by such methods as abstract justice indicates1 implies a class of agencies too complicated to exist in a low society1 #aei and a class of officers more trustworthy than can be found among its citizens4 ,especially would the equitable treatment of criminals be impracticable where the amount of crime was very great4 ,the number to be dealt with would be unmanageable4 ,some simpler method of purging the community of its worst members becomes1 under such circumstances1 a necessity4 ,the inapplicability of an absolutely just system of penal discipline to a barbarous or semi-barbarous people1 is thus1 we think1 as manifest as is the inapplicability of an absolutely just form of government to them4 ,and in the same manner that1 for some nations1 a despotism is warranted2 so may a criminal code of the extremest severity be warranted4 ,in either case the defence is1 that the institution is as good as the average character of the people permits--that less stringent institutions would entail social confusion and its far more severe evils4 ,bad as a despotism is1 yet where anarchy is the only alternative1 we must say that1 as anarchy would bring greater suffering than despotism brings1 despotism is justified by the circumstances4 ,and similarly1 however inequitable in the abstract were the beheadings1 crucifyings1 and burnings of ruder ages1 yet1 if it be shown that1 without penalties thus extreme1 the safety of society could not have been insured--if1 in their absence1 the increase of crime would have inflicted a larger total of evil1 and that1 too1 on peaceable members of the community2 then it follows that morality warranted this severity4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 we must say that1 measured by the quantities of pain respectively inflicted and avoided1 the course pursued was the least wrong2 and to say that it was the least wrong is to say that it was relatively right4 ,but while we thus admit all that can be alleged by the defenders of ,draconian codes1 we go on to assert a correlative truth which they overlook4 ,while fully recognizing the evils that must follow the premature establishment of a #afj penal system dictated by pure equity1 let us not overlook the evils that have arisen from altogether rejecting the guidance of pure equity4 ,let us note how terribly the one-sided regard for immediate expediency has retarded the ameliorations from time to time demanded4 ,consider1 for instance1 the immense amount of suffering and demoralization needlessly caused by our severe laws in the last century4 ,those many merciless penalties which ,romilly and others succeeded in abolishing1 were as little justified by social necessities as by abstract morality4 ,experience has since proved that to hang men for theft1 was not requisite for the security of property4 ,and that such a measure was opposed to pure equity1 scarcely needs saying4 ,evidently1 had considerations of relative expediency been all along qualified by considerations of absolute expediency1 these severities1 with their many concomitant evils1 would have ceased long before they did4 ,again1 the dreadful misery1 demoralization1 and crime1 generated by the harsh treatment of transported convicts1 would have been impossible1 had our authorities considered what seemed just as well as what seemed politic4 ,there would never have been inflicted on transports the shocking cruelties proved before the ,parliamentary ,committee of #ahdh4 ,we should not have had men condemned to the horrors of the chain-gang even for insolent looks4 ,there could not have been perpetrated such an atrocity as that of locking up chain-gangs 8from sunset to sunrise in the caravans or boxes used for this description of prisons1 which hold from twenty to twenty-eight men1 but in which the whole number can neither stand upright nor sit down at the same time1 except with their legs at right angles to their bodies40 ,men would never have been doomed to tortures extreme enough to produce despair1 desperation1 and further crimes--tortures under which 8a man's heart is taken from him1 and there is given to him the heart of a #afa beast10 as said by one of these law-produced criminals before his execution4 ,we should not have been told1 as by a chief justice of ,australia1 that the discipline was 8carried to an extent of suffering1 such as to render death desirable1 and to induce many prisoners to seek it under its most appalling aspects40 ,sir ,g4 ,arthur would not have had to testify that1 in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 convicts committed murder for the purpose 8of being sent up to ,hobart ,town for trial1 though aware that in the ordinary course they must be executed within a fortnight after arrival20 nor would tears of commiseration have been drawn from ,judge ,burton's eyes1 by one of these cruelly-used transports placed before him for sentence4 ,in brief1 had abstract equity joined with immediate expediency in devising convict discipline1 not only would untold suffering1 degradation1 and mortality have been prevented2 but those who were responsible for atrocities like those above-named1 would not themselves be chargeable with crime1 as we now hold them to be4 ,probably we shall meet with a less general assent when1 as a further benefit which the guidance of absolute morality would have conferred1 we instance the prevention of such methods as those in use at ,pentonville4 ,how the silent and the separate systems are negatived by abstract justice we shall by and by see4 ,for the present1 the position we have to defend is that these systems are bad4 ,that but a moderate per-centage of the prisoners subjected to them are re-convicted1 may be true2 though1 considering the fallaciousness of negative statistics1 this by no means proves that those not re-convicted are reformed4 ,but the question is not solely how many prisoners are prevented from again committing crime8 ,a further question is1 how many of them have become self-supporting members of society8 ,it is notorious that this prolonged denial of human intercourse not unfrequently produces insanity or imbecility2 and on those who remain sane1 its depressing influence must almost #afb of necessity entail serious debility1 bodily and mental4#g ,indeed1 we think it probable that much of the apparent success is due to an enfeeblement which incapacitates for crime as much as for industry4 ,our own objection to such methods1 however1 has always been1 that their effect on the moral nature is the reverse of that required4 ,crime is anti-social--is prompted by self-regarding feelings and checked by social feelings4 ,the natural prompter of right conduct to others1 and the natural opponent of misconduct to others1 is sympathy2 for out of sympathy grow both the kindly emotions1 and that sentiment of justice which restrains us from aggressions4 ,well1 this sympathy1 which makes society possible1 is cultivated by social intercourse4 ,by habitual participation in the pleasures of others1 the faculty is strengthened2 and whatever prevents this participation1 weakens it4 ,hence1 therefore1 shutting up prisoners within themselves1 or forbidding all interchange of feeling1 inevitably deadens such sympathies as they have2 and so tends rather to diminish than to increase the moral check to transgression4 ,this a priori conviction1 which we have long entertained1 we now find confirmed by facts4 ,captain ,maconochie states1 as a result of observation1 that a long course of separation so fosters the self-regarding desires1 and so weakens the sympathies1 as to make even well-disposed men very unfit to bear the little trials of domestic life on their return to their homes4 ,thus there is good reason to think that1 while silence and solitude may cow the spirit or undermine the energies1 it cannot produce true reformation4 #g ,mr4 ,baillie-,cochrane says3--8,the officers at the ,dartmoor prison inform me that the prisoners who arrive there even after one year's confinement at ,pentonville1 may be distinguished from the others by their miserable downcast look4 ,in most instances their brain is affected2 and they are unable to give satisfactory replies to the simplest questions40 8,but how can it be shown10 asks the reader1 8that these injudicious penal systems are inequitable8 ,where is the method which will enable us to say what kind of #afc punishment is justified by absolute morality1 and what kind is not80 ,these questions we will now attempt to answer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so long as the individual citizen pursues the objects of his desires without diminishing the equal freedom of any of his fellow citizens to do the like1 society cannot equitably interfere with him4 ,while he contents himself with the benefits won by his own energies1 and attempts not to intercept any of the benefits similarly won for themselves by others1 or any of those which ,nature has conferred on them2 no legal penalties can rightly be inflicted on him4 ,but when1 by murder1 theft1 assault1 arson1 or minor aggression1 he has broken through these limits1 the community is warranted in putting him under restraint4 ,on the relative propriety of doing this we need say nothing3 it is demonstrated by social experience4 ,its absolute propriety not being so manifest1 we will proceed to point out how it is deducible from the ultimate laws of life4 ,life depends on the maintenance of certain natural relations between actions and their results4 ,if respiration does not supply oxygen to the blood1 as in the normal order of things it should do1 but instead supplies carbonic acid1 death quickly results4 ,if the swallowing of food is not followed by the usual organic sequences--the contractions of the stomach1 and the pouring into it of gastric juice--indigestion arises1 and the energies flag4 ,if active movements of the limbs fail in exciting the heart to supply blood more rapidly1 or if the extra current propelled by the heart is greatly retarded by an aneurism through which it passes1 speedy prostration ensues4 ,in which1 and endless like cases1 we see that bodily life depends on the maintenance of the established connexions between physiological causes and their consequences4 ,among the intellectual processes1 the same thing holds4 ,if certain impressions made on the senses do not induce the appropriate muscular adjustments--if the brain is clouded with wine1 or consciousness is #afd pre-occupied1 or the perceptions are naturally obtuse2 the movements are so ill-controlled that accidents happen4 ,where1 as in paralytic patients1 the natural link between mental impressions and the appropriate motions is broken1 the life is greatly vitiated4 ,and when1 as during insanity1 evidence fitted1 according to the usual order of thought1 to produce certain convictions1 produces convictions of an opposite kind1 conduct is reduced to chaos1 and life endangered--perhaps cut short4 ,so it is with more involved phenomena4 ,just as we here find that1 throughout both its physical and intellectual divisions1 healthful life implies continuance of the established successions of antecedents and consequents among our vital actions2 so shall we find it throughout the moral division4 ,in our dealings with external ,nature and our fellow men1 there are relations of cause and effect1 on the maintenance of which1 as on the maintenance of the internal ones above instanced1 life depends4 ,conduct of this or that kind tends to bring results which are pleasurable or painful2 and the welfare of every one demands that these natural sequences shall not be interfered with4 ,to speak more specifically1 we see that in the order of ,nature1 inactivity entails want4 ,there is a connexion between exertion and the fulfilment of certain imperative needs4 ,if1 now1 this connexion is broken--if labour of body or mind has been gone through1 and the produce of the labour is intercepted by another1 one of the conditions to complete life is unfulfilled4 ,the defrauded person is physically injured by deprivation of the wherewithal to make good the wear and tear he had undergone2 and if the robbery be continually repeated1 he must die4 ,where all men are dishonest a reflex evil results4 ,when1 throughout a society1 the normal relation between work and benefit is habitually broken1 not only are the lives of many directly undermined1 but the lives of all are indirectly undermined by destruction of the motive for work1 and by the consequent poverty4 ,thus1 to demand that there shall #afe be no breach of the natural sequence between labour and the rewards obtained by labour1 is to demand that the laws of life shall be respected4 ,what we call the right of property1 is simply a corollary from certain necessary conditions to complete living4 ,it is a formulated recognition of the relation between expenditure of force and the need for force-sustaining objects obtainable by the expenditure of force--a recognition in full of a relation which cannot be wholly ignored without causing death4 ,and all else regarded as individual rights1 are indirect implications of like nature--similarly insist on certain relations between man and man1 as conditions without which there cannot be fully maintained that correspondence between inner and outer actions which constitutes life4 ,it is not1 as some moralists and most lawyers absurdly assert1 that such rights are derived from human legislation2 nor is it1 as asserted by others with absurdity almost as great1 that there is no basis for them save the inductions of immediate expediency4 ,these rights are deducible from the established connexions between our acts and their results4 ,as certainly as there are conditions which must be fulfilled before life can exist1 so certainly are there conditions which must be fulfilled before complete life can be enjoyed by the respective members of a society2 and those which we call the requirements of justice1 simply answer to the most important of such conditions4 ,hence1 if life is our legitimate aim--if absolute morality means1 as it does1 conformity to the laws of complete life2 then absolute morality warrants the restraint of those who force their fellow-citizens into non-conformity4 ,our justification is1 that life is impossible save under certain conditions2 that it cannot be entire unless these conditions are maintained unbroken2 and that if it is right for us to live completely1 it is right for us to remove any one who either breaks these conditions in our persons or constrains us to break them4 ,such being the basis of our right to coerce the criminal1 #aff there next come the questions3--,what is the legitimate extent of the coercion8 ,can we from this source derive authority for certain demands on him8 and are there any similarly-derived limits to such demands8 ,to both these questions there are affirmative answers4 ,first1 we find authority for demanding restitution or compensation4 ,conformity to the laws of life being the substance of absolute morality2 and the social regulations which absolute morality dictates1 being those which make this conformity possible2 it is a manifest corollary that whoever breaks these regulations1 may be justly required to undo1 as far as possible1 the wrong he has done4 ,the object being to maintain the conditions essential to complete life1 it follows that1 when one of these conditions has been transgressed1 the first thing to be required of the transgressor is1 that he shall put matters as nearly as may be in the state they previously were4 ,the property stolen shall be restored1 or an equivalent for it given4 ,any one injured by an assault shall have his surgeon's bill paid1 compensation for lost time1 and also for the suffering he has borne4 ,and similarly in all cases of infringed rights4 ,second1 we are warranted by this highest authority in restricting the actions of the offender as much as is needful to prevent further aggressions4 ,any citizen who will not allow others to fulfil the conditions to complete life--who takes away the produce of his neighbour's labour1 or deducts from that bodily health and comfort which his neighbour has earned by good conduct1 must be forced to desist4 ,and society is warranted in using such force as may be found requisite4 ,equity justifies the fellow-citizens of such a man in limiting the free exercise of his faculties to the extent necessary for preserving the free exercise of their own faculties4 ,but now mark that absolute morality countenances no restraint beyond this--no gratuitous inflictions of pain1 no revengeful penalties4 ,the conditions it insists on being such as make possible complete life1 we cannot rightly abrogate #afg these conditions1 even in the person of a criminal1 further than is needful to prevent greater abrogations of them4 ,freedom to fulfil the laws of life being the thing insisted on1 to the end that the sum of life may be the greatest possible1 it follows that the life of the offender must be taken into account as an item in this sum4 ,we must permit him to live as completely as consists with social safety4 ,it is commonly said that the criminal loses all his rights4 ,this may be so according to law1 but it is not so according to justice4 ,such portion of them only is justly taken away1 as cannot be left to him without danger to the community4 ,those exercises of faculty1 and consequent benefits1 which are possible under the necessary restraint1 cannot be equitably denied4 ,if any do not think it proper that we should be thus regardful of an offender's claims1 let them consider for a moment the lesson which ,nature reads us4 ,we do not find that those processes of life by which bodily health is maintained1 are miraculously suspended in the person of the prisoner4 ,in him1 as in others1 good digestion waits on appetite4 ,if he is wounded1 the healing process goes on with the usual rapidity4 ,when he is ill1 as much effect is expected from the vis medicatrix natur by the medical officer1 as in one who has not transgressed4 ,his perceptions yield him guidance as they did before he was imprisoned2 and he is capable of much the same pleasurable emotions4 ,when we thus see that the beneficent arrangements of things1 are no less uniformly sustained in his person than in that of another1 are we not bound to respect in his person such of these beneficent arrangements as we have power to thwart8 are we not bound to interfere with the laws of life no further than is needful8 ,if any still hesitate1 there is another lesson for them having the same implication4 ,whoso disregards any one of those simpler laws of life out of which1 as we have shown1 the moral laws originate1 has to bear the evil necessitated by the transgression--just that1 and no more4 ,if1 careless of your footing1 you fall1 the #afh consequent bruise1 and possibly some constitutional disturbance entailed by it1 are all you have to suffer3 there is not the further gratuitous penalty of a cold or an attack of small-pox4 ,if you have eaten something which you know to be indigestible1 there follow certain visceral derangements and their concomitants2 but1 for your physical sin1 there is no vengeance in the shape of a broken bone or a spinal affection4 ,the punishments1 in these and other cases1 are neither greater nor less than flow from the natural workings of things4 ,well1 should we not with all humility follow this example8 ,must we not infer that1 similarly1 a citizen who has transgressed the conditions to social welfare1 ought to bear the needful penalties and restraints1 but nothing beyond these8 ,is it not clear that neither by absolute morality nor by ,nature's precedents1 are we warranted in visiting on him any pains besides those involved in remedying1 as far as may be1 the evil committed1 and preventing other such evils8 ,to us it seems manifest that if society exceeds this1 it trespasses against the criminal4 ,those who think that we are tending towards a mischievous leniency1 will find that the next step in our argument disposes of any such objection2 for while equity forbids us to punish the criminal otherwise than by making him suffer the natural consequences1 these1 when rigorously enforced1 are quite severe enough4 ,society having proved in the high court of absolute morality1 that the offender must make restitution or compensation1 and submit to the restraints requisite for public safety2 and the offender having obtained from the same court the decision1 that these restraints shall be no greater than the specified end requires2 society thereupon makes the further demand that1 while living in durance1 the offender shall maintain himself2 and this demand absolute morality at once endorses4 ,the community having taken measures for self-preservation1 and having inflicted on the aggressor no punishments or disabilities beyond those #afi involved in these necessary measures1 is no further concerned in the matter4 ,with the support of the prisoner it has no more to do than before he committed the crime4 ,it is the business of society simply to defend itself against him2 and it is his business to live as well as he can under the restrictions society is obliged to impose on him4 ,all he may rightly ask is1 to have the opportunity of labouring1 and exchanging the produce of his labour for necessaries2 and this claim is a corollary from that already admitted1 that his actions shall not be restricted more than is needful for the public safety4 ,with these opportunities1 however1 he must make the best of his position4 ,he must be content to gain as good a livelihood as the circumstances permit2 and if he cannot employ his powers to the best advantage1 if he has to work hard and fare scantily1 these evils must be counted among the penalties of his transgression--the natural reactions of his wrong action4 ,on this self-maintenance equity sternly insists4 ,the reasons which justify his imprisonment1 equally justify the refusal to let him have any other sustenance than he earns4 ,he is confined that he may not further interfere with the complete living of his fellow-citizens--that he may not again intercept any of those benefits which the order of ,nature has conferred on them1 or any of those procured by their exertions and careful conduct4 ,and he is required to support himself for exactly the same reasons--that he may not interfere with others' complete living--that he may not intercept the benefits they earn4 ,for1 if otherwise1 whence must come his food and clothing8 ,directly from the public stores1 and indirectly from the pockets of all tax-payers4 ,and what is the property thus abstracted from tax-payers8 ,it is the equivalent of so much benefit earned by labour4 ,it is so much means to complete living4 ,and when this property is taken away--when the toil has been gone through1 and the produce of it is intercepted by the tax-gatherer on behalf of the convict2 the conditions to #agj complete life are broken3 the convict commits by deputy a further aggression on his fellow-citizens4 ,it matters not that such abstraction is made according to law4 ,we are here considering the dictum of that authority which is above law2 and which law ought to enforce4 ,and this dictum we find to be1 that each individual shall take the evils and benefits of his own conduct--that the offender must suffer1 as far as is possible1 all pains entailed by his offence2 and must not be allowed to visit part of them on the unoffending4 ,unless the criminal maintains himself1 he indirectly commits an additional crime4 ,instead of repairing the breach he has made in the conditions to complete social life1 he widens this breach4 ,he inflicts on others that very injury which the restraint imposed on him was to prevent4 ,as certainly1 therefore1 as such restraint is warranted by absolute morality2 so certainly does absolute morality warrant us in refusing him gratuitous support4 ,these1 then1 are the requirements of an equitable penal system3--,that the aggressor shall make restitution or compensation2 that he shall be placed under the restraints requisite for social security2 that neither any restraints beyond these1 nor any gratuitous penalties1 shall be inflicted on him2 and that while living in confinement1 or under surveillance1 he shall maintain himself4 ,we are not prepared to say that such dictates may at once be fully obeyed4 ,already we have admitted that the deductions of absolute expediency must1 in our transition state1 be qualified by the inductions of relative expediency4 ,we have pointed out that in rude times1 the severest criminal codes were morally justified if1 without them1 crime could not be repressed and social safety insured4 ,whence1 by implication1 it follows that our present methods of treating criminals are warranted1 if they come as near to those of pure equity as circumstances permit4 ,that any system now feasible must fall short of the ideal sketched out1 is probable4 ,it may be that the enforcement of restitution or #aga compensation1 is in many cases impracticable4 ,it may be that on some convicts1 penalties more severe than abstract justice demands must be inflicted4 ,on the other hand1 it may be that entire self-maintenance would entail on the wholly-unskilled criminal1 a punishment too grievous to be borne4 ,but any such shortcomings do not affect our argument4 ,all we insist on is1 that the commands of absolute morality shall be obeyed as far as possible--that we shall fulfil them up to those limits beyond which experiment proves that more evil than good results--that1 ever keeping in view the ideal1 each change we make shall be towards its realization4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but now we are prepared to say1 that this ideal may be in great part realized at the present time4 ,experience in various countries1 under various circumstances1 has shown that immense benefits result from substituting for the old penal systems1 systems that approximate to that above indicated4 ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,australia1 send statements to the effect that the most successful criminal discipline1 is a discipline of decreased restraints and increased self-dependence4 ,and the evidence proves the success to be greatest1 where the nearest approach is made to the arrangements prescribed by abstract justice4 ,we shall find the facts striking3 some of them even astonishing4 ,when ,m4 ,obermair was appointed ,governor of the ,munich ,state-,prison 8,he found from #fjj to #gjj prisoners in the jail1 in the worst state of insubordination1 and whose excesses1 he was told1 defied the harshest and most stringent discipline2 the prisoners were all chained together1 and attached to each chain was an iron weight1 which the strongest found difficulty in dragging along4 ,the guard consisted of about #ajj soldiers1 who did duty not only at the gates and around the walls1 but also in the passages1 and even in the workshops and dormitories2 and1 strangest of all protections against the possibility of an outbreak or individual invasion1 twenty to thirty large savage dogs1 of the bloodhound breed1 were let loose at night in the passages and courts to keep their watch and ward4 #agb ,according to his account the place was a perfect ,pandemonium1 comprising1 within the limits of a few acres1 the worst passions1 the most slavish vices1 and the most heartless tyranny40 ,m4 ,obermair gradually relaxed this harsh system4 ,he greatly lightened the chains2 and would1 if allowed1 have thrown them aside4 ,the dogs1 and nearly all the guards1 were dispensed with2 and the prisoners were treated with such consideration as to gain their confidence4 ,mr4 ,baillie-,cochrane1 who visited the place in #aheb1 says the prison-gates were 8,wide open1 without any sentinel at the door1 and a guard of only twenty men idling away their time in a guard-room off the entrance-hall4 4 4 4 4 ,none of the doors were provided with bolts and bars2 the only security was an ordinary lock1 and as in most of the rooms the key was not turned1 there was no obstacle to the men walking into the passage4 4 4 4 4 ,over each workshop some of the prisoners with the best characters were appointed overseers1 and ,m4 ,obermair assured me that if a prisoner transgressed a regulation1 his companions generally told him1 #8,es ist verboten' 7it is forbidden71 and it rarely happened that he did not yield to the opinion of his fellow-prisoners4 4 4 4 4 ,within the prison walls every description of work is carried on2 the prisoners1 divided into different gangs and supplied with instruments and tools1 make their own clothes1 repair their own prison walls1 and forge their own chains1 producing various specimens of manufacture which are turned to most excellent account--the result being1 that each prisoner1 by occupation and industry1 maintains himself2 the surplus of his earnings being given him on his emancipation1 avoids his being parted with in a state of destitution40 ,and further1 the prisoners 8associate in their leisure hours1 without any check on their intercourse1 but at the same time under an efficient system of observation and control0--an arrangement by which1 after many years' experience1 ,m4 ,obermair asserts that morality is increased4 ,and now what has been the result8 ,during his six-years' government of the ,kaiserslauten 7the first prison under his care71 ,m4 ,obermair discharged #acb criminals1 of which number #abc have since conducted themselves well1 and #g have been recommitted4 ,from the ,munich prison1 between #ahdc and #ahde1 #bih prisoners were discharged4 ,of these1 #bdf have been restored1 improved1 to society4 ,those whose characters are doubtful1 but have not been #agc remanded for any criminal act1 #bf2 again under examination1 #d2 punished by the police1 #f2 remanded1 #h2 died1 #h4 ,this statement1 says ,m4 ,obermair1 8is based on irrefutable evidence40 ,and to the reality of his success1 we have the testimony not only of ,mr4 ,baillie-,cochrane1 but of the ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,townsend1 ,mr4 ,george ,combe1 ,mr4 ,matthew ,hill1 and ,sir ,john ,milbanke1 our ,envoy at the ,court of ,bavaria4 ,take1 again1 the case of ,mettray4 ,every one has heard something about ,mettray1 and its success as a reformatory of juvenile criminals4 ,observe how nearly the successful system there pursued1 conforms to the abstract principles above enunciated4 ,this 8,colonie ,agricole0 is 8without wall or enclosure of any sort1 for the purposes at least of confinement20 and except when for some fault a child is temporarily put in a cell1 there is no physical restraint4 ,the life is industrial3 the boys being brought up to trades or agriculture as they prefer2 and all the domestic services being discharged by them4 8,they all do their work by the piece20 are rewarded according to the judgment of the chef d'atelier2 and1 a portion being placed at the disposal of the child1 the rest is deposited in the savings-bank at ,tours4 8,a boy in receipt of any money has to make payment for any part of his dress which requires to be renewed before the stated time arrives at which fresh clothing is given out2 4 4 4 4 4 on the other hand1 if his clothes are found in good condition at such time1 he receives the benefit of it by having the money which would have been laid out in clothes placed to his account4 ,two hours per day are allowed for play4 ,part-singing is taught2 and if a boy shows any turn for drawing he receives a little instruction in it4 4 4 4 4 4 ,some of the boys also are formed into a fire-brigade1 and have rendered at times substantial assistance in the neighbourhood40 ,in which few leading facts do we not clearly see that the essential peculiarities #agd are--no more restraint than is absolutely necessary2 self-support as far as possible2 extra benefits earned by extra labour2 and as much gratifying exercise of faculties as the circumstances permit4 ,the 8intermediate system0 which has of late been carried out with much success in ,ireland1 exemplifies1 in a degree1 the practicability of the same general principles4 ,under this system1 prisoners working as artizans are allowed 8such a modified degree of liberty as shall in various ways prove their power of self-denial and self-dependence1 in a manner wholly incompatible with the rigid restraints of an ordinary prison40 ,an offender who has passed through this stage of probation1 is tested by employment 8on messenger's duties daily throughout the city1 and also in special works required by the department outside the prison-walls4 ,the performance of the duties of messengers entails their being out until seven or eight in the evening1 unaccompanied by an officer2 and although a small portion of their earnings is allowed them weekly1 and they would have the power of compromising themselves if so disposed1 not one instance has as yet taken place of the slightest irregularity1 or even the want of punctuality1 although careful checks have been contrived to detect either1 should it occur40 ,a proportion of their prison-earnings is set aside for them in a savings-bank2 and to this they are encouraged to add during their period of partial freedom1 with a view to subsequent emigration4 ,the results are3--8,in the penitentiary the greatest possible order and regularity1 and an amount of willing industry performed that cannot be obtained in the prisons40 ,employers to whom prisoners are eventually transferred1 8have on many occasions returned for others in consequence of the good conduct of those at first engaged40 ,and according to ,captain ,crofton's pamphlet of #aheg1 out of #aab conditionally discharged during the previous year1 #he were going on satisfactorily1 8#i have been discharged #age too recently to be spoken of1 and #e have had their licences revoked4 ,as to the remaining #ac1 it has been found impossible to obtain accurate information1 but it is supposed that #e have left the country1 and #c enlisted40 ,the 8mark system0 of ,captain ,maconochie1 is one which more fully carries out the principle of self-maintenance1 under restraints no greater than are needful for safety4 ,the plan is to join with time-sentences certain labour-sentences--specific tasks to be worked out by the convicts4 8,no rations1 or other supplies of any kind1 whether of food1 bedding1 clothing1 or even education or indulgences1 to be given gratuitously1 but all to be made exchangeable1 at fixed rates1 at the prisoners' own option1 for marks previously earned2 it being understood1 at the same time1 that only those shall count towards liberation which remain over and above all so exchanged2 the prisoners being thus caused to depend for every necessary on their own good conduct2 and their prison-offences to be in like manner restrained by corresponding fines imposed according to the measures of each40 ,the use of marks1 which thus play the part of money1 was first introduced by ,captain ,maconochie in ,norfolk ,island4 ,describing the working of his method1 he says 8,first1 it gave me wages and then fines4 ,one gave me willing and progressively-skilled labourers1 and the other saved me from the necessity of imposing brutal and demoralizing punishments4 4 4 4 4 ,my form of money next gave me school fees4 ,i was most anxious to encourage education among my men1 but as ,i refused them rations gratuitously1 so ,i would not give them schooling either1 but compelled them to yield marks to acquire it4 4 4 4 4 ,i never saw adult schools make such rapid progress4 4 4 4 4 ,my form of money next gave me bailbonds in cases of minor or even great offences2 a period of close imprisonment being wholly or in part remitted in consideration of a sufficient number of other prisoners of good character becoming bound1 under a penalty1 for the improved conduct of the culprit40 ,even in the establishment of a sick-club and a burial-club1 ,captain ,maconochie applied 8the inflexible principle of giving nothing for nothing40 ,that is to say1 here1 as throughout1 he made the discipline of the prisoners as #agf much like the discipline of ordinary life as possible3 let them experience just such good or evil as naturally flowed from their conduct--a principle which he rightly asserts is the only true one4 ,what were the effects8 ,the extreme debasement of ,norfolk ,island convicts was notorious2 and on a preceding page we have described some of the horrible sufferings inflicted on them4 ,yet1 starting with these most demoralized of criminals1 ,captain ,maconochie obtained highly-favourable results4 8,in four years10 he says1 8,i discharged #ibj doubly-convicted men to ,sydney1 of whom only #bj1 or #b per cent41 had been re-convicted up to ,january1 #ahde20 while1 at the same time1 the ordinary proportion of re-convicted ,van ,diemen's ,land men1 otherwise trained1 was #i per cent4 8,captain ,maconochie10 writes ,mr4 ,harris in his ,settlers and ,convicts1 8did more for the reformation of these unhappy wretches1 and amelioration of their physical circumstances1 than the most sanguine practical mind could beforehand have ventured even to hope40 ,another witness says--8a reformation far greater than has been hitherto effected in any body of men by any system1 either before or after yours1 has taken place in them40 8,as pastor of the island1 and for two years a magistrate1 ,i can prove that at no period was there so little crime10 writes the ,rev4 ,b4 ,naylor4 ,and ,thomas ,h4 ,dixon1 ,chief ,superintendent of ,convicts in ,western ,australia1 who partially introduced the system there in #ahef1 asserts that not only was the amount of work done under it extraordinary1 but that 8even although the characters of some of the party were by no means good previously 7many of them being men whose licences had been revoked in ,england71 yet the transformation which in this and all other respects they underwent1 was very remarkable indeed40 ,if such were the results1 when the method was imperfectly carried out 7for the ,government all along refused to give any fixed value to the marks as a means to liberation72 what might be #agg expected if its motives and restraints were allowed their full influence8 ,perhaps1 however1 of all evidence1 the most conclusive is that afforded by the prison of ,valencia4 ,when1 in #ahce1 ,colonel ,montesinos was appointed governor1 8the average of re-committals was from #cj to #ce per cent4 per annum--nearly the same that is found in ,england and other countries in ,europe2 but such has been the success of his method1 that for the last three years there has not been even one re-committal to it1 and for the ten previous years they did not1 on an average1 exceed #a per cent40 ,and how has this marvellous change been brought about8 ,by diminished restraint and industrial discipline4 ,the following extracts1 taken irregularly from ,mr4 ,hoskins's ,account of the ,public ,prison at ,valencia1 will prove this3 8,when first the convict enters the establishment he wears chains1 but on his application to the commander they are taken off1 unless he has not conducted himself well40 8,there are a thousand prisoners1 and in the whole establishment ,i did not see above three or four guardians to keep them in order4 ,they say there are only a dozen old soldiers1 and not a bar or bolt that might not be easily broken--apparently not more fastenings than in any private house40 8,when a convict enters1 he is asked what trade or employment he will work at or learn1 and above forty are open to him4 4 4 4 4 ,there are weavers and spinners of every description2 4 4 4 4 blacksmiths1 shoemakers1 basketmakers1 ropemakers1 joiners1 cabinetmakers1 making handsome mahogany drawers2 and they had also a printing machine hard at work40 8,the labour of every description for the repair1 rebuilding1 and cleaning the establishment1 is supplied by the convicts4 ,they were all most respectful in demeanour1 and certainly ,i never saw such a good-looking set of prisoners1 useful occupations 7and other considerate treatment7 having apparently improved their countenances4 4 4 4 4 ,and besides a garden for exercise planted with orange trees1 there was also a poultry yard for their amusement1 with pheasants and various other kinds of birds2 washing-houses1 where they wash their clothes2 and a shop1 where they can purchase1 if they wish1 tobacco and other little comforts out of one-fourth of the profits of their labour1 which is given to them4 ,another fourth they are entitled to when they leave2 the other half goes to the establishment1 and often this is sufficient for all expenses1 without any assistance from the ,government40 ,thus the highest success1 regarded by ,mr4 ,hoskins as #agh 8really a miracle10 is achieved by a system most nearly conforming to those dictates of absolute morality on which we have insisted4 ,the convicts are almost1 if not quite1 self-supporting4 ,they are subject neither to gratuitous penalties nor unnecessary restrictions4 ,while made to earn their living1 they are allowed to purchase such enjoyments as consist with their confinement3 the avowed principle being1 in the words of ,colonel ,montesinos1 to 8give as much latitude to their free agency as can be made conformable to discipline at all40 ,thus they are 7as we found that equity required they should be7 allowed to live as satisfactorily as they can1 under such restraints only as are needful for the safety of their fellow-citizens4 ,to us it appears extremely significant that there should be so close a correspondence between a priori conclusions1 and the results of experiments tried without reference to such conclusions4 ,on the one hand1 neither in the doctrines of pure equity with which we set out1 nor in the corollaries drawn from them1 is there any mention of criminal-reformation3 our concern has been solely with the rights of citizens and convicts in their mutual relations4 ,on the other hand1 those who have carried out the improved penal systems above described1 have had almost solely in view the improvement of the offender3 the just claims of society1 and of those who sin against it1 having been left out of the question4 ,yet the methods which have succeeded so marvellously in decreasing criminality1 are the methods which most nearly fulfil the requirements of abstract justice4 ,that the most equitable system is the one best calculated to reform the offender1 may indeed be deductively shown4 ,the internal experience of every one must prove to him1 that excessive punishment begets1 not penitence1 but indignation and hatred4 ,so long as an aggressor suffers nothing beyond the evils which have naturally resulted from his misconduct--so long as he perceives that his fellow-men have done no more than was needful for self-defence--he #agi has no excuse for anger2 and is led to contemplate his crime and his punishment as cause and effect4 ,but if gratuitous sufferings are inflicted on him1 a sense of injustice is produced4 ,he regards himself as an injured man4 ,he cherishes animosity against all who have brought this harsh treatment on him4 ,glad of any plea for forgetting the injury he has done to others1 he dwells instead on the injury others have done to him4 ,thus nurturing a desire for revenge rather than atonement1 he re-enters society not better but worse2 and if he does not commit further crimes1 as he often does1 he is restrained by the lowest of motives--fear4 ,again1 this industrial discipline1 to which criminals subject themselves under a purely equitable system1 is the discipline they especially need4 ,speaking generally1 we are all compelled to work by the necessities of our social existence4 ,for most of us this compulsion suffices2 but there are some whose aversion to labour cannot be thus overcome4 ,not labouring1 and yet needing sustenance1 they are compelled to obtain it in illegitimate ways2 and so bring on themselves the legal penalties4 ,the criminal class being thus in great part recruited from the idle class2 and the idleness being the source of the criminality2 it follows that a successful discipline must be one which shall cure the idleness4 ,the natural compulsions to labour having been eluded1 the thing required is that the offender shall be so placed that he cannot elude them4 ,and this is just what is done under the system we advocate4 ,its action is such that men whose natures are ill-adapted to the conditions of social life1 bring themselves into a position in which a better adaptation is forced on them by the alternative of starvation4 ,lastly1 let us not forget that this discipline which absolute morality dictates1 is salutary1 not only because it is industrial1 but because it is voluntarily industrial4 ,as we have shown1 equity requires that the confined criminal shall be left to maintain himself--that is1 shall be #ahj left to work much or little1 and to take the consequent plenitude or hunger4 ,when1 therefore1 under this sharp but natural spur1 a prisoner begins to exert himself1 he does so by his own will4 ,the process which leads him into habits of labour1 is a process by which his self-control is strengthened2 and this is what is wanted to make him a better citizen4 ,it is to no purpose that you make him work by external coercion2 for when he is again free1 and the coercion absent1 he will be what he was before4 ,the coercion must be an internal one1 which he shall carry with him out of prison4 ,it avails little that you force him to work2 he must force himself to work4 ,and this he will do1 only when placed in those conditions which equity dictates4 ,here1 then1 we find a third order of evidences4 ,psychology supports our conclusion4 ,the various experiments above detailed1 carried out by men who had no political or ethical theories to propagate1 have established facts which we find to be quite concordant1 not only with the deductions of absolute morality1 but also with the deductions of mental science4 ,such a combination of different kinds of proof1 cannot1 we think1 be resisted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now let us try whether1 by pursuing somewhat further the method thus far followed1 we can see our way to the development of certain improved systems which are coming into use4 ,equity requires that the restraint of the criminal shall be as great as is needful for the safety of society2 but not greater4 ,in respect to the quality of the restraint1 there is little difficulty in interpreting this requirement2 but there is considerable difficulty in deciding on the duration of the restraint4 ,no obvious mode presents itself of finding out how long a transgressor must be held in legal bondage1 to insure society against further injury from him4 ,a longer period than is necessary1 implies an actual injustice to #aha the offender4 ,a shorter period than is necessary1 implies a potential injustice to society4 ,and yet1 without good guidance1 one or other of these extremes is almost sure to be fallen into4 ,at present1 the lengths of penal sentences are fixed in a manner that is wholly empirical4 ,for offences defined in certain technical ways1 ,acts of ,parliament assign transportations and imprisonments1 having durations not greater than so much nor less than so much3 these partially-determined periods being arbitrarily fixed by legislators1 under the promptings of moral feeling4 ,within the assigned limits the judge exercises his discretion2 and in deciding on the time over which the restraint shall extend1 he is swayed1 partly by the special quality of the offence1 partly by the circumstances under which it was committed1 partly by the prisoner's appearance and behaviour1 partly by the character given to him4 ,and the conclusion he arrives at after consideration of these data1 depends very much on his individual nature--his moral bias and his theories of human conduct4 ,thus the mode of fixing the lengths of penal restraints1 is from beginning to end1 little else than guessing4 ,how ill this system of guessing works1 we have abundant proofs4 8,justices' justice10 which illustrates it in its simplest form1 has become a bye-word2 and the decisions of higher criminal court frequently err in the directions of both undue severity and undue lenity4 ,daily there occur cases of extremely-trifling transgressions visited with imprisonments of considerable lengths2 and daily there occur cases in which the punishments are so inadequate1 that the offenders time after time commit new crimes1 when time after time discharged from custody4 ,now the question is whether1 in place of this purely empirical method which answers so ill1 equity can guide us to a method which shall more correctly adjust the period of restraint to the requirement4 ,we believe it can4 ,we believe that by following out its dictates1 we shall arrive #ahb at a method that is in great measure self-acting2 and therefore less liable to be vitiated by errors of individual judgment or feeling4 ,we have seen that were the injunctions of absolute morality obeyed1 every transgressor would be compelled to make restitution or compensation4 ,throughout a considerable range of cases1 this would itself involve a period of restraint varying in proportion to the magnitude of the offence4 ,it is true that when the malefactor possessed ample means1 the making restitution or compensation would usually be to him but a slight punishment4 ,but though in these comparatively few cases1 the regulation would fall short of its object1 in so far as its effect on the criminal was concerned1 yet in the immense majority of cases--in all cases of aggressions committed by the poorer members of the community--it would act with efficiency4 ,it would involve periods of detention that would be longer or shorter according as the injury done was greater or less1 and according as the transgressor was idle or industrious4 ,and although between the injury done by an offender and his moral turpitude1 there is no constant and exact proportion1 yet the greatness of the injury done1 affords1 on the average of cases1 a better measure of the discipline required1 than do the votes of ,parliamentary majorities and the guesses of judges4 ,but our guidance does not end here4 ,an endeavour still further to do that which is strictly equitable1 will carry us still nearer to a correct adjustment of discipline to delinquency4 ,when1 having enforced restitution1 we insist on some adequate guarantee that society shall not again be injured1 and accept any guarantee that is sufficient1 we open the way to a self-acting regulator of the period of detention4 ,already our laws are in many cases satisfied with securities for future good behaviour4 ,already this system manifestly tends to separate the more vicious from the less vicious2 seeing that1 on the average1 the difficulty of #ahc finding securities is great in proportion as the character is bad4 ,and what we propose is that this system1 now confined to particular kinds of offences1 shall be made general4 ,but let us be more specific4 ,a prisoner on his trial calls witnesses to testify to his previous character--that is1 if his character has been tolerably good4 ,the evidence thus given weighs more or less in his favour1 according to the respectability of the witnesses1 their number1 and the nature of their testimony4 ,taking into account these several elements1 the judge forms his conception of the delinquent's general disposition1 and modifies the length of punishment accordingly4 ,now1 may we not fairly say that if the current opinion respecting a convict's character could be brought directly to bear in qualifying the statutory sentence1 instead of being brought indirectly to bear1 as at present1 it would be a great improvement8 ,clearly the estimate made by a judge from such testimony1 must be less accurate than the estimate made by the prisoner's neighbours and employers4 ,clearly1 too1 the opinion expressed by such neighbours and employers in the witness-box1 is less trustworthy than an opinion which entails on them serious responsibility4 ,the desideratum is1 that a prisoner's sentence shall be qualified by the judgment of those who have had life-long experience of him2 and that the sincerity of this judgment shall be tested by their readiness to act on it4 ,but how is this to be done8 ,a very simple method of doing it has been suggested4#h ,when a convict has fulfilled his task of making restitution or compensation1 let it be possible for one or other of those who have known him1 to take him out of confinement1 on giving adequate bail for his good behaviour4 ,always premising that such an arrangement shall be possible only under an official permit1 to be withheld if the prisoner's conduct has been unsatisfactory2 and always premising that the person who offers bail shall #ahd be of good character and means2 let it be competent for such a one to liberate a prisoner by being bound on his behalf for a specific sum1 or by undertaking to make good any injury which he may do to his fellow-citizens within a specified period4 ,this will doubtless be thought a startling proposal4 ,we shall1 however1 find good reasons to believe it might be safely acted on--nay1 we shall find facts proving the success of a plan that is obviously less safe4 #h ,we owe the suggestion to the late ,mr4 ,octavius ,h4 ,smith4 ,under such an arrangement1 the liberator and the convict would usually stand in the relation of employer and employed4 ,those to be thus conditionally released1 would be ready to work for somewhat lower wages than were usual in their occupation2 and those who became bound for them1 besides having this economy of wages as an incentive1 would be in a manner guaranteed by it against the risk undertaken4 ,in working for less money1 and in being under the surveillance of his master1 the convict would still be undergoing a mitigated discipline4 ,and while1 on the one hand1 he would be put on his good behaviour by the consciousness that his master might at any time cancel the contract and surrender him back to the authorities1 he would1 on the other hand1 have a remedy against his master's harshness1 in the option of returning to prison1 and there maintaining himself for the remainder of his term4 ,observe1 next1 that the difficulty of obtaining such conditional release would vary with the gravity of the offence which had been committed4 ,men guilty of heinous crimes would remain in prison2 for none would dare to become responsible for their good behaviour4 ,any one convicted a second time would remain unbailed for a much longer period than before2 seeing that having once inflicted loss on some one bound for him1 he would not again be so soon offered the opportunity of doing the like3 only after a long period of good behaviour testified to by prison-officers1 would he be likely to get another chance4 ,conversely1 those whose transgressions were not serious1 and who had usually been #ahe well-conducted1 would readily obtain recognizances2 while to venial offenders this qualified liberation would come as soon as they had made restitution4 ,moreover1 when innocent persons had been pronounced guilty1 as well as when solitary misdeeds had been committed by those of really superior natures1 the system we have described would supply a remedy4 ,from the wrong verdicts of the law and its mistaken estimates of turpitude1 there would be an appeal2 and long-proved worth would bring its reward in the mitigation of grievous injustices4 ,a further advantage would by implication result1 in the shape of a long industrial discipline for those who most needed it4 ,speaking generally1 diligent and skilful workmen1 who were on the whole useful members of society1 would1 if their offences were not serious1 soon obtain employers to give bail for them4 ,whereas members of the criminal class--the idle and the dissolute--would remain long in confinement2 since1 until they had been brought by habitual self-maintenance under restraint1 to something like industrial efficiency1 employers would not be tempted to become responsible for them4 ,we should thus have a self-acting test1 not only of the length of restraint required for social safety1 but also of that apprenticeship to labour which many convicts need2 while there would be supplied a means of rectifying sundry failures and excesses of our present system4 ,the plan would practically amount to an extension of trial by jury4 ,at present1 the ,state calls in certain of a prisoner's fellow-citizens to decide whether he is guilty or not guilty3 the judge1 under guidance of the penal laws1 being left to decide what punishment he deserves1 if guilty4 ,under the arrangement we have described1 the judge's decision would admit of modification by a jury of the convict's neighbours4 ,and this natural jury1 while it would be best fitted by previous knowledge of the man to form an opinion1 would be rendered cautious by the sense of grave responsibility2 inasmuch as #ahf any one of its number who gave a conditional release1 would do so at his own peril4 ,and now mark that all the evidence forthcoming to prove the safety and advantages of the 8intermediate system10 proves1 still more conclusively1 the safety and advantages of this system which we would substitute for it4 ,what we have described1 is nothing more than an intermediate system reduced to a natural instead of an artificial form--carried out with natural checks instead of artificial checks4 ,if1 as ,captain ,crofton has experimentally shown1 it is safe to give a prisoner conditional liberation1 on the strength of good conduct during a certain period of prison-discipline2 it is evidently safer to let his conditional liberation depend not alone on good conduct while under the eyes of his jailors1 but also on the character he had earned during his previous life4 ,if it is safe to act on the judgments of officials whose experience of a convict's behaviour is comparatively limited1 and who do not suffer penalties when their judgments are mistaken2 then1 manifestly1 it is safer 7when such officials can show no reason to the contrary71 to act on the additional judgment of one who has not only had better opportunities of knowing the convict1 but who will be a serious loser if his judgment proves erroneous4 ,further1 that surveillance over each conditionally-liberated prisoner1 which the 8intermediate system0 exercises1 would be still better exercised when1 instead of going to a strange master in a strange district1 the prisoner went to some master in his own district2 and1 under such circumstances1 it would be easier to get information respecting his after-career4 ,there is every reason to think that this method would be workable4 ,if1 on the recommendation of the officers1 ,captain ,crofton's prisoners obtain employers 8who have on many occasions returned for others1 in consequence of the good conduct of those at first engaged20 still better would be the action of the system when1 instead of the employers having 8every #ahg facility placed at their disposal for satisfying themselves as to the antecedents of the convict10 they were already familiar with his antecedents4 ,finally1 let us not overlook the fact1 that this course is the only one which1 while duly consulting social safety1 is also entirely just to the prisoner4 ,as we have shown1 the restraints imposed on a criminal are warranted by absolute equity1 only to the extent needful to prevent further aggressions on his fellow-men2 and when his fellow-men impose greater restraints than these1 they trespass against him4 ,hence1 when a prisoner has worked out his task of making restitution1 and1 so far as is possible1 undone the wrong he had done1 society is1 in strict justice1 bound to accept any arrangement which adequately protects its members against further injury4 ,and if1 moved by the expectation of profit1 or other motive1 any citizen sufficiently substantial and trustworthy1 will take on himself to hold society harmless1 society must agree to his proposal4 ,all it can rightly require is1 that the guarantee against contingent injury shall be adequate2 which1 of course1 it never can be where the contingent injury is of the gravest kind4 ,no bail could compensate for murder2 and therefore against this1 and other extreme crimes1 society would rightly refuse any such guarantee1 even if offered1 which it would be very unlikely to be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such1 then1 is our code of prison-ethics4 ,such is the ideal which we ought to keep ever in view when modifying our penal system4 ,again we say1 as we said at the outset1 that the realization of such an ideal wholly depends on the advance of civilization4 ,let no one carry away the impression that we regard all these purely equitable regulations as immediately practicable4 ,though they may be partially carried out1 we think it highly improbable that they could at present be carried out in full4 ,the number of offenders1 the low average of enlightenment1 the ill-working of #ahh administrative machinery1 and above all1 the difficulty of obtaining officials of adequate intelligence1 good feeling1 and self-control1 are obstacles which must long stand in the way of a system so complex as that which morality dictates4 ,and we here assert1 as emphatically as before1 that the harshest penal system is ethically justified if it is as good as the circumstances of the time permit4 ,however great the cruelties it inflicts1 yet if a system theoretically more equitable would not be a sufficient terror to evil-doers1 or could not be worked1 from lack of officers sufficiently judicious1 honest1 and humane--if less rigorous methods would entail a diminution of social security2 then the methods in use are extrinsically good though intrinsically bad4 ,they are1 as before said1 the least wrong1 and therefore relatively right4 ,nevertheless1 as we have endeavoured to prove1 it is immensely important that1 while duly considering the relatively right1 we should keep the absolutely right constantly in view4 ,true as it is that1 in this transition state1 our conceptions of the ultimately expedient must ever be qualified by our experience of the proximately expedient2 it is not the less true that the proximately expedient cannot be determined unless the ultimately expedient is known4 ,before we can say what is as good as the time permits1 we must say what is abstractedly good2 for the first idea involves the last4 ,we must have some fixed standard1 some invariable measure1 some constant clue2 otherwise we shall inevitably be misled by the suggestions of immediate policy1 and wander away from the right rather than advance towards it4 ,this conclusion is fully borne out by the facts we have cited4 ,in other cases1 as well as in the case of penal discipline1 the evidence shows how terribly we have erred from obstinately refusing to consult first principles and clinging to an unreasoning empiricism4 ,though1 during civilization1 grievous evils have occasionally arisen from attempts suddenly to realize absolute rectitude1 yet a #ahi greater sum total of evils has arisen from the more usual course of ignoring absolute rectitude4 ,age after age1 effete institutions have been maintained far longer than they would else have been1 and equitable arrangements have been needlessly postponed4 ,is it not time for us to profit by past lessons8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,since the publication of this essay in #ahfj further evidence supporting its conclusions has been made public4 ,dr4 ,f4,j4 ,mouat1 late ,inspector-,general of ,gaols in ,lower ,bengal1 has given1 in various pamphlets and articles1 dating from #ahgb1 accounts of his experiences1 which entirely harmonize with the foregoing general argument4 ,speaking of three leading systems of prison-discipline1 8based on opposite theories10 he says3 8,the oldest is1 that a prison should be rendered a terror to evil doers by the infliction of as much pain as can be inflicted1 without direct injury to health or risk to life4 ,the second plan is a graduated system of punishment1 from which the direct infliction of pain is eliminated1 and the prisoner is allowed to work his way to freedom and mitigation of sentence1 by mere good conduct in jail4 ,the third1 and in my humble judgment the best1 is to convert every prison into a school of industry1 labour being used as an instrument of punishment1 discipline1 and reformation40--,prison ,industry in its ,primitive1 ,reformatory1 and ,economic ,aspects 7,london1 ,nov4 #ahhi74 ,in his pamphlet on the ,prison ,system of ,india1 published in #ahgb1 ,dr4 ,mouat contends3 8,that remunerative prison labour is an efficient instrument of punishment and reformation by occupying the whole available time of criminals in uncongenial and compulsory employments2 by teaching them the means of gaining an honest livelihood on release2 by the inculcation of habits of order and industry1 to the displacement of the irregularity and idleness which are the sources of so much vice and crime2 and by repaying to the ,state the whole or part of the cost of repression of crime by the compulsory industry of the unproductive classes1 and thus relieving the community at large from a burden which it is at present compelled to bear4 8,that the economic objections to the remunerative employment of convicts are unsound and untenable2 and that even if they were true as respects individuals and small sections of the community1 the interests of the minority should yield to the general welfare40 ,once more1 under the title ,prison ,discipline and its ,results in ,bengal1 first published in the ,journal of the #aij ,society of ,arts in #ahgb1 ,dr4 ,mouat1 after describing an exhibition of gaol-manufactures held in ,calcutta in #ahef1 urges 8that every prisoner sentenced to labour should be made to repay to the ,state the whole cost of his punishment in gaol2 4 4 4 and that prisons should be made1 as much as possible1 schools of industry1 as combining1 more completely than can be effected by any other system1 the punishment of the offender1 with the protection of society40 ,he then goes on to show what have been the results of the self-supporting system3 8,the net profits realized from the labour of the convicts actually employed in handicrafts1 after deducting the cost of production1 were1 in round numbers1 as follows3 #ahee-ef #aa1jai '#ef-eg #ab1cjj '#eg-eh #aj1hda '#ei-fj #ad1jfe '#fj-fa #bc1abd '#fa-fb #ed1edb '#fb-fc #cj1fjd '#fc-fd #ed1edb '#fd-fe #cb1ihh '#fe-ff #ce1edc '#ff #ad1bhg '#fg #da1afh '#fh #ef1hag '#fi #df1ehh '#gj #de1bgd ,in all1 nearly half a million of money4 ,in #ahff1 the accounts were made up for only eight months1 to introduce the calendar in place of the official year1 which ended on the #cjth of ,april4 8,if the limits of time and space permitted1 ,i could show you in minute detail that each skilled prisoner employed in handicrafts1 striking the average of all the jails1 earned considerably more than he cost2 that five of the prisons under my charge were at various times self-supporting1 and that one of them1 the great industrial prison at ,alipore1 a suburb of ,calcutta1 has repaid very considerably more than its cost1 for the last ten years continuously40 ,as ,dr4 ,mouat held the position of ,inspector-,general of ,gaols in ,lower ,bengal for #ae years1 and as1 during that period1 he had under his control an average of #bj1jjj prisoners1 it may1 ,i think1 be held that his experiences have been tolerably extensive1 and that a system justified by such experiences is worthy of adoption4 ,unfortunately1 however1 men pooh-pooh those experiences which do not accord with their foregone conclusions4 ,i have occasionally vented the paradox that mankind go #aia right only when they have tried all possible ways of going wrong3 intending it to be taken with some qualification4 ,of late1 however1 ,i have observed that in some respects this paradox falls short of the truth4 ,sundry instances have shown me that even when mankind have at length stumbled into the right course1 they often deliberately return to the wrong4 #aib ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,kant4 ,from the ,fortnightly ,review for ,july #ahhh4 ,this essay was called forth by attacks on me made in essays published in preceding numbers of the ,fortnightly ,review--essays in which the ,kantian system of ethics was lauded as immensely superior to the system of ethics defended by me4 ,the last section now appears for the first time4 ,if1 before ,kant uttered that often-quoted saying in which1 with the stars of ,heaven he coupled the conscience of ,man1 as being the two things that excited his awe1 he had known more of ,man than he did1 he would probably have expressed himself somewhat otherwise4 ,not1 indeed1 that the conscience of ,man is not wonderful enough1 whatever be its supposed genesis2 but the wonderfulness of it is of a different kind according as we assume it to have been supernaturally given or infer that it has been naturally evolved4 ,the knowledge of ,man in that large sense which ,anthropology expresses1 had made1 in ,kant's day1 but small advances4 ,the books of travel were relatively few1 and the facts which they contained concerning the human mind as existing in different races1 had not been gathered together and generalized4 ,in our days the conscience of ,man1 as inductively known1 has none of that universality of presence and unity of nature1 which ,kant's saying tacitly assumes4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock writes3 8,in fact1 ,i believe that the lower races of men may be said to be deficient #aic in the idea of right4 4 4 4 4 ,that there should be any races of men so deficient in moral feeling1 was altogether opposed to the preconceived ideas with which ,i commenced the study of savage life1 and ,i have arrived at the conviction by slow degrees1 and even with reluctance40--,origin of ,civilization1 #ahhb1 pp4 #djd-e4 ,but now let us look at the evidence from which this impression is derived1 as we find it in the testimonies of travellers and missionaries4 ,praising his deceased son1 ,tui ,thakau1 a ,fijian ,chief1 concluded 8by speaking of his daring spirit and consummate cruelty1 as he could kill his own wives if they offended him1 and eat them afterwards40--,western ,pacific4 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 p4 #bdh4 8,shedding of blood is to him no crime1 but a glory 4 4 4 4 to be somehow an acknowledged murderer is the object of the ,fijian's restless ambition40--,fiji and the ,fijians4 ,rev4 ,t4 ,williams1 i41 p4 #aab4 8,it is a melancholy fact that when they the ,zulu boys have arrived at a very early age1 should their mothers attempt to chastise them1 such is the law1 that these lads are at the moment allowed to kill their mothers40--,travels and ,adventures in ,southern ,africa4 ,g4 ,thompson1 ii41 p4 #dah4 8,murther1 adultery1 thievery1 and all other such like crimes1 are here ,gold ,coast accounted no sins40--,description of the ,coast of ,guinea4 ,w4 ,bosman1 p4 #acj4 8,the accusing conscience is unknown to him the ,east ,african4 ,his only fear after committing a treacherous murder is that of being haunted by the angry ghost of the dead40--,lake ,regions of ,central ,africa4 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 ii41 p4 #ccf4 8,i never could make them ,east ,africans understand the existence of good principle40--,the ,albert ,n',yanza4 ,s4 ,w4 ,baker1 i41 pp4 #bda4 8,the ,damaras kill useless and worn-out people2 even sons smother their sick fathers40--,narrative of an ,explorer in ,tropical ,south ,africa4 ,f4 ,galton1 p4 #aab4 ,the ,damaras 8seem to have no perceptible notion of right and wrong40--,ibid4 p4 #gb4 ,against these we may set some converse facts4 ,at the other extreme we have a few ,eastern tribes--pagans they are called--who practise the virtues which ,western nations--,christians they are called--do but teach4 ,while ,europeans thirst for blood-revenge in much the same way as the lowest savages1 there are some simple peoples of the ,indian ,hills1 as the ,lepchas1 who 8are singularly forgiving of injuries20#i and ,campbell exemplifies 8the effect of a #aid very strong sense of duty on this savage40#aj ,that character which the creed of ,christendom is supposed to foster is exhibited in high degree by the ,arafuras 7,papuans7 who live in 8peace and brotherly love with one another0#aa to such extent that government is but nominal4 ,and concerning various of the ,indian ,hill-tribes1 as the ,santls1 ,sowrahs1 ,marias1 ,lepchas1 ,bodo and ,dhimls1 different observers testify of them severally that 8they were the most truthful set of men ,i ever met10#ab 8crime and criminal officers are almost unknown10#ac 8a pleasing feature in their character is their complete truthfulness10#ad 8they bear a singular character for truthfulness and honesty10#ae they are 8wonderfully honest10#af 8honest and truthful in deed and word40#ag ,irrespective of race1 we find these traits in men who are1 and have long been1 absolutely peaceful 7the uniform antecedent71 be they the ,jakuns of the ,south ,malayan ,peninsula1 who 8are never known to steal anything1 not even the most insignificant trifle10#ah or be it in the ,hos of the ,himalaya1 among whom 8a reflection on a man's honesty or veracity may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction40#ai ,so that in respect of conscience these uncivilized people are as superior to average ,europeans1 as average ,europeans are superior to the brutal savages previously described4 #i ,campbell in ,journal of the ,ethnological ,society1 ,july1 ,n4 ,s4 vol4 i41 #ahfi1 p4 #aej4 #aj ,ibid4 p4 #aed4 #aa ,dr4 ,h4 ,kolff1 ,voyages of the ,dutch brig 8,dourga40 ,earl's translation1 pp4 #afa4 #ab ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1 ,annals of ,rural ,bengal1 p4 #bdh4 #ac ,ibid4 p4 #bag4 #ad ,dr4 ,j4 ,shortt1 ,hill ,ranges of ,southern ,india1 pt4 iii41 p4 #ch4 #ae ,glasfind in ,selections from the ,records of ,government of ,india 7,foreign ,department71 ,no4 xxxix41 p4 #da4 #af ,campbell in ,journal of the ,ethnological ,society1 ,n4 ,s4 vol4 i41 #ahfi1 p4 #aej4 #ag ,b4 ,h4 ,hodgson in ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 xviii41 p4 #gde4 #ah ,rev4 ,p4 ,favre in ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ii41 p4 #bff4 #ai ,col4 ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bjf4 ,had ,kant had these and kindred facts before him1 #aie his conception of the human mind1 and consequently his ethical conception1 would scarcely have been what they were4 ,believing1 as he did1 that one object of his awe--the stellar ,universe--has been evolved1 he might by evidence like the foregoing have been led to suspect that the other object of his awe--the human conscience--has been evolved1 and has consequently a real nature unlike its apparent nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the disciples of ,kant living in our day there can be made no such defence as that which may be made for their master4 ,on all sides of them lie classes of facts of various kinds1 which might suffice to make them hesitate1 if nothing more4 ,here are a few such classes of facts4 ,though1 unlike the uncultured1 who suppose everything to be what it appears1 chemists had for many generations known that multitudinous substances which seem simple are really compound1 and often highly compound2 yet1 until the time of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 even chemists had believed that certain substances which resisted all their powers of decomposition1 were to be classed among the elements4 ,davy1 however1 by subjecting the alkalies to a force not before applied1 proved that they are oxides of metals2 and1 suspecting the like to be the case with the earths1 similarly proved the composite nature of these also4 ,not only the common sense of the uncultured1 but the common sense of the cultured was shown to be wrong4 ,wider knowledge has1 as usual1 led to greater modesty1 and1 since ,davy's day1 chemists have felt less certain that the so-called elements are elementary4 ,contrariwise1 increasing evidence of sundry kinds leads them to suspect more and more strongly that they are all compound4 ,alike to the labourer who digs it out and to the carpenter who uses it in his workshop1 a piece of chalk appears a thing than which nothing can be simpler2 and ninety-nine people out of a hundred would agree with them4 ,yet a #aif piece of chalk is highly complex4 ,a microscope shows it to consist of myriads of shells of ,foraminifera2 shows1 further1 that it contains more kinds than one2 and shows1 further still1 that each minute shell1 whole or broken1 is formed of many chambers1 every one of which once contained a living unit4 ,thus by ordinary inspection1 however close1 the true nature of chalk cannot be known2 and to one who has absolute confidence in his eyes the assertion of its true nature appears absurd4 ,take again a living body of a seemingly uncomplicated kind--say a potato4 ,cut it through and observe how structureless is its substance4 ,but though unaided vision gives this verdict1 aided vision gives a widely different one4 ,aided vision discovers1 in the first place1 that the mass is everywhere permeated by vessels of complex formation4 ,further1 that it is made up of innumerable units called cells1 each of which has walls composed of several layers4 ,further still1 that each cell contains a number of starch-grains4 ,and yet still further1 that each of these grains is formed of layer within layer1 like the coats of an onion4 ,so that where there appears perfect simplicity there is really complexity within complexity4 ,from these examples which the objective world furnishes1 let us turn to some examples furnished by the subjective world--some of our states of consciousness4 ,up to modern times any one who1 looking out on the snow1 was told that the impression of whiteness it gave him was composed of impressions such as those given by the rainbow1 would have regarded his informant as a lunatic2 as would even now the great mass of mankind4 ,but since ,newton's day1 it has become well known to a relatively small number that this is literal fact4 ,not only may white light be resolved by a prism into a number of brilliant colours1 but1 by an appropriate arrangement1 these colours can be re-combined into white light3 the visual sensation which seems perfectly simple proves to be highly compound4 ,those who #aig habitually suppose that things are what they seem1 are wrong here as in multitudinous other cases4 ,another example is supplied by the sensation of sound4 ,a solitary note struck on the piano1 or a blast from a horn1 yields through the ear a feeling which appears homogeneous2 and the uninstructed are incredulous if told that it is an intricate combination of noises4 ,in the first place1 that which constitutes the more voluminous part of the tone is accompanied by a number of over-tones1 producing what is known as its timbre3 instead of one note1 there are half a dozen notes1 of which the chief has its character specialized by the others4 ,in the second place1 each of these notes1 consisting objectively of a rapid series of arial waves1 produces subjectively a rapid series of impressions on the auditory nerve4 ,either by the appliance of ,hooke or by ,savart's machine or by the siren1 it is proved to demonstration that every musical sound is the product of successive units of sound1 each in itself unmusical1 which1 as they succeed one another with increasing rapidity1 produce a tone which progressively rises in pitch4 ,here again1 then1 under an apparent simplicity there is a double complexity4 ,most of these examples of the illusiveness of unaided perception1 whether exercised upon objective or subjective existences1 were unknown to ,kant4 ,had they been known to him they might have suggested other views concerning certain of our states of consciousness1 and might have given a different character to his philosophy4 ,let us observe what would possibly have been the changes in two of his cardinal conceptions--metaphysical and ethical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our consciousness of ,time and ,space appeared to him1 as they appear to everyone1 perfectly simple2 and the apparent simplicity he accepted as actual simplicity4 ,had he suspected that1 just as the seemingly homogeneous and undecomposable consciousness of ,sound really consists of multitudinous units of consciousness1 so might the #aih apparently homogeneous and undecomposable consciousness of ,space1 he would possibly have been led to inquire whether the consciousness of ,space is not wholly composed of infinitely numerous relations of position1 such as those which every portion of it presents4 ,and finding that every portion of ,space1 immense or minute1 cannot be either known or conceived save in some relative position to the conscious subject1 and that1 besides involving the relations of distance and direction1 it invariably contains within itself relations of right and left1 top and bottom1 nearer and farther2 he might perhaps have concluded that our consciousness of that matrix of phenomena we call ,space1 has been built up in the course of ,evolution by accumulated experiences registered in the nervous system4 ,and had he concluded this1 he would not have committed himself to the many absurdities which his doctrine involves4#bj ,similarly1 if1 instead of assuming that conscience is simple because it seems simple to ordinary introspection1 he had entertained the hypothesis that it is perhaps complex--a consolidated product of multitudinous experiences received1 mainly by ancestors and added to by self--he might have arrived at a consistent system of ,ethics4 ,that the habitual association of pains with certain things and acts1 generation after generation1 may produce organic repugnance to such things and acts1#ba might1 had it been known to him1 have made him suspect that conscience is a product of ,evolution4 ,and in that case his conception of it would not have been incongruous with the facts above named1 showing that there are widely different degrees of conscience in different races4 #bj ,see ,principles of ,psychology1 #cii4 #ba ,see ,principles of ,psychology1 #ahi 7note7 and #ebj4 ,in brief1 as already implied1 had ,kant1 instead of his incongruous beliefs that the celestial bodies have had an evolutionary origin1 but that the minds of living beings on them1 or at least on one of them1 have had a #aii non-evolutionary origin1 entertained the belief that both have arisen by ,evolution1 he would have been saved from the impossibilities of his ,metaphysics1 and the untenabilities of his ,ethics4 ,to the consideration of these last1 let us now pass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before doing this1 however1 something must be said concerning abnormal reasoning as compared with normal reasoning4 ,knowledge which is of the highest order in respect of certainty1 and which we call exact science1 is distinguished from other knowledge by its definitely quantitative previsions4#bb ,it sets out with data1 and proceeds by steps which1 taken together1 enable it to say under what specified conditions a specified relation of phenomena will be found2 and to say in what place1 or at what time1 or in what quantity1 or all of them1 a certain effect will be witnessed4 ,given the factors of any arithmetical operation1 and there is absolute certainty in the result reached1 supposing there are no stumblings3 stumblings which always admit of detection and disproof by the method which we shall presently find is pursued4 ,base and angles having been accurately measured1 that sub-division of geometry which is called trigonometry yields with certainty the distance or the height of the object of which the position is sought4 ,the ratio of the arms of a lever having been stated1 mechanics tells us what weight at one end will balance an assigned weight at the other4 ,and by the aid of these three exact sciences1 the ,calculus1 ,geometry1 and ,mechanics1 ,astronomy can predict to the minute1 for each separate place on the ,earth1 when an eclipse will begin and end1 and how near it will approach to totality4 ,knowledge of this order has infinite justifications in the successful guidance of infinitely numerous human actions4 ,the accounts of every trader1 the operations of every workshop1 the navigation of every vessel1 depend for their trustworthiness #bjj on these sciences4 ,the method they pursue1 therefore1 verified in cases which pass all human power to enumerate1 is a method not to be transcended in certainty4 #bb ,see ,essay on 8,genesis of ,science40 ,what is this method8 ,whichever of these sciences we examine1 we find the course uniformly pursued to be that of setting out with propositions of which the negations are inconceivable1 and advancing by successive dependent propositions1 each of which has the like character--that its negation is inconceivable4 ,in a developed consciousness 7and of course ,i exclude minds of which the faculties are unformed7 it is impossible to represent things that are equal to the same thing as being themselves unequal2 and in a developed consciousness1 action and re-action cannot be thought of as other than equal and opposite4 ,in like manner1 every because and every therefore1 used in a mathematical argument1 connotes a proposition of which the terms are absolutely coherent in the mode alleged3 the proof being that an attempt to bring together in consciousness the terms of the opposite proposition is futile4 ,and this method of testing1 alike the fundamental propositions and all members of the fabrics of propositions raised upon them1 is consistently pursued in verifying the conclusion4 ,inference and observation are compared2 and when they agree1 it is held inconceivable that the inference is other than true4 ,in contrast to the method which ,i have just described1 distinguishable as the legitimate a priori method1 there is one which may be called--,i was about to say1 the illegitimate a priori method4 ,but the word is not strong enough2 it must be called the inverted a priori method4 ,instead of setting out with a proposition of which the negation is inconceivable1 it sets out with a proposition of which the affirmation is inconceivable1 and therefrom proceeds to draw conclusions4 ,it is not consistent1 however3 it does not continue to do that which it does at first4 ,having posited an inconceivable proposition to begin with1 it does not #bja frame its argument out of a series of inconceivable propositions4 ,all steps after the first are of the kind ordinarily accepted as valid4 ,the successive therefores and becauses have the usual connotations4 ,the peculiarity lies in this1 that in every proposition save the first1 the reader is expected to admit the logical necessity of an inference drawn1 for the reason that the opposite is not thinkable2 but he is not supposed to expect a like conformity to logical necessity in the primary proposition4 ,the dictum of a logical consciousness which must be recognized as valid in every subsequent step1 must be ignored in the first step4 ,we pass now to an illustration of this method which here concerns us4 ,the first sentence in ,kant's first chapter runs thus3--8,nothing can possibly be conceived in the world1 or even out of it1 which can be called good without qualification1 except a ,good ,will40#bc ,and then on the next page we come upon the following definition3 8,a good will is good not because of what it performs or effects1 nor by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end1 but simply by virtue of the volition1 that is1 it is good in itself1 and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favour of any inclination1 nay even of the sum total of all inclinations40#bd #bc ,kant's ,critique of ,practical ,reason and other works on the ,theory of ,ethics1 trans4 by ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott1 p4 #aa4 #bd ,ibid4 pp4 #ab-ac4 ,most fallacies result from the habit of using words without fully rendering them into thoughts--passing them by with recognitions of their meanings as ordinarily used1 without stopping to consider whether these meanings admit of being given to them in the cases named4 ,let us not rest satisfied with thinking vaguely of what is understood by 8a ,good ,will10 but let us interpret the words definitely4 ,will implies the consciousness of some end4 ,exclude from it every idea of purpose and the conception of ,will disappears4 ,an end of some kind being necessarily implied by the conception of ,will1 the quality of the ,will is determined #bjb by the quality of the end contemplated4 ,will itself1 considered apart from any distinguishing epithet1 is not cognizable by ,morality at all4 ,it becomes cognizable by ,morality only when it gains its character as good or bad by virtue of its contemplated end as good or bad4 ,if any one doubts this1 let him try whether he can think of a good will which contemplates a bad end4 ,the whole question1 therefore1 centres in the meaning of the word good4 ,let us look at the meanings habitually given to it4 ,we speak of good meat1 good bread1 good wine2 by which phrases we mean either things that are palatable1 and so give pleasure1 or things that are wholesome1 and by conducing to health conduce to pleasure4 ,a good fire1 good clothing1 a good house1 we so name because they minister either to comfort1 which means pleasure1 or gratify the sthetic sentiment1 which also means pleasure4 ,so it is with things which more indirectly further welfare1 as good tools or good roads4 ,when we speak of a good workman1 a good teacher1 a good doctor1 it is the same3 efficiency in aiding others' well-being is what we indirectly mean4 ,yet again1 good government1 good institutions1 good laws1 connote benefits yielded to the society in which they exist3 benefits being equivalent to certain kinds of happiness1 positive or negative4 ,but ,kant tells us that a good will is one that is good in and for itself without reference to ends4 ,we are not to think of it as prompting acts which will profit the man himself1 either by conducing to his health1 advancing his culture1 or improving his inclinations2 for all these are in the long run conducive to happiness1 and are urged only for the reason that they do this4 ,we are not to think of a will as good because1 by fulfilment of it1 friends are saved from sufferings or have their gratifications increased2 for this would involve calling it good because of beneficial ends in view4 ,nor must conduciveness to social ameliorations1 present or future1 be taken into account when we attempt to conceive #bjc a good will4 ,in short1 we are to frame our idea of a good will without any material out of which to frame the idea of good3 good is to be used in thought as an eviscerated term4 ,here1 then1 is illustrated what ,i have called above the inverted a priori method of philosophizing3 the setting out with an inconceivable proposition4 ,the ,kantian ,metaphysics starts by asserting that ,space is 8nothing but0 a form of intuition--pertains wholly to the subject and not at all to the object4 ,this is a verbally intelligible proposition1 but one of which the terms cannot be put together in consciousness2 for neither ,kant1 nor any one else1 ever succeeded in bringing into unity of representation the thought of ,space and the thought of ,self1 as being the one an attribute of the other4 ,and here we see that1 just in the same way1 the ,kantian ,ethics begins by positing something which seems to have a meaning but which has really no meaning--something which1 under the conditions imposed1 cannot be rendered into thought at all4 ,for neither ,kant1 nor any one else1 ever has or ever can1 frame a consciousness of a good will when from the word good are expelled all thoughts of those ends which we distinguish by the word good4 99 99 99 99 99 ,evidently ,kant himself sees that his assumption invites attack1 for he proceeds to defend it4 ,he says3 8,there is1 however1 something so strange in this idea of the absolute value of the mere will1 in which no account is taken of its utility1 that notwithstanding the thorough assent of even common reason to the idea 61 yet a suspicion must arise that it may perhaps really be the product of mere high-flown fancy1 c40 7p4 #ac74 ,and then to prepare for a justification1 he goes on to say3 8,in the physical constitution of an organized being we assume it as a fundamental principle that no organ for any purpose will be found in it but what is also the fittest and best adapted for that purpose0 7pp4 #ac-ad74 ,now1 even had this assumption been valid1 the argument he bases upon it1 far-fetched as it is1 might be considered of very inadequate strength to warrant the supposition that there can be a will conceived as good without any reference #bjd to good ends4 ,but1 unfortunately for ,kant1 the assumption is utterly invalid4 ,in his day it probably passed without question2 but in our day few if any biologists would admit it4 ,on the special-creation hypothesis some defence of the proposition might be attempted1 but the evolution-hypothesis tacitly negatives it entirely4 ,let us begin with some minor facts which militate against ,kant's supposition4 ,take1 first1 rudimentary organs4 ,these are numerous throughout the animal kingdom4 ,while representing organs which were of use in ancestral types1 they are of no use in the types possessing them2 and1 as being rudimentary1 they are of necessity imperfect4 ,moreover1 besides being injurious by taxing nutrition to no purpose1 they are almost certainly in some cases injurious by being in the way4 ,then1 beyond the argument from rudimentary organs1 there is the argument from make-shift organs1 which form a large class4 ,we have a conspicuous case in the swimming organ of the seal1 formed by the apposition of the two hind limbs--an organ manifestly inferior to one specially shaped for its function1 and one which1 during early stages of the changes which have produced it1 must have been very inefficient4 ,but the untruth of the assumption is best shown by comparing a given organ in a low type of creature with the same organ in a high type4 ,the alimentary canal1 for example1 in very inferior creatures is a simple tube1 substantially alike from end to end1 and having throughout all its parts the same function4 ,but in a superior creature this tube is differentiated into mouth1 sophagus1 stomach 7or stomachs71 small and large intestines with their various appended glands pouring in secretions4 ,now if this last form of alimentary canal is to be regarded as a perfect organ1 or something like it1 what shall we say of the original form2 and what shall we say of all those forms lying between the two8 ,the vascular system1 again1 furnishes a clear instance4 ,the primitive heart is nothing but a dilatation of the great blood vessel--a pulsatile #bje sac4 ,but a mammal has a four-chambered heart with valves1 by the aid of which the blood is propelled through the lungs for aration1 and throughout the system at large for general purposes4 ,if this four-chambered heart is a perfect organ1 what is the primitive heart1 and what are the hearts possessed by all the multitudinous creatures below the higher vertebrata8 ,manifestly the process of evolution implies a continual replacing of creatures having inferior organs1 by creatures having superior organs2 leaving such of the inferior as can survive to occupy inferior spheres of life4 ,this is not only so throughout the whole animal creation up to ,man himself1 but it is so within the limits of the human race4 ,both the brains and the lower limbs of various inferior races are ineffective organs1 compared with those of superior races4 ,nay1 even in the highest type of ,man we have obvious imperfections4 ,the structure of the groin is imperfect3 the frequent ruptures which result from it would have been prevented by closure of the inguinal rings during ftal life after they had performed their office4 ,that all-important organ the vertebral column1 too1 is as yet but incompletely adapted to the upright posture4 ,only while the vigour is considerable can there be maintained1 without appreciable effort1 those muscular contractions which produce the sigmoid flexure1 and bring the lumbar portion into such a position that the 8line of direction0 falls within it4 ,in young children1 in boys and girls who are admonished to 8sit up10 in weakly people1 and in the old1 the spine lapses into that convex form characteristic of lower ,primates4 ,it is the same with the balancing of the head4 ,only by a muscular strain to which habit makes us insensible1 as it does to the exposure of the face to cold1 is the head maintained in position4 ,immediately certain cervical muscles are relaxed the head falls forward2 and where there is great debility the chin rests permanently on the chest4 ,so far1 indeed1 is the assumption of ,kant from being true that the very reverse is probably true4 ,after #bjf contemplating the countless examples of imperfections exhibited in low types of creatures1 and decreasing with the ascent to high types1 but still exemplified in the highest1 anyone who concludes1 as he may reasonably do1 that ,evolution has not yet reached its limit1 must infer that most likely no such thing as a perfect organ exists4 ,thus the basis of the argument by which ,kant attempts to justify his assumption that there exists a good will apart from a good end1 disappears utterly2 and leaves his dogma in all its naked unthinkableness4#be #be ,i find that in the above three paragraphs ,i have done ,kant less than justice and more than justice--less1 in assuming that his evolutionary view was limited to the genesis of our sidereal system1 and more1 in assuming that he had not contradicted himself4 ,my knowledge of ,kant's writings is extremely limited4 ,in #ahdd a translation of his ,critique of ,pure ,reason 7then ,i think lately published7 fell into my hands1 and ,i read the first few pages enunciating his doctrine of ,time and ,space3 my peremptory rejection of which caused me to lay the book down4 ,twice since then the same thing has happened2 for1 being an impatient reader1 when ,i disagree with the cardinal propositions of a work ,i can go no further4 ,one other thing ,i knew4 ,by indirect references ,i was made aware that ,kant had propounded the idea that celestial bodies have been formed by the aggregation of diffused matter4 ,beyond this my knowledge of his conceptions did not extend2 and my supposition that his evolutionary conception had stopped short with the genesis of sun1 stars1 and planets1 was due to the fact that his doctrine of ,time and ,space1 as forms of thought anteceding experience1 implied a supernatural origin inconsistent with the hypothesis of natural genesis4 ,dr4 ,paul ,carus1 who1 shortly after the publication of this article in the ,fortnightly ,review for ,july1 #ahhh1 undertook to defend the ,kantian ethics in the ,american journal which he edits1 ,the ,open ,court1 has now 7,sept4 #d1 #ahij71 in another defensive article1 translated sundry passages from ,kant's ,critique of ,judgment1 his ,presumable ,origin of ,humanity1 and his work ,upon the different ,races of ,mankind1 showing that ,kant was1 if not fully1 yet partially1 an evolutionist in his speculations about living beings4 ,there is1 perhaps1 some reason for doubting the correctness of ,dr4 ,carus's rendering of these passages into ,english4 ,when1 as in the first of the articles just named1 he failed to distinguish between consciousness and conscientiousness1 and when1 as in this last article1 he blames the ,english for mistranslating ,kant1 since they have said 8,kant maintained that ,space and ,time are intuitions10 which is quite untrue1 for they have everywhere described him as maintaining that ,space and ,time are forms of intuition1 one may be excused for thinking that possibly ,dr4 ,carus has read into some of ,kant's expressions1 meanings which they do not rightly bear4 ,still1 the general drift of the passages quoted makes it tolerably clear that ,kant must have believed in the operation of natural causes as largely1 though not entirely1 instrumental in producing organic forms3 extending this belief 7which he says 8can be named a daring venture of reason07 in some measure to the origin of ,man himself4 ,he does not1 however1 extend the theory of natural genesis to the exclusion of the theory of supernatural genesis4 ,when he speaks of an organic habit 8which in the wisdom of nature appears to be thus arranged in order that the species shall be preserved20 and when1 further1 he says 8we see1 moreover1 that a germ of reason is placed in him1 whereby1 after the development of the same1 he is destined for social intercourse10 he implies divine intervention4 ,and this shows that ,i was justified in ascribing to him the belief that ,space and ,time1 as forms of thought1 are supernatural endowments4 ,had he conceived of organic evolution in a consistent manner1 he would necessarily have regarded ,space and ,time as subjective forms generated by converse with objective realities4 ,beyond showing that ,kant had a partial1 if not a complete1 belief in organic evolution 7though with no idea of its causes71 the passages translated by ,dr4 ,carus show that he entertained an implied belief which it here specially concerns me to notice as bearing on his theory of 8a good will40 ,he quotes approvingly ,dr4 ,moscati's lecture showing 8that the upright walk of man is constrained and unnatural10 and showing the imperfect visceral arrangements and consequent diseases which result3 not only adopting1 but further illustrating1 ,dr4 ,moscati's argument4 ,if here1 then1 there is a distinct admission1 or rather assertion1 that various human organs are imperfectly adjusted to their functions1 what becomes of the postulate above quoted 8that no organ for any purpose will be found in it but what is also the fittest and best adapted for that purpose80 ,and what becomes of the argument which sets out with this postulate8 ,clearly1 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,carus for enabling me to prove that ,kant's defence of his theory of 8a good will0 is1 by his own showing1 baseless4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the propositions contained in ,kant's first chapter #bjg is that 8we find that the more a cultivated reason applies itself with deliberate purpose to the enjoyment of life and happiness1 so much the more does the man fail of true satisfaction40 ,a preliminary remark to be made on this statement is that in its sweeping form it is not true4 ,i assert that it is untrue on the strength of personal experiences4 ,in the course of my life there have occurred many intervals1 averaging more than a month each1 in which the pursuit of happiness was the sole object1 and in #bjh which happiness was successfully pursued4 ,how successfully1 may be judged from the fact that ,i would gladly live over again each of those periods without change--an assertion which ,i certainly cannot make of any portions of my life spent in the daily discharge of duties4 ,that which ,kant should have said is that the exclusive pursuit of what are distinguished as pleasures and amusements1 is disappointing4 ,this is doubtless true2 and for the obvious reason that it over-exercises one group of faculties and exhausts them1 while it leaves unexercised another group of faculties1 which consequently do not yield the gratifications accompanying their exercise4 ,it is not1 as ,kant says1 guidance by 8a cultivated reason0 which leads to disappointment1 but guidance by an uncultivated reason2 for a cultivated reason teaches that continuous action of a small part of the nature joined with inaction of the rest1 must end in dissatisfaction4 ,but now1 supposing we accept ,kant's statement in full1 what is its implication8 ,that happiness is the thing to be desired1 and1 in one way or another1 the thing to be achieved4 ,for if not1 what meaning is there in the statement that it will not be achieved when made the immediate object8 ,one who was thus admonished might properly rejoin3--8,you say ,i shall fail to get happiness if ,i make it the object of pursuit8 ,suppose then ,i do not make it the object of my pursuit2 shall ,i get it8 ,if ,i do1 then your admonition amounts to this1 that ,i shall obtain it better if ,i proceed in some other way than that ,i adopt4 ,if ,i do not get it1 then ,i remain without happiness if ,i follow your way1 just as much as if ,i follow my own1 and nothing is gained40 ,an illustration will best show how the matter stands4 ,to a tyro in archery the instructor says3--8,sir1 you must not point your arrow directly at the target4 ,if you do1 you will inevitably miss it4 ,you must aim high above the target2 and you may then possibly pierce the bull's eye40 ,what now is implied by the warning and the #bji advice8 ,clearly that the purpose is to hit the target4 ,otherwise there is no sense in the remark that it will be missed if directly aimed at2 and no sense in the remark that to be hit1 something higher must be aimed at4 ,similarly with happiness4 ,there is no sense in the remark that happiness will not be found if it is directly sought1 unless happiness is a thing to be somehow or other obtained4 8,yes2 there is sense10 ,i hear it said4 8,just as it may be that the target is not the thing to be hit at all1 either by aiming directly or indirectly at it1 but that some other thing is to be hit2 so it may be that the thing to be achieved immediately or remotely is not happiness at all1 but some other thing3 the other thing being duty40 ,in answer to this the admonished man may reasonably say3--8,what then is meant by ,kant's statement that the man who pursues happiness #8fails of true satisfaction'8 ,all happiness is made up of satisfactions4 ,the #8true satisfaction' which ,kant offers as an alternative1 must be some kind of happiness2 and if a truer satisfaction1 must be a better happiness2 and better must mean on the average1 and in the long run1 greater4 ,if this #8true satisfaction' does not mean greater happiness of self1--distant if not proximate1 in another life if not in this life--and if it does not mean greater happiness by achieving the happiness of others2 then you propose to me as an end a smaller happiness instead of a greater1 and ,i decline it40 ,so that in this professed repudiation of happiness as an end1 there lies the inavoidable implication that it is the end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last consideration introduces us naturally to another of ,kant's cardinal doctrines4 ,that there may be no mistake in my representation of it1 ,i must make a long quotation4 8,i omit here all actions which are already recognized as inconsistent with duty1 although they may be useful for this or that purpose1 for with these the question whether they are done from duty cannot arise at all1 since they even conflict with it4 ,i also set aside those actions which really conform to #baj duty1 but to which men have no direct inclination1 performing them because they are impelled thereto by some other inclination4 ,for in this case we can readily distinguish whether the action which agrees with duty is done from duty1 or from a selfish view4 ,it is much harder to make this distinction when the action accords with duty1 and the subject has besides a direct inclination to it4 ,for example1 it is always a matter of duty that a dealer should not overcharge an inexperienced purchaser1 and wherever there is much commerce the prudent tradesman does not overcharge1 but keeps a fixed price for every one1 so that a child buys of him as well as any other4 ,men are thus honestly served2 but this is not enough to make us believe that the tradesman has so acted from duty and from principles of honesty3 his own advantage required it2 it is out of the question in this case to suppose that he might besides have a direct inclination in favour of the buyers1 so that1 as it were1 from love he should give no advantage to one over another 64 ,accordingly the action was done neither from duty nor from direct inclination1 but merely with a selfish view4 ,on the other hand1 it is a duty to maintain one's life2 and1 in addition1 every one has also a direct inclination to do so4 ,but on this account the often anxious care which most men take for it has no intrinsic worth1 and their maxim has no moral import4 ,they preserve their life as duty requires1 no doubt1 but not because duty requires4 ,on the other hand1 if adversity and hopeless sorrow have completely taken away the relish for life2 if the unfortunate one1 strong in mind1 indignant at his fate rather than desponding or dejected1 wishes for death1 and yet preserves his life without loving it--not from inclination or fear1 but from duty--then his maxim has a moral worth4 8,to be beneficent when we can is a duty2 and besides this1 there are many minds so sympathetically constituted that without any other motive of vanity or self-interest1 they find a pleasure in spreading joy around them1 and can take delight in the satisfaction of others so far as it is their own work4 ,but ,i maintain that in such a case an action of this kind1 however proper1 however amiable it may be1 has nevertheless no true moral worth1 but is on a level with other inclinations0 7pp4 #ag-ai74 ,i have given this extract at length that there may be fully understood the remarkable doctrine it embodies--a doctrine especially remarkable as exemplified in the last sentence4 ,let us now consider all that it means4 ,before doing this1 however1 ,i may remark that1 space permitting1 it might be shown clearly enough that the assumed distinction between sense of duty and inclination is untenable4 ,the very expression sense of duty implies that the mental state signified is a feeling2 and if a feeling it must1 like other feelings1 be gratified by acts of one kind and offended by acts of an opposite kind4 ,if we take the #baa name conscience1 which is equivalent to sense of duty1 we see the same thing4 ,the common expressions 8a tender conscience0 8a seared conscience10 indicate the perception that conscience is a feeling--a feeling which has its satisfactions and dissatisfactions1 and which inclines a man to acts which yield the one and avoid the other--produces an inclination4 ,the truth is that conscience1 or the sense of duty1 is an inclination of a complex kind as distinguished from inclinations of simpler kinds4 ,but let us grant ,kant's distinction in an unqualified form4 ,doing this1 let us entertain1 too1 his proposition that acts of whatever kind done from inclination have no moral worth1 and that the only acts having moral worth are those done from a sense of duty4 ,to test this proposition let us follow an example he sets4 ,as he would have the quality of an act judged by supposing it universalized1 let us judge of moral worth as he conceives it by making a like supposition4 ,that we may do this effectually1 let us assume that it is exemplified not only by every man but by all the acts of every man4 ,unless ,kant alleges that a man may be morally worthy in too high a degree1 we must admit that the greater the number of his acts which have moral worth the better4 ,let us then contemplate him as doing nothing from inclination but everything from a sense of duty4 ,when he pays the labourer who has done a week's work for him1 it is not because letting a man go without wages would be against his inclination1 but solely because he sees it to be a duty to fulfil contracts4 ,such care as he takes of his aged mother is prompted not by tender feeling for her but by the consciousness of filial obligation4 ,when he gives evidence on behalf of a man whom he knows to have been falsely charged1 it is not that he would be hurt by seeing the man wrongly punished1 but simply in pursuance of a moral intuition showing him that public duty requires him to testify4 ,when he sees a little child in danger of #bab being run over1 and steps aside to snatch1 it away1 he does so not because thought of the impending death of the child pains him1 but because he knows it is a duty to save life4 ,and so throughout1 in all his relations as husband1 as friend1 as citizen1 he thinks always of what the law of right conduct directs1 and does it because it is the law of right conduct1 not because he satisfies his affections or his sympathies by doing it4 ,this is not all however4 ,kant's doctrine commits him to something far beyond this4 ,if those acts only have moral worth which are done from a sense of duty1 we must not only say that the moral worth of a man is greater in proportion as the number of the acts so done is greater4 ,we must also say that his moral worth is greater in proportion as his sense of duty makes him do the right thing not only apart from inclination but against inclination4 ,according to ,kant1 then1 the most moral man is the man whose sense of duty is so strong that he refrains from picking a pocket though he is much tempted to do it2 who says of another that which is true though he would like to injure him by a falsehood2 who lends money to his brother though he would prefer to see him in distress2 who fetches the doctor to his sick child though death would remove what he feels to be a burden4 ,what1 now1 shall we think of a world peopled with ,kant's typically moral men--men who1 in the one case1 while doing right by one another1 do it with indifference1 and severally know one another to be so doing it2 and men who1 in the other case1 do right by one another notwithstanding the promptings of evil passions to do otherwise1 and who severally know themselves surrounded by others similarly prompted8 ,most people will1 ,i think1 say that even in the first case life would be hardly bearable1 and that in the second case it would be absolutely intolerable4 ,had such been men's natures1 ,schopenhauer would indeed have had good reason for urging that the race should bring itself to an end as quickly as possible4 ,contemplate now the doings of one whose acts1 according #bac to ,kant1 have no moral worth4 ,he goes through his daily work not thinking of duty to wife and child1 but having in his mind the pleasure of witnessing their welfare2 and on reaching home he delights to see his little girl with rosy cheeks and laughing eyes eating heartily4 ,when he hands back to a shopkeeper the shilling given in excess of right change1 he does not stop to ask what the moral law requires3 the thought of profiting by the man's mistake is intrinsically repugnant to him4 ,one who is drowning he plunges in to rescue without any idea of obligation1 but because he cannot contemplate without horror the death which threatens4 ,if1 for a worthy man who is out of employment1 he takes much trouble to find a place1 he does it because the consciousness of the man's difficulties is painful to him1 and because he knows that he will benefit not only him but the employer who engages him3 no moral maxim enters his mind4 ,when he goes to see a sick friend the gentle tones of his voice and the kindly expression of his face show that he is come not from any sense of duty1 but because pity and a desire to raise his friend's spirits have moved him4 ,if he aids in some public measure which helps men to help themselves1 it is not in pursuance of the admonition 8,do as you would be done by10 but because the distresses around make him unhappy1 and the thought of mitigating them gives him pleasure4 ,and so throughout3 he ever does the right thing not in obedience to any injunction but because he loves the right thing in and for itself4 ,and now who would not like to live in a world where everyone was thus characterized8 ,what1 then1 shall we think of ,kant's conception of moral worth1 when1 if it were displayed universally in men's acts the world would be intolerable1 and when if these same acts were universally performed from inclination1 the world would be delightful8 99 99 99 99 99 ,but now1 from these indirect criticisms1 let us pass to a #bad direct criticism of the ,kantian principle--the principle often quoted as distinctive of his ethics4 ,he states it thus3 8,there is therefore but one categorical imperative1 namely this3 ,act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law40 7pp4 #ed-e47 ,again1 subsequently1 we read3 8,act on maxims which can at the same time have for their object themselves as universal laws of nature4 ,such then is the formula of an absolutely good will40 7p4 #hj47 ,here1 then1 we have a clear statement of that which constitutes the character of a good will2 which good will1 as we have already seen1 is said to exist independently of any contemplated end4 ,let us now observe how this theory is reduced to practice4 ,speaking of a man who is absolutely selfish and yet absolutely just1 he represents him as saying3 8,let everyone be as happy as heaven pleases or as he can make himself2 ,i will take nothing from him nor even envy him1 only ,i do not wish to contribute anything either to his welfare or to his assistance in distress6 ,now no doubt if such a mode of thinking were a universal law1 the human race might very well subsist1 and doubtless even better than in a state in which every one talks of sympathy and good will1 or even takes care occasionally to put it into practice1 but on the other side1 also cheats when he can1 betrays the rights of men or otherwise violates them4 ,but although it is possible that a universal law of nature might exist in accordance with that maxim1 it is impossible to will that such a principle should have the universal validity of a law of nature4 ,for a will which resolved this would contradict itself1 inasmuch as many cases might occur in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of others1 and in which by such a law of nature1 sprung from his own will1 he would deprive himself of all hope of the aid he desires40 7pp4 #eh-i47 ,thus we see illustrated the guidance of conduct in conformity with the ,kantian maxim2 and what is the process of guidance8 ,it is that of considering what1 in the particular case1 would be the result if the suggested course of conduct were made universal2 and then being deterred from willing such conduct by the badness of the conceived result4 ,now1 in the first place1 what here becomes of the doctrine of a good will1 which we are told exists 8without paying #bae any regard to the effect expected from it08 7p4 #bd74 ,the good will1 characterized by readiness to see the act it prompts made universal1 has1 in this particular case1 as in every other case1 to be decided by contemplation of an end--if not a special and immediate end then a general and remote end4 ,and what1 in this case1 is to be the deterrent from a suggested course of conduct8 ,consciousness that the result1 if such conduct were universal1 might be suffering to self3 there might be no aid when it was wanted4 ,so that1 in the first place1 the question is to be decided by the contemplation of happiness or misery as likely to be caused by the one or the other course2 and1 in the second place1 this happiness or misery is that of the individual himself4 ,strangely enough1 this principle which is lauded because of its apparently implied altruism1 turns out1 in the last resort1 to have its justification in egoism6 ,the essential truth here to be noted1 however1 is that the ,kantian principle1 so much vaunted as higher than that of expediency or utilitarianism1 is compelled to take expediency or utilitarianism as its basis4 ,do what it will1 it cannot escape the need for conceiving happiness or misery1 to self or others or both1 as respectively to be achieved or avoided2 for in any case what1 except the conceived happiness or misery which would follow if a given mode of action were made universal1 can determine the will for or against such mode of action8 ,if1 in one who has been injured1 there arises a temptation to murder the injurer2 and if1 following out the ,kantian injunction1 the tempted man thinks of himself as willing that all men who have been injured should murder those who have injured them2 and if1 imagining the consequences experienced by mankind at large1 and possibly on some occasion by himself in particular1 he is deterred from yielding to the temptation2 what is it which deters him8 ,obviously the representation of the many evils1 pains1 deprivations of happiness1 which would be caused4 ,if1 on imagining his act to be #baf universalized1 he saw that it would increase human happiness1 the alleged deterrent would not act4 ,hence the conduct to be insured by adoption of the ,kantian maxim is simply the conduct to be insured by making the happiness of self or others or both the end to be achieved4 ,by implication1 if not avowedly1 the ,kantian principle is as distinctly utilitarian as the principle of ,bentham4 ,and it falls short of a scientific ethics in just the same way2 since it fails to furnish any method by which to determine whether such and such acts would or would not be conducive to happiness--leaves all such questions to be decided empirically4 #bag ,,absolute ,,political ,,ethics4 ,originally published in ,the ,nineteenth ,century for ,january #ahij4 ,the writing of this essay was consequent on a controversy carried on in ,the ,times between ,nov4 #g and ,nov4 #bg1 #ahhi1 and was made needful by the misapprehensions and misrepresentations embodied in that controversy4 ,hence the allusions which the essay contains4 ,the last few paragraphs of it in its original form were mainly personal in their character2 and1 not wishing to perpetuate personalities1 ,i have omitted them4 ,life in ,fiji1 at the time when ,thomas ,williams settled there1 must have been something worse than uncomfortable4 ,one of the people who passed near the string of nine hundred stones with which ,ra ,undreundre recorded the number of human victims he had devoured1 must have had unpleasant waking thoughts and occasionally horrible dreams4 ,a man who had lost some fingers for breaches of ceremony1 or had seen his neighbour killed by a chief for behaviour not sufficiently respectful1 and who remembered how ,king ,tanoa cut off his cousin's arm1 cooked it and ate it in his presence1 and then had him hacked to pieces1 must not unfrequently have had 8a bad quarter of an hour40 ,nor could creeping sensations have failed to run through women who heard ,tui ,thakau eulogizing his dead son for cruelty1 and saying that 8he could kill his own wives if they offended him1 and eat them afterwards40 ,happiness #bah could not have been general in a society where there was a liability to be one among the ten whose life-blood baptized the decks of a new canoe--a society in which the killing even of unoffending persons was no crime but a glory2 and in which everyone knew that his neighbour's restless ambition was to be an acknowledged murderer4 ,still1 there must have been some moderation in murdering even in ,fiji4 ,or must we hesitate to conclude that unlimited murder would have caused extinction of the society8 ,the extent to which each man's possessions among the ,biluchis are endangered by the predatory instincts of his neighbours1 may be judged from the fact that 8a small mud tower is erected in each field1 where the possessor and his retainers guard his produce40 ,if turbulent states of society such as early histories tell of1 do not show us so vividly how the habit of appropriating one another's goods interferes with social prosperity and individual comfort1 yet they do not leave us in doubt respecting these results4 ,it is an inference which few will be hardy enough to dispute1 that in proportion as the time of each man1 instead of being occupied in further production1 is occupied in guarding that which he has produced against marauders1 the total production must be diminished and the sustentation of each and all less satisfactorily achieved4 ,and it is a manifest corollary that if each pushes beyond a certain limit the practice of trying to satisfy his needs by robbing his neighbour1 the society must dissolve3 solitary life will prove preferable4 ,a deceased friend of mine1 narrating incidents in his life1 told me that as a young man he sought to establish himself in ,spain as a commission agent2 and that1 failing by expostulation or other means to obtain payment from one who had ordered goods through him1 he1 as a last resource1 went to the man's house and presented himself before him pistol in hand--a proceeding which had the desired effect3 the account was settled4 ,suppose now that everywhere #bai contracts had thus to be enforced by more or less strenuous measures4 ,suppose that a coal-mine proprietor in ,derbyshire1 having sent a train-load to a ,london coal-merchant1 had commonly to send a posse of colliers up to town1 to stop the man's wagons and take out the horses until payment had been made4 ,suppose the farm-labourer or the artisan was constantly in doubt whether1 at the end of the week1 the wages agreed upon would be forthcoming2 or whether he would get only half1 or whether he would have to wait six months4 ,suppose that daily in every shop there occurred scuffles between shopman and customer1 the one to get the money without giving the goods1 and the other to get the goods without paying the money4 ,what in such case would happen to the society8 ,what would become of its producing and distributing businesses8 ,is it a rash inference that industrial co-operation 7of the voluntary kind at least7 would cease8 8,why these absurd questions80 asks the impatient reader4 8,surely everyone knows that murder1 assault1 robbery1 fraud1 breach of contract1 c41 are at variance with social welfare and must be punished when committed10 ,my replies are several4 ,in the first place1 ,i am quite content to have the questions called absurd2 because this implies a consciousness that the answers are so self-evident that it is absurd to assume the possibility of any other answers4 ,my second reply is that ,i am not desirous of pressing the question whether we know these things1 but of pressing the question how we know these things4 ,can we know them1 and do we know them1 by contemplating the necessities of the case8 or must we have recourse to 8inductions based on careful observation and experience08 ,before we make and enforce laws against murder1 ought we to inquire into the social welfare and individual happiness in places where murder prevails1 and observe whether or not the welfare and happiness are greater in places where murder is rare8 ,shall robbery be allowed to go on until1 #bbj by collecting and tabulating the effects in countries where thieves predominate and in countries where thieves are but few1 we are shown by induction that prosperity is greater when each man is allowed to retain that which he has earned8 ,and is it needful to prove by accumulated evidence that breaches of contract impede production and exchange1 and those benefits to each and all which mutual dependence achieves8 ,in the third place1 these instances of actions which1 pushed to extremes1 cause social dissolution1 and which1 in smaller degrees1 hinder social co-operation and its benefits1 ,i give for the purpose of asking what is their common trait4 ,in each of such actions we see aggression--a carrying on of life in a way which directly interferes with the carrying on of another's life4 ,the relation between effort and consequent benefit in one man1 is either destroyed altogether or partially broken by the doings of another man4 ,if it be admitted that life can be maintained only by certain activities 7the internal ones being universal1 and the external ones being universal for all but parasites and the immature71 it must be admitted that when like-natured beings are associated1 the required activities must be mutually limited2 and that the highest life can result only when the associated beings are so constituted as severally to keep within the implied limits4 ,the restrictions stated thus generally1 may obviously be developed into special restrictions referring to this or that kind of conduct4 ,these1 then1 ,i hold are a priori truths which admit of being known by contemplation of the conditions--axiomatic truths which bear to ethics a relation analogous to that which the mathematical axioms bear to the exact sciences4 ,i do not mean that these axiomatic truths are cognisable by all4 ,for the apprehension of them1 as for the apprehension of simpler axioms1 a certain mental growth and a certain mental discipline are needed4 ,in the ,treatise on ,natural ,philosophy by ,professors ,thomson and ,tait #ast ed41 #bba it is remarked that 8physical axioms are axiomatic to those only who have sufficient knowledge of the action of physical causes to enable them to see at once their necessary truth40 ,doubtless a fact and a significant fact4 ,a plough-boy cannot form a conception of the axiom that action and reaction are equal and opposite4 ,in the first place he lacks a sufficiently generalized idea of action--has not united into one conception pushing and pulling1 the blow of a fist1 the recoil of a gun1 and the attraction of a planet4 ,still less has he any generalized idea of reaction4 ,and even had he these two ideas1 it is probable that1 defective in power of representation as he is1 he would fail to recognize the necessary equality4 ,similarly with these a priori ethical truths4 ,if a member of that ,fijian slave-tribe who regarded themselves as food for the chiefs had suggested that there might arrive a time when men would not eat one another1 his implied belief that men might come to have a little respect for one another's lives1 condemned as utterly without justification in experience1 would be considered as fit only for a wild speculator4 ,facts furnished by every-day observation make it clear to the ,biluchi1 keeping watch in his mud-tower1 that possession of property can be maintained only by force2 and it is most likely to him scarcely conceivable that there exist limits which1 if mutually recognized1 may exclude aggressions1 and make it needless to mount guard over fields3 only an absurd idealist 7supposing such a thing known to him7 would suggest the possibility4 ,and so even of our own ancestors in feudal times1 it may be concluded that1 constantly going about armed and often taking refuge in strongholds1 the thought of a peaceful social state would have seemed ridiculous2 and the belief that there might be a recognized equality among men's claims to pursue the objects of life1 and a consequent desistence from aggressions1 would have been scarcely conceivable4 ,but now that an orderly social state has been maintained for generations--now that in daily #bbb intercourse men rarely use violence1 commonly pay what they owe1 and in most cases respect the claims of the weak as well as those of the strong--now that they are brought up with the idea that all men are equal before the law1 and daily see judicial decisions turning upon the question whether one citizen has or has not infringed upon the equal rights of another2 there exist in the general mind materials for forming the conception of a rgime in which men's activities are mutually limited1 and in which maintenance of harmony depends on respect for the limits4 ,there has arisen an ability to see that mutual limitations are required when lives are carried on in proximity2 and to see that there necessarily emerge definite sets of restraints applying to definite classes of actions4 ,and it has become manifest to some1 though not it seems to many1 that there results an a priori system of absolute political ethics--a system under which men of like natures1 severally so constituted as spontaneously to refrain from trespassing1 may work together without friction1 and with the greatest advantage to each and all4 8,but men are not wholly like-natured and are unlikely to become so4 ,nor are they so constituted that each is solicitous for his neighbour's claims as for his own1 and there is small probability that they ever will be4 ,your absolute political ethics is therefore an ideal beyond the reach of the real40 ,this is true4 ,nevertheless1 much as it seems to do so1 it does not follow that there is no use for absolute political ethics4 ,the contrary may clearly enough be shown4 ,an analogy will explain the paradox4 ,there exists a division of physical science distinguished as abstract mechanics or absolute mechanics--absolute in the sense that its propositions are unqualified4 ,it is concerned with statics and dynamics in their pure forms--deals with forces and motions considered as free from all interferences resulting from friction1 resistances of media1 and special properties of matter4 ,if it enunciates a law of motion1 it #bbc recognizes nothing which modifies manifestation of it4 ,if it formulates the properties of the lever it treats of this assuming it to be perfectly rigid and without thickness--an impossible lever4 ,its theory of the screw imagines the screw to be frictionless2 and in treating of the wedge1 absolute incompressibility is supposed4 ,thus its truths are never presented in experience4 ,even those movements of the heavenly bodies which are deducible from its propositions are always more or less perturbed2 and on the ,earth the inferences to be drawn from them deviate very considerably from the results reached by experiment4 ,nevertheless this system of ideal mechanics is indispensable for the guidance of real mechanics4 ,the engineer has to deal with its propositions as true in full1 before he proceeds to qualify them by taking into account the natures of the materials he uses4 ,the course which a projectile would take if subject only to the propulsive force and the attraction of the ,earth must be recognized1 though no such course is ever pursued3 correction for atmospheric resistance cannot else be made4 ,that is to say1 though1 by empirical methods1 applied or relative mechanics may be developed to a considerable extent1 it cannot be highly developed without the aid of absolute mechanics4 ,so is it here4 ,relative political ethics1 or that which deals with right and wrong in public affairs as partially determined by changing circumstances1 cannot progress without taking into account right and wrong considered apart from changing circumstances--cannot do without absolute political ethics2 the propositions of which1 deduced from the conditions under which life is carried on in an associated state1 take no account of the special circumstances of any particular associated state4 ,and now observe a truth which seems entirely overlooked2 namely1 that the set of deductions thus arrived at is verified by an immeasurably vast induction1 or rather by a great assemblage of vast inductions4 ,for what else are the laws and judicial systems of all civilized nations1 and of #bbd all societies which have risen above savagery8 ,what is the meaning of the fact that all peoples have discovered the need for punishing murder1 usually by death8 ,how is it that where any considerable progress has been made1 theft is forbidden by law1 and a penalty attached to it8 ,why along with further advance does the enforcing of contracts become general8 ,and what is the reason that among fully civilized peoples frauds1 libels1 and minor aggressions of various kinds are repressed in more or less rigorous ways8 ,no cause can be assigned save a general uniformity in men's experiences1 showing them that aggressions directly injurious to the individuals aggressed upon are indirectly injurious to society4 ,generation after generation observations have forced this truth on them2 and generation after generation they have been developing the interdicts into greater detail4 ,that is to say1 the above fundamental principle and its corollaries arrived at a priori are verified in an infinity of cases a posteriori4 ,everywhere the tendency has been to carry further in practice the dictates of theory--to conform systems of law to the requirements of absolute political ethics3 if not consciously1 still unconsciously4 ,nay1 indeed1 is not this truth manifest in the very name used for the end aimed at--equity or equalness8 ,equalness of what8 ,no answer can be given without a recognition--vague it may be1 but still a recognition--of the doctrine above set forth4 ,thus1 instead of being described as putting faith in 8long chains of deduction from abstract ethical assumptions0 ,i ought to be described as putting faith in simple deductions from abstract ethical necessities2 which deductions are verified by infinitely numerous observations and experiences of semi-civilized and civilized mankind in all ages and places4 ,or rather ,i ought to be described as one who1 contemplating the restraints everywhere put on the various kinds of transgressions1 and seeing in them all a common principle everywhere dictated by the necessities #bbe of the associated state1 proceeds to develop the consequences of this common principle by deduction1 and to justify both the deductions and the conclusions which legislators have empirically reached by showing that the two correspond4 ,this method of deduction verified by induction is the method of developed science at large4 ,i do not believe that ,i shall be led to abandon it and change my 8way of thinking0 by any amount of disapproval1 however strongly expressed4 ,are we then to understand that by this imposing title1 8,absolute ,political ,ethics10 nothing more is meant than a theory of the needful restraints which law imposes on the actions of citizens--an ethical warrant for systems of law8 ,well1 supposing even that ,i had to answer 8,yes0 to this question 7which ,i do not71 there would still be an ample justification for the title4 ,having for its subject-matter all that is comprehended under the word 8,justice10 alike as formulated in law and administered by legal instrumentalities1 the title has a sufficiently large area to cover4 ,this would scarcely need saying were it not for a curious defect of thought which we are everywhere led into by habit4 ,just as1 when talking of knowledge1 we ignore entirely that familiar knowledge of surrounding things1 animate and inanimate1 acquired in childhood1 in the absence of which death would quickly result1 and think only of that far less essential knowledge gained at school and college or from books and conversation--just as1 when thinking of mathematics1 we include under the name only its higher groups of truths and drop out that simpler group constituting arithmetic1 though for the carrying on of life this is more important than all the rest put together2 so1 when politics and political ethics are discussed1 there is no thought of those parts of them which include whatever is fundamental and long settled4 ,the word political raises ideas of party-contests1 ministerial changes1 prospective elections1 or else of the ,home-,rule question1 the #bbf ,land-,purchase scheme1 ,local ,option1 or the ,eight-,hours movement4 ,rarely does the word suggest law-reform1 or a better judicial organization1 or a purified police4 ,and if ethics comes into consideration1 it is in connexion with the morals of parliamentary strife or of candidates' professions1 or of electoral corruptions4 ,yet it needs but to look at the definition of politics 78that part of ethics which consists in the regulation and government of a nation or state1 for the preservation of its safety1 peace1 and prosperity071 to see that the current conception fails by omitting the chief part4 ,it needs but to consider how relatively immense a factor in the life of each man is constituted by safety of person1 security of house and property1 and enforcement of claims1 to see that not only the largest part but the part which is vital is left out4 ,hence the absurdity does not exist in the conception of an absolute political ethics1 but it exists in the ignoring of its subject-matter4 ,unless it be considered absurd to regard as absolute the interdicts against murder1 burglary1 fraud and all other aggressions1 it cannot be considered absurd to regard as absolute the ethical system which embodies these interdicts4 ,it remains to add that beyond the deductions which1 as we have seen1 are verified by vast assemblages of inductions1 there may be drawn other deductions not thus verified--deductions drawn from the same data1 but which have no relevant experiences to say yes or no to them4 ,such deductions may be valid or invalid2 and ,i believe that in my first work1 written forty years ago and long since withdrawn from circulation1 there are some invalid deductions4 ,but to reject a principle and a method because of some invalid deductions1 is about as proper as it would be to pooh-pooh arithmetic because of blunders in certain arithmetical calculations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i turn now to a question above put--whether1 by absolute political ethics1 nothing more is meant than an ethical #bbg warrant for systems of law--a question to which1 by implication1 ,i answered ,no4 ,and now ,i have to answer that it extends over a further field equally wide if less important4 ,for beyond the relations among citizens taken individually1 there are the relations between the incorporated body of citizens and each citizen4 ,and on these relations between the ,state and the man1 absolute political ethics gives judgments as well as on the relations between man and man4 ,its judgments on the relations between man and man are corollaries from its primary truth1 that the activities of each in pursuing the objects of life may be rightly restricted only by the like activities of others3 such others being like-natured 7for the principle does not contemplate slave-societies or societies in which one race dominates over another72 and its judgments on the relations between the man and the ,state are corollaries from the allied truth1 that the activities of each citizen may be rightly limited by the incorporated body of citizens only as far as is needful for securing to him the remainder4 ,this further limitation is a necessary accompaniment of the militant state2 and must continue so long as1 besides the criminalities of individual aggression1 there continue the criminalities of international aggression4 ,it is clear that the preservation of the society is an end which must take precedence of the preservation of its individuals taken singly2 since the preservation of each individual and the maintenance of his ability to pursue the objects of life1 depend on the preservation of the society4 ,such restrictions upon his actions as are imposed by the necessities of war1 and of preparedness for war when it is probable1 are therefore ethically defensible4 ,and here we enter upon the many and involved questions with which relative political ethics has to deal4 ,when originally indicating the contrast1 ,i spoke of 8absolute political ethics1 or that which ought to be1 as distinguished from relative political ethics1 or that which is at present the nearest practicable approach to it20 and had any #bbh attention been paid to this distinction1 no controversy need have arisen4 ,here ,i have to add that the qualifications which relative political ethics sets forth vary with the type of the society1 which is primarily determined by the extent to which defence against other societies is needful4 ,where international enmity is great and the social organization has to be adapted to warlike activities1 the coercion of individuals by the ,state is such as almost to destroy their freedom of action and make them slaves of the ,state2 and where this results from the necessities of defensive war 7not offensive war1 however71 relative political ethics furnishes a warrant4 ,conversely1 as militancy decreases1 there is a diminished need both for that subordination of individuals which is necessitated by consolidating them into a fighting machine1 and for that further subordination entailed by supplying this fighting machine with the necessaries of life2 and as fast as this change goes on1 the warrant for ,state-coercion which relative political ethics furnishes becomes less and less4 ,obviously it is out of the question here to enter upon the complex questions raised4 ,it must suffice to indicate them as above4 ,should ,i be able to complete ,part ,,iv4 of ,the ,principles of ,ethics1 treating of 8,justice10 of which the first chapters only are at present written1 ,i hope to deal adequately with these relations between the ethics of the progressive condition and the ethics of that condition which is the goal of progress--a goal ever to be recognized1 though it cannot be actually reached4 #bbi ,,over-,,legislation4#bf ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,july #ahec4 ,from time to time there returns on the cautious thinker1 the conclusion that1 considered simply as a question of probabilities1 it is unlikely that his views upon any debatable topic are correct4 8,here10 he reflects1 8are thousands around me holding on this or that point opinions differing from mine--wholly in many cases2 partially in most others4 ,each is as confident as ,i am of the truth of his convictions4 ,many of them are possessed of great intelligence2 and1 rank myself high as ,i may1 ,i must admit that some are my equals--perhaps my superiors4 ,yet1 while every one of us is sure he is right1 unquestionably most of us are wrong4 ,why should not ,i be among the mistaken8 ,true1 ,i cannot realize the likelihood that ,i am so4 ,but this proves nothing2 for though the majority of us are necessarily in error1 we all labour under the inability to think we are in error4 ,is it not then foolish thus to trust myself8 ,when #bcj ,i look back into the past1 ,i find nations1 sects1 theologians1 philosophers1 cherishing beliefs in science1 morals1 politics1 and religion1 which we decisively reject4 ,yet they held them with a faith quite as strong as ours3 nay--stronger1 if their intolerance of dissent is any criterion4 ,of what little worth1 therefore1 seems this strength of my conviction that ,i am right6 ,a like warrant has been felt by men all the world through2 and1 in nine cases out of ten1 has proved a delusive warrant4 ,is it not then absurd in me to put so much faith in my judgments80 #bf ,some of the illustrations used in this essay refer to laws and arrangements changed since it was written2 while many recent occurrences might now be cited in further aid of its argument4 ,as1 however1 the reasoning is not affected by these changes2 and as to keep it corrected to the facts of the day would involve perpetual alterations2 it seems best to leave it substantially in its original state3 or rather in the state in which it was republished in ,mr4 ,chapman's ,library for the ,people4 ,barren of practical results as this reflection at first sight appears1 it may1 and indeed should1 influence some of our most important proceedings4 ,though in daily life we are constantly obliged to act out our inferences1 trustless as they may be--though in the house1 in the office1 in the street1 there hourly arise occasions on which we may not hesitate2 seeing that if to act is dangerous1 never to act at all is fatal--and though1 consequently1 on our private conduct1 this abstract doubt as to the worth of our judgments1 must remain inoperative2 yet1 in our public conduct1 we may properly allow it to weigh4 ,here decision is no longer imperative2 while the difficulty of deciding aright is incalculably greater4 ,clearly as we may think we see how a given measure will work1 we may infer1 drawing the above induction from human experience1 that the chances are many against the truth of our anticipations4 ,whether in most cases it is not wiser to do nothing1 becomes now a rational question4 ,continuing his self-criticism1 the cautious thinker may reason3--8,if in these personal affairs1 where all the conditions of the case were known to me1 ,i have so often miscalculated1 how much oftener shall ,i miscalculate in political affairs1 where the conditions are too numerous1 too wide-spread1 too complex1 too obscure to be understood4 ,here1 doubtless1 is a social evil and there a desideratum2 and were ,i sure of doing no mischief ,i would forthwith try to cure the one and achieve #bca the other4 ,but when ,i remember how many of my private schemes have miscarried--how speculations have failed1 agents proved dishonest1 marriage been a disappointment--how ,i did but pauperize the relative ,i sought to help--how my carefully-governed son has turned out worse than most children--how the thing ,i desperately strove against as a misfortune did me immense good--how while the objects ,i ardently pursued brought me little happiness when gained1 most of my pleasures have come from unexpected sources2 when ,i recall these and hosts of like facts1 ,i am struck with the incompetence of my intellect to prescribe for society4 ,and as the evil is one under which society has not only lived but grown1 while the desideratum is one it may spontaneously obtain1 as it has most others1 in some unforeseen way1 ,i question the propriety of meddling40 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a great want of this practical humility in our political conduct4 ,though we have less self-confidence than our ancestors1 who did not hesitate to organize in law their judgments on all subjects whatever1 we have yet far too much4 ,though we have ceased to assume the infallibility of our theological beliefs and so ceased to enact them1 we have not ceased to enact hosts of other beliefs of an equally doubtful kind4 ,though we no longer presume to coerce men for their spiritual good1 we still think ourselves called upon to coerce them for their material good3 not seeing that the one is as useless and as unwarrantable as the other4 ,innumerable failures seem1 so far1 powerless to teach this4 ,take up a daily paper and you will probably find a leader exposing the corruption1 negligence1 or mismanagement of some ,state-department4 ,cast your eye down the next column1 and it is not unlikely that you will read proposals for an extension of ,state-supervision4 ,yesterday came a charge of gross carelessness against the ,colonial office4 ,to-day ,admiralty bunglings are burlesqued4 ,to-morrow brings the question--8,should there #bcb not be more coal-mine inspectors80 ,now there is a complaint that the ,board of ,health is useless2 and now an outcry for more railway regulation4 ,while your ears are still ringing with denunciations of ,chancery abuses1 or your cheeks still glowing with indignation at some well-exposed iniquity of the ,ecclesiastical ,courts1 you suddenly come upon suggestions for organizing 8a priesthood of science40 ,here is a vehement condemnation of the police for stupidly allowing sight-seers to crush each other to death4 ,you look for the corollary that official regulation is not to be trusted2 when1 instead1 propos of a shipwreck1 you read an urgent demand for government-inspectors to see that ships always have their boats ready for launching4 ,thus1 while every day chronicles a failure1 there every day reappears the belief that it needs but an ,act of ,parliament and a staff of officers1 to effect any end desired4 ,nowhere is the perennial faith of mankind better seen4 ,ever since society existed ,disappointment has been preaching--8,put not your trust in legislation20 and yet the trust in legislation seems scarcely diminished4 ,did the ,state fulfil efficiently its unquestionable duties1 there would be some excuse for this eagerness to assign it further duties4 ,were there no complaints of its faulty administration of justice2 of its endless delays and untold expenses2 of its bringing ruin in place of restitution2 of its playing the tyrant where it should have been the protector--did we never hear of its complicated stupidities2 its #bj1jjj statutes1 which it assumes all ,englishmen to know1 and which not one ,englishman does know2 its multiplied forms1 which1 in the effort to meet every contingency1 open far more loopholes than they provide against--had it not shown its folly in the system of making every petty alteration by a new act1 variously affecting innumerable preceding acts2 or in its score of successive sets of ,chancery rules1 which so modify1 and limit1 and extend1 and abolish1 and alter each other1 that not even ,chancery lawyers know #bcc what the rules are--were we never astounded by such a fact as that1 under the system of land registration in ,ireland1 #fjjjl4 have been spent in a 8negative search0 to establish the title of an estate--did we find in its doings no such terrible incongruity as the imprisonment of a hungry vagrant for stealing a turnip1 while for the gigantic embezzlements of a railway director it inflicts no punishment2--had we1 in short1 proved its efficiency as judge and defender1 instead of having found it treacherous1 cruel1 and anxiously to be shunned1 there would be some encouragement to hope other benefits at its hands4 ,or if1 while failing in its judicial functions1 the ,state had proved itself a capable agent in some other department--the military for example--there would have been some show of reason for extending its sphere of action4 ,suppose that it had rationally equipped its troops1 instead of giving them cumbrous and ineffective muskets1 barbarous grenadier caps1 absurdly heavy knapsacks and cartouche-boxes1 and clothing coloured so as admirably to help the enemy's marksmen--suppose that it organized well and economically1 instead of salarying an immense superfluity of officers1 creating sinecure colonelcies of #djjjl4 a year1 neglecting the meritorious and promoting incapables--suppose that its soldiers were always well housed instead of being thrust into barracks that invalid hundreds1 as at ,aden1 or that fall on their occupants1 as at ,loodianah1 where ninety-five were thus killed--suppose that1 in actual war1 it had shown due administrative ability1 instead of occasionally leaving its regiments to march barefoot1 to dress in patches1 to capture their own engineering tools1 and to fight on empty stomachs1 as during the ,peninsular campaign2--suppose all this1 and the wish for more ,state-control might still have had some warrant4 ,even though it had bungled in everything else1 yet had it in one case done well--had its naval management alone been efficient--the sanguine would have had a colourable #bcd excuse for expecting success in a new field4 ,grant that the reports about bad ships1 ships that will not sail1 ships that have to be lengthened1 ships with unfit engines1 ships that will not carry their guns1 ships without stowage1 and ships that have to be broken up1 are all untrue--assume those to be mere slanderers who say that the ,megra took double the time taken by a commercial steamer to reach the ,cape2 that during the same voyage the ,hydra was three times on fire1 and needed the pumps kept going day and night2 that the ,charlotte troop-ship set out with #ge days' provisions on board1 and was three months in reaching her destination2 that the ,harpy1 at an imminent risk of life1 got home in #aaj days from ,rio--disregard as calumnies the statements about septuagenarian admirals1 dilettante ship building1 and 8cooked0 dockyard accounts--set down the affair of the ,goldner preserved meats as a myth1 and consider ,professor ,barlow mistaken when he reported of the ,admiralty compasses in store1 that 8at least one-half were mere lumber20--let all these1 we say1 be held groundless charges1 and there would remain for the advocates of much government some basis for their political air-castles1 spite of military and judicial mismanagement4 ,as it is1 however1 they seem to have read backwards the parable of the talents4 ,not to the agent of proved efficiency do they consign further duties1 but to the negligent and blundering agent4 ,private enterprise has done much1 and done it well4 ,private enterprise has cleared1 drained1 and fertilized the country1 and built the towns--has excavated mines1 laid out roads1 dug canals1 and embanked railways--has invented1 and brought to perfection1 ploughs1 looms1 steam-engines1 printing-presses1 and machines innumerable--has built our ships1 our vast manufactories1 our docks--has established banks1 insurance societies1 and the newspaper press--has covered the sea with lines of steam-vessels1 and the land with electric telegraphs4 ,private enterprise has brought agriculture1 manufactures1 #bce and commerce to their present height1 and is now developing them with increasing rapidity4 ,therefore1 do not trust private enterprise4 ,on the other hand1 the ,state so fulfils its judicial function as to ruin many1 delude others1 and frighten away those who most need succour2 its national defences are so extravagantly and yet inefficiently administered1 as to call forth almost daily complaint1 expostulation1 or ridicule2 and as the nation's steward1 it obtains from some of our vast public estates a minus revenue4 ,therefore1 trust the ,state4 ,slight the good and faithful servant1 and promote the unprofitable one from one talent to ten4 ,seriously1 the case1 while it may not1 in some respects1 warrant this parallel1 is1 in one respect1 even stronger4 ,for the new work is not of the same order as the old1 but of a more difficult order4 ,ill as government discharges its true duties1 any other duties committed to it are likely to be still worse discharged4 ,to guard its subjects against aggression1 either individual or national1 is a straightforward and tolerably simple matter2 to regulate1 directly or indirectly1 the personal actions of those subjects is an infinitely complicated matter4 ,it is one thing to secure to each man the unhindered power to pursue his own good2 it is a widely different thing to pursue the good for him4 ,to do the first efficiently1 the ,state has merely to look on while its citizens act2 to forbid unfairness2 to adjudicate when called on2 and to enforce restitution for injuries4 ,to do the last efficiently1 it must become an ubiquitous worker--must know each man's needs better than he knows them himself--must1 in short1 possess superhuman power and intelligence4 ,even1 therefore1 had the ,state done well in its proper sphere1 no sufficient warrant would have existed for extending that sphere2 but seeing how ill it has discharged those simple offices which we cannot help consigning to it1 small indeed is the probability that it will discharge well offices of a more complicated nature4 ,change the point of view however we may1 and this #bcf conclusion still presents itself4 ,if we define the primary ,state-duty to be that of protecting each individual against others2 then1 all other ,state-action comes under the definition of protecting each individual against himself--against his own stupidity1 his own idleness1 his own improvidence1 rashness1 or other defect--his own incapacity for doing something or other which should be done4 ,there is no questioning this classification4 ,for manifestly all the obstacles that lie between a man's desires and the satisfaction of them1 are either obstacles arising from other men's counter desires1 or obstacles arising from inability in himself4 ,such of these counter desires as are just1 have as much claim to satisfaction as his2 and may not1 therefore1 be thwarted4 ,such of them as are unjust1 it is the ,state's duty to hold in check4 ,the only other possible sphere for it1 therefore1 is that of saving the individual from the consequences of his nature1 or1 as we say--protecting him against himself4 ,making no comment1 at present1 on the policy of this1 and confining ourselves solely to the practicability of it1 let us inquire how the proposal looks when reduced to its simplest form4 ,here are men possessed of instincts1 and sentiments1 and perceptions1 all conspiring to self-preservation4 ,the due action of each brings its quantum of pleasure2 the inaction1 its more or less of pain4 ,those provided with these faculties in due proportions1 prosper and multiply2 those ill-provided1 tend to die out4 ,and the general success of this human organization is seen in the fact1 that under it the world has been peopled1 and by it the complicated appliances and arrangements of civilized life have been developed4 ,it is complained1 however1 that there are certain directions in which this apparatus of motives works but imperfectly4 ,while it is admitted that men are duly prompted by it to bodily sustenance1 to the obtainment of clothing and shelter1 to marriage and the care of offspring1 and to the establishment of the more important industrial and commercial agencies2 it is argued that there are many desiderata1 as pure air1 #bcg more knowledge1 good water1 safe travelling1 and so forth1 which it does not duly achieve4 ,and these short-comings being assumed permanent1 it is urged that some supplementary means must be employed4 ,it is therefore proposed that out of the mass of men a certain number1 constituting the legislature1 shall be instructed to attain these various objects4 ,the legislators thus instructed 7all characterized1 on the average1 by the same defects in this apparatus of motives as men in general71 being unable personally to fulfil their tasks1 must fulfil them by deputy--must appoint commissions1 boards1 councils1 and staffs of officers2 and must construct their agencies of this same defective humanity that acts so ill4 ,why now should this system of complex deputation succeed where the system of simple deputation does not8 ,the industrial1 commercial1 and philanthropic agencies1 which citizens form spontaneously1 are directly deputed agencies2 these governmental agencies made by electing legislators who appoint officers1 are indirectly deputed ones4 ,and it is hoped that1 by this process of double deputation1 things may be achieved which the process of single deputation will not achieve4 ,what is the rationale of this hope8 ,is it that legislators1 and their employs1 are made to feel more intensely than the rest these evils they are to remedy1 these wants they are to satisfy8 ,hardly2 for by position they are mostly relieved from such evils and wants4 ,is it1 then1 that they are to have the primary motive replaced by a secondary motive--the fear of public displeasure1 and ultimate removal from office8 ,why scarcely2 for the minor benefits which citizens will not organize to secure directly1 they will not organize to secure indirectly1 by turning out inefficient servants3 especially if they cannot readily get efficient ones4 ,is it1 then1 that these ,state-agents are to do from a sense of duty1 what they would not do from any other motive8 ,evidently this is the only possibility remaining4 ,the proposition on which the #bch advocates of much government have to fall back1 is1 that things which the people will not unite to effect for personal benefit1 a law-appointed portion of them will unite to effect for the benefit of the rest4 ,public men and functionaries love their neighbours better than themselves6 ,the philanthropy of statesmen is stronger than the selfishness of citizens6 ,no wonder1 then1 that every day adds to the list of legislative miscarriages4 ,if colliery explosions increase1 notwithstanding the appointment of coal-mine inspectors1 why it is but a natural sequence to these false methods4 ,if ,sunderland shipowners complain that1 as far as tried1 8the ,mercantile ,marine ,act has proved a total failure20 and if1 meanwhile1 the other class affected by it--the sailors--show their disapprobation by extensive strikes2 why it does but exemplify the folly of trusting a theorising benevolence rather than an experienced self-interest4 ,on all sides we may expect such facts2 and on all sides we find them4 ,government1 turning engineer1 appoints its lieutenant1 the ,sewers' ,commission1 to drain ,london4 ,presently ,lambeth sends deputations to say that it pays heavy rates1 and gets no benefit4 ,tired of waiting1 ,bethnal-green calls meetings to consider 8the most effectual means of extending the drainage of the district40 ,from ,wandsworth come complainants1 who threaten to pay no more until something is done4 ,camberwell proposes to raise a subscription and do the work itself4 ,meanwhile1 no progress is made towards the purification of the ,thames2 the weekly returns show an increasing rate of mortality2 in ,parliament1 the friends of the ,commission have nothing save good intentions to urge in mitigation of censure2 and1 at length1 despairing ministers gladly seize an excuse for quietly shelving the ,commission and its plans altogether4#bg ,as architectural #bci surveyor1 the ,state has scarcely succeeded better than as engineer2 witness the ,metropolitan ,buildings' ,act4 ,new houses still tumble down from time to time4 ,a few months since two fell at ,bayswater1 and one more recently near the ,pentonville ,prison3 all notwithstanding prescribed thicknesses1 and hoop-iron bond1 and inspectors4 ,it never struck those who provided these delusive sureties1 that it was possible to build walls without bonding the two surfaces together1 so that the inner layer might be removed after the surveyor's approval4 ,nor did they foresee that1 in dictating a larger quantity of bricks than experience proved absolutely needful1 they were simply insuring a slow deterioration of quality to an equivalent extent4#bh ,the government guarantee for safe passenger ships answers no better than its guarantee for safe houses4 ,though the burning of the ,amazon arose from either bad construction or bad stowage1 she had received the ,admiralty certificate before sailing4 ,notwithstanding official approval1 the ,adelaide was found1 on her first voyage1 to steer ill1 to have useless pumps1 ports that let floods of water into the cabins1 and coals so near the furnaces that they twice caught fire4 ,the ,w4 ,s4 ,lindsay1 which turned out unfit for sailing1 had been passed by the government agent2 and1 but for the owner1 might have gone to sea at a great risk of life4 ,the ,melbourne--originally a ,state-built ship--which took twenty-four days to reach ,lisbon1 and then needed to be docked to undergo a thorough repair1 had been duly inspected4 ,and lastly1 the notorious ,australian1 before her third futile attempt to proceed on her #bdj voyage1 had1 her owners tell us1 received 8the full approbation of the government inspector40 ,neither does the like supervision give security to land-travelling4 ,the iron bridge at ,chester1 which1 breaking1 precipitated a train into the ,dee1 had passed under the official eye4 ,inspection did not prevent a column on the ,south-,eastern from being so placed as to kill a man who put his head out of the carriage window4 ,the locomotive that burst at ,brighton lately1 did so notwithstanding a ,state-approval given but ten days previously4 ,and--to look at the facts in the gross--this system of supervision has not prevented the increase of railway accidents2 which1 be it remembered1 has arisen since the system was commenced4 #bg ,so complete is the failure of this and other sanitary bodies1 that1 at the present moment 7,march1 #ahed7 a number of philanthropic gentlemen are voluntarily organizing a 8,health ,fund for ,london10 with the view of meeting the threatened invasion of the ,cholera2 and the plea for this purely private enterprise1 is1 that the ,local ,boards of ,health and ,boards of ,guardians are inoperative1 from 8ignorance1 #ast1 of the extent of the danger2 #bnd1 of the means which experience has discovered for meeting it2 and #crd1 of the comparative security which those means may produce40 #bh ,the ,builder remarks1 that 8the removal of the brick-duties has not yet produced that improvement in the make of bricks which we ought to find1 4 4 4 4 4 but as bad bricks can be obtained for less than good bricks1 so long as houses built of the former will sell as readily as if the better had been used1 no improvement is to be expected40 8,well2 let the ,state fail4 ,it can but do its best4 ,if it succeed1 so much the better3 if it do not1 where is the harm8 ,surely it is wiser to act1 and take the chance of success1 than to do nothing40 ,to this plea the rejoinder is that1 unfortunately1 the results of legislative intervention are not only negatively bad1 but often positively so4 ,acts of ,parliament do not simply fail2 they frequently make worse4 ,the familiar truth that persecution aids rather than hinders proscribed doctrines--a truth lately afresh illustrated by the forbidden work of ,gervinus--is a part of the general truth that legislation often does indirectly1 the reverse of that which it directly aims to do4 ,thus has it been with the ,metropolitan ,buildings' ,act4 ,as was lately agreed unanimously by the delegates from all the parishes in ,london1 and as was stated by them to ,sir ,william ,molesworth1 this act 8has encouraged bad building1 and has been the means of covering the suburbs of the metropolis with thousands of wretched hovels1 which are a disgrace to a civilized country40 ,thus1 also1 has it been in provincial towns4 ,the ,nottingham ,inclosure ,act of #ahde1 by prescribing the structure of the houses to be built1 and the extent of yard or garden to be allotted to each1 has rendered it impossible to build working-class dwellings at such moderate #bda rents as to compete with existing ones4 ,it is estimated that1 as a consequence1 #aj1jjj of the population are debarred from the new homes they would otherwise have1 and are forced to live crowded together in miserable places unfit for human habitation2 and so1 in its anxiety to insure healthy accommodation for artisans1 the law has entailed on them still worse accommodation than before4 ,thus1 too1 has it been with the ,passengers' ,act4 ,the terrible fevers which arose in the ,australian emigrant ships a few months since1 causing in the ,bourneuf #hc deaths1 in the ,wanota #ci deaths1 in the ,marco ,polo #ec deaths1 and in the ,ticonderoga #ajd deaths1 arose in vessels sent out by the government2 and arose in consequence of the close packing which the ,passengers' ,act authorizes4#bi ,thus1 moreover1 has it been with the safeguards provided by the ,mercantile ,marine ,act4 ,the examinations devised for insuring the efficiency of captains1 have had the effect of certifying the superficially-clever and unpractised men1 and1 as we are told by a shipowner1 rejecting many of the long-tried and most trustworthy3 the general result being that the ratio of shipwrecks has increased4 ,thus also has it happened with ,boards of ,health1 which have1 in sundry cases1 exacerbated the evils to be removed2 as1 for instance1 at ,croydon1 where1 according to the official report1 the measures of the sanitary authorities produced an epidemic1 which attacked #afjj people and killed #gj4 ,thus again has it been with the ,joint ,stock ,companies ,registration ,act4 ,as was shown by ,mr4 ,james ,wilson1 in his late motion for a select committee on life-assurance associations1 this measure1 passed in #ahdd to guard the public against bubble schemes1 actually facilitated the rascalities of #ahde and subsequent years4 ,the legislative sanction1 devised as a guarantee of genuineness1 and supposed by the people to be #bdb such1 clever adventurers have without difficulty obtained for the most worthless projects4 ,having obtained it1 an amount of public confidence has followed which they could never otherwise have gained4 ,in this way literally hundreds of sham enterprises that would not else have seen the light1 have been fostered into being2 and thousands of families have been ruined who would never have been so but for legislative efforts to make them more secure4 #bi ,against which close packing1 by the way1 a private mercantile body--the ,liverpool ,shipowners' ,association--unavailingly protested when the ,act was before ,parliament4 ,moreover1 when these topical remedies applied by statesmen do not exacerbate the evils they were meant to cure1 they constantly induce collateral evils2 and these often graver than the original ones4 ,it is the vice of this empirical school of politicians that they never look beyond proximate causes and immediate effects4 ,in common with the uneducated masses they habitually regard each phenomenon as involving but one antecedent and one consequent4 ,they do not bear in mind that each phenomenon is a link in an infinite series--is the result of myriads of preceding phenomena1 and will have a share in producing myriads of succeeding ones4 ,hence they overlook the fact that1 in disturbing any natural chain of sequences1 they are not only modifying the result next in succession1 but all the future results into which this will enter as a part cause4 ,the serial genesis of phenomena1 and the interaction of each series upon every other series1 produces a complexity utterly beyond human grasp4 ,even in the simplest cases this is so4 ,a servant who puts coals on the fire sees but few effects from the burning of a lump4 ,the man of science1 however1 knows that there are very many effects4 ,he knows that the combustion establishes numerous atmospheric currents1 and through them moves thousands of cubic feet of air inside the house and out4 ,he knows that the heat diffused causes expansions and subsequent contractions of all bodies within its range4 ,he knows that the persons warmed are affected in their rate of respiration and their waste of tissue2 and that these physiological #bdc changes must have various secondary results4 ,he knows that1 could he trace to their ramified consequences all the forces disengaged1 mechanical1 chemical1 thermal1 electric--could he enumerate all the subsequent effects of the evaporation caused1 the gases generated1 the light evolved1 the heat radiated2 a volume would scarcely suffice to enter them4 ,if1 now1 from a simple inorganic change such numerous and complex results arise1 how infinitely multiplied and involved must be the ultimate consequences of any force brought to bear upon society4 ,wonderfully constructed as it is--mutually dependent as are its members for the satisfaction of their wants--affected as each unit of it is by his fellows1 not only as to his safety and prosperity1 but in his health1 his temper1 his culture2 the social organism cannot be dealt with in any one part1 without all other parts being influenced in ways which cannot be foreseen4 ,you put a duty on paper1 and by-and-by find that1 through the medium of the jacquard-cards employed1 you have inadvertently taxed figured silk1 sometimes to the extent of several shillings per piece4 ,on removing the impost from bricks1 you discover that its existence had increased the dangers of mining1 by preventing shafts from being lined and workings from being tunnelled4 ,by the excise on soap1 you have1 it turns out1 greatly encouraged the use of caustic washing-powders2 and so have unintentionally entailed an immense destruction of clothes4 ,in every case you perceive1 on careful inquiry1 that besides acting upon that which you sought to act upon1 you have acted upon many other things1 and each of these again on many others2 and so have propagated a multitude of changes in all directions4 ,we need feel no surprise1 then1 that in their efforts to cure specific evils1 legislators have continually caused collateral evils they never looked for4 ,no ,carlyle's wisest man1 nor any body of such1 could avoid causing them4 ,though their production is explicable enough after it has occurred1 it is never anticipated4 #bdd ,when1 under the ,new ,poor-law1 provision was made for the accommodation of vagrants in the ,union-houses1 it was hardly expected that a body of tramps would be thereby called into existence1 who would spend their time in walking from ,union to ,union throughout the kingdom4 ,it was little thought by those who in past generations assigned parish-pay for the maintenance of illegitimate children1 that1 as a result1 a family of such would by-and-by be considered a small fortune1 and the mother of them a desirable wife2 nor did the same statesmen see that1 by the law of settlement1 they were organizing a disastrous inequality of wages in different districts1 and entailing a system of clearing away cottages1 which would result in the crowding of bedrooms1 and in a consequent moral and physical deterioration4 ,the ,english tonnage law was enacted simply with a view to regulate the mode of measurement4 ,its framers overlooked the fact that they were practically providing 8for the effectual and compulsory construction of bad ships20 and that 8to cheat the law1 that is1 to build a tolerable ship in spite of it1 was the highest achievement left to an ,english builder40#cj ,greater commercial security was alone aimed at by the partnership law4 ,we now find1 however1 that the unlimited liability it insists upon is a serious hindrance to progress2 it practically forbids the association of small capitalists2 it is found a great obstacle to the building of improved dwellings for the people2 it prevents a better relationship between artisans and employers2 and by withholding from the working-classes good investments for their savings1 it checks the growth of provident habits and encourages drunkenness4 ,thus on all sides are well-meant measures producing unforeseen mischiefs--a licensing law that promotes the adulteration of beer2 a ticket-of-leave system that encourages men to commit crime2 a #bde police regulation that forces street-huxters into the workhouse4 ,and then1 in addition to the obvious and proximate evils1 come the remote and less distinguishable ones1 which1 could we estimate their accumulated result1 we should probably find even more serious4 #cj ,lecture before the ,royal ,institution1 by ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq41 8,on ,wave-line ,ships and ,yachts10 ,feb4 #f1 #aheb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the thing to be discussed is1 not so much whether1 by any amount of intelligence1 it is possible for a government to work out the various ends consigned to it1 as whether its fulfilment of them is probable4 ,it is less a question of can than a question of will4 ,granting the absolute competence of the ,state1 let us consider what hope there is of getting from it satisfactory performance4 ,let us look at the moving force by which the legislative machine is worked1 and then inquire whether this force is thus employed as economically as it would otherwise be4 ,manifestly1 as desire of some kind is the invariable stimulus to action in the individual1 every social agency1 of what nature soever1 must have some aggregate of desires for its motive power4 ,men in their collective capacity can exhibit no result but what has its origin in some appetite1 feeling1 or taste common among them4 ,did not they like meat1 there could be no cattle-graziers1 no ,smithfield1 no distributing organization of butchers4 ,operas1 ,philharmonic ,societies1 song-books1 and street organ-boys1 have all been called into being by our love of music4 ,look through the trades' directory2 take up a guide to the ,london sights2 read the index of ,bradshaw's time-tables1 the reports of the learned societies1 or the advertisements of new books2 and you see in the publication itself1 and in the things it describes1 so many products of human activities1 stimulated by human desires4 ,under this stimulus grow up agencies alike the most gigantic and the most insignificant1 the most complicated and the most simple--agencies for national defence and for the sweeping of crossings2 for the daily distribution of letters1 and for the collection of bits of coal out #bdf of the ,thames mud--agencies that subserve all ends1 from the preaching of ,christianity to the protection of ill-treated animals2 from the production of bread for a nation to the supply of groundsel for caged singing-birds4 ,the accumulated desires of individuals being1 then1 the moving power by which every social agency is worked1 the question to be considered is--,which is the most economical kind of agency8 ,the agency having no power in itself1 but being merely an instrument1 our inquiry must be for the most efficient instrument--the instrument that costs least1 and wastes the smallest amount of the moving power--the instrument least liable to get out of order1 and most readily put right again when it goes wrong4 ,of the two kinds of social mechanism exemplified above1 the spontaneous and the governmental1 which is the best8 ,from the form of this question will be readily foreseen the intended answer--that is the best mechanism which contains the fewest parts4 ,the common saying--8,what you wish well done you must do yourself10 embodies a truth1 equally applicable to political life as to private life4 ,the experience that farming by bailiff entails loss1 while tenant-farming pays1 is an experience still better illustrated in national history than in a landlord's account books4 ,this transference of power from constituencies to members of parliament1 from these to the executive1 from the executive to a board1 from the board to inspectors1 and from inspectors through their subs down to the actual workers--this operating through a series of levers1 each1 of which absorbs in friction and inertia part of the moving force2 is as bad1 in virtue of its complexity1 as the direct employment by society of individuals1 private companies1 and spontaneously-formed institutions1 is good in virtue of its simplicity4 ,fully to appreciate the contrast1 we must compare in detail the working of the two systems4 ,officialism is habitually slow4 ,when non-governmental agencies are dilatory1 the public has its remedy3 it ceases #bdg to employ them and soon finds quicker ones4 ,under this discipline all private bodies are taught promptness4 ,but for delays in ,state-departments there is no such easy cure4 ,life-long ,chancery suits must be patiently borne2 ,museum-catalogues must be wearily waited for4 ,while1 by the people themselves1 a ,crystal ,palace is designed1 erected1 and filled1 in the course of a few months1 the legislature takes twenty years to build itself a new house4 ,while1 by private persons1 the debates are daily printed and dispersed over the kingdom within a few hours of their utterance1 the ,board of ,trade tables are regularly published a month1 and sometimes more1 after date4 ,and so throughout4 ,here is a ,board of ,health which1 since #ahdi1 has been about to close the metropolitan graveyards1 but has not done it yet2 and which has so long dawdled over projects for cemeteries1 that the ,london ,necropolis ,company has taken the matter out of its hands4 ,here is a patentee who has had fourteen years' correspondence with the ,horse ,guards1 before getting a definite answer respecting the use of his improved boot for the ,army4 ,here is a ,plymouth port-admiral who delays sending out to look for the missing boats of the ,amazon until ten days after the wreck4 ,again1 officialism is stupid4 ,under the natural course of things each citizen tends towards his fittest function4 ,those who are competent to the kind of work they undertake1 succeed1 and1 in the average of cases1 are advanced in proportion to their efficiency2 while the incompetent1 society soon finds out1 ceases to employ1 forces to try something easier1 and eventually turns to use4 ,but it is quite otherwise in ,state-organizations4 ,here1 as every one knows1 birth1 age1 back-stairs intrigue1 and sycophancy1 determine the selections rather than merit4 ,the 8fool of the family0 readily finds a place in the ,church1 if 8the family0 have good connexions4 ,a youth too ill-educated for any profession1 does very well for an officer in the ,army4 ,grey #bdh hair1 or a title1 is a far better guarantee of naval promotion than genius is4 ,nay1 indeed1 the man of capacity often finds that1 in government offices1 superiority is a hindrance--that his chiefs hate to be pestered with his proposed improvements1 and are offended by his implied criticisms4 ,not only1 therefore1 is legislative machinery complex1 but it is made of inferior materials4 ,hence the blunders we daily read of--the supplying to the dockyards from the royal forests of timber unfit for use2 the administration of relief during the ,irish famine in such a manner as to draw labourers from the field1 and diminish the subsequent harvest by one-fourth#ca2 the filing of patents at three different offices and keeping an index at none4 ,everywhere does this bungling show itself1 from the elaborate failure of ,house of ,commons ventilation down to the publication of ,the ,london ,gazette1 which invariably comes out wrongly folded4 ,a further characteristic of officialism is its extravagance4 ,in its chief departments1 ,army1 ,navy1 and ,church1 it employs far more officers than are needful1 and pays some of the useless ones exorbitantly4 ,the work done by the ,sewers ,commission has cost1 as ,sir ,b4 ,hall tells us1 from #cjj to #djj per cent1 over the contemplated outlay2 while the management charges have reached #ce1 #dj1 and #de per cent4 on the expenditure4 ,the trustees of ,ramsgate ,harbour--a harbour1 by the way1 that has taken a century to complete--are spending #ah1jjjl4 a year in doing what #ejjjl4 has been proved sufficient for4 ,the ,board of ,health is causing new surveys to be made of all the towns under its control--a proceeding which1 as ,mr4 ,stephenson states1 and as every tyro in engineering knows1 is1 for drainage purposes1 a wholly needless expense4 ,these public agencies are subject to no such influence as that which obliges private enterprise to be economical4 ,traders and mercantile bodies succeed by serving society cheaply4 ,such of them #bdi as cannot do this are continually supplanted by those who can4 ,they cannot saddle the nation with the results of their extravagance1 and so are prevented from being extravagant4 ,on works that are to return a profit it does not answer to spend #dh per cent4 of the capital in superintendence1 as in the engineering department of the ,indian ,government2 and ,indian railway companies1 knowing this1 manage to keep their superintendence charges within #h per cent4 ,a shopkeeper leaves out of his accounts no item analogous to that #f1jjj1jjjl4 of its revenues1 which ,parliament allows to be deducted on the way to the ,exchequer4 ,walk through a manufactory1 and you see that the stern alternatives1 carefulness or ruin1 dictate the saving of every penny2 visit one of the national dockyards1 and the comments you make on any glaring wastefulness are carelessly met by the slang phrase--8,nunky pays40 #ca ,see ,evidence of ,major ,larcom4 ,the unadaptiveness of officialism is another of its vices4 ,unlike private enterprise which quickly modifies its actions to meet emergencies--unlike the shopkeeper who promptly finds the wherewith to satisfy a sudden demand--unlike the railway company which doubles its trains to carry a special influx of passengers2 the law-made instrumentality lumbers on under all varieties of circumstances through its ordained routine at its habitual rate4 ,by its very nature it is fitted only for average requirements1 and inevitably fails under unusual requirements4 ,you cannot step into the street without having the contrast thrust upon you4 ,is it summer8 ,you see the water-carts going their prescribed rounds with scarcely any regard to the needs of the weather--to-day sprinkling afresh the already moist roads2 to-morrow bestowing their showers with no greater liberality upon roads cloudy with dust4 ,is it winter8 ,you see the scavengers do not vary in number and activity according to the quantity of mud2 and if there comes a heavy fall of snow1 you find the thoroughfares remaining for nearly a week in a scarcely passable state1 without an effort being #bej made1 even in the heart of ,london1 to meet the exigency4 ,the late snow-storm1 indeed1 supplied a neat antithesis between the two orders of agencies in the effects it respectively produced on omnibuses and cabs4 ,not being under a law-fixed tariff1 the omnibuses put on extra horses and raised their fares4 ,the cabs on the contrary1 being limited in their charges by an ,act of ,parliament which1 with the usual shortsightedness1 never contemplated such a contingency as this1 declined to ply1 deserted the stands and the stations1 left luckless travellers to stumble home with their luggage as best they might1 and so became useless at the very time of all others when they were most wanted6 ,not only by its unsusceptibility of adjustment does officialism entail serious inconveniences1 but it likewise entails great injustices4 ,in this case of cabs for example1 it has resulted since the late change of law1 that old cabs1 which were before saleable at #ajl4 and #abl4 each1 are now unsaleable and have to be broken up2 and thus legislation has robbed cab-proprietors of part of their capital4 ,again1 the recently-passed ,smoke-,bill for ,london1 which applies only within certain prescribed limits1 has the effect of taxing one manufacturer while leaving untaxed his competitor working within a quarter of a mile2 and so1 as we are credibly informed1 gives one an advantage of #aejjl4 a year over another4 ,these typify the infinity of wrongs1 varying in degrees of hardship1 which legal regulations necessarily involve4 ,society1 a living growing organism1 placed within apparatuses of dead1 rigid1 mechanical formulas1 cannot fail to be hampered and pinched4 ,the only agencies which can efficiently serve it1 are those through which its pulsations hourly flow1 and which change as it changes4 ,how invariably officialism becomes corrupt every one knows4 ,exposed to no such antiseptic as free competition--not dependent for existence1 as private unendowed organizations are1 on the maintenance of a vigorous #bea vitality2 all law-made agencies fall into an inert1 over-fed state1 from which to disease is a short step4 ,salaries flow in irrespective of the activity with which duty is performed2 continue after duty wholly ceases2 become rich prizes for the idle well born2 and prompt to perjury1 to bribery1 to simony4 ,east ,india directors are elected not for any administrative capacity they have2 but they buy votes by promised patronage--a patronage alike asked and given in utter disregard of the welfare of a hundred millions of people4 ,registrars of wills not only get many thousands a year each for doing work which their miserably paid deputies leave half done2 but they1 in some cases1 defraud the revenue1 and that after repeated reprimands4 ,dockyard promotion is the result not of efficient services1 but of political favouritism4 ,that they may continue to hold rich livings1 clergymen preach what they do not believe2 bishops make false returns of their revenues2 and at their elections to fellowships1 well-to-do priests severally make oath that they are pauper1 pius et doctus4 ,from the local inspector whose eyes are shut to an abuse by a contractor's present1 up to the prime minister who finds lucrative berths for his relations1 this venality is daily illustrated2 and that in spite of public reprobation and perpetual attempts to prevent it4 ,as we once heard said by a ,state-official of twenty-five years' standing--8,wherever there is government there is villainy40 ,it is the inevitable result of destroying the direct connexion between the profit obtained and the work performed4 ,no incompetent person hopes1 by offering a douceur in the ,times to get a permanent place in a mercantile office4 ,but where1 as under government1 there is no employer's self-interest to forbid--where the appointment is made by some one on whom inefficiency entails no loss2 there a douceur is operative4 ,in hospitals1 in public charities1 in endowed schools1 in all social agencies in which duty done and income gained do not go hand in hand1 the like corruption is found2 and is great in #beb proportion as the dependence of income upon duty is remote4 ,in ,state-organizations1 therefore1 corruption is unavoidable4 ,in trading-organizations it rarely makes its appearance2 and when it does1 the instinct of self-preservation soon provides a remedy4 ,to all which broad contrasts add this1 that while private bodies are enterprising and progressive1 public bodies are unchanging1 and1 indeed1 obstructive4 ,that officialism should be inventive nobody expects4 ,that it should go out of its easy mechanical routine to introduce improvements1 and this at a considerable expense of thought and application1 without the prospect of profit1 is not to be supposed4 ,but it is not simply stationary2 it resists every amendment either in itself or in anything with which it deals4 ,until now that ,county ,courts are taking away their practice1 all agents of the law have doggedly opposed law-reform4 ,the universities have maintained an old curriculum for centuries after it ceased to be fit2 and are now struggling to prevent a threatened reconstruction4 ,every postal improvement has been vehemently protested against by the postal authorities4 ,mr4 ,whiston can say how pertinacious is the conservatism of ,church grammar-schools4 ,not even the gravest consequences in view preclude official resistance3 witness the fact that though1 as already mentioned1 ,professor ,barlow reported in #ahbj1 of the ,admiralty compasses then in store1 that 8at least one-half were mere lumber10 yet notwithstanding the constant risk of shipwrecks thence arising1 8very little amelioration in this state of things appears to have taken place until #ahch to #ahdj40cb ,nor is official obstructiveness to be readily overborne even by a powerful public opinion3 witness the fact that though1 for generations1 nine-tenths of the nation have disapproved this ecclesiastical system which pampers the drones and starves the workers1 and though commissions have been appointed to rectify it1 it still remains substantially as it #bec was3 witness again the fact that though1 since #ahah1 there have been a score attempts to rectify the scandalous maladministration of ,charitable ,trusts--though ten times in ten successive years1 remedial measures have been brought before ,parliament--the abuses still continue in all their grossness4 ,not only do these legal instrumentalities resist reforms in themselves1 but they hinder reforms in other things4 ,in defending their vested interests the clergy delay the closing of town burial-grounds4 ,as ,mr4 ,lindsay can show1 government emigration-agents are checking the use of iron for sailing-vessels4 ,excise officers prevent improvements in the processes they have to overlook4 ,that organic conservatism which is visible in the daily conduct of all men1 is an obstacle which in private life self-interest slowly overcomes4 ,the prospect of profit does1 in the end1 teach farmers that deep draining is good2 though it takes long to do this4 ,manufacturers do1 ultimately1 learn the most economical speed at which to work their steam-engines2 though precedent has long misled them4 ,but in the public service1 where there is no self-interest to overcome it1 this conservatism exerts its full force2 and produces results alike disastrous and absurd4 ,for generations after book-keeping had become universal1 the ,exchequer accounts were kept by notches cut on sticks4 ,in the estimates for the current year appears the item1 8,trimming the oil-lamps at the ,horse-,guards40 #cb 8,rudimentary ,magnetism10 by ,sir ,w4 ,snow ,harris4 ,part ,,iii4 p4 #ade4 ,between these law-made agencies and the spontaneously formed ones1 who then can hesitate8 ,the one class are slow1 stupid1 extravagant1 unadaptive1 corrupt1 and obstructive3 can any point out in the other1 vices that balance these8 ,it is true that trade has its dishonesties1 speculation its follies4 ,these are evils inevitably entailed by the existing imperfections of humanity4 ,it is equally true1 however1 that these imperfections of humanity are shared by ,state-functionaries2 and that being unchecked in them by the same stern discipline1 they grow to far worse results4 #bed ,given a race of men having a certain proclivity to misconduct and the question is1 whether a society of these men shall be so organized that ill-conduct directly brings punishment1 or whether it shall be so organized that punishment is but remotely contingent on ill-conduct8 ,which will be the most healthful community--that in which agents who perform their functions badly1 immediately suffer by the withdrawal of public patronage2 or that in which such agents can be made to suffer only through an apparatus of meetings1 petitions1 polling booths1 parliamentary divisions1 cabinet-councils1 and red-tape documents8 ,is it not an absurdly utopian hope that men will behave better when correction is far removed and uncertain than when it is near at hand and inevitable8 ,yet this is the hope which most political schemers unconsciously cherish4 ,listen to their plans1 and you find that just what they propose to have done1 they assume the appointed agents will do4 ,that functionaries are trustworthy is their first postulate4 ,doubtless could good officers be ensured1 much might be said for officialism2 just as despotism would have its advantages could we ensure a good despot4 ,if1 however1 we would duly appreciate the contrast between the artificial modes and the natural modes of achieving social desiderata1 we must look not only at the vices of the one but at the virtues of the other4 ,these are many and important4 ,consider first how immediately every private enterprise is dependent on the need for it2 and how impossible it is for it to continue if there be no need4 ,daily are new trades and new companies established4 ,if they subserve some existing public want1 they take root and grow4 ,if they do not1 they die of inanition4 ,it needs no agitation1 no act of ,parliament1 to put them down4 ,as with all natural organizations1 if there is no function for them no nutriment comes to them1 and they dwindle away4 ,moreover1 not only do the new agencies disappear if they #bee are superfluous1 but the old ones cease to be when they have done their work4 ,unlike public instrumentalities--unlike ,heralds' ,offices1 which are maintained for ages after heraldry has lost all value--unlike ,ecclesiastial ,courts1 which continue to flourish for generations after they have become an abomination2 these private instrumentalities dissolve when they become needless4 ,a widely ramified coaching-system ceases to exist as soon as a more efficient railway-system comes into being4 ,and not simply does it cease to exist1 and to abstract funds1 but the materials of which it was made are absorbed and turned to use4 ,coachmen1 guards1 and the rest1 are employed to profit elsewhere--do not continue for twenty years a burden1 like the compensated officials of some abolished department of the ,state4 ,consider1 again1 how necessarily these unordained agencies fit themselves to their work4 ,it is a law of all organized things that efficiency presupposes apprenticeship4 ,not only is it true that the young merchant must begin by carrying letters to the post1 that the way to be a successful innkeeper is to commence as waiter--not only is it true that in the development of the intellect there must come first the perceptions of identity and duality1 next of number1 and that without these1 arithmetic1 algebra1 and the infinitesimal calculus1 remain impracticable2 but it is true that there is no part of an organism but begins in some simple form with some insignificant function1 and passes to its final stage through successive phases of complexity4 ,every heart is at first a mere pulsatile sac2 every brain begins as a slight enlargement of the spinal chord4 ,this law equally extends to the social organism4 ,an instrumentality that is to work well must not be designed and suddenly put together by legislators1 but must grow gradually from a germ2 each successive addition must be tried and proved good by experience before another addition is made2 and by this tentative process only1 can an efficient instrumentality be produced4 ,from a #bef trustworthy man who receives deposits of money1 insensibly grows up a vast banking system1 with its notes1 checks1 bills1 its complex transactions1 and its ,clearing-house4 ,pack-horses1 then waggons1 then coaches1 then steam-carriages on common roads1 and1 finally1 steam-carriages on roads made for them--such has been the slow genesis of our present means of communication4 ,not a trade in the directory but has formed itself an apparatus of manufacturers1 brokers1 travellers1 and retailers1 in so gradual a way that no one can trace the steps4 ,and so with organizations of another order4 ,the ,zoological ,gardens began as the private collection of a few naturalists4 ,the best working-class school known--that at ,price's factory--commenced with half-a-dozen boys sitting among the candle-boxes1 after hours1 to teach themselves writing with worn-out pens4 ,mark1 too1 that as a consequence of their mode of growth1 these spontaneously-formed agencies expand to any extent required4 ,the same stimulus which brought them into being makes them send their ramifications wherever they are needed4 ,but supply does not thus readily follow demand in governmental agencies4 ,appoint a board and a staff1 fix their duties1 and let the apparatus have a generation or two to consolidate1 and you cannot get it to fulfil larger requirements without some act of parliament obtained only after long delay and difficulty4 ,were there space1 much more might be said upon the superiority of what naturalists would call the exogenous order of institutions over the endogenous one4 ,but1 from the point of view indicated1 the further contrasts between their characteristics will be sufficiently visible4 ,hence then the fact1 that while the one order of means is ever failing1 making worse1 or producing more evils than it cures1 the other order of means is ever succeeding1 ever improving4 ,strong as it looks at the outset1 ,state-agency perpetually disappoints every one4 ,puny as are its first #beg stages1 private effort daily achieves results that astound the world4 ,it is not only that joint-stock companies do so much--it is not only that by them a whole kingdom is covered with railways in the same time that it takes the ,admiralty to build a hundred-gun ship2 but it is that public instrumentalities are outdone even by individuals4 ,the often quoted contrast between the ,academy whose forty members took fifty-six years to compile the ,french ,dictionary1 while ,dr4 ,johnson alone compiled the ,english one in eight--a contrast still marked enough after making due set-off for the difference in the works--is by no means without parallel4 ,that great sanitary desideratum--the bringing of the ,new ,river to ,london--which the wealthiest corporation in the world attempted and failed1 ,sir ,hugh ,myddleton achieved single-handed4 ,the first canal in ,england--a work of which government might have been thought the fit projector1 and the only competent executor--was undertaken and finished as the private speculation of one man--the ,duke of ,bridgewater4 ,by his own unaided exertions1 ,william ,smith completed that great achievement1 the geological map of ,great ,britain2 meanwhile1 the ,ordnance ,survey--a very accurate and elaborate one1 it is true--has already occupied a large staff for some two generations1 and will not be completed before the lapse of another4 ,howard and the prisons of ,europe2 ,bianconi and ,irish travelling2 ,waghorn and the ,overland route2 ,dargan and the ,dublin ,exhibition--do not these suggest startling contrasts8 ,while private gentlemen like ,mr4 ,denison1 build model lodging-houses in which the deaths are greatly below the average1 the ,state builds barracks in which the deaths are greatly above the average1 even of the much-pitied town populations3 barracks which1 though filled with picked men under medical supervision1 show an annual mortality per thousand of #acf1 #agi and even #bjd2 though among civilians of the same age in the same places1 the mortality #beh per thousand is but #aai4cc ,while the ,state has laid out large sums at ,parkhurst in the effort to reform juvenile criminals1 who are not reformed1 ,mr4 ,ellis takes fifteen of the worst young thieves in ,london--thieves considered by the police irreclaimable--and reforms them all4 ,side by side with the ,emigration ,board1 under whose management hundreds die of fever from close packing1 and under whose licence sail vessels which1 like the ,washington1 are the homes of fraud1 brutality1 tyranny1 and obscenity1 stands ,mrs4 ,chisholm's ,family ,colonisation ,loan ,society1 which does not provide worse accommodation than ever before but much better2 which does not demoralize by promiscuous crowding but improves by mild discipline2 which does not pauperize by charity but encourages providence2 which does not increase our taxes1 but is self-supporting4 ,here are lessons for the lovers of legislation4 ,the ,state outdone by a working shoemaker6 ,the ,state beaten by a woman6 ,stronger still becomes this contrast between the results of public action and private action1 when we remember that the one is constantly eked out by the other1 even in doing the things unavoidably left to it4 ,passing over military and naval departments1 in which much is done by contractors and not by men receiving government pay1--passing over the ,church1 which is constantly extended not by law but by voluntary effort--passing over the ,universities1 where the efficient teaching is given not by the appointed officers but by private tutors2 let us look at the mode in which our judicial system is worked4 ,lawyers perpetually tell us that codification is impossible2 and some are simple enough to believe them4 ,merely remarking1 in passing1 that what government and all its employs cannot do for the ,acts of ,parliament in general1 was done for the #aejj ,customs acts in #ahbe by the energy of one man--,mr4 ,deacon ,hume--let us see #bei how the absence of a digested system of law is made good4 ,in preparing themselves for the bar1 and finally the bench1 law-students1 by years of research1 have to gain an acquaintance with this vast mass of unorganized legislation2 and that organization which it is held impossible for the ,state to effect1 it is held possible 7sly sarcasm on the ,state67 for each student to effect for himself4 ,every judge can privately codify1 though 8united wisdom0 cannot4 ,but how is each judge enabled to codify8 ,by the private enterprise of men who have prepared the way for him2 by the partial codifications of ,blackstone1 ,coke1 and others2 by the digests of ,partnership ,law1 ,bankruptcy ,law1 ,law of ,patents1 ,laws affecting ,women1 and the rest that daily issue from the press2 by abstracts of cases1 and volumes of reports--every one of them unofficial products4 ,sweep away all these fractional codifications made by individuals1 and the ,state would be in utter ignorance of its own laws6 ,had not the bunglings of legislators been made good by private enterprise1 the administration of justice would have been impossible6 #cc ,see 8,statistical ,reports on the ,sickness1 ,mortality1 and ,invaliding amongst the ,troops40 #ahec4 ,where1 then1 is the warrant for the constantly-proposed extensions of legislative action8 ,if1 as we have seen in a large class of cases1 government measures do not remedy the evils they aim at2 if1 in another large class1 they make these evils worse instead of remedying them2 and if1 in a third large class1 while curing some evils they entail others1 and often greater ones--if1 as we lately saw1 public action is continually outdone in efficiency by private action2 and if1 as just shown1 private action is obliged to make up for the shortcomings of public action1 even in fulfilling the vital functions of the ,state2 what reason is there for wishing more public administrations8 ,the advocates of such may claim credit for philanthropy1 but not for wisdom2 unless wisdom is shown by disregarding experience4 99 99 99 99 99 8,much of this argument is beside the question10 will #bfj rejoin our opponents4 8,the true point at issue is1 not whether individuals and companies outdo the ,state when they come in competition with it1 but whether there are not certain social wants which the ,state alone can satisfy4 ,admitting that private enterprise does much1 and does it well1 it is nevertheless true that we have daily thrust upon our notice many desiderata which it has not achieved1 and is not achieving4 ,in these cases its incompetency is obvious2 and in these cases1 therefore1 it behoves the ,state to make up for its deficiencies3 doing this1 if not well1 yet as well as it can40 ,not to fall back upon the many experiences already quoted1 showing that the ,state is likely to do more harm than good in attempting this2 nor to dwell upon the fact that1 in most of the alleged cases1 the apparent insufficiency of private enterprise is a result of previous ,state-interferences1 as may be conclusively shown2 let us deal with the proposition on its own terms4 ,though there would have been no need for a ,mercantile ,marine ,act to prevent the unseaworthiness of ships and the ill-treatment of sailors1 had there been no ,navigation ,laws to produce these2 and though were all like cases of evils and shortcomings directly or indirectly produced by law1 taken out of the category1 there would probably remain but small basis for the plea above put2 yet let it be granted that1 every artificial obstacle having been removed1 there would still remain many desiderata unachieved1 which there was no seeing how spontaneous effort could achieve4 ,let all this1 we say1 be granted2 the propriety of legislative action may yet be rightly questioned4 ,for the said plea involves the unwarrantable assumption that social agencies will continue to work only as they are now working2 and will produce no results but those they seem likely to produce4 ,it is the habit of this school of thinkers to make a limited human intelligence the measure of phenomena which it requires omniscience to grasp4 #bfa ,that which it does not see the way to1 it does not believe will take place4 ,though society has1 generation after generation1 been growing to developments which none foresaw1 yet there is no practical belief in unforeseen developments in the future4 ,the parliamentary debates constitute an elaborate balancing of probabilities1 having for data things as they are4 ,meanwhile every day adds new elements to things as they are1 and seemingly improbable results constantly occur4 ,who1 a few years ago1 expected that a ,leicester-square refugee would shortly become ,emperor of the ,french8 ,who looked for free trade from a landlords' ministry8 ,who dreamed that ,irish over-population would spontaneously cure itself1 as it is now doing8 ,so far from social changes arising in likely ways1 they usually arise in ways which1 to common sense1 appear unlikely4 ,a barber's shop was not a probable-looking place for the germination of the cotton manufacture4 ,no one supposed that important agricultural improvements would come from a ,leadenhall-street tradesman4 ,a farmer would have been the last man thought of to bring to bear the screw propulsion of steam-ships4 ,the invention of a new species of architecture we should have hoped from any one rather than a gardener4 ,yet while the most unexpected changes are daily wrought out in the strangest ways1 legislation daily assumes that things will go just as human foresight thinks they will go4 ,though by the trite exclamation--8,what would our forefathers have said60 there is a frequent acknowledgment of the fact that wonderful results have been achieved in modes wholly unforeseen1 yet there seems no belief that this will be again4 ,would it not be wise to admit such a probability into our politics8 ,may we not rationally infer that1 as in the past so in the future8 ,this strong faith in ,state-agencies is1 however1 accompanied by so weak a faith in natural agencies 7the two being antagonistic71 that1 spite of past experience1 it will by #bfb many be thought absurd to rest in the conviction that existing social needs will be spontaneously met1 though we cannot say how they will be met4 ,nevertheless1 illustrations exactly to the point are now transpiring before their eyes4 ,instance the scarcely credible phenomenon lately witnessed in the midland counties4 ,every one has heard of the distress of the stockingers--a chronic evil of some generation or two's standing4 ,repeated petitions have prayed ,parliament for remedy2 and legislation has made attempts1 but without success4 ,the disease seemed incurable4 ,two or three years since1 however1 the circular knitting machine was introduced--a machine immensely outstripping the old stocking-frame in productiveness1 but which can make only the legs of stockings1 not the feet4 ,doubtless1 the ,leicester and ,nottingham artizans regarded this new engine with alarm1 as likely to intensify their miseries4 ,on the contrary1 it has wholly removed them4 ,by cheapening production it has so enormously increased consumption1 that the old stocking-frames1 which were before too many by half for the work to be done1 are now all employed in putting feet to the legs which the new machines make4 ,how insane would he have been thought who anticipated cure from such a cause6 ,if from the unforeseen removal of evils we turn to the unforeseen achievement of desiderata1 we find like cases4 ,no one recognized in ,oersted's electro-magnetic discovery the germ of a new agency for the catching of criminals and the facilitation of commerce4 ,no one expected railways to become agents for the diffusion of cheap literature1 as they now are4 ,no one supposed when the ,society of ,arts was planning an international exhibition of manufactures in ,hyde ,park1 that the result would be a place for popular recreation and culture at ,sydenham4 ,but there is yet a deeper reply to the appeals of impatient philanthropists4 ,it is not simply that social vitality may be trusted by-and-by to fulfil each much-exaggerated #bfc requirement in some quiet spontaneous way--it is not simply that when thus naturally fulfilled it will be fulfilled efficiently1 instead of being botched as when attempted artificially2 but it is that until thus naturally fulfilled it ought not to be fulfilled at all4 ,a startling paradox1 this1 to many2 but one quite justifiable1 as we hope shortly to show4 ,it was pointed out some distance back1 that the force which produces and sets in motion every social mechanism--governmental1 mercantile1 or other--is some accumulation of personal desires4 ,as there is no individual action without a desire1 so1 it was urged1 there can be no social action without an aggregate of desires4 ,to which there here remains to add1 that as it is a general law of the individual that the intenser desires--those corresponding to all-essential functions--are satisfied first1 and if need be to the neglect of the weaker and less important ones2 so1 it must be a general law of society that the chief requisites of social life--those necessary to popular existence and multiplication--will1 in the natural order of things1 be subserved before those of a less pressing kind4 ,as the private man first ensures himself food2 then clothing and shelter2 these being secured1 takes a wife2 and1 if he can afford it1 presently supplies himself with carpeted rooms1 and piano1 and wines1 hires servants and gives dinner parties2 so1 in the evolution of society1 we see first a combination for defence against enemies1 and for the better pursuit of game2 by-and-by come such political arrangements as are needed to maintain this combination2 afterwards1 under a demand for more food1 more clothes1 more houses1 arises division of labour2 and when satisfaction of the animal wants has been provided for1 there slowly grow up literature1 science1 and the arts4 ,is it not obvious that these successive evolutions occur in the order of their importance8 ,is it not obvious1 that1 being each of them produced by an aggregate of desires1 they must occur in the order of their importance1 if it be a law of the individual that the #bfd strongest desires correspond to the most needful actions8 ,is it not1 indeed1 obvious that the order of relative importance will be more uniformly followed in social action than in individual action2 seeing that the personal idiosyncrasies which disturb that order in the latter case are averaged in the former8 ,if any one does not see this1 let him take up a book describing life at the gold-diggings4 ,there he will find the whole process exhibited in little4 ,he will read that as the diggers must eat1 they are compelled to offer such prices for food that it pays better to keep a store than to dig4 ,as the store-keepers must get supplies1 they give enormous sums for carriage from the nearest town2 and some men1 quickly seeing they can get rich at that1 make it their business4 ,this brings drays and horses into demand2 the high rates draw these from all quarters2 and1 after them1 wheelwrights and harness-makers4 ,blacksmiths to sharpen pickaxes1 doctors to cure fevers1 get pay exorbitant in proportion to the need for them2 and are so brought flocking in proportionate numbers4 ,presently commodities become scarce2 more must be fetched from abroad2 sailors must have increased wages to prevent them from deserting and turning miners2 this necessitates higher charges for freight2 higher freights quickly bring more ships2 and so there rapidly develops an organization for supplying goods from all parts of the world4 ,every phase of this evolution takes place in the order of its necessity2 or as we say--in the order of the intensity of the desires subserved4 ,each man does that which he finds pays best2 that which pays best is that for which other men will give most2 that for which they will give most is that which1 under the circumstances1 they most desire4 ,hence the succession must be throughout from the more important to the less important4 ,a requirement which at any period remains unfulfilled1 must be one for the fulfilment of which men will not pay so much as to make it worth any one's while to fulfil it--must be a less requirement than all the #bfe others for the fulfilment of which they will pay more2 and must wait until other more needful things are done4 ,well1 is it not clear that the same law holds good in every community8 ,is it not true of the latter phases of social evolution1 as of the earlier1 that when things are let alone the smaller desiderata will be postponed to the greater4 ,hence1 then1 the justification of the seeming paradox1 that until spontaneously fulfilled a public want should not be fulfilled at all4 ,it must1 on the average1 result in our complex state1 as in simpler ones1 that the thing left undone is a thing by doing which citizens cannot gain so much as by doing other things--is therefore a thing which society does not want done so much as it wants these other things done2 and the corollary is1 that to effect a neglected thing by artificially employing citizens to do it1 is to leave undone some more important thing which they would have been doing--is to sacrifice the greater requisite to the smaller4 8,but10 it will perhaps be objected1 8if the things done by a government1 or at least by a representative government1 are also done in obedience to some aggregate desire1 why may we not look for this normal subordination of the more needful to the less needful in them too80 ,the reply is1 that though they have a certain tendency to follow this order--though those primal desires for public defence and personal protection1 out of which government originates1 were satisfied through its instrumentality in proper succession--though1 possibly1 some other early and simple requirements may have been so too2 yet1 when the desires are not few1 universal and intense1 but1 like those remaining to be satisfied in the latter stages of civilization1 numerous1 partial1 and moderate1 the judgment of a government is no longer to be trusted4 ,to select out of an immense number of minor wants1 physical1 intellectual1 and moral1 felt in different degrees by different classes1 and by a total mass varying in every case1 the want that is most pressing1 is a task which no legislature can accomplish4 ,no man or men #bff by inspecting society can see what it most needs2 society must be left to feel what it most needs4 ,the mode of solution must be experimental1 not theoretical4 ,when left1 day after day1 to experience evils and dissatisfactions of various kinds1 affecting them in various degrees1 citizens gradually acquire repugnance to these proportionate to their greatness1 and corresponding desires to get rid of them1 which by spontaneously fostering remedial agencies are likely to end in the worst inconvenience being first removed4 ,and however irregular this process may be 7and we admit that men's habits and prejudices produce many anomalies1 or seeming anomalies1 in it7 it is a process far more trustworthy than are legislative judgments4 ,for those who question this there are instances2 and1 that the parallel may be the more conclusive1 we will take a case in which the ruling power is deemed specially fit to decide4 ,we refer to our means of communication4 ,do those who maintain that railways would have been better laid out and constructed by government1 hold that the order of importance would have been as uniformly followed as it has been by private enterprise8 ,under the stimulus of an enormous traffic--a traffic too great for the then existing means--the first line sprung up between ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,next came the ,grand ,junction and the ,london and ,birmingham 7now merged in the ,london and ,north ,western72 afterwards the ,great ,western1 the ,south ,western1 the ,south ,eastern1 the ,eastern ,counties1 the ,midland4 ,since then subsidiary lines and branches have occupied our capitalists4 ,as they were quite certain to do1 companies made first the most needed1 and therefore the best paying1 lines2 under the same impulse that a labourer chooses high wages in preference to low4 ,that government would have adopted a better order can hardly be1 for the best has been followed2 but that it would have adopted a worse1 all the evidence we have goes to show4 ,in default of materials #bfg for a direct parallel1 we might cite from ,india and the colonies1 cases of injudicious road-making4 ,or1 as exemplifying ,state-efforts to facilitate communication1 we might dwell on the fact that while our rulers have sacrificed hundreds of lives and spent untold treasure in seeking a ,north-west passage1 which would be useless if found1 they have left the exploration of the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and the making railways and canals through it1 to private companies4 ,but1 not to make much of this indirect evidence1 we will content ourselves with the one sample of a ,state-made channel for commerce1 which we have at home--the ,caledonian ,canal4 ,up to the present time 7#ahec71 this public work has cost upwards of #a1ajj1jjjl4 ,it has now been open for many years1 and salaried emissaries have been constantly employed to get traffic for it4 ,the results1 as given in its forty-seventh annual report1 issued in #aheb1 are--receipts during the year1 #g1ijil42 expenditure ditto1 #i1bfal4--loss1 #a1cebl4 ,has any such large investment been made with such a pitiful result by a private canal company8 ,and if a government is so bad a judge of the relative importance of social requirements1 when these requirements are of the same kind1 how worthless a judge must it be when they are of different kinds4 ,if1 where a fair share of intelligence might be expected to lead them right1 legislators and their officers go so wrong1 how terribly will they err where no amount of intelligence would suffice them1--where they must decide among hosts of needs1 bodily1 intellectual1 and moral1 which admit of no direct comparisons2 and how disastrous must be the results if they act out their erroneous decisions4 ,should any one need this bringing home to him by an illustration1 let him read the following extract from the last of the series of letters some time since published in the ,morning ,chronicle1 on the state of agriculture in ,france4 ,after expressing the opinion that ,french farming is some century behind ,english farming1 the writer goes on to say3 8,there are two causes principally chargeable with this4 ,in the first #bfh place1 strange as it may seem in a country in which two-thirds of the population are agriculturists1 agriculture is a very unhonoured occupation4 ,develope in the slightest degree a ,frenchman's mental faculties1 and he flies to a town as surely as steel filings fly to a loadstone4 ,he has no rural tastes1 no delight in rural habits4 ,a ,french amateur farmer would indeed be a sight to see4 ,again1 this national tendency is directly encouraged by the centralising system of government--by the multitude of officials1 and by the payment of all functionaries4 ,from all parts of ,france1 men of great energy and resource struggle up1 and fling themselves on the world of ,paris4 ,there they try to become great functionaries4 ,through every department of the eighty-four1 men of less energy and resource struggle up to the chef-lieu--the provincial capital4 ,there they try to become little functionaries4 ,go still lower--deal with a still smaller scale--and the result will be the same4 ,as is the department to ,france1 so is the arrondissement to the department1 and the commune to the arrondissement4 ,all who have1 or think they have1 heads on their shoulders1 struggle into towns to fight for office4 ,all who are1 or are deemed by themselves or others1 too stupid for anything else1 are left at home to till the fields1 and breed the cattle1 and prune the vines1 as their ancestors did for generations before them4 ,thus there is actually no intelligence left in the country4 ,the whole energy1 and knowledge1 and resource of the land are barreled up in the towns4 ,you leave one city1 and in many cases you will not meet an educated or cultivated individual until you arrive at another--all between is utter intellectual barrenness40--,morning ,chronicle4 ,august1 #ahea4 ,to what end now is this constant abstraction of able men from rural districts8 ,to the end that there may be enough functionaries to achieve those many desiderata which ,french governments have thought ought to be achieved--to provide amusements1 to manage mines1 to construct roads and bridges1 to erect numerous buildings--to print books1 encourage the fine arts1 control this trade1 and inspect that manufacture--to do all the hundred-and-one things which the ,state does in ,france4 ,that the army of officers needed for this may be maintained1 agriculture must go unofficered4 ,that certain social conveniences may be better secured1 the chief social necessity is neglected4 ,the very basis of the national life is sapped1 to gain a few non-essential advantages4 ,said we not truly1 then1 that until a requirement is spontaneously fulfilled1 it should not be fulfilled at all8 99 99 99 99 99 ,and here indeed we may recognise the close kinship #bfi between the fundamental fallacy involved in these ,state-meddlings and the fallacy lately exploded by the free-trade agitation4 ,these various law-made instrumentalities for effecting ends which might otherwise not yet be effected1 all embody a subtler form of the protectionist hypothesis4 ,the same short-sightedness which1 looking at commerce1 prescribed bounties and restrictions1 looking at social affairs in general1 prescribes these multiplied administrations2 and the same criticism applies alike to all its proceedings4 ,for was not the error that vitiated every law aiming at the artificial maintenance of a trade1 substantially that which we have just been dwelling upon2 namely1 this overlooking of the fact that1 in setting people to do one thing1 some other thing is inevitably left undone8 ,the statesmen who thought it wise to protect home-made silks against ,french silks1 did so under the impression that the manufacture thus secured constituted a pure gain to the nation4 ,they did not reflect that the men employed in this manufacture would otherwise have been producing something else--a something else which1 as they could produce it without legal help1 they could more profitably produce4 ,landlords who have been so anxious to prevent foreign wheat from displacing their own wheat1 have never duly realized the fact that if their fields would not yield wheat so economically as to prevent the feared displacement1 it simply proved that they were growing unfit crops in place of fit crops2 and so working their land at a relative loss4 ,in all cases where1 by restrictive duties1 a trade has been upheld that would otherwise not have existed1 capital has been turned into a channel less productive than some other into which it would naturally have flowed4 ,and so1 to pursue certain ,state-patronized occupations1 men have been drawn from more advantageous occupations4 ,clearly then1 as above alleged1 the same oversight runs through all these interferences2 be they with commerce1 or be they with other things4 ,in employing people to achieve #bgj this or that desideratum1 legislators have not perceived that they were thereby preventing the achievement of some other desideratum4 ,they have habitually assumed that each proposed good would1 if secured1 be a pure good1 instead of being a good purchasable only by submission to some evil which would else have been remedied2 and1 making this error1 have injuriously diverted men's labour4 ,as in trade1 so in other things1 labour will spontaneously find out1 better than any government can find out for it1 the things on which it may best expend itself4 ,rightly regarded1 the two propositions are identical4 ,this division into commercial and non-commercial affairs is quite a superficial one4 ,all the actions going on in society come under the generalization--human effort ministering to human desire4 ,whether the ministration be effected through a process of buying and selling1 or whether in any other way1 matters not so far as the general law of it is concerned4 ,in all cases it must be true that the stronger desires will get themselves satisfied before the weaker ones2 and in all cases it must be true that to get satisfaction for the weaker ones before they would naturally have it1 is to deny satisfaction to the stronger ones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the immense positive evils entailed by over-legislation have to be added the equally great negative evils--evils which1 notwithstanding their greatness1 are scarcely at all recognized1 even by the far-seeing4 ,while the ,state does those things which it ought not to do1 as an inevitable consequence1 it leaves undone those things which it ought to do4 ,time and activity being limited1 it necessarily follows that legislators' sins of commission entail sins of omission4 ,mischievous meddling involves disastrous neglect2 and until statesmen are ubiquitous and omnipotent1 must ever do so4 ,in the very nature of things an agency employed for two purposes must fulfil both imperfectly2 partly because1 while fulfilling the one it cannot be fulfilling #bga the other1 and partly because its adaptation to both ends implies incomplete fitness for either4 ,as has been well said propos of this point1--8,a blade which is designed both to shave and to carve1 will certainly not shave so well as a razor or carve so well as a carving-knife4 ,an academy of painting1 which should also be a bank1 would in all probability exhibit very bad pictures and discount very bad bills4 ,a gas company1 which should also be an infant-school society1 would1 we apprehend1 light the streets ill1 and teach the children ill40#cd ,and if an institution undertakes1 not two functions but a score--if a government1 whose office it is to defend citizens against aggressors1 foreign and domestic1 engages also to disseminate ,christianity1 to administer charity1 to teach children their lessons1 to adjust prices of food1 to inspect coal-mines1 to regulate railways1 to superintend house-building1 to arrange cab-fares1 to look into people's stink-traps1 to vaccinate their children1 to send out emigrants1 to prescribe hours of labour1 to examine lodging-houses1 to test the knowledge of mercantile captains1 to provide public libraries1 to read and authorize dramas1 to inspect passenger-ships1 to see that small dwellings are supplied with water1 to regulate endless things from a banker's issues down to the boat-fares on the ,serpentine--is it not manifest that its primary duty must be ill-discharged in proportion to the multiplicity of affairs it busies itself with8 ,must not its time and energies be frittered away in schemes1 and inquiries1 and amendments1 in discussions1 and divisions1 to the neglect of its essential business8 ,and does not a glance over the debates make it clear that this is the fact8 and that1 while parliament and public are alike occupied with these mischievous interferences1 these ,utopian hopes1 the one thing needful is left almost undone8 #cd ,edinburgh ,review1 ,april1 #ahci4 ,see here1 then1 the proximate cause of our legal abominations4 ,we drop the substance in our efforts to catch shadows4 ,while our firesides1 and clubs1 and taverns are #bgb filled with talk about corn-law questions1 and church questions1 and education questions1 and poor-law questions--all of them raised by over-legislation--the justice question gets scarcely any attention2 and we daily submit to be oppressed1 cheated1 robbed4 ,this institution which should succour the man who has fallen among thieves1 turns him over to solicitors1 barristers1 and a legion of law-officers2 drains his purse for writs1 briefs1 affidavits1 subpnas1 fees of all kinds and expenses innumerable2 involves him in the intricacies of common courts1 chancery courts1 suits1 counter-suits1 and appeals2 and often ruins where it should aid4 ,meanwhile1 meetings are called1 and leading articles written1 and votes asked1 and societies formed1 and agitations carried on1 not to rectify these gigantic evils1 but partly to abolish our ancestors' mischievous meddlings and partly to establish meddlings of our own4 ,is it not obvious that this fatal neglect is a result of this mistaken officiousness8 ,suppose that external and internal protection had been the sole recognized functions of the ruling powers4 ,is it conceivable that our administration of justice would have been as corrupt as now8 ,can any one believe that had parliamentary elections been habitually contested on questions of legal reform1 our judicial system would still have been what ,sir ,john ,romilly calls it1--8a technical system invented for the creation of costs80 ,does any one suppose that1 if the efficient defence of person and property had been the constant subject-matter of hustings pledges1 we should yet be waylaid by a ,chancery ,court which has now more than two hundred millions of property in its clutches8--which keeps suits pending fifty years1 until all the funds are gone in fees--which swallows in costs two millions annually8 ,dare any one assert that had constituencies been always canvassed on principles of law-reform versus law-conservatism1 ,ecclesiastical ,courts would have continued for centuries fattening on the goods of widows and orphans8 ,the questions are next to absurd4 ,a child may #bgc see that with the general knowledge people have of legal corruptions and the universal detestation of legal atrocities1 an end would long since have been put to them1 had the administration of justice always been the political topic4 ,had not the public mind been constantly pre-occupied1 it could never have been tolerated that a man neglecting to file an answer to a bill in due course1 should be imprisoned fifteen years for contempt of court1 as ,mr4 ,james ,taylor was4 ,it would have been impossible that1 on the abolition of their sinecures1 the sworn-clerks should have been compensated by the continuance of their exorbitant incomes1 not only till death1 but for seven years after1 at a total estimated cost of #gjj1jjj4 ,were the ,state confined to its defensive and judicial functions1 not only the people but legislators themselves would agitate against abuses4 ,the sphere of activity and the opportunities for distinction being narrowed1 all the thought1 and industry1 and eloquence which members of ,parliament now expend on impracticable schemes and artificial grievances1 would be expended in rendering justice pure1 certain1 prompt1 and cheap4 ,the complicated follies of our legal verbiage1 which the uninitiated cannot understand and which the initiated interpret in various senses1 would be quickly put an end to4 ,we should no longer frequently hear of ,acts of ,parliament so bunglingly drawn up that it requires half a dozen actions and judges' decisions under them1 before even lawyers can say how they apply4 ,there would be no such stupidly-designed measures as the ,railway ,winding-up ,act1 which1 though passed in #ahdf to close the accounts of the bubble schemes of the mania1 leaves them still unsettled in #ahed--which1 even with funds in hand1 withholds payment from creditors whose claims have been years since admitted4 ,lawyers would no longer be suffered to maintain and to complicate the present absurd system of land titles1 which1 besides the litigation and loss it perpetually causes1 lowers the value of estates1 prevents the #bgd ready application of capital to them1 checks the development of agriculture1 and thus hinders the improvement of the peasantry and the prosperity of the country4 ,in short1 the corruptions1 follies1 and terrors of law would cease2 and that which men now shrink from as an enemy they would come to regard as what it purports to be--a friend4 ,how vast then is the negative evil which1 in addition to the positive evils before enumerated1 this meddling policy entails on us6 ,how many are the grievances men bear1 from which they would otherwise be free6 ,who is there that has not submitted to injuries rather than run the risk of heavy law-costs8 ,who is there that has not abandoned just claims rather than 8throw good money after bad80 ,who is there that has not paid unjust demands rather than withstand the threat of an action8 ,this man can point to property that has been alienated from his family from lack of funds or courage to fight for it4 ,that man can name several relations ruined by a law-suit4 ,here is a lawyer who has grown rich on the hard earnings of the needy and the savings of the oppressed4 ,there is a once wealthy trader who has been brought by legal iniquities to the workhouse or the lunatic asylum4 ,the badness of our judicial system vitiates our whole social life3 renders almost every family poorer than it would otherwise be2 hampers almost every business transaction2 inflicts daily anxieties on every trader4 ,and all this loss of property1 time1 temper1 comfort1 men quietly submit to from being absorbed in the pursuit of schemes which eventually bring on them other mischiefs4 ,nay1 the case is even worse4 ,it is distinctly proveable that many of these evils about which outcries are raised1 and to cure which special ,acts of ,parliament are loudly invoked1 are themselves produced by our disgraceful judicial system4 ,for example1 it is well known that the horrors out of which our sanitary agitators make political capital1 #bge are found in their greatest intensity on properties that have been for a generation in ,chancery--are distinctly traceable to the ruin thus brought about2 and would never have existed but for the infamous corruptions of law4 ,again1 it has been shown that the long-drawn miseries of ,ireland1 which have been the subject of endless legislation1 have been mainly produced by inequitable land-tenure and the complicated system of entail3 a system which wrought such involvements as to prevent sales2 which practically negatived all improvement2 which brought landlords to the workhouse2 and which required an ,incumbered ,estates ,act to cut its gordian knots and render the proper cultivation of the soil possible4 ,judicial negligence1 too1 is the main cause of railway accidents4 ,if the ,state would fulfil its true function1 by giving passengers an easy remedy for breach of contract when trains are behind time1 it would do more to prevent accidents than can be done by the minutest inspection or the most cunningly-devised regulations2 for it is notorious that the majority of accidents are primarily caused by irregularity4 ,in the case of bad house-building1 also1 it is obvious that a cheap1 rigorous1 and certain administration of justice1 would make ,building ,acts needless4 ,for is not the man who erects a house of bad materials ill put together1 and1 concealing these with papering and plaster1 sells it as a substantial dwelling1 guilty of fraud8 ,and should not the law recognize this fraud as it does in the analogous case of an unsound horse8 ,and if the legal remedy were easy1 prompt1 and sure1 would not builders cease transgressing8 ,so is it in other cases3 the evils which men perpetually call on the ,state to cure by superintendence1 themselves arise from non-performance of its original duty4 ,see then how this vicious policy complicates itself4 ,not only does meddling legislation fail to cure the evils it aims at2 not only does it make many evils worse2 not only does it create new evils greater than the old2 but while doing #bgf this it entails on men the oppressions1 robberies1 ruin1 which flow from the non-administration of justice4 ,and not only to the positive evils does it add this vast negative one1 but this again1 by fostering many social abuses that would not else exist1 furnishes occasions for more meddlings which again act and re-act in the same way4 ,and thus as ever1 8things bad begun make strong themselves by ill40 99 99 99 99 99 ,after assigning reasons thus fundamental1 for condemning all ,state-action save that which universal experience has proved to be absolutely needful1 it would seem superfluous to assign subordinate ones4 ,were it called for1 we might1 taking for text ,mr4 ,lindsay's work on 8,navigation and ,mercantile ,marine ,law10 say much upon the complexity to which this process of adding regulation to regulation--each necessitated by foregoing ones--ultimately leads3 a complexity which1 by the misunderstandings1 delays1 and disputes it entails1 greatly hampers our social life4 ,something1 too1 might be added upon the perturbing effects of that 8gross delusion10 as ,m4 ,guizot calls it1 8a belief in the sovereign power of political machinery0--a delusion to which he partly ascribes the late revolution in ,france2 and a delusion which is fostered by every new interference4 ,but1 passing over these1 we would dwell for a short space upon the national enervation which this ,state-superintendence produces4 ,the enthusiastic philanthropist1 urgent for some act of parliament to remedy this evil or secure the other good1 thinks it a trivial and far-fetched objection that the people will be morally injured by doing things for them instead of leaving them to do things themselves4 ,he vividly conceives the benefit he hopes to get achieved1 which is a positive and readily imaginable thing4 ,he does not conceive the diffused1 invisible1 and slowly-accumulating effect wrought on the popular mind1 and so does not believe in it2 or1 if he admits it1 thinks it beneath consideration4 ,would he but #bgg remember1 however1 that all national character is gradually produced by the daily action of circumstances1 of which each day's result seems so insignificant as not to be worth mentioning1 he would perceive that what is trifling when viewed in its increments may be formidable when viewed in its total4 ,or if he would go into the nursery1 and watch how repeated actions--each of them apparently unimportant1--create1 in the end1 a habit which will affect the whole future life2 he would be reminded that every influence brought to bear on human nature tells1 and1 if continued1 tells seriously4 ,the thoughtless mother who hourly yields to the requests--8,mamma1 tie my pinafore10 8,mamma1 button my shoe10 and the like1 cannot be persuaded that each of these concessions is detrimental2 but the wiser spectator sees that if this policy be long pursued1 and be extended to other things1 it will end in inaptitude4 ,the teacher of the old school who showed his pupil the way out of every difficulty1 did not perceive that he was generating an attitude of mind greatly militating against success in life4 ,the modern teacher1 however1 induces his pupil to solve his difficulties himself2 believes that in so doing he is preparing him to meet the difficulties which1 when he goes into the world1 there will be no one to help him through2 and finds confirmation for this belief in the fact that a great proportion of the most successful men are self-made4 ,well1 is it not obvious that this relationship between discipline and success holds good nationally8 ,are not nations made of men2 and are not men subject to the same laws of modification in their adult years as in their early years8 ,is it not true of the drunkard1 that each carouse adds a thread to his bonds8 of the trader1 that each acquisition strengthens the wish for acquisitions8 of the pauper1 that the more you assist him the more he wants8 of the busy man1 that the more he has to do the more he can do8 ,and does it not follow that if every individual is subject to this process of adaptation to conditions1 a whole nation must be #bgh so--that just in proportion as its members are little helped by extraneous power they will become self-helping1 and in proportion as they are much helped they will become helpless8 ,what folly is it to ignore these results because they are not direct1 and not immediately visible4 ,though slowly wrought out they are inevitable4 ,we can no more elude the laws of human development than we can elude the law of gravitation2 and so long as they hold true must these effects occur4 ,if we are asked in what special directions this alleged helplessness1 entailed by much ,state-superintendence1 shows itself2 we reply that it is seen in a retardation of all social growths requiring self-confidence in the people--in a timidity that fears all difficulties not before encountered--in a thoughtless contentment with things as they are4 ,let any one1 after duly watching the rapid evolution going on in ,england1 where men have been comparatively little helped by governments--or better still1 after contemplating the unparalleled progress of the ,united ,states1 which is peopled by self-made men1 and the recent descendants of self-made men2--let such an one1 we say1 go on to the ,continent1 and consider the relatively slow advance which things are there making2 and the still slower advance they would make but for ,english enterprise4 ,let him go to ,holland1 and see that though the ,dutch early showed themselves good mechanics1 and have had abundant practice in hydraulics1 ,amsterdam has been without any due supply of water until now that works are being established by an ,english company4 ,let him go to ,berlin1 and there be told that1 to give that city a water-supply such as ,london has had for generations1 the project of an ,english firm is about to be executed by ,english capital1 under ,english superintendence4 ,let him go to ,vienna1 and learn that it1 in common with other continental cities1 is lighted by an ,english gas-company4 ,let him go on the ,rhone1 on the ,loire1 on the ,danube1 and discover that ,englishmen established steam #bgi navigation on those rivers4 ,let him inquire concerning the railways in ,italy1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 how many of them are ,english projects1 how many have been largely helped by ,english capital1 how many have been executed by ,english contractors1 how many have had ,english engineers4 ,let him discover1 too1 as he will1 that where railways have been government-made1 as in ,russia1 the energy1 the perseverance1 and the practical talent developed in ,england and the ,united ,states have been called in to aid4 ,and then if these illustrations of the progressiveness of a self-dependent race1 and the torpidity of paternally-governed ones1 do not suffice him1 he may read ,mr4 ,laing's successive volumes of ,european travel1 and there study the contrast in detail4 ,what1 now1 is the cause of this contrast8 ,in the order of nature1 a capacity for self-help must in every case have been brought into existence by the practice of self-help2 and1 other things equal1 a lack of this capacity must in every case have arisen from the lack of demand for it4 ,do not these two antecedents and their two consequents agree with the facts as presented in ,england and ,europe8 ,were not the inhabitants of the two1 some centuries ago1 much upon a par in point of enterprise8 ,were not the ,english even behind in their manufactures1 in their colonization1 in their commerce8 ,has not the immense relative change the ,english have undergone in this respect1 been coincident with the great relative self-dependence they have been since habituated to8 ,and has not the one been caused by the other8 ,whoever doubts it1 is asked to assign a more probable cause4 ,whoever admits it1 must admit that the enervation of a people by perpetual ,state-aids is not a trifling consideration1 but the most weighty consideration4 ,a general arrest of national growth he will see to be an evil greater than any special benefits can compensate for4 ,and1 indeed1 when1 after contemplating this great fact1 the overspreading of the ,earth by the ,english1 he remarks the #bhj absence of any parallel achievement by a continental race--when he reflects how this difference must depend chiefly on difference of character1 and how such difference of character has been mainly produced by difference of discipline2 he will perceive that the policy pursued in this matter may have a large share in determining a nation's ultimate fate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are not sanguine1 however1 that argument will change the convictions of those who put their trust in legislation4 ,with men of a certain order of thought the foregoing reasons will have weight4 ,with men of another order of thought they will have little or none2 nor would any accumulation of such reasons affect them4 ,the truth that experience teaches1 has its limits4 ,the experiences which teach1 must be experiences which can be appreciated2 and experiences exceeding a certain degree of complexity become inappreciable to the majority4 ,it is thus with most social phenomena4 ,if we remember that for these two thousand years and more1 mankind have been making regulations for commerce1 which have all along been strangling some trades and killing others with kindness1 and that though the proofs of this have been constantly before their eyes1 they have only just discovered that they have been uniformly doing mischief--if we remember that even now only a small portion of them see this2 we are taught that perpetually-repeated and ever-accumulating experiences will fail to teach1 until there exist the mental conditions required for the assimilation of them4 ,nay1 when they are assimilated1 it is very imperfectly4 ,the truth they teach is only half understood1 even by those supposed to understand it best4 ,for example1 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 in one of his last speeches1 after describing the immensely increased consumption consequent on free trade1 goes on to say3 8,if1 then1 you can only continue that consumption--if1 by your legislation1 under the favour of ,providence1 you can maintain the demand for labour and make your trade and manufactures prosperous1 you are not only increasing the #bha sum of human happiness1 but are giving the agriculturists of this country the best chance of that increased demand which must contribute to their welfare40--,times1 ,feb4 #bb1 #ahej4 ,thus the prosperity really due to the abandonment of all legislation1 is ascribed to a particular kind of legislation4 8,you can maintain the demand10 he says2 8you can make trade and manufactures prosperous20 whereas1 the facts he quotes prove that they can do this only by doing nothing4 ,the essential truth of the matter--that law had been doing immense harm1 and that this prosperity resulted not from law but from the absence of law--is missed2 and his faith in legislation in general1 which should1 by this experience1 have been greatly shaken1 seemingly remains as strong as ever4 ,here1 again1 is the ,house of ,lords1 apparently not yet believing in the relationship of supply and demand1 adopting within these few weeks the standing order 8,that before the first reading of any bill for making any work in the construction of which compulsory power is sought to take thirty houses or more inhabited by the labouring classes in any one parish or place1 the promoters be required to deposit in the office of the clerk of the parliaments a statement of the number1 description1 and situation of the said houses1 the number 7so far as they can be estimated7 of persons to be displaced1 and whether any and what provision is made in the bill for remedying the inconvenience likely to arise from such displacements40 ,if1 then1 in the comparatively simple relationships of trade1 the teachings of experience remain for so many ages unperceived1 and are so imperfectly apprehended when they are perceived1 it is scarcely to be hoped that where all social phenomena--moral1 intellectual1 and physical--are involved1 any due appreciation of the truths displayed will presently take place4 ,the facts cannot yet get recognized as facts4 ,as the alchemist attributed his successive disappointments to some disproportion in the ingredients1 some impurity1 or some too great temperature1 and never to the futility of his process or the impossibility of his aim2 so1 every failure of ,state-regulations the law-worshipper explains away as being caused by this trifling oversight1 or that little #bhb mistake3 all which oversights and mistakes he assures you will in future be avoided4 ,eluding the facts as he does after this fashion1 volley after volley of them produce no effect4 ,indeed this faith in governments is in a certain sense organic2 and can diminish only by being outgrown4 ,from the time when rulers were thought demi-gods1 there has been a gradual decline in men's estimates of their power4 ,this decline is still in progress1 and has still far to go4 ,doubtless1 every increment of evidence furthers it in some degree1 though not to the degree that at first appears4 ,only in so far as it modifies character does it produce a permanent effect4 ,for while the mental type remains the same1 the removal of a special error is inevitably followed by the growth of other errors of the same genus4 ,all superstitions die hard2 and we fear that this belief in government-omnipotence will form no exception4 #bhc ,,representative ,,government--,,what ,,is ,,it ,,good ,,for8 ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,october #aheg4 ,shakspeare's simile for adversity ,which1 like the toad1 ugly and venomous1 ,wears yet a precious jewel in his head1 might fitly be used also as a simile for a disagreeable truth4 ,repulsive as is its aspect1 the hard fact which dissipates a cherished illusion1 is presently found to contain the germ of a more salutary belief4 ,the experience of every one furnishes instances in which an opinion long shrunk from as seemingly at variance with all that is good1 but finally accepted as irresistible1 turns out to be fraught with benefits4 ,it is thus with self-knowledge3 much as we dislike to admit our defects1 we find it better to know and guard against than to ignore them4 ,it is thus with changes of creed3 alarming as looks the reasoning by which superstitions are overthrown1 the convictions to which it leads prove to be healthier ones than those they superseded4 ,and it is thus with political enlightenment3 men eventually see cause to thank those who pull to pieces their political air-castles1 hateful as they once seemed4 ,moreover1 not only is it always better to believe truth than error2 but the repugnant-looking facts are ever found to be parts of something far better than the ideal which they #bhd dispelled4 ,to the many illustrations of this which might be cited1 we shall presently add another4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is a conviction almost universally entertained here in ,england1 that our method of making and administering laws possesses every virtue4 ,prince ,albert's unlucky saying that 8,representative ,government is on its trial10 is vehemently repudiated3 we consider that the trial has long since ended in our favour on all the counts4 ,partly from ignorance1 partly from the bias of education1 partly from that patriotism which leads the men of each nation to pride themselves in their own institutions1 we have an unhesitating belief in the entire superiority of our form of political organization4 ,yet unfriendly critics can point out vices that are manifestly inherent4 ,and if we may believe the defenders of despotism1 these vices are fatal to its efficiency4 ,now instead of denying or blinking these allegations1 it would be wiser candidly to inquire whether they are true2 and if true1 what they imply4 ,if1 as most of us are so confident1 government by representatives is better than any other1 we can afford to listen patiently to all adverse remarks3 believing that they are either invalid1 or that if valid they do not essentially tell against its merits4 ,if our political system is well founded1 this crucial criticism will serve but to bring out its worth more clearly than ever2 and to give us higher conceptions of its nature1 its meaning1 its purpose4 ,let us1 then1 banishing for the nonce all prepossessions1 and taking up a thoroughly antagonistic point of view1 set down without mitigation its many flaws1 vices1 and absurdities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is it not manifest that a ruling body made up of many individuals1 who differ in character1 education1 and aims1 who belong to classes having antagonistic ideas and feelings1 and who are severally swayed by the special #bhe opinions of the districts deputing them1 must be a cumbrous apparatus for the management of public affairs8 ,when we devise a machine we take care that its parts are as few as possible2 that they are adapted to their respective ends2 that they are properly joined with one another2 and that they work smoothly to their common purpose4 ,our political machine1 however1 is constructed upon directly opposite principles4 ,its parts are extremely numerous3 multiplied1 indeed1 beyond all reason4 ,they are not severally chosen as specially qualified for particular functions4 ,no care is taken that they shall fit well together3 on the contrary1 our arrangements are such that they are certain not to fit4 ,and that1 as a consequence1 they do not and cannot act in harmony1 is a fact nightly demonstrated to all the world4 ,in truth1 had the problem been to find an appliance for the slow and bungling transaction of business1 it could scarcely have been better solved4 ,immense hindrance results from the mere multiplicity of parts2 a further immense hindrance results from their incongruity2 yet another immense hindrance results from the frequency with which they are changed2 while the greatest hindrance of all results from the want of subordination of the parts to their functions--from the fact that the personal welfare of the legislator is not bound up with the efficient performance of his political duty4 ,these defects are inherent in the very nature of our institutions2 and they cannot fail to produce disastrous mismanagement4 ,if proofs be needed1 they may be furnished in abundance1 both from the current history of our central representative government1 and from that of local ones1 public and private4 ,let us1 before going on to contemplate these evils as displayed on a great scale in our legislature1 glance at some of them in their simpler and smaller manifestations4 ,we will not dwell on the comparative inefficiency of deputed administration in mercantile affairs4 ,the #bhf untrustworthiness of directorial management might be afresh illustrated by the recent joint-stock-bank catastrophies3 the recklessness and dishonesty of rulers whose interests are not one with those of the concern they control1 being in these cases conspicuously displayed4 ,or we could enlarge on the same truth as exhibited in the doings of railway-boards3 instancing the malversations proved against their members2 the carelessness which has permitted ,robson and ,redpath frauds2 the rashness perseveringly shown in making unprofitable branches and extensions4 ,but facts of this kind are sufficiently familiar4 ,let us pass1 then1 to less notorious examples4 ,mechanics' ,institutions will supply our first4 ,the theory of these is plausible enough4 ,artizans wanting knowledge1 and benevolent middle-class people wishing to help them to it1 constitute the raw material4 ,by uniting their means they propose to obtain literary and other advantages1 which else would be beyond their reach4 ,and it is concluded that1 being all interested in securing the proposed objects1 and the governing body being chosen out of their number1 the results cannot fail to be such as were intended4 ,in most cases1 however1 the results are quite otherwise4 ,indifference1 stupidity1 party-spirit1 and religious dissension1 nearly always thwart the efforts of the promoters4 ,it is thought good policy to select as president some local notability2 probably not distinguished for wisdom1 but whose donation or prestige more than counterbalances his defect in this respect4 ,vice-presidents are chosen with the same view3 a clergyman or two2 some neighbouring squires1 if they can be had2 an ex-mayor2 several aldermen2 half a dozen manufacturers and wealthy tradesmen2 and a miscellaneous complement4 ,while the committee1 mostly elected more because of their position or popularity than their intelligence or fitness for co-operation1 exhibit similar incongruities4 ,causes of dissension quickly arise4 ,a book much wished for by the mass of the members1 is tabooed1 because #bhg ordering it would offend the clerical party in the institution4 ,regard for the prejudices of certain magistrates and squires who figure among the vice-presidents1 forbids the engagement of an otherwise desirable and popular lecturer1 whose political and religious opinions are somewhat extreme4 ,the selection of newspapers and magazines for the reading-room1 is a fruitful source of disputes4 ,should some1 thinking it would be a great boon to those for whom the institution was established1 propose to open the reading-room on ,sundays1 there arises a violent fight2 ending1 perhaps1 in the secession of some of the defeated party4 ,the question of amusements1 again1 furnishes a bone of contention4 ,shall the institution exist solely for instruction1 or shall it add gratification8 ,the refreshment-question1 also1 is apt to be raised1 and to add to the other causes of difference4 ,in short1 the stupidity1 prejudice1 party-spirit1 and squabbling1 are such as eventually to drive away in disgust those who should have been the administrators2 and to leave the control in the hands of a clique1 who pursue some humdrum middle course1 satisfying nobody4 ,instead of that prosperity which would probably have been achieved under the direction of one good man-of-business1 whose welfare was bound up with its success1 the institution loses its prestige1 and dwindles away3 ceases almost entirely to be what was intended--a mechanics' institution2 and becomes little more than a middle-class lounge1 kept up not so much by the permanent adhesion of its members1 as by the continual addition of new ones in place of the old ones constantly falling off4 ,meanwhile1 the end originally proposed is fulfilled1 so far as it gets fulfilled at all1 by private enterprise4 ,cheap newspapers and cheap periodicals1 provided by publishers having in view the pockets and tastes of the working-classes2 coffee-shops and penny reading-rooms1 set up by men whose aim is profit2 are the instruments of the chief proportion of such culture as is going on4 ,in higher-class institutions of the same order--in ,literary #bhh ,societies and ,philosophical ,societies1 etc4--the like inefficiency of representative government is generally displayed4 ,quickly following the vigour of early enthusiasm1 come class and sectarian differences1 the final supremacy of a party1 bad management1 apathy4 ,subscribers complain they cannot get what they want2 and one by one desert to private book-clubs or to ,mudie4 ,turning from non-political to political institutions1 we might1 had we space1 draw illustrations from the doings of the old poor-law authorities1 or from those of modern boards of guardians2 but omitting these and others such1 we will1 among local governments1 confine ourselves to the reformed municipal corporations4 ,if1 leaving out of sight all other evidences1 and forgetting that they are newly-organized bodies into which corruption has scarcely had time to creep1 we were to judge of these municipal corporations by the town-improvements they have effected1 we might pronounce them successful4 ,but1 even without insisting on the fact that such improvements are more due to the removal of obstructions1 and to that same progressive spirit which has established railways and telegraphs1 than to the positive virtues of these civic governments2 it is to be remarked that the execution of numerous public works is by no means an adequate test4 ,with power of raising funds limited only by a rebellion of ratepayers1 it is easy in prosperous1 increasing towns1 to make a display of efficiency4 ,the proper questions to be asked are3--,do municipal elections end in the choice of the fittest men who are to be found8 ,does the resulting administrative body1 perform well and economically the work which devolves on it8 ,and does it show sound judgment in refraining from needless or improper work8 ,to these questions the answers are by no means satisfactory4 ,town-councils are not conspicuous for either intelligence or high character4 ,there are competent judges who think that1 on the average1 their members are inferior to those of #bhi the old corporations they superseded4 ,as all the world knows1 the elections turn mainly on political opinions4 ,the first question respecting any candidate is1 not whether he has great knowledge1 judgment1 or business-faculty--not whether he has any special aptitude for the duty to be discharged2 but whether he is ,whig or ,tory4 ,even supposing his politics to be unobjectionable1 his nomination still does not depend chiefly on his proved uprightness or capacity1 but much more on his friendly relations with the dominant clique4 ,a number of the town magnates1 habitually meeting probably at the chief hotel1 and there held together as much by the brotherhood of conviviality as by that of opinion1 discuss the merits of all whose names are before the public1 and decide which are the most suitable4 ,this gin-and-water caucus it is which practically determines the choice of candidates2 and1 by consequence1 the elections4 ,those who will succumb to leadership--those who will merge their private opinions in the policy of their party1 of course have the preference4 ,men too independent for this--too far-seeing to join in the shibboleth of the hour1 or too refined to mix with the 8jolly good fellows0 who thus rule the town1 are shelved2 notwithstanding that they are1 above all others1 fitted for office4 ,partly from this underhand influence1 and partly from the consequent disgust which leads them to decline standing if asked1 the best men are generally not in the governing body4 ,it is notorious that in ,london the most respectable merchants will have nothing to do with the local government4 ,and in ,new ,york1 8the exertions of its better citizens are still exhausted in private accumulation1 while the duties of administration are left to other hands10 ,it cannot then be asserted that in town-government1 the representative system succeeds in bringing the ablest and most honourable men to the top4 ,the efficient and economical discharge of duties is1 of course1 hindered by this inferiority of the deputies chosen2 #bij and it is further hindered by the persistent action of party and personal motives4 ,not whether he knows well how to handle a level1 but whether he voted for the popular candidate at the last parliamentary election1 is the question on which may1 and sometimes does1 hang the choice of a town-surveyor2 and if sewers are ill laid out1 it is a natural consequence4 ,when1 a new public edifice having been decided on1 competition designs are advertised for2 and when the designs1 ostensibly anonymous but really identifiable1 have been sent in2 ,t4 ,square1 ,esq41 who has an influential relative in the corporation1 makes sure of succeeding1 and is not disappointed3 albeit his plans are not those which would have been chosen by any one of the judges1 had the intended edifice been his own4 ,brown1 who has for many years been on the town-council and is one of the dominant clique1 has a son who is a doctor2 and when1 in pursuance of an ,act of ,parliament1 an officer of health is to be appointed1 ,brown privately canvasses his fellow-councillors1 and succeeds in persuading them to elect his son2 though his son is by no means the fittest man the place can furnish4 ,similarly with the choice of tradesmen to execute work for the town4 ,a public clock which is frequently getting out of order1 and ,board-of-,health water-closets which disgust those who have them 7we state facts71 sufficiently testify that stupidity1 favouritism1 or some sinister influence1 is ever causing mismanagement4 ,the choice of inferior representatives1 and by them of inferior employs1 joined with private interest and divided responsibility1 inevitably prevent the discharge of duties from being satisfactory4 ,moreover1 the extravagance which is now becoming a notorious vice of municipal bodies1 is greatly increased by the practice of undertaking things which they ought not to undertake2 and the incentive to do this is1 in many cases1 traceable to the representative origin of the body4 ,the system of compounding with landlords for municipal #bia rates1 leads the lower class of occupiers into the erroneous belief that town-burdens do not fall in any degree on them2 and they therefore approve of an expenditure which seemingly gives them gratis advantages while it creates employment4 ,as they form the mass of the constituency1 lavishness becomes a popular policy2 and popularity-hunters vie with one another in bringing forward new and expensive projects4 ,here is a councillor who1 having fears about his next election1 proposes an extensive scheme for public gardens--a scheme which many who disapprove do not oppose1 because they1 too1 bear in mind the next election4 ,there is another councillor1 who keeps a shop1 and who raises and agitates the question of baths and wash-houses2 very well knowing that his trade is not likely to suffer from such a course4 ,and so in other cases3 the small direct interest which each member of the corporation has in economical administration1 is antagonized by so many indirect interests of other kinds1 that he is not likely to be a good guardian of the public purse4 ,thus1 neither in respect of the deputies chosen1 nor the efficient performance of their work1 nor the avoidance of unfit work1 can the governments of our towns be held satisfactory4 ,and if in these recently-formed bodies the defects are so conspicuous1 still more conspicuous are they where they have had time to grow to their full magnitude3 witness the case of ,new ,york4 ,according to the ,times correspondent in that city1 the ,new ,york people pay 8over a million and a half sterling1 for which they have badly-paved streets1 a police by no means as efficient as it should be1 though much better than formerly1 the greatest amount of dirt north of ,italy1 the poorest cab-system of any metropolis in the world1 and only unsheltered wooden piers for the discharge of merchandize40 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 having glanced at the general bearings of the question in these minor cases1 let us take the major case of #bib our central government2 and1 in connexion with it1 pursue the inquiry more closely4 ,here the inherent faults of the representative system are much more clearly displayed4 ,the greater multiplicity of rulers involves greater cumbrousness1 greater confusion1 greater delay4 ,differences of class1 of aims1 of prejudices1 are both larger in number and wider in degree2 and hence arise dissensions still more multiplied4 ,the direct effect which each legislator is likely to experience from the working of any particular measure1 is usually very small and remote2 while the indirect influences which sway him are1 in this above all other cases1 numerous and strong3 whence follows a marked tendency to neglect public welfare for private advantage4 ,but let us set out from the beginning--with the constituencies4 ,the representative theory assumes that if a number of citizens1 deeply interested as they all are in good government1 are endowed with political power1 they will choose the wisest and best men for governors4 ,seeing how greatly they suffer from bad administration of public affairs1 it is considered self-evident that they must have the will to select proper representatives2 and it is taken for granted that average common sense gives the ability to select proper representatives4 ,how does experience bear out these assumptions8 ,does it not to a great degree negative them8 ,several considerable classes of electors have little or no will in the matter4 ,not a few of those on the register pique themselves on taking no part in politics--claim credit for having the sense not to meddle with things which they say do not concern them4 ,many others there are whose interest in the choice of a member of ,parliament is so slight1 that they do not think it worth while to vote4 ,a notable proportion1 too1 shopkeepers especially1 care so little about the result1 that their votes are determined by their wishes to please their chief patrons or to avoid offending them4 ,in the minds of a yet larger class1 small sums of money1 or #bic even ad libitum supplies of beer1 outweigh any desires they have to use their political powers independently4 ,those who adequately recognize the importance of honestly exercising their judgments in the selection of legislators1 and who give conscientious votes1 form but a minority2 and the election usually hangs less upon their wills than upon the illegitimate influences which sway the rest4 ,here1 therefore1 the theory fails4 ,then1 again1 as to intelligence4 ,even supposing that the mass of electors have a sufficiently decided will to choose the best rulers1 what evidence have we of their ability8 ,is picking out the wisest man among them1 a task within the range of their capacities8 ,let any one listen to the conversation of a farmer's market-table1 and then answer how much he finds of that wisdom which is required to discern wisdom in others4 ,or let him read the clap-trap speeches made from the hustings with a view of pleasing constituents1 and then estimate the penetration of those who are to be thus pleased4 ,even among the higher order of electors he will meet with gross political ignorance--with notions that ,acts of ,parliament can do whatever it is thought well they should do2 that the value of gold can be fixed by law2 that distress can be cured by poor-laws2 and so forth4 ,if he descends a step1 he will find in the still-prevalent ideas that machinery is injurious to the working-classes1 and that extravagance is 8good for trade10 indices of a yet smaller insight4 ,and in the lower and larger class1 formed by those who think that their personal interest in good government is not worth the trouble of voting1 or is outbalanced by the loss of a customer1 or is of less value than a bribe1 he will perceive an almost hopeless stupidity4 ,without going the length of ,mr4 ,carlyle1 and defining the people as 8twenty-seven millions1 mostly fools10 he will confess that they are but sparely gifted with wisdom4 ,that these should succeed in choosing the fittest #bid governors1 would be strange2 and that they do not so succeed is manifest4 ,even as judged by the most common-sense tests1 their selections are absurd1 as we shall shortly see4 ,it is a self-evident truth that we may most safely trust those whose interests are identical with our own2 and that it is very dangerous to trust those whose interests are antagonistic to our own4 ,all the legal securities we take in our transactions with one another1 are so many recognitions of this truth4 ,we are not satisfied with professions4 ,if another's position is such that he must be liable to motives at variance with the promises he makes1 we take care1 by introducing an artificial motive 7the dread of legal penalties71 to make it his interest to fulfil these promises4 ,down to the asking for a receipt1 our daily business-habits testify that1 in consequence of the prevailing selfishness1 it it extremely imprudent to expect men to regard the claims of others equally with their own3 all asseverations of good faith notwithstanding4 ,now it might have been thought that even the modicum of sense possessed by the majority of electors1 would have led them to recognize this fact in the choice of their representatives4 ,but they show a total disregard of it4 ,while the theory of our ,constitution1 in conformity with this same fact1 assumes that the three divisions composing the ,legislature will severally pursue each its own ends--while our history shows that ,monarch1 ,lords1 and ,commons1 have all along more or less conspicuously done this2 our electors manifest by their votes1 the belief that their interests will be as well cared for by members of the titled class as by members of their own class4 ,though1 in their determined opposition to the ,reform-,bill1 the aristocracy showed how greedy they were1 not only of their legitimate power but of their illegitimate power--though1 by the enactment and pertinacious maintenance of the ,corn-,laws1 they proved how little popular welfare weighed in the #bie scale against their own profits--though they have ever displayed a watchful jealousy even of their smallest privileges1 whether equitable or inequitable 7as witness the recent complaint in the ,house of ,lords1 that the ,mercantile ,marine ,act calls on lords of manors to show their titles before they can claim the wrecks thrown on the shores of their estates1 which before they had always done by prescription7--though they have habitually pursued that self-seeking policy which men so placed were sure to pursue2 yet constituencies have decided that members of the aristocracy may fitly be chosen as representatives of the people4 ,our present ,house of ,commons contains #ih ,irish peers and sons of ,english peers2 #ff blood-relations of peers2 and #fg connexions of peers by marriage3 in all1 #bca members whose interests1 or sympathies1 or both1 are with the nobility rather than the commonalty4 ,we are quite prepared to hear the doctrine implied in this criticism condemned by rose-water politicians as narrow and prejudiced4 ,to such we simply reply that they and their friends fully recognize this doctrine when it suits them to do so4 ,why do they wish to prevent the town-constituencies from predominating over the county-ones2 if they do not believe that each division of the community will consult its own welfare8 ,or what plea can there be for ,lord ,john ,russell's proposal to represent minorities1 unless it be the plea that those who have the opportunity will sacrifice the interests of others to their own8 ,or how shall we explain the anxiety of the upper class1 to keep a tight rein on the growing power of the lower class1 save from their consciousness that bon fide representatives of the lower class would be less regardful of their privileges than they are themselves8 ,if there be any reason in the theory of the ,constitution1 then1 while the members of the ,house of ,peers should belong to the peerage1 the members of the ,house of ,commons should belong to the commonalty4 ,either the constitutional theory is sheer nonsense1 or else #bif the choice of lords as representatives of the people proves the folly of constituencies4 ,but this folly by no means ends here3 it works out other results quite as absurd4 ,what should we think of a man giving his servants equal authority with himself over the affairs of his household8 ,suppose the shareholders in a railway-company were to elect1 as members of their board of directors1 the secretary1 engineer1 superintendent1 traffic-manager1 and others such4 ,should we not be astonished at their stupidity8 ,should we not prophesy that the private advantage of officials would frequently override the welfare of the company8 ,yet our parliamentary electors commit a blunder of just the same kind4 ,for what are military and naval officers but servants of the nation2 standing to it in a relation like that in which the officers of a railway-company stand to the company8 ,do they not perform public work8 do they not take public pay8 ,and do not their interests differ from those of the public1 as the interests of the employed from those of the employer8 ,the impropriety of admitting executive agents of the ,state into the ,legislature1 has over and over again thrust itself into notice2 and in minor cases has been prevented by sundry ,acts of ,parliament4 ,enumerating those disqualified for the ,house of ,commons1 ,blackstone says 8,no persons concerned in the management of any duties or taxes created since #afib1 except the commissioners of the treasury1 nor any of the officers following1 viz4 commissioners of prizes1 transports1 sick and wounded1 wine licences1 navy1 and victualling2 secretaries or receivers of prizes2 comptrollers of the army accounts2 agents for regiments2 governors of plantations1 and their deputies2 officers of ,minorca or ,gibraltar2 officers of the excise and customs2 clerks and deputies in the several offices of the treasury1 exchequer1 navy1 victualling1 admiralty1 pay of the army and navy1 secretaries of state1 salt1 stamps1 appeals1 wine licences1 hackney coaches1 hawkers and pedlars1 nor any persons that hold any new office under the crown created since #agje1 are capable of being elected1 or sitting as members40 ,in which list naval and military officers would doubtless have been included1 had they not always been too powerful a body and too closely identified with the dominant classes4 #big ,glaring1 however1 as is the impolicy of appointing public servants to make the laws2 and clearly as this impolicy is recognized in the above-specified exclusions from time to time enacted2 the people at large seem totally oblivious of it4 ,at the last general election they returned #i naval officers1 #df military officers1 and #ea retired military officers1 who1 in virtue of education1 friendship1 and esprit de corps1 take the same views with their active comrades--in all #ajf3 not including #fd officers of militia and yeomanry1 whose sympathies and ambitions are in a considerable degree the same4 ,if any one thinks that this large infusion of officialism is of no consequence1 let him look in the division-lists4 ,let him inquire how much it has had to do with the maintenance of the purchase-system4 ,let him ask whether the almost insuperable obstacles to the promotion of the private soldier1 have not been strengthened by it4 ,let him see what share it had in keeping up those worn-out practices1 and forms1 and mis-arrangements1 which entailed the disasters of our late war4 ,let him consider whether the hushing-up of the ,crimean ,inquiry and the whitewashing of delinquents were not aided by it4 ,yet1 though abundant experience thus confirms what common sense would beforehand have predicted2 and though1 notwithstanding the late disasters1 exposures1 and public outcry for army-reform1 the influence of the military caste is so great that the reform has been staved-off2 our constituencies are stupid enough to send to ,parliament as many military officers as ever6 ,not even now have we reached the end of these impolitic selections4 ,the general principle on which we have been insisting1 and which is recognized by expounders of the constitution when they teach that the legislative and executive divisions of the ,government should be distinct--this general principle is yet further sinned against2 though not in so literal a manner4 ,for though they do not take ,state-pay1 and are not nominally ,government-officers1 yet1 #bih practically1 lawyers are members of the executive organization4 ,they form an important part of the apparatus for the administration of justice4 ,by the working of this apparatus they make their profits2 and their welfare depends on its being so worked as to bring them profits1 rather than on its being so worked as to administer justice4 ,exactly as military officers have interests distinct from1 and often antagonistic to1 the efficiency of the army2 so1 barristers and solicitors have interests distinct from1 and often antagonistic to1 the cheap and prompt enforcement of the law4 ,and that they are habitually swayed by these antagonistic interests1 is notorious4 ,so strong is the bias1 as sometimes even to destroy the power of seeing from any other than the professional stand-point4 ,we have ourselves heard a lawyer declaiming on the damage which the ,county-,courts-,act had done to the profession2 and expecting his non-professional hearers to join him in condemning it there-for6 ,and if1 as all the world knows1 the legal conscience is not of the tenderest1 is it wise to depute lawyers to frame the laws which they will be concerned in carrying out2 and the carrying out of which must affect their private incomes8 ,are barristers1 who constantly take fees for work which they do not perform1 and attorneys1 whose bills are so often exorbitant that a special office has been established for taxing them--are these1 of all others1 to be trusted in a position which would be trying even to the most disinterested8 ,nevertheless1 the towns and counties of ,england have returned to the present ,house of ,commons #ih lawyers--some #fj of them in actual practice1 and the rest retired1 but doubtless retaining those class-views acquired during their professional careers4 ,these criticisms on the conduct of constituencies do not necessarily commit us to the assertion that none belonging to the official and aristocratic classes ought to be chosen4 ,though it would be safer to carry out1 in these important #bii cases1 the general principle which1 as above shown1 ,parliament has itself recognized and enforced in unimportant cases2 yet we are not prepared to say that occasional exceptions might not be made1 on good cause being shown4 ,all we aim to show is the gross impolicy of selecting so large a proportion of representatives from classes having interests different from those of the general public4 ,that in addition to more than a third taken from the dominant class1 who already occupy one division of the ,legislature1 the ,house of ,commons should contain nearly another third taken from the naval1 military1 and legal classes1 whose policy1 like that of the dominant class1 is to maintain things as they are2 we consider a decisive proof of electoral misjudgment4 ,that out of the #fed members1 of which the ,people's ,house now consists1 there should be but #bej who1 as considered from a class point of view1 are eligible1 or tolerably eligible 7for we include a considerable number who are more or less objectionable71 is significant of anything but popular good sense4 ,that into an assembly established to protect their interests1 the commonalty of ,england should have sent one-third whose interests are the same as their own1 and two-thirds whose interests are at variance with their own1 proves a scarcely credible lack of wisdom2 and seems an awkward fact for the representative theory4 ,if the intelligence of the mass is thus not sufficient even to choose out men who by position and occupation are fit representatives1 still less is it sufficient to choose out men who are the fittest in character and capacity4 ,to see who will be liable to the bias of private advantage is a very easy thing2 to see who is wisest is a very difficult thing2 and those who do not succeed in the first must necessarily fail in the last4 ,the higher the wisdom the more incomprehensible does it become by ignorance4 ,it is a manifest fact that the popular man or writer1 is always one who is but little in advance of the mass1 and consequently #cjj understandable by them3 never the man who is far in advance of them and out of their sight4 ,appreciation of another implies some community of thought4 8,only the man of worth can recognize worth in men4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the worthiest1 if he appealed to universal suffrage1 would have but a poor chance4 4 4 4 4 4 ,alas6 ,jesus ,christ1 asking the ,jews what he deserved--was not the answer1 ,death on the gallows60 ,and though men do not now-a-days stone the prophet1 they1 at any rate1 ignore him4 ,as ,mr4 ,carlyle says in his vehement way 8,if of ten men nine are recognisable as fools1 which is a common calculation1 how1 4 4 4 in the name of wonder1 will you ever get a ballot-box to grind you out a wisdom from the votes of these ten men8 4 4 4 4 4 ,i tell you a million blockheads looking authoritatively into one man of what you call genius1 or noble sense1 will make nothing but nonsense out of him and his qualities1 and his virtues and defects1 if they look till the end of time40 ,so that1 even were electors content to choose the man proved by general evidence to be the most far-seeing1 and refrained from testing him by the coincidence of his views with their own1 there would be small chance of their hitting on the best4 ,but judging of him1 as they do1 by asking him whether he thinks this or that crudity which they think1 it is manifest that they will fix on one far removed from the best4 ,their deputy will be truly representative2--representative1 that is1 of the average stupidity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now let us look at the assembly of representatives thus chosen4 ,already we have noted the unfit composition of this assembly as respects the interests of its members2 and we have just seen what the representative theory itself implies as to their intelligence4 ,let us now1 however1 consider them more nearly under this last head4 ,and first1 what is the work they undertake8 ,observe1 we do not say the work which they ought to do1 but the work which they propose to do1 and try to do4 ,this comprehends the regulation of nearly all actions going on throughout society4 ,besides devising measures to prevent #cja the aggression of citizens on one another1 and to secure each the quiet possession of his own2 and besides assuming the further function1 also needful in the present state of mankind1 of defending the nation as a whole against invaders2 they unhesitatingly take on themselves to provide for countless wants1 to cure countless ills1 to oversee countless affairs4 ,out of the many beliefs men have held respecting ,god1 ,creation1 the ,future1 etc41 they presume to decide which are true2 and authorize an army of priests to perpetually repeat them to the people4 ,the distress resulting from improvidence1 they undertake to remove3 they settle the minimum which each ratepayer shall give in charity1 and how the proceeds shall be administered4 ,judging that emigration will not naturally go on fast enough1 they provide means for carrying off some of the labouring classes to the colonies4 ,certain that social necessities will not cause a sufficiently rapid spread of knowledge1 and confident that they know what knowledge is most required1 they use public money for the building of schools and paying of teachers2 they print and publish ,state-school-books2 they employ inspectors to see that their standard of education is conformed to4 ,playing the part of doctor1 they insist that every one shall use their specific1 and escape the danger of small-pox by submitting to an attack of cow-pox4 ,playing the part of moralist1 they decide which dramas are fit to be acted and which are not4 ,playing the part of artist1 they prompt the setting up of drawing-schools1 provide masters and models2 and1 at ,marlborough ,house1 enact what shall be considered good taste and what bad4 ,through their lieutenants1 the corporations of towns1 they furnish appliances for the washing of peoples' skins and clothes2 they1 in some cases1 manufacture gas and put down water-pipes2 they lay out sewers and cover over cess-pools2 they establish public libraries and make public gardens4 ,moreover1 they determine how houses shall be built1 and what is a safe construction for a ship2 they take measures for the #cjb security of railway-travelling2 they fix the hour after which public-houses may not be open2 they regulate the prices chargeable by vehicles plying in the ,london streets2 they inspect lodging-houses2 they arrange for burial-grounds2 they fix the hours of factory hands4 ,if some social process does not seem to them to be going on fast enough1 they stimulate it2 where the growth is not in the direction which they think most desirable1 they alter it2 and so they seek to realize some undefined ideal community4 ,such being the task undertaken1 what1 let us ask1 are the qualifications for discharging it8 ,supposing it possible to achieve all this1 what must be the knowledge and capacities of those who shall achieve it8 ,successfully to prescribe for society1 it is needful to know the structure of society--the principles on which it is organized--the natural laws of its progress4 ,if there be not a true understanding of what constitutes social development1 there must necessarily be grave mistakes made in checking these changes and fostering those4 ,if there be lack of insight respecting the mutual dependence of the many functions which1 taken together1 make up the national life1 unforeseen disasters will ensue from not perceiving how an interference with one will affect the rest4 ,that is to say1 there must be a due acquaintance with the social science--the science involving all others2 the science standing above all others in complexity4 ,and now1 how far do our legislators possess this qualification8 ,do they in any moderate degree display it8 ,do they make even a distant approximation to it8 ,that many of them are very good classical scholars is beyond doubt3 not a few have written first-rate ,latin verses1 and can enjoy a ,greek play2 but there is no obvious relation between a memory well stocked with the words spoken two thousand years ago1 and an understanding disciplined to deal with modern society4 ,that in learning the languages of the past they have learnt some of its history1 is true2 but considering that this history is mainly a #cjc narrative of battles and plots and negociations and treacheries1 it does not throw much light on social philosophy--not even the simplest principles of political economy have ever been gathered from it4 ,we do not question1 either1 that a moderate per centage of members of ,parliament are fair mathematicians2 and that mathematical discipline is valuable4 ,as1 however1 political problems are not susceptible of mathematical analysis1 their studies in this direction cannot much aid them in legislation4 ,to the large body of military officers who sit as representatives1 we would not for a moment deny a competent knowledge of fortification1 of strategy1 of regimental discipline2 but we do not see that these throw much light on the causes and cure of national evils4 ,indeed1 considering that war fosters anti-social sentiments1 and that the government of soldiers is necessarily despotic1 military education and habits are more likely to unfit than to fit men for regulating the doings of a free people4 ,extensive acquaintance with the laws1 may doubtless be claimed by the many barristers chosen by our constituencies2 and this seems a kind of information having some relation to the work to be done4 ,unless1 however1 this information is more than technical--unless it is accompanied by knowledge of the ramified consequences which laws have produced in times past and are producing now 7which nobody will assert71 it cannot give much insight into ,social ,science4 ,a familiarity with laws is no more a preparation for rational legislation1 than would a familiarity with all the nostrums men have ever used be a preparation for the rational practice of medicine4 ,nowhere1 then1 in our representative body1 do we find appropriate culture4 ,here is a clever novelist1 and there a successful maker of railways2 this member has acquired a large fortune in trade1 and that member is noted as an agricultural improver2 but none of these achievements imply fitness for controlling and adjusting social processes4 ,among the many who have passed through the public #cjd school and university curriculum--including though they may a few ,oxford double-firsts and one or two ,cambridge wranglers--there are none who have received the discipline required by the true legislator4 ,none have that competent knowledge of ,science in general1 culminating in the ,science of ,life1 which can alone form a basis for the ,science of ,society4 ,for it is one of those open secrets which seem the more secret because they are so open1 that all phenomena displayed by a nation are phenomena of ,life1 and are dependent on the laws of ,life4 ,there is no growth1 decay1 evil1 improvement1 or change of any kind1 going on in the body politic1 but what has its cause in the actions of human beings2 and there are no actions of human beings but what conform to the laws of ,life in general1 and cannot be truly understood until those laws are understood4 ,see1 then1 the immense incongruity between the end and the means4 ,see on the one hand the countless difficulties of the task2 and on the other hand the almost total unpreparedness of those who undertake it4 ,need we wonder that legislation is ever breaking down8 ,is it not natural that complaint1 amendment1 and repeal1 should form the staple business of every session8 ,is there anything more than might be expected in the absurd ,jack-,cadeisms which disgrace the debates8 ,even without setting up so high a standard of qualification as that above specified1 the unfitness of most representatives for their duties is abundantly manifest4 ,you need but glance over the miscellaneous list of noblemen1 baronets1 squires1 merchants1 barristers1 engineers1 soldiers1 sailors1 railway-directors1 etc41 and then ask what training their previous lives have given them for the intricate business of legislation1 to see at once how extreme must be the incompetence4 ,one would think that the whole system had been framed on the sayings of some political ,dogberry3--8,the art of healing is difficult2 the art of government easy4 ,the understanding of #cje arithmetic comes by study2 while the understanding of society comes by instinct4 ,watchmaking requires a long apprenticeship2 but there needs none for the making of institutions4 ,to manage a shop properly requires teaching2 but the management of a people may be undertaken without preparation40 ,were we to be visited by some wiser ,gulliver1 or1 as in the 8,micromegas0 of ,voltaire1 by some inhabitant of another sphere1 his account of our political institutions might run somewhat as follows3 8,i found that the ,english were governed by an assembly of men1 said to embody the #8collective wisdom4' ,this assembly1 joined with some other authorities which seem practically subordinate to it1 has unlimited power4 ,i was much perplexed by this4 ,with us it is customary to define the office of any appointed body2 and1 above all things1 to see that it does not defeat the ends for which it was appointed4 ,but both the theory and the practice of this ,english ,government imply that it may do whatever it pleases4 ,though1 by their current maxims and usages1 the ,english recognize the right of property as sacred--though the infraction of it is considered by them one of the gravest crimes--though the laws profess to be so jealous of it as to punish even the stealing of a turnip2 yet their legislators suspend it at will4 ,they take the money of citizens for any project which they choose to undertake2 though such project was not in the least contemplated by those who gave them authority--nay1 though the greater part of the citizens from whom the money is taken had no share in giving them such authority4 ,each citizen can hold property only so long as the #fed deputies do not want it4 ,it seemed to me that an exploded doctrine once current among them of #8the divine right of kings1' had simply been changed into the divine right of ,parliaments4 8,i was at first inclined to think that the constitution of things on the ,earth was totally different from what it is with us2 for the current political philosophy here1 implies #cjf that acts are not right or wrong in themselves but are made one or the other by the votes of law-makers4 ,in our world it is considered manifest that if a number of beings live together1 there must1 in virtue of their natures1 be certain primary conditions on which only they can work satisfactorily in concert2 and we infer that the conduct which breaks through these conditions is bad4 ,in the ,english legislature1 however1 a proposal to regulate conduct by any such abstract standard would be held absurd4 ,i asked one of their members of ,parliament whether a majority of the ,house could legitimize murder4 ,he said1 ,no4 ,i asked him whether it could sanctify robbery4 ,he thought not4 ,but ,i could not make him see that if murder and robbery are intrinsically wrong1 and not to be made right by decisions of statesmen1 that similarly all actions must be either right or wrong1 apart from the authority of the law2 and that if the right and wrong of the law are not in harmony with this intrinsic right and wrong1 the law itself is criminal4 ,some1 indeed1 among the ,english think as we do4 ,one of their remarkable men 7not included in their ,assembly of ,notables7 writes thus3 8#8,to ascertain better and better what the will of the ,eternal was and is with us1 what the laws of the ,eternal are1 all ,parliaments1 ,ecumenic ,councils1 ,congresses1 and other ,collective ,wisdoms1 have had this for their object4 4 4 4 4 ,nevertheless1 in the inexplicable universal votings and debatings of these ,ages1 an idea or rather a dumb presumption to the contrary has gone idly abroad2 and at this day1 over extensive tracts of the world1 poor human beings are to be found1 whose practical belief it is that if we 8vote0 this or that1 so this or that will thenceforth be4 4 4 4 4 ,practically1 men have come to imagine that the ,laws of this ,universe1 like the laws of constitutional countries1 are decided by voting4 4 4 4 ,it is an idle fancy4 ,the ,laws of this ,universe1 of which if the ,laws of ,england are not an exact transcript1 they should passionately study to become such1 are fixed by the everlasting congruity of things1 and are not fixable or changeable by voting6' 8,but ,i find that1 contemptuously disregarding all such protests1 the ,english legislators persevere in their hyperatheistic notion1 that an ,act of ,parliament duly enforced by ,state-officers1 will work out any object3 no question being #cjg put whether ,laws of ,nature permit4 ,i forgot to ask whether they considered that different kinds of food could be made wholesome or unwholesome by ,state-decree4 8,one thing that struck me was the curious way in which the members of their ,house of ,commons judge of one another's capacities4 ,many who expressed opinions of the crudest kinds1 or trivial platitudes1 or worn-out superstitions1 were civilly treated4 ,follies as great as that but a few years since uttered by one of their ministers1 who said that free-trade was contrary to common sense1 were received in silence4 ,but ,i was present when one of their number1 who1 as ,i thought1 was speaking very rationally1 made a mistake in his pronunciation--made what they call a wrong quantity2 and immediately there arose a shout of derision4 ,it seemed quite tolerable that a member should know little or nothing about the business he was there to transact2 but quite intolerable that he should be ignorant on a point of no moment4 8,the ,english pique themselves on being especially practical--have a great contempt for theorizers1 and profess to be guided exclusively by facts4 ,before making or altering a law it is the custom to appoint a committee of inquiry1 who send for men able to give information concerning the matter in hand1 and ask them some thousands of questions4 ,these questions1 and the answers given to them1 are printed in large books1 and distributed among the members of the ,houses of ,parliament2 and ,i was told that they spent about #ajj1jjj a year in thus collecting and distributing evidence4 ,nevertheless1 it appeared to me that the ministers and representatives of the ,english people1 pertinaciously adhere to theories long ago disproved by the most conspicuous facts4 ,they pay great respect to petty details of evidence1 but of large truths they are quite regardless4 ,thus1 the experience of age after age has shown that their state-management is almost invariably bad4 ,the national estates are so miserably administered as often to bring loss #cjh instead of gain4 ,the government ship-yards are uniformly extravagant and inefficient4 ,the judicial system works so ill that most citizens will submit to serious losses rather than run risks of being ruined by law-suits4 ,countless facts prove the ,government to be the worst owner1 the worst manufacturer1 the worst trader3 in fact1 the worst manager1 be the thing managed what it may4 ,but though the evidence of this is abundant and conclusive--though1 during a recent war1 the bunglings of officials were as glaring and multitudinous as ever2 yet the belief that any proposed duties will be satisfactorily discharged by a new public department appointed to them1 seems not a whit the weaker4 ,legislators1 thinking themselves practical1 cling to the plausible theory of an officially-regulated society1 spite of overwhelming evidence that official regulation perpetually fails4 8,nay1 indeed1 the belief seems to gain strength among these fact-loving ,english statesmen1 notwithstanding the facts are against it4 ,proposals for ,state-control over this and the other1 have been of late more rife than ever4 ,and1 most remarkable of all1 their representative assembly lately listened with grave faces to the assertion1 made by one of their high authorities1 that ,state-workshops are more economical than private workshops4 ,their prime minister1 in defending a recently-established arms-factory1 actually told them that1 at one of their arsenals1 certain missiles of war were manufactured not only better than by the trade1 but at about one-third the price2 and added1 #8so it would be in all things4' ,the ,english being a trading people1 who must be tolerably familiar with the usual rates of profit among manufacturers1 and the margin for possible economy1 the fact that they should have got for their chief representative one so utterly in the dark on these matters1 struck me as a wonderful result of the representative system4 8,i did not inquire much further1 for it was manifest that #cji if these were really their wisest men1 the ,english were not a wise people40 99 99 99 99 99 ,representative government1 then1 cannot be called a success1 in so far as the choice of men is concerned4 ,those it puts into power are the fittest neither in respect of their interests1 nor their culture1 nor their wisdom4 ,and as a consequence1 partly of this and partly of its complex and cumbrous nature1 representative government is anything but efficient for administrative purposes4 ,in these respects it is manifestly inferior to monarchical government4 ,this has the advantage of simplicity1 which is always conducive to efficiency4 ,and it has the further advantage that the power is in the hands of one who is directly concerned in the good management of national affairs2 seeing that the continued maintenance of his power--nay1 often his very life--depends on this4 ,for his own sake a monarch chooses the wisest councillors he can find1 regardless of class-distinctions4 ,his interest in getting the best help is too great to allow of prejudices standing between him and a far-seeing man4 ,we see this abundantly illustrated4 ,did not the kings of ,france take ,richelieu1 and ,mazarin1 and ,turgot to assist them8 ,had not ,henry ,,viii4 his ,wolsey1 ,elizabeth her ,burleigh1 ,james his ,bacon1 ,cromwell his ,milton8 ,and were not these men of greater calibre than those who hold the reins under our constitutional rgime8 ,so strong is the motive of an autocrat to make use of ability wherever it exists1 that he will1 like ,louis ,,xi41 take even his barber into council if he finds him a clever fellow4 ,besides choosing them for ministers and advisers1 he seeks out the most competent men for other offices4 ,napoleon raised his marshals from the ranks2 and owed his military success in great part to the readiness with which he saw and availed himself of merit wherever found4 ,we have recently seen in ,russia how prompt was the recognition and promotion of engineering talent in the case of ,todleben2 and know to #caj our cost how greatly the prolonged defence of ,sebastopol was due to this4 ,in the marked contrast to these cases supplied by our own army1 in which genius is ignored while muffs are honoured--in which wealth and caste make the advance of plebeian merit next to impossible--in which jealousies between ,queen's service and ,company's service render the best generalship almost unavailable2 we see that the representative system fails in the officering of its executive1 as much as in the officering of its legislative4 ,a striking antithesis between the actions of the two forms of government1 is presented in the evidence given before the ,sebastopol ,committee respecting the supply of huts to the ,crimean army--evidence showing that while1 in his negotiations with the ,english ,government1 the contractor for the huts met with nothing but vacillation1 delay1 and official rudeness1 the conduct of the ,french ,government was marked by promptitude1 decision1 sound judgment1 and great civility4 ,everything goes to show that for administrative efficiency1 autocratic power is the best4 ,if your aim is a well-organized army--if you want to have sanitary departments1 and educational departments1 and charity-departments1 managed in a business-like way--if you would have society actively regulated by staffs of ,state-agents2 then by all means choose that system of complete centralization which we call despotism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,probably1 notwithstanding the hints dropped at the outset1 most have read the foregoing pages with surprise4 ,very likely some have referred to the cover of the ,review1 to see whether they have not1 in mistake1 taken up some other than the 8,westminster20 while some may1 perhaps1 have accompanied their perusal by a running commentary of epithets condemnatory of our seeming change of principles4 ,let them not be alarmed4 ,we have not in the least swerved from the confession of faith set forth in our prospectus4 ,on the contrary1 as we shall shortly show1 #caa our adhesion to free institutions is as strong as ever--nay1 has even gained strength through this apparently antagonistic criticism4 ,the subordination of a nation to a man1 is not a wholesome but a vicious state of things3 needful1 indeed1 for a vicious humanity2 but to be outgrown as fast as may be4 ,the instinct which makes it possible is anything but a noble one4 ,call it 8hero-worship10 and it looks respectable4 ,call it what it is--a blind awe and fear of power1 no matter of what kind1 but more especially of the brutal kind2 and it is by no means to be admired4 ,watch it in early ages deifying the cannibal chief2 singing the praises of the successful thief2 commemorating the most blood-thirsty warriors2 speaking with reverence of those who had shown undying revenge2 and erecting altars to such as carried furthest the vices which disgrace humanity2 and the illusion disappears4 ,read how1 where it was strongest1 it immolated crowds of victims at the tomb of the dead king--how1 at the altars raised to its heroes1 it habitually sacrificed prisoners and children to satisfy their traditional appetite for human flesh--how it produced that fealty of subjects to rulers which made possible endless aggressions1 battles1 massacres1 and horrors innumerable--how it has mercilessly slain those who would not lick the dust before its idols2--read all this1 and the feeling no longer seems so worthy an one4 ,see it in later days idealizing the worst as well as the best monarchs2 receiving assassins with acclamation2 hurrahing before successful treachery2 rushing to applaud the processions and shows and ceremonies wherewith effete power strengthens itself2 and it looks far from laudable4 ,autocracy presupposes inferiority of nature on the part of both ruler and subject3 on the one side a cold1 unsympathetic sacrificing of other's wills to self-will2 on the other side a mean1 cowardly abandonment of the claims of manhood4 ,our very language #cab bears testimony to this4 ,do not dignity1 independence1 and other words of approbation1 imply a nature at variance with this relation8 ,are not tyrannical1 arbitrary1 despotic1 epithets of reproach8 and are not truckling1 fawning1 cringing1 epithets of contempt8 ,is not slavish a condemnatory term8 ,does not servile1 that is1 serf-like1 imply littleness1 meanness8 ,and has not the word villain1 which originally meant bondsman1 come to signify everything which is hateful8 ,that language should thus inadvertently embody dislike for those who most display the instinct of subordination1 is alone sufficient proof that this instinct is associated with evil dispositions4 ,it has been the parent of countless crimes4 ,it is answerable for the torturing and murder of the noble-minded who would not submit--for the horrors of ,bastiles and ,siberias4 ,it has ever been the represser of knowledge1 of free thought1 of true progress4 ,in all times it has fostered the vices of courts1 and made those vices fashionable throughout nations4 ,with a ,george ,,iv4 on the throne1 it weekly tells ten thousand lies1 in the shape of prayers for a 8most religious and gracious king40 ,whether you read the annals of the far past--whether you look at the various uncivilized races dispersed over the globe--or whether you contrast the existing nations of ,europe2 you equally find that submission to authority decreases as morality and intelligence increase4 ,from ancient warrior-worship down to modern flunkeyism1 the sentiment has ever been strongest where human nature has been vilest4 ,this relation between barbarism and loyalty1 is one of those beneficent arrangements which 8the servant and interpreter of nature0 everywhere meets with4 ,the subordination of many to one1 is a form of society needful for men so long as their natures are savage1 or anti-social2 and that it may be maintained1 it is needful that they should have an extreme awe of the one4 ,just in proportion #cac as their conduct to one another is such as to breed perpetual antagonism1 endangering social union2 just in that proportion must there be a reverence for the strong1 determined1 cruel ruler1 who alone can repress their explosive natures and keep them from mutual destruction4 ,among such a people any form of free government is an impossibility4 ,there must be a despotism as stern as the people are savage2 and1 that such a despotism may exist1 there must be a superstitious worship of the despot4 ,but as fast as the discipline of social life modifies character--as fast as1 through lack of use1 the old predatory instincts dwindle--as fast as the sympathetic feelings grow2 so fast does this hard rule become less necessary2 so fast does the authority of the ruler diminish2 so fast does the awe of him disappear4 ,from being originally god1 or demi-god1 he comes at length to be a very ordinary person2 liable to be criticized1 ridiculed1 caricatured4 ,various influences conspire to this result4 ,accumulating knowledge gradually divests the ruler of those supernatural attributes at first ascribed to him4 ,the conceptions which developing science gives of the grandeur of creation1 as well as the constancy and irresistibleness of its ,omnipresent ,cause1 make all feel the comparative littleness of human power2 and the awe once felt for the great man is1 by degrees1 transferred to that ,universe of which the great man is seen to form but an insignificant part4 ,increase of population1 with its average per-centage of great men1 involves the comparative frequency of such2 and the more numerous they are the less respect can be given to each3 they dwarf one another4 ,as society becomes settled and organized1 its welfare and progress become more and more independent of any one4 ,in a primitive society the death of a chief may alter the whole course of things2 but in a society like ours1 things go on much as before1 no matter who dies4 ,thus1 many influences combine to diminish autocratic power1 whether political or other4 ,it is true1 #cad not only in the sense in which ,tennyson writes it1 but also in a higher sense1 that 4 4 4 8the individual withers1 and the world is more and more40 ,further1 it is to be noted that while the unlimited authority of the greatest man ceases to be needful2 and while the superstitious awe which upholds that unlimited authority decreases2 it at the same time becomes impossible to get the greatest man to the top4 ,in a rude social state1 where might is right1 where war is the business of life1 where the qualities required in the ruler1 alike for controlling his subjects and defeating his enemies1 are bodily strength1 courage1 cunning1 will1 it is easy to pick out the best2 or rather--he picks himself out4 ,the qualities which make him the fittest governor for the barbarians around him1 are the qualities by which he gets the mastery over them4 ,but in an advanced1 complex1 and comparatively peaceful state like ours1 these are not the qualities needed2 and even were they needed1 the firmly-organized arrangements of society do not allow the possessor of them to break through to the top4 ,for the rule of a settled1 civilized community1 the characteristics required are--not a love of conquest but a desire for the general happiness2 not undying hate of enemies but a calm dispassionate equity2 not artful manuvring but philosophic insight4 ,how is the man most endowed with these to be found8 ,in no country is he ordinarily born heir to the throne2 and that he can be chosen out of thirty millions of people none will be foolish enough to think4 ,the incapacity for recognizing the greatest worth1 we have already seen illustrated in our parliamentary elections4 ,and if the few thousands forming a constituency cannot pick out from among themselves their wisest man1 still less can the millions forming a nation do it4 ,just as fast as society becomes populous1 complex1 peaceful2 so fast does the political supremacy of the best become impossible4 #cae ,but even were the relation of autocrat and slave a morally wholesome one2 and even were it possible to find the fittest man to be autocrat2 we should still contend that such a form of government is bad4 ,we should not contend this simply on the ground that self-government is a valuable educator4 ,but we should take the ground that no human being1 however wise and good1 is fit to be sole ruler over the doings of an involved society2 and that1 with the best intentions1 a benevolent despot is very likely to produce the most terrible mischiefs which would else have been impossible4 ,we will take the case of all others the most favourable to those who would give supreme power to the best4 ,we will instance ,mr4 ,carlyle's model hero--,cromwell4 ,doubtless there was much in the manners of the times when ,puritanism arose1 to justify its disgust4 ,doubtless the vices and follies bequeathed by effete ,catholicism still struggling for existence1 were bad enough to create a reactionary asceticism4 ,it is in the order of ,nature1 however1 that men's habits and pleasures are not to be changed suddenly4 ,for any permanent effect to be produced it must be produced slowly4 ,better tastes1 higher aspirations1 must be developed2 not enforced from without4 ,disaster is sure to result from the withdrawal of lower gratifications before higher ones have taken their places2 for gratification of some kind is a condition to healthful existence4 ,whatever ascetic morality1 or rather immorality1 may say1 pleasures and pains are the incentives and restraints by which ,nature keeps her progeny from destruction4 ,no contemptuous title of 8pig-philosophy0 will alter the eternal fact that ,misery is the highway to ,death2 while ,happiness is added ,life and the giver of ,life4 ,but indignant ,puritanism could not see this truth2 and with the extravagance of fanaticism sought to abolish pleasure in general4 ,getting into power1 it put down not only questionable amusements but all others along with them4 ,and #caf for these repressions ,cromwell1 either as enacting1 maintaining1 or allowing them1 was responsible4 ,what1 now1 was the result of this attempt to dragoon men into virtue8 ,what came when the strong man who thought he was thus 8helping ,god to mend all10 died8 ,a dreadful reaction brought in one of the most degraded periods of our history4 ,into the newly-garnished house entered 8seven other spirits more wicked than the first40 ,for generations the ,english character was lowered4 ,vice was gloried in1 virtue was ridiculed2 dramatists made marriage the stock-subject of laughter2 profaneness and obscenity flourished2 high aspirations ceased2 the whole age was corrupt4 ,not until ,george ,,iii4 reigned was there a better standard of living4 ,and for this century of demoralization we have1 in great measure1 to thank ,cromwell4 ,is it1 then1 so clear that the domination of one man1 righteous though he may be1 is a blessing8 ,lastly1 it is to be remarked that when the political supremacy of the greatest no longer exists in an overt form1 it still continues in a disguised and more beneficent form4 ,for is it not manifest that in these latter days the wise man eventually gets his edicts enforced by others1 if not by himself4 ,adam ,smith1 from his chimney-corner1 dictated greater changes than prime ministers do4 ,a ,general ,thompson who forges the weapons with which the ,anti-,corn-,law battle is fought--a ,cobden and a ,bright who add to and wield them1 forward civilization much more than those who hold sceptres4 ,repugnant as the fact may be to statesmen1 it is yet one not to be gainsayed4 ,whoever1 to the great effects already produced by ,free-trade1 joins the far greater effects which will be hereafter produced1 must see that the revolution initiated by these men is far wider than has been initiated by any potentate of modern times4 ,as ,mr4 ,carlyle very well knows1 those who elaborate new truths and teach them to their fellows1 are #cag now-a-days the real rulers--8the unacknowledged legislators0--the virtual kings4 ,thus we have the good which great men can do us1 while we are saved from the evil4 ,no2 the old rgime has passed away4 ,for ourselves at least1 the subordination of the many to the one has become alike needless1 repugnant1 and impossible4 ,good for its time1 bad for ours1 the ancient 8hero-worship0 is dead2 and happily no declamations1 be they never so eloquent1 can revive it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here seem to be two irreconcileable positions--two mutually-destructive arguments4 ,first1 a condemnatory criticism on representative government1 and then a still more condemnatory criticism on monarchical government3 each apparently abolishing the other4 ,nevertheless1 the paradox is easily explicable4 ,it is quite possible to say all that we have said concerning the defects of representative government1 and still to hold that it is the best form of government4 ,nay1 it is quite possible to derive a more profound conviction of its superiority from the very evidence which appears so unfavourable to it4 ,for nothing that we have urged tells against its goodness as a means of securing justice between man and man1 or class and class4 ,abundant evidence shows that the maintenance of equitable relations among its subjects1 which forms the essential business of a ruling power1 is surest when the ruling power is of popular origin2 notwithstanding the defects to which such a ruling power is liable4 ,for discharging the true function of a government1 representative government is shown to be the best1 alike by its origin1 its theory1 and its results4 ,let us glance at the facts under these three heads4 ,alike in ,spain1 in ,england1 and in ,france1 popular power embodied itself as a check upon kingly tyranny1 that is--kingly injustice4 ,the earliest accounts we have of the ,spanish ,cortes1 say that it was their office to advise #cah the ,king2 and to follow their advice was his duty4 ,they petitioned1 remonstrated1 complained of grievances1 and supplicated for redress4 ,the ,king1 having acceded to their requirements1 swore to observe them2 and it was agreed that any act of his in contravention of the statutes thus established1 should be 8respected as the ,king's commands1 but not executed1 as contrary to the rights and privileges of the subject40 ,in all which we see very clearly that the special aim of the ,cortes was to get rectified the injustices committed by the ,king or others2 that the ,king was in the habit of breaking the promises of amendment he made to them2 and that they had to adopt measures to enforce the fulfilment of his promises4 ,in ,england we trace analogous facts4 ,the ,barons who bridled the tyranny of ,king ,john1 though not formally appointed1 were virtually impromptu representatives of the nation2 and in their demand that justice should neither be sold1 denied1 nor delayed1 we discern the social evils which led to this taking of the power into their own hands4 ,in early times the knights and burgesses1 summoned by the ,king with the view of getting supplies from them1 had for their especial business to obtain from him the redress of grievances1 that is--the execution of justice2 and in their eventually-obtained and occasionally-exercised power of withholding supplies until justice was granted1 we see both the need there was for remedying the iniquities of autocracy1 and the adaptation of representative institutions to this end4 ,and the further development of popular power latterly obtained1 originated from the demand for fairer laws--for less class-privilege1 class-exemption1 class-injustice3 a fact which the speeches of the ,reform-,bill agitation abundantly prove4 ,in ,france1 again1 representative government grew into a definite form under the stimulus of unbearable oppression4 ,when the accumulated extortion of centuries had reduced the mass of the people to misery--when millions of haggard faces were seen throughout the #cai land--when starving complainants were hanged on 8a gallows forty feet high0--when the exactions and cruelties of good-for-nothing kings and vampire-nobles had brought the nation to the eve of dissolution2 there came1 as a remedy1 an assembly of men elected by the people4 ,that1 considered a priori1 representative government is fitted for establishing just laws1 is implied by the unanimity with which ,spanish1 ,english1 and ,french availed themselves of it to this end2 as well as by the endeavours latterly made by other ,european nations to do the like4 ,the rationale of the matter is simple enough4 ,manifestly1 on the average of cases1 a man will protect his own interests more solicitously than others will protect them for him4 ,manifestly1 where regulations have to be made affecting the interests of several men1 they are most likely to be equitably made when all those concerned are present1 and have equal shares in the making of them4 ,and manifestly1 where those concerned are so numerous and so dispersed1 that it is physically impossible for them all to take part in the framing of such regulations1 the next best thing is for the citizens in each locality to appoint one of their number to speak for them1 to care for their claims1 to be their representative4 ,the general principle is that the welfare of all will be most secure when each looks after his own welfare2 and the principle is carried out as directly as the circumstances permit4 ,it is inferable1 alike from human nature and from history1 that a single man cannot be trusted with the interests of a nation of men1 where his real or imagined interests clash with theirs4 ,it is similarly inferable from human nature and from history1 that no small section of a nation1 as the nobles1 can be expected to consult the welfare of the people at large in preference to their own4 ,and it is further inferable that only in a general diffusion of political power1 is there a safeguard for the general welfare4 ,this has all along been the conviction under which representative government has been advocated1 #cbj maintained1 and extended4 ,from the early writs summoning the members of the ,house of ,commons--writs which declared it to be a most equitable rule that the laws which concerned all should be approved of by all--down to the reasons now urged by the unenfranchised for a participation in political power1 this is the implied theory4 ,observe1 nothing is said about wisdom or administrative ability4 ,from the beginning1 the end in view has been justice4 ,whether we consider the question in the abstract1 or whether we examine the opinions men have entertained upon it from old times down to the present day1 we equally see the theory of representative government to be1 that it is the best means of insuring equitable social relations4 ,and do not the results justify the theory8 ,did not our early ,parliaments1 after long-continued struggles1 succeed in curbing the licentious exercise of royal power1 and in establishing the rights of the subject8 ,are not the comparative security and justice enjoyed under our form of government1 indicated by the envy with which other nations regard it8 ,was not the election of the ,french ,constituent ,assembly followed by the sweeping away of the grievous burdens that weighed down the people--by the abolition of tithes1 seignorial dues1 gabelle1 excessive preservation of game--by the withdrawal of numerous feudal privileges and immunities--by the manumission of the slaves in the ,french colonies8--,and has not that extension of our own electoral system embodied in the ,reform-,bill1 brought about more equitable arrangements8--as witness the repeal of the ,corn-,laws1 and the equalization of probate and legacy duties4 ,the proofs are undeniable4 ,it is clear1 both a priori and a posteriori1 that representative government is especially adapted for the establishment and maintenance of just laws4 ,and now mark that the objections to representative government awhile since urged1 scarcely tell against it at all1 so long as it does not exceed this comparatively limited #cba function4 ,though its mediocrity of intellect makes it incompetent to oversee and regulate the countless involved processes which make up the national life2 it nevertheless has quite enough intellect to enact and enforce those simple principles of equity which underlie the right conduct of citizens to one another4 ,these are such that the commonest minds can understand their chief applications4 ,stupid as may be the average elector1 he can see the propriety of such regulations as shall prevent men from murdering and robbing2 he can understand the fitness of laws which enforce the payment of debts2 he can perceive the need of measures to prevent the strong from tyrannizing over the weak2 and he can feel the rectitude of a judicial system that is the same for rich and poor4 ,the average representative may be but of small capacity1 but he is competent1 under the leadership of his wiser fellows1 to devise appliances for carrying out these necessary restraints2 or rather--he is competent to uphold the set of appliances slowly elaborated by the many generations of his predecessors1 and to do something towards improving and extending them in those directions where the need is most manifest4 ,it is true that even these small demands upon electoral and senatorial wisdom are but imperfectly met4 ,but though constituencies are blind to the palpable truth that if they would escape laws which favour the nobility at the expense of the commonalty1 they must cease to choose representatives from among the nobility2 yet when the injustice of this class-legislation is glaring--as in the case of the ,corn-,laws--they have sense enough to use means for getting it abolished4 ,and though most legislators have not sufficient penetration to perceive that the greater part of the evils which they attempt to cure by official inspection and regulation1 would disappear were there a certain1 prompt1 and cheap administration of justice2 yet the ,county-,courts-,act and other recent law-reforms1 show that they do eventually recognize the importance of more efficient #cbb judicial arrangements4 ,while1 therefore1 the lower average of intelligence which necessarily characterizes representative government1 unfits it for discharging the complex business of regulating the entire national life2 it does not unfit it for discharging the comparatively simple duties of protector4 ,again1 in respect of this all-essential function of a government1 there is a much clearer identity of interest between representative and citizen1 than in respect of the multitudinous other functions which governments undertake4 ,though it is generally of but little consequence to the member of ,parliament whether state-teachers1 state-preachers1 state-officers of health1 state-dispensers of charity1 etc41 do their work well1 it is of great consequence to him that life and property should be secure2 and hence he is more likely to care for the efficient administration of justice than for the efficient administration of anything else4 ,moreover1 the complexity1 incongruity of parts1 and general cumbrousness which deprive a representative government of that activity and decision required for paternally-superintending the affairs of thirty millions of citizens2 do not deprive it of the ability to establish and maintain the regulations by which these citizens are prevented from trespassing against one another4 ,for the principles of equity are permanent as well as simple2 and once having been legally embodied in their chief outlines1 all that devolves on a government is to develop them more perfectly1 and improve the appliances for enforcing them3 an undertaking for which the slow and involved action of a representative government does not unfit it4 ,so that while by its origin1 theory1 and results1 representative government is shown to be the best for securing justice between class and class1 as well as between man and man1 the objections which so strongly tell against it in all its other relations to society1 do not tell against it in this fundamental relation4 ,thus1 then1 we reach the solution of the paradox4 ,here is the reconciliation between the two seemingly-contradictory #cbc positions awhile since taken4 ,to the question--,what is representative government good for8 our reply is--,it is good1 especially good1 good above all others1 for doing the thing which a government should do4 ,it is bad1 especially bad1 bad above all others1 for doing the things which a government should not do4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one point remains4 ,we said1 some distance back1 that not only may representative government be the best1 notwithstanding its many conspicuous deficiencies2 but that it is even possible to discern in these very deficiencies further proofs of its superiority4 ,the conclusion just arrived at1 implying1 as it does1 that these deficiencies tend to hinder it from doing the things which no government should do1 has already furnished a key to this strange-looking assertion4 ,but it will be well here to make a more specific justification of it4 ,this brings us to the pure science of the matter4 ,the ever-increasing complexity which characterizes advancing societies1 is a complexity that results from the multiplication of different parts performing different duties4 ,the doctrine of the division of labour is now-a-days understood by most to some extent2 and most know that by this division of labour each operative1 each manufacturer1 each town1 each district1 is constantly more and more restricted to one kind of work4 ,those who study the organization of living bodies find the uniform process of development to be1 that each organ gradually acquires a definite and limited function3 there arises1 step by step1 a more perfect 8physiological division of labour40 ,and in an article on 8,progress3 its ,law and ,cause10 published in our ,april number1 we pointed out that this increasing specialization of functions which goes on in all organized bodies1 social as well as individual1 is one of the manifestations of a still more general process pervading creation1 inorganic as well as organic4 ,now this specialization of functions1 which is the law of #cbd all organization1 has a twofold implication4 ,at the same time that each part grows adapted to the particular duty it has to discharge1 it grows unadapted to all other duties4 ,the becoming especially fit for one thing1 is a becoming less fit than before for everything else4 ,we have not space here to exemplify this truth4 ,any modern work on physiology1 however1 will furnish the reader with abundant illustrations of it1 as exhibited in the evolution of living creatures2 and as exhibited in the evolution of societies1 it may be studied in the writings of political economists4 ,all which we wish here to point out is1 that the governmental part of the body politic exemplifies this truth equally with its other parts4 ,in virtue of this universal law1 a government cannot gain ability to perform its special work without losing such ability as it had to perform other work4 ,this then is1 as we say1 the pure science of the matter4 ,the original and essential office of a government is that of protecting its subjects against aggression external and internal4 ,in low1 undeveloped forms of society1 where yet there is but little differentiation of parts1 and little specialization of functions1 this essential work1 discharged with extreme imperfection1 is joined with endless other work3 the government has a controlling action over all conduct1 individual and social--regulates dress1 food1 ablutions1 prices1 trade1 religion--exercises unbounded power4 ,in becoming so constituted as to discharge better its essential function1 the government becomes more limited alike in the power and the habit of doing other things4 ,increasing ability to perform its true duty1 involves decreasing ability to perform all other kinds of actions4 ,and this conclusion1 deducible from the universal law of organization1 is the conclusion to which inductive reasoning has already led us4 ,we have seen that1 whether considered in theory or practice1 representative government is the best for securing justice4 ,we have also seen that1 whether #cbe considered in theory or practice1 it is the worst for all other purposes4 ,and here we find that this last characteristic is a necessary accompaniment of the first4 ,these various incapacities1 which seem to tell so seriously against the goodness of representative government1 are but the inevitable consequences of its more complete adaptation to its proper work2 and1 so understood1 are themselves indications that it is the form of government natural to a more highly-organized and advanced social state4 ,we do not expect this consideration to weigh much with those whom it most concerns4 ,truths of so abstract a character find no favour with senates4 ,the metamorphosis we have described is not mentioned in ,ovid4 ,history1 as at present written1 makes no comments on it4 ,there is nothing about it to be found in blue-books and committee-reports4 ,neither is it proved by statistics4 ,evidently1 then1 it has but small chance of recognition by the 8practical0 legislator4 ,but to the select few who study the ,social ,science1 properly so called1 we commend this general fact as one of the highest significance4 ,those who know something of the general laws of life1 and who perceive that these general laws of life underlie all social phenomena1 will see that this dual change in the character of advanced governments1 involves an answer to the first of all political questions4 ,they will see that this specialization in virtue of which an advanced government gains power to perform one function1 while it loses power to perform others1 clearly indicates the true limitations of ,state-duty4 ,they will see that1 even leaving out all other evidence1 this fact alone shows conclusively what is the proper sphere of legislation4 #cbf ,,state-,,tamperings ,,with ,,money ,,and ,,banks4 ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,january #aheh4 ,among unmitigated rogues1 mutual trust is impossible4 ,among people of absolute integrity1 mutual trust would be unlimited4 ,these are truisms4 ,given a nation made up of liars and thieves1 and all trade among its members must be carried on either by barter or by a currency of intrinsic value3 nothing in the shape of promises-to-pay can pass in place of actual payments2 for1 by the hypothesis1 such promises being never fulfilled1 will not be taken4 ,on the other hand1 given a nation of perfectly honest men--men as careful of others' rights as of their own--and nearly all trade among its members may be carried on by memoranda of debts and claims1 eventually written off against one another in the books of bankers2 seeing that as1 by the hypothesis1 no man will ever issue more memoranda of debts than his goods and his claims will liquidate1 his paper will pass current for whatever it represents4 ,coin will be needed only as a measure of value1 and to facilitate those small transactions for which it is physically the most convenient4 ,these we take to be self-evident truths4 ,from them follows the corollary that in a nation neither wholly honest nor wholly dishonest1 there may1 and eventually will1 be established a mixed currency--a currency #cbg partly of intrinsic value and partly of credit-value4 ,the ratio between the quantities of these two kinds of currency1 will be determined by a combination of several causes4 ,supposing that there is no legislative meddling to disturb the natural balance1 it is clear from what has already been said1 that1 fundamentally1 the proportion of coin to paper will depend on the average conscientiousness of the people4 ,daily experience must ever be teaching each citizen1 which other citizens he can put confidence in1 and which not4 ,daily experience must also ever be teaching him how far this confidence may be carried4 ,from personal experiment1 and from current opinion1 which results from the experiments of others1 every one must learn1 more or less truly1 what credit may safely be given4 ,if all find that their neighbours are little to be trusted1 but few promises-to-pay will circulate4 ,and the circulation of promises-to-pay will be great1 if all find that the fulfilment of trading engagements is tolerably certain4 ,the degree of honesty characterizing a community1 being the first regulator of a credit-currency2 the second is the degree of prudence4 ,other things equal1 it is manifest that among a sanguine1 speculative people1 promissory payments will be taken more readily1 and will therefore circulate more largely1 than among a cautious people4 ,two men having exactly the same experiences of mercantile risks will1 under the same circumstances1 respectively give credit and refuse it1 if they are respectively rash and circumspect4 ,and two nations thus contrasted in prudence1 will be similarly contrasted in the relative quantities of notes and bills in circulation among them4 ,nay1 they will be more than similarly contrasted in this respect2 seeing that the prevailing incautiousness1 besides making each citizen unduly ready to give credit1 will also produce in him an undue readiness to risk his own capital in speculations1 and a consequent undue demand for credit from other citizens4 ,there will be both an increased pressure for credit and a diminished resistance2 and therefore a more #cbh than proportionate excess of paper-currency4 ,of this national characteristic and its consequences1 we have a conspicuous example in the ,united ,states4 ,to these comparatively permanent moral causes1 on which the ordinary ratio of hypothetical to real money in a community depends1 have to be added certain temporary moral and physical causes1 which produce temporary variations in the ratio4 ,the prudence of any people is liable to more or less fluctuation4 ,in railway-manias and the like1 we see that irrational expectations may spread through a whole nation1 and lead its members to give and take credit almost recklessly4 ,but the chief causes of temporary variations are those which directly affect the quantity of available capital4 ,wars1 deficient harvests1 or losses consequent on the misfortunes of other nations1 will1 by impoverishing the community1 inevitably lead to an increase in the ratio of promissory payments to actual payments4 ,for what must be done by the citizen disabled by such causes from meeting his engagements8--the shopkeeper whose custom has fallen off in consequence of the high price of bread2 or the manufacturer whose goods lie in his ware-rooms unsaleable2 or the merchant whose foreign correspondents fail him8 ,as the proceeds of his business do not suffice to liquidate the claims on him that are falling due1 he is compelled either to find other means of liquidating them1 or to stop payment4 ,rather than stop payment1 he will1 of course1 make temporary sacrifices--will give high terms to whoever will furnish him with the desired means4 ,if1 by depositing securities with his banker1 he can get a loan at an advanced rate of interest1 well4 ,if not1 by offering an adequate temptation1 he may mortgage his property to some one having good credit2 who either gives bills1 or draws on his banker for the sum agreed to4 ,in either case1 extra promises to pay are issued2 or1 if the difficulty is met by accommodation-bills1 the same result follows4 ,and in proportion to the number of citizens obliged to resort to one #cbi or other of these expedients1 must be the increase of promissory payments in circulation4 ,reduce this proposition to its most general terms1 and it becomes self-evident4 ,thus3--,all bank-notes1 cheques1 bills of exchange1 etc41 are so many memoranda of claims4 ,no matter what may be the technical distinctions among them1 on which upholders of the 8currency principle0 seek to establish their dogma1 they all come within this definition4 ,under the ordinary state of things1 the amount of available wealth in the hands1 or at the command1 of those concerned1 suffices to meet these claims as they are severally presented for payment2 and they are paid either by equivalents of intrinsic value1 as coin1 or by giving in place of them other memoranda of claims on some body of undoubted solvency4 ,but now let the amount of available wealth in the hands of the community be greatly diminished4 ,suppose a large portion of the necessaries of life1 or of coin1 which is the most exchangeable equivalent of such necessaries1 has been sent abroad to support an army1 or to subsidize foreign states2 or1 suppose that there has been a failure in the crops of grain or potatoes4 ,what follows8 ,it follows that part of the claims cannot be liquidated4 ,and what must happen from their non-liquidation8 ,it must happen that those unable to liquidate them will either fail1 or they will redeem them by directly or indirectly giving in exchange certain memoranda of claims on their stock-in-trade1 houses1 or land4 ,that is1 such of these claims as the deficient floating capital does not suffice to meet1 are replaced by claims on fixed capital4 ,the memoranda of claims which should have disappeared by liquidation1 re-appear in a new form2 and the quantity of paper-currency is increased4 ,if the war1 famine1 or other cause of impoverishment1 continues1 the process is repeated4 ,those who have no further fixed capital to mortgage1 become bankrupt2 while those whose fixed capital admits of it1 mortgage still further1 and still further increase the promissory #ccj payments in circulation4 ,manifestly1 if the members of a community whose annual returns but little more than suffice to meet their annual payments suddenly lose part of their annual returns1 they must become proportionately in debt to one another2 and the documents expressive of debt must be proportionately multiplied4 ,this a priori conclusion is in perfect harmony with mercantile experience4 ,the last hundred years have furnished repeated illustrations of its truth4 ,after the enormous export of gold in #agie-f for war-loans to ,germany1 and to meet bills drawn on the ,treasury by ,british agents abroad2 and after large advances made under a moral compulsion by the ,bank of ,england to the ,government2 there followed an excessive issue of bank-notes4 ,in #agif-g1 there were failures of the provincial banks2 a panic in ,london2 a run on the nearly-exhausted ,bank of ,england2 and a suspension of cash-payments--a ,state-authorized refusal to redeem promises to pay4 ,in #ahjj1 the further impoverishment consequent on a bad harvest1 joined with the legalized inconvertibility of bank-notes1 entailed so great a multiplication of them as to cause their depreciation4 ,during the temporary peace of #ahjb1 the country partly recovered itself2 and the ,bank of ,england would have liquidated the claims on it had the ,government allowed4 ,on the subsequent resumption of war1 the phenomenon was repeated2 as in later times it has been on each occasion when the community1 carried away by irrational hopes1 has locked up an undue proportion of its capital in permanent works4 ,moreover1 we have still more conclusive illustrations--illustrations of the sudden cessation of commercial distress and bankruptcy1 resulting from a sudden increase of credit-circulation4 ,when1 in #agic1 there came a general crash1 mainly due to an unsafe banking-system which had grown up in the provinces in consequence of the ,bank of ,england monopoly--when the pressure1 extending to ,london1 became so great as to alarm the ,bank-directors and to cause #cca them suddenly to restrict their issues1 thereby producing a frightful multiplication of bankruptcies2 the ,government 7to mitigate an evil indirectly produced by legislation7 determined to issue ,exchequer-,bills to such as could give adequate security4 ,that is1 they allowed hard-pressed citizens to mortgage their fixed capitals for equivalents of ,state-promises to pay1 with which to liquidate the demands on them4 ,the effect was magical4 #b1bjb1jjj only of ,exchequer-,bills were required4 ,the consciousness that loans could be had1 in many cases prevented them from being needed4 ,the panic quickly subsided2 and all the loans were very soon repaid4 ,in #ahbe1 again1 when the ,bank of ,england1 after having intensified a panic by extreme restriction of its issues1 suddenly changed its policy1 and in four days advanced #e1jjj1jjj notes on all sorts of securities1 the panic at once ceased4 ,and now1 mark two important truths4 ,as just implied1 those expansions of paper-circulation which naturally take place in times of impoverishment or commercial difficulty1 are highly salutary4 ,this issuing of securities for future payment when there does not exist the wherewith for immediate payment1 is a means of mitigating national disasters4 ,the process amounts to a postponement of trading-engagements which cannot at once be met4 ,and the alternative questions to be asked respecting it are--,shall all the merchants1 manufacturers1 shopkeepers1 etc41 who1 by unwise investments1 or war1 or famine1 or great losses abroad1 have been in part deprived of the means of meeting the claims upon them1 be allowed to mortgage their fixed capital8 or1 by being debarred from issuing memoranda of claims on their fixed capital1 shall they be made bankrupts8 ,on the one hand1 if they are permitted to avail themselves of that credit which their fellow-citizens willingly give them on the strength of the proffered securities1 most of them will tide over their difficulties2 and in virtue of that accumulation of surplus capital ever going on1 they will be #ccb able1 by-and-by1 to liquidate their debts in full4 ,on the other hand1 if they are forthwith bankrupted1 carrying with them others1 and these again others1 there follows a disastrous loss to all the creditors3 property to an immense amount being peremptorily sold at a time when there can be comparatively few able to buy1 must go at a great sacrifice2 and those who in a year or two would have been paid in full1 must be content with #ajs4 in the pound4 ,added to which evil comes the still greater one--an extensive damage to the organization of society4 ,numerous importing1 producing1 and distributing establishments are swept away2 tens of thousands of their dependents are left without work2 and before the industrial fabric can be repaired1 a long time must elapse1 much labour must lie idle1 and great distress be borne4 ,between these alternatives1 who1 then1 can pause8 ,let this spontaneous remedial process follow its own course1 and the evil will either be in great measure eventually escaped1 or will be spread little by little over a considerable period4 ,stop this remedial process1 and the whole evil1 falling at once on society1 will bring wide-spread ruin and misery4 ,the second of these important truths is1 that an expanded circulation of promises to pay1 caused by absolute or relative impoverishment1 contracts to its normal limits as fast as the need for expansion disappears4 ,for the conditions of the case imply that all who have mortgaged their fixed capitals to obtain the means of meeting their engagements1 have done so on unfavourable terms2 and are therefore under a strong stimulus to pay off their mortgages as quickly as possible4 ,every one who1 at a time of commercial pressure1 gets a loan from a bank1 has to give high interest4 ,hence1 as fast as prosperity returns1 and his profits accumulate1 he gladly escapes this heavy tax by repaying the loan2 in doing which he1 directly or indirectly1 takes back to the bank as large a number of its credit documents as he originally received1 and so diminishes the #ccc credit-circulation as much as his original transaction had increased it4 ,considered apart from technical distinctions1 a banker performs1 in such case1 the function of an agent in whose name traders issue negotiable memoranda of claims on their estates4 ,the agent is already known to the public as one who issues memoranda of claims on capital that is partly floating and partly fixed--memoranda of claims that have an established character1 and are convenient in their amounts4 ,what the agent does under the circumstances specified1 is to issue more such memoranda of claims1 on the security of more fixed1 and partially-fixed1 capital put in his possession4 ,his clients hypothecate their estates through the banker1 instead of doing it in their own names1 simply because of the facilities which he has and which they have not4 ,and as the banker requires to be paid for his agency and his risk1 his clients redeem their estates1 and close these special transactions with him1 as quickly as they can3 thereby diminishing the amount of credit-currency4 ,thus we see that the balance of a mixed currency of voluntary origin is1 under all circumstances1 self-adjusting4 ,supposing considerations of physical convenience out of the question1 the average ratio of paper to coin is primarily dependent on the average trustworthiness of the people1 and secondarily dependent on their average prudence4 ,when1 in consequence of unusual prosperity1 there is an unusual increase in the number of mercantile transactions1 there is a corresponding increase in the quantity of currency1 both metallic and paper1 to meet the requirement4 ,and when from war1 famine1 or over-investment1 the available wealth in the hands of citizens is insufficient to pay their debts to one another1 the memoranda of debts in circulation acquire an increased ratio to the quantity of gold3 to decrease again as fast as the excess of debts can be liquidated4 ,that these self-regulating processes act but imperfectly1 is doubtless true4 ,with an imperfect humanity1 they cannot #ccd act otherwise than imperfectly4 ,people who are dishonest1 or rash1 or stupid1 will inevitably suffer the penalties of dishonesty1 or rashness1 or stupidity4 ,if any think that by some patent legislative mechanism1 a society of bad citizens can be made to work together as well as a society of good ones1 we shall not take pains to show them the contrary4 ,if any think that the dealings of men deficient in uprightness and foresight1 may be so regulated by cunningly-devised ,acts of ,parliament as to secure the effects of uprightness and foresight1 we have nothing to say to them4 ,or if there are any 7and we fear there are numbers7 who think that in times of commercial difficulty1 resulting from impoverishment or other natural causes1 the evil can be staved-off by some ministerial sleight of hand1 we despair of convincing them that the thing is impossible4 ,see it or not1 the truth is that the ,state can do none of these things4 ,as we shall show1 the ,state can1 and sometimes does1 produce commercial disasters4 ,as we shall also show1 it can1 and sometimes does1 exacerbate the commercial disasters otherwise produced4 ,but while it can create and can make worse1 it cannot prevent4 ,all which the ,state has to do in the matter is to discharge its ordinary office--to administer justice4 ,the enforcement of contracts is one of the functions included in its general function of maintaining the rights of citizens4 ,and among other contracts which it is called on to enforce1 are the contracts expressed in credit-documents--bills of exchange1 cheques1 bank-notes4 ,if any one issues a promise-to-pay1 either on demand or at specified date1 and does not fulfil that promise1 the ,state1 when appealed to by the creditor1 is bound in its protective capacity to obtain fulfilment of the promise1 at whatever cost to the debtor1 or such partial fulfilment of it as his effects suffice for4 ,the ,state's duty in the case of the currency1 as in other cases1 is sternly to threaten the penalty of bankruptcy on all who make engagements which they cannot meet1 and sternly to inflict the #cce penalty when called on by those aggrieved4 ,if it falls short of this1 mischief ensues4 ,if it exceeds this1 mischief ensues4 ,let us glance at the facts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,had we space to trace in detail the history of the ,bank of ,england--to show how the privileges contained in its first charter were bribes given by a distressed ,government in want of a large loan--how1 soon afterwards1 the law which forbad a partnership of more than six persons from becoming bankers1 was passed to prevent the issue of notes by the ,south-,sea ,company1 and so to preserve the ,bank-monopoly--how the continuance of ,state-favours to the ,bank1 corresponded with the continuance of the ,bank's claims on the ,state2 we should see that1 from the first1 banking-legislation has been an organized injustice4 ,but passing over earlier periods1 let us begin with the events that closed the last century4 ,our rulers of that day had entered into a war--whether with adequate reason needs not here be discussed4 ,they had lent vast sums in gold to their allies4 ,they had demanded large advances from the ,bank of ,england1 which the ,bank durst not refuse4 ,they had thus necessitated an excessive issue of notes by the ,bank4 ,that is1 they had so greatly diminished the floating capital of the community1 that engagements could not be met2 and an immense number of promises-to-pay took the place of actual payments4 ,soon after1 the fulfilment of these promises became so difficult that it was forbidden by law2 that is1 cash-payments were suspended4 ,now for these results--for the national impoverishment and consequent abnormal condition of the currency1 the ,state was responsible4 ,how much of the blame lay with the governing classes and how much with the nation at large1 we do not pretend to say4 ,what it concerns us here to note is1 that the calamity arose from the acts of the ruling power4 ,when1 again1 in #ahjb1 after a short peace1 the available capital of the community had so far increased that the redemption of promises-to-pay became #ccf possible1 and the ,bank of ,england was anxious to begin redeeming them1 the legislature interposed its veto2 and so continued the evils of an inconvertible paper-currency after they would naturally have ceased4 ,still more disastrous1 however1 were the results that by-and-by ensued from ,state-meddlings4 ,cash-payments having been suspended--the ,government1 instead of enforcing all contracts1 having temporarily cancelled a great part of them1 by saying to every banker1 8,you shall not be called on to liquidate in coin the promises-to-pay which you issue20 the natural checks to the multiplication of promises-to-pay1 disappeared4 ,what followed8 ,banks being no longer required to cash their notes in coin2 and easily obtaining from the ,bank of ,england1 supplies of its notes in exchange for fixed securities2 were ready to make advances to almost any extent4 ,not being obliged to raise their rate of discount in consequence of the diminution of their available capital2 and reaping a profit by every loan 7of notes7 made on fixed capital2 there arose both an abnormal facility of borrowing1 and an abnormal desire to lend4 ,thus were fostered the wild speculations of #ahji--speculations that were not only thus fostered1 but were in great measure caused by the previous over-issue of notes2 which1 by further exaggerating the natural rise of prices1 increased the apparent profitableness of investments4 ,and all this1 be it remembered1 took place at a time when there should have been rigid economy--at a time of impoverishment consequent on continued war--at a time when1 but for law-produced illusions1 there would have been commercial straitness and a corresponding carefulness4 ,just when its indebtedness was unusually great1 the community was induced still further to increase its indebtedness4 ,clearly1 then1 the progressive accumulation and depreciation of promises-to-pay1 and the commercial disasters which finally resulted from it in #ahad-ae-af1 when ninety provincial banks were broken and more dissolved1 were ,state-produced evils3 partly due to #ccg a war which1 whether necessary or not1 was carried on by the ,government1 and greatly exacerbated by the currency-regulations which that ,government had made4 ,before passing to more recent facts1 let us parenthetically notice the similarly-caused degradation of the currency which had previously arisen in ,ireland4 ,when examined by a parliamentary committee in #ahjd1 ,mr4 ,colville1 one of the directors of the ,bank of ,ireland1 stated that before the passing of the ,irish ,bank-,restriction-,bill 7the bill by which cash-payments were suspended7 the directors habitually met any unusual demand for gold by diminishing their issues4 ,that is to say1 in the ordinary course of business1 they raised their rate of discount whenever the demand enabled them2 and so1 both increased their profits and warded-off the danger of bankruptcy4 ,during this unregulated period their note-circulation was between #fjj1jjj and #gjj1jjj4 ,but as soon as they were guaranteed by law against the danger of bankruptcy1 their circulation began rapidly to increase2 and very soon reached #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the results1 as proved before the committee1 were these3--,the exchange with ,england became greatly depressed2 nearly all the good specie was exported to ,england2 it was replaced in ,dublin 7where small notes could not be issued7 by a base coinage1 adulterated to the extent of fifty per cent42 and elsewhere it was replaced by notes payable at twenty-one days' date1 issued by all sorts of persons1 for sums down even as low as sixpence4 ,and this excessive multiplication of small notes was necessitated by the impossibility of otherwise carrying on retail trade1 after the disappearance of the silver coinage4 ,for these disastrous effects1 then1 legislation was responsible4 ,the swarms of 8silver-notes0 resulted from the exportation of silver2 the exportation of silver was due to the great depression of the exchange with ,england2 this great depression arose from the excessive issue of notes by the ,bank of ,ireland2 and this #cch excessive issue followed from their legalized inconvertibility4 ,yet1 though these facts were long ago established by a committee of the ,house of ,commons1 the defenders of the 8currency-principle0 are actually blind enough to cite this multiplication of sixpenny promises-to-pay1 as proving the evils of an unregulated currency6 ,returning now to the case of the ,bank of ,england1 let us pass at once to the ,act of #ahdd4 ,while still a protectionist--while still a believer in the beneficence of law as a controller of commerce--,sir ,robert ,peel undertook to stop the recurrence of monetary crises1 like those of #ahbe1 #ahcf1 and #ahci4 ,overlooking the truth that1 when not caused by the meddlings of legislators1 a monetary crisis is due1 either to an absolute impoverishment1 or to a relative impoverishment consequent on speculative over-investment2 and that for the bad season1 or the imprudence1 causing this1 there is no remedy2 he boldly proclaimed that 8it is better to prevent the paroxysm than to excite it30 and he brought forward the ,bank-,act of #ahdd as the means of prevention4 ,how merciless has been ,nature's criticism on this remnant of ,protectionism1 we all know4 ,the monetary sliding-scale has been as great a failure as its prototype4 ,within three years arose one of these crises which were to have been prevented4 ,within another ten years has arisen a second of these crises4 ,and on both occasions this intended safeguard has so intensified the evil1 that a temporary repeal of it has been imperative4 ,we should have thought that1 even without facts1 every one might have seen that it is impossible1 by ,act of ,parliament1 to prevent imprudent people from doing imprudent things2 and1 if facts were needed1 we should have thought that our commercial history up to #ahdd supplied a sufficiency4 ,but a superstitious faith in ,state-ordinances disregards such facts4 ,and we doubt not that even now1 though there have been two glaring failures of this professed check on over-speculation--though the evidence conclusively #cci shows that the late commercial catastrophes have had nothing whatever to do with the issue of bank-notes1 but1 as in the case of the ,western ,bank of ,scotland1 occurred along with diminished issues--and though in ,hamburg1 where the 8currency principle0 has been rigidly carried out to the very letter1 there has been a worse crisis than anywhere else2 yet there will remain plenty of believers in the efficiency of ,sir ,r4 ,peel's prophylactic4 ,but1 as already said1 the measure has not only failed2 it has made worse the panics it was to have warded-off4 ,and it was sure to do this4 ,as shown at the outset1 the multiplication of promises-to-pay that occurs at a period of impoverishment caused by war1 famine1 over-investment1 or losses abroad1 is a salutary process of mitigation--is a mode of postponing actual payments till actual payments are possible--is a preventive of wholesale bankruptcy--is a spontaneous act of self-preservation4 ,we pointed out1 not only that this is an a priori conclusion1 but that facts in our own mercantile history illustrate at once the naturalness1 the benefits1 the necessity of it4 ,and if this conclusion needs enforcing by further evidence1 we have it in the recent events at ,hamburg4 ,in that city1 there are no notes in circulation but such as are represented by actual equivalents of bullion or jewels in the bank3 no one is allowed1 as with us1 to obtain bank-promises-to-pay in return for securities4 ,hence it resulted that when the ,hamburg merchants1 lacking their remittances from abroad1 were suddenly deprived of the wherewith to meet their engagements2 and were prevented by law from getting bank-promises-to-pay by pawning their estates2 bankruptcy swept them away wholesale4 ,and what finally happened8 ,to prevent universal ruin1 the ,government was obliged to decree that all bills of exchange coming due1 should have a month's grace2 and that there should be immediately formed a ,state-,discount-,bank--an office for issuing ,state-promises-to-pay in return for securities4 ,that is1 having first by its #cdj restrictive law ruined a host of merchants1 the ,government was obliged to legalize that postponement of payments which1 but for its law1 would have spontaneously taken place4 ,with such further confirmation of an a priori conclusion1 can it be doubted that our late commercial difficulties were intensified by the measure of #ahdd8 ,is it not1 indeed1 notorious in the ,city1 that the progressively-increasing demand for accommodation1 was in great part due to the conviction that1 in consequence of the ,bank-,act1 there would shortly be no accommodation at all8 ,does not every ,london merchant know that his neighbours who had bills coming due1 and who saw that by the time they were due the ,bank would discount only at still higher rates1 or not at all1 decided to lay in beforehand the means of meeting those bills8 ,is it not an established fact that the hoarding thus induced1 not only rendered the pressure on the ,bank greater than it would otherwise have been1 but1 by taking both gold and notes out of circulation1 made the ,bank's issues temporarily useless to the general public8 ,did it not happen in this case1 as in #agic and #ahbe1 that when at last restriction was removed1 the mere consciousness that loans could be had1 itself prevented them from being required8 ,and1 indeed1 is not the simple fact that the panic quickly subsided when the ,act was suspended1 sufficient proof that the ,act had1 in great measure1 produced it4 ,see1 then1 for what we have to thank legislative meddling4 ,during ordinary times ,sir ,r4 ,peel's ,act1 by obliging the ,bank of ,england1 and occasionally provincial banks1 to keep more gold than they would otherwise have kept 7and if it has not done this it has done nothing71 has inflicted a tax on the nation to the extent of the interest on such portion of the gold-currency as was in excess of the need3 a tax which1 in the course of the last thirteen years1 has probably amounted to some millions4 ,and then1 on the two occasions when there have arisen the crises that were to #cda have been prevented1 the ,act1 after having intensified the pressure1 made bankrupt a great number of respectable firms which would else have stood1 and increased the distress not only of the trading but of the working population1 has been twice abandoned at the moment when its beneficence was to have been conspicuous4 ,it has been a cost1 a mischief1 and a failure4 ,yet such is the prevailing delusion that1 judging from appearances1 it will be maintained6 8,but10 ask our opponents1 8shall the ,bank be allowed to let gold drain out of the country without check8 ,shall it have permission to let its reserve of gold diminish so greatly as to risk the convertibility of its notes8 ,shall it be enabled recklessly to increase its issues1 and so produce a depreciated paper-currency80 ,really1 in these ,free-trade days1 it seems strange to have to answer questions like these2 and1 were it not for the confusion of facts and ideas which legislation has produced1 it would be inexcusable to ask them4 ,in the first place1 the common notion that the draining of gold out of the country is intrinsically1 and in all cases1 an evil1 is nothing but a political superstition--a superstition in part descended from the antique fallacy that money is the only wealth1 and in part from the maxims of an artificial1 law-produced state of things1 under which the exportation of gold really was a sign of a corrupted currency3 we mean1 during the suspension of cash-payments4 ,law having cancelled millions of contracts which it was its duty to enforce--law having absolved bankers from liquidating their promises-to-pay in coin1 having rendered it needless to keep a stock of coin with which to liquidate them1 and having thus taken away that natural check which prevents the over-issue and depreciation of notes--law having partly suspended that home demand for gold which ordinarily competes with and balances the foreign demand2 there resulted an abnormal exportation of gold4 ,by-and-by it #cdb was seen that this efflux of gold was a consequence of the over-issue of notes2 and that the accompanying high price of gold1 as paid for in notes1 proved the depreciation of notes4 ,and then it became an established doctrine that an adverse state of the foreign exchanges1 indicating a drain of gold1 was significant of an excessive circulation of notes2 and that the issue of notes should be regulated by the state of the exchanges4 ,this unnatural condition of the currency having continued for a quarter of a century1 the concomitant doctrine rooted itself in the general mind4 ,and now mark one of the multitudinous evils of legislative meddling4 ,this artificial test1 good only for an artificial state1 has survived the return to a natural state2 and men's ideas about currency have been reduced by it to chronic confusion4 ,the truth is that while1 during a legalized inconvertibility of bank-notes1 an efflux of gold may1 and often does1 indicate an excessive issue of bank-notes2 under ordinary circumstances an efflux of gold has little or nothing to do with the issue of bank-notes1 but is determined by merely mercantile causes4 ,and the truth is that far from being an evil1 an efflux of gold thus brought about by mercantile causes1 is a good4 ,leaving out of the question1 as of course we must1 such exportations of gold as take place for the support of armies abroad2 the cause of efflux is either an actual plethora of all commodities1 gold included1 which results in gold being sent out of the country for the purpose of foreign investment2 or else an abundance of gold as compared with other leading commodities4 ,and while1 in this last case1 the efflux of gold indicates some absolute or relative impoverishment of the nation1 it is a means of mitigating the bad consequences of that impoverishment4 ,consider the question as one of political economy1 and this truth becomes obvious4 ,thus3--,the nation habitually requires for use and consumption certain quantities of commodities1 of which gold is one4 ,these commodities #cdc are severally and collectively liable to fall short2 either from deficient harvests1 from waste in war1 from losses abroad1 or from too great a diversion of labour or capital in some special direction4 ,when a scarcity of some chief commodity or necessary occurs1 what is the remedy8 ,the commodity of which there is an excess 7or if none is in excess1 then that which can best be spared7 is exported in exchange for an additional supply of the deficient commodity4 ,and1 indeed1 the whole of our foreign trade1 alike in ordinary and extraordinary times1 consists in this process4 ,but when it happens either that the commodity which we can best spare is not wanted abroad2 or 7as recently7 that a chief foreign customer is temporarily disabled from buying2 or that the commodity which we can best spare is gold2 then gold itself is exported in exchange for the thing which we most want4 ,whatever form the transaction takes1 it is nothing but bringing the supplies of various commodities into harmony with the demands for them4 ,the fact that gold is exported1 is simply a proof that the need for gold is less than the need for other things4 ,under such circumstances an efflux of gold will continue1 and ought to continue1 until other things have become relatively so abundant1 and gold relatively so scarce1 that the demand for gold is equal to other demands4 ,and he who would prevent this process1 is about as wise as the miser who1 finding his house without food1 chooses to starve rather than draw upon his purse4 ,the second question--8,shall the ,bank have permission to let its reserve of gold diminish so greatly as to risk the convertibility of its notes80 is not more profound than the first4 ,it may fitly be answered by the more general question--8,shall the merchant1 the manufacturer1 or the shopkeeper1 be allowed so to invest his capital as to risk the fulfilment of his engagements80 ,if the answer to the first be 8,no10 it must be 8,no0 to the second4 ,if to the #cdd second it be 8,yes10 it must be 8,yes0 to the first4 ,any one who proposed that the ,state should oversee the transactions of every trader1 so as to insure his ability to cash all demands as they fell due1 might with consistency argue that bankers should be under like control4 ,but while no one has the folly to contend for the one1 nearly all contend for the other4 ,one would think that the banker acquired1 in virtue of his occupation1 some abnormal desire to ruin himself--that while traders in other things are restrained by a wholesome dread of bankruptcy1 traders in capital have a longing to appear in the ,gazette1 which law alone can prevent them from gratifying6 ,surely the moral checks which act on other men will act on bankers4 ,and if these moral checks do not suffice to produce perfect security1 we have ample proof that no cunning legislative checks will supply their place4 ,the current notion that bankers can1 and will1 if allowed1 issue notes to any extent1 is one of the absurdest illusions--an illusion1 however1 which would never have arisen but for the vicious over-issues induced by law4 ,the truth is that1 in the first place1 a banker cannot increase his issue of notes at will4 ,it has been proved by the unanimous testimony of all bankers who have been examined before successive parliamentary committees1 that 8the amount of their issues is exclusively regulated by the extent of local dealings and expenditure in their respective districts20 and that any notes issued in excess of the demand are 8immediately returned to them40 ,and the truth is1 in the second place1 that a banker will not1 on the average of cases1 issue more notes than in his judgment it is safe to issue2 seeing that if his promises-to-pay in circulation1 are much in excess of his available means of paying them1 he runs a great risk of having to stop payment--a result of which he has no less a horror than other men4 ,if facts are needed in proof of this1 they are furnished by the history of both the ,bank of ,england and the ,bank of ,ireland2 which1 #cde before they were debauched by the ,state1 habitually regulated their issues according to their stock of bullion1 and would probably always have been still more careful but for the consciousness that there was the ,state-credit to fall back upon4 ,the third question--8,shall the ,bank be allowed to issue notes in such numbers as to cause their depreciation80 has1 in effect1 been answered in answering the first two4 ,there can be no depreciation of notes so long as they are exchangeable for gold on demand4 ,and so long as the ,state1 in discharge of its duty1 insists on the fulfilment of contracts1 the alternative of bankruptcy must ever be a restraint on such over-issue of notes as endangers that exchangeability4 ,the bugbear of depreciation is one that would have been unknown but for the sins of governments4 ,in the case of ,america1 where there have been occasional depreciations1 the sin has been a sin of omission3 the ,state has not enforced the fulfilment of contracts--has not forthwith bankrupted those who failed to cash their notes2 and1 if accounts are true1 has allowed those to be mobbed who brought back far-wandering notes for payment4#ce ,in all other cases the sin has been a sin of commission4 ,the depreciated paper-currency in ,france1 during the revolution1 was a ,state-currency4 ,the depreciated paper-currencies of ,austria and ,russia have been ,state-currencies4 ,and the only depreciated paper-currency we have known1 has been to all intents and purposes a ,state-currency4 ,it was the ,state which1 in #agie-f1 forced upon the ,bank of ,england that excessive issue of notes which led to the suspension of cash-payments4 ,it was the ,state which1 in #ahjb1 forbad the resumption of cash-payments1 when the ,bank of ,england wished to resume them4 ,it was the ,state which1 during a quarter of a century1 maintained that suspension of cash-payments from which the excessive multiplication and depreciation of notes resulted4 ,the entire corruption #cdf was entailed by ,state-expenditure1 and established by ,state-warrant4 ,yet now the ,state affects a virtuous horror of the crime committed at its instigation6 ,having contrived to shuffle-off the odium on to the shoulders of its tools1 the ,state gravely lectures the banking-community upon its guilt2 and with sternest face passes measures to prevent it from sinning6 #ce ,this was written in #aheh2 when 8greenbacks0 were unknown4 ,we contend1 then1 that neither to restrain the efflux of gold1 nor to guard against the over-issue of bank-notes1 is legislative interference warranted4 ,if ,government will promptly execute the law against all defaulters1 the self-interest of bankers and traders will do the rest3 such evils as would still result from mercantile dishonesties and imprudences1 being evils which legal regulation may augment but cannot prevent4 ,let the ,bank of ,england1 in common with every other bank1 simply consult its own safety and its own profits2 and there will result just as much check as should be put1 on the efflux of gold or the circulation of paper2 and the only check that can be put on the doings of speculators4 ,whatever leads to unusual draughts on the resources of banks1 immediately causes a rise in the rate of discount--a rise dictated both by the wish to make increased profits1 and the wish to avoid a dangerous decrease of resources4 ,this raised rate of discount prevents the demand from being so great as it would else have been--alike checks undue expansion of the note-circulation2 stops speculators from making further engagements2 and1 if gold is being exported1 diminishes the profit of exportation4 ,successive rises successively increase these effects2 until1 eventually1 none will give the rate of discount asked1 save those in peril of stopping payment2 the increase of the credit-currency ceases2 and the efflux of gold1 if it is going on1 is arrested by the home-demand out-balancing the foreign demand4 ,and if1 in times of great pressure1 and under the temptation of high discounts1 banks allow their circulation to expand to #cdg a somewhat dangerous extent1 the course is justified by the necessities4 ,as shown at the outset1 the process is one by which banks1 on the deposit of good securities1 loan their credit to traders who but for loans would be bankrupt4 ,and that banks should run some risks to save hosts of solvent men from inevitable ruin1 few will deny4 ,moreover1 during a crisis which thus runs its natural course1 there will really occur that purification of the mercantile world which many think can be effected only by some ,act-of-,parliament ordeal4 ,under the circumstances described1 men who have adequate securities to offer will get bank-accommodation2 but those who1 having traded without capital or beyond their means1 have not1 will be denied it1 and will fail4 ,under a free system the good will be sifted from the bad2 whereas the existing restrictions on bank-accommodation1 tend to destroy good and bad together4 ,thus it is not true that there need special regulations to prevent the inconvertibility and depreciation of notes4 ,it is not true that1 but for legislative supervision1 bankers would let gold drain out of the country to an undue extent4 ,it is not true that these 8currency theorists0 have discovered a place at which the body-politic would bleed to death but for a ,state-styptic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what else we have to say on the general question1 may best be joined with some commentaries on provincial and joint-stock banking1 to which let us now turn4 ,government1 to preserve the ,bank of ,england-monopoly1 having enacted that no partnership exceeding six persons should become bankers2 and the ,bank of ,england having refused to establish branches in the provinces2 it happened1 during the latter half of the last century1 when the industrial progress was rapid and banks much needed1 that numerous private traders1 shopkeepers and others1 began to issue notes payable on demand4 ,and when1 of the four #cdh hundred small banks which had thus grown up in less than fifty years1 a great number gave way under the first pressure--when1 on several subsequent occasions1 like results occurred--when in ,ireland1 where the ,bank of ,ireland-monopoly had been similarly guaranteed1 it happened that out of fifty private provincial banks1 forty became bankrupt--and when1 finally1 it grew notorious that in ,scotland1 where there had been no law limiting the number of partners1 a whole century had passed with scarcely a single bank-failure2 legislators at once decided to abolish the restriction which had entailed such mischiefs4 ,having1 to use ,mr4 ,mill's words1 8actually made the formation of safe banking-establishments a punishable offence0--having1 for one hundred and twenty years1 maintained a law which first caused great inconvenience and then extensive ruin1 time after time repeated--,government1 in #ahbf1 conceded the liberty of joint-stock banking3 a liberty which the good easy public1 not distinguishing between a right done and a wrong undone1 regarded as a great boon6 ,but the liberty was not without conditions4 ,having previously1 in anxiety for its protg1 the ,bank of ,england1 been reckless of the banking-security of the community at large1 the ,state1 like a repentant sinner rushing into asceticism1 all at once became extremely solicitous on this point2 and determined to put guarantees of its own devising1 in place of the natural guarantee of mercantile judgment4 ,to intending bank-shareholders it said--8,you shall not unite on such publicly-understood conditions as you think fit1 and get such confidence as will naturally come to you on those conditions40 ,and to the public it said--8,you shall not put trust in this or that association in proportion as1 from the character of its members and constitution1 you judge it to be worthy of trust40 ,but to both it said--8,you shall the one give1 and the other receive1 my infallible safeguards40 ,and now what have been the results8 ,every one knows #cdi that these safeguards have proved anything but infallible4 ,every one knows that these banks with ,state-constitutions have been especially characterized by instability4 ,every one knows that credulous citizens1 with a faith in legislation which endless disappointments fail to diminish1 have trusted implicitly in these law-devised securities2 and1 not exercising their own judgments1 have been led into ruinous undertakings4 ,the evils of substituting artificial guarantees for natural ones1 which the clear-sighted long ago discerned1 have1 by the late catastrophes1 been made conspicuous to all4 ,when commencing this article we had intended to dwell on this point4 ,for though the mode of business which brought about these joint-stock-bank failures was1 for weeks after their occurrence1 time after time clearly described2 yet nowhere did we see drawn the obvious corollary4 ,though in three separate ,city-articles of ,the ,times1 it was explained that1 8relying upon the ultimate liability of large bodies of infatuated shareholders1 the discount houses supply these banks with unlimited means1 looking not to the character of the bills sent up1 but simply to the security afforded by the ,bank endorsement20 yet1 in none of them was it pointed out that1 but for the law of unlimited liability1 this reckless trading would not have gone on4 ,more recently1 however1 this truth has been duly recognized1 alike in ,parliament and in the ,press2 and it is therefore needless further to elucidate it4 ,we will simply add that as1 if there had been no law of unlimited liability1 the ,london houses would not have discounted these bad bills2 and as1 in that case1 these provincial joint-stock-banks could not have given these enormous credits to insolvent speculators2 and as1 if they had not done this1 they would not have been ruined2 it follows1 inevitably1 that these joint-stock-bank failures have been law-produced disasters4 ,a measure for further increasing the safety of the provincial public1 was that which limited the circulation of provincial bank-notes4 ,at the same time that it established #cej a sliding-scale for the issues of the ,bank of ,england1 the ,act of #ahdd fixed the maximum circulation of every provincial bank-of-issue2 and forbad any further banks-of-issue4 ,we have not space to discuss at length the effects of this restriction2 which must have fallen rather hardly on those especially-careful bankers who had1 during the twelve weeks preceding the #bgth ,april1 #ahdd1 narrowed their issues to meet any incidental contingencies2 while it gave a perennial license to such as had been incautious during that period4 ,all which we can notice is1 that this rigorous limitation of provincial issues to a low maximum 7and a low maximum was purposely fixed7 effectually prevents those local expansions of bank-note circulation which1 as we have shown1 ought to take place in periods of commercial difficulty4 ,and further1 that by transferring all local demands to the ,bank of ,england1 as the only place from which extra accommodation can be had1 the tendency is to concentrate a pressure which would else be diffused1 and so to create panic4 ,saying nothing more1 however1 respecting the impolicy of the measure1 let us mark its futility4 ,as a means of preserving the convertibility of the provincial bank-note1 it is useless unless it acts as some safeguard against bank-failures2 and that it does not do this is demonstrable4 ,while it diminishes the likelihood of failures caused by over-issue of notes1 it increases the likelihood of failures from other causes4 ,for what will be done by a provincial banker whose issues are restricted by the ,act of #ahdd1 to a level lower than that to which he would otherwise have let them rise8 ,if he would1 but for the law1 have issued more notes than he now does--if his reserve is greater than1 in his judgment1 is needful for the security of his notes2 is it not clear that he will simply extend his operations in other directions8 ,will not the excess of his available capital be to him a warrant either for entering into larger speculations himself1 or for allowing his customers to draw on #cea him beyond the limit he would else have fixed8 ,if1 in the absence of restriction1 his rashness would have led him to risk bankruptcy by over-issue1 will it not now equally lead him to risk bankruptcy by over-banking8 ,and is not the one kind of bankruptcy as fatal to the convertibility of notes as the other8 ,nay1 the case is even worse4 ,there is reason to believe that bankers are tempted into greater dangers under this protective system4 ,they can and will hypothecate their capital in ways less direct than by notes2 and may very likely be led1 by the unobtrusiveness of the process1 to commit themselves more than they would else do4 ,a trader1 applying to his banker in times of commercial difficulty1 will often be met by the reply--8,i cannot make you any direct advances1 having already loaned as much as ,i can spare2 but knowing you to be a safe man ,i will lend you my name4 ,here is my acceptance for the sum you require3 they will discount it for you in ,london40 ,now1 as loans thus made do not entail the same immediate responsibilities as when made in notes 7seeing that they are neither at once payable1 nor do they add to the dangers of a possible run71 a banker is under a temptation to extend his liabilities in this way further than he would have done1 had not law forced him to discover a new channel through which to give credit4 ,and does not the evidence that has lately transpired go to show that these roundabout ways of giving credit do take the place of the interdicted ways2 and that they are more dangerous than the interdicted ways8 ,is it not notorious that dangerous forms of paper-currency have had an unexampled development since the ,act of #ahdd8 ,do not the newspapers and the debates give daily proofs of this8 ,and is not the process of causation obvious8 ,indeed it might have been known1 a priori1 that such a result was sure to take place4 ,it has been shown #ceb conclusively that1 when uninterfered with1 the amount of note-circulation at any given time1 is determined by the amount of trade going on--the quantity of payments that are being made4 ,it has been repeatedly testified before committees1 that when any local banker contracts his issues1 he simply causes an equivalent increase in the issues of neighbouring bankers4 ,and in past times it has been more than once complained1 that when from prudential motives the ,bank of ,england withdrew part of its notes1 the provincial bankers immediately multiplied their notes to a proportionate extent4 ,well1 is it not manifest that this inverse variation1 which holds between one class of bank-notes and another1 also holds between bank-notes and other forms of paper-currency8 ,will it not happen that just as diminishing the note-circulation of one bank1 merely adds to the note-circulation of other banks2 so1 an artificial restriction on the circulation of bank-notes in general1 will simply cause an increased circulation of some substituted kind of promise-to-pay8 ,and is not this substituted kind1 in virtue of its novelty and irregularity1 likely to be a more unsafe kind8 ,see1 then1 the predicament4 ,over all the bills of exchange1 cheques1 etc41 which constitute nine-tenths of the paper-currency of the kingdom1 the ,state exercises1 and can exercise1 no control4 ,and the limit it puts on the remaining tenth vitiates the other nine-tenths1 by causing an abnormal growth of new forms of credit1 which experience proves to be especially dangerous4 ,thus1 all which the ,state does when it exceeds its true duty is to hinder1 to disturb1 to corrupt4 ,as already pointed out1 the quantity of credit men will give each other1 is determined by natural causes1 moral and physical--their average characters1 their temporary states of feeling1 their circumstances4 ,if the ,government forbids one mode of giving credit1 they will find another1 and probably a worse4 ,be the degree of mutual trust prudent #cec or imprudent1 it must take its course4 ,the attempt to restrict it by law is nothing but a repetition of the old story of keeping out the sea with a fork4 ,and now mark that were it not for these worse than futile ,state-safeguards1 there might grow up certain natural safeguards1 which would really put a check on undue credit and abnormal speculation4 ,were it not for the attempts to insure security by law1 it is very possible that1 under our high-pressure system of business1 banks would compete with each other in respect of the degree of security they offered--would endeavour to outdo each other in the obtainment of a legitimate public confidence4 ,consider the position of a new joint-stock-bank with limited liability1 and unchecked by legal regulations4 ,it can do nothing until it has gained the general good opinion4 ,in the way of this there stand great difficulties4 ,its constitution is untried1 and is sure to be looked upon by the trading world with considerable distrust4 ,the field is already occupied by old banks with established connexions and reputations4 ,out of a constituency satisfied with the present accommodation1 it has to obtain supporters for a system which is apparently less safe than the old4 ,how shall it do this8 ,evidently it must find some unusual mode of assuring the community of its trustworthiness4 ,and out of a number of new banks so circumstanced1 it is not too much to suppose that ultimately one would hit on some mode4 ,it might be1 for instance1 that such a bank would give to all who held deposits over #ajjj the liberty of inspecting its books--of ascertaining from time to time its liabilities and its investments4 ,already this plan is frequently adopted by private traders1 as a means of assuring those who lend money to them2 and this extension of it might naturally take place under the pressure of competition4 ,we have put the question to a gentleman who has had long and successful experience1 as manager of a joint-stock-bank1 and his reply is1 that some such course would very probably be adopted3 adding that1 #ced under this arrangement1 a depositor would practically become a partner with limited liability4 ,were a system of this kind to establish itself1 it would form a double check to unhealthy trading4 ,consciousness that its rashness would become known to its chief clients1 would prevent the bank-management from being rash2 and consciousness that his credit would be damaged when his large debt to the bank was whispered1 would prevent the speculator from contracting so large a debt4 ,both lender and borrower would be restrained from reckless enterprize4 ,very little inspection would suffice to effect this end4 ,one or two cautious depositors would be enough2 seeing that the mere expectation of immediate disclosure1 in case of misconduct1 would mostly keep in order all those concerned4 ,should it however be contended1 as by some it may1 that this safeguard would be of no avail--should it be alleged that1 having in their own hands the means of safety1 citizens would not use them1 but would still put blind faith in directors1 and give unlimited trust to respectable names2 then we reply that they would deserve whatever bad consequences fell on them4 ,if they did not take advantage of the proffered guarantee1 the penalty be on their own heads4 ,we have no patience with the mawkish philanthropy which would ward-off the punishment of stupidity4 ,the ultimate result of shielding men from the effects of folly1 is to fill the world with fools4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few words in conclusion respecting the attitude of our opponents4 ,leaving joint-stock-bank legislation1 on which the eyes of the public are happily becoming opened2 and returning to the ,bank-,charter1 with its theory of currency-regulation2 we have to charge its supporters with gross1 if not wilful1 misrepresentation4 ,their established policy is to speak of all antagonism as identified with adhesion to the vulgarest fallacies4 ,they daily present1 as the only alternatives1 their own dogma or some wild doctrine too #cee absurd to be argued4 8,side with us or choose anarchy10 is the substance of their homilies4 ,to speak specifically3--,they boldly assert1 in the first place1 that they are the upholders of 8principle20 and on all opposition they seek to fasten the title of 8empiricism40 ,now we are at a loss to see what there is 8empirical0 in the position1 that a bank-note-circulation will regulate itself in the same way that the circulation of other paper-currency does4 ,it seems to us anything but 8empirical10 to say that the natural check of prospective bankruptcy1 which restrains the trader from issuing too many promises-to-pay at given dates1 will similarly restrain the banker from issuing too many promises-to-pay on demand4 ,we take him to be the very opposite of an 8empiric10 who holds that people's characters and circumstances determine the quantity of credit-memoranda in circulation2 and that the monetary disorders which their imperfect characters and changing circumstances occasionally entail1 can be exacerbated1 but cannot be prevented1 by ,state-nostrums4 ,on the other hand1 we do not see in virtue of what 8principle0 it is1 that the contract expressed on the face of a bank-note must be dealt with differently from any other contract4 ,we cannot understand the 8principle0 which requires the ,state to control the business of bankers1 so that they may not make engagements they cannot fulfil1 but which does not require the ,state to do the like with other traders4 ,to us it is a very incomprehensible 8principle0 which permits the ,bank of ,england to issue #ad1jjj1jjj on the credit of the ,state2 but which is broken if the ,state-credit is mortgaged beyond this--a 8principle0 which implies that #ad1jjj1jjj of notes may be issued without gold to meet them1 but insists on rigorous precautions for the convertibility of every pound more4 ,we are curious to learn how it was inferred from this 8principle0 that the average note-circulation of each provincial bank1 during certain twelve weeks in #ahdd1 was exactly the #cef note-circulation which its capital justified4 ,so far from discerning a 8principle10 it seems to us that both the idea and its applications are as empirical as they can well be4 ,still more astounding1 however1 is the assumption of these 8currency-theorists10 that their doctrines are those of ,free-trade4 ,in the ,legislature1 ,lord ,overstone1 and in the press1 the ,saturday ,review1 have1 among others1 asserted this4 ,to call that a ,free-trade measure1 which has the avowed object of restricting certain voluntary acts of exchange1 appears so manifest a contradiction in terms that it is scarcely credible it should be made4 ,the whole system of currency-legislation is restrictionist from beginning to end3 equally in spirit and detail4 ,is that a ,free-trade regulation which has all along forbidden banks of issue within sixty-five miles of ,london8 ,is that ,free-trade which enacts that none but such as have now the ,state-warrant1 shall henceforth give promises-to-pay on demand8 ,is that ,free-trade which at a certain point steps in between the banker and his customer1 and puts a veto on any further exchange of credit-documents8 ,we wonder what would be said by two merchants1 the one about to draw a bill on the other in return for goods sold1 who should be stopped by a ,state-officer with the remark that1 having examined the buyer's ledger1 he was of opinion that ready as the seller might be to take the bill1 it would be unsafe for him to do so2 and that the law1 in pursuance of the principles of ,free-trade1 negatived the transaction6 ,yet for the promise-to-pay in six months1 it needs but to substitute a promise-to-pay on demand1 and the case becomes substantially that of banker and customer4 ,it is true that the 8currency-theorists0 have a colourable excuse in the fact1 that among their opponents are the advocates of various visionary schemes1 and propounders of regulations quite as protectionist in spirit as their own4 ,it is true that there are some who contend for inconvertible 8labour-notes20 and others who argue that1 in times of #ceg commercial pressure1 banks should not raise their rates of discount4 ,but is this any justification for recklessly stigmatizing all antagonism as coming from these classes1 in the face of the fact that the ,bank-,act has been protested against by the highest authorities in political economy8 ,do not the defenders of the 8currency-principle0 know that among their opponents are ,mr4 ,thornton1 long known as an able writer on currency-questions2 ,mr4 ,tooke and ,mr4 ,newmarch1 famed for their laborious and exhaustive researches respecting currency and prices2 ,mr4 ,fullarton1 whose 8,regulation of ,currencies0 is a standard work2 ,mr4 ,macleod1 whose just-issued book displays the endless injustices and stupidities of our monetary history2 ,mr4 ,james ,wilson1 ,m4,p41 who1 in detailed knowledge of commerce1 currency1 and banking1 is probably unrivalled2 and ,mr4 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 who both as logician and economist1 stands in the first rank8 ,do they not know that the alleged distinction between bank-notes and other credit-documents1 which forms the professed basis of the ,bank-,act 7and for which ,sir ,r4 ,peel could quote only the one poor authority of ,lord ,liverpool7 is denied1 not only by the gentlemen above named1 but also by ,mr4 ,huskisson1 ,professor ,storch1 ,dr4 ,travers ,twiss1 and the distinguished ,french ,professors1 ,m4 ,joseph ,garnier and ,m4 ,michel ,chevalier8#cf ,do they not know1 in short1 that both the profoundest thinkers and the most patient inquirers are against them8 ,if they do not know this1 it is time they studied the subject on which they write with such an air of authority4 ,if they do know it1 a little more respect for their opponents would not be unbecoming4 #cf ,see ,mr4 ,tooke's 8,bank ,charter ,act of #ahdd10 etc4 #ceh ,,parliamentary ,,reform3 ,,the ,,dangers ,,and ,,the ,,safeguards4 ,first published in ,the ,westminster ,review for ,april #ahfj4 ,thirty years ago1 the dread of impending evils agitated not a few breasts throughout ,england4 ,instinctive fear of change1 justified as it seemed by outbursts of popular violence1 conjured up visions of the anarchy which would follow the passing of a ,reform ,bill4 ,in scattered farm-houses there was chronic terror1 lest those newly endowed with political power should in some way filch all the profits obtained by rearing cattle and growing corn4 ,the occupants of halls and manors spoke of ten-pound householders almost as though they formed an army of spoilers1 threatening to overrun and devastate the property of landholders4 ,among townspeople there were some who interpreted the abolition of old corruptions into the establishment of mob-government2 which they thought equivalent to spoliation4 ,and even in ,parliament1 such alarms found occasional utterance3 as1 for instance1 through the mouth of ,sir ,robert ,inglis1 who hinted that the national debt would not improbably be repudiated if the proposed measure became law4 ,there may perhaps be a few who regard the now pending change in the representation with similar dread--who think #cei that artizans and others of their grade are prepared1 when the power is given to them1 to lay hands on property4 ,we presume1 however1 that such irrational alarmists form but a small percentage of the nation4 ,not only throughout the ,liberal party1 but among the ,conservatives1 there exists a much fairer estimate of the popular character than is implied by anticipations of so gloomy a kind4 ,many of the upper and middle classes are conscious of the fact that1 if critically compared1 the average conduct of the wealthy would not be found to differ very widely in rectitude from that of the poor4 ,making due allowance for differences in the kinds and degrees of temptations to which they are exposed1 the respective grades of society are tolerably uniform in their morals4 ,that disregard of the rights of property which1 among the people at large1 shows itself in the direct form of petty thefts1 shows itself among their richer neighbours in various indirect forms1 which are scarcely less flagitious and often much more detrimental to fellow-citizens4 ,traders1 wholesale and retail1 commit countless dishonesties1 ranging from adulteration and short measure up to fraudulent bankruptcy--dishonesties of which we sketched out some of the ramifications in a late article on 8,the ,morals of ,trade40 ,the trickeries of the turf2 the bribery of electors2 the non-payment of tradesmen's bills2 the jobbing in railway-shares2 the obtainment of exorbitant prices for land from railway-companies2 the corruption that attends the getting of private bills through ,parliament--these1 and other such illustrations1 show that the unconscientiousness of the upper class1 manifested though it is in different forms1 is not less than that of the lower class3 bears as great a ratio to the size of the class1 and1 if traced to its ultimate results1 produces evils as great if not greater4 ,and if the facts prove that in uprightness of intentions there is little to choose between one class of the community and another1 an extension of the franchise cannot rationally #cfj be opposed on the ground that property would be directly endangered4 ,there is no more reason to suppose that the mass of artizans and labourers would use political power with conscious injustice to their richer neighbours1 than there is reason to suppose that their richer neighbours now consciously commit legal injustices against artizans and labourers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what1 then1 is the danger to be apprehended8 ,if land1 and houses1 and railways1 and funds1 and property of all other kinds1 would be held with no less security than now1 why need there be any fears that the franchise would be misused8 ,what are the misuses of it which are rationally to be anticipated8 ,the ways in which those to be endowed with political power are likely to abuse it1 may be inferred from the ways in which political power has been abused by those who have possessed it4 ,what general trait has characterized the rule of the classes hitherto dominant8 ,these classes have not habitually sought their own direct advantage at the expense of other classes2 but their measures have nevertheless frequently been such as were indirectly advantageous to themselves4 ,voluntary self-sacrifice has been the exception4 ,the rule has been so to legislate as to preserve private interests from injury2 whether public interests were injured or not4 ,though1 in equity1 a landlord has no greater claim on a defaulting tenant than any other creditor2 yet landlords1 having formed the majority of the legislature1 have made laws giving them power to recover rent in anticipation of other creditors4 ,though the duties payable to government on the transfer of property to heirs and legatees1 might justly have been made to fall more heavily on the wealthy than on the comparatively poor1 and on real property rather than on personal property2 yet the reverse arrangement was enacted and long maintained1 and is even still partially in force4 ,rights of presentation to places in the ,church1 #cfa obtained however completely in violation of the spirit of the law1 are yet tenaciously defended1 with little or no regard to the welfare of those for whom the ,church ostensibly exists4 ,were it not accounted for by the bias of personal interests1 it would be impossible to explain the fact that1 on the question of protection to agriculture1 the landed classes and their dependents were ranged against the other classes3 the same evidence being open to both4 ,and if there needs a still stronger illustration1 we have it in the opposition made to the repeal of the ,corn-,laws by the established clergy4 ,though1 by their office1 preachers of justice and mercy--though constantly occupied in condemning selfishness and holding up a supreme example of self-sacrifice2 yet so swayed were they by those temporal interests which they thought endangered1 that they offered to this proposed change an almost uniform resistance4 ,out of some ten thousand ex officio friends of the poor and needy1 there was but one 7the ,rev4 ,thomas ,spencer71 who took an active part in abolishing this tax imposed on the people's bread for the maintenance of landlords' rents4 ,such are a few of the ways in which1 in modern times1 those who have the power seek their own benefit at the expense of the rest4 ,it is in analogous ways that we must expect any section of the community which may be made predominant by a political change1 to sacrifice the welfare of other sections to its own4 ,while we do not see reason to think that the lower classes are intrinsically less conscientious than the upper classes1 we do not see reason to think that they are more conscientious4 ,holding1 as we do1 that in each society and in each age1 the morality is1 on the average1 the same throughout all ranks2 it seems to us clear that if the rich1 when they have the opportunity1 make laws which unduly favour themselves1 the poor1 if their power was in excess1 will do the like in similar ways and to a similar extent4 ,without knowingly enacting injustice1 they will be unconsciously biased by personal #cfb considerations2 and our legislation will err as much in a new direction as it has hitherto done in the old4 ,this abstract conclusion we shall find confirmed on contemplating the feelings and opinions current among artizans and labourers4 ,what the working classes now wish done1 indicates what they would be likely to do1 if a reform in the representation made them preponderate4 ,judging from their prevailing sentiments1 they would doubtless do1 or aid in doing1 many things which it is desirable to have done4 ,such a question as that of ,church-rates would have been settled long ago had the franchise been wider4 ,any great increase of popular influence1 would go far to rectify the present inequitable relation of the established religious sect to the rest of the community4 ,and other remnants of class-legislation would be swept away4 ,but besides ideas likely to eventuate in changes which we should regard as beneficial1 the working classes entertain ideas that could not be realized without gross injustice to other classes and ultimate injury to themselves4 ,there is among them a prevailing enmity towards capitalists4 ,the fallacy that machinery acts to their damage1 is still widely spread1 both among rural labourers and the inhabitants of towns4 ,and they show a wish1 not only to dictate how long per day men shall work1 but to regulate all the relations between employers and employed4 ,let us briefly consider the evidence of this4 ,when1 adding another to the countless errors which it has taught the people1 the ,legislature1 by passing the ,ten-,hours-,bill1 asserted that it is the duty of the ,state to limit the duration of labour1 there naturally arose among the working classes the desire for further ameliorations to be secured in the same way4 ,first came the formidable strike of the ,amalgamated ,engineers4 ,the rules of this body aim to restrict the supply of labour in various ways4 ,no member is allowed to work more than a fixed number of hours per week2 nor for less than a fixed rate of wages4 #cfc ,no man is admitted into the trade who has not 8earned a right by probationary servitude40 ,there is a strict registration2 which is secured by fines on any one who neglects to notify his marriage1 removal1 or change of service4 ,the council decides1 without appeal1 on all the affairs1 individual and general1 of the body4 ,how tyrannical are the regulations may be judged from the fact1 that members are punished for divulging anything concerning the society's business2 for censuring one another2 for vindicating the conduct of those fined1 etc4 ,and their own unity of action having been secured by these coercive measures1 the ,amalgamated ,engineers made a prolonged effort to impose on their employers1 sundry restrictions which they supposed would be beneficial to themselves4 ,more recently1 we have seen similar objects worked for by similar means during the strike of the ,operative ,builders4 ,in one of their early manifestoes1 this body of men contended that they had 8an equal right to share with other workers1 that large amount of public sympathy which is now being so widely extended in the direction of shortening the hours of labour30 thus showing at once their delusion and its source4 ,believing1 as they had been taught by an ,act of ,parliament to believe1 that the relation between the quantity of labour given and the wages received1 is not a natural but an artificial one2 they demanded that while the wages remained the same1 the hours should be reduced from ten to nine4 ,they recommended their employers so to make their future contracts1 as to allow for this diminished day's work3 saying they were 8so sanguine as to consider the consummation of their desire inevitable30 a polite way of hinting that their employers must succumb to the irresistible power of their organization4 ,referring to the threat of the master-builders to close their works1 they warned them against 8the responsibility of causing the public disaster0 thus indicated4 ,and when the breach finally took place1 the #cfd ,unionists set in action the approved appliances for bringing masters to terms2 and would have succeeded had it not been that their antagonists1 believing that concessions would be ruinous1 made a united resistance4 ,during several previous years1 master-builders had been yielding to various extravagant demands1 of which those recently made were a further development4 ,had they assented to the diminished day's work1 and abolished systematic overtime1 as they were required to do1 there is no reason to suppose the dictation would have ended4 ,success would have presently led to still more exacting requirements2 and future years would have witnessed further extensions of this mischievous meddling between capital and labour4 ,perhaps the completest illustration of the industrial regulations which find favour with artizans1 is supplied by the ,printers' ,union4 ,with the exception of those engaged in ,the ,times office1 and in one other large establishment1 the proprietors of which successfully resisted the combination1 the compositors1 pressmen1 etc41 throughout the kingdom1 form a society which controls all the relations between employers and employed4 ,there is a fixed price for setting up type--so much per thousand letters3 no master can give less2 no compositor being allowed by the ,union to work for less4 ,there are established rates for press-work2 and established numbers less than which you cannot have printed without paying for work that is not done4 ,the scale rises by what are called 8tokens0 of #bej2 and if but #ej copies are required1 the charge is the same as for printing #bej2 or if #cjj are wanted1 payment must be made for #ejj4 ,besides regulating prices and modes of charging to their own advantage1 in these and other ways1 the members of the ,union restrict competition by limiting the number of apprentices brought into the business4 ,so well organized is this combination that the masters are obliged to succumb4 ,an infraction of the rules in any #cfe printing-office leads to a strike of the men2 and as this is supported by the ,union at large1 the employer has to yield4 ,that in other trades artizans would1 if they could1 establish restrictive systems equally complete with this1 we take to be sufficiently proved by their often-repeated attempts4 ,the ,tin-plate-,workers' strike1 the ,coventry-,weavers' strikes1 the ,engineers' strike1 the ,shoemakers' strike1 the ,builders' strike1 all show a most decided leaning towards a despotic regulation of trade-prices1 hours1 and arrangements--towards an abolition of free trade between employers and employed4 ,should the men engaged in our various industries succeed in their aims1 each industry would be so shackled as seriously to raise the cost of production4 ,the chief penalty would thus fall on the working classes themselves4 ,each producer1 while protected in the exercise of his own occupation1 would on every commodity he bought have to pay an extra price1 consequent on the protection of other producers4 ,in short1 there would be established1 under a new form1 the old mischievous system of mutual taxation4 ,and a final result would be such a diminished ability to compete with other nations as to destroy our foreign trade4 ,against results like these it behoves us to guard4 ,it becomes a grave question how far we may safely give political power to those who entertain views so erroneous respecting fundamental social relations2 and who so pertinaciously struggle to enforce these erroneous views4 ,men who render up their private liberties to the despotic rulers of trades-unions1 seem scarcely independent enough rightly to exercise political liberties4 ,those who so ill understand the nature of freedom1 as to think that any man or body of men has a right to prevent employer and employed from making any contract they please1 would almost appear to be incapacitated for the guardianship of their own freedom and that of their fellow-citizens4 ,when their notions of rectitude are so confused1 that they think it a duty to obey the arbitrary #cff commands of their union-authorities1 and to abandon the right of individually disposing of their labour on their own terms--when1 in conformity with this inverted sense of duty1 they even risk the starvation of their families--when they call that an 8odious document0 which simply demands that master and man shall be free to make their own bargains--when their sense of justice is so obtuse that they are ready to bully1 to deprive of work1 to starve1 and even to kill1 members of their own class who rebel against dictation1 and assert their rights to sell their labour at such rates and to such persons as they think fit--when in short they prove themselves ready to become alike slaves and tyrants1 we may well pause before giving them the franchise4 ,the objects which artizans have long sought to achieve by their private organizations1 they would1 had they adequate political power1 seek to achieve by public enactments4 ,if1 on points like those instanced1 their convictions are so strong and their determination so great1 that they will time after time submit to extreme privations in the effort to carry them2 it is a reasonable expectation that these convictions1 pushed with this determination1 would soon be expressed in law1 if those who held them had predominant power4 ,with working men1 questions concerning the regulation of labour are of the highest interest4 ,candidates for ,parliament would be more likely to obtain their suffrages by pandering to their prejudices on such questions1 than in any other way4 ,should it be said that no evil need be feared unless the artizan-class numerically preponderated in the constituencies2 it may be rejoined that not unfrequently1 where two chief political parties are nearly balanced1 some other party1 though much smaller1 determines the election4 ,when we bear in mind that the trades-unions throughout the kingdom number #fjj1jjj members1 and command a fund of #cjj1jjj--when we remember that these trades-unions are in the habit of aiding each other1 and have even been incorporated into one national association--when we also remember that #cfg their organization is very complete1 and their power over their members mercilessly exercised2 it seems likely that at a general election their combined action would decide the result in many towns3 even though the artizans in each case formed but a moderate portion of the constituency4 ,how influential small but combined bodies are1 the ,irish ,members of our ,house of ,commons prove to us2 and still more clearly the ,irish emigrants in ,america4 ,certainly these trade-combinations are not less perfectly organized2 nor are the motives of their members less strong4 ,judge then how efficient their political action would be4 ,it is true that in county-constituencies and rural towns1 the artizan class have no power2 and that in the antagonism of agriculturists there would be a restraint on their projects4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the artizans would1 on these questions1 have the sympathy of many not belonging to their own body4 ,numerous small shopkeepers and others who are in point of means about on their level1 would go with them in their efforts to regulate the relations of capital and labour4 ,among the middle classes1 too1 there are not a few kindly-disposed men who are so ignorant of political economy as to think the artizans justified in their aims4 ,even among the landed class they might find supporters4 ,we have but to recollect the antipathy shown by landowners in ,parliament to the manufacturing interest1 during the ten-hours' agitation1 to see that it is quite possible for country squires to join the working men in imposing restrictions unfavourable to employers4 ,true1 the angry feeling which then prompted them has in some measure died away4 ,it is to be hoped1 too1 that they have gained wisdom4 ,but still1 remembering the past1 we must take this contingency into account4 ,here1 then1 is one of the dangers to which an extension of the franchise opens the door4 ,while the fear that the rights of property may be directly interfered with1 is absurd1 it is a very rational fear that the rights of property may be indirectly interfered with--that1 by cramping laws1 #cfh the capitalist may be prevented from using his money as he finds best1 and the workman from selling his labour as he pleases4 ,we are not prepared to say what widening of the representation would bring about such results4 ,we profess neither to estimate what amount of artizan-power a #f or a #e borough-franchise would give2 nor to determine whether the opposing powers would suffice to keep it in check4 ,our purpose here is simply to indicate this establishment of injurious industrial regulations1 as one of the dangers to be kept in view4 99 99 99 99 99 ,turn we now to another danger1 distinct from the foregoing though near akin to it4 ,next after the evils of that over-legislation which restricts the exchange of capital and labour1 come the evils of that over-legislation which provides for the community1 by ,state-agency1 benefits which capital and labour should be left spontaneously to provide4 ,and it naturally1 though unfortunately1 happens1 that those who lean to the one kind of over-legislation1 lean also to the other kind4 ,men leading laborious lives1 relieved by little in the shape of enjoyment1 give willing ears to the doctrine that the ,state should provide them with various positive advantages and gratifications4 ,the much-enduring poor cannot be expected to deal very critically with those who promise them gratis pleasures4 ,as a drowning man catches at a straw1 so will one whose existence is burdensome catch at anything1 no matter how unsubstantial1 which holds out the slightest hope of a little happiness4 ,we must not1 therefore1 blame the working-classes for being ready converts to socialistic schemes1 or to a belief in 8the sovereign power of political machinery40 ,not that the working-classes alone fall into these delusions4 ,unfortunately they are countenanced1 and have been in part misled1 by those above them4 ,in ,parliament and out of ,parliament1 well-meaning men among the upper and middle ranks1 have been active apostles of these false #cfi doctrines4 ,there has ever been1 and continues to be1 much law-making based on the assumption1 that it is the duty of the ,state1 not simply to insure each citizen fair play in the battle of life1 but to help him in fighting the battle of life3 having previously taken money from his1 or some one else's1 pocket to pay the cost of doing this4 ,and we cannot glance over the papers without seeing how active are the agitations carried on out of doors in furtherance of this policy2 and how they threaten to become daily more active4 ,the doings of the ,chadwick-school furnish one set of illustrations4 ,from those of the ,shaftesbury-school other illustrations may be gathered4 ,and in the transactions of the body1 absurdly self-entitled 8,the ,national ,association for the ,promotion of ,social ,science10 we find still more numerous developments of this mischievous error4 ,when we say that the working-classes1 and more especially the artizan-classes1 have strong leanings towards these ,utopianisms which they have unhappily been encouraged to entertain by many who should have known better1 we do not speak at random4 ,we are not drawing an a priori inference as to the doctrines likely to find favour with men in their position4 ,nor are we guided merely by evidence to be gathered from newspapers4 ,we have a basis of definite fact in the proceedings of reformed municipal governments4 ,these bodies have from year to year extended their functions2 and so heavy has in some cases become the consequent local taxation1 as to have caused a reaction against the political party which was responsible4 ,town-councils almost exclusively ,whig1 have of late been made comparatively ,conservative1 by the efforts of those richer classes who suffer most from municipal extravagance4 ,with whom1 then1 has this extravagance been popular8 ,with the poorer members of the constituencies4 ,candidates for town-councillorships have found no better means of obtaining the suffrages of the mass1 than the advocacy of this or the other local undertaking4 ,to #cgj build baths and wash-houses at the expense of the town1 has proved a popular proposal4 ,the support of public gardens out of funds raised by local rates1 has been applauded by the majority4 ,so1 too1 with the establishment of free libraries1 which has1 of course1 met with encouragement from working-men1 and from those who wish to find favour with them4 ,should some one1 taking a hint from the cheap concerts now common in our manufacturing towns1 propose to supply music at the public cost1 we doubt not he would be hailed as a friend of the people4 ,and similarly with countless socialistic schemes1 of which1 when once commenced1 there is no end4 ,such being the demonstrated tendencies of municipal governments1 with their extended bases of representation1 is it not a fair inference that a ,central ,government having a base of representation much wider than the present1 would manifest like tendencies8 ,we shall see the more reason for fearing this1 when we remember that those who approve of multiplied ,state-agencies1 would generally ally themselves with those who seek for the legislative regulation of labour4 ,the doctrines are near akin2 and they are1 to a considerable extent1 held by the same persons4 ,if united the two bodies would have a formidable power2 and1 appealed to1 as they would often be1 by candidates expressing agreement on both these points1 they might1 even though a minority1 get unduly represented in the legislature4 ,such1 at least1 seems to us a further danger4 ,led by philanthropists having sympathies stronger than their intellects1 the working-classes are very likely to employ their influence in increasing over-legislation3 not only by agitating for industrial regulations1 but in various other ways4 ,what extension of franchise would make this danger a serious one1 we do not pretend to say4 ,here1 as before1 we would simply indicate a probable source of mischief4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now what are the safeguards8 ,not such as we #cga believe will be adopted4 ,to meet evils like those which threaten to follow the impending political change1 the common plan is to devise special checks--minor limitations and qualifications4 ,not to dry up the evil at its source but to dam it out1 is1 in analogous cases1 the usual aim4 ,we have no faith in such methods4 ,the only efficient safeguard lies in a change of convictions and motives4 ,and1 to work a change of this kind1 there is no certain way but that of letting men directly feel the penalties which mistaken legislation brings on them4 8,how is this to be done80 the reader will doubtless ask4 ,simply by letting causes and effects stand in their natural relations4 ,simply by taking away those vicious arrangements which now mostly prevent men from seeing the reactions that follow legislative actions4 ,at present the extension of public administrations is popular1 mainly because there has not been established in the minds of the people1 any distinct connexion between the benefits to be gained and the expenses to be paid4 ,of the conveniences or gratifications secured to them by some new body of officials with a fund at its disposal1 they have immediate experience2 but of the way in which the costs fall on the nation1 and ultimately on themselves1 they have no immediate experience4 ,our fiscal arrangements dissociate the ideas of increased public expenditure and increased burdens on all who labour2 and thus encourage the superstition that law can give gratis benefits4 ,this is clearly the chief cause of that municipal extravagance to which we have above adverted4 ,the working men of our towns possess public power1 while most of them do not directly bear public burdens4 ,on small houses the taxes for borough-purposes are usually paid by the landlords2 and of late years1 for the sake of convenience and economy1 there has grown up a system of compounding with landlords of small houses even for the poor-rates chargeable to their tenants4 ,under this #cgb arrangement1 at first voluntary but now compulsory1 a certain discount off the total rates due from a number of houses is allowed to the owner1 in consideration of his paying the rates1 and thus saving the authorities trouble and loss in collection4 ,and he is supposed to raise his rents by the full amount of the rates charged4 ,thus1 most municipal electors1 not paying local taxes in a separate form1 are not constantly reminded of the connexion between public expenditure and personal costs2 and hence it happens that any outlay made for local purposes1 no matter how extravagant and unreasonable1 which brings to them some kind of advantage1 is regarded as pure gain4 ,if the corporation resolves1 quite unnecessarily1 to rebuild a town-hall1 the resolution is of course approved by the majority4 8,it is good for trade and it costs us nothing10 is the argument which passes vaguely through their minds4 ,if some one proposes to buy an adjoining estate and turn it into a public park1 the working classes naturally give their support to the proposal2 for ornamental grounds cannot but be an advantage1 and though the rates may be increased that will be no affair of theirs4 ,thus necessarily arises a tendency to multiply public agencies and increase public outlay4 ,it becomes an established policy with popularity-hunters to advocate new works to be executed by the town4 ,those who disapprove this course are in fear that their seats may be jeopardized at the next election1 should they make a vigorous opposition4 ,and thus do these local administrations inevitably lean towards abnormal developments4 ,no one can1 we think1 doubt that were the rates levied directly on all electors1 a check would be given to this municipal communism4 ,if each small occupier found that every new work undertaken by the authorities cost him so many pence extra in the pound1 he would begin to consider with himself whether the advantage gained was equivalent to the price paid2 and would often reach a #cgc negative conclusion4 ,it would become a question with him whether1 instead of letting the local government provide him with certain remote advantages in return for certain moneys1 he might not himself purchase with such moneys immediate advantages of greater worth2 and1 generally1 he would decide that he could do this4 ,without saying to what extent such a restraint would act1 we may safely say that it would be beneficial4 ,every one must admit that each inhabitant of a town ought constantly to be reminded of the relation between the work performed for him by the corporation and the sum he pays for it4 ,no one can deny that the habitual experience of this relation would tend to keep the action of local governments within proper bounds4 ,similarly with the ,central ,government4 ,here the effects wrought by public agencies are still more dissociated from the costs they entail on each citizen4 ,the bulk of the taxes being raised in so unobtrusive a way1 and affecting the masses in modes so difficult to trace1 it is scarcely possible for the masses to realize the fact that the sums paid by ,government for supporting schools1 for facilitating emigration1 for inspecting mines1 factories1 railways1 ships1 etc41 have been in great part taken from their own pockets4 ,the more intelligent of them understand this as an abstract truth2 but it is not a truth present to their minds in such a definite shape as to influence their actions4 ,quite otherwise1 however1 would it be if taxation were direct2 and the expense of every new ,state-agency were felt by each citizen as an additional demand made on him by the tax-gatherer4 ,then would there be a clear1 constantly-recurring experience of the truth1 that for everything which the ,state gives with one hand it takes away something with the other2 and then would it be less easy to propagate absurd delusions about the powers and duties of ,governments4 ,no one can question this conclusion who calls to mind the reason currently given for maintaining #cgd indirect taxation2 namely1 that the required revenue could not otherwise be raised4 ,statesmen see that if instead of taking from the citizen here a little and there a little1 in ways that he does not know or constantly forgets1 the whole amount were demanded in a lump sum1 it would scarcely be possible to get it paid4 ,grumbling and resistance would rise probably to disaffection4 ,coercion would in hosts of cases be needed to obtain this large total tax2 which1 indeed1 even with this aid1 could not be obtained from the majority of the people1 whose improvident habits prevent the accumulation of considerable sums4 ,and so the revenue would fall immensely short of that expenditure which is supposed necessary4 ,this being assented to1 it must perforce be admitted that under a system of direct taxation1 further extension of public administrations1 entailing further costs1 would meet with general opposition4 ,instead of multiplying the functions of the ,state1 the tendency would obviously be to reduce their number4 ,here1 then1 is one of the safeguards4 ,the incidence of taxation must be made more direct in proportion as the franchise is extended4 ,our changes ought not to be in the direction of the ,compound-,householders-,act of #ahea1 which makes it no longer needful for a ,parliamentary elector to have paid poor-rates before giving a vote2 but they ought to be in the opposite direction4 ,the exercise of power over the national revenue1 should be indissolubly associated with the conscious payment of contributions to that revenue4 ,direct taxation instead of being limited1 as many wish1 must be extended to lower and wider classes1 as fast as these classes are endowed with political power4 ,probably this proposal will be regarded with small favour by statesmen4 ,it is not in the nature of things for men to approve a system which tends to restrict their powers4 ,we know1 too1 that any great extension of direct taxation will be held at present impossible2 and we are not prepared #cge to assert the contrary4 ,this1 however1 is no reason against reducing the indirect taxation and augmenting the direct taxation as far as circumstances allow4 ,and if when the last had been increased and the first decreased to the greatest extent now practicable1 it were made an established principle that any additional revenue must be raised by direct taxes1 there would be an efficient check to one of the evils likely to follow from further political enfranchisement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the other evil which we have pointed out as rationally to be feared1 cannot be thus met1 however4 ,though an ever-recurring experience of the relation between ,state-action and its cost1 would hinder the growth of those ,state-agencies which undertake to supply citizens with positive conveniences and gratifications2 it would be no restraint on that negative and inexpensive over-legislation which trespasses on individual freedom--it would not prevent mischievous meddling with the relations between labour and capital4 ,against this danger the only safeguards appear to be1 the spread of sounder views among the working classes1 and the moral advance which such sounder views imply4 8,that is to say1 the people must be educated10 responds the reader4 ,yes1 education is the thing wanted2 but not the education for which most men agitate4 ,ordinary school-training is not a preparation for the right exercise of political power4 ,conclusive proof of this is given by the fact that the artizans1 from whose mistaken ideas the most danger is to be feared1 are the best informed of the working classes4 ,far from promising to be a safeguard1 the spread of such education as is commonly given appears more likely to increase the danger4 ,raising the working classes in general to the artizan-level of culture1 threatens to augment1 rather than to diminish1 their power of working political evil4 ,the current faith in ,reading1 ,writing1 and ,arithmetic1 as fitting men for citizenship1 seems to us quite #cgf unwarranted2 as are1 indeed1 most other anticipations of the benefits to be derived from learning lessons4 ,there is no connexion between the ability to parse a sentence1 and a clear understanding of the causes which determine the rate of wages4 ,the multiplication-table affords no aid in seeing through the fallacy that the destruction of property is good for trade4 ,long practice may have produced extremely good penmanship without having given the least power to understand the paradox that machinery eventually increases the number of persons employed in the trades into which it is introduced4 ,nor is it proved that smatterings of mensuration1 astronomy1 or geography1 fit men for estimating the characters and motives of ,parliamentary candidates4 ,indeed we have only thus to bring together the antecedents and the anticipated consequents1 to see how untenable is the belief in a relation between them4 ,when we wish a girl to become a good musician1 we seat her before the piano3 we do not put drawing implements into her hands1 and expect music to come along with skill in the use of pencils and colour-brushes4 ,sending a boy to pore over law-books would be thought an extremely irrational way of preparing him for civil engineering4 ,and if in these and all other cases1 we do not expect fitness for any function except through instruction and exercise in that function2 why do we expect fitness for citizenship to be produced by a discipline which has no relation to the duties of the citizen8 ,probably it will be replied that by making the working man a good reader1 we give him access to sources of information from which he may learn how to use his electoral power2 and that other studies sharpen his faculties and make him a better judge of political questions4 ,this is true2 and the eventual tendency is unquestionably good4 ,but what if for a long time to come he reads only to obtain confirmation of his errors8 ,what if there exists a literature appealing to his prejudices1 and supplying him with fallacious arguments for the mistaken beliefs which he naturally takes #cgg up8 ,what if he rejects all teaching that aims to disabuse him of cherished delusions8 ,must we not say that the culture which thus merely helps the workman to establish himself in error1 rather unfits than fits him for citizenship8 ,and do not the trades'-unions furnish evidence of this8 ,how little that which people commonly call education prepares them for the use of political power1 may be judged from the incompetency of those who have received the highest education the country affords4 ,glance back at the blunders of our legislation1 and then remember that the men who committed them had mostly taken ,university-degrees2 and you must admit that the profoundest ignorance of ,social ,science may accompany intimate acquaintance with all which our cultivated classes regard as valuable knowledge4 ,do but take a young member of ,parliament1 fresh from ,oxford or ,cambridge1 and ask him what he thinks ,law should do1 and why8 or what it should not do1 and why8 and it will become manifest that neither his familiarity with ,aristotle nor his readings in ,thucydides1 have prepared him to answer the very first question a legislator ought to solve4 ,a single illustration will suffice to show how different an education from that usually given1 is required by legislators1 and consequently by those who elect them3 we mean the illustration which the ,free-trade agitation supplies4 ,by kings1 peers1 and members of ,parliament1 mostly brought up at universities1 trade had been hampered by protections1 prohibitions1 and bounties4 ,for centuries had been maintained these legislative appliances which a very moderate insight shows to be detrimental4 ,yet1 of all the highly-educated throughout the nation during these centuries1 scarcely a man saw how mischievous such appliances were4 ,not from one who devoted himself to the most approved studies1 came the work which set politicians right on these points2 but from one who left college without a degree1 and prosecuted inquiries which the established education ignored4 ,adam #cgh ,smith examined for himself the industrial phenomena of societies2 contemplated the productive and distributive activities going on around him2 traced out their complicated mutual dependences2 and thus reached general principles for political guidance4 ,in recent days1 those who have most clearly understood the truths he enunciated1 and by persevering exposition have converted the nation to their views1 have not been graduates of universities4 ,while1 contrariwise1 those who have passed through the prescribed curriculum1 have commonly been the most bitter and obstinate opponents of the changes dictated by politico-economical science4 ,in this all-important direction1 right legislation was urged by men deficient in the so-called best education1 and was resisted by the great majority of men who had received this so-called best education6 ,the truth for which we contend1 and which is so strangely overlooked1 is1 indeed1 almost a truism4 ,does not our whole theory of training imply that the right preparation for political power is political cultivation8 ,must not that teaching which can alone guide the citizen in the fulfilment of his public actions1 be a teaching that acquaints him with the effects of his public actions8 ,the second chief safeguard to which we must trust is1 then1 the spread1 not of that mere technical and miscellaneous knowledge which men are so eagerly propagating1 but of political knowledge2 or1 to speak more accurately--knowledge of ,social ,science4 ,above all1 the essential thing is the establishment of a true theory of government--a true conception of what legislation is for1 and what are its proper limits4 ,this question which our political discussions habitually ignore1 is a question of greater moment than any other4 ,inquiries which statesmen deride as speculative and unpractical1 will one day be found infinitely more practical than those which they wade through ,blue ,books to master1 and nightly spend many hours in debating4 ,the considerations that every morning fill a dozen columns #cgi of ,the ,times1 are mere frivolities when compared with the fundamental consideration--,what is the proper sphere of government8 ,before discussing the way in which law should regulate some particular thing1 would it not be wise to put the previous question--,whether law ought or ought not to meddle with that thing8 and before answering this1 to put the more general questions--,what law should do8 and what it should leave undone8 ,surely1 if there are any limits at all to legislation1 the settlement of these limits must have effects far more profound than any particular ,act of ,parliament can have2 and must be by so much the more momentous4 ,surely1 if there is danger that the people may misuse political power1 it is of supreme importance that they should be taught for what purpose political power ought alone to be used4 ,did the upper classes understand their position they would1 we think1 see that the diffusion of sound views on this matter more nearly concerns their own welfare and that of the nation at large1 than any other thing whatever4 ,popular influence will inevitably go on increasing4 ,should the masses gain a predominant power while their ideas of social arrangements and legislative action remain as crude as at present1 there will certainly result disastrous meddlings with the relations of capital and labour1 as well as a disastrous extension of ,state-administrations4 ,immense damage will be inflicted3 primarily on employers2 secondarily on the employed2 and eventually on the nation as a whole4 ,if these evils can be prevented at all1 they can be prevented only by establishing in the public mind a profound conviction that there are certain definite limits to the functions of the ,state2 and that these limits ought on no account to be transgressed4 ,having learned what these limits are1 the upper classes ought to use all means of making them clear to the people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,no4 ,,xxiv4 of this ,review1 for ,october1 #aheg1 we #chj endeavoured to show that while representative government is1 by its intrinsic nature1 better than any other for administering justice or insuring equitable relations among citizens1 it is1 by its intrinsic nature1 worse than any other for all the various additional functions which governments commonly undertake4 ,to the question--,what is representative government good for8 our reply was--8,it is good1 especially good1 good above all others1 for doing the thing which a government should do4 ,it is bad1 especially bad1 bad above all others1 for doing the things which a government should not do40 ,to this truth we may here add a correlative one4 ,as fast as a government1 by becoming representative1 grows better fitted for maintaining the rights of citizens1 it grows not only unfitted for other purposes1 but dangerous for other purposes4 ,in gaining adaptation for the essential function of a government1 it loses such adaptation as it had for other functions2 not only because its complexity is a hindrance to administrative action1 but also because in discharging other functions it must be mischievously influenced by class bias4 ,so long as it is confined to the duty of preventing the aggressions of individuals on one another1 and protecting the nation at large against external enemies1 the wider its basis the better2 for all men are similarly interested in the security of life1 property1 and freedom to exercise the faculties4 ,but let it undertake to bring home positive benefits to citizens1 or to interfere with any of the special relations between class and class1 and there necessarily enters an incentive to injustice4 ,for in no such cases can the immediate interests of all classes be alike4 ,therefore do we say that as fast as representation is extended1 the sphere of government must be contracted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,since the foregoing pages were written1 ,lord ,john ,russell has introduced his ,reform ,bill2 and in #cha application of the general principles we contend for1 a few words may fitly be added respecting it4 ,of the extended county-franchise most will approve1 save those whose illegitimate influence is diminished by it4 ,adding to the rural constituencies a class less directly dependent on large landowners1 can scarcely fail to be beneficial4 ,even should it not at first perceptibly affect the choice of representatives1 it will still be a good stimulus to political education and to consequent future benefits4 ,of the re-distribution of seats little is to be said1 further than that1 however far short it may fall of an equitable arrangement1 it is perhaps as much as can at present be obtained4 ,whether the right limit for the borough-franchise has been chosen is1 on the other hand1 a question that admits of much discussion4 ,some hesitation will probably be felt by all who duly weigh the evidence on both sides4 ,believing1 as we do1 that the guidance of abstract equity1 however much it may need qualification1 must never be ignored1 we should be glad were it at once practicable more nearly to follow it2 since it is certain that only as fast as the injustice of political exclusion is brought to an end1 will the many political injustices which grow out of it disappear4 ,nevertheless1 we are convinced that the forms which freedom requires will not of themselves produce the reality of freedom1 in the absence of an appropriate national character2 any more than the most perfect mechanism will do its work in the absence of a motive power4 ,there seems reason to think that the degree of liberty a people is capable of in any given age1 is a fixed quantity2 and that any artificial extension of it in one direction brings about an equivalent limitation in some other direction4 ,french republics show scarcely any more respect for individual rights than the despotisms they supplant2 and ,french electors use their freedom to put themselves again in slavery4 ,in ,america the feeble restraints imposed by the #chb ,state are supplemented by the strong restraints of a public opinion which1 in many respects1 holds the citizens in greater bondage than here4 ,and if there needs a demonstration that representative equality is an insufficient safeguard for freedom1 we have it in the trades'-unions already referred to2 which1 purely democratic as are their organizations1 yet exercise over their members a tyranny almost ,neapolitan in its rigour and unscrupulousness4 ,the greatest attainable amount of individual liberty being the true end2 and the diffusion of political power being regarded mainly as a means to this end2 the real question when considering further extensions of the franchise1 is--whether the average freedom of action of citizens will be increased8--whether men will be severally freer than before to pursue the objects of life in their own way8 ,or1 in the present case1 the question is--whether the good which #g1 #f1 or #e householders would do in helping to abolish existing injustices1 will be partly or wholly neutralized by the evil they may do in establishing other injustices8 ,the desideratum is as large an increase in the electorate as can be made without enabling the people to carry out their delusive schemes of over-legislation4 ,whether the increase proposed is greater or less than this1 is the essential point4 ,let us briefly consider the evidence on each side4 ,as shown by ,lord ,j4 ,russell's figures1 the new borough-electors will consist mainly of artizans2 and these1 as we have seen1 are in great part banded together by a common wish to regulate the relations of capital and labour4 ,as a class1 they are not as ,lord ,j4 ,russell describes them1 8fitted to exercise the franchise freely and independently40 ,on the contrary1 there are no men in the community so shackled4 ,they are the slaves of the authorities they have themselves set up4 ,the dependence of farmers on landlords1 or of operatives on employers1 is much less servile2 for they can carry their capital or labour elsewhere4 ,but #chc the penalty for disobedience to trades-union dictates1 pursues the rebel throughout the kingdom4 ,hence the great mass of the new borough-electors must be expected to act simultaneously1 on the word of command being issued from a central council of united trades4 ,even while we write we meet with fresh reason for anticipating this result4 ,an address from the ,conference of the ,building ,trades to the working classes throughout the kingdom1 has just been published2 thanking them for their support2 advising the maintenance of the organization2 anticipating future success in their aims2 and intimating the propriety of recommencing the nine-hours' agitation4 ,we must1 then1 be prepared to see these industrial questions made leading questions2 for artizans have a much keener interest in them than in any others4 ,and we may feel certain that many elections will turn upon them4 ,how many8 ,there are some thirty boroughs in which the newly-enfranchised will form an actual majority--will1 if they act together1 be able to outvote the existing electors2 even supposing the parties into which they are now divided were to unite4 ,in half-a-dozen other boroughs the newly-enfranchised will form a virtual majority--will preponderate unless the present liberal and conservative voters co-operate with great unanimity1 which they will be unlikely to do4 ,and the number proposed to be added to the constituency1 is one-half or more in nearly fifty other boroughs3 that is1 in nearly fifty other boroughs1 the new party will be able to arbitrate between the two existing parties2 and will give its support to whichever of these promises most aid to artizan-schemes4 ,it maybe said that in this estimate we assume the whole of the new borough-electors to belong to the artizan-class1 which they do not4 ,this is true4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must be remembered that among the #aj householders there is a very considerable sprinkling of this class1 while the freemen chiefly consist of it2 and hence the whole artizan body in each constituency will probably #chd be not smaller than we have assumed4 ,if so1 it follows that should the trades-union organization be brought to bear on borough-elections1 as it is pretty certain to be1 it may prevail in some eighty or ninety places1 and sway the votes of representatives in from #ajj to #aej seats--supposing1 that is1 that it can obtain as many eligible candidates4 ,meanwhile1 the county-constituencies in their proposed state1 as much as in their existing state1 not being under trades-union influence1 may be expected to stand in antagonism to the artizan-constituencies2 as may also the small boroughs4 ,it is just possible1 indeed1 that irritated by the ever-growing power of a rich mercantile class1 continually treading closer on their heels1 the landowners1 carrying with them their dependents1 might join the employed in their dictation to employers2 just as1 in past times1 the nobles joined the commonalty against the kings1 or the kings joined the commonalty against the nobles4 ,but leaving out this remote contingency1 we may fairly expect the rural constituencies to oppose the large urban ones on these industrial questions4 ,thus1 then1 the point to be decided is1 whether the benefits that will result from this extended suffrage--benefits which we doubt not will be great--may not be secured while the accompanying evil tendencies are kept in check4 ,it may be that these new artizan-electors will be powerful for good1 while their power to work evil will be in a great degree neutralized4 ,but this we should like to see well discussed4 ,on one question1 however1 we feel no hesitation2 namely1 the question of a ratepaying-qualification4 ,from ,lord ,john ,russell's answer to ,mr4 ,bright1 and more recently from his answer to ,mr4 ,steel1 we gather that on this point there is to be no alteration--that #f householders will stand on the same footing that #aj householders do at present4 ,now by the ,compound-,householders-,act of #ahea1 to which we have already referred1 it is provided that tenants of #aj houses whose rates are paid by their #che landlords1 shall1 after having once tendered payment of rates to the authorities1 be thereafter considered as ratepayers1 and have votes accordingly4 ,that is to say1 the ratepaying-qualification is made nominal2 and that in practice it has become so1 is proved by the fact that under this ,act1 #djjj electors were suddenly added to the constituency of ,manchester4 ,the continuance and extension of this arrangement we conceive to be wholly vicious4 ,already we have shown that the incidence of taxation ought to be made more direct as fast as popular power is increased1 and that1 as diminishing the elector's personal experience of the costs of public administration1 this abolition of a ratepaying-qualification is a retrograde step4 ,but this is by no means the sole ground for disapproval4 ,the ratepaying-qualification is a valuable test--a test which tends to separate the more worthy of the working classes from the less worthy4 ,nay more1 it tends to select for enfranchisement1 those who have the moral and intellectual qualities especially required for judicious political conduct4 ,for what general mental characteristic does judicious political conduct presuppose8 ,the power of realizing remote consequences4 ,people who are misled by demagogues1 are those who are impressed with the proximate results set forth to them but are not impressed by the distant results1 even when these are explained--regard them as vague1 shadowy1 theoretical1 and are not to be deterred by them from clutching at a promised boon4 ,conversely1 the wise citizen is the one who conceives the distant evils so clearly that they are practically present to him1 and thus outweigh the immediate temptation4 ,now these are just the respective characteristics of the two classes of tenants whom a ratepaying-qualification separates3--the one having their rates paid by their landlords and so losing their votes2 the other paying their own rates that they may get votes3--the one unable to resist present temptations1 unable to save money1 #chf and therefore so inconvenienced by the payment of rates as to be disfranchised rather than pay them2 the other resisting present temptations and saving money1 with the view1 among other ends1 of paying rates and becoming electors4 ,trace these respective traits to their sources1 and it becomes manifest that1 on the average1 the pecuniarily improvident must be also the politically improvident2 and that the politically provident must be far more numerous among those who are pecuniarily provident4 ,hence1 it is folly to throw aside a regulation under which these spontaneously separate themselves--severally disfranchise themselves and enfranchise themselves4 #chg 8,,the ,,collective ,,wisdom40 ,first published in ,the ,reader for ,april #ae1 #ahfe4 ,a test of senatorial capacity is a desideratum4 ,we rarely learn how near the mark or how wide of the mark the calculations of statesmen are3 the slowness and complexity of social changes1 hindering1 as they do1 the definite comparisons of results with anticipations4 ,occasionally1 however1 parliamentary decisions admit of being definitely valued4 ,one which was arrived at a few weeks ago furnished a measure of legislative judgment too significant to be passed by4 ,on the edge of the ,cotswolds1 just above the valley of the ,severn1 occur certain springs1 which1 as they happen to be at the end of the longest of the hundred streams which join to form the ,thames1 have been called by a poetical fiction 8the sources of the ,thames40 ,names1 even when poetical fictions1 suggest conclusions2 and conclusions drawn from words instead of facts are equally apt to influence conduct4 ,thus it happened that when1 recently1 there was formed a company for supplying ,cheltenham and some other places from these springs1 great opposition arose4 ,the ,times published a paragraph headed 8,threatened ,absorption of the ,thames10 stating that the application of #chh this company to ,parliament had 8caused some little consternation in the city of ,oxford1 and will1 doubtless1 throughout the valley of the ,thames20 and that 8such a measure1 if carried out1 will diminish the water of that noble river a million of gallons per day40 ,a million is an alarming word--suggests something necessarily vast4 ,translating words into thoughts1 however1 would have calmed the fears of the ,times paragraphist4 ,considering that a million gallons would be contained by a room fifty-six feet cube1 the nobility of the ,thames would not be much endangered by the deduction4 ,the simple fact is1 that the current of the ,thames1 above the point at which the tides influence it1 discharges in twenty-four hours eight hundred times this amount6 ,when the bill of this proposed water-company was brought before the ,house of ,commons for second reading1 it became manifest that the imaginations of our rulers were affected by such expressions as the 8sources of the ,thames10 and 8a million gallons daily10 in much the same way as the imaginations of the ignorant4 ,though the quantity of water proposed to be taken bears1 to the quantity which runs over ,teddington weir1 about the same ratio that a yard bears to half a mile1 it was thought by many members that its loss would be a serious evil4 ,no method of measurement would be accurate enough to detect the difference between the ,thames as it now is1 and the ,thames minus the ,cerney springs2 and yet it was gravely stated in the ,house that1 were the ,thames diminished in the proposed way1 8the proportion of sewage to pure water would be seriously increased40 ,taking a minute out of twelve hours1 would be taking as large a proportion as the ,cheltenham people wish to take from the ,thames4 ,nevertheless1 it was contended that to let ,cheltenham have this quantity would be 8to rob the towns along the banks of the ,thames of their rights10 ,though1 of the ,thames flowing by each of these towns1 some #iii parts out of #a1jjj pass by unused1 it was held #chi that a great injustice would be committed were one or two of these #iii parts appropriated by the inhabitants of a town who can now obtain daily but four gallons of foul water per head6 ,but the apparent inability thus shown to think of causes and effects in something like their true quantitative relations1 was still more conspicuously shown4 ,it was stated by several members that the ,thames ,navigation ,commissioners would have opposed the bill if the commission had not been bankrupt2 and this hypothetical opposition appeared to have weight4 ,if we may trust the reports1 the ,house of ,commons listened with gravity to the assertion of one of its members1 that1 if the ,cerney springs were diverted1 8shoals and flats would be created40 ,not a laugh nor a cry of 8,oh6 oh10 appears to have been produced by the prophecy1 that the volume and scouring power of the ,thames would be seriously affected by taking away from it twelve gallons per second6 ,the whole quantity which these springs supply would be delivered by a current moving through a pipe one foot in diameter at the rate of less than two miles per hour4 ,yet1 when it was said that the navigability of the ,thames would be injuriously affected by this deduction1 there were no shouts of derision4 ,on the contrary1 the ,house rejected the ,cheltenham ,water ,bill by a majority of one hundred and eighteen to eighty-eight4 ,it is true that the data were not presented in the above shape4 ,but the remarkable fact is that1 even in the absence of a specific comparison1 it should not have been at once seen that the water of springs which drain but a few square miles at most1 can be but an inappreciable part of the water which runs out of the ,thames basin1 extending over several thousand square miles4 ,in itself1 this is a matter of small moment4 ,it interests us here simply as an example of legislative judgment4 ,the decision is one of those small holes through which a wide prospect may be seen1 and a disheartening prospect it is4 ,in a very simple case there #cij is here displayed a scarcely credible inability to see how much effect will follow so much cause2 and yet the business of the assembly exhibiting this inability is that of dealing with causes and effects of an extremely involved kind4 ,all the processes going on in society arise from the concurrences and conflicts of human actions1 which are determined in their nature and amounts by the human constitution as it now is--are as much results of natural causation as any other results1 and equally imply definite quantitative relations between causes and effects4 ,every legislative act presupposes a diagnosis and a prognosis2 both of them involving estimations of social forces and the work done by them4 ,before it can be remedied1 an evil must be traced to its source in the motives and ideas of men as they are1 living under the social conditions which exist--a problem requiring that the actions tending toward the result shall be identified1 and that there shall be something like a true idea of the quantities of their effects as well as the qualities4 ,a further estimation has then to be made of the kinds and degrees of influence that will be exerted by the additional factors which the proposed law will set in motion3 what will be the resultants produced by the new forces coperating with prexisting forces--a problem still more complicated than the other4 ,we are quite prepared to hear the unhesitating reply1 that men incapable of forming an approximately true judgment on a matter of simple physical causation may yet be very good law-makers4 ,so obvious will this be thought by most1 that a tacit implication to the contrary will seem to them absurd2 and that it will seem to them absurd is one of the many indications of the profound ignorance that prevails4 ,it is true that mere empirical generalizations which men draw from their dealings with their fellows suffice to give them some ideas of the proximate effects which new enactments will work2 and1 seeing these1 they think they see as far as needful4 ,discipline in physical #cia science1 however1 would help to show them the futility of calculating consequences based on such simple data4 ,and if there needs proof that calculations of consequences so based are futile1 we have it in the enormous labour annually entailed on the ,legislature in trying to undo the mischiefs it has previously done4 ,should any say that it is useless to dwell on this incompetency1 seeing that the ,house of ,commons contains the select of the nation1 than whose judgments no better are to be had1 we reply that there may be drawn two inferences which have important practical bearings4 ,in the first place1 we are shown how completely the boasted intellectual discipline of our upper classes fails to give them the power of following out in thought1 with any correctness1 the sequences of even simple phenomena1 much less those of complex phenomena4 ,and1 in the second place1 we may draw the corollary1 that if the sequences of those complex phenomena which societies display1 difficult beyond all others to trace out1 are so unlikely to be understood by them1 they may advantageously be restricted in their interferences with such sequences4 ,in one direction1 especially1 shall we see reason to resist the extension of legislative action4 ,there has of late been urged the proposal that the class contemptuously described as dividing its energies between business and bethels shall have its education regulated by the class which might1 with equal justice1 be described as dividing its energies between club-rooms and game preserves4 ,this scheme does not seem to us a hopeful one4 ,considering that during the last half century our society has been remoulded by ideas that have come from the proposed pupil1 and have had to overcome the dogged resistance of the proposed teacher1 the propriety of the arrangement is not obvious4 ,and if the propriety of the arrangement is not obvious on the face of it1 still less obvious does it become when the competency of #cib the proposed teacher comes to be measured4 ,british intelligence1 as distilled through the universities and re-distilled into the ,house of ,commons1 is a product admitting of such great improvement in quality1 that we should be sorry to see the present method of manufacture extended and permanently established4 #cic ,,political ,,fetichism4 ,first published in ,the ,reader for ,june #aj1 #ahfe4 ,a ,hindoo1 who1 before beginning his day's work1 salaams to a bit of plastic clay1 out of which1 in a few moments1 he has extemporized a god in his own image1 is an object of amazement to the ,european4 ,we read with surprise bordering on scepticism of worship done by machinery1 and of prayers which owe their supposed efficacy to the motion given by the wind to the papers they are written on4 ,when told how certain of the ,orientals1 if displeased with their wooden deities1 take them down and beat them1 men laugh and wonder4 ,why should men wonder8 ,kindred superstitions are exhibited by their fellows every day--superstitions that are1 indeed1 not so gross1 but are intrinsically of the same nature4 ,there is an idolatry which1 instead of carving the object of its worship out of dead matter1 takes humanity for its raw material1 and expects1 by moulding a mass of this humanity into a particular form1 to give it powers or properties quite different from those it had before it was moulded4 ,in the one case as in the other1 the raw material is1 as much as may be1 disguised4 ,there are decorative appliances by which the savage helps himself to think that he has something more than wood before him2 and the #cid citizen gives to the political agencies he has helped to create1 such imposing externals and distinctive names expressive of power1 as serve to strengthen his belief in the benefits prayed for4 ,some faint reflection of that 8divinity0 which 8doth hedge a king0 spreads down through every state department to the lowest ranks2 so that1 in the eyes of the people1 even the policeman puts on along with his uniform a certain indefinable power4 ,nay1 the mere dead symbols of authority excite reverence in spite of better knowledge4 ,a legal form of words seems to have something especially binding in it2 and there is a preternatural efficiency about a government stamp4 ,the parallelism is still more conspicuous between the persistency of faith in the two cases1 notwithstanding perpetual disappointments4 ,it is difficult to perceive how graven images1 that have been thrashed for not responding to their worshipper's desires1 should still be reverenced and petitioned2 but the difficulty of conceiving this is diminished when we remember how1 in their turns1 all the idols in our political pantheon undergo castigations for failing to do what was expected of them1 and are nevertheless daily looked up to in the trustful hope that future prayers will be answered4 ,the stupidity1 the slowness1 the perversity1 the dishonesty of officialism1 in one or other of its embodiments1 are demonstrated afresh in almost every newspaper that issues4 ,probably half the leading articles written have for texts some absurd official blunder1 some exasperating official delay1 some astounding official corruption1 some gross official injustice1 some incredible official extravagance4 ,and yet these whippings1 in which balked expectation continually vents itself1 are immediately followed by renewed faith3 the benefits that have not come are still hoped for1 and prayers for others are put up4 ,along with proof that the old ,state-machines are in themselves inert1 and owe such powers as they seem to have to the public opinion which sets their parts in motion1 there are continually proposed #cie new ,state-machines of the same type as the old4 ,this inexhaustible credulity is counted on by men of the widest political experience4 ,lord ,palmerston1 who probably knows his public better than any other man1 lately said1 in reply to a charge made in the ,house--8,i am quite convinced that no person belonging to the government1 in whatever department he may be1 high or low1 would be guilty of any breach of faith in regard to any matter confided to him40 ,to assert as much in the face of facts continually disclosed1 implies that ,lord ,palmerston knows well that men's faith in officialism survives all adverse evidence4 ,in which case are the hopes from ,state-agency realized8 ,one might have thought that the vital interests at stake would have kept the all-essential apparatus for administering justice up to its work2 but they do not4 ,on the one hand1 here is a man wrongly convicted1 and afterward proved to be innocent1 who is 8pardoned0 for an offence he did not commit2 and has this as consolation for his unmerited suffering4 ,on the other hand1 here is a man whose grave delinquencies a ,lord ,chancellor overlooks1 on partial restitution being made--nay1 more1 countenances the granting of a pension to him4 ,proved guilt is rewarded1 while proved innocence is left without compensation for pains borne and fortunes blasted6 ,this marvellous antithesis1 if not often fully paralleled in the doings of officialism as administrator of justice1 is1 in endless cases1 paralleled in part4 ,the fact that imprisonment is the sentence on a boy for stealing a pennyworth of fruit1 while thousands of pounds may be transferred from a public into a private purse without any positive punishment being adjudged1 is an anomaly kept in countenance by numerous other judicial acts4 ,theoretically1 the ,state is a protector of the rights of subjects2 practically1 the ,state continually plays the part of aggressor4 ,though it is a recognized principle of equity that he who makes a false charge shall pay the costs of the #cif defence1 yet1 until quite recently1 the ,crown has persisted in refusing to pay the costs of citizens against whom it has brought false charges4 ,nay1 worse1 deliberate attempts used to be made to establish charges by corrupt means4 ,within the memory of those now living1 the ,crown1 in excise-prosecutions1 bribed juries4 ,when the verdict was for the ,crown1 the custom was to give double fees2 and the practice was not put an end to until the counsel for a defendant announced in open court that the jury should have double fees if their verdict was for his client6 ,not alone in the superior parts of our judicial apparatus is this ill-working of officialism so thrust on men's notice as to have become proverbial2 not alone in the life-long delays and ruinous expenses which have made ,chancery a word of dread2 not alone in the extravagances of bankruptcy courts1 which lead creditors carefully to shun them2 not alone in that uncertainty which makes men submit to gross injustice rather than risk the still grosser injustice which the law will1 as likely as not1 inflict on them2 but down through the lower divisions of the judicial apparatus are all kinds of failures and absurdities daily displayed4 ,if may be fairly urged in mitigation of the sarcasms current respecting the police1 that among so many men cases of misconduct and inefficiency must be frequent2 but we might have expected the orders under which they act to be just and well considered4 ,very little inquiry shows that they are not4 ,there is a story current that1 in the accounts of an ,irish official1 a small charge for a telegram which an emergency had called for1 was objected to at the head office in ,london1 and1 after a long correspondence1 finally allowed1 but with the understanding that in future no such item would be passed1 unless the department in ,london had authorized it6 ,we cannot vouch for this story1 but we can vouch for one which gives credibility to it4 ,a friend who had been robbed by his cook went to the police-office1 detailed the case1 gave good reasons for inferring the direction of her #cig flight1 and requested the police to telegraph1 that she might be intercepted4 ,he was told1 however1 that they could not do this without authority2 and this authority was not to be had without a long delay4 ,the result was that the thief1 who had gone to the place supposed1 escaped1 and has not since been heard of4 ,take another function assumed by the police--the regulation of traffic4 ,daily1 all through ,london1 ten thousand fast-going vehicles1 with hard-pressed men of business in them1 are stopped by a sprinkle of slow-going carts and wagons4 ,greater speed in these comparatively few carts and wagons1 or limitation of them to early and late hours1 would immensely diminish the evil4 ,but1 instead of dealing with these really great hinderances to traffic1 the police deal with that which is practically no hindrance4 ,men with advertisement-boards were lately forbidden to walk about1 on the groundless plea that they are in the way2 and incapables1 prevented thus from getting a shilling a day1 were driven into the ranks of paupers and thieves4 ,worse cases may be observed4 ,for years past there has been a feud between the police and the orange-girls1 who are chased hither and thither because they are said to be obstructions to foot-passengers4 ,meanwhile1 in some of the chief thoroughfares1 may constantly be seen men standing with toys1 which they delude children and their parents into buying by pretending that the toys make certain sounds which they themselves make2 and when the police1 quietly watching this obtainment of money under false pretences1 are asked why they do not interfere1 they reply that they have no orders4 ,admirable contrast6 ,trade dishonestly1 and you may collect a small crowd on the pavement without complaint being made that you interrupt the traffic4 ,trade honestly1 and you shall be driven from the pavement-edge as an impediment--shall be driven to dishonesty6 ,one might have thought that the notorious inefficiency of officialism as a protector against injustice would have #cih made men sceptical of its efficiency in other things4 ,if here1 where citizens have such intense interests in getting a function well discharged1 they have failed through all these centuries in getting it well discharged--if this agency1 which is in theory the guardian of each citizen1 is in so many cases his enemy1 that going to law is suggestive of impoverishment and possible ruin2 it might have been supposed that officialism would scarcely be expected to work well where the interests at stake are less intense4 ,but so strong is political fetichism1 that neither these experiences1 nor the parallel experiences which every state-department affords1 diminish men's faith4 ,for years past there has been thrust before them the fact that1 of the funds of ,greenwich ,hospital1 one-third goes to maintain the sailors1 while two-thirds go in administration2 but this and other such facts do not stop their advocacy of more public administrations4 ,the parable of straining at gnats and swallowing camels they see absolutely paralleled by officialism1 in the red-tape particularity with which all minute regulations are enforced1 and the astounding carelessness with which the accounts of a whole department1 like the ,patent ,office1 are left utterly uncontrolled2 and yet we continue to hear men propose government-audits as checks for mercantile companies6 ,no diminution of confidence seems to result from disclosure of stupidities which even a wild imagination would scarcely have thought possible3 instance the method of promotion lately made public1 under which a clerk in one branch of a department takes the higher duties of some deceased superior clerk1 without any rise of salary1 while some clerk in another branch of the department gets the rise of salary without any increase in his responsibilities6 ,endless as are these evils and absurdities1 and surviving generation after generation as they do1 spite of commissions and reports and debates1 there is an annual crop of new schemes for government agencies which are expected #cii to work just as legislators propose they shall work4 ,with a system of army-promotion which insures an organized incompetence1 but which survives perpetual protests2 with a notoriously ill-constituted admiralty1 of which the doings are stock-subjects of ridicule2 with a church that maintains effete formulas1 notwithstanding almost universal repudiation of them2 there are daily demands for more law-established appliances4 ,with building acts under which arise houses less stable than those of the last generation2 with coal-mine inspection that does not prevent coal-mine explosions2 with railway inspection that has for its accompaniment plenty of railway accidents--with these and other such failures continually displayed1 there still prevails what ,m4 ,guizot rightly calls that 8gross delusion1 a belief in the sovereign power of political machinery40 ,a great service would be done by any man who would analyze the legislation1 say of the last half century1 and compare the expected results of ,acts of ,parliament with their proved results4 ,he might make it an instructive revelation by simply taking all the preambles1 and observing how many of the evils to be rectified were evils produced by preceding enactments4 ,his chief difficulty would be that of getting within any moderate compass the immense number of cases in which the benefits anticipated were not achieved1 while unanticipated disasters were caused4 ,and then he might effectively close his digest by showing what immense advantages have1 in instance after instance1 followed the entire cessation of legislative action4 ,not1 indeed1 that such an accumulation of cases1 however multitudinous and however conclusive1 would have an appreciable effect on the average mind4 ,political fetichism will continue so long as men remain without scientific discipline--so long as they recognize only proximate causes1 and never think of the remoter and more general causes by which their special agencies are set in motion4 ,until the thing which now usurps the name of education #djj has been dethroned by a true education1 having for its end to teach men the nature of the world they live in1 new political delusions will grow up as fast as old ones are extinguished4 ,but there is a select class existing1 and a larger select class arising1 on whom a work of the kind described would have an effect1 and for whom it would be well worth while to write it4 #dja ,,specialized ,,administration4 ,first published in ,the ,fortnightly ,review for ,december #ahga4 ,it is contrary to common-sense that fish should be more difficult to get at the sea-side than in ,london2 but it is true1 nevertheless4 ,no less contrary to common-sense seems the truth that though1 in the ,west ,highlands1 oxen are to be seen everywhere1 no beef can be had without sending two or three hundred miles to ,glasgow for it4 ,rulers who1 guided by common-sense1 tried to suppress certain opinions by forbidding the books containing them1 never dreamed that their interdicts would cause the diffusion of these opinions2 and rulers who1 guided by common-sense1 forbade excessive rates of interest1 never dreamed that they were thereby making the terms harder for borrowers than before4 ,when printing replaced copying1 any one who had prophesied that the number of persons engaged in the manufacture of books would immensely increase1 as a consequence1 would have been thought wholly devoid of common-sense4 ,and equally devoid of common-sense would have been thought any one who1 when railways were displacing coaches1 said that the number of horses employed in bringing passengers and goods to and from railways1 would be greater than the number directly displaced by railways4 ,such cases might #djb be multiplied4 ,whoso remembers that1 among quite simple phenomena1 causes produce effects which are sometimes utterly at variance with anticipation1 will see how frequently this must happen among complex phenomena4 ,that a balloon is made to rise by the same force which makes a stone fall2 that the melting of ice may be greatly retarded by wrapping the ice in a blanket2 that the simplest way of setting potassium on fire is to throw it into the water2 are truths which those who know only the outside aspect of things would regard as manifest falsehoods4 ,and1 if1 when the factors are few and simple1 the results may be so absolutely opposed to seeming probability1 much more will they be often thus opposed when the factors are many and involved4 ,the saying of the ,french respecting political events1 that 8it is always the unexpected which happens0--a saying which they have been abundantly re-illustrating of late--is one which legislators1 and those who urge on schemes of legislation1 should have ever in mind4 ,let us pause a moment to contemplate a seemingly-impossible set of results which social forces have wrought out4 ,up to quite recent days1 ,language was held to be of supernatural origin4 ,that this elaborate apparatus of symbols1 so marvellously adapted for the conveyance of thought from mind to mind1 was a miraculous gift1 seemed unquestionable4 ,no possible alternative way could be thought of by which there had come into existence these multitudinous assemblages of words of various orders1 genera1 and species1 moulded into fitness for articulating with one another1 and capable of being united from moment to moment into ever-new combinations1 which represent with precision each idea as it arises4 ,the supposition that1 in the slow progress of things1 ,language grew out of the continuous use of signs--at first mainly mimetic1 afterward partly mimetic1 partly vocal1 and at length almost wholly vocal--was an hypothesis never even conceived by men in early stages of civilization2 and when #djc the hypothesis was at length conceived1 it was thought too monstrous an absurdity to be even entertained4 ,yet this monstrous absurdity proves to be true4 ,already the evolution of ,language has been traced back far enough to show that all its particular words1 and all its leading traits of structure1 have had a natural genesis2 and day by day investigation makes it more manifest that its genesis has been natural from the beginning4 ,not only has it been natural from the beginning1 but it has been spontaneous4 ,no language is a cunningly-devised scheme of a ruler or body of legislators4 ,there was no council of savages to invent the parts of speech1 and decide on what principles they should be used4 ,nay1 more4 ,going on without any authority or appointed regulation1 this natural process went on without any man observing that it was going on4 ,solely under pressure of the need for communicating their ideas and feelings--solely in pursuit of their personal interests--men little by little developed speech in absolute unconsciousness that they were doing any thing more than pursuing their personal interests4 ,even now the unconsciousness continues4 ,take the whole population of the globe1 and there is probably not above one in a million who knows that in his daily talk he is carrying on the process by which ,language has been evolved4 ,i commence thus by way of giving the key-note to the argument which follows4 ,my general purpose1 in dwelling a moment on this illustration1 has been that of showing how utterly beyond the conceptions of common-sense1 literally so called1 and even beyond the conceptions of cultivated common-sense1 are the workings-out of sociological processes--how these workings-out are such that even those who have carried to the uttermost 8the scientific use of the imagination10 would never have anticipated them4 ,and my more special purpose has been that of showing how marvellous are the results indirectly and #djd unintentionally achieved by the coperation of men who are severally pursuing their private ends4 ,let me pass now to the particular topic to be here dealt with4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have greatly regretted to see ,prof4 ,huxley strengthening1 by his deservedly high authority1 a school of politicians which can scarcely be held to need strengthening3 its opponents being so few4 ,i regret it the more because1 thus far1 men prepared for the study of ,sociology by previous studies of ,biology and ,psychology1 have scarcely expressed any opinions on the question at issue2 and that ,prof4 ,huxley1 who by both general and special culture is so eminently fitted to judge1 should have come to the conclusions set forth in the last number of the ,fortnightly ,review1 will be discouraging to the small number who have reached opposite conclusions4 ,greatly regretting however1 though ,i do1 this avowed antagonism of ,prof4 ,huxley to a general political doctrine with which ,i am identified1 ,i do not propose to make any reply to his arguments at large3 being deterred partly by reluctance to dwell on points of difference with one whom ,i so greatly admire1 and partly by the consciousness that what ,i should say would be mainly a repetition of what ,i have explicitly or implicitly said elsewhere4 ,but with one point raised ,i feel obliged to deal4 ,prof4 ,huxley tacitly puts to me a question4 ,by so doing he leaves me to choose between two alternatives1 neither of which is agreeable to me4 ,i must either1 by leaving it unanswered1 accept the implication that it is unanswerable1 and the doctrine ,i hold untenable2 or else ,i must give it an adequate answer4 ,little as ,i like it1 ,i see that the latter of these alternatives is that which1 on public as well as on personal grounds1 ,i must accept4 ,had ,i been allowed to elaborate more fully the ,review-article from which ,prof4 ,huxley quotes1 this question would possibly not have been raised4 ,that article closes #dje with the following words3--8,we had hoped to say something respecting the different types of social organization1 and something also on social metamorphoses2 but we have reached our assigned limits40 ,these further developments of the conception--developments to be hereafter set forth in the ,principles of ,sociology--,i must here sketch in outline before my answer can be made intelligible4 ,in sketching them1 ,i must say much that would be needless were my answer addressed to ,prof4 ,huxley only4 ,bare allusions to general phenomena of organization1 with which he is immeasurably more familiar than ,i am1 would suffice4 ,but1 as the sufficiency of my answer has to be judged by the general reader1 the general reader must be supplied with the requisite data3 my presentation of them being under correction from ,prof4 ,huxley if it is inaccurate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the primary differentiation in organic structures1 manifested alike in the history of each organism and in the history of the organic world as a whole1 is the differentiation between outer and inner parts--the parts which hold direct converse with the environment and the parts which do not hold direct converse with the environment4 ,we see this alike in those smallest and lowest forms improperly1 though suggestively1 sometimes called unicellular1 and also in the next higher division of creatures which1 with considerable reason1 are regarded as aggregations of the lower4 ,in these creatures the body is divisible into endoderm and ectoderm1 differing very little in their characters1 but serving the one to form the digestive sac1 and the other to form the outer wall of the body4 ,as ,prof4 ,huxley describes them in his ,oceanic ,hydrozoa1 these layers represent respectively the organs of nutrition and the organs of external relation--generally1 though not universally2 for there are exceptions1 especially among parasites4 ,in the embryos of higher types1 these two layers severally become double by the splitting of a layer formed between #djf them2 and from the outer double layer is developed the body-wall with its limbs1 nervous system1 senses1 muscles1 etc42 while from the inner double layer there arise the alimentary canal and its appendages1 together with the heart and lungs4 ,though in such higher types these two systems of organs1 which respectively absorb nutriment and expend nutriment1 become so far connected by ramifying blood-vessels and nerves that this division cannot be sharply made1 still the broad contrast remains4 ,at the very outset1 then1 there arises this separation1 which implies at once a coperation and an antagonism--a co-operation1 because1 while the outer organs secure for the inner organs the crude food1 the inner organs elaborate and supply to the outer organs the prepared materials by which they are enable to do their work2 and an antagonism1 because each set of organs1 living and growing at the cost of these prepared materials1 cannot appropriate any portion of the total supply without diminishing by so much the supply available for the other4 ,this general coperation and general antagonism becomes complicated with special coperations and special antagonisms1 as fast as these two great systems of organs develop4 ,the originally simple alimentary canal1 differentiating into many parts1 becomes a congeries of structures which1 by coperation1 fulfil better their general function1 but between which there nevertheless arise antagonisms2 since each has to make good its waste and to get matter for growth1 at the cost of the general supply of nutriment available for them all4 ,similarly1 as fast as the outer system develops into special senses and limbs1 there arise among these1 also1 secondary coperations and secondary antagonisms4 ,by their variously-combined actions1 food is obtained more effectually2 and yet the activity of each set of muscles1 or each directive nervous structure1 entails a draft upon the stock of prepared nutriment which the outer organs receive1 and is by so much at the cost of the rest4 ,thus the method of #djg organization1 both in general and in detail1 is a simultaneous combination and opposition4 ,all the organs unite in subserving the interests of the organism they form2 and yet they have all their special interests1 and compete with one another for blood4 ,a form of government1 or control1 or cordination1 develops as fast as these systems of organs develop4 ,eventually this becomes double4 ,a general distinction arises between the two controlling systems belonging to the two great systems of organs4 ,whether the inner controlling system is or is not originally derived from the outer1 matters not to the argument--when developed it is in great measure independent4#cg ,if we contemplate their respective sets of functions1 we shall perceive the origin of this distinction4 ,that the outer organs may coperate effectively for the purposes of catching prey1 escaping danger1 etc41 it is needful that they should be under a government capable of directing their combined actions1 now in this way and now in that1 according as outer circumstances vary4 ,from instant to instant there must be quick adjustments to occasions that are more or less new2 and hence there requires a complex and centralized nervous apparatus1 to which all these organs are promptly and completely obedient4 ,the government needful for the #djh inner system of organs is a different and much simpler one4 ,when the food obtained by the outer organs has been put into the stomach1 the coperation required of the viscera1 though it varies somewhat as the quantity or kind of food varies1 has nevertheless a general uniformity2 and it is required to go on in much the same way whatever the outer circumstances may be4 ,in each case the food has to be reduced to a pulp1 supplied with various solvent secretions1 propelled onward1 and its nutritive part taken up by absorbent surfaces4 ,that these processes may be effective1 the organs which carry them on must be supplied with fit blood2 and to this end the heart and the lungs have to act with greater vigor4 ,this visceral coperation1 carried on with this comparative uniformity1 is regulated by a nervous system which is to a large extent independent of that higher and more complex nervous system controlling the external organs4 ,the act of swallowing is1 indeed1 mainly effected by the higher nervous system2 but1 being swallowed1 the food affects by its presence the local nerves1 through them the local ganglia1 and indirectly1 through nervous connexions with other ganglia1 excites the rest of the viscera into coperative activity4 ,it is true that the functions of the sympathetic or ganglionic nervous system1 or 8nervous system of organic life10 as it is otherwise called1 are imperfectly understood4 ,but1 since we know positively that some of its plexuses1 as the cardiac1 are centres of local stimulation and cordination1 which can act independently1 though they are influenced by higher centres1 it is fairly to be inferred that the other and still larger plexuses1 distributed among the viscera1 are also such local and largely independent centres2 especially as the nerves they send into the viscera1 to join the many subordinate ganglia distributed through them1 greatly exceed in quantity the cerebro-spinal fibres accompanying them4 ,indeed1 to suppose otherwise is to leave unanswered the question--,what are their functions8 as well as the #dji question--,how are these unconscious visceral cordinations effected8 ,there remains only to observe the kind of co-operation which exists between the two nervous systems4 ,this is both a general and a special coperation4 ,the general coperation is that by which either system of organs is enabled to stimulate the other to action4 ,the alimentary canal yields through certain nervous connexions the sensation of hunger to the higher nervous system2 and so prompts efforts for procuring food4 ,conversely1 the activity of the nervo-muscular system1 or1 at least1 its normal activity1 sends inward to the cardiac and other plexuses a gush of stimulus which excites the viscera to action4 ,the special coperation is one by which it would seem that each system puts an indirect restraint on the other4 ,fibres from the sympathetic accompany every artery throughout the organs of external relation1 and exercise on the artery a constrictive action2 and the converse is done by certain of the cerebro-spinal fibres which ramify with the sympathetic throughout the viscera3 through the vagus and other nerves1 an inhibitory influence is exercised on the heart1 intestines1 pancreas1 etc4 ,leaving doubtful details1 however1 the fact which concerns us here is sufficiently manifest4 ,there are1 for these two systems of organs1 two nervous systems1 in great measure independent2 and1 if it is true that the higher system influences the lower1 it is no less true that the lower very powerfully influences the higher4 ,the restrictive action of the sympathetic upon the circulation1 throughout the nervo-muscular system1 is unquestionable2 and it is possibly through this that1 when the viscera have much work to do1 the nervo-muscular system is incapacitated in so marked a manner4#ch #cg ,here1 and throughout the discussion1 ,i refer to these controlling systems only as they exist in the ,vertebrata1 because their relations are far better known in this great division of the animal kingdom--not because like relations do not exist elsewhere4 ,indeed1 in the great sub-kingdom ,annulosa1 these controlling systems have relations that are extremely significant to us here4 ,for while an inferior annulose animal has only a single set of nervous structures1 a superior annulose animal 7as a moth7 has a set of nervous structures presiding over the viscera1 as well as a more conspicuous set presiding over the organs of external relation4 ,and this contrast is analogous to one of the contrasts between undeveloped and developed societies2 for1 while among the uncivilized and incipiently civilized there is but a single set of directive agencies1 there are among the fully civilized1 as we shall presently see1 two sets of directive agencies1 for the outer and inner structures respectively4 #ch ,to meet the probable objection that the experiments of ,bernard1 ,ludwig1 and others1 show that in the case of certain glands the nerves of the cerebro-spinal system are those which set up the secreting process1 ,i would remark that in these cases1 and in many others where the relative functions of the cerebro-spinal nerves and the sympathetic nerves have been studied1 the organs have been those in which sensation is either the stimulus to activity or its accompaniment2 and that from these cases no conclusion can be drawn applying to the cases of those viscera which normally perform their functions without sensation4 ,perhaps it may even be that the functions of those sympathetic fibres which accompany the arteries of the outer organs are simply ancillary to those of the central parts of the sympathetic system1 which stimulate and regulate the viscera--ancillary in this sense1 that they check the diffusion of blood in external organs when it is wanted in internal organs3 cerebro-spinal inhibition 7except in its action on the heart7 working the opposite way4 ,and possibly this is the instrumentality for carrying on that competition for nutriment which1 as we saw1 arises at the very outset between these two great systems of organs4 ,the one further fact here concerning us is the contrast #daj presented in different kinds of animals1 between the degrees of development of these two great sets of structures that carry on respectively the outer functions and the inner functions4 ,there are active creatures in which the locomotive organs1 the organs of sense1 together with the nervous apparatus which combines their actions1 bear a large ratio to the organs of alimentation and their appendages2 while there are inactive creatures in which these organs of external relation bear a very small ratio to the organs of alimentation4 ,and a remarkable fact1 here especially instructive to us1 is that very frequently there occurs a metamorphosis1 which has for its leading trait a great change in the ratio of these two systems--a metamorphosis which accompanies a great change in the mode of life4 ,the most familiar metamorphosis is variously illustrated among insects4 ,during the early or larval stage of a butterfly1 the organs of alimentation are largely developed1 while the organs of external relation are but little developed2 and then1 during a period of quiescence1 the organs of external relation undergo an immense development1 making possible the creature's active and varied adjustments to the surrounding world1 while the alimentary system becomes relatively small4 ,on the other hand1 among the lower invertebrate animals there is a very common metamorphosis of an opposite kind4 ,when young1 the creature1 with scarcely any alimentary system1 but supplied #daa with limbs and sense organs1 swims about actively4 ,presently it settles in a habitat where food is to be obtained without moving about1 loses in great part its organs of external relation1 develops its visceral system1 and1 as it grows1 assumes a nature utterly unlike that which it originally had--a nature adapted almost exclusively to alimentation and the propagation of the species4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us turn now to the social organism1 and the analogies of structure and function which may be traced in it4 ,of course these analogies between the phenomena presented in a physically coherent aggregate forming an individual1 and the phenomena presented in a physically incoherent aggregate of individuals distributed over a wide area1 cannot be analogies of a visible or sensible kind2 but can only be analogies between the systems1 or methods1 of organization4 ,such analogies as exist result from the one unquestionable community between the two organizations3 there is in both a mutual dependence of parts4 ,this is the origin of all organization2 and determines what similarities there are between an individual organism and a social organism4 ,of course the similarities thus determined are accompanied by transcendent differences1 determined1 as above said1 by the unlikenesses of the aggregates4 ,one cardinal difference is that1 while in the individual organism there is but one centre of consciousness capable of pleasure or pain1 there are1 in the social organism1 as many such centres as there are individuals1 and the aggregate of them has no consciousness of pleasure or pain--a difference which entirely changes the ends to be pursued4 ,bearing in mind this qualification1 let us now glance at the parallelisms indicated4 ,a society1 like an individual1 has a set of structures fitting it to act upon its environment--appliances for attack and defence1 armies1 navies1 fortified and garrisoned places4 ,at the same time1 a society has an industrial organization #dab which carries on all those processes that make possible the national life4 ,though these two sets of organs for external activity and internal activity do not bear to one another just the same relation which the outer and inner organs of an animal do 7since the industrial structures in a society supply themselves with raw materials1 instead of being supplied by the external organs71 yet they bear a relation otherwise similar4 ,there is at once a coperation and an antagonism4 ,by the help of the defensive system the industrial system is enabled to carry on its functions without injury from foreign enemies2 and by the help of the industrial system1 which supplies it with food and materials1 the defensive system is enabled to maintain this security4 ,at the same time the two systems are opposed in so far that they both depend for their existence upon the common stock of produce4 ,further1 in the social organism1 as in the individual organism1 this primary coperation and antagonism subdivides into secondary coperations and antagonisms4 ,if we look at the industrial organization1 we see that its agricultural part and its manufacturing part aid one another by the exchange of their products1 and are yet otherwise opposed to one another2 since each takes of the other's products the most it can get in return for its own products4 ,similarly throughout the manufacturing system itself4 ,of the total returns secured by ,manchester for its goods1 ,liverpool obtains as much as possible for the raw material1 and ,manchester gives as little as possible--the two at the same time coperating in secreting for the rest of the community the woven fabrics it requires1 and in jointly obtaining from the rest of the community the largest payment in other commodities4 ,and thus it is in all kinds of direct and indirect ways throughout the industrial structures4 ,men prompted by their own needs as well as those of their children1 and bodies of such men more or less aggregated1 are quick to find every unsatisfied need of their fellow-men1 and to #dac satisfy it in return for the satisfaction of their own needs2 and the working of this process is inevitably such that the strongest need1 ready to pay the most for satisfaction1 is that which draws most workers to satisfy it1 so that there is thus a perpetual balancing of the needs and of the appliances which subserve them4 ,this brings us to the regulative structures under which these two systems of coperating parts work4 ,as in the individual organism1 so in the social organism1 the outer parts are under a rigorous central control4 ,for adjustment to the varying and incalculable changes in the environment1 the external organs1 offensive and defensive1 must be capable of prompt combination2 and that their actions may be quickly combined to meet each exigency as it arises1 they must be completely subordinated to a supreme executive power3 armies and navies must be despotically controlled4 ,quite otherwise is it with the regulative apparatus required for the industrial system4 ,this1 which carries on the nutrition of a society1 as the visceral system carries on the nutrition of an individual1 has a regulative apparatus in great measure distinct from that which regulates the external organs4 ,it is not by any 8order in council0 that farmers are determined to grow so much wheat and so much barley1 or to divide their land in due proportion between arable and pasture4 ,there requires no telegram from the ,home ,office to alter the production of woollens in ,leeds1 so that it may be properly adjusted to the stocks on hand and the forthcoming crop of wool4 ,staffordshire produces its due quantity of pottery1 and ,sheffield sends out cutlery with rapidity adjusted to the consumption1 without any legislative stimulus or restraint4 ,the spurs and checks to production which manufacturers and manufacturing centres receive1 have quite another origin4 ,partly by direct orders from distributors and partly by the indirect indications furnished by the market reports throughout the kingdom1 they are prompted to #dad secrete actively or to diminish their rates of secretion4 ,the regulative apparatus by which these industrial organs are made to coperate harmoniously1 acts somewhat as the sympathetic does in a vertebrate animal4 ,there is a system of communications among the great producing and distributing centres1 which excites or retards as the circumstances vary4 ,from hour to hour messages pass between all the chief provincial towns1 as well as between each of them and ,london2 from hour to hour prices are adjusted1 supplies are ordered hither or thither1 and capital is drafted from place to place1 according as there is greater or less need for it4 ,all this goes on without any ministerial overseeing--without any dictation from those executive centres which combine the actions of the outer organs4 ,there is1 however1 one all-essential influence which these higher centres exercise over the industrial activities--a restraining influence which prevents aggression1 direct and indirect4 ,the condition under which only these producing and distributing processes can go on healthfully1 is that1 wherever there is work and waste1 there shall be a proportionate supply of materials for repair4 ,and securing this is nothing less than securing fulfilment of contracts4 ,just in the same way that a bodily organ which performs function1 but is not adequately paid in blood1 must dwindle1 and the organism as a whole eventually suffer2 so an industrial centre which has made and sent out its special commodity1 but does not get adequately paid in other commodities1 must decay4 ,and when we ask what is requisite to prevent this local innutrition and decay1 we find the requisite to be that agreements shall be carried out2 that goods shall be paid for at the stipulated prices2 that justice shall be administered4 ,one further leading parallelism must be described--that between the metamorphoses which occur in the two cases4 ,these metamorphoses are analogous in so far that #dae they are changes in the ratios of the inner and outer systems of organs2 and also in so far as they take place under analogous conditions4 ,at the one extreme we have that small and simple type of society which a wandering horde of savages presents4 ,this is a type almost wholly predatory in its organization4 ,it consists of little else than a coperative structure for carrying on warfare--the industrial part is almost absent1 being represented only by the women4 ,when the wandering tribe becomes a settled tribe1 an industrial organization begins to show itself--especially where1 by conquest1 there has been obtained a slave-class that may be forced to labour4 ,the predatory structure1 however1 still for a long time predominates4 ,omitting the slaves and the women1 the whole body politic consists of parts organized for offence and defence1 and is efficient in proportion as the control of them is centralized4 ,communities of this kind1 continuing to subjugate their neighbours1 and developing an organization of some complexity1 nevertheless retain a mainly-predatory type1 with just such industrial structures as are needful for supporting the offensive and defensive structures4 ,of this ,sparta furnished a good example4 ,the characteristics of such a social type are these--that each member of the ruling race is a soldier2 that war is the business of life2 that every one is subject to a rigorous discipline fitting him for this business2 that centralized authority regulates all the social activities1 down to the details of each man's daily conduct2 that the welfare of the ,state is every thing1 and that the individual lives for public benefit4 ,so long as the environing societies are such as necessitate and keep in exercise the militant organization1 these traits continue2 but when1 mainly by conquest and the formation of large aggregates1 the militant activity becomes less constant1 and war ceases to be the occupation of every free man1 the industrial structures begin to predominate4 ,without tracing the transition1 it will suffice to take1 as a sample #daf of the pacific or industrial type1 the ,northern ,states of ,america before the late war4 ,here military organization had almost disappeared2 the infrequent local assemblings of militia had turned into occasions for jollity1 and every thing martial had fallen into contempt4 ,the traits of the pacific or industrial type are these--that the central authority is relatively feeble2 that it interferes scarcely at all with the private actions of individuals2 and that the ,state1 instead of being that for the benefit of which individuals exist1 has become that which exists for the benefit of individuals4 ,it remains to add that this metamorphosis1 which takes place in societies along with a higher civilization1 very rapidly retrogrades if the surrounding conditions become unfavorable to it4 ,during the late war in ,america1 ,mr4 ,seward's boast--8,i touch this bell1 and any man in the remotest ,state is a prisoner of the ,government0 7a boast which was not an empty one1 and which was by many of the ,republican party greatly applauded7--shows us how rapidly1 along with militant activities1 there tends to be resumed the needful type of centralized structure2 and how there quickly grow up the corresponding sentiments and ideas4 ,our own history since #ahae has shown a double change of this kind4 ,during the thirty years' peace1 the militant organization dwindled1 the military sentiment greatly decreased1 the industrial organization rapidly developed1 the assertion of the individuality of the citizen became more decided1 and many restrictive and despotic regulations were got rid of4 ,conversely1 since the revival of militant activities and structures on the ,continent1 our own offensive and defensive structures have been re-developing2 and the tendency toward increase of that centralized control which accompanies such structures has become marked4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 closing this somewhat elaborate introduction1 #dag ,i am prepared to deal with the question put to me4 ,prof4 ,huxley1 after quoting some passages from that essay on the 8,social ,organism0 which ,i have supplemented in the foregoing paragraphs2 and after expressing a qualified concurrence which ,i greatly value as coming from so highly fitted a judge1 proceeds1 with characteristic acumen1 to comment on what seems an incongruity between certain analogies set forth in that essay1 and the doctrine ,i hold respecting the duty of the ,state4 ,referring to a passage in which ,i have described the function of the individual brain as 8that of averaging the interests of life1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 social10 and have compared it to the function of ,parliament as 8that of averaging the interests of the various classes in a community10 adding that 8a good ,parliament is one in which the parties answering to these respective interests are so balanced that their united legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with the claims of the rest20 ,prof4 ,huxley proceeds to say3 8,all this appears to be very just4 ,but if the resemblances between the body physiological and the body politic are any indication1 not only of what the latter is1 and how it has become what it is1 but what it ought to be1 and what it is tending to become1 ,i cannot but think that the real force of the analogy is totally opposed to the negative view of ,state function4 8,suppose that1 in accordance with this view1 each muscle were to maintain that the nervous system had no right to interfere with its contraction1 except to prevent it from hindering the contraction of another muscle2 or each gland1 that it had a right to secrete1 so long as its secretion interfered with no other2 suppose every separate cell left free to follow its own 8interests10 and laissez-faire ,lord of all1 what would become of the body physiological80 ,on this question the remark ,i have first to make is1 that if ,i held the doctrine of ,m4 ,proudhon1 who deliberately named himself an 8anarchist10 and if along with this doctrine ,i held the above-indicated theory of social structures and functions1 the inconsistency implied by the question put would be clear1 and the question would be unanswerable4 ,but since ,i entertain no such view as that of ,proudhon--since ,i hold that within its proper limits #dah governmental action is not simply legitimate but all-important--,i do not see how ,i am concerned with a question which tacitly supposes that ,i deny the legitimacy and the importance4 ,not only do ,i contend that the restraining power of the ,state over individuals1 and bodies or classes of individuals1 is requisite1 but ,i have contended that it should be exercised much more effectually1 and carried out much further1 than at present4#ci ,and as the maintenance of this control implies the maintenance of a controlling apparatus1 ,i do not see that ,i am placed in any difficulty when ,i am asked what would happen were the controlling apparatus forbidden to interfere4 ,further1 on this general aspect of the question ,i have to say that1 by comparing the deliberative assembly of a nation to the deliberative nervous centre of a vertebrate animal1 as respectively averaging the interests of the society and of the individual1 and as both doing this through processes of representation1 ,i do not mean to identify the two sets of interests2 for these in a society 7or at least a peaceful society7 refer mainly to interior actions1 while in an individual creature they refer mainly to exterior actions4 ,the 8interests0 to which ,i refer1 as being averaged by a representative governing body1 are the conflicting interests between class and class1 as well as between man and man--conflicting interests the balancing of which is nothing but the preventing of aggression and the administration of justice4 #ci ,see ,social ,statics chap4 xxi41 8,the ,duty of the ,state40 ,see also essay on 8,over-,legislation40 ,i pass now from this general aspect of the question1 which does not concern me1 to a more special aspect which does concern me4 ,dividing the actions of governing structures1 whether in bodies individual or bodies politic1 into the positively regulative and the negatively regulative1 or those which stimulate and direct1 as distinguished from those which simply restrain1 ,i may say that if there is raised the question--,what will happen when the controlling #dai apparatus does not act8 there are quite different replies according as one or other system of organs is referred to4 ,if1 in the individual body1 the muscles were severally independent of the deliberative and executive centres1 utter impotence would result3 in the absence of muscular cordination1 there would be no possibility of standing1 much less of acting on surrounding things1 and the body would be a prey to the first enemy4 ,properly to combine the actions of these outer organs1 the great nervous centres must exercise functions that are both positively regulative and negatively regulative--must both command action and arrest action4 ,similarly with the outer organs of a political body4 ,unless the offensive and defensive structures can be despotically commanded by a central authority1 there cannot be those prompt combinations and adjustments required for meeting the variable actions of external enemies4 ,but if1 instead of asking what would happen supposing the outer organs in either case were without control from the great governing centres1 we ask what would happen were the inner organs 7the industrial and commercial structures in the one case1 and the alimentary and distributive in the other7 without such control1 the answer is quite different4 ,omitting the respiratory and some minor ancillary parts of the individual organism1 to which the social organism has nothing analogous2 and limiting ourselves to absorptive1 elaborative1 and distributive structures1 which are found in both2 it may1 ,i think1 be successfully contended that in neither the one case nor the other do they require the positively regulative control of the great governing centres1 but only the negatively regulative4 ,let us glance at the facts4#dj #dj ,lest there should be any misunderstanding of the terms positively regulative and negatively regulative1 let me briefly illustrate them4 ,if a man has land1 and ,i either cultivate it for him1 partially or wholly1 or dictate any or all of his modes of cultivation1 my action is positively regulative2 but if1 leaving him absolutely unhelped and unregulated in his farming1 ,i simply prevent him from taking his neighbour's crops1 or from making approach-roads over his neighbour's land1 or from depositing rubbish upon it1 my action is negatively regulative4 ,there is a tolerably sharp distinction between the act of securing a citizen's ends for him or interfering with his mode of securing them1 and the act of checking him when he interferes with another citizen in the pursuit of his ends4 ,digestion and circulation go on very well in lunatics #dbj and idiots1 though the higher nervous centres are either deranged or partly absent4 ,the vital functions proceed properly during sleep1 though less actively than when the brain is at work4 ,in infancy1 while the cerebro-spinal system is almost incapable1 and cannot even perform such simple actions as those of commanding the sphincters1 the visceral functions are active and regular4 ,nor in an adult does that arrest of cerebral action shown by insensibility1 or that extensive paralysis of the spinal system which renders all the limbs immovable1 prevent these functions from being carried on for a considerable time2 though they necessarily begin to flag in the absence of the demand which an active system of outer organs makes upon them4 ,these internal organs are1 indeed1 so little under the positively directive control of the great nervous centres1 that their independence is often very inconvenient4 ,no mandate sent into the interior stops an attack of diarrha2 nor1 when an indigestible meal excites the circulation at night1 and prevents sleep1 will the bidding of the brain cause the heart to pulsate more quietly4 ,it is doubtless true that these vital processes are modified in important ways1 both by general stimulation and by inhibition1 from the cerebro-spinal system2 but that they are mainly independent cannot1 ,i think1 be questioned4 ,the facts that peristaltic motion of the intestines can go on when their nervous connexions are cut1 and that the heart 7in cold-blooded vertebrates1 at least7 continues to pulsate for some time after being detached from the body1 make it manifest that the spontaneous activities of these vital organs subserve the wants of the body at large without direction from its higher governing centres4 ,and this is made even #dba more manifest if it be a fact1 as alleged by ,schmulewitsch experimenting under ,ludwig's direction1 that1 under duly-adjusted conditions1 the secretion of bile may be kept up for some time when blood is passed through the excised liver of a newly-killed rabbit4 ,there is an answer1 not1 ,i think1 unsatisfactory1 even to the crucial part of the question--8,suppose every separate cell left free to follow its own interests1 and laissez faire ,lord of all1 what would become of the body physiological80 ,limiting the application of this question in the way above shown to the organs and parts of organs which carry on vital actions1 it seems to me that much evidence may be given for the belief that1 when they follow their respective 8interests0 7limited here to growing and multiplying71 the general welfare will be tolerably well secured4 ,it was proved by ,hunter's experiments on a kite and a sea-gull1 that a part of the alimentary canal which has to triturate harder food than that which the creature naturally eats1 acquires a thicker and harder lining4 ,when a stricture of the intestine impedes the passage of its contents1 the muscular walls of the intestine above1 thicken and propel the contents with greater force4 ,when there is somewhere in the course of the circulation a serious resistance to the passage of blood1 there habitually occurs hypertrophy of the heart1 or thickening of its muscular walls2 giving it greater power to propel the blood4 ,and similarly1 when the duct through which it discharges its contents is obstructed1 the gall-bladder thickens and strengthens4 ,these changes go on without any direction from the brain--without any consciousness that they are going on4 ,they are effected by the growth1 or multiplication1 or adaptation1 of the local units1 be they cells or fibres1 which results from the greater action or modified action thrown upon them4 ,the only pre-requisite to this spontaneous adaptive change is1 that these local units shall be supplied with extra blood in proportion as they perform extra function--a pre-requisite answering to that secured #dbb by the administration of justice in a society2 namely1 that more work shall bring more pay4 ,if1 however1 direct proof be called for that a system of organs may1 by carrying on their several independent activities uncontrolled1 secure the welfare of the aggregate they form1 we have it in that extensive class of creatures which do not possess any nervous systems at all2 and which nevertheless show1 some of them1 considerable degrees of activity4 ,the ,oceanic ,hydrozoa supply good examples4 ,notwithstanding 8the multiplicity and complexity of the organs which some of them possess10 these creatures have no nervous centres--no regulative apparatus by which the actions of their organs are cordinated4 ,one of their higher kinds is composed of different parts distinguished as cnosarc1 polypites1 tentacles1 hydrocysts1 nectocalyces1 genocalyces1 etc41 and each of these different parts is composed of many partially-independent units--thread-cells1 ciliated cells1 contractile fibres1 etc42 so that the whole organism is a group of heterogeneous groups1 each one of which is itself a more or less heterogeneous group4 ,and1 in the absence of a nervous system1 the arrangement must necessarily be such that these different units1 and different groups of units1 severally pursuing their individual lives without positive direction from the rest1 nevertheless do1 by virtue of their constitutions1 and the relative positions into which they have grown1 coperate for the maintenance of one another and the entire aggregate4 ,and if this can be so with a set of organs that are not connected by nerves1 much more can it be so with a set of organs which1 like the viscera of a higher animal1 have a special set of nervous communications for exciting one another to coperation4 ,let us turn now to the parallel classes of phenomena which the social organism presents4 ,in it1 as in the individual organism1 we find that while the system of external organs must be rigorously subordinated to a great governing centre which positively regulates it1 the system #dbc of internal organs needs no such positive regulation4 ,the production and interchange by which the national life is maintained1 go on as well while ,parliament is not sitting as while it is sitting4 ,when the members of the ,ministry are following grouse or stalking deer1 ,liverpool imports1 ,manchester manufactures1 ,london distributes1 just as usual4 ,all that is needful for the normal performance of these internal social functions is1 that the restraining or inhibitory structures shall continue in action3 these activities of individuals1 corporate bodies1 and classes1 must be carried on in such ways as not to transgress certain conditions1 necessitated by the simultaneous carrying on of other activities4 ,so long as order is maintained1 and the fulfilment of contracts is everywhere enforced--so long as there is secured to each citizen1 and each combination of citizens1 the full return agreed upon for work done or commodities produced2 and so long as each may enjoy what he obtains by labour1 without trenching on his neighbour's like ability to enjoy2 these functions will go on healthfully--more healthfully1 indeed1 than when regulated in any other way4 ,fully to recognize this fact1 it is needful only to look at the origins and actions of the leading industrial structures4 ,we will take two of them1 the most remote from one another in their natures4 ,the first shall be those by which food is produced and distributed4 ,in the fourth of his ,introductory ,lectures on ,political ,economy1 ,archbishop ,whately remarks that3 8,many of the most important objects are accomplished by the joint agency of persons who never think of them1 nor have any idea of acting in concert2 and that1 with a certainty1 completeness1 and regularity1 which probably the most diligent benevolence1 under the guidance of the greatest human wisdom1 could never have attained40 ,to enforce this truth he goes on to say3--8,let any one propose to himself the problem of supplying with daily provisions of all kinds such a city as our metropolis1 containing above a million of inhabitants40 ,and then he points out the many immense difficulties of the task #dbd caused by inconstancy in the arrival of supplies2 by the perishable nature of many of the commodities2 by the fluctuating number of consumers2 by the heterogeneity of their demands2 by variations in the stocks1 immediate and remote1 and the need for adjusting the rate of consumption2 and by the complexity in the process of distribution required to bring due quantities of these many commodities to the homes of all citizens4 ,and1 having dwelt on these many difficulties1 he finishes his picture by saying3 8,yet this object is accomplished far better than it could be by any effort of human wisdom1 through the agency of men who think each of nothing beyond his own immediate interest--who1 with that object in view1 perform their respective parts with cheerful zeal--and combine unconsciously to employ the wisest means for effecting an object1 the vastness of which it would bewilder them even to contemplate40 ,but though the far-spreading and complex organization by which foods of all kinds are produced1 prepared1 and distributed throughout the entire kingdom1 is a natural growth and not a ,state-manufacture2 though the ,state does not determine where and in what quantities cereals and cattle and sheep shall be reared2 though it does not arrange their respective prices so as to make supplies last until fresh supplies can come2 though it has done nothing toward causing that great improvement of quality which has taken place in food since early times2 though it has not the credit of that elaborate apparatus by which bread1 and meat1 and milk1 come round to our doors with a daily pulse that is as regular as the pulse of the heart2 yet the ,state has not been wholly passive4 ,it has from time to time done a great deal of mischief4 ,when ,edward ,i4 forbade all towns to harbour forestallers1 and when ,edward ,,vi4 made it penal to buy grain for the purpose of selling it again1 they were preventing the process by which consumption is adjusted to supply3 they were doing all that could be done to insure alternations of abundance and starvation4 ,similarly with the many legislative attempts #dbe since made to regulate one branch or other of the food-industry1 down to the corn-law sliding-scale of odious memory4 ,for the marvellous efficiency of this organization we are indebted to private enterprise2 while the derangements of it we owe to the positively-regulative action of the ,government4 ,meanwhile1 its negatively-regulative action1 required to keep this organization in order1 ,government has not duly performed4 ,a quick and costless remedy for breach of contract1 when a trader sells1 as the commodity asked for1 what proves to be wholly or in part some other commodity1 is still wanting4 ,our second case shall be the organization which so immensely facilitates commerce by transfers of claims and credits4 ,banks were not inventions of rulers or their counsellors4 ,they grew up by small stages out of the transactions of traders with one another4 ,men who for security deposited money with goldsmiths1 and took receipts2 goldsmiths who began to lend out at interest the moneys left with them1 and then to offer interest at lower rates to those who would deposit money2 were the founders of them4 ,and when1 as presently happened1 the receipt-notes became transferable by indorsement1 banking commenced4 ,from that stage upward the development1 notwithstanding many hinderances1 has gone on naturally4 ,banks have sprung up under the same stimulus which has produced all other kinds of trading bodies4 ,the multiplied forms of credit have been gradually differentiated from the original form2 and while the banking system has spread and become complex1 it has also become consolidated into a whole by a spontaneous process4 ,the clearing-house1 which is a place for carrying on the banking between bankers1 arose unobtrusively out of an effort to economize time and money4 ,and when1 in #ahfb1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock--not in his legislative capacity but in his capacity as banker--succeeded in extending the privileges of the clearing-house to country banks1 the unification was made #dbf perfect2 so that now the transactions of any trader in the kingdom with any other may be completed by the writing off and balancing of claims in bankers' books4 ,this natural evolution1 be it observed1 has reached with us a higher phase than has been reached where the positively-regulative control of the ,state is more decided4 ,they have no clearing-house in ,france2 and in ,france the method of making payments by checks1 so dominant among ourselves1 is very little employed and in an imperfect way4 ,i do not mean to imply that in ,england the ,state has been a mere spectator of this development4 ,unfortunately1 it has from the beginning had relations with banks and bankers3 not much1 however1 to their advantage1 or that of the public4 ,the first kind of deposit-bank was in some sense a ,state-bank3 merchants left funds for security at the ,mint in the ,tower4 ,but when ,charles ,i4 appropriated their property without consent1 and gave it back to them only under pressure1 after a long delay1 he destroyed their confidence4 ,similarly1 when ,charles ,,ii41 in furtherance of ,state-business1 came to have habitual transactions with the richer of the private bankers2 and when1 having got nearly a million and a half of their money in the ,exchequer1 he stole it1 ruined a multitude of merchants1 distressed ten thousand depositors1 and made some lunatics and suicides1 he gave a considerable shock to the banking system as it then existed4 ,though the results of ,state-relations with banks in later times have not been so disastrous in this direct way1 yet they have been indirectly disastrous--perhaps even in a greater degree4 ,in return for a loan1 the ,state gave the ,bank of ,england special privileges2 and for the increase and continuance of this loan the bribe was the maintenance of these privileges--privileges which immensely hindered the development of banks4 ,the ,state did worse4 ,it led the ,bank of ,england to the verge of bankruptcy by a forced issue of notes1 and then authorized it to break its promises #dbg to pay4 ,nay1 worse still1 it prevented the ,bank of ,england from fulfilling its promises to pay when it wished to fulfil them4 ,the evils that have arisen from the positively-regulative action of the ,state on banks are too multitudinous to be here enumerated4 ,they may be found in the writings of ,tooke1 ,newmarch1 ,fullarton1 ,macleod1 ,wilson1 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 and others4 ,all we have here to note is1 that while the enterprise of citizens in the pursuit of private ends has developed this great trading-process1 which so immensely facilitates all other trading-processes1 ,governments have over and over again disturbed it to an almost fatal extent2 and that1 while they have done enormous mischief of one kind by their positively-regulative action1 they have done enormous mischief of another kind by failing in their negatively-regulative action4 ,they have not done the one thing they had to do3 they have not uniformly insisted on fulfilment of contract between the banker and the customer who takes his promise to pay on demand4 ,between these two cases of the trade in food and the trade in money1 might be put the cases of other trades3 all of them carried on by organizations similarly evolved1 and similarly more or less deranged from time to time by ,state-meddling4 ,passing over these1 however1 let us turn from the positive method of elucidation to the comparative method4 ,when it is questioned whether the spontaneous coperation of men in pursuit of personal benefits will adequately work out the general good1 we may get guidance for judgment by comparing the results achieved in countries where spontaneous coperation has been most active and least regulated1 with the results achieved in countries where spontaneous coperation has been less trusted and ,state-action more trusted4 ,two cases1 furnished by the two leading nations on the ,continent1 will suffice4 ,in ,france1 the cole des ,ponts et ,chausses was founded in #agdg for educating civil engineers2 and in #agie was #dbh founded the cole ,polytechnique1 serving1 among other purposes1 to give a general scientific training to those who were afterward to be more specially trained for civil engineering4 ,averaging the two dates1 we may say that for a century ,france has had a ,state-established and ,state-maintained appliance for producing skilled men of this class--a double gland1 we may call it1 to secrete engineering faculty for public use4 ,in ,england1 until quite recently1 we have had no institution for preparing civil engineers4 ,not by intention1 but unconsciously1 we left the furnishing of engineering faculty to take place under the law of supply and demand--a law which at present seems to be no more recognized as applying to education1 than it was recognized as applying to commerce in the days of bounties and restrictions4 ,this1 however1 by the way4 ,we have here simply to note that ,brindley1 ,smeaton1 ,rennie1 ,telford1 and the rest1 down to ,george ,stephenson1 acquired their knowledge1 and got their experience1 without ,state-aid or supervision4 ,what have been the comparative results in the two nations8 ,space does not allow a detailed comparison3 the later results must suffice4 ,railways originated in ,england1 not in ,france4 ,railways spread through ,england faster than through ,france4 ,many railways in ,france were laid out and officered by ,english engineers4 ,the earlier ,french railways were made by ,english contractors2 and ,english locomotives served the ,french makers as models4 ,the first ,french work written on locomotive engines1 published about #ahdj 7at least ,i had a copy at that date71 was by the ,comte de ,pambour1 who had studied in ,england1 and who gave in his work nothing whatever but drawings and descriptions of the engines of ,english makers4 ,the second illustration is supplied to us by the model nation1 now so commonly held up to us for imitation4 ,let us contrast ,london and ,berlin in respect of an all-essential appliance for the comfort and health of citizens4 ,when1 #dbi at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the springs and local conduits1 supplemented by water-carriers1 failed to supply the ,londoners2 and when the water-famine1 for a long time borne1 had failed to make the ,corporation do more than propose schemes1 and had not spurred the central government to do any thing2 ,hugh ,myddleton1 a merchant citizen1 took in hand himself the work of bringing the ,new ,river to ,islington4 ,when he had half completed the work1 the king came to his help--not1 indeed1 in his capacity of ruler1 but in the capacity of speculator1 investing his money with a view to profit3 his share being disposed of by his successor after the formation of the ,new ,river ,company1 which finished the distributing system4 ,subsequently1 the formation of other water-companies1 utilizing other sources1 has given ,london a water-supply that has grown with its growth4 ,what1 meanwhile1 happened at ,berlin8 ,did there in #afac1 when ,hugh ,myddleton completed his work1 grow up there a like efficient system8 ,not at all4 ,the seventeenth century passed1 the eighteenth century passed1 the middle of the nineteenth century was reached1 and still ,berlin had no water-supply like that of ,london4 ,what happened then8 ,did the paternal government at length do what had been so long left undone8 ,no4 ,did the citizens at length unite to secure the desideratum8 ,no4 ,it was finally achieved by the citizens of another nation1 more accustomed to coperate in gaining their own profits by ministering to public needs4 ,in #ahde an ,english company was formed for giving ,berlin an adequate water-supply2 and the work was executed by ,english contractors--,messrs4 ,fox and ,crampton4 ,should it be said that great works of ancient nations1 in the shape of aqueducts1 roads1 etc41 might be instanced in proof that ,state agency secures such ends1 or should it be said that a comparison between the early growth of inland navigation on the ,continent1 and its later growth here1 #dcj would be to our disadvantage1 ,i reply that1 little as they at first seem so1 these facts are congruous with the general doctrine4 ,while the militant social type is dominant1 and the industrial organization but little developed1 there is but one cordinating agency for regulating both sets of activities2 just as we saw happens with the lower types of individual organisms4 ,it is only when a considerable advance has been made in that metamorphosis which develops the industrial structures at the expense of the militant structures1 and which brings along with it a substantially-independent cordinating agency for the industrial structures--it is only then that the efficiency of these spontaneous coperations for all purposes of internal social life becomes greater than the efficiency of the central governing agency4 ,possibly it will be said that though1 for subserving material needs1 the actions of individuals1 stimulated by necessity and made quick by competition1 are demonstrably adequate1 they are not adequate for subserving other needs4 ,i do not see1 however1 that the facts justify this position4 ,we have but to glance around to find in abundance similarly-generated appliances for satisfying our higher desires1 as well as our lower desires4 ,the fact that the ,fine ,arts have not thriven here as much as in some ,continental countries1 is ascribable to natural character1 to absorption of our energies in other activities1 and to the repressive influence of chronic asceticism1 rather than to the absence of fostering agencies3 these the interests of individuals have provided in abundance4 ,literature1 in which we are second to none1 owes1 with us1 nothing to ,state-aid4 ,the poetry which will live is poetry which has been written without official prompting2 and though we have habitually had a prize-poet1 paid to write loyal verses1 it may be said1 without disparaging the present one1 that a glance over the entire list does not show any benefit derived by poetry from ,state-patronage4 ,nor are other #dca forms of literature any more indebted to ,state-patronage4 ,it was because there was a public liking for fiction that fiction began to be produced2 and the continued public liking causes a continued production1 including1 along with much that is worthless1 much that could not have been made better by any academic or other supervision4 ,and the like holds of biographies1 histories1 scientific books1 etc4 ,or1 as a still more striking case of an agency that has grown up to meet a non-material want1 take the newspaper press4 ,what has been the genesis of this marvellous appliance1 which each day gives us an abstract of the world's life the day before8 ,under what promptings have there been got together its staffs of editors1 sub-editors1 article-writers1 reviewers2 its reporters of parliamentary debates1 of public meetings1 of law cases and police cases2 its critics of music1 theatricals1 paintings1 etc42 its correspondents in all parts of the world8 ,who devised and brought to perfection this system which at six o'clock in the morning gives the people of ,edinburgh a report of the debates that ended at two or three o'clock in the ,house of ,commons1 and at the same time tells them of events that occurred the day before in ,america8 ,it is not a ,government invention4 ,it is not a ,government suggestion4 ,it has not been in anyway improved or developed by legislation4 ,on the contrary1 it has grown up in spite of many hinderances from the ,government and burdens which the ,government has imposed on it4 ,for a long time the reporting of parliamentary debates was resisted2 for generations censorships and prosecutions kept newspapers down1 and for several subsequent generations the laws in force negatived a cheap press1 and the educational benefits accompanying it4 ,from the war-correspondent1 whose letters give to the very nations that are fighting their only trustworthy accounts of what is being done1 down to the newsboy who brings round the third edition with the latest telegrams1 the whole organization is a product of spontaneous #dcb coperation among private individuals1 aiming to benefit themselves by ministering to the intellectual needs of their fellows--aiming also1 not a few of them1 to benefit their fellows by giving them clearer ideas and a higher standard of right4 ,nay1 more than this is true4 ,while the press is not indebted to the ,government1 the ,government is enormously indebted to the press2 without which1 indeed1 it would stumble daily in the performance of its functions4 ,this agency which the ,state once did its best to put down1 and has all along impeded1 now gives to the ministers news in anticipation of their dispatches1 gives to members of ,parliament a guiding knowledge of public opinion1 enables them to speak from the ,house of ,commons benches to their constituents1 and gives to both legislative chambers a full record of their proceedings4 ,i do not see1 therefore1 how there can be any doubt respecting the sufficiency of agencies thus originating4 ,the truth that in this condition of mutual dependence brought about by social life1 there inevitably grow up arrangements such that each secures his own ends by ministering to the ends of others1 seems to have been for a long time one of those open secrets which remain secret because they are so open2 and even now the conspicuousness of this truth seems to cause an imperfect consciousness of its full meaning4 ,the evidence shows1 however1 that even were there no other form of spontaneous coperation among men than that dictated by self-interest1 it might be rationally held that this1 under the negatively-regulative control of a central power1 would work out1 in proper order1 the appliances for satisfying all needs1 and carrying on healthfully all the essential social functions4 ,but there is a further kind of spontaneous coperation1 arising1 like the other1 independently of ,state-action1 which takes a large share in satisfying certain classes of needs4 ,familiar though it is1 this kind of spontaneous coperation is habitually ignored in sociological discussions4 ,alike #dcc from newspaper articles and parliamentary debates1 it might be inferred that1 beyond the force due to men's selfish activities1 there is no other social force than the governmental force4 ,there seems to be a deliberate omission of the fact that1 in addition to their selfish interests1 men have sympathetic interests1 which1 acting individually and coperatively1 work out results scarcely less remarkable than those which the selfish interests work out4 ,it is true that1 during the earlier phases of social evolution1 while yet the type is mainly militant1 agencies thus produced do not exist3 among the ,spartans1 ,i suppose1 there were few1 if any1 philanthropic agencies4 ,but as there arise forms of society leading toward the pacific type--forms in which the industrial organization develops itself1 and men's activities become of a kind that do not perpetually sear their sympathies2 these structures which their sympathies generate become many and important4 ,to the egoistic interests1 and the coperations prompted by them1 there come to be added the altruistic interests and their coperations2 and what the one set fails to do1 the other does4 ,that1 in his presentation of the doctrine he opposes1 ,prof4 ,huxley did not set down the effects of fellow-feeling as supplementing the effects of self-regarding feelings1 surprises me the more1 because he displays fellow-feeling himself in so marked a degree1 and shows in his career how potent a social agency it becomes4 ,let us glance rapidly over the results wrought out among ourselves by individual and combined 8altruism0--to employ ,m4 ,comte's useful word4 ,though they show a trace of this feeling1 ,i will not dwell upon the numerous institutions by which men are enabled to average the chances throughout life by insurance societies1 which provide against the evils entailed by premature deaths1 accidents1 fires1 wrecks1 etc42 for these are mainly mercantile and egoistic in their origin4 ,nor will ,i do more than name those multitudinous ,friendly ,societies that have arisen spontaneously among the #dcd working-classes to give mutual aid in time of sickness1 and which the ,commission now sitting is showing to be immensely beneficial1 notwithstanding their defects2 for these also1 though containing a larger element of sympathy1 are prompted chiefly by anticipations of personal benefits4 ,leaving these1 let us turn to the organizations in which altruism is more decided3 taking first that by which religious ministrations are carried on4 ,throughout ,scotland and ,england1 cut away all that part of it which is not established by law--in ,scotland1 the ,episcopal ,church1 the ,free ,church1 the ,united ,presbyterians1 and other ,dissenting bodies2 in ,england1 the ,wesleyans1 ,independents1 and the various minor sects4 ,cut off1 too1 from the ,established ,church itself1 all that part added in recent times by voluntary zeal1 made conspicuous enough by the new steeples that have been rising on all sides2 and then also take out1 from the remainder of the ,established ,church1 that energy which has during these three generations been infused into it by competition with the ,dissenters3 so reducing it to the degraded1 inert state in which ,john ,wesley found it4 ,do this1 and it becomes manifest that more than half the organisation1 and immensely more than half its function1 is extra-governmental4 ,look round1 again1 at the multitudinous institutions for mitigating men's ills--the hospitals1 dispensaries1 alms-houses1 and the like--the various benevolent and mendicity societies1 etc41 of which ,london alone contains between six and seven hundred4 ,from our vast ,st4 ,thomas's1 exceeding the palace of the ,legislature itself in bulk1 down to ,dorcas societies and village clothing-clubs1 we have charitable agencies1 many in kind and countless in number1 which supplement1 perhaps too largely1 the legally-established one2 and which1 whatever evil they may have done along with the good1 have done far less evil than the ,poor-,law organization did before it was reformed in #ahcd4 ,akin to these are still more striking examples of power in #dce agencies thus originating1 such as that furnished by the ,anti-slavery ,society1 which carried the emancipation of the slaves1 notwithstanding the class-opposition so predominant in the ,legislature4 ,and if we look for more recent like instances1 we have them in the organization which promptly and efficiently dealt with the cotton-famine in ,lancashire1 and in that which last year ministered to the wounded and distressed in ,france4 ,once more1 consider our educational system as it existed till within these few years4 ,such part of it as did not consist of private schools1 carried on for personal profit1 consisted of schools or colleges set up or maintained by men for the benefit of their fellows1 and the posterity of their fellows4 ,omitting the few founded or partially founded by kings1 the numerous endowed schools scattered throughout the kingdom1 originated from altruistic feelings 7so far1 at least1 as they were not due to egoistic desires for good places in the other world74 ,and then1 after these appliances for teaching the poor had been almost entirely appropriated by the rich1 whence came the remedy8 ,another altruistic organization grew up for educating the poor1 struggled against the opposition of the ,church and the governing classes1 eventually forced these to enter into competition and produce like altruistic organizations1 until by school systems1 local and general1 ecclesiastical1 dissenting1 and secular1 the mass of the people had been brought from a state of almost entire ignorance to one in which nearly all of them possessed the rudiments of knowledge4 ,but for these spontaneously-developed agencies1 ignorance would have been universal4 ,not only such knowledge as the poor now possess--not only the knowledge of the trading-classes--not only the knowledge of those who write books and leading articles2 but the knowledge of those who carry on the business of the country as ministers and legislators1 has been derived from these extra-governmental agencies1 egoistic or altruistic4 ,yet now1 strangely enough1 the #dcf cultured intelligence of the country has taken to spurning its parent2 and that to which it owes both its existence and the consciousness of its own value is pooh-poohed as though it had done1 and could do1 nothing of importance6 ,one other fact let me add4 ,while such teaching organizations1 and their results in the shape of enlightenment1 are due to these spontaneous agencies1 to such agencies also are due the great improvements in the quality of the culture now happily beginning to take place4 ,the spread of scientific knowledge1 and of the scientific spirit1 has not been brought about by laws and officials4 ,our scientific societies have arisen from the spontaneous coperation of those interested in the accumulation and diffusion of the kinds of truth they respectively deal with4 ,though the ,british ,association has from time to time obtained certain small subsidies1 their results in the way of advancing science have borne but an extremely small ratio to the results achieved without any such aid4 ,if there needs a conclusive illustration of the power of agencies thus arising1 we have it in the history and achievements of the ,royal ,institution4 ,from this1 which is a product of altruistic coperation1 and which has had for its successive professors ,young1 ,davy1 ,faraday1 and ,tyndall1 there has come a series of brilliant discoveries which cannot be paralleled by a series from any ,state-nurtured institution4 ,i hold1 then1 that forced1 as men in society are1 to seek satisfaction of their own wants by satisfying the wants of others2 and led as they also are by sentiments which social life has fostered1 to satisfy many wants of others irrespective of their own2 they are moved by two sets of forces which1 working together1 will amply suffice to carry on all needful activities2 and ,i think the facts fully justify this belief4 ,it is true that1 a priori1 one would not have supposed that by their unconscious coperations men could have wrought out such results1 any more than one would have supposed1 a priori1 that by their unconscious coperation they could #dcg have evolved ,language4 ,but reasoning a posteriori1 which it is best to do when we have the facts before us1 it becomes manifest that they can do this2 that they have done it in very astonishing ways2 and perhaps may do it hereafter in ways still more astonishing4 ,scarcely any scientific generalization has1 ,i think1 a broader inductive basis than we have for the belief that these egoistic and altruistic feelings are powers which1 taken together1 amply suffice to originate and carry on all the activities which constitute healthy national life3 the only pre-requisite being1 that they shall be under the negatively-regulative control of a central power--that the entire aggregate of individuals1 acting through the legislature and executive as its agents1 shall put upon each individual1 and group of individuals1 the restraints needful to prevent aggression1 direct and indirect4 ,and here ,i might go on to supplement the argument by showing that the immense majority of the evils which government aid is invoked to remedy1 are evils which arise immediately or remotely because it does not perform properly its negatively-regulative function4 ,from the waste of1 probably1 #ajj1jjj1jjj of national capital in unproductive railways1 for which the ,legislature is responsible by permitting the original proprietary contracts to be broken1#da down to the railway accidents and loss of life caused by unpunctuality1 which would never have grown to its present height were there an easy remedy for breach of contract between company and passenger2 nearly all the vices of railway management have arisen from the non-administration of justice4 ,and everywhere else we shall find that1 were the restraining action of the ,state prompt1 effective1 and costless to those aggrieved1 the pleas put in for positive regulation would nearly all disappear4 #da ,see ,essay on 8,railway ,morals and ,railway ,policy40 99 99 99 99 99 ,i am thus brought naturally to remark on the title given #dch to this theory of ,state-functions4 ,that 8,administrative ,nihilism0 adequately describes the view set forth by ,von ,humboldt1 may be3 ,i have not read his work4 ,but ,i cannot see how it adequately describes the doctrine ,i have been defending2 nor do ,i see how this can be properly expressed by the more positive title1 8police-government40 ,the conception suggested by police-government does not include the conception of an organization for external protection4 ,so long as each nation is given to burglary1 ,i quite admit each other nation must keep guards1 under the forms of army or navy1 or both1 to prevent burglars from breaking in4 ,and the title police-government does not1 in its ordinary acceptation1 comprehend these offensive and defensive appliances needful for dealing with foreign enemies4 ,at the other extreme1 too1 it falls short of the full meaning to be expressed4 ,while it duly conveys the idea of an organization required for checking and punishing criminal aggression1 it does not convey any idea of the no less important organization required for dealing with civil aggression--an organization quite essential for properly discharging the negatively-regulative function4 ,though latent police-force may be considered as giving their efficiency to legal decisions on all questions brought into nisi prius courts1 yet1 since here police-force rarely comes into visible play1 police-government does not suggest this very extensive part of the administration of justice4 ,far from contending for a laissez-faire policy in the sense which the phrase commonly suggests1 ,i have contended for a more active control of the kind distinguishable as negatively regulative4 ,one of the reasons ,i have urged for excluding ,state-action from other spheres1 is1 that it may become more efficient within its proper sphere4 ,and ,i have argued that the wretched performance of its duties within its proper sphere continues1 because its time is chiefly spent over imaginary duties4#db ,the facts that often1 in bankruptcy #dci cases1 three-fourths and more of the assets go in costs2 that creditors are led by the expectation of great delay and a miserable dividend to accept almost any composition offered2 and that so the bankruptcy-law offers a premium to roguery2 are facts which would long since have ceased to be facts1 had citizens been mainly occupied in getting an efficient judicial system4 ,if the due performance by the ,state of its all-essential function had been the question on which elections were fought1 we should not see1 as we now do1 that a shivering cottager who steals palings for firewood1 or a hungry tramp who robs an orchard1 gets punishment in more than the old ,hebrew measure1 while great financial frauds which ruin their thousands bring no punishments4 ,were the negatively-regulative function of the ,state in internal affairs dominant in the thoughts of men1 within the ,legislature and without1 there would be tolerated no such treatment as that suffered lately by ,messrs4 ,walker1 of ,cornhill2 who1 having been robbed of #f1jjj worth of property and having spent #iej in rewards for apprehending thieves and prosecuting them1 cannot get back the proceeds of their property found on the thieves--who bear the costs of administering justice1 while the ,corporation of ,london makes #idj profit out of their loss4 ,it is in large measure because ,i hold that these crying abuses and inefficiencies1 which everywhere characterize the administration of justice1 need more than any other evils to be remedied2 and because ,i hold that remedy of them can go on only as fast as the internal function of the ,state is more and more restricted to the administration of justice2 that ,i take the view which ,i have been re-explaining4 ,it is a law illustrated by organizations of every kind1 that1 in proportion as there is to be efficiency1 there must be specialization1 both of structure and function--specialization which1 of necessity1 implies accompanying limitation4 ,and1 as ,i have elsewhere argued1 the development of representative government is the development of a type of #ddj government fitted above all others for this negatively-regulative control1 and1 above all others1 ill fitted for positively-regulative control4#dc ,this doctrine1 that while the negatively-regulative control should be extended and made better1 the positively-regulative control should be diminished1 and that the one change implies the other1 may properly be called the doctrine of ,specialized ,administration--if it is to be named from its administrative aspect4 ,i regret that my presentation of this doctrine has been such as to lead to misinterpretation4 ,either it is that ,i have not adequately explained it1 which1 if true1 surprises me1 or else it is that the space occupied in seeking to show what are not the duties of the ,state is so much greater than the space occupied in defining its duties1 that these last make but little impression4 ,in any case1 that ,prof4 ,huxley should have construed my view in the way he has done1 shows me that it needs fuller exposition2 since1 had he put upon it the construction ,i intended1 he would not1 ,i think1 have included it under the title he has used1 nor would he have seen it needful to raise the question ,i have endeavoured to answer4 #db ,see ,essay on 8,over-,legislation40 #dc ,see ,essay on 8,representative ,government--,what is it good for80 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,since the above article was written1 a fact of some significance in relation to the question of ,state-management has come under my notice4 ,there is one department1 at any rate1 in which the ,state succeeds well--the ,post-,office4 ,and this department is sometimes instanced as showing the superiority of public over private administration4 ,i am not about to call in question the general satisfactoriness of our postal arrangements2 nor shall ,i contend that this branch of ,state-organization1 now well-established1 could be replaced with advantage4 ,possibly the type of our social structure has become1 in this respect1 so far fixed that a radical change would be injurious4 ,in dealing #dda with those who make much of this success1 ,i have contented myself with showing that the developments which have made the ,post-,office efficient1 have not originated with the ,government1 but have been thrust upon it from without4 ,i have in evidence cited the facts that the mail-coach system was established by a private individual1 ,mr4 ,palmer1 and lived down official opposition2 that the reform originated by ,mr4 ,rowland ,hill had to be made against the wills of employs2 and1 further1 ,i have pointed out that1 even as it is1 a large part of the work is done by private enterprise--that the ,government gets railway-companies to do for it most of the inland carriage1 and steam-boat companies the outland carriage3 contenting itself with doing the local collection and distribution4 ,respecting the general question whether1 in the absence of our existing postal system1 private enterprise would have developed one as good or better1 ,i have been able to say only that analogies like that furnished by our newspaper-system1 with its efficient news-vending organization1 warrant us in believing that it would4 ,recently1 however1 ,i have been shown both that private enterprise is capable of this1 and that1 but for a legal interdict1 it would have done long ago what the ,state has but lately done4 ,here is the proof3 8,to facilitate correspondence between one part of ,london and another was not originally one of the objects of the ,post-,office4 ,but1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 an enterprising citizen of ,london1 ,william ,dockwray1 set up1 at great expense1 a penny post1 which delivered letters and parcels six or eight times a-day in the busy and crowded streets near the ,exchange1 and four times a-day in the outskirts of the capital4 4 4 4 ,as soon as it became clear that the speculation would be lucrative1 the ,duke of ,york complained of it as an infraction of his monopoly1 and the courts of law decided in his favour40--,macaulay1 ,history of ,england1 #ahff1 i41 #cjb-c4 ,thus it appears that two centuries since1 private enterprise initiated a local postal system1 similar1 in respect both of cheapness and frequency of distribution1 to that lately-established one boasted of as a ,state-success4 ,judging by what has happened in other cases with private #ddb enterprises which had small beginnings1 we may infer that the system thus commenced1 would have developed throughout the kingdom as fast as the needs pressed and the possibilities allowed4 ,so far from being indebted to the ,state1 we have reason to believe that1 but for ,state-repression1 we should have obtained a postal organization like our present one generations ago6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,second ,,postscript4--,when the foregoing essay was republished in the third series of my ,essays1 ,scientific1 ,political1 and ,speculative1 ,i included1 in the preface to the volume1 some comments upon ,prof4 ,huxley's reply4 ,in the absence of this preface1 now no longer appropriate1 there seems no other fit place for these comments than this4 ,i therefore here append them4 8,on the brief rejoinder to my arguments which ,prof4 ,huxley makes in the preface to his ,critiques and ,addresses1 ,i may here say a few words4 ,the reasons he gives for still thinking that the name #8,administrative ,nihilism' fitly indicates the system which ,i have described as #8negatively regulative1' are1 ,i think1 adequately met by asking whether #8,ethical ,nihilism' would fitly describe the remnant of the decalogue1 were all its positive injunctions omitted4 ,if the eight commandments which1 substantially or literally1 come under the form #8thou shalt not1' constitute by themselves a set of rules which can scarcely be called nihilistic2 ,i do not see how an administrative system limited to the enforcement of such rules can be called nihilistic3 especially if to the punishment of murder1 adultery1 stealing1 and false-witness1 it adds the punishment of assault1 breach of contract1 and all minor aggressions1 down to the annoyance of neighbours by nuisances4 ,respecting the second and essential question1 whether limitation of the internal functions of government to those which are negatively regulative1 is consistent with that theory of the social organism and its controlling #ddc agencies held by me1 ,i may say that the insufficiency of my reply has not1 ,i think1 been shown4 ,i was tacitly asked how the analogy ,i have drawn between those governmental structures by which the parts of the body politic have their actions regulated and those nervous structures which regulate the organic actions of the individual living body1 is to be reconciled with my belief that social activities will in the main adjust themselves4 ,my answer was this4 ,i recognized as essential the positively-regulative functions of the ,state in respect to the offensive and defensive appliances needful for national self-preservation1 during the predatory phase of social evolution2 and ,i not only admitted the importance of its negatively-regulative functions in respect to the internal social activities1 but insisted that these should be carried out much more efficiently than now4 ,assuming always1 however1 that the internal social activities continue subject to that restraining action of the ,state which consists in preventing aggressions1 direct and indirect1 ,i contended that the cordination of these internal social activities is effected by other structures of a different kind4 ,i aimed to show that my two beliefs are not inconsistent1 by pointing out that in the individual organism1 also1 those vital activities which parallel the activities constituting national life1 are regulated by a substantially-independent nervous system4 ,prof4 ,huxley does1 indeed1 remind me that recent researches show increasingly the influence of the cerebro-spinal nervous system over the processes of organic life2 against which1 however1 has to be set the growing evidence of the power exercised by the visceral nervous system over the cerebro-spinal4 ,but1 recognizing the influence he names 7which1 indeed1 corresponds to that governmental influence ,i regard as necessary72 ,i think the consistency of my positions is maintainable so long as it is manifest that the viscera1 under the control of their #ddd own nervous system1 can carry on the vital actions when the control of the cerebro-spinal system is substantially arrested by sleep1 or by ansthetics1 or by other causes of insensibility2 and while it is shown that a considerable degree of cordination may exist among the organs of a creature which has no nervous system at all40 #dde ,,from ,,freedom ,,to ,,bondage4 ,first published as the ,introduction to a volume entitled ,a ,plea for ,liberty1 c43 a series of anti-socialistic essays1 issued at the beginning of #ahia4 ,of the many ways in which common-sense inferences about social affairs are flatly contradicted by events 7as when measures taken to suppress a book cause increased circulation of it1 or as when attempts to prevent usurious rates of interest make the terms harder for the borrower1 or as when there is greater difficulty in getting things at the places of production than elsewhere7 one of the most curious is the way in which the more things improve the louder become the exclamations about their badness4 ,in days when the people were without any political power1 their subjection was rarely complained of2 but after free institutions had so far advanced in ,england that our political arrangements were envied by continental peoples1 the denunciations of aristocratic rule grew gradually stronger1 until there came a great widening of the franchise1 soon followed by complaints that things were going wrong for want of still further widening4 ,if we trace up the treatment of women from the days of savagedom1 when they bore all the burdens and after the men had eaten received such food as remained1 up through the middle ages when they served the men at their meals1 to #ddf our own day when throughout our social arrangements the claims of women are always put first1 we see that along with the worst treatment there went the least apparent consciousness that the treatment was bad2 while now that they are better treated than ever before1 the proclaiming of their grievances daily strengthens3 the loudest outcries coming from 8the paradise of women10 ,america4 ,a century ago1 when scarcely a man could be found who was not occasionally intoxicated1 and when inability to take one or two bottles of wine brought contempt1 no agitation arose against the vice of drunkenness2 but now that1 in the course of fifty years1 the voluntary efforts of temperance societies1 joined with more general causes1 have produced comparative sobriety1 there are vociferous demands for laws to prevent the ruinous effects of the liquor traffic4 ,similarly again with education4 ,a few generations back1 ability to read and write was practically limited to the upper and middle classes1 and the suggestion that the rudiments of culture should be given to labourers was never made1 or1 if made1 ridiculed2 but when1 in the days of our grandfathers1 the ,sunday-school system1 initiated by a few philanthropists1 began to spread and was followed by the establishment of day-schools1 with the result that among the masses those who could read and write were no longer the exceptions1 and the demand for cheap literature rapidly increased1 there began the cry that the people were perishing for lack of knowledge1 and that the ,state must not simply educate them but must force education upon them4 ,and so is it1 too1 with the general state of the population in respect of food1 clothing1 shelter1 and the appliances of life4 ,leaving out of the comparison early barbaric states1 there has been a conspicuous progress from the time when most rustics lived on barley bread1 rye bread1 and oatmeal1 down to our own time when the consumption of white wheaten bread is universal--from the days when coarse jackets reaching to the knees left the legs bare1 down to the present #ddg day when labouring people1 like their employers1 have the whole body covered1 by two or more layers of clothing--from the old era of single-roomed huts without chimneys1 or from the #aeth century when even an ordinary gentleman's house was commonly without wainscot or plaster on its walls1 down to the present century when every cottage has more rooms than one and the houses of artizans usually have several1 while all have fire-places1 chimneys1 and glazed windows1 accompanied mostly by paper-hangings and painted doors2 there has been1 ,i say1 a conspicuous progress in the condition of the people4 ,and this progress has been still more marked within our own time4 ,any one who can look back #fj years1 when the amount of pauperism was far greater than now and beggars abundant1 is struck by the comparative size and finish of the new houses occupied by operatives--by the better dress of workmen1 who wear broad-cloth on ,sundays1 and that of servant girls1 who vie with their mistresses--by the higher standard of living which leads to a great demand for the best qualities of food by working people3 all results of the double change to higher wages and cheaper commodities1 and a distribution of taxes which has relieved the lower classes at the expense of the upper classes4 ,he is struck1 too1 by the contrast between the small space which popular welfare then occupied in public attention1 and the large space it now occupies1 with the result that outside and inside ,parliament1 plans to benefit the millions form the leading topics1 and everyone having means is expected to join in some philanthropic effort4 ,yet while elevation1 mental and physical1 of the masses is going on far more rapidly than ever before--while the lowering of the death-rate proves that the average life is less trying1 there swells louder and louder the cry that the evils are so great that nothing short of a social revolution can cure them4 ,in presence of obvious improvements1 joined with that increase of longevity which even alone yields conclusive proof of general amelioration1 it is #ddh proclaimed1 with increasing vehemence1 that things are so bad that society must be pulled to pieces and re-organized on another plan4 ,in this case1 then1 as in the previous cases instanced1 in proportion as the evil decreases the denunciation of it increases2 and as fast as natural causes are shown to be powerful there grows up the belief that they are powerless4 ,not that the evils to be remedied are small4 ,let no one suppose that1 by emphasizing the above paradox1 ,i wish to make light of the sufferings which most men have to bear4 ,the fates of the great majority have ever been1 and doubtless still are1 so sad that it is painful to think of them4 ,unquestionably the existing type of social organization is one which none who care for their kind can contemplate with satisfaction2 and unquestionably men's activities accompanying this type are far from being admirable4 ,the strong divisions of rank and the immense inequalities of means1 are at variance with that ideal of human relations on which the sympathetic imagination likes to dwell2 and the average conduct1 under the pressure and excitement of social life as at present carried on1 is in sundry respects repulsive4 ,though the many who revile competition strangely ignore the enormous benefits resulting from it--though they forget that most of the appliances and products distinguishing civilization from savagery1 and making possible the maintenance of a large population on a small area1 have been developed by the struggle for existence--though they disregard the fact that while every man1 as producer1 suffers from the under-bidding of competitors1 yet1 as consumer1 he is immensely advantaged by the cheapening of all he has to buy--though they persist in dwelling on the evils of competition and saying nothing of its benefits2 yet it is not to be denied that the evils are great1 and form a large set-off from the benefits4 ,the system under which we at present live fosters dishonesty and lying4 ,it prompts adulterations of countless kinds2 it is answerable for the #ddi cheap imitations which eventually in many cases thrust the genuine articles out of the market2 it leads to the use of short weights and false measures2 it introduces bribery1 which vitiates most trading relations1 from those of the manufacturer and buyer down to those of the shopkeeper and servant2 it encourages deception to such an extent that an assistant who cannot tell a falsehood with a good face is blamed2 and often it gives the conscientious trader the choice between adopting the malpractices of his competitors1 or greatly injuring his creditors by bankruptcy4 ,moreover1 the extensive frauds1 common throughout the commercial world and daily exposed in law-courts and newspapers1 are largely due to the pressure under which competition places the higher industrial classes2 and are otherwise due to that lavish expenditure which1 as implying success in the commercial struggle1 brings honour4 ,with these minor evils must be joined the major one1 that the distribution achieved by the system1 gives to those who regulate and superintend1 a share of the total produce which bears too large a ratio to the share it gives to the actual workers4 ,let it not be thought1 then1 that in saying what ,i have said above1 ,i under-estimate those vices of our competitive system which1 #cj years ago1 ,i described and denounced4#dd ,but it is not a question of absolute evils2 it is a question of relative evils--whether the evils at present suffered are or are not less than the evils which would be suffered under another system--whether efforts for mitigation along the lines thus far followed are not more likely to succeed than efforts along utterly different lines4 ,this is the question here to be considered4 ,i must be excused for first of all setting forth sundry truths which are1 to some at any rate1 tolerably familiar1 before proceeding to draw inferences which are not so familiar4 #dd ,see essay on 8,the ,morals of ,trade40 99 99 99 99 99 ,speaking broadly1 every man works that he may avoid #dej suffering4 ,here1 remembrance of the pangs of hunger prompts him2 and there1 he is prompted by the sight of the slave-driver's lash4 ,his immediate dread may be the punishment which physical circumstances will inflict1 or may be punishment inflicted by human agency4 ,he must have a master2 but the master may be ,nature or may be a fellow man4 ,when he is under the impersonal coercion of ,nature1 we say that he is free2 and when he is under the personal coercion of some one above him1 we call him1 according to the degree of his dependence1 a slave1 a serf1 or a vassal4 ,of course ,i omit the small minority who inherit means3 an incidental1 and not a necessary1 social element4 ,i speak only of the vast majority1 both cultured and uncultured1 who maintain themselves by labour1 bodily or mental1 and must either exert themselves of their own unconstrained wills1 prompted only by thoughts of naturally-resulting evils or benefits1 or must exert themselves with constrained wills1 prompted by thoughts of evils and benefits artificially resulting4 ,men may work together in a society under either of these two forms of control3 forms which1 though in many cases mingled1 are essentially contrasted4 ,using the word coperation in its wide sense1 and not in that restricted sense now commonly given to it1 we may say that social life must be carried on by either voluntary coperation or compulsory coperation2 or1 to use ,sir ,henry ,maine's words1 the system must be that of contract or that of status--that in which the individual is left to do the best he can by his spontaneous efforts and get success or failure according to his efficiency1 and that in which he has his appointed place1 works under coercive rule1 and has his apportioned share of food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,the system of voluntary coperation is that by which1 in civilized societies1 industry is now everywhere carried on4 ,under a simple form we have it on every farm1 where the labourers1 paid by the farmer himself and taking orders #dea directly from him1 are free to stay or go as they please4 ,and of its more complex form an example is yielded by every manufacturing concern1 in which1 under partners1 come managers and clerks1 and under these1 time-keepers and over-lookers1 and under these operatives of different grades4 ,in each of these cases there is an obvious working together1 or coperation1 of employer and employed1 to obtain in the one case a crop and in the other case a manufactured stock4 ,and then1 at the same time1 there is a far more extensive1 though unconscious1 coperation with other workers of all grades throughout the society4 ,for while these particular employers and employed are severally occupied with their special kinds of work1 other employers and employed are making other things needed for the carrying on of their lives as well as the lives of all others4 ,this voluntary coperation1 from its simplest to its most complex forms1 has the common trait that those concerned work together by consent4 ,there is no one to force terms or to force acceptance4 ,it is perfectly true that in many cases an employer may give1 or an employ may accept1 with reluctance3 circumstances he says compel him4 ,but what are the circumstances8 ,in the one case there are goods ordered1 or a contract entered into1 which he cannot supply or execute without yielding2 and in the other case he submits to a wage less than he likes because otherwise he will have no money wherewith to procure food and warmth4 ,the general formula is not--8,do this1 or ,i will make you20 but it is--8,do this1 or leave your place and take the consequences40 ,on the other hand compulsory coperation is exemplified by an army--not so much by our own army1 the service in which is under agreement for a specified period1 but in a continental army1 raised by conscription4 ,here1 in time of peace1 the daily duties--cleaning1 parade1 drill1 sentry work1 and the rest--and in time of war the various actions of the camp and the battle-field1 are done under command1 #deb without room for any exercise of choice4 ,up from the private soldier through the non-commissioned officers and the half-dozen or more grades of commissioned officers1 the universal law is absolute obedience from the grade below to the grade above4 ,the sphere of individual will is such only as is allowed by the will of the superior4 ,breaches of subordination are1 according to their gravity1 dealt with by deprivation of leave1 extra drill1 imprisonment1 flogging1 and1 in the last resort1 shooting4 ,instead of the understanding that there must be obedience in respect of specified duties under pain of dismissal2 the understanding now is--8,obey in everything ordered under penalty of inflicted suffering and perhaps death40 ,this form of coperation1 still exemplified in an army1 has in days gone by been the form of coperation throughout the civil population4 ,everywhere1 and at all times1 chronic war generates a militant type of structure1 not in the body of soldiers only but throughout the community at large4 ,practically1 while the conflict between societies is actively going on1 and fighting is regarded as the only manly occupation1 the society is the quiescent army and the army the mobilized society3 that part which does not take part in battle1 composed of slaves1 serfs1 women1 c41 constituting the commissariat4 ,naturally1 therefore1 throughout the mass of inferior individuals constituting the commissariat1 there is maintained a system of discipline identical in nature if less elaborate4 ,the fighting body being1 under such conditions1 the ruling body1 and the rest of the community being incapable of resistance1 those who control the fighting body will1 of course1 impose their control upon the non-fighting body2 and the rgime of coercion will be applied to it with such modifications only as the different circumstances involve4 ,prisoners of war become slaves4 ,those who were free cultivators before the conquest of their country1 become serfs attached to the soil4 ,petty chiefs become subject to superior chiefs2 these smaller lords #dec become vassals to over-lords2 and so on up to the highest3 the social ranks and powers being of like essential nature with the ranks and powers throughout the military organization4 ,and while for the slaves compulsory coperation is the unqualified system1 a coperation which is in part compulsory is the system that pervades all grades above4 ,each man's oath of fealty to his suzerain takes the form--8,i am your man40 ,throughout ,europe1 and especially in our own country1 this system of compulsory coperation gradually relaxed in rigour1 while the system of voluntary coperation step by step replaced it4 ,as fast as war ceased to be the business of life1 the social structure produced by war and appropriate to it1 slowly became qualified by the social structure produced by industrial life and appropriate to it4 ,in proportion as a decreasing part of the community was devoted to offensive and defensive activities1 an increasing part became devoted to production and distribution4 ,growing more numerous1 more powerful1 and taking refuge in towns where it was less under the power of the militant class1 this industrial population carried on its life under the system of voluntary coperation4 ,though municipal governments and guild-regulations1 partially pervaded by ideas and usages derived from the militant type of society1 were in some degree coercive2 yet production and distribution were in the main carried on under agreement--alike between buyers and sellers1 and between masters and workmen4 ,as fast as these social relations and forms of activity became dominant in urban populations1 they influenced the whole community3 compulsory coperation lapsed more and more1 through money commutation for services1 military and civil2 while divisions of rank became less rigid and class-power diminished4 ,until at length1 restraints exercised by incorporated trades having fallen into desuetude1 as well as the rule of rank over rank1 voluntary coperation became the universal principle4 #ded ,purchase and sale became the law for all kinds of services as well as for all kinds of commodities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the restlessness generated by pressure against the conditions of existence1 perpetually prompts the desire to try a new position4 ,everyone knows how long-continued rest in one attitude becomes wearisome--everyone has found how even the best easy chair1 at first rejoiced in1 becomes after many hours intolerable2 and change to a hard seat1 previously occupied and rejected1 seems for a time to be a great relief4 ,it is the same with incorporated humanity4 ,having by long struggles emancipated itself from the hard discipline of the ancient rgime1 and having discovered that the new rgime into which it has grown1 though relatively easy1 is not without stresses and pains1 its impatience with these prompts the wish to try another system3 which other system is1 in principle if not in appearance1 the same as that which during past generations was escaped from with much rejoicing4 ,for as fast as the rgime of contract is discarded the rgime of status is of necessity adopted4 ,as fast as voluntary coperation is abandoned compulsory coperation must be substituted4 ,some kind of organization labour must have2 and if it is not that which arises by agreement under free competition1 it must be that which is imposed by authority4 ,unlike in appearance and names as it may be to the old order of slaves and serfs1 working under masters1 who were coerced by barons1 who were themselves vassals of dukes or kings1 the new order wished for1 constituted by workers under foremen of small groups1 overlooked by superintendents1 who are subject to higher local managers1 who are controlled by superiors of districts1 themselves under a central government1 must be essentially the same in principle4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 there must be established grades1 and enforced subordination of each grade to the grades above4 ,this is a truth which the communist or the socialist does not dwell upon4 ,angry #dee with the existing system under which each of us takes care of himself1 while all of us see that each has fair play1 he thinks how much better it would be for all of us to take care of each of us2 and he refrains from thinking of the machinery by which this is to be done4 ,inevitably1 if each is to be cared for by all1 then the embodied all must get the means--the necessaries of life4 ,what it gives to each must be taken from the accumulated contributions2 and it must therefore require from each his proportion--must tell him how much he has to give to the general stock in the shape of production1 that he may have so much in the shape of sustentation4 ,hence1 before he can be provided for1 he must put himself under orders1 and obey those who say what he shall do1 and at what hours1 and where2 and who give him his share of food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,if competition is excluded1 and with it buying and selling1 there can be no voluntary exchange of so much labour for so much produce2 but there must be apportionment of the one to the other by appointed officers4 ,this apportionment must be enforced4 ,without alternative the work must be done1 and without alternative the benefit1 whatever it may be1 must be accepted4 ,for the worker may not leave his place at will and offer himself elsewhere4 ,under such a system he cannot be accepted elsewhere1 save by order of the authorities4 ,and it is manifest that a standing order would forbid employment in one place of an insubordinate member from another place3 the system could not be worked if the workers were severally allowed to go or come as they pleased4 ,with corporals and sergeants under them1 the captains of industry must carry out the orders of their colonels1 and these of their generals1 up to the council of the commander-in-chief2 and obedience must be required throughout the industrial army as throughout a fighting army4 8,do your prescribed duties1 and take your apportioned rations10 must be the rule of the one as of the other4 8,well1 be it so20 replies the socialist4 8,the workers #def will appoint their own officers1 and these will always be subject to criticisms of the mass they regulate4 ,being thus in fear of public opinion1 they will be sure to act judiciously and fairly2 or when they do not1 will be deposed by the popular vote1 local or general4 ,where will be the grievance of being under superiors1 when the superiors themselves are under democratic control80 ,and in this attractive vision the socialist has full belief4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iron and brass are simpler things than flesh and blood1 and dead wood than living nerve2 and a machine constructed of the one works in more definite ways than an organism constructed of the other1--especially when the machine is worked by the inorganic forces of steam or water1 while the organism is worked by the forces of living nerve-centres4 ,manifestly1 then1 the ways in which the machine will work are much more readily calculable than the ways in which the organism will work4 ,yet in how few cases does the inventor foresee rightly the actions of his new apparatus6 ,read the patent-list1 and it will be found that not more than one device in fifty turns out to be of any service4 ,plausible as his scheme seemed to the inventor1 one or other hitch prevents the intended operation1 and brings out a widely different result from that which he wished4 ,what1 then1 shall we say of these schemes which have to do not with dead matters and forces1 but with complex living organisms working in ways less readily foreseen1 and which involve the coperation of multitudes of such organisms8 ,even the units out of which this re-arranged body politic is to be formed are often incomprehensible4 ,everyone is from time to time surprised by others' behaviour1 and even by the deeds of relatives who are best known to him4 ,seeing1 then1 how uncertainly anyone can foresee the actions of an individual1 how can he with any certainty foresee the operation of a social structure8 ,he proceeds on the assumption that all concerned will judge rightly and act #deg fairly--will think as they ought to think1 and act as they ought to act2 and he assumes this regardless of the daily experiences which show him that men do neither the one nor the other1 and forgetting that the complaints he makes against the existing system show his belief to be that men have neither the wisdom nor the rectitude which his plan requires them to have4 ,paper constitutions raise smiles on the faces of those who have observed their results2 and paper social systems similarly affect those who have contemplated the available evidence4 ,how little the men who wrought the ,french revolution and were chiefly concerned in setting up the new governmental apparatus1 dreamt that one of the early actions of this apparatus would be to behead them all6 ,how little the men who drew up the ,american ,declaration of ,independence and framed the republic1 anticipated that after some generations the legislature would lapse into the hands of wire-pullers2 that its doings would turn upon the contests of office-seekers2 that political action would be everywhere vitiated by the intrusion of a foreign element holding the balance between parties2 that electors1 instead of judging for themselves1 would habitually be led to the polls in thousands by their 8bosses20 and that respectable men would be driven out of public life by the insults and slanders of professional politicians4 ,nor were there better previsions in those who gave constitutions to the various other states of the ,new ,world1 in which unnumbered revolutions have shown with wonderful persistence the contrasts between the expected results of political systems and the achieved results4 ,it has been no less thus with proposed systems of social re-organization1 so far as they have been tried4 ,save where celibacy has been insisted on1 their history has been everywhere one of disaster2 ending with the history of ,cabet's ,icarian colony lately given by one of its members1 ,madame ,fleury ,robinson1 in ,the ,open ,court--a history of splittings1 re-splittings and re-re-splittings1 accompanied by #deh numerous individual secessions and final dissolution4 ,and for the failure of such social schemes1 as for the failure of the political schemes1 there has been one general cause4 99 99 99 99 99 ,metamorphosis is the universal law1 exemplified throughout the ,heavens and on the ,earth3 especially throughout the organic world2 and above all in the animal division of it4 ,no creature1 save the simplest and most minute1 commences its existence in a form like that which it eventually assumes2 and in most cases the unlikeness is great--so great that kinship between the first and the last forms would be incredible were it not daily demonstrated in every poultry-yard and every garden4 ,more than this is true4 ,the changes of form are often several3 each of them being an apparently complete transformation--egg1 larva1 pupa1 imago1 for example4 ,and this universal metamorphosis1 displayed alike in the development of a planet and of every seed which germinates on its surface1 holds also of societies1 whether taken as wholes or in their separate institutions4 ,no one of them ends as it begins2 and the difference between its original structure and its ultimate structure is such that1 at the outset1 change of the one into the other would have seemed incredible4 ,in the rudest tribe the chief1 obeyed as leader in war1 loses his distinctive position when the fighting is over2 and even where continued warfare has produced permanent chieftainship1 the chief1 building his own hut1 getting his own food1 making his own implements1 differs from others only by his predominant influence4 ,there is no sign that in course of time1 by conquests and unions of tribes1 and consolidations of clusters so formed with other such clusters1 until a nation has been produced1 there will originate from the primitive chief1 one who1 as czar or emperor1 surrounded with pomp and ceremony1 has despotic power over scores of millions1 exercised through hundreds of thousands of soldiers and hundreds of thousands of officials4 ,when the early ,christian missionaries1 having humble #dei externals and passing self-denying lives1 spread over pagan ,europe1 preaching forgiveness of injuries and the returning of good for evil1 no one dreamt that in course of time their representatives would form a vast hierarchy1 possessing everywhere a large part of the land1 distinguished by the haughtiness of its members grade above grade1 ruled by military bishops who led their retainers to battle1 and headed by a pope exercising supreme power over kings4 ,so1 too1 has it been with that very industrial system which many are now so eager to replace4 ,in its original form there was no prophecy of the factory-system or kindred organizations of workers4 ,differing from them only as being the head of his house1 the master worked along with his apprentices and a journeyman or two1 sharing with them his table and accommodation1 and himself selling their joint produce4 ,only with industrial growth did there come employment of a larger number of assistants1 and a relinquishment1 on the part of the master1 of all other business than that of superintendence4 ,and only in the course of recent times did there evolve the organizations under which the labours of hundreds and thousands of men receiving wages1 are regulated by various orders of paid officials under a single or multiple head4 ,these originally small1 semi-socialistic1 groups of producers1 like the compound families or house-communities of early ages1 slowly dissolved because they could not hold their ground3 the larger establishments1 with better sub-division of labour1 succeeded because they ministered to the wants of society more effectually4 ,but we need not go back through the centuries to trace transformations sufficiently great and unexpected4 ,on the day when #cj1jjj a year in aid of education was voted as an experiment1 the name of idiot would have been given to an opponent who prophesied that in #ej years the sum spent through imperial taxes and local rates would amount to #aj1jjj1jjj or who said that the aid to education would be followed by aids to feeding and #dfj clothing1 or who said that parents and children1 alike deprived of all option1 would1 even if starving1 be compelled by fine or imprisonment to conform1 and receive that which1 with papal assumption1 the ,state calls education4 ,no one1 ,i say1 would have dreamt that out of so innocent-looking a germ would have so quickly evolved this tyrannical system1 tamely submitted to by people who fancy themselves free4 ,thus in social arrangements1 as in all other things1 change is inevitable4 ,it is foolish to suppose that new institutions set up1 will long retain the character given them by those who set them up4 ,rapidly or slowly they will be transformed into institutions unlike those intended--so unlike as even to be unrecognizable by their devisers4 ,and what1 in the case before us1 will be the metamorphosis8 ,the answer pointed to by instances above given1 and warranted by various analogies1 is manifest4 ,a cardinal trait in all advancing organization is the development of the regulative apparatus4 ,if the parts of a whole are to act together1 there must be appliances by which their actions are directed2 and in proportion as the whole is large and complex1 and has many requirements to be met by many agencies1 the directive apparatus must be extensive1 elaborate1 and powerful4 ,that it is thus with individual organisms needs no saying2 and that it must be thus with social organisms is obvious4 ,beyond the regulative apparatus such as in our own society is required for carrying on national defence and maintaining public order and personal safety1 there must1 under the rgime of socialism1 be a regulative apparatus everywhere controlling all kinds of production and distribution1 and everywhere apportioning the shares of products of each kind required for each locality1 each working establishment1 each individual4 ,under our existing voluntary coperation1 with its free contracts and its competition1 production and distribution need no official oversight4 ,demand and #dfa supply1 and the desire of each man to gain a living by supplying the needs of his fellows1 spontaneously evolve that wonderful system whereby a great city has its food daily brought round to all doors or stored at adjacent shops2 has clothing for its citizens everywhere at hand in multitudinous varieties2 has its houses and furniture and fuel ready made or stocked in each locality2 and has mental pabulum from halfpenny papers hourly hawked round1 to weekly shoals of novels1 and less abundant books of instruction1 furnished without stint for small payments4 ,and throughout the kingdom1 production as well as distribution is similarly carried on with the smallest amount of superintendence which proves efficient2 while the quantities of the numerous commodities required daily in each locality are adjusted without any other agency than the pursuit of profit4 ,suppose now that this industrial rgime of willinghood1 acting spontaneously1 is replaced by a rgime of industrial obedience1 enforced by public officials4 ,imagine the vast administration required for that distribution of all commodities to all people in every city1 town and village1 which is now effected by traders6 ,imagine1 again1 the still more vast administration required for doing all that farmers1 manufacturers1 and merchants do2 having not only its various orders of local superintendents1 but its sub-centres and chief centres needed for apportioning the quantities of each thing everywhere needed1 and the adjustment of them to the requisite times4 ,then add the staffs wanted for working mines1 railways1 roads1 canals2 the staffs required for conducting the importing and exporting businesses and the administration of mercantile shipping2 the staffs required for supplying towns not only with water and gas but with locomotion by tramways1 omnibuses1 and other vehicles1 and for the distribution of power1 electric and other4 ,join with these the existing postal1 telegraphic1 and telephonic administrations2 and finally those of the police and army1 by which the dictates #dfb of this immense consolidated regulative system are to be everywhere enforced4 ,imagine all this and then ask what will be the position of the actual workers6 ,already on the continent1 where governmental organizations are more elaborate and coercive than here1 there are chronic complaints of the tyranny of bureaucracies--the hauteur and brutality of their members4 ,what will these become when not only the more public actions of citizens are controlled1 but there is added this far more extensive control of all their respective daily duties8 ,what will happen when the various divisions of this vast army of officials1 united by interests common to officialism--the interests of the regulators versus those of the regulated--have at their command whatever force is needful to suppress insubordination and act as 8saviours of society08 ,where will be the actual diggers and miners and smelters and weavers1 when those who order and superintend1 everywhere arranged class above class1 have come1 after some generations1 to inter-marry with those of kindred grades1 under feelings such as are operative in existing classes2 and when there have been so produced a series of castes rising in superiority2 and when all these1 having everything in their own power1 have arranged modes of living for their own advantage3 eventually forming a new aristocracy far more elaborate and better organized than the old8 ,how will the individual worker fare if he is dissatisfied with his treatment--thinks that he has not an adequate share of the products1 or has more to do than can rightly be demanded1 or wishes to undertake a function for which he feels himself fitted but which is not thought proper for him by his superiors1 or desires to make an independent career for himself8 ,this dissatisfied unit in the immense machine will be told he must submit or go4 ,the mildest penalty for disobedience will be industrial excommunication4 ,and if an international organization of labour is formed as proposed1 exclusion in one country #dfc will mean exclusion in all others--industrial excommunication will mean starvation4 ,that things must take this course is a conclusion reached not by deduction only1 nor only by induction from those experiences of the past instanced above1 nor only from consideration of the analogies furnished by organisms of all orders2 but it is reached also by observation of cases daily under our eyes4 ,the truth that the regulative structure always tends to increase in power1 is illustrated by every established body of men4 ,the history of each learned society1 or society for other purpose1 shows how the staff1 permanent or partially permanent1 sways the proceedings and determines the actions of the society with but little resistance1 even when most members of the society disapprove3 the repugnance to anything like a revolutionary step being ordinarily an efficient deterrent4 ,so is it with joint-stock companies--those owning railways for example4 ,the plans of a board of directors are usually authorized with little or no discussion2 and if there is any considerable opposition1 this is forthwith crushed by an overwhelming number of proxies sent by those who always support the existing administration4 ,only when the misconduct is extreme does the resistance of shareholders suffice to displace the ruling body4 ,nor is it otherwise with societies formed of working men and having the interests of labour especially at heart--the trades-unions4 ,in these1 too1 the regulative agency becomes all powerful4 ,their members1 even when they dissent from the policy pursued1 habitually yield to the authorities they have set up4 ,as they cannot secede without making enemies of their fellow workmen1 and often losing all chance of employment1 they succumb4 ,we are shown1 too1 by the late congress1 that already1 in the general organization of trades-unions so recently formed1 there are complaints of 8wire-pullers0 and 8bosses0 and 8permanent officials40 ,if1 then1 this supremacy of the regulators is seen in bodies of quite modern origin1 formed of men who #dfd have1 in many of the cases instanced1 unhindered powers of asserting their independence1 what will the supremacy of the regulators become in long-established bodies1 in bodies which have become vast and highly organized1 and in bodies which1 instead of controlling only a small part of the unit's life1 control the whole of his life8 99 99 99 99 99 ,again there will come the rejoinder--8,we shall guard against all that4 ,everybody will be educated2 and all1 with their eyes constantly open to the abuse of power1 will be quick to prevent it40 ,the worth of these expectations would be small even could we not identify the causes which will bring disappointment2 for in human affairs the most promising schemes go wrong in ways which no one anticipated4 ,but in this case the going wrong will be necessitated by causes which are conspicuous4 ,the working of institutions is determined by men's characters2 and the existing defects in their characters will inevitably bring about the results above indicated4 ,there is no adequate endowment of those sentiments required to prevent the growth of a despotic bureaucracy4 ,were it needful to dwell on indirect evidence1 much might be made of that furnished by the behaviour of the so-called ,liberal party--a party which1 relinquishing the original conception of a leader as a mouthpiece for a known and accepted policy1 thinks itself bound to accept a policy which its leader springs upon it without consent or warning--a party so utterly without the feeling and idea implied by liberalism1 as not to resent this trampling on the right of private judgment1 which constitutes the root of liberalism--nay1 a party which vilifies as renegade liberals1 those of its members who refuse to surrender their independence6 ,but without occupying space with indirect proofs that the mass of men have not the natures required to check the development of tyrannical officialism1 it will suffice to contemplate the direct proofs furnished by those classes among whom #dfe the socialistic idea most predominates1 and who think themselves most interested in propagating it--the operative classes4 ,these would constitute the great body of the socialistic organization1 and their characters would determine its nature4 ,what1 then1 are their characters as displayed in such organizations as they have already formed8 ,instead of the selfishness of the employing classes and the selfishness of competition1 we are to have the unselfishness of a mutually-aiding system4 ,how far is this unselfishness now shown in the behaviour of working men to one another8 ,what shall we say to the rules limiting the numbers of new hands admitted into each trade1 or to the rules which hinder ascent from inferior classes of workers to superior classes8 ,one does not see in such regulations any of that altruism by which socialism is to be pervaded4 ,contrariwise1 one sees a pursuit of private interests no less keen than among traders4 ,hence1 unless we suppose that men's natures will be suddenly exalted1 we must conclude that the pursuit of private interests will sway the doings of all the component classes in a socialistic society4 ,with passive disregard of others' claims goes active encroachment on them4 8,be one of us or we will cut off your means of living10 is the usual threat of each trades-union to outsiders of the same trade4 ,while their members insist on their own freedom to combine and fix the rates at which they will work 7as they are perfectly justified in doing71 the freedom of those who disagree with them is not only denied but the assertion of it is treated as a crime4 ,individuals who maintain their rights to make their own contracts are vilified as 8blacklegs0 and 8traitors10 and meet with violence which would be merciless were there no legal penalties and no police4 ,along with this trampling on the liberties of men of their own class1 there goes peremptory dictation to the employing class3 not prescribed terms and working arrangements only shall be conformed #dff to1 but none save those belonging to their body shall be employed--nay1 in some cases1 there shall be a strike if the employer carries on transactions with trading bodies that give work to non-union men4 ,here1 then1 we are variously shown by trades-unions1 or at any rate by the newer trades-unions1 a determination to impose their regulations without regard to the rights of those who are to be coerced4 ,so complete is the inversion of ideas and sentiments that maintenance of these rights is regarded as vicious and trespass upon them as virtuous4#de ,along with this aggressiveness in one direction there goes submissiveness in another direction4 ,the coercion of outsiders by unionists is paralleled only by their subjection to their leaders4 ,that they may conquer in the struggle they surrender their individual liberties and individual judgments1 and show no resentment however dictatorial may be the rule exercised over them4 ,everywhere we see such subordination that bodies of workmen unanimously leave their work or return to it as their authorities order them4 ,nor do they resist when taxed all round to support strikers whose acts they may or may not approve1 but instead1 ill-treat recalcitrant members of their body who do not subscribe4 #dfg #de ,marvellous are the conclusions men reach when once they desert the simple principle1 that each man should be allowed to pursue the objects of life1 restrained only by the limits which the similar pursuits of their objects by other men impose4 ,a generation ago we heard loud assertions of #8the right to labour1' that is1 the right to have labour provided2 and there are still not a few who think the community bound to find work for each person4 ,compare this with the doctrine current in ,france at the time when the monarchical power culminated2 namely1 that #8the right of working is a royal right which the prince can sell and the subjects must buy4' ,this contrast is startling enough2 but a contrast still more startling is being provided for us4 ,we now see a resuscitation of the despotic doctrine1 differing only by the substitution of ,trades-,unions for kings4 ,for now that ,trades-,unions are becoming universal1 and each artisan has to pay prescribed monies to one or another of them1 with the alternative of being a non-unionist to whom work is denied by force1 it has come to this1 that the right to labour is a ,trade-,union right1 which the ,trade-,union can sell and the individual worker must buy6 ,the traits thus shown must be operative in any new social organization1 and the question to be asked is--,what will result from their operation when they are relieved from all restraints8 ,at present the separate bodies of men displaying them are in the midst of a society partially passive1 partially antagonistic2 are subject to the criticisms and reprobations of an independent press2 and are under the control of law1 enforced by police4 ,if in these circumstances these bodies habitually take courses which override individual freedom1 what will happen when1 instead of being only scattered parts of the community1 governed by their separate sets of regulators1 they constitute the whole community1 governed by a consolidated system of such regulators2 when functionaries of all orders1 including those who officer the press1 form parts of the regulative organization2 and when the law is both enacted and administered by this regulative organization8 ,the fanatical adherents of a social theory are capable of taking any measures1 no matter how extreme1 for carrying out their views3 holding1 like the merciless priesthoods of past times1 that the end justifies the means4 ,and when a general socialistic organization has been established1 the vast1 ramified1 and consolidated body of those who direct its activities1 using without check whatever coercion seems to them needful in the interests of the system 7which will practically become their own interests7 will have no hesitation in imposing their rigorous rule over the entire lives of the actual workers2 until1 eventually1 there is developed an official oligarchy1 with its various grades1 exercising a tyranny more gigantic and more terrible than any which the world has seen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let me again repudiate an erroneous inference4 ,any one who supposes that the foregoing argument implies contentment with things as they are1 makes a profound mistake4 ,the present social state is transitional1 as past social states have been transitional4 ,there will1 ,i hope #dfh and believe1 come a future social state differing as much from the present as the present differs from the past with its mailed barons and defenceless serfs4 ,in ,social ,statics1 as well as in ,the ,study of ,sociology and in ,political ,institutions1 is clearly shown the desire for an organization more conducive to the happiness of men at large than that which exists4 ,my opposition to socialism results from the belief that it would stop the progress to such a higher state and bring back a lower state4 ,nothing but the slow modification of human nature by the discipline of social life1 can produce permanently advantageous changes4 ,a fundamental error pervading the thinking of nearly all parties1 political and social1 is that evils admit of immediate and radical remedies4 8,if you will but do this1 the mischief will be prevented40 8,adopt my plan and the suffering will disappear40 8,the corruption will unquestionably be cured by enforcing this measure40 ,everywhere one meets with beliefs1 expressed or implied1 of these kinds4 ,they are all ill-founded4 ,it is possible to remove causes which intensify the evils2 it is possible to change the evils from one form into another2 and it is possible1 and very common1 to exacerbate the evils by the efforts made to prevent them2 but anything like immediate cure is impossible4 ,in the course of thousands of years mankind have1 by multiplication1 been forced out of that original savage state in which small numbers supported themselves on wild food1 into the civilized state in which the food required for supporting great numbers can be got only by continuous labour4 ,the nature required for this last mode of life is widely different from the nature required for the first2 and long-continued pains have to be passed through in re-moulding the one into the other4 ,misery has necessarily to be borne by a constitution out of harmony with its conditions2 and a constitution inherited from primitive men is out of harmony with the conditions imposed on existing men4 ,hence it is impossible to establish forthwith a #dfi satisfactory social state4 ,no such nature as that which has filled ,europe with millions of armed men1 here eager for conquest and there for revenge--no such nature as that which prompts the nations called ,christian to vie with one another in filibustering expeditions all over the world1 regardless of the claims of aborigines1 while their tens of thousands of priests of the religion of love look on approvingly--no such nature as that which1 in dealing with weaker races1 goes beyond the primitive rule of life for life1 and for one life takes many lives--no such nature1 ,i say1 can1 by any device1 be framed into a harmonious community4 ,the root of all well-ordered social action is a sentiment of justice1 which at once insists on personal freedom and is solicitous for the like freedom of others2 and there at present exists but a very inadequate amount of this sentiment4 ,hence the need for further long continuance of a social discipline which requires each man to carry on his activities with due regard to the like claims of others to carry on their activities2 and which1 while it insists that he shall have all the benefits his conduct naturally brings1 insists also that he shall not saddle on others the evils his conduct naturally brings3 unless they freely undertake to bear them4 ,and hence the belief that endeavours to elude this discipline1 will not only fail1 but will bring worse evils than those to be escaped4 ,it is not1 then1 chiefly in the interests of the employing classes that socialism is to be resisted1 but much more in the interests of the employed classes4 ,in one way or other production must be regulated2 and the regulators1 in the nature of things1 must always be a small class as compared with the actual producers4 ,under voluntary coperation as at present carried on1 the regulators1 pursuing their personal interests1 take as large a share of the produce as they can get2 but1 as we are daily shown by trades-union successes1 are restrained in the selfish pursuit #dgj of their ends4 ,under that compulsory coperation which socialism would necessitate1 the regulators1 pursuing their personal interests with no less selfishness1 could not be met by the combined resistance of free workers2 and their power1 unchecked as now by refusals to work save on prescribed terms1 would grow and ramify and consolidate till it became irresistible4 ,the ultimate result1 as ,i have before pointed out1 must be a society like that of ancient ,peru1 dreadful to contemplate1 in which the mass of the people1 elaborately regimented in groups of #aj1 #ej1 #ajj1 #ejj1 and #ajjj1 ruled by officers of corresponding grades1 and tied to their districts1 were superintended in their private lives as well as in their industries1 and toiled hopelessly for the support of the governmental organization4 #dga ,,the ,,americans3 ,a ,,conversation ,,and ,a ,,speech1 ,,with ,,an ,,addition4 ,originally published in ,america and afterwards published in ,england in ,the ,contemporary ,review for ,january #ahhc1 preceded by the following editorial note3--8,the state of ,mr4 ,spencer's health unfortunately not permitting him1 to give in the form of articles the results of his observations on ,american society1 it is thought useful to reproduce1 under his own revision and with some additional remarks1 what he has said on the subject2 especially as the accounts of it which have appeared in this country are imperfect3 reports of the conversation having been abridged1 and the speech being known only by telegraphic summary4 8,the earlier paragraphs of the conversation1 which refer to ,mr4 ,spencer's persistent exclusion of reporters and his objections to the interviewing system1 are omitted1 as not here concerning the reader4 ,there was no eventual yielding1 as has been supposed4 ,it was not to a newspaper-reporter that the opinions which follow were expressed1 but to an intimate ,american friend3 the primary purpose being to correct the many misstatements to which the excluded interviewers had given currency2 and the occasion being taken for giving utterance to impressions of ,american affairs40--,,ed4 ,i4--,a ,,conversation3 ,october #bj1 #ahhb4 ,has what you have seen answered your expectations8 ,it has far exceeded them4 ,such books about ,america as ,i had looked into had given me no adequate idea of the immense developments of material civilization which #dgb ,i have everywhere found4 ,the extent1 wealth1 and magnificence of your cities1 and especially the splendour of ,new ,york1 have altogether astonished me4 ,though ,i have not visited the wonder of the ,west1 ,chicago1 yet some of your minor modern places1 such as ,cleveland1 have sufficiently amazed me by the results of one generation's activity4 ,occasionally1 when ,i have been in places of some ten thousand inhabitants where the telephone is in general use1 ,i have felt somewhat ashamed of our own unenterprising towns1 many of which1 of fifty thousand inhabitants and more1 make no use of it4 ,i suppose you recognize in these results the great benefits of free institutions8 ,ah6 ,now comes one of the inconveniences of interviewing4 ,i have been in the country less than two months1 have seen but a relatively small part of it1 and but comparatively few people1 and yet you wish from me a definite opinion on a difficult question4 ,perhaps you will answer1 subject to the qualification that you are but giving your first impressions8 ,well1 with that understanding1 ,i may reply that though the free institutions have been partly the cause1 ,i think they have not been the chief cause4 ,in the first place1 the ,american people have come into possession of an unparalleled fortune--the mineral wealth and the vast tracts of virgin soil producing abundantly with small cost of culture4 ,manifestly1 that alone goes a long way towards producing this enormous prosperity4 ,then they have profited by inheriting all the arts1 appliances1 and methods1 developed by older societies1 while leaving behind the obstructions existing in them4 ,they have been able to pick and choose from the products of all past experience1 appropriating the good and rejecting the bad4 ,then1 besides these favours of fortune1 there are factors proper to themselves4 ,i perceive in ,american faces generally a great amount of determination--a kind of 8do or die0 #dgc expression2 and this trait of character1 joined with a power of work exceeding that of any other people1 of course produces an unparalleled rapidity of progress4 ,once more1 there is the inventiveness which1 stimulated by the need for economizing labour1 has been so wisely fostered4 ,among us in ,england1 there are many foolish people who1 while thinking that a man who toils with his hands has an equitable claim to the product1 and if he has special skill may rightly have the advantage of it1 also hold that if a man toils with his brain1 perhaps for years1 and1 uniting genius with perseverance1 evolves some valuable invention1 the public may rightly claim the benefit4 ,the ,americans have been more far-seeing4 ,the enormous museum of patents which ,i saw at ,washington is significant of the attention paid to inventors' claims2 and the nation profits immensely from having in this direction 7though not in all others7 recognized property in mental products4 ,beyond question1 in respect of mechanical appliances the ,americans are ahead of all nations4 ,if along with your material progress there went equal progress of a higher kind1 there would remain nothing to be wished4 ,that is an ambiguous qualification4 ,what do you mean by it8 ,you will understand me when ,i tell you what ,i was thinking the other day4 ,after pondering over what ,i have seen of your vast manufacturing and trading establishments1 the rush of traffic in your street-cars and elevated railways1 your gigantic hotels and ,fifth ,avenue palaces1 ,i was suddenly reminded of the ,italian ,republics of the ,middle ,ages2 and recalled the fact that while there was growing up in them great commercial activity1 a development of the arts1 which made them the envy of ,europe1 and a building of princely mansions which continue to be the admiration of travellers1 their people were gradually losing their freedom4 ,do you mean this as a suggestion that we are doing the like8 ,it seems to me that you are4 ,you retain the forms of #dgd freedom2 but1 so far as ,i can gather1 there has been a considerable loss of the substance4 ,it is true that those who rule you do not do it by means of retainers armed with swords2 but they do it through regiments of men armed with voting papers1 who obey the word of command as loyally as did the dependants of the old feudal nobles1 and who thus enable their leaders to override the general will1 and make the community submit to their exactions as effectually as their prototypes of old4 ,it is doubtless true that each of your citizens votes for the candidate he chooses for this or that office1 from ,president downwards2 but his hand is guided by an agency behind which leaves him scarcely any choice4 8,use your political power as we tell you1 or else throw it away10 is the alternative offered to the citizen4 ,the political machinery as it is now worked1 has little resemblance to that contemplated at the outset of your political life4 ,manifestly1 those who framed your ,constitution never dreamed that twenty thousand citizens would go to the poll led by a 8boss40 ,america exemplifies at the other end of the social scale1 a change analogous to that which has taken place under sundry despotisms4 ,you know that in ,japan1 before the recent ,revolution1 the divine ruler1 the ,mikado1 nominally supreme1 was practically a puppet in the hands of his chief minister1 the ,shogun4 ,here it seems to me that 8the sovereign people0 is fast becoming a puppet which moves and speaks as wire-pullers determine4 ,then you think that ,republican institutions are a failure8 ,by no means3 ,i imply no such conclusion4 ,thirty years ago1 when often discussing politics with an ,english friend1 and defending ,republican institutions1 as ,i always have done and do still1 and when he urged against me the ill-working of such institutions over here1 ,i habitually replied that the ,americans got their form of government by a happy accident1 not by normal progress1 and that they would have to go back before they could go forward4 ,what has since happened seems to me to have justified that #dge view2 and what ,i see now1 confirms me in it4 ,america is showing1 on a larger scale than ever before1 that 8paper ,constitutions0 will not work as they are intended to work4 ,the truth1 first recognized by ,mackintosh1 that ,constitutions are not made but grow1 which is part of the larger truth that societies1 throughout their whole organizations1 are not made but grow1 at once1 when accepted1 disposes of the notion that you can work as you hope any artificially-devised system of government4 ,it becomes an inference that if your political structure has been manufactured and not grown1 it will forthwith begin to grow into something different from that intended--something in harmony with the natures of the citizens1 and the conditions under which the society exists4 ,and it evidently has been so with you4 ,within the forms of your ,constitution there has grown up this organization of professional politicians altogether uncontemplated at the outset1 which has become in large measure the ruling power4 ,but will not education and the diffusion of political knowledge fit men for free institutions8 ,no4 ,it is essentially a question of character1 and only in a secondary degree a question of knowledge4 ,but for the universal delusion about education as a panacea for political evils1 this would have been made sufficiently clear by the evidence daily disclosed in your papers4 ,are not the men who officer and control your ,federal1 your ,state1 and your ,municipal organizations--who manipulate your caucuses and conventions1 and run your partisan campaigns--all educated men8 ,and has their education prevented them from engaging in1 or permitting1 or condoning1 the briberies1 lobbyings1 and other corrupt methods which vitiate the actions of your administrations8 ,perhaps party newspapers exaggerate these things2 but what am ,i to make of the testimony of your civil service reformers--men of all parties8 ,if ,i understand the matter aright1 they are attacking1 as vicious and dangerous1 a system #dgf which has grown up under the natural spontaneous working of your free institutions--are exposing vices which education has proved powerless to prevent8 ,of course1 ambitious and unscrupulous men will secure the offices1 and education will aid them in their selfish purposes4 ,but would not those purposes be thwarted1 and better ,government secured1 by raising the standard of knowledge among the people at large8 ,very little4 ,the current theory is that if the young are taught what is right1 and the reasons why it is right1 they will do what is right when they grow up4 ,but considering what religious teachers have been doing these two thousand years1 it seems to me that all history is against the conclusion1 as much as is the conduct of these well-educated citizens ,i have referred to2 and ,i do not see why you expect better results among the masses4 ,personal interests will sway the men in the ranks1 as they sway the men above them2 and the education which fails to make the last consult public good rather than private good1 will fail to make the first do it4 ,the benefits of political purity are so general and remote1 and the profit to each individual is so inconspicuous1 that the common citizen1 educate him as you like1 will habitually occupy himself with his personal affairs1 and hold it not worth his while to fight against each abuse as soon as it appears4 ,not lack of information1 but lack of certain moral sentiment1 is the root of the evil4 ,you mean that people have not a sufficient sense of public duty8 ,well1 that is one way of putting it2 but there is a more specific way4 ,probably it will surprise you if ,i say the ,american has not1 ,i think1 a sufficiently quick sense of his own claims1 and1 at the same time1 as a necessary consequence1 not a sufficiently quick sense of the claims of others--for the two traits are organically related4 ,i observe that they tolerate various small interferences and dictations which ,englishmen are prone to resist4 ,i am told that the #dgg ,english are remarked on for their tendency to grumble in such cases2 and ,i have no doubt it is true4 ,do you think it worth while for people to make themselves disagreeable by resenting every trifling aggression8 ,we ,americans think it involves too much loss of time and temper1 and doesn't pay4 ,exactly2 that is what ,i mean by character4 ,it is this easy-going readiness to permit small trespasses1 because it would be troublesome or profitless or unpopular to oppose them1 which leads to the habit of acquiescence in wrong1 and the decay of free institutions4 ,free institutions can be maintained only by citizens1 each of whom is instant to oppose every illegitimate act1 every assumption of supremacy1 every official excess of power1 however trivial it may seem4 ,as ,hamlet says1 there is such a thing as 8greatly to find quarrel in a straw10 when the straw implies a principle4 ,if1 as you say of the ,american1 he pauses to consider whether he can afford the time and trouble--whether it will pay1 corruption is sure to creep in4 ,all these lapses from higher to lower forms begin in trifling ways1 and it is only by incessant watchfulness that they can be prevented4 ,as one of your early statesmen said--8,the price of liberty is eternal vigilance40 ,but it is far less against foreign aggressions upon national liberty that this vigilance is required1 than against the insidious growth of domestic interferences with personal liberty4 ,in some private administrations which ,i have been concerned with1 ,i have often insisted that instead of assuming1 as people usually do1 that things are going right until it is proved that they are going wrong1 the proper course is to assume that they are going wrong until it is proved that they are going right4 ,you will find continually that private corporations1 such as joint-stock banking companies1 come to grief from not acting on this principle2 and what holds of these small and simple private administrations holds still more of the great and complex public administrations4 #dgh ,people are taught1 and ,i suppose believe1 that the heart of man 8is deceitful above all things1 and desperately wicked20 and yet1 strangely enough1 believing this1 they place implicit trust in those they appoint to this or that function4 ,i do not think so ill of human nature2 but1 on the other hand1 ,i do not think so well of human nature as to believe it will go straight without being watched4 ,you hinted that while ,americans do not assert their own individualities sufficiently in small matters1 they1 reciprocally1 do not sufficiently respect the individualities of others4 ,did ,i8 ,here1 then1 comes another of the inconveniences of interviewing4 ,i should have kept this opinion to myself if you had asked me no questions2 and now ,i must either say what ,i do not think1 which ,i cannot1 or ,i must refuse to answer1 which1 perhaps1 will be taken to mean more than ,i intend1 or ,i must specify1 at the risk of giving offence4 ,as the least evil1 ,i suppose ,i must do the last4 ,the trait ,i refer to comes out in various ways1 small and great4 ,it is shown by the disrespectful manner in which individuals are dealt with in your journals--the placarding of public men in sensational headings1 the dragging of private people and their affairs into print4 ,there seems to be a notion that the public have a right to intrude on private life as far as they like2 and this ,i take to be a kind of moral trespassing4 ,then1 in a larger way1 the trait is seen in this damaging of private property by your elevated railways without making compensation2 and it is again seen in the doings of railway autocrats1 not only when overriding the rights of shareholders1 but in dominating over courts of justice and ,state governments4 ,the fact is that free institutions can be properly worked only by men1 each of whom is jealous of his own rights1 and also sympathetically jealous of the rights of others--who will neither himself aggress on his neighbours in small things or great1 nor tolerate aggression on them by others4 ,the ,republican form of government is the highest form of government2 but because of this it #dgi requires the highest type of human nature--a type nowhere at present existing4 ,we have not grown up to it2 nor have you4 ,but we thought1 ,mr4 ,spencer1 you were in favour of free government in the sense of relaxed restraints1 and letting men and things very much alone1 or what is called laissez faire8 ,that is a persistent misunderstanding of my opponents4 ,everywhere1 along with the reprobation of ,government intrusion into various spheres where private activities should be left to themselves1 ,i have contended that in its special sphere1 the maintenance of equitable relations among citizens1 governmental action should be extended and elaborated4 ,to return to your various criticisms1 must ,i then understand that you think unfavourably of our future8 ,no one can form anything more than vague and general conclusions respecting your future4 ,the factors are too numerous1 too vast1 too far beyond measure in their quantities and intensities4 ,the world has never before seen social phenomena at all comparable with those presented in the ,united ,states4 ,a society spreading over enormous tracts1 while still preserving its political continuity1 is a new thing4 ,this progressive incorporation of vast bodies of immigrants of various bloods1 has never occurred on such a scale before4 ,large empires1 composed of different peoples1 have1 in previous cases1 been formed by conquest and annexation4 ,then your immense plexus of railways and telegraphs tends to consolidate this vast aggregate of ,states in a way that no such aggregate has ever before been consolidated4 ,and there are many minor co-operating causes1 unlike those hitherto known4 ,no one can say how it is all going to work out4 ,that there will come hereafter troubles of various kinds1 and very grave ones1 seems highly probable2 but all nations have had1 and will have1 their troubles4 ,already you have triumphed over one great trouble1 and #dhj may reasonably hope to triumph over others4 ,it may1 ,i think1 be concluded that1 both because of its size and the heterogeneity of its components1 the ,american nation will be a long time in evolving its ultimate form1 but that its ultimate form will be high4 ,one great result is1 ,i think1 tolerably clear4 ,from biological truths it is to be inferred that the eventual mixture of the allied varieties of the ,aryan race forming the population1 will produce a finer type of man than has hitherto existed2 and a type of man more plastic1 more adaptable1 more capable of undergoing the modifications needful for complete social life4 ,i think that whatever difficulties they may have to surmount1 and whatever tribulations they may have to pass through1 the ,americans may reasonably look forward to a time when they will have produced a civilization grander than any the world has known4 ,,ii4--,a ,,speech3 ,delivered on the occasion of a ,complimentary ,dinner in ,new ,york1 on ,november #i1 #ahhb4 ,mr4 ,president and ,gentlemen3--,along with your kindness there comes to me a great unkindness from ,fate2 for1 now that1 above all times in my life1 ,i need full command of what powers of speech ,i possess1 disturbed health so threatens to interfere with them that ,i fear ,i shall very inadequately express myself4 ,any failure in my response you must please ascribe1 in part at least1 to a greatly disordered nervous system4 ,regarding you as representing ,americans at large1 ,i feel that the occasion is one on which arrears of thanks are due4 ,i ought to begin with the time1 some two-and-twenty years ago1 when my highly valued friend ,professor ,youmans1 making efforts to diffuse my books here1 interested on their behalf the ,messrs4 ,appleton1 who have ever treated me so honourably and so handsomely2 and ,i ought to detail from that time onward the various #dha marks and acts of sympathy by which ,i have been encouraged in a struggle which was for many years disheartening4 ,but1 intimating thus briefly my general indebtedness to my numerous friends1 most of them unknown1 on this side of the ,atlantic1 ,i must name more especially the many attentions and proffered hospitalities met with during my late tour1 as well as1 lastly and chiefly1 this marked expression of the sympathies and good wishes which many of you have travelled so far to give1 at great cost of that time which is so precious to the ,american4 ,i believe ,i may truly say1 that the better health which you have so cordially wished me1 will be in a measure furthered by the wish2 since all pleasurable emotion is conducive to health1 and1 as you will fully believe1 the remembrance of this event will ever continue to be a source of pleasurable emotion1 exceeded by few1 if any1 of my remembrances4 ,and now that ,i have thanked you1 sincerely though too briefly1 ,i am going to find fault with you4 ,already1 in some remarks drawn from me respecting ,american affairs and ,american character1 ,i have passed criticisms1 which have been accepted far more good-humouredly than ,i could have reasonably expected2 and it seems strange that ,i should now propose again to transgress4 ,however1 the fault ,i have to comment upon is one which most will scarcely regard as a fault4 ,it seems to me that in one respect ,americans have diverged too widely from savages1 ,i do not mean to say that they are in general unduly civilized4 ,throughout large parts of the population1 even in long-settled regions1 there is no excess of those virtues needed for the maintenance of social harmony4 ,especially out in the ,west1 men's dealings do not yet betray too much of the 8sweetness and light0 which we are told distinguish the cultured man from the barbarian4 ,nevertheless1 there is a sense in which my assertion is true4 ,you know that the primitive man lacks power of application4 ,spurred by hunger1 by danger1 by revenge1 he can exert himself #dhb energetically for a time2 but his energy is spasmodic4 ,monotonous daily toil is impossible to him4 ,it is otherwise with the more developed man4 ,the stern discipline of social life has gradually increased the aptitude for persistent industry2 until1 among us1 and still more among you1 work has become with many a passion4 ,this contrast of nature has another aspect4 ,the savage thinks only of present satisfactions1 and leaves future satisfactions uncared for4 ,contrariwise1 the ,american1 eagerly pursuing a future good1 almost ignores what good the passing day offers him2 and when the future good is gained1 he neglects that while striving for some still remoter good4 ,what ,i have seen and heard during my stay among you has forced on me the belief that this slow change from habitual inertness to persistent activity has reached an extreme from which there must begin a counterchange--a reaction4 ,everywhere ,i have been struck with the number of faces which told in strong lines of the burdens that had to be borne4 ,i have been struck1 too1 with the large proportion of gray-haired men2 and inquiries have brought out the fact1 that with you the hair commonly begins to turn some ten years earlier than with us4 ,moreover1 in every circle ,i have met men who had themselves suffered from nervous collapse due to stress of business1 or named friends who had either killed themselves by overwork1 or had been permanently incapacitated1 or had wasted long periods in endeavours to recover health4 ,i do but echo the opinion of all the observant persons ,i have spoken to1 that immense injury is being done by this high-pressure life--the physique is being undermined4 ,that subtle thinker and poet whom you have lately had to mourn1 ,emerson1 says1 in his essay on the ,gentleman1 that the first requisite is that he shall be a good animal4 ,the requisite is a general one--it extends to the man1 to the father1 to the citizen4 ,we hear a great deal about 8the vile body20 and many are encouraged by the phrase to transgress the laws of #dhc health4 ,but ,nature quietly suppresses those who treat thus disrespectfully one of her highest products1 and leaves the world to be peopled by the descendants of those who are not so foolish4 ,beyond these immediate mischiefs there are remoter mischiefs4 ,exclusive devotion to work has the result that amusements cease to please2 and1 when relaxation becomes imperative1 life becomes dreary from lack of its sole interest--the interest in business4 ,the remark current in ,england that1 when the ,american travels1 his aim is to do the greatest amount of sight-seeing in the shortest time1 ,i find current here also3 it is recognized that the satisfaction of getting on devours nearly all other satisfactions4 ,when recently at ,niagara1 which gave us a whole week's pleasure1 ,i learned from the landlord of the hotel that most ,americans come one day and go away the next4 ,old ,froissart1 who said of the ,english of his day that 8they take their pleasures sadly after their fashion10 would doubtless1 if he lived now1 say of the ,americans that they take their pleasures hurriedly after their fashion4 ,in large measure with us1 and still more with you1 there is not that abandonment to the moment which is requisite for full enjoyment2 and this abandonment is prevented by the ever-present sense of multitudinous responsibilities4 ,so that1 beyond the serious physical mischief caused by overwork1 there is the further mischief that it destroys what value there would otherwise be in the leisure part of life4 ,nor do the evils end here4 ,there is the injury to posterity4 ,damaged constitutions reappear in children1 and entail on them far more of ill than great fortunes yield them of good4 ,when life has been duly rationalized by science1 it will be seen that among a man's duties1 care of the body is imperative2 not only out of regard for personal welfare1 but also out of regard for descendants4 ,his constitution will be considered as an entailed estate1 which he ought to pass on uninjured1 if not improved1 to those who follow2 and it will be held that millions bequeathed by him #dhd will not compensate for feeble health and decreased ability to enjoy life4 ,once more1 there is the injury to fellow-citizens1 taking the shape of undue disregard of competitors4 ,i hear that a great trader among you deliberately endeavoured to crush out every one whose business competed with his own2 and manifestly the man who1 making himself a slave to accumulation1 absorbs an inordinate share of the trade or profession he is engaged in1 makes life harder for all others engaged in it1 and excludes from it many who might otherwise gain competencies4 ,thus1 besides the egoistic motive1 there are two altruistic motives which should deter from this excess in work4 ,the truth is1 there needs a revised ideal of life4 ,look back through the past1 or look abroad through the present1 and we find that the ideal of life is variable1 and depends on social conditions4 ,every one knows that to be a successful warrior was the highest aim among all ancient peoples of note1 as it is still among many barbarous peoples4 ,when we remember that in the ,norseman's heaven the time was to be passed in daily battles1 with magical healing of wounds1 we see how deeply rooted may become the conception that fighting is man's proper business1 and that industry is fit only for slaves and people of low degree4 ,that is to say1 when the chronic struggles of races necessitate perpetual wars1 there is evolved an ideal of life adapted to the requirements4 ,we have changed all that in modern civilized societies2 especially in ,england1 and still more in ,america4 ,with the decline of militant activity1 and the growth of industrial activity1 the occupations once disgraceful have become honourable4 ,the duty to work has taken the place of the duty to fight2 and in the one case1 as in the other1 the ideal of life has become so well established that scarcely any dream of questioning it4 ,practically1 business has been substituted for war as the purpose of existence4 ,is this modern ideal to survive throughout the future8 ,i think not4 ,while all other things undergo continuous #dhe change1 it is impossible that ideals should remain fixed4 ,the ancient ideal was appropriate to the ages of conquest by man over man1 and spread of the strongest races4 ,the modern ideal is appropriate to ages in which conquest of the earth and subjection of the powers of ,nature to human use1 is the predominant need4 ,but hereafter1 when both these ends have in the main been achieved1 the ideal formed will probably differ considerably from the present one4 ,may we not foresee the nature of the difference8 ,i think we may4 ,some twenty years ago1 a good friend of mine1 and a good friend of yours too1 though you never saw him1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 delivered at ,st4 ,andrews an inaugural address on the occasion of his appointment to the ,lord ,rectorship4 ,it contained much to be admired1 as did all he wrote4 ,there ran through it1 however1 the tacit assumption that life is for learning and working4 ,i felt at the time that ,i should have liked to take up the opposite thesis4 ,i should have liked to contend that life is not for learning1 nor is life for working1 but learning and working are for life4 ,the primary use of knowledge is for such guidance of conduct under all circumstances as shall make living complete4 ,all other uses of knowledge are secondary4 ,it scarcely needs saying that the primary use of work is that of supplying the materials and aids to living completely2 and that any other uses of work are secondary4 ,but in men's conceptions the secondary has in great measure usurped the place of the primary4 ,the apostle of culture as it is commonly conceived1 ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold1 makes little or no reference to the fact that the first use of knowledge is the right ordering of all actions2 and ,mr4 ,carlyle1 who is a good exponent of current ideas about work1 insists on its virtues for quite other reasons than that it achieves sustentation4 ,we may trace everywhere in human affairs a tendency to transform the means into the end4 ,all see that the miser does this when1 making the accumulation of money his sole satisfaction1 he forgets that money is of value only to #dhf purchase satisfactions4 ,but it is less commonly seen that the like is true of the work by which the money is accumulated--that industry too1 bodily or mental1 is but a means2 and that it is as irrational to pursue it to the exclusion of that complete living it subserves1 as it is for the miser to accumulate money and make no use of it4 ,hereafter1 when this age of active material progress has yielded mankind its benefits1 there will1 ,i think1 come a better adjustment of labour and enjoyment4 ,among reasons for thinking this1 there is the reason that the process of evolution throughout the organic world at large1 brings an increasing surplus of energies that are not absorbed in fulfilling material needs1 and points to a still larger surplus for the humanity of the future4 ,and there are other reasons1 which ,i must pass over4 ,in brief1 ,i may say that we have had somewhat too much of 8the gospel of work40 ,it is time to preach the gospel of relaxation4 ,this is a very unconventional after-dinner speech4 ,especially it will be thought strange that in returning thanks ,i should deliver something very much like a homily4 ,but ,i have thought ,i could not better convey my thanks than by the expression of a sympathy which issues in a fear4 ,if1 as ,i gather1 this intemperance in work affects more especially the ,anglo-,american part of the population--if there results an undermining of the physique1 not only in adults1 but also in the young1 who1 as ,i learn from your daily journals1 are also being injured by overwork--if the ultimate consequence should be a dwindling away of those among you who are the inheritors of free institutions and best adapted to them2 then there will come a further difficulty in the working out of that great future which lies before the ,american nation4 ,to my anxiety on this account you must please ascribe the unusual character of my remarks4 ,and now ,i must bid you farewell4 ,when ,i sail by the ,germanic on ,saturday1 ,i shall bear with me pleasant #dhg remembrances of my intercourse with many ,americans1 joined with regrets that my state of health has prevented me from seeing a larger number4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,postscript4--,a few words may fitly be added respecting the causes of this over-activity in ,american life--causes which may be identified as having in recent times partially operated among ourselves1 and as having wrought kindred1 though less marked1 effects4 ,it is the more worth while to trace the genesis of this undue absorption of the energies in work1 since it well serves to illustrate the general truth which should be ever present to all legislators and politicians1 that the indirect and unforeseen results of any cause affecting a society are frequently1 if not habitually1 greater and more important than the direct and foreseen results4 ,this high pressure under which ,americans exist1 and which is most intense in places like ,chicago1 where the prosperity and rate of growth are greatest1 is seen by many intelligent ,americans themselves to be an indirect result of their free institutions and the absence of those class-distinctions and restraints existing in older communities4 ,a society in which the man who dies a millionaire is so often one who commenced life in poverty1 and in which 7to paraphrase a ,french saying concerning the soldier7 every news-boy carries a president's seal in his bag1 is1 by consequence1 a society in which all are subject to a stress of competition for wealth and honour1 greater than can exist in a society whose members are nearly all prevented from rising out of the ranks in which they were born1 and have but remote possibilities of acquiring fortunes4 ,in those ,european societies which have in great measure preserved their old types of structure 7as in our own society up to the time when the great development of industrialism began to open ever-multiplying careers for the producing and distributing classes7 there is so little chance of overcoming the obstacles to any great rise in position or possessions1 that #dhh nearly all have to be content with their places3 entertaining little or no thought of bettering themselves4 ,a manifest concomitant is that1 fulfilling1 with such efficiency as a moderate competition requires1 the daily tasks of their respective situations1 the majority become habituated to making the best of such pleasures as their lot affords1 during whatever leisure they get4 ,but it is otherwise where an immense growth of trade multiplies greatly the chances of success to the enterprising2 and still more is it otherwise where class-restrictions are partially removed or wholly absent4 ,not only are more energy and thought put into the time daily occupied in work1 but the leisure comes to be trenched upon1 either literally by abridgment1 or else by anxieties concerning business4 ,clearly1 the larger the number who1 under such conditions1 acquire property1 or achieve higher positions1 or both1 the sharper is the spur to the rest4 ,a raised standard of activity establishes itself and goes on rising4 ,public applause given to the successful1 becoming in communities thus circumstanced the most familiar kind of public applause1 increases continually the stimulus to action4 ,the struggle grows more and more strenuous1 and there comes an increasing dread of failure--a dread of being 8left10 as the ,americans say3 a significant word1 since it is suggestive of a race in which the harder any one runs1 the harder others have to run to keep up with him--a word suggestive of that breathless haste with which each passes from a success gained to the pursuit of a further success4 ,and on contrasting the ,english of to-day with the ,english of a century ago1 we may see how1 in a considerable measure1 the like causes have entailed here kindred results4 ,even those who are not directly spurred on by this intensified struggle for wealth and honour1 are indirectly spurred on by it4 ,for one of its effects is to raise the standard of living1 and eventually to increase the average rate of expenditure for all4 ,partly for personal enjoyment1 #dhi but much more for the display which brings admiration1 those who acquire fortunes distinguish themselves by luxurious habits4 ,the more numerous they become1 the keener becomes the competition for that kind of public attention given to those who make themselves conspicuous by great expenditure4 ,the competition spreads downwards step by step2 until1 to be 8respectable10 those having relatively small means feel obliged to spend more on houses1 furniture1 dress1 and food2 and are obliged to work the harder to get the requisite larger income4 ,this process of causation is manifest enough among ourselves2 and it is still more manifest in ,america1 where the extravagance in style of living is greater than here4 ,thus1 though it seems beyond doubt that the removal of all political and social barriers1 and the giving to each man an unimpeded career1 must be purely beneficial2 yet there is 7at first7 a considerable set-off from the benefits4 ,among those who in older communities have by laborious lives gained distinction1 some may be heard privately to confess that 8the game is not worth the candle20 and when they hear of others who wish to tread in their steps1 shake their heads and say--8,if they only knew60 ,without accepting in full so pessimistic an estimate of success1 we must still say that very generally the cost of the candle deducts largely from the gain of the game4 ,that which in these exceptional cases holds among ourselves1 holds more generally in ,america4 ,an intensified life1 which may be summed up as--great labour1 great profit1 great expenditure--has for its concomitant a wear and tear which considerably diminishes in one direction the good gained in another4 ,added together1 the daily strain through many hours and the anxieties occupying many other hours--the occupation of consciousness by feelings that are either indifferent or painful1 leaving relatively little time for occupation of it by pleasurable feelings--tend to lower its level more than its level is raised by the gratifications of achievement #dij and the accompanying benefits4 ,so that it may1 and in many cases does1 result that diminished happiness goes along with increased prosperity4 ,unquestionably1 as long as order is fairly maintained1 that absence of political and social restraints which gives free scope to the struggles for profit and honour1 conduces greatly to material advance of the society--develops the industrial arts1 extends and improves the business organizations1 augments the wealth2 but that it raises the value of individual life1 as measured by the average state of its feeling1 by no means follows4 ,that it will do so eventually1 is certain2 but that it does so now seems1 to say the least1 very doubtful4 ,the truth is that a society and its members act and react in such wise that while1 on the one hand1 the nature of the society is determined by the natures of its members2 on the other hand1 the activities of its members 7and presently their natures7 are re-determined by the needs of the society1 as these alter3 change in either entails change in the other4 ,it is an obvious implication that1 to a great extent the life of a society so sways the wills of its members as to turn them to its ends4 ,that which is manifest during the militant stage1 when the social aggregate coerces its units into co-operation for defence1 and sacrifices many of their lives for its corporate preservation holds under another form during the industrial stage1 as we at present know it4 ,though the co-operation of citizens is now voluntary instead of compulsory2 yet the social forces impel them to achieve social ends while apparently achieving only their own ends4 ,the man who1 carrying out an invention1 thinks only of private welfare to be thereby secured1 is in far larger measure working for public welfare3 instance the contrast between the fortune made by ,watt and the wealth which the steam-engine has given to mankind4 ,he who utilizes a new material1 improves a method of production1 or introduces a better way of carrying on business1 and does this for the purpose of distancing competitors1 gains #dia for himself little compared with that which he gains for the community by facilitating the lives of all4 ,either unknowingly or in spite of themselves1 ,nature leads men by purely personal motives to fulfil her ends3 ,nature being one of our expressions for the ,ultimate ,cause of things1 and the end1 remote when not proximate1 being the highest form of human life4 ,hence no argument1 however cogent1 can be expected to produce much effect3 only here and there one may be influenced4 ,as in an actively militant stage of society it is impossible to make many believe that there is any glory preferable to that of killing enemies2 so1 where rapid material growth is going on1 and affords unlimited scope for the energies of all1 little can be done by insisting that life has higher uses than work and accumulation4 ,while among the most powerful of feelings continue to be the desire for public applause and dread of public censure--while the anxiety to achieve distinction1 now by conquering enemies1 now by beating competitors1 continues predominant--while the fear of public reprobation affects men more than the fear of divine vengeance 7as witness the long survival of duelling in ,christian societies72 this excess of work which ambition prompts1 seems likely to continue with but small qualification4 ,the eagerness for the honour accorded to success1 first in war and then in commerce1 has been indispensable as a means to peopling the ,earth with the higher types of man1 and the subjugation of its surface and its forces to human use4 ,ambition may fitly come to bear a smaller ratio to other motives1 when the working out of these needs is approaching completeness2 and when also1 by consequence1 the scope for satisfying ambition is diminishing4 ,those who draw the obvious corollaries from the doctrine of ,evolution--those who believe that the process of modification upon modification which has brought life to its present height must raise it still higher1 will anticipate that the 8last infirmity of noble mind0 will in the distant future slowly #dib decrease4 ,as the sphere for achievement becomes smaller1 the desire for applause will lose that predominance which it now has4 ,a better ideal of life may simultaneously come to prevail4 ,when there is fully recognized the truth that moral beauty is higher than intellectual power--when the wish to be admired is in large measure replaced by the wish to be loved2 that strife for distinction which the present phase of civilization shows us will be greatly moderated4 ,along with other benefits may then come a rational proportioning of work and relaxation2 and the relative claims of to-day and to-morrow may be properly balanced4 ,,the ,,end4 #dic ,,subject-,,index4 7,for this ,index the ,author is indebted to ,f4 ,,howard ,,collins1 ,esq41 of ,edgbaston1 ,birmingham47 ,a priori1 method1 ,,iii1 #aii-bjc4 ,absolute1 ,the3 ,martineau on1 ,,ii1 #bej-h2 and relativity of knowledge1 ,,ii1 #bfj4 ,abstract1 definition of1 ,,ii1 #gh4 ,abstract nouns1 succeed concrete1 ,i1 #cbc4 ,abstraction1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfe-f4 ,accommodation bills3 morals of banking1 ,,iii1 #acc-g2 state tamperings with money1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg4 ,acoustics3 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg1 #fj-a2 8beats10 ,,ii1 #afi-gj4 ,acquisitiveness1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfg4 ,action and reaction3 universal1 ,,iii1 #aja2 the axiom1 ,,iii1 #bba4 ,activity1 relation to growth1 ,i1 #fc-d4 ,adaptation3 individual and social1 ,,iii1 #bgg-h2 of alimentary canal1 ,,iii1 #dba4 ,address1 forms of1 ,,iii1 #ae-f4 ,adelaide1 ,admiralty certificate of1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,adjective1 collocation of substantive1 ,,iii1 #cdj-a4 ,administrative ,nihilism1 the title1 ,,ii1 #dch1 #ddb4 ,admiralty1 ship certificates1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,adulteration3 examples1 ,,iii1 #aac2 silk1 ,,iii1 #abd-g4 sthetics1 and natural selection1 ,i1 #djh4 ,agriculture1 in ,france1 ,,iii1 #bfg-h4 ,air1 expansion without pressure1 ,i1 #aah4 ,alas6 intonation of1 ,,ii1 #dji4 ,albert1 ,prince1 on representative government1 ,,iii1 #bhd4 ,alg3 development and homogeneity1 ,i1 #ij2 cell membrane1 ,i1 #dci2 cells1 ,i1 #ddf4 ,algebra3 genesis1 ,,ii1 #ef2 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #he2 subject matter1 ,,ii1 #aac1 #aae2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aef2 7see also ,mathematics47 ,alimentary canal3 evolution1 ,,iii1 #bjd2 differentiation1 ,,iii1 #djf2 and nervous system1 ,,iii1 #dji2 adaptation1 ,,iii1 #dba4 ,allegory1 compound metaphor1 ,,ii1 #ced4 ,allotropism1 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #aee1 #cgc4 ,alternative necessity1 law of1 ,,ii1 #aia-b4 ,altruism3 development1 ,i1 #cdf-ej2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfg-i4 ,amazon1 burning of the ship1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,america3 paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #ag2 effects of subsidence1 ,i1 #db-c2 age of rocks1 ,i1 #bjj-e1 #bjf1 #bji1 #baj2 admiration for wealth1 ,,iii1 #adi-ea2 progress in1 ,,iii1 #bgh2 paper currency1 ,,iii1 #cbh1 #cde2 liberty1 ,,iii1 #cha-b2 militancy and industrialism1 ,,iii1 #dae-f1 #dhd-ib2 politics1 ,,iii1 #deg2 the ,americans1 ,,iii1 #dga-ib2 ,new ,york1 ,,iii1 #dgb2 ,cleveland1 ,,iii1 #dgb2 free institutions1 ,,iii1 #dgb2 patents1 #dgc2 freedom1 ,,iii1 #dgc-d1 #dgg2 republicanism1 ,,iii1 #dgd-e2 education1 ,,iii1 #dge-f2 character1 ,,iii1 #dgf1 #dhb-g2 railways1 ,,iii1 #dgh2 future1 ,,iii1 #dgi-hj2 hair1 ,,iii1 #dhb2 health1 ,,iii1 #dhb1 #dhc-d2 pleasures in1 ,,iii1 #dhb-c2 causes of over-activity1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,amba1 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hf4 ,amsterdam1 ,english enterprise in1 ,,iii1 #bgh4 ,analysis1 psychology and classification1 ,i1 #bde-eg4 ,anarchy1 and despotism1 ,,iii1 #aei4 ,anatomy3 transcendental1 ,i1 #fc2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja4 ,andes1 age of rocks1 ,i1 #bjj-a4 ,andrews1 ,prof4 ,t41 researches1 ,i1 #afd-g4 ,anger3 natural language of1 ,i1 #cdj-ej2 indications1 ,,ii1 #djb1 #djd1 #dje2 and laughter1 ,,ii1 #dfb-c4 ,anglesea1 age of rocks1 ,i1 #aih4 ,animals3 number of species1 ,i1 #a-b2 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ad-g1 #ce2 structure1 ,i1 #gc1 #gf1 #cgb-c2 form1 ,i1 #gc1 #gf2 chemical composition1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 specific gravity1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 temperature1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #ge1 #gf2 evolution and homogeneity1 ,i1 #hc-d2 distribution and heat1 ,i1 #bbc-d2 also terrestrial change1 ,i1 #bbd-f2 social analogy1 ,i1 #bgb-g2 origin of worship1 ,i1 #cjh-cj2 indistinguishable from plants1 ,i1 #cge-f2 function1 ,i1 #cib-c2 gracefulness1 ,,ii1 #cha1 #che2 muscular excitement1 ,,ii1 #djj1 #djc4 ,annulosa3 integration1 ,i1 #fg-ga2 division of labour1 ,i1 #bhg-h2 nervous system1 ,i1 #cjj2 controlling system1 ,,iii1 #djg4 ,anthropology1 comparative psychology of man1 ,i1 #cea-gj4 ,antipodes1 belief in1 ,,ii1 #aii4 ,anti-realism1 ,h4 ,sidgwick's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bdb-ej4 ,aphis1 development1 ,i1 #fe-f4 ,apoplexy3 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caa-b2 heart disease1 ,i1 #daa4 ,appleton1 ,d4 ,co41 as publishers1 ,,iii1 #dhj4 ,approbation1 love of1 ,i1 #cf-g1 ,,ii1 #dba4 ,arago1 ,f4 ,j4 ,d43 distribution of nebul1 ,i1 #aab2 also forms1 ,i1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd4 ,architect1 the ,state as1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,architecture3 relation to painting and sculpture1 ,i1 #bd2 types1 ,,ii1 #cge-hj2 symmetry in buildings1 ,,ii1 #cgf-g2 ,gothic type1 ,,ii1 #cgd1 #cgg1 #cgh2 ,grecian1 ,,ii1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ,argyll1 ,duke of1 criticism of1 ,i1 #dfg-gh4 ,arithmetic1 and test of necessity1 ,,ii1 #aif-g2 7,see also ,mathematics47 ,army3 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcc1 #bdg1 #beg1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cii2 parliamentary representatives1 ,,iii1 #big1 #cjc1 #cjd2 compulsory co-operation1 ,,iii1 #dea-d4 ,arrest1 ,h4 ,l4 d'1 planetoids1 ,i1 #agd4 ,art3 recognition of likeness1 ,,ii1 #cd2 interdependence of the arts1 ,,ii1 #fh-ga2 use and beauty in historical pictures1 ,,ii1 #cgc2 contrast in1 ,,ii1 #cgc-d2 ,english and continental1 ,,iii1 #dcj4 ,arthur1 ,sir ,g41 ,van ,diemen's ,land convicts1 ,,iii1 #afa4 ,articulata1 nervous system1 ,i1 #cja4 ,assyrians3 language and painting1 ,i1 #be-f2 sculpture1 ,i1 #bf1 #bi4 ,astronomy3 evolution and increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aj-aa1 #ce2 nebular hypothesis and multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ch-i1 #ei2 history and generalization in1 ,i1 #aib2 geology and earth's motion1 ,i1 #bba-d2 analogy from survival of the fittest1 ,i1 #dgh2 science and common knowledge1 ,,ii1 #c2 ,hegel's classification1 ,,ii1 #ac2 ,comte's1 ,,ii1 #ba-g2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #dh-i1 #eb1 #ee2 genesis of trigonometry1 ,,ii1 #ee-f2 genesis of physical1 ,,ii1 #ei2 interdependence of sciences1 ,,ii1 #ff-g1 #gj-a2 and abstract science1 ,,ii1 #hj2 and concrete1 ,,ii1 #hh-ib2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #id-i2 deals with aggregates1 ,,ii1 #ii2 ,bain on classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #aaa2 also ,mill1 ,,ii1 #aad2 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #adi2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aeb2 judgments of reason and common sense1 ,,ii1 #bdc-d2 laws of motion1 ,,ii1 #bga-e1 #bhc-h2 motion of system1 ,,ii1 #bic2 exact science1 ,,iii1 #aii4 ,australia3 size of the human limb1 ,i1 #ag2 age of rocks1 ,i1 #bjf2 fauna1 ,i1 #baf4 ,australian1 the ship1 and admiralty certificate1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,austria1 paper currency1 ,,iii1 #cde4 ,authority1 and intelligence1 ,,iii1 #caa4 ,axioms3 knowledge implied by1 ,,ii1 #bgj1 #bgg-hh2 origin of physical1 ,,ii1 #bih-cja1 #cac-d1 #cae-bj2 ,thomson and ,tait on physical1 ,,iii1 #bbj-a4 ,babinet1 ,m41 on nebular hypothesis1 ,i1 #aba4 ,bach1 ,j4 ,s41 and heredity1 ,i1 #djg4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 ,viscount ,st4 ,alban's3 organization of sciences1 ,,ii1 #aba2 literary style1 ,,ii1 #cfe2 8,a crowd is not company10 ,,iii1 #dd4 ,bacteria1 action of light1 ,i1 #dfe-f4 ,baer1 ,c4 von1 formula of1 and general evolution1 ,i1 #ce1 ,,ii1 #acg-h4 ,bail1 prison discipline1 ,,iii1 #ahj-g4 ,baillie-,cochrane1 ,mr41 on ,munich prison1 ,,iii1 #agb4 ,bain1 ,a43 ,emotions and the ,will1 ,i1 #bda-fd2 ,mental and ,moral ,science1 ,i1 #ccb2 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #aje-ag2 on logic1 ,,ii1 #aje-f2 mathematics1 ,,ii1 #ajf-g2 incongruities1 ,,ii1 #dfc4 ,balfour1 ,f4 ,m43 on invagination1 ,i1 #deb2 development of nervous system1 ,i1 #ded4 ,ball1 embryological analogy1 ,i1 #deb4 ,balloon1 reason for ascent1 ,i1 #dbg4 ,ballot1 ,carlyle on1 ,,iii1 #cjj4 ,balzac1 ,h4 de1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cfd4 ,bank notes3 forgery1 ,,iii1 #acd2 issue1 ,,iii1 #cdi-ej1 #ceb1 #cee4 ,bank of ,england3 advances by1 ,,iii1 #ccj-e1 #cce-dg2 note issue1 ,,iii1 #cdi-ej4 ,bankers1 local integration1 ,i1 #ajc4 ,banking3 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aca-g2 accommodation bills1 ,,iii1 #acc-g2 evolution1 ,,iii1 #bee-f4 ,bankruptcy3 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abi-ca2 and ,bank of ,england1 ,,iii1 #ccj-b1 #cda2 evils of law1 ,,iii1 #dch-i4 ,banks3 ,state tamperings1 ,,iii1 #cbf-eg2 joint-stock1 ,,iii1 #cdg-ed2 and free-trade1 ,,iii1 #cee-g2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dbe-g4 ,barbadoes1 sugar1 ,,iii1 #abb4 ,barnacle goose1 myth of1 ,,ii1 #afb4 ,barometer3 action1 ,i1 #dbf2 scientific knowledge1 ,,ii1 #c1 #e4 ,baron1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ae1 #bh4 ,barracks1 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcc1 #beg4 ,barristers3 and traders1 ,,iii1 #aci2 number in parliament1 ,,iii1 #bih1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,barter1 and measures1 ,,ii1 #df2 7see also ,exchange47 ,bas-relief1 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bf1 #bg4 ,beats1 acoustical1 ,,ii1 #afi-gj4 ,beauty3 officialism1 ,i1 #cce-f2 and use1 ,,ii1 #cgj-d2 personal1 ,,ii1 #chg-ii4 ,bees3 sex of1 ,i1 #dh2 analogy for distribution of nebul1 ,i1 #aad4 ,beethoven1 ,l4 von3 heredity1 ,i1 #djf2 ,adelade of1 ,,ii1 #ddg4 ,beliefs3 and pedigree1 ,i1 #ajh2 different meaning of1 ,,ii1 #ahh-ia1 #aic1 #bbb4 ,berkeley1 ,bishop1 subject and object1 ,,ii1 #cbi4 ,berlin3 ,english enterprise1 ,,iii1 #bgh2 water supply1 ,,iii1 #dbi4 ,bills of accommodation1 morals of banking1 ,,iii1 #acc-g4 ,biluchis1 robbery1 ,,iii1 #bah1 #bba4 ,biology3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ad-g1 #ce2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #df-ec2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #hi-ib2 deals with aggregates1 ,,ii1 #ajc2 ,bain on classification1 ,,ii1 #aji-aa2 origin of species1 ,,ii1 #aca2 evolution of science1 ,,ii1 #aec2 universality of law1 ,,ii1 #aei2 organic matter and incident forces1 ,,ii1 #agg2 organic differentiation1 ,,iii1 #dje4 ,birds3 in newly discovered lands1 ,i1 #bee-f2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dah2 colour as illustrating propositions1 ,,ii1 #bje-h2 muscular excitement1 ,,ii1 #djj1 #djc2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dbh2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #dch4 ,black horse1 the phrase1 ,,ii1 #cdj4 ,blacksmith1 arm and heredity1 ,i1 #dge4 ,blackstone1 ,sir ,wm41 persons ineligible for parliament1 ,,iii1 #bif4 ,blister3 effect on walking1 ,i1 #djc2 action of medicine1 ,i1 #ddh4 ,blood3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #dg2 nutrition and growth1 ,i1 #bhi2 function and supply1 ,i1 #bij2 social analogy1 ,i1 #bia-h2 mental mass and bodily state1 ,i1 #ced4 ,board-meetings1 railway1 ,,iii1 #gg-hj4 ,bondage1 from freedom to1 ,,iii1 #dde-gj4 ,bones3 evolution and ratio of1 ,i1 #ag2 weight in duck1 ,i1 #dag-h2 water hen1 ,i1 #dah4 ,bookkeeping3 railway1 ,,iii1 #ei2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bec4 ,books1 serial arrangement1 ,,ii1 #bh4 ,botany3 classification1 ,,ii1 #fd2 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #aej4 ,bow1 the obeisance1 ,,iii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,braid1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aai4 ,brain3 effect on viscera1 ,i1 #bij2 analogy to parliament1 ,i1 #cjb-e2 mental and bodily mass1 ,i1 #cec-d2 size of jaw1 ,i1 #cig2 embryo development1 ,i1 #ded4 ,bribery3 of buyers1 ,,iii1 #aad-h2 of juries1 ,,iii1 #cif4 ,bricks3 position of falling1 ,i1 #ii2 and building1 ,,iii1 #bci2 tax on1 ,,iii1 #bdc4 ,british ,association1 and government1 ,,iii1 #dcf4 ,british ,quarterly ,review1 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bfg-cja1 #cae-bj4 ,bronze1 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ee-f4 ,brown-,squard1 ,e41 epilepsy in guinea pigs1 ,i1 #dae-f4 ,builders1 strike of1 ,,iii1 #cfc-d1 #cfe1 #chc4 ,buildings ,acts3 failure1 ,,iii1 #bci1 #bdj-a1 #bge2 displacements caused by1 ,,iii1 #bha2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja4 ,bull-dog1 jaws of1 ,i1 #dja4 ,burial1 primitive ideas1 ,,iii1 #f-aa4 ,buyers1 in clothing trades1 ,,iii1 #aad-h4 ,cabet1 ,s41 ,icarian colony1 ,,iii1 #deg4 ,cabs3 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bej2 in ,new ,york1 ,,iii1 #bia2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cjb4 ,cadence1 defined1 ,,ii1 #dbb4 ,caird1 ,rev4 ,princ41 reply to criticism1 ,,ii1 #bai-ba4 ,calculus3 implies absolute equality1 ,,ii1#ch2 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #hd2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aef4 ,cambium1 in plants1 ,i1 #dej4 ,cambrian system1 thickness1 ,i1 #bca4 ,campbell1 ,g41 on style1 ,,ii1 #cch-i4 ,canals3 first ,english1 ,,iii1 #beg2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bfg4 ,candles3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg2 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abh2 ,price's school1 ,,iii1 #bef4 ,cannibalism1 in ,fiji1 ,,iii1 #bag-h4 ,cannon ball1 disintegration1 ,i1 #dcf4 ,caoutchouc1 effects of1 ,i1 #eh4 ,capital3 direction of flow1 ,,iii1 #aja-c1 #bfd2 amount of railway1 ,,iii1 #ajh2 relative and absolute ethics1 ,,iii1 #aee-g2 ,state tamperings with1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg4 ,captains1 certificated1 of ships1 ,,iii1 #bda4 ,caradoc sandstone1 age1 ,i1 #bja4 ,carat1 a small bean1 ,,ii1 #dd4 ,carboniferous system1 origin1 ,i1 #bcg4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas3 on people1 ,,iii1 #bic2 the ballot1 ,,iii1 #cjj2 the real rulers1 ,,iii1 #caf-g2 quotation from ,heroes and ,hero-worship1 ,,ii1 #ceg4 ,carpenter1 ,w4 ,b41 evolution and paleontology1 ,i1 #af4 ,carus1 ,p41 on ,kantian ethics1 ,,iii1 #bjf-g4 ,castles3 use and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cga2 situation1 ,,ii1 #cgf4 ,cat1 muscular excitement1 ,,ii1 #djj-a1 #djc4 ,catalepsy1 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caa-b4 ,caterpillar1 mistake by1 ,i1 #dai4 ,causation3 establishment of belief1 ,i1 #aji2 ignorance of1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,cause3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg2 consciousness of1 ,,ii1 #abg2 proportionality to effect1 ,,ii1 #cjj-a1 #cjb-e1 #cje-g1 #caj-aa1 #cah-bj4 ,cell1 doctrine of1 ,i1 #ddb-c4 ,centralization1 ,french1 ,,iii1 #bfh4 ,cerebrum1 consciousness of1 representative1 ,i1 #cjc4 ,ceremony3 increase of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bj-a2 evolution1 ,,iii1 #aa-f1 #bc1 #ej2 obeisances1 ,,iii1 #ag-bb2 primitive man1 ,,iii1 #bd2 ,chinese1 ,,iii1 #be2 evolution of governments1 ,,iii1 #bg-h1 #ej4 ,cerney springs1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib4 ,chaldeans1 prediction of eclipses1 ,,ii1 #dh-i4 ,chalk1 complexity of1 ,,iii1 #aie-f4 ,chancery3 rules1 ,,iii1 #bcb2 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bdg1 #bgb2 dread of1 ,,iii1 #cif4 ,change3 pleasure of1 ,,iii1 #ded2 universal1 ,,iii1 #deh-fj4 ,charity1 and government1 ,,iii1 #dcd4 ,charlotte1 ,the1 naval maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcd4 ,cheek-bones1 personal beauty1 ,i1 #cij-b4 ,cheltenham1 water supply1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib4 ,chemistry3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #dc-e1 #ei2 unstable equilibrium1 ,i1 #hc2 organic evolution1 ,i1 #hc-d2 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #aee-i1 #cga-d2 organic synthesis1 ,i1 #cgd2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #ea1 #eh1 #fj2 galvanic electricity1 ,,ii1 #fa2 classification1 ,,ii1 #fd2 abstract concrete science1 ,,ii1 #he-h2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #ie-i2 deals with properties1 ,,ii1 #ajb1 #ajc2 ,bain on classification1 ,,ii1 #ajg-aa2 elements1 ,,ii1 #aie2 development1 ,,ii1 #dbc4 ,cheques 7see ,money74 ,chesil ,beach1 size of stones1 ,i1 #dcb4 ,chicken1 evolution of mind1 ,i1 #cgg4 ,chiefs3 differentiation1 ,i1 #bhd-e2 duties and individual nervous system1 ,i1 #bii-cjg2 primitive belief in spirits1 ,i1 #cdd4 ,children3 emotions and expression1 ,i1 #cci-ej2 lack generalization1 ,i1 #ced2 and traits of savage1 ,i1 #cee2 mental variability1 ,i1 #cef-g2 impulsiveness1 ,i1 #ceh2 vocabulary1 ,,ii1 #ccf2 poor law and illegitimate1 ,,iii1 #bdd2 old and new education1 ,,iii1 #bgg4 ,china1 manners and fashion1 ,,iii1 #be4 ,chisholme1 ,mrs41 colonization society1 ,,iii1 #beh4 ,cholera1 private and state enterprise1 ,,iii1 #bch-i4 ,chopin1 ,f41 character1 ,,ii1 #dag4 ,chrysalis1 transformations1 ,,ii1 #afc4 ,church3 differentiation from ,state1 ,i1 #ba2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bea1 #beb2 corn laws1 ,,iii1 #cfa2 franchise and rates1 ,,iii1 #cfb4 ,circle1 relation to hyperbola1 ,i1 #e4 ,circulars1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abc-d4 ,cirrhipedia1 classification1 ,i1 #bdh4 ,civilization1 development of sympathy1 ,,ii1 #dbe4 ,classification3 psychology and analysis1 ,i1 #bde-eg2 historical1 ,i1 #bdh2 non-linear of sciences1 ,,ii1 #bg-i2 recognition of likeness and unlikeness1 ,,ii1 #bi-ca1 #cd2 and language1 ,,ii1 #ca-c1 #dj2 and reasoning1 ,,ii1 #cc1 #cd1 #dj2 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #fc-e1 #gb2 7,see also ,sciences1 ,classification of the47 ,clearing house1 banker's1 ,,iii1 #dbe4 ,climate3 increase of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ac-d1 #ce2 and paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bba-d4 ,coach3 and railway travelling1 ,,iii1 #aaj-b2 ,palmer1 ,,iii1 #dda4 ,coats of arms1 derivation1 ,i1 #bh4 ,cognitions1 defined1 ,i1 #bfa-b1 ,,ii1 #bda4 ,coleridge1 ,s4 ,t41 sonnet quoted1 ,,ii1 #ceb4 ,colligation1 the word1 ,,ii1 #cfh-i4 ,colloids1 evolution of life1 ,i1 #cgd4 ,comets1 origin1 direction and constitution1 ,i1 #abe-h1 #aec1 #agg-h4 ,common sense3 judgment of reason1 ,,ii1 #bdc-d2 anomalies1 ,,iii1 #dja-d1 #dde4 ,companies 7see ,joint-stock companies47 ,comparative ,psychology 7see ,psychology47 ,compass1 faulty ,admiralty1 ,,iii1 #bcd1 #beb4 ,competition3 effect of railway1 ,,iii1 #ig1 #ajf-g2 effects1 ,,iii1 #ddh-i2 ,american1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,comte1 ,a43 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #ae-bi2 mathematics1 ,,ii1 #ae-ai2 astronomy1 ,,ii1 #ba-c2 progress of mathematics1 ,,ii1 #ef2 on gravitation1 ,,ii1 #fe1 #ff2 on education1 ,,ii1 #gb1 #acc2 ,littr on classification of1 ,,ii1 #gd-f2 abstract and concrete science1 ,,ii1 #gi2 science and positivism1 ,,ii1 #aah-bb1 #abh1 #aci2 origin of knowledge1 ,,ii1 #abb-e2 propositions of1 ,,ii1 #abe-cb2 and social statics1 ,,ii1 #acd-g2 ,mill on philosophy1 ,,ii1 #adc2 ,fouille on1 ,,ii1 #adc-d2 progress from simple to complex1 ,,ii1 #adg2 positivism rejected by ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,,ii1 #bba4 ,concrete3 precedes abstract1 ,i1 #cbc2 definition1 ,,ii1 #gh4 ,conduct 7see ,morals47 ,conglomerate1 origin1 ,i1 #ddd4 ,conic sections1 relation of circle to hyperbola1 ,i1 #e4 ,conscience3 corporate and individual1 ,,iii1 #fa-b2 ,kant on human1 ,,iii1 #aib2 ,lubbock1 ,,iii1 #aib-c2 and duty1 ,,iii1 #baj-a4 ,consciousness1 the phrase1 state of1 ,,ii1 #cbf-g4 ,conservatism3 and social state1 ,i1 #cef2 of women1 ,i1 #cfc2 ,emerson on1 ,,iii1 #ce2 effects1 ,,iii1 #dc-d4 ,contract3 principle of1 ,,iii1 #ij1 #ajh2 and expediency1 ,,iii1 #ie-f2 railway proprietary1 ,,iii1 #ajh-ab2 enforcement in ,spain1 ,,iii1 #bah2 effect of breaches1 ,,iii1 #bbj2 ,state to enforce1 ,,iii1 #ccd1 #ccf4 ,contractors3 sociological division of labour1 ,i1 #ajf2 railway1 ,,iii1 #gb-d1 #hc1 #hh1 #ajh4 ,contrast3 in literature and art1 ,,ii1 #cgc-d2 in music1 ,,ii1 #ddd1 #ddf4 ,convicts 7see ,prison ,ethics47 ,coperation3 needful to social life1 ,,iii1 #dej2 voluntary1 ,,iii1 #dej-a2 compulsory1 ,,iii1 #dea-d2 and socialism1 ,,iii1 #ded-f4 ,copernicus1 ,n41 solar theory1 ,i1 #aic4 ,copula1 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cdb-d4 ,corn laws3 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bid2 and clergy1 ,,iii1 #cfa4 ,corporations1 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bhi4 ,correlation1 organic1 ,i1 #if-aja4 ,costume3 and political opinion1 ,,iii1 #a-e1 #cj2 reform and custom1 ,,iii1 #cj-f1 #cf-g2 development1 ,,iii1 #ddg4 ,cotton3 industry and locality1 ,i1 #ajd2 manufacture1 ,,ii1 #fh4 ,counterpoint1 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #ddh4 ,counties1 social development1 ,i1 #bhh4 ,courage1 emotional expression1 ,i1 #cdc-ej4 ,crabs1 of ,kentucky caves1 ,i1 #djj-a1 #djb4 ,creation 7see ,special creation47 ,credit1 ,state tamperings with money1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg4 ,creed3 fatal to science1 ,i1 #dfc2 use and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cga4 ,criminals 7see ,prison ,ethics47 ,critical point1 of gases1 ,i1 #afd-g4 ,critics1 faith in1 ,,ii1 #cbb4 ,crofton1 ,captain1 prison discipline1 ,,iii1 #ahf4 ,cromwell1 ,o41 and representative government1 ,,iii1 #cae-f4 ,croshek1 the name1 ,i1 #cac4 ,crosse1 ,a4 ,f41 on ,hungarian music1 ,,ii1 #ddi4 ,croydon1 board of health1 ,,iii1 #bda4 ,crustacea1 integration1 ,i1 #fh-ga4 ,cubit1 length of1 ,,ii1 #dc1 #dd4 ,curiosity1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfd-e4 ,curtsy1 obeisance1 ,,iii1 #ah-i4 ,custom3 and political opinion1 ,,iii1 #a-e1 #cj2 ,eastern1 ,,iii1 #be2 and reform1 ,,iii1 #cj-f1 #cf-g2 effect on railways1 ,,iii1 #aaj-b4 ,cuvier1 ,baron de1 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja4 ,d',alembert1 ,j4 le ,r41 composition of forces1 ,,ii1 #bd4 ,damaras1 ethics of the1 ,,iii1 #aic4 ,dancing3 origin and differentiation1 ,i1 #cj-b2 grace in1 ,,ii1 #cha1 #chb2 and pleasure1 ,,ii1 #djb2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #dda4 ,darwin1 ,charles3 natural selection of one variation1 ,i1 #djg1 #dba2 natural selection and heredity1 ,i1 #djh-ab1 #dba2 on ,e4 ,darwin1 ,i1 #dag2 inheritance of functionally produced changes1 ,i1 #dag-ba1 #dbb2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dbf-cg2 on the phrase natural selection1 ,i1 #dbi2 effect of changed conditions1 ,i1 #dcc4 ,darwin1 ,dr4 ,e41 organic evolution1 ,i1 #cij-a1 #cig4 ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 chemical elements1 ,,iii1 #aie4 ,dawn1 as name1 ,i1 #cah1 #cai1 #cbd4 ,death3 primitive ideas1 ,,iii1 #f2 punishment and associations1 ,,iii1 #aeh1 #ahg2 duty and inclination1 ,,iii1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae2 rate in barracks1 ,,iii1 #beg2 improvement in rate1 ,,iii1 #ddg4 ,deduction3 and physiology1 ,i1 #gg-ha1 #ajg2 qualitative and quantitative science1 ,,ii1 #g4 ,deer1 growth of horns1 ,i1 #cic4 ,defoe1 ,d41 ,complete ,english ,tradesman1 ,,iii1 #ada4 ,deities1 primitive ideas1 ,,iii1 #f-aa1 #ab4 ,de la ,beche1 ,sir ,h41 paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bje4 ,democracy1 change inaugurated1 ,,iii1 #di4 ,desire1 associated with talent1 ,i1 #ed4 ,despotism3 and social state1 ,i1 #bfh1 ,,iii1 #cac2 and anarchy1 ,,iii1 #aei2 and representative government1 ,,iii1 #cji-aj4 ,development3 hypothesis1 ,i1 #a-g2 relation to function1 ,i1 #fc-d2 7see also ,evolution47 ,devonian ,system1 age of1 ,i1 #bjc-e1 #baj4 ,dewar1 ,prof41 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #afb4 ,differentiation1 sociological1 ,i1 #ajb-g4 ,directors3 and railway companies1 ,,iii1 #eb-fc1 #fi2 and shareholder's interests1 ,,iii1 #hb-h1 #ajh2 morals of banking1 ,,iii1 #aca-g4 ,disease3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #dg2 dissimilar effects1 ,i1 #ajj2 beliefs about1 ,,ii1 #aec2 criminality1 ,,iii1 #afg2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja1 #cjd2 body and nerve functions1 ,,iii1 #dai-bb1 #ddc4 ,distribution1 individual and social1 ,i1 #bia-h4 ,dividends1 railway1 ,,iii1 #eg1 #ih4 ,division of labour3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ec-h2 sociological1 ,i1 #aje-f1 #bib-c1 ,,iii1 #cbc2 illustrations and growth1 ,i1 #bff2 social and individual nervous system1 ,i1 #bii-cjg2 progress of science1 ,,ii1 #bd-g4 ,dixon1 ,t4 ,h41 on ,norfolk ,island convicts1 ,,iii1 #agf4 ,dogs3 size of jaws1 ,i1 #cih-djj1 #dja1 #dbb2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dfi-ga2 simile of ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 #bca-c2 gracefulness1 ,,ii1 #cha1 #che2 muscular excitement1 ,,ii1 #djj1 #djc2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dbh4 ,don1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad4 ,downes1 ,dr41 on light and protoplasm1 ,i1 #dfe-f4 ,drama3 cause of laughter1 ,,ii1 #dfa2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja4 ,draper1 honesty and bankruptcy1 ,,iii1 #abi-ca4 ,drawing1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cff4 ,dreams1 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caj-c4 ,dress3 and political opinion1 ,,iii1 #a-e1 #cj2 custom and reform1 ,,iii1 #cj-f1 #cf-g2 and extravagance1 ,,iii1 #cf-g2 and enjoyment1 ,,iii1 #dj-f4 ,drunkenness1 and temperance1 ,,iii1 #ddf4 ,duck1 weight of bones1 ,i1 #dag-h4 ,duty3 ,kant and pursuit of happiness1 ,,iii1 #bjg-i2 and inclination1 ,,iii1 #bji-ac4 ,dyeing1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abe4 ,dymond1 ,j41 ,principles of ,morality1 ,i1 #cdf4 ,dynamics1 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #ai4 ,ear1 embryological development1 ,i1 #ded4 ,earth3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aa-d1 #ce2 rotatory movement1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 number of satellites1 ,i1 #aci2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb2 size1 ,i1 #ade2 paleontology and motion1 ,i1 #bba-d2 laws of motion1 ,,ii1 #bgb1 #bhc-h2 7see also ,geology47 ,ease1 and grace1 ,,ii1 #chb4 ,east ,indies1 effects of upheaval1 ,i1 #di-eb4 ,echoes1 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caj-c4 ,eclipse1 prediction of1 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,ectoderm3 development1 ,i1 #bhd2 social and individual analogy1 ,i1 #bih-i2 differentiation1 ,,iii1 #dje4 ,education3 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cgj2 development of science1 ,,ii1 #gb2 ,comte's views1 ,,ii1 #acc2 and conservatism1 ,,iii1 #dc2 old and new1 ,,iii1 #bgg2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja2 parliamentary reform1 ,,iii1 #cge-i2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dce-f2 development1 ,,iii1 #ddf1 #dei-fj2 ,american1 ,,iii1 #dge-f4 ,effect3 proportionality to cause1 ,,ii1 #cjj-a1 #cjb-e1 #cje-g1 #caj-aa1 #cah-bj2 relation to cause1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,egg1 evolution of mind1 ,i1 #cgg4 ,egyptians3 language and painting1 ,i1 #be-f2 sculpture1 ,i1 #bf-g1 #bi1 #cj2 music1 ,i1 #cb4 ,electricity3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ei2 genesis of galvanic1 ,,ii1 #fa2 ,whewell on progress of theory1 ,,ii1 #fb2 abstract-concrete science1 ,,ii1 #hh2 mode of molecular motion1 ,,ii1 #abf2 what is8 #afh-gb1 #ahf-g2 also thermo-1 ,,ii1 #agb-f2 statical and molecular motion1 ,,ii1 #ahj-c1 #ahf-g2 induction1 ,,ii1 #ahc2 voltaic and molecular motion1 ,,ii1 #ahc-d1 #ahf-g4 ,elements1 complexity of1 ,i1 #aee-i1 #afb1 #cga-d4 ,ell1 the measure1 ,,ii1 #dd4 ,ellipse1 relation to circle1 ,i1 #e4 ,embryo3 relation to adult1 ,i1 #f2 early changes in1 ,i1 #dde2 development1 ,i1 #dea-h4 ,embryology3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ag-i2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #dh2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #ig2 importance of1 ,,ii1 #h-i2 von ,baer's formula1 ,,ii1 #acg-h4 ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w43 ,lectures on the ,times1 ,,ii1 #ced2 use and ornament1 ,,ii1 #cgj2 on conservatism1 ,,iii1 #ce4 ,emotion3 ,bain's definition1 ,i1 #beh-fj2 defined1 ,i1 #bfb2 of beauty1 ,i1 #cce-f2 relation to idea1 ,i1 #ccf2 expression in children1 ,i1 #cci-ej2 and intellect1 ,i1 #cec1 ,,ii1 #dfe2 sexual sentiment1 ,i1 #cfc-d2 sociality1 freedom1 approbation1 and acquisitiveness1 ,i1 #cff-g2 poetry and effect on language1 ,,ii1 #ceg-fa2 demonstration of1 ,,ii1 #dja-c2 nervous and muscular system1 ,,ii1 #dec-h2 physiology of laughter1 ,,ii1 #deh-fd2 waste1 repair1 and language1 ,,ii1 #cfa-g2 and health1 ,,iii1 #dha4 ,empiricism3 reasoning of1 ,,ii1 #bja-e2 test of truth1 ,,ii1 #bad-g4 ,endoderm3 development1 ,i1 #bhd2 differentiation1 ,,iii1 #dje4 ,endymion1 the myth1 ,i1 #cbf1 #cbg4 ,energy1 conservation and persistence of force1 ,,ii1 #bie4 ,engel1 ,carl1 on ancient music1 ,,ii1 #dad4 ,engineers3 and railways1 ,,iii1 #fh-gb1 #hc1 #hh1 #ajh2 society1 ,,iii1 #cfb-c1 #cfe2 ,english and ,french1 ,,iii1 #dbg-h4 ,engines1 dissimilarity of similar1 ,i1 #ii4 ,england3 government in1 ,i1 #cjb-e2 enterprise in1 ,,iii1 #bgh-hj2 representative government in1 ,,iii1 #cje-i1 #cah-i2 militancy and industrialism1 ,,iii1 #daf2 political liberty1 ,,iii1 #dde4 ,english language3 words1 ,,ii1 #ccf-h2 ,latin and ,greek words1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i4 ,entomology1 insect transformations1 ,,ii1 #afc4 ,epiblast1 development1 ,i1 #deb-c4 ,epilepsy3 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caa-b2 in guinea pigs1 ,i1 #dae-f4 ,equality3 relations of likeness1 ,i1 #ce-g1 #dj2 quantitative prevision1 ,,ii1 #da-i2 and barter1 ,,ii1 #df2 and mechanics1 ,,ii1 #ej2 and law1 ,,ii1 #eb2 and astronomy1 ,,ii1 #ec2 hydrostatics1 ,,ii1 #eg2 optics1 ,,ii1 #eg2 acoustics1 ,,ii1 #eg2 dynamics1 ,,ii1 #eh4 ,equity 7see ,justice47 ,esquire1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ac1 #bh1 #cb4 ,ethics3 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dfc-e2 of lower races1 ,,ii1 #aib-e2 ,quarterly ,review criticisms1 ,,ii1 #bei-fe2 absolute politics1 ,,iii1 #bag-bh2 7see also ,kant1 ,morality1 ,morals1 ,prison ,ethics47 ,euclid3 test of necessity1 ,,ii1 #aih2 axioms1 ,,ii1 #bhb-c4 ,evidence1 valuation of1 ,,ii1 #afa-g4 ,evolution3 and special creation1 ,i1 #a-g2 of solar system1 ,i1 #abh-ca2 law of elements1 ,i1 #aef2 ,hugh ,miller on1 ,i1 #bai2 geological record1 ,i1 #bbf-cb1 #bcb-dj2 emotional1 ,i1 #bej-g2 of mind1 ,i1 #bfc1 #cgf-h2 of animal worship1 ,i1 #cbi2 comparative psychology of man1 ,i1 #ceb2 mental and bodily mass1 #cec-d2 rate of mental1 ,i1 #cee2 mental variability1 ,i1 #cef-g2 impulsiveness1 ,i1 #ceg-i2 ,martineau on1 ,i1 #cga-hh2 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #cga-d2 of life from not life1 ,i1 #cgd-e2 plants and animals indistinguishable1 ,i1 #cge-f2 the word1 ,i1 #chj2 and originating mind1 ,i1 #cha-f2 materialism1 ,i1 #chf-h2 and catastrophism in geology1 ,i1 #chi-ij2 ,dr4 ,darwin and ,lamarck1 ,i1 #cij-a1cig2 and reproductive system1 ,i1 #dji1 #dab1 #dbb-e2 summary on use and disuse1 ,i1 #dba-e2 effect of conditions1 ,i1 #dbg-ce2 of life1 ,i1 #deh-fj1 #dfj-b2 ,huxley on1 ,i1 #dfb-c2 terrestrial1 ,,ii1 #id-i2 von ,baer's formula1 ,,ii1 #acg-h2 outline of synthetic philosophy1 ,,ii1 #adj-b2 advance in complexity of science1 ,,ii1 #aej-g2 ,quarterly ,reviewer on1 ,,ii1 #bfa-e2 ,prof4 ,tait on1 ,,ii1 #bgd-e2 relation of thoughts to things1 ,,ii1 #cbj2 ,prof4 ,green on1 ,,ii1 #cbc2 limitation of traits1 ,,ii1 #dch2 of musical scales1 ,,ii1 #ddj-a2 of dancing1 ,,ii1 #dda2 of music1 ,,ii1 #ddh-i2 ,kant and1 ,,iii1 #aig-i1 #bjf-g2 and ,kantian assumptions1 ,,iii1 #bjc-f1 #bjf-g2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bee2 individual and social1 ,,iii1 #bfc-e2 railways1 ,,iii1 #bff2 language1 ,,iii1 #djb-c2 universal1 ,,iii1 #deh2 industrialism1 ,,iii1 #dei2 education1 ,,iii1 #dei-fj2 prospective1 ,,iii1 #dia-b4 ,exchange3 origin1 ,i1 #ed1 ,,ii1 #df2 ,state tamperings with money1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg4 ,exchequer bills1 and ,bank of ,england1 ,,iii1 #cca4 ,excitement1 poetry and effect on language1 ,,ii1 #ceg-fa4 ,excluded middle1 law of1 ,,ii1 #aia-b4 ,expediency3 doctrine of1 ,,iii1 #ie-f2 relative and absolute ethics1 ,,iii1 #aeb-g1 #ahh1 #ccc2 and penal code1 ,,iii1 #aei-fc1 #ahh4 ,experience hypothesis3 origin of knowledge1 ,,ii1 #abb-e2 reasoning of empiricism1 ,,ii1 #bja-e2 consciousness of object1 ,,ii1 #baa-d2 and a priori truths1 ,,ii1 #bhg-h4 ,extravagance3 and fashion1 ,,iii1 #cf-g2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bij-a2 good for trade1 ,,iii1 #bic4 ,eyes3 position in development1 ,i1 #ga-b1 #ded2 brighter from good news1 ,,ii1 #djb4 ,factors of organic evolution1 ,i1 #chi-dgh4 ,faculties1 exhausted by exercise1 ,,ii1 #cfa-g4 ,fainting1 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caa-b4 ,farming1 by owner and bailiff1 ,,iii1 #bdf4 ,fashion3 origin1 ,,iii1 #bh2 extravagance of1 ,,iii1 #cf-g2 social intercourse and pleasure1 ,,iii1 #cf-df2 need of change1 ,,iii1 #df-ea2 prospect1 ,,iii1 #ea4 ,father1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ab1 #ac1 #ba4 ,faye1 ,m43 solar constitution1 ,i1 #ahb2 solar spots1 ,i1 #ahc-d1 #ahh-i4 ,feathers1 structure and function1 ,i1 #cib4 ,features1 and personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #chg-ii4 ,feelings3 definition1 ,i1 #bfb-d2 evolution1 ,i1 #bfc-d2 indications of1 ,,ii1 #djj-c2 loudness of voice1 ,,ii1 #djd-e2 also timbre1 ,,ii1 #dje1 #daa2 and pitch1 ,,ii1 #djf1 #daa2 and intervals1 ,,ii1 #djf-i1 #daa2 variability of pitch1 ,,ii1 #dji1 #daa2 emphasis and time in music1 ,,ii1 #dab-c2 relation of music to sympathy1 ,,ii1 #dbd-f2 nervous and muscular system1 ,,ii1 #dec-h4 ,feet1 obeisance of uncovering1 ,,iii1 #ag4 ,fetichism1 political1 ,,iii1 #cic-djj4 ,figures of speech1 ,,ii1 #cej-e4 ,fiji3 ethics in1 ,,iii1 #aic2 life in1 ,,iii1 #bag-h1 #bba4 ,fingers3 heredity and number1 ,i1 #dac-d1 #dge2 and memory1 ,,ii1 #dfe4 ,fire1 indirect effects1 ,,iii1 #bdb4 ,first ,principles3 ,martineau on1 ,,ii1 #bej-h2 data of philosophy1 ,,ii1 #bhf4 ,fish3 evolution and heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ae-g2 temperature1 ,i1 #ge1 #gf2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #gf2 paleontological remains1 ,i1 #bbg1 #bce1 #bdj2 eating of1 ,,iii1 #dg2 anomalies1 ,,iii1 #dja4 ,flint implements1 discovery1 ,i1 #dac4 ,flocculi1 appearance of nebul1 ,i1 #aah-be4 ,food3 absorption and deductive biology1 ,i1 #gg-ha2 for the dead1 ,i1 #caa-b2 nutrition1 ,,iii1 #djh2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dbc-d4 ,foot1 the measure1 ,,ii1 #dd4 ,force3 cognition of its persistence1 ,,ii1 #bfi1 #bge2 ,tait on central forces1 ,,ii1 #bij-c2 persistence and conservation of energy1 ,,ii1 #bie2 relation to motion1 ,,ii1 #caj-d4 ,forgery1 ,,iii1 #acd4 ,forms of thought1 consciousness of object1 ,,ii1 #baa-d4 ,fossils 7see ,paleontology47 ,fouille1 ,alfred1 on ,comte's philosophy1 ,,ii1 #adc-d4 ,fowls1 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dah4 ,france3 ,english and ,french sheep1 ,,ii1 #cif1 #cih2 agriculture and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bfg-h2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cah-i1 #cbj2 paper currency1 ,,iii1 #cde2 liberty in1 ,,iii1 #cha2 banks in1 ,,iii1 #dbf2 engineering1 ,,iii1 #dbg-h4 ,franchise 7see ,parliamentary ,reform47 ,freedom3 manners and customs1 ,,iii1 #cj-f1 #cf-g1 #df-ea2 to bondage1 ,,iii1 #dde-gj2 loss of ,american1 ,,iii1 #dgc-d1 #dgg1 #dgh-i4 ,free trade3 effects on industry1 ,i1 #bb-c2 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bfh-gj2 and banking1 ,,iii1 #cef4 ,friendly societies1 and individualism1 ,,iii1 #dcc-d4 ,frog1 reflex action1 ,,ii1 #cjh4 ,fugue1 origin1 ,i1 #cc4 ,function3 relation to growth1 ,i1 #fc-d2 and to integration of parts1 ,i1 #gc2 and to structure1 ,i1 #bdi4 ,galactic circle1 nebular distribution1 ,i1 #aab4 ,galton1 ,f41 ,english ,men of ,science1 ,i1 #cfj4 ,ganglia 7see ,nervous ,system47 ,gas3 heat and liquifaction1 ,i1 #afd-g2 ,english enterprise1 ,,iii1 #bgh4 ,gastrula stage1 of embryos1 ,i1 #deb1 #deg4 ,general3 ,comte's use of word1 ,,ii1 #bj2 definition1 ,,ii1 #gi4 ,generalization3 universal tendency1 ,i1 #aib2 absent in children1 ,i1 #ced2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfe-f4 ,generosity1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfh4 ,genius3 literary style1 ,,ii1 #cfe-g2 non-recognition1 ,,iii1 #bii-cjj4 ,geology3 special creation and evolution1 ,i1 #f-g2 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aa-d1 #ad-g1 #ce2 life and multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ci-df1 #di-ec2 illogical1 ,i1 #aib-bdj2 evolution of1 ,i1 #aib-h2 ,wernerian1 ,i1 #aid-g2 ,huttonian1 ,i1 #aie-g2 age of systems1 ,i1 #aih-bje2 and paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bje-ab2 past and present changes1 ,i1 #bab-h2 ,hugh ,miller's doctrines1 ,i1 #bah-bj2 breaks in record1 ,i1 #bbj-f1 #bbf-cb1 #bcb-dj2 original object of ,geological ,society1 ,i1 #bda2 catastrophism and evolution1 ,i1 #chi-ij2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #fj2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #hi-ib2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #ie-i2 deals with aggregates1 ,,ii1 #ajj2 ,english map1 ,,ii1 #beg2 7see also ,earth47 ,geometry3 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #af-ba2 origin1 ,,ii1 #dj1 #aea2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #dh-ej1 #ei2 genesis of trigonometry1 ,,ii1 #ee-f2 interdependence of science and art1 ,,ii1 #fi2 and abstract science1 ,,ii1 #gi-hj2 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #hd2 the name1 ,,ii1 #aac1 #aae2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aee2 test of necessity1 ,,ii1 #aih-bjj4 ,gerard1 ,e41 ,hungarian music1 ,,ii1 #dej-a4 ,gesticulation1 and language1 ,,ii1 #cce4 ,ghost3 the word misleading1 ,i1 #caa2 outline of theory1 ,,iii1 #h4 ,giraffe1 correlation of parts1 ,i1 #djb-e4 ,glck1 ,c4 ,w4 von1 ,handel on1 ,,ii1 #ddh4 ,gnomon1 use1 ,,ii1 #ec-d4 ,god3 belief in personal1 ,,ii1 #bbc2 primitive ideas1 ,,iii1 #f-aa1 #ab1 #bc4 ,gold3 digging for1 and evolution1 ,,iii1 #bfd2 efflux of1 ,,iii1 #cda-c2 7see also ,money47 ,good1 meaning of word1 ,,iii1 #bjb4 ,gothic1 allied to vegetative style1 ,,ii1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ,gould1 ,j41 on colour of birds1 ,i1 #dcc4 ,gout1 and heredity1 ,,ii1 #cie4 ,government3 differentiation of1 ,i1 #ba2 ideal society1 ,,ii1 #aca-b2 evolution and divergence of1 ,,iii1 #bb1 #bd-cj1 #ej2 criminal code1 ,,iii1 #aeg2 what is representative government good for8 ,,iii1 #bhc-cbe2 belief in ,english1 ,,iii1 #bhd2 flaws1 c41 ,,iii1 #bhd-ia2 selection of representatives1 ,,iii1 #bia-cjj2 individualism and the state1 ,,iii1 #daf-cg1 #ddb-d2 and food supply1 ,,iii1 #dbc-d2 banks1 ,,iii1 #dbe-f2 engineering1 ,,iii1 #dbg-h2 water supply1 ,,iii1 #dbi2 art and literature1 ,,iii1 #dcj-a2 and churches1 ,,iii1 #dcd2 charity1 ,,iii1 #dcd2 education1 ,,iii1 #dce-f2 railways1 ,,iii1 #dcg2 post-office1 ,,iii1 #ddj-b2 7see also ,over-legislation47 ,gracefulness1 ,,ii1 #cha-f4 ,grand1 the word great1 ,,ii1 #cfh4 ,granite3 metamorphism1 ,i1 #bbi2 at ,phil1 ,i1 #dcg4 ,gravitation3 ,newton and law of1 ,,ii1 #bf-g2 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #adh4 ,great1 and the word grand1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i4 ,great ,western ,railway3 versus ,rushout1 ,,iii1 #id2 and ,south ,western1 ,,iii1 #ig-h2 and ,north ,western1 ,,iii1 #ajg4 ,greece3 sculpture1 ,i1 #bg1 #cj2 dancing1 ,i1 #ca2 poetry1 ,i1 #ca2 music1 ,i1 #cc2 architecture1 ,,ii1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cgh2 personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #cia-c2 early poems1 ,,ii1 #dad-h4 ,greek language3 ,latin and ,english words1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i2 sociology and knowledge of1 ,,iii1 #cgg4 ,green1 ,prof4 ,t4 ,h41 criticism1 ,,ii1 #cbb-cb4 ,greenwich ,hospital1 funds1 ,,iii1 #cih4 ,greyhounds1 use and disuse in1 ,i1 #dfi-ga4 ,grief1 voice of1 ,,ii1 #dje4 ,grocers1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aba-c4 ,grotz1 ,a41 on science and religion1 ,,ii1 #bbe4 ,growth3 relation to activity1 ,i1 #fc-d2 various forms1 ,i1 #fe-g2 social1 ,i1 #bfe-i1 #cjf4 ,guinea pigs1 epilepsy in1 ,i1 #dae-f4 ,guizot1 ,m43 social aggregation1 ,i1 #bhb2 and specialization1 ,i1 #bhg2 political machinery1 ,,iii1 #bgf1 #cii4 ,gulliver1 ,l41 an imaginary1 on ,english institutions1 ,,iii1 #cje-i4 ,gurney1 ,e41 on origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dcg-dc4 ,habit 7see ,heredity47 ,hair3 and political opinion1 ,,iii1 #a-e2 obeisance of offering1 ,,iii1 #ba2 colour of ,american1 ,,iii1 #dhb4 ,hallo6 intonation of1 ,,ii1 #djg4 ,hamburg1 currency1 ,,iii1 #cci4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w43 on space1 ,,ii1 #aia-b2 the word belief1 ,,ii1 #bbb-c2 ,grotz on1 ,,ii1 #bbe2 necessity of causation1 ,,ii1 #cbj2 7see also ,mill47 ,hampstead ,heath1 ,,ii1 #cgj4 ,hand3 the measure1 ,,ii1 #dd2 ribbing of skin1 ,i1 #ddh2 rubbing together of hands1 ,,ii1 #djb4 ,handel1 ,g4 ,f41 on ,glck1 ,,ii1 #ddh4 ,happiness1 ,kant and pursuit of1 ,,iii1 #bjg-i2 7see also ,kant47 ,harmony1 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #ddh4 ,harp1 strings in ancient1 ,,ii1 #dae4 ,harris1 ,mr41 on ,norfolk ,island convicts1 ,,iii1 #agf4 ,hastings1 railway service1 ,,ii1 #ig4 ,hat1 obeisance of removal1 ,,iii1 #bj1 #bg1 #dg4 ,hayward1 ,r4 ,b41 criticism1 ,,ii1 #cjg-ad4 ,head3 obeisance of uncovering1 ,,iii1 #bj2 putting dust on1 ,,iii1 #ba4 ,health3 and criminality1 ,,iii1 #afg2 failure of boards of1 ,,iii1 #bda1 #bdh1 #bij2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja1 #cjd2 body and nerve functions1 ,,iii1 #dai-bb1 #ddc2 and feeling1 ,,iii1 #dha2 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dhb1 #dhc-d4 ,heart43 integration1 ,i1 #fg2 disease1 ,i1 #daj-aa2 effect of emotion1 ,,ii1 #ded1 #dee1 #dfd2 and nervous system1 ,,iii1 #dbj-a4 ,heat3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #dg1 #ei2 terrestrial effects of diminishing1 ,i1 #dj-f2 cause of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #hb2 nebular change1 ,i1 #aah2 liquefaction of gases1 ,i1 #afd-g2 terrestrial motion and paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bba-d2 rock metamorphism1 ,i1 #bbi-cj1 #bcb2 action on bodies1 ,i1 #dcf2 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #fb1 #fc2 abstract concrete science1 ,,ii1 #hh2 what is thermo-electricity8 ,,ii1 #agb-f2 effect on compound molecules1 ,,ii1 #agh-hj1 #ahf2 insensible motion1 ,,ii1 #bff-h1 #bgf4 ,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f43 8to philosophize on ,nature10 ,,ii1 #aj1 #aa2 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #ab-e4 ,heraldry1 and manners and fashion1 ,,iii1 #bf1 #bg-h4 ,heredity3 the general law1 ,i1 #fd1 #ajc1 #ajd2 organic development1 ,i1 #ij-b2 moral sentiments1 ,i1 #cch2 effect of sex1 ,i1 #cfb2 size of jaw1 ,i1 #cig-djj1 #dbb2 musical faculty1 ,i1 #djf-g2 natural selection1 ,i1 #djh-ab2 functional modifications1 ,i1 #dae-g2 ,darwin's belief in their inheritance1 ,i1 #dag-ba1 #dbb2 summary on use and disuse1 ,i1 #dba-e2 also their bearing on ethics1 psychology1 and sociology1 ,i1 #dfc-e2 ,duke of ,argyll's criticism1 ,i1 #dfg-gh2 personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #chg-ii2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bee4 ,hero-worship1 ,,iii1 #cag4 ,herr1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,j43 ,magellanic clouds1 ,i1 #aaf-g2 form of nebul1 ,i1 #abb1 #abd2 variation of terrestrial temperature1 ,i1 #bbb1 #bbc2 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #cgb2 cause and effect1 ,,ii1 #cjf1 #cai4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,w43 on nebulous matter1 ,i1 #aaj2 stellar magnitude and distance1 ,i1 #aae2 stellar genesis1 ,i1 #abi2 solar surface1 ,i1 #ahe1 #ahg4 ,heterogeneity3 increase in1 displayed by astronomy1 ,i1 #aj-aa1 #ce2 geology1 ,i1 #aa-ad1 #ce2 meteorology1 ,i1 #ac-d1 #ce2 biology1 ,i1 #ad-g1 #ce2 man1 ,i1 #ag-i1 #ce2 society1 ,i1 #ai-bc1 #ce2 ceremony1 ,i1 #bj-a2 religion1 ,i1 #bj-c2 language1 ,i1 #bc-f2 writing1 ,i1 #bd-f2 the arts1 ,i1 #bd-cj2 poetry1 music and drama1 ,i1 #cj-b2 literature and science1 ,i1 #cd-e2 development1 ,i1 #fg2 7see also ,multiplication of ,effects47 ,history1 measure of time1 ,,ii1 #de-i4 ,hobbes1 ,t41 commonwealth of1 ,i1 #bgj-b4 ,hodgson1 ,s4 ,h43 criticism of1 ,,ii1 #bbe-cd2 reply to ,prof4 ,green1 ,,ii1 #cba-b1 #cbi4 ,homogeneous3 instability of the1 ,i1 #ha-d1 #dei-fj2 orderly heterogeneity1 ,i1 #hd-ic4 ,honesty3 in trade and bankruptcy1 ,,iii1 #abi-ca1 #ach2 of lower races1 ,,iii1 #aid2 state tamperings with money1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg2 and social grade1 ,,iii1 #cei2 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #cig4 ,hornbills1 head excrescences of1 ,i1 #cib4 ,horns1 evolution of1 ,i1 #cie4 ,horse1 the phrase black1 ,,ii1 #cdj4 ,hoskins1 ,g4 ,a41 on ,valencia prison1 ,,iii1 #agg-h4 ,huguenots1 ,smiles on the1 ,i1 #cfj4 ,humboldt1 ,a4 von1 distribution of nebul1 ,i1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae4 ,hume1 ,d43 subject and object1 ,,ii1 #cbi2 law codification1 ,,iii1 #beh4 ,hungary1 music in1 ,,ii1 #ddi4 ,hutton1 ,james1 geological theory1 ,i1 #aie1 #aig4 ,hutton1 ,richard ,h41 8a questionable parentage for morals10 ,i1 #cca-ej4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h43 evolution and biological heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ag2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja2 belief in double personality1 ,i1 #caj2 on 8,origin of ,species10 ,i1 #chi-ij2 on evolution1 ,i1 #dfb-c2 a creed fatal to science1 ,i1 #dfc2 specialized administration1 ,,iii1 #djd-e2 endoderm and ectoderm1 ,,iii1 #dje2 function of parliament1 ,,iii1 #dag2 and altruism1 ,,iii1 #dcc2 administrative nihilism1 ,,iii1 #dch1 #ddb-d4 ,hybrids1 origin of worship1 ,i1 #cbj-b1 #cbi4 ,hydra1 the1 naval maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcd4 ,hydrogen1 liquefaction1 ,i1 #afj4 ,hydrostatics1 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg1 #ei4 ,hydrozoa3 analogy to social organism1 ,i1 #bhj-c2 development1 ,i1 #bhd2 circulation1 ,i1 #bia2 nervous system1 ,,iii1 #dbb4 ,hyperbola1 relation to circle1 ,i1 #e4 ,hyperion1 verse from1 ,,ii1 #cdd4 ,hypoblast1 embryo development1 ,i1 #deb-c1 #dee4 ,hypothesis1 effect on observation1 ,,ii1 #afb-g4 ,ice1 temperature as illustrating propositions1 ,,ii1 #bje-h4 ,idealism3 reasoning of1 ,,ii1 #bja2 ,sidgwick's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bdb-ej4 ,ideas3 relation to emotions1 ,i1 #ccf-h2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfe-f2 actual and pseud-1 ,i1 #chc4 ,idols1 worship of1 ,,iii1 #cic4 ,imitativeness1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfd4 ,impatience1 indications of1 ,,ii1 #djb4 ,impulsiveness1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #ceg-i4 ,inclination1 and duty1 ,,iii1 #baj-a4 ,inconceivability1 ,mill on1 ,,ii1 #aic-bjj4 ,incongruities1 ,bain on1 ,,ii1 #dfc4 ,incuriosity1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfd-e4 ,indeed6 intonation of1 ,,ii1 #djh4 ,india3 prisons of1 ,,iii1 #ahi-ia2 ethics in1 ,,iii1 #aic-e2 failure of government1 ,,iii1 #bdi4 ,individual1 and the ,state1 ,,iii1 #daf-cg1 #ddb-d4 ,induction3 qualitative and quantitative science1 ,,ii1 #g2 electrical1 ,,ii1 #ahc4 ,industrialism3 and social organism1 ,,iii1 #dab-f2 development of1 ,,iii1 #dei2 and unionism1 ,,iii1 #dfe2 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,industry3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ec-h2 effects of railways1 ,i1 #eg2 boundaries ignored by1 ,i1 #bhi4 ,infant3 relation to ovum1 ,i1 #f2 resemblance to uncivilized1 ,i1 #ah4 ,infusoria1 cell membrane1 ,i1 #dda4 ,insanity3 and heredity1 ,i1 #daf1 ,,ii1 #cif2 ,pentonville ,prison1 ,,iii1 #afb2 and life1 ,,iii1 #afd2 and bodily functions1 ,,iii1 #dai-bj4 ,insects3 temperature1 ,i1 #ge2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #gf2 mimicry1 ,i1 #cif2 colours of1 ,i1 #dcc2 metamorphosis1 ,,iii1 #daj4 ,intaglio1 increase of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bf4 ,integration3 longitudinal and tranverse1 ,i1 #fg-gc2 relation to function1 ,i1 #gc2 sociological1 ,i1 #ajb-g4 ,intellect1 effect of emotion1 ,,ii1 #dfe4 ,intelligence3 relation to sexual sentiment1 ,i1 #cfc-d2 and authority1 ,,iii1 #caa4 ,intonation1 origin in churches1 ,,ii1 #daf4 ,invagination1 ,balfour on1 ,i1 #deb4 ,involution1 and evolution1 ,i1 #chj4 ,ireland3 prison discipline1 ,,iii1 #agd2 and bad legislation1 ,,iii1 #bge2 currency in1 ,,iii1 #ccg1 #cdd-e2 bank of1 ,,iii1 #cdh4 ,irish elk1 correlation of parts1 ,i1 #djb4 ,iron3 analogy from cutting1 ,i1 #ig-h2 industry and locality1 ,i1 #ajd2 complexity of1 ,i1 #cgc4 ,isomerism3 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #aee2 evolution of life1 ,i1 #cgd-e4 ,italy1 language1 ,,ii1 #dbc4 ,jam1 association of ideas1 ,i1 #ccg4 ,jaw3 personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #chi-ij1 #cia2 size1 ,i1 #cig-djj1 #dgc2 size of teeth1 ,i1 #dja2 drooping from excitement1 ,,ii1 #dfd4 ,joint-stock companies3 history1 ,,iii1 #eb1 #ajh2 failure of ,act1 ,,iii1 #bda2 importance of1 ,,iii1 #beg2 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bhf2 banking1 ,,iii1 #cdg-ed2 regulative system1 ,,iii1 #dfc4 ,jupiter3 rotatory movement1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 motion of satellites1 ,i1 #acg1 #ada-b2 number of satellites1 ,i1 #aci-dj2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb2 size1 ,i1 #ade2 luminosity1 ,i1 #aej2 orbit1 ,i1 #afi4 ,juries1 bribery of1 ,,iii1 #cif4 ,justice3 re-representative sentiment1 ,i1 #bfc2 development of sympathy1 ,i1 #cdg-ej2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfh2 and equity1 ,,ii1 #eb2 and prison ethics1 ,,iii1 #afe1 #afg1 #ahj1 #aha2 political ethics1 ,,iii1 #bbe1 #bbh2 faulty administration1 ,,iii1 #bcb1 #bce2 over-legislation1 ,,iii1 #bgb2 and representative government1 ,,iii1 #cag-bc1 #cbd1 #chj2 duty of state1 ,,iii1 #ccd2 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #cie-djj2 needful to society1 ,,iii1 #dfi4 ,kames1 ,lord1 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cdc4 ,kant1 ,i43 forms of thought1 ,,ii1 #gg2 space and time1 ,,ii1 #bbf-g1 #bbi-cb1 ,,iii1 #aig-i2 form and matter1 ,,ii1 #bcj-a1 #bcb2 and experientialism1 ,,ii1 #bcd-e2 ,max ,mller on ,spencer and1 ,,ii1 #bce-h2 ,spencer's disagreement from1 ,,ii1 #bch2 ethics1 ,,iii1 #aib-baf2 on lower races1 ,,iii1 #aib-e2 examples of unaided perception1 ,,iii1 #aie-g2 reasoning of1 ,,iii1 #aii-bjc2 space1 ,,iii1 #bjc1 #bjg2 on good will1 ,,iii1 #bja-c1 #bjg2 and evolution1 ,,iii1 #bjc-f1 #bjg2 ,carus on ethics1 ,,iii1 #bjf-g2 pursuit of happiness1 ,,iii1 #bjg-i2 duty and inclination1 ,,iii1 #bji-ac2 ethical principles1 ,,iii1 #bac-f4 ,kent1 ,w4 ,s41 on infusoria1 ,i1 #ddj4 ,kepler1 ,j3 laws of1 ,i1 #cf2 belief in planetary spirits1 ,i1 #ajh2 solar theory1 ,i1 #aic4 ,kid1 laughter caused by1 ,,ii1 #dfa-b4 ,kirchhoff1 solar spots1 ,i1 #ahg4 ,kissing1 obeisance of1 ,,iii1 #ah4 ,kneeling1 obeisance of1 ,,iii1 #ai4 ,knight1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ae1 #bh4 ,knowledge3 common and scientific1 ,,ii1 #a-h1 #bi2 dependent on experience1 ,,ii1 #abb2 relativity1 ,,ii1 #abb1 #bbj-a2 and word belief1 ,,ii1 #ahh-ia2 ,quarterly ,reviewer on1 ,,ii1 #bfj2 and reasoning1 ,,iii1 #aii1 #bja2 and political ethics1 ,,iii1 #bbe4 ,labour3 division of1 ,i1 #ai-bc1 #bhc-ia2 right to1 ,,iii1 #dff4 ,lady1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad4 ,lady of the ,lake1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cea4 ,laing1 ,mr41 on railway construction1 ,,iii1 #aje-f4 ,lamarck1 ,j4 ,b4 ,p4 ,a4 de ,m41 organic evolution1 ,i1 #cij-a1 #cig4 ,lancashire3 cotton industry1 ,i1 #bff2 effect of railway competition1 ,,iii1 #ig1 #ajf4 ,landowners1 railway policy1 ,,iii1 #fc-g4 ,landscape1 appreciation of1 ,i1 #cce-f4 ,language3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bc-f1 ,,ii1 #cff-g2 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caa-b2 poverty of ,australian1 ,i1 #cae2 precedence of concrete nouns1 ,i1 #cbc2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfe-f2 classification1 ,,ii1 #ca-c1 #cd1 #dj2 ,saxon words1 ,,ii1 #ccf-h2 under excitement1 and poetry1 ,,ii1 #ceg-fa2 emotional waste and repair1 ,,ii1 #cfa-g2 ,latin1 ,greek1 and old ,english1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i2 duality and development1 ,,ii1 #dba-c2 sociology and knowledge1 ,,iii1 #cjb2 of subordination1 ,,iii1 #cab2 evolution1 ,,iii1 #djb-c4 ,lankester1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,ray1 on heredity1 ,i1 #dgf4 ,laplace1 ,p4 ,s4 ,marquis de3 genesis and structure of solar system1 ,i1 #abh-i1 #acj1 #aca2 planetary axial movements1 ,i1 #acb-f2 lunar axial motion1 ,i1 #ada2 motion of satellites1 ,i1 #adb2 planetoids1 ,i1 #afh1 #agd1 #agh4 ,latham1 ,r4 ,g41 on grammar1 ,,ii1 #ccc4 ,latin1 ,greek and ,english words1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i4 ,laugel1 ,m41 on ,first ,principles1 ,,ii1 #aah4 ,laughter1 physiology of1 ,,ii1 #deb-ff4 ,law3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg2 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #ea2 belief in natural1 ,,ii1 #abc2 conditions affecting discovery1 ,,ii1 #ade-h1 #adh-ej2 evolution of sciences1 ,,ii1 #aej-g2 prospective1 ,,ii1 #aeg-i2 universality of1 ,,ii1 #aei-fj2 religion and manners1 ,,iii1 #d1 #bc2 and morality1 ,,iii1 #aj-aa1 #bc1 #ej2 for primitive man1 ,,iii1 #bd2 officialism and reform1 ,,iii1 #beb1 #beh-i2 and over-legislation1 ,,iii1 #bgb2 legal verbiage1 ,,iii1 #bgc2 cost1 ,,iii1 #cjh2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cag-bc2 knowledge of1 and parliamentary reform1 ,,iii1 #cge-i2 7see also ,over-legislation47 ,lawyers3 and railways1 ,,iii1 #fg-gb1 #hc1 #hh1 #ajh2 in parliament1 ,,iii1 #bih1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,leather1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abc4 ,leaves1 cells in1 ,i1 #ddf4 ,legislation1 and social growth1 ,i1 #bfe-i2 7see also ,over-legislation47 ,length1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aah-i4 ,lepchas1 ethics1 ,,iii1 #aic1 #aid4 ,liability 7see ,banks and ,joint-,stock ,companies74 ,liberalism1 behaviour of party1 ,,iii1 #dfd4 ,liberty3 ,french idea of1 ,,ii1 #cdc2 traits of reform1 ,,iii1 #cj-f2 social use1 ,,iii1 #df-ea2 degree of1 for people1 ,,iii1 #cha2 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dgc-d1 #dgg1 #dgh-i4 ,libraries1 free1 ,,iii1 #cgj4 ,licensing law1 failure1 ,,iii1 #bdd4 ,liebig1 ,j4 von1 analogy from blood corpuscles1 ,i1 #bic-d4 ,life3 evolution from not-life1 ,i1 #cgd-e2 plants and animals indistinguishable1 ,i1 #cge-f2 evolution of mind1 ,i1 #cgf-h2 survival and degree of1 ,i1 #dje-h1 #dba2 evolution and action of medium1 ,i1 #deh-fj1 #dfj-b2 primitive ideas of1 ,,iii1 #f-aa2 maintenance and prison ethics1 ,,iii1 #afc-ga2 failure of assurance act1 ,,iii1 #bda-b2 sociology and knowledge of1 ,,iii1 #cjd2 and pleasure1 ,,iii1 #cae2 and sociology1 ,,iii1 #cbe2 increase in longevity1 ,,iii1 #ddg2 ,mill and ,spencer on1 ,,iii1 #dhe4 ,life ,drama1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cea1 #cec4 ,light3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #ei2 action on bodies1 ,i1 #dcf2 and on protoplasm1 ,i1 #dfe-f2 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #fa2 polarization1 ,,ii1 #fc2 effect on molecules1 ,,ii1 #agh2 perception of white1 ,,iii1 #aif2 7see also ,optics74 ,likeness3 of classification1 ,,ii1 #bi-ca1 #cd2 of language1 ,,ii1 #ca-c1 #cd2 of reasoning1 ,,ii1 #cc-d2 of art1 ,,ii1 #cd2 relation to equality1 ,,ii1 #ce-g4 ,lindsay1 ,w4 ,s41 ,admiralty certificate1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,literature3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #cd-e2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #eg2 use and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cga2 contrast in1 ,,ii1 #cgc-d2 popularity of authors1 ,,iii1 #bii-cjj2 and sociology1 ,,iii1 #cgf-g2 ,english and continental1 ,,iii1 #dcj-a4 ,littr1 ,e41 on ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #gd-f1 #ha-c4 ,liver3 development1 ,i1 #ajf2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dai4 ,liverpool1 and ,manchester railway1 ,,iii1 #fc1 #bff4 ,liverworts1 cells in1 ,i1 #ddf4 ,locke1 ,j43 and experientialism1 ,,ii1 #bcd-e2 and evolution1 ,,ii1 #bcg4 ,locomotive engine3 effects of1 ,i1 #ef-h2 balance weight1 ,,ii1 #chc4 ,logic3 ,hegel's classification1 ,,ii1 #ab-e2 implies equality1 ,,ii1 #dj2 abstract science1 ,,ii1 #gg1 #ha-e2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #ii2 ,bain on relation to psychology1 ,,ii1 #aje-f2 ,sidgwick's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bda2 ,tristram ,shandy on1 ,,ii1 #ccc4 ,london3 and ,birmingham railway1 ,,iii1 #fc2 ,new ,river to1 ,,iii1 #beg2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bhi2 water supply1 ,,iii1 #dbi4 ,lord1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ab-e1 #ba4 ,love3 ,darwin and origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dbf-cg2 also ,gurney1 ,,ii1 #dcg-dc4 ,loyalty1 and social state1 ,,iii1 #cab4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john3 derivation of tribal names1 ,i1 #cad2 ,origin of ,civilization1 ,i1 #cca2 conscience of lower races1 ,,iii1 #aib-c2 banker's clearing house1 ,,iii1 #dbe-f4 ,lungs3 development1 ,i1 #fg1 #ajf2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dai2 relation to voice1 ,,ii1 #djd-e4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c43 age of rocks1 ,i1 #bjd2 paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bje1 #bjh-ab2 geological hiatus1 ,i1 #bbj-a2 uniformitarianism and geological record1 ,i1 #bbg1 #bbi4 ,lyre1 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #cb1 ,,ii1 #dae4 ,machine1 and organism1 ,,iii1 #def-h4 ,machinery1 disliked by labourers1 ,,iii1 #cfb1 #cgf4 ,macaulay1 ,lord1 on ,post-office1 ,,iii1 #dda4 ,mackintosh1 ,sir ,j41 on constitutions1 ,i1 #bfe1 #bfi4 ,mac,lennan1 ,j4 ,f41 plant and animal worship1 ,i1 #cjh-i1 #cbj4 ,maconochie1 ,captain1 8mark0 prison system1 ,,iii1 #age-g4 ,madam1 the title1 ,,ii1 #ad1 #bf4 ,magellanic clouds1 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel on1 ,i1 #aaf-g4 ,magnetism1 abstract concrete science1 ,,ii1 #hh4 ,magnificent1 and the word grand1 ,,ii1 #cfg-i4 ,magnitudes1 relation of thought1 ,,ii1 #beb-c4 ,maize1 transformation of1 ,i1 #dcd4 ,majority1 right of1 ,,iii1 #hi1 #id4 ,mammalia3 evolution and heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ae-g2 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ag-i2 temperature1 ,i1 #ge1 #gf2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #gf2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #ig2 paleontological remains1 ,i1 #bbg1 #bch1 #bdj2 imitation of evolution1 ,,ii1 #dch4 ,mammary glands1 evolution1 ,i1 #cie4 ,man3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ag-i1 #ce2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #eb-c2 traits of primitive1 ,,iii1 #bd4 ,manchester1 electors in1 ,,iii1 #che4 ,manners3 and fashion1 ,,iii1 #a-ea2 evolution of ceremonies1 ,,iii1 #aa-f1 #bc1 #ej2 origin1 ,,iii1 #bh2 ,swift on1 ,,iii1 #dd4 ,mansel1 ,dean ,h4 ,l43 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bba-e2 ,grotz on1 ,,ii1 #bbe4 ,marchantia1 cells in1 ,i1 #ddf4 ,mariana1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cef4 ,marmion1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cdc4 ,mars3 rotatory motion1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 number of satellites1 ,i1 #aci-dj2 and motion1 ,i1 #adb2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,marsupialia1 integration1 ,i1 #fi-gj4 ,martineau1 ,rev4 ,j43 on evolution1 ,i1 #cga-hh2 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bej-h4 ,master1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ae1 #af4 ,materialism1 and evolution1 ,i1 #chf-h4 ,mathematics3 things learnt1 ,,ii1 #a2 ,oken on1 ,,ii1 #aj-aa2 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #af-ba2 implies equality1 ,,ii1 #dj2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #dh-ej2 abstract science1 ,,ii1 #gg1 #hd-e2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #ii2 deals with relations1 ,,ii1 #ajb1 #ajc2 ,bain on nature of1 ,,ii1 #aje-f2 origin1 ,,ii1 #aea2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aef2 ultimate truths1 ,,ii1 #bhc2 exact science1 ,,iii1 #aii-bjj2 and political ethics1 ,,iii1 #bbe2 mental development1 ,,iii1 #bee2 and sociology1 ,,iii1 #cjc1 #cje4 ,matter3 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #adh2 inscrutable1 ,,ii1 #bdg2 ,martineau's criticism1 ,,ii1 #beg2 properties1 ,,ii1 #bgg1 #cae-f4 ,mayer1 ,j41 as physicist1 ,,ii1 #bfi1 #cad4 ,measurement3 origin of weight1 ,,ii1 #dc-e2 of time1 ,,ii1 #de-f4 ,mechanics3 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #ai2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #ej1 #ef1 #ei2 abstract concrete science1 ,,ii1 #he-h1aja2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #ig2 ,bain on science classification1 ,,ii1 #aab2 science classification1 ,,ii1 #aag2 origin1 ,,ii1 #aea2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aee1 #aef2 real and ideal1 ,,iii1 #bbb-c4 ,mechanics' ,institutes1 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bhf4 ,medicine1 association of ideas1 ,i1 #ccg4 ,medusa1 vascular system1 ,i1 #gi4 ,megra1 naval maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcd4 ,melbourne1 the1 and ,admiralty certificate1 ,,iii1 #bci4 ,memory3 and test of truth1 ,,ii1 #bae2 and emotion1 ,,ii1 #dfe4 ,mendelejeff1 ,d41 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #aee4 ,mendelssohn-,bartholdy1 ,f41 character1 ,,ii1 #dag4 ,mercantile ,marine ,act1 failure of1 ,,iii1 #bfj1 #bgf1 #bie4 ,mercury3 rotatory movement1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 number of satellites1 ,i1 #aci2 density1 ,i1 #add2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,mesoblast1 embryo development1 ,i1 #dec1 #dee4 ,metallurgy1 genesis1 ,,ii1 #ea4 ,metamorphic rocks1 age1 ,i1 #aih4 ,metamorphosis1 universal1 ,,iii1 #deh-fj4 ,metaphor1 and simile1 ,,ii1 #ceb-d4 ,metaphysics3 ,comte on1 ,,ii1 #abc2 reasoning of1 ,,ii1 #bja-e2 relation to physics1 ,,ii1 #bfh4 ,metaphyta1 origin1 ,i1 #ddd4 ,metazoa3 origin1 ,i1 #ddd2 embryo development1 ,i1 #dea-h4 ,meteorology3 increase in heterogeneity of climates1 ,i1 #ac-d1 #ce2 effect of ,american subsidence1 ,i1 #dc2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #ib4 ,meteors3 constitution of comets1 ,i1 #abg2 origin1 ,i1 #agd-g4 ,metonymy1 effectiveness1 ,,ii1 #cej4 ,mettray1 reformatory1 ,,iii1 #agc4 ,militancy3 political ethics1 ,,iii1 #bbg-h2 and industrialism1 ,,iii1 #daf2 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dhd4 ,milky way1 distribution of nebul1 ,i1 #aab4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s43 letter on morals to1 ,i1 #ccc2 classification of science1 ,,ii1 #aad2 on ,comte's philosophy1 ,,ii1 #adc2 on ,hamilton and word belief1 ,,ii1 #ahh-ia2 noumenal existence1 ,,ii1 #aia-b2 inconceivable and unbelievable1 ,,ii1 #aic-bjj2 test of necessity1 ,,ii1 #aif2 general agreement with1 ,,ii1 #bag2 on the ,state and banks1 ,,iii1 #cdh1 #ceg2 on life1 ,,iii1 #dhe4 ,miller1 ,hugh3 life and doctrines1 ,i1 #bah-bj2 terrestrial life1 ,i1 #bbj4 ,mimicry3 of savages1 ,i1 #cfd2 evolution1 ,i1 #cif4 ,mineralogy1 and classification1 ,,ii1 #fd1 #ib1 #ajh4 ,mind 7see ,psychology47 ,missionaries1 development1 ,,iii1 #deh-i4 ,mivart1 ,prof4 ,st4 ,george1 genesis of species1 ,i1 #ccb4 ,mole1 pelvis in1 ,i1 #ig4 ,molecules1 mutual action and electricity1 ,,ii1 #agh-hd1 #ahd-g4 ,molesworth1 ,sir ,w41 on buildings acts1 ,,iii1 #bdj4 ,mollusca3 great age of1 ,i1 #bag2 circulation1 ,i1 #bif4 ,molluscoida1 social analogy1 ,i1 #bha4 ,monaclin1 cell membrane1 ,i1 #ddj4 ,monarchy1 and representative government1 ,,iii1 #cji-aj1 #caj-g1 #cag-bc4 ,money3 analogy to blood corpuscles1 ,i1 #bic-d2 trading with bad1 ,,iii1 #ada2 state tamperings with1 ,,iii1 #cbf-eg2 and joint-stock banks1 ,,iii1 #cdg-ed2 and free trade1 ,,iii1 #cee-g2 anomaly of interest1 ,,iii1 #dja4 ,monkeys1 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dcb4 ,monotremata1 integration1 ,i1 #fi-gj4 ,monsieur1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad1 #ae4 ,montesinos1 ,captain1 prison discipline1 ,,iii1 #agg-h4 ,month1 measure of time1 ,,ii1 #de-i4 ,moon3 axial motion1 ,i1 #ada2 heat and contraction1 ,i1 #adi2 as name1 ,i1 #cag1 #cbg4 ,moquin-,tandon1 ,a41 plant leaves1 ,i1 #dcc4 ,morality3 ,quarterly ,review criticism1 ,,ii1 #bei-fe2 and law1 ,,iii1 #aj-aa1 #bc1 #ej2 and awe of authority1 ,,iii1 #caa2 average social1 ,,iii1 #cei1 #cfj4 ,morals3 and moral sentiments1 ,i1 #cca-ej2 parentage of1 ,i1 #cca-d1 #ccd-ej2 the science of right conduct1 ,i1 #ccc2 relation to expediency1 ,i1 #ccc2 prospect1 ,,iii1 #cj1 #ea2 average of1 and trade1 ,,iii1 #acg-dj4 ,moray1 ,sir ,r41 on ,barnacle geese1 ,,ii1 #afb4 ,mosses1 cell membrane1 ,i1 #dci4 ,motion3 of animals and plants1 ,i1 #ge1 #gf2 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #adh2 implies thing moving1 ,,ii1 #bje-f1 #bjg2 inscrutable1 ,,ii1 #bdg2 insensible forms1 ,,ii1 #bff1 #bgf2 ,tait on laws of1 ,,ii1 #bga-e2 ,spencer on laws of1 ,,ii1 #big-cbj2 axioms and laws of1 ,,ii1 #bih-cja1 #cae-bj2 relation to force1 ,,ii1 #caj-d2 and gracefulness1 ,,ii1 #cha-f4 ,mouat1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,j41 on prisons1 ,,iii1 #ahi-ia4 ,moulton1 ,j4 ,f41 ,british ,quarterly ,review1 ,,ii1 #cjg4 ,mountains3 age and altitude1 ,i1 #ac2 formation1 ,i1 #dj2 as name1 ,i1 #cah4 ,mozart1 ,j4 ,c4 ,w4 ,t43 heredity1 ,i1 #djf2 character1 ,,ii1 #dag2 ,addio of1 ,,ii1 #ddg4 ,mucous membrane1 effect of surroundings1 ,i1 #ddi1 #dej4 ,mller1 ,f4 ,max3 misinterpretation of names1 ,i1 #cae1 #cbg2 on abstract nouns1 ,i1 #cbc1 #cbd2 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bce-h4 ,multiplication1 various forms1 ,i1 #fe-g4 ,multiplication of effects3 general1 ,i1 #ce-h2 astronomy1 ,i1 #ch-i2 geology1 ,i1 #ci-df2 biology1 ,i1 #df-ec2 sociology1 ,i1 #ec-h2 science1 literature and art1 ,i1 #ei4 ,munich1 prison1 ,,iii1 #aga-c ,murchison1 ,sir ,r43 ,silurian system1 ,i1 #aii1 #bca2 paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bjf2 azoic rocks1 ,i1 #bbh4 ,murder1 social co-operation1 ,,iii1 #bag-bj1 #bbd4 ,muscle3 waste and repair1 ,i1 #cfb2 evolution1 ,i1 #cif2 size of jaws1 ,i1 #cih-djj1 #dbb2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #djc-d2 nervous system and action of1 ,,ii1 #dec-h2 laughter and action of1 ,,ii1 #deh-fd4 ,music3 origin1 ,i1 #cj-a2 increase in heterogeneity1 #ca-d2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cff2 development of faculty1 ,i1 #djf-g2 ,kantian ideas of space1 ,,ii1 #bbg2 contrast in1 ,,ii1 #cgc2 origin and function1 ,,ii1 #djj-ea2 originally vocal1 ,,ii1 #djc-d2 feelings and loudness of voice1 ,,ii1 #djd1 #daj2 and timbre1 ,,ii1 #dje1 #daa2 pitch1 ,,ii1 #djf1 #daa2 intervals1 ,,ii1 #djf-i1 #daa2 variability of pitch1 ,,ii1 #dji1 #daa2 tremolo1 staccato1 and slur1 ,,ii1 #dab2 time in1 ,,ii1 #dab-c2 slow divergence from speech1 ,,ii1 #dad-h2 indirect evidence of theory1 ,,ii1 #dah-bj2 function1 ,,ii1 #dbj-d2 relation to sympathy1 ,,ii1 #dbd-f2 ,darwin on origin1 ,,ii1 #dbf-cg2 of lowest tribes1 ,,ii1 #dcc-g2 ,gurney on origin1 ,,ii1 #dcg-dc2 evolution of scales1 ,,ii1 #ddj-a2 sensational effects1 ,,ii1 #ddc-d2 perceptional1 ,,ii1 #dde-g2 emotional1 ,,ii1 #ddg2 harmony1 ,,ii1 #ddh2 counterpoint1 ,,ii1 #ddh2 and evolution1 ,,ii1 #ddh-i2 ,hungarian1 ,,ii1 #ddi-ea2 and social intercourse1 ,,iii1 #da1 #db2 sensation of sound1 ,,iii1 #aig2 indirect effects1 ,,iii1 #bde2 free1 ,,iii1 #cgj4 ,myddelton1 ,sir ,hugh1 ,new ,river1 ,,iii1 #beg1 #dbi4 ,mythology1 primitive1 ,,iii1 #f-aa4 ,myths1 origin of animal worship1 ,i1 #cbb-h4 ,nails1 heredity and negro blood1 ,,ii1 #cif4 ,names3 origin of animal worship1 ,i1 #caa-g1 #cag-bj1 #cbh2 of hybrids1 ,i1 #cbj-b2 misinterpretation of nicknames1 ,i1 #cbe-h1 #cbh-cj2 classification1 ,,ii1 #ca-c1 #cd1 #dj2 and evolution of ceremonies1 ,,iii1 #aa-f1 #bc4 ,napoleon ,i41 and his marshals1 ,,iii1 #cji4 ,natural selection3 essay on progress1 ,i4 #ec2 the phrase1 ,i1 #dbh-cj2 7see also ,survival of the fittest74 ,navy3 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcc-d1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bea1 #beb1 #cii2 officers in parliament1 ,,iii1 #big1 #cjd4 ,naylor1 ,rev4 ,b41 on ,norfolk ,island convicts1 ,,iii1 #agf4 ,nebul3 appearance1 ,i1 #aah-be2 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel on regular and irregular1 ,i1 #abb2 origin1 direction and constitution of comets1 ,i1 #abe-h1 #aec2 origin1 ,i1 #aec4 ,nebular hypothesis3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aj-aa2 discoveries of ,herschel and ,rosse1 ,i1 #aaj-b2 and ultimate mystery1 ,i1 #aed2 evolution of heat and condensation1 ,i1 #aei-fc2 essay on1 ,i1 #ajh-hd2 distance and distribution1 ,i1 #aab-h4 ,necessity1 ,mill on test of1 ,,ii1 #aif-bjj4 ,negro1 heredity and nails1 ,,ii1 #cif4 ,neptune3 axial motion1 ,i1 #acc-f2 density1 ,i1 #add2 heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,nervous system3 of savage and civilized1 ,i1 #ah2 integration1 ,i1 #fh-ga2 analogous to government1 ,i1 #bii-cjg2 development from epidermis1 ,i1 #ded2 ,sidgwick's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bch2 muscular action1 ,,ii1 #dec-h2 differentiation1 ,,iii1 #djf2 sympathetic1 ,,iii1 #djh-i2 and society1 ,,iii1 #dah2 positive and negative regulation1 ,,iii1 #dai1 #ddc4 ,new ,river ,company1 origin1 ,,iii1 #dbi4 ,new ,york1 government1 ,,iii1 #bhi1 #bia4 ,new ,zealanders1 belief in another world1 ,,ii1 #bbc4 ,newcomb1 ,prof4 ,s43 nebular hypothesis1 ,i1 #aba2 planetoids1 ,i1 #afg-h4 ,newspapers1 evolution1 ,,iii1 #dca4 ,newton1 ,sir ,i43 expansion of air1 ,i1 #aah2 solar theory1 ,i1 #aic2 gravity1 ,,ii1 #bf-g1 #bia-c2 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #ei-fj2 problem of three bodies1 ,,ii1 #aab2 laws of motion1 ,,ii1 #bga1 #bgd1 #bgg-hh1 #big-cbj4 ,nitrogen3 compounds1 ,i1 #aeg2 molecules1 ,i1 #aeh4 ,nod1 as obeisance1 ,,iii1 #ah4 ,nomenclature1 genesis of science1 ,,ii1 #fc-e1 #gb4 ,norfolk ,island1 prison1 ,,iii1 #age-g4 ,north ,british ,review1 on ,social ,statics1 ,,ii1 #acd4 ,nose1 personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #cia4 ,nottingham1 ,enclosure act1 ,,iii1 #bdj4 ,nubecula1 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel on1 ,i1 #aaf-g4 ,number and classification1 ,,ii1 #cg4 ,nummulites1 ,lyell on1 ,i1 #bjh4 ,nutrition3 individual and social1 ,i1 #bhi-ij2 process1 ,,iii1 #djh2 social1 ,,iii1 #dac4 ,oak1 acorn and music1 ,,ii1 #ddb4 ,obeisance1 forms of1 ,,iii1 #ag-bb1 ,,iii1 #be4 ,obermair1 ,m41 on prisons1 ,,iii1 #aga4 ,object3 consciousness of1 ,,ii1 #baa-d2 relation to subject1 ,,ii1 #cbc-cb4 ,observation and hypothesis1 ,,ii1 #afj-g4 ,officialism3 failure1 ,,iii1 #cid1 #cie2 ,lord ,palmerston on1 ,,iii1 #cie2 7see also ,over-legislation74 ,offspring1 and parents' qualities1 ,,ii1 #cie1 #cih4 ,oken1 ,l41 classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #i-ab4 ,olbers1 ,h4 ,w4 ,m41 hypothesis1 ,i1 #afg1 #aga1 #agc4 ,old ,red ,sandstone 7see ,devonian ,system47 ,omnibus1 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bej4 ,oolite1 age of1 ,i1 #bjb-e4 ,opium1 dissimilar effects1 ,i1 #ajj4 ,optics3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ei2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg1 #ei1 #fa2 interdependence of sciences1 ,,ii1 #ff2 abstract concrete science1 ,,ii1 #he-h2 ,bain on classification of sciences1 ,,ii1 #ajg4 ,orange1 planet analogy1 ,i1 #acc-d4 ,orders1 signature of1 ,,iii1 #abj4 ,organic matter3 chemistry1 ,i1 #hc-d2 evolution1 ,i1 #deh-fj4 ,organisms3 differentiation1 ,,iii1 #dje2 social and individual1 ,,iii1 #daa-f2 and machinery1 ,,iii1 #def-h4 ,organs1 rudimentary1 ,,iii1 #bjd4 ,origin of ,species3 ,huxley on1 ,i1 #chi-ij2 effect of1 ,i1 #cic-d4 ,originality1 literary style1 ,,ii1 #cfe-g4 ,ossian1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cee4 ,osteology1 correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja4 ,over-legislation3 essay on1 ,,iii1 #bbi-hb2 individual uncertainty1 ,,iii1 #bbi-ca2 examples of failure in legislation1 ,,iii1 #bca-de2 probability of success1 ,,iii1 #bde-f2 slowness of1 ,,iii1 #bdf-g2 stupidity1 ,,iii1 #bdg-i2 unadaptive1 ,,iii1 #bdi2 corruptness1 ,,iii1 #bej-b2 fixity1 ,,iii1 #beb2 officialism and trade contrasted1 ,,iii1 #bec-i2 is there a sphere for officialism8 ,,iii1 #bei-fh2 free trade1 ,,iii1 #bfh-gj2 negative evils1 ,,iii1 #bgj-f2 enervation of1 ,,iii1 #bgf-hj2 faith in governments1 ,,iii1 #bhj-b2 dangers1 ,,iii1 #cfh-gj2 and collective wisdom1 ,,iii1 #cia-b4 ,ovum1 relation to infant1 ,i1 #f4 ,owen1 ,prof4 ,sir ,r43 evolution and paleontology1 ,i1 #af2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja4 ,oxygen3 deductive biology1 ,i1 #gg-ha2 liquefaction1 ,i1 #afj2 action on protoplasm1 ,i1 #dfe-f4 ,pacific ,ocean1 upheaval and geological record1 ,i1 #bcb-dj4 ,pain3 expression in children1 ,i1 #cci-ej2 indications of1 ,,ii1 #dja-c1 #djd2 loudness of voice1 ,,ii1 #djd-e4 ,painting3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bd-cj2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ei4 ,palmerston1 ,lord1 ,,iii1 #cie4 ,palozoic1 the title1 ,i1 #ae4 ,paleontology3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ad-g2 life and multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #di-ec2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja2 age of strata1 ,i1 #bje-ab2 past and present geological changes1 ,i1 #bab-h2 gaps in record1 ,i1 #bbj-a1 #bbf-cb2 effect of climate on evidence1 ,i1 #bba-d2 and of terrestrial change1 ,i1 #bbd-f2 effect of upheaval1 ,i1 #bcb-dj4 ,panama ,canal1 ,,iii1 #bfg4 ,pantheism1 rejected by ,h4 ,spencer1 ,,ii1 #bba4 ,paper tax1 ,,iii1 #bdc2 7see also ,money47 ,parents and offspring1 ,,ii1 #cie-f1 #cih4 ,parabola1 relation to circle1 ,i1 #e4 ,paradise ,lost1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cdf4 ,parasites1 natural selection1 ,i1 #cgi-hj4 ,parkhurst1 criminals at1 ,,iii1 #beh4 ,parliament3 analogy to brain1 ,i1 #cjb-e2 railways and members of1 ,,iii1 #fe-g1 #gd-g1 #hc1 #hf2 and parliamentary agents1 ,,iii1 #fg-ga1 #ajh2 right of majority1 ,,iii1 #id2 belief in acts1 ,,iii1 #aji1 #cjf-g2 #bj1jjj statutes1 ,,iii1 #bcb2 officialism and acts of1 ,,iii1 #beh-i2 badly drawn acts1 ,,iii1 #bgc2 selection of members1 ,,iii1 #bia2 members of1 ,,iii1 #bie-i2 ineligible members1 ,,iii1 #bif2 bank act1 ,,iii1 #cch1 #cci1 #cdj2 private bills1 ,,iii1 #cei2 ,thames water supply1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib2 function1 ,,iii1 #dag2 7see also ,over-legislation47 ,parliamentary reform3 essay on1 ,,iii1 #ceh-hf2 apprehended dangers1 ,,iii1 #cfj-h1 #cfh-gj2 direct and indirect taxation1 ,,iii1 #cgj-e2 value of representative government1 ,,iii1 #chj2 ,reform ,bill1 ,,iii1 #chj-f4 ,passengers ,act1 failure1 ,,iii1 #bda4 ,passion1 social analogy1 ,i1 #bfi-ga4 ,patent-office1 accounts1 ,,iii1 #cih4 ,patents3 failure1 ,,iii1 #def2 ,american1 ,,iii1 #dgc4 ,patterns1 piracy1 ,,iii1 #abf ,pedigree1 importance1 ,i1 #ajh2 7see also ,heredity47 ,peel1 ,sir ,robert3 on legislation1 ,,iii1 #bhj-a2 ,bank ,act1 ,,iii1 #cch1 #cci1 #cdj1 #ceg4 ,penal code 7see ,prison ethics47 ,pentonville1 treatment at1 ,,iii1 #afa-b4 ,perception3 relation to science1 ,,ii1 #a-h2 presentative-representative1 ,i1 #bfa4 ,perseverance1 of savages1 ,i1 #cge4 ,personal beauty1 essay1 ,,ii1 #chg-ii4 ,perthes1 ,b4 de1 flint implements1 ,i1 #dac4 ,peru1 social organization1 ,,iii1 #dgj4 ,pestalozzi1 ,h4 ,l41 school name1 ,,iii1 #b4 ,phanerogams1 pollen1 ,i1 #dci4 ,phil1 granite at1 ,i1 #dcg4 ,philosophy1 relation to religion1 ,i1 #fj-b2 7see also ,comte47 ,phosphorus1 allotropic1 ,i1 #cgc4 ,physics3 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #ba-c2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa2 interdependence of sciences1 ,,ii1 #fg2 abstract-concrete science1 ,,ii1 #he-h2 deals with properties1 ,,ii1 #aja1 #ajc2 relation to chemistry1 ,,ii1 #aji-aa2 evolution1 ,,ii1 #aeb1 #aef2 ,british ,quarterly ,reviewer on1 ,,ii1 #bfg-cja2 relation to metaphysics1 ,,ii1 #bfh2 axioms1 ,,ii1 #bgj1 #bgg-hh1 #big2 their origin1 ,,ii1 #bih-cja1 #cac-d1 #cae-bj4 ,physiology3 transcendental1 ,i1 #fc-ajg2 deductive1 ,i1 #gf-ha2 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja2 individual and social organism1 ,i1 #aja-g2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #ib2 development1 ,,ii1 #dbc4 ,picnic1 interest in1 ,,ii1 #cgd4 ,pictures1 subjects of historical1 ,,ii1 #cgc2 7see also ,painting47 ,pigeons3 beak and tongue1 ,i1 #dja2 heredity and variation1 ,i1 #dad-e2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dah2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dbh4 ,pigs1 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dai4 ,pins1 stellar analogy1 ,i1 #afa4 ,pitcher plant1 evolution1 ,i1 #cid4 ,pity1 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfh4 ,placards1 derivation1 ,i1 #bh4 ,planetoids3 origin1 ,i1 #afg-hj2 number1 ,i1 #afh1 #aga1 #agi2 distances1 ,i1 #afi1 #agb1 #agi2 orbits1 ,i1 #afi-gj1 #agc-d1 #agi2 distribution1 ,i1 #aga2 magnitudes1 ,i1 #agb2 periods1 ,i1 #agg2 velocity1 ,i1 #ahj4 ,planets3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aa2 origin1 ,i1 #ci1 #aec2 direction1 ,i1 #abg1 #abi1 #aec2 planes of1 and solar equator1 ,i1 #aca-b2 axial movements1 ,i1 #acb-f1 #aec2 arrangement and number of satellites1 ,i1 #acg1 #aci-da2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb2 structure1 ,i1 #afc-g1 #ahb2 origin of minor1 ,i1 #afg-hj2 origin of meteors1 ,i1 #agd-g2 7see also ,astronomy47 ,plants3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ad-g1 #ce2 structure1 ,i1 #gc1 #gf1 #cia-b2 form1 ,i1 #gc1 #gf2 chemical composition1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 specific gravity1 ,i1 #gd1 #gj2 temperature1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #ge1 #gf2 evolution and homogeneity ,i1 #hc-d2 heat and distribution1 ,i1 #bbc-d2 also terrestrial change1 ,i1 #bbd-f2 and animals1 ,i1 #cge-f2 evolution and sensitive1 ,i1 #cgg2 cambium1 ,i1 #ddi-ej4 ,plateau1 ,j4 ,a4 ,f41 fluid rotation1 ,i1 #aca4 ,plato1 ,republic1 #bfi-gb4 ,pleasure3 expression in children1 ,i1 #cci-ej2 indications of1 ,,ii1 #dja-c1 #djd2 loudness of voice1 ,,ii1 #djd-e2 bodily effect1 ,,ii1 #ded-h2 destroyed by formality1 ,,iii1 #cf-df2 and life1 ,,iii1 #cae2 social and individual organism1 ,,iii1 #daa2 ,american life1 ,,iii1 #dhi-ij4 ,plough1 ,hindoo worship of1 ,,ii1 #ced4 ,plumber1 action of pump1 ,i1 #dbe4 ,poetry3 origin and differentiation1 ,i1 #cj-b2 and prose1 ,,ii1 #ceg-fa2 development of epic and lyric1 ,,ii1 #daf2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dcj-a4 ,pointers1 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dgj-a4 ,police1 officialism1 ,,iii1 #cif-g4 ,political economy3 and railways1 ,,iii1 #aja-c2 flow of capital1 ,,iii1 #bfd2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cjc2 efflux of gold1 ,,iii1 #cda-c4 ,politics3 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dfc-e2 and costume1 ,,iii1 #a-e1 #cj2 definition1 ,,iii1 #bbf4 ,polyzoa3 form1 ,i1 #gc2 composition1 ,i1 #gd2 not sea-weeds1 ,i1 #bdh2 analogy to social organism1 ,i1 #bha4 ,poor law1 action of1 ,,iii1 #bdd4 ,pope1 ,a41 literary style1 ,,ii1 #cfe4 ,porcupine1 evolution of quills1 ,i1 #cid-e4 ,positivism 7see ,comte47 ,post-office3 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #beb2 and government1 ,,iii1 #ddj-b4 ,potato1 complexity1 ,,iii1 #aif4 ,poverty1 effect of1 ,,iii1 #adc-i4 ,predicate1 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cdb-d4 ,preference stock1 effect1 ,,iii1 #hf-h1 #ajh4 ,prevision3 and science1 ,,ii1 #a-h2 origin of quantitative1 ,,ii1 #da-i4 ,printing3 increase of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bf2 analogy from press1 ,i1 #ih1 ,,ii1 #cc2 printer's union rules1 ,,iii1 #cfd-e2 anomaly1 ,,iii1 #dja4 ,prison ,ethics3 essay on1 ,,iii1 #aeb-ia2 relative and absolute ethics1 ,,iii1 #aeb-g1 #ahh2 treatment of criminals1 ,,iii1 #aeg-fc2 laws of life1 ,,iii1 #afc-ga2 self-maintenance1 ,,iii1 #afh-ga2 foreign prisons and reformatories1 ,,iii1 #agb-h2 evils of excessive punishment1 ,,iii1 #agh-hj2 improved system of discipline1 ,,iii1 #ahj-g1 #ahi-ia2 and social state1 ,,iii1 #ahg-i2 ,indian prisons1 ,,iii1 #ahi-ia4 ,procter1 ,r4,a41 nebular distance1 ,i1 #aah4 ,profit1 defined1 ,i1 #bij4 ,progress3 its law and cause1 ,i1 #h-fb1 #ha1 ,,iii1 #cbc2 current conception1 ,i1 #h-i2 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #i-aj4 ,prometheus ,unbound1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cec4 ,promissory notes1 ,state tamperings with money1 ,,iii1 #cbf-ce1 #cce-dg1 #cef4 ,property3 emotion of possession1 ,i1 #bec1 #bfc1 #cjg1 ,,ii1 #dba2 and parliamentary reform1 ,,iii1 #ceh-fj1 #cfg-h4 ,propositions3 the thinkable1 ,i1 #chc2 ultimate test1 ,,ii1 #ad2 states of consciousness1 ,,ii1 #bje-h2 testing of reasoning1 ,,ii1 #bjh-aa2 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cdd4 ,prose3 and poetry1 ,,ii1 #ceg-fa2 contrast in1 ,,ii1 #cgd4 ,protection1 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bfh-gj4 ,protophyta3 composition1 ,i1 #gd2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #ge2 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hf2 social analogy1 ,i1 #bgg2 cell membrane1 ,i1 #dci4 ,protoplasm1 action of light1 ,i1 #dfe-f4 ,protozoa3 differentiation from environment1 ,i1 #gc2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #ge2 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hf2 social analogy1 ,i1 #bgg-hc2 cell membrane1 ,i1 #ddj2 development1 ,i1 #deb4 ,proudhon1 ,p4 ,j41 policy1 ,,iii1 #dag4 ,proxies1 railway1 ,,iii1 #gf1 #gh4 ,psychology3 relation of science to religion1 ,i1 #fa-b2 ,the ,emotions and ,the ,will1 ,i1 #bda-fd2 organization provisional1 ,i1 #bda-e2 classification of emotions1 ,i1 #bde-eg2 evolution of emotions1 ,i1 #bej-g2 ,bain's definition of emotion and volition1 ,i1 #beh-fj2 also feeling and sensation1 ,i1 #bfj2 classification of mind1 ,i1 #bfj-d2 comparative1 of man in outline1 ,i1 #cea1 #cec2 mental and bodily mass1 ,i1 #cec-d2 mental complexity1 ,i1 #ced-e2 rate of development1 ,i1 #cee2 relative plasticity1 ,i1 #cee-f2 variability1 ,i1 #cef-g2 impulsiveness1 ,i1 #ceg-i2 effect of race inter-mixture1 ,i1 #cei-fj2 effect of sex1 ,i1 #cfa-d2 imitativeness1 ,i1 #cfd2 curiosity1 ,i1 #cfd-e2 peculiar aptitudes1 ,i1 #cff2 sociality1 freedom1 approbation1 and acquisitiveness1 ,i1 #cff-g2 altruistic sentiments1 ,i1 #cfg-i2 evolution of mind1 ,i1 #cgf-h1 #cha-f2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dfc-e2 ,hegel's classification1 ,,ii1 #ab-e2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #ib1 #ajj2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #if2 ,bain on logic1 ,,ii1 #aje-f2 origin of knowledge1 ,,ii1 #abb-e2 ,comte on1 ,,ii1 #aca2 ,sidgwick on ,principles1 ,,ii1 #bch-ej4 ,publishers1 local integration1 ,i1 #ajc4 ,pump1 action of1 ,i1 #dbe-f4 ,punishment 7see ,prison ,ethics47 ,pyramids1 architectural types1 ,,ii1 #cgi4 ,quakers3 intonation1 ,,ii1 #daf2 nonconformity1 ,,iii1 #b4 ,quarterly ,review1 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bei-fe4 ,rabbits1 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dah4 ,railways3 effects1 ,i1 #ef-h2 distributing systems1 ,i1 #bif-h2 morals and policy1 ,,iii1 #eb-aab2 directors1 ,,iii1 #eb-fc1 #fi2 extensions1 ,,iii1 #ef-i1 #ga-b1 #hb-h1 #ia1 #id1 #if1 #aja-g1 #ajg-h2 dividends1 ,,iii1 #eg1 #ih-i1 #aje-f2 book-keeping1 ,,iii1 #ei2 and land-owners1 ,,iii1 #fc-g2 and members of parliament1 ,,iii1 #fe-g1 #gd-g1 #hc2 and lawyers1 ,,iii1 #fg-gb1 #hc1 #hh1 #ajh2 and engineers1 ,,iii1 #fh-gb1 #hc1 #hh1 #ajh2 contractors1 ,,iii1 #gb-d1 #hc2 boards1 #gg-h2 shares1 #hj-b1 #ajh2 effect of competing lines1 ,,iii1 #ig-h1 #ajg2 safety1 ,,iii1 #ii-ajj2 cause and remedy of corruptions1 ,,iii1 #hh-if2 secondary organizations1 ,,iii1 #ib-c2 and political economy1 ,,iii1 #aja-c2 capital1 ,,iii1 #ajh2 proprietary contract1 ,,iii1 #ajh-aab2 and coaching1 ,,iii1 #aaj-b1 #bee2 relative and absolute ethics1 ,,iii1 #aee-g2 state inspection1 ,,iii1 #bci-dj2 individualism1 ,,iii1 #bdi2 evolution1 ,,iii1 #bef1 #bff2 diffusion of literature1 ,,iii1 #bfb2 winding up act1 ,,iii1 #bgc2 legislature and accidents1 ,,iii1 #bge2 ,english enterprise1 ,,iii1 #bgi2 maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bhe-f2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bif1 #cjb1 #cjd2 inspection1 ,,iii1 #cii2 anomaly1 ,,iii1 #dja2 ,english and ,french1 ,,iii1 #dbh2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dcg2 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dgh4 ,rainbow1 beliefs about1 ,,ii1 #aed4 ,ramsgate1 harbour1 ,,iii1 #bdh4 ,realism1 ,sidgwick's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bdb-ej4 ,reason3 social analogy1 ,i1 #bfi-ga2 limited sphere1 ,,ii1 #bba2 judgment of common sense1 ,,ii1 #bdc-d4 ,reasoning3 recognition of likeness1 ,,ii1 #cc-d1 #cg1 #dj2 of ,kant1 ,,iii1 #aii-bjc2 of metaphysicians1 ,,ii1 #bja-e1 #bjh-aa2 a testing of conclusions1 ,,ii1 #bjh-aa2 7see also ,logic47 ,recitative3 ancient and modern1 ,,ii1 #dae-h2 ,gurney on1 ,,ii1 #dci4 ,reflection1 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caj-c4 ,reflex action3 and emotion1 ,i1 #beh2 impulsiveness1 ,i1 #ceh2 indication of feelings1 ,,ii1 #djc2 examples1 ,,iii1 #dec4 ,reform3 and costume1 ,,iii1 #a-e2 and custom1 ,,iii1 #ca4 ,reform bill3 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bid2 fear of1 ,,iii1 #ceh2 of ,lord ,russell1 ,,iii1 #chj-f4 ,reformation1 change by1 ,,iii1 #di4 ,regulative system1 social1 ,,iii1 #deh-fd4 ,relative1 ,martineau on the1 ,,ii1 #bej-h4 ,religion3 increase of heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bj-c2 relation to early art1 ,i1 #bg2 and to science1 ,i1 #fj-b2 rudimentary form of all1 ,i1 #cji2 object of sentiment1 ,,ii1 #acb2 and science1 ,caird on1 ,,ii1 #bai-ba2 ,mansel's criticism1 ,,ii1 #bba-e2 ,grotz on1 ,,ii1 #bbe2 manners and law1 ,,iii1 #d1 #bc2 primitive ideas1 ,,iii1 #f-aa2 and state1 ,,iii1 #aa2 for primitive man1 ,,iii1 #bd2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja2 and government1 ,,iii1 #dcd4 ,repair1 and waste1 ,,ii1 #cfb-g4 ,representative government3 knowledge of representatives1 ,,iii1 #cjj-i2 and despotism1 ,,iii1 #cji-aj2 and monarchy1 ,,iii1 #caj-g2 superiority1 ,,iii1 #cag-bc1 #cbc-e2 value of1 ,,iii1 #chj4 ,reproductive system1 and organic evolution1 ,i1 #dji1 #dab1 #dbb-e4 ,reptiles3 evolution and heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ae-g2 paleontological remains1 ,i1 #bbg1 #bcg1 #bdj4 ,republicanism1 ,american1 ,,iii1 #dgd-e1 #dgh-i4 ,respiration1 effect of emotion1 ,,ii1 #dei4 ,reviewing1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aci4 ,rhythm1 in speech1 ,,ii1 #ddj4 ,ribbon1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #abg4 ,right 7see ,ethics47 ,roads1 distributing system1 ,i1 #bif-h4 ,robbery3 social co-operation1 ,,iii1 #bag-bj2 of ,messrs4 ,walker1 ,,iii1 #dci4 ,roberts1 ,i41 photographs of1 ,i1 #ahj4 ,robinson1 ,f41 ,icarian colony1 ,,iii1 #deg4 ,rocking stone1 origin1 ,i1 #dcg4 ,rocks1 age of1 ,i1 #aih-bje4 ,rodentia1 transverse integration1 ,i1 #fi4 ,romilly1 ,sir ,s41 on judicial system1 ,,iii1 #bgb4 ,rooks1 cawing of1 ,i1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,roots1 imbedded and exposed1 ,i1 #ddg4 ,rosse1 ,lord1 nebular hypothesis1 ,i1 #aaj-a4 ,rossini1 ,g4 ,a41 heredity1 ,i1 #djf4 ,royal ,institution1 ,,iii1 #dcf4 ,royal ,society1 published barnacle goose myth1 ,,ii1 #afb4 ,ruskin1 ,j41 effects of art1 ,i1 #ei4 ,russell1 ,lord ,john3 on minorities1 ,,iii1 #bie2 reform bill1 ,,iii1 #chj-f4 ,russia3 age of rocks in1 ,i1 #bjj-a1 #bjf2 paper currency1 ,,iii1 #cde4 ,sachs1 ,j41 on cell membranes1 ,i1 #dch-i4 ,safety1 in railways1 ,,iii1 #ii-ajj4 ,satellites3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aa2 origin1 ,i1 #ci2 arrangement and number1 ,i1 #acg-h2 distribution1 ,i1 #ach2 number and forces1 ,i1 #aci-dj2 motion1 ,i1 #ada-c1 #aec-d4 ,saturn3 origin of rings1 ,i1 #ci2 rotatory movement1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 motion of satellites1 ,i1 #acg2 their distance1 ,i1 #ach2 their number1 ,i1 #aci-dj2 rotation of rings1 ,i1 #adb2 location1 ,i1 #adc2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,saxon words1 ,,ii1 #ccf-h4 ,scales1 unstable equilibrium of1 ,i1 #hb4 ,scepticism1 reasoning of1 ,,ii1 #bja4 ,schleiden1 ,m4 ,j41 cell doctrine1 ,i1 #ddc4 ,school1 ,price's1 ,,iii1 #bef4 ,schopenhauer1 ,a41 ethics1 ,,iii1 #bab4 ,schwann1 ,t41 cell doctrine1 ,i1 #ddc4 ,science3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #cd-e2 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ei2 relation to religion1 ,i1 #fj-b2 establishment of causation1 ,i1 #aji2 creed fatal to1 ,i1 #dfc2 and common knowledge1 ,,ii1 #a-h1 #bi1 #ga2 ,oken's classification1 ,,ii1 #i-ab2 ,hegel's1 ,,ii1 #ab-e2 ,comte's1 ,,ii1 #ae-bi2 progress analytic and synthetic1 ,,ii1 #bd-g2 linear arrangement1 ,,ii1 #bg-i2 interdependent with arts1 ,,ii1 #fg-ga1 #id-i2 summary of genesis1 ,,ii1 #ga-c2 interdependence of1 ,,ii1 #id-i2 ,comte and ,positivism1 ,,ii1 #aah-bb1 #abh1 #aci2 origin and evolution1 ,,ii1 #aej-g2 8practical10 ,,ii1 #aea2 ,caird on religion and science1 ,,ii1 #bai-ba2 exact1 ,,iii1 #aii-bjj4 ,sciences1 ,classification of the3 ,littr on ,comte's1 ,,ii1 #gd-f2 characteristics of a true1 ,,ii1 #gf2 abstract concrete1 ,,ii1 #gg-h1 #he-hh1 #ib-d2 concrete1 ,,ii1 #gg-ha1 #hh-ib1 #ib-d2 divisions of abstract1 ,,ii1 #ha-e1 #ib-d2 needs three dimensions1 ,,ii1 #ib-d2 concrete deals with aggregates1 ,,ii1 #ii-ajc2 abstract-concrete1 with properties1 ,,ii1 #aja-c2 abstract with relations1 ,,ii1 #ajb-c2 ,bain1 ,,ii1 #aje-ag2 ,mill1 ,,ii1 #aad2 ,comte1 ,,ii1 #acj4 ,scotch1 dialect1 ,,ii1 #dbd4 ,scotland3 age of rocks1 ,i1 #aih-bje2 bank success1 ,,iii1 #cdh4 ,scott1 ,sir ,w41 anecdote of1 ,,ii1 #dff4 ,scrofula1 heredity1 ,,ii1 #cie4 ,sculpture1 heterogeneity of1 ,i1 #bd-cj4 ,sea1 action on3 geological formations1 ,i1 #bab1 #bac2 upheaved land1 ,i1 #bcb-dj2 shores1 ,i1 #dca-b1 #ddd4 ,selene1 the myth1 ,i1 #cbf4 ,senior wrangler1 criticism of1 ,,ii1 #cjb-e1 #cje-g4 ,sensations3 defined1 ,i1 #bfj1 #bfb2 evolution1 ,i1 #bfd2 demonstration of1 ,,ii1 #dja-c2 pleasure of music1 ,,ii1 #ddd-e2 7see also ,psychology47 ,sense1 disablement of organs1 ,,iii1 #aaf-g4 ,sentences1 arrangement of1 ,,ii1 #cda-ej4 ,settlement1 failure of law of1 ,,iii1 #bdd4 ,sewers commission1 ,,iii1 #bch1 #bdh4 ,sex3 mental development1 ,i1 #cee2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfa-d4 ,shadows3 belief in spirits1 ,i1 #caj-e2 colour1 ,,ii1 #afe-f4 ,shares3 railway1 ,,iii1 #hj-b1 #ajh2 directors and holders of1 ,,iii1 #hb-h2 preference1 ,,iii1 #hf2 depressed by rail extension1 ,,iii1 #id1 #ih-i1 #ajf2 morals of banking1 ,,iii1 #aca-g2 relative and absolute ethics1 ,,iii1 #aee-g4 ,shakespeare1 ,w41 ,i1 #cag1 ,,iii1 #bhc4 ,shears1 analogy from iron1 ,i1 #ig-h4 ,sheep1 ,english and ,french1 ,,ii1 #cif1 #cih4 ,shell1 use and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cgj4 ,ships3 naval maladministration1 ,,iii1 #bcc-d1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bea1 #beb1 #beh1 #bei2 private administration1 ,,iii1 #bcd1 #bch2 and ,admiralty certificate1 ,,iii1 #bci1 #bda2 tonnage law1 ,,iii1 #bdd2 officialism1 ,,iii1 #bec2 mercantile marine acts1 ,,iii1 #bfj2 screw propeller1 ,,iii1 #bfa2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cja4 ,shoes1 removing1 ,,iii1 #ag4 ,shooting stars1 origin1 ,i1 #agd-g4 ,shopkeepers1 lying and believing1 ,,iii1 #aah4 ,sidgwick1 ,h41 criticism1 ,,ii1 #bch-ej4 ,sight3 and exercise1 ,,ii1 #cfb1 #cfc2 and state of faculties1 ,,ii1 #cfd4 ,signature1 of orders1 ,,iii1 #abj4 ,signor1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad1 #ba4 ,signs1 force of gesticulative1 ,,ii1 #cce4 ,silk1 trade morals1 ,,iii1 #abj1 #abd-g4 ,silurian system3 age1 ,i1 #aih-bje2 paleontological evidence1 ,i1 #bjf-g2 thickness1 ,i1 #bca4 ,simile3 use and position1 ,,ii1 #cej-b2 and metaphor1 ,,ii1 #ced4 ,singing1 ,,ii1 #daj-d2 7see also ,music47 ,sir1 the title1 ,,iii1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ba1 #bf4 ,sirius1 distance from sun1 ,i1 #aac1 #aad4 ,skating1 grace in1 ,,ii1 #che4 ,skin1 action of medicine1 ,i1 #ddh1 #dej4 ,skull1 personal beauty1 ,,ii1 #chi-ij1 #cia4 ,slave trade1 former opinion1 ,,iii1 #ada4 ,small-pox1 effects1 ,i1 #dg4 ,smell1 sense of3 and eye position1 ,i1 #gb2 in dogs1 ,i1 #dgj2 exercise1 ,,ii1 #cfb4 ,smith1 ,adam3 theory of morals1 ,i1 #cdf2 importance1 ,,iii1 #caf2 non-university training1 ,,iii1 #cgg-h4 ,smoke bill1 of ,london1 ,,iii1 #bej4 ,sneeze1 and laughter1 ,,ii1 #dfj4 ,snow1 officialism1 ,,ii1 #bdi-ej4 ,soap3 adulterant1 ,,iii1 #abe2 tax1 ,,iii1 #bdc4 ,social organism3 the1 ,i1 #bfe-cjg2 analogy to individual1 ,i1 #bfi-gb1 #bgb-c1 #bgg1 #bia-h1 #cjf-g1 ,,iii1 #daa-af2 difference1 ,i1 #bgc-g2 analogy to lower animal forms1 ,i1 #bgg-hc2 division of labour1 ,i1 #bhc-ia4 ,social ,statics3 origin of morals1 ,i1 #ccb-c2 of sympathy1 ,i1 #cag2 ,comte and title of1 ,,ii1 #acd-g2 thesis of1 ,,ii1 #bfb4 ,socialism3 compulsory co-operation1 ,,iii1 #ded-f2 and regulative system1 ,,iii1 #dfj-d2 effect1 ,,iii1 #dfg2 evils1 ,,iii1 #dfg-gj4 ,sociality1 and psychology1 ,i1 #cff-g1 #cfh4 ,society3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ai-bc1 #ce2 a growth1 ,i1 #bfe-i1 #cjf2 the ideal1 ,,ii1 #aca-b2 self-conscious1 ,,iii1 #ada2 influence of wealth1 ,,iii1 #adc-i2 political ethics and the individual1 ,,iii1 #bbf-h2 evolution1 ,,iii1 #bfc-e2 increasing complexity1 ,,iii1 #cbc-e2 average morality1 ,,iii1 #cei2 and individual organism1 ,,iii1 #daa-f2 regulative system1 ,,iii1 #dfc2 7see also ,prison ,ethics1 ,sociology47 ,sociology3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #ec-fj2 homogeneity unstable1 ,i1 #hc2 individual and social organism1 ,i1 #aja-g2 psychical traits and social state1 ,i1 #ced1 #cee2 conservatism1 ,i1 #cef2 mental variability1 ,i1 #cef-g2 impulsiveness1 ,i1 #ceg-i2 effect of mixing races1 ,i1 #cei-fj2 and of sexes1 ,i1 #cfa-d2 curiosity1 ,i1 #cfa-e2 imitativeness1 ,i1 #cfd2 peculiar aptitudes1 ,i1 #cff2 sociality1 freedom1 approbation1 and acquisitiveness1 ,i1 #cff-g2 altruistic sentiments1 #cfg-i2 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dfc-e2 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg2 concrete science1 ,,ii1 #ib2 terrestrial evolution1 ,,ii1 #if2 deals with aggregates1 ,,ii1 #ajj1 #ajc2 a word of ,comte's1 ,,ii1 #acc2 universality of law1 ,,ii1 #aei2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cjb2 life1 ,,iii1 #cbe2 education1 ,,iii1 #cge-i2 cause and effect1 ,,iii1 #dhg-ib4 ,solar system3 heterogeneity1 ,i1 #aj-aa2 origin1 ,i1 #ajh-aj2 ,laplace on1 ,i1 #abh-i2 evolution1 ,i1 #abh-ca4 ,solicitor1 and trader1 ,,iii1 #aci4 ,sound3 multiplication of effects1 ,i1 #cg2 ,kantian ideas of space1 ,,ii1 #bbg2 as illustrating crude and transfigured realism1 ,,ii1 #bde-f2 velocity1 ,,ii1 #bfg2 sensation1 ,,iii1 #aig4 ,space3 concept of1 ,i1 #bdg2 ,hutton on intuitions of1 ,i1 #cci2 classification of science1 ,,ii1 #gg1 #ha-e2 ,bain on nature of mathematics1 ,,ii1 #aje-f2 ,hamilton ,,ii1 #aia-b2 ,hodgson1 ,,ii1 #bbj-cd2 ,kant1 ,,ii1 #bbj-g1 #bbi-cb1 #bcf-h2 ,martineau1 ,,ii1 #beg2 consciousness1 ,,ii1 #cjh2 ,kant and evolution1 ,,iii1 #aig-i1 #bjc1 #bjg4 ,spain3 contracts in1 ,,iii1 #bah2 representative government1 ,,iii1 #cag-i4 ,spalding1 ,d41 experiments of1 ,,ii1 #bbf4 ,sparta1 social type1 ,,iii1 #dae4 ,special creation3 lack of facts1 ,i1 #a2 and evolution1 ,i1 #a-g2 conception of1 ,i1 #bfe4 ,specialized administration1 ,,iii1 #dja-dd4 ,species3 number of1 ,i1 #a2 evolution and creation1 ,i1 #a-g2 effect of upheavals1 ,i1 #di-eb2 of climate1 ,i1 #bba-d2 of terrestrial change1 ,i1 #bbd-f2 fertility of varieties1 ,,ii1 #cig-h4 ,specific gravity3 of animals and plants1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 of planets1 ,i1 #add-h1 #aed2 solar system1 ,i1 #afc4 ,spectrum analysis1 complexity of elements1 ,i1 #cgb-d4 ,speech1 figures of1 ,,ii1 #cej-e2 7see also ,language47 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 propositions held by1 ,,ii1 #abe-cb4 ,spencer1 ,rev4 ,thomas1 ,,iii1 #cfa4 ,spheroid1 ring formation1 ,i1 #acc-d4 ,spine1 and evolution1 ,,iii1 #bje4 ,spirit1 the word misleading1 ,i1 #caa4 ,spirits1 belief in1 ,i1 #caa-b1 #cdd4 ,sponges3 form of1 ,i1 #gc2 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hg4 ,staccato1 in singing1 ,,ii1 #dab4 ,staffordshire1 potteries1 ,i1 #bff4 ,stage coach1 ,,iii1 #aaj-b1 #bee4 ,stars3 distribution of nebul1 ,i1 #aab-h2 magnitude and distance1 ,i1 #aae-h2 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel on genesis1 ,i1 #abi2 distance apart1 ,i1 #afa2 star as name1 ,i1 #cag1 #cbf2 ,kant's awe of universe1 ,,iii1 #aib1 #aie2 7see also ,astronomy47 ,state1 the3 duty of1 ,,iii1 #bcf2 and religion1 ,,iii1 #aa1 #bc1 #ej2 7see also ,over-legislation47 ,statics1 ,comte's classification1 ,,ii1 #ai4 ,steam power1 effects1 ,i1 #ef-h4 ,stephenson1 ,r41 on railways1 ,,iii1 #aje-f4 ,stereoscope1 analogy from1 ,,ii1 #bfe4 ,stick1 equilibrium of1 ,i1 #hb4 ,stocking trade1 and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bfb4 ,stonehenge1 use and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cga-b4 ,strikes1 ,,iii1 #cfb-d1 #cfe1 #chc4 ,strings1 in musical instruments1 ,,ii1 #dae4 ,structure3 animal and vegetal1 ,i1 #gc-g2 relation to function1 ,i1 #bdi4 ,style3 philosophy of1 ,,ii1 #ccc-fi2 forcibleness of ,saxon1 ,,ii1 #ccf-g2 and brevity1 ,,ii1 #ccg-h2 specific expression1 ,,ii1 #cch-i2 sequence of words1 ,,ii1 #cci-da2 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cda-g2 direct and indirect1 ,,ii1 #cdg-ej2 figures of speech1 ,,ii1 #cej-e4 ,subject3 consciousness of1 ,,ii1 #baa-d2 relation to object1 ,,ii1 #cbc-cb2 arrangement of sentences1 ,,ii1 #cdb-d4 ,substantive and adjective1 ,,ii1 #cdj-a4 ,sugar1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aba-c1 #abe4 ,suicide1 belief in another world1 ,,ii1 #bbc4 ,sun3 origin1 ,i1 #ci2 distance from ,sirius1 ,i1 #aac1 #aad2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb2 content of1 ,i1 #aea2 atmosphere1 ,i1 #aea2 temperature1 ,i1 #aea2 constitution1 ,i1 #aec1 #ahb-ia2 duration of heat1 ,i1 #aja2 willow-leaves and rice grains1 ,i1 #ahf1 #ahh2 facul ,i1 #ahf-g2 ,faye's sun-spot theory1 ,i1 #ahc-d1 #ahh-i2 cyclonic theory1 ,i1 #ahg-ia2 as name1 ,i1 #cag1 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cbh4 ,survival of the fittest3 ,martineau on evolution1 ,i1 #cgi-ha2 a factor only of evolution1 ,i1 #cig-djj1 #djj-e1 #dje-h1 #dba-e2 and heredity1 ,i1 #djh-ab1 #dab-e2 the phrase1 ,i1 #dbi-cj2 and effect of medium1 ,i1 #ddd-e2 and nervous system1 ,i1 #deg-h2 early action of1 ,i1 #dfj-b2 ,huxley on1 ,i1 #dfb-c2 ,duke of ,argyll's criticism1 ,i1 #dfg-gh2 three factors1 ,i1 #dgb4 ,swift1 ,j41 on manners1 ,,iii1 #dd4 ,swiss1 architecture1 ,,ii1 #cgi4 ,syllables1 style and length1 ,,ii1 #ccg-h4 ,syllogism1 ,hodgson on1 ,,ii1 #bca4 ,symbolization1 infrequent1 ,i1 #cbb4 ,symmetry1 in buildings and animals1 ,,ii1 #cgf-g4 ,sympathy3 altruism1 ,i1 #cdf2 comparative psychology1 ,i1 #cfh-i2 and gracefulness1 ,,ii1 #chf2 music1 ,,ii1 #dbd-f2 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #adb-c4 ,syncrypta1 life in1 ,i1 #ddc4 ,synecdoche1 effective1 ,,ii1 #cej4 ,synthesis1 chemical1 ,i1 #cgd4 ,synthetic philosophy1 outline1 ,,ii1 #adj-b4 ,tailor1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aag4 ,tait1 ,p4 ,g43 on natural philosophy1 ,,ii1 #bfi1 #cae-bj2 axioms1 ,,ii1 #bgj1 #bih-cja1 #cae-bj2 laws of motion1 ,,ii1 #bga-e1 #bgg-hh1 #bii-cbj2 ultimate scientific ideas1 ,,ii1 #bhi2 central forces1 ,,ii1 #bij-ic2 on synthetic philosophy1 ,,ii1 #bid-f4 ,talent1 relation to desire1 ,i1 #ed4 ,tamberlik1 ,e41 ut de poitrine1 ,,ii1 #ddb4 ,tanner1 ,prof4 ,e41 use and disuse1 ,i1 #dai4 ,tape1 morals of trade1 ,,iii1 #aah1 #aai4 ,taste1 exhausted by exercise1 ,,ii1 #cfb4 ,taxes1 and parliament1 ,,iii1 #cga-e4 ,teeth3 organic correlation1 ,i1 #if-aja2 size of jaw1 ,i1 #dja4 ,telegrams1 officialism1 ,,iii1 #cif-g4 ,telegraphs3 analogous to nerves1 ,i1 #cjf2 private enterprise1 ,,iii1 #bcd4 ,telephone1 in ,america1 ,,iii1 #dgb4 ,temperance society1 ,,iii1 #ddf4 ,temperature3 of solar system1 ,i1 #aa2 animal and vegetal1 ,i1 #gd1 #gf2 vegetal density1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb2 solar1 ,i1 #aea2 chemical unions1 ,i1 #aei2 duration of solar1 ,i1 #afa-c2 evolution of1 and nebular hypothesis1 ,i1 #aei-fc4 ,ten hours bill1 ,,iii1 #cfb1 #cfe4 ,tenby1 sea shore1 ,i1 #dcb4 ,tennyson1 ,lord1 quoted1 ,,ii1 #cef1 ,,iii1 #cad4 ,thalassicolla1 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hg4 ,thames3 sewers commission1 ,,iii1 #bch2 water supply1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib4 ,theft1 punishment1 ,,iii1 #bcc4 ,thermo-electricity1 what is8 ,,ii1 #agb-f4 ,thermology1 genesis1 ,,ii1 #fa4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,w41 terrestrial density1 ,i1 #adi4 ,thomson1 ,sir ,w41 and ,prof4 ,tait1 on physical axioms1 ,,iii1 #bbj-a4 ,thorns1 protection and growth of1 ,i1 #cia4 ,ticket of leave1 system1 ,,iii1 #bdd4 ,time3 measures of1 ,,ii1 #de-i2 classification of science1 ,,ii1 #gg1 #ha-e2 ,s4 ,h4 ,hodgson on1 ,,ii1 #bbf-cd2 ,kant1 ,,ii1 #bbf-g1 #bbi-cb1 #bcf-h1 ,,iii1 #aig-i1 #bjg2 ,martineau's criticism1 ,,ii1 #beg2 terrestrial motion1 ,,ii1 #bgb2 ,emerson on1 ,,ii1 #ced4 ,titles1 evolution of1 ,,iii1 #aa-f1 #bc1 #bg-h4 ,todleben1 ,gen4 ,f4 ,e4 von1 ,,iii1 #cji-aj4 ,totemism1 ,i1 #cji-ag4 ,town councils3 representative government1 ,,iii1 #bhh2 parliamentary reform1 ,,iii1 #cfi-gj1 #cga1 #cgb4 ,town hall1 building of1 ,,iii1 #cgb4 ,trade3 localization1 ,i1 #bb2 morals of1 ,,iii1 #aac-ea1 #ddh-i2 adulteration1 ,,iii1 #aac1 #aba-c2 bribery1 ,,iii1 #aad-h2 short weight1 ,,iii1 #aah-i2 circulars1 ,,iii1 #abc-d2 silk manufacture1 ,,iii1 #abd-g2 candle making1 ,,iii1 #abh2 elastic webbing1 ,,iii1 #abi2 bankruptcy1 ,,iii1 #abi-ca2 morals of banking1 ,,iii1 #aca-g2 average morality1 ,,iii1 #acg-dj2 and sympathy1 ,,iii1 #adb-c2 homage to wealth1 ,,iii1 #adc-i1 #adi-ea2 ethics of free trade1 ,,iii1 #aed2 7see also ,industry47 ,trade unions3 parliamentary reform1 ,,iii1 #cfb-h1 #chd2 tyranny of1 ,,iii1 #chb1 #chc2 selfishness1 ,,iii1 #dfe-g1 #dfi4 ,tramps1 and poor law1 ,,iii1 #bdd4 ,transcendental ,physiology 7see ,physiology47 ,tremolo1 in singing1 ,,ii1 #dab4 ,triangle1 space perception1 ,,ii1 #cji4 ,trigonometry1 evolution1 ,,ii1 #ee1 #aee4 ,truth1 denial of1 ,,ii1 #bei-fe4 ,tyndall1 ,j43 on heat1 ,,ii1 #agc2 of light1 ,,ii1 #agh4 ,tzigane1 music1 ,,ii1 #dej-a4 ,ulcer1 effects on skin1 ,i1 #ddh-i4 ,unbelievable1 ,mill on word1 ,,ii1 #aic-bjj4 ,united ,states 7see ,america47 ,university1 training1 ,,iii1 #cgg-h4 ,unknowable1 ,the3 knowledge of1 ,,ii1 #bbj2 ,hodgson on1 ,,ii1 #bcd2 ,martineau on1 ,,ii1 #bej-h4 ,unstable equilibrium1 of homogeneity1 ,i1 #ha-d4 ,uranus3 axial motion1 ,i1 #acc-f2 motion of satellites1 ,i1 #acg2 their distance1 ,i1 #ach2 their number1 ,i1 #aci-dj2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,uroglena1 life in1 ,i1 #ddc4 ,use1 and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cgj-d2 7see also ,heredity47 ,utilitarianism1 and ,mr4 ,spencer's views1 ,i1 #ccd1 #cch1 #cdg-ej4 ,valencia1 prison discipline1 ,,iii1 #agg-h4 ,variability1 mental1 ,i1 #cef-g4 ,variation1 natural selection and heredity1 ,i1 #djh-ab1 #dba4 ,varieties3 effect of union1 ,i1 #cei2 fertility1 ,,ii1 #cig-h4 ,vascular system3 deductive biology1 ,i1 #gh-ha2 development1 ,i1 #bhe-f2 and evolution1 ,,iii1 #bjd4 ,vaucheria1 cell membrane1 ,i1 #dci4 ,veddahs1 invocation of1 ,i1 #caa-b4 ,venus3 motion1 ,i1 #ace1 #acf2 satellites1 ,i1 #aci-da2 density and heat1 ,i1 #add-h1 #adh-eb4 ,vertebr1 evolution1 ,i1 #cie1 ,,iii1 #bje4 ,vertebrata3 evolution and heterogeneity1 ,i1 #ae-g1 #ag-i2 integration1 ,i1 #fh-ga2 position of eyes1 ,i1 #ga-b2 self-mobility1 ,i1 #gf2 germ and instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hh2 cervical vertebr1 ,,ii1 #hc2 origin of music1 ,,ii1 #dcb2 controlling system1 ,,iii1 #djg4 ,vestiges of ,creation1 and evolution1 ,i1 #cij4 ,vienna1 ,english enterprise in1 ,,iii1 #bgh4 ,voice3 feelings and loudness1 ,,ii1 #djd1 #daj2 timbre1 ,,ii1 #dje1 #daa2 pitch1 ,,ii1 #djf1 #daa2 intervals1 ,,ii1 #djf-i1 #daa2 variability1 ,,ii1 #dji1 #daa2 ordinary and singing1 ,,ii1 #daj-d4 ,volition1 ,bain's definition1 ,i1 #beh-i4 ,volvox3 instability of homogeneous1 ,i1 #hg2 life in1 ,i1 #ddc2 development1 ,i1 #def4 ,wales1 age of rocks1 ,i1 #aih-bje1 #bjg-h4 ,walker1 ,messrs41 robbery at1 ,,iii1 #dci4 ,walking3 effect of blister1 ,i1 #djd2 grace in1 ,,ii1 #chb4 ,waste1 and repair1 ,,ii1 #cfb-g4 ,water3 compound1 ,i1 #cgb2 government carts and officialism1 ,,iii1 #bdi2 and supply1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib1 #dbi4 ,wealth1 homage to1 ,,iii1 #adc-i1 #adi-ea4 ,weapons1 division of labour1 ,i1 #ed4 ,weber1 ,k4 ,m4 von1 heredity1 ,i1 #djf4 ,weight1 measures of1 ,,ii1 #dc-e4 ,werner1 ,a4 ,g43 geological theory1 ,i1 #aid-g2 influence of1 ,i1 #bja4 ,whales1 not fish1 ,i1 #bdg4 ,whately1 ,abp43 metaphor and simile1 ,,ii1 #ceb2 political economy1 ,,iii1 #dbc-d4 ,whewell1 ,w43 ,history of ,inductive ,sciences1 ,,ii1 #bc2 electrical theory1 ,,ii1 #fb4 ,whirlwind1 sun-spot analogy1 ,i1 #aij-a4 ,white1 perception of1 ,,iii1 #aif4 ,will1 the3 social analogy1 ,i1 #bfi-ga2 ,kant on1 ,,iii1 #bja-c2 7see also ,psychology47 ,wills1 registrars of1 ,,iii1 #bea4 ,wisdom1 the collective1 ,,iii1 #chg-ib4 ,wolf1 as name1 ,i1 #cab-c1 #cae1 #caf1 #cba4 ,wollaston1 ,w4 ,h41 insect colours1 ,i1 #dcc4 ,women3 comparative psychology and sex1 ,i1 #cfa-d2 size of jaw1 ,i1 #cih2 treatment of1 ,,iii1 #dde-f4 ,wool1 industry and locality1 ,i1 #ajd4 ,words 7see ,language47 ,workpeople1 residences1 ,,iii1 #ddg4 ,writing3 increase in heterogeneity1 ,i1 #bd-f2 derived from picture language1 ,,ii1 #cc4 ,yorkshire1 woollen industry1 ,i1 #bff4 ,yours faithfully1 etc41 ,,iii1 #af1 #bf4 ,zoology3 genesis1 ,,ii1 #eg2 classification1 ,,ii1 #fd2 discovery of laws1 ,,ii1 #adi-ej4 ,zoophytes1 evolution of mind1 ,i1 #cgg4 ,zulus1 ethics1 ,,iii1 #aic4 ,zygomatic arches1 and beauty1 ,,ii1 #cij-b4 ,,mr4 ,,herbert ,,spencer',s ,,works4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,synthetic ,,philosophy4 #hth ,thousand4 7,,with ,,an ,,appendix ,,dealing ,,with ,,criticisms47 ,in one vol4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #afs41 ,,first ,,principles4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4--,,the ,,unknowable4 #a4 ,religion and ,science4 #b4 ,ultimate ,religious ,ideas4 #c4 ,ultimate ,scientific ,ideas4 #d4 ,the ,relativity of ,all ,knowledge4 #e4 ,the ,reconciliation4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,knowable4 #a4 ,philosophy ,defined #b4 ,the ,data of ,philosophy4 #c4 ,space1 ,time1 ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force4 #d4 ,the ,indestructibility of ,matter4 #e4 ,the ,continuity of ,motion4 #f4 ,the ,persistence of ,force4 #g4 ,the ,persistence of ,relations among ,forces4 #h4 ,the ,transformation and ,equivalence of ,forces4 #i4 ,the ,direction of ,motion4 #aj4 ,the ,rhythm of ,motion4 #aa4 ,recapitulation1 ,criticism1 and ,recommencement4 #ab4 ,evolution and ,dissolution4 #ac4 ,simple and ,compound ,evolution4 #ad4 ,the ,law of ,evolution4 #ae4 ,the ,law of ,evolution1 continued4 #af4 ,the ,law of ,evolution1 continued4 #ag4 ,the ,law of ,evolution1 concluded4 #ah4 ,the ,interpretation of ,evolution4 #ai4 ,the ,instability of the ,homogeneous4 #bj4 ,the ,multiplication of ,effects4 #ba4 ,segregation4 #bb4 ,equilibration4 #bc4 ,dissolution4 #bd4 ,summary and ,conclusion4 #dth ,thousand4 ,in two vols4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #cds4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,biology4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,part ,i4--,,the ,,data ,,of ,,biology4 #a4 ,organic ,matter4 #b4 ,the ,actions of ,forces on ,organic ,matter4 #c4 ,the ,re-actions of ,organic ,matter on ,forces4 #d4 ,proximate ,definition of ,life4 #e4 ,the ,correspondence between ,life and its ,circumstances4 #f4 ,the ,degree of ,life varies as the ,degree of ,correspondence4 #g4 ,the ,scope of ,biology4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,inductions ,,of ,,biology4 #a4 ,growth4 #b4 ,development4 #c4 ,function4 #d4 ,waste and ,repair4 #e4 ,adaptation4 #f4 ,individuality4 #g4 ,genesis4 #h4 ,heredity4 #i4 ,variation4 #aj4 ,genesis1 ,heredity1 and ,variation4 #aa4 ,classification4 #ab4 ,distribution4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,life4 #a4 ,preliminary4 #b4 ,general ,aspects of the ,special-,creation-,hypothesis4 #c4 ,general ,aspects of the ,evolution-,hypothesis4 #d4 ,the ,arguments from ,classification4 #e4 ,the ,arguments from ,embryology4 #f4 ,the ,arguments from ,morphology4 #g4 ,the ,arguments from ,distribution4 #h4 ,how is ,organic ,evolution caused8 #i4 ,external ,factors4 #aj4 ,internal ,factors4 #aa4 ,direct ,equilibration4 #ab4 ,indirect ,equilibration4 #ac4 ,the ,co-operation of the ,factors4 #ad4 ,the ,convergence of the ,evidences4 ,,appendix4 ,the ,spontaneous-,generation ,question4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,part ,,iv4--,,morphological ,,development4 #a4 ,the ,problems of ,morphology4 #b4 ,the ,morphological ,composition of ,plants4 #c4 ,the ,morphological ,composition of ,plants1 continued4 #d4 ,the ,morphological ,composition of ,animals4 #e4 ,the ,morphological ,composition of ,animals1 continued4 #f4 ,morphological ,differentiation in ,plants4 #g4 ,the ,general ,shapes of ,plants4 #h4 ,the ,shapes of ,branches4 #i4 ,the ,shapes of ,leaves4 #aj4 ,the ,shapes of ,flowers4 #aa4 ,the ,shapes of ,vegetal ,cells4 #ab4 ,changes of ,shape otherwise caused4 #ac4 ,morphological ,differentiation in ,animals4 #ad4 ,the ,general ,shapes of ,animals4 #ae4 ,the ,shapes of ,vertebrate ,skeletons4 #af4 ,the ,shapes of ,animal ,cells4 #ag4 ,summary of ,morphological ,development4 ,,part ,v4--,,physiological ,,development4 #a4 ,the ,problems of ,physiology4 #b4 ,differentiations between the ,outer and ,inner ,tissues of ,plants4 #c4 ,differentiations among the ,outer ,tissues of ,plants4 #d4 ,differentiations among the ,inner ,tissues of ,plants4 #e4 ,physiological ,integration in ,plants4 #f4 ,differentiations between the ,outer and ,inner ,tissues of ,animals4 #g4 ,differentiations among the ,outer ,tissues of ,animals4 #h4 ,differentiations among the ,inner ,tissues of ,animals4 #i4 ,physiological ,integration in ,animals4 #aj4 ,summary of ,physiological ,development4 ,,part ,,vi4--,,laws ,,of ,,multiplication4 #a4 ,the ,factors4 #b4 ,priori ,principle4 #c4 ,obverse priori ,principle4 #d4 ,difficulties of ,inductive ,verification4 #e4 ,antagonism between ,growth and ,asexual ,genesis4 #f4 ,antagonism between ,growth and ,sexual ,genesis4 #g4 ,antagonism between ,development and ,genesis1 ,asexual and ,sexual4 #h4 ,antagonism between ,expenditure and ,genesis4 #i4 ,coincidence between high ,nutrition and ,genesis4 #aj4 ,specialities of these ,relations4 #aa4 ,interpretation and ,qualification4 #ab4 ,multiplication of the ,human ,race4 #ac4 ,human ,evolution in the ,future4 ,,appendix4 ,a ,criticism on ,professor ,owen's ,theory of the ,vertebrate ,skeleton4 ,on ,circulation and the ,formation of ,wood in ,plants4 #eth ,thousand4 7,,with ,,an ,,additional ,,part47 ,in two vols4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #cfs41 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,psychology4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,part ,i4--,,the ,,data ,,of ,,psychology4 #a4 ,the ,nervous ,system4 #b4 ,the ,structure of the ,nervous ,system4 #c4 ,the ,functions of the ,nervous ,system4 #d4 ,the ,conditions essential to ,nervous ,action4 #e4 ,nervous ,stimulation and ,nervous ,discharge4 #f4 stho-,physiology4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,inductions ,,of ,,psychology4 #a4 ,the ,substance of ,mind4 #b4 ,the ,composition of ,mind4 #c4 ,the ,relativity of ,feelings4 #d4 ,the ,relativity of ,relations between ,feelings4 #e4 ,the ,revivability of ,feelings4 #f4 ,the ,revivability of ,relations between ,feelings4 #g4 ,the ,associability of ,feelings4 #h4 ,the ,associability of ,relations between ,feelings4 #i4 ,pleasures and ,pains4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,general ,,synthesis4 #a4 ,life and ,mind as ,correspondence4 #b4 ,the ,correspondence as ,direct and ,homogeneous4 #c4 ,the ,correspondence as ,direct but ,heterogeneous4 #d4 ,the ,correspondence as extending in ,space4 #e4 ,the ,correspondence as extending in ,time4 #f4 ,the ,correspondence as increasing in ,speciality4 #g4 ,the ,correspondence as increasing in ,generality4 #h4 ,the ,correspondence as increasing in ,complexity4 #i4 ,the ,co-ordination of ,correspondences4 #aj4 ,the ,integration of ,correspondences4 #aa4 ,the ,correspondences in their ,totality4 ,,part ,,iv4--,,special ,,synthesis4 #a4 ,the ,nature of ,intelligence4 #b4 ,the ,law of ,intelligence4 #c4 ,the ,growth of ,intelligence4 #d4 ,reflex ,action4 #e4 ,instinct4 #f4 ,memory4 #g4 ,reason4 #h4 ,the ,feelings4 #i4 ,the ,will4 ,,part ,v4--,,physical ,,synthesis4 #a4 ,a ,further ,interpretation ,needed4 #b4 ,the ,genesis of ,nerves4 #c4 ,the ,genesis of ,simple ,nervous ,systems4 #d4 ,the ,genesis of ,compound ,nervous ,systems4 #e4 ,the ,genesis of ,doubly-,compound ,nervous ,systems4 #f4 ,functions as ,related to these ,structures4 #g4 ,psychical ,laws as thus ,interpreted4 #h4 ,evidence from ,normal ,variations4 #i4 ,evidence from ,abnormal ,variations4 #aj4 ,results4 ,,appendix4 ,on the ,action of ,ansthetics and ,narcotics4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,part ,,vi4--,,special ,,analysis4 #a4 ,limitation of the ,subject4 #b4 ,compound ,quantitative ,reasoning4 #c4 ,compound ,quantitative ,reasoning1 continued4 #d4 ,imperfect and ,simple ,quantitative ,reasoning4 #e4 ,quantitative ,reasoning in ,general4 #f4 ,perfect ,qualitative ,reasoning4 #g4 ,imperfect ,qualitative ,reasoning4 #h4 ,reasoning in ,general4 #i4 ,classification1 ,naming1 and ,recognition4 #aj4 ,the ,perception of ,special ,objects4 #aa4 ,the ,perception of ,body as presenting ,dynamical1 ,statico-,dynamical1 and ,statical ,attributes4 #ab4 ,the ,perception of ,body as presenting ,statico-,dynamical and ,statical ,attributes4 #ac4 ,the ,perception of ,body as presenting ,statical ,attributes4 #ad4 ,the ,perception of ,space4 #ae4 ,the ,perception of ,time4 #af4 ,the ,perception of ,motion4 #ag4 ,the ,perception of ,resistance4 #ah4 ,perception in ,general4 #ai4 ,the ,relations of ,similarity and ,dissimilarity4 #bj4 ,the ,relations of ,cointension and ,non-,cointension4 #ba4 ,the ,relations of ,coextension and ,non-,coextension4 #bb4 ,the ,relations of ,coexistence and ,non-,coexistence4 #bc4 ,the ,relations of ,connature and ,non-,connature4 #bd4 ,the ,relations of ,likeness and ,unlikeness4 #be4 ,the ,relation of ,sequence4 #bf4 ,consciousness in ,general4 #bg4 ,results4 ,,part ,,vii4--,,general ,,analysis4 #a4 ,the ,final ,question4 #b4 ,the ,assumption of ,metaphysicians4 #c4 ,the ,words of ,metaphysicians4 #d4 ,the ,reasonings of ,metaphysicians4 #e4 ,negative ,justification of ,realism4 #f4 ,argument from ,priority4 #g4 ,the ,argument from ,simplicity4 #h4 ,the ,argument from ,distinctness4 #i4 ,a ,criterion ,wanted4 #aj4 ,propositions qualitatively distinguished4 #aa4 ,the ,universal ,postulate4 #ab4 ,the test of ,relative ,validity4 #ac4 ,its ,corollaries4 #ad4 ,positive ,justification of ,realism4 #ae4 ,the ,dynamics of ,consciousness4 #af4 ,partial ,differentiation of ,subject and ,object4 #ag4 ,completed ,differentiation of ,subject and ,object4 #ah4 ,developed ,conception of the ,object4 #ai4 ,transfigured ,realism4 ,,part ,,viii4--,,congruities4 #a4 ,preliminary4 #b4 ,co-ordination of ,data and ,inductions4 #c4 ,co-ordination of ,syntheses4 #d4 ,co-ordination of ,special ,analyses4 #e4 ,co-ordination of ,general ,analyses4 #f4 ,final ,comparison4 ,,part ,,ix4--,,corollaries4 #a4 ,special ,psychology4 #b4 ,classification4 #c4 ,development of ,conceptions4 #d4 ,language of the ,emotions4 #e4 ,sociality and ,sympathy4 #f4 ,egoistic ,sentiments4 #g4 ,ego-,altruistic ,sentiments4 #h4 ,altruistic ,sentiments4 #i4 sthetic ,sentiments4 #crd ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,in #hvo41 cloth1 price #bas41 ,vol4 ,i4 of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,sociology4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4--,,the ,,data ,,of ,,sociology4 #a4 ,super-,organic ,evolution4 #b4 ,the ,factors of ,social ,phenomena4 #c4 ,original ,external ,factors4 #d4 ,original ,internal ,factors4 #e4 ,the ,primitive ,man--,physical4 #f4 ,the ,primitive ,man--,emotional4 #g4 ,the ,primitive ,man--,intellectual4 #h4 ,primitive ,ideas4 #i4 ,the ,ideas of the ,animate and the ,inanimate4 #aj4 ,the ,ideas of ,sleep and ,dreams4 #aa4 ,the ,ideas of ,swoon1 ,apoplexy1 ,catelepsy1 ,ecstacy1 and other forms of ,insensibility4 #ab4 ,the ,ideas of ,death and ,resurrection4 #ac4 ,the ,ideas of ,souls1 ,ghosts1 ,spirits1 ,demons4 #ad4 ,the ,ideas of ,another ,life4 #ae4 ,the ,ideas of ,another ,world4 #af4 ,the ,ideas of ,supernatural ,agents4 #ag4 ,supernatural ,agents as causing ,epilepsy and ,convulsive ,actions1 ,delirium and ,insanity1 ,disease and ,death4 #ah4 ,inspiration1 ,divination1 ,exorcism1 and ,sorcery4 #ai4 ,sacred ,places1 ,temples1 and ,altars2 ,sacrifice1 ,fasting1 and ,propitiation2 ,praise and ,prayer4 #bj4 ,ancestor-,worship in ,general4 #ba4 ,idol-,worship and ,fetich-,worship4 #bb4 ,animal-,worship4 #bc4 ,plant-,worship4 #bd4 ,nature-,worship4 #be4 ,deities4 #bf4 ,the ,primitive ,theory of ,things4 #bg4 ,the ,scope of ,sociology4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,inductions ,,of ,,sociology4 #a4 ,what is a ,society8 #b4 ,a ,society is an ,organism4 #c4 ,social ,growth4 #d4 ,social ,structures4 #e4 ,social ,functions4 #f4 ,systems of ,organs4 #g4 ,the ,sustaining ,system4 #h4 ,the ,distributing ,system4 #i4 ,the ,regulating ,system4 #aj4 ,social ,types and ,constitutions4 #aa4 ,social ,metamorphoses4 #ab4 ,qualifications and ,summary4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,domestic ,,relations4 #a4 ,the ,maintenance of ,species4 #b4 ,the ,diverse ,interests of the ,species1 of the ,parents1 and of the ,offspring4 #c4 ,primitive ,relations of the ,sexes4 #d4 ,exogamy and ,endogamy4 #e4 ,promiscuity4 #f4 ,polyandry4 #g4 ,polygyny4 #h4 ,monogamy4 #i4 ,the ,family4 #aj4 ,the ,status of ,women4 #aa4 ,the ,status of ,children4 #ab4 ,domestic ,retrospect and ,prospect4 #bnd ,thousand4 ,in #hvo1 cloth1 price #ahs4 ,vol4 ,,ii of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,sociology4 7,containing the two following divisions1 which may still be had separately47 ,in one vol4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #gs41 ,,ceremonial ,,institutions4 ,,contents4 #a4 ,ceremony in ,general4 #b4 ,trophies4 #c4 ,mutilations4 #d4 ,presents4 #e4 ,visits4 #f4 ,obeisances4 #g4 ,forms of ,address4 #h4 ,titles4 #i4 ,badges and ,costumes4 #aj4 ,further ,class-,distinctions4 #aa4 ,fashion4 #ab4 ,ceremonial ,retrospect and ,prospect4 ,in one vol4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #abs4 ,,political ,,institutions4 ,,contents4 #a4 ,preliminary4 #b4 ,political ,organization in ,general4 #c4 ,political ,integration4 #d4 ,political ,differentiation4 #e4 ,political ,forms and ,forces4 #f4 ,political ,heads--,chiefs1 ,kings1 etc4 #g4 ,compound ,political ,heads4 #h4 ,consultative ,bodies4 #i4 ,representative ,bodies4 #aj4 ,ministries4 #aa4 ,local ,governing ,agencies4 #ab4 ,military ,systems4 #ac4 ,judicial ,systems4 #ad4 ,laws4 #ae4 ,property4 #af4 ,revenue4 #ag4 ,the ,militant ,type of ,society4 #ah4 ,the ,industrial ,type of ,society4 #ai4 ,political ,retrospect and ,prospect4 #bnd ,thousand4 ,in one vol4 #hvo41 cloth1 price #es4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,institutions4 7,being ,part ,,vi4 of the ,,principles ,,of ,,sociology47 ,,contents4 #a4 ,the ,religious ,idea4 #b4 ,medicine-men and ,priests4 #c4 ,priestly ,duties of ,descendants4 #d4 ,eldest ,male ,descendants as ,quasi-,priests4 #e4 ,the ,ruler as ,priest4 #f4 ,the ,rise of a ,priesthood4 #g4 ,polytheistic and ,monotheistic ,priesthoods4 #h4 ,ecclesiastical ,hierarchies4 #i4 ,an ,ecclesiastical ,system as a ,social ,bond4 #aj4 ,the ,military ,functions of ,priests4 #aa4 ,the ,civil ,functions of ,priests4 #ab4 ,church and ,state4 #ac4 ,nonconformity4 #ad4 ,the ,moral ,influences of ,priesthoods4 #ae4 ,ecclesiastical ,retrospect and ,prospect4 #af4 ,religious ,retrospect and ,prospect4 #eth ,thousand4 ,,with ,,an ,,appendix1 ,,containing ,,an ,,additional ,,chapter1 ,,and ,,replies ,,to ,,criticisms4 ,in one vol4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #hs41 ,,the ,,data ,,of ,,ethics4 7,being ,part ,i4 of the ,,principles ,,of ,,ethics47 ,,contents4 #a4 ,conduct in ,general4 #b4 ,the ,evolution of ,conduct4 #c4 ,good and ,bad ,conduct4 #d4 ,ways of ,judging ,conduct4 #e4 ,the ,physical ,view4 #f4 ,the ,biological ,view4 #g4 ,the ,psychological ,view4 #h4 ,the ,sociological ,view4 #i4 ,criticisms and ,explanations4 #aj4 ,the ,relativity of ,pains and ,pleasures4 #aa4 ,egoism versus ,altruism4 #ab4 ,altruism versus ,egoism4 #ac4 ,trial and ,compromise4 #ad4 ,conciliation4 #ae4 ,absolute ,ethics and ,relative ,ethics4 #af4 ,the ,scope of ,ethics4 ,,other ,,works4 #eth ,thousand4 ,in one vol4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #fs41 ,,education3 ,,intellectual1 ,,moral1 ,,and ,,physical4 ,,contents4 #a4 ,what ,knowledge is of most ,worth8 #b4 ,intellectual ,education4 #c4 ,moral ,education4 #d4 ,physical ,education4 ,also1 #bjth and #bast ,thousand1 ,a ,,cheap ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,foregoing ,,work4 ,in one vol4 crown #hvo1 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,library ,edition 7the #ith71 with a ,postscript4 ,in one vol41 price #ajs4 #f;d41 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,sociology4 ,,contents4 #a4 ,our ,need of it4 #b4 ,is there a ,social ,science8 #c4 ,nature of the ,social ,science4 #d4 ,difficulties of the ,social ,science4 #e4 ,objective ,difficulties4 #f4 ,subjective ,difficulties--,intellectual4 #g4 ,subjective ,difficulties--,emotional4 #h4 ,the ,educational ,bias4 #i4 ,the ,bias of ,patriotism4 #aj4 ,the ,class-,bias4 #aa4 ,the ,political ,bias4 #ab4 ,the ,theological ,bias4 #ac4 ,discipline4 #ad4 ,preparation in ,biology4 #ae4 ,preparation in ,psychology4 #af4 ,conclusion4 ,postscript4 #ajth ,thousand4 ,in wrapper1 #as41 in cloth1 better paper1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,man ,,versus ,,the ,,state4 ,,contents4 #a4 ,the ,new ,toryism4 #b4 ,the ,coming ,slavery4 #c4 ,the ,sins of ,legislators4 #d4 ,the ,great ,political ,superstition4 ,postscript4 #dth ,thousand4 ,in two vols4 #hvo1 cloth1 price #afs41 ,,essays3 ,,scientific1 ,,political1 ,,and ,,speculative4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 #a4 ,progress3 its ,law and ,cause4 #b4 ,manners and ,fashion4 #c4 ,the ,genesis of ,science4 #d4 ,the ,physiology of ,laughter4 #e4 ,the ,origin and ,function of ,music4 #f4 ,the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 #g4 ,bain on the ,emotions and the ,will4 #h4 ,illogical ,geology4 #i4 ,the ,development ,hypothesis4 #aj4 ,the ,social ,organism4 #aa4 ,use and ,beauty4 #ab4 ,the ,sources of ,architectural ,types4 #ac4 ,the ,use of ,anthropomorphism4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,the ,philosophy of ,style4 #b4 ,over-,legislation4 #c4 ,the ,morals of ,trade4 #d4 ,personal ,beauty4 #e4 ,representative ,government4 #f4 ,prison ,ethics4 #g4 ,railway ,morals and ,railway ,policy4 #h4 ,gracefulness4 #i4 ,state-,tamperings with ,money and ,banks4 #aj4 ,parliamentary ,reform3 the ,dangers and the ,safeguards4 #aa4 ,mill versus ,hamilton--the ,test of ,truth4 #crd ,edition4 ,in one vol4 #hvo41 price #hs41 ,,third ,,series ,,of ,,essays3 ,,contents4 #a4 ,the ,classification of the ,sciences 7with a ,postscript1 replying to ,criticisms74 #b4 ,reasons for ,dissenting from the ,philosophy of ,m4 ,comte4 #c4 ,laws in ,general4 #d4 ,the ,origin of ,animal-,worship4 #e4 ,specialized ,administration4 #f4 8,the ,collective ,wisdom40 #g4 ,political ,fetichism4 #h4 ,what is ,electricity8 #i4 ,the ,constitution of the ,sun4 #aj4 ,mr4 ,martineau on ,evolution4 #aa4 ,replies to ,criticisms4 #ab4 ,transcendental ,physiology4 #ac4 ,the ,comparative ,psychology of ,man4 ,price #bs4 #f;d41 ,,the ,,factors ,,of ,,organic ,,evolution4 ,,descriptive ,,sociology2 ,,or ,,groups ,,of ,,sociological ,,facts1 ,,classified ,,and ,,arranged ,,by ,,herbert ,,spencer1 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,david ,,duncan1 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,logic1 c41 in the ,presidency ,college1 ,madras2 ,,richard ,,scheppig1 ,ph4,d42 and ,,james ,,collier4 ,,extract ,,from ,,the ,,provisional ,,preface4 ,something to introduce the work of which an instalment is annexed1 seems needful1 in anticipation of the time when completion of a volume will give occasion for a ,permanent ,preface4 ,in preparation for ,the ,principles of ,sociology1 requiring as bases of induction large accumulations of data1 fitly arranged for comparison1 ,i1 some twelve years ago1 commenced1 by proxy1 the collection and organization of facts presented by societies of different types1 past and present2 being fortunate enough to secure the services of gentlemen competent to carry on the process in the way ,i wished4 ,though this classified compilation of materials was entered upon solely to facilitate my own work2 yet1 after having brought the mode of classification to a satisfactory form1 and after having had some of the ,tables filled up1 ,i decided to have the undertaking executed with a view to publication2 the facts collected and arranged for easy reference and convenient study of their relations1 being so presented1 apart from hypothesis1 as to aid all students of ,social ,science in testing such conclusions as they have drawn and in drawing others4 ,the ,work consists of three large ,divisions4 ,each comprises a set of ,tables exhibiting the facts as abstracted and classified1 and a mass of quotations and abridged abstracts otherwise classified1 on which the statements contained in the ,tables are based4 ,the condensed statements1 arranged after a uniform manner1 give1 in each ,table or succession of ,tables1 the phenomena of all orders which each society presents--constitute an account of its morphology1 its physiology1 and 7if a society having a known history7 its development4 ,on the other hand1 the collected ,extracts1 serving as authorities for the statements in the ,tables1 are 7or1 rather will be1 when the ,work is complete7 classified primarily according to the kinds of phenomena to which they refer1 and secondarily according to the societies exhibiting these phenomena2 so that each kind of phenomenon as it is displayed in all societies1 may be separately studied with convenience4 ,in further explanation ,i may say that the classified compilations and digests of materials to be thus brought together under the title of ,descriptive ,sociology1 are intended to supply the student of ,social ,science with data1 standing towards his conclusions in a relation like that in which accounts of the structures and functions of different types of animals stand to the conclusions of the biologist4 ,until there had been such systematic descriptions of different kinds of organisms1 as made it possible to compare the connexions1 and forms1 and actions1 and modes of origin1 of their parts1 the ,science of ,life could make no progress4 ,and in like manner1 before there can be reached in ,sociology1 generalizations having a certainty making them worthy to be called scientific1 there must be definite accounts of the institutions and actions of societies of various types1 and in various stages of evolution1 so arranged as to furnish the means of readily ascertaining what social phenomena are habitually associated4 ,respecting the tabulation1 devised for the purpose of exhibiting social phenomena in a convenient way1 ,i may explain that the primary aim has been so to present them that their relations of simultaneity and succession may be seen at one view4 ,as used for delineating uncivilized societies1 concerning which we have no records1 the tabular form serves only to display the various social traits as they are found to co-exist4 ,but as used for delineating societies having known histories1 the tabular form is so employed as to exhibit not only the connexions of phenomena existing at the same time1 but also the connexions of phenomena that succeed one another4 ,by reading horizontally across a ,table at any period1 there may be gained a knowledge of the traits of all orders displayed by the society at that period2 while by reading down each column1 there may be gained a knowledge of the modifications which each trait1 structural or functional1 underwent during successive periods4 ,of course1 the tabular form fulfils these purposes but approximately4 ,to preserve complete simultaneity in the statements of facts1 as read from side to side of the ,tables1 has proved impracticable2 here much had to be inserted1 and there little2 so that complete correspondence in time could not be maintained4 ,moreover1 it has not been possible to carry out the mode of classification in a theoretically-complete manner1 by increasing the number of columns as the classes of facts multiply in the course of ,civilization4 ,to represent truly the progress of things1 each column should divide and sub-divide in successive ages1 so as to indicate the successive differentiations of the phenomena4 ,but typographical difficulties have negatived this3 a great deal has had to be left in a form which must be accepted simply as the least unsatisfactory4 ,the three ,divisions constituting the entire work1 comprehend three groups of societies3--7#a7 ,uncivilized ,societies2 7#b7 ,civilized ,societies--,extinct or ,decayed2 7#c7 ,civilized ,societies--,recent or ,still ,flourishing4 ,these divisions have at present reached the following stages3 ,,division ,i4--,uncivilized ,societies4 ,commenced in #ahfg by the gentleman ,i first engaged1 ,mr4 ,,david ,,duncan1 ,m4,a4 7now ,professor of ,logic1 c41 in the ,presidency ,college1 ,madras71 and continued by him since he left ,england1 this part of the work is complete4 ,it contains four parts1 including 8,types of ,lowest ,races10 the 8,negrito ,races10 the 8,malayo-,polynesian ,races10 the 8,african ,races10 the 8,asiatic ,races10 and the 8,american ,races40 ,,division ,,ii4--,civilized ,societies--,extinct or ,decayed4 ,on this part of the work ,dr4 ,,richard ,,scheppig has been engaged since ,january1 #ahgb4 ,the first instalment1 including the four ,ancient ,american ,civilizations1 was issued in ,march1 #ahgd4 ,a second instalment1 containing 8,hebrews and ,phnicians10 will shortly be issued4 ,,division ,,iii4--,civilized ,societies--,recent or ,still ,flourishing4 ,of this ,division the first instalment1 prepared by ,mr4 ,,james ,,collier1 of ,st4 ,andrew's and ,edinburgh ,universities1 was issued in ,august1 #ahgc4 ,this presents the ,english ,civilization4 ,it covers seven consecutive ,tables2 and the ,extracts occupy seventy pages folio4 ,the next part1 presenting in a still more extensive form the ,french ,civilization1 is now in the press4 ,the successive parts belonging to these several ,divisions1 issued at intervals1 are composed of different numbers of ,tables and different numbers of ,pages4 ,the ,uncivilized ,societies occupy four parts1 each containing a dozen or more ,tables1 with their accompanying ,extracts4 ,of the ,division comprising ,extinct ,civilized ,societies1 the first part contains four1 and the second contains two4 ,while of ,existing ,civilized ,societies1 the records of which are so much more extensive1 each occupies a single part4 ,h4 ,s4 ,march1 #ahhj4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #ahs41 ,no4 ,i4 ,english4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,james ,,collier4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #afs41 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,mexicans1 ,central ,americans1 ,chibchas1 and ,peruvians4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,richard ,,scheppig1 ,,ph4,d4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #ahs41 ,no4 ,,iii4 ,lowest ,races1 ,negrito ,races1 and ,malayo-,polynesian ,races4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,prof4 ,,duncan1 ,m4,a4 ,,types ,,of ,,lowest ,,races4 ,fuegians4 ,andamanese4 ,veddahs4 ,australians4 ,,negrito ,,races4 ,tasmanians4 ,new ,caledonians1 etc4 ,new ,guinea ,people4 ,fijians4 ,,malayo-,,polynesian ,,races4 ,sandwich ,islanders4 ,tahitians4 ,tongans4 ,samoans4 ,new ,zealanders4 ,dyaks4 ,javans4 ,sumatrans4 ,malagasy4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #afs41 ,no4 ,,iv4 ,african ,races4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,prof4 ,,duncan1 ,m4,a4 ,bushmen4 ,hottentots4 ,damaras4 ,bechuanas4 ,kaffirs4 ,east ,africans4 ,congo ,people4 ,coast ,negroes4 ,inland ,negroes4 ,dahomans4 ,ashantis4 ,fulahs4 ,abyssinians4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #ahs41 ,no4 ,v4 ,asiatic ,races4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,prof4 ,,duncan1 ,m4,a4 ,arabs4 ,todas4 ,khonds4 ,gonds4 ,bhils4 ,santals4 ,karens4 ,kukis4 ,nagas4 ,bodo and ,dhimals4 ,mishmis4 ,kirghiz4 ,kalmucks4 ,ostyaks4 ,kamtschadales4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #ahs41 ,no4 ,,vi4 ,american ,races4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,prof4 ,,duncan1 ,m4,a4 ,esquimaux4 ,chinooks4 ,snakes4 ,comanches4 ,iroquois4 ,chippewayans4 ,chippewas4 ,dakotas4 ,mandans4 ,creeks4 ,guiana ,tribes4 ,caribs4 ,brazilians4 ,uaups4 ,abipones4 ,patagonians4 ,araucanians4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #bas41 ,no4 ,,vii4 ,hebrews and ,phnicians4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,richard ,,scheppig1 ,,ph4,d4 ,in ,royal ,folio1 ,price #cjs41 ,no4 ,,viii4 ,french4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,james ,,collier4 ,,mr4 ,,herbert ,,spencer',s ,,works4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,synthetic ,,philosophy4 ,,first ,,principles #afs4 ,,principles ,,of ,,biology4 #b vols4 #cds4 ,,principles ,,of ,,psychology4 #b vols4 #cfs4 ,,principles ,,of ,,sociology1 ,vol4 ,i4 #bas4 ,,ditto ,vol4 ,,ii4 #ahs4 7,this ,volume includes the two following ,works1 which are at present published separately47 ,,ceremonial ,,institutions #gs4 ,,political ,,institutions #abs4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,institutions #es4 ,,the ,,data ,,of ,,ethics #hs4 ,,other ,,works4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,sociology #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,education #fs4 ,,ditto ,cheap ,edition #bs4 #f;d4 ,,essays4 #b vols4 #afs4 ,,essays 7,third ,series7 #hs4 ,,the ,,man versus ,,the ,,state #bs4 #f;d4 ,,ditto ,cheap ,edition #as4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,dissenting ,,from ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,m4 ,,comte #f;d4 ,,the ,,factors ,,of ,,organic ,,evolution #bs4 #f;d4 ,for particulars see end of the volume4 ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate1 #ad1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london4 ,,also ,,mr4 ,,spencer',s ,,descriptive ,,sociology1 ,,compiled ,,and ,,abstracted ,,by ,,prof4 ,,duncan1 ,,dr4 ,,scheppig1 ,,mr4 ,,collier4 ,,folio1 ,,boards4 #a4 ,,english #ahs4 #b4 ,,ancient ,,american ,,races #afs4 #c4 ,,lowest ,,races1 ,,negritos1 ,,polynesians #ahs4 #d4 ,,african ,,races #afs4 #e4 ,,asiatic ,,races #ahs4 #f4 ,,american ,,races #ahs4 #g4 ,,hebrews ,,and ,,ph,,nicians #bas4 #h4 ,,french #cjs4 ,for particulars see end of the volume4 ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate1 #ad1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london4 ,harrison ,sons1 ,printers1 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,original spelling and grammar have generally been retained1 with some exceptions noted below4 ,original printed page numbers are shown like this3 #eb4 ,original small caps are now uppercase4 ,italics look like this4 ,footnotes have been relabeled #a-de4 ,the transcriber produced the cover image and hereby assigns it to the public domain4 ,original page images are available from archive4org -- search for 8essaysscientific#jcspenuoft04 ,page #ha4 ,the table rows headed by 8,the ,company's soliciter0 and by 8,ditto in joint account with another0 had a large 80 on the right side of column #c1 covering both rows4 ,in this edition1 table cell borders have been drawn so as to indicate the combination of information4 ,page #aeg4 ,inserted 8of0 into 8dictates abstract ethics04 ,page #aihn4 8,pyschology0 was changed to 8,psychology04 ,page #dji4 ,changed 8codinations0 to 8cordinations04 ,page #dga4 ,a left double quotation mark was added before #8,the earlier paragraphs of the conversation'4 ,page #dhg4 ,changed 8with many ,americans joined with regrets that my state of health has prevented1 me from0 to 8with many ,americans1 joined with regrets that my state of health has prevented me from04 ,page #dic4 ,the index covers all three volumes of this series of books4 ,volume ,,ii is available as ,project ,gutenburg ebook #eccie2 all editions of ,vol4 ,,ii display the original printed page numbers1 corresponding to the index entries herein4 ,volume ,i is available as ,,pg ebook #bihfi4 ,unfortunately1 ebook #bihfi displays the original page numbers only in the html edition4 ,with a little html coding skill1 however1 one could modify the epub version to display page numbers if that is desired4 ,page #eja4 ,in entry 8,great ,western ,railway30 changed 8,,iii1 #i20 to 8,,iii1 #id204 ,page #eji4 ,changed 8,philae0 to 8,phil01 to agree with ,volume ,i4 ,page #eaj4 ,the entry 8,polyzoa0 was moved below 8,politics01 to conform with alphabetical ordering4 ,likewise1 8,pope0 was moved above 8,porcupine04 ,page #eac4 ,under entry 8,social organism 4 4 4 analogy to individual01 changed 8,,iii1 #daa-f0 to 8,,iii1 #daa-af04