,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,sailboat ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,by ,a4 ,hyatt ,verrill ,the ,real ,story of the ,whaler ,the ,book of the ,sailboat ,the ,book of the ,motor ,boat ,isles of ,spice and ,palm ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,publishers ,new ,york ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fore-,,and-,,aft ,,sails ,,and ,,rigs #a--,leg-o'-mutton sail4 #b--;,gunter sail4 #c--,lateen sail4 #d--,sprit sail4 #e--,lug sail4 #f--;,boom-and-gaff sail4 #g--;,cat rig4 #h--;,jib-and-mainsail rig4 #i--,sloop rig4 #aj--,yawl rig 7,polemast74 #aa--,schooner rig 7,polemast74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,sailboat ,,how ,,to ,,rig1 ,,sail ,,and ,,handle ,,small ,,boats ,,by ,a4 ,,hyatt ,,verrill ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,motor ,,boat0 8,,isles ,,of ,,spice ,,and ,,palm10 8,,the ,,real ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,whaler0 ,illustration ,,illustrated ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,london #aiaf ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,copyright1 #aiaf1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,boats #a ,the first boat4 ,rafts and canoes4 ,catamarans4 ,early forms of boats4 ,coracles and goofahs4 ,the evolution of the sailboat4 ,types of modern boats4 ,schooners1 sloops1 ketches1 catboats1 round- and flat-bottomed boats4 ,,ii4 ,,what ,,boat ,,to ,,use #aj ,speed1 stability and seaworthiness4 ,boats for various uses4 ,whale-boats1 surf-boats1 life-boats1 fishing boats1 oyster-boats1 pilot-boats1 spongers1 skiffs1 dories1 skip-jacks1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,,parts ,,of ,,boats #ai ,various parts of a boat's hull4 ,masts and spars4 ,blocks and tackle4 ,anchors and cables4 ,deck fittings4 ,cleats1 chocks4 ,rudders1 tillers1 wheels1 etc4 ,keels and centerboards4 ,leeboards4 ,ropes and standing rigging4 ,what each is for4 ,,iv4 ,,various ,,rigs #ci ,square-rigged vessels4 ,ships1 barks1 barkentines1 brigs1 brigantines1 topsail-schooners1 schooners4 ,ketch and yawl rigs4 ,sloop rigs4 ,catboats4 ,types of fore and aft sails4 ,lateen1 lug1 gunter1 sprit1 leg-o'-mutton and other sails4 ,what rig to use4 ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,sail ,a ,,small ,,boat #ei ,first steps in learning to sail4 ,handling and sailing small boats4 ,getting under way4 ,sailing on the wind1 tacking4 ,coming about4 ,sailing before the wind4 ,wearing ship4 ,jibing4 ,luffing4 ,reefing4 ,coming to a landing4 ,coming to anchor4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,boats #hg ,equipment4 ,anchors and safety appliances4 ,moorings4 ,sea anchors4 ,stowing sail4 ,care of boats and sails4 ,caulking1 painting1 etc4 ,,vii4 ,,marlinspike ,,seamanship #ajb ,ropes and their parts4 ,simple and useful knots4 ,splices4 ,bends and hitches4 ,ornamental knots4 ,,viii4 ,,simple ,,navigation #abe ,rules of the road at sea4 ,lights1 beacons and signals4 ,buoys and lighthouses4 ,channels4 ,use of compass4 ,charts and their use4 ,dead reckoning4 ,logs4 ,sounding4 ,landmarks4 ,bearings4 ,currents and tides4 ,fogs4 ,stars4 ,winds and waves4 ,storms4 ,sailing in heavy weather4 ,what to do in case of accident4 ,,ix4 ,,building ,,small ,,boats #afd ,the simplest boat to build4 ,how to build a round-bottomed boat4 ,building from patterns4 ,x4 ,,what ,,not ,,to ,,do #ahj ,,nautical ,,terms ,,and ,,their ,,meanings #ahg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,fore-and-aft sails and rigs ,frontispiece ,primitive boats #b ,types of small boats adapted to special uses #ab ,types of bows and sterns #bb ,keels1 centerboards1 leeboards and rudders #bg ,boat fittings and parts of boats #cj ,running rigging of fore-and-aft rig #cd ,standing rigging1 masts1 etc4 #cf ,various rigs #da ,parts of rails1 spars1 etc41 of fore-and-aft rig #dc ,ketch rig4 ,cat yawl rig #de ,sails of square-rigged vessels #dh ,hull1 spars and rigging of a ship #eb ,effect of wind on boats of various forms #fc ,sailing #ga ,reefing a sail #hd ,caulking tools #ic ,anchors #if ,useful knots and splices #aje ,ornamental knots #aaf ,ropework #aba ,rules of the road and buoys #abi ,harbor chart showing lights1 buoys1 channels1 soundings1 bearings1 bottom1 etc4 #acf ,use of compass in boat #adj ,compasses #adc ,effect of waves on stability #aea ,building a flat-bottomed boat #aga ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,sailboat ,,chapter ,i ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,boats ,no one knows who first invented boats4 ,probably they were used by primitive man long before he discovered how to use bows and arrows or had even learned to chip stones into simple tools and weapons4 ,but those early boats were not boats as we know them today1 for it has taken untold centuries for mankind to improve and develop boats to their present state of perfection4 ,it was a natural and easy matter for a savage to straddle a floating log and1 thus supported1 cross some pond or stream1 and when some member of the tribe discovered that two logs lashed together were more comfortable and less likely to roll over and dump their passengers into the water than a single log1 he no doubt felt as if he had made a marvelous invention and was probably looked upon as a prehistoric ,fulton by his fellowmen4 ,later on some man found that a hollowed log was more buoyant and stable than an ordinary tree trunk and from this crude beginning rude dugout canoes were developed4 ,even today many races have never progressed beyond the hollowed-log state of boat-building and dugouts1 forty or fifty feet in length and capable of carrying great weights1 are in daily use in many lands4 ,some of these are very crude1 heavy craft1 while others are beautifully made1 are light in weight and are very speedy and seaworthy4 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,boats #a--;,dugout made from a log4 #b--;,birch bark canoe4 #c--;,eskimo kyak made of skins4 #d--;,catamaran4 #e--,turkish goofah4 #f--;,east ,indian balsa4 #g--,malay proa4 ,quite a different type of savage craft were the canoes of bark or skins4 ,these may have been evolved from dugouts but it is more likely that accident or chance led to their discovery4 ,a piece of floating bark bearing some wild animal or bird may have pointed the way toward the graceful birchbark canoes of the ,american ,indians1 while a stiff piece of dried hide may have given the first hint of a kyak to the ,eskimos4 ,however1 it is useless to speculate upon the incidents that led our primitive and savage ancestors along the path to the shipyard for such matters are shrouded in the impenetrable mists of the dim and distant past4 ,we know1 however1 that nearly every race possessed boats of one kind or another as long ago as there was any history and we know that the boats used thousands of years ago varied as greatly in construction1 form1 materials and other details as boats of today4 ,strangely enough1 many of the most primitive forms of boats are still in daily use4 ,i have already mentioned dugouts1 but birchbark canoes and kyaks are also used at the present time as widely as ever4 ,it is evident that some of these prehistoric craft had been developed to the utmost point of perfection before the advent of civilization for many of them have never been improved upon4 ,with all our knowledge we have never found any boat so well adapted to its purpose as the red man's canoe1 and while we now make them of canvas instead of bark1 we follow the same models as those used by the ,indians centuries ago4 ,in certain parts of ,great ,britain the people still use the queer craft called coracles which ,csar found the ,britons using when his ,roman legions invaded ,albion1 and although these curious boats1 that look like the shell of a turtle or half of a walnut shell and are made of plaited willow1 are among the most ancient forms of boats1 yet the ,welsh find them superior to modern boats in many ways4 ,somewhat similar are the goofahs of the ,orient1 circular1 basket-like craft made of willow wands and covered with pitch which are used upon the ,tigris and ,euphrates and have not changed in the least since ,bible days4 ,in the ,south ,seas and other places the natives still use catamarans and proas which are really nothing but two logs fastened together1 and yet the most efficient and safest of life rafts used by our greatest steamships are merely modifications of these same catamarans4 ,the purpose of any boat is to float and support its occupants while traveling across the water1 and while it seems a far cry from the coracle or the dugout to a palatial steamship or a stately1 four-masted1 sailing ship1 yet the principle of each is identical and each serves the purpose for which it was designed equally well2 it is merely a matter of improvement1 and many of the terms and names of parts which were used by the earliest sailors are still retained on our greatest liners and largest sailing vessels4 ,starboard and larboard1 for example1 are merely corruptions or steerboard and leeboard1 terms applied to the two sides of the ships of the ,vikings and referring to the great steering oar on the right-hand side of the vessel and the board dropped over the opposite side to prevent the craft from making leeway or sliding sideways through the water4 ,the bowsprit was originally a small spritsail spread to the vessel's bow2 the stern was once the steering2 the name forecastle was given to the sailors' quarters when the deckhouses were literally castles in form1 and we still speak of cockpits though we seldom stop to remember that the term was originally bestowed because this open portion of a boat resembled the circular areas wherein cockfights were held4 ,the enormous steel frames which support the great plates of a steamship's sides are still as much ribs to the sailor as the flimsy bits of wood bent into place by the naked savage building his frail canoe1 and scores of the ropes1 sails1 rigging and other portions of a ship's fabric retain their ancient names in a similar manner4 ,the seaman is the most conservative of beings and adheres to every time-honored custom1 belief and habit and when the last sailor and the last wooden ship have disappeared many of the terms and ways that were dear to the heart of ,jack ,tar will still live on and be perpetuated for all time4 ,it is partly owing to this unwillingness on the part of the sailor to adopt anything new or unusual which has led to the survival of distinct forms of boats1 for the seaman and boatman of every country believed the craft of his own waters to be superior to those of any other place4 ,in rig1 sail and other details each race of maritime people has preserved the traditions of their ancestors and even in neighboring localities we find boats which in form of hull1 sails and rigging are absolutely distinct4 ,many of these are used only in one locality1 one harbor or on one small island1 but many others have been carried hither and thither and one can almost trace the history of a country or the wanderings of its people by the types of boats used4 ,of course1 the first boats were propelled by hand1 either by pushing them along with poles or by rough paddles1 but even naked savages soon learned that they could let the wind work for them and raised mats1 skins or even bushes to catch the breeze and waft them across the water4 ,but it was many1 many centuries before man learned that he could do away with oars entirely and could sail in any direction1 regardless of the way the wind blew4 ,even in the time of ,columbus the ships could scarcely make headway against the wind and were more or less at the mercy of every passing breeze1 but once sailors discovered the secret of sailing to windward the advance and improvement of ships and rigging was very rapid4 ,the great1 cumbersome1 square sails of the earlier ships were divided into many pieces so as to be more readily handled and trimmed2 triangular sails took the place of the picturesque spritsails on the vessels' bows2 hulls were built lower and deeper and while the number of masts varied they were reduced until two- and three-masted1 square-rigged vessels1 known as brigs and ships1 were the standard types of ocean-going craft4 ,among smaller vessels there were sloops1 luggers1 ketches and other types of fore-and-aft-rigged craft1 and as these sails had many advantages over the square sails and their awkward yards they replaced the latter in some cases and thus barks1 brigs and brigantines came into use4 ,then some brilliant sailor genius did away with the square sails altogether and a new type of vessel came into existence which was called a 8schooner40 ,but conservative1 croaking ,jack still pinned his faith to yards and square sails and for many years schooners carried lofty topsails of the same form as the upper sails of square-rigged ships4 ,today the fore-and-aft-rigged vessels are more numerous than all other rigs combined and the square-riggers1 stately and beautiful as they were--the handsomest vessels ever built by man--have been almost driven from the seas4 ,with the outbreak of the ,european ,war and the demand for ocean-going cargo-carriers the old square-riggers have once more come to the fore1 and in ports and harbors where a crossyard mast had not been seen for many years1 barks1 ships and square-rigged vessels now line the docks and are an everyday sight4 ,but they are only temporary and every boy and man who loves the sea and its ships should take advantage of this opportunity to view a passing type of vessels and should learn all about them1 their rigging and their sails1 for to them we owe much of our commerce and prosperity1 our independence and our progress4 ,although the cheaper1 more easily handled and more simple schooners forced the square-rigged ships into the background1 and while these in turn have been largely superseded by steam for deep-water voyages1 yet the small boat has held its own throughout the centuries4 ,in form1 rig and other details the small boats of today vary as widely as ever1 for small boats are designed and used for specific purposes and no one can say which is the best boat or the handiest rig4 ,steam and motor boats have taken the place of sailboats for business purposes in many places1 but as long as men love the sea1 as long as they enjoy the sting of the salt spray and the thrill of a plunging bow1 as long as our eyes brighten and our pulses quicken as we grasp tiller and sheet and lee rails are awash1 so long will the small boat hold its own4 ,we may conquer distance by steam1 we may annihilate time by paper-like hulls loaded with roaring motors of gigantic power1 we may travel in floating palaces called yachts1 but nothing will ever be made by man to take the place of the small boat for the out-and-out pleasure and perfect enjoyment it gives the true boat-lover4 ,although there is an endless variety of hulls and rigs among small boats they may all be divided into a few general classes4 ,in form of hull most boats may be grouped under two broad types3 round-bottomed and flat-bottomed boats1 but there are intermediate forms and there are also some kinds of boats which are a sort of hybrid or combination of both4 ,in rig we have the schooner1 ketch1 yawl1 sloop and cat and while these cover the matter in a general way there is a wonderful variety in the sails1 rigging and other details1 and many boats which possess great advantages cannot be properly classed in any of these groups4 ,the best boat to use and the best rig to adopt depend largely upon the purpose of the boat and its rig1 the place where it is to be used1 the owner's ability as a sailor1 the weather likely to be encountered1 the character of the neighboring shores and waters and various other conditions4 ,in order to select intelligently the best boat for your use it is necessary to consider the various types of hull and rig1 their advantages and disadvantages and the purposes for which they are intended1 and then1 knowing these things1 select the one which you think best adapted to your own requirements4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ii ,,what ,,boat ,,to ,,use ,through countless centuries since man first made and used boats1 an almost infinite variety of craft has been developed4 ,in every land where boats of any sort are used the inhabitants have gradually evolved boats adapted to their special needs1 the conditions of their seas or water courses and the work in which the boats are to be used4 ,in a great many countries the types of boats in use today have not changed or altered for hundreds of years1 but in many other places forms1 construction and other details of the boats have been changed1 ideas from other lands or races have been adopted and we now find a great many different kinds of boats used for the same purpose4 ,moreover1 with the migration of man from one place to another1 boats of one nation have been introduced to the people of other lands and sometimes1 in one locality1 we may find boats from widely separated parts of the world being used daily side by side4 ,of course these remarks apply mainly to boats used for commercial or business purposes for wherever boats are used for pleasure one may find an infinite variety of craft whose models have been culled from every corner of the maritime world4 ,in every case1 however1 there are certain definite reasons for one type of boat being more generally used than another1 and every boat-builder and user1 since boats were first invented1 has aimed to combine certain qualities in the construction of boats4 ,the three most important matters to be considered in any boat are seaworthiness1 stability and speed4 ,which of these is of the greatest importance depends very largely upon the local conditions1 the purposes for which the boat is to be used and the ideas of its builder or owner4 ,in some places speed is the prime consideration1 in other places seaworthiness is the most important factor1 while in still other localities the ability to carry heavy loads and not sink or upset is of more value than either speed or the power to resist winds and waves safely4 ,thus the men who depend upon piloting vessels to an anchorage and whose earnings are large or small according to whether or not they reach the incoming vessels first1 must have fast boats and seaworthiness may be a secondary consideration4 ,again the toilers of the sea who spend days upon the stormiest oceans fishing1 lobstering or in similar pursuits must have boats which are safe in any weather and speed is of little importance1 while those who use boats for transporting heavy cargoes or many passengers from place to place in fairly smooth waters1 find stability of greater value than either speed or seaworthiness4 ,many times1 however1 in fact1 as a general rule1 the most seaworthy boats are the most stable1 while usually both stability and seaworthiness must be sacrificed to a certain degree in order to obtain great speed4 ,but there are exceptions to all rules and many boats have become world-famous because they combine all these three qualifications to a remarkable degree4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,small ,,boats ,,adapted ,,to ,,special ,,uses #a--,whaleboat4 #b--,lifeboat4 #c--;,dory4 #d--,sharpie4 #e--,skipjack4 #f--;,block ,island boat4 ,the whaleboats used by the ,yankee whalemen for chasing and capturing whales1 are splendid examples of this4 ,these boats are light1 strong1 stable1 seaworthy and very fast and in these respects are probably the most perfect type of small craft ever designed4 ,they are thirty feet in length and six feet wide1 barely two feet in depth amidships and yet are capable of breasting the heaviest waves of midocean1 withstanding the most terrific gales and weathering the most severe storms of any seas4 ,pulled by five oars they attain the speed of a motor boat2 they are light enough to be pulled upon a beach or easily hoisted to a ship's davits4 ,they sail rapidly1 are easily handled and hold together when towed at express-train speed by a harpooned whale4 ,moreover1 their construction is so simple that even when smashed or 8stove0 by a whale they can be repaired easily by a carpenter and best of all they are very cheap1 a new whaleboat costing complete only one hundred and twenty-five dollars4 ,in these boats shipwrecked whalers have made some marvelous voyages and several instances are on record of men navigating the stormiest parts of the ocean for six thousand miles in these boats in perfect safety4 ,somewhat similar to the whaleboats in shape are the surfboats used on the coasts of many sea-girt localities1 notably on the ,atlantic seaboard of our ,middle ,states1 and while not as speedy1 light or staunch as the whaleboats1 they ride the roaring surf and towering waves as buoyantly as seabirds and are ideal boats for use where there are heavy seas4 ,lifeboats1 such as those used on steamships and by the coast guard1 are really modified whaleboats and surfboats1 combining the good points of both and with slight alterations in proportions and construction to enable them to carry large loads with safety4 ,they are not as easily handled or as speedy as the whaleboats1 but they are far more roomy2 they are almost non-capsizable1 are unsinkable and are built both of metal and of wood4 ,the are rather heavy1 however1 and expensive4 ,for one who wishes a perfectly safe1 roomy1 strong boat capable of withstanding almost any weather and with good sailing qualities it is hard to find anything better than a standard lifeboat4 ,at ,block ,island1 off the tip of ,long ,island1 there is a peculiar sort of boat used by the native fishermen1 which is known as the ,block ,island boat4 ,in some ways this craft resembles a whaleboat and in some ways it reminds one of a surfboat1 while in many of its characters it is much like a lifeboat and yet it is totally different from all4 ,they are wonderfully staunch and seaworthy1 they have great carrying capacity and sail very well4 ,formerly a great many were used as small cruising yachts1 but of late years they have almost disappeared4 ,somewhat similar to the whaleboats are the big seine boats used by the ,new ,england fishermen for pulling the great1 heavy seines when catching mackerel1 herring1 menhaden1 etc4 ,they are very stable boats with immense carrying capacity1 are easily handled and are seaworthy1 but have no advantages over the whaleboats except in point of size4 ,they do not sail as well nor are they are as seaworthy as the whaleboats4 ,all of the above are round-bottomed boats of the double-ended type in which both bow and stern are sharp4 ,one would therefore assume that this style was the most seaworthy1 especially as the spongers of the ,mediterranean1 the pilot boats of many islands and the typical fishing-boats of the ,european countries are also double-ended4 ,such1 however1 is not necessarily the case for the fishermen1 pilots and other inhabitants of other countries use round-bottomed boats with broad sterns and some even use flat-bottomed boats and brave as heavy weather1 as hard storms and as tumultuous seas as their fellows in the round-bottomed1 double-ended craft4 ,probably no men in the world ply their trade in rougher seas and in stormier weather than the ,gloucester fishermen who fish for halibut and cod on the banks of ,newfoundland and on ,george's ,banks4 ,the boats used by these hardy fishermen are known as dories and are flat-bottomed1 high-sided1 odd-looking craft which one would never imagine were seaworthy1 yet in them the ,gloucester fishermen ride out terrific storms and mountainous waves2 they haul halibut weighing hundreds of pounds over the boats' sides without capsizing1 and they sail or row them safely through winter storms in midocean when laden with fish until the gunwales are almost level with the water4 ,dories used by the fishermen are not beautiful nor graceful boats1 but they are wonderfully well adapted to their use1 and many builders have adopted so-called dory models for pleasure craft1 both for motor boats and sailboats4 ,as a rule1 however1 there is little resemblance between these 8improved0 dories and those of the banks1 and the stability and other qualities of the real dories are usually lost in altering the lines for the sake of appearances4 ,still another type of flat-bottomed boat which is used all along the ,atlantic coast is the sharpie4 ,the sharpie is merely a modified skiff equipped with a centerboard1 but when properly handled these boats will stand a great deal of rough weather and knocking about and1 moreover1 they sail remarkably well4 ,one usually thinks of sharpies as small boats but they are often forty or fifty feet in length and are sometimes built as large as small schooners and of twenty to fifty tons capacity4 ,the great objection to sharpies and other flat-bottomed boats is that they 8pound0 or slap the water when in a heavy sea or among choppy waves1 and to overcome this a type of boat known as a skipjack was evolved4 ,skipjacks are a sort of connecting link between true flat-bottomed and round-bottomed boats1 for the after part of the bottom is flat while the forward portion is ,v-shaped and thus they cut through the seas instead of pounding on them while at the same time they slip over the surface of the water rather than through it4 ,many of the fastest racing boats and the fastest motor speed boats are nothing more nor less than modified skipjacks1 and for all-around use1 especially in shallow waters1 there are few better boats where roominess and sea-going qualities are not essential4 ,just as the men whose living depends upon their boats have agreed upon the craft best suited to their needs1 so the man or boy who is selecting a sailboat for pleasure should consider all the types and should choose that which best fulfills all of his requirements4 ,if you want a roomy boat or a boat on which to live or sleep you should choose a round-bottomed craft1 for only in these can you obtain much depth or 8head room0 unless a very high cabin is built above the deck which always makes a boat top-heavy and unseaworthy4 ,if the waters in which you are to use your boat are stormy1 if heavy seas are common1 or if you expect to make long trips out to sea or from place to place1 select a boat which is noted for its seaworthy qualities1 such as a whaleboat1 seine boat1 lifeboat or ,block ,island model4 ,if you are obliged to run ashore or to pull your boat upon a rocky or sandy beach select a flat-bottomed craft which can be hauled out readily without injury2 while1 if you want a boat for general utility1 to use in bays and harbors and in sheltered waters and yet capable of standing any reasonable seas and ordinary storms1 select a fairly deep1 beamy1 round-bottomed hull such as the ,cape ,cod or ,block ,island catboat1 or a similar model4 ,if your boat is merely an open boat for day sailing and short trips almost any type will serve1 such as a dory1 a sharpie1 a skipjack or a round-bottomed or yawl boat4 ,as a rule1 however1 you should avoid the true 8open0 boat for sailing1 for in a boat without any deck it only takes a slight puff of wind1 an instant's carelessness or a small sea to bring the rail under water and swamp the boat4 ,even a very narrow deck is far better than none at all and if the deck has a good high 8combing0 or raised inner edge1 the safety will be increased a hundredfold4 ,very few boats will capsize if decently handled and not equipped with too much sail unless 8tripped0 by getting water over the side2 but once the rail of an open boat is under water the boat will upset very quickly1 for each pound of water taken in stays on the lowest side of the boat and has a tendency to carry the craft over still further4 ,a great deal depends upon the construction of the boat itself and still more depends upon the rig or sails to be used1 and before selecting or using any boat you should be thoroughly familiar with the various parts of a boat1 its construction1 its fittings and its rig and should know what each and every part is for1 as well as how to use1 repair and care for it4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iii ,,parts ,,of ,,boats ,nearly everyone knows that the body of the boat is called the hull1 but a great many people1 even those who live by the sea or who are accustomed to the use of boats1 know very little about the various parts of the hull or the proper names for the different portions of it4 ,the principal parts of a small boat's hull are3 the bow1 the stern1 the deck 7if not an open boat72 the keel1 the thwarts1 the bilge1 the bottom1 the topsides and the gunwales4 ,each of these is made up of various pieces or parts1 and to portions of each different names are given4 ,the bow is the forward end of the boat2 the stern is the rear end2 the deck is the portion on top or the part which covers the open portion2 the keel is the very bottom piece which extends from bow to stern2 the thwarts are the seats2 the bilge is the bottom close to the keel on either side2 the bottom proper is the portion between the keel and the sides of the boat2 the topsides are the sides above the curve of the bottom2 the gunwales are the upper edges of the topsides4 ,the extreme forward edge of the bow is known as the cutwater2 the extreme end of the stern is known as the counter or transom2 the curve from bow to stern1 horizontally1 is called the sheer2 the sides above the water are known as freeboard2 the inner edge of the decks when provided with a perpendicular edge is the combing2 the open space within the edge of the decks is known as the cockpit2 the extreme forward portion of the boat is called the peak2 the central part of the craft is the waist2 the forward part of the hull near the stem and below the water line is the entrance2 the after part1 on the sides beneath the water is the run4 ,in every boat1 no matter how large or small she may be1 these parts are always the same4 ,the various parts used in building a boat are very numerous in some craft and are few in others1 depending upon the size and model of the boat1 but in every case similar parts have the same names and are used for the same purposes4 ,the upright piece1 to which the sides are attached at the bow is the stem and when this is made in two parts1 as is often the case on large boats1 the outer piece is known as the false stem4 ,this stem is attached to the keel by a knee and when a second piece is attached to the keel to thicken and strengthen it1 the piece is called the keelson4 ,at the stern the upright timber is called the sternpost and to this the transom1 the broad flat piece at the end of the stern1 is fastened4 ,from the stem to the transom extends the planking1 the plank next to the keel on each side being called the garboard strake and the ones at the top of the sides being known as top strakes1 sheer strakes or upper strakes4 ,from keel to the tops of the sides curved or bent pieces are fastened which are known as ribs and these are attached to the keel-piece and the decks by knees4 ,sometimes an inner lining is placed on top of the ribs to make the inside of the boat smooth and this is known as the ceiling while the pieces that extend across from side to side and which support the decks are called deck timbers4 ,these are the principal parts found in every boat of round-bottomed construction1 but in flat-bottomed boats there are no real ribs1 no bilge nor garboard strakes1 no keel and no real sternpost1 owing to the form and method of construction4 ,in a flat-bottomed boat the bottom runs across from side to side without any bilge2 the entire sides are practically freeboard2 straight braces or timbers replace ribs2 the keel is replaced by a false keel or rubbing strake and1 except in large sized boats1 the transom is held in position by the sides and bottom and no stern post is required4 ,in form and design the various parts of boats vary as much1 or even more1 than the boats themselves and there is an almost endless variety of bows1 sterns1 counters1 etc41 not to mention the forms of rudders1 the variations in sheer1 and other proportions of form1 lines1 run1 freeboard1 etc4 ,even in one type of boat there may be a great many forms of bows or sterns in use1 many designed merely to add to the appearance of the craft1 others to add speed1 others to make the boat drier1 others to adapt it better to sailing or rowing1 as the case may be2 and still others to afford better facilities for using certain types of rig1 gear or fishing-tackle4 ,the forms of bows and sterns are so numerous that to name or describe them all would require a volume1 but they may all be grouped under a comparatively limited number of types1 the others being merely modifications or combinations of these4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,bows ,,and ,,sterns #a--,straight bow4 #b--,round bow4 #c--;,clipper bow4 #d--;,dory bow4 #e--,whaleboat bow4 #f--;,canoe bow4 #g--,spoon bow4 #h--,square stern4 #i--,overhanging stern4 #aj--,whaleboat stern4 #aa--;,dory stern4 #ab--,round stern4 #ac--,sharp or 8pinkey0 stern4 ,the commonest and most important forms of bows are as follows3 ,straight bows1 in which the stem is perpendicular to the keel2 round bows1 in which the stem is curved or rounded from keel to deck2 clipper bows1 in which the stem is concave or hollowed in outline2 raking or dory bows in which the stem is set at an angle to the keel2 whaleboat bows which are rounded or curved and are also at an angle2 canoe bows which are like the round bows but more convex1 and spoon bows which have no true stem but sweep in a gradual curve from the bottom of the boat to the deck4 ,among the more typical sterns we find3 ,square or straight sterns1 in which the sternpost is perpendicular and the counter is broad and flat2 overhanging sterns1 in which the counter is carried out beyond the sternpost and overhangs the water2 dory sterns1 in which the sternpost is at an angle and has a ,v-shaped counter2 whaleboat sterns which are sharp and shaped like the bow2 round sterns1 in which the sides are carried around in a curve or half-circle with no transom2 and sharp sterns or pinkey sterns which are sharp like the stern of a whaleboat1 but instead of being curved are merely angular or perpendicular4 ,each of these forms of bows and sterns possesses qualities which adapt it to one purpose more than another and in selecting a boat you should bear this in mind4 ,straight or round bows throw a larger bow wave than the whaleboat or clipper types and have a tendency to bury the bows in heavy seas2 whaleboat or dory bows cut through the waves1 but give great buoyancy or lifting power to the craft1 thus preventing it from burying the forward part in the water2 while spoon bows pound and slap in heavy seas and are principally of value for racing boats or for use in calm waters4 ,even the sterns have an important effect upon a boat's abilities and seaworthiness4 ,a square stern will drag a great deal of water behind it when traveling rapidly and with a following sea is liable to take in water1 or to be 8pooped10 as the sailors would say4 ,round sterns with an overhang are also bad in a seaway and often make a boat slow in coming about or turning2 transom sterns with an overhang are better1 while the sharp-pointed pinkey or whaleboat sterns prevent a following sea from entering the boat and leave a clean wake1 but owing to the fact that there is no overhang and that the entire height of the boat is brought broadside to the water when turning1 they are not so quick in maneuvering as a stern with a good overhang4 ,perhaps the best all-around stern is one with a good overhang1 a sharp run and a small counter3 in other words1 a sort of combination of the common overhand stern and the whaleboat type4 ,in the planking1 boats vary a great deal1 and there are many different methods of making the sides and bottom4 ,even boats of the same form1 for the same uses and with the same style of bow and stern may be made in very different ways4 ,one method is to place the planks so that the edges join and there is a uniform1 smooth surface1 with all the planks running from bow to stern4 ,this is known as smooth-skin or carvel planking4 ,another style is to let the boards overlap slightly2 this is known as clinker construction or lap-streak planking4 ,other boats are planked with very narrow strips fastened one above the other1 edge to edge1 while still others are covered with two or more layers of thin boards placed diagonally from keel to gunwales and known as diagonal planking4 ,for light racing boats the latter type is admirable for it is strong1 light1 tight and stiff1 but it is difficult to repair1 it is expensive and for ordinary use has no advantages4 ,clinker-built boats are excellent when new1 but a broken or injured plank is difficult to replace1 leaks are hard to stop and it has no advantages over the carvel planking which is the commonest of all forms of boat-building4 ,still another matter to be considered when selecting a boat is whether you should use a keel or a centerboard craft4 ,every boat1 in order to sail well1 must have a portion which projects below the bottom and which will prevent the craft from sliding sideways or making 8leeway0 on the water when the wind is from the side or when sailing against the wind4 ,this projection may be a keel1 which is an immovable portion of the boat itself2 it may be a centerboard which is a board which can be raised or lowered at will from the center of the boat1 or it may be a leeboard which is merely hung over the side opposite the wind and is shifted as the boat tacks or goes about4 ,leeboards are clumsy makeshifts and while they are used on large vessels in some countries1 as in ,holland and ,scandinavia1 they are a great nuisance and very unsatisfactory on anything but canoes and rowboats which are sailed occasionally and on which either keels or centerboards would be inconvenient4 ,no one has yet decided definitely whether or not keels or centerboards are the better1 although the matter has been discussed1 tried and thrashed out for years4 ,as a matter of fact each has its advantages and disadvantages1 each is adapted to certain types of boats and to certain conditions and each has its adherents who have no faith in the other type4 ,personally1 ,i think the keel boat the better for deep water use where there is a likelihood of heavy weather and yet many of the ,gloucester fishing-smacks and many yachts which have won ocean races are of the centerboard type4 ,for shallow waters or where there are reefs1 sandbars1 shoals or mud-flats keel boats are a nuisance and centerboards are practically a necessity4 ,where boats are to be hauled on beaches centerboard boats are really the only kind to use1 for keel boats will not stand upright and cut deeply into the sand4 ,flat-bottomed boats are nearly always of the centerboard type2 whaleboats have centerboards1 and yet catboats and other round-bottomed boats are made in both types4 ,keel boats are roomier than those with centerboards for there is no space occupied by the centerboard and its case2 they are less liable to capsize1 and if made with the same proportions as centerboard boats they are as dry1 seaworthy and handy4 ,as a rule1 however1 the keel craft are much narrower and deeper than those equipped with centerboards and many of them are almost like a plank set on edge4 ,these are stable enough1 but they are wet1 uncomfortable and hard to handle4 ,the advantages of the centerboard are that when sailing before the wind or when rowing the board may be lifted and much less resistance to the water will then result and consequently more speed may be gained4 ,when in shallow water the centerboard may be raised or lowered according to the depth of the water1 and if a sandbar or reef is struck little injury will result1 as the board is free to move up when it strikes an obstruction1 whereas a keel boat under the same conditions might be badly injured4 ,the objections to a centerboard are the difficulties in keeping the case and trunk of the board from leaking1 the space it occupies1 the necessity of raising or lowering it according to varying conditions and the slight1 very slight1 chance of losing the board and thus becoming helpless4 ,illustration3 ,,keels1 ,,centerboards1 ,,leeboards ,,and ,,rudders #a--,section of a keel boat4 #b--,section of a centerboard boat4 #c--,section of a fin keel boat4 #d--,portion of a keel boat's hull4 #e--;,boat with centerboard4 #f--;,boat with leeboard4 #g-i--;,forms of rudders for keel boats4 #h-aj--;,forms of rudders for centerboard boats4 ,centerboards are not confined to small boats as many think1 but large coasting vessels and even three-masted schooners are often built with them1 which proves that they have many great advantages4 ,some boats are built in a sort of combination keel and centerboard method1 in which a moderate keel is provided and a centerboard is used as well1 while within comparatively recent years the fin-keel type of boat has been evolved4 ,in these the hull is proportioned like that of a centerboard boat but the keel is merely a large fin or sheet of metal carrying a mass of lead or iron at its lower edge4 ,all things being equal1 the best boat for ordinary use is the centerboard type and for small boats1 or the amateur's use1 they are far superior to keel boats of any sort4 ,most small boats are steered by means of a rudder and tiller1 the rudder being a wooden or metal affair submerged at the stern and the tiller consisting of a handle at the rudder's upper end4 ,some rudders are hung or fastened to the counter and can be easily taken off or 8unshipped10 while others are under the counter and are fastened to the sternpost with the upper end coming up through the boat or the deck4 ,there are various forms of rudders3 some long and extending out for a considerable distance in the rear of the boat1 and others high and narrow1 but the purpose of all is the same and the rudder is always designed to present an area sufficient to swing the boat around readily or to steer it without using too great force4 ,large boats are usually steered by gears connecting the rudder to a wheel2 as the handling of a tiller connected directly to the rudder of a large vessel would be a very difficult task indeed4 ,as1 in order to turn a boat to the right1 the tiller must be moved to the left1 the terms used by sailors in steering boats are often confusing to landsmen4 ,for example1 if a sailor wants a boat turned to the left1 or to port1 as it's called1 he will say1 8,starboard the helm10 or1 in other words1 push the tiller to the starboard or right-hand side1 and vice versa4 ,it is not so bad when steering with a tiller1 but when steering with a wheel the beginner is very apt to do the wrong thing and turn the wheel to the right when he wants to go to the right and to the left1 or port1 when he wants to go to that direction1 and to simplify matters many boats are now arranged so that the wheel is turned in the direction one really wants to go4 ,this makes it very easy when steering for oneself1 but if someone is directing the course and sings out the orders in true sailor fashion the steersman has to remember and port his helm when he is told to starboard it and thus the confusion is just as bad as ever4 ,for this reason the beginner should use a tiller if possible2 for that matter1 there is no advantage in a wheel in boats less than thirty or forty feet in length4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,fittings ,,and ,,parts ,,of ,,boats #a--;,eyebolt4 #b--;,block4 #c--;,hook block4 #d--,ring block4 #e--,sister or fiddle block4 #f--,snatch block4 #g--;,cheek block4 #h1 #i--;,fairleaders4 #aj--,whip purchase4 #aa--,whip and runner4 #ab--,long tackle4 #ac--;,gun tackle4 #ad--,luff tackle4 #ae--,watch tackle4 #af--;,cleats4 #ag--;,chocks4 #ah--;,bitts4 #ai--,turnbuckles4 #bj--,travelers4 #ba--;,dead eyes4 #bb--,section of boat to show parts 7round bottom74 #bc--,section of boat to show parts 7flat bottom74 #bd--;,external parts of boat4 #be--,parts of boat 7top view74 #bf--;,carvel planking4 #bg--;,clinker planking4 #bh--,strip planking4 #bi--;,flat bottom planking4 #cj--,v-bottom planking4 #ca--;,diagonal planking4 ,on every sailboat there are a certain number of appliances which are unfamiliar to landsmen but which you should become accustomed to before attempting to handle a boat4 ,there are blocks1 tackle1 chocks1 fairleaders1 cleats1 turnbuckles1 eyebolts and travelers among the deck fittings4 ,each of these has its use and one should be perfectly familiar with them4 ,blocks are wooden or metal objects containing rollers or wheels known as sheaves through which ropes are run to enable them to be hauled tight without great friction4 ,cheek-blocks are half blocks which bolt or attach to a mast1 spar1 or other object4 ,sister-blocks have two sheaves1 one above the other1 in a single shell4 ,tail-blocks are blocks with a rope or hook at one end by which they may be hung to spars1 etc4 ,snatch-blocks are blocks arranged so that one side may be opened to allow a rope to be passed over the sheave without running it through and there are patent-blocks which will hold a rope securely in any position by means of a grip4 ,blocks and ropes together are known as tackles and the blocks used may be single1 double1 triple or fourfold1 according to the number of sheaves they contain4 ,a luff-tackle has a single and a double block with one end of the rope fast to the single block and the hauling end leading from the double block4 ,a gun-tackle consists of two single blocks with one end of the rope fast to the upper block and the hauling part passing down from the upper block4 ,a watch-tackle is a tackle used to haul the rope which is rove through another tackle and a whip-purchase has a single block only4 ,the purpose of the tackle is to increase one's power and the more sheaves there are and the more times the rope is passed through the blocks the more the power obtained2 but as in every case where power is increased1 speed is lost and to hoist a sail with a tackle with several sheaves requires more time than to do the same work with a single-sheave block4 ,for this reason the simplest tackle which will enable you to perform the work without undue exertion is the one you should use4 ,fairleaders are sheaves or rollers which are screwed or bolted to the decks or other parts of the boat and through which ropes are run in order that the ropes may be carried around curves or at right angles4 ,chocks are metal or wooden appliances in the form of notches and are used where ropes pass over the edge of a boat to hold them in one position4 ,cleats are devices for holding a rope without tying it and are very useful and numerous on boats4 ,they are either of metal or wood and by winding the rope over them it may be held securely and yet can be thrown off at a moment's notice4 ,turnbuckles are metal arrangements for tightening ropes1 wires or chains and have hooks or eyes at the ends with screw-threads which may be drawn together or separated by turning the central portion of the turnbuckle4 ,on small boats they are seldom used1 but on large and medium-sized craft they are very necessary4 ,eyebolts are eyes bolted or screwed in position and to them turnbuckles1 ropes1 blocks or other objects are fastened1 while travelers are metal rods over which blocks1 rings or things slide or 8travel40 ,travelers are usually placed at the stern of single-sailed boats for the tackle of the sheet1 the rope which controls the sail1 to slide on1 and they are also used on masts for the sail to slide up and down upon when it is raised or lowered1 as well as in many other places4 ,a great many people who have used boats or have traveled on them speak of a vessel's rigging without knowing what the rigging really is4 ,in the same way they speak of the 8ropes0 of a ship and while both terms may be correct in a way1 yet to a sailor the terms would mean nothing definite4 ,rigging comprises all the ropes1 sails1 stays1 halyards and in fact1 everything above the decks which has anything to do with the sail plan or rig of a boat1 but to sailors there are two definite types of rigging1 even in the smallest craft4 ,these are the standing rigging and the running rigging4 ,the latter comprises only the various ropes1 lines1 etc41 which move when the vessel is in use1 while the standing rigging consists of all the permanent ropes1 stays and other things which remain stationary4 ,to enumerate the various individual parts of the standing and running rigging of a large vessel would require a great deal of space and would be of little value to the person who is interested only in small boats1 but there are certain portions of the rigging which occur on every boat and which every boatman should know by heart4 ,as a matter of fact1 there are very few 8ropes0 so-called1 even on a full-rigged ship1 for what appear as ropes to a landsman are known by specific names to sailors4 ,even on a small boat there are few ropes which are spoken of as such and nothing so loudly proclaims the landlubber as to speak of a stay1 halyard or sheet as a 8rope40 ,the halyards are the ropes which hoist the sails and they vary in number and name according to the type of sails used4 ,as a rule there are two to each sail and known as the throat halyards and peak halyards4 7,this refers only to fore-and-aft sails1 see ,chapter ,,iv74 ,the throat halyard being the one which hoists the edge of the sail nearest the mast1 while the peak halyard raises the outer edge of the sail4 ,where sails have no gaff or piece of wood at the upper edge only one halyard is used4 ,illustration3 ,,running ,,rigging ,,of ,,fore-,,and-,,aft ,,rig ,a--,jib halyard4 ,b--,downhaul4 ,c--,throat halyard4 ,d--,peak halyard4 ,e--,topping lift4 ,f--,main sheet4 ,g--,jib sheet4 ,the sheet is the line which is attached to the outer extremity of the sail and is controlled by the man sailing the boat and its purpose is to hold the sail in any desired position and to enable the sailor to pull the sail in or to let it out1 according to the direction of the wind and the course sailed4 ,downhauls are ropes used in pulling down sails and are just the opposite of halyards and on small boats they are seldom necessary4 ,topping lifts are ropes which lead from the masthead to the end of boom to support the latter when the sail is lowered and they are usually so arranged that they may be hauled up or let down to raise or lower or top the boom4 ,lazy jacks are light lines extending from the mast head1 or near it1 to the boom and are used to prevent the sail from falling or bagging loose when lowered4 ,they are seldom used on very small boats4 ,brails are ropes extending to the after edge of the sail by means of which the sail may be gathered close to the mast ready for furling4 ,illustration3 ,,standing ,,rigging1 ,,masts1 ,,etc4 #a--,polemast4 #b--,mast with topmast4 #c--,mast with topmast and topgallant mast4 #d--;,bowsprit with jib boom4 #e--,pole bowsprit4 #f--;,foremast4 #g--,mainmast4 #h--,mizzen mast4 #i--;,jigger or spanker mast4 ,a--,forestay4 ,b--,backstays4 ,c--,shrouds or side stays4 ,d--,topmast stay4 ,e--,fore topmast stay4 ,f--,jib stay4 ,f--,foretopgallant stay4 ,g--,flying jib stay4 ,h--,fore royal stay4 ,i--,mast or lower mast4 ,j--,trestle or cross trees4 ,k--,top mast4 ,l--,topgallant mast4 ,m--,topmast cap4 ,n--,topmast trestle or cross trees4 ,o--,lowermast cap4 ,p--,royal mast4 ,q--,futtock shrouds4 ,r--,ratlines4 ,s--,spreader4 ,,bt--,bowsprit4 ,,jb--,jib boom4 ,,fjb--,flying jib boom4 ,,bs--,bobstays4 ,,ds--,martingale or dolphin striker4 ,,mbr--,martingale back ropes4 ,,jbs--,jib boom martingale stays4 ,,fjbs--,flying jib boom martingale stays4 ,all these are parts of the running rigging while the standing rigging1 in its simplest form1 consists of stays which are ropes or wires stretched from the top of the mast to the hull to keep the mast in position1 or which extend from the top of the mast to the bowsprit and from the bowsprit to the stem to keep the bowsprit in its proper place4 ,the stays from the mast to the bowsprit are known as forestays and upon them small sails are run up or down which are known as jibs1 forestaysails1 etc4 7,chapter ,,iv74 ,many boats which do not have bowsprits or jibs nevertheless have forestays running from the top of the mast to the bow1 to keep the mast in one position1 while many boats with bowsprits have stays running from the end of the bowsprit to the sides of the boat1 their purpose being to keep the bowsprit from bending sideways4 ,on large vessels the stays are very numerous and there are backstays to keep the masts from bending forward1 stays between the masts and many other kinds of stays1 but most of these are never necessary on small boats4 ,if the boat has a topmast1 however1 there are always topmast-stays and usually backstays1 the former being spread apart1 where the topmast and lowermast join1 by means of a wooden or metal crosspiece known as a spreader4 ,so also on boats with a long bowsprit1 or where a second piece known as a jib boom1 extends beyond the bowsprit1 there are stays known as bobstays which are spread down toward the water by means of a metal or iron piece known as the dolphin striker or martingale boom4 ,in mentioning these various parts of the rigging ,i have used the terms 8masts10 8bowsprit10 etc41 and while ,i suppose that nearly every reader will know what a mast and a bowsprit is1 yet it may be well to add a few words about them and their names4 ,the masts1 of course1 are the sticks which carry the sails and rigging1 and if there are more than one used1 the forward mast is always the foremast4 ,the one back of this is the mainmast2 the third from the bow is the mizzen1 while in four-masted vessels there is the spanker mast or jigger mast4 ,where the front mast is very high and there is another very small mast at the stern the latter is also known as the jigger or mizzen and the forward mast becomes the mainmast4 ,masts may be made in one or more sections according to the rig of the vessel4 ,if the mast is all in one piece it is known as a polemast and if another piece is placed above it this is known as the topmast1 while in square-rigged vessels there are still other pieces known as topgallant masts1 royal masts1 etc4 ,the bowsprit is the stick which projects forward from the bow of a vessel and it may be either a pole bowsprit in one piece1 or it may have a second piece attached to it and known as a jib boom1 while on very large vessels there may be still a third part known as the flying jib boom4 ,in addition to all these there are the various sticks or timbers which help spread the sails and which are known as spars1 but as these vary in number and name according to the rig and sails used it is best to consider them in connection with the sails themselves4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iv ,,various ,,rigs ,probably the first sail ever placed upon a boat was merely a piece of hide or skin1 lashed to a sapling and kept spread open by a rough stick lashed across it4 ,through all the countless centuries this first form of sail has been retained and while the skin has been replaced by cloth and the rough saplings have given place to well-finished poles or spars1 the spritsail1 as it is called1 still remains one of the simplest1 handiest and most widely used of sails4 ,the true spritsail is a square1 or nearly square1 piece of canvas laced by one edge to the mast and kept stretched flat by means of a pole known as a sprit which extends from the lower part of the mast diagonally across the sail to the upper1 outer corner4 ,sometimes the sail is attached to hoops or rings which run up and down the mast and a halyard is used in hoisting the sail but1 in order to spread the sail well1 the sprit must be pulled out by hand and cannot be arranged to rise or fall with the sail4 ,the ordinary method of securing the sprit is to place the tip in a small loop1 or eye of rope made at the corner of the sail and then heave the sprit out until the sail is taut by means of a rope known as a lanyard which is attached to the mast and is passed through a hole or a notch in the lower end of the sprit4 ,another very simple sail1 which is really a modification of the spritsail1 is the leg-o'-mutton4 ,this differs mainly from the spritsail in form1 for instead of being rectangular it is three-cornered and the sprit1 instead of extending from the mast to the upper1 outer corner of the sail1 extends almost horizontally across it4 ,leg-o'-mutton sails1 like the spritsails1 are often arranged to be raised or lowered by a halyard and owing to the position of the sprit it is not necessary to remove it when lowering a leg-o'-mutton sail4 ,some spritsails have two sprits1 but this is a nuisance and for most purposes the leg-o'-mutton is the far better sail of the two4 ,in the first place it stays flatter and thus enables one to sail closer to the wind2 it does not have the tendency to 8kick up0 and wrap itself about the mast1 like the spritsail1 when sailing before the wind1 and finally it is not so liable to capsize a boat in a heavy wind as the greatest area is low1 whereas in the spritsail the upper portion presents the largest surface to the wind4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,rigs #a--;,felucca4 #b--,lugger4 #c--,nonpareil4 #d--;,dandy4 #e--;,bermuda boat4 #f--;,french gunter4 #g--;,batten sail4 #h--,settee sail4 ,somewhat similar to the leg-o'-mutton sail in form is the gunter sail or sliding gunter1 which is a great favorite in many parts of ,europe but which has never been widely introduced in ,america1 although it has a great many advantages over other sails for small boats4 ,the gunter sail is a very easy one to raise or lower1 for there is no sprit to remove and it is very easy to reef4 ,in the gunter sail the mast is made in two sections with the upper portion sliding by travellers over the lower portion1 and to this movable part the single halyard is attached4 ,in order to reef sail it is only necessary to lower the sliding mast a trifle1 tie the reef points to the boom and again hoist the sail taut4 ,another form of rig1 which is seen everywhere in ,oriental waters1 and is the prime favorite with all ,latin races1 is the lateen4 ,like the leg-o'-mutton and the gunter rigs the lateen is triangular1 but unlike the two former it is longer than high1 or in other words1 is placed horizontally1 instead of perpendicularly4 ,the lateen is a particularly good sail for small boats as the greatest area is low and why it has not been more generally adopted is something of a mystery4 ,as used in the ,west ,indies the lateen is rigged on a single1 short mast which points or 8rakes0 slightly towards the bow of the boat4 ,it has two yards and is raised and lowered by one halyard4 ,it is kept taut and flat by a crotch1 or ring1 passed around the mast and fastened to the lower yard4 ,properly made the lateen will set very flat and smooth1 it is easily and quickly raised or lowered1 readily reefed and is the most graceful and picturesque of all rigs4 ,somewhat like the lateen1 but with the forward end cut off1 is the lugsail which is the sail most often used by the fishermen of northern ,europe and the ,british ,isles4 ,personally ,i could never see any advantage which this sail possesses over the common and much more simple spritsail or the ordinary boom-and-gaff sail and on large boats it is heavy1 clumsy and far less to be recommended than several other forms4 ,the common boom-and-gaff sail is the one so familiar to everyone who lives on or near the water or who has ever seen sailing boats or vessels1 for it is more widely used than any other form and is the basis of all fore-and-aft rigs in most localities4 ,illustration3 ,,parts ,,of ,,sails1 ,,spars1 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,fore-,,and-,,aft ,,rig ,the true fore-and-aft sail or boom-and-gaff sail is really an adaptation of the older lugsail and is a vast improvement over it4 ,it is attached to the mast by means of rings or travelers and has two spars2 the one at the top known as the gaff and the one at the bottom known as the boom4 ,there are two halyards used1 known as the peak halyard and throat halyard2 the latter being used to hoist the sail and the former to spread it tight and flat4 ,this rig is noted for its ability to sail close to the wind2 it is easy to handle and in case of a sudden storm or squall the peak may be dropped and the area of the sail thus reduced without stopping to reef4 ,for very small boats it has the disadvantage of requiring rather heavy spars and mast and a multiplicity of ropes1 blocks1 etc41 and hence for this purpose the sprit1 leg-o'-mutton1 gunter or lateen rigs are preferable4 ,aside from the shape or type of sails there are various rigs which are well recognized as standards and which are combinations of several sails4 ,thus the rig known as the cat rig is a single fore-and-aft sail near the bow of the boat4 ,the jib-and-mainsail rig has a boom-and-gaff sail and a small triangular sail known as a jib1 which is set on a stay running from the masthead to the bow1 or to the end of the bowsprit4 ,the sloop rig is like the jib-and-mainsail rig but in addition has a small sail known as a topsail between the gaff and the topmast2 it may also have two or three other small triangular sails on the forestays4 ,when there are two of these the lowest is known as the fore staysail1 the next is the jib and the third is the flying jib4 ,schooners are two-1 three-1 four-1 five-1 six- or even seven-masted vessels with the masts fore-and-aft rigged and with jibs like a sloop and with staysails between the various topmasts4 ,in schooners the various fore-and-aft sails are all of nearly the same size with the sail on the rear mast the largest4 ,illustration3 #a--,,ketch ,,rig4 #b--;,,cat ,,yawl ,,rig ,two other rigs which have two masts and carry fore-and-aft sails are the ketch and the yawl4 ,the ketch has a foremast rigged like that of a sloop1 or schooner1 with a much smaller boom-and-gaff sail on a mast near the stern1 while the yawl is practically the same with a still smaller rear sail4 ,if the rear mast or mizzen is placed in front of the sternpost the rig is the ketch whereas if placed behind the sternpost it is a yawl rig4 ,there are also cat yawls which have no jibs and some ketches and yawls carry lugsails on both masts1 or have a boom and gaff mainsail and a lugsail mizzen or even a sprit1 lateen1 leg-o'-mutton1 gunter or other type of mizzen sail4 ,yawls and ketches are at times rigged with leg-o'-mutton1 lug1 gunter or lateen sails on both masts1 but when thus rigged the crafts are not1 properly speaking1 either yawls or ketches4 ,if lugsails are used the rig is really a lugger2 if both masts carry leg-o'-mutton or gunter sails the rig is known as the nonpareil2 if the mizzen is a leg-o'-mutton sail the boat is dandy-rigged and if both main and mizzen sails are of the lateen type the boat becomes a felucca1 which is one of the favorite ,mediterranean rigs and is familiar to every reader of sea tales as the typical rig of the ,eastern corsairs4 ,all of the sails mentioned on these various rigs are those known as working sails1 but in addition there are numerous light sails used when there is little wind or when racing1 such as spinnakers1 jib topsails1 balloon jibs1 etc41 but which are of little interest in connection with small boats or boats for the amateur sailor4 ,nevertheless some knowledge of such matters never comes amiss and it is well to know the names and uses of these racing sails4 ,spinnakers are immense triangular sails used when running before the wind and which are spread out from the side of the boat by means of a spar known as a spinnaker boom4 ,balloon jibs are huge1 jib-like sails of very light cotton or silk used in place of the smaller head sails when running on1 or before1 the wind1 while jib topsails are triangular sails run up on the stay which extends from the topmast to the bowsprit4 ,nowadays fore-and-aft-rigged vessels form the bulk of all sailing craft1 many of which are of immense size and capable of carrying many hundreds of tons of cargo4 ,the use of fore-and-aft sails on any but small boats is comparatively recent1 however1 and formerly all large craft were what are known as square-riggers4 ,although far more beautiful and stately than the schooners the square-rigged vessels gradually gave way to the more economical and handy fore-and-aft rigs and a few years ago one seldom saw a square-rigged vessel1 save in out-of-the-way places4 ,with the tremendous demand for ocean-going vessels1 brought about by the ,european ,war1 the square-riggers once more came into their own and today one may see ships1 barks and brigs everywhere in the important ports of the world4 ,although small boats are seldom square-rigged yet everyone who is fond of the sea and of boats should know something of square-rigged craft and should be familiar with the various rigs and their sails and should know the proper names and terms to use in speaking of them4 ,to the landsman1 and to many sailors as well1 the rigging of a square-rigged vessel appears most complicated and confusing1 but in reality it is very simple4 ,a great many people call every large vessel a 8ship0 and many more who can distinguish a sloop from a schooner1 and a schooner from a yawl1 fail to note the differences between the various square-rigs and call all square-rigged vessels 8ships40 ,as a matter of fact 8ships0 are only one type of square-rigged craft and it is just as erroneous to call a bark a 8ship0 as to call a sloop a 8schooner40 ,illustration3 ,,sails ,,of ,,square-,,rigged ,,vessels #a--,topsail schooner4 #b--;,brigantine4 #c--;,brig 7main course in dotted lines74 #d--;,barkentine 7with double topsails74 #e--;,bark 7with double topsails74 #f--,ship 7with double topsails1 fore and main skysails 7mizzen course in dotted lines774 ,staysails are omitted in ,figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,oddly enough one may trace the transition from the original square-riggers to the modern fore-and-aft schooners by the various rigs1 for the old square sails died hard and even after the many advantages of fore-and-aft sails were proven sailors still held tenaciously to certain square sails and thus many types of square-rigged vessels are combinations of the two forms and are really connecting links between true square-riggers and fore-and-aft rigs4 ,this is the case with the so-called 8topsail schooners0 which are almost a thing of the past in most countries but are still used in ,newfoundland1 the ,canadian provinces and in parts of ,europe4 ,the topsail schooner is essentially a two-masted1 fore-and-aft schooner1 but the foretopmast is equipped with yards bearing square sails1 the lower sail being known as the foretopsail and the upper one as the foretopgallantsail4 ,another step backward and we find the foremast equipped entirely with square sails1 the fore-and-aft sail on the foremast missing and a fourth square sail above the foretopgallantsail4 ,this rig is known as the brigantine1 while in the rig known as a brig both masts carry square sails and in addition the mainmast is furnished with a fore-and-aft sail known as the spanker4 ,in every square-rigged vessel there are a definite number of square sails on each mast and these always have the same name1 although some vessels do not carry all of them4 ,thus1 the lowest sail is the course1 the next is the topsail1 the next the topgallantsail1 the next the royal and the highest of all is the skysail4 ,formerly each of these sails was in one large piece1 but in order to make it easier to handle them double topsails and double topgallantsails were invented and are now in general use4 ,thus one may see square-rigged vessels with seven instead of five square sails on each mast1 but the names remain the same1 the second and third sails above the deck becoming lower and upper topsails1 and the two above these being lower and upper topgallantsails4 ,many other vessels carry double topsails and single topgallantsails1 but one can always recognize these double sails as they are much narrower than the full sails4 ,comparatively few vessels carry skysails1 many do not even carry royals and still others carry more on one mast than on another4 ,just as brigantines form a sort of connecting link between brigs and two-masted schooners so barkentines and barks are connecting links between three-masted schooners and real ships4 ,the barkentine has the forward mast square-rigged with the main and mizzen masts fore-and-aft rigged1 while the bark has the fore and mainmast square-rigged and only the mizzen fore-and-aft rigged4 ,finally there is the true ship or 8full rigged ship10 as it is often called1 in which all three masts are square-rigged with a small fore-and-aft spanker on the last1 or mizzen1 mast4 ,in former years barks and ships never had more than three masts1 but with the advent of steel hulls1 and donkey engines to hoist and trim sails1 four-1 five- and even six-masted barks and ships came into use4 ,it is sometimes difficult to tell whether these vessels are barks or ships1 but if there is more than one mast fore-and-aft rigged they are properly barkentines1 if only one mast is without square sails the vessel is a bark and if square sails are on all masts it is a ship2--regardless of how many masts there are4 ,just as fore-and-aft rigged vessels carry light sails to supplement the ordinary working sails1 so square-rigged vessels often spread additional canvas when the winds are light or when greater speed is desired4 ,between the various masts staysails1 shaped like jibs1 are extended1 while at times small sails known as studding sails or stunsails are set at the outer ends of the square sails4 ,these light sails take the names of the masts or yards from which they are set and thus there are main and mizzen topmast and topgallant staysails2 fore1 main and mizzen topgallant and royal studding sails1 etc4 ,these great steel and iron square-riggers often have each of their masts in one piece or polemasts1 but the older and typical square-rigged vessels had their masts made up of several pieces1 each of which carried a sail1 and the names of each section corresponded to the sail which it carried4 ,thus the lowest section was the mast proper1 the piece above was the topmast1 the next was the topgallant mast1 the next the royal mast and the slenderest1 uppermost part was the skysail pole4 ,each of these masts had its own stays and shrouds and between the masts triangular1 jib-like sails known as staysails were set4 ,these were named after the masts to which the upper ends were attached and thus the staysail which extended downward from the top of the topgallant mast was a topgallant staysail1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,hull1 ,,spars ,,and ,,rigging ,,of ,a ,,ship #a--;,jib boom4 #b--;,bowsprit4 #c--;,dolphin-striker or martingale4 #d--;,cathead4 #e--;,capstan4 #f--;,cable4 #g--,stem or ,cutwater4 #h--;,hawse-pipe or hawse-hole4 #i--,starboard bow4 #aj--,starboard beam4 #aa--,water line4 #ab--,starboard quarter4 #ac--,rudder4 #ad--,rudder post4 #ae--;,counter4 #af--;,deck house or cuddy4 #ag--;,fore royalmast4 #ah--,main royalmast4 #ai--,mizzen royalmast4 #bj--;,fore royalyard4 #ba--,main royalyard4 #bb--,mizzen royalyard4 #bc--;,fore topgallantmast4 #bd--,main topgallantmast4 #be--,mizzen topgallantmast4 #bf--;,fore topgallantyard4 #bg--,main topgallantyard4 #bh--,mizzen topgallantyard4 #bi--;,fore topmast4 #cj--,main topmast4 #ca--,mizzen topmast4 #cb--;,fore topsailyard4 #cc--,main topsailyard4 #cd--,mizzen topsailyard4 #ce--;,foretop4 #cf--,maintop4 #cg--,mizzentop4 #ch--;,foreyard4 #ci--,mainyard4 #dj--,mizzen1 or ,cross-jack1 yard4 #da--;,foremast4 #db--,mainmast4 #dc--,mizzenmast4 #dd--;,foregaff1 or fore-spencer-gaff4 #de--,trysail-gaff1 or ,main-spencer-gaff4 #df--,spanker-gaff4 #dg--,spanker-boom4 #dh--;,bulwark1 or rail4 #di--,starboard ports4 #ej--,starboard scupper-holes4 #ea--,starboard chain-plates4 ,a1 ,a1 ,a--,fore1 main and mizzen royal-stays4 ,b--,flying-jib-stay4 ,c1 ,c1 ,c--,fore1 main and mizzen topgallant-stays4 ,d--,jib-stay4 ,e1 ,e1 ,e--,fore1 main and mizzen topmast-stays4 ,f1 ,f1 ,f--,fore1 main and mizzen-stays4 ,g1 ,g--,fore and main-tacks4 ,h1 ,h1 ,h--,fore1 main and mizzen royal-lifts4 ,i1 ,i1 ,i--,fore1 main and mizzen topgallant-lifts4 ,j1 ,j1 ,j--,fore1 main and mizzen topsail-lifts4 ,k1 ,k1 ,k--,fore1 main and mizzen1 or cross-jack1 lifts4 ,l1 ,l1 ,l--,fore1 main and mizzen royal-braces4 ,m1 ,m1 ,m--,fore1 main and mizzen topgallant-braces4 ,n1 ,n1 ,n--,fore1 main and mizzen topsail-braces4 ,o1 ,o1 ,o--,fore1 main and mizzen1 or cross-jack1 braces4 ,p1 ,p1 ,p--,fore1 main and mizzen starboard shrouds4 ,q1 ,q1 ,q--,fore1 main and mizzen backstays4 ,r1 ,r1 ,r--,peak halyards4 ,s1 ,s1 ,s--,trysail and spanker vangs4 ,t1 ,t--,fore and main sheets4 ,u--,spanker topping-lift4 ,v--,spanker sheet4 ,w--,flying martingale4 ,w--,martingale stay4 ,x--,bobstays4 ,y--,chafing gear4 ,,note--,modern vessels carry double-topsails and often double topgallantsails also1 in which case the words 8upper0 or 8lower0 are prefixed to the sails1 spars and rigging of these sails4 ,skysails also are carried at times4 ,these are small sails set on the skysail poles above the royal masts and their rigging takes the prefix 8skysail40 ,spencers and trysails are often omitted and are obsolete1 as are studding sails4 ,it will thus be seen that in order to know the names of all the sails on a square-rigged vessel it is only necessary to learn the names of the five parts of each mast1 for every sail has the same name with the addition of fore1 main1 or mizzen as the case may be4 ,the same is true of the yards1 the stays1 the halyards and every other part of a ship's rigging and so the seemingly complicated maze becomes very simple1 for all you have to do is to learn the names of the various parts on one mast and prefix fore1 main or mizzen to them for those on the other masts4 ,just as the little catboat has its stays1 halyards and sheet1 so the huge1 towering ship has its stays and shrouds1 sheets and halyards and the use of each is exactly the same as on the catboat with its single sail4 ,the stays or shrouds always hold the masts in position and strengthen them4 ,there are backstays1 forestays and bobstays on every vessel1 and each is designated by the proper prefix of fore1 main or mizzen1 top1 topgallant1 royal1 etc4 ,the halyards are to hoist the sails and they take their names from the sails to which they are attached4 ,the sheets are used to haul the sails flat and tight and they extend from the corners of the sails to the tips of the yards1 but in addition there are many parts of the rigging which have no counterpart on fore-and-aft-rigged vessels4 ,for example1 the braces are used to swing or set the yards in various positions1 the clewlines are used to gather up the sails ready for furling and there are buntlines1 garnet-lines and many other lines which are only used on square-riggers and are of little interest1 unless you expect to use a square rig or are interested in all things pertaining to sailing craft4 ,it may sound foolish to speak of using a square rig1 but one can have a lot of fun and can learn a great deal about ships and sailing by fitting up a small boat as a brig1 bark1 or ship4 ,i once had a twenty-foot sharpie rigged as a miniature full-rigged ship4 ,of course there is no practical advantage in this1 for the square rigs require a great deal of care1 they do not sail as well as fore-and-aft rigs when tacking to windward1 and they should never be used1 save as a means of recreation and for sailing on smooth waters1 on a small boat4 ,as to which is the best fore-and-aft rig to use on small boats there is a great diversity of opinion1 for every boat sailor has his own ideas and his own favorite rig and what may prove very satisfactory to one person may not be at all satisfactory to another4 ,the best method to follow in determining your rig is to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each1 adopt the one you think best suited to your special requirements and your boat and if this doesn't fulfill expectations try another4 ,no two boats1 even of the same model1 sail just alike and often one rig will give far better results on one type of boat than on another while the character of the waters sailed1 the prevalent winds1 the size of the boat1 its form1 the purpose for which it is used and many other factors must be considered when deciding upon a rig4 ,if you are a beginner and your boat is small and open1 a leg-o'-mutton or gunter sail will probably be as good as any1 whereas if your boat is very stable or heavy1 or if you sail where there are light winds1 a lug1 sprit or boom-and-gaff sail will be better4 ,it is a great mistake to place too much sail on a boat for nothing is gained by it and the dangers of sailing are vastly increased4 ,too much sail on a boat will invariably and inevitably result in one of three things4 ,if the boat is not wonderfully stable she will capsize1 or will lean over until she swamps2 if so heavy or stable that she still stands up1 the wind will rip the sail or tear out the masts and if neither of these casualties occur she will simply 8drag0 sail and will handle badly4 ,every boat will sail to the very best advantage with a definite amount of sail and the amount will vary according to the breeze4 ,hence it is no economy to carry on with all sail in a heavy wind1 for if the sail used is adapted to the boat for light winds it stands to reason it will be far too much in heavy weather4 ,flat-bottomed boats are usually very safe if properly handled and not provided with too much sail1 but owing to their shape they capsize very quickly once they are tipped a trifle too far4 ,for this reason leg-o'-mutton or gunter sails should be selected for this type of boat1 partly because they offer a small area to the wind near their tops and because they have the quality of 8spilling0 the wind when at an angle and thus preventing the boat from being tipped dangerously4 ,a flat-bottomed boat may be sailed in perfect safety with these sails when lug or boom-and-gaff sails of the same area would be extremely dangerous4 ,another matter to remember is that a greater amount of sail may be safely carried as two or more sails than would be possible in a single sail1 but for boats less than twenty feet over all a multiplicity of sails is a nuisance4 ,the question of just how much sail should be carried is a very difficult one to answer1 for boats vary in their stability and a great deal depends upon how they are handled and the skill of the sailor4 ,for ordinary open boats used for pleasure where a single sail is carried1 the sail area should not greatly exceed one and one-half times the number of square feet obtained by multiplying the boat's length by its extreme breadth4 ,thus a boat twenty feet long by five feet wide could safely carry one hundred and fifty square feet of canvas1 but for safety this should be as low as possible4 ,a sail fifteen feet high and seven feet wide might upset the boat before it would drive it along and yet a sail ten feet high and twelve feet wide might serve to sail the boat very well and without any danger of capsizing4 ,at any rate1 until you are thoroughly familiar with handling your boat and with the rudiments of sailing under all conditions1 you should confine yourself to a small amount of sail and should make haste slowly4 ,in addition to the fore-and-aft sails described there are many which are combinations1 adaptations or improvements and which are known by different names4 ,among these are the ,french gunter in which the upper portion of the mast not only slides on the lower part but may be lowered like a gaff as well2 the leg-o'-mutton with a boom at the lower edge in place of the sprit2 the various battened sails which are really lugsails fitted with light wooden strips1 or battens1 across them to keep the sails flatter and to make reefing easier2 the old-fashioned lugsails which have no spar or boom at the lower edge2 the settee sails which have a boom and a much curved and very long upper yard like a lateen1 and finally the ,bermuda sails which are different from all4 ,the ,bermudians consider a boat's ability to carry sail in heavy weather and to sail close to the wind of the greatest importance and their boats and sails are designed primarily for these objects4 ,the true ,bermuda sail is like a leg-o'-mutton with a curved lower edge and with the top point cut off and attached to a short piece of wood or club to which the halyard is fastened4 ,in place of a boom there is a sprit-like pole which is provided with a small tackle on the mast end and the sail is set very flat by hauling out on this tackle1 very much as in the leg-o'-mutton sail4 ,the greatest peculiarity of the ,bermuda rig is that the mast is set very far forward and leans or rakes sharply backward and a good-sized jib is carried4 ,it is a splendid rig for windward work1 but is a bad rig before the wind and for amateur use is not to be recommended4 ,for boats over twenty-five feet long nothing is handier or better than the yawl rig4 ,in the first place it is just as easy to sail as a sloop or jib-and-mainsail rig1 for the tiny mizzen practically takes care of itself4 ,when coming to a mooring or to anchor the mainsail may be lowered and the boat handled under jib and mizzen and by hauling the mizzen close in and lowering the other sails the boat will lie right in the wind's eye when at moorings or riding out a gale4 ,if in a narrow channel a yawl may actually be backed out by swinging the mizzen across the boat and lowering the other sails and when tacking or coming about in a seaway or where there is a strong current the mizzen helps wonderfully and the boat's head may be quickly brought about by hauling the mizzen to windward4 ,in case of a sudden squall or a heavy wind the boat may be sailed safely under jib and mizzen and1 best of all1 when one is obliged to reef1 it is not necessary to anchor or toss about helplessly and drift down the wind1 for the mainsail may be lowered and reefed in comfort while holding on the course under jib and mizzen4 ,nevertheless the beginner should never attempt to learn to sail or handle a boat with a yawl1 schooner1 sloop or even a jib-and-mainsail rig4 ,commence with a single1 simple sail1 such as a sprit1 a leg-o'-mutton1 a gunter1 a lug1 a lateen or a gaff-and-boom sail and when you have become thoroughly accustomed to this1 when you know how to sail and handle your simple boat and sail under all conditions1 then and not until then1 you may try your hand at craft with more sails and rigging4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,v ,,how ,,to ,,sail ,a ,,small ,,boat ,the first thing you should learn to do if you expect to use a boat1 is to learn to swim4 ,a sailboat1 properly rigged1 well built and intelligently handled1 is as safe as a rowboat or a launch and is far safer than any canoe ever built1 but under the best of conditions and even with experienced sailors1 accidents will at times happen and then the fellow who can swim stands a far better chance than the chap who cannot4 ,excellent swimmers are drowned it is true1 but that's in spite of their knowledge1 not because of it4 ,even if you are never upset1 never have an accident and are never called upon to save yourself or others1 yet the knowledge of how to swim will be mighty valuable4 ,in the first place it will give you and your companions greater confidence1 and confidence and self-reliance are big assets when sailing a boat1 especially under trying conditions4 ,but because you can swim it doesn't follow that you should take to the water whenever an accident occurs4 ,a good sailor always sticks to his ship and you should never forsake your boat1 no matter what condition she's in1 until compelled to desert her by her actually sinking under you4 ,a water-logged or capsized boat will float for hours or days and will support several persons and when clinging to an upset or wrecked boat you stand a much better chance of being seen and rescued than when swimming4 ,many a man has been drowned by leaving his upset boat and attempting to swim ashore when1 by clinging to the craft1 he would have been saved4 ,this was the case with two friends of the author4 ,there were three in the boat1 all splendid swimmers1 and they were capsized in a sudden squall several miles from shore4 ,the occupants easily clambered upon the overturned hull and gave little heed to their predicament1 as they knew that several boats and steamers were due to pass the spot where they were shipwrecked within a few hours4 ,about half-a-mile distant a schooner1 which was used as a temporary lightship1 was anchored and finally one of the men suggested swimming to it4 ,feeling confident that he would have no difficulty in reaching the schooner he plunged overboard and swam rapidly away4 ,presently he turned and called to the others to follow and one of his companions did so1 while the other wisely remained on the bottom of the boat4 ,when about halfway to the schooner the foremost of the two swimmers threw up his hands and went down and a few moments later the other sank1 but the sensible one of the trio1 who stuck to the boat1 was sighted and rescued by a passing craft an hour or two later and was none the worse for his experience4 ,no matter how well you can swim always remember that any solid object is far safer than the water and don't resort to swimming unless actually compelled to do so4 ,always bear in mind that it takes but a very little to support a person in the water--an old pail or bucket held perpendicularly and bottomside up1 an open umbrella1 an oar1 a thwart1 a spar1 a grating or even a high hat or a derby will serve to keep a human being afloat for a long time4 ,almost as important as the ability to swim is the ability to keep one's head and not get rattled under any and all conditions4 ,the sailor should be able to move and act rapidly1 surely and intelligently2 he should possess decisiveness and judgment and should know just what to do and how to do it on the spur of the moment4 ,when things go wrong is just the time for you to go right and many a trivial accident has become a tragedy through people losing their heads1 tangling ropes or gear1 jumping about heedlessly and forgetting just what to do under the circumstances4 ,in boat sailing of all things make haste slowly and ,,never ,,take ,,chances4 ,you can't be overcautious in a boat and it is far wiser to run for shelter or to shorten sail too soon or in a moderate wind than to wait too long or to carry too much sail in a hard blow4 ,wherever sailboats are used for pleasure one may see foolhardy men and boys sailing under full canvas in reefing weather and trying to show off but to the man who knows1 such actions do not speak of skill or ability but merely of ignorance and bravado4 ,don't mind if such reckless fools laugh at your caution and think you are timid2 the chances are that you'll be sailing about safely long after they are food for the fishes4 ,before attempting to learn to sail it is well to know something of the principles of sailing and just why a boat under sail does certain things4 ,many landsmen cannot understand how a boat can sail against the wind or how it can sail with the wind abeam or blowing from the side without tipping over1 but it's really a very simple matter and if you understand why and how these things are accomplished you'll be able to handle your boat far better than if you merely learn to do certain things without understanding the reasons for them4 ,whenever the wind blows against a boat's sails it has two distinct effects2 one tending to push the boat sideways and ahead1 the other to push it over or upset it4 ,the former tendency is desirable and must be encouraged whereas the latter must be overcome or resisted4 ,the resistance which a boat offers to the upsetting or 8heeling0 force is termed stability and the amount of stability which a boat possesses depends upon its model1 its proportions1 its weight and many other factors4 ,many boats have enough stability to overcome the tendency to upset without any artificial aid1 but as a rule sufficient stability can only be obtained by adding some weight or ballast at the bottom of the boat4 ,this may take the form of lead or iron on the keel1 a weighted centerboard1 or lead1 sandbags or other weights in the bottom of the hull4 ,when a boat is heeled over by the wind the sails act like a lever1 with the fulcrum at the water line1 while the hull below the water line represents the weight to be pried up4 ,of course you know that the longer the lever1 beyond the fulcrum1 as compared to the short end on the other side of the fulcrum1 the greater is the power obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,effect ,,of ,,wind ,,on ,,boats ,,of ,,various ,,forms ,shaded portions indicate leverage of hull against sail4 ,outlined rectangles show relative stability areas4 ,thus the farther a boat tips over the less force can the wind on the sails exert1 for with every inch that the boat heels the length of the lever decreases1 as will be seen by the accompanying diagram4 ,for this reason a boat tips much more easily when upright than after it has heeled over a bit and for the same reason a shallow or flat-bottomed boat tips more readily than a deep hull4 ,it would be perfectly feasible to build a boat so deep that it would not tip at all1 and likewise a boat could be built so heavy1 or with so much ballast1 that the leverage of the sails would be unable to heel it in the least4 ,but neither of these schemes would be practical4 ,if the boat was built too deep it would offer so much resistance to the water that the sails could not drive it forward and if built too heavy or if it carried too much ballast1 it would be slow1 clumsy and the sails and masts might be carried away before the boat moved4 ,moreover it is not desirable to prevent a boat from tipping to a certain extent4 ,many boats sail at their best while heeled at a sharp angle and the tendency to tip also serves as a sort of safety valve by spilling the wind from the sails and warning the sailor that too much sail is being carried and thus serving a very useful purpose4 ,hence1 in order to make boats safely stable without making them heavy1 slow or clumsy1 various forms of hulls and various methods of ballasting are adopted4 ,for example1 if a boat is made very broad and shallow the result1 when tipped1 will be almost the same as if the hull was made very deep and narrow but the resistance to the water will be overcome4 ,as the hull is tipped up by the leverage of the masts the upper side acts as a weight which must be lifted1 and exerts just as great a counter-leverage as if the weight was under water4 ,but instead of presenting a large surface with its attendant friction to the water the area of the boat's surface is reduced the more it is tipped4 ,such broad1 flat hulls are very stiff1 up to a certain point1 and boats built in this manner are usually very fast when heeling far over1 but when they are tipped a single inch beyond a certain point the weight of the raised side acts with the lever and flops the boat over in an instant4 ,when a hull thus shaped is provided with a centerboard or a weighted keel it becomes far more stable4 ,many of the fastest racing boats are of this type1 a form designed to sail the very best when heeled far over with half the bottom out of water4 ,to add to the stability under such conditions the bows and sterns are cut away for a long distance so that when sailing on a level keel the surface in contact with the water is very small1 while the further they tip to one side or the other the greater the length is increased4 ,but in every case1 whether stability is obtained by great breadth or beam1 by extreme depth from deck to keel1 by ballast inside or outside1 by fin-keel or otherwise1 you should remember that the further under water the ballast is placed the less will be required4 ,always bear in mind that ballast or weight on the downward or lee side aids the boat in tipping1 whereas the same weight1 on the upper side1 prevents it and that the weight placed on the high side will exert many times the force of the same weight in the center of the boat4 ,often by sitting far out on the upper or weather edge of a boat1 she may be sailed in safety through winds that would capsize her if you sat inside the cockpit4 ,if a plank or board was extended out from the weather side and you perched upon that the boat would be still harder to upset and it is by such methods that the natives of the ,south ,seas sail their catamarans and proas at terrific speed and with huge sails out of all proportion to the hulls4 ,sometimes one may see a 8flying proa0 tearing along in a perfect gale with half a dozen persons hanging on to the slender outrigger extending from the weather side1 and by their weight alone preventing the queer craft from turning turtle4 ,all the above remarks refer to stability1 but there is another factor which must be considered and which is known as lateral resistance1 or in other words1 the resistance offered to the water when moving sideways4 ,a boat might be very stable and yet it might be worthless if it did not possess lateral resistance1 for in that case it would merely slide sideways instead of going ahead and a properly designed boat must combine both stability and lateral resistance to the highest possible degree4 ,when sailing in any direction1 save directly before the wind1 there is a strong sideways pressure against the sails and unless the boat is provided with some means of overcoming this she will slip sideways or diagonally or will make 8leeway10 as a sailor would say4 ,deep1 narrow boats have great lateral resistance but their resistance to the water when moving forward is also great and hence the lateral resistance is usually obtained by means of deep1 narrow keels1 centerboard or leeboards4 ,the knife-like keel offers little resistance to the water when moving forward but great resistance when moving sideways1 while the centerboard may be pulled up entirely when moving forward with a wind from the rear1 thus still further reducing the friction against the water4 ,if the boat possesses stability and lateral resistance and is properly rigged the wind blowing against the sails will have a tendency to force the stern of the craft away from the wind and the bow towards it4 ,to overcome this the rudder must be turned until the pressure of the water against it has enough force to balance the action of the wind on the sails4 ,a properly rigged boat1 if left to herself with rudder loose and sails set1 will swing up into the wind of her own accord2 in a few moments she will fall off1 sail a short distance and again come into the wind and lose headway and will repeat this operation over and over again without danger of upsetting4 ,if1 on the other hand1 her sails are not adapted to her1 if she is badly designed or improperly rigged1 she will sail faster and faster1 will fall more and more away from the wind and finally the sail will flop over to the other side and the boat will be upset or mast1 sails and rigging will be carried away4 ,such a boat is a perfect deathtrap and should be avoided by all means4 ,always try a new boat or a new rig to see how it will act if the helm is left when sails are set4 ,if the boat comes up in the wind quickly of her own accord you may be sure she will come about readily when required and that she will take care of herself if at any time you are compelled to leave the tiller for a few moments4 ,but don't condemn the boat if she falls off and sails away as ,i have described4 ,as a rule this fault lies in the rig rather than in the boat itself and often a slight alteration in the shape or size of the sails or even the position of the mast will make all the difference between a safe and a dangerous boat4 ,if the sails are too far forward a boat may have a tendency to fall off and take a hard lee helm1 whereas if too far aft the boat may have such a hard weather helm that it is impossible to prevent her from swinging up into the wind4 ,then again1 the mast and sail may be in the right position and the sail may have its greatest area too far forward or too far aft1 or the rudder may be too small4 ,try various adjustments before deciding the craft is hopeless and strive to have your boat so arranged that when sailing close-hauled a slight pressure must be exerted on the tiller to prevent her from coming into the wind or luffing1 while just the instant this pressure is released she will swing up in the wind's eye with the sail fluttering and will hang there indefinitely1 merely falling off1 coming up again and remaining practically stationary in one place4 ,to a great many people it appears remarkable that a boat can sail against the wind1 but it is a very simple matter indeed and depends upon the same principles which make a kite fly1 an aeroplane rise or a windmill turn4 ,in every case the result is brought about by the pressure of the wind upon a curved or angular surface and while the boat and windmill depend upon the wind to move them and the aeroplane produces the wind by moving rapidly through still air1 yet the results in each case are identical and the object1 unable to move away from the wind moves against it or at right angles to it4 ,whenever a moving mass of matter1 such as air or water1 strikes a curved surface two effects result1 the first being to force the object aside1 the other to force it ahead by what is known as 8reaction40 ,if a solid object1 such as a bullet1 strikes a slanting surface it glances off and frequently it loses very little of its force in doing so4 ,the wind1 when striking a curved surface1 glances off and exerts its force at an angle4 ,the pressure of this glancing blow and the force exerted by the wind against the surrounding air as it slides off the sail1 has a tendency to force the sail1 or other surface1 ahead4 ,the direction in which the object is forced and the power required to move it depend upon the curve or angle which is presented to the wind4 ,the broader the angle at which the wind strikes1 the less loss of force there is and the greater the power which the wind exerts upon the sail4 ,thus1 when the wind is directly against the sail1 very little power is wasted and the whole force drives the boat ahead as none of the wind can glance off4 ,if the boat is brought around until the wind blows from one side and the sail is pulled in until it is at an angle1 the wind exerts a combined sideways and forward pressure and the boat sails at right angles to the wind2 whereas if the sail is drawn still closer towards the center of the boat and the craft is headed nearer to the wind1 the wind skips off the sail producing but little forward or sideways pressure but forcing the boat almost against the direction from which the wind blows4 ,but if the boat is headed too close to the wind and the sail hauled in too near the center of the boat no headway will be made for the wind will then slip off the sail without exerting enough force to move the boat forward4 ,if you will always bear these facts in mind you will find it far easier to learn to sail and you will also understand why you should always let your sail out as far as possible without letting it flutter or 8spill0 the wind4 ,illustration3 ,,sailing #a--;,before the wind or running free4 #b--,with wind on the quarter4 #c--;,beam wind or reaching4 #d--;,head wind or close hauled4 #e--,tacking or beating to windward4 #f--;,going about with boat carrying a jib4 #g--,making a long and short leg4 #h--;,how a wind acts on a boat close hauled4 #i--;,jibing4 #aj--,wearing ship4 #aa--,tacking off the wind to avoid beam seas4 ,having thoroughly mastered these simple principles of why a boat sails you can safely start to learn how to handle your boat4 ,if possible1 have an experienced sailor go with you when learning2 you will find his advice worth more than all the printed directions in the world1 but even alone you'll have no trouble in learning to sail if you take plenty of time1 master one thing thoroughly before trying another and use common sense and judgment4 ,before leaving shore or the anchorage be sure that everything is in the boat and in the proper place4 ,there should be oars and oarlocks1 a bailer1 an anchor and plenty of line and all ropes should be neatly coiled where they are free to run out without becoming kinked1 caught or tangled4 ,make it a point always to keep the sheet clear and never tie it or make it fast when sailing4 ,more accidents to sailboats have resulted from a tangled or fast sheet than from any other one cause4 ,when hoisting sail the sheet should be left slack enough to allow the sail to swing freely from side to side1 but it should not be entirely free or the sail may swing out at right angles and strike some neighboring boat or obstruction1 or it may even wrap itself about the mast and cause no end of trouble4 ,it is best to commence sailing 8on the wind0 or with the wind from one side or partly over the stern1 for this is the easiest and safest kind of sailing4 ,in this position most boats sail their best and obtain their greatest speed4 ,if the wind is directly from one side the sail should be eased off until the forward edge commences to flutter1 but if the wind is over the quarter the sail must be trimmed in order to be at as nearly a right angle to the wind as possible1 as shown in the diagrams4 ,if1 when sailing with a beam or quarter wind1 you wish to turn about you should always haul in your sheet1 push the tiller to leeward--away from the wind--and bring the boat up into the wind until the sail swings to the other side1 when you may gradually ease-off the sheet until sailing as before4 ,if you attempt to turn about without doing this the sail will swing violently across from one side to the other1 or in sailors' parlance1 will jibe and while an experienced hand will jibe a boat with perfect safety an amateur is very likely to capsize or to carry away masts and rigging4 ,it may seem at first as if sailing right before the wind would be the easiest thing to accomplish1 but this is a great mistake4 ,to sail before the wind1 save in very light airs and with a small sail1 requires a great deal of care and not a little skill4 ,a great many boats have a tendency to yaw or to swing wildly from side to side when thus sailing and when this is the case the sail is very likely to jibe with serious results4 ,even if this does not happen the sail may bag out and make the boat steer hard or the boom may 8kick up0 and become almost unmanageable4 ,if allowed to swing out too far the boat may refuse to obey its helm and will swing around to the wind1 regardless of your efforts to keep it on its course1 while if kept in too closely the wind may catch it on the wrong side and jibe it suddenly4 ,in a heavy sea there is the added danger of the boom catching in a wave and 8tripping0 and either upsetting the boat or jibing as a result4 ,if your boat yaws1 if the boom kicks up badly1 or if there is much of a wind1 don't try to sail before the wind but sail partly side to it and go about every little while and thus zigzag towards your destination as shown in the sketch4 ,if1 while sailing before the wind or with a beam wind1 you should desire to alter your course and bring the sail over the opposite side1 don't turn away from the wind and jibe the sail1 but haul in the sheet1 turn into the wind and swing about in a circle until the sail is on the opposite side and you are headed in the desired direction4 ,this manner of turning about when sailing free or before the wind1 is called wearing ship and to perform the evolution neatly and in a sailor-like manner will require some practice1 for the sail must be hauled in and the helm put over at the same time and in perfect unison4 ,if the helm is put down too quickly the sail will flap and thrash and the boat may not come about1 whereas if the sail is hauled in too rapidly and the helm is not thrown over promptly the boat may be tipped dangerously4 ,sometimes1 however1 it becomes necessary to jibe1 while at other times a sudden shift of wind or some other cause may make a boat jibe despite every effort to prevent it4 ,when it becomes necessary to jibe1 or if it is seen that it cannot be avoided1 haul in the sheet just as rapidly as possible and just as soon as the boom passes the center of the boat pay out the sheet smoothly and quickly so that there will be no sudden jerk or pull as the wind swings the sail over4 ,if there is much wind blowing it is a wise plan to lower the peak of the sail before jibing and when sailing before the wind dropping the peak will often make the boat sail better4 ,in sailing before the wind it is very important to have the boat ballasted or 8trimmed0 correctly4 ,if there is too much weight near the bow the boat will invariably yaw and may bury her nose and swamp herself4 ,on the other hand1 if there is too much weight near the stern she may steer badly1 but this is never as bad nor as dangerous as having her down by the head4 ,if the boom has a tendency to jibe1 to swing badly or to kick up1 it often helps a great deal to bring down the side over which the boom swings1 by placing passengers1 cargo or ballast on that side4 ,if you are using a centerboard boat the board should be hauled up when before the wind and many boats will sail better with a beam or quarter wind when the board is half up1 but the only way to determine when the board should be partly up1 fully up1 or down is to experiment4 ,some boats come about more quickly with the board up2 others refuse to come round unless it is down1 and some sail better with the board down1 even when dead before the wind4 ,when tacking or sailing on the wind the board should always be down1 however4 ,as a rule a boat should be trimmed so that the stern is a little deeper than the bow and while the effect of a badly trimmed boat is more evident when sailing before the wind1 yet in sailing on the wind a little fault in the proper distribution of weight may make a vast difference in the behavior of the boat4 ,when you have become thoroughly accustomed to handling your boat on the wind you may try tacking or sailing to windward or against the wind4 ,as ,i have already explained no boat will sail directly against the wind1 but by sailing as close to it as possible in one direction1 then turning and sailing as close as you can in the opposite direction and repeating the operation at intervals progress may be made directly towards the wind4 ,this is known as 8tacking0 or 8beating0 and while it requires considerable skill and practice to beat to windward to the best advantage yet it is not difficult to learn to tack and one can only become proficient by practice and by becoming thoroughly familiar with the boat4 ,some boats will sail far closer to the wind than others and every boat has a certain point at which she will sail to windward to the best advantage4 ,the nearer the boat is headed into the wind the closer or 8flatter0 the sail must be 8trimmed0 or hauled in and there is always a point at which the vessel loses headway and falls off the wind4 ,for this reason it is a waste of time to try to sail too close to the wind and the objective point will be reached far quicker by heading off more and obtaining greater speed and making frequent tacks1 than by attempting to head nearer the direction you desire to go and then losing almost as much as you gain by the boat's sliding to leeward4 ,the idea is to keep your boat pointed as near the wind as she will sail well and the sails should be trimmed in until quite flat each time you tack4 ,then1 as the boat swings over on the other tack1 the sail should be eased off a bit to obtain headway and the boat should be again headed towards the wind until the edge of the sail begins to flutter and wrinkle4 ,this shows you are sailing as close to the wind as advisable and to sailors it is known as sailing full and by4 ,every few moments the boat may be brought a trifle closer to the wind and then eased off so that the sail is always filled and yet the edge1 by its fluttering1 shows the helmsman that the sheet is trimmed properly4 ,some boats have a remarkable power of 8eating into0 the wind in this way and although headed quite a bit off the wind will progress almost directly into the wind's eye4 ,if the wind is quite stiff a great deal may also be gained by luffing up from time to time1 or in other words bringing the boat directly into the wind1 allowing her to shoot ahead for a short distance and before she loses headway bringing her off until she catches the wind again4 ,a great deal of the skill in tacking depends upon one's ability to judge just when to come about on the other tack4 ,very few boats will sail equally well on both tacks and as soon as you find on which tack your boat sails best you can make your longest tacks or 8lays0 on that tack and make shorter tacks when sailing with the wind on the other bow4 ,to make too many short tacks is a mistake for each time you go about you lose a trifle of what you have gained1 but to make tacks which are too long is also a mistake1 for you travel a great deal further than is necessary in this way4 ,as a rule a long and a short leg is the best method to follow4 ,this consists of making long tacks1 or lays1 close to the wind and then going about and making shorter and quicker reaches in the other direction a little farther off the wind4 ,all of these maneuvers are illustrated in the diagrams and by studying these you will readily see just how the boat may be sailed directly to windward4 ,when ready to go about on a new tack the boat should always be eased off a little1 the sails loosened lightly and as soon as the speed increases the rudder should be thrown hard over1 the tiller being pushed away from the wind4 ,as the boat wheels about the sheet should be hauled in briskly until it begins to fill on the opposite side4 ,then ease it off gradually until good headway is made and trim in and head up to the wind as before4 ,when tacking with other persons in the boat you should always signal before going about or tacking by crying1 8,ready about0 and as the boat is brought into the wind1 call1 8,hard-a-lee0 and at these words your passengers should duck their heads as the boom swings over or should shift their seats to the other side of the boat if she heels over very much4 ,some boats have a tendency to remain hanging in the wind when brought about or else come into the wind and fall off on the same tack again4 ,this is known as missing stays and when it occurs you should swing the boat's head around by an oar over the stern or hold the boom or sail far over to windward until the bow swings around4 ,if the boat has a centerboard she may often be brought about quickly by raising the board as you swing her into the wind and then dropping it again as the sail fills away on the other tack4 ,if the boat carries a jib she will seldom miss stays if the jib is hauled flat as you go about and is kept sheeted to windward until the other sails fill away on the other tack4 ,then the windward sheet of the jib should be eased off and the leeward sheet should be trimmed in as shown in the illustration4 ,usually a well built boat1 if properly trimmed and rigged1 will seldom miss stays except in heavy seas or in a very light wind or a strong current and often a boat under reefed sails will come about more easily and will sail to windward far better than under full canvas4 ,remember that a boat's sheets can be trimmed flatter in light winds and smooth waters than in rough seas and strong winds and that even a comparatively small sea will cause the sail to swing and spill the wind and thus lose headway4 ,don't forget that when a boat1 sailing close-hauled is to be turned so as to sail off the wind the sheets must be eased off as she swings about and in the same way a boat sailing free must have her sheets hauled in as you bring her up into the wind4 ,the foregoing directions apply to boats with one sail only and it is best to learn to sail with such a craft and then you will find it much easier to learn to handle a boat with headsails or jibs4 ,many small boats have the jib sheet attached to a sliding block or ring which can move from side to side on a traveler and when thus arranged the jib requires little or no attention when tacking4 ,as a rule1 however1 the jib has two sheets1 one on either side1 which lead aft and in tacking these require attention4 ,as the boat is turned into the wind the lee sheet is let go1 the jib flutters and the instant the mainsail begins to fill on the other tack the jib sheet should be trimmed flat as before1 and then1 as the boat pays off on the new tack the sheets may be trimmed to obtain the best results4 ,one advantage of a jib is that in case the boat misses stays1 or fails to come about readily1 her head may be brought around by keeping the lee jib sheet trimmed until the boat swings around and if the main boom is held far towards the lee side at the same time the boat will be almost certain to pay off4 ,if for any reason she refuses and commences to move backwards don't forget that the tiller must be turned in the same direction as that in which you wish the head of the boat to go1 or in other words1 in exactly the opposite direction to that in which you would turn it if moving ahead4 ,if a boat misses stays in heavy wind or squalls1 ease off the main sheet1 lower the peak a little and trim the jib to the windward4 ,then if the boat does not gather headway but heels1 lower the mainsail at once4 ,when sailing on the wind with a jib and mainsail1 trim the lee jib sheet to get the full benefit of the sail and if running before the wind either lower the jib or 8wing it out0 on the opposite side to the mainsail by means of a light sprit1 a boat-hook or an oar1 so it will catch the wind4 ,when you are thoroughly familiar with sailing before the wind1 on the wind and against the wind in light breezes and smooth water1 you should practice coming to a mooring or a landing4 ,the ability to make a good landing marks a good sailor and nothing looks worse or bespeaks poorer seamanship than to make a clumsy landing4 ,never attempt to make a landing or a mooring until you have learned just how far your boat will luff or 8shoot0 ahead when brought into the wind4 ,by trying a number of times you can soon determine this and a mighty good plan is to practice luffing up to a stake or a float in the water4 ,when approaching a mooring or landing try to approach it from the leeward side2 sail as nearly into the wind as possible and when you are near enough so that you think the boat will shoot to the mooring by her own momentum1 bring her right into the wind's eye and ease off the sheet so that the sail flutters and then steer the boat as close to the mooring as you can4 ,never attempt to shoot the boat to the windward side of a mooring or landing if it can be avoided1 but come up with the mooring or landing on your windward side4 ,if conditions are such that you cannot approach the mooring or landing from the lee side and you are compelled to run for it before the wind or with a beam wind1 there are two methods which may be followed4 ,one is to lower sail and let the boat run to the mooring under bare poles and the other is to ease off the sheet until the sail offers no surface to the wind4 ,when coming before the wind the former method is the only right one and in order not to approach too rapidly it is a good plan to drop most of the sail long before the landing is reached and leave just the upper portion raised so as to catch the wind and carry the boat along very slowly4 ,then1 when close to the mooring1 drop this and drift slowly to the spot where you are to make fast4 ,if you are using a boat with a jib that sail should be lowered as you approach your moorings and you should come to the place under mainsail alone1 as a jib as always in the way when going forward to make fast1 and1 moreover1 it will frequently catch a puff of wind and force the head of the boat off at just the wrong instant4 ,if you are coming up to a dock or wharf don't run to it head-on if it can be avoided1 but run slanting towards it or alongside1 for in that case if your boat has too much headway it will merely strike the dock a glancing blow and do little1 if any1 damage1 whereas the same blow head-on might start a plank or timber or cause other serious damage4 ,these remarks apply to fairly good sized sailboats and if you are sailing in a very small open boat it is often easier to take in sail and row to a mooring than to sail to it4 ,when getting away from a mooring or dock some skill and practice are required1 especially if in waters where there are numerous other boats4 ,if you are on the lee side of a dock it is very easy to hoist sail1 trim the sheets flat1 shove off the bow and start away2 but if on the windward side and you hoist sail the wind will force your craft against the dock and make getting under way very difficult4 ,at such times the best plan is to row or pole your boat out from the dock before hoisting sail and then get under way in open water4 ,if at a mooring or an anchorage the boat's head may be swung off the wind by hauling in the anchor from the lee side or by holding the sail far over to windward1 but in every case you should look about1 decide on your course and make a mental note of the position of neighboring craft before getting away from your moorings4 ,when coming to an anchorage have the anchor ready to drop and the anchor line coiled so it will run out readily4 ,when you reach the spot selected1 luff up1 allow the boat to lose her headway and then drop your anchor by casting it ahead of the boat4 ,if you cast your anchor out while the boat is still moving ahead your boat will overrun it and it may not get a good hold on the bottom1 to say nothing of the danger of getting the line entangled with the flukes4 ,if coming to an anchorage before the wind1 drop the sails1 and wait until the boat loses headway and if on the wind either lower sails or let the sheet flow4 ,never1 under any circumstances1 allow the sheet to run out entirely for there is never any necessity of allowing the sail to swing out beyond right angles to the boat4 ,if it swings farther it becomes a source of danger4 ,never walk along the lee side of the boat when the sheet is loose and the sail is swinging1 but move on the windward side and avoid any danger of being knocked overboard by the swinging boom and flapping sail4 ,when you have learned to sail in all directions in smooth weather and have learned how to get under way and how to come to moorings you should put in some time learning how to reef quickly4 ,reefing consists in shortening sail by tying a portion of it to the mast or spar and small ropes known as reef points are sewed into the sail for this purpose4 ,some boats have sails with only one set of reef points2 others have two1 and others have three or more1 but when a sail is reefed the reefs should be taken one at a time beginning with the one nearest the mast or spar4 ,at the end of the row of reef points near the free edge of the sail there is a hole or eyelet known as a cringle and as this is on the leech of the sail it is called the leech cringle4 ,a similar cringle is on the opposite edge or luff of the sail4 ,this applies to boom-and-gaff1 lug or other sails with a boom or spar at the lower edge4 ,through these cringles lines known as earrings are passed and these may be left in the cringles permanently or they may be taken out when not in use1 as you prefer4 ,illustration3 ,,reefing ,a ,,sail ,a--,sail before reefing4 ,b--,sail after reefing4 ,to reef the sail bring the boat into the wind1 trim the sheet in until the boom cannot swing beyond the sides of the boat1 lower the sail about halfway and then lash the first luff cringle to the boom with the earring1 tying it in a reefing knot which can be readily cast off4 ,then pass the luff earring through its cringle1 pass it through the hole in the boom made for that purpose and haul the sail out as taut as possible and make the earring fast4 ,then beginning at the luff cringle1 roll the sail neatly to the first reef points and tie each reef point in turn around the bottom of the sail where it is fastened to the boom or1 if there is no space to pass the points between sail and boom1 tie them around the boom1 being very careful to use square or reef knots when doing so4 ,when all the points are tied hoist away the sail and you are ready to proceed4 ,if a second reef is required repeat the operation with the second row of points and cringles4 ,then1 when the wind lulls1 one reef after another can be shaken out by untying the reef points1 casting off the leech earring and then casting off the luff earring and hoisting the sail until taut4 ,don't wait too long before reefing4 ,if the boat heels badly on the wind1 if it labors1 if it takes a hard helm or if the wind is puffy1 squally or strong1 reef at once4 ,it's far easier to shake out your reefs if the wind falls than it is to take in a reef when the wind is blowing hard and a heavy sea is running4 ,finally1 when you come to your moorings1 to your landing-place or to an anchorage1 never leave your boat with the sails loose1 slovenly and unfurled4 ,in the first place it looks badly and stamps you as a poor sailor2 in the second place it soon ruins the sail and finally1 if a hard wind comes up1 the sail is liable to become loose1 to catch the wind and either tear the sail to pieces or capsize the boat4 ,make it an invariable rule to do things in a regular routine every time you come to a mooring or leave it4 ,as soon as you are fast to your mooring lower the sails1 trim the boom amidships1 roll the sail neatly and tie it to the boom by short pieces of line or by one long rope wrapped around and around it4 ,don't commence furling the sail at the outer end of the boom1 but place the first line or 8stop0 close to the mast and keep pulling out the excess slack as you work outwards along the boom and you will soon find it a very simple1 easy thing to furl your sails very neatly4 ,when all is snugly furled1 hoist away until the sail is lifted slightly and either place a crotch under it1 lower it and draw the sheet taut1 or else fasten a rope from the boom to both sides of the boat so the sail cannot swing as the boat sways and rolls to the waves4 ,it is a good plan to have a sail cover of waterproof cloth or heavy canvas with which to cover the furled sail and by using this your sails will always be protected from rain and mildew and will remain strong1 white and in good shape4 ,finally1 see that everything about the boat is in its place1 that all lines and ropes are neatly coiled and that nothing is left to swing1 rattle or work loose2 that the centerboard1 if the boat has one1 is pulled up in its case and secured2 that the tiller is lashed amidships1 or is slipped out of the rudder head and that everything is snug and shipshape4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,boats ,every boat1 no matter how small1 requires a certain amount of care and attention and this is a matter which is all too often neglected4 ,the larger the boat the more care it will require1 while boats in salt water need far more attention than those in fresh water4 ,if a boat is pulled up on shore1 or is placed in a boathouse when not in use1 it will require less care than a craft kept in the water at an anchorage or moorings1 but even when thus hauled out there are a certain number of things which must be attended to4 ,boats in the water are subject to the action of the water1 the depredations of marine animals1 the growth of marine plants and to the dangers from storms4 ,unless these are guarded against and overcome a boat will soon be worthless4 ,in fresh water the effect of the water upon wood and metal is far less injurious than in salt water and the troubles from animal life and water plants are almost negligible4 ,when in salt water these things are among the most important matters to be guarded against and constant care and watchfulness are necessary if a boat is to be kept in good condition4 ,salt water corrodes and rusts iron very rapidly and hence boats with plain iron fastenings and fittings should be avoided for salt water use4 ,copper or brass fastenings and brass or bronze fittings are far better1 but these are expensive4 ,galvanized iron is therefore adopted very generally for salt water use on boats4 ,even when a boat is well painted and the iron parts are thus protected1 the salt water will corrode and destroy the iron work and just as soon as the paint becomes old1 thin1 worn or chipped off1 the parts go to pieces very rapidly4 ,for this reason boats should always be kept well painted and varnished at all times1 and whenever a bit of paint is rubbed or knocked off1 it should immediately be touched up with fresh paint4 ,in salt water1 too1 marine animals and seaweeds attach themselves to every submerged portion of a boat's hull and grow very rapidly4 ,not only do these growths hinder a boat from sailing well and rapidly1 but they also destroy the paint and injure the wood beneath it4 ,this paves the way for the water to soak into the planks and timbers and rot them and corrode the metal fastenings which hold the various parts of the boat together4 ,still more injurious are the shipworms or teredos4 ,these are marine animals which are not really worms at all1 but are a species of mollusc related to the common clam4 ,they do not eat the wood1 as many people think1 but merely bore into it to form their homes or burrows1 and wherever they go they line their holes with a thin coating of lime or shell4 ,the shipworms are very small when they first enter the wood and as they increase in size they bore larger and larger holes until they riddle the wood with burrows and completely destroy it4 ,no signs1 however1 save a few tiny holes1 may be visible externally4 ,so rapidly do they work if unchecked that large ships have been sunk by them in less than a year and there are several records of such catastrophes occurring4 ,teredos seldom attack wood which is far below the surface but work mostly at or near the water line4 ,for that reason small boats of shallow draft are often more seriously and rapidly injured by these pests than larger and deeper boats4 ,moreover the shipworms seek spots which are out of sight for their depredations and unless the boat-owner is very careful he may overlook very serious injuries by the teredos without dreaming that they exist4 ,the cracks between keels and sternposts1 between keels and garboard planks and the interior or centerboard trunks and cases are favorite spots for teredos to bore and quite often the timbers in such situations are completely destroyed and the boat is rendered worthless before one realizes that teredos have attacked the boat at all4 ,but even without marine growths and teredos the planks and timbers of a boat may become rotten and useless through the action of the water4 ,this is particularly the case where a boat rests upon a muddy bottom at low tide1 for the mud contains gases and chemicals which destroy the paint and this allows the water to penetrate and rot the wood4 ,to guard against these three principal dangers every boat should be hauled out at frequent intervals1 the bottom should be scrubbed1 scraped and cleaned1 and should then be allowed to dry thoroughly1 after which it should be freshly painted with some reliable and good anti-fouling bottom paint such as the various copper paints4 ,large boats are usually sheathed or covered with copper plates below the water line in order to protect the wood1 but small boats depend upon a coating of copper paint4 ,whenever a boat is hauled out to be scraped and painted it should be examined carefully for rot or worms and the various planks1 the keel1 stem1 sternpost1 centerboard1 centerboard trunk and case and in fact1 all the woodwork below water should be tested for teredos or rot by probing with the tip of a knife blade4 ,if the wood is sound the blade will not penetrate readily1 whereas if the wood has been injured by worms or is rotten the blade will enter very easily4 ,when this occurs a thorough investigation should be made to determine the extent of the damage4 ,if the spot is small it may be dug out by a chisel or gouge and the cavity may be filled with white lead or marine glue and painted over1 whereas if there is a large area damaged a new plank or a new piece of timber must be fitted4 ,in any case every hole1 crack or crevice should be carefully plugged with white lead or marine glue before painting1 for if this is not done rot and worms will be almost certain to find the unprotected spots and will commence to destroy the wood4 ,if there is a stream or body of fresh water near at hand a great deal of time and trouble may be avoided by running your boat into fresh water and allowing her to remain there for a day or two at a time4 ,marine growths and teredos cannot live in fresh water and any which have become attached to the boat will die and drop off when the craft is left for a short time in fresh water4 ,to be efficacious the water must be really fresh and not brackish1 for many marine plants and animals will live and thrive in brackish water4 ,when boats are first placed in the water they are dry and often leak badly1 but as the wood swells with the action of the water the seams tighten up and often a boat which leaks like a sieve when first launched will be perfectly tight after a few days' immersion4 ,for this reason you should not be discouraged if your boat leaks when you first put her in the water1 but if she still leaks after two or three days you may be sure there is something wrong which should be attended to at once4 ,by bailing out the water and wiping the inside dry with a sponge you can usually find the leak1 and if it is small it may be stopped by pushing caulking cotton into the seam or crack with a thin knife blade or a putty knife4 ,very often a small leak may be caused by a nail hole and this may be stopped completely by driving in a tiny wooden plug4 ,if there is difficulty in locating the leak from inside the boat1 if the leak is large or if there are several1 the boat should be hauled out on shore and partly filled with water4 ,then1 by watching the outside of the hull1 you can easily find where the water runs out4 ,the spots should then be marked1 the water drawn out by means of the boat plug 7a wooden plug driven into a hole through the planks near the keel71 and the seams where the leaks occur should be cleaned free of all putty1 paint and old caulking and should be recaulked4 ,it is an easy matter to caulk a seam if a little care is used1 the only implements and tools required being a small caulking iron1 some caulking cotton and a hammer4 ,unravel a strand of the cotton1 roll it between your palms until it forms a strand a trifle larger than the width of the crack to be caulked and then press the end into the seam with a corner of the caulking iron or a knife blade4 ,catch the strand of cotton lightly into the seam in this way all along the seam and then with the caulking iron and hammer drive the cotton well into the opening4 ,it is impossible to describe just how to use the iron1 but it is a knack soon acquired and is accomplished by a sort of rocking motion with the iron as the tool is struck lightly with the hammer4 ,drive the cotton well below the surface of the wood but don't try to force in too much and don't drive it in so hard that it spreads or starts the plank4 ,when the seams are well filled with cotton press white lead or marine glue over the caulking and paint thoroughly4 ,never use putty on a boat1 especially below the water line1 for it will crumble and fall out very soon and is no better than nothing at all4 ,use pure1 thick white lead and linseed oil or the best marine glue4 ,the white lead may be pressed in with a putty knife but marine glue must be run in by means of a hot iron2 full directions accompany the glue when purchased4 ,illustration3 ,,caulking ,,tools #a--;,caulking mallet4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e--;,caulking irons4 #f--;,caulking hammer4 ,before launching your boat in the spring all the seams should be cleaned free of old paint and lead1 and if any of the old caulking is loose or hanging out it should be removed and replaced with new and all seams1 rough spots and nail head holes should then be filled with white lead or marine glue before painting4 ,don't drive the caulking too tightly into the seams when the boat is dry and don't fill the seams flush with the glue or lead4 ,leave a little hollow along every seam as otherwise1 when the boat swells in the water1 the caulking and filling will be forced out and will either flake off or will present rough1 irregular surfaces to the water and will thus take a great deal from the speed of the boat4 ,it is a good plan to pour a quantity of water into the boat a few days before launching as this will swell the planks and if any leaks exist you can find them before placing the boat overboard4 ,before painting any part of the boat1 all the old1 loose1 dry or rough paint should be scraped and sandpapered smooth and if it is in very bad shape it should be burned off by a torch1 or removed by some good paint- and varnish-remover until the smooth surface of the wood is exposed4 ,use only the very best paint and varnish for the boat1 for cheap1 poor paints and varnishes are worse than nothing on a boat1 and the very best is the cheapest in the end4 ,use very little turpentine and still less dryer in the paint1 for while paint mixed with oil alone may dry slowly1 it will last far longer than paint with a great deal of turpentine or dryer4 ,haste makes waste in everything connected with a boat4 ,aside from the care of the hull there are the masts1 sails and rigging to be looked after4 ,the masts and spars should be scraped and sandpapered1 varnished with two coats of the best spar-varnish and allowed to dry thoroughly4 ,standing rigging should be overhauled4 ,any frayed or worn parts should be renewed1 the metal parts should be cleaned free of rust or corrosion and painted and new running rigging should be rove through the blocks if the old ropes are frayed1 rotten1 worn or weak4 ,the blocks should all be looked over2 broken ones should be replaced and sheaves should be oiled and turned until they move easily on their bearings4 ,the sails should be spread out2 all torn or frayed spots mended and if reef points1 earrings or other ropes on the sails are ravelled1 frayed or worn1 they should be replaced4 ,if the sails are mildewed1 dirty or discolored1 they should be scrubbed with good soap and water and bleached in the sun4 ,finally all stays and other rigging should be tightened up4 ,the boat's equipment should also be overhauled and put in first-class shape4 ,a good time to attend to this is while the paint and varnish are drying4 ,every boat1 no matter how small1 should always have an anchor on board with enough anchor line to allow you to anchor in fairly deep water--usually from fifty to one hundred feet of line according to the size of the boat and the depth of the waters where you sail4 ,if the boat is small and a long anchor line is in the way the anchor may be attached to a comparatively short line and another line may be coiled and tied neatly and stored away where it can readily be reached if needed4 ,there are many kinds of anchors1 but the commonest form is the ordinary two-fluke pattern with a sliding 8stock40 ,when not in use the cross-piece1 or stock1 is folded along the shank and thus occupies little space and when it is to be used the stock is held in position at right angles to the shank by a metal key4 ,it is a good plan to seize the stock in position with a bit of line as well as by means of the key for the latter often works loose and allows the anchor to drag4 ,there are also several good designs of folding anchors and for very small boats grapnels may be used if desired4 ,there is no use in carrying an anchor unless it is large enough to hold the boat in a reasonable wind and sea and for small boats the anchors should weigh at least two pounds for every foot of the boat's water line length4 ,every boat over twenty-five feet in length should have at least two anchors1 and one of these should be at least one-and-one-half times as heavy as the other4 ,in addition to these real anchors there should be a sea-anchor or drogue in the boat if you ever expect to sail in any but the smoothest waters and lightest winds4 ,illustration3 ,,anchors #a--;,common anchor4 #b--;,grapnel4 #c--;,drogue or sea-anchor4 #d--,keg mooring buoy4 #e--;,iron mooring buoy4 #f--,spar mooring buoy4 #g--,mushroom anchor4 ,a drogue or sea-anchor consists of an iron ring or a strong wooden hoop from one to two feet in diameter which is often hinged or jointed so it may be folded up1 and to this a conical canvas bag is sewn4 ,if the drogue is to be used on a fairly large boat it should be strengthened by ropes1 as shown in the illustration1 and in any case the ring or hoop should be provided with a four-rope 8bridle0 as illustrated 7,a74 ,to the small end a light line 7,b7 should be fastened to 8trip0 the drogue when you wish to draw it in1 and a cork float 7,c7 is attached at the end of a line three or four feet in length 7,d7 to prevent the sea-anchor from sinking or 8diving40 ,some people prefer a drogue with the lower or smaller end left open1 but the form shown will serve for all-around purposes as well as any4 ,the drogue is used when 8riding-out0 a gale or 8lying-to0 in a storm or heavy sea and its purpose is to hold the boat's bow to the wind and waves and also to prevent the boat from drifting too rapidly to leeward4 ,it should be attached to a stout line twenty-five to forty feet in length and passed over the bows and if there is no sea-anchor at hand a bucket1 a couple of oars lashed crosswise1 thwarts1 spare sails1 cushions1 or1 in fact1 anything which will float and will offer a considerable resistance to the water1 may be used in place of a drogue4 ,not only will a drogue hold a boat's head on to wind and sea but it will also form a 8smooth0 for the boat and will often prevent the waves from breaking over the bow4 ,when riding to a drogue a close-reefed sail1 or the upper part of the sail may be set to keep the boat steady if necessary1 but most boats will ride very well to a drogue without any sail whatever4 ,be sure that your boat has oars1 oarlocks1 a boat-hook1 a compass and a lantern on board1 for these simple things may save your life and they will come in useful scores of times4 ,if you go on long cruises or sail any distance from shore you should also have a keg of fresh water in the boat at all times1 for one never knows when an accident may happen and the boat may be kept out to sea for many hours at a time and if such an event does occur you will give heartfelt thanks for your foresight in providing drinking-water4 ,finally there is the ballast4 ,if the boat carries inside ballast it may be in the form of iron or lead bars1 cobble stones or sandbags and these should be looked over1 cleaned and put in good shape4 ,if the sandbags leak1 mend them with strong thread and give them a good coat of paint2 if stones are used wash them in fresh water and let them dry before placing in the boat1 and if iron bars are used1 chip off the rust and give them a coat of asphaltum varnish1 or some good metal paint4 ,when pulling up the boat for the winter or placing her 8out of commission0 always drain all the water out of the hull4 ,all weeds1 shells and marine growths should be removed from the bottom and the planks should be scrubbed off and the keel blocked up so that it rests on a firm support at several points1 as otherwise it may bend or buckle from the boat's weight4 ,the inside ballast should be taken out and placed aside2 the running rigging should be taken down1 coiled and hung in a safe dry spot2 all the equipment should be taken from the boat and stored away and the sails should be soaked in fresh water1 dried thoroughly1 rolled up and stored in a dry loft or similar place4 ,a little care and trouble taken in such matters will save a vast amount of time1 trouble and expense when ready to put the boat in the water1 for dampness1 dirt and rust will play havoc with the woodwork1 ropes1 sails and other parts of the boat if left alone over winter1 while marine growths and old paint are far easier to remove from the bottom when wet and fresh than after they have dried and hardened during the months in which the boat is hauled out4 ,if you use a mooring this should be taken up in the fall and stored over winter1 for ice will often carry away a mooring buoy and chain which will resist the most severe storms4 ,if the stone1 anchor or other object used as a mooring is too heavy to be taken up the mooring buoy should be taken from the chain and a cheap wooden spar or pole should be substituted4 ,this will resist the action of ice and winter storms better than the keg or can buoy1 and if it is lost it doesn't amount to much and the chain can usually be picked up again by a grapnel4 ,in order that you may be able to locate your mooring1 if the buoy is sunk or carried away1 you should make a note of cross bearings 7see ,chapter ,,vii7 so that you will know the exact spot where the mooring is located4 ,there are many forms of moorings for small boats1 among them large stones1 heavy pieces of iron or metal1 such as old furnace-pots1 old car-wheels1 old railroad-rails and discarded machinery1 while large anchors1 and especially 8mushroom0 anchors1 are widely used4 ,it doesn't make the least difference what is used for a mooring as long as it is heavy enough to hold the boat securely1 but it must be borne in mind that an object under water weighs far less than when out of water and hence you should always use an object which you are sure is large and heavy enough to hold your boat in any wind or weather4 ,a mooring should weigh at least three times as much as an anchor and six or eight times as much is none too heavy4 ,from the mooring a heavy iron chain should lead to a buoy and the chain should be long enough to allow for the rise and fall of tide and yet have some slack at all times4 ,galvanized chain should be used and the buoy at its upper end should be large and buoyant enough to support the entire weight of the chain4 ,there are metal buoys1 made for the purpose2 a strong keg1 such as a beer keg1 makes a good buoy2 a spar buoy or a cork float may be used4 ,if a keg is used it should be provided with brass or galvanized hoops and should be kept well painted and spars1 metal buoys or cork floats should also be taken up1 dried and painted at frequent intervals to prevent them from becoming overgrown with marine plants1 waterlogged or destroyed by teredos4 ,the buoy is intended to support the chain and to make the location of the mooring plain4 ,you are not supposed to make your boat fast to it4 ,for fastening the boat a ring should be provided on the chain below the buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be placed on the deck or inside the boat when the mooring is in use4 ,have your mooring buoy painted in bright colors so as to be easily visible and see that it is always kept in such good shape that it floats high and plain above the water4 ,it's a very easy matter to miss a buoy in a fog1 at night1 or even with a sea running1 and the higher it floats and the more brilliant the colors1 the more readily you can 8pick it up40 ,when you come to the mooring you may catch the buoy by hand or by a boat-hook4 ,to make this easier a large loop of rope or a ring should be provided on the buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be and you use a boat-hook1 be very careful not to punch a hole in the buoy as you reach for it with the hook4 ,while getting your boat ready for the water1 while sailing her1 and1 in fact1 whenever you are handling or working about boats1 you will find it necessary to tie many knots4 ,everyone can tie some sort of a knot1 but comparatively few can tie really good knots and as they are very important and useful1 you should learn how to tie all the common1 and some of the fancy1 knots and should know how to splice4 ,there is a good portion of the year when you cannot use your boat and during this season you can employ a great deal of your time to good advantage in studying the next chapter and following the directions for making knots1 ties and splices4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vii ,,marlinspike ,,seamanship ,to sailors the ability to tie knots1 make splices and do other ropework is known as marlinspike seamanship4 ,the name 8marlinspike0 refers to a metal instrument used in making knots and splices and this tool1 or a somewhat similar but smaller implement known as a fid1 is the only article except the ropes which is required in making any knot1 tie or splice4 ,there is a vast difference between tying a knot and tying a good knot1 and while the one is an abomination1 the other is a thing to admire4 ,to be a good knot a knot must combine a number of important points4 ,it must be of such a character that it can be quickly and easily tied2 it must hold securely without danger of slipping or loosening2 it must be free from the danger of 8jamming02 it must be easy to untie or cast off1 and it must be perfectly adapted to the particular purpose for which it is used4 ,the advent of wire rigging and steamships marked the decline of marlinspike seamanship and today a great many so-called sailors are woefully ignorant of any but the simplest knots and ropework4 ,on the old square-riggers and in the days when sailing vessels were supreme upon the seas1 the sailors prided themselves upon their knowledge of knots and splices4 ,today one may now and then find an old deep-water tar who can tie every knot and make every splice ever used aboard ship1 but each year these men are becoming fewer and marlinspike seamanship1 unless kept alive by those who sail boats for pleasure1 will soon be a thing of the past4 ,before commencing to tie knots or to make splices one should learn about the various kinds of rope and the names of the rope's parts4 ,ordinary rope is known as three-stranded and is made of three pieces1 or strands1 twisted together4 ,these run from left to right in a spiral and each of these several strands is made up of smaller pieces known as yarns1 which are twisted together from right to left or left-handed4 ,other ropes are made of four strands1 while bolt-rope has a central strand around which the other strands are laid or twisted4 ,some ropes are laid up left-handed with each strand composed of yarns twisted right-handed1 but when made in this way the rope becomes a cable or a cable-laid rope4 ,the ropes ordinarily used are the three-stranded1 right-hand kinds and they may be made of cotton1 jute1 ,manilla or hemp1 the ,manilla being the best and most widely used4 ,small ropes are usually termed lines by sailors1 and one never hears a seaman speak of 8string40 ,instead he says 8twine10 8line10 8yarn10 or 8marline40 ,twine is small right-handed line4 ,spun-yarn1 or yarn1 is loosely laid1 left-handed hemp1 tarred and rubbed down4 ,marline is line made of two finely dressed hemp yarns laid left-handed and usually tarred4 ,whenever a rope is used for tying a knot or making a splice certain terms are employed to designate the various parts and as these names are used in the directions for making knots you should become familiar with them4 ,the principal portion or longest part of the rope is called the standing part2 the portion bent or curved is the bight1 and the shorter portion used in making the knot or splice is the end4 ,fig4 #a4 ,there are various types of knots1 some employed for everyday useful purposes and some for purely ornamental uses4 ,as the former are the easiest to make and are most important1 it is a wise plan to learn how to tie them before attempting to master the more difficult ornamental knots4 ,illustration3 ,,useful ,,knots ,,and ,,splices ,before commencing to work with a rope the loose strands at the ends should be whipped to prevent the rope from unraveling4 ,to whip the rope take a piece of soft1 strong twine1 lay it on the rope an inch or two from the end1 pass the twine several times around the rope1 keeping the ends of the twine under the first few turns to hold it in position1 and then make a large loop with the free end of the twine4 ,bring this back to the rope1 continue winding it for a few turns around the rope and the end of the twine and finally finish by drawing the loop snug by pulling on the free end as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,this is the true sailor fashion of whipping a rope's end1 but for mere temporary purposes when practising ropework1 twine wrapped a few times around the rope and tied will be sufficient4 ,cuckold's necks are loops or rings of rope such as are illustrated in ,fig4 #c4 ,they are very easily made by bringing the end of a rope around in a circular bight and then seizing the bight to the standing part by means of twine or yarn4 ,as soon as the two parts are thus bound together or seized the cuckold's neck becomes a clinch which is often very useful about a boat1 while the loop or cuckold's neck itself is the foundation of many useful knots4 ,of all true knots perhaps the simplest is the overhand knot 7,fig4 #d74 ,to make this knot merely pass the end of the rope over the standing part and through the bight or cuckold's neck thus formed 7,fig4 #d ,a74 ,when drawn tight the knot appears as in ,fig4 #d ,b and is often used in making splices1 grommets and fancy knots4 ,another useful and very simple knot is the figure eight which is shown commenced in ,fig4 #e ,a and completed in ,fig4 #e ,b1 but the most useful and important of all is the square knot or reef knot shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,this is the knot used to tie reef points1 to furl sails1 to fasten two lines together and for many other purposes1 and it is doubtless the best all-around knot known4 ,it has the advantages of being easy to tie and untie1 of holding fast under tremendous strain and of never becoming jammed4 ,to tie a reef knot take one end of the rope in each hand1 pass the left over and under the right and then pass the right over and under the left4 ,if you will always remember this formula1 left over1 right over1 you will never make a mistake and tie a granny 7,fig4 #g74 ,to make a granny knot stamps you as a landlubber1 for the granny is a useless1 troublesome knot which can never be depended upon and which is unfit for any purpose4 ,it will not hold a strain1 it is liable to slip and it soon becomes jammed and hard to untie4 ,if when tying a reef knot1 the bight of one end is used instead of the end itself1 a slippery reefer is made and this is far better for tying reef points than the true square knot as it may be cast off by merely pulling on the free end of the loop 7,fig4 #h74 ,when fastening a boat or any other object where it may be necessary to cast off quickly1 a lark's head is a good fastening to use 7,fig4 #i74 ,to make this knot pass the bight of a rope through the ring or other object to which you are making fast and then slip a piece of wood1 a marlinspike1 or some other object through the sides of the bight and under or behind the standing part as shown in ,fig4 #i at ,a4 ,the end of the rope is then laid over and under the standing part and back over itself4 ,this knot may be instantly unfastened by merely pulling out the bit of wood or toggle 7,a74 ,another knot1 which is easy to cast off and is very useful in many places1 is the slippery-hitch 7,fig4 #aj74 ,to make this knot run the end of the rope through the ring or eye1 then back over the standing part and pull the loop or bight back through the cuckold's neck thus formed4 ,to untie merely pull on the free end4 ,a better knot for fastening a boat or other object quickly and securely is that shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,this is made of two half-hitches and is widely used by sailors and is the easiest of all reliable and secure knots to tie4 ,it is made by passing the end of a rope around a post or other object1 then carrying the end over and around the standing part between itself and the post and then under and around the standing part between its own loop and the one first made4 ,it is easier to learn this knot by studying the diagram than by a description1 and as soon as you get the 8hang0 of it you can tie it in an instant in the darkest night4 ,it will hold forever without working loose and even on a smooth stick or spar it will stand a great strain without slipping along4 ,a better knot for fastening to such an object as a smooth stick1 where there is a longitudinal strain or to another rope1 is the clove hitch 7,fig4 #ab74 ,to make this1 pass the end of the rope around the stick or other object1 then over itself1 then over and around the spar and pass the end under itself and between the rope and spar as shown in the diagram4 ,if you have occasion to fasten a rope to a hook for hoisting anything you should use the blackwall hitch 7,fig4 #ac71 which is very secure and easily made4 ,to make this hitch form a loop or cuckold's neck with the end of the rope underneath and then pass it over the hook so that the standing part bears against the end and jams it fast4 ,still another strong knot for attaching a rope to a hook is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,this is called a catspaw and is made as follows3 ,lay the bight of the rope over the end and standing part2 then1 with a bight in each hand take three twists away from you2 then bring the two bights side by side and hook them over the hook as shown4 ,for towing a spar1 mast or a piece of timber1 or for fastening to a log1 the best knot to use is the timber hitch 7,fig4 #ae74 ,this is made by passing the end of the rope around the object1 then around the standing part and then twisting it three times under and over its own part4 ,if you wish to have this still more secure1 a half-hitch may be taken with the line a foot or two farther along the spar 7,fig4 #ae ,a74 ,it often happens that one needs to fasten two very heavy or stiff ropes or hawsers together and this may be impossible with any ordinary knots4 ,in such cases there is nothing better than the carrick bend 7,fig4 #af74 ,to make this bend1 form a bight by laying the end of the hawser on top of and across the standing part4 ,then take the end of the other hawser and pass it through this bight1 first down and then up over the cross and then down through the bight again1 so that it comes out on the opposite side from the other end thus bringing one end on top and the other below as illustrated4 ,if the lines are very heavy or stiff the ends may be seized to the standing parts by twine or marline4 ,heavy hawsers can seldom be handled like small ropes and there are several bends or knots which are especially designed for these large ropes4 ,among them are the anchor bends shown in ,fig4 #af ,a and the fisherman's bend 7,fig4 #af ,b71 both of which are so simple that an explanation is not necessary as they can readily be mastered by looking at the diagrams4 ,but of all knots perhaps the most perfect is the bowline 7,fig4 #ag74 ,this is preminently the sailor's knot and every person who uses or owns boats should learn to tie a bowline quickly and readily for it is the strongest1 most secure and best of all useful knots and can be used for a thousand and one different purposes4 ,it is very simple and by following the various stages as illustrated you will have no difficulty in learning to tie it4 ,in ,a the rope is shown with the bight or cuckold's neck formed with the end over the standing part4 ,pass ,a back through the bight1 under1 then over1 then under again1 as shown in ,b2 then over and down through the bight1 as shown at ,c and ,d4 ,then draw tight as at ,e4 ,while for most purposes knots serve every purpose for fastening two ropes together or for attaching a rope to some other object1 yet a tied rope is never as strong as a whole rope and moreover where two ropes are thus fastened together1 the knot will not pass through blocks1 eyes or other openings which will admit the rope itself4 ,for this reason it is often necessary to join two ropes so that there is scarcely any increase in the size of the ropes4 ,this is accomplished by making what is known as a splice4 ,a splice1 if well made1 is as strong as the rest of the rope2 it will run through a block or eye readily and moreover it is not difficult to make4 ,there are various kinds of splices1 known as short splices1 eye splices1 cut splices1 long splices1 etc41 and everyone who has occasion to use ropes should be able to make any or all of these4 ,the simplest splice1 and the one you should learn first1 is the short splice 7,fig4 #ah74 ,to make this untwist or unlay the ends of the two ropes to be joined for a few inches and wrap a few turns of twine or yarn around them to prevent the strands from untwisting any farther1 as shown at ,a1 ,a4 ,the end of each strand should also be whipped or seized to prevent unravelling1 but after you are adept at splicing you can omit these seizings as you will be able to splice just as well1 but while learning you will find them quite necessary4 ,you will also find it far easier to learn how to splice if you wax or grease the strands and this applies to ropes which are used when practising simple or fancy knots also4 ,when you have the ropes ready1 place them end to end1 as shown in ,b1 ,b1 and with a marlinspike1 a pointed stick1 or some smooth1 round1 sharp tool open the strand #a ,c and through this push the strand ,a of the other rope4 ,next open strand #b and pass the next strand of the other rope through the opening and treat the third strand in the same way4 ,now open the strands of the second1 or right-hand1 rope below the seizings and push the strands of the first1 or left-hand1 rope through the apertures4 ,the two ropes will now appear as in ,d1 ,d4 ,next untwist each strand1 cut off about one-half of the yarns1 twist the strands tightly and seize with twine4 ,each of the reduced strands must now be poked under the whole strands of the opposite rope in the same manner as you passed the whole strands before cutting them down4 ,after drawing each strand tight1 pass them once more under the whole strands and finally trim them off close to the rope4 ,if a really fine1 neat splice is desired1 you may trim off a few of the yarns in each strand every time they are passed under the others1 thus gradually tapering the ends and in this way forming a splice which is scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the rope4 ,an eye splice 7,fig4 #ai71 is made in the same manner as the short splice but instead of splicing the two ends of separate ropes together the end of the rope is unlaid and then bent around in a loop and the ends are spliced into the strands of the standing part as shown in the illustration4 ,a cut splice 7,fig4 #bj71 is made in a very similar manner but instead of bending the rope around in a bight two ropes are spliced together overlapping1 or a short rope may be spliced into another rope at both its ends4 ,where a very strong splice the same diameter as the rope is required a long splice must be used 7,fig4 #ba74 ,this is the most difficult of all splices to make and it is even harder to describe than to make1 but when well spliced it will pass through a block or eye as readily as a plain rope and the splice cannot be distinguished from the rope itself4 ,to make a long splice unlay the strands of the ropes about four times as much as for a short splice1 or from four to five feet1 and unlay one strand in each rope for half as much again4 ,place the center strands together1 as at ,a1 so that the long strands appear as at ,b and ,c and the spiral groove1 left where they were unlaid1 will look like ,d1 ,e4 ,take off the two middle strands ,f1 ,g1 and lay them into the grooves ,d1 ,e1 until they meet ,b1 ,c1 and be sure to keep them tightly twisted while doing this4 ,then take the strands ,h1 ,j1 cut off half the yarns in each1 make an overhand knot in them and stick the ends in as in making a short splice4 ,do the same with strands ,b1 ,c1 and ,f1 ,g1 dividing1 knotting and sticking in the ends4 ,finally stretch the rope1 pound and roll it until smooth and trim off any loose bits and ends of yarn close to the rope4 ,while making any splice or knot where the strands are unlaid and are again laid up1 be sure to keep the strands tightly twisted by turning them from right to left4 ,then when they are laid in place they will hold their position snugly by their tendency to untwist4 ,if you examine a rope carefully you will discover that the various strands are not merely twisted together1 but that two of them are twisted and that the third is then laid into the groove between the other two4 ,in laying up a rope after making a knot or splice this should be borne in mind4 ,sometimes a ring of rope is required and this can be quickly and easily obtained by making a grommet 7,fig4 #bb74 ,to make a grommet unlay and cut a long strand from a common rope1 bend it around in a circle of the desired size1 lay one end over the other and with the long end follow the grooves or lay of the strand until it comes back to where it started1 thus forming a ring of two strands4 ,continue laying the free end into the groove between the two strands until the ring is completed with three strands all around and then finish by dividing the yarns of the two ends where they meet1 making overhand knots in them and then passing them underneath the nearest strands1 as when making a splice1 and finally trim off all loose1 projecting yarns4 ,these grommets make very good quoits and they may also be used as handles to chests and boxes1 rings for masts of small boats and for many other purposes4 ,after the common useful knots and splices have been thoroughly mastered it is well to learn how to make a few ornamental knots and ropework4 ,many of these are really useful about a boat while others add greatly to the neat1 yachty appearance of ropes1 rigging1 etc4 ,at first sight most ornamental knots appear very complicated and difficult1 but they are really no harder to tie than a bowline or a reef knot1 once you know how4 ,in tying fancy knots you will find cotton rope or very fine hemp better than ,manilla1 but after you are really skillful you will find no trouble in forming any knot in any old rope that is handy4 ,the two most important of fancy knots and those which are the foundation of many others are the crown1 7,figs4 #bc1 #bd7 and the wall1 7,figs4 #be1 #bf74 ,the ,matthew ,walker1 7,fig4 #cb7 and the ,turk's head1 7,fig4 #cc7 are also very beautiful and useful knots and by the use of these four and their various combinations an endless number of fancy knots may be devised4 ,many of these combinations of two or more knots have become so generally used that they have received specific names and are now recognized as regular knots4 ,such are the wall and crown1 double wall and crown1 etc4 ,in addition to true ornamental knots there are various other forms of fancy ropework1 such as worming1 parcelling1 serving1 sennett work1 thumming1 etc41 while four-stranded and crown-braids are used in making ornamental lanyards1 hand lines1 rope fenders1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,ornamental ,,knots ,the simplest of ornamental knots is the crown and it is well to commence with this4 ,unlay the strands of the rope for a few inches4 ,seize or whip the ends of the rope as when making a short splice4 ,now while holding the rope in your left hand1 fold one strand over and away from you as in ,a1 ,fig4 #bc2 then fold ,b over ,a and while holding these in place with your thumb and finger pass ,c over ,b and through the bight of ,a1 as shown in the cut4 ,now pull the ends tight and work the bights up snugly and your knot will be the single crown1 but as this is a poor knot to stay tied and is not very ornamental1 it should be finished by tucking the free ends under and over the strands of the rope as shown in ,fig4 #bd1 meanwhile tapering them down as described in the directions for making an eye splice4 ,this results in a very neat and ship shape finish for a rope's end and as it will never work loose like a seizing and can be tied in a very few moments1 it can be recommended as the handiest and best of all methods for finishing the ends of ropes to prevent unravelling4 ,as simple as the crown and far more attractive1 is the wall knot1 ,figs4 #be1 #bf4 ,in making this knot unlay and whip the rope as for the crown and make a bight in the strand ,c by bringing the end down and across the standing part4 ,then bring strand ,a over ,c and around the standing part1 and finally bring ,b over ,a and up through the bight of ,c4 ,draw all the ends tight and snug and the single wall will be finished4 ,as in the case with the crown knot1 this is mainly of value as a basis for other knots1 or for ending rope by tucking in the ends as shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,by 8doubling0 the wall or crown1 the knots are made far more ornamental4 ,this is done by following the lay of the single knot1 or in other words1 after the single wall or crown is made the strands are carried around side by side of themselves4 ,to make a double wall knot make the single knot and then1 before drawing it tight1 bring the strand ,a up through its own bight beside the end of ,c4 ,then bring ,b up through its own bight beside ,a and carry ,c up through its own bight beside ,b4 ,when drawn tight it will be very neat4 ,the ends may be trimmed off or tucked through the strands of the standing part as preferred4 7,fig4 #bf47 ,a still more ornamental knot may be formed by crowning a wall knot4 ,this is done by first making a plain wall knot and then bringing ,a up over the top1 laying ,b across ,a and bringing ,c over ,b and through the bight of ,a1 or in other words1 tying a crown knot on top of a wall knot1 7,fig4 #bg74 ,this is the foundation for one of the most beautiful of rope-end knots which is known as the double wall and crown or manrope knot4 7,fig4 #bh47 ,to make this1 tie the single wall1 crown it and leave the strands slack4 ,then pass the ends under and up through the bights of the single wall knot and then push the ends alongside of the strands which form the single crown knot1 passing them through the bights in the crown and down through the walling4 ,if you have learned the single wall and single crown1 you will find this very simple1 for it consists in merely following the lay of the strands of the single wall and crown4 ,when well done and worked up tight and snug with the ends trimmed off closely it makes a highly ornamental knot1 7,fig4 #bh71 and if the ends are tucked into the standing part1 as directed for tying the single crown1 there should be no sign of a beginning or ending to this knot1 the finished result appearing like an ornamental knob of rope4 ,this is a useful as well as an ornamental knot and is handy in many places on a boat4 ,it is often used in finishing the ends of rope railings1 the ends of manropes 7hence its name7 for the ends of yoke lines for steering small boats1 to form stoppers or toggles to bucket-handles1 slings1 etc41 and in fact1 wherever a large ornamental end to a rope is required or where a knot is desired to prevent a rope from slipping through any aperture4 ,its use for such purposes is shown in ,figs4 #bi1 #cj and #ca which represent topsail halyard toggles1 formed by turning an eye splice in a short length of rope with a double wall and crown at the end4 ,such toggles are useful for many purposes other than for topsail halyards4 ,they may be used as stops for furling sails1 for slings around gaffs or booms1 for attaching blocks when hoisting and in many other places which will suggest themselves to the user of a small boat4 ,another very beautiful end knot1 and the most difficult of all to make is the ,matthew ,walker or stopper knot 7,fig4 #cb74 ,to tie this knot pass one strand around the standing part and through its own bight1 then pass ,b underneath and through the bight of ,a and through its own bight as well4 ,then pass ,c underneath1 around and through the bights of ,a1 ,b and its own bight4 ,the knot will not appear as at ,fig4 #cb ,a1 but by carefully hauling the ends around and working the bights up tight--a little at a time1 the knot will assume the shape shown in ,fig4 #cb ,b4 ,this is a splendid knot for the ends of ropes to prevent them from slipping through holes1 as it is hard1 close and presents an almost flat shoulder on its lower side4 ,it is because of its adaption to such purposes that the name 8stopper knot0 has been given to it4 ,all of the preceding are end knots1 but a knot of a very different sort1 which is widely used for ornamenting ropes1 is the ,turk's head 7,fig4 #cc74 ,turk's heads are used in decorating lower standing rigging1 for rings or shoulders on shrouds or ropes1 to secure other rigging in position1 to ornament yoke lines1 for forming sliding collars on knife lanyards and for collars around stanchions1 spars1 oars1 etc41 and when placed around a rope close beneath a manrope or ,matthew ,walker knot it gives a very beautiful and elaborate finish to a rope4 ,although so handsome and apparently intricate1 the ,turk's head is a very simple and easy knot to make and while you may have some difficulty in mastering it at the first a little practice and perseverance will enable you to become proficient and you will be able to tie this beautiful knot at any time and in any position4 ,to learn to make this knot obtain a smooth1 round stick and some closely twisted1 or braided1 small line4 ,pass two turns with the line around the rod1 as at ,a1 ,fig4 #cc1 pass the upper bight down through the lower bight and reeve the upper end down through it1 as at ,b1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,then pass the bight up again and pass the end over the lower bight and up between it and the upper bight4 ,dip the upper bight again through the lower bight and pass the end over what is now the upper bight and between it and the lower one1 as at ,c1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,continue to work around in this manner to the right until the other end is met when the other part should be followed around until a plait of two or more lays is complete as shown in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,,ropework ,the various bights should then be drawn snugly until there is no slack and the completed knot fits tightly about the rod4 ,a variation of this knot may be formed by making the first part as directed and then by slipping the knot to the end of the rod work one side tighter than the other until the plaits form a complete cap 7,fig4 #cc ,d74 ,this makes a fine finish for the ends of stanchions1 poles1 flagstaffs1 etc41 and it may be kept in position by a few tacks or small nails driven through the inner strands into the woodwork4 ,ropes that are to be used as handlines1 stanchions1 manropes1 lifelines1 shrouds or1 in fact1 for any purpose where appearances count1 are usually wormed1 served and parcelled4 ,worming consists of twisting a small line or filler into the grooves and making the rope smooth and ready for parcelling or serving4 ,parcelling is done by wrapping the wormed line with a narrow strip of canvas 7,fig4 #cd ,b71 and finally the whole is served by being wrapped tightly with marline or spun yarn 7,fig4 #cd ,c74 ,although all this may be done by hand the serving is usually accomplished by means of a tool known as a serving mallet 7,fig4 #cd ,d74 ,this instrument enables one to work much more evenly and tightly than is possible by hand serving1 but whether a mallet is used or you depend upon hand serving1 the rope to be treated must be stretched tightly between two uprights or the result will never be satisfactory4 ,sometimes a rope is served without either worming or parcelling and for ordinary purposes the parcelling is not necessary2 although the results obtained by performing all these operations are very much more satisfactory4 ,a variation in serving is made by means of half-hitch work as shown in ,fig4 #ce4 ,this is very ornamental when well done and is very simple and easy to accomplish4 ,to make this covering1 take a half-hitch with the small line about the rope1 then another below it1 draw snug1 take another half-hitch and continue in this way until the rope or other object1 is covered and the half-hitches form a spiral row of knots running around the covered object4 ,bottles1 jugs1 ropes1 stanchions1 fenders and many other articles may be covered with this half-hitch work and as you become expert you will be able to cover objects with several alternating rows of half-hitches4 ,four-strand braiding is also highly ornamental and is very simple4 ,to do this 7,fig4 #cf71 merely cross the opposite strands of small lines as illustrated in ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #cf ,b1 first crossing ,a to the left of ,b1 then crossing ,c and ,d above ,a and ,b and continue in this way until the braid is the desired length4 ,still more decorative is a crown braid1 which is made by forming one crown knot over another4 ,a wall braid may be made by forming a series of single wall knots in the same way and either the crown or wall braiding may be done with any number of strands or lines desired2 the more strands used the finer and more ornamental will be the braid produced4 ,sometimes the monkey chain1 ,fig4 #ch1 is used for ornamental work1 but it is more useful as a means of shortening rope in such a manner that it may be quickly lengthened out for use4 ,to make the monkey chain draw a loop of the rope through its own bight as at ,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #ch2 draw another loop through this 7,c1 ,fig4 #ch71 another through this 7,d1 ,fig4 #ch71 and continue in this way until the rope is shortened as much as desired1 when the end may then be passed through the last bight as shown at ,e1 ,fig4 #ch4 ,if left in this way the chain will never come loose and yet the rope may be lengthened instantly by slipping out the end and pulling upon it whereupon the entire chain will ravel4 ,once having mastered these various knots and splices you will find little difficulty in selecting and tying the best knot for any purpose which may arise1 but no description of knots would be complete without a few hints on slinging barrels1 casks or other objects4 ,three of the best and simplest slings are shown in ,figs4 #ci1 #dj and #da4 ,the first1 ,fig4 #ci1 shows a handy and useful sling for bags or bales and consists of a strap or length of rope with the two ends spliced together and slipnoosed around the object as shown4 ,a large grommet also makes a good sling of this type4 ,fig4 #dj shows how to sling a cask or barrel in an upright position when it contains water or other contents1 while in ,fig4 #da1 a sling for hoisting barrels1 boxes or other articles is illustrated4 ,in this case the rope may be used with an eye splice at one end as shown1 or it may be merely tied with a bowline or other good knot4 ,sometimes a sling is used which has an eye splice at each end and if you have one or two slings readymade with finished ends1 or with eye splices turned in them1 you will find they are very useful and will save a lot of time and trouble1 for they can be used for many purposes other than as slings4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,viii ,,simple ,,navigation ,among the first things that the amateur sailor should learn are the rules of the road at sea1 for there are just as strict and definite rules for boats traversing maritime highways as are in force for vehicles using highways on the land4 ,but whereas traffic rules ashore vary in different countries1 and even in the various states and cities1 the rules of the road on the water are alike throughout all the world1 and if you learn the rules in force in ,american waters1 the knowledge will serve just as well in the waters of any other country4 ,the first and principal rule is to turn to the right when meeting another boat4 ,at times this may be impossible and hence signals and rules have been arranged which provide for turning to the left when necessary1 but sailing boats always have the right of way over steamers and power boats4 ,it does not follow1 because this is the case1 however1 that a man in a small sailboat should compel a larger vessel to give way to him and endanger the other ship for it may be impossible for the larger craft to turn out1 owing to the narrow channel or some similar reason1 and hence you should know what the various lights and signals mean and should be prepared for any unusual condition which may arise4 ,in order that sailors may know in which direction a vessel is proceeding at night1 as well as the character of the vessel1 all vessels carry what are known as side lights1 the one on the right or starboard side being green1 while that on the port or left side is red4 ,if you remember that the port light is red like port wine1 you will never become confused as to which color is port and which starboard4 ,these lights are only used when vessels are sailing or under way and when at anchor or at moorings1 a white light or riding-light is placed in the rigging4 ,steamers and power boats carry a white light near the stern and another white light forward4 ,the rear white light is visible from all directions and is high up1 while the forward white light is visible only from one side around a half-circle to the other side of the bow1 while the side lights can only be seen from ahead or from either side4 ,by these lights you can always determine the direction in which a vessel is moving and can thus keep clear4 ,if she is approaching bow-on1 you will see both the side lights and you can be sure she is a power boat or steamer if you see the two white lights4 ,if the two white lights are not in exact line1 you will know that she is turning and the direction she is heading is easily determined1 for if the low bow light is to the right of the high stern light she is turning to your right1 while if it appears at the left of the higher stern light she is heading to your left4 ,if only one side light is seen you may be sure the vessel is moving at right angles1 or at nearly right angles to your course1 and if she is a power-propelled vessel you can easily tell the angle at which she is moving by the position of the white lights4 ,if a steamer or power boat is ahead of you and moving in the same direction1 you can see only the high white stern light and the instant she turns you will know it by the other lights becoming visible4 ,steamers and power boats also have signals which are given by the whistles to show which way they wish to proceed and the steamer which signals first dictates the direction4 ,one blast means the vessel is turning to her starboard or right hand and two blasts signifies she is going to her left or port1 and while such signals should be answered by other power or steam boats1 sailing craft are not supposed to reply4 ,unless there is some unusual reason for not following the ordinary rules of the road1 a steamer or power boat will never signal to a sailboat and hence1 if a steamer is approaching or overtaking you1 and whistles1 you should look about and be sure she is not signalling some other steamer for all power and steam vessels are supposed to keep clear of sailing craft4 ,naturally they expect the sailing boats' helmsmen to know the rules of the road and1 therefore1 if you think their signals are intended for you and change your course the steamer may not know why you are doing such an unexpected thing and a collision may result4 ,if you adhere strictly to the rules of the road there is no reason why you should ever have an accident through your own fault1 but if a power boat or steamer is approaching and does not show signs of giving way to your right of way you should blow a horn1 halloo1 shout or do something to attract attention and if necessary go about and get out of the way as soon as possible4 ,during thick weather1 in fogs1 mists1 snow and heavy rain1 sailing vessels signal the direction in which they are moving by means of blasts on a foghorn4 ,if they are on the starboard tack1 that is1 with the wind on the right or starboard side1 one blast is blown at intervals of about a minute1 if on the port tack1 two blasts are blown at intervals1 while if running before the wind three blasts are sounded4 ,as you can always tell the direction of the wind by your own sails1 you can easily determine the direction in which the other boats are headed by their signals and can thus avoid them4 ,always remember that a sailing vessel on the starboard tack has the right of way over a vessel on the port tack1 and that a vessel sailing close hauled or against the wind has the right of way over a vessel running free or on the wind regardless of their size1 the direction in which they are moving or anything else4 ,in order to make the primary rules of the road easier to remember they have been made into verse and some of these simple verses1 if memorized1 will prove a great help4 ,illustration3 ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,road ,,and ,,buoys #a--,meeting head-on1 turn to starboard4 #b--;,crossing1 boat to starboard has right of way4 #c--;,crossing1 boat to starboard has right of way4 #d--,passing4 #e--,meeting1 ,green to green1 hold course4 #f--,meeting at angle1 boat to starboard has right of way4 #g--,meeting at angle1 boat to starboard has right of way4 #h--;,boat on wind has right of way over boat sailing free4 #i--;,boat on starboard tack has right of way4 #aj--,red spar buoy1 pass on starboard when entering harbor1 on port when leaving harbors4 #aa--;,black spar buoy4 ,leave on port when entering and on starboard when leaving harbors4 #ab--;,horizontal red and black buoy4 ,danger1 keep clear4 #ac--,white and black striped buoy4 ,midchannel1 keep close to it4 #ad--;,anchorage buoy4 #ae--,nun buoy4 #af--;,can buoy4 #ag--;,gas buoy4 #ah--;,bell buoy4 #ai--,whistling buoy4 #bj--,perch and ball4 #ba-bb--;,beacons4 #bc--,lighthouse4 #bd--,lightship4 #be--,light beacon4 #bf--,keg beacon4 #bg--;,channel mark4 #bh--,range marks4 ,when meeting a vessel head-on you are supposed to turn to the right as the following verse shows3 ,when two lights you see ahead ,port your helm and show your red1 or in other words1 put your tiller to port and turn your boat to the right4 ,if1 on the other hand1 a vessel is passing side-to you will see but one light and the following verse tells you that ,green to green1 or red to red ,perfect safety--go ahead1 or1 in other words1 if you see a green light on your green or starboard side or a red or port light on your red or port side1 the other boat is parallel to you and your course should be kept4 ,the greatest danger is in approaching another vessel at right angles1 but in this case remember that the boat that has the other on the starboard or right-hand side must keep clear of the other1 or1 as the verse says3 ,if to your starboard red appear ',tis your duty to keep clear1 ,act as judgment says is proper1 ,port or starboard1 back or stop her4 ,but when on your port is seen ,a vessel with a light of green ,there's not much for you to do ,the green light must keep clear of you ,but more important perhaps than all is the universal rule that all boats must keep a good lookout1 and the following verse indicates this3 ,both in safety and in doubt ,always keep a good lookout ,should there not be room to turn ,shift your helm and pass astern4 ,the last line is most important4 ,never under any circumstances attempt to cross the bows of another moving vessel4 ,if you do and accident occurs it will be your own fault4 ,a boat crossing another's bows always does so at her own risk4 ,no matter how you are heading1 no matter how much of a hurry you may be in1 no matter how much trouble it may involve1 if you are approaching another boat of any kind so that your course will cross hers1 remember the last verse and shift your helm and pass astern4 ,another very important matter for all boat sailors to learn is the meaning of the various buoys1 beacons1 lights and other guide-boards of the sea4 ,in small boats these are often of little importance for one may sail hither and thither without paying much attention to channels1 but even in the smallest of sailboats there is a danger of running on reefs1 rocks or shoals if one does not know what the guiding marks mean4 ,in nearly every port1 harbor1 or other navigable body of water1 except in the open ocean1 there are buoys4 ,to the landsman these appear as so many red1 black or parti-colored sticks or metal cylinders1 but to the sailor every one has a definite meaning and he knows that if he proceeds according to the route marked by the buoys he is perfectly safe4 ,there are two general classes of buoys1 known as channel buoys and danger buoys4 ,the first are used to mark lanes or channels for boats and are always black or red in color4 ,all the red buoys are placed on one side of the channel and all the black buoys on the other side and every boat1 when coming in from sea or moving towards the land should keep the red buoys on her right or starboard side and all the black buoys on her port or left hand4 ,when going out of the harbor or away from land1 the red buoys are passed on the left and the black ones on the right4 ,in other words1 in leaving a harbor all the red buoys should be passed on the red light side of your boat4 ,moreover1 all the channel buoys are numbered1 the black buoys bearing odd numbers1 while the red ones are marked with even numbers1 so that even if the colors are indistinct you can tell whether they are to be passed on right or left4 ,but all channel buoys are not alike for there are spar buoys1 can buoys and nun buoys1 each of which serves a definite purpose and means a certain thing4 ,can buoys are cylindrical1 like giant tin cans1 and are painted black and marked with odd numbers1 while nun buoys are tapered on the top1 are painted red and bear even numbers4 ,spar buoys are merely huge1 wooden poles painted red or black and bearing odd numbers on the black ones and even numbers on those which are red4 ,in some places the can and nun buoys are used to mark the main ship channels and the spar buoys are used to show smaller or less important channels1 while in other places only one kind is used or can or nun buoys may be placed among the spar buoys to mark turning points or to aid mariners in locating their position in the channel4 ,all the buoys' numbers commence at the one farthest out1 which is number #a1 for buoys are of more importance to vessels entering a harbor than to those going out to sea4 ,danger buoys differ from channel buoys in color and are not numbered and they may be either of the spar1 can or nun type4 ,a buoy painted red and black in horizontal stripes running round the buoy indicates that there is some small reef1 rock or other obstruction close to it and that vessels must keep clear1 but can pass on either side4 ,a buoy painted with vertical stripes of black and white means exactly the opposite and shows that in order to avoid danger vessels must pass as closely to the buoy as possible and that there are shoals or obstructions on one or both sides of the buoy a short distance away4 ,this striped buoy also is used to mark the center of a channel and is known as a midchannel buoy4 ,bell buoys and whistling buoys are also used to mark danger spots and turning-points in channels4 ,whistling buoys are metal buoys fitted with whistles which are blown by air forced up by the motion of the waves and are sometimes called grunters as the sound is more like a grunt than a whistle4 ,bell buoys are provided with a bell which is rung by the swaying of the buoy4 ,in many places they are located well out to sea to indicate the beginning of a channel2 in other spots they are placed on reefs1 rocks or other obstructions as warnings1 and in still other places they serve to show where a channel turns sharply or where another channel branches off4 ,still another sort of buoy is the gas buoy4 ,these serve as miniature lighthouses or lightships and are furnished with lamps which burn compressed acetylene or other gas4 ,they are usually placed on outlying reefs or rocks or in spots where it would not pay to keep a regular lightship4 ,in many places1 where ordinary buoys cannot be used1 a large sphere is set up on the end of a pole and painted red or black1 according to the side on which it should be passed4 ,this is known to seamen as a perch and ball4 ,often a square1 boxlike affair or a cone made of iron or wooden slats is used in the same manner4 ,in still other localities the government does not think it worth while to establish regular buoys and local fishermen or others use channel marks in the form of kegs set on posts or rods in place of danger buoys and cedar trees fastened on tall posts to indicate the channels4 ,in many parts of the country beacons are used which are tripods or platforms of wood or iron on which lanterns are suspended4 ,sometimes the beacons are built of stone or concrete4 ,on navigable rivers and inland waters and in some places on the coasts range marks are used4 ,these are square or diamond-shaped frames of boards painted white with a square or circle of black in the center and set on posts4 ,they are placed so that when two come directly in line the boatman knows he is in the center of the channel4 ,at night lanterns are often hung upon them4 ,sometimes one sees a large spar buoy painted white and with a little black anchor painted upon it4 ,this shows the anchorage for large vessels and indicates that vessels cannot anchor further than the buoy without obstructing a channel or endangering cables1 submarine works or other things4 ,just as buoys tell the sailor which way to steer in harbors or when close to shore so lightships and lighthouses show mariners how to sail along the coasts4 ,lightships are vessels carrying lights at their mastheads and are anchored out at sea on shoals or off harbors to show where the channels begin4 ,lighthouses are usually built on shore close to the sea1 but they are often built on stone1 masonry or slender steel supports quite a distance from the land4 ,each lighthouse has a different light1 many are painted in stripes or other distinctive patterns and lightships are numbered and named to enable sailors to identify them easily4 ,illustration3 ,,harbor ,,chart ,,showing ,,lights1 ,,buoys1 ,,channels1 ,,soundings1 ,,bearings1 ,,bottom1 ,,etc4 ,some lighthouses throw a steady red light1 others a steady white light1 others flashes of white1 others flashes of red1 others alternate flashes of red and white1 and in many places they are arranged so that a white light is visible from vessels in the channels or in safe waters1 while a red sector causes a red light to be thrown over the shallow or dangerous waters4 ,moreover1 the flashing lights have various intervals between flashes and thus1 by knowing the colors of the various lights and the duration of their flashes1 a sailor can determine just where he is by the lighthouses he sights4 ,all of these safeguards of the sea would be of little value to mariners1 however1 if it were not for charts1 for no man could remember all the various buoys1 beacons1 range marks1 lightships and lighthouses of the coasts and the various harbors4 ,to enable the seaman to know just what every one of these means1 and to help him find his way in places where he has never been1 charts are furnished by the government4 ,these are maps which show all the buoys1 lights1 signals and other guides and also indicate the depth of the water1 the kind of bottom1 the points of the compass1 the prominent landmarks1 the rise and fall of tides and the outlines of the shores4 ,with the aid of a chart a sailor can safely find his way into any harbor or along any coast1 and even if it is some remote place where there are no lights or buoys1 or if the weather is too thick to enable him to see the buoys or lights1 the charts will tell him where he is by the character of the bottom and the depth of the water4 ,it may seem queer to think of a sailor navigating a vessel by the bottom of the sea1 but it is a method very widely used and of great importance4 ,in nearly every place the bottom varies more or less and the waters shoal in a certain way and by finding the kind of bottom there is and the depth of the water the seaman identifies the locality he is in4 ,thus1 if the bottom is white sand and the depth is five fathoms1 he looks upon the chart and finds the spot where a similar depth and bottom is indicated4 ,perhaps there are several such spots and the sailor is not sure which one he is on4 ,in that case1 he looks in the direction he is sailing and finds that on the chart the water shoals very gradually and that blue mud exists just beyond the spot where he thinks he should be4 ,if his next sounding shows blue mud and only a little less depth than before he knows he is right1 whereas if it shows deeper water and gravel1 or much shallower water and sand1 he knows he is off his course and by comparing his soundings with the chart he can tell just where he is4 ,to determine the depth of water1 a sounding line is used with a heavy lead weight at the end and with the fathoms marked upon the line and every time the lead is dropped to the bottom a tiny sample of the bottom is brought up sticking to a little tallow which fills a recess in the end of the lead4 ,nowadays there are many improved forms of sounding lines and leads1 some of which have very cleverly arranged appliances for bringing up samples of the bottom1 but the old-fashioned line and lead is still widely used4 ,still other important items which are indicated on the chart are bearings or landfalls4 ,often some prominent cliff1 hill1 mountain or other object is visible long before the shores themselves or any lights can be seen1 and by bringing certain such marks in line1 or by obtaining the direction which they bear to the ship and then referring to the charts1 the sailor can tell just what part of the shore he is approaching and how he should steer to enter a harbor or channel4 ,but charts1 bearings or landmarks would be almost useless without that most important of all mariners' guides1 the compass4 ,everyone who uses a boat should know how to use a compass and every boat1 save the very smallest open boats1 should invariably have a compass on board4 ,even if you never expect to sail far from shore you may some day be caught in a thick fog or blown off to sea for several miles and a compass may save your life and the lives of others4 ,but unless you know how to use a compass this useful instrument will be of little aid4 ,it may seem strange to speak of learning to use a compass for everyone knows that a compass points toward the north1 but when an ordinary compass is used on a boat the conditions are very different from using a compass on land4 ,in the first place it is not enough to know the cardinal points of north1 south1 east and west1 for while such general directions may serve on the land1 a very slight variation of the course may result in running on a reef or in missing a harbor1 when sailing4 ,for this reason you should become thoroughly familiar with all the points of a compass and should be able to box the compass or repeat all the thirty-two points from north around the circle to north and back again without looking at the compass4 ,then you should learn the quarter points and should be able to tell at a glance whether the boat is heading north-one-quarter-east or is a quarter of a point off her course in any direction1 for a quarter-point error in sailing may make a vast difference at the end of a few hours' run4 ,there are two general types of compasses in use3 one known as the pocket compass or movable-needle compass1 the other as the mariner's compass or floating-card compass4 ,the former is generally used on land and has a fixed card with the various points marked upon it and a movable needle which points to the north1 while the mariner's compass has a card with the points which revolves and there is a notch or lubber's mark on one side of the case which should be so placed that when facing north the north mark on the card is exactly in line with the lubber's mark4 ,illustration3 ,,use ,,of ,,compass ,,in ,,boat ,a--,mariner's compass4 ,b-,c--,pocket compass4 ,in a boat the floating-card or mariner's compass is almost a necessity1 for with it the boat's bow may be headed in the direction or course desired1 whereas with a pocket compass the dial remains stationary and the needle moves about and as a result some mental calculation is necessary in order to steer a course correctly4 ,this will be better understood by studying the accompanying illustration4 ,in this you will see that at ,a a boat with a mariner's compass is headed northeast1 and that if the course is to be altered to any given point of the compass it is merely necessary to turn until the desired mark is in line with the lubber's mark4 ,in the diagram ,b1 however1 the boat is apparently headed north although the same course is being steered as in ,a4 ,this is because the compass used is a fixed-card compass with a movable needle and the needle moves as the boat's course is changed1 while the card remains stationary1 and although the boat is really headed northeast the needle points to the northwest4 ,in other words1 when using such a compass it is necessary to read it backwards and if you wish to steer northeast swing the boat until the needle points northwest1 and so on1 for every direction4 ,this1 of course1 is very confusing and it can be avoided only by shifting the position of the compass so as to bring the needle directly over 8north0 each time the boat's course is altered as shown at ,c4 ,by doing this the boat's bow will correspond to the direction being steered1 as indicated on the compass card1 but it is often very inconvenient1 if not impossible1 to move a compass constantly while bobbing about in a sea or tacking1 although on land it is no trouble to turn the compass until the needle and 8north0 are in line and then proceed in the desired direction4 ,moreover1 a pivoted needle is often very erratic and swings wildly when in a boat and for these reasons a floating-dial compass should always be used4 ,many pocket compasses are made with moving dials1 or cards1 and these will serve very well for small boats1 but they are not to be compared to the true boat compasses for steadiness1 accuracy and convenience4 ,sometimes one may find oneself without a compass and may wish to obtain a general idea of direction and in such a case it is of great value to know that an ordinary watch or clock may be made to serve as a compass4 ,to use a watch as a compass1 place it horizontally1 with the hour hand pointing directly towards the sun1 or until the shadow of the hour hand falls directly beneath the hand itself4 ,when this position is attained south will be exactly halfway between the point of the hour hand and the figure #ab2 counting from left to right1 or southward1 if before noon and from right to left if after noon4 ,this will prove very accurate for our latitudes during most of the year and the method will be clearly understood by referring to the illustrations in which the watch is shown with the hour hand pointing towards the sun at six ,a4 ,m4 when the figure #i indicates south1 while in the afternoon1 with the hour hand pointing at the sun at four o'clock1 the figure #b indicates south4 ,this method of determining direction is only useful on sunny or bright days1 however1 and one often needs to know the points of the compass at night1 when the watch would be useless4 ,in any spot north of the equator the ,north ,star1 or ,pole ,star1 serves as a guide1 while south of the equator the ,southern ,cross indicates the true south4 ,but the ,southern ,cross becomes visible long before the equator is reached1 in about twenty degrees north latitude1 and hence there is a wide area in which both of these stellar guides serve the mariner4 ,illustration3 ,,compasses #a--,pocket compass4 #b--,mariner's compass4 #c--,points of compass4 #d--;,how to use a watch as a compass4 #e--;,how to find the ,north ,star4 ,it is a very easy matter to locate the ,north ,star by finding the constellation known as the ,great ,dipper or the ,great ,bear4 ,then by following in a straight line from the two outer stars of the ,dipper1 the upper one of which would form the lip of the ,dipper1 or the breast of the ,bear1 the ,north ,star will be the first bright star in range of these two stars in the constellation and which are known as the ,pointers4 ,as the ,great ,dipper revolves around the ,north ,star the latter may be either above or below the ,dipper1 but by carrying your imaginary line through the pointers1 from the foot or bottom of the constellation and beyond the top1 the star may always be located if the night is clear and even if the ,pole ,star is not visible the ,dipper itself will serve as a guide to enable you to steer a fairly straight course4 ,captains of large vessels1 sailing out of sight of land1 determine their positions and steer their course by taking observations by means of instruments called sextants and by chronometers4 ,the chronometer is merely an extremely accurate clock which is set by standard time with ,greenwich1 and by comparing the actual time with this at noon1 the mariner can work out the distance east or west of ,greenwich1 or in other words1 obtain his longitude4 ,by means of the sextant he determines the exact moment at which the sun crosses the meridian1 or the exact noon hour at his locality and he also learns the angle or declination of the sun above the horizon4 ,by means of tables he is thus enabled to work out his latitude1 or his distance north or south of the equator1 and then by marking the spot on his chart where the longitude and latitude cross1 he indicates the exact position of his ship4 ,it is an easy matter to learn to 8shoot the sun0 and to compute latitude and longitude4 ,every amateur sailor will do well to acquire this knowledge1 even if it never becomes necessary to use it4 ,for all ordinary purposes1 however1 dead reckoning will serve and many sailors1 and not a few captains of large vessels find dead reckoning sufficiently accurate for their needs if near land or only sailing for comparatively short distances out at sea4 ,dead reckoning consists of computing a vessel's position by the distance sailed from one time to another2 the drift or leeway made and the directions in which the boat has sailed4 ,to find the distance sailed it is necessary to multiply the number of hours by the speed per hour4 ,to determine this an instrument called a log is used4 ,in former days the log was in reality a log1 and consisted of a drag of wood attached to a marked line on a reel4 ,the log was thrown over the vessel's stern and as the line ran out it was timed by a sandglass and the number of knots on the line which ran out while the sand fell through the glass gave the speed of the ship4 ,today instruments known as patent logs are used which are like small propellers attached to a line connected with a clocklike arrangement1 and as the log whirls around by being dragged through the water the hands on the dials indicate the speed of the vessel4 ,but while the log has been changed to a metal whirler and the line and sandglass have given place to an accurate and complicated mechanism of wheels and cogs1 yet the name log is still retained and sailors always speak of knots instead of miles4 ,by marking off the number of knots sailed in the proper direction the sailor might easily tell where he was1 provided there were no currents or tides and the vessel moved at a uniform speed and made no leeway4 ,as a matter of fact the ocean is full of currents1 streams and tides and moreover a vessel1 when sailing1 or steaming for that matter1 is carried to one side or the other and forwards and backwards by these as well as by the wind4 ,besides a sailing vessel moves more slowly or faster according to the strength of the wind and is often obliged to tack or to alter its course to suit the winds4 ,all of these matters must be considered in working out a position by dead reckoning and the course of a sailing vessel when thus pricked out on a chart often looks like the track made by a drunken man1 as it zigzags hither and thither1 swings about1 and varies widely from one side or the other of its true course4 ,in order to come anywhere near accuracy by means of dead reckoning a mariner must be thoroughly familiar with the tides and currents through which he is sailing4 ,he must be able to judge the strength of the wind2 he must know just what his vessel will do under varying conditions2 he must be able to guess very closely the leeway she makes1 and he must bear in mind all the changes of course1 all the tacks and all the shifting of sails which have been made4 ,only by such knowledge and by long practice can a sailor determine where he is by dead reckoning and even then he can only locate his position approximately4 ,it seems remarkable that any man can come anywhere near the truth by such means but many sea captains have become so expert that they can figure out their position by dead reckoning and come within a very few miles of the right result every time4 ,very few amateur sailors will ever need to go into the details of dead reckoning1 but it is often convenient to be able to determine roughly where you are and you should strive to become so accustomed to your boat's speed under various conditions that you can guess very closely how far and how fast she has sailed4 ,you should also study the charts of your vicinity and learn all about the tides and currents and should be able to judge of the leeway you are making1 as well as to form an accurate idea of the weight of the wind or the speed at which it is blowing4 ,all these things are a part of knowing how to sail and handling a boat and they will come in mighty handy sooner or later4 ,many a race has been won by a man or boy knowing the currents and tides and taking advantage of them4 ,if you are out in a fog or in darkness your knowledge of winds1 currents and other conditions will enable you to steer a true course and reach port1 whereas1 if ignorant of these simple matters1 you might be compelled to drift about for hours until you could see your surroundings4 ,until you have tried you can have no idea of how much you can learn about such matters or what a keen sense of location and direction you can develop4 ,the fishermen on the coast of ,maine and other parts of ,new ,england know the currents1 winds and tides of their waters so well that thick fogs or the darkest nights have no terrors for them4 ,i have seen a ,maine fisherman sail his schooner straight for the rocky1 reef-fringed coast through the thickest fog and drive into a narrow harbor entrance as surely as if he was following a well marked lane of buoys4 ,yet nothing could be seen and the roar of surf was deafening and to make a mistake of a hundred feet in his course meant certain death and the loss of the vessel4 ,these men don't know how they know where they are or how they are able to find their way blindly on these dangerous coasts when nothing can be seen4 ,they will tell you it's 8by the lay of the land10 although the land cannot be seen1 or they may say they 8smell where they are10 but as a matter of fact it is owing to their intimate knowledge of conditions and surroundings which has become such a part of their daily life that they are perfectly unconscious of it4 ,of course the amateur sailor can scarcely hope to become as expert as these old shellbacks who have spent their lives knocking about in boats1 but you can readily learn the bearings of certain places1 the location of certain tide-rips and the direction and flow of certain currents in the waters where you sail and these will all help to guide you when sailing in darkness or in fog4 ,fog is perhaps the greatest danger that menaces sailors along the coasts1 for a thick fog not only hides all objects and surroundings1 but when something is seen it is often so distorted1 so spectral or so unusual in appearance that it is hard to recognize the most familiar landmarks4 ,moreover it is next to impossible to judge of distance in a fog and an object1 seen dimly through the mist and apparently far away1 may be close at hand or again something which looms seemingly near may really be far away4 ,sound also is distorted by fogs and even old hands are often woefully deceived as to the direction and distance of sounds heard through fog4 ,sometimes1 too1 a fog may settle low and high objects may be visible above it1 or again it may lift and hide all objects above a certain height and yet leave things close to the water within plain sight4 ,in most places the approach of fogs may be readily seen1 but quite frequently a fog will come on very suddenly or a light mist may suddenly shut in as a dense fog1 while in some places fogs almost always occur at certain seasons or at certain hours and can be expected at such times4 ,if a fog is seen approaching1 or a light mist commences to thicken up1 always try to make port before it becomes dense4 ,if you have a compass make a note of the direction you must steer1 look about for vessels that may be in your course and note the direction of the wind1 the waves and the courses other craft are sailing1 if any can be seen4 ,if you have no compass note the direction of the waves and wind as compared with the course you wish to take1 pick out some prominent landmark or beacon for which you can steer and when the fog shuts in guide your course by the waves and not by the wind1 for a wind often shifts about when the fog arrives4 ,if you have no compass and are in any doubt as to how you are heading1 drop your sails and anchor at once1 or if you can reach a buoy1 moor to that until the fog lifts4 ,there is nothing much more perilous than sailing about blindly in a fog1 for you are liable to sail in a circle1 or far off your course1 and when the fog lifts1 if you haven't run aground or into another vessel1 you may find yourself out of sight of land or many miles from your destination4 ,always have a foghorn when sailing in localities where fogs occur and if for any reason you have no horn1 shout halloo or beat on a bucket or a tin pan at intervals to warn other vessels of your presence4 ,sometimes1 if you climb to the masthead1 you may be able to see above the fog or through it1 for fogs are often thin a few feet above the water1 and if you find this is the case your companion may be able to stay aloft and direct you1 or you may be able to locate some landmark and to discover in which direction to proceed4 ,if you see that the water is visible for quite a distance about and yet the fog is thick1 you may be able to see a long way by leaning over the boat's side and peering ahead close to the surface of the sea1 while if there are whistling or bell buoys in the vicinity these may serve to guide you4 ,always proceed slowly and cautiously in a fog1 for a reef or a vessel is likely to loom up close aboard at any moment and you must be ever alert and have your boat under perfect control ready for any emergency4 ,if there is someone with you1 have him stand in the bow and report anything which he sees and above all sound fog signals of some sort at intervals of not more than a minute and if you hear another vessel's signals veer off and be sure you understand whether she is on the port or the starboard tack or is running before the wind4 ,illustration3 ,,effect ,,of ,,waves ,,on ,,stability ,sailing in heavy weather or in large seas is very different from sailing in smooth water and no one should attempt sailing a boat in strong winds or heavy seas unless thoroughly expert in handling a boat1 or unless compelled to do so by necessity4 ,more accidents happen when running in a seaway than under any other conditions1 for a boat which may be perfectly safe and stable in an ordinary sea1 may capsize quickly if not handled with the utmost care and skill in large waves4 ,the effect of waves upon a boat's stability is seldom realized even by fairly competent sailors4 ,this may be better understood by the accompanying diagram which represents a boat in waves as viewed in section and supposedly sailing with a beam wind in a sea running broadside on1 ,a4 ,if she is heeled to an angle of fifteen degrees1 as shown1 she would be perfectly safe1 provided the surface of the water remained constant1 but if a wave came from the leeward1 or right1 as indicated by the dotted line ,b1 the angle would be suddenly increased to thirty degrees in relation to the waves' surface4 ,under normal conditions she might recover herself and swing back to fifteen degrees1 or until her mast assumed the position shown by the vertical line1 but long before she could so recover herself among the waves she probably would be swamped4 ,moreover1 in a sea a boat always rolls and if she is sailing at an angle1 or heel1 of fifteen degrees and rolls an additional fifteen degrees she is liable to capsize1 and if her extreme roll occurs in unison with such a position as indicated in the diagram ,c1 she would inevitably upset4 ,even if neither of these occurrences took place there is the danger of a sea underrunning her and leaving the lee side unsupported1 as indicated by the line ,d1 and the wind1 which has force enough to heel her fifteen degrees when properly immersed in water1 would then force her to the capsizing angle as shown4 ,aside from these dangers of the seas there is the added peril of a sudden gust or squall and if such a sudden increase of wind strikes the sails when the hull is at its extreme leeward roll she will be certain to blow over4 ,in this connection it should always be borne in mind that a wind which will only heel a boat to fifteen degrees when it blows steadily1 may heel her to the upsetting point if applied suddenly4 ,in other words1 it is not so much the actual force of the wind which must be guarded against as the suddenness of its application4 ,many amateur sailors seem to think that when sailing among waves danger may be guarded against by sitting on the upper1 or windward1 side of the boat or by shifting ballast to the windward side4 ,this is a very grave mistake1 for1 as the boat rolls to windward when the waves run under her keel1 the weight on the windward side may cause her to roll far enough to be swamped or it may prevent her from recovering quickly and the next wave may strike her bottom and turn her completely over4 ,in addition there is the danger that she may swing her sail to windward1 be caught aback and upset in a flash4 ,for these reasons always keep ballast1 whether passengers or real ballast1 as near the center of the boat and as near the bottom as possible when sailing among waves and decrease the canvas until she cannot heel at a dangerous angle4 ,a boat may be sailed among waves many times and not upset merely because the conditions described do not happen to occur conjointly and yet the very next time she may capsize under apparently identical conditions4 ,hence1 you should always use the greatest care when among waves and should invariably shorten sail until you are sure you are safe4 ,always try to avoid sailing with a beam sea1 especially if the wind is also from the side1 for this is the most dangerous of all conditions4 ,a heavy sea may cause the boat to roll over1 the sail may swing and spill the wind and allow her to be caught aback with her weather roll and to avoid a breaking sea which may swamp her1 it will be necessary to swing her about for eight points1 or at right angles1 which cannot be done in a seaway in time to avoid swamping4 ,never try to luff a boat up to a sea when in this position1 but ease the sheet1 swing her off and let the sea run diagonally under her keel4 ,remember that in waves a deep keel or a centerboard may prevent a great deal of the roll and even if running free keep your centerboard down1 unless you find it causes her to steer badly4 ,if in order to reach your destination1 it is necessary to run across a heavy sea with a beam wind you can avoid the danger of doing so by quartering or zigzagging--first heading up into the wind for a time and then turning and running with the wind on the quarter as shown by the diagram4 ,when running up the wind in this way you should luff right up into any heavy sea as it approaches1 so as to take it bow-on1 and the instant it has passed put the helm up1 let the sails fill well and gather good headway to meet the next sea4 ,finally1 when ready to go about choose a time when riding on the top of a long1 easy sea2 swing her about quickly1 ease off the sheets and use great care not to let the boat swing beam-on to the seas4 ,in puffs or squalls1 and as you rise towards the crests of the waves1 when running in seas1 the boat should be luffed up and sheets eased before she is heeled rail-under1 for if you wait too long she will answer her helm sluggishly and may capsize before she will luff to meet the sudden gust4 ,don't let her lose headway but as soon as the squall has passed or the craft has righted bear off again until the next puff comes along4 ,almost as dangerous as sailing in a beam sea is running before wind and sea or 8scudding0 among waves1 and many a good craft and many a valuable life has been sacrificed to carelessness or ignorance when scudding in a seaway4 ,the two greatest perils are getting brought by the lee and broaching-to4 ,the former occurs when the boat's bow falls off to leeward by her stern being thrown to windward as a wave runs under her1 while the latter is brought about by the head swinging into the wind and her stern off1 thus causing her sail to 8spill0 with the result that she loses headway1 swings broadside to the waves and upsets4 ,only the quickest and most expert handling can save a boat under these conditions and frequently she will refuse to come about or to answer her helm as she is raced along on the crest of a wave4 ,if it is absolutely necessary to run before a sea1 reduce sail1 top the boom up well by the topping-lift or the peak halyards and stand ready to haul in the sheet and to swing her into the wind or to ease her off instantly4 ,keep the centerboard up1 or halfway up is better1 and devote every energy1 every attention and every sense to handling your boat and pay heed to nothing else4 ,even then there are many dangers to be guarded against4 ,if sail is too greatly reduced your boat may lag between seas and a following wave may run over her stern and poop her2 if there is a trifle too much sail or even if the sail is of the right area1 she may scud off a wave and bury her bow in a preceding sea and be swamped1 or her boom may catch in a sea as she yaws and thus capsize her4 ,if she shows signs of running too fast a drag1 such as an oar1 a thwart1 a floorboard or even a cushion may be attached to a fairly long line over the stern and this will not only hold the boat back1 but it will keep her steadier and will serve to prevent seas from breaking as well4 ,oil thrown or dropped over the stern will also aid greatly in preventing a following sea from breaking over a boat's stern4 ,oil should always be on hand4 ,it doesn't make much difference what kind of oil is used1 but the heavier it is the better and only a very little is necessary2 a wad of oil-soaked rag or cotton waste1 or even oil squeezed from a sponge will often produce really marvelous results4 ,but the best and safest method is to avoid running before wind and sea by heading into the wind and running fairly free and then wearing ship and sailing with a quartering wind and thus zigzagging over the course to be covered4 ,when sailing to windward against a sea there is comparatively little danger1 if the boat is luffed up to meet the seas and is not allowed to lose headway4 ,then when ready to go about1 if tacking1 wait for an opportunity when there is a long1 smooth-topped sea and swing the boat on the other tack quickly and stand ready to bring her about with an oar if she misses stays1 for if she does this serious results may follow and she may be caught without headway1 swung about and upset before you can get her under way again4 ,it is far less dangerous to handle a boat in a gale than in a seaway1 but of course if the gale continues for any length of time the seas will rise4 ,it is often far safer to ride out a gale than to attempt sailing in it1 for few boats will fail to weather even a hard and prolonged gale and heavy seas if properly handled4 ,if you have a sea-anchor or drogue aboard cast this over1 lower or snug down sails1 keep low down in the boat and if you have oil aboard allow it to drip over the bows4 ,under such conditions the drogue will break the force of the seas and keep the craft head to the wind and seas and the oil will prevent the crests from breaking over the boat4 ,while she may rise and fall and pitch about tremendously there will be little real danger4 ,if the wind is blowing in a different direction from the seas or across them1 lower and stow the sails1 but if the wind is in the same direction as the seas a bit of canvas will often keep her steady and make her ride more easily4 ,with a boom-and-gaff sail the sail may be lowered until a very small portion remains and the rest of the sail should then be secured about the boom and the sheets trimmed flat4 ,sometimes a small triangular sail1 such as a spare jib1 may be set aft above the furled sail1 while with a yawl or ketch rig the mizzen may be set and trimmed flat4 ,above all things do not allow anyone to move about1 to stand on the deck or to sit upon the gunwales of a boat in a heavy sea or in a squall1 but keep all the weight as low and as stationary as possible4 ,always make everything snug and fasten all loose ropes and lines when riding out a gale or a squall1 for trailing ropes1 flapping sails and swinging lines are liable to cause trouble1 aside from the fact that they will become tangled and will not run freely when wanted4 ,as a rule it will not be necessary to ride out a gale in a small boat for severe storms seldom come so quickly that sails cannot be reefed and shelter reached before the wind and seas rise until dangerous4 ,thunder storms and squalls1 however1 are often so sudden and unexpected that the amateur sailor has no time to run for a harbor and sometimes1 when off a lee shore1 it is dangerous to heave a boat to in order to reef4 ,under such circumstances great care and skill are required to weather the sudden blow in safety1 especially when off a lee shore and everyone who handles a sailboat should be prepared for such events4 ,have the sheet ready to let go instantly and drop the peak of the sail1 if a boom-and-gaff rig1 and if the boat carries a jib drop that4 ,if the squalls are light they may be seen approaching by watching the surface of the water1 while if heavy or if they come when there is quite a sea running1 the approach of the gusts will be indicated by white1 scudding crests to the waves4 ,don't try to bear away or ease off the sheets to avoid these squalls but luff up slightly to meet them1 allowing the luff of the sail to tremble but keeping the after part of the sail filled and by doing this and bearing off between squalls to gather headway a boat may be safely sailed through very heavy and frequent puffs4 ,if close to shore1 however1 or among reefs where there is little space for maneuvering1 it is often impossible to luff into the squalls without danger of running aground and in such situations it will be necessary to ease off the sheet and flow the sail until the luff trembles1 but under no circumstances should you turn and run before the wind when it's squally4 ,as soon as your sail is before the wind you cannot prevent the full force of the puffs from hitting it without swinging broadside to the squall and if this is done there is a very great chance of upsetting the boat4 ,if on a lee shore you should of course luff up1 for you must use every endeavor to 8claw-off0 the land4 ,if you always remember the following simple rule you will seldom have trouble in weathering reasonable squalls4 ,off a lee shore or where there is ample sea room1 luff up to squalls4 ,if off a weather shore or with obstructions to windward ease off for squalls4 ,finally1 if you lower sails in a squall1 be sure to spill the sail before lowering away1 as otherwise it may catch a puff of wind1 balloon out and capsize the boat4 ,if you wish to reef in squalls either anchor or throw out a drogue to keep head-on to the puffs4 ,if the squalls are very heavy and there is plenty of space to leeward lower the sails1 throw out a drogue or anchor or scud before the wind under bare poles until the squalls decrease sufficiently to permit you to reef4 ,in handling boats an ounce of prevention is worth many tons of cure1 and if you keep your weather eye open1 as sailors say1 there will seldom be occasion for you to face difficulties unprepared4 ,changes of wind or weather are almost invariably presaged by certain signs or symptoms which may readily be noticed and understood and everyone who sails a boat should learn to recognize the signs which indicate certain conditions4 ,of course if one has a barometer the approaching weather conditions may be determined very easily1 but even without this instrument a person who is weatherwise may usually foretell the approach of good or bad weather or of rain or wind many hours in advance4 ,among the commonest and most noticeable indications are the following1 and only in very rare instances will these signs fail3 ,unusual twinkling of stars1 ,double horns to the moon1 ,halos around stars or ,increasing wind1 or rain with moon1 8,wind dogs0 a liability of wind4 ,wind shifting from west to ,increase of wind from the east other direction4 ,rosy sky at sunset ,fine weather4 ,sickly1 greenish-colored sunset ,wind and rain4 ,dark red or crimson sunset ,rain4 ,bright-yellow sky at sunset ,wind4 ,pale-yellow1 or saffron1 sunset ,rain4 ,mixed red and yellow sunset ,rain and squally weather4 ,remarkably clear atmosphere with distant objects standing above the water ,wind1 usually from the and seemingly in air northwest1 and often rain4 ,heavy dews ,fine weather4 ,fogs ,change in weather and little wind4 ,misty clouds on hills1 remaining stationary1 increasing or descending ,rain and wind4 ,misty clouds on hills1 rising or dispersing ,fairer weather4 ,red morning sky ,bad weather and wind4 ,gray morning sky ,fine weather4 ,high dawn 7dawn seen above a bank of clouds7 ,wind4 ,low dawn 7daylight breaking close to the horizon7 ,fair4 ,soft1 delicate clouds ,fair and light winds4 ,hard-edged1 oily clouds ,wind4 ,dark1 gloomy sky ,windy4 ,light1 bright sky ,fine weather4 ,small1 inky clouds ,rain4 ,light 8scud10 or small clouds moving across heavier clouds ,wind and rain4 ,light1 scudding clouds by themselves ,wind and dry weather4 ,high1 upper clouds scudding past moon or stars in a different direction from the lower cloud-masses ,change of wind4 ,after fine weather a change is indicated by light streaks1 wisps1 or mottled patches of distant clouds which increase and join4 ,a haze which becomes murky and clouds the sky also indicates a change to bad weather4 ,light1 delicate colors1 with soft-edged clouds ,fine weather4 ,brilliant1 or gaudy1 colors and sharp1 hard-edged clouds ,rain and wind4 ,a mackerel sky 7small1 separate1 white clouds covering the sky7 ,wet weather4 8,mares' tails0 7long1 wispy1 curved1 isolated clouds against a blue sky7 ,wind4 ,rainbow early in the morning ,bad weather4 ,rainbows in afternoon ,fair4 ,many of these weather indications have become so widely known and universally recognized by seamen that they have been put into doggerel verse to make them more easily remembered and every boat sailor should learn these1 for nine times out of ten they will prove true4 ,if wind shifts against the sun1 ,trust it not1 for back 'twill run4 99 99 99 ,mackerels' scales and ,mares' tails1 ,cautious sailors shorten sails4 99 99 99 ,a mackerel sky ,seldom passes over dry4 99 99 99 ,rainbow in the morning1 sailors take warning4 ,rainbow at night1 sailor's delight4 99 99 99 ,sun rising low and clear1 ,bad weather do not fear4 ,sunrise hidden1 light on high1 ,reef your sails for wind is nigh4 99 99 99 ,when the sun sinks bathed in gold1 ,strong winds surely are foretold1 ,but if red the sun should set1 ,then the morrow will be wet1 ,while if pink shows in the ,west1 ,weather will be of the best4 99 99 99 ,if a ring surrounds the moon1 ,wind and rain are coming soon4 ,twinkling stars that brightly glow ,show that there will be a blow4 99 99 99 ,sunrise red1 bad weather ahead1 ,sunrise gray1 a pleasant day4 99 99 99 ,when the sea's against the wind1 ,then your topsail halliards mind4 ,there are many more of these known to mariners1 but the above are the most important and familiar and while the signs may fail at times yet it must be borne in mind that even the government experts1 with their highly perfected and delicate instruments1 are often at fault in their forecasts of the weather4 ,with all our knowledge and scientific research1 we really know very little about atmospheric conditions and changes and many an old sailor or fisherman can foretell fair or foul weather1 wind or rain1 almost as accurately as the trained observers of the ,weather ,bureau4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,ix ,,building ,,small ,,boats ,very few men or boys are capable of planning1 drafting1 laying down and building a round-bottomed boat4 ,even if you are expert enough to do this1 the finished product will not compare to a boat built by a professional and it will cost far more1 especially if time and satisfaction count for anything1 than a readymade craft or one built to order4 ,there are many reliable firms which furnish patterns for all sorts of boats1 from canoes and skiffs to schooner yachts and big power-cruisers4 ,by means of these patterns and the directions which accompany them1 any person who has patience and is handy with woodworking tools can build a boat4 ,it is only necessary to mark off the patterns on the proper lumber1 work the planks and timbers to shape and put them together according to directions1 but even then you'll find some difficulties to be overcome4 ,these same firms also sell 8knock-down0 boats which have all the planks1 timbers and other parts sawed and formed1 and by purchasing these it is a very simple matter to build a boat4 ,full directions accompany these knock-down boats and even the nails1 screws1 rivets and other fastenings and all the hardware and fittings are furnished if desired4 ,if you really must build a boat1 the best plan is to look over the catalogs of these firms1 select the model and size that suits you and then purchase the patterns or the ready-cut materials4 ,you will no doubt obtain a great deal of pleasure and satisfaction by thus constructing your own boat1 but your first attempts will not approach the boats built by men who have spent years at boat-building and have learned every little 8kink0 and trick of their trade4 ,in most places the cost of a readymade boat will be very little1 if any1 more than the one built at home by an amateur1 but the fun of making it1 the experience gained and the knowledge of using tools which you will acquire may make it worth while4 ,as a rule1 however1 it is not advisable to attempt to build a large1 or even a medium-sized1 boat and your first efforts at least should be confined to boats less than twenty feet in length4 ,even in craft of such small dimensions you will find there is plenty of hard1 heavy work to be done4 ,planks and timbers must be steamed and bent2 tough1 hard oak must be cut1 planed1 chiselled and worked accurately and neatly4 ,many of the processes used in boat-building are different from those employed in any other form of carpentry and as a result a previous knowledge of woodworking may be of little value when constructing a boat4 ,but there are many boats which any handy man or boy can build easily and cheaply and which will prove safe1 seaworthy and excellent sailing craft4 ,these are the flat-bottomed boats1 known as skiffs or sharpies1 for a sharpie is really nothing more than a large skiff provided with a centerboard and with dimensions and lines designed to adapt it to sailing4 ,before commencing to build any sort of a boat1 however1 you should have the proper tools with which to work1 for without good tools it is impossible for a person to build even a simple flat-bottomed boat4 ,the tools required for building a boat are neither numerous nor expensive1 but only tools of high grade should be purchased for a cheap or poor tool is an abomination and is almost as bad as none at all4 ,of course1 many people will have most of the required tools on hand1 but for the benefit of those who do not the entire list is given as follows3 ,a large ripsaw2 a coarse crosscut saw2 a fine crosscut or panel saw2 a compass saw2 a tenon saw2 a hack saw4 ,the ripsaw should have about six teeth to the inch4 ,the compass saw should be rather fine1 about eight teeth to the inch4 ,a miter saw and miter box will prove very useful in addition to the above4 ,keep the saws bright and clean and when using them in gummy1 pitchy or fibrous wood rub them with hard soap or chalk to prevent them from binding1 but do not use oil as it will only make matters worse4 ,never stand a saw up so the blade bends and under no circumstances should you twist or bend the saw when sawing in order to pry or split off the wood4 ,a saw which is out of true1 bent or sprung will bind and catch and will not saw straight4 ,you will also require several planes1 such as a jack plane2 a smoothing plane2 a block plane2 a rabbit plane4 ,these may be of wood or iron as preferred and in addition you will find a bull-nosed plane1 for planing in corners2 a pair of matching planes and some beading or moulding planes very useful4 ,there should be several mortising chisels of #a inch1 #c_/d inch1 #a_/b inch and #a_/d inch sizes1 and also two or three gouges varying from #a-a_/b to #c_/d inch in size4 ,a good drawknife is almost essential1 and a spoke-shave will prove very convenient4 ,a ratchet bitstock1 or brace1 is necessary and you should provide a good assortment of bits and augers to go with it4 ,the best bits to use are those of twist-drill pattern1 for these will not split the wood like ordinary gimlet-bits1 and if you bore against a knot1 a nail1 a screw or any other metal object you can bore through it without injuring the bit4 ,the bits should range in size from #a_/h inch to #a_/b inch in diameter1 and the augers1 which should be of the ship-auger pattern1 should range from #a_/b to #a inch in diameter4 ,a breast1 or hand1 drill with assorted twist-drills will be useful and you should have several gimlets2 at least two brad-awls2 a countersink2 a reamer1 and a bit-brace screwdriver4 ,extension bits1 which can be adjusted to various sizes1 are exceedingly useful and convenient1 but are not absolutely necessary4 ,a medium-sized mallet2 a claw-hammer2 a small hammer2 two screwdrivers2 a spirit level2 a steel square2 cutting pliers2 compasses2 a bevel gauge2 a carpenter's gauge2 a yardstick2 a folding two-foot rule2 an oil stone2 wood rasps2 flat or bastard files2 a saw file2 a carpenter's pencil2 some iron carpenter's clamps2 an old flatiron2 a bench vise and a caulking-iron complete the list of tools4 ,in addition to all these you will need some benches or horses1 a good workbench1 screws1 rivets1 nails1 etc4 ,copper or galvanized iron nails and brass or galvanized iron screws should be used exclusively4 ,round 8wire0 nails will serve very well4 ,boat nails rivetted over burrs1 clout-nails which are clinched1 or plain copper nails will serve equally well1 according to the purpose for which they are to be used4 ,where a nail is used to hold two pieces of wood together and does not pass entirely through1 wire nails can be used to advantage1 but if the nail goes entirely through both pieces1 which is necessary to insure great strength1 or where two thin pieces of wood are fastened together1 rivets and burrs or clout-nails should be used4 ,screws are to be avoided1 for they require rather large holes1 they often work loose and after getting them part way in they are liable to twist off or the slots may become so scarred that you cannot turn them out or in4 ,next comes the question of material4 ,if you purchase patterns or ready-cut material1 the wood to be used will be determined by the directions furnished2 but if you expect to plan and build a boat by yourself you will have to select and buy the lumber which is best adapted to your boat and which can be most readily obtained4 ,for planking1 white cedar1 white pine1 mahogany1 yellow pine1 basswood or cypress may be used4 ,for frames1 knees1 stems and sternposts1 transoms and ribs there is nothing better than good1 clear white oak4 ,for making a flat-bottomed boat or sharpie1 clear white pine or cypress is the best material for the planks2 cypress or white cedar should be used for the bottom1 and all the timbers1 frames1 transom and stem should be of oak4 ,the size and thickness of the various pieces of lumber will vary according to the dimensions of your boat1 but for boats up to twenty feet in length1 #c_/d inch planking1 #a inch bottom boards and ribs1 gunwales1 deck timbers1 etc41 of oak #a inch square will be strong enough4 ,the transom should be of #a inch oak1 the deadwood may be of #a-a_/b or #b inch oak or two #a inch pieces bolted together2 the keel should be of #a-a_/b inch oak1 and the centerboard should be of #a inch oak or yellow pine4 ,these are the extremes and the dimensions of timbers1 ribs1 centerboard and such parts may be reduced for smaller boats4 ,side planks #e_/h or even #a_/b inch thick will be very strong if more numerous ribs are used1 and for small skiffs the bottom can be made of #c_/d inch stuff and the ribs may be reduced to #a_/b inch square4 ,it is a mistake1 however1 to make a boat too light1 if it is to be used for sailing1 for a reasonably heavy boat will have more headway1 will handle better and will be more stable and seaworthy than a very light craft4 ,before commencing your boat you should determine the exact dimensions4 ,until you are familiar with the principles of boat designing and have learned to figure out displacements1 load-water lines1 centers of efforts and resistance and many other technical details your best plan is to find some other boat that suits your ideas and copy her measurements4 ,once you have determined on the measurements you should mark them full1 or at least half1 size on a smooth1 flat floor or some similar surface1 as you will find it far more convenient to get out the various parts from such large plans than to work from small scale drawings4 ,as soon as you have these rough outlines and measurements ready you must make forms or molds4 ,these may be sawed from planks or may be formed by nailing several pieces together1 but in either case they must conform perfectly to the shape of the boat you have planned and both sides must be absolutely alike1 for a very slight variation may ruin the sailing qualities of the boat4 ,these forms represent the section of the boat at amidships1 near the bow and half-way between stern and amidships and their shape can easily be determined from your plans4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,flat-,,bottomed ,,boat #a-b--;,boat fastenings4 #c1 #d1 #e--,molds4 #f--,transom4 #g--,stem4 #h--,stem and throat knee4 #i--,stern fastened to keel4 #aj--,transom fastened to keel4 #aa--,lining up sides4 #ab--,molds in position4 #ac--,ribs4 #ad--,mast thwart4 #ae--,section showing construction4 #af--;,centerboard4 #ag--,rudder and post4 ,the transom or sternpiece should then be gotten out and the next work is to make the stem4 ,this will require care and time1 for the sides must be cut away by chisel and plane until they will just receive the ends of the side planks neatly1 and the angle of these depressions1 or rabbits1 must be determined by the angle at which the sides meet at the bow on the plan you have drawn4 ,when the stem1 transom and molds are ready1 take the piece to be used as a keel1 cut the slit for the centerboard in it1 and fasten the deadwood or 8skeg0 in place by means of bolts1 screws and nails driven in from the upper side of the keel4 ,place the keel on the horses1 with blocks beneath it to hold it at the proper curve1 tacking them lightly to both keel and horses4 ,fasten the keel in place by clamps and by tacking it lightly and secure the stem in position by means of a block or a knee4 ,fasten the transom at the opposite1 or stern1 end and set your molds at the points where they belong with the lower edges flush with the bottom of the keel4 ,line up the center of the stem1 molds and transom by a line stretched along them1 arrange all the molds and the transom so they are parallel and exactly at right angles to the keel and secure them rigidly by means of light strips1 or battens1 tacked along their tops and brace them very securely by pieces running to the benches and keel4 ,then take one of the side planks1 clamp one end fast to the stem1 so it fits snugly in the rabbit1 and bend it slowly around the various molds to the transom and clamp it to each mold and to the transom4 ,if you have someone to help you while doing this it will be far easier1 for while one person holds or bends the board the other can secure it by the clamps4 ,here1 too1 you will find why it was necessary to fasten stem1 molds and transom firmly1 for the entire strain of the bending plank will come against them1 and unless they are absolutely rigid the stem will swing to one side and throw the boat out of true4 ,to prevent this it is a good plan to fasten braces from the top of the stem to the sides of the building where you are working1 so that the stem cannot by any possibility be moved4 ,when the plank is in position take a thin1 straight strip1 or batten1 of wood1 lay it along the upper edge of the plank--tacking it in position at the stem1 at each mold and at the transom and mark along this to give the sheer curve at the top of the plank4 ,remove the batten and use it in the same way at the bottom of the molds4 ,then take off the side plank1 saw carefully along the marks made by the batten1 cut the other plank exactly like it and replace it1 securing it first by clamps1 and then by boat nails driven through it into stem and transom and tack it lightly to each mold4 ,in driving the nails be sure to drill holes through the plank first1 as otherwise it may be split4 ,when both planks are in place1 lay a straight stick across from side to side and plane down the upper edges of the planks until the stick rests squarely upon the edges of both planks1 instead of on one corner of each1 as it will do at first4 ,when both sides are bevelled place the various frame or rib pieces on the insides of the planks1 spacing them about #a foot apart1 measuring along the curve of the sides1 and being sure to keep them parallel and leaving a space of #a-a_/b inches between their lower ends and the bottom edges of the planks4 ,secure them by means of rivets and burrs1 with the burrs on the inside1 or by means of clout-nails clinched over on the inside and use the old flatiron1 held against the head of each nail or rivet as you burr or clinch them with the hammer4 ,saw each rib off at the top1 just even with the planks1 and then fit a good stout piece of oak or throat knee between the planks and stem at the bow and fit two other knees at the corners of the planks where they join the transom4 ,at the spot where the mast is to be stepped secure a strong1 oak crosspiece1 or thwart1 with the mast hole cut in it1 across from one plank to the other by nailing1 or bolting1 pieces across the ribs just the thickness of the mast thwart below the upper edges of the planks4 ,bolt or screw the mast thwarts to these and then secure a block1 with a hole in it1 to the keel directly under the mast hole in the thwart4 ,if the boat is to be open you can place another thwart across the stern1 but if it is to be decked1 or partly decked1 the other thwarts can be put in just as well later on4 ,the next step is to make the centerboard and its case and place the latter in position4 ,the centerboard case is made by securing two pieces1 known as trunk-logs1 to the keel1 using white lead and strips of canton flannel or thin felt under them and drawing them tight to the keel by means of long screws run up from below4 ,of course1 it will be necessary to curve the lower edges of these pieces to fit the keel snugly before putting them in place4 ,then rivet the ends of these to the upright posts at the ends1 which should also be set in white lead and screwed to the keel1 and then build up the case by other boards to a height well above the water line4 ,the board itself may be made either of several pieces of wood or a single piece4 ,in the former case the strips should be dowelled together and a transverse strip should be placed at each end to prevent the pieces from separating1 while if one piece is used1 end pieces should be fastened on to prevent the plank from warping or splitting4 ,the board should be pivotted by running a brass bolt through the two sides of the case and the board with a piece of pipe1 an old rowlock socket1 or some similar 8bushing0 in the board to prevent the hole in the wood from wearing4 ,the board should be hung so it can be raised and lowered easily4 ,in order to do this1 the pivot should be near the lower front corner1 and the upper rear end of the board must be rounded or slanted off so it will swing up into the case4 ,the top of the case may be left open or a piece of board may be fitted over it with a hole for the rope or chain which is used to control the board to pass through4 ,be careful to adjust this chain1 or rope1 so the board cannot drop too far as it should not fall beyond the perpendicular4 ,the next step is to place light1 diagonal braces across from side to side and from molds to side planks1 tacking them lightly in position1 and then remove the braces and clamps from the keel4 ,lift the boat from the benches1 turn it upside down and plane off the lower edges of the planks until square as you did the upper edges4 ,then fit a piece of oak along the lower edge of each side plank1 cutting little notches in it to fit around the end of each rib4 ,rivet these to the sides1 plane off the bevel to bring these pieces true with the edges of the planks and you are ready to put on the bottom planking4 ,the bottom may be run either lengthwise1 or crosswise1 on a flat-bottomed boat1 but if run lengthwise cross timbers are required1 which are a nuisance1 and the crosswise planking does just as well and is far easier to make4 ,place a piece of the bottom planking across the bow1 covering the stem and extending a short distance on either side of the side planks4 ,smear the lower end of the stem1 the keel and the side planks with thick white lead and nail the piece securely into the stem1 the keel and the two oak pieces along the sides and to the side planks also4 ,in driving these nails be sure and set them at an angle to correspond with the slope of the sides1 or else they will split out and cause your boat to leak4 ,fit another cross plank behind this with plenty of white lead between the edges and secure it in place4 ,continue in this way until the slot for the centerboard is reached4 ,here the planks must be run from each side of the slots to the side planks1 and where the deadwood1 or skeg1 is fastened the same method must be followed4 ,when the bottom is fully planked saw off the projecting ends close to the sides1 being careful to keep the same angle and not to scar or cut the side planks1 and then1 with the block plane1 smooth the ends evenly with the side planks4 ,when this is done fit a false keel1 or rubbing-strake1 along the center of the bottom with a slot cut in it to correspond with the centerboard slot and taper it at the rear to fit the lower surface of the deadwood4 ,smear the under surface of this1 as well as the bottom where it rests1 with thick copper paint and nail firmly in place4 ,and don't forget to paint all the inside portions and joints of the centerboard case1 as well as the board itself and the inside edges and slot in the keel1 with copper paint before putting them together4 ,you can now turn your boat over1 knock out the molds and finish with the decking or other interior arrangements1 but before taking out the molds you should put the deck beams in place1 if a deck is to be used1 or should place thwarts across from side to side1 if the boat is to be left open4 ,for a small1 simple boat the deck beams may be run straight across from side to side and the cockpit may be made rectangular1 with the forward end pointed or ,v-shaped4 ,the deck may be made by nailing narrow strips along the timbers and following the curve of the sides1 or wider planks may be nailed lengthwise and trimmed off to make a smooth1 even edge with the sides1 after which a covering board should be nailed over the joint and a strip of half-round molding should then be run along to protect the edges from being injured1 as well as to give a good finish to the boat4 ,the edges of the cockpit should be finished by oak combing nailed to the deck and timbers1 and a quarter-round molding should then be run around the outside where the combing and the decks join4 ,if the deck is carefully made and laid in white lead1 it will be tight1 but if desired it may be covered with canvas laid in paint and with the edges folded down over the sides1 trimmed closely and concealed by the molding4 ,the rudder should be made of either wood or metal4 ,for a small boat1 brass or galvanized iron is the best4 ,it should be hung under the stern by means of a post run up through the keel and after deck4 ,to prevent water from entering1 a piece of brass tube1 or pipe1 threaded at both ends1 is run through the hole1 and set up closely by means of 8waste-nuts10 after which the ends of the pipe should be filed off smoothly and slightly rivetted or burred over to prevent the nuts from coming loose4 ,if you succeed in building a sharpie1 as directed1 you can attempt a ,v-bottomed1 or skipjack1 boat or a dory1 for the principles involved are the same in all1 but space will not permit a full description of how to construct these4 ,you can obtain a far better idea of how they are built by examining a boat and studying its various parts than by reading many pages of text4 ,finally let me warn you not to attempt to build any boat1 not even a small1 flat-bottomed skiff1 unless you possess patience and perseverance and are willing to take plenty of time and painstaking care4 ,no boat that is worth building can be made by slap-bang1 careless1 slack methods4 ,boat-building is something which cannot be hurried1 for the finished result depends very largely upon little things and attention to details4 ,to watch a boat-builder1 one would think that he did his work by guess and took little care1 but in reality he does everything in a certain order and a certain way4 ,his apparent carelessness is really expertness1 for he has done exactly the same thing so many times that it becomes second nature and is almost involuntary4 ,if there is a boat-builder in your vicinity visit his shop1 watch him by the hour1 note the way he handles his tools and the order in which he shapes the parts and puts them together and your time will be well spent4 ,it's the best possible way to learn the details of boat-building4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,chapter ,x ,,what ,,not ,,to ,,do ,in learning to sail a boat or when handling a boat after you have learned to sail1 there are certain things you should do and many other things you should not do and of these the latter are perhaps the most important4 ,in the first place don't try to learn to sail by using several different boats4 ,every boat has its peculiarities4 ,if you use one boat on one day and another the next you will be confused and will be unable to make rapid progress1 for one craft will sail to best advantage with the sails trimmed in one way and the very next boat you use may require very different treatment4 ,one boat will sail closer to the wind than another1 one will luff more quickly than another and one will come about readily every time1 while the next may miss stays under the same conditions4 ,still other boats require special arrangements of ballast1 a certain amount of centerboard or a definite trim in order to behave well and you must learn every whim and caprice of your craft to become expert in handling her4 ,don't try to learn to sail in a large boat or one with many sails or complicated rigging4 ,begin with a small craft with a single sail of the simplest pattern4 ,when you are thoroughly familiar with this you can attempt handling larger boats with head-sails4 ,don't take your first lessons in a strong wind1 in rough weather1 or when there are signs of thunder storms1 squalls or fogs4 ,select the very best weather for you'll have plenty to attend to without looking after the elements4 ,above all1 don't be afraid to be afraid4 ,many a man is considered brave merely because he doesn't know enough to be afraid1 but real bravery consists in realizing danger1 being afraid of it and yet facing it calmly1 deliberately and with intelligence4 ,don't be afraid of the opinions of others1 if you think you should shorten sail reef at once1 even if everyone else is carrying full sail and people laugh at your caution4 ,don't be afraid to fear squalls1 fogs1 gales or heavy seas for they are all treacherous and the more you fear them the more likely you'll be to safeguard yourself1 your passengers and your boat4 ,don't be afraid to refuse to go sailing if you think a squall1 storm1 or fog is coming up1 or if you think the weather too bad4 ,it's better to be scoffed at and called a coward than to be shipwrecked or drowned4 ,a live coward's better than a dead bravado any day4 ,don't be afraid to assert your authority4 ,the captain of any craft is supreme aboard his boat and there should be no questioning of his orders or decisions4 ,don't take anyone with you who is nervous1 cranky1 hysterical1 overbearing1 grouchy or a 8know it all40 ,such people spoil all the pleasure of a sail1 they are a nuisance and in times of danger they often become a real menace to others4 ,if they know more than you do1 or think they do1 they should be handling their own boats1 not going as passengers in yours4 ,don't take anyone with you as a passenger until you are competent to handle your craft under any and all conditions4 ,you have no right to imperil the lives of others4 ,don't take out a party unless there are life-preservers enough for all4 ,accidents happen to the best of sailors4 ,don't try to sail or handle a boat until you know how to swim4 ,don't set out on a sail without oars1 compass1 water1 anchor and at least one life-preserver on board4 ,don't jump1 run1 wrestle or skylark in a sailboat4 ,don't allow anyone to sit upon a rope or line which may be used at any moment4 ,don't permit passengers to sit or stand on the bow or bowsprit unless for the express purpose of keeping a lookout4 ,don't tie or make the mainsheet fast4 ,hold it in your hand with a single turn about a cleat1 so it can be released instantly4 ,don't try to show off by carrying all sail in a blow or in squalls4 ,reef before it's too late4 ,it's easier to shake out a reef than to put one in4 ,don't sail across or close to the wake of steamers to 8get0 their waves4 ,it may result in the boat capsizing and only shows you are a landlubber and a fool4 ,don't start out in the face of a storm1 gale or squall4 ,wait until you are sure of what is going to happen and then reef close if you must go forth in a blow4 ,don't forget that you cannot judge the force of the wind or the size of waves from the shore4 ,don't brag about 8liking to sail in storms40 ,real sailors cannot have weather too fair4 ,don't sail in fogs unless you have a compass and are sure of your course4 ,don't try to sail too close to reefs1 to other vessels or any other obstructions2 something may fail at the last moment and a collision or wreck may result4 ,don't forget that when sailing close to land sudden puffs or squalls are more frequent than in open water4 ,don't forget that another vessel1 a rock1 or the shore cuts off the wind and may cause you to lose headway and then when beyond the object the wind will strike you suddenly and perhaps with dangerous force4 ,don't fail to keep everything shipshape and orderly about the boat4 ,a snarled or kinked line is a menace to life and limb4 ,don't sail with water in the boat4 ,water is so much shifting ballast and is dangerous1 besides being unpleasant and unnecessary4 ,bail the water out and keep it out4 ,don't try to save a few cents by using old1 rotten1 or frayed ropes4 ,new rope is cheaper than human lives4 ,don't use a leaky boat4 ,if a boat leaks a little in smooth water it may leak fast enough to sink when in a seaway4 ,don't sail at night without lights4 ,you are endangering yourself and other sailors as well4 ,don't assume that the 8other fellow0 knows how to sail and is familiar 8with the rules of the road40 ,he may be more ignorant than yourself4 ,don't wait too long before turning aside for another boat4 ,shift your helm to show your intentions4 ,don't try to sail too close to the wind4 ,you'll reach your destination more quickly by sailing a few points off and thus traveling faster4 ,don't run dead before the wind if it can be avoided1 especially in a seaway4 ,don't sit on the lee side when sailing on the wind4 ,don't climb up on the masts or into the rigging unless it is necessary4 ,a man's weight at the top of a mast may cause the boat to capsize4 ,don't lash or tie the helm under any circumstances4 ,don't leave a lowered sail unfurled4 ,it ruins the sail and is dangerous4 ,don't try to run to a mooring or a landing before the wind when under sail4 ,lower the sail and run in under bare poles or row in4 ,don't fail to take the advice and suggestions of more experienced boatmen4 ,don't take others sailing until you are thoroughly familiar with the boat and know how to handle it under all conditions4 ,don't anchor or moor a boat where she will rest on a hard1 rocky or uneven bottom at low water4 ,don't overload your boat4 ,don't sail in strange waters without a chart or a pilot4 ,don't lose your head or get 8rattled40 ,keep cool and use your brains and common sense4 ,don't fail to keep your gaze to windward4 ,seas and wind puffs come from that side4 ,don't neglect the boat or allow your attention to be distracted by your companions4 ,don't attempt to tack or go about with a large wave rolling on your weather bow4 ,wait for a smooth1 or when on the summit of a long1 easy roller4 ,don't jibe if it can be helped4 ,it's just as easy and far safer to wear ship4 ,don't luff a boat sufficiently to stop her headway4 ,keep steerage-way at all times4 ,don't try to cross another boat's bows if she is under way4 ,don't get frightened if the boat upsets4 ,crawl up on the bottom over the weather side4 ,a capsized boat will support a number of people in perfect safety4 ,don't take to the water if there is any floating object to cling to4 ,even an oar will support a person4 ,don't let go of the helm and run about4 ,don't let sails1 ropes or garments trail in the water4 ,don't forget that a loaded or heavy boat has more momentum or headway than a light or empty boat4 ,don't trust a squall which you cannot see through4 ,don't use a brand new rope for any part of the running rigging4 ,stretch it and work it through tackles or over a beam before reeving it through the blocks of your boat4 ,don't sail in a beam wind and sea if it can possibly be avoided4 ,don't forget that if you are obliged to ride out a gale that oars1 cushions1 thwarts and spare canvas lashed together and attached to a line over the bow will hold the craft to the wind and seas and will also form a 8smooth0 for the boat4 ,don't under any circumstances allow liquor aboard your boat4 ,if your friends must drink spirits let them stay ashore to indulge themselves4 ,they have no place in a boat4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,some ,,nautical ,,terms ,,and ,,their ,,meanings ,aback4 ,a sail is said to be aback when its forward side is acted upon by the wind4 ,abaft4 ,a position toward the stern from any stated point4 ,abeam4 ,at right angles to the line of the keel4 ,about4 ,to go from one tack to the other4 ,adrift4 ,broken loose or uncontrolled4 ,aft4 ,towards the stern4 ,a-lee4 ,to the side of the craft opposite the wind4 ,to the leeward side4 ,all in the wind4 ,when the sails have the wind edge-on and shake4 ,amidships4 ,in the middle4 ,in line with the keel4 ,athwartships4 ,across the boat4 ,at right angles to the keel4 ,avast4 ,an order to stop or discontinue anything4 ,a-weather4 ,the side towards the wind2 to the windward side4 ,backstays4 ,stays or shrouds leading aft to support a mast or topmast4 ,bear up4 ,to turn from the wind4 ,belay4 ,to secure a rope about a cleat or pin4 ,bend4 ,to make fast4 ,a kind of knot4 ,berth4 ,an anchorage or mooring4 ,a slip or place where a boat rests at a dock4 ,a sleeping place4 ,bight4 ,a curve1 noose or slack portion of rope4 ,bitts4 ,upright pieces of timber or metal to which ropes or cables are fastened4 ,blocks4 ,contrivances with sheaves or rollers through which ropes are passed to make them move readily4 ,block and block4 ,when two blocks of a tackle are brought as close together as possible4 ,block and tackle4 ,blocks with the ropes rove through them4 ,board4 ,the distance made on a tack4 ,bobstay4 ,a stay from the cutwater to the bowsprit-end4 ,bolt rope4 ,the rope sewn around the edges of sails4 ,boom4 ,a spar at the bottom or foot of a sail4 ,a spar extended from a vessel's side to which small boats are fastened4 ,a raft of logs in a river fastened together to hold other logs in place4 ,bowline4 ,a line used on square sails to extend the forward edge of the sail when running close to the wind4 ,to ,sail on a ,bowline is to sail close to the wind4 ,bowse4 ,to haul upon4 ,bowsprit4 ,a spar extending forward from the bow4 ,brails4 ,ropes for drawing up a sail to the mast in order to furl it4 ,bring to4 ,to come to an anchor or mooring4 ,bull's eye4 ,a piece of wood with a hole in the center through which a rope may be passed4 ,by the head4 ,to be deeper in the water at the bow than at the stern4 ,by the wind4 ,as near the wind as the boat will sail without the sails shaking2 also called ,full and ,by4 ,cable4 ,a line or chain by which a vessel is anchored or moored4 ,a left-handed-laid rope4 ,capsize4 ,to upset4 ,to loosen a knot4 ,carry away4 ,to break or tear loose4 ,cast off4 ,to untie2 to free4 ,casting4 ,to pay a vessel off on the desired tack4 ,cat's paw4 ,a light puff or current of wind seen on the surface of the water4 ,a kind of knot or bend4 ,chock a block4 ,see ,block and ,block4 ,also used to denote fully laden4 ,cleat4 ,a metal or wooden object to which ropes are fastened4 ,clew4 ,the after corner of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,the two lower corners of a square sail4 ,close hauled4 ,sailing as nearly as possible into the wind4 ,cockpit4 ,the open after part of a boat4 ,course4 ,the direction in which a boat is to proceed4 ,the lower sails on square-rigged vessels4 ,crank or cranky4 ,not stable4 ,unable to carry sail well4 ,to tip easily4 ,unsteady4 ,cringle4 ,a thimble or eye worked in a sail and through which a rope may be passed4 ,crotch4 ,a support of crossed pieces of wood1 or metal1 in which the boom rests when the sail is furled4 ,cutwater4 ,the extreme forward edge of the bow4 ,davits4 ,curved iron or wooden objects to which boats are hoisted4 ,downhaul4 ,rope used to haul down sails4 ,dowse4 ,to lower rapidly4 ,also to extinguish4 ,draught or draft4 ,the amount of water in which a boat is immersed when afloat4 ,earrings4 ,lines passed through cringles4 ,ease off4 ,to slacken4 ,ensign4 ,the national flag of any country4 ,entrance4 ,the lower part of a vessel's stem4 ,fag end4 ,the end that is frayed4 ,fall off4 ,to move away from the wind4 ,fathom4 ,six feet4 ,fid4 ,a sharp1 tapered tool used in splicing rope4 ,fill away4 ,to have the wind fill the after surfaces of the sails and the vessel proceed on her course4 ,fore reach4 ,to pass to windward of another vessel when close hauled4 ,foul4 ,anything entangled4 ,to come into contact4 ,furl4 ,to stow a sail4 ,gaff4 ,the spar that supports the top of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,a pole with a sharp hook on the end4 ,gangway4 ,the place where people come aboard4 ,an opening in a vessel's side4 ,room to pass4 ,garboard strakes4 ,the planks next to the keel on a boat's bottom4 ,gasket4 ,a lashing of rope or a strip of canvas used to secure sails1 etc4 ,go about4 ,to tack4 ,to alter the course so the sail fills on the other side4 ,grapnel4 ,a four-pronged anchor4 ,griping4 ,carrying a hard weather helm4 ,grommet4 ,a ring of rope4 ,a metal ring used in place of an eyelet in a sail4 ,ground tackle4 ,the anchor1 cable and fittings4 ,halyards or ,halliards4 ,ropes used to hoist sails4 ,handsomely4 ,carefully1 smartly4 ,handy billy4 ,a small tackle used in hauling on a rope4 ,hanks4 ,metal rings for attaching sails to stays so they will slide easily4 ,heave to4 ,to stop a vessel's movement by so arranging sails that she will lie head to the wind and almost stationary4 ,heeling4 ,tipping to one side4 ,hitch4 ,a kind of knot4 ,in irons4 ,when headway is lost and the boat will not answer her helm4 ,jammed4 ,any rope or other object caught so it will not move or cannot be readily freed4 ,jib4 ,a triangular sail set between the mast and bowsprit4 ,jibe or ,gybe4 ,to let the mainsail swing from one side to the other when running free4 ,jury mast4 ,a temporary mast to replace a mast which has been carried away4 ,jury rig4 ,sails set on jury masts4 ,kedge4 ,a small anchor4 ,leech4 ,the after edge of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,the ends of a square sail4 ,lee helm4 ,when a tiller or helm must be held to leeward to prevent the boat from falling off the wind4 ,leeward4 ,the direction toward which the wind is blowing4 ,away from the wind4 ,leg4 ,the distance sailed on a tack in one direction4 ,log4 ,an instrument used to measure a boat's speed or the distance travelled4 ,a record of the ship's travel and what has been done each day4 ,a book in which the log is kept4 ,long leg4 ,the longest course sailed when tacking4 ,luff4 ,to bring the boat's head to the wind4 ,the forward edge of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,lying to4 ,heading close into the wind under reduced sail so as to remain practically stationary4 ,missing stays4 ,failure to come about when tacking4 ,moor4 ,to secure by anchors or cables4 ,moorings4 ,a spot where a vessel is kept when at anchor4 ,mouse4 ,to secure by means of spun yarn or line to prevent its becoming detached4 ,a seizing about a hook4 ,off and on4 ,approaching on one tack and bearing off on the other especially when approaching or near land4 ,offing4 ,out to sea4 ,sea room4 ,overhaul4 ,to slack up a rope and haul it through blocks4 ,to straighten out a line and arrange it4 ,to examine and make right4 ,to overtake4 ,painter4 ,the line by which a boat is made fast and which is attached to the bow4 ,part4 ,to break or pull apart4 ,pay4 ,to coat with pitch or tar4 ,to let out rope or cable4 ,pay off4 ,to recede from the wind4 ,to bring a boat's head around to catch the wind4 ,pendant4 ,a short piece of rope4 ,pennant4 ,a narrow flag or streamer4 ,pooped4 ,to be struck by a sea which comes over the stern4 ,port4 ,left hand4 ,also sometimes called ,larboard4 ,preventer sheet4 ,a sheet used to relieve unusual strain4 ,preventer stay4 ,a temporary or movable stay set up to relieve a strain on the rigging under certain conditions4 ,quarter4 ,part between beam and stern4 ,rake4 ,the lean or cant of a mast or other object from the perpendicular4 ,reaching4 ,sailing with wind abeam4 ,reef4 ,to reduce the area of a sail4 ,a line or group of sunken rocks4 ,reeve4 ,to run a rope through anything4 ,rooting4 ,burying by the head4 ,run4 ,the submerged after-part of the hull4 ,scud4 ,to run before a wind4 ,a kind of cloud4 ,seize4 ,to make fast or bind4 ,selvage4 ,a strap made of yarns loosely bound together4 ,sheave4 ,the wheel within a block or any wheel over which a rope runs4 ,sheer4 ,to vary from a direct course4 ,the curve from bow to stern horizontally4 ,sheet4 ,a rope attached to a sail and by which the sail is held and worked4 ,on a square sail1 ropes which spread the sails4 ,snorter or snotter4 ,a rope strap into which the heel of a sprit is slipped4 ,soldier's wind4 ,a beam wind4 ,spill4 ,to throw the wind out of a sail4 ,splice4 ,a method of joining two objects together so the joint is no larger than the rest of the object4 ,spring4 ,to crack or bend a spar4 ,a rope made fast to a cable1 to some spot ashore1 to a buoy or mooring1 or to another vessel and then led aft in order to swing a vessel's stern in any desired direction4 ,to start a plank4 ,to start a leak4 ,sprit4 ,a light spar used to extend a sail4 ,squatting4 ,settling down by the stern4 ,starboard4 ,the right-hand side4 ,stay4 ,a rope or wire used as a support to a spar4 ,sternboard4 ,to move backward stern first4 ,tack4 ,to proceed against the wind by zigzags4 ,the forward corner of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,tackle4 ,any arrangement of ropes and blocks4 ,taut4 ,tight4 ,truck4 ,the top of a mast4 ,unbend4 ,to cast off2 to unfasten4 ,veer4 ,to turn4 ,to pay out cable4 ,wake4 ,the track left by a vessel in the water4 ,watch4 ,a division of the crew4 ,the length of time a man is on duty4 ,wear4 ,to turn a boat's head into the wind and then around until she has the wind on the opposite side4 ,weather helm4 ,when a tiller or helm must be kept to windward to prevent a boat from flying into the wind4 ,weathering4 ,surviving anything1 such as a gale or storm4 ,getting to windward of anything4 ,weigh4 ,to hoist or lift1 especially to lift the anchor4 ,wind's eye4 ,the exact direction from which the wind blows4 ,yaw4 ,to swerve wildly or violently from a true course despite the action of the rudder4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's note3 ,all figure references in the text have been regularized4 ,table of ,contents1 #8,latteen' changed to #8,lateen1' 8sails4 ,lateen1 lug1 gunter0 ,page #bi1 full stop changed to comma after #8say1' 8he will say1 8,starboard0 ,page #dd1 semicolon inserted after #8topmast1' 8the topmast2 it may also0 ,page #df1 #8leg-o'mutton' changed to #8leg-o'-mutton1' 8is a leg-o'-mutton sail0 ,page #dh1 closing parenthesis added after #8lines71' 8course in dotted lines770 ,page #eb1 #8,waterline' changed to #8,water line1' 8#aa--,water line4 #ab--,starboard quarter40 ,page #ec1 #8it' changed to #8is1' 8have to do is to learn0 ,page #gj1 #8,,sailing' diagrams #ab1 depicting approaches to moorings1 and #ac1 depicting approaches to and departures from docks1 are absent from original caption4 ,page #ib1 #8water-line' changed to #8water line1' 8especially below the water line0 ,page #aab1 #8show' changed to #8shown1' 8as shown in the illustration0 ,page #aah1 #8whch' changed to #8which1' 8the strands which form the0 ,page #acc1 comma struck after #8small1' 8is some small reef0 ,page #adg1 full stop inserted after #8blowing1' 8which it is blowing4 ,all these0 ,page #aeb1 second #8and' struck1 8underrunning her and leaving0 ,page #afg1 #8diamter' changed to #8diameter1' 8from #a_/b to #a inch in diameter0 ,page #afi1 #8certerboard' changed to #8centerboard1' 8and the centerboard should be0