,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,,principles ,,of ,,public ,,health ,a ,,simple ,,text ,,book ,,on ,,hygiene ,,presenting ,,the ,,principles ,,fundamental ,,to ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,individual ,,and ,,community ,,health ,,by ,,thos4 ,d4 ,,tuttle1 ,b4,s41 ,m4,d4 ,,secretary ,,and ,,executive ,,officer ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,board ,,of ,,health ,,of ,,montana ,illustration3 7publisher's colophon7 ,,yonkers-,,on-,,hudson1 ,,new ,,york ,,world ,,book ,,company #aiaj ,,conservation ,,of ,,health ,our national health is physically our greatest asset4 ,to prevent any possible deterioration of the ,american stock should be a national ambition4--,,theodore ,,roosevelt4 ,the conservation of individual and national health is the keynote of these books ,,principles ,,of ,,public ,,health ,by ,,thos4 ,d4 ,,tuttle1 ,m4,d41 ,secretary and ,executive ,officer of the ,state ,board of ,health of ,montana4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 vii #ahf pages4 ,list price #ej cents1 mailing price #fj cents4 ,,primer ,,of ,,hygiene ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,ritchie1 of the ,college of ,william and ,mary in ,virginia1 and ,,joseph ,s4 ,,caldwell1 of the ,george ,peabody ,college for ,teachers1 ,nashville1 ,tennessee4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 vi #ahd pages4 ,list price #dj cents1 mailing price #dh cents4 ,,primer ,,of ,,sanitation ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,ritchie4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 vi #bjj pages4 ,list price #ej cents1 mailing price #fj cents4 ,,human ,,physiology ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,ritchie4 ,illustrated in black and colors4 ,cloth4 vi #cfb pages4 ,list price #hj cents1 mailing price #if cents4 ,,world ,,book ,,company ,,caspar ,w4 ,,hodgson1 ,manager ,,yonkers-,,on-,,hudson1 ,,new ,,york ,copyright1 #aiaj1 by ,world ,book ,company4 ,all rights reserved ,,introduction ,the earliest history of remote ages describes methods employed in combating disease1 and down through all the centuries the struggle against infection has been going on4 ,the science of health as applied in recent years reveals wonderful progress in the avoidance of disease1 and in the control of the violent epidemics by which in the past nations were almost exterminated4 ,modern methods of hygiene and sanitation as applied to public health have robbed smallpox and diphtheria of their death-dealing power2 cholera and yellow fever have been forced to retreat before the victorious hosts of applied medical science2 tuberculosis1 the greatest foe of human life1 is slowly but surely receding before the determined efforts of modern preventive medicine4 ,by nature man is endowed with resistive power sufficient to ward off most forms of disease1 provided he keeps his health at a normal standard by right living4 ,if1 however1 he allows his health to become impaired by reason of overwork1 bad habits1 wilful exposure to contagion or unhealthful surroundings1 he readily falls a prey to disease4 ,the author of ,principles of ,public ,health has here set forth the general rules of life by the observance of which every adult and every child not only can do much to preserve his own health but also can prove himself a prominent factor in raising the standard of public health4 ,a campaign of education is demanded to arrest the enormous loss of life which is carrying so many to untimely graves1 and the instruction given in this volume will be of inestimable value in teaching people how to avoid avoidable disease4 ,the author has not attempted to deal with all the diseases that may be classed as preventable2 as the work is intended for use in the public schools1 only such diseases are mentioned as it seems fitting to present to school children4 ,to teach our children a proper respect for their own health and for the community welfare is to fit them for the best citizenship4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,pierce1 ,m4 ,d4 ,,portland1 ,,oregon ,,acknowledgments ,the author wishes to express his sincere appreciation of the valuable assistance rendered in the preparation of this work by ,dr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,armstrong1 of ,new ,york ,city2 ,dr4 ,h4 ,wheeler ,bond1 ,commissioner of ,health1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri2 ,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,bracken1 ,secretary and ,executive ,officer of the ,state ,board of ,health of ,minnesota2 ,j4 ,s4 ,caldwell1 ,professor of ,biology1 ,george ,peabody ,college for ,teachers1 ,nashville1 ,tennessee2 ,r4 ,j4 ,condon1 ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,providence1 ,rhode ,island2 ,mrs4 ,nona ,b4 ,eddy1 of the ,public ,schools of ,helena1 ,montana2 ,dr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,mc,murray1 of ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,miss ,jessie ,b4 ,montgomery1 ,supervising ,critic in ,training ,school1 ,state ,normal ,school1 ,terre ,haute1 ,indiana2 ,dr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,pierce1 ,secretary and ,executive ,officer of the ,state ,board of ,health of ,oregon4 ,,contents ,,part ,i--,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,health ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,constant ,,danger ,,of ,,illness #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,body #d ,,iii4 ,,how ,,clothing ,,affects ,,health #i ,,iv4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,food #ad ,v4 ,,care ,,of ,,food--,,meats #ah ,,vi4 ,,care ,,of ,,food--,,milk #bb ,,vii4 ,,decomposition ,,of ,,food #cj ,,viii4 ,,harm ,,done ,,by ,,improper ,,cooking #cd ,,ix4 ,,how ,,neatness1 ,,cheerfulness1 ,,and ,,good ,,manners ,,promote ,,health #cg ,x4 ,,dangers ,,from ,,poor ,,teeth #da ,,xi4 ,,necessity ,,for ,,pure ,,air ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,secure ,,it #de ,,xii4 ,,rest ,,essential ,,to ,,health #ea ,,xiii4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,and ,,ear #ef ,,xiv4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,skin #fj ,,xv4 ,,common ,,poisons ,,to ,,be ,,avoided #fd ,,part ,,ii--,,the ,,enemies ,,of ,,health ,,xvi4 ,,disease ,,germs #gc ,,xvii4 ,,encouragement ,,of ,,disease ,,by ,,uncleanly ,,habits #ge ,,xviii4 ,,flies ,,as ,,carriers ,,of ,,disease #gi ,,xix4 ,,how ,,disease ,,germs ,,get ,,into ,,water #he ,,xx4 ,,transmission ,,of ,,disease ,,through ,,the ,,air #hi ,,xxi4 ,,insects ,,as ,,carriers ,,of ,,disease #ib ,,xxii4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,germs ,,out ,,of ,,wounds #ie ,,xxiii4 ,,transmission ,,of ,,diphtheria #ajj ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,cure ,,of ,,diphtheria #ajh ,,xxv4 ,,how ,,typhoid ,,fever ,,germs ,,are ,,carried #aac ,,xxvi4 ,,hookworm ,,disease ,,and ,,amoebic ,,dysentery #abj ,,xxvii4 ,,how ,,scarlet ,,fever ,,is ,,carried #abc ,,xxviii4 ,,measles ,,and ,,whooping ,,cough ,,dangerous ,,diseases #abh ,,xxix4 ,,how ,,smallpox ,,is ,,prevented #aca ,,xxx4 ,,why ,,vaccination ,,sometimes ,,seems ,a ,,failure #ach ,,xxxi4 ,,consumption1 ,,the ,,great ,,white ,,plague #adb ,,xxxii4 ,,how ,,consumption ,,is ,,spread ,,and ,,how ,,prevented #aej ,,xxxiii4 ,,how ,,consumption ,,is ,,cured #aeg ,,appendix--,,summary ,,of ,,anatomy #afc ,,suggestions ,,to ,,the ,,teacher #ahb ,,index #ahc ,,part ,i ,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,health ,,chapter ,i ,,constant ,,danger ,,of ,,illness ,every boy and girl confidently expects to grow into a strong and healthy man or woman4 ,how often we hear a child say1 ,when ,i am a man1 or ,when ,i am a woman2 but ,i have never heard a boy or a girl say1 ,if ,i live to be a man or woman4 ,when you think of what you will do when you are grown into men or women1 it never occurs to you that you may be weak and sickly and therefore not able to do the very things that you would most like to do4 ,this suggests that sickness is not natural1 else the thought that you may perhaps become sick would enter your mind4 ,as a matter of fact1 most sickness is not natural4 ,sidenote3 ,the fight for life ,there is a constant struggle going on in the world4 ,you see a fight about you every day among the animals4 ,you see the spider catch the fly1 the snake catch the frog1 the bird catch the insect1 and the big fish catch the minnow2 and you have heard of wars where men kill one another4 ,the greatest enemies that men have to fight1 however1 are not other men1 or wild animals1 but foes that kill more men1 women and children every year than were ever killed in the same length of time by war4 ,these foes are small1 very small1 but you must not think that because things are small they are not dangerous4 ,we call these foes disease germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,looking at cells through a microscope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,some skin cells as seen through a microscope4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of a germ ,the germ is a very1 very small body2 it is the smallest living body that we know4 ,later we shall learn that our bodies are made up of cells1 and that these cells are extremely small--so small that it takes a very powerful microscope to see one of them4 ,the germ is still smaller than the cells in our bodies1 and it is made of a single cell4 ,there are a great many kinds of germs in the world4 ,fortunately1 most of them are not harmful4 ,some germs cause disease1 but there are other germs that not only are not harmful1 but are actually helpful to men4 ,among the helpful germs are those that enrich the ground1 and these should be protected2 but all germs that cause disease should be destroyed as rapidly as possible4 ,these germs are fighting all the time against our health4 ,they are not armed with guns and cannon1 neither do they build forts from which to fight2 but they get inside our bodies and attack us there4 ,sidenote3 ,how to fight germs ,there are three principal ways by which we fight disease germs3 first1 by keeping our bodies so well and strong that germs cannot live in them2 second1 by keeping germs out of our bodies2 third1 by preventing germs from accumulating in the world--that is1 by killing as many of them as possible4 ,if it is possible to keep so well and strong that disease germs cannot live in our bodies1 you will naturally infer that there are other causes of sickness besides disease germs4 ,that is true1 for there are a great many things beside germs that cause our bodies to get into such a condition that disease germs can enter and grow and make us ill4 ,we sometimes call this a run-down condition4 ,before we begin1 then1 to study the germs that cause disease1 we must learn how to keep our bodies strong and ready to fight these germs4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what evidence have we that sickness is not natural8 #b4 ,name some of the fights going on in the animal world4 #c4 ,what can you say of the amount of illness caused by germs8 #d4 ,tell what you have learned about germs4 #e4 ,name three ways of fighting germs4 ,remember4 #a4 ,most sickness comes from failure to observe ,nature's laws4 #b4 ,we must keep up a constant fight against germs that cause sickness4 #c4 ,we fight germs by killing as many of them as we can1 and by keeping our bodies so strong that if a disease germ enters it cannot grow4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,body ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the organs of the body4 ,sidenote3 ,how the body is like an automobile ,these bodies of ours are built somewhat like automobiles4 ,an automobile is made up of a framework1 wheels1 body1 gasoline tank1 engine1 and steering-gear4 ,the human body has much the same form of construction4 ,we have a frame1 which is made of the bones of the body4 ,we have arms and legs1 which correspond to the wheels of the automobile4 ,we have many little pockets in our bodies in which fat is stored1 and these little pockets answer to the gasoline tank of the automobile4 ,we have an engine which1 like the automobile engine1 is made up of many parts2 and we have a head or brain1 that plays the same part as the steering-gear of the automobile4 ,the automobile has a tank in which is carried the gasoline necessary to develop power for the machine4 ,if the gasoline gives out1 the engine will not run1 and before the owner starts on a trip1 he is always careful to see that the tank is well filled4 ,in the same way1 if we do not provide new fat for the pockets in our bodies in which the fat is stored1 our supply will soon give out and our bodies will refuse to work1 just as the engine of the automobile will refuse to work when the gasoline is used up4 ,sidenote3 ,what cells are like ,the automobile is made of iron and wood and rubber1 and each bit of iron and wood and rubber is made up of tiny particles4 ,the body is made of bones and muscles1 covered with skin1 and all these are made up of very fine particles that we call cells4 ,every part of the body is made of these fine cells4 ,the cells are so small that they can be seen only with a powerful microscope4 ,if you look at your hand you cannot see a cell1 because it takes a great many cells to make a spot large enough for you to see4 ,in ,figure #a you see a boy looking through a microscope1 and beside him you see a picture of what he sees4 ,this picture does not look like the skin on your hand1 neither does it look like the skin on the boy's hand2 but it is nothing more nor less than a piece of skin taken from that boy's hand1 and it looks just as a piece of skin from your own hand would look if you were to see it through a very strong microscope4 ,sidenote3 ,why cells must not be killed ,the whole body is made up of just such little cells as you see in ,figure #d1 and each cell is alive and has a certain work to perform4 ,it is very important that we keep these cells from dying and that they perform the work for which they are intended1 for if these cells die or fail to act1 the body becomes sick or dies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a cell4 7a7 ,cell body2 7b7 nucleus2 7c7 nucleolus4 ,you can scratch some of the paint from your automobile and the machine will work just as well as ever4 ,apparently no harm has been done1 but an opening has been made through which moisture and germs can enter and cause the wood to rot and the iron to rust4 ,you can remove certain parts of the automobile and still the machine will do its work2 but you cannot take away too much of any one part without weakening the automobile1 and if certain parts are missing 7such as the sparker1 the battery1 or the steering-gear71 the usefulness of the machine is destroyed4 ,so it is with the body4 ,you can scratch off some of the skin and not do any apparent harm1 but you have made an opening through which germs may get into the body4 ,you can remove certain parts of the body1 such as the arm or leg1 and still the body will do efficient service4 ,but there are certain parts of the body that are necessary to life1 just as certain parts of the automobile are necessary to the usefulness of the machine4 ,you cannot remove the heart and live2 you cannot remove the brain and live4 ,sidenote3 ,how cells are killed ,you are probably thinking that it must be easy to kill such a little thing as a cell2 and so it is4 ,cells can be killed by too much heat or too much cold4 ,when you skin your hand1 you kill many cells1 and at the same time make an opening for germs to get in and cause sickness4 ,you can kill cells also by starving them1 for they must have not only enough food1 but the right kind of food4 ,if you feed your bodies on nothing but candy1 pie1 and cake1 most of the cells will refuse to perform their work and many of them will die4 ,these cells must have also an abundance of air1 and the air must be pure and fresh4 ,if you breathe the air that others have breathed or that contains poison of any kind1 you will soon find that you are not feeling well4 ,this simply means that so many of the cells are being starved for fresh air1 that not enough strong ones are left to do the necessary work4 ,you can kill these cells by overwork1 for they must have a proper amount of rest4 ,if you go to school all day long and then sit up until midnight every night1 you must not expect the cells of your body to keep strong and well4 ,you can kill these cells by the use of certain things that act as poisons to them1 such as tobacco1 beer1 wine1 or whisky4 ,questions4 #a4 ,in what way is the body like an automobile8 #b4 ,what are cells like8 #c4 ,why must cells not be killed8 #d4 ,name five ways by which we kill cells4 ,remember4 #a4 ,each part of the body is important to the welfare of the whole body4 #b4 ,each part of the body is made up of very small particles that we call cells2 each cell in the body is alive and has a certain work to perform4 #c4 ,cells are very easily weakened and killed4 #d4 ,there are five principal ways by which we kill the cells in our bodies3 by too much heat or cold2 by not giving them the proper kinds of foods2 by not giving them enough fresh air2 by giving them too much work to do2 and by poisoning them4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,clothing ,,affects ,,health ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,warm1 dry clothing necessary for health4 ,sidenote3 ,why the body should be equally covered ,the body should always be kept at as nearly uniform a temperature as possible4 ,in order to do this we wear clothing4 ,clothing keeps out the heat on a hot day1 just as it keeps the heat in and the cold out on a cold day4 ,the clothing should be equally heavy on all parts of the body4 ,it is not right to wear a thick dress over your chest and leave your shoulders and arms bare1 or nearly so4 ,people who do this are killing a great many cells by letting part of their bodies become chilled while the rest is warm1 probably too warm4 ,sidenote3 ,why clothing should not be too heavy ,the clothing should be just heavy enough to keep the body warm4 ,if you wear such heavy clothing indoors that you are constantly perspiring1 your underclothes become damp1 and when you go out1 even though you put on your overcoat1 your body becomes chilled4 ,if you begin to sneeze1 that is ,nature's way of telling you that you are killing many of your cells by too much cold4 ,people sometimes get warm from exercising1 and then take off their coats4 ,they should have removed their coats before they began to exercise4 ,if you take off your coat after you are too warm1 your body becomes chilled4 ,baseball pitchers know this1 and if you watch a good pitcher1 you will see that he always puts on his sweater as soon as he stops pitching1 even though he is very warm4 ,he knows that if he cools off too quickly1 he will become stiff and sore and cannot pitch good ball4 ,sidenote3 ,when a draft is dangerous ,sometimes a person sits in a warm room until he begins to perspire freely4 ,then he opens a window and sits in the draft4 ,under ordinary conditions1 the cool wind alone would chill the body1 but now the rapid drying of the perspiration makes the body cool still more quickly4 ,the sudden chill causes the person to take cold1 which is simply another way of saying that he has killed many cells and caused others to fall sick1 so that they cannot perform their work4 ,we cannot get too much fresh air4 ,drafts do not hurt us if we are thoroughly wrapped up2 but it is very dangerous to allow the wind to strike the body when it is not well protected1 and especially when it is damp with perspiration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,properly prepared for wet weather4 ,sidenote3 ,why damp clothing is dangerous ,damp clothing chills the body very rapidly and kills many cells4 ,indeed1 if a single one of the germs that cause pneumonia were to enter your lungs while you were wearing damp clothing1 it would grow so rapidly that you might have pneumonia in a very little while4 ,that is why it is important to change your shoes and stockings as soon as you get them wet1 and to take off immediately any clothing that becomes damp4 ,it is hard for boys and girls to keep their feet dry in the winter and spring months1 and rubbers are a nuisance2 but if you expect to grow into the strong man or woman you picture yourself becoming1 you must take care to wear your rubbers4 ,otherwise you may become weak and sickly1 and never be able to do the things you hope to do4 ,the feet are not the only part of the body that needs to be kept dry4 ,a wet coat is just as harmful as wet shoes and stockings2 hence1 you should always carry an umbrella or wear a raincoat when you go out into the rain4 ,umbrellas are unhandy for boys and girls to carry1 but if you will remember that thousands of little cells in your body are being injured when you get wet and chilled1 you will be willing to take your umbrella4 ,sidenote3 ,when to wear an overcoat ,in cold weather the same amount of clothing should not be worn in the house and outdoors2 for this reason1 we have overcoats4 ,if you wear your overcoat in the house1 you will become overwarm and your underclothing will then become damp with perspiration2 when you go outdoors into the cold air1 this dampness will have just the same effect as would dampness that comes from outside4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #g and #h4 ,if you keep your overcoat on in the house1 your underclothes become damp from perspiration1 and when you go outdoors your body becomes chilled4 ,as soon as the weather gets cold1 put on your overcoat every time you go outdoors1 and take it off as soon as you come into the house4 ,this is troublesome for boys and girls to do1 because they want to run in and out of the house so often2 but on the other hand1 think of all the cells you will kill if you do not do this1 and you will certainly consider it worth while to take off your coat and put it on again4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how does keeping the body equally covered protect the cells8 #b4 ,give reasons for not wearing too heavy clothing4 #c4 ,when is it safe to sit in a draft1 and when dangerous8 #d4 ,what is the danger of keeping on wet shoes or other damp clothing8 #e4 ,when and why should overcoats be worn8 ,remember4 #a4 ,clothing should be just heavy enough to keep the body warm all the time4 #b4 ,never take off your coat or sit in a draft when you are too warm4 #c4 ,since wearing damp clothing causes a great deal of sickness1 change your clothes as soon as they become wet or damp4 #d4 ,do not forget to take your umbrella when it is raining and to wear your rubbers when the ground is wet4 #e4 ,in cold weather wear your overcoat when you are outdoors1 but take it off when you come into the house4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,food ,we kill a great many of the cells in our bodies by starving them2 either we do not give them enough food or we do not supply the right kind of food4 ,sidenote3 ,why the body needs new cells ,not only must we feed the cells in our bodies1 but we must be constantly making new ones1 for in all our work or play1 awake or asleep1 we are constantly using up certain cells4 ,these cells are used to make the body go1 just as the engine uses coal to form the steam that gives it power to run4 ,boys and girls grow fast and1 of course1 if they expect to become well men and women1 they must make a great many new cells all the time1 in addition to those used in doing the work of the body4 ,if we are to make new cells we must have the right kind of food with which to make them4 ,sidenote3 ,how the body keeps itself warm ,we want to do something besides make new cells2 we want to keep warm and well the cells we already have4 ,no amount of clothing would keep you warm if you were not making heat inside your body all the time1 any more than you could make a telephone post warm by putting your coat on it4 ,therefore it is necessary to have food that makes heat in the body1 in addition to food that builds cells4 ,we eat a great many kinds of foods1 and all that we eat is used either for building new cells or for producing heat in the body4 ,thus we can divide all our foods into two classes--building material and heat-producing material4 ,the type of building material is lean meat1 and the type of heat-producing material is fat meat and starches1 such as potatoes and bread4 ,milk contains much building material as well as heat-producing material4 ,that is why a baby grows and keeps warm while he takes nothing but milk4 ,sidenote3 ,the building foods ,lean meat is the best of all building foods4 ,eggs are largely a form of lean meat1 and hence constitute a good article of food for building purposes4 ,certain vegetables contain a large per cent of building material2 this is especially true of dried beans and peas4 ,wheat flour and corn meal 7particularly when made of whole wheat and unbolted meal7 contain much building material4 ,it is possible for one to live and grow when eating only vegetable matter4 ,but the boy or girl who tries to become a strong man or woman by eating only vegetables will be disappointed2 these are mostly heat-producing foods and will not make strong bodies4 ,experience has proved that the best results are obtained by eating what is called a mixed diet1 that is1 a diet composed partly of lean meats and partly of fats and vegetables4 ,sidenote3 ,the heat-producing foods ,of the heat-producing foods1 fat is the most powerful4 ,most of the fat that we eat is used immediately for producing in the body heat1 and therefore power1 but a part of it is stored up for future use4 ,we see it in all healthy young persons4 ,it is this stored-up fat that gives the body its rounded form4 ,when any one has been sick he is thin1 because1 to produce heat and power while he was sick1 he has had to use the fat stored up in his body4 ,to have such a supply of fat is like having a bank account to draw on when out of work4 ,we might call the deposits of fat in our bodies our health banks4 ,fat meat is not the only form in which we eat fats2 we eat them in a great many other ways4 ,certain vegetables1 such as beans1 contain an oil that forms fat4 ,ripe olives contain a great deal of fatty oil4 ,butter is a very important form of fat1 and cream contains a large amount of it4 ,sidenote3 ,cost of suitable foods ,in selecting our foods we should think of two things3 first1 the value of the food as a heat-producer or as a building material2 and second1 the cost of the food4 ,we may like butter much better than bacon1 but we should remember that1 pound for pound1 bacon has a greater nourishing power than butter1 and a pound of bacon will cost far less than a pound of butter4#a ,vegetable foods produce heat by means of the starch which they contain4 ,all vegetables contain starch4 ,this starch is changed into a kind of sugar in the body1 and when thus changed it is used to produce heat and power4 ,all vegetable foods do not have the same heat-producing power4 ,there is more heat-producing power in a pound of oatmeal than there is in ten pounds of cabbage4 ,ten cents' worth of dried beans will produce more heat in the body than will a dollar's worth of lettuce4 ,thirty cents' worth of corn meal will do more building in the body than will a piece of mutton worth a dollar and a half2 but you would have to eat a large amount of corn meal in order to secure the building effect that would result from eating a small quantity of mutton4 ,in most fruits the only nourishing quality is in the sugar they contain4 ,this sugar produces heat in the body just as starch does4 ,sidenote3 ,the real value of advertised foods ,you will see some foods advertised as possessing a wonderful nourishing power4 ,do not let such statements deceive you1 for no food can have a greater nourishing power than the things from which it is made4 ,if the particular food advertised is made from wheat flour1 its nourishing power is just the same as that of an equal quantity of wheat flour4 ,if it is made from corn meal1 it can have no greater nourishing power than has the meal itself4 ,we have learned something about the materials necessary in food and why they are needed4 ,we must now learn why foods that contain these materials sometimes do not give us as good results as we might hope for4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what use does the body make of new cells8 #b4 ,how does the body keep itself warm8 #c4 ,name two uses that the body makes of food4 #d4 ,what foods are especially useful for making cells8 #e4 ,what foods are chiefly used for making heat8 #f4 ,select articles of food for two meals of equal nourishing value1 one meal to be expensive and the other inexpensive4 #g4 ,how would you determine the real value of any food8 ,remember4 #a4 ,foods are used to make heat and power in the body and to make the body grow4 #b4 ,the foods that make the body grow are called building materials1 and lean meat is the best kind of building material4 #c4 ,the foods that produce heat and power in the body are called heat-producing materials1 and fats and starches are the best heat-producers4 #d4 ,all vegetables contain starch1 some of them contain a fatty oil1 and most of them contain some building material4 #e4 ,you can get as much building and heat-producing material from cheap foods as you can from expensive foods4 ,,chapter ,v ,,care ,,of ,,food--,,meats ,sidenote3 ,value of meat as a food ,meat is one of the most important articles of our diet4 ,it furnishes essential materials for building cells1 and it furnishes fat for making heat and power in the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,a double menace to health2 the slaughterhouse is dirty1 and the filth is drained into a stream4 ,sidenote3 ,characteristics of good meat ,since meat is so important an article of food1 we should be very careful to see that it is handled in a way to keep it always perfectly clean4 ,we should make sure that it comes from animals absolutely free from any kind of disease1 and that no germs have been allowed to develop poisons in it4 ,sidenote3 ,how meat may be kept clean ,while people know that they ought to pay attention to these things1 as a matter of fact they do not do it4 ,they take very little interest in the way the meat that they are to eat is handled1 and very few ever go to the slaughterhouse or into the back room of the butcher shop to see whether things are kept clean or not4 ,some people say1 ,oh1 we do not like to go there because it is such a horrid place4 ,if these places were kept clean1 as they should be1 they would not be horrid4 ,and if the people who buy the meat would occasionally visit them1 these places would be kept clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,properly displayed foods1 protected from handling and from dirt and flies4 ,if the slaughterhouse and the butcher shop where your meats are handled are not kept clean1 the meat is sure to have germs growing in it1 and these germs will cause poisons called ptomaines to form in the meat4 ,there may not be enough of them to make you sick1 but there will be enough to injure some of the cells of your body1 and to deprive you of much of the nourishment that you would otherwise get from the meat4 ,all boys and girls should belong to a ,clean ,meat ,league and should try to persuade their parents not to buy meat from any butcher who does not keep his slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean4 ,sidenote3 ,dangers from diseased meat ,sometimes butchers are anxious to make money fast and take little thought for the number of people they may make ill4 ,they can buy sick cows very much cheaper than well ones4 ,the meat from a sick cow looks just like the meat from a healthy cow1 and the dishonest butcher sells both at the same price4 ,the meat from the diseased cow is not suitable for food4 ,it may cause you to have the same disease that the cow had1 or it may only be changed to such an extent that it will not give you the nourishment that you should get from good meat4 ,the butcher who sells you meat from a sick cow is of course dishonest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,improperly displayed foods1 exposed to handling and to dirt and flies4 ,sidenote3 ,how to prevent the sale of diseased meats ,ask your father to visit the slaughterhouse where your meat is killed4 ,the only thing you need to do is to persuade him to go and see whether the cattle are sick or not4 ,if the cattle look sick1 you will not have to ask him not to buy the meat4 ,no person should ever eat meat that comes from a diseased animal1 no matter what the nature of the sickness may be4 ,people who will take the trouble to visit the slaughterhouses occasionally1 to investigate these things for themselves1 will not have such meat offered them4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of giving animals clean food ,animals that are fed on filthy food are not fit for human consumption4 ,butchers often feed the offal 7the insides7 of animals to the hogs4 ,this makes the hogs fatten quickly1 but it also makes them diseased4 ,when you go to the slaughterhouse with your father1 ask him to go around to the back door1 and if you see hogs eating this filth1 do not buy any more meat from that butcher4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what use does the body make of meat8 #b4 ,what conditions are essential for good meat8 #c4 ,how can meat be kept clean8 #d4 ,why is meat from a diseased animal unfit for food8 #e4 ,how can you help in preventing the sale of meat from diseased animals8 #f4 ,why should animals not be fed with offal8 ,remember4 #a4 ,meat that is not handled in a clean manner is sure to contain germs that cause a poison to form in the meat4 #b4 ,never buy meat from a butcher who does not keep his slaughterhouse and butcher shop clean4 #c4 ,meat from a diseased animal is not fit for food4 #d4 ,meat from animals fed on filthy food should not be eaten4 #e4 ,form a ,clean ,meat ,league and visit the slaughterhouse where your meat is killed4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,care ,,of ,,food--,,milk ,sidenote3 ,value of milk as a food ,milk is another important article of food4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington says that milk furnishes sixteen per cent of the nourishment of the people of the country4 ,milk is an excellent food when it is pure1 but when it is not pure it is very dangerous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,a clean dairy4 ,sidenote3 ,milk as a carrier of germs ,milk has carried the germs of every disease of which the germ is known2 it has also carried many diseases of which we do not know the germ4 ,disease germs grow rapidly in milk1 and they do not make the milk look different or taste different from milk that is perfectly pure4 ,if you could take two bottles of milk entirely free from disease germs and put typhoid fever germs in one1 and should set both bottles in an ice box for twenty-four hours1 you would not then be able to tell into which one you had put the germs4 ,the milk in both bottles would look and taste just the same4 ,the only difference between the milk in the two bottles would be that if you drank from one it would make you stronger and would furnish you with both building material and power-producing material1 while if you drank from the other you would become very ill and would probably die4 ,sidenote3 ,how disease germs get into milk3 ,since we cannot tell from the taste or the appearance of milk whether or not there are disease germs in it1 we must take every precaution possible to keep them out4 ,the first step is to learn where the disease germs come from and how they get into the milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,polluted milk is sure to come from a dairy where cleanliness is not observed4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,by dirt on the cow ,every cow has more or less dirt on her sides and udder2 some have a great deal4 ,when the cow is milked1 much of the dirt falls into the milk bucket4 ,this dirt always contains a great many germs of different kinds1 and many of them are germs that cause disease4 ,straining the milk will take out much of the dirt1 but disease germs will go through the finest strainer that was ever made4 ,in ,figure #ac we see a man milking a dirty cow4 ,the owner has allowed his lot to become so dirty that the cow cannot find a clean place in which to lie down4 ,if the man kept his lot clean1 and if before milking the light dirt on the cow's sides and udder were wiped off with a damp cloth1 no germs would fall into the milk4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by dirt in the cow barn ,another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is the barn4 ,the walls of a barn where cows are milked should always be kept clean and should be whitewashed frequently4 ,if this is done1 there will be comparatively little dirt on the walls to fall into the milk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,only clean milk will come from a dairy where proper precautions are taken4 ,of course the walls and floors of a barn cannot be kept absolutely clean4 ,there will always be some dirt1 and the movements of the cows shifting their position and switching their tails1 will stir up the dust2 so it is important to remove the milk from the barn as soon as possible4 ,milk cans should never be kept in the barn4 ,the milk should be taken directly from the barn to a cooling house and there strained4 ,all barns where cows are kept should have plenty of windows1 that there may be an abundance of light and fresh air4 ,cows need fresh air just as much as people do1 while a barn that is not supplied with plenty of light is very likely to be a dirty barn4 ,keep dirt and disease germs out of the milk by keeping the barn clean and by taking the milk away from the barn as soon as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a dirty1 insanitary milk-house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,a clean1 inexpensive milk-house4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by dirt on the milkman ,another source of dirt and disease germs in milk is the milkman or milkmaid4 ,no matter how careful we may be1 our clothes hold more or less dust1 and all dust contains germs1 very often disease germs4 ,when a person is milking a cow1 the dust from his clothes is shaken off into the milk4 ,the only way to avoid this is to wear1 while milking1 a special suit of clothes made of white cloth1 which may be washed as soon as it shows the least particle of dirt4 ,the milker's hands1 too1 are often dirty4 ,perhaps he carefully washes his hands after milking1 but not before4 ,it is a common custom for milkers to moisten their hands with milk while milking1 and to do this frequently4 ,the result is that dirty milk from their hands is constantly dropping into the milk pail4 ,this is a very bad habit1 and doubly bad if the milkman has not washed his hands before milking4 ,sometimes there are sick people at the dairy farm4 ,often some one nurses a sick person until milking time and then goes out and milks the cows4 ,when this is done1 the milker is almost sure to plant the germs of the disease in the milk4 ,no milk should ever be used from any dairy where there is an infectious disease2 and no one who has charge of a sick person1 no matter what the nature of the sickness1 should ever handle milk that is to be used by others4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,a model bottling establishment4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,by dirt in cans and bottles ,the cans and bottles in which the milk is placed are frequently sources of dirt and germs4 ,milk cans and bottles are supposed to be thoroughly washed before milk is put into them1 and they should be thoroughly scalded after they are washed4 ,this is not always done1 and sometimes the bottles are not washed at all4 ,some dairymen will tell you that the bottles and cans are always washed and scalded just before the milk is put into them1 and that this is never neglected by any dairyman4 ,that is what a dairyman once told me4 ,then ,i asked him how he accounted for the fact that ,i had found a milk ticket in the bottle with the fresh milk4 ,of course he could not explain this1 though ,i thought ,i could explain it for him4 ,the old milk bottle was returned to the milkman with the ticket for the new milk inside it4 ,the deliveryman left the fresh milk1 but forgot to take the ticket out of the bottle2 and the man who washed the bottles must have forgotten to take out the ticket too4 ,of course1 the bottle was not washed at all1 and if one bottle goes unwashed1 it is reasonable to assume that others are neglected in the same way4 ,milk bottles and cans should always be thoroughly washed before fresh milk is put into them4 ,this washing cannot be done by little children2 it is work for a man or woman1 and careful work at that4 ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,by polluted water ,i have just told you that milk vessels should be thoroughly washed4 ,it is true1 however1 that disease germs may get into the milk through this very process of washing the vessels4 ,water sometimes contains disease germs1 especially the germs that cause typhoid fever1 cholera1 and other diseases of the intestines4 ,such water is said to be polluted4 ,when milk vessels are washed with polluted water1 the germs are left in them and thus get into the milk4 ,if the water used to wash the cans is thoroughly boiled1 the germs will be killed2 hence it is important to scald all milk vessels4 ,all water used about a dairy should be perfectly pure4 ,if there is the least suspicion about the quality of the water1 it should be examined by a chemist2 and if it is not pure1 the milk from such a dairy should not be used4 ,in order to prevent the possibility of any infection1 all water used to wash milk vessels should be thoroughly boiled even when the water is known to be pure1 and the vessels should afterward be scalded1 to kill any germs that may be left after washing4 ,sidenote3 7#f7 ,by flies falling into the milk ,flies very frequently get into the milk4 ,later we shall learn more about how flies carry germs1 but at present it is enough to know that on every fly there are a great many germs1 and whenever a fly gets into milk it plants those germs and they grow very rapidly4 ,as soon as a cow is milked1 the milk should be taken to a clean cooling house1 with screens at all the windows and doors1 and there strained into a vessel and cooled4 ,sidenote3 7#g7 ,by disease in the cow ,the last way that we will mention by which germs get into milk is by disease in the cow herself4 ,cows suffer from many diseases1 just as men do2 and when a cow is sick1 her milk is very likely to contain the germs of the disease that is making her sick4 ,especially is this true of tuberculosis1 or consumption1 as it is called4 ,a great many children get consumption by drinking milk from consumptive cows4 ,no milk should ever be used from a cow that is not healthy4 ,all dairy cows should be examined at frequent intervals by a competent veterinarian to make sure that they are free from any disease4 ,questions4 #a4 ,milk forms what per cent of the food of the people of the ,united ,states8 #b4 ,why is it important that milk should be kept clean8 #c4 ,name some ways by which germs get into milk4 #d4 ,what is the danger from a dirty cow and barn8 #e4 ,how can this danger be prevented8 #f4 ,how does the milkman allow germs to get into the milk1 and how can he avoid doing so8 #g4 ,how should milk cans and bottles be washed8 #h4 ,why is it important that only pure water be used about the dairy8 #i4 ,how can flies be kept out of milk8 #aj4 ,how should milch cows be tested to make sure that they are free from tuberculosis8 ,remember4 #a4 ,milk is a very important article of food2 it is both a building and a heat-producing material4 #b4 ,when milk is not properly handled1 it contains many disease germs4 #c4 ,disease germs often get into milk from unwashed bottles and cans2 from dirty barns2 from dirty milkmen2 from dirty water used to wash the cans and bottles2 from flies falling into the milk2 from diseased cows4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,decomposition ,,of ,,food ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,partially decayed fruit is not fit for food4 ,sidenote3 ,why partially decomposed foods should not be eaten ,vegetables and fruits that are partially decayed should not be eaten4 ,even if an orange is decayed only on one side1 the products of decomposition--that is1 the poisons produced by decay--have extended all through the orange4 ,you cannot see them1 but they are there4 ,it is the same with a decaying apple1 potato1 or melon4 ,it never pays to buy partially decayed or stale fruits or vegetables1 for not only are they dangerous to health1 but they are so reduced in nourishing qualities by decomposition that you get little value for the money you spend4 ,it is always better economy to buy fresh fruits and vegetables1 or even canned vegetables1 when the latter are properly put up4 ,sidenote3 ,what causes decomposition ,all decomposition 7rotting7 in fruits and vegetables is due to the action of germs4 ,if you will look at a bunch of old grapes1 you will notice that some of the grapes are rotten1 while others have dried up4 ,now1 if you examine them very carefully1 you will find that all the decomposed grapes have breaks in the skin4 ,the break may be very small1 but it is there1 and through this break the germs that cause decomposition have entered4 ,you will find also that there is not the slightest break in the skin of any grape that has dried up4 ,the germs could not enter1 hence there has been no decomposition4 ,it is the same with other fruits and vegetables3 if the germs that cause decomposition cannot get inside1 the fruit or vegetable will dry up1 but will not rot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,fruits displayed for sale1 but properly protected from flies1 dust1 and dirty hands4 ,germs can go through a very small opening--so small that you may not be able to find it2 but if there is decomposition1 the hole is there4 ,the skin of the body acts in the same way as the skin of the grape and keeps out a great many germs that would make us sick were they able to get through the skin4 ,they often get through the skin when we cut ourselves4 ,meats decompose as well as fruits and vegetables1 and the decomposition is due to the presence of germs in the meat4 ,we cannot keep all germs out of meat1 but we can keep out a great many of them by having everything clean about the meat1 by keeping it covered as much of the time as possible1 and by handling it only with clean hands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,fruits for sale1 not properly protected from flies1 dirt1 and other sources of filth4 ,sidenote3 ,why foods do not decompose in very cold places ,when meat is kept so cold that it is almost frozen1 the germs cannot grow1 and decomposition is prevented4 ,in this way meat can be kept perfectly free from decomposition for several weeks4 ,after the meat is taken from the cold storage room1 it should be cut as soon as possible into steaks1 roasts1 and other pieces for cooking2 and when taken to your home1 it should be kept in an ice box until the time to cook it4 ,you cannot keep meat very long at home without decomposition starting1 because small ice boxes are not cold enough to check entirely the growth of germs4 ,unless the meat is to be eaten hot1 it should be cooled after cooking and placed again in the ice box as soon as possible4 ,cooking kills the germs that are in the meat before it is cooked2 but unless it is kept in a very cold place and protected from flies after it is cooked1 germs will get into it again as soon as it is cold4 ,cooked meat will decompose just the same as uncooked meat4 ,sidenote3 ,what is formed in food by decomposition ,when germs are allowed to grow in meat1 as always happens when it is not kept in a very cold place1 these germs cause the poisons that we call ptomaines4 ,the people who eat such meat become sick1 and in many cases do not recover4 ,cooking meat that contains ptomaines will kill the germs that caused the poison1 but it will not destroy the poison that has already been formed4 ,sidenote3 ,why some canned meats are poisonous ,people not infrequently are poisoned by eating canned meat4 ,sometimes you will hear it said that the poison formed because the meat was in cans4 ,this is not true2 the cans had nothing to do with the forming of the poison4 ,this was caused by germs that were allowed to grow in the meat before it was cooked4 ,when the meat was cooked the germs were killed1 but the poison was not destroyed4 ,in other words1 the poison developed before the meat was canned1 and not after it was put into the cans4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what is the objection to eating fruits when they are partially decayed8 #b4 ,why do some foods shrivel while others decay8 #c4 ,why does decomposition not go on in cold places8 #d4 ,what are ptomaines8 #e4 ,when are ptomaines formed in canned meats8 ,remember4 #a4 ,partially decomposed fruits or vegetables are not suitable for foods4 #b4 ,meats in which germs have been allowed to grow should not be eaten4 #c4 ,cooking meat kills the germs in it1 but does not destroy the poisons that the germs have formed4 #d4 ,when canned meats are poisonous1 it is because the poison was formed before the meat was canned2 the poison is not caused by the can4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,harm ,,done ,,by ,,improper ,,cooking ,sidenote3 ,effects of improper cooking ,nearly all food should be cooked before it is eaten2 but if the cooking is not properly done1 much of the nourishing power of the food is destroyed1 and in some instances the food is rendered actually injurious4 ,sidenote3 ,why starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked ,starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked in order that the coverings which surround the little granules may be broken or made soft4 ,if starchy foods are not thoroughly cooked1 the little grains go into the stomach as hard as grains of sand2 then most of them are not digested at all1 but pass out of the system without furnishing any nourishment to the body4 ,if starchy foods are fried in fats1 as is the case with doughnuts1 the granules of starch become coated with fat4 ,as the fat is not digested until it comes to the intestines1 the saliva never reaches the coverings of the starch1 and more work is thrown on the other juices of the body4 ,the result is that the little glands which make these other juices are overworked1 or else the starch is not digested at all and therefore furnishes no nourishment to the body4 ,when bread is sticky 7we sometimes call it soggy7 in the middle of the loaf1 it is because the flour has not been thoroughly cooked and the little grains or granules of starch are still hard4 ,you cannot feel these granules between your fingers1 but they are hard just the same1 and very little of such food is made use of in the body4 ,remember that all starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked1 and remember1 too1 that all vegetables are chiefly starchy in character4 ,sidenote3 ,how fats should be cooked ,when fats are cooked over a very hot fire1 an acid is developed that is injurious to the body4 ,this does not mean that when the fire is hot enough to broil a steak well1 it causes this acid to form2 neither does it mean that heat sufficient to boil the grease for cooking doughnuts will cause it to form4 ,every cook knows that when she fries fat meat over a fire that is too hot1 it has a bitter taste4 ,this bitter taste is caused by an acid which will destroy a part of the usefulness of the food in the body and will cause many of the cells to stop doing their work properly4 ,sidenote3 ,how meats should be cooked ,there is a great difference of opinion in regard to cooking foods1 especially meats4 ,some people will tell you that meats should not be cooked at all2 that man originally ate his meat raw and that this is the proper way4 ,others will tell you that all meat should be cooked until it does not show a particle of red1 even until it is dry throughout4 ,these are the two extremes2 and it is never well to go to extremes in anything1 especially in matters that concern the health4 ,meat should always be cooked1 because by being cooked it is made more easily digestible2 but it should not be cooked1 until all the juices1 which contain much of the nourishing matter1 are dried up and the meat made hard4 ,meat that is cooked until it is dry and hard is more difficult to digest than meat that is not cooked at all4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what effect has improper cooking on foods8 #b4 ,why should starches be thoroughly cooked8 #c4 ,what is the objection to starchy foods fried in grease8 #d4 ,what changes take place in fatty food when it is fried over a very hot fire8 #e4 ,why should all meats be cooked8 #f4 ,what is the objection to cooking meat until the juices are dried out8 ,remember4 #a4 ,starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked so that the fine grains may be softened and the food thus made more easy to digest4 #b4 ,fats should not be fried over a very hot fire because too much heat causes a poison to form in the fat4 #c4 ,meats should be cooked1 but never until they become dry1 as the juices in the meat contain most of the nourishing material4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,how ,,neatness1 ,,cheerfulness1 ,,and ,,good ,,manners ,,promote ,,health ,sidenote3 ,why mealtime should be pleasant ,the dining table should be the pleasantest and most inviting place in the house4 ,if you are complaining and quarreling during the meal1 you cannot enjoy the food2 you cannot eat it properly2 and your ill temper will so affect your body that you cannot properly digest what you eat4 ,a dirty table1 with flies swarming over the food1 is not very tempting1 and when seated at such a table1 one does not eat the things that are best for him and sometimes does not eat anything at all4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,a clean1 inviting dining-room4 ,sidenote3 ,how uninviting luncheons affect the appetite ,the luncheons that boys and girls take to school with them are often prepared in so careless a way that they are extremely uninviting4 ,the substantial school lunch can be made just as appetizing as the dainty refreshments at an afternoon tea or at a party4 ,if the same care is devoted to the preparation of the one as of the other1 boys and girls will eat their lunches with enjoyment and good appetites4 ,sidenote3 ,why an attractive table calls for pleasing guests ,if the table is made to look clean and inviting1 do you not think that you1 in your turn1 should make yourself as neat and clean as possible before you come to it8 ,dirt on your hands and face not only does not look well1 but contains a great many germs that may get into your food and thus find their way into your body and try to make you ill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,two lunches4 ,which is the more tempting8 ,sidenote3 ,how foods should be eaten ,besides being eaten in pleasant surroundings1 all food should be eaten slowly4 ,let us suppose that we are all seated at a clean1 inviting table and everyone is clean and happy4 ,before the children is the very kind of food that is best for them4 ,it looks good and they know it is good1 and they want to eat all they can of it4 ,but they think of a game of jacks or of ball that they want to play as soon as dinner is over1 so they simply bolt their food4 ,what are teeth made for8 ,why1 to chew with1 of course4 ,but why are we given some teeth that are sharp like knives1 and some that are flat like millstones8 ,it seems probable that these different kinds of teeth are intended for special purposes1 and so they are4 ,if our teeth were intended only for cutting our food into bits small enough to swallow without causing pain1 there would be no need for any except the sharp1 knife-like teeth4 ,but we have the big grinders1 which were made to use1 and it is very important that they be used in the right way4 ,sidenote3 ,why food should be thoroughly chewed ,we do not chew our food simply to make it fine enough to swallow1 but for quite another reason as well4 ,in our mouths there is a fluid called saliva4 ,think of something that you are very fond of eating1 and the mere thought of it makes the saliva come into your mouth4 ,this saliva has a very important duty to perform in connection with preparing the food for the little cells of the body4 ,each little grain of starch--and you will remember that all vegetable foods are composed largely of starch--has a capsule about it4 ,this simply means that it is done up in a little package4 ,the saliva helps to open this capsule by making it soft 7just as water will soften the paper on a package of candy71 so that the other digestive juices can reach the starch and turn it into the kind of sugar that is used in the body4 ,if you do not chew your food very fine1 the saliva will not reach the starch granules1 the little packages of starch will be hard to open when they go into the stomach1 and much of the starch will never be made use of in the body4 ,the saliva has much the same action on the coverings of the little packages of meat1 for all the meat that we eat is done up in similar packages4 ,a great ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,gladstone1 who lived to be eighty-three1 made a practice of chewing every bite of food twenty times1 and he thought this had a great deal to do with his being such a strong and well man and living to such an old age4 ,sidenote3 ,when desserts are not harmful ,after you have eaten meats1 bread1 and vegetables1 it will do no harm to eat a piece of pie or cake1 or a dish of ice-cream or some other dessert4 ,it is not easy1 as a rule1 to digest these things 7that is1 to get them into such shape that they can be used as food by the little cells in the body71 but a moderate amount of them is very good for boys and girls1 as well as for grown people4 ,if you refuse to eat the meat and bread1 but wait until the dessert is served and then fill your stomach with sweet things1 you will be starving some of the little cells1 and you will be reminded of this very soon4 ,sometimes you may be reminded of it by having a pain in your stomach1 but more often by getting low grades in your lessons at school4 ,your teacher will know it1 too1 because you will be so restless and inattentive in your classes that she will have to give you a low grade in deportment as well4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what kind of topics should be discussed at mealtime8 #b4 ,what is the objection to an untidy table8 #c4 ,what kind of luncheon do you like best8 #d4 ,what does a clean table call for8 #e4 ,what is the importance of eating slowly8 #f4 ,why should we chew our food thoroughly8 #g4 ,when are desserts not harmful8 ,remember4 #a4 ,the dining table should be the most inviting place in the house4 #b4 ,unpleasant subjects should be avoided at mealtime4 #c4 ,a clean table calls for clean people4 #d4 ,eat slowly and chew your food thoroughly1 that the saliva may reach each grain of starch4 #e4 ,desserts are not harmful if eaten at the end of a meal composed of good building and heat-producing materials4 ,,chapter ,x ,,dangers ,,from ,,poor ,,teeth ,we have learned that chewing is not merely a process of cutting our food into such lumps as we can swallow without hurting ourselves2 but that the food must be ground up fine and thoroughly mixed with the saliva1 that the saliva may reach every particle of starch4 ,if we do not have good teeth1 we cannot grind our food as fine as it ought to be ground1 and1 as a result1 a great deal of the starch will not be reached by the saliva4 ,nature starts every child with a full set of good1 strong1 clean teeth4 ,these teeth1 which we call first1 or milk1 teeth1 are not very large1 but they are perfect in every respect and last until the second1 or permanent1 teeth come in4 ,that is1 they will last so long if they are taken care of4 ,if they are not taken care of1 they will decay just as the later teeth will decay1 and they must be cared for in the same way4 ,sidenote3 ,why we have baby or milk teeth ,boys and girls sometimes wonder why they have a set of teeth that come out before they can have the teeth that must last them the rest of their lives4 ,this is simply because there is not room enough in a child's mouth for the big1 permanent teeth4 ,we must have teeth while our jaws are growing1 so we have first a set of little teeth4 ,then just as soon as our jaws get large enough for the big teeth1 the little teeth come out and the big ones come in4 ,teeth are about the hardest substance in the body4 ,if we take care of our second teeth1 they should last as long as we live4 ,the only reason they do not last is because we do not take care of them4 ,if a person would keep his teeth clean all the time1 he would rarely be obliged to have a single permanent tooth pulled4 ,sidenote3 ,why teeth break easily ,teeth are so hard that they are brittle1 that is1 they break easily4 ,glass is brittle1 and you can chip off a piece of glass with a pin by sticking the pin into a crack in the glass4 ,in just the same way you can chip off a piece of a tooth by sticking a pin between two teeth4 ,that is what often happens when people pick their teeth with pins1 or with any other hard substance4 ,a metal toothpick is just as bad as a pin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,teeth were not intended for nutcrackers4 ,another way by which little pieces are chipped off the teeth is by biting hard things4 ,sometimes we see boys and girls cracking nuts with their teeth2 again we see them trying to bite wires in two4 ,they put their teeth to many uses for which teeth were never made4 ,they do not realize1 while they are abusing their teeth in this way1 that they are probably chipping the enamel1 which is the hard1 shiny covering of the tooth1 and are destroying the one protection that their teeth have against decay4 ,sidenote3 ,why teeth decay ,when a little piece is chipped off a tooth1 an opening is made through the enamel4 ,through this opening germs may lodge in the inner part of the tooth1 which is soft4 ,when this happens1 a little black speck appears on the tooth1 and after a while the tooth begins to ache4 ,if you have a toothache1 you go to a dentist1 and he probably finds that germs have caused the tooth to decay until there is a hole extending into the very center of it4 ,teeth grow very close together1 but there is always a little space between them4 ,whenever you eat anything1 particles of the food get into these spaces and if allowed to remain there1 soon decompose4 ,these decomposing particles of food between the teeth will gradually soften even the enamel1 and in this way little openings are made for germs to get into the teeth4 ,sidenote3 ,how to care for the teeth ,never pick the teeth4 ,you cannot make them clean by picking them4 ,every morning and night brush your teeth with a stiff toothbrush and a little tooth powder4 ,brush them both crosswise and up and down1 to get out everything from between them4 ,do not think you have done your duty if you brush only your front teeth1 the ones that show4 ,brush the back teeth just as thoroughly as you do the front teeth4 ,very few people will see your back teeth1 but these decay just as fast as your front teeth1 if they are not kept clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,a sanitary wash-basin with a separate bowl for washing the teeth4 ,sidenote3 ,how often one should go to the dentist ,twice each year you should have a dentist examine your teeth1 to see if there are any little spots where decay has started4 ,if you have kept your teeth perfectly clean all the time1 and have not chipped off little pieces1 there will be none of these decayed spots4 ,but it is a safe plan to have the teeth looked over at least twice a year1 for you may have broken a tooth without knowing it1 and by the time a decayed spot is large enough to cause pain1 or has made a hole that you can feel with your tongue1 it has advanced much farther than it should have been permitted to do4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why should you chew your food thoroughly8 #b4 ,why is it necessary to have baby teeth8 #c4 ,how are teeth easily broken8 #d4 ,why do teeth decay8 #e4 ,what must you avoid in order to protect your teeth8 #f4 ,how should your teeth be brushed8 #g4 ,why should you have your teeth examined twice each year by a dentist8 ,remember4 #a4 ,take care of your teeth and they will last you as long as you live4 #b4 ,do not pick them with pins1 or toothpicks of any kind4 #c4 ,do not use them for nutcrackers or wire-cutters4 #d4 ,do not use them for tack pullers4 #e4 ,keep them clean at all times4 #f4 ,brush them up and down as well as crosswise4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,necessity ,,for ,,pure ,,air ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,secure ,,it ,we have learned how the cells of the body are killed by starvation4 ,now let us learn how they are choked to death1 or killed by lack of air4 ,sidenote3 ,how air is changed in the body ,the cells of the body need oxygen1 and the only way we can give it to them is by means of air4 ,every time we take air into our lungs we are giving oxygen to the red corpuscles or cells in the blood1 which distribute it to the other cells in the body4 ,the air that goes into our lungs1 if it is fresh and pure1 contains a great deal of oxygen and a very little of another gas called carbon dioxid4 ,the air that comes out of the lungs contains a very little oxygen and a great deal of carbon dioxid4 ,the blood not only takes the oxygen out of the air1 but gives carbon dioxid to the air4 ,this carbon dioxid is very poisonous1 and would kill the cells if it remained in the blood2 hence we should never breathe the same air twice4 ,there is no lack of fresh air in the world1 and no excuse for anyone's ever breathing air that is not pure4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of impure air ,if you close all the windows and doors in the schoolroom and shut up the ventilators1 you will soon find that you are not able to pay close attention to your studies1 and in a little while you will begin to feel drowsy4 ,this is because you have used up so much of the oxygen in the air that there is no longer enough to supply the demands of the little cells1 and because1 in addition1 you are taking into your bodies the poisonous carbon dioxid that has been breathed out into the room4 ,it takes a great deal of fresh air to supply the body with oxygen--about #a1bej cubic feet of air each hour4 ,with thirty or forty children in a room1 it does not take long to use up all the oxygen4 ,so there should be a constant supply of fresh air coming into the room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,results of breathing good and bad air4 ,sidenote3 ,methods of ventilation ,it is not only in the schoolroom that you need oxygen4 ,when you are out-of-doors you get an abundance of fresh air1 but from a great many houses every bit of fresh air is shut out4 ,it is always possible to let an abundance of fresh air into any house without causing a draft4 ,a piece of board can be made to fit into a window frame so that when the window is raised1 the air will be directed upward and will not cause a draft4 ,hot-air furnaces are made with cold-air pipes4 ,the fresh air from outdoors comes through these cold-air pipes and1 after being heated1 is driven into the rooms of the house4 ,some people think they will save coal by closing these drafts4 ,not only do they not save coal 7for the furnace does not give as much heat when this draft is closed71 but they kill their body cells by refusing to give them oxygen4 ,the cold-air pipe in a hot-air furnace should always be kept wide open4 ,in houses heated with steam or hot water1 either the windows must be kept open1 or some other way must be provided for admitting fresh air and taking out foul air4 ,these arrangements constitute a system of ventilation4 ,houses heated with stoves must also be provided with some means of ventilation4 ,the stove1 by its draft1 takes out a little of the foul air1 but it will not take out more air than one person poisons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,restfulness3 ,effect of good ventilation in a sleeping-room1 with the right position for sleeping4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,restlessness3 ,effect of poor ventilation in a sleeping-room1 with the wrong position for sleeping4 ,sidenote3 ,why windows should be kept open at night ,many people seem to think that they do not need fresh air at night1 and they close their bedroom windows as tight as they can4 ,those people do not sleep well and often have bad colds4 ,you should always sleep with your windows open4 ,if it is impossible for you to have your windows open without having a draft1 choose the draft2 it will do you no harm if you are well covered1 and under no circumstances will it do you as much harm as the foul air that you breathe if your window is closed4 ,some persons 7fortunately they are few nowadays7 will tell you that night air is dangerous4 ,i wonder what kind of air these people expect to breathe at night4 ,do they expect to fill the room in the daytime with enough air for use at night8 ,such air would certainly not be very fresh4 ,night air is the only kind of air that it is possible to breathe at night4 ,sidenote3 ,the ventilation of public assembly rooms ,churches1 theaters1 and ten-cent shows are often very poorly ventilated4 ,you can always tell a poorly ventilated room by the foul odor when you go into it from the fresh air1 and it is not wise to stay in such a room4 ,you are killing the cells in your body when you do so1 and you will very probably come out of it with a bad cold4 ,when the fresh air strikes you1 you feel chilly and you may think you are taking cold then1 but in reality you took cold in that room full of foul air4 ,sidenote3 ,ventilation of workshops ,workshops are often poorly ventilated4 ,no person should ever work in a badly ventilated place4 ,the labor unions frequently strike for higher wages1 but until recently a strike for better ventilation was rarely heard of4 ,better ventilation would be practically equal to an increase in wages1 because there would be fewer doctors' bills to pay1 and less likelihood of losing work through illness4 ,always have plenty of pure1 fresh air wherever you are--in school1 in bed1 at work1 or at play4 ,sidenote3 ,why we should breathe through the nose ,the cells in the skin of the nose secrete a watery fluid1 and this fluid serves to moisten the air as it passes through the nose4 ,dry air irritates the mucous membrane which lines the nose1 throat1 and lungs1 and it is very important that the air be moistened before it reaches the throat4 ,air is also warmed as it passes through the nose4 ,cold air is irritating to the throat and lungs4 ,the small hairs in the nose catch the dust and dirt in the air and prevent it from going into the lungs4 ,the nose was made to breathe through1 and all the air that goes into your lungs should pass through your nose1 in order that it may be moistened1 warmed1 and cleansed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,showing position of adenoids and tonsils in the throat4 ,sidenote3 ,why some children breathe through the mouth ,frequently we see boys and girls breathing through the mouth4 ,they do this because there is something in the nose that prevents the air from passing freely through it4 ,if there were nothing in the way1 the child would breathe through the nose instead of the mouth1 because the natural way of breathing is through the nose4 ,the most common reason for mouth-breathing is the growth of small lumps in the throat just behind the nose4 ,these little lumps are called adenoids4 ,they are not natural1 and should be taken out4 ,we do not know why they grow in some children and not in others1 but we do know that they should be taken out so that the child can breathe easily through the nose4 ,large tonsils also cause boys and girls to breathe through the mouth4 ,tonsils that are large enough to cause the child to breathe through the mouth ought always to be taken out4 ,large tonsils and adenoids are often found in the same child4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of mouth-breathing ,when a child breathes through his mouth all the time1 his face takes on a peculiar shape4 ,his upper lip grows long1 his lower jaw drops back1 and his whole face looks flat4 ,his voice has a peculiar sound1 and he finds it very hard to keep up in his classes at school4 ,children with adenoids and large tonsils are always backward in their school work1 and may become deaf if the adenoids and tonsils are not removed4 ,if you breathe through your mouth instead of through the nose1 go to the doctor and let him see if you have adenoids or large tonsils2 if you have1 let him take them out4 ,you cannot possibly grow into a strong1 healthy man or woman if you have adenoids and do not have them removed4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what does the body take out of the air8 #b4 ,what does the body put into the air8 #c4 ,what effect does impure air have on the body8 #d4 ,why should one sleep with windows open8 #e4 ,what causes the unpleasant odor in a crowded room8 #f4 ,how would workmen benefit by properly ventilated workshops8 #g4 ,name the helpful ways in which the air is changed while passing through the nose4 #h4 ,why do some children breathe through the mouth8 #i4 ,what effect comes from mouth-breathing8 ,remember4 #a4 ,impure air destroys health4 #b4 ,never sleep in a room where the window is closed4 #c4 ,avoid going into public places or workshops that are not well ventilated4 #d4 ,air must pass through the nose before it is fit for the lungs4 #e4 ,mouth-breathing is not natural and is usually due to some defect that can easily be cured4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,rest ,,essential ,,to ,,health ,sidenote3 ,why exercise is necessary ,exercise is necessary to make our bodies grow and become strong4 ,if we stayed in bed all the time1 our muscles would not grow and we could not even walk4 ,if we did not exercise them1 the cells in our brains would not grow and we should not know anything4 ,every part of our body must have exercise1 that is1 each part must do some work every day4 ,if we used only one part of the body and did not give the other parts any work to do1 only the part that we used would grow1 while all the rest of the body would be small and weak4 ,sidenote3 ,proportion of rest required ,while every part should do some work each day1 the whole body needs also to have a proper amount of rest4 ,even the heart1 which seems to be working all the time1 must rest4 ,it rests between each beat4 ,the muscles with which we breathe rest between each breath4 ,every person must have a certain amount of rest each day4 ,a man should have at least eight hours' sleep in every twenty-four hours2 boys and girls should have from nine to ten hours' sleep in every twenty-four4 ,it is only while we are sleeping that we have complete rest4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of overwork ,everybody should have some work to do4 ,boys and girls should learn that work is a part of life1 though they should not be expected to do too much4 ,they should not be required to get up at four o'clock in the morning and work until eight1 then go to school until four in the afternoon1 and then work again until dark4 ,they cannot do this and keep well4 ,such children will surely neglect their lessons and will fail to keep up in their classes4 ,it is not the children's fault1 but the fault of the people who give them so much to do outside of school4 ,sometimes bright children fall behind in their classes and seem to be sleepy during school hours4 ,very often these children do not have to do any work at home1 but play all the time they are out of school4 ,we usually find that these children not only play all the afternoon1 but also go to parties at night and often stay up until midnight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,children work when they play4 ,the little girl skipping rope is killing the body cells by overwork2 she has skipped more than one hundred times and is exhausted4 ,sidenote3 ,ways in which children overwork their bodies ,you may think it is not work to go to a party1 but it really is4 ,you are working the muscles and the cells of your brain when you are playing games1 and these get tired from play work just as they do from working4 ,it is more fun to do play work than to do real work1 but the cells are tired and need rest after either kind of exercise4 ,when you go to a party and stay up until midnight1 you do not get nine hours of sleep4 ,how do you expect the cells of your bodies to get enough rest when you treat them in this way8 ,another thing you do at parties is to eat food that tastes good1 but which is not good building material or nourishing for the cells of the body4 ,these things eaten late at night stay in your stomach long after you have gone to bed1 and the cells of your stomach do not have a chance to rest at all4 ,children should have their parties in the afternoon4 ,you can have just as much fun at a party in the afternoon as you can at night1 and then your stomach will have time to dispose of the cake and candies you have eaten1 and will be ready to rest when you go to bed4 ,small children should be in bed by eight o'clock at night1 and even big girls and boys should be asleep by ten o'clock every night4 ,if you do not give your bodies rest1 you can never grow into strong men and women4 ,sidenote3 ,the importance of regular meals ,we have learned that every part of the body needs regular rest4 ,your stomach is a part of your body4 ,in the stomach and intestines all the food is changed so that the little cells can make use of it4 ,do you think the cook would serve good meals if she were kept cooking all the time1 both night and day8 ,you know she would soon stop cooking for you if you did not give her time to rest4 ,your stomach does work that is even more important to you than cooking4 ,sidenote3 ,why meals should be at least four hours apart ,it takes about four hours for your stomach to dispose of what you give it at a single meal4 ,if you eat your breakfast at eight o'clock1 your stomach is going to be kept busy to get rid of it by noon4 ,of course you expect to give it more work to do at noon2 that is1 you expect to eat a good luncheon4 ,it will be after four o'clock by the time your stomach has finished the task you put on it at noon1 and there will be only about an hour and a half for the stomach to rest before you will be ready to give it another four hours' task1 digesting your supper4 ,this means that your stomach cannot go to sleep until ten o'clock4 ,if you eat three meals a day1 you will give your stomach just about two hours' rest between eight in the morning and ten at night4 ,if you let it rest from ten at night until eight in the morning1 it is not likely to give you any trouble4 ,sidenote3 ,when and why candy eating is harmful ,some people will not let their stomachs rest at all4 ,often boys and girls give their stomachs extra work to do by eating sweetmeats in the middle of the morning while their stomachs are still busy with breakfast4 ,then1 as soon as school is out in the afternoon1 they want to eat more cake and candy1 and thus take away from the stomach the little rest it has a right to expect before it goes to work on supper4 ,then suppose they go to a party and eat again about midnight4 ,how much time will the stomach have to rest before breakfast8 ,sidenote3 ,when candy eating is not harmful ,now1 ,i have not said that boys and girls must not eat candy2 and what is more1 ,i am not going to say any such thing4 ,you may go home and tell your mother that candy is good for girls and boys and that they like it so well they ought to have it--no1 not all the time4 ,here is the part that some of you will not like4 ,girls and boys ought to have all they want just after eating luncheon or dinner4 ,if you have eaten a hearty meal1 it is entirely safe for you to eat candy then2 you will not be giving extra work to your stomach1 for the candy will be taken care of along with the rest of the meal4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why should we all take exercise8 #b4 ,how much rest is needed each day8 #c4 ,name some of the effects of overwork4 #d4 ,how do children overwork their bodies8 #e4 ,why should children have their parties in the afternoon8 #f4 ,why should meal hours be regular8 #g4 ,when and why is candy eating harmful8 #h4 ,when is candy eating not harmful8 ,remember4 #a4 ,proper rest is necessary to health4 #b4 ,rest from play is as necessary as rest from work4 #c4 ,you must give the stomach rest by having regular meal hours and by eating nothing between meals4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,and ,,ear ,sidenote3 ,the loss of sight ,sight is one of the greatest blessings we have4 ,think how dreadful it is to be blind4 ,if you take care of your eyes1 there is no reason why you should be blind2 but if you do not take care of your eyes1 there is a possibility that you may lose your sight4 ,most of the blind people in the world became blind because their eyes were not given proper care1 and most of this lack of care happened when these people were babies4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #cj and #ca4 ,the roller towel is a common source of infection of eyes in schools2 every school should have properly constructed wash-rooms1 with individual towels4 ,sidenote3 ,how germs get into the eyes ,many of the diseases that affect the eyes are catching4 ,they are not carried through the air1 but are transmitted by the use of a towel or handkerchief used by someone who had the disease4 ,never use the towel or handkerchief that another has used4 ,germs may be rubbed into the eyes4 ,keep your hands away from your eyes4 ,your hands may have disease germs on them1 and when you rub your eyes you may put the disease germs into them4 ,sidenote3 ,how eyes are overworked ,many boys and girls ruin their eyes by making them do too much work4 ,they do this by reading in a poor light1 by reading where the light strikes into the eyes1 or by reading in a bad position1 as when in bed or lying down4 ,when you are reading1 drawing1 or doing any work with the eyes1 always have the best light possible1 which means that the light should fall on your book or work over your left shoulder4 ,if you are only reading1 it does not make much difference which shoulder the light comes over1 provided it comes from behind4 ,if you are writing or drawing1 and the light comes over your right shoulder1 it makes the shadow of your hand fall just where you want to see4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #cb and #cc4 ,correct positions for reading and writing4 ,another way of working your eyes too much is by trying to see when the eyes are not focused right4 ,sometimes people are said to be near-sighted1 because they cannot see very well at a distance4 ,this is due to the fact that the eyeball is too long1 so that the lens does not cause the rays of light to focus on the retina4 ,some people are called far-sighted4 ,this means that they can see well at a distance1 but that it is hard for them to see things close to them4 ,far-sighted children can usually see things near by1 but they do this by making the muscle that rules the lens of the eye work too hard4 ,sidenote3 ,method of testing the eyes ,probably your teacher has a test chart and can tell you whether your eyes are properly focused4 ,if your eyes are not focused right1 that is1 if you cannot see the line of letters marked #bj when you are twenty feet from this chart1 there is something wrong with your eyes4 ,in that case1 you are not only injuring them by trying to study1 but you are hurting the whole body by overworking a part of it4 ,if you cannot see the letters on the test card clearly at a distance of twenty feet1 ask your father to send you to a specialist who will fit you with the proper glasses or will treat your eyes so that you can see well4 ,sidenote3 ,how to test the hearing ,sometimes children are backward in their school work because they cannot hear well4 ,your teacher can test your hearing by holding a watch near your ear4 ,if you cannot hear a watch tick when it is held six feet from your ear1 ask your father to take you to your doctor1 that he may treat your ears4 ,sidenote3 ,how to care for the ears ,if your hearing is perfect1 the best way to take care of the ears is to let them alone4 ,never try to dig into the canal that leads to the middle ear4 ,the ears must of course be washed to keep them clean1 but in washing the ear you should not touch the delicate canal leading to the drum4 ,a great specialist once said1 ,never put anything smaller than your elbow into your ear1 to which another great specialist added1 ,and wrap a towel around your elbow4 ,never try to dig the wax out of your ears2 it belongs in your ears2 it is there for a purpose1 so let it alone4 ,if it becomes hardened1 you cannot get it out and will only injure your ears in trying to do so4 ,an ear spoon is a dangerous thing4 ,questions4 #a4 ,state the chief cause of loss of sight4 #b4 ,how can you keep germs out of your eyes8 #c4 ,name three ways by which you may overwork the eyes4 #d4 ,tell how to take care of the ears4 ,remember4 #a4 ,overworking the eyes is as injurious as overworking the stomach4 #b4 ,keep your hands away from your eyes2 germs on your hands may get into your eyes and cause them to become sore4 #c4 ,you overwork your eyes when you try to read or write in a poor light or in a bad position1 as when lying down4 #d4 ,you overwork your eyes when you try to study with eyes that are not properly focused4 #e4 ,keep your fingers out of your ears4 #f4 ,take care of your ears by letting them alone4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,skin ,if you break or cut the skin on your body1 you make an opening through which germs can get in4 ,you cannot always help breaking your skin1 but you can always wash the break with soap and water1 and put a clean cloth over it to keep out germs4 ,sidenote3 ,the work of the sweat glands ,the work of the little sweat glands is very important to your health4 ,these glands are just as important as the kidneys1 and if they did not do their work1 you would die very quickly4 ,if your body is covered with dirt1 the work of these glands is seriously interfered with2 and when the sweat glands are not doing their full amount of work1 the kidneys must do more than their share4 ,it is never right to make one part of your body do the work intended for another part4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,a model bathroom4 ,when the body is dirty1 not only are the sweat glands interfered with1 but the little sebaceous 7oil7 glands become plugged up1 and blackheads appear on the face and body4 ,sidenote3 ,importance of bathing ,in order that the various glands of the skin may be kept in good health1 it is necessary for us to keep clean4 ,to do this we wash our faces and hands and bathe our bodies4 ,someone may ask1 ,how often ought a person to take a bath8 ,the question cannot be answered1 except to say1 ,just as often as may be necessary for you to keep absolutely clean4 ,some people do not have to bathe as often as others1 but no one can keep clean unless he takes a bath at least twice a week4 ,sidenote3 ,hot or cold baths ,another question that is frequently asked is1 ,is it better to take a bath in cold or hot water8 ,this is another question that cannot be answered in the same way for every person4 ,a cold bath is more stimulating than a warm bath4 ,if1 after you have taken a cold bath and rubbed yourself briskly with a rough towel1 the skin becomes red and warm1 a cold bath is best for you4 ,but if1 after you have taken a cold bath and rubbed yourself for not more than ten minutes1 the skin appears bluish and cold1 a cold bath is not good for you1 and you should not take it4 ,a cold bath should always be taken in the morning1 just after getting out of bed1 and a warm bath should always be taken in the evening1 just before going to bed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,a nail properly cared for1 and a nail not properly cared for4 ,which should you prefer to have8 ,sidenote3 ,how to care for the nails ,the finger nails and toe nails are a part of the skin and they also need to be taken care of4 ,you will see at the root of your finger nails a thin layer of skin that is inclined to grow out with the nail4 ,if this skin is not kept pushed back it becomes rough1 breaks into little shreds1 and forms hang nails4 ,this little band of skin should always be kept carefully pushed back4 ,the finger nails should be kept evenly and neatly trimmed1 but they should not be cut so close to the skin that the ends of the fingers project beyond the nails4 ,the nails are for the protection of the ends of the fingers and toes4 ,nails that are trimmed unevenly and nails that are bitten off are ugly and indicate untidy habits4 ,the shape of the nails should follow the outline of the ends of the finger4 ,neither is it a sensible fashion to trim the nails to points or to let them grow very long4 ,the toe nails need attention just as much as do the finger nails4 ,they should be trimmed to follow the shape of the toe4 ,failure to trim the toe nails properly will result in ingrowing nails4 ,dirt is very likely to collect under the nails4 ,this should always be carefully cleaned out4 ,you cannot wash this dirt out unless you use a stiff nail brush4 ,if you clean your nails just after you wash your hands1 you will find that it will be much easier to get the dirt out while the dirt and the nail are both softened by the soap and water4 ,in cleaning your nails1 use a dull nail cleaner or a smooth wooden stick4 ,do not scrape the inside of the nail with a sharp knife4 ,this scraping of the inside of the nails will cause them to catch the dirt more easily1 as well as to grow thicker and thicker until they become very ugly4 ,neat1 clean finger nails help to make pretty hands2 dirty1 untidy nails spoil the prettiest hands4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what are the uses of the sweat glands8 #b4 ,how often should people take baths8 #c4 ,how can you tell whether a hot or a cold bath is better for you8 #d4 ,tell how finger nails should be cared for4 #e4 ,how should toe nails be treated8 ,remember4 #a4 ,if you do not keep your body clean1 the glands of the skin cannot do their work properly4 #b4 ,every person should take a bath at least twice a week2 some persons need a bath every day in order to keep clean4 #c4 ,if you take a bath in cold water1 and the skin does not become warm and pink when you rub it with a rough towel1 a cold bath is not good for you4 #d4 ,cold baths should be taken in the morning on getting up4 #e4 ,warm baths should be taken in the evening before going to bed4 #f4 ,finger nails should always be kept clean and neat2 dirty1 untidy nails make ugly hands4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,common ,,poisons ,,to ,,be ,,avoided ,many people are killing the cells of their bodies by taking certain poisons into them4 ,there are many kinds of poisons that can be taken into the body1 but we are going to learn now about only two4 ,these are tobacco and alcohol4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,effect of cigarette smoking4 ,sidenote3 ,proof that tobacco is a poison ,tobacco is a poison4 ,those of you who have tried to smoke know this1 because it made you sick the first time you tried it4 ,there are many other indications that tobacco is a poison4 ,we know that it affects the red blood cells in such a way that they do not carry the oxygen as well as do those of people who do not smoke4 ,we know that it has a very bad effect on the heart and that it interferes with the action of the nervous system4 ,sidenote3 ,the extra work caused by tobacco ,when certain poisons get into the body1 the blood makes something that will counteract the effects of those poisons4 ,after one has used tobacco for some time1 the cells of the body will take care of the tobacco poison by making an antidote for it4 ,more than this1 they begin to want it all the time4 ,the tobacco user forces the cells of his body to make an antidote for this poison every time he uses tobacco4 ,thus he makes the cells do work that is unnecessary1 and keeps them from doing work that is necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,other bad effects of tobacco3 7#a7 ,on the nose and throat ,tobacco smoke irritates the cells that line the throat and nose and causes inflammation4 ,this is why so many smokers have catarrh4 ,smoking is not the only cause of catarrh1 for people who do not smoke often have this trouble1 but it is one of the most frequent causes4 ,smoking also irritates the throat so badly that many of those who smoke have smoker's throat4 ,this is a bad form of sore throat that can be cured only by stopping the use of tobacco4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,the athlete knows that alcohol and tobacco are foes to speed1 strength1 and nervous control4 7,from photograph of ,the ,sprinter1 modelled by ,dr4 ,r4 ,tait ,mc,kenzie47 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,on the blood ,people who smoke a great deal have fewer red corpuscles 7the little red cells of the blood7 than those who do not smoke4 ,especially is this true of cigarette smokers4 ,it is the lack of red blood cells that causes the cigarette smoker to look pale and sallow4 ,it is probably not the direct effect of tobacco that causes the loss of red blood cells1 but something that is connected with the act of smoking4 ,when you take smoke into your mouth1 you take in at the same time a gas known as carbon monoxid4 ,this gas is very poisonous to the body1 and combines with the red blood cells in such a way that they cannot take up the oxygen in the lungs and carry it to the rest of the cells in the body4 ,the cigarette smoker almost always inhales the smoke1 and thus he absorbs a great deal more of the carbon monoxid than the man who does not inhale the smoke4 ,of course1 the more of this gas he takes into his body1 the more red blood cells will be affected and the less oxygen will be taken to the other cells4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,on the nervous system ,we do not know just how tobacco affects the cells of the nervous system4 ,it may be that they are affected mostly by being deprived of oxygen1 or it may be that the tobacco affects them directly4 ,however the harm is done1 we know that the cells of the nervous system are affected by tobacco4 ,one of the nerves that is most commonly affected by the use of tobacco is the nerve of the eye1 the nerve that enables us to see4 ,we know that when people use tobacco a great deal they sometimes lose their sight4 ,this does not happen to everyone who uses tobacco1 but you can never tell whom it will affect in this way4 ,the only safe thing to do is not to use tobacco1 and then you will know that you will not lose your sight from this cause4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,on the stomach ,the use of tobacco affects the stomach4 ,people who use tobacco a great deal are likely to have indigestion4 ,the tobacco causes this probably by depriving the stomach cells of oxygen through its effect on the blood cells4 ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,on the heart ,tobacco has a very bad effect on the heart4 ,people who use much tobacco have what they call palpitation of the heart1 but doctors call it tobacco heart1 because it is caused by the use of tobacco4 ,no insurance company will insure a person who has tobacco heart4 ,most boys grow up to be men before they manage to use enough tobacco to cause tobacco heart4 ,however1 long before they are grown1 they show that the tobacco has affected their hearts1 because they are short of breath and stand about as much chance of winning a race as does a mouth-breather4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of alcohol3 ,the effect of alcohol is a subject on which ,i want to speak very plainly and frankly1 because ,i do not want the boys and girls who read this to get the same idea that ,i got when ,i was in school1 or to be affected by it as ,i was4 ,when ,i was a little boy ,i was taught that if a person drank alcohol in any form the lining of his stomach would be eaten up4 ,in proof of this statement ,i was shown a picture of an ulcerated stomach that was said to have resulted from drinking whisky4 ,naturally ,i expected to find that people who drank whisky would not be able to eat anything at all1 or would be troubled a great deal with pain in their stomachs4 ,to my surprise1 ,i found that many people had ulcers of the stomach who never took an alcoholic drink1 while many of those who drank a great deal seemed to have the best of appetites and were never troubled with their stomachs4 ,as a result1 ,i came to the conclusion that all this talk about the evil effects of alcohol was foolishness4 ,later ,i studied medicine1 and learned that the effect of alcohol on the stomach is1 in reality1 the least of its evils4 ,but ,i want to impress upon you that1 as a result of forty years' study1 ,i consider alcohol the most dangerous thing in the world to-day4 ,by alcohol we mean any drink that contains alcohol1 such as whisky1 wine1 brandy1 beer1 etc4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,on the stomach ,when alcohol is taken into the stomach1 it first causes a congestion2 that is1 it causes an increase in the quantity of blood in the blood vessels of the stomach4 ,it might seem that this would aid digestion in the stomach1 but it does not1 because alcohol affects the food in the stomach in such a way that it prevents the gastric juice from acting on the food4 ,if the use of alcohol is persisted in1 it causes the little cells in the stomach that make the gastric juice to become filled with fat1 and then those cells cannot make the gastric juice4 ,thus1 continued use of alcohol causes a smaller supply of gastric juice1 and the food passes from the stomach into the intestines without having been acted upon by the gastric juice1 as it should have been4 ,the result is that the food decomposes in the intestines and a poison is formed4 ,this poison is taken up by the vessels that carry the food from the intestines and kills a great many of the cells of the body4 ,alcohol does not burn holes in the stomach1 but it destroys the usefulness of the stomach by its action on the cells that secrete the gastric juice4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,on the liver ,when alcohol is taken into the stomach1 very little of it reaches the intestines4 ,it is rapidly absorbed by the lining of the stomach and passes into the blood4 ,the blood from the stomach goes directly to the liver4 ,the alcohol makes the cells of the liver hard and causes them to become filled with fat1 as it does the cells of the stomach4 ,in this way it destroys the action of these cells and prevents their doing the work for which they are intended4 ,from the liver the alcohol goes with the blood to all parts of the body1 and it has its influence on all the cells in the body4 ,this influence is always harmful4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,on the body's powers of resistance ,we know that when a man who is in the habit of drinking gets pneumonia1 he is far more likely to die than is one who is not in the habit of using alcoholic drinks4 ,the man who drinks cannot resist the effects of disease as can one who does not drink4 ,this shows that the use of alcohol reduces our resisting powers1 and puts our cells in such condition that we cannot overcome the effects of disease4 ,people who are sick with a slow disease like consumption are often advised by their friends to take whisky to brace them up4 ,it is true that the immediate effect of the whisky is to make the patient feel a little better1 but the final effect is to leave him in a much weaker condition than before4 ,more than this1 the cells are much less able to resist the disease germs than they were before the alcohol was taken4 ,when people are exposed to such diseases as scarlet fever and smallpox1 they may think that if they take a drink of whisky they will not be so liable to contract the disease4 ,it is just the other way4 ,the alcohol reduces the resisting powers of the cells of the body1 and anything that does this renders a person more liable to contract any disease to which he is exposed4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,on the nervous system ,the effect of alcohol on the cells of the nervous system is very marked4 ,continued use will injure the nervous system and result in a kind of insanity called delirium tremens4 ,it will also cause other forms of insanity4 ,the effect of alcohol on the parent is passed on to the children of the next generation1 and even beyond this4 ,a large percentage of idiotic children are the offspring of alcoholic parents4 ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,on the morals ,the use of alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong4 ,more young men have become criminals from the use of alcohol than from any other one cause4 ,anyone who reads the daily papers can see that many criminals give the use of alcohol as an excuse for having committed a crime4 ,sidenote3 7#f7 ,on brain work ,some people will tell you that alcohol stimulates the brain1 so that one can work faster and better4 ,this is not true4 ,tests have been made in this matter1 and it has been found that men doing mental work will work about one tenth slower and make one fourth more mistakes when given one drink of whisky a day1 than they will when not given any whisky4 ,if one drink of whisky a day thus reduces a man's power and accuracy in doing mental work1 what do you think three drinks1 or ten drinks will do8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,the mind not clouded by alcohol works quickly and makes few mistakes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,the mind clouded by alcohol works slowly and makes many mistakes4 ,sidenote3 ,what business men think of men who drink ,many business men drink1 and they know the results of alcohol not only from the effects they have observed in others1 but also from the effect they know it to have on themselves4 ,when a man applies to them for a position1 these business men almost invariably ask him if he drinks4 ,the man who does not drink stands nine chances in ten of securing the position1 while the man who drinks stands only one chance in ten4 ,this shows what business men think of the effect of alcohol1 even when taken in moderate quantities4 ,they know that it reduces a man's power to do mental as well as physical work1 that it causes him to make mistakes1 and that it may finally destroy his morals and result in his becoming a thief or a criminal4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how do we know that tobacco is a poison8 #b4 ,how does tobacco make extra work for the body8 #c4 ,what effect does tobacco have on the nose and throat8 #d4 ,what is the effect of tobacco on the blood8 #e4 ,on the nervous system8 #f4 ,on the heart8 #g4 ,mention some of the false ideas about the effect of alcohol4 #h4 ,how does alcohol affect the stomach8 #i4 ,the liver8 #aj4 ,in what ways does alcohol reduce the resisting powers of the body8 #aa4 ,how does alcohol affect the nervous system8 #ab4 ,how does it influence mental work8 #ac4 ,what do business men think of drinkers8 #ad4 ,what influence has alcohol on the next generation8 ,remember4 #a4 ,tobacco is a poison that has a very bad effect on the nervous system1 the blood1 the heart1 the stomach1 the nose1 and the throat4 #b4 ,alcohol is a poison and not a food4 #c4 ,alcohol injures the stomach1 the liver1 and the nervous system4 #d4 ,alcohol reduces the power to do accurate mental work4 #e4 ,alcohol numbs the sense of right and wrong1 and encourages crime4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,enemies ,,of ,,health ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,disease ,,germs ,we have learned that the body is made up of cells1 and that each cell is alive4 ,the cells in our bodies cannot live separately4 ,there are1 however1 certain animals and plants that are each made up of a single cell4 ,these animals and plants are called germs1 and some of them cause disease4 ,sidenote3 ,different germs cause different diseases ,these germs are so exceedingly small that we can see them only with the aid of a microscope4 ,they differ in appearance one from another1 as a pine tree differs from an ash1 or an ,american child from a ,chinese child4 ,when you plant your garden1 you put sweet peas in one place and asters in another1 and you know that you will have sweet peas growing where you planted the pea seeds1 and asters growing where the aster seeds were put4 ,so it is with these little germs2 you will no more get tuberculosis from typhoid fever germs than you would get asters from pea seeds4 ,now1 while there are many1 many kinds of germs in the world1 there are only certain ones that cause certain diseases1 and we have learned where these germs like to live and how to kill them4 ,we also know that they come only from some person or animal sick with the particular disease which they cause4 ,typhoid fever germs are not given off by a person suffering with tuberculosis1 nor are diphtheria germs given off by a typhoid fever patient1 but the germ of each disease is given off by some person or animal suffering from that particular disease4 ,sidenote3 ,how sickness due to germs can be prevented ,if we kill all the germs that come from people sick with a certain disease1 no one else can catch that disease4 ,knowing this1 it seems unnecessary for anyone ever to be sick with disease that is caused by a germ4 ,this is literally true1 and the only reason that we have germ diseases is because we do not kill the germs that come from the sick people4 ,professor ,irving ,fisher of ,yale ,university has said1 ,it is entirely possible to wipe out consumption within a single generation4 ,it may not actually be done so quickly1 but it is certain that the disease can finally be wiped out1 though it may require many generations to accomplish it4 ,why1 then1 are germ diseases allowed to exist8 ,simply because so many people do not know the facts2 and because many who do know will not take the trouble to kill the germs1 even when they realize that some one else may get the disease as a result of their carelessness4 ,what do you think of a woman who said1 ,i do not care if my neighbor's children do get scarlet fever from us2 she is not a friend of mine1 any way8 ,a woman has been heard to make such a statement to a health officer4 ,it is just such people as this who spread disease4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how may germs be compared to seeds8 #b4 ,what do we know about disease germs that will help us to get rid of them8 #c4 ,how is it possible for us to get rid of consumption and other germ diseases8 ,remember4 #a4 ,while there are many kinds of germs in the world1 only a few cause disease4 #b4 ,the germ that causes a certain disease will cause that disease and no other4 #c4 ,it is entirely possible to kill all the germs that cause disease4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,encouragement ,,of ,,disease ,,by ,,uncleanly ,,habits ,we shall not try to learn here all the ways by which it is possible to destroy the germs of disease as they come from sick people4 ,but there are certain rules 7we sometimes call them fundamental principles7 that you must know1 if you hope to keep well and to prevent others from getting sick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,how diseases are frequently transmitted to children4 ,sidenote3 ,why we should stay away from the sickroom ,the first of these rules is3 ,do not go into the room where any one is sick unless it is absolutely necessary4 ,no one but the nurse should sleep in the room with a sick person4 ,we know that certain diseases are communicable 7catching71 but it has not yet been determined whether some others are communicable or not4 ,it has not been proved1 for instance1 that we cannot catch rheumatism from another person4 ,only a few years ago it was believed that one could not take consumption from another person1 but now we know that this is the very way to get it4 ,therefore1 stay away from sick people as much as possible4 ,it is not good for the patient to have people around him1 and it is dangerous for the well to come in contact with the sick4 ,sidenote3 ,not using things used by the sick ,the second rule is3 ,do not use anything used by a sick person until it has been washed4 ,this is a good rule to apply to things used by a well person also4 ,it is neither safe nor pleasant to eat from the spoon or fork1 or to use the napkin or towel which has been used by someone else4 ,sometimes children think the food prepared for a sick person is ever so much nicer than that set before themselves1 and wish they could have a little of it4 ,how often have we seen a sick mother give her little ones a taste from the spoon with which she is eating4 ,this is very dangerous1 and if she knew it1 the mother would cut her hand off before exposing her children to this danger4 ,sidenote3 ,reason for scalding things used by the sick ,third3 ,everything taken from a sickroom should be boiled before it is used again4 ,the knives1 forks1 and plates should not be put with other dishes until after they have been separately washed and boiled4 ,towels1 napkins1 bedding1 and clothing from a sickroom should not be washed with other bedding and clothing1 but should be washed and boiled separately4 ,some people send out the clothes from the sickroom with the rest of their washing1 and in this way give disease to others4 ,sidenote3 ,how excreta from the sick should be treated ,fourth3 ,all discharges 7sputum1 urine1 bowel discharges1 and matter from sores7 from any sick person should be thoroughly disinfected before being finally disposed of4 ,the sputum should be received on little rags or paper napkins1 and burned2 and the other discharges should be disinfected with some poison that will kill the germs4 ,we shall say more about disinfection when we come to study the prevention of special diseases4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of washing the hands after touching the sick ,fifth3 ,every person who touches a sick person1 or handles anything that comes from a sickroom1 should immediately wash his hands4 ,unless he washes his hands at once1 the germs which may be on them may get into his mouth4 ,sidenote3 ,how dirt causes disease ,sixth3 ,dirt1 which is an indirect cause of disease1 must not be allowed to accumulate4 ,if your yard were full of dirt1 garbage1 and manure1 it would not cause disease unless the germs of some disease became planted there4 ,but such a place is an indirect cause of disease1 in that it furnishes a fine place for germs to grow in4 ,if a fly with typhoid germs on its feet were to alight in such a yard1 the germs would be planted in a most favorable spot and would grow very fast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,a place that is an indirect cause of disease1 since it furnishes a fine place for germs to grow in4 ,none of the disease germs like sunshine2 neither do they like dry places4 ,they die very quickly in the sunlight1 and grow very slowly1 if at all1 in dry places2 but in damp1 dark places they grow very fast4 ,dirty back yards make ideal gardens for germs4 ,let a fly with germs on its feet alight in a clean yard where sunshine can reach every corner1 and what chance will the germs have to grow8 ,they will not even get a start4 ,hence1 while disease cannot be caused by dirt1 disease germs stand a very good chance of living where there is plenty of dirt and no sunshine4 ,filthy habits are on an equality with filthy conditions1 and go hand in hand with them4 ,one of the worst of habits1 and a cause of much sickness1 is that of answering ,nature's calls in places other than the closet4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why should you never make unnecessary visits to a sick person8 #b4 ,why should you avoid anything used by a sick person8 #c4 ,why should everything taken from a sickroom be scalded8 #d4 ,what should be done with all discharges from a sick person8 #e4 ,how is dirt a source of disease8 ,remember4 #a4 ,unless it is necessary1 do not go into a room where anyone is sick4 #b4 ,never sleep in a room with a sick person4 #c4 ,never eat from a spoon or plate that has been used by another4 #d4 ,boil all the articles taken from the room of a sick person4 #e4 ,always wash your hands after touching a sick person or anything that comes from his room4 #f4 ,sunshine kills germs2 let the sunshine into every corner of your house4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,flies ,,as ,,carriers ,,of ,,disease ,sidenote3 ,how germs get into our bodies ,disease germs get into our bodies in three principal ways3 they are eaten with our food2 they are taken in with the air we breathe2 and they get in through breaks in our skin1 even though these breaks be very small1 as when made by the bite of a mosquito or other insect4 ,sidenote3 ,how germs get into our food3 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,from the air ,how do germs get into our food or drink8 ,you must remember that these germs are extremely small1 so small that many of them can be carried by a particle of dust that you can see only in a ray of sunshine4 ,when the germs become dried1 they float about on these particles of dust1 the dust alights on our food1 which is moist and warm1 and the germs immediately begin to grow4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,from the hands ,another way by which germs get on food is from the hands through which it passes4 ,did you ever think how many people handle an apple8 ,first1 the man who picks it from the tree2 then the examiner in the packing house where apples are taken to see that they are the right kind to be packed in a certain box4 ,then it is wiped off by a boy or girl--handling number three2 then it is wrapped in paper--number four4 ,next it is packed in a box1 but in this case the paper protects the apple from dirty hands4 ,when the merchant buys the apples he feels several of them1 and puts them out on the display shelf2 this makes handling number five4 ,everyone who thinks of buying apples will touch one or more of them1 and when they are sold the clerk handles them again4 ,in other words1 every apple goes through the hands of at least seven people before you get it4 ,do you not think it needs washing8 ,go into a butcher shop and see how many people will put their dirty fingers on the meat4 ,some of them even keep their gloves on when they do this4 ,imagine how many germs may be planted on the finger of a glove4 ,our whole method of displaying foods for sale is wrong4 ,the customer can see the fruits1 vegetables1 and meats just as well in a glass case as when they are on an open counter or shelf1 and nothing is gained by poking a dirty finger into a piece of beef1 or by rubbing your hands over the apples4 ,a glass case not only will protect the fruits and meats from such practices1 but will keep out germ-laden dust and flies whose feet are covered with germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,the foot of a fly1 highly magnified4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,from flies ,probably the most common source of germs on food is the fly4 ,did you ever watch a fly very closely for a long time8 ,did you ever happen to see a manure pile early in the morning and notice how many tiny flies are on it8 ,these flies have just been hatched4 ,sidenote3 ,breeding places of flies ,flies like manure because it is the best place they can find in which to lay their eggs4 ,each female fly lays about three hundred eggs4 ,they do not hatch directly into flies1 as hen's eggs hatch into chickens1 but when the fly's eggs hatch you find maggots1 and these maggots later hatch into flies4 ,sidenote3 ,the journey of the fly ,turn over the manure some spring morning1 and you will see it full of white specks4 ,these specks are maggots that will hatch into flies4 ,watch the flies as they leave the manure pile and see where they go4 ,if there is a dead dog or cat or a filthy garbage can near1 they will fly to it4 ,then they will go into the water-closet and crawl over the filth there4 ,their next trip will probably bring them to the kitchen1 where they will crawl over the food4 ,from here they will go to the cuspidor and take a drink of water1 and will get their feet covered with the dirt that is in the cuspidor4 ,next they will try a walk over the nipple of the baby's bottle1 or they will light on your face1 or get into the butter or milk4 ,after the fly has been in dirty places1 he washes his face and hands1 that is1 he rubs his feet together and then rubs them over his head4 ,did you ever see a fly wash himself with water8 ,no1 you never did4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,where a fly has walked2 each little spot represents a growth of germs left by the fly4 ,after a fly has made his journey1 you would suppose that his feet would be covered with dirt and germs1 and so they are4 ,not only does he carry germs on his feet and body but he also eats dirty and diseased things4 ,moreover1 fly specks contain the germs of disease1 and the fly is not at all particular about where he puts his specks4 ,sidenote3 ,proof that the fly is a germ carrier ,if you let a fly walk over a culture plate1 there will be a growth of germs wherever his feet touch4 ,a culture plate is simply a glass plate covered with gelatine or something else in which these germs like to grow1 and where they can easily be seen4 ,each germ will multiply so fast that there will soon be a spot of them large enough to be seen readily with the naked eye4 ,in the picture showing a culture plate over which a fly has walked 7,fig4 #dc71 the little specks are not single germs1 but each speck represents a growth containing many thousands of germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,flies go from filth to food4 ,sidenote3 ,how to get rid of the fly3 ,how are we going to get rid of flies8 ,we cannot get rid of them entirely1 but there are a great many ways by which we can prevent there being so many of them1 and whereby we may keep them out of our houses and away from our food4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,by removal of manure ,we have learned that flies are always found about horse manure1 because it makes a good place in which to hatch their eggs4 ,if we could dispose of the manure1 there would be one place less for the fly to lay her eggs4 ,behind barns we usually find piles of manure4 ,it is in these heaps that the fly lays her eggs1 not in the little lumps found in the streets4 ,now1 there is no sense in keeping this great pile of manure about any barn4 ,in towns the manure can be put into a box with a cover1 so that the flies cannot get at it4 ,in the country every well-managed farm has the barns cleaned out every day1 and it would not be much more trouble for the farmer to throw the manure into a wagon and take it to the fields with him1 than it is to pile it up beside his barn4 ,if he did this1 he would find that there would be few flies about his house4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by covering garbage cans ,even if we were to take every particle of manure away as fast as possible1 we should still have some flies1 for when flies do not find manure for their hatching places1 they will take the next best thing4 ,it must be something dirty2 clean things will not answer at all for a fly's home4 ,next to the manure pile1 the fly likes a dirty garbage can1 a dead animal1 or anything that is decomposing4 ,if she cannot find anything better1 she will take a rotting apple2 but she does not really like this1 and if she cannot find anything better than an old apple in your yard1 she will probably go elsewhere to lay her eggs4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by keeping clean yards ,we cannot entirely stop the hatching of flies1 but if we do away with the old manure piles1 keep fresh manure and garbage cans covered1 and keep our yards free from everything that can decompose1 we shall have very few flies about our houses4 ,sidenote3 ,how to keep flies out of the house ,since we cannot get rid of all the flies1 the next best thing is to keep the few that may be left out of our houses and away from our food4 ,this we can do by means of wire screens and netting4 ,wire screens are very cheap1 and if there are no wire screens on your house1 you should persuade your father to buy some4 ,but a screen will not keep flies out unless it is kept closed1 so do your part by never leaving the screen door open for a second longer than is necessary for you to go in or out4 ,our houses are not the only places that need screens4 ,slaughterhouses1 butcher shops1 candy stores1 grocery stores--every place where any kind of food is handled or sold--should be screened4 ,flies should never be allowed to alight on anything which is to be eaten4 ,questions4 #a4 ,name three ways by which germs get into our bodies4 #b4 ,how do germs get into our food8 #c4 ,why should foods be screened8 #d4 ,trace the fly from his birth-place to our food4 #e4 ,how do we know that flies have germs on their feet8 #f4 ,tell how we can get rid of most of the flies4 #g4 ,how can we keep flies out of the house8 #h4 ,what can boys and girls do to help keep them out8 ,remember4 #a4 ,always wash an apple1 pear1 or any other fruit before you eat it4 #b4 ,all foods are handled by many people1 and are not clean until they have been washed4 #c4 ,flies like to live in dirty places1 and their feet and legs are covered with germs2 get rid of the flies4 #d4 ,flies hatch in manure piles and other dirty places2 keep your yard and lot clean so that flies will have no place to lay their eggs4 #e4 ,put screens on the house to keep flies out1 and keep the screens closed4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,how ,,disease ,,germs ,,get ,,into ,,water ,the water that we drink frequently contains disease germs4 ,it is not always the clearest water that is freest from disease germs1 for the germs do not make the water cloudy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,an improperly located well2 notice lines of seepage4 ,sidenote3 ,why sewage should not be put into streams ,water does not get disease germs from the ground1 but from man4 ,almost every town has a sewer system that empties into some stream4 ,this practice was started a long time ago when men thought that running water would purify itself in the course of a few miles4 ,we have learned1 however1 that this is not true4 ,germs will continue to live in running water just as they do in any other water1 and disease germs will live in a stream from twenty-five to thirty-five days4 ,estimate how far a stream will flow in that length of time1 and you will know how far disease germs will travel in that way4 ,no sewage should ever be allowed to get into a stream until the germs in the sewage have been killed4 ,sidenote3 ,other sources of germs in streams ,sewage is not the only means by which disease germs are carried into streams4 ,often we find people building barns1 slaughterhouses1 and mills on the banks of a stream4 ,the filth from barns and slaughterhouses always contains disease germs1 and often the filth of mills contains poisons that are just as harmful as germs when taken into our bodies4 ,none of these things should ever be allowed to get into a stream4 ,water is a very important article of food1 and we should take every care to keep it pure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,a properly located well4 ,sidenote3 ,how germs get into wells ,the water from most wells is clear and cool1 but nevertheless may contain many disease germs4 ,how does this happen8 you ask4 ,because the well is too close to an out-house or some other source of filth4 ,when a man in the country or in a small town builds a house1 he immediately thinks of digging a well just as close to the house as he can1 so that he need not carry the water far4 ,next he thinks of locating the closet1 and this1 too1 he wants near the house4 ,the well and the closet are often near each other1 and often the closet is on higher ground than the well4 ,the vault under the closet is seldom water-tight4 ,in fact1 the intention of the owner is that a great part of the vault contents shall soak away4 ,in many localities the ground is an open gravel1 and the vault contents run through this gravel into the well1 carrying disease germs with them4 ,in one little town1 with wells as a source of drinking water1 the health officers found that the closet of every house was draining directly into its well4 ,in some countries vaults can be used2 but in any region where there is a gravel subsoil1 the contents of the closet will find their way into the well1 unless the closet is lower than the bottom of the well4 ,in such places the vault must be made water-tight1 in order to keep the vault contents out of the well4#b ,sidenote3 ,why springs are not always pure ,springs are usually sources of pure water1 but do not think that every particle of water that oozes from the ground is a spring4 ,near a certain town is a so-called very fine spring4 ,this spring appeared after a man had made a cesspool on the hill above1 and is simply the drainage from the cesspool4 ,springs that come from deep sources1 however1 nearly always contain pure water4 ,sidenote3 ,the safest sources of water ,the safest source of water for domestic use is a stream that is known to be free from contamination1 or a well so deep in the ground that it is hard for any polluting matter to reach it4 ,but remember that sewage may follow a well pipe along the outside and thus reach even a deep well1 if the well is not properly protected at the top4 ,keep disease germs out of your drinking water4 ,you cannot drown them out and you cannot strain them out1 so do not let them get in1 for you cannot drink water containing disease germs without running the risk of becoming sick4 ,questions4 #a4 ,mention more than one way in which germs get into streams4 #b4 ,how long may disease germs live in running water8 #c4 ,mention some instances showing that running water does not purify itself4 #d4 ,how do disease germs get into milk8 #e4 ,describe the proper location of a well in regard to refuse4 #f4 ,how may springs become polluted8 #g4 ,what are the best sources of water for domestic use8 ,remember4 #a4 ,disease germs get into water from dirty places along the banks of the streams2 they do not come from the ground4 #b4 ,clear water is not always pure2 germs do not make the water cloudy or muddy4 #c4 ,wells often become infected by matter from closets seeping into them2 make your closet water-tight4 #d4 ,spring water is usually pure1 but not all water that oozes out of the ground is spring water4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,transmission ,,of ,,disease ,,through ,,the ,,air ,sidenote3 ,disease germs in the air ,we take germs into our bodies with the air that we breathe4 ,since we cannot stop breathing and live1 we must see to it that the air we breathe is kept pure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 7a7 ,prevalence of germs in air of thickly populated districts4 7b7 ,prevalence of germs in air of sparsely populated districts4 ,there are always more germs in the air of places in which people live closely crowded together than where there are only a few people4 ,this is proved by ,figure #dg1 which shows that many more germs were found on a culture plate exposed in the downtown part of ,new ,york ,city than on another plate exposed far uptown1 where there are not so many people4 ,remember1 however1 that all germs are not disease germs4 ,sidenote3 ,how we may keep disease germs out of the air3 ,how do the disease germs get into the air8 ,when one sneezes1 a spray of droplets is thrown into the air4 ,if the person sneezing has the grip1 these droplets contain the germs that cause grip4 ,whenever a person with consumption coughs1 he sprays droplets which contain the germs that cause consumption4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,when coughing or sneezing ,if a person would hold a handkerchief before his mouth when he coughs or sneezes1 these droplets of moisture would not be sprayed into the air1 and the disease germs in them would not be scattered about4 ,you ask1 ,shall everyone who is sick hold a handkerchief before the mouth when sneezing or coughing8 ,everyone1 whether sick or well1 ought to hold a handkerchief before the mouth when sneezing or coughing4 ,learn to do this at once1 and never forget it4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,when spitting ,another way by which disease germs get into the air is from the sputum4 ,people spit on the floor or the sidewalk1 and the sputum becomes dried2 it is then blown about as dust4 ,the germs of disease are not killed by drying1 and when they get into our bodies with the dust which we breathe in1 they immediately begin to grow4 ,disease germs get into the air chiefly through careless habits of coughing1 sneezing1 and spitting1 and these careless habits can easily be prevented4 ,sidenote3 ,why well people should not spit on floor or sidewalk ,a boy once said that if he saw a consumptive spit on the sidewalk1 he would want to hit him1 and to emphasize his remarks he spat on the floor of the room1 just as you have seen boys spit on the ground when they were thinking of fighting4 ,there might have been some germs of consumption in the sputum this boy left on the floor4 ,of course he was very positive that he did not have consumption1 but this was no proof that his sputum was free from the germs of this disease4 ,remember that it is not only the sick who should never spit on the floor or sidewalk1 but that no person should ever spit on any floor or sidewalk1 or into any place except into a cuspidor1 handkerchief1 or spit-cup of some kind4 ,if you spit into a handkerchief1 a paper napkin1 or a bit of cloth1 be sure to burn it as soon as you can1 before it becomes dry4 ,questions4 #a4 ,in what places do we find germs most abundant in the air8 #b4 ,how do well-bred people avoid putting disease germs into the air8 #c4 ,why is it important for well people to take the same precautions as sick people8 ,remember4 #a4 ,every person should hold a handkerchief before the face when coughing or sneezing4 #b4 ,never spit except into a cuspidor1 handkerchief1 spit-cup1 or other special receptacle4 #c4 ,if well people will practice clean habits1 the sick will be helped and encouraged to follow their example4 #d4 ,remember3 ,no spit1 no consumption4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,insects ,,as ,,carriers ,,of ,,disease ,sidenote3 ,some insects that carry disease ,certain diseases are given to human beings by the bites of insects4 ,we know that certain ticks and mosquitoes carry certain germs4 ,it is also probable that disease germs are transferred from diseased to well persons by bedbugs and other insects that bite4 ,sidenote3 ,how yellow fever is transmitted ,for a long time it was thought that yellow fever was carried through the air1 but now it has been proved that yellow fever is not carried in this way4 ,a well person can sleep with one who has yellow fever and not catch the disease4 ,yellow fever infection is carried from a yellow fever patient to a healthy person only by a certain mosquito4 ,keep this mosquito away from the yellow fever patients and there can be no spread of the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,the mosquito that carries yellow fever4 ,it is not many years since yellow fever was one of the most dreaded diseases in warm countries4 ,to-day there is not the same fear of it1 for the source of the disease has been discovered and practical methods have been devised to get rid of the mosquito which carries it4 ,sidenote3 ,how malaria is transmitted ,malarial fever is another disease transmitted by the bite of a mosquito1 but the mosquito that carries malarial fever is not the same as the one that carries yellow fever4 ,for a long time it was supposed that malaria came from the gases which rise from marshes4 ,to-day it is known that it is not the gases that cause the sickness1 but a mosquito which lives and grows in the marshes4 ,many countries that have heretofore been practically worthless on account of malarial fever1 are being made valuable by draining the marshes and doing away with places where mosquitoes can hatch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,one of the places where mosquitoes hatch4 ,sidenote3 ,how to get rid of the mosquito ,it might seem a very hard task to get rid of mosquitoes in countries where there are so many of them2 but it can be done4 ,the mosquito must have still water in which to lay her eggs4 ,in countries where there is danger of yellow fever or malaria1 the rain barrel and the cistern should be screened1 and the swamps and water holes filled up4 ,puddles of water should not be allowed to form anywhere1 and low places where water might stand should be drained4 ,by giving her no place in which to lay her eggs1 we can get rid of the mosquito2 and when the mosquito disappears1 yellow fever and malaria disappear also4 ,sidenote3 ,how wood-ticks transmit disease ,in certain portions of ,montana1 ,washington1 ,idaho1 ,utah1 and ,wyoming1 there is a peculiar disease known as ,rocky ,mountain spotted 7tick7 fever4 ,it is now known that this disease is transmitted to people by the bite of a wood-tick4 ,not all wood-ticks carry this fever1 and for people living in districts where this disease does not exist there is no danger in the bite of a wood-tick2 but in a part of the country where the disease prevails1 the wood-tick should be avoided4 ,sidenote3 ,how disease-bearing insects can be destroyed ,all insects that are known to transmit diseases can be destroyed4 ,if we will do away with stagnant water1 the mosquito cannot hatch2 if we will cut out underbrush and oil the domestic animals1 the wood-tick will not find a place to grow4 ,if we wish to get rid of disease1 we must spend money and labor2 but it is worth while1 for human life is at stake4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what insects are known to transmit diseases to man8 #b4 ,how is yellow fever transmitted8 #c4 ,malarial fever8 #d4 ,what disease is transmitted by the wood-tick8 #e4 ,how can we get rid of the mosquito8 #f4 ,how can we get rid of ticks8 ,remember4 #a4 ,it is a proved fact that diseases are transmitted to man by the bites of mosquitoes and wood-ticks4 #b4 ,it is possible to do away with both the mosquito and the wood-tick almost completely1 although it requires a great deal of work and the expenditure of a large amount of money4 #c4 ,health is the most valuable thing we have1 and it is foolish to hesitate in giving the work and money necessary to exterminate disease-bearing insects1 as well as the many other causes of sickness4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,germs ,,out ,,of ,,wounds ,sidenote3 ,how germs get through the skin ,germs get into our bodies through breaks in the skin4 ,these breaks may be made by a cut or a scratch1 by the bite of an insect1 or even by the pulling out of a hair4 ,there are some special germs1 such as those which cause yellow fever1 which are introduced by the bite of an insect2 but at present we will consider only those germs that would naturally enter through any break in the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,small1 deep wounds are very liable to become infected4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of germs in wounds ,the skin of the human body acts as an armor against certain germs that are constantly trying to get through it4 ,there are several germs of this class4 ,some of them cause white pus1 or matter1 but this is the least dangerous kind of all4 ,another kind causes boils or even blood poisoning1 and another kind causes erysipelas4 ,we cannot get rid of these germs1 for they are everywhere1 to a greater or less degree2 but they are more abundant in dirty than in clean places4 ,they cause every degree of inflammation1 from a slight redness of the skin to the blood poisoning that brings death4 ,sidenote3 ,real cause of suppuration ,sometimes you will hear people say that a wound suppurated 7that is1 became inflamed and full of matter7 because the blood was in bad condition4 ,as a matter of fact1 there would have been no suppuration if germs had not got into the wound4 ,it was not the condition of the blood that caused the suppuration1 but the germs4 ,sometimes1 when only a few germs get into a wound1 and when the cells of the body are all in good condition and doing their work properly1 the suppuration will be very slight1 because the healthy cells of the body will kill the germs4 ,but if very many germs get in1 even healthy body cells cannot kill them all4 ,we have said that the germs which cause suppuration are everywhere1 so it would seem almost impossible to keep them out of a wound4 ,this is true in a sense2 but even after they have got into a wound1 you can wash them out if you use plenty of soap and water to cleanse the wound thoroughly4 ,when ,i said that it is impossible to keep them out of a wound1 ,i meant an accidental wound1 for it is quite possible to keep them out of a wound that is made intentionally1 as is done by the surgeon4 ,sidenote3 ,how the surgeon prevents suppuration ,do you know how a surgeon gets ready to do an operation8 ,the first thing he does is to see that the room is perfectly clean4 ,he has the carpet taken up1 the curtains taken down1 and the floor and walls washed4 ,this is to get rid of all the dirt and germs in the room4 ,if you should look at the surgeon's instruments1 so clean and bright1 you would think it impossible for a germ to find a place to live on2 but the surgeon knows how closely the germs cling1 and therefore he boils all the instruments he is going to use4 ,then he puts the towels into a place where they are made so hot by steam that all the germs on them are killed4 ,after everything in the room is perfectly clean1 the surgeon cleans his patient with a very stiff brush1 using plenty of soap and water which has been boiled to kill all the germs in it4 ,he scrubs the part where the wound is to be made and the skin around it until it is red4 ,even then he is not satisfied1 for he washes it off with alcohol and ether1 to be sure that any germs that might be sticking in the fat are removed4 ,he scrubs his hands in the same way4 ,after all this is done1 he can perform the operation without fear that any of the germs which cause suppuration will get in1 for he knows that he has killed all of them that would touch the wound4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ea and #eb4 ,always wash the simplest cut with soap and water2 failure to do this may result in infection and much suffering4 ,sidenote3 ,how to prevent suppuration ,boys and girls cannot do all this before they cut their hands or skin their shins1 but they can do the next best thing--they can keep their hands and the rest of their bodies clean at all times1 and thus have as few germs on them as possible4 ,then1 when they have cut themselves1 they can go straight to some place where there is soap and water1 and can wash the wound thoroughly4 ,after this is done1 a clean bandage should be placed on the cut part to prevent any other germs from getting in4 ,if this is done every time you cut yourself1 you will probably never have an infection--that is1 a wound that suppurates4 ,two boys were playing together one day4 ,they ran into each other and each got a little cut on his hand4 ,one boy went home at once1 washed the wound1 and put on a clean bandage4 ,he lost a little time from his play1 but was soon back and never had any trouble on account of the cut4 ,the other boy thought it was foolish to quit his play to take care of such a little thing1 so he tied his hand up in a dirty handkerchief4 ,two weeks later he was very ill4 ,his arm was badly swollen and had to be cut open in several places2 indeed1 he came near losing his arm4 ,it always pays to take care of a wound1 be it never so slight4 ,deep wounds made with small instruments1 such as small knives1 nails or toy pistols1 are especially dangerous1 because they are hard to clean and because they quickly heal up on the surface and leave the germs to grow at the bottom of the wound4 ,such wounds as these are dangerous for another reason4 ,sidenote3 ,where germs of lockjaw grow ,there is a germ that gets into wounds but does not cause suppuration4 ,it is the germ of tetanus1 or lockjaw4 ,it lives in the ground1 especially in the ground about barns1 and its peculiar feature is that it will not grow in the air4 ,if it gets into a large1 open wound1 it is easily killed1 because it cannot grow where there is air4 ,but when it gets into a small1 deep wound where it cannot be reached1 it stays there until the wound heals over on the surface1 and then it begins to grow4 ,it does not make the parts swell1 as the germs of suppuration do1 but quietly continues to grow1 without the wound showing any sign of infection4 ,finally it develops a very severe poison that is taken up by the blood2 then the victim suddenly begins to have spasms about the face1 and finally these spasms extend to the entire body and kill him4 ,whenever you get a wound so deep that you cannot wash it thoroughly1 go to a doctor and let him clean it out with some medicine that will kill the germs that cannot be reached by washing4 ,sidenote3 ,how boils are caused ,sometimes the germs that cause suppuration get under the skin at a point where a hair has been pulled out1 or even work down beside the hair itself4 ,when this happens1 they cause suppuration under the skin1 and the result is a boil4 ,a boil is merely an infection with the germs that cause suppuration4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how do germs get through the skin8 #b4 ,can we get rid of all the germs that cause suppuration8 #c4 ,why is it impossible for bad blood alone to cause suppuration8 #d4 ,how does the surgeon prevent suppuration8 #e4 ,how may you prevent suppuration8 #f4 ,what is the danger of cutting corns with an ordinary knife or razor8 #g4 ,where do germs of lockjaw grow8 #h4 ,what causes boils8 ,remember4 #a4 ,germs and not bad blood are the cause of suppuration4 #b4 ,always keep as clean as possible1 and immediately wash any cut1 no matter how small4 #c4 ,if you have a deep wound1 go at once to a doctor1 and let him clean it out and kill the germs that may be at the bottom of the wound4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,transmission ,,of ,,diphtheria ,sidenote3 ,how germs may cause sickness without entering the body ,some germs that cause disease do not get into the body1 but grow upon its surface1 that is1 they grow on the mucous membranes--the skin of the mouth1 the throat1 and the nose4 ,as they grow1 they develop poisons that are absorbed by the body1 and that make us very sick4 ,the germs that cause diphtheria belong to this class4 ,sidenote3 ,prevalence of diphtheria ,diphtheria is one of the most common of all the preventable diseases4 ,it causes more deaths than any of the other diseases that can be prevented1 except tuberculosis4 ,the great prevalence of diphtheria is due to lack of care on the part of those who have this disease and of those who come in contact with them4 ,sidenote3 ,where the diphtheria germ comes from ,the germ that causes diphtheria always comes from some person or animal that has diphtheria4 ,it never just happens4 ,if you went into your yard in the morning and found some beets growing in your flower bed1 you would know positively that beet seeds had got into your flower bed in some way4 ,you would not say that the beets just happened to grow there4 ,so diphtheria will not just happen4 ,diphtheria is always caused by germs that come from some one who has diphtheria4 ,they may have come in a letter that was written in the room with the sick person4 ,they may have come from the library in a book that had been used by some one ill with diphtheria4 ,they may have come on some toy that had been played with by a child that had the disease4 ,there are a thousand ways by which the germs may be brought to you without your knowing where they come from4 ,sidenote3 ,how to confine diphtheria germs ,the public health officers try hard to keep these germs from being brought to you4 ,in order to do this1 they have to shut away from other people those who have diphtheria germs2 that is1 they make the sick ones stay at home until they are free from the germs of the disease4 ,we call this quarantine4 ,quarantine means that you must stay away from other people when you are sick with a communicable disease1 and that other people must stay away from you4 ,people are not put in quarantine because they are sick1 but because they are dangerous1 and because we are trying to prevent other people from getting the same disease4 ,do not think the health officers unreasonable when they tell you that you must stay at home and that no one can come in to see you4 ,this is done to protect other people and to keep them from getting the same disease that you have4 ,if you ever have diphtheria1 or any other communicable disease1 you must remember that if any of your playmates come in to see you1 they may get the same disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,disease germs are as deadly as guns4 ,sidenote3 ,seriousness of breaking quarantine ,diphtheria kills a great many children1 and to play with your friends after you have had diphtheria1 and before the health officer tells you that you may1 is almost like trying to kill them4 ,they might be very sick and die1 or they might be very sick and get well1 or they might not be sick at all2 but you never can tell what will happen if they are exposed to the disease4 ,if you were to take a gun and shoot at a friend1 you might kill him1 or you might shoot his leg off1 or you might not hit him at all2 but you would be trying to hit him1 and it would not be your fault if you did not4 ,it is just the same if you play with a friend when you have a communicable disease2 you shoot the disease germ at him1 and if you do not hit him1 it is not your fault4 ,sidenote3 ,why quarantine is not raised sooner ,sometimes people who have been sick with a communicable disease feel perfectly well1 but the health officer tells them he cannot let them out of quarantine4 ,this is because he knows that such people still have in their bodies the germs that cause the disease1 and that as long as these germs are there they can give the disease to other people4 ,it is not pleasant to have to stay in quarantine when you feel that you are well1 and children1 as well as older people1 are very likely to become restless under the circumstances4 ,you see an illustration of such a patient in ,figure #fj1 where the little girl1 who is under quarantine for scarlet fever1 but who is feeling quite well1 is giving a book to two of her friends4 ,the book contains the germs that cause scarlet fever1 and the boys are very likely to contract the disease by handling the book4 ,sidenote3 ,why some cases of diphtheria escape quarantine3 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,from failure to detect mild cases ,if every case of diphtheria were quarantined1 and the people obeyed the health officer1 there would soon be no more diphtheria4 ,but how does it happen that every case of diphtheria is not quarantined8 ,diphtheria is a very peculiar disease4 ,sometimes it makes people so sick that they die in spite of everything that can be done for them2 sometimes it makes the throat only a little sore1 and the child seems so slightly ill that his mother says to herself1 ,he is fretful1 and does not call the doctor4 ,in the latter case the child often keeps on going to school1 and exposes other children to the disease2 some of them catch it1 and become very sick or even die4 ,in still other cases1 the mother thinks that a child has only a case of tonsillitis and does not call a doctor2 the child's brothers and sisters go to school and may carry the germs to other children4 ,i have known a great many cases of diphtheria to be spread in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,the old1 insanitary slates and sponges have gone out of use1 but many people of to-day still follow the dangerous habit of putting pencils into their mouths4 ,sometimes a dairyman thinks that his child has nothing more serious than tonsillitis1 and goes on selling milk4 ,a great many epidemics have resulted from such cases4 ,sore throats should not be treated lightly1 for the most severe forms of diphtheria may develop from germs that come from a throat that is only slightly sore4 ,if there is a case of diphtheria in the town where you live1 and if your throat feels the least bit sore1 have your doctor examine it at once4 ,if you do not wish to have your family doctor look at your throat1 go to the health officer4 ,had you not rather stay at home for a week or two than see your best friends ill or dead because of your carelessness8 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,from diphtheria germs in throats that are not sore ,there is another peculiar thing about the germ of diphtheria4 ,it will often get into a throat and grow a little1 just enough to keep alive1 but without making the throat sore at all4 ,the person in whose throat the germs are will have no idea that they are there1 but when he comes in contact with some one who has a delicate throat1 he may give diphtheria to that person4 ,the disease does not develop in some throats because the body cells are all healthy and doing their work so well that1 when the diphtheria germs try to take hold1 they are driven off and not allowed to grow4 ,this is the reason that1 before he raises the quarantine1 the careful health officer takes a culture from the throat of everyone in a house where there has been diphtheria4 ,sidenote3 ,how mild cases may be detected ,the health officer takes a culture by wiping the throat with a little cotton on a long stick1 which he then puts down into a long glass tube containing some substance that diphtheria germs like to grow on4 ,if there are any diphtheria germs in the throat1 they will soon show on this culture material4 ,then the health officer will say1 ,no1 we cannot let you out yet1 for the germs are still in your throat4 ,no person who has been staying in a house where there is diphtheria should be allowed to go out until a culture proves that his throat is free from the germs of diphtheria4 ,you see how hard it is to quarantine all cases of diphtheria1 when children are sometimes allowed even to go to school with sore throats that are really diphtheritic4 ,only two things are necessary for getting rid of diphtheria3 one is to quarantine every case1 and the other1 to have the people do just what they are told when under quarantine4 ,this latter is just as important as the quarantine itself1 for people often do not obey the health officer's directions4 ,now let us see what are some of these directions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,how pets may become carriers of disease4 ,sidenote3 ,rules of quarantine ,if you are the patient1 the health officer will say that you must be put in a room where there is just enough furniture to make you comfortable1 and that no one except the nurse and the doctor is to go into that room4 ,he will say that the nurse must stay in your room all the time1 or that she must at least not go into any other room in the house2 that your meals must be left outside your door1 and that the person who brings them must go away before the door is opened by the nurse4 ,furthermore1 as everything in the room that cannot be boiled1 or otherwise disinfected1 will have to be burned when you are well1 your pet books and toys had better not be taken in4 ,finally1 nothing is to be carried from the room until it has been put into a solution that will kill the germs1 and this means not only dishes1 bedding1 and clothing1 but even books and letters4 ,the nurse must see that all discharges from the throat and nose are received on little cloths1 which are to be burned immediately4 ,sidenote3 ,how quarantine rules are broken ,these are the things that the health officer will tell your parents must be done4 ,now let us see what sometimes happens4 ,your mother will want to see her little child so much that she cannot wait until you are well1 so she will slip into your room1 kiss your forehead1 and hold you tight against her4 ,when a little later she kisses your baby brother1 and is so thankful that he is not sick too1 she does not realize that she is kissing the very same disease into his little throat4 ,or1 perhaps your mother is the nurse1 and in the night she hears your little brother crying2 she thinks1 ,surely ,i can slip out and just cover him up2 it will not hurt him just for once1 and she does so4 ,what happens8 ,in a few days your doctor tells you that your little brother will have to come in and stay with you4 ,perhaps your father grows anxious to see you1 and one morning he says he cannot stand it another minute1 so he slips in for a few moments before going to business4 ,in a few days one of his clerks fails to come to work4 ,your father sends a messenger to see what the trouble is1 and the word comes back1 ,he has diphtheria4 ,then your father says1 ,what are these health officers doing that they do not stop this thing8 ,he is very indignant1 but it never occurs to him that he himself has spread the disease by doing just what he promised the health officer he would not do4 ,sidenote3 ,how dogs and cats carry disease germs ,the doctor told your mother not to take anything from the room until it had been disinfected4 ,but you do not consider ,towser1 your dog1 and ,tabby1 your cat1 anything1 so you persuade your mother to let them come in1 and you have a good play with them4 ,you let them rub against your face and romp on your bed1 and do everything that pet dogs and cats like to do1 and in the meantime their fur is getting full of diphtheria germs4 ,then ,towser and ,tabby run out-of-doors and play with the boys and girls of the neighborhood4 ,soon the parents are wondering why the health officers do not stop the spread of the disease4 ,no dog or cat should ever be permitted to come into a house where there is a contagious disease4 ,these are not all the ways in which people disobey the orders of the health officer and of the doctor1 but these are enough to show you that it is a very important thing to do just what they tell you4 ,it is not always easy to follow all these rules1 but it is far better to follow these1 and many more1 than to have to think that you have caused the death of either a friend or a stranger4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how does the poison of diphtheria get into the system8 #b4 ,where does the diphtheria germ come from8 #c4 ,what is quarantine8 #d4 ,what is the danger in breaking quarantine8 #e4 ,why is quarantine continued after you feel well8 #f4 ,how does it happen that some cases of diphtheria are not quarantined8 #g4 ,what is a diphtheria culture8 #h4 ,what rules should you observe while in quarantine8 #i4 ,tell some of the ways by which quarantine is broken4 #aj4 ,how do pet dogs and cats sometimes get disease germs8 ,remember4 #a4 ,the germs that cause diphtheria always come from some person or animal that carries diphtheria germs4 #b4 ,diphtheria is always caused by the diphtheria germ1 and the diphtheria germ cannot cause any other disease4 #c4 ,people are quarantined to prevent other people from getting the disease4 #d4 ,if there is diphtheria in your neighborhood1 and your throat becomes sore1 have the doctor examine it4 #e4 ,every person who has been staying in a house where there is a case of diphtheria should have his throat examined to make sure he is not carrying germs4 #f4 ,never play with dogs or cats when you have a contagious disease4 #g4 ,people who do not obey quarantine regulations cause a great deal of suffering and many deaths4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,cure ,,of ,,diphtheria ,sidenote3 ,nature of diphtheria poison ,the germs of diphtheria do not get into the blood through the skin1 but grow on the surface of the mucous membrane 7skin of the throat71 and there produce a poison that gets into the blood through this membrane4 ,it is this poison that makes you sick1 and it is called a toxin4 ,you already know that when people have diphtheria1 they are sometimes very sick and sometimes only slightly sick1 and that the germ can live in some throats without causing any ill effects whatever4 ,sidenote3 ,how diphtheria toxin is fought ,as soon as the diphtheria germ begins to grow in a throat1 the little cells of the body begin to make a certain substance and to pour it into the blood4 ,this substance we call antitoxin1 which means opposed to the toxin in the blood4 ,if the little cells make the substance fast enough1 the germs will stop growing1 or in some cases they never really get started growing1 because they cannot exist where there is much antitoxin4 ,antitoxin looks like clear water4 ,the following experiment will show you something that acts in very much the same way that antitoxin does4 ,if you take a solution of litmus that is made alkaline1 it will be very blue1 like indigo2 but if you drop a few drops of lemon juice into this solution it will turn red4#c ,lemon juice is acid1 and is just the opposite of alkali4 ,now1 if you put a few drops of ammonia1 which is alkali1 into the red solution1 it will turn blue again4 ,if you put a little more lemon juice1 very carefully1 drop by drop1 into the blue solution1 it will gradually turn lighter1 until it is entirely clear4 ,sidenote3 ,how antitoxin acts ,we will suppose that the blue is due to the toxin produced by the diphtheria germ1 and that the lemon juice is the antitoxin produced by the cells in the body4 ,if the antitoxin is made fast enough1 the blue disappears2 but if the toxin is made faster than the antitoxin1 the blue remains4 ,it is the same way in the body1 only it is not litmus and acids and alkalies that we have to deal with4 ,if the toxin is made faster than the antitoxin1 the germs grow1 and we get sicker and sicker2 but if the antitoxin is made faster than the toxin1 then the germs cannot grow1 and we soon get well1 or perhaps do not get sick at all4 ,sidenote3 ,how antitoxin was discovered ,doctors knew that this was what happened1 but for a great many years they could not discover the composition of the antitoxin that is made in the body4 ,one day a doctor suggested1 ,if we cannot find out the chemical nature of this thing that is made in the body1 why can we not make it in the body of some animal and then use the blood of the animal8 ,and that is just what they did4 ,they put diphtheria germs into beef tea1 and let them grow very fast and make all the toxin they could4 ,then the doctors strained the germs out by passing the beef tea through a fine filter1 in this way getting the poison1 and not the germs4 ,then they gave a strong1 healthy horse a small quantity of this poison2 they did not feed it to him1 but injected it into his blood4 ,of course the horse was sick for a while1 but soon he began to get well again1 for the cells in his body immediately went to work making antitoxin4 ,when the horse was well1 the doctors gave him more of the poison2 this time he was not so sick and got well even more quickly4 ,this treatment with toxin was repeated in gradually increasing doses until the poison did not affect the horse at all4 ,then the doctors said1 ,his blood is full of antitoxin1 and we will see what it will do when injected into some other animal4 ,so they drew off some of the horse's blood and took out all the little red cells1 leaving nothing but the clear fluid of the blood4 ,they planted diphtheria germs in a rabbit's throat1 and when the rabbit became very sick1 they gave him some of the antitoxin from the horse4 ,the rabbit immediately got well4 ,afterward they gave some of this antitoxin to a little boy who was very sick with diphtheria1 and he1 too1 got well4 ,ever since then the doctors have been saving many lives by the use of antitoxin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,showing the number of deaths in #ajj cases of diphtheria when antitoxin is used on the first1 second1 third1 fourth1 and fifth days4 ,sidenote3 ,evidences that antitoxin saves lives ,someone may ask1 ,how do we know that it is the antitoxin that saves lives8 ,in just this way3 before we knew anything about antitoxin1 about half of all the people with diphtheria died2 but since we have had antitoxin1 only about twelve die out of every hundred who have this disease4 ,more than this1 we know that when the antitoxin is given within the first twenty-four hours after the patient is taken sick1 there is only about one death for every one thousand cases of diphtheria4 ,do you not think that this is strong proof that antitoxin saves lives8 ,sidenote3 ,how antitoxin saves lives ,antitoxin saves lives not only by curing those who have diphtheria1 but by preventing others from having it4 ,if a person who has been where there is a case of diphtheria is given a dose of antitoxin1 he will not have the disease1 because his blood will contain enough antitoxin to destroy the diphtheria toxin present4 ,if you will watch a careful doctor when he makes his first visit to a case of diphtheria1 you will notice that1 as soon as he gets through treating the patient1 he gives all members of the family who have been near the patient a dose of antitoxin to keep them from getting sick4 ,sidenote3 ,antitoxin not a poison ,some people may tell you that antitoxin is a poison and should not be used4 ,the statement that it is in itself a poison is true4 ,but it is also true that in your body there are many things that would poison you if you got too much of them4 ,for instance1 there is a gland in your throat 7the thyroid7 which secretes a substance that is necessary for your health1 but if you were to take the secretion of ten such glands it would kill you at once4 ,now1 if the cells in your body make antitoxin when you have diphtheria1 it is probable that antitoxin is the very thing needed4 ,and if you can help these cells by giving them antitoxin1 ready-made1 does it not seem a reasonable thing to do8 ,people who give the name of poison to a substance which is known to have saved many lives are not worthy of attention4 ,anything may prove a poison if taken in excess2 too much play will prove a poison1 and too much work also4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what is the poison of diphtheria called8 #b4 ,what is antitoxin8 #c4 ,compare the action of antitoxin on the blood with the action of an acid on the litmus solution4 #d4 ,tell about the discovery of antitoxin4 #e4 ,how do we know that antitoxin saves lives8 #f4 ,how does antitoxin prevent diphtheria8 #g4 ,why should antitoxin not be regarded as a poison8 ,remember4 #a4 ,antitoxin is what the cells in your body make when you have diphtheria4 #b4 ,by using the antitoxin taken from a horse1 you save your own cells the struggle necessary to make it fast enough to kill the diphtheria germs4 #c4 ,if you have diphtheria1 and antitoxin is given promptly1 you will get well4 #d4 ,if you have been exposed to diphtheria1 antitoxin will prevent your having the disease4 #e4 ,antitoxin is no more a poison than are many other medicines4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,how ,,typhoid ,,fever ,,germs ,,are ,,carried ,sidenote3 ,how typhoid fever germs get into the system ,there are certain diseases1 the germs of which get into bodies through our mouths4 ,that is1 we eat or drink them4 ,some of these diseases are typhoid fever1 cholera1 the summer complaints of children1 tuberculosis1 and diphtheria4 ,at present we shall learn about the germ that causes typhoid fever1 how it gets into our food and drink1 and how we may prevent the disease by getting rid of this germ4 ,typhoid fever1 like all other diseases caused by germs1 is caused by one kind of germ1 and one kind only4 ,you cannot get typhoid fever by eating cholera germs any more than you can get diphtheria from typhoid germs4 ,sidenote3 ,animals free from typhoid ,so far as we know1 there is no animal except man that has typhoid fever4 ,since the germs of any disease must come from an animal suffering from that disease1 and as man is the only animal that has typhoid fever1 it naturally follows that the only way to get typhoid fever is from some person who has the fever or has had it4 ,sidenote3 ,how typhoid germs leave the body ,we know that typhoid fever germs get into the body with food1 but how do they get out8 ,once in a great while germs are found in the matter that the patient vomits1 or spits up1 but this is a rare occurrence1 so rare that we need hardly consider it4 ,the germs are present in the blood of the sufferer1 but other people do not get his blood on their hands or in their food4 ,there are two things that come from the patient that are loaded with these germs1 and these are the urine and bowel discharges4 ,in these two excretions of the body are found practically all the typhoid germs that come from the patient1 and these are the causes of other infections4 ,in other words1 it is from these two excretions that the germs get into food and drink4 ,sidenote3 ,how typhoid germs get into water ,how do the typhoid germs get into our food8 ,what is done with the excretions after they come from the body8 ,you will probably say that the nurse throws them into the sewer4 ,very true2 but where do they go when they are thrown into the sewer8 ,the sewer must empty somewhere1 and in most instances it empties into a stream1 the water of which is used for drinking purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,pollution of a stream with sewage4 ,sidenote3 ,the widespread evil due to the sickness of one person ,you may think that the germs from one person would not make much difference1 but that is where you are mistaken4 ,there is a town in ,pennsylvania of about eight thousand inhabitants1 which gets its water from a stream that flows down from the mountains4 ,one cold winter1 while the stream was frozen1 a man living on the bank of the stream was taken sick with typhoid fever4 ,his nurse threw the urine and the discharges from his bowels on the ice on the bank of the creek4 ,when the ice melted1 the typhoid germs in the discharges found their way to the stream that furnished drinking water to people farther down1 and in a very short time there were over one thousand cases of typhoid fever in that town4 ,before the ice melted there had not been a single case of typhoid1 and every one of the thousand cases came from the water into which had been allowed to flow the discharges from one man with typhoid fever4 ,you see what germs from one person may do4 ,sidenote3 ,how long typhoid fever germs live in a stream ,sometimes people say that a stream purifies itself every few miles4 ,it does purify itself of some things1 but disease germs live from twenty-five to thirty-five days in water1 and a stream flows a long way in thirty days4 ,sidenote3 ,the pollution of streams with sewage ,sometimes we hear people say that it is safe to put sewage into a certain stream1 because no town uses that stream for drinking water4 ,but of this they can never be sure4 ,not long ago certain people said that the water from the river which flowed through their town was used only by two dairymen and a vegetable gardener1 and therefore there was no danger in running sewage into the stream4 ,yet the dairymen and the gardener sold all their produce in that very town4 ,the townspeople never considered that the water into which they ran their sewage was used by the dairymen for washing their milk vessels 7and perhaps for diluting the milk71 and by the gardener for washing his lettuce and other vegetables4 ,thus the germs of disease were brought directly back to the town4 ,do not think that you are safe in polluting a stream with sewage because no town uses the water from that stream4 ,the individual on the farm is entitled to protection just as much as the individual in the town4 ,always remember that when you pollute with disease the water used by the farmer1 he may bring that disease back into the town with the produce of his farm4 ,no sewage1 no matter how small the amount1 should ever be permitted to go into a stream until all the disease germs it contains have been killed4 ,this can be done1 though it will cost something2 but we cannot get rid of disease germs without work1 and work cannot be done without being paid for4 ,there are other ways of scattering typhoid germs besides running sewage into streams4 ,sometimes the nurse does not throw the discharges from a typhoid fever patient into a sewer at all1 but into a closet vault4 ,remember how the material from a closet vault goes through open ground into a well1 and you will understand what happens4 ,the germs get into the well1 and the whole family may then have typhoid fever4 ,let us suppose that the nurse did not throw the discharges either into the closet or into the sewer1 but carelessly threw them out on the ground behind the house1 where1 as it was winter time1 they froze as hard as rocks4 ,it does not seem to hurt typhoid germs in the least to be frozen2 when they get warm again they are as lively as ever4 ,let us suppose these particular germs lay there all winter1 but in the spring when everything melted the germs were still alive and ready to spread disease4 ,it happened that they did not get into the well or into the milk1 but they did get on your food1 and made you ill with typhoid fever4 ,sidenote3 ,how flies carry typhoid germs ,how did the germs get to your food8 ,about the time that the germs were thawed out1 and were beginning to double in number every hour or two1 along came a fly and thought that spot an attractive one for a lunch4 ,accordingly he walked over this mass of filth1 collecting a supply of germs on his feet1 and then came in and tracked them over your bread and butter or other food4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,flies crawling on the edge of the glass or falling into the milk leave germs that cause disease4 ,sidenote3 ,how typhoid germs get into milk ,that is how you got the fever2 but the trouble did not stop with you4 ,when you fell sick1 your father thought it was time to clean the yard1 but he was not very careful what he did with the dirt1 including the typhoid fever discharges which the nurse threw out on the snow during the winter4 ,there was a low place in the barnyard and there he dumped the dirt4 ,one of the cows thought this fresh pile of dirt would make a comfortable place to lie down in4 ,the next morning the milkman milked her without first washing her sides and udder1 and hundreds of little particles of dirt1 each one loaded with germs1 fell into the milk4 ,the milk from all the cows was mixed together1 and by the time it got to town these germs had grown into many thousands4 ,some of the people who drank the milk became ill with typhoid fever and wondered afterward where they had taken this disease4 ,sidenote3 ,why the recovered patient is dangerous ,the discharges from a typhoid fever patient contain typhoid germs not only while the disease lasts1 but for many months after the patient is well4 ,in some cases they are present for years after the illness is over4 ,sidenote3 ,the story of the careless nurses ,here is a story about typhoid fever that illustrates the importance of washing and boiling everything that comes from a sickroom4 ,a few years ago there was an epidemic of typhoid fever in a certain town4 ,one of the hospitals was very much crowded1 and it became necessary to employ several extra nurses4 ,all the nurses knew the importance of washing their hands after handling the patients1 and the old nurses had seen so many bad results from failure to observe this rule that they were very careful4 ,three of the new nurses1 however1 thought it a great deal of trouble to be washing their hands all the time1 so more and more they neglected this important duty4 ,the result was that all three of these girls got typhoid fever and died4 ,they paid the penalty for neglecting the duty that they well knew they should have performed4 ,typhoid fever can be wiped out by attention to neglected details--that is1 by disinfecting discharges before throwing them away2 by disposing of excretions only in places that are made for them2 by adding lime to the closet vault every day to kill any germs present2 by making the closet in such a way that flies cannot get into it2 and by not permitting sewage to enter any stream until all the disease germs have been killed4 ,all these things can be done4 ,it will require a little work2 but had you not rather take a little extra care than run the risk of catching or spreading typhoid fever8 ,questions4 #a4 ,how do typhoid fever germs get into the body8 #b4 ,what is one source of these germs8 #c4 ,how do these germs leave the body8 #d4 ,name several ways by which typhoid germs in a stream may get into foods4 #e4 ,how do flies carry typhoid fever germs8 #f4 ,how do these germs get into milk8 ,remember4 #a4 ,typhoid germs come from people who have typhoid fever2 they are found in the urine and bowel discharges4 #b4 ,no one should ever answer ,nature's calls except in a place provided for that purpose4 #c4 ,no sewage should be allowed to go into any stream until all the germs in it have been killed4 #d4 ,disease germs will live in running water fully as long as they will in still water4 #e4 ,the discharges from a single person may infect a whole city4 #f4 ,when typhoid fever germs get into milk1 they grow very rapidly2 hundreds of people have been given typhoid fever by drinking the milk from a dairy where there was a single person sick with this disease4 #g4 ,people who have had typhoid often carry the germs for several months after they are well4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,hookworm ,,disease ,,and ,,amoebic ,,dysentery ,hookworm disease and amoebic dysentery resemble typhoid fever in one respect1 in that they1 too are spread by the improper disposal of human excreta4 ,sidenote3 ,where hookworm disease prevails ,hookworm disease is found almost exclusively in tropical or subtropical climates4 ,in the ,united ,states it is rarely seen north of the ,potomac and ,ohio rivers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,a full-grown hookworm1 magnified2 the short line shows the average length of the hookworm4 ,sidenote3 ,what the hookworm is ,this disease is not caused by a germ1 as is typhoid fever1 but by a worm from a quarter to half an inch long1 and about as thick as a small hairpin4 ,these worms get into a person's intestinal canal1 and there lay their eggs1 which are later given off in the bowel discharges4 ,when these discharges are thrown on the ground1 or are put into an open water-closet1 they may be carried about by chickens1 flies1 and pigs4 ,then the eggs hatch in the soil and tiny hookworms result4 ,when human excreta are not properly disposed of1 in climates where hookworm disease prevails1 the soil becomes practically full of these little worms1 and from the soil they find their way into the bodies of the people4 ,sidenote3 ,how it enters the body ,there are two principal ways by which the hookworm may enter the body4 ,one is through the mouth1 which these worms reach in practically the same way as do typhoid fever germs4 ,the hookworm may enter the body through the skin also4 ,some authorities state that the worm bores its way in2 but it is probable that it does not actually bore through sound skin1 but enters at some point where there is a small break4 ,sidenote3 ,where it lives in the body ,after the worm gets through the skin1 it is taken into the blood and carried to the lungs1 and from there it finds its way to the throat and is swallowed4 ,it makes no difference whether the hookworm is swallowed or enters the body through the skin2 it finally reaches the intestinal canal1 where it then makes its home4 ,sometimes thousands of these worms are found in a single person1 and each one of them entered the body through the mouth or through the skin4 ,the worms do not multiply in the body1 and the eggs they lay never hatch until after they have left the body4 ,sidenote3 ,how it affects the patient ,when the hookworm gets into the intestinal canal1 it fastens itself to the wall and sucks the blood from it1 at the same time giving off a poison that enters the blood of the victim4 ,the loss of blood and the effects of the poison soon cause the person in whose body these worms are living to become weak1 pale1 and thin4 ,he is not able to do much work1 if any1 and the result is that people suffering from this disease are often called lazy4 ,they are not lazy2 they are sick1 and many of them die4 ,sidenote3 ,how hookworm disease can be prevented ,all this sickness and all these deaths might be prevented simply by the proper disposal of human excreta4 ,no human excreta should ever be put anywhere except into a properly constructed sewer or properly constructed privy4 ,if this rule were always observed1 both hookworm disease and typhoid fever would be abolished4 ,sidenote3 ,where amoebic dysentery prevails ,amoebic dysentery is another disease that is confined almost entirely to tropical and subtropical climates1 though cases sometimes occur in colder regions4 ,sidenote3 ,how it is spread and how it may be prevented ,this disease1 like typhoid fever1 is caused by a germ that leaves the body with the bowel discharges4 ,the germ makes its way into the body in the same way that the typhoid germ enters2 that is1 it is taken in with food or drink4 ,the various means by which this germ gets into our food are the same as those by which the typhoid germ gets in2 and the precautions that will prevent the spread of typhoid fever will also prevent dysentery4 ,amoebic dysentery kills a great many people in warm climates1 though it does not kill as many as does typhoid fever4 ,if it does not cause immediate death1 it often leaves the patient very weak and sickly for months or years4 ,questions4 #a4 ,in what climates are hookworm disease and amoebic dysentery commonly found8 #b4 ,in what respects do they resemble typhoid fever8 #c4 ,how does the hookworm enter the body8 #d4 ,where do the hookworm eggs hatch8 #e4 ,how can hookworm disease be prevented8 #f4 ,what other diseases can be prevented by the same precautions8 ,remember4 #a4 ,typhoid fever1 hookworm disease1 and amoebic dysentery are all caused by the improper disposal of human excreta4 #b4 ,most of the sickness that can be prevented is the result of dirty habits2 if all people would keep clean and see that everything about them was kept clean1 a great deal of sickness would be prevented and a great many lives would be saved4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,how ,,scarlet ,,fever ,,is ,,carried ,there are certain diseases that we know to be communicable 7that is1 catching71 but as yet we do not know the germ that causes them1 and therefore we cannot tell just how they are carried about4 ,we do know that they are transferred from one person to another2 but not being able to locate the cause1 as we can in the diseases of which we do know the germ1 we cannot explain how it is done4 ,sidenote3 ,how scarlet fever is like diphtheria ,among the diseases of this class we find scarlet fever4 ,in one respect scarlet fever acts much the same as diphtheria4 ,a person may have it and not be very sick1 sometimes hardly sick at all4 ,at night a child may have a high fever1 with a slightly sore throat1 and the next morning he may feel perfectly well4 ,the mother supposes that the fever was due to an upset stomach1 thinks no more about it1 and sends the child to school4 ,the next time the child takes a bath1 he perhaps notices that the skin peels off over some parts of the body4 ,this means that the high fever was due to scarlet fever1 but the breaking-out 7rash7 was so fine that it was not noticed4 ,it also means that all the children in the school have been exposed to the disease4 ,these very mild cases are the most dangerous because so often they are not recognized4 ,sidenote3 ,why mild cases are dangerous3 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,for the severe cases they cause ,there are two things to be remembered in connection with these mild forms of scarlet fever1 as well as of every other communicable disease4 ,the first is that the same cause which produces a mild form of the disease in one child may produce its most severe form in another child4 ,you can contract a mild form of the disease from exposure to a severe case2 and you can contract a severe form from exposure to a mild case4 ,the character of the case to which you are exposed will give no indication of the form the disease will assume in your body4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,for the bad after effects ,the next thing to be remembered about the mild form of scarlet fever is that1 though the child may not be made very sick at the time1 there may later be very bad results4 ,a child who has had scarlet fever in such a mild form that he hardly knew he was sick1 may1 for a while1 appear to be quite well2 then suddenly he has an earache1 and an abscess forms4 ,this abscess is due to the scarlet fever germs which have gone from the throat to the ear1 and as a result the child may lose his hearing entirely4 ,the child may not1 perhaps1 have an abscess1 but after a time he may begin to lose flesh1 and to grow pale4 ,he does not care for his meals1 does not care to play1 says he is tired1 and wants to lie still all the time4 ,finally his mother thinks it might be a good idea to have a doctor see him4 ,the doctor examines his body carefully1 and then asks for a sample of his urine4 ,when he has examined this1 he looks very serious and asks the mother when the child was sick last1 and what the disease was4 ,perhaps she has forgotten all about the slight attack of fever1 and the doctor must question her very carefully before she recalls it4 ,at length it occurs to her1 and then the doctor asks1 ,after this attack of fever1 did you notice that the skin came off his hands and body8 ,she replies that she did1 and then the doctor tells her that the child really had scarlet fever1 and1 owing to lack of care1 he now has kidney disease4 ,this is a very serious trouble1 from which he may never recover1 or1 in case of recovery1 he may always be weak and sickly4 ,even a mild attack of scarlet fever is not to be neglected2 it is a severe and dangerous disease in its very mildest form4 ,it not only kills a great many boys and girls1 but it makes delicate in health for all their lives many of those who apparently recover4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,one of the ways by which quarantine is broken4 ,sidenote3 ,how confusion of names causes mild cases to go undetected ,we often hear people speak of two diseases which they think are not scarlet fever4 ,these two diseases are scarlatina and scarlet rash4 ,now scarlatina is simply the scientific name for scarlet fever4 ,some doctors will tell you that you have scarlatina and that it is not exactly scarlet fever4 ,a doctor who says this either is deceiving you or does not know any better4 ,in either case1 he ought not to be a doctor1 for he lets children be exposed to a disease that is likely to kill many of them4 ,it is the same with scarlet rash4 ,this1 too1 is simply another name for scarlet fever4 ,changing the name does not change the disease1 and you may call it scarlet fever1 scarlatina1 or scarlet rash--it makes no difference which2 the disease is one and the same4 ,sidenote3 ,why quarantine is necessary for scarlet fever ,quarantine is the only way known for preventing the spread of scarlet fever1 as well as of diphtheria4 ,if every case of scarlet fever were quarantined1 we could soon stop this disease2 but every case is not quarantined1 because some of them are so mild that they are not recognized4 ,sidenote3 ,how breaking quarantine shows selfishness ,even when a case is quarantined1 the people sometimes neglect the instructions given1 just as they do when there is a case of diphtheria4 ,then there are cases that are known to be scarlet fever but are not reported to the health officers1 because the people do not want to be quarantined4 ,they simply do not want to be put to any inconvenience themselves1 and although this seems a very strange way for people to act1 it happens very often4 ,there are many selfish people in the world2 there are even people who will not report a case of scarlet fever because to do so might prevent their going to a party4 ,selfishness is at the bottom of it4 ,it is extremely important that a child should be absolutely free from all the little scales of skin which are thrown off after scarlet fever1 before he returns to school or mingles again with others4 ,if there is a discharge from the nose or ears after the scales have disappeared from the skin1 there is still danger of spreading the disease1 for these discharges often retain the infection for many months4 ,questions4 #a4 ,give two reasons why mild cases of scarlet fever should be carefully treated4 #b4 ,why is quarantine necessary8 #c4 ,how does selfishness lead people to spread scarlet fever8 #d4 ,when is it safe to let a scarlet fever patient mingle with well people8 ,remember4 #a4 ,if you have scarlet fever and are not very sick1 do not think that you will not be dangerous to others2 severe cases sometimes come from exposure to the mildest cases4 #b4 ,mild cases of scarlet fever often leave very bad results1 if the patient is not cared for4 #c4 ,be very careful until you are entirely well4 #d4 ,scarlatina and scarlet rash are nothing but scarlet fever2 keep away from people who have them4 #e4 ,quarantine is the only way by which we can prevent the spread of scarlet fever2 there is no medicine that will prevent it4 #f4 ,people who violate quarantine regulations are both selfish and stupid4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,measles ,,and ,,whooping ,,cough ,,dangerous ,,diseases ,measles is a disease in the same class as scarlet fever4 ,we do not know the cause1 but we do know that it is communicable4 ,sidenote3 ,why measles should be avoided ,measles is usually not a severe disease2 that is1 it does not kill as many persons in proportion to the number of cases as does scarlet fever4 ,it does1 however1 kill more people than most of us think2 a great many little babies die of it4 ,how often we hear mothers say1 ,i wish my children would have measles and be done with it4 ,it would be very convenient if they could have measles in a mild way and be done with it4 ,the trouble is1 that we cannot tell whether it will take a mild form1 and1 worse than this1 we do not know when they will be done with it4 ,if you should go into the children's wards of a large hospital1 you would know why measles should be avoided4 ,there you would hear the doctors questioning the mothers about the previous diseases of the little ones4 ,you would be surprised at the number who replied1 ,he has not had anything but measles4 ,then you would hear the question1 ,how long since he had the measles8 ,he was just over it when he was taken sick with this trouble4 ,what is this trouble8 ,follow the doctor along from bed to bed and see the cases of pneumonia that started when the child was just over measles2 see how many cases of empyema 7abscess in the chest7 began just after the measles ended2 how many cases of abscess in the bone1 how many cases of disease of the kidneys appeared after the child recovered from the measles4 ,then go down into the eye and ear wards and see how many diseased eyes and ears have followed an attack of the measles4 ,the children would not have had these troubles had they not first had measles4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of care in measles ,if you have measles1 do not let others come near you1 and do not think that1 because you do not feel very sick1 you can run about as usual4 ,if you do not take good care of yourself1 you may have some of the diseases that so often begin when children are getting over measles4 ,measles causes more deaths than is commonly supposed1 especially among young children and very old people2 and a great many children die of diseases which they never would have had if they had not first had the measles4 ,avoid people who have measles1 and if you should get the disease1 do not treat it as a slight thing1 but consult your doctor at once4 ,illustration3 ,whooping ,cough ,scarlet ,fever ,measles ,smallpox #d1hef #d1cji #d1cjb #gd ,,fig4 #fa4 ,deaths in #aijg from four common communicable diseases reported to the ,united ,states ,census ,bureau4 ,sidenote3 ,evil effects of whooping cough ,whooping cough is much the same as measles in this respect4 ,it kills many children1 and1 in cases where it does not kill them1 their bodies become so weakened that they are liable to contract some other disease that may prove fatal4 ,avoid people who have whooping cough4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why should people avoid measles8 #b4 ,why should one take care of himself when he has measles8 #c4 ,why is whooping cough to be avoided8 ,remember4 #a4 ,measles is more fatal1 especially among babies1 than people realize4 #b4 ,measles causes more diseases of the bones1 ears1 and eyes than any other communicable disease4 #c4 ,measles is not dangerous if properly cared for1 but when neglected1 it causes much suffering and many deaths4 #d4 ,whooping cough causes almost as many deaths as does measles4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,how ,,smallpox ,,is ,,prevented ,we now come to the study of a disease1 the cause of which has not been positively recognized4 ,we know that it is very communicable2 but we know also that there is absolutely no reason for anyone's ever contracting it1 since there is a way by which it may easily be prevented4 ,sidenote3 ,fatality of smallpox before the discovery of vaccination ,something over a hundred years ago1 smallpox was one of the most fatal diseases known4 ,it is estimated that during the eighteenth century it killed over #fj1jjj1jjj people4 ,up to the time when the ,spaniards invaded ,mexico1 there had been no smallpox there4 ,the ,spaniards brought the disease with them1 and historians tell us that out of the #ab1jjj1jjj people living in ,mexico at that time1 at least #f1jjj1jjj died from smallpox4 ,at that time the disease was considered fatal throughout the world2 when it broke out in a community1 people fled without stopping to bury their dead4 ,it was a rare thing to see a person not more or less disfigured by the marks the disease leaves on the face and body4 ,to-day we find a very different condition4 ,there are now fewer fatalities from smallpox than from almost any other communicable disease4 ,during #aijf and #aijg only #afi deaths from smallpox were reported from all over the ,united ,states to the ,census ,bureau at ,washington4 ,what has caused this marked falling off in the fatality of the disease8 ,sidenote3 ,discovery of vaccination ,during the time that smallpox was killing so many people1 all the doctors were trying to find something that would cure the disease or that would prevent it4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century ,dr4 ,edward ,jenner1 an ,english physician1 noticed that milkmaids did not have smallpox as much as did people of other occupations4 ,he also noticed cows with little sores on their udders that looked very much like the sores that come with smallpox4 ,he therefore tried making on the arms of people sores just like those on the udders of the cows4 ,he did this by taking a little of the matter from the sores on the cows and putting it into the scratches on the people's arms4 ,after these sores had healed1 the people who had been thus treated did not have smallpox4 ,this simple practice has caused one of the most deadly diseases known to man to become one of the most easily controlled4 ,sidenote3 ,prevention of smallpox by vaccination3 ,though it is well known that before the discovery of vaccination smallpox was a fatal disease1 there are still some persons who say that vaccination has done nothing to reduce the mortality4 ,when you learn some of the facts1 you can judge for yourself whether or not vaccination does prevent smallpox4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,in the ,franco-,prussian ,war ,during the ,franco-,prussian ,war in #ahgj-ga1 the ,german soldiers were all vaccinated1 and only a part of the ,french army was vaccinated4 ,smallpox broke out in the two armies4 ,as a result1 #f1jjj of the ,french died from smallpox and only #bgh of the ,germans4 ,in many instances1 the ,german and the ,french soldiers were confined in the same hospitals1 with exactly the same opportunities to contract the disease4 ,but1 you might ask1 if vaccination prevents smallpox1 how did it happen that there were any cases among the ,german soldiers8 ,in order to prevent smallpox1 vaccination must be successful2 that is1 it must take4 ,we will tell you about different kinds of vaccination a little later4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,in ,sweden1 before vaccination1 smallpox caused #b1jej deaths per million population 7represented by the large square74 ,since the introduction of vaccination the death rate has dropped to #b per million population 7represented by the two small squares74 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,in ,sweden ,in ,sweden we find strong evidence that vaccination prevents smallpox4 ,up to #ahja1 before vaccination was introduced into that country1 the yearly death rate from smallpox was #b1jej out of each million of the population4 ,in #ahja vaccination was introduced into ,sweden1 but the people were allowed to be vaccinated or not1 just as they pleased4 ,during the ten years ending with #ahaa1 the annual death rate from smallpox had dropped from #b1jej per million of the population to #fhf per million4 ,later1 vaccination was made compulsory 7that is1 everybody in ,sweden was obliged to be vaccinated71 and in #ahid the death rate had dropped to only two deaths a year per million population4 ,is it merely a coincidence that this great falling off in deaths from smallpox came after vaccination was discovered1 or was it due to vaccination8 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,in the ,philippine ,islands ,before the ,philippine ,islands were occupied by the ,americans1 vaccination was very little practiced1 and a large percentage of the deaths in those islands was caused by smallpox4 ,in #ahig smallpox caused about #dj1jjj deaths4 ,a few years later the ,americans enforced vaccination among the inhabitants of the ,philippines1 and the result was that in #aijg there were only #cjd deaths from smallpox4 ,there has been practically no quarantine for smallpox and no disinfection2 the only cause of the suppression of the disease in the ,philippine ,islands is vaccination--nothing else4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,in ,gloucester1 ,england ,in ,gloucester1 ,england1 there used to be a great many people who did not believe in vaccination1 though it is doubtful if they themselves could have explained why they did not4 ,they seem to have been much like the man who1 when asked1 ,what do you think of this8 replied1 ,i don't know anything about it1 but ,i am against it4 ,in #ahij ,gloucester had a population of #db1jjj people1 most of whom had never been vaccinated4 ,in the latter part of #ahie1 smallpox broke out4 ,quarantine was strictly carried out1 but the disease continued to spread4 ,as the people saw the number of victims rapidly increasing1 many of them concluded that they had rather be vaccinated than have smallpox1 even though they did not really believe in vaccination4 ,by the first of ,april1 #ahif1 over #cf1jjj people had been vaccinated in ,gloucester1 and by the first of ,august there was not a case of smallpox in the city4 ,but what had happened in the meantime8 ,there had been #a1igi cases of smallpox2 a very large amount of money had been expended in quarantining2 hundreds of persons had been disfigured for life2 and #dci lives had been lost4 ,and all this simply because the people did not believe in vaccination4 ,quarantining smallpox is a most expensive luxury1 which may possibly retard the progress of this disease1 but was never known to check an epidemic of it4 ,every epidemic of smallpox during the last one hundred years has been checked by vaccination4 ,sidenote3 ,why some diseases do not return ,there are certain diseases which you are not likely to have more than once2 one attack protects against another4 ,why and how does one attack of a certain disease protect against another8 ,when a person is taken sick with one of these diseases1 the cells of his body immediately begin to make a substance called antitoxin4 ,we learned something about antitoxin when we were studying diphtheria4 ,in diseases like scarlet fever1 measles1 and smallpox1 in which one attack protects against another1 the antitoxin that is formed in the body when you are sick stays there for a long time1 in some cases as long as you live4 ,while this antitoxin is present in the blood1 the cause of the disease cannot live in the body2 hence you cannot have the disease again4 ,after some diseases this antitoxin seems to disappear from the blood in a short time2 after others1 it seems to remain for several years2 and after still others it remains as long as you live4 ,after diphtheria it stays in the blood only a short time1 so that one may have diphtheria a second time within a few years4 ,some people have smallpox1 measles1 or scarlet fever a second time1 but with most people these diseases never return4 ,if we knew how to make the cells of our bodies produce this antitoxin and keep it stored up in the blood all the time1 we should never have any of these diseases4 ,but in many cases we do not know how to cause the cells to manufacture this antitoxin4 ,however1 in one or two diseases we do know how to persuade them to make the antitoxin1 and the one in which we know how to accomplish this best is smallpox4 ,this is just what is done by vaccination4 ,sidenote3 ,how vaccination prevents smallpox ,the object of vaccination is to put the cells of the body to work making antitoxin4 ,to do this1 it is necessary to get some of the toxin into the body4 ,we want to get in just enough to make the cells work1 and no more4 ,therefore we make a very small scratch1 and put into it some of the vaccine which contains the toxin of smallpox4 ,it is impossible to have these germs in your body and not be affected by them to some degree4 ,if you did not feel a little sick1 the cells would not be making antitoxin1 for the thing that makes you sick is what makes the cells go to work4 ,but this sickness is only a matter of a day or two1 and after the cells have made the antitoxin1 it will stay in your body a long time1 longer in some cases than in others4 ,some people1 after they have once been vaccinated1 can never be successfully vaccinated again2 neither can such people ever have smallpox4 ,most people1 however1 can be successfully vaccinated every five to seven years1 and there are a few people who will take if vaccinated every year or two4 ,these conditions indicate the length of time that the antitoxin of smallpox will live in the bodies of these different persons4 ,if vaccination1 properly performed1 does not take1 the person is not in a condition at that time to catch smallpox2 and if vaccination1 properly performed1 does take1 it is positive evidence that if this person had been exposed to smallpox1 he would have taken the disease4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of repeated vaccination ,it is frequently asked1 ,how long will vaccination protect against smallpox8 ,you can no more answer this question than you can tell how long the antitoxin will live in the blood of any particular person4 ,the only safe thing to do is to be vaccinated every few years1 and if smallpox is present in your community1 get vaccinated every year until the vaccination takes4 ,if it takes1 it shows that you were in a condition to catch the disease2 and if it does not take1 you may feel safe from smallpox for a while1 at least4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why was smallpox formerly more widespread and more often fatal than it is now8 #b4 ,tell of the discovery of vaccination4 #c4 ,give instances to show the influence of vaccination on smallpox epidemics4 #d4 ,why must there be repeated vaccinations8 #e4 ,show how vaccinating for smallpox is like taking antitoxin to prevent diphtheria4 ,remember4 #a4 ,before the introduction of vaccination1 smallpox was one of the most dangerous diseases known4 #b4 ,all evidence of history tends to show that vaccination has caused smallpox to become a very mild disease and a comparatively rare one4 #c4 ,successful vaccination repeated at proper intervals will prevent smallpox4 #d4 ,vaccination must be repeated because we do not know just how long the material developed in the body from a single vaccination will last4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,why ,,vaccination ,,sometimes ,,seems ,a ,,failure ,sidenote3 ,what constitutes a successful vaccination ,how does it happen that those who have been recently vaccinated sometimes have smallpox8 ,it is successful vaccination that prevents smallpox1 not recent vaccination2 there is a vast difference between the two4 ,a successful vaccination is one that results in a sore identical with the sores of smallpox4 ,such a sore is secured only as a result of the action of the germs that cause smallpox4 ,if the arm is red from the shoulder to the wrist and so swollen that you cannot use it for weeks1 it does not necessarily mean that you have had a successful vaccination4 ,such arms are not the result of vaccination itself1 any more than a railroad wreck is the result of the fact that there is steam in the engine4 ,the railroad wreck is caused by carelessness on the part of some operator1 and the badly inflamed and swollen arm is due to lack of care or knowledge on the part of the vaccinator or the person vaccinated4 ,sidenote3 ,some pretended vaccinations ,a fly blister is not a successful vaccination4 ,such a statement may not seem necessary1 until you hear this story4 ,a man showed a sore on his arm1 asserting that it was a successful vaccination4 ,he was told that it was nothing but the result of a blister1 and not vaccination1 and that the work had been done by putting a small bit of blistering plaster on his arm4 ,he admitted this to be the fact1 and said that the doctor who did it told him that it was a new way of vaccinating4 ,the doctors who say that vaccination will not prevent smallpox belong to the class who use fly blisters and call them vaccinations4 ,when the patient gets smallpox1 those who are opposed to vaccinations say that here is an illustration of their claim that vaccination will not prevent smallpox4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,how vaccinated arms are sometimes infected4 ,some people who honestly think they were vaccinated have smallpox4 ,there are sometimes instances in which a person recently vaccinated with apparent success nevertheless contracts smallpox2 there are still other cases in which the disease develops after a vaccination that would not take4 ,here is an example3 ,a doctor vaccinates a child in the usual manner4 ,at the end of four or five days1 the dressing is taken from the arm1 and the only thing to be seen is a little black scab4 ,the child scratches this off4 ,in a few days the spot becomes red and a small abscess forms1 resembling a smallpox sore4 ,naturally1 this is taken for a completely successful vaccination1 but it is not really so4 ,when the child scratched off the scab1 the vaccination wound was nearly healed1 and the little abscess was caused by some very mild pus germs1 which were under the finger nails with which he scratched the wound4 ,the abscess was in no wise connected with the vaccination1 but was simply such an infection as a child might get at any time that he scratched his arm4 ,no one has ever claimed that such an abscess will prevent smallpox any more than that a boil will prevent it4 ,a successful vaccination will prevent smallpox4 ,the length of time for which it will prevent the disease varies in different individuals4 ,some it will protect only for a year or two1 while in others it will last through life4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bond1 ,health ,commissioner of ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri1 states3 ,the experience of this department1 based on the observation of thousands of cases1 is that a well-pitted mark gives at least ten years' immunity4 ,we have never seen a case of smallpox in a person with a well-pitted scar less than ten years old--that is1 the scar less than ten years old4 ,sidenote3 ,a sore arm not always due to successful vaccination ,one of the strongest objections made against vaccination is that the arm sometimes becomes very sore from it4 ,this is true1 but the sore arm is not a common occurrence and is never caused by vaccination properly performed4 ,there is always some cause for the bad arm besides the vaccination4 ,sidenote3 ,cause of sore arms ,the usual cause of a bad arm is improper vaccination2 this means the lack of proper precautions on the part of the person who does the vaccinating4 ,years ago1 before vaccination was performed with the great care which is given it to-day1 bad arms could not be prevented2 but to-day the cause of the trouble is not the vaccine1 but the vaccinator4 ,sometimes a father thinks he will save a dollar by vaccinating his child himself1 and he is likely to injure the child by attempting to vaccinate him without taking antiseptic precautions4 ,the same surgical preparations must be made for a vaccination as for an operation4 ,if this is not done1 a bad arm will result1 not because of the vaccination1 but because of the negligence of the vaccinator4 ,never allow any person1 doctor or otherwise1 to vaccinate you until the skin surface has been well washed with soap and water1 rinsed clean1 and wiped off with alcohol4 ,see that the vaccine is fresh and has been properly kept4 ,when it begins to take1 keep the spot absolutely clean and covered with a clean cloth1 renewed daily4 ,never scratch or rub it4 ,these precautions will prevent the dreaded soreness of the arm4 ,sidenote3 ,how people themselves infect their arms with pus germs ,the person operated on is himself often responsible for the bad arm4 ,a careful doctor will put a dressing on the arm1 after he has supplied the vaccine1 and will tell you to let that dressing alone1 for he wishes to take it off himself4 ,about the third or fourth day after the vaccination1 your arm begins to itch4 ,possibly you have forgotten what the doctor told you2 at any rate1 you pay no attention to directions and take the dressing off to scratch the arm4 ,when you scratch the wound1 you introduce pus germs into it1 and you have no reason to expect anything but a sore arm4 ,in this case1 it is not the fault of the vaccinator or of the vaccination2 it is your own fault4 ,never touch a vaccination sore2 in fact1 it is dangerous to touch any sore4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how is a successful vaccination determined8 #b4 ,what are some pretended vaccinations8 #c4 ,mention some of the things that cause bad arms after vaccination4 ,remember4 #a4 ,a successful vaccination causes a sore identical with the sores that result from smallpox4 #b4 ,a fly blister is not a vaccination in any sense of the word4 #c4 ,a very sore arm does not result from a properly performed vaccination1 but from carelessness on the part of the vaccinator or the person vaccinated4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,consumption1 ,,the ,,great ,,white ,,plague ,tuberculosis1 or consumption1 has been known for many centuries4 ,it was known long before ,rome was ever heard of4 ,hippocrates1 a ,greek physician1 studied it1 and said that if it were treated in its early stages1 it could be cured4 ,sidenote3 ,why consumption is called the ,great ,white ,plague ,tuberculosis is called the ,great ,white ,plague4 ,it is called the ,great ,plague1 because it kills more people than does any other one disease2 the ,white ,plague1 because people who suffer from it become so pale and white4 ,sidenote3 ,consumption more destructive than war ,it is estimated that nearly #bjj1jjj people die from tuberculosis every year in the ,united ,states4 ,this means that in this country there is one death from consumption every two minutes and thirty-six seconds4 ,is it not fearful to think of nearly #bjj1jjj people dying every year1 in the ,united ,states alone1 from a disease that we know can be prevented8 ,do you not think that we ought to do everything we can to prevent this disease from spreading8 ,during the ,civil ,war #bje1jgj soldiers were killed in both armies4 ,this war lasted four years4 ,during the same length of time there were #fdj1jjj deaths from tuberculosis in the ,united ,states4 ,this means that consumption killed over three times as many people as were killed during the same length of time in the ,civil ,war4 ,in some parts of the country one out of every seven deaths is caused by this disease1 but the average throughout the country is one death out of every ten4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,comparing #fdj1jjj deaths from tuberculosis the ,united ,states during four years with the #bje1jgj deaths in the ,civil ,war4 ,sidenote3 ,prevalence of tuberculosis ,there are more than #gjj1jjj people sick from tuberculosis every year in the ,united ,states alone4 ,of this number nearly #bjj1jjj die every year4 ,tuberculosis is a disease that can be prevented4 ,it may take a long time to get rid of it1 but it can be abolished4 ,when you think of all the people that are sick from tuberculosis1 and of all those who die from it every year1 you will surely want to do all you can to help prevent this suffering and death4 ,sidenote3 ,tuberculosis a disease of various parts of the body3 ,when people speak of consumption they usually mean tuberculosis of the lungs2 but tuberculosis is not confined to the lungs4 ,the germs that cause tuberculosis may attack any part of the body1 and from one part may go to other parts1 setting up a growth wherever they go4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,of the throat ,tuberculosis of the throat is a common form of the disease4 ,when the germs of tuberculosis settle in the throat1 they destroy the tissues very rapidly and1 as a rule1 kill the patient much more quickly than they do when they start in the lungs4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,of the joints ,another frequent form of tuberculosis in occurs in the knee2 this is popularly called white swelling4 ,it quickly destroys the knee joint and results in a stiff leg4 ,the growth may stop there1 but more often it extends from the knee to other parts of the body4 ,often we see a little boy or girl wearing one shoe with a sole much thicker than the other4 ,this is because one leg is shorter than the other1 and we notice that the shortened leg is deformed as well4 ,this condition sometimes results from an injury1 but it is far more likely to be caused by tuberculosis of the hip joint4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,of the spine ,again we see boys and girls with diseases of the spine1 so that they have hunch backs or are twisted to one side4 ,these conditions result from tuberculosis of the bones of the spine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,one of the effects of tuberculosis4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,of the glands ,sometimes we see children and grown people with swellings on their necks4 ,these swellings may look smooth1 but they feel as if they were made up of little bunches of grapes or plums under the skin4 ,they are almost always due to the growth of the germs that cause tuberculosis of the little glands of the neck4 ,sidenote3 7#e7 ,of the stomach ,any one of the other glands of the body is just as liable to become affected by tuberculosis as are the glands of the neck4 ,tuberculosis of the stomach or bowels is not at all uncommon4 ,the germs of tuberculosis are likely to attack any of the tissues of the body1 especially if the cells composing these tissues are for any reason weakened so that they cannot do the work required of them4 ,when the tuberculosis germs grow in tissues1 the tissues finally break down and an abscess forms4 ,a tubercular abscess is sometimes called a cold abscess4 ,all such abscesses finally break and an open sore results4 ,the matter that comes from the open sore and from the abscess when it is first opened is full of the germs that cause tuberculosis4 ,if this matter is allowed to become dry1 the germs are blown about in the dust4 ,then other people may inhale them or take them into their bodies through the mouth or skin and thus contract consumption4 ,sidenote3 ,the old belief that consumption is inherited ,until a few years ago it was generally believed that consumption was inherited4 ,that is1 it was thought that children whose father or mother had consumption were born with the disease4 ,even to-day many people hold to this idea1 because they have not studied or learned of the discoveries made in recent years4 ,these people still believe that if a child's father or mother dies of tuberculosis1 the child will die of tuberculosis1 too1 no matter how careful he may be or how much of a fight he may make against it4 ,it is true that many people whose parents have died of consumption also die from this disease2 but this does not prove that they were born with consumption4 ,it merely shows that they had a good chance to catch the disease by being continually with some one who had it4 ,it is also true that a great many people die from consumption whose parents did not have it4 ,if consumption is an inherited disease1 where did these people get it8 ,sidenote3 ,how the germ of tuberculosis was discovered ,about thirty years ago1 ,dr4 ,robert ,koch discovered that all consumptives have in their sputum a long1 slender germ which he called the tubercle bacillus4 ,some of these germs he injected into guinea pigs1 and he found that they caused the pigs to have consumption4 ,then he made many other experiments1 and proved beyond question that it is this very germ that causes tuberculosis1 and that no one has consumption unless he has this germ in his body4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence that consumption is not inherited ,then the question arose1 ,is the baby whose parents have consumption born with this germ in its body8 ,this question could not at first be answered2 but tests were made by taking the children of consumptive parents away from their parents1 and keeping them in homes where there were no consumptives4 ,it was found that these babies did not develop the disease4 ,from these and many other tests1 it has been proved that consumption is not inherited1 and that the reason the child of the consumptive so often has consumption is because he lives with people having the disease4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence that consumption is a house disease ,consumption seems to be confined to certain families1 and this has led many people to think that the disease is inherited1 regardless of the proof that it is not4 ,when we carefully study the facts in various cases1 we find that the disease is not confined to a certain family1 so much as it is to the house in which the family lives4 ,the record of a single house will illustrate how tuberculosis sticks to the house rather than to the family4 ,from #ahhj to #aija1 a particular house was occupied by a father1 mother1 and six children1 of whom four died of consumption4 ,from #aijb to #aijc the house was occupied by another father and mother with eight children4 ,they moved away because of the great amount of sickness in the family4 ,at present this father and one of his children have tuberculosis4 ,in #aijd the house was occupied by still another family1 consisting likewise of a father1 mother1 and eight children4 ,now it is known that four of the children have tuberculosis1 and it is feared that three others have also contracted the disease4 ,in #aije a son of the first occupant1 with his wife and two children1 returned to live in the house4 ,the father of this family died of tuberculosis4 ,up to #aijf the total results from this house1 scattered through four families1 were as follows3 five deaths1 six cases in people still living1 and three suspected cases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,the constant danger of infection in railway cars1 where germs can live as well as in a house4 ,sidenote3 ,why consumption is a house disease ,when the consumptive coughs1 he sends fine droplets of moisture into the air4 ,these droplets contain the germs that cause tuberculosis4 ,the moisture evaporates and the germs are left sticking to the floors1 the walls1 the curtains1 and the furniture of the room4 ,when the room is swept or dusted1 the germs are stirred up with the dust and people inhale them4 ,the germ that causes consumption will live for a long time in a house2 you cannot see it1 but it is there4 ,wherever a consumptive has lived1 he has left the germs of this disease behind him4 ,sidenote3 ,how to disinfect houses ,if a house in which a consumptive has lived is thoroughly disinfected1 all the germs he left there will be killed4 ,scattering disinfectants about a room does no good4 ,the only proper way to disinfect is to close the house1 for if the disinfectant is strong enough to kill the disease germs1 no human being can stay in the house while it is being used4 ,disinfecting should be done by the health officer1 because he knows how much disinfectant is needed to kill every germ in the house and how it should be used4 ,sidenote3 ,fraudulent disinfectants ,sometimes you will see an advertisement saying that certain disinfectants will kill the germs of disease but will not affect the people4 ,always remember that any disinfectant that is strong enough to kill the disease germs will also kill human beings1 and do not be fooled by such advertisements4 ,never move into a house that has been previously occupied1 until the house has been disinfected4 ,do not take it for granted that the people who lived there before had no communicable disease4 ,do not take the word of the agent or of any one else that there has never been sickness in the house4 ,people sometimes have tuberculosis without knowing it2 people sometimes have tuberculosis or other communicable diseases without telling of it4 ,it does not cost much to disinfect a house1 and if the disinfection is properly done the disease germs will be killed4 ,an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure4 ,try to convince your father that by having the new home disinfected he may save not only doctor's fees1 but perhaps the lives of himself and his family4 ,there are a great many things that boys and girls can do to help fight this disease4 ,this scourge can be wiped out2 but if the boys and girls do not help in this great work1 it will never be done4 ,questions4 #a4 ,why do people call consumption the ,great ,white ,plague8 #b4 ,what is the annual death rate from consumption in the ,united ,states8 #c4 ,compare the fatality from consumption with the number of soldiers killed during the ,civil ,war4 #d4 ,what amount of illness in the ,united ,states is due to consumption8 #e4 ,describe at least four forms of tuberculosis4 #f4 ,what determines the part of the body in which the germ of tuberculosis grows8 ,remember4 #a4 ,tuberculosis and consumption are the same disease4 #b4 ,this disease kills more people than war1 although it might be prevented4 #c4 ,tuberculosis is not confined to the lungs but may attack the tissues of any part of the body4 #d4 ,consumption is not inherited2 it is a house disease rather than a family disease4 #e4 ,a house should be disinfected by the health officer before it is occupied by a new tenant4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,how ,,consumption ,,is ,,spread ,,and ,,how ,,prevented ,sidenote3 ,how tuberculosis germs leave the body3 ,the sputum 7spit7 of the consumptive and the discharges from tubercular sores contain the germs that cause tuberculosis4 ,sometimes these germs are so numerous that thousands of them would be found clinging to the point of a needle dipped into the sputum or discharges from a patient4 ,when the consumptive coughs1 he sends into the air many of the germs that cause tuberculosis4 ,we cannot kill the germs while they are in the body of the consumptive2 but we can kill them after they have left the body1 by seeing that none of the sputum or discharge from tubercular wounds or sores is allowed to become dried and blown about as dust4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,in discharges from sores ,when the discharge from a tubercular sore becomes dried and blows about with the dust1 the germs are inhaled into the lungs of other people1 or fall into other sores and cause them to become tubercular4 ,since this is one of the most frequent ways by which this dread disease is spread1 you will say at once1 ,why1 every particle of matter from a tubercular sore ought to be burned1 so that there would be no possibility of the germs being scattered4 ,this of course ought to be done1 but this is not enough4 ,people sometimes have consumption and are not aware that they have it4 ,others may have tubercular sores and not know them to be such4 ,any sore1 whether it is tubercular or not1 contains disease germs4 ,they may not be the germs of tuberculosis1 but even the least dangerous of them is the germ that causes pus 7matter74 ,since we are trying to get rid not only of the germs that cause tuberculosis1 but also of the germs that cause all communicable diseases1 it would be better to say1 ,all discharges from any sore should be burned immediately4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,in the sputum ,when people spit on the sidewalk or on the floor1 the sputum will of course become dry4 ,sometimes a lady drags her dress through the sputum on the sidewalk or on the floor2 it sticks to her dress and she takes the germs home with her4 ,the sputum of the consumptive is loaded with the germs that cause tuberculosis1 and if this sputum is allowed to be blown about with the dust1 people will inhale it and thus get the germs into their lungs4 ,certainly the consumptive should never spit on the sidewalk or on the floor1 or in the mine1 workshop1 or in any place where the sputum may become dry and form dust4 ,of course he should not fill the air about him with germs by coughing into it2 everybody knows that4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,a sputum cup of waterproof pasteboard4 ,sidenote3 ,why everybody should be careful about spitting and coughing ,but no man or woman1 boy or girl1 should ever spit on the floor or sidewalk4 ,in the first place it is bad manners4 ,no person does this who is well brought up4 ,in the second place1 we must remember that the consumptive does not like to have others know that he has consumption2 this feeling is a part of the disease4 ,if you expect the consumptive to refrain from spitting on the floor or sidewalk1 you must help him by your example4 ,you cannot expect him to be the only one to hunt up a cuspidor1 when you yourself are spitting on floor or sidewalk4 ,if you expect the consumptive to take the precaution necessary to protect you from this disease1 you must take the same precaution yourself4 ,in the matter of coughing1 the same rules hold true4 ,if you expect the consumptive to hold a handkerchief before his mouth when he coughs1 you must do the same4 ,sidenote3 ,how to avoid spitting on the floor or sidewalk3 ,since it is not right that the consumptive should spit on the floor or sidewalk1 it will naturally be asked1 ,what is the consumptive to do with what he coughs up8 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,by using paper napkins ,at a very small cost he can buy paper napkins and envelopes which have been treated with paraffin to prevent moisture going through them4 ,if every one with a cough or with any such trouble as catarrh1 which makes him want to spit frequently1 would carry a supply of these paper napkins and paraffin envelopes1 he would always have a suitable place in which to spit4 ,when you cough up anything1 spit into one of these little napkins1 put the napkin into the envelope1 and when you get home burn the whole thing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a pocket cuspidor4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by using pocket cuspidors ,there are other conveniences which can easily be carried in the pocket1 called pocket cuspidors4 ,some are made of thin cardboard1 treated with paraffin1 and filled with cotton to hold all the moisture of the sputum2 others are made of glass1 shaped like a bottle1 with a wide mouth4 ,those made of cardboard should be burned as soon as possible and the glass ones should be thoroughly washed with boiling water4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by having public cuspidors ,in some cities cuspidors have been placed at the edge of the sidewalk in an effort to lessen the spread of disease caused by spitting4 ,these cuspidors have a stream of water running through them constantly and are connected with the sewer4 ,they are so made that they cannot easily be kicked over or upset1 and they are placed on stands just high enough to make it easy to spit into them4 ,if properly made1 they are not unsightly4 ,would it not be a good thing if your town would put such cuspidors on your streets1 and if the merchants would put them into their stores8 ,every office1 every workshop1 every store1 every railway and street car should be provided with cuspidors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,the common drinking cup--a fruitful source of infection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,the individual drinking cup--each cup clean and free from disease germs4 ,sidenote3 ,how consumption is spread from the lips3 ,we know that the substance which people cough up when they have consumption contains the germs that cause this disease4 ,when they spit this matter out1 many of the germs stick to the lips4 ,this is true not only of consumption1 but of the germs of other diseases1 such as diphtheria1 measles1 and scarlet fever4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,by drinking cups ,when there are disease germs on the lips1 it is impossible for a person to drink and not leave some of the germs sticking to the edge of the cup or glass4 ,if the germs of disease are in the mouth1 every time that the person suffering from this disease drinks from a cup1 he leaves some of the germs on the edge of it4 ,the next person to drink from that cup may get the germs into his mouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,a sanitary drinking fountain for public places4 ,always avoid drinking from a cup or glass from which another person has been drinking4 ,you can never tell who may have disease germs in his mouth1 or when you may get them on your lips by drinking from the same cup4 ,each individual should have his own cup and should never let any one else drink from it4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by putting pencils into the mouth ,when you put the point of your pencil into your mouth1 you will leave germs on it just as you do on the edge of a cup when you drink4 ,never put your pencil into your mouth2 never use any other person's pencil2 never trade pencils4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by the common bite ,sometimes we see a child giving his friends a bite of his apple or candy or cake4 ,of course when disease germs are in the mouth of the one who takes a bite1 the germs will be left on the apple1 candy1 or cake4 ,by no means should a boy or girl be selfish1 but if you have something to share with your friends1 break it or cut it into pieces4 ,never take into your mouth anything from which another person has taken a bite4 ,sidenote3 ,how tubercular cows cause consumption ,milk that comes from consumptive cows may contain the germs that cause tuberculosis4 ,when you drink the milk from such cows1 you take these germs into your body4 ,they find their way from the stomach and intestine into the blood1 and there they travel about until they find a spot where the cells are dead or are not doing their work properly4 ,when they find such a place1 they settle down and begin to grow2 and the first thing you know1 you will have tuberculosis in that part of your body4 ,sometimes the germs do not have to go out of the stomach or intestines to find a favorable opportunity to take hold and grow4 ,when this happens1 we have consumption of the bowels4 ,one cannot tell by looking at milk or by tasting it whether or not the germs of tuberculosis are present4 ,they do not make the milk sour2 neither do they make it look different from pure milk4 ,one cannot tell by looking at a cow whether or not she has tuberculosis4 ,sometimes a cow will have tuberculosis and yet look very healthy4 ,there is1 however1 a way by which we can tell when a cow has this disease1 no matter how healthy she may look4 ,this is what is known as the tuberculin test4 ,sidenote3 ,how to detect tuberculosis in a cow ,if a little tuberculin is injected under the skin of a cow that has tuberculosis1 it will make her have a fever and appear sick for a day or two4 ,if she is free from tuberculosis1 it will not make her sick at all4 ,it would seem as if all people who sell milk would want to know whether their cows have consumption so as not to run any risk of conveying the disease to their customers4 ,some of them do take this precaution1 but a great many of them do not want to go to this trouble4 ,sometimes you will hear them say1 ,oh1 ,i do not believe in this tuberculin test4 ,they do not want to believe in it because they know that the cows1 if tested and found to have tuberculosis1 will have to be killed4 ,the reason that dairymen sell us milk from tubercular cows is the same that makes the man with scarlet fever in his house fail to tell the health officer about it2 the same that makes the butcher buy and sell meat from diseased cattle2 the same that makes some people absolutely regardless of the welfare of others--it is selfishness4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how does a patient give off tuberculosis germs8 #b4 ,why should even well people refrain from spitting in public8 #c4 ,why should the sputum be taken care of8 #d4 ,why should we avoid the common drinking cup8 #e4 ,what is the danger from putting pencils into the mouth8 #f4 ,is it safe to use another person's pencil8 #g4 ,what is the best way of sharing food8 #h4 ,how can one be protected from tubercular milk8 ,remember4 #a4 ,the sputum and discharges from all sores should be immediately burned or disposed of in such a way that they cannot become dry and be blown about as dust4 #b4 ,consumption may be contracted by the use of the common drinking cup1 or by putting into your mouth such things as pencils and coins4 #c4 ,the milk from a cow suffering from consumption contains the germ of tuberculosis4 #d4 ,a cow may have tuberculosis and not appear to be sick4 #e4 ,the only way to determine whether a cow has tuberculosis is by using the tuberculin test4 #f4 ,every milch cow should be tuberculin tested4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,how ,,consumption ,,is ,,cured ,sidenote3 ,consumption should be recognized early ,when people first get consumption1 they seldom realize that they are seriously sick4 ,most of them think they have a bad cold1 or are overworked1 or that they have been staying too closely in the house4 ,often they will not even see a doctor until they are so sick that the doctor cannot do much for them4 ,when you have a slight cough that hangs on2 when you feel feverish every afternoon2 when you are short of breath2 when you get tired very easily2 when you do not feel like eating anything except candies and cakes--then you should think of consumption4 ,these are not all the signs1 but they are enough to make you go at once to a doctor4 ,a long time ago the doctor would have felt badly if he had been obliged to tell you that you had consumption2 but now he knows that if you go to him early in the disease and follow his directions1 you will get well4 ,sidenote3 ,how consumption is cured3 7#a7 ,by rest ,when the doctor finds that a person has consumption1 the first thing he orders is rest4 ,by this he means absolute rest4 ,he does not mean that the patient can go to school or to the office part of the day and rest the remainder of the day4 ,the doctor will want to watch him constantly4 ,then there comes a time when he must begin to take a little exercise2 the doctor tells him just how much exercise to take1 and just what form of exercise is best for him4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by fresh air ,the consumptive must have plenty of fresh air all the time2 he must be out-of-doors as much as possible4 ,you will wonder how the doctor expects him to be out-of-doors when he has been told that he must have absolute rest4 ,later we will show you how one can practically be out-of-doors and yet at the same time be in bed4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by sunshine ,sunshine will kill the germs of any disease more quickly than almost anything we know of1 and a consumptive must have all the sunshine that he can get4 ,of course it cannot get into the body to kill the germs1 but it strengthens the cells of the body so much that they can fight with just that much more energy4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #gb and #gc4 ,living outdoors in cold weather4 ,sidenote3 7#d7 ,by nourishing food ,nothing is more important than pure food in building up the body and in making heat and power4 ,in consumption the food that is stored up in the body burns itself up very fast4 ,the consumptive must therefore take not only the food needed to supply the usual demands of the body1 but enough to make something extra for the disease to burn up without drawing on the reserve fund stored in the body4 ,in order to do this1 he will have to eat a great deal1 and what he eats must be of the kind that makes the best building material and the most nourishing material4 ,he cannot tax his stomach by eating things that are not nourishing2 all the work his stomach can do must be devoted to the foods he really needs4 ,the weapons with which we fight consumption are rest1 good food1 fresh air1 and sunshine4 ,these will do more good than all the medicine in the world4 ,fresh air is not only one of the best things for the cure of consumption1 but it is one of the best things for the prevention of consumption4 ,you should always breathe plenty of fresh air night and day1 and there is plenty of fresh air to be had if you will take it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,a window tent4 7,invented by ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,walsh47 ,sidenote3 ,how to have fresh air at home3 ,if you have only a single window in your room1 try to sleep with your head in the fresh air4 ,it is not always easy to arrange a room in such a way that you can have fresh air without placing your bed in a draft1 but even this difficulty can be overcome4 ,sidenote3 7#a7 ,by window tents ,there are several devices1 called window tents1 which you can buy4 ,by the use of such a tent1 your head will be out-of-doors all the time2 yet the draft cannot strike your body1 because a part of the tent fits around your neck and cuts off the air from the rest of your body4 ,one of these tents is shown in ,figure #gd4 ,you do not put your head out of the window2 your head is on your pillow just as if the tent were not there4 ,your bed is placed directly in front of the window and the tent comes down over your pillow1 allowing your head practically to be out-of-doors1 but keeping the cold air out of the room4 ,sleeping under a window tent is the next best thing to sleeping out-of-doors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,a sleeping porch built in a house4 ,sidenote3 7#b7 ,by sleeping porches ,many of our modern houses are built with sleeping porches on which one can sleep outdoors summer and winter4 ,where there is not a special sleeping porch on the house1 an ordinary porch may often be made to serve the purpose1 or a very inexpensive sleeping porch can be added to the house4 ,sidenote3 7#c7 ,by tent cots ,sometimes people cannot get the use of a porch of any kind4 ,in such cases it may be possible to put up a tent in the yard4 ,if the yard is very small1 a tent cot may be used4 ,this is simply a cot with a tent on it1 which can be closed up and put away in the daytime and set up again at night4 ,in a large city where the houses have no yards at all1 this arrangement can be used by setting it up on the roof of the house4 ,there is almost always some way of securing fresh air at night if we will only give a little thought to the matter4 ,sidenote3 ,fresh air in schoolrooms ,unfortunately1 many of our school buildings are not provided with good ventilating plants4 ,a proper system of ventilation furnishes at least #abjj cubic feet of fresh air per hour for each child in each room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,an open-air schoolroom for consumptive children4 ,sidenote3 ,the necessity for playgrounds ,in large cities it is often impossible to find outdoor space in which boys and girls may play during recess4 ,even this difficulty can be overcome by turning the roof of the school building into a playground1 with a high wire netting around it4 ,every school yard should be provided with swings1 bars1 and gymnasium apparatus to encourage the children to take plenty of exercise4 ,children who live in crowded towns need exercise during vacation as well as during school days1 and the school yards should be open to them at all times4 ,a summer teacher who shows the children the best way to exercise1 has work fully as important as that of any other teacher during the school term4 ,a sound body is more valuable than education itself1 but a good education and a sound body together are the best assets any man or woman can have4 ,questions4 #a4 ,state the four things necessary to cure consumption2 show the value of each4 #b4 ,what is the value of fresh air to every one8 #c4 ,how may an abundance of fresh air be secured in the home8 #d4 ,in the school8 ,remember4 #a4 ,rest1 fresh air1 sunshine1 and nourishing food are the cures for consumption4 #b4 ,all these things can be secured in any climate and by every person4 #c4 ,tuberculosis is a communicable disease4 #d4 ,tuberculosis can be prevented4 #e4 ,tuberculosis can be cured4 ,,appendix#d ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,anatomy ,,bones ,,and ,,joints ,sidenote3 ,the framework of the body ,the framework of the body is composed of bones4 ,there are #bjf bones 7not including the teeth7 in the body4 ,the bones of the body are divided into four classes--long bones1 short bones1 flat bones1 and irregular bones4 ,sidenote3 ,construction of bones ,regardless of their shape1 all bones are composed in the same way4 ,every bone has an outer and an inner portion4 ,the outer portion is a dense layer called compact bone4 ,the inner portion is more open1 and is much weaker2 this is called cancellated bone 7from cancella1 a sponge74 ,in the smaller bones1 the marrow1 which is quite soft1 runs through the spongy bone2 in the larger long bones1 the marrow is distinct and is enclosed by the spongy bone4 ,sidenote3 ,the periosteum ,every bone is covered by a thick1 tough layer1 the periosteum1 which has three uses4 ,when the bone is injured by disease or accident1 the periosteum makes new bone to fill in and repair the break4 ,it also builds new bone on the surface of the old as long as the body is growing4 ,finally1 the periosteum gives strong and firm attachment to the muscles1 which send tendons into it4 ,sidenote3 ,joints ,every bone in the body 7except the hyoid bone1 to which the tongue is attached7 is joined with some other bone4 ,most of them join with two or more bones4 ,in most instances the end of a bone which joins with another is rounded off and made very smooth1 so that it can slide easily over the other bone4 ,there are three principal kinds of joints in the body4 ,they are called the ball and socket joint1 the hinge joint1 and the serrated or saw-tooth joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,the skeleton4 ,sidenote3 ,the ball and socket joint ,the ball and socket joint is one that can move freely in all directions4 ,we see it illustrated in the joints of the shoulder and hip4 ,in these joints one of the bones has a deep depression in it1 and this depression forms the socket4 ,the other bone has a rounded head that fits into the depression4 ,we call this rounded head the ball4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,the structure of a bone4 ,sidenote3 ,the hinge joint ,the hinge joint is illustrated in the knee and elbow joints4 ,these joints can move backward and forward in one plane like a hinge1 but they cannot move in a circle like the ball and socket joints4 ,you cannot swing your forearm about on a pivot at the elbow as you can your whole arm1 nor will the knee joint bend in every direction as does the joint at the hip4 ,sidenote3 ,serrated joints ,serrated joints do not move4 ,the bones having serrated joints are fitted tightly together so that they form practically one bone4 ,we find this kind of joint illustrated in the way the bones of the skull are put together4 ,sidenote3 ,ligaments ,the joints of the body are not held together by rivets1 pins or bolts as are the joints of a machine1 but by bands of very tough tissue placed about a joint in such a way as to allow it to move freely1 although the bones are all the time held firmly together4 ,these bands are called ligaments4 ,ligaments are much better than bolts or pegs would be1 because they stretch a little1 and thus prevent the breaking of the bones when the joint is put under a severe strain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,the muscles4 ,,muscles ,,and ,,tendons ,sidenote3 ,what muscle is ,the lean meat of any animal is composed entirely of muscle tissue4 ,it is the function of the muscles to move the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,the biceps muscle contracted4 ,sidenote3 ,how the muscles work ,the muscles are nearly all attached to the bones4 ,they are just long enough to let the joint straighten out when the muscles are at rest1 but when the joint bends the muscle contracts4 ,when a muscle contracts it becomes shorter and thicker4 ,sometimes it becomes very much thicker in one place4 ,every boy knows how much thicker the arm muscle 7biceps7 becomes when he bends his elbow hard4 ,he calls this showing his muscle4 ,sidenote3 ,tendons ,there is not room enough on most of the bones for all the muscles to be attached directly to them4 ,instead of being thus attached directly to the bone1 they end in what we call tendons4 ,these tendons are hard and strong1 and a very small tendon will lift as much without breaking as quite a large muscle4 ,the muscles are soft and would have to be attached over a large area in order to secure the required strength4 ,the tendons1 being so much stronger than the muscles1 can be attached to a very small area and yet secure the same amount of power as would result from attaching the muscle itself4 ,the tendons pass directly into the periosteum1 the thick1 strong covering of the bones4 ,so strong is this attachment that the bone will often break before the tendon will pull loose4 ,,the ,,skin ,sidenote3 ,the skin as an armor ,the entire body is covered with skin1 which regulates the heat of the body and acts as an armor against blows and cuts which would otherwise injure the delicate nerves and blood vessels beneath4 ,it also serves to some extent to keep out the germs of disease4 ,the skin appears to be smooth1 but if you examine it through a strong magnifying glass you will see that it is divided into little areas4 ,the dividing lines do not run straight1 however1 and the areas are not square like those you find on a checkerboard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,a section of the skin1 highly magnified4 ,sidenote3 ,sweat glands ,after looking at the skin with a strong magnifying glass you will think that you must have seen all its irregularities1 but if you will look at it with a powerful microscope you will find out many other things4 ,in the first place you will see many little openings in the skin4 ,these little openings make the ridges which divide the skin into little areas4 ,some of the openings are sweat glands1 and there is always some perspiration coming out of them4 ,when you are very warm you can see1 without the aid of the glass1 the drops of perspiration as they come out on the surface of the skin4 ,when you are not very warm you cannot see these drops of perspiration1 but they are nevertheless coming out all the time4 ,when the perspiration comes so slowly that you cannot see it1 it is called insensible perspiration4 ,sidenote3 ,hair ,the whole body is covered with hair4 ,you can see the hair on your head and some of the hair on your arms and the backs of your hands1 but most of the hair on the body is so fine that you cannot see it without a microscope4 ,each of the fine hairs on the body has a root that goes through the skin just as the root from each hair on your head goes through it4 ,sidenote3 ,sebaceous glands ,opening into the little pockets in which the hairs stand1 are glands that secrete a kind of oily material4 ,they are called sebaceous glands or follicles4 ,sometimes these follicles become stopped up2 then the material they secrete becomes thick and cheesy1 and the little black points appear on the skin which we call blackheads4 ,the white matter which comes out of these blackheads is merely the secretion of the glands from which the water has been absorbed1 leaving the solid or cheesy portion4 ,sidenote3 ,nails ,there is a part of the skin that we do not usually think of as skin4 ,we mean the nails4 ,the finger nails and the toe nails do not look like the rest of the skin of the body1 but they are made of just the same kind of cells4 ,the cells of the nails are flat1 dead1 and closely packed together4 ,there are no sweat glands1 or sebaceous glands1 or any hairs in the nails4 ,,the ,,digestive ,,system ,sidenote3 ,the alimentary canal ,the digestive system is the part of our bodies in which the food we eat is so changed that it can be made use of by the little cells in the body4 ,it is composed of a long canal with many parts and enlargements1 each part necessary for a certain required work4 ,this canal as a whole is called the alimentary canal4 ,sidenote3 ,teeth ,the mouth does the first part of the work for the digestive system4 ,here we find the teeth1 which are used for grinding the food4 ,the teeth are composed of three parts1 the head 7or crown71 the neck and the root4 ,the head1 or crown1 is very hard4 ,each tooth is hollow1 and in the hollow portion there are nerves and blood vessels4 ,sidenote3 ,the salivary glands ,opening into the mouth are three pairs of glands known as salivary glands4 ,one pair of glands is located just above the angle of the jaw4 ,it is these glands that become swollen when we have mumps4 ,another pair of glands is placed just inside the jaw bone1 near the root of the tongue1 and the third pair is located under the tongue4 ,these three pairs of glands secrete the saliva which moistens the food and aids in digesting the starch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,the alimentary canal4 ,sidenote3 ,the esophagus ,the food passes from the mouth2 through a passage called the esophagus1 or gullet1 to the stomach4 ,sidenote3 ,the stomach ,the stomach is one of the enlarged parts of the alimentary canal4 ,its walls are quite thick1 and in these walls are thousands of little glands4 ,these glands secrete a fluid called gastric juice4 ,when the food enters the stomach it is held there for a long time1 and the walls of the stomach squeeze upon it so that the food is mixed with the gastric juice until every bit of it that will be of any use to the body has become fluid in character4 ,not only does the gastric juice make the food liquid1 but it acts on it and changes some of it so that it will be suitable for use by the little cells of the body4 ,as fast as the food is made liquid by the juices of the stomach it is allowed to pass into the intestine through an opening called the pyloric opening4 ,sidenote3 ,the intestine ,the intestine is a long1 narrow1 twisting and turning tube that is divided into two principal parts1 the large and small intestine4 ,in the walls of the intestine are many little glands that secrete a fluid that helps in digesting the food4 ,two fluids1 one made by the liver1 the other by the pancreas1 are brought into the intestine by two small tubes1 which come together in the wall of the intestine six or seven inches below the pyloric opening4 ,these fluids perform a very important part in the digestion of all the different foodstuffs4 ,sidenote3 ,villi and lymphatics ,besides the little glands in the walls of the intestine there are many thousands of little finger-like projections standing up from the walls4 ,these are called villi4 ,each villus has in it very small vessels1 into which the food passes after it has been digested4 ,these vessels are of two sorts3 blood vessels1 which take up the digested starch and proteid foods1 and another sort known as lymphatics1 which take up the fats4 ,all the lymphatics combine into a single vessel which empties into the great vein at the base of the neck4 ,thus the fatty foods pass into the blood and are mingled with the food materials taken up directly by the blood vessels4 ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood ,sidenote3 ,two kinds of blood vessels ,there are two kinds of blood vessels in the body4 ,we call them arteries and veins4 ,the arteries serve to carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body1 and the veins serve to carry the blood back to the heart4 ,the heart is really a part of the blood vessels1 half of each side being like the veins and half like the arteries4 ,sidenote3 ,arteries and veins ,the walls of the arteries are thicker than those of the veins4 ,two sets of arteries leave the heart1 one from each side4 ,the artery that starts from the right side of the heart goes to the lungs and carries venous blood1 which has a very poor supply of oxygen and is full of impurities4 ,we call this the pulmonary artery4 ,the artery that leaves the left side of the heart goes to all parts of the body but the lungs and carries arterial blood1 which has much more oxygen and is much more free from impurities4 ,sidenote3 ,capillaries ,if we follow the blood as it circulates we will see how it reaches all parts of the body4 ,the big artery that leaves the left side of the heart divides into smaller and smaller arteries until there are branches going to every part of the body4 ,these branches keep dividing until they are so small that we call them arterioles1 and these little arterioles again divide and become so small that we call them capillaries4 ,sidenote3 ,changes in the blood ,while the blood is passing through the arterioles and the capillaries1 something is happening to it4 ,the little cells with which these small vessels come in contact have been taking the oxygen and the nourishing material out of the blood4 ,at the same time they have been putting something into the blood4 ,in place of the oxygen they have been putting in carbon dioxid and in place of the nourishing material they have been putting in the worn-out materials from the cells4 ,as the blood passes through certain parts of the body1 such as the kidneys1 the worn-out materials from the cells are taken out of the blood and sent out of the body4 ,the carbon dioxid is left in the blood until it goes to the lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,the white vessels represent the circulation of the arterial blood2 the gray1 the circulation of the venous blood4 ,sidenote3 ,venous blood ,the blood has now been followed to the capillaries1 where oxygen and nourishing material have been taken out of it1 and where something else has been added to it4 ,as we follow a little capillary1 we find that instead of dividing again1 it joins others and gradually grows larger4 ,as these blood vessels grow larger the walls do not become so thick as the walls of the arteries of the same size4 ,these larger vessels formed by the union of capillaries are called veins4 ,in other words1 the veins are simply continuations of the arteries that have divided into extremely small branches and have now come together again4 ,the blood which has been changed is now called venous blood4 ,it has much less oxygen in it1 but has received a great deal of carbon dioxid4 ,the veins continue to come together1 until finally they form a single large vein which empties into the upper half of the right side of the heart4 ,from there the blood is driven into the lower half of the right side of the heart and thence to the pulmonary artery1 which goes to the lungs4 ,the blood is not changed in the heart1 so what goes into the pulmonary artery is still venous blood4 ,sidenote3 ,arterial blood ,the blood goes straight from the heart to the lungs and there it is changed into arterial blood4 ,the change consists in taking oxygen from the air and giving off carbon dioxid to the air4 ,from the lungs the blood goes through the capillaries again into the veins1 the small capillaries in the lungs uniting to form the pulmonary veins4 ,these veins finally unite into one vein that empties into the upper half of the left side of the heart1 and from there the blood goes to the lower half of the same side4 ,the blood has now reached its starting point and is ready to begin its journey again4 ,the journey of the blood is as follows3 ,sidenote3 ,entire circulation ,from the right side of the heart to the arteries2 from arteries into arterioles2 from arterioles to capillaries2 from capillaries into veins2 from veins into the heart2 from the heart to the lungs2 and from the lungs back to the heart again4 ,,the ,,respiratory ,,system ,sidenote3 ,use of the respiratory system ,that portion of the body by which we breathe is called the respiratory system4 ,this system is composed of the nasal passage1 the pharynx1 the larynx1 the trachea1 the bronchi1 and the lungs4 ,the mouth is not a part of the respiratory system2 we should never breathe through our mouths4 ,sidenote3 ,the use of the nose in breathing ,as the air passes through the nasal passage it is warmed and moistened1 and a great deal of dust and dirt is taken out of it4 ,thus the nasal passage serves to warm1 to moisten1 and to clean the air we breathe1 and is a very important part of the respiratory system1 since either cold or dry air is very irritating to the lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,the air passages of the head and throat4 ,sidenote3 ,pharynx1 larynx1 and trachea ,there is only one tube leading from the back of the nasal passage to the lungs4 ,different parts of this tube are given different names4 ,the pharynx is that part that extends from the back of the nose to the vocal chords4 ,the larynx is the part of the throat where the vocal chords are located4 ,we sometimes call it the ,adam's apple4 ,it is very prominent in some men1 but seldom noticeable in women4 ,the trachea is the part of the tube leading down from the larynx4 ,at the lower end of the trachea the tube divides into two parts that we call the bronchi1 one leading to each lung4 ,sidenote3 ,the bronchi ,the bronchi carry the air from the trachea to the lungs4 ,they divide again and again until they become so small that there is a branch for each little air cell in the lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,the lungs4 ,sidenote3 ,the lungs ,the lungs are the most important part of the respiratory system4 ,they are made up of lobes4 ,there are two lobes in the left lung and three in the right4 ,each lobe is divided into lobules1 which means small lobes4 ,each lobule is divided into air spaces4 ,in these air spaces1 or cells1 the work of the lungs is performed4 ,sidenote3 ,air cells ,the capillaries run in the thin walls of the air spaces4 ,the walls of these fine blood vessels are so very thin that the air in the air cells comes in almost direct contact with the blood in the vessels4 ,while the blood is passing through the vessels in the walls of the air spaces1 something happens to both the blood and the air4 ,the air we take into our lungs contains a great deal of oxygen and very little carbon dioxid4 ,the air that comes out of our lungs contains a great deal of carbon dioxid and much less oxygen4 ,in other words1 the oxygen from the air goes into the blood1 and the carbon dioxid from the blood goes out into the air4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of pure air ,if the air we breathe is not pure and does not contain enough oxygen1 the blood cannot get all the oxygen we need1 and the cells of the body become sick and die4 ,if1 when we breathe1 we do not fill each little air cell in our lungs with air1 a great deal of the blood sent to the lungs for oxygen cannot get it4 ,if we wear very tight clothing we cannot take a full breath and hence cannot fill all the air spaces with air4 ,if the air spaces in the lungs are not filled1 the blood does not get the oxygen it needs1 as there is no other place in the body to get it4 ,,the ,,eye ,,and ,,the ,,ear ,sidenote3 ,the eye compared to a camera ,the eye is one of the most important organs in the body and also one of the most delicate4 ,it is very much like a camera4 ,sidenote3 ,the cornea and the sclera ,when you look at an eye you are likely to think that the front of it is blue or brown4 ,the colored part is not the front of the eye4 ,if you look at the eye from the side you will see that there is a curved part in front of the colored part and that the curved part is perfectly clear4 ,this curved clear part of the eye we call the cornea4 ,the cornea connects with the white part of the eye1 and this white part extends all around the rest of the eye1 except at a small point in the back where the optic nerve comes through4 ,this white part we call the sclera4 ,sidenote3 ,aqueous humor ,the space between the cornea and the colored part of the eye is filled with a clear fluid that is called the aqueous humor1 which means watery fluid4 ,the space occupied by this fluid is called the anterior chamber of the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,the iris ,the iris1 which is the colored portion of the eye1 is a curtain that is hung between the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye4 ,it prevents any light getting into the posterior chamber except that which passes through a round hole in the iris called the pupil4 ,the pupil grows larger or smaller according to the amount of light needed by the eye4 ,if you look away from a bright light at something in the dark1 the pupil grows larger2 if you look back at the light1 it grows smaller4 ,you can see this in a hand mirror4 ,sidenote3 ,lens ,behind the pupil is a clear mass shaped like a very strong magnifying glass4 ,this is the lens4 ,the lens causes to be formed on the back of the eye a clear picture of whatever you are looking at4 ,when you focus a camera1 you move the back towards or away from the lens4 ,when you focus your eye you cannot move the back of the eye1 but you can make the lens more or less convex as may be needed to make a clear picture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a cross-section of the eye4 ,sidenote3 ,vitreous humor ,behind the iris and the lens1 we find the posterior chamber of the eye4 ,this occupies by far the greater portion of the ball and corresponds to the dark chamber of a camera4 ,this chamber is filled with a clear fluid called the vitreous humor1 which means jelly-like fluid4 ,it is a clear1 gelatinous substance4 ,sidenote3 ,the retina and the optic nerve ,the optic nerve enters the eyeball from the back and spreads its fibers out in a thin membrane called the retina1 which corresponds to the sensitive plate in a camera4 ,the lens focuses on the retina the image of any object you look at4 ,the impression made on the minute nerve endings in the retina is carried by the optic nerve fibers to the brain4 ,when this impression reaches the brain we see the object4 ,sidenote3 ,movements of the eye ,each eye has six muscles that turn it in whatever direction you want to look4 ,these muscles are very delicate1 and for true sight they must be exactly adjusted4 ,if the muscles on one side of the eye are stronger than those on the other side1 you will be cross-eyed or wall-eyed4 ,if one of the muscles in one eye is stronger than the corresponding muscle in the other eye1 it pulls the eyeball out of place and you see double4 ,sidenote3 ,the use of the outer ear ,the portion of the ear that you see on the side of your head has as much to do with hearing as the outer rim of the horn into which you speak has to do with making a record for the phonograph4 ,you know that the record is really made at the little end of the horn1 while the big end simply collects the sound4 ,the outside portion of the ear simply collects sounds1 and the real hearing is done with the portion of the ear that is not seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,the ear1 showing the outer1 middle1 and the inner part4 ,the outer ear connects with the short tube that leads to the drum1 which is a thin membrane that separates the middle ear from the outer ear4 ,this drum does not have so much to do with hearing as is supposed4 ,to have a hole in the drum does not mean that you cannot hear4 ,sidenote3 ,the middle ear ,the middle ear is that portion which is just inside the drum4 ,in this we find a chain of little bones4 ,the one attached to the drum is shaped much like a hammer1 and is called the malleus1 which means mallet or hammer4 ,the next one is shaped like an anvil and is called incus1 which means anvil1 and the third is called stapes1 which means stirrup4 ,the flat part of the stapes fits into a small opening that leads to the internal ear4 ,sidenote3 ,the inner ear ,the internal ear is shaped like a snail shell4 ,it makes several turns1 which are hollow like the ends of a conch shell4 ,in these channels the nerve that receives the impressions made by the sounds is distributed4 ,this nerve carries the impressions to the brain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,the nervous system4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system ,sidenote3 ,importance of the nervous system ,this system is so important in its use and so difficult to understand in its details1 that a description of it should have more space than can be given in this summary4 ,can you imagine having no feeling and being unable to move8 ,this would be your condition if you had no nerves4 ,sidenote3 ,nerves compared to telegraph system ,briefly1 the nerves might be called the telegraph system of the body4 ,there is a great central station called the brain where messages are received and sent out2 there are many sub-stations that make up the spinal cord4 ,twelve great nerves pass directly from the brain to the body2 all others pass from the spinal cord4 ,sidenote3 ,extent of nervous system ,every nerve leaving these centres divides and sub-divides into little threads as the arteries divide and sub-divide into arterioles and capillaries1 until every part of the body--every muscle and part of the skin--has its nerve4 ,sidenote3 ,voluntary and reflex action ,every time you choose to move your hand1 your brain sends to the necessary muscles an instantaneous order to act4 ,this is called voluntary action4 ,if you put your finger against a hot stove you jerk it away before you could have time to choose to do it4 ,this happens as an order from a sub-station and is called reflex action4 ,messages travel both ways and it is necessary that the nervous connection with every part of the body remain unbroken1 and important that the nervous condition be kept healthy4 ,,notes ,,to ,,the ,,teacher ,a false delicacy has often prevented the teaching of vital lessons to growing children4 ,the day is how at hand when foolish sentiment must no longer prevent the spread of any knowledge which is necessary to exterminate the plagues that have afflicted the race4 ,in chapters #ag1 #ah1 #ai and #cb1 unpleasant facts are given in plain language4 ,they are facts that parents do not teach their children and that most teachers will not frankly treat with classes in a school4 ,though they are disagreeable to discuss1 they are essential for children of school age to know4 ,now that the dependence of public health upon personal hygiene is recognized1 personal habits and sanitary conditions are more frankly dealt with than formerly4 ,it is an excellent thing occasionally1 to have one or two points of an assigned lesson answered in writing4 ,any topic that the teacher may think advisable to treat in this manner may be discussed on paper at the beginning of the recitation1 five or six minutes being allowed for that purpose4 ,even a whole chapter may be assigned to be studied with a view of answering in writing the questions at the end of the chapter4 ,the written test can then take the place of the usual oral recitation4 ,this method is suggested to the teacher who hesitates to discuss orally certain plain but essential facts4 ,chapter #cb on the ,spread and ,prevention of ,consumption can be treated with best results orally1 if the pupils are first made to feel the great danger of consumption and to realize the possibility of preventing the vast havoc wrought by that dread disease4 ,the attitude of teacher and pupils should be that while the discussion may be disagreeable1 the disgusting habits referred to in the text are so commonly practised that unless their dangers are taught this disease can never be wiped out4 ,,index ,adenoids1 #di1 #ej ,air1 amount necessary for health1 #de2 effects of impure1 #de-dh2 fresh air1 when needed1 #de-dh2 how secured1 #df1 #dg2 how changed in body1 #de2 necessity of pure air1 #de-dh ,air cells1 #age ,alcohol1 effect of1 on body1 #fg-gj2 on brain work1 #gj2 on consumptives1 #fi2 on descendants1 #fi2 on liver1 #fh2 on morals1 #fi2 on nervous system1 #fi2 on powers of resistance1 #fh2 on stomach1 #fg2 false ideas about effects of1 #fg2 what business men think of1 #gj ,alimentary canal1 #afi1 #agj ,amoebic dysentery1 how prevented1 #abb2 how spread1 #abb2 where prevalent1 #abb ,animals free from typhoid fever1 #aac ,antitoxin1 how it acts1 #ajh-aaj2 how discovered1 #aji2 sometimes considered a poison1 #aaa2 prevents diphtheria1 #aaj2 saves lives1 #aaj ,aqueous humor1 #agg ,arterial blood1 #agb ,arteries1 #aga ,articles used by the sick1 dangers from1 #ge2 how to treat1 #gf ,bathing1 importance of1 #fj2 frequency of1 #fj ,baths1 hot1 #fa2 cold1 #fa ,bedtime for children1 #ea ,blood1 arterial1 #agb2 how changed in the body1 #agd2 venous1 #aga1 #agb ,boils1 how caused1 #ie1 #ii ,bones1 #afc ,bronchi1 #age ,building foods1 #ad1 #ae ,candy1 when harmful1 #ed2 when not harmful1 #ed ,canned meats1 why poisonous1 #cb ,capillaries1 #agb ,cells1 are alive1 #f2 body made of1 #f2 body needs new1 #ad2 how killed1 #g2 must not be killed1 #f2 size of a1 #e2 what they are like1 #e ,circulation of the blood1 #aga-agd ,clothing1 effect of damp1 #aa2 promotes health1 #i2 proper weight of1 #aj ,common drinking cup1 #aec ,consumption4 ,see ,tuberculosis ,cooking1 effects of improper1 #cd1 #ce2 fatty foods1 #cd2 meats1 #ce2 starchy foods1 #cd ,cornea1 #agg ,coughing1 dangers from1 #adg1 #aej-aec2 how to prevent dangers from1 #aeb1 #aec ,cuspidors1 in public buildings1 #aeb2 pocket1 #aeb2 street1 #aeb ,dairy1 sickness about a1 #bf1 #ajc1 #aae ,decomposed foods dangerous1 #cj1 #cb ,decomposition1 cause of1 #cj2 effect of cold on1 #ca2 of foods1 #cj-cb ,desserts1 when harmful1 #dj2 when not harmful1 #dj ,dining table1 effect of dirty1 #cg2 cheerfulness at1 #cg ,diphtheria1 cure of1 #ajh-aaa2 germs present after recovery1 #aja1 #ajb2 germs present when throat is not sore1 #ajd2 how to confine germs1 #ajj2 how poison is fought1 #ajh-aaj2 mild cases1 how detected1 #ajd2 nature of the poison1 #ajh2 prevalence of1 #ajj2 where germs come from1 #ajj2 why some cases are not quarantined1 #ajb-ajd ,dirt1 a cause of sickness1 #gg1 #gh2 getting into milk from cows1 #bc1 #aag2 from cow barns1 #bc-be2 from milk cans and bottles1 #bf1 #bg2 from milkmen1 #be2 from flies1 #bh1 #hj1 #ha ,diseased animals1 effect on meats1 #ai-ba2 effect on milk1 #bh2 tuberculosis from1 #bh1 #aee ,drafts1 evil effects of1 #aj2 how to prevent harm from1 #aj ,ear1 care of1 #eh2 drum1 #agi2 inner ear1 #aha2 middle ear1 #agi2 outer ear1 #agi ,esophagus1 #agj ,excreta from sick1 how dispose of1 #gf1 #aah ,exercise1 necessity of1 #ea1 #afa ,eye1 how germs get into1 #ef2 how overworked1 #eg2 method of testing1 #eh ,far sight1 #eh ,flies1 breeding places for1 #gg1 #hj2 as germ carriers1 #hj1 #ha1 #aaf2 how to get rid of1 #hb1 #hc2 how to keep out1 #hc ,fly screens1 where needed1 #hc ,foods1 advertised1 #af2 building1 #ad-af2 decomposition of1 #cj-cb2 heat-producing1 #ad-af2 improper cooking of1 #cd1 #ce2 cost of suitable1 #af2 uses of foods1 #ad-ag2 uses of starches1 #ad2 uses of fats1 #ae2 value of meat as a1 #ae2 value of milk as a1 #ad ,garbage cans1 should be covered1 #hc ,germs1 cause of poison in meats1 #ca1 #cb2 carried by dogs and cats1 #ajf2 effect of1 in wounds1 #ie-ii2 how1 get through the skin1 #ie2 how1 get into the body1 #gi2 how1 get into foods1 #gi1 #hj2 how put into the air1 #adg1 #aej2 how kept out of the air1 #aea1 #aeb2 how to fight1 #gd2 of lockjaw1 #ih2 man's greatest foe1 #a2 nature of a1 #gc2 not alike1 #gc2 not killed by running water1 #aae ,hair1 #afi ,hearing1 how tested1 #eh ,heat1 how kept up in the body1 #ad ,hookworm disease1 character of the worm1 #abj2 how it enters the body1 #aba2 how prevented1 #abb2 nature of the disease1 #aba2 where worm lives in the body1 #aba2 where prevalent1 #abb ,insects that carry disease1 #ib-id ,intestines1 #aga ,iris1 #agg ,joints1 #afc ,larynx1 #agd1 #age ,lens1 the1 #agh ,ligaments1 #afe ,lungs1 #age ,lymphatics1 #aga ,malaria1 how transmitted1 #ib2 how prevented1 #ic ,manure1 a hatching place for flies1 #hj1 #hb2 how to dispose of1 #hb ,meal times1 frequency of1 #ec2 regularity of1 #ec2 should be pleasant1 #cg1 #ch ,measles1 after effects of1 #abh2 fatality of1 #abh2 necessity of care in1 #abi2 seriousness of1 #abh2 why to avoid1 #abh ,meats1 characteristics of good1 #ah2 ,clean ,meat ,league1 #ai2 from diseased animals1 #ai-ba2 germs cause poison in1 #ai1 #cb2 how kept clean1 #ah2 should be cooked1 #ce2 value of1 as a food1 #ah ,milk1 as carrier of disease1 #bb1 #aag2 effect of germs on1 #bb2 effect of disease in cow on1 #bh2 flies in1 #bh2 how germs get into1 #bc-bh2 impure1 dangerous1 #bb2 polluted water in1 #bg2 typhoid fever carried by1 #aag2 value of1 as a food1 #ad1 #bj ,mosquitoes1 as disease carriers1 #ib1 #ic2 how to get rid of1 #id ,mouth1 why some breathe through1 #di ,mouth-breathing1 effect of1 #ej ,muscles1 attachment of1 #afg ,nails1 how to care for1 #fa1 #fb ,near sight1 #eg ,nerves1 compared to telegraph system1 #aha2 distribution of1 #aha ,nose1 importance of breathing through1 #dh ,overcoats1 necessity of1 #ab ,overwork1 effect of1 #ea1 #eb ,paper napkins for consumptives1 #aeb ,parties1 time for1 #ec ,pencils in mouth1 #aee ,pharynx1 #age ,play a form of work1 #eb ,playgrounds1 #afa ,pocket cuspidors1 #aeb ,ptomaines1 #ai ,quarantine1 breaking1 shows selfishness1 #abf2 how broken by family1 #aje2 rules of1 #aje2 seriousness of breaking1 #aja2 when safe to raise1 #ajb2 why necessary1 #aja2 why some cases escape1 #ajb-ajd ,reflex action1 #aha ,respiratory system1 #agd-agg ,rest1 proper amount of1 #ea ,retina1 #agh ,rocky ,mountain ,spotted 7,tick7 ,fever1 how transmitted1 #id ,rubbers1 necessity of wearing1 #aa ,saliva1 effect of1 on starches1 #ci1 #da ,salivary glands1 #agj ,scarlet fever1 a dangerous disease1 #abd2 mild cases dangerous1 #abc1 #abd ,scarlatina1 #abe ,scarlet rash1 why quarantine is necessary in1 #abe ,school lunches1 #cg ,sclera1 #agg ,sebaceous glands1 #afi ,sewage1 effect of1 on water1 #he-hg1 #aae ,sickness about a dairy1 #bf1 #ajc1 #aae2 due to germs1 how prevented1 #c ,sick room1 stay away from1 #ge ,skin1 care of1 #fj1 #fa ,smallpox1 fatality of1 #aca2 how prevented1 #ace-acg2 during ,franco-,prussian ,war1 #acb2 in ,sweden1 #acc2 in ,gloucester1 #acd2 in the ,philippine ,islands1 #acd ,spitting1 dangers from1 #aea2 how avoided1 #aeb2 where to spit1 #aeb1 #aec2 where not to spit1 #aea ,springs1 how polluted1 #hg ,street cuspidors1 #aeb ,sunshine1 effect of1 on germs1 #gg1 #gh ,suppuration1 how the surgeon prevents1 #if2 how you may prevent1 #ig2 real cause of1 #if ,sweat glands1 the work of1 #fj ,teeth1 brittle1 #db2 dangers from poor1 #da-dc2 how to care for1 #dc2 necessity of baby teeth1 #da2 uses of teeth1 #da2 why1 decay1 #db ,tendons1 #afg ,tobacco1 a poison1 #fd2 effect of1 on blood1 #fe2 on heart1 #ff2 on nervous system1 #ff2 on nose and throat1 #fe2 on stomach1 #ff2 extra work caused by1 #fd ,toilets1 improper construction of1 #hf2 proper construction of1 #hg2 relation to wells1 #he-hg ,tonsils1 #di1 #ej ,trachea1 #age ,tuberculin test1 #aee1 #aef ,tuberculosis1 can be prevented1 #adb1 #adh1 #aeg2 fatality of1 #adb2 fresh air in1 #aeg1 #aeh2 germ1 discovery of the1 #ade2 how to get1 out of a house1 #adg1 #adh2 how germs leave the body1 #aej1 #aea2 how spread from cows1 #bh1 #aee2 how spread from the lips1 #aec-aee2 how detected in cows1 #aee2 a house disease1 #adf1 #adg2 not inherited1 #adf2 of the glands1 #add2 of the joints1 #adc2 of the spine1 #add2 of the stomach1 #add2 of the throat1 #adc2 prevalence of1 #adb2 pure food in1 #aeh2 rest in1 #aeg2 should be recognized early1 #aeg2 sunshine in1 #aeh2 why called the ,great ,white ,plague1 #adb ,typhoid fever1 animals free from1 #aac2 carried by flies1 #hj1 #ha1 #aaf2 carried by milk1 #bb1 #aag2 effect of a single case1 #aad2 how germs leave the body1 #aac2 how germs get into the body1 #aac2 how germs get into water1 #aad2 importance of cleanliness1 #aag1 #aah2 life of germs in a stream1 #aae2 recovered patient dangerous1 #aag ,umbrellas1 necessity of1 #aa ,vaccination1 cause of sore arms after1 #adj1 #ada2 discovery of1 #acb2 how1 prevents smallpox1 #ace2 necessity of repeating1 #acg2 pretended vaccination1 #ach2 when successful1 #ach ,ventilation1 in homes1 #df1 #aei2 in public buildings1 #dh1 #afa2 in workshops1 #dh ,veins1 #aga ,venous blood1 #aga1 #agb ,villi1 #aga ,vitreous humor1 #agh ,voluntary action1 #aha ,water1 avoid polluting1 #he-hh1 #aae2 effect of sewage on1 #he1 #aae2 how germs get into1 #he-hh2 polluted1 in milk1 #bg2 safe sources of1 #hh ,wells1 how polluted1 #hf1 #hg2 relation of toilets to1 #hf1 #hg ,windows1 should be kept open1 #de-dg2 should be screened1 #hc ,wood-ticks1 as disease carriers1 #ic2 how abolished1 #id ,wounds1 importance of keeping clean1 #ig ,yards should be clean1 #gg ,yellow fever1 how transmitted1 #ib2 how prevented1 #ib ,,footnotes3 #a ,bujar and ,baier state that the nourishing power of bacon is represented by #b1gfg1 while the nourishing power of butter is represented by #b1faj4 #b ,the cleaning out of these cemented vaults is an exceedingly unpleasant task4 ,some prefer to have a strong1 water-tight box placed under the closet seats4 ,when this box is nearly full1 it can be removed to some place where fertilizer is needed1 and there emptied1 the contents being plowed into the ground4 ,in order to make this task as simple as possible1 it is a good plan to put the box on skids1 and have a heavy strip in one end with a bolt and ring through it1 so that a horse can be hitched to the box to draw it away4 ,if a little dry earth or lime is put into the box each day1 there will be no unpleasant odor4 #c ,the teacher should demonstrate the action of acids and alkalies on a solution of litmus4 #d ,at the request of many practical teachers the author has appended this brief summary of anatomy4 ,the material is intended to be used for reference or to be assigned as lessons in connection with the chapters of the book1 at the discretion of the teacher4