,,windmills1 ,,picturesque ,,and ,,historic3 ,,the ,,motors ,,of ,,the ,,past ,,by ,f4 ,h4 ,,shelton ,philadelphia4 ,member of the ,institute ,,reprinted ,,from ,,the ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,institute ,,february1 #aiai ,illustration3 colophon ,,press ,,of ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company #aiai 7,,reprinted ,,from ,,the ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,franklin ,,institute1 ,,february1 #aiai47 ,,windmills1 ,,picturesque ,,and ,,historic3 ,,the ,,motors ,,of ,,the ,,past4,a ,,by ,f4 ,h4 ,,shelton4 ,philadelphia4 ,member of the ,institute4 ,illustration ,the pessimist says that man is a lazy animal and that he invents machines to save himself work4 ,the optimist1 that man is an industrious creature who invents machines that he may accomplish the more4 ,whichever doctrine is right1 there is but little question that of all the ingenious contrivances evolved by man none is more picturesque1 of more historic interest nor of greater usefulness in its day than the old-fashioned windmill1 the world's principal motor for some eight hundred years4 ,and 8motor0 is the viewpoint to take of this old piece of mechanism1 for just as the later devices of steam1 electricity or gasoline are for the purposes of making power for the needs of man1 so was this old appliance for the prime purpose of securing power from the wind1 and by thus harnessing that most widely distributed of ,nature's forces1 of enabling the accomplishment of work far beyond the limits of manual power4 ,the steam engine came into use in the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,by #ahbe most of the principal ,english cities had it in use4 ,before that period1 and dating back to remote ages1 the only sources of power--other than man or bullocks1 etc4--were the two great forces of wind and water4 ,but only countries of waterways and varying levels afforded waterfalls2 while the wind was universal4 ,therefore1 while water wheels were in use in parallel periods with the oldest of windmills1 in number they were infinitely less1 so that one can properly say that the world's motor for some eight centuries was the old-time windmill4 ,these eight centuries are from about #ajjj to #ahbe1 when1 with the advent of ,watt's invention1 the zenith of windmill design and use had been attained4 ,after that date they so declined that in fifty years not only had new construction ceased1 but the old structures in very large measure had fallen into decay and abandonment4 ,it is evident from the above that an account of this old1 picturesque1 historic and effective tool of mankind should have some interest1 both from the standpoint of engineering and that of sentiment2 and it is believed that what follows will give the essential facts relating to it4 ,it may be proper to say here that what is related applies entirely to the old-style windmill1 and in no measure whatever to the modern ,american type of windmill1 which1 while cheap1 effective and useful1 is nevertheless a prosaic1 galvanized iron1 squeaky thing1 of which happily the larger proportion of the millions annually made is exported out of our country6 ,while the antiquity of windmills is traced by some back to the ,romans there is really nothing very definitely known of their existence before the period of the ,crusaders4 ,they were said to have been brought into central ,europe in that period from the ,far ,east2 though this is open to question4 ,practically their origin is lost in antiquity1 and we only know that they appear in the earliest records as existent in some form or other4 ,but by #abjj they were well established4 ,the first ,english windmill is of #aaia4 ,there are numerous records of them in the thirteenth century4 ,there is a brass tablet of #acdi at ,lynn church1 with a windmill graven on it4 ,in old stained glass of the early churches windmills are shown in some of the landscapes2 as at ,great ,greenford and ,fairfield4 ,in a view1 8,london in the time of the ,tudors0 7#aefj71 windmills are seen2 and ,great ,windmill ,street commemorates to this day the location of one in the past in that city4 ,elsewhere it was the same4 ,rembrandt1 of the early part of the seventeenth century1 shows such mills in some of his pictures2 and in the early prints and views of ,france1 ,germany and other countries is abundant evidence of the use of these old1 useful machines1 in various forms1 places and ways4 ,what was standard in the old world was naturally brought into the new1 and so we find in ,america1 concurrent with the colonies and settlements of the early days1 the introduction and use of windmills4 ,the ,dutch in ,new ,amsterdam1 in #afbe and later2 the ,swedes on the ,delaware1 in #afdc2 the ,english in ,rhode ,island1 in #affe and #afge1 and ,boston1 in #affj2 and on the ,carolina coast--all had their mills1 as shown by early records1 maps and views4 ,and these mills were logically the types used by the respective settlers1 according to the district from which they had come4 ,for instance1 the old mill in ,somerville1 ,mass41 built in #agaj by ,jean ,mallet1 a ,french ,huguenot1 is of the pure ,french type2 as were those near ,detroit1 by the followers of the fortunes of ,cadillac2 while those in ,talbot1 ,kent and ,dorset counties1 ,maryland1 reflected the clear ,english design of the old country4 ,the same applies to the numerous ones erected in the colonial days of #agbe to #agge1 in ,easthampton1 ,bridgehampton1 etc41 on ,long ,island2 at various points on ,cape ,cod2 at ,nantucket 7#agdf72 in numerous instances on ,newport ,island1 ,rhode ,island1 etc4 ,a notable one of this type and period was that on ,windmill ,island in the ,delaware ,river1 shown in an old view1 8,an east prospect of the ,city of ,philadelphia10 #agdf4 ,all these reflected the ,english design of the emigrant settlers1 bringing with them and promptly setting up and using the motors or machinery of the mother country4 ,there are two forms into which these old mills can be grouped1 viz41 vertical and horizontal4 ,by that is meant the relative position of the wheel and shaft4 ,the vertical is that form in which the wheel is vertical1 mounted on a shaft which is horizontal or nearly so4 ,this is the form almost universal1 for while various instances of the other have been tried1 scarcely one in a thousand has been used compared with the vertical type4 ,the reason for this is that in the vertical form of wheel1 its face directly confronting the wind1 all vanes are acted upon at once1 and there is not only the greatest resulting power1 but the greatest simplicity of construction and of operation and handling4 ,the horizontal wheel1 on the other hand1 occupying a horizontal zone and attached to a shaft that is vertical1 like the usual small water turbine1 in position 7but not in the fluid impact7 receives the wind impact upon only some of the vanes at a time--not the whole circumference--with less proportional power and greater complexity of construction4 ,so secondary has been the use of this style of windmill that consideration of it is negligible4 ,from the design standpoint1 windmills involve four essential component parts3 7a7 ,a tower1 or means of support for the moving wheel and mechanism4 7b7 ,a revolving wheel that receives the impact of the wind1 converting it into power4 7c7 ,some means of turning the wheel1 to follow the shifting of the wind2 and1 7d7 ,the driven machinery4 7,a7 ,the ,towers or ,supports4--,the support in the earliest form of mill was merely a post1 made of a suitable log or tree trunk--sometimes #cj inches thick--upon which the entire structure was carried or hung and pivoted1 so that it could turn freely to the wind4 ,this was the original type--the old 8post-mill10 appearing in the earliest known prints and records1 and alone used until about #afej4 ,at that time the 8tower mill0 was developed1 and this1 of larger possibilities1 soon resulted in great structures of that style being built1 that generally replaced and threw far into the shade the earlier and simple post form4 ,the towers of this latter form of old windmill were made of every conceivable or possible form and material4 ,straight or cylindrical2 tapering or cone shaped2 octagonal or multi-sided2 even bottle shaped1 like a mammoth milk bottle of the present time4 ,again1 on open arches1 as in two notable structures later referred to--anything to carry the overhead work1 according to the fancy or purse or conditions governing the builder4 ,of brick or stone or wood2 slate1 shingle or thatch covered1 in height these towers ranged from #be to #ajj feet4 ,the largest ever built was at ,great ,yarmouth1 ,england1 #aa stories high1 and over #ajj feet1 exclusive of the great vanes4 ,the great ,dutch grist mills were however1 a close second in height1 and with a base of some #ce feet and a top width of #af feet were massive structures indeed4 ,these tall structures were divided by various floor levels1 the lower rooms thus formed containing the mill-stones or saw or other driven machinery1 while the upper ones were used for living quarters or storage4 ,the structure of the smaller post mills1 however1 being suspended on the centre posts1 was never of stone or brick1 but wholly of wood1 and these rotating or movable buildings ranged in size from about #aj by #ab feet to #af by #bd feet in the larger ones1 and up to two stories in height4 ,at the top of the mills1 of course1 was located the wheel shaft and gearing1 and to protect this from the weather there was always a covering or 8mill head0 or top1 and these tops have taken a great variety of interesting forms1 for no apparent particular reason1 and yet often a fixed style1 following some geographical location4 ,for instance1 in ,france the almost universal ,illustration3 ,,post ,,mills4 ,all pivoting on single centre post support4 ,small form4 ,large form4 ,north ,carolina1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,england1 turret form4 ,,turntable ,,mill4 ,holland1 side and end view4 ,,hybrid ,,mills4 ,france1 grist mill4 ,holland1 dumping mill4 ,,tower ,,mills4 ,england and ,holland1 brick4 ,holland1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 etc41 wood4 ,france1 stone4 ,hungary1 stone4 ,spain1 stone4 ,turkey and ,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,,the ,,four ,,types ,,of ,,windmills4 or characteristic shape is that of a steep true cone2 in ,denmark1 ,sweden1 etc41 a ,turk's head or turban type was the standard2 also in ,england1 on the great tower mills4 ,yet in ,holland1 on the same type of mill1 such was never used1 but a distinct ,dutch form of irregular shape1 and almost always thatched4 ,and in the ,mediterranean countries the tops become so flattened or lowered as to in some cases almost disappear4 ,the accompanying plate well illustrates these structural and geographical differences4 ,while the old mills all divide into either post or tower mills1 there are yet two well-defined further forms1 or variations of type1 that should be remarked4 ,illustration3 ,england1 ,turk head1 brick tower mill4 ,south of ,england1 wood tower mill4 ,holland1 tower mill4 ,holland1 turntable type4 ,france1 tower mill4 ,france1 hybrid mill4 ,belgium1 tower mill4 ,hungary1 tower mill4 ,mediterranean1 tower mill4 ,plain1 post mill4 ,belgium1 post mill4 ,barbadoes1 tower mill4 ,rhode ,island1 wood tower mill4 ,long ,island1 wood tower mill4 ,sweden1 wood tower mill4 ,turkey1 stone tower mill4 ,,typical ,,windmill ,,heads4 ,sometimes a tower mill would be constructed on a circular ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,windmill ,,arms4 ,usual canvas covered sweep4 ,england1 ,bywater's rolling canvas4 ,england1 ,cubit's patent shutter4 ,england1 ,meikle's spring sweep4 ,england1 double shutter4 ,france1 double sweep4 ,france1 folding sweep4 ,primitive sweep1 interlaced boards4 ,mediterranean1 double sweep canvas4 ,mediterranean1 flying jib2 ,greece1 ,turkey1 etc4 timber framework or base1 carried on rollers or iron balls1 forming a large turntable1 enabling the turning of the entire edifice to the wind1 as need be1 the same as a locomotive turntable or a rotary drawbridge is turned4 ,this therefore parallels the post mill type1 in which the entire structure is turned to follow the wind1 but turning on this turntable base instead of a post4 ,this form was extensively used in the saw mill and lumber districts of ,holland4 ,the other variation is what may be called a hybrid form--part post type1 part tower type4 ,in this the contained machinery is fixed in the base1 and does not rotate1 being thus of the tower mill design2 while in the upper part of the mill a rectangular wood housing1 like a post mill1 is pivoted and revolves with a tail beam1 as in the post design4 ,such hybrid forms are found in ,holland and in the valley of the ,loire1 at ,saumur1 ,chinon1 etc4 7,b7 ,the ,sweeps4--,with mills built for centuries and by all countries1 it is but natural to expect to find a wide range of form in this most characteristic part of a windmill--the sweeps or vanes2 and in this one is not disappointed4 ,the usual1 earliest and simple form was that of a canvas or sail covered framework4 ,this canvas covering could be reefed to suit the strength of the wind1 and the four measures of sail spread were known as 8full sail10 8quarter sail10 8sword point0 and 8dagger point10 respectively--these last two1 from a fancied resemblance of the shape of the partly furled or reefed cloth to the point of a sword or dagger4 ,but these canvas sails were laborious to handle1 and in no sense automatic in varying the amount of surface according to the strength of the wind1 which resulted in numerous schemes for betterment4 ,the most successful of these and that known as 8patent0 sails was the invention of ,cubit1 an ,englishman1 who1 a century and a quarter or so ago1 devised a series of wood shutters forming the face of the vane1 all connected by little levers and cords or rods to a counterweight4 ,this1 when adjusted1 would cause the shutters to give a full1 flat surface to the wind1 but if the wind should increase to a danger point1 its force would overcome the pull of the weight and the hinged shutters would all open the necessary amount to spill some of the wind through and thus ease the pressure on the sweeps4 ,this was a good deal like a huge ,venetian blind arrangement1 as to the shutters or slats2 and in some cases these shutters worked against the tension of a spring instead of the pull of a weight1 and such were known as ,meikle's 8spring sweeps40 ,still another arrangement--,bywater's--was that of the canvas being mounted upon a long roller1 a good deal like a modern window shade1 which rolled and unrolled as needed2 but this was rather complicated and not much in vogue4 ,it was usual to have four-fifths of the area of the sweeps on one side of the arm and one-fifth on the other1 and these were 8single sweeps02 while those in which there was a wide area on both sides--as almost the universal practice in ,france--were known as 8double sweeps40 ,wood has been used as a sweep covering as well as canvas--as for instance in ,france1 where one finds some of the most primitive1 crude mills1 with sails made of thin boards interlaced or woven into the vane framework2 while1 on the other hand1 one also finds quite an elaborate construction4 ,this is in the mills of the ,loire valley1 in which a dozen parallel boards on each vane are rigged much like a great ,japanese fan1 which when open presents a large surface1 but when closed presents but little1 the boards or wood strips overlapping and resting one upon the other4 ,this construction ,i have found nowhere but in that section4 ,going still further toward the primitive1 we find in the ,mediterranean1 especially in the eastern end1 in ,asia ,minor1 in the vicinity of ,smyrna1 ,turkey2 the islands of ,rhodes1 ,chios1 ,samos1 and of ,greece and the ,sea of ,marmora1 a construction consisting simply of poles1 anywhere from six to a dozen1 stuck in the hub1 carrying flying jibs1 resulting in a wheel not far different in form from the paper spinwheel that a child may make6 ,in ,sicily and the ,balearic islands these become a little better1 having the wood framework to hold the canvas in the most effective position1 and they form a transition phase between the crude jib wheels of the ,orient and the elaborated types of the north4 ,in number the arms of the usual mill were four--and almost universally1 for this was not only the simplest and strongest construction compared with the difficulty of framing six or eight firmly at the hub1 but also the most effective4 ,for it was found that the wind had to have a certain amount of exit space between the vanes to get away freely1 and that if this part of the circle was too much filled with additional sweeps no corresponding gain in power was secured4 ,a few very fine examples1 however1 can be found of these five-and six-arm mills1 as in the famous #ajj-;foot brick tower mill of ,whitby1 ,england1 with five arms and its ,turk's head top2 and at ,lewes1 where a fine turret mill and others have five and six arms4 ,the length of these arms in an ordinary size mill was about #cj feet1 giving a diameter to the wheel of #fj feet2 but in the big tower mills referred to the arms were sometimes #ej and #fj feet long1 making the wheels well over #ajj feet in diameter4 ,the usual speed was about #af revolutions a minute4 ,if faster than #bj a danger point was reached that was very real1 for there have been many cases of runaway mills1 resulting from defective brakes or accident or carelessness2 in which accidents millers have been caught in the vanes or sweeps and carried around and around and thrown off2 or millstones bursting from too high speed have amputated the miller's legs2 or friction heat has set the structure afire4 ,it is of course obvious that the surface of these windmill sails could not be really flat1 as in that case the wind blowing against it would merely recoil and exert no power effect4 ,a warp or twist was requisite1 that the wind might give a thrust to the sail in passing through the wheel1 precisely the reverse action of a screw propeller on a boat4 ,this twist was known as the 8angle of weather0 or 8bosom10 and the precise amount and form were the subjects of many early abstruse and learned studies4 ,practice finally settled down to an angle of about #ag at the inner end and about #h at the outer end of the sail as being the most effective4 ,the mounting of these huge wheels was a matter of some moment1 requiring very heavy construction1 and this resulted in the use1 as a rule1 in all the earlier and medium size mills of a great shaft or log1 turned or hewed octagonal1 carried by gudgeon bearings1 on old blocks of soapstone1 or greased oak1 or cast iron bearings at either end4 ,into the outer projecting end1 outside the roof1 the square ends of the vane shafts or sweeps were mortised and bound with straps and bolts of iron4 ,later and in the larger mills1 and after foundry work was more available1 these 8great-shafts0 were made of iron1 giving much better bearings and enabling the sweeps to be bolted into square openings more conveniently4 ,but with all these mills1 especially the early simpler forms1 there was an enormous loss in dead weight moved and in friction1 and it is doubtful whether in most of them #ej per cent of the force of the wind reached the mill stones below for useful work4 ,there was a popular belief that the wind came down from the heavens above1 and that therefore the wheel should 8look up0 a little1 to best meet it2 with the result that the shaft of the mill was virtually never set level1 as one might suppose1 but always with the outer end a little higher than the inner1 which angle of uplift varied from #e to #aj4 ,a very practical result of this was also gotten1 in the necessary clearance of the tapering tower by the revolving vanes4 ,for these revolving vanes were something to be respected--a #fj-;foot wheel1 for instance1 weighing several tons and having a periphery speed of perhaps #cjjj feet a minute1 and more than one horse or cow straying into the path of the arms in a mill in operation has been struck and paid the penalty4 ,to guard against that1 mills were at times set upon a dais or raised foundation1 or fenced in4 ,the great shaft would have mounted upon it a 8great wheel10 from #h to #ab or #ae feet in diameter1 with cog teeth1 and these engaged in a pinion or lantern or trundle or wallower wheel1 as variously styled1 on a vertical shaft1 which led to the machinery below1 and there1 by any suitable and usual gear work of the olden times1 whatever grist1 saw1 grinding1 stamping or other machinery was to be driven would be duly operated by the wind power from above4 7,c7 ,the ,tail ,beam or ,vane4--,the third essential feature of these old mills was the device for keeping the wheel head-on to the wind1 for the purpose of securing the fullest amount of power4 ,and this was quite a point1 in view of the perpetual shifting of the wind4 ,the first arrangement was that of a long beam or pole projecting from the rear of the old-time post mill1 used precisely like a rudder4 ,when the direction of the wind changed this would be pushed from one side to the other1 to steer the post mill structure1 pivoted on the post1 again into the wind4 ,and in the succeeding tower mills1 where only the top or head would be turned1 the tail beam principle was continued--as best developed in ,holland1 where a somewhat elaborately braced and several-membered framework was carried down to a point where it could be reached and moved as the wind shifted4 ,but in ,holland the mills became of large size and the weight to be moved was great1 so that the old ,dutch miller would blow a whistle to summon his hands for help4 ,in later years they made use of a further rig of chains and tackle and a wheel like a pilot's1 which enabled the snubbing around of the vanes and cap to be done far more easily than by pushing by hand alone4 ,this old tail beam is1 however1 characteristic of the old-time small mill1 and many are the tracks1 well worn and circular1 around the mill that betoken the years of labor of the miller1 even if eased by an old cartwheel to carry the end of the beam1 as instanced in the well-known old mill at ,nantucket and elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,usual tail beam on post mills and hybrid mills4 ,tail beam4 ,france1 tower mill4 ,tiller on ,holland mill4 ,chain-wheel on tower mill4 ,cubit's automatic tail wheel1 ,england4 ,turntable mill1 rollers and snubbing posts4 ,,windmill ,,tail ,,beams ,,or ,,turning ,,gear4 ,for keeping mill-head on the wind4 ,probably the next device for turning to the wind was the use of a chain pull1 connected to overhead gear wheels and a cogged track2 for not only is this found in some early mills of ,holland1 and in the mills at ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 but also in the rare old ,peyto mill at ,leamington1 ,england1 of #afcb1 of which ,i shall speak further4 ,these chain pulls were either inside or out2 the former being more protected from the weather4 ,illustration3 ,thatched tower pumping mill4 ,holland4 ,but all these hand devices were completely eclipsed by another invention of ,cubit--he of the 8patent0 sweep-shutter--known as ,cubit's tail vane4 ,this was the use of a small wheel of from #d to #aj vanes1 usually #f1 placed in the rear of the head of the mill1 up aloft1 and so connected by a train of small gearing that when it rotated it would turn the main head a little1 and if need be follow up the variations of the wind4 ,so accurately was this designed that it is said that even with the wind shifting but a couple of degrees around the horizon the tail wheel would then begin to turn1 and with its gearing would in turn wind the mill head1 carrying the sweeps1 into the wind4 ,this automatic arrangement was almost universally adopted in ,england1 in the better class of mills2 yet1 with the stolidity of the ,dutch temperament1 apparently content to continue with hand labor as did their grandfathers1 this admirable device was rarely transplanted even to a place as nearby as ,holland4 ,turning now from the mechanical side of these old mills1 as above1 it is interesting to note the varied forms1 uses and characteristics as found in the diverse parts of the world1 and in the variety of races where and by whom these old home-made motors have been used4 ,illustration3 ,saw-mill2 turntable type4 ,holland4 ,holland is usually taken as the home of the windmill1 but that is so only in the greater proportionate number there in use than elsewhere4 ,it is not true as regards origin nor the best development of them4 ,it is a country notably flat1 without water power1 on the sea coast1 and requiring great pumping equipment for draining1 etc4 ,this early resulted in the great number of windmills there found and associated with that little kingdom4 ,it is said that in early days there were #aj1jjj of them4 ,the greater number of them were used for lifting water to drain the 8polders10 or meadows or lowlands1 through the medium of a scoop wheel or ,archimedes screw4 ,some of them can yet be seen and in use1 with fat ,dutch babies apparently ever on the edge of falling in the sluiceways1 yet never doing so4 ,nearly all of these mills have been replaced by great steam-driven government pumping stations4 ,for sawing wood1 also1 great numbers are yet used in the ,zaandam district1 where several hundred can be seen almost adjacent1 a vista and forest of windmills4 ,and in the heart of the chief cities one yet sees1 here and there1 an old-time brick tower mill1 probably #bjj years old--a family heritage1 with its clean and trim curtained little ,dutch windows1 its individual name1 as of a ship1 such as 8,the ,admiral0 or 8,the ,parrot10 over the door1 and its old coat of arms and carvings and touches of color4 ,for the ,dutchman is fond of his substantial woodwork1 and of his bits of color2 and such finds expression in his mills1 where carving like the stern of an old galley and color stripings of all the rainbow are both tucked in and flagrantly added4 ,illustration3 8,petmolen0 or small pumping mill4 ,holland4 ,the characteristic of the ,dutch mill is1 however1 that of a thatch covering1 both on sides and top1 on the usual size common mill--something not found in any other country4 ,it is said of them that there is also a code worked out--sort of a wigwag or semaphore system--so that by the position of the vanes as left when shutting down1 the long-distance observer can read whether a carpenter is needed or a baby has been born1 etc41 etc4 ,certain it is that the mills make fine elevations for flag-flying on holiday occasions1 for then the staunch colors of ,holland will be found on the flagpoles atop the most of them4 ,in noting the ,dutch mills1 one cannot overlook--nor wants to--the picturesque little 8petmolens0 or 8jaskers0--diminutive post pumping mills1 for small fields only--that1 with long1 slender vanes1 seen through the haze or afar1 almost suggest one of the old rocs from ,sinbad the ,sailor1 caught in the act of alighting4 ,illustration3 ,brick tower mill2 largest built4 ,great ,yarmouth1 ,england4 7,with ,cubit's tail vane47 ,england1 while numerically far inferior to ,holland1 is yet far in advance from the viewpoint of the fullest engineering development of this world's motor1 as may be gathered from what has been said above as to the automatic shutters1 tail vanes1 etc4 ,the largest1 the most varied and the most efficient are found there4 ,many fine examples of these mills can be seen1 a few of which are still in operation4 ,in the south of ,england there are plenty of old wood structures of all forms--of which the turret is perhaps the most locally characteristic4 ,this is a huge1 or at least large size1 post mill1 often for some fine estate1 with the base enclosed with a circular low or one-story building1 used for storage1 so that the external effect suggests a turret4 ,in central ,england a good number of the tall brick tower mills yet stand4 ,illustration3 ,tower grist mill4 ,south of ,england4 ,for picturesqueness1 however1 no country surpasses old ,france4 ,there the mills are small2 the huge1 towering structure of the ,dutch and ,english is unknown4 ,but one can find many of great antiquity1 great variety of form and of great charm4 ,the type seems to be the true cylindrical tower--not tapering--with the cone top4 ,in the racetrack at ,longchamps1 near ,paris1 is an instance1 while on the golf course at ,st4 ,lunaire1 overlooking the sea coast1 on the ,channel1 as in innumerable other places in the northern part of ,france1 these little sentries of the past can be found4 ,picturesque as they are1 however1 they are not yet as much so as even an older and cruder form suggesting an old blockhouse4 ,for above the stone first story is an overhanging wood second story1 as so well instanced at ,st4 ,briac4 ,and in the ,loire valley are the very unique hybrid mills with the folding boards vane arrangement1 already referred to1 which at ,saumur date back to #afhb1 as doubtless do the others of that not-to-be-found-elsewhere form4 ,illustration3 ,turret post-mill4 ,south of ,england4 ,of old post mills of the usual wood form ,france has plenty1 of which the one on top of ,montmartre1 in the ,moulin de la ,galette grounds1 is perhaps the most prominent4 ,it is one of the two or three remaining that were part of a dozen or more that crowned that hill in the early days1 as shown in several views of old ,paris4 ,what changes it has seen in its #fjj years of accredited age6 ,in its timbers are shot and balls of the revolutions of #ahad and #ahga4 ,within are the old bells and bunks and shrines of the generations of millers who operated it1 one of whom is said to have been killed and quartered and hung on the four arms of his own mill by the successful assailants4 ,in the same premises is a dear little miniature mill1 which1 with diminutive stones of but #ah or #bj inches in diameter1 was used for grinding spices1 in place of the usual grain for bread4 ,illustration3 ,tower mill and tail beam4 ,st4 ,lunaire1 ,france4 ,in ,belgium we find1 in the main1 the post and tower mills of ,holland and the ,netherlands2 while in ,germany1 as well1 the similarity to the ,dutch mills is the only or chief characteristic4 ,in ,denmark and ,sweden and in ,iceland are the usual mills of this section1 excepting that their octagonal1 typical squatty grist mill nearly always has the ,turk's head top instead of the irregular shape of ,holland and ,germany4 ,and so pronounced is that that in ,lawrence1 ,kan41 where a mill was erected in #aheh1 with a ,swedish top1 inquiry develops that it was by ,swedish emigrants4 ,iceland can claim probably the most northern mill ever erected1 for in ,reykiavik1 a little isolated town of about #cjjj inhabitants1 we find an old mill1 probably the first and only motor in the early days in ,iceland4 ,illustration3 ,tower mill2 double sweeps4 ,st4 ,briac1 ,france4 ,there is greater picturesqueness--but1 as usual1 accompanied with less efficiency--in the southern part of ,europe1 as1 for instance1 in ,spain4 ,here1 aside from the jib flying mills of the ,illustration3 ,hybrid type of grist mill1 #afhb4 ,saumur1 ,france4 ,illustration3 ,crude forms of tower grist mills2 vicinity of ,buda-,pesth1 ,hungary4 ,mediterranean1 we find primitive construction1 crude devices and even the clay water bottles1 or jars1 bound to a cumbrous wheel1 slowly turning over by wind power1 for lifting water for irrigation1 similar to devices seen on the banks of the ,nile--although there operated by oxen4 ,and in ,spain we tread the country where the ever immortal ,don ,quixote1 despite the adjurations of the faithful ,sancho ,panzo1 charged at full speed a flock of windmills on the plains of ,montiel4 ,illustration3 ,mid-,european type of post mill4 ,belgium4 ,the crude structures of ,greece and ,turkey1 already mentioned1 are so crude that often no device is provided for turning to the wind1 but1 on the contrary1 four mills are sometimes built in a field1 facing1 respectively1 north1 south1 east and west2 so that whichever way the wind comes some power can be secured4 ,it is1 however1 more likely that prevailing winds are so constant from one quarter there is but little use for a turning device1 resulting in its omission4 ,illustration3 ,tower mill4 ,trapani1 ,sicily4 ,and so one can go the world over and find these old mills2 to the ,barbadoes1 where they are still extensively used--and of ,english type--for crushing sugar cane2 to ,jamaica1 where they once were1 as shown by an old print of the earthquake of #agib1 in which several mills are depicted bodily upside down almost1 as would be a child's toy2 to ,peru1 where over #ac1jjj feet above sea level in the ,potosi silver mining districts of past times--centuries past--old prints show mills of the manifest ,spanish type operating stamps for crushing silver ore2 to the ,st4 ,lawrence1 where the early settlers1 both ,french and ,english1 left their imprint in the shape of old mills on several promontories and points2 to southern ,illinois1 where the ,german emigrants of the ,illustration3 ,multi-jib tower mill4 ,samos1 ,turkey in ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,tower of the old ,newport mill1 of #afge1 as now standing4 ,truro ,park1 ,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 #ahbj's and '#cj's brought with them the mills of the ,fatherland1 etc4 ,in all quarters of the globe the world's chief motor for eight centuries can still be found4 ,illustration3 ,chesterton mill1 vertical section between columns4 ,and in closing this review of old windmills there is no instance to which reference should be made of quite as much interest as the old mill at ,newport1 known to every ,american antiquary and which1 some two or three generations ago1 was ingeniously ascribed to the ,norse in the period of #aajj or thereabouts4 ,this theory1 while highly picturesque1 was unfortunate chiefly in never having anything except surmise to back it up4 ,not a jot nor tittle of record or physical remains could be developed to substantiate it1 and it has long since been practically dropped by most students of ,american history4 ,and when the following1 that has in recent years been developed1 is borne in mind1 there seems no vestige of reason left in the ,norse theory4 ,there is no question as to the following facts in relation to the ,newport mill1 and ,i speak with confidence1 having in person surveyed and thoroughly investigated both it and its ,english prototype1 as described3 ,illustration3 ,newport mill restored1 vertical section4 ,in #afge ,governor ,benedict ,arnold 7the grandfather of the traitor7 was in charge of the then early colony of ,rhode ,island4 ,sixty years before he had been born in the ,warwickshire section1 ,england1 in which the ,peyto estate was perhaps the greatest and finest4 ,on that estate there was completed the most elaborate windmill ever built4 ,inigo ,jones1 ,england's great architect of that time1 designed it1 and it was unique in its open arch design1 its finely chiselled stonework and unusual adornment4 ,young ,arnold was a lad of #ag at that time1 and the building of this beautiful and remarkable windmill1 in #afcb1 was1 with small ,illustration3 ,inigo ,jones-,peyto mill of #afcb4 ,chesterton1 ,warwickshire1 ,england4 doubt1 a marked episode in his life and knowledge4 ,forty odd years later1 he1 by the chance of fate1 was the ,governor of the ,rhode ,island ,colony4 ,with the destruction of a previous wood windmill of #affe1 blown down in a great storm1 it became his duty to provide another one for the use of the little colony4 ,and there is small doubt1 indeed1 that in doing that he undertook to provide a mill that should be as nearly as possible a copy of the old mill at ,chesterton1 near ,leamington--the best mill of which he knew4 ,and so1 without the measurements as to the general arrangement1 size and design1 from memory only1 he there built1 with the most limited facilities1 a virtual replica of the ,leamington-,peyto-,jones mill4 ,in order to secure greater permanence and protection against ,indian attacks the mill was built of stone instead of wood4 ,illustration3 ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 mill as 8restored0 or probably constructed4 ,for1 while of course the fine stone work and carving and detail are missing1 in this colonial condition1 the general dimensions1 the design and the interior arrangements are in substance the same throughout4 ,it needs only the comparison of the plans of the two--side by side--to be satisfied as to that4 ,governor ,arnold's birthplace and connection afford the reason of the similarity1 and his will even speaks of 8my stone built windmill40 ,this old structure1 still standing--as to its walls--in ,truro ,park1 ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 is perhaps ,america's greatest colonial relic1 and with its prototype of ,chesterton constitutes the most unique pair of windmills1 having the greatest historic interest1 of any attaching to our country's windmill history4 ,,note3 ,a ,presented at a meeting of the ,mechanical and ,engineering ,section1 held ,thursday1 ,march #ad1 #aiah4